THE TEACHERS
BY OTTO SALOMON
SILVER, BURDETT&C91
BOSTON, NEW YORK* 1
CHICAGO, J
THE TEACHER'S
HAND-BOOK OF SLOJD
ffew Manual draining Publications.
RAFIA WORK.
A course of practical work in Winding, Weaving, Plaiting and
Sewing this new material : forming a valuable addition to the list of
educative occupations for schools. With 60 beautiful Illustrations.
By C. M. SWANNELL. F'cap 410, cloth, 2s. net (Postage 3d.).
PAPER MODELLING.
A combination of Paper Folding, Paper Cutting and Pasting, and
Ruler Drawing, forming an introduction to Cardboard Modelling.
Containing over 100 carefully drawn Diagrams, printed in monotint,
in addition to the Illustrations of the Completed Models in black
and white. By C. M. SWANNELL. Oblong 410, price 2s. 6d. net
(Postage 3d.).
CARDBOARD MODELLING.
A series of 32 Models arranged for use in Elementary and
Secondary Schools, Technical Classes, etc., and satisfying the re-
quirements for the Advanced Teacher's Certificate of the Educational
Handwork Union. By ALBERT SUTCLIFFE, Organiser of Educa-
tional Handwork to the Glamorganshire County Council. New
Edition. Imperial 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. Prospectus free.
THE BOOLE CURVE-SEWING OCCUPATION.
A Series of seven Packets of Designs, each containing 12 Cards,
7 by 7 inches, with Directions. By MARY EVEREST BOOLE. 8d. per
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TEACHER'S HANDBOOK to above. With four Coloured
Plates and numerous Illustrations. By EDITH L. SOMERVELL.
F'cap 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. net (Postage 3d.). Pt ospectus Jree.
LEAF FOLDING : A New Nature-Study Occupation.
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Tongue Fern, by Miss FRYER, Kindergarten Mistress, Shrewsbury
High School. In packet containing a series of 12 Designs with
descriptive notes and full instructions, 8d. ; in box containing above
set, also set of models on coloured paper, cut out and made up, 48
sheets of coloured papers for stencilling, cutting out and making up,
with pair of scissors and pins. 2s. 6d. net. Prospectus free.
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LONDON: GEORGE PHILIP & SON, LTD.
THE TEACHER'S
HAND-BOOK OF SLOID
AS PRACTISED AND TAUGHT AT NAAS
CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS AND DETAILS OF
EACH EXERCISE.
WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE MODELS.
By OTTO SALOMON,
Director oj the Ndas Seminarium.
ASSISTED BY CARL NORDENDAHL AND ALFRED JOHANSSON.
TRANSLATED AND ADAPTED FOR ENGLISH TEACHERS
BY MARY R. WALKER, AND WILLIAM NELSON,
St. George's Training College, Edinburgh. Superintendent of Manual Instruction, Manchester.
THIRD EDITION.
WITH OVER 130 ILLUSTRATIONS AND PLATES.
SILVER, BURDETT & CO.,
PUBLISHERS,
BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO.
1907.
GEORGE PHILIP AND SON, LTD , PRINTERS, LONDON AND LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND.
PREFACE TO THE SWEDISH EDITION.
A DESIRE has for some time been expressed in various quarters for a
Hand- Book of Slqjd, written from the educational point of view. There
have been many indications, especially in connection with Slojd carpen-
try, that teachers are not well enough acquainted with the tools em-
ployed to select and manage them properly ; and a degree of uncertainty
seems to prevail regarding the right method of executing the exercises.
Now, it is true that no one can acquire this knowledge from books ; the
way to acquire it is by practical, personal experience. Yet, to retain this
experience, and apply it, is partially a matter of memory, and, therefore,
systematically arranged directions are capable of rendering aid which is
not to be despised. A hand-book like the present does not, and could
not, supersede personal experience at the bench, or render a course of in-
struction unnecessary. Its sole object is to supplement and complete
the notes which every conscientious student takes during such a course.
Its aim is, therefore, chiefly to strengthen and confirm knowledge already
acquired ; but, though it is thus limited in scope, and, on this account,
perhaps to be regarded as in some respects incomplete, the writers
venture to express the hope that it will be welcomed by many teachers.
Books are, perhaps, more frequently published before their time than
after it ; and although there have been numerous opportunities for observ-
ation in the province of Educational Slojd during the last eighteen years
(the Slojd Institution at Naas having begun operations in 1872), the
writers are nevertheless uncertain whether the time has really yet come
for the publication of definite directions ; or, at least, whether tlieir know-
ledge of the subject is yet complete enough to justify their appearance
in print. But, if they have been premature, the sole reason is to be
found in their desire to satisfy a want, which becomes every year more
pressing.
The views expressed in the book are, for obvious reasons, in full ac-
cordance with the system of instruction followed at Naas. They are the
outcome of careful observations, and of experiments tested by practice.
Yet, even if these views should be confirmed by many teachers, the
writers, knowing that opinions are divided in the matter of instruction in
Slojd, as in most other questions, are fully prepared for adverse criticism.
Whether this criticism be justified or not, of one thing they are certain,
and that is, that in all honesty of purpose and strength of conviction
IV. PREFACE.
they have striven to fulfil a far from easy task. They trust that others
with greater ability will succeed them and do it better. So little atten-
tion has hitherto been paid to the subject in question that it has been
necessary to generalise and draw conclusions almost exclusively from
personal experience. But their motto has been " Prove all things, hold
fast to that which is good " ; and much that in the beginning and in the
light of comparatively limited experience met with their approval, has,
on closer examination, been rejected or modified.
But, though this hand-book is necessarily the outcome chiefly of
personal observation and experience, the writers have to some extent
been able to avail themselves of the knowledge of others, and to refer to
competent authorities. This applies especially to Chapter II., for the
contents of which frequent reference has been made to the writings of
Karmarsch, Thelaus, and others. The Plates at the end, and most of
the Illustrations in the body of the book, are executed from original draw-
ings made for the purpose.
In order to keep within due limits, much has been omitted which, per-
haps, ought to have been included. Whether or not, on the other hand,
some things have been included which ought to have been omitted, must
in the meantime be left an open question.
The parts taken by the respective authors are as follows : Chapter I.
has been written by Otto Salomon ; Chapters II., III., and IV., by Carl
Nordendahl, who also undertook all arrangements connected with the
illustrations ; and Chapter V., by Alfred Johansson. Looked at as a
whole, however, this little book is the product of united labour, and it
contains nothing which is not the result of diligent interchange of thought
TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.
THIS Hand-book was written originally for Swedish people, and in ac-
cordance with the conditions which prevail in Swedish schools ; but the
presence of a large body of English teachers at the Autumn Slb'jd Course
at Naas has testified for the last four years to the interest taken in the
subject by English people, and the latest modifications of the English and
Scotch Codes as regards manual training, point to the introduction at no
distant date of systematic instruction in some branch of manual work in
our state-aided schools. It has therefore seemed desirable that this
Hand-book of "Wood Slojd should be translated for English readers with
any modifications necessary to make it suitable for English teachers and
students. These modifications consist partly of the omission of matter
bearing on conditions peculiar to Sweden, and partly of the addition to
the text of certain paragraphs, which seemed necessary from an English
point of view. Nothing has been taken away or added without careful
consultation with Herr Salomon, and without his approval. At the same
time, as any additions to the original text have been made at the suggestion
of the translators, and as they are responsible for them, these paragraphs
have been enclosed in brackets as translators' notes. The whole trans-
lation has been revised under the supervision of Herr Salomon and other
competent judges at Naas, and the translators therefore trust that the
work they have undertaken is a faithful representation of the ~~iews held
and acted on at the headquarters of Educational Slojd.
In giving this book to English readers, they feel, however, that one or
two points of detail call for special explanation, particularly as these
touch on the fundamental principles of educational Slojd, and as any
misunderstanding as to details might lead to a more serious misunder-
standing as to principles. One of these details is the use of the knife in
educational Slojd. In the following pages the use of the knife is often
recommended where the English carpenter would use the chisel, or some
other special tool. The defence of the knife in such cases is to be found
in the fact that, while it is the most familiar and the simplest tool which
can be put into the hands of the pupil, it is full of potentialities in the
hands of the intelligent worker, who can perform with it many exercises
which the tradesman executes in a more mechanical way with some other
tool.
Again, directions are given which differ in other respects from those
which the carpenter would give. The work of the slojder is often done
VI. PREFACE.
not only with different tools, but in a different order from that of the
artisan. This inversion of order is a natural consequence of the principle
that each article shall be executed entirely by the individual worker.
Division of labour, though necessary from the tradesman's point of view,
is not permitted in Slojd, deadening, as it does, individuality, and reducing
to a minimum the calls made on the intelligence.
These and other deviations from the methods of the carpenter are made
not in ignorance, but of set purpose, and have their grounds in the com-
prehensive principle that all method in Slojd must aim in the first
place at the physical and mental development of the pupil, and only at
the production of articles in so far as this subserves the primary aim.
In close connection with this stands the question of the place occupied
in the system by the articles produced, i.e., by the models. Clear as this
question appears in the light of the fundamental principles on which
educational Slojd is based, the idea still seems to prevail to some extent
that, if the principles are accepted, the Niias models must also be accepted
unconditionally, and that the two stand and fall together. So far is this
irom being the case that, at the present time, one series of Naas models is
gradually becoming English in its character, and only waits further sug-
gestions from English teachers to become entirely so. , The sole reason
that it still contains models which do not entirely fulfil the condition of
being familiar and useful in the homes of English children, is that English
people have hitherto been unable to suggest satisfactory substitutes. The
models are merely the expression of the system, and to carry out that
system thoroughly they must be national in their character, and ought,
therefore, to vary in their nature with the countries into which Slojd is
introduced as a subject of instruction.
As this translation, like the original, is the work of more than one
writer, it remains to add that the book has been translated into English
hy Mary R. Walker, with the assistance of AVilliam Nelson on all points
relating to technical knowledge and technical terminology.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
THIS edition has been carefully revised, and at the suggestion of Teachers
Chapter V. has been entirely re-written, greater detail being given to the de-
scription of each Exercise. In addition to this, Plate VI. has been re-drawn,
and the "Practical Directions for Making the High School Series of Slojd
Models," by Alfred Johansson, of the Nails Seminarium, have been incor-
porated, thus making the book complete from a practical point of view.
These alterations and additions have been approved by Herr Salomon, and
the Translators therefore hope that the Handbook will maintain, in this improved
form, its position as the authorised English Guide to the Practice of Slojd.
Table of Contents.
CHAPTER I.
Introductory Remarks.
PAGE
I. Educational Slojd - 1
II. The Teacher of Educational Slojd 2
III. The special kind of Slojd recommended 6
IV. Method - 9
V. The Pupils - 17
VI. The time given to instruction - IS
VII. The Slojd-room - 18
VIII. The position of the body during work - 21
IX. Some rules for the Slojd Teacher - 24
CHAPTER II.
Wood or Timber.
A. THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF WOOD, Wood-
cells, Wood-fibres, Concentric annual layers, Vessels or
Air-tubes, Heart-wood and Sap-wood, the Pith and the
Medullary Rays, the Sup, Water capacity - 27
B. THE CHANGES WHICH WOOD UNDERGOES 35
I. Changes in the water capacity. Shrinking, cracking,
swelling - 36
II. Means of preventing cracking and warping. Season-
ing. Precautions necessary to prevent cracking and
warping under special conditions 40
III. The decay of timber. Means of preventing decay - 43
C. DlKFERENT KINDS OF WOOD 45
I. Comparison of the qualities of different kinds of wood.
The strength, cleavage, hardness, toughness, elasticity,
texture, colour, smell, weight, and durability of
timber 45
II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees - 51
1. Needle-leaved trees. 2. Broad-leaved trees. 52
viii. CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
Tools.
A. A CHOICE OF TOOLS 59
B. APPLIANCES FOB HOLDING THE WORK - 62
I. The Bench - - 62
II. Handscrews 68
0. SETTING OUT - 70
I. The Metre-measure 70
II. The Marking-point 71
III. The Marking-gauge 71
IV. Compasses - - 73
V. Squares and Bevels. 74
VI. Winding-laths or Straight-edges - 76
D. TOOLS USED FOR CUTTING UP THE WOOD AND MAKING
THE ARTICLES 77
I. Saws 77
1. Saws with Frames - 82
1. The Frame-saw. 2. The Bow-saw - 82
2. Saws without Frames 85
1. The Handsaw. 2. The Dove-tail saw. 3. The
Tenon-saw. 4. The Compass-saw. 5. The
Groove-saw - 85
II. The Axe - - 87
III. The Knife 88
IV. The Draw-knife 89
V. Chisels, Gouges, Carving tools, &c. 89
1. The Firmer-chisel, and the Mortise-chisel 90
2. Gouges 91
3. The Spoon-gouge and the Spoon-iron - 92
4. Carving tools - 92
VI. Planes 93
1. Planes with flat soles :
1. The Jack-plane. 2. The Trying-plane.
3. The Smoothing-plane. 4. The Rebate-plane 98
2. Planes for the dressing of curved surfaces :
1. The Round. 2. The Hollow. 3. The Com-
pass-plane - 101
3. The Old Woman's Tooth-plane, and the Dove-tail
Filletster - - - - 102
4. The Plough 104
5. The Iron Spokeshave - 104
VII. Files 105
VIII. Methods of finishing work - 106
1. The Scraper. 2. Sandpaper.
IX. The Brace and Bits. 108
1. The Shell-bit. 2. The Centre-bit.
X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand-vice, Pincers, and
Screwdriver - 112
E. THE GRINDING AND SHARPENING OF TOOLS 115
F. THE TOOL CUPBOARD - 118
CHAPTER IV.
Jointing 1 .
A. Glueing - 119
B. Nailing 123
C. Screwing together - - 124
D. Jointing by means of the formation of the parts of the joint 125
CHAPTER V.
I. The Exercises 126
Plates illustrating various positions, etc. 184
II. The High School Series of Models 196
Practical Directions for making the High School Series of
Slojd Models 201
List of tools required for different numbers of pupils - 251
Index - 255
Price List of Tools, Benches, etc. - 267
FIRST CHAPTER.
Introductory Remarks.
Educational Slojd.
By educational slojd is meant the application of slojd to
educational purposes. Slojd is not to be confounded with the
work of the artisan a mistake which may easily happen if
the distinction is not sufficiently strongly emphasized. Speak-
ing generally, the 'slojder' does not practise his art as a trade,
but merely as a change from some other employment ; and in
the nature of the articles produced, in the tools used in their
production, in the manner of executing the work, etc., slojd
and the work of the artisan differ very decidedly the one
from the other. Slojd is much better adapted to be a means
of education, because purely economical considerations do not
come forward so prominently as must be the case with work
undertaken as a means of livelihood.
Educational slojd differs from so-called practical slojd, in-
asmuch as in the latter, importance is attached to the work; in
the former, on the contrary, to the worker. It must, however,
be strongly emphasized that the two terms, educational and
practical, ought in no way to be considered antagonistic to
each other, as frequently happens in popular language ; for,
from the strictly educational point of view, whatever is educa-
tionally right must also be practical, and vice versa. When
the educational and the practical come into conflict, the cause
is always to be found in the pressure of adventitious circum-
stances, e.g., the number of pupils, the nature of the premises,
and, above all, pecuniary resources, etc. To make educational
theory and practice coincide is an ideal towards which every
teacher must strive. One man, perhaps, may be able to come
2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
nearer to this common ideal than another, but everyone, as he
runs his course, must have this goal clearly in view, and in
uvery unavoidable compromise he must endeavour to make
what ought to be done and what can be done come as close
together as possible.
What, then, is the aim of educational slojd ? To utilise, as is
' suggested above, the educative force which lies in rightly
directed bodily labour, as a means of developing in the pupils
physical and mental powers which will be a sure and evident
gain to them for life. Views may differ as to what is to be
understood by a " cultured " or an " educated " man, but how-
ever far apart in other respects these views may lie, they all
have at least one thing in common, i.e., that this much dis-
puted culture always appears in its possessors in the form of
certain faculties, and that therefore the development of faculty,
so far as this can be directed for good, must enter into all
educational efforts. This being the case, the influence of slojd
is cultivating and educative, just in the same degree as by its
means certain faculties of true value for life reach a develop-
ment which could not be attained otherwise, or, at least, not
in the same degree. Educational slojd, accordingly, seeks to
work on lines which shall insure, during and by means of the
exercise it affords, the development of the pupil in certain
definite directions. These are of various kinds. As the more
important, it is usual to bring forward : pleasure in bodily
labour, and respect for it, habits of independence, order,
accuracy, attention and industry, increase of physical
strength, development of the power of observation in the eye,
and of execution in the hand. Educational slojd has also
in view the development of mental power, or, in other words,
is disciplinary in its aim.
The Teacher of Educational Slojd.
The quali-
required That no one can teach what he does not know himself is a
proposition the validity of which cannot be called in question.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3
It is equally incontestable that it is by no means sufficient to
be in possession of a certain amount of knowledge and dex-
terity in order to follow with success the important and
responsible calling of a teacher. Teaching is an art quite as
difficult as any other, and for its practice certain qualifica-
tions are demanded which are far from being in the possession
of all. The teacher must not only know ivhat he has to
communicate, but also how he ought to do it. Nor is this
all ; for if all instruction is in reality to be education, the
teacher must rise from the instructor to the educator; he
must not only understand how to impart knowledge and
dexterity, but also how to impart both in such a manner that
they make for the mental development of the pupil, especially
with regard to moral training. But as we cannot give to
others what we do not ourselves possess, it must necessarily
follow that only he who is himself educated can have an
educative influence over another. Therefore, exactly in pro-
portion to the educative aim of the teacher does his person-
ality enter as an important factor into the work of instruction.
Now, since slojd is to be regarded more as a means of education
than a subject of instruction, in the common acceptation of
the term, the first demand of all made upon the teacher who
undertakes it must be that he should feel himself to be an
educator, and strive without ceasing to improve himself as
such. This, however, is not sufficient. To be a teacher of
educational slojd, it is necessary to be familiar with its aims,
and with the means by which these are to be attained. One
of these means is the possession of what is called technical
dexterity, i.e., dexterity in the right use of tools, and in the
accurate production, by their means, of articles involving the
exercises required by the particular kind of slojd in question.
The importance of this dexterity must neither be over-esti-
mated nor undervalued. Unfortunately one or other of these
errors is frequently committed. On the one hand it is
maintained that if a person can only prove that he possesses Technical
technical dexterity in sufficient degree, i.e., if he himself can dextent v-
4: HANDBOOK OP SLO\TD.
produce good work, he thereby fulfils one of the most impor-
tant requirements of a good slb'jd teacher. From this point of
view the skilful artisan or "Slb'jder" would be the best
teacher of slb'jd, because he can with justice be held to possess
the best technical qualifications. Past experience, however,
has shown that, as a rule, the skilful artisan or " slb'jder " is
not the best person to fill the responsible post of the slojd
teacher. This follows from the very nature of the case. The
artisan has acquired his technical dexterity in a totally different
way, and for a totally different purpose, from what is required
in educational slojd. Technical dexterity is the principal thing
with him. It is before every other consideration a source of
income. In educational slojd, on the other hand, it is to be
regarded only as one means among many whereby the
teacher is able to bring an educative influence to bear on the
The artisan P U P^ S - ^"he ar ti san who has great technical skill is too often
at a teacher tempted while teaching to use this skill in a way which may
ofsisjd. k e Qr ne advantage o f the work with which the pupil is
occupied, but is certainly not for the advantage of the pupil
himself. His " instruction " consists not infrequently of work
which he does for the pupil, with results which are excellent
from the economical point of view, but which are very
objectionable in their educational aspect. Partly for this
reason and partly because the artisan often does not under-
stand how to maintain really good discipline with children ;
and because, moreover, he is uji acquainted with the general
principles which apply to all instruction, it has been remarked,
that where instruction in slojd is concerned, even a very
capable artisan often falls far behind the results attained by
those who are in his opinion little more than bunglers, and
who may be far inferior to him in technical dexterity. At
the same time, it is by no means intended to convey the idea
that the skilled artisan may not be a good teacher of slojd
provided he understands the difference between slojd and his
trade, and is in possession of the other necessary qualifications
but it is maintained that in such a case it is less because
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5
he is an artisan than in spite of it, for the first condition is
that he must renounce the traditions of his craft, and become
penetrated by educational ideas.
But the truth here, as in so many other cases, lies between
the two extremes. It is as hurtful to under-estimate tech-
nical skill as it is to over-estimate it. Therefore, let no
teacher imagine that he can successfully undertake instruc- under-
tion in slqjd With slight and superficial knowledge on the e *f^
purely technical side. It will soon and surely be made clear importance
to him that this is not the case. If he has not himself the %%
necessary technical dexterity for his purpose, it will be
difficult, indeed almost impossible, for him to make clear to
his pupils how they are to handle their tools and execute the
work prescribed. Neither will he be able in an efficient way
to supervise their work and criticise the quality of what they
produce. The feeling of self-mastery which is so essential
for the teacher when he stands face to face with his pupils,
forsakes him, and the educative results which he intends to
attain by means of slojd are diminished in proportion. It is
most important that this should be laid down once for all,
because some teachers possibly imagine that the technical
skill necessary for teaching may be obtained by attending
one or two slojd courses. This is by no means the case, and
the organisers of such slojd courses are the first to understand
and to insist upon the fact, that they can only aim at laying
a foundation on which students may afterwards build by
means of independent work. Just as little as one can learn
to play on any instrument by merely taking lessons for a
given time from a music teacher, can skill in the management
of tools be acquired and maintained without continuous and
earnest practice. The teacher who feels real interest in slojd
must therefore, on his own account, endeavour to improve in
respect of technical skill, and this will prove a two-fold gain,
because the bodily exercise affords a healthy change from the
mental work with which the time of the teacher is chiefly
filled.
6 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
To summarise what has been said in the foregoing: the
teacher of educational slojd must above all things have the
habit of mind which is indispensable for the right perform-
ance of the teacher's work ; his personality must be such as
renders him fit to be a teacher ; he must know the objects of
educational slojd and the means by which they are to be
attained ; and finally, he ought to have sufficient dexterity to
handle the tools and to execute accurately the work which is
incidental to the course of instruction. These are the de-
mands made on him ; may he strive to meet them.
The special kind of Slojd recommended.
Various materials, e.g., wax, clay, paper, pasteboard, wood,
metal, &c., may be used in educational slojd. Wood, however,
is for several reasons the most suitable material ; hence vjood-
slojd has been the most popular of all, both in schools and
for private instruction. As the name implies, wood-slojd
means "slb'jding" in wood. This, again, includes several
different kinds of work. Amongst these, however, it is the
so-called slojd-carpentry which best fulfils the conditions
required when instruction in slojd is given with educational
ends in view. It is adapted to the mental and physical
powers of children. By enabling them to make a number of
generally useful articles, it awakens and sustains genuine
interest. It encourages order and accuracy, and it is com-
patible with cleanliness and tidiness. Further, it cultivates
the sense of form more completely than instruction in drawing
does, and, like gymnastics and free play, it has a good in-
fluence upon the health of the body, and consequently upon
that of the mind. Additional advantages are, that it is
excellently adapted for methodical arrangement, comprising
as it does a great number of exercises of varying degrees of
difficulty, some of which are very easy ; and that it gives a
considerable degree of general dexterity by means of the
many different tools and manual operations which it intro-
duces.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 7
We must not confound slojd-carpentry with the work done
by the carpenter, properly so-called. This is the more neces- Jjjj^ r .
sary because great confusion of ideas prevails on the subject ; pentry and
not least, remarkably enough, amongst those who are in-
terested in slojd, or give instruction in it.
It must be borne in mind that although slojd-carpentry
and ordinary carpentry have something in common, inasmuch
as the same raw material (wood) is employed, and to some
extent the same or similar tools are used, yet they differ one
from the other in several very important respects. For
example, the articles made in slojd-carpentry are in many
cases quite different from those which fall within the province
of the carpenter. The articles made in slojd-carpentry are
differentiated partly by their smaller size, for the articles
made in workshops are generally much larger ; partly by
their form, for they are often bounded by variously curved
outlines, whilst articles made by the carpenter are generally
rectangular or cylindrical. This is especially shown in the
case of the many different kinds of spoons, ladles, scoops,
handles, &c., &c., which form such an important element in
slojd-carpentry.
Further, though many tools are common to both kinds of
work, there are also considerable differences in this respect.
Several tools which are seldom or never used in the car-
penter's workshop, e.g., the axe, the draw-knife, and the
spoon-iron, occupy an important place in slojd-carpentry.
The most characteristic tool in slojd-carpentry is, however,
the knife, and by the use of this, his chief instrument, the
slojder may always be distinguished from the carpenter,
whose favourite tool is the chisel, and who, as seldom as pos-
sible, and never willingly, takes the knife in his hand. In
carpentry, on the other hand, use is made of a number of
tools more or less necessary, which are quite unknown to the
slojder, who works for the most part under more primitive
conditions. Distinct differences can also be pointed out in
the manner of executing the work (for while division of
8 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
labour is practised in carpentry, it is not permitted in slb'jd)
and in the manner of using the tools. It AY ill be seen from
the foregoing that much may pass under the name of instruc-
tion in slojd which, properly speaking, ought simply to be
called instruction in carpentry. It is most important that
this distinction should be maintained, because otherwise edu-
cational slojd will by degrees be lost in instruction in car-
pentry as a trade.
In some schools where slojd is taught we find turning and
wood-carving as well as slbjd-carpentry. This, however, is
not so common now as it was a few years ago. People seem
to be coming more and more to the conclusion that both occu-
pations are more suitable for the home than for the school.
Neither of them is to be commended from the hygienic point
of view. As regards turning, the difficulty of procuring
suitable turning-lathes presents in many schools a serious
obstacle to its general use ; whilst the necessity of perform-
ing preliminary exercises, apart from the actual objects made
(a proceeding of very doubtful educational value) places
turning quite in the shade as compared with slbjd-carpentry.
Wood carving, on the other hand, does not involve that
energetic bodily labour which is of such great importance in
connection with educational slojd. Again, wood-carving,
classed as it is with the so-called " finer " kinds of manual
work, has a tendency to intensify in the child that contempt
for rough bodily labour which has already unfortunately
done so much social harm. The danger of this is however
greatest when the children are imprudently permitted to
ornament objects which they have not made. When wood-
carving is used, not as a separate kind of slojd, but in order
to complete slb'jd-carpentry, and when ornamentation is only
allowed after the children are able in a satisfactory way to
execute the articles to be embellished by its means, the dis-
advantages are minimised.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS,
Method.
Systematic action, directed towards an end, is termed The
method. Every form of human activity, in so far as it is meaning of
concerned with the attainment of a definite preconceived end,
must therefore be regulated according to method, and this
universally applicable rule holds good in the case of that
activity which is directed towards instruction and education.
Hence great importance has always been attached to methods
of instruction. In fact, in many cases too much attention
has been paid to the study of special methods. Not that we
agree with those who, by strange confusion of ideas, regard
the rules of scientific method as opposed to practice, saying :
" We are practical people, and therefore we mean to teach in
our own practical way, not to follow the theoretical methods
of others." They thereby show that they do not understand
how, in the very nature of things, there can be only one
really practical mode of procedure, and that is the method
which is in harmony with sound theory,and that any other way
of going to work must be more or less unpractical. On the
other hand, it cannot be denied that many teachers misunder-
stand the true significance of method to such a degree that it
becomes the Alpha and Omega of the work. They forget
that, strictly speaking, method is merely a tool though a very
necessary one in the hand of the teacher ; and that, just as
little as a tool can execute a piece of work of its own accord,
just so little can method ever be the chief factor in instruc-
tion. The teacher's power to apply method is the determining
factor. A good method in the hands of a truly capable
teacher will always give better results than a bad method.
The best method is of comparatively little value if the teacher
is inefficient.
It will now be clear that slb'jd, whether regarded as a
subject of school instruction in the usual sense, or as a purely
disciplinary subject, must be treated according to rules of
10 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
method. The ordinary rules of method can be applied to it ;
and chief amongst them those which are generally regarded
as fundamental principles, namely, that instruction shall
proceed gradually from the more easy to the more difficult,
from the simple to the complex, and from the known to the
unknown, it being always understood that the starting point
is sufficiently easy, simple, and well-known.
The In drawing up a system of method in slb'jd teaching it is
exercisu. Difficult to find any fully logical principle of arrangement
elsewhere than in the exercises. By exercises in this
connection is to be understood that manipulation of the
materials by means of one tool or more in a definite way,
for a definite object. Now these exercises can be arranged
in a series, in conformity with the rules given above. This
could not be done so easily if the tools themselves constituted
the principle of arrangement, because, e.g., in the case of two
tools, some exercises performed with the one may be easier,
and some on the contrary may be more difficult, than the
exercises which are performed with the other. It is obvious
that the models cannot constitute the principle of arrange-
ment, because they are merely the incidental expressions of
the exercises. When, therefore, it is said that the models in a
series are graded from the more easy to the more difficult, it
is meant that the exercises occurring in these models proceed
hi this way. The exercises themselves are partly simple
partly complex : the latter consisting of two or more simple
exercises in combination. The given number of exercises
entering into the work of special kinds of slojd depends
more or less upon opinion, for it often happens that what is
regarded as one exercise might be analysed into two or more,
or might be considered as a part of a more complex exercise.
Hence the eighty-eight exercises in slojd-carpentry enu-
merated further on, might easily be increased or decreased in
number, depending entirely upon how far it is considered
advisable to carry this analysis or synthesis.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 11
The exercises, their number, their names, and their order Method of
are not, however, the only factors which determine method "*&*
in slojd. The way in which they should be taught must be exercises.
included. There are different modes of procedure. One of
these is to teach the exercises one after the other, simply as
isolated or " abstract " exercises, until they have all been per-
formed. This may be justified from the point of view of
method in general, but opinions may differ, not to put it too
strongly, as to its educational soundness. Another mode of
procedure is to apply each exercise, after it has been practised
separately or in the abstract, in the construction of a given
object or model. The exercises themselves are thus given as
preliminary practice. This, though certainly a step in the
right direction, does not fully satisfy the demands of educa.
tional method, which requires us to proceed from the con-
crete to the abstract, and not vice versa ; and, moreover, such
unnecessarily round-about methods cause the loss of valuable
time which might be better employed. Method in slojd only
becomes educationally sound when the pupil, by constructing
objects which can be used in everyday life, acquires dexterity
in performing the exercises as they occur. To take an illus-
tration from language teaching, the first mode of procedure
corresponds to the learning of abstractions in the form of
grammatical rules ; the second corresponds to the application
of these rules in sentences after they have been learned ; the
third corresponds to the method by which the pupil is led up,
through sentences or combinations of sentences, to the laws
of language which in them find expression.
There are, however, other fundamental principles which Arrange-
must be adhered to in arranging a series of models in such a J^^ a
way that the exercises involved shall follow each other in models.
methodical order. The general nature of the models and the
manner in which the exercises ought to be introduced in them
must be considered. In choosing a series of models the best
plan is undoubtedly to consider local conditions, and endeavour
to make it exactly representative of articles which can be
12 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
used in the homes of the pupils. By this means interest in
the instruction given is better aroused and maintained, not
only in the pupils, but and this is quite as important in the
parents, and thus the bond between the school and the home
is strengthened.* Opinion is now probably almost unanimous
that all articles of luxury should be excluded. (Such articles,
however, are by no means synonymous with articles intrinsi-
cally beautiful.) The interest of the pupils is also heightened
if the first articles presented to them are no larger or more
difficult than can be executed satisfactorily in a comparatively
short time. The first models ought, on this account, to include
few exercises ; and it may be laid down as a general rule that,
as far as possible, each successive model should include only
one new exercise, or two at the most. In the arrangement
of the series, attention must also be paid to alternation in the
form of the models. The articles which are included in slojd-
carpentry consist partly of " modelled " articles bounded by
curved surfaces, and partly of rectangular articles bounded
principally by plane surfaces. It is very important that any
arrangement of models in a series should present good alter-
nation between these two kinds, and, generally speaking, a
modelled object should follow a rectangular object, and vice
versa. As a result, each model acquires to some extent the
* As some confusion of ideas appears to prevail in England between the
importance of the educational principles on which slojd is based, and the
models in which these principles are exemplified, it seems desirable to draw the
attention of readers to this passage. It indicates sufficiently clearly that, in
whatever country Swedish slojd may be adopted, the more familiar and the
more serviceable the articles made are to the inhabitants of that country, the
more nearly will the method of teaching conform to one of the great principles
of educational slojd, viz. : that the pupil's interest shall be excited and sustained
by the making of articles which he himself or the other members of his
family can use. Many of the models at Nails have, within the last year or two,
been either modified or changed entirely in order to render them suitable for
English students, and it is incumbent upon every slojd teacher to make his own
series of models conform to the ideas and requirements of the people among
whom he teaches, keeping in view the general principles of method which would
apply to any series. TBS.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13
charm of novelty, and this still further increases in the pupils
that interest for their work which is of the very greatest
importance as regards the educational benefits to be derived
from slb'jd.
The manner in which the details and finished appearance intuitional
of the objects he is to execute are made clear to the pupil, ^ ure
must be included within the province of method. It is instruction.
assumed that in this, as in all other instruction, it is of the
highest importance that the teacher strives to make his
teaching as intuitional as possible. To this end, in the
elementary stages, the models should always be executed
after drawings and models, and in the first instance invariably
after models which are placed before the pupils for accurate
imitation.
As, however, it has been proved to be difficult, in many
cases indeed almost impossible, to preserve even a well-exe-
cuted wooden model in its original shape and size, and as, for
other reasons, it is highly advantageous to connect instruction
in slb'jd with instruction in drawing, the model should be
copied to as great an extent as possible by the aid of geo-
metrical constructions, sufficiently simple to require in the
pupil only a slight acquaintance with geometrical drawing.
In addition to this the most important measurements of the
model's dimensions should be given, in order that the pupil
may make use of his rule or metre-measure.* By degrees
drawings in perspective and projections may be introduced
as patterns together with the model; and finally, when the
pupil has reached the highest stage, and has attained suffi-
cient dexterity in slojd and in the interpretation of a drawing,
the model may even be taken away, and the work executed
* Two Editions of the "Niias Slojd Diagrams" on cards have been pub-
lished by George Philip & Son. One set has metric measurements, and the
other English measurements, so that either the metric or the English rule can
be used in the Classes.
14 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
after a drawing only. This may be regarded as the final
aim in elementary instruction in slojd.
.>-;
in their places, care being taken that all the saws are loosened. the *^''
The tools should be counted by the " captain," or monitor, order.
appointed for the class, after which the teacher sees that
everything is in its right place. The wood and the pieces of
work are put away tidily. The benches are brushed and
made clean with a brush which should hang by the side of
each bench, and the floor is swept. The shavings, however,
need not be carried away oftener than once or twice a week.
26 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
When the finished pieces of work have been " passed " by
the teacher, a label should be stuck on, and on this label
should be stated the number of the model and its name, the
name and age of the pupil, and the number of hours spent in
making it. If it is considered desirable to give every piece
of work a value, this also may be mentioned on the label.
rainng the Although from the educational point of view it is advisable
work home
that the pupils should at once take home tneir work, it is
generally for other reasons more expedient that it should
remain in the school in the care of the teacher until it can
be exhibited publicly at an examination or terminal break -
ing-up. After this has taken place, the articles are to be re-
garded as the property of the makers. The sale of work
for the benefit of the school should never be thought of.
A very good plan is to allow the pupils to take home their
work as soon as it is finished, in order to show it to their
parents, on the understanding that, after they have seen it,
it is brought back to the school, to be kept there as long as
necessary.
Daybook. The teacher should enter in a day-book, arranged for the
purpose, careful notes regarding the pupils taking part in the
slojd lessons, their presence and absence from lessons, the
articles they make, etc., etc.
27
CHAPTER II.
Wood, or Timber.
The material generally used in slqjd-teaching, and most
suitable for the purpose, is icood or timber.
Intelligent knowledge of the material used is as essential
to the teacher as acquaintance with the tools required. He
ought, e.g., to be familiar with the qualities which render
different kinds of wood more or less appropriate for different
purposes. Accordingly the description of the tools given
in Chapter III. is here preceded by a brief account of the
growth of trees ; of the most important properties of wood,
and the principal changes which it undergoes; and by a
comparison of the technical qualities of the various kinds of
wood in common use.
A. The Structure and Composition of Wood.
Wood or timber forms the. greater part of the stems and
branches of trees and shrubs.
To examine the inner structure of a tree-stem, a section A t ret . st m
may be made at right angles to the direction of its length, * B lection '
i.e., a transverse or cross section; or from the pith to the
bark in the line of one of the radii and parallel to the direc-
tion of the length, i.e., a radial section ; or a third section
may be made at right angles to both the preceding as a
tangent to the circumference, i.e., a tangential section.
28
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
On examining
the cross-section
of a stem we find
an outer ring, the
bark, consisting of
a corky layer, the
outer bark, and
the inner bark or
bast; next comes
the wood, consti-
tuting the chief
portion of the Fis j Thrce sections o{ a trec . stenij at right
stem, and in the angles to one another.
ppntrnl r>ar-f io o T - cross section, K. radial section, Tg. tangential section.
Central part IS a Jf . me dulla or pith, B. Bark, C. Cambium, ao. Concentric
/ana1 -filial TTT*4-V> annual lavers, mm. Medullary rays, ab. thickness of medullary
Canal, failed With rayS) cj . e ight of medullary rays, vessels.
soft cellular tissue called the pith or medulla. Between the
wood and the bast lies a narrow, light-coloured ring, the
Cambium. This consists of a layer of embryonic cells, from
which are developed on the one side wood, and on the other
bast, and it is here that the growth of the tree takes place.
The Cambium forms the soft, moist, spongy mass which
may be seen under the bark in spring when the sap begins
to rise. It consists of microscopic cells, some of which are
long, prismatic, and pointed at the ends, while others are
shorter and have ends which terminate abruptly. The inner
bark and wood are developed chiefly from the long cells, the
medullary rays from the short ones.
Wood Cells.
The forma- The young cells from which wood is developed have at
which nourishes the growing tree, and which circulates with
ease from one thin walled cell to another, and thus permeates
the whole of the tissue. Gradually the walls of the cells
become thicker ; the cell contents solidify ; the sap flows less
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 29
and less freely ; the whole tissue assumes the characteristics
of wood, and ceases to take part in the circulation and assimi-
lation of the sap.
The cellular tissue consists chiefly of cellulose, the chemical
constituents of which are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Wood Fibres.
The cells from which wood is developed are principally
the long-pointed cells. They lie close together and overlap
one another at the ends, thus forming minute tubes or fibres.
The zone of wood in any stem consists of these fibres massed
together, and extending in the direction of the length of the
stem. The connection between separate fibres is often very
slight, as is shown by the ease with which they may be
separated.
In trees of regular growth the fibres are straight and
parallel. Wood of this kind is called " straight fibred." It
is easily split. This is not the case with wood in which
the fibres are crooked, or twisted about one another, as in
gnarled or mis-shapen trees. The fibres in the root, the lower
part of the stem, knotty branches and rough excrescences
are always crooked, and sometimes they are twisted and
involved in the most remarkable way. This gives rise to the
peculiar speckled and veined appearance which is so highly
prized in some kinds of wood.
The bast also consists of fibres, but they are longer and
usually tougher than wood-fibres.
Concentric Annual Layers.
A new layer of bast and a new layer of wood are formed
annually. This new formation goes on rapidly in spring and
early summer, when vital activity in the tree is at its height.
The cells are then large, and the wood formed from them, i.e.?
spring wood, is soft and loose in texture and light in colour.
After the tree has budded the formation of wood goes on for
30
HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
annual
layert -
a time, but less actively. The cells diminish in size and in
diameter, and are more closely packed together. The wood
formed at this period autumn wood is generally darker in
colour and closer in texture than spring wood. There are
fewer vessels (see p. 31 ) in autumn wood ; in spring wood, on
the contrary, they are numerous and quite visible as pores.
In consequence of the characteristics of autumn wood, the
boundary line between two periods of vegetation is clearly
defined, and it is easy to distinguish the concentric annual
layers which mark each yearly increase in growth.
These layers are most sharply defined in needle-leaved trees
and in some broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the
elm.* They are less conspicuous in the birch, the aspen, the
alder, etc., and in some cases it is even difficult to distinguish
them at all. As a new layer of wood is formed every year,
the age of a tree may be determined by the number of layers.
In the tropics, where vegetation goes on during almost the
entire year without any well-marked period of rest, the con-
centric annual layers disappear entirely.
The breadth of the concentric layers varies in different
trees. In some cases they are more than 1 inch broad, in
others scarcely -^ inch. Their breadth may vary even in
the same stem, depending on the more or less favourable
weather of successive seasons. The layers
on the side exposed to the south are often
broader than those on the north. In old
needle-leaved trees we usually find very nar-
row layers nearest the pith; beyond these
the layers widen for the greater portion of
the stem, and then contract once more until
the outermost ones are often so narrow that
they can with difficulty be distinguished by
the naked eye. See Fig. 2.
* The terms needle-leaved trees and broad-leaved trees used throughout this
book may be taken as practically synonymous with Conifers and Dicotyledonous
trees. TRS.
ig. 2. Showing
mannerof growth
in needle - leaved
trees.
WOOD, OR TIMBER.
31
Narrow annual layers betoken good wood in needle-leaved ciose and
trees ; but the opposite holds good in the case of broad-leaved loose timbfr '
trees with large pores, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the elm.
Here broad annual layers are characteristic of a good quality
of wood, because the pores which render the wood open in
the grain occur chiefly in that portion of the layer which is
formed in early spring, and are less numerous in the closer
tissue of the autumn wood. See Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.
Fir.
Narrow layers. Broad layers,
hard resinous loose fibred
timber. timber.
Oak.
Narrow layers, Broad layers,
loose fibred hard timber,
porous timber.
Vessels or Air-tubes.
When a cross-section of a stem is carefully examined a
number of minute holes or pores are seen. These are the
mouths of vessels or air-tubes, which penetrate the whole
substance of the wood, parallel with the fibres. Their func-
tion is to enable the air to circulate in the stem, and they The porous-
are found even in wood of the closest grain, rendering it nestofwood *
porous. Vessels are most numerous in the wood formed
early in spring, and very few are found in autumn wood, a
circumstance which helps to make the annual layers more
distinct. According to the size of these vessels wood is said
to loefine or coarse-grained.
Each kind of tree has something peculiar to itself in the
manner of distribution, the number, and the size of its
vessels. They are most marked in the oak, the ash, and the
elm, giving to the wood of these trees, when seen in vertical
gO HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
section, its striped or streaked appearance. In a number of
trees on the other hand, e.g., the birch, the vessels are hardly
visible, and they are distributed pretty equally over the con-
centric annual layers, making it difficult to distinguish
consecutive layers.
Needle-leaved trees have no air vessels, but have channels
Ruin. filled with resin, i.e., resin-canals. These occur chiefly in
the autumn wood, to which they give a darker colour.
Heart-wood and Sap-wood.
In many kinds of trees, when the stem is sawn across, a
considerable difference may be observed between the appear-
ance of the inner and older, and the outer and younger
concentric annual layers. The inner layers are usually
firmer and closer in texture and darker in colour than the
outer, which are less compact, lighter in colour, and full of
sap.
The neart- The firmer, darker wood is called heart-wood or duramen ;
^we *k e looser, lighter wood, sap-wood or alburnum. As a rule
part of the the latter forms a comparatively narrow ring round the
former, which constitutes the greater portion of the stem,
and which, when sound, is the valuable portion on account
of its firmer texture and greater durability.
The proportion which the heart-wood bears to the sap-
wood varies in different kinds of trees. For example, in the
case of broad-leaved trees, the proportion is largest in the
oak, the ash, and the elm ; least in the birch, the maple, the
alder, the hornbeam, etc. In needle-leaved trees, it is greatest
in the larch and the fir ; least in the pine. The resin in these
trees is found chiefly in the heart- wood. It greatly increases
its closeness and durability, and darkens its colour.
The most striking example of the difference in appearance
between heart-wood and sap-wood is presented by ebony, in
which the former is black and the latter white.
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 33
The Pith and the Medullary Rays.
The pith forms a column in the central part of the stem,
and the medullary rays radiate from the pith towards the
bark.
The pith is looser in texture, and is composed of shorter
cells than the wood. The shape and size of the column vary
considerably in different trees. In some, e.g., the yew, it is
very thin ; in others, e.g., the elder, it occupies a considerable
space. -
The medullary rays or " transverse septa " are composed of
flat cellular tissue, which forms thin vertical plates radiating
towards the bark. During the first year of the growth of
the tree, these rays originate in the pith, divide the patches
of wood and bast, and reach as far as the bark. In sub-
sequent years they are formed in connection with the new
wood, not with the pith, and they extend into the bark.
The medullary rays are the medium by which the pith and
the wood are brought into communication with the baric.
They also divide the wood into wedge-shaped bundles. They
are seldom so straight and regularly disposed as is represented
in the diagram (Fig. 1), but are generally more or less curved,
and they often branch out obliquely. They vary considerably Different
both in number and appearance in different trees, and thus, kinds of
like the vessels, they serve as a guide to the recognition of by the
different kinds of wood. For example, oak is easily known character
by the smoothness and glossiness of its broad medullary rays medullary
when these are seen in radial section. This gives to oak rays -
timber the beautiful figured appearance called " silver grain."
The beech has also long, broad medullary rays. The maple
is distinguished by the fineness and number of its medullary
rays.
In the greater number of loose-fibred, broad-leaved trees,
the rays are very narrow, and scarcely distinguishable by the
34 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
naked eye. This is also the case with needle-leaved trees,
the rays of which are extremely numerous.
The cleavage The medullary rays affect to a considerable extent the ease
of wood. Qr Difficulty -with which wood may be split. As a general
rule, timber is easily split if it has broad rays like the oak
and the beech, or if the rays, though numerous, are straight
and narrow like those of the fir and the pine. Other circum-
stances, however, may determine the greater or less resistance
which any given timber presents to cleavage.
The Sap.
Next to the wood the sap is the most important element in
timber. Its chief constituent is water, which holds in solution
various organic and inorganic substances, but its composition
undergoes changes in the course of circulation through the
different parts of the tree.
The sap materials are absorbed by the roots, and as crude,
or ascending sap, are carried by the still active cells of the
sap-wood to the leaves. Here, through the influence of light
and air, the crude sap is changed and made fit for the nourish-
ment and growth of the tree, and is called elaborated sap.
From the leaves it descends in the bast tubes to the cambium,
where the new wood and bast are formed.
The organic Amongst the organic substances which the sap holds in
solution may be named, starch, sugar, colouring matter,
tannic acid, and albuminoids. The latter render it very liable
to fermentation, and when this takes place the wood decays.
This is the reason why timber, felled when the sap is circu-
lating, and allowed to lie unbarked, readily becomes " sour."
It also explains why sap-wood decays more quickly than
heart-wood.
When wood is burnt the inorganic constituents remain in
the ashes.
Sap also contains substances which are not required for
the growth of the tree, but which occupy space and channels
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 35
in the wood. Amongst these substances are the volatile oils,
which are found chiefly in needle-leaved trees, and of which
turpentine is the most important. The resin or gum found Turpentine,
in needle-leaved trees is also formed from these oils. Tannic
acid is found in a great many trees, especially in the bark. acid -
It is known by its acrid taste, and it abounds chiefly in the
oak, the fir, and the alder. When fresh timber in which
there is a great deal of tannic acid is split or sawn, the acid
makes the polished edge of the tool become blue-black in
colour.
The destructive effect of the albuminoids of the sap is
counteracted by the turpentine, resin, and tannic acid.
Water Capacity.
The sap, as stated above, consists chiefly of water ; and, as
it circulates in the sap-wood, it follows that the latter con-
tains more water than the heart- wood, and more in spring
than in the height of summer. As a general rule the water
contained in unseasoned wood is about 40 to 50 per cent, of
the weight of the wood. In unseasoned ash and beech it is
20 to 30 per cent. ; in loose-grained oak, hornbeam, maple,
elm, Scotch fi^ and spruce fir, 30 to 40 per cent. ; in the looser
fibred trees in which sap abounds, e.g., the alder, the lime,
the willow, and the aspen, 40 to 50 per cent.
The presence of water has generally a hurtful effect upon
timber, as is shown in what follows.
B. The Changes which Wood
undergoes.
The changes to which wood is subject are partly mechanical
in their nature, consisting of alterations in the water capacity,
and consequent alterations in shape ; partly chemical, caused
chiefly by the decomposition of the sap, which finally leads
to the decay of the wood.
36 HANDBOOK OP SLOYD.
I. Changes in the Water Capacity, and the changes in
form which are thereby produced.
Newly felled timber contains, as has been said, a large pro-
" portion of water sometimes as much as 50 per cent, of its own
weight. After lying for some time in a dry and airy place,
it loses about half its amount of water by evaporation.
Sawn or split wood, dried for a year or two under cover,
still retains 10 to 15 per cent, of water, and only by con-
tinuous application of heat, or drying in an oven, can the
water in timber be completely expelled.
chanya in During the process of drying, timber decreases in volume
of timber, or shrinks. If exposed again to moisture it increases in volume
or s^uells.
If any given piece of timber were uniform in texture
throughout, and if no obstacles in any direction were pre-
sented to its expansion, the only result of shrinking or swell-
ing would be alteration in volume ; there would be no change
in form. This, however, is seldom the case. Generally
speaking, the texture of the wood varies in different parts
of the same piece. Again, it is often used under conditions
which do not permit it to shrink or swell freely in all direc-
tions ; consequently, it shrinks or swells more in one place
than in another.
When one part of a piece of timber shrinks more rapidly
than an adjacent part, the wood cracks. If, on the other
hand, one part swells more than another, or if the adjacent
part meets with some obstacle to its expansion, the timber
changes in shape it becomes warped.
shrinkage The shrinkage of timber stands in close connection with the
direction*. am unt of water contained. The more water it gives off
while drying, the more it shrinks. Similarly the warmer and
drier the air in which it is placed, the greater the shrinkage.
Some kinds of wood shrink more than others, and the
same kind of wood shrinks differently in different directions.
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 37
All wood shrinks least in the direction of the fibres' length,
and generally so very little that the difference need not be
taken into consideration. But the difference caused by
shrinking is very great across the fibres, and in tangential
section it is two or three times greater than in radial section,
or in the plane of the medullary rays. The sap-wood, which
contains more water than the heart-wood, always shrinks
more than the latter.
The following table, taken from " Karmarsch's Technology,"
shows the results of experiments made on a number of trees,
to ascertain to what extent their timber shrinks. It must be
observed that (1) the experiments were made with thin pieces
of wood ; (2) that the figures are understood to represent the
difference between wood which is either quite green or satu-
rated with water, and that which has been thoroughly well
seasoned ; and that, therefore, (3) the shrinking of partially
seasoned wood is considerably less than is stated in the table.
(The same applies of course to the swelling of such wood,
when it is again exposed to moisture.)
The last column gives the average degree of shrinkage
across the fibres.
38
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
Shrinkage of Timber.
Degree of Shrinkage.
Across the fibres in
the dire<
tion of
Name of tree.
In length.
Per cent.
The
medullary
rays.
Per cent.
The
annual
layers.
Per cent.
Average
across the
fibres.
Per cent.
The common alder
0369
91
5 07
399
The elm
The apple
The common ash (young)
The common birch
The common beech
The hornbeam
Ebony
0.1-J4
0.109
0.821
0.222
0.200
0.400
0010
2.94
3.00
4.05
3.S6
5.03
6.66
2.13
6.22
7-39
6.56
9.30
8.06
10.90
4 07
4.58
5.19
5.30
6.58
6.54
8.78
The oak (young)
0400
3.90
7 55
- -O
The oak (old)
130
3.13
7 78
The Scotch fir
The spruce fir
The lime
0.120
0.076
OS
3-04
2.41
779
5.72
6.18
4.3S
4.29
The common larch
The maple
0.075
07^
2.17
335
6.32
6 '59
4.24
Mahogany
1 09
i 70
Lignum vitae
fi25
5 18
7 50
The pear
394
1 7^
The rowan
1QO
2 11
8*88
The common walnut
0.223
3.53
6-25
4-89
General As is seen from the above table, the degree of shrinkage in
result* the direction of the length of the wood is so slight that it
afforded by
the aboce may be left entirely out of consideration. In the direction
of the breadth, however, it varies from 2 per cent, to 9 per
cent. In radial section, the general average is 5 per cent. ; for
fir and pine 3 per cent. ; for birch 4 per cent. In tangential
section, where shrinkage is greatest, it varies from 2 per cent,
to 13 per cent., the general average for wood iii common use
being 7 per cent. ; for fir and pine 6 per cent. ; for birch 9
per cent.
WOOD, OR TIMBER.
When a tree stem is
sawn up into planks by
parallel longitudinal cuts,
the planks shrink as is
* shown in Fig. 4. The
broadest portion shown,
which includes the pith,
1 shrinks least in breadth,
4. Shrinkage in planks. most in thickness ; least
nearest the pith, most near the sides. The outermost plank,
however, shrinks most in breadth in the direction of the
annual layers and least in thickness. The planks lying
between shrink differently on different sides, and become
concave to the pith, and convex on the other side.
Of trees in most general use, beech, lime, hornbeam, and
pear shrink most ; birch, apple, white-beam, walnut, ash, and
oak shrink considerably ; alder, maple, Scotch fir, elm, spruce
fir, and larch shrink in a medium degree. Mahogany shrinks
least of all timbers.
Cracks occur in timber, because, as indicated above, it is
seldom uniform in texture, and it is therefore liable to shrink
in different degrees during seasoning. The parts nearest the
sap-wood shrink more rapidly than the heart-wood, and
cracks, which run almost invariably in the direction of the
medullary rays, are the result. The more rapidly wood dries
the more it cracks, consequently timber should always be
dried very slowly to prevent the formation of cracks. If it is
tolerably uniform in texture, it may, with proper treatment,
be kept entirely free from cracks.
The swelling, or expansion of timber, takes place when it
is exposed to damp air or water, and is in direct relation to
its shrinkage. When a piece of dried wood is immersed in
water, it swells until it occupies the same volume as it occu-
pied in its fresh condition, after which no further expansion
takes place. Its amount of water, however, and consequently
40 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
its weight, are greater than in its fresh condition, because
the vessels originally filled with air are now filled with
water.
The warping of timber depends on differences in the nature
of its texture, and on other circumstances which cause changes
in form both when it shrinks and when it swells. For ex-
ample, a plank will become twisted or curved if one side
only is exposed to the sun without being turned. Thin, flat
pieces of wood become convex or concave, according as one
or other side is exposed to damp or to drying influences.
II. Means of preventing- Cracks and Warping.
The means taken to kepp timber as far as possible from
cracking or warping during the process of seasoning, are very
various. They are partly connected with the treatment of
the wood when it is cut up into timber, and partly with its
treatment for any special purpose.
1. Seasoning.
when wood Trees should be felled when the sap is down or at rest,
cut down. The best time is from the the middle of December to the end
of February. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the im-
portance of felling timber at the right time, for if felled at
the wrong season, it will contain too much sap, which will
make it very difficult to dry, render it much more liable to
swell or shrink, and increase the risk of its becoming worm-
eaten. In the case of needle-leaved trees excess of sap gives
a bluish tinge to the surface of the timber.
wood The more slowly timber is dried the less it cracks, and
dried timber felled at the proper season and allowed to dry slowly
slowly. cracks very little. Barked timber, which dries more quickly
than unbarked, often cracks so widely that it is quite unfit
for slb'jd-work. When the bark is left on, the cracks may be
numerous, but they will be small. Thick pieces crack more
than thin pieces ; logs or round wood more than split wood ;
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 41
sap-wood more than heart-wood. Care should be taken dur-
ing seasoning that the air has free access to the wood on all
sides. Wood which has been split with the axe is apt to
crack at the ends ; this may be prevented by pasting paper
over them. Portions of timber containing the pith and the
adjacent annual layers, always crack ; such pieces are there-
fore unavailable for work. When round timber is split in
order to facilitate seasoning, it should be divided through
the pith.
Boards or planks are best dried in a drying shed, where
fresh air can circulate freely round each piece. The best ^ l ",-^'
way is to place the boards on their edges, with sufficient by expomre
space between, taking care that they are not twisted in any to the air '
way. If they are piled one on the other, pieces of dry wood
should be placed between them, in order to separate them.
For obvious reasons, none of the timber should touch the
ground.
Timber which has been felled at the proper time, takes no
harm from exposure to a little rain in spring and early sum-
mer, provided always that the air has free access, so that it
may dry again quickly. Indeed, timber usually dries very
rapidly out in the open air in early summer. The rain helps
to wash out the sap, and the timber is thereby rendered
more durable when thoroughly dried.
When wholly or partially finished planks are laid by for
future use, care must be taken that they do not lie one close
upon the other, but that both sides are fully exposed to the
air, to facilitate further drying and prevent warping.
In the early stages of seasoning, evaporation goes on with
tolerable rapidity, but afterwards it takes place more slowly,
and timber must be kept in a dry and airy place for two or
three years before it can be considered fully seasoned. Tim- **
ber is said to be seasoned when the quantity of moisture it said to be
contains coincides with that contained in the atmosphere.
As has been said above, the amount of water in timber
42 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
seasoned as indicated, never falls below 10 per cent, of its
weight. To decrease the water still further, it is necessary
to dry the timber in ovens constructed for the purpose,
or in heated air, or else to keep it for a long time in a warm
place.
influence of Drying expels water only, not the essential elements of the
the tap on s& ^ some o f w hich part with great difficulty from water, and
also take it up again with great readiness when the timber is
once more exposed to moisture. These properties of the sap
make seasoning much more difficult than it would otherwise
be, and retard the process considerably in wood which abounds
in sap e.g., beech, birch, oak, and walnut.
Removal of To overcome this difficulty, the sap may either be removed
the tap. altogether, or its action may be neutralised. The first is
accomplished by immersing the wood in cold water for some
time, or in boiling water for a shorter time ; or, what is still
better, by steaming it. In the second case the timber is
impregnated with substances calculated to counteract the
destructive effects of the sap e.g., a solution of common salt,
vitriol, chloride of zinc, etc. These methods can, however,
only be mentioned here incidentally, as any detailed descrip-
tion would be entirely beyond the limits of this work.
2. Precautions necessary to prevent Warping and
Cracking under special conditions.
As shrinkage is greater in tangential than in radial section,
the wood for any special purpose ought to be sawn out or split
in the direction of the radii of the stem, in order that the
article may the better preserve its form and size. There are,
however, some practical difficulties which render it impossible
to carry out this principle in all cases.
jointing Uniformity of texture, and consequently less tendency to
d-ack or wa rp, is more easily secured in small pieces of timber
than in large pieces, and consequently it is usual in the con-
struction of articles to employ smaller pieces of wood than
of
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 43
are required, and to joint them together ; and these pieces
may often, without any disadvantage, be chosen from different
kinds of wood, and may have their fibres running in different
directions. Hence it is better in making a broad plane sur-
face to select planks which have been divided in two, than
to make it of whole planks. Planks containing the heart-
wood nearest the pith which is generally cracked, are always
divided in two to get rid of this portion.
Jointing also permits large plane surfaces to shrink with- Frames **
out injury to parts of the work already completed. For
example, blackboards, the panels of doors, etc., which are set
into a groove in a frame, are thus permitted to shrink with-
out cracking. Table-tops are strengthened by blocks which
fit into a groove in the framing, and are glued to the under
part of the top. Broad pieces of wood are furnished on one
side with clamps, the fibres of which run at right angles to
those of the broad piece, and which are inserted in such a
way that the wood of the broad piece can shrink without
hindrance.
III. The Decay of Timber.
After vital action ceases in a tree, its substance, like that
of other organic bodies, undergoes a process of decomposition,
which sooner or later terminates in the total decay of the
wood. Decay takes place very rapidly if the timber is ex-
posed to alternations of moisture, air, and heat.
The wood fibres themselves have a high degree of durability,
especially if the sap, which is the prime cause of decay, has
been removed. Some of the constituents of the sap, e.g., starch
and sugar, neither hasten decay nor retard it, while others,
e.g., tannic acid and resin, counteract it. It is the albuminoids
which are the cause of decomposition, and the sap-wood in
which they abound is the part which decays most rapidly.
The decay of timber is caused, in the first instance, by the Blue sur-
fermentation of the sap, which in this state soon acts in- /aw -
juriously on the wood-fibres. The first sign of this is a
44 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
bluish tinge on the surface of the wood. Timber which has
assumed this bluish tinge is not only less durable and strong,
but it is also extremely difficult to work. Though the fer-
menting elements dry in the wood cells, they do not therefore
lose their power. They remain dormant merely, and the
application of moisture after the lapse of time is sufficient to
wake them into activity. Hence, timber which is exposed
to alternations of heat and moisture may very soon acquire
a "blue surface," especially if kept where ventilation is
deficient.
Dr y rot - If the process of decay goes on further, fungi almost always
make their appearance. One of the most destructive forms
in which they appear is known as " dry rot."
ofiruectt. Timber is also destroyed by insects or worms, which bore
their way through the wood, and often reduce the inner
portion completely to dust before any signs of destruction
appear on the outside. Wood which is rich in sap, e.g., birch
and alder, is most liable to such attacks ; beech is less liable ;
while the elm, the maple, and resinous needle-leaved trees,
are seldom attacked.
Means of Preventing Decay.
As the decomposition of the sap is the real cause of the
decay of wood, the means taken to prevent decay are directed
either towards the retardation of this decomposition or to
the complete expulsion of the sap, e.g. :
1. The timber is cut down during the season of the
year when there is least sap in the stem.
2. The timber is seasoned as thoroughly as possible, in
circumstances which permit free access and circula-
tion of air, and is protected not only during season-
ing but afterwards, from alternations of moisture
and dryness.
The growth of fungus is prevented by exposure
to light, and continuous and uniform ventilation.
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 45
3. The wood, after it has been made into articles, is
preserved from damp by varnish, oil paint, etc.
4. The sap is got rid of by steeping the timber in
water or steaming it in ovens.
It is to be observed, however, that in this way the
constituents of the sap which contribute to the
durability of the wood, i.e., resin and tannic acid,
are also removed.
5. The timber is impregnated with some substance in
solution which neutralises the effects of the sap.
The two last named processes are not used for
slb'jd timber.
In conclusion, it may be added that when the sap is re-
moved entirely, or when the timber is impregnated with
some neutralising substance, it does not become worm-eaten.
When insects attack wood which has not been treated in one
of these ways, it is almost impossible to extirpate them. It
has been recommended to apply an acid, e.g.. mvriatic acid,
or a solution of camphor to the worm-eaten holes; but this is,
generally speaking, not practicable, and it is, moreover, not a
complete cure.
C. Different kinds of Wood.
I. Comparison of the Qualities of different kinds
of Wood.
The chief qualities of timber are: strength, the ease or
difficulty with which it is split, hardness, toughness, elasticity,
texture, colour and smell, weight, durability, and its capacity
for shrinking and siuelling. The two last mentioned quali-
ties have already been taken up.
It is obvious that most of these qualities depend not only
on the kind of tree from which the timber is obtained, but
also on many incidental circumstances, such as climate and
soil, the age of the tree, the season of the year when it was
46 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
cut down, subsequent treatment, etc. It is therefore hardly
possible to make any general statements regarding them
which shall hold good in all cases.
1. The strength of timber is shown by its power of
resistance to pressure, rupture, tearing, and twisting.
The oak and the Scotch fir present the greatest resist-
ance to pressure. The oak, the ash, the spruce fir, and next
after them the Scotch fir, the larch, and the aspen, resist
rupture best. In this respect the beech and the alder are not
so strong. The oak and the ash, and after them the beech,
the spruce fir, the Scotch fir, and the elm, present the greatest
resistance to tearing.
2. The ease or difficulty with which different kinds of
wood may be split. By this is meant the greater or lesser
ease with which timber may be divided by a wedge-shaped
tool in the direction of the length of the fibres. It is closely
related to the quality of the fibres and the manner of their
distribution. Wood which has grown quickly has long
straight fibres, is free from knots, and is easily split. " Cross-
grained " wood, the fibres of which twist and cross each other,
and the wood of roots and of branches with knotty excres-
cences, is difficult to split. Wood from the lower part of the
trunk nearest the roots is the most difficult of all to split.
When the medullary rays are large and long as in beech
and oak, or numerous and fine as in needle-leaved trees,
timber is easily split in radial section, but all timber is
harder to split in tangential than in radial section.
The following timbers are difficult to split : figured birch,
hornbeam, elm, maple, and white-beam.
The following are easy to split: ash, beech, alder, oak,
aspen, Scotch fir, spruce fir, lime, poplar, and chestnut.
Old knotty oak, however, may present great difficulty.
3. The density or hardness of timber is shown in the
resistance it offers to the tools with which it is worked. It
is impossible to give definite statistics on this point, because
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 47
it depends so much on circumstances, e.g., the varieties of
texture in the same tree, the nature and arrangement of the
fibres, the degree of moisture, the presence of resin, etc., etc. :
the general rule, however, holds good, that close-grained
timber with high specific gravity is hard (it being under-
stood that comparisons are always made with seasoned wood).
Seasoned timber is harder than green timber. Green heart-
wood is harder than sap-wood. Resinous heart-wood is very
hard, and this is also true of timber which has fine annual
layers, as is shown especially in the extremely hard resinous
knots often seen in planks.
The resistance which timber presents to the axe is greatest
at right angles to the length of the fibres, and it decreases in to
proportion as the angle becomes more acute. It is least when saw.
the blade of the axe is parallel with the direction of the
fibres' length, as in splitting.
The saw, on the other hand, works by tearing the fibres,
and consequently it meets with most resistance in loose-
textured timber with long tough fibres. Such timber makes
the edge of the saw uneven. In close-grained timber with
short fibres the saw works easily, and the edge keeps more
even. Consequently, for heavy close-grained timber the saw
does not require to be set so much. In certain kinds of
timber moisture increases the toughness of the fibres, and on
this account unseasoned timber is more difficult to saw than
dry wood.
The hardness of timber is very important in all cases
where it is exposed to blows, concussions, and general wear
and tear.
For ordinary purposes the hardness of any piece of wood
may be tested by cutting it with a knife.
The hardest timbers of all are lignum vitse and ebony.
The ordinary kinds of timber may be classified as follows :
Hard : hornbeam, maple, apple, pear, oak, and beech.
Medium: ash, elm, white-beam, walnut, birch, lime, and
chestnut.
to the axe
id the
4S HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
Soft : Scotch fir, spruce fir, larch, alder, aspen, and poplar.
As has, however, been indicated above, spruce fir with fine
annual layers and resinous Scotch fir are often very hard, and
they might thus find a place in the higher class.
4. The toughness and elasticity of timber. A piece
of timber which may be bent without breaking, and which
does not resume its former shape when the bending force is
removed, is said to be tough; if it does resume its former
shape, it is said to be elastic. Generally speaking, both these
qualities co-exist in all timber, but one is usually more pre-
dominant than the other, according to the kind of wood.
Thus some timbers are said to be elastic and others tough.
Unseasoned wood is tougher than dry wood, and what it
gains in elasticity during seasoning it loses in toughness.
Damp heat increases toughness ; hence hoops and sticks are
' steamed " in order that they may be bent.
As a general rule light timber is tougher than heavy
timber, roots are tougher than stems ; sap-wood is tougher
than heart- wood, and young timber is tougher than old.
The toughest timbers are the following : hornbeam, elm,
ash, aspen, birch, juniper, hazel, osier, maple, and white-beam.
Lime, alder, beech, and the heart- wood of oak are only
moderately tough.
Elasticity is increased by seasoning, and is generally great
in heavy timbers. It is of great importance in the manufac-
ture of many articles, e.g., masts, oars, wooden springs, the
handles of spades, axes, hammers, etc.
The following timbers are elastic: elm, ash, aspen, oak,
spruce fir, birch, maple, and poplar.
Hornbeam, alder, and Scotch fir are less elastic.
5. The texture, colour and smell of timber. Knowledge
of these qualities is very important in connection with the
recognition of different kinds of timber, and in estimating
their value.
AVOOD, OB TIMBER. 49
By texture is understood the way in which the vessels,
fibres, medullary rays and annual layers are woven or con-
nected together. (See fig. 1).
Wood as it appears in cross section is said to be end way
of the grain ; as it appears in radial and tangentia 1 section
parallel with the fibres it is said to be length way of the
grain, OP with the grain ; and as it appears when we look
across the fibres at right angles to their length, it is said to be
across the grain.
We distinguish between coarse and fine texture according coarse and
to the quality of the fibres, vessels, medullary rays and /In * texture
annual layers, which, taken all together, give to wood its
characteristic appearance. Similarly we speak of long-Jibred
and of short-fibred texture, according as the wood " works "
with long or short shavings.
The colour of wood varies from white to deep black, with Different
manyintermediate shades of yellow, red,brown, etc., depending
on the kind of tree. It varies not only in different kinds of
timber, but in the same kind of timber, and even in the same
tree. As has been said above, the heart-wood is always
darker than the sap-wood. Certain kinds of timber, again,
e.g., oak and mahogany, become darker with time.
Our ordinary timbers are whitish, yellowish, brownish or
reddish, and are not so highly coloured as tropical timbers,
some of which are very striking in colour.
The smell peculiar to many kinds of timber is a mark by
which they may sometimes be recognised. This characteristic f wood Jue
smell does not proceed from the wood itself, for it has none.
It is due to the sap, and is always strongest in fresh sappy
wood ; though seasoned timber sometimes has a very decided
smell, which is often quite unlike that of the unseasoned
wood. Needle-leaved trees have a strong smell of turpentine,
and certain broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, often smell of
tannic acid. Many trees have an agreeable smell, e.g., the
cedar, juniper, the camphor-tree, etc. The smell of some
colours of
wood.
50
HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
Specific
gravity of
the cellular
tissue.
timber remains in it for a long time, and communicates itself
to food kept in vessels made of it.
A musty smell in timber is a sign of decay.
6. The weight or specific gravity of timber is very
variable, depending as it does on a number of different cir-
stances. Hence it is impossible to give such definite
statistics under this head as can be given in the case of
metals and many other substances. We have to take into
consideration the closeness or the looseness of the fibres,
which determines the hardness or density of the wood ; the
presence of more or less sap ; the climate and soil in which
the tree has grown ; its age ; its different parts ; the degree
of seasoning, etc.
The specific gravity of wood properly so called, i.e., of the
cellular tissue which composes it, is very similar in all
timbers, and even in the lightest kinds it is greater than that
of water. Nevertheless, most timbers, owing to their porous
nature, are lighter than water, and float in it. This is the
case with all our indigenous trees after seasoning. A warm
climate produces heavy timber ; and the heaviest timbers,
such as ebony and lignum vitae, are found in the tropics.
The presence of water is the circumstance which most affects
the weight of timber. All timbers are heavier when newly
felled than after seasoning. Hence, in determining the
specific gravity of different kinds of timber, we must assume
that the timber is fully seasoned.
The average specific gravity of the most common kinds of
timber is given as follows by competent authorities :
NEWLY
FELLED.
SEAS-
ONED.
NEWLY
FELLED.
SEAS-
ONED.
The Hornbeam ... 1.08
0.72
The Spruce Fir ... 0.73
0.47
The Common Alder 0.82
0.53
The Lime 0.74
0.45
The Elm 0.95
0.69
The Common Larch 0.76
0.62
The Apple ... 1.10
The Common Ash 0.92
0.75
0.75
The Maple 0.90
The White-beam ... 1.04
0.66
0.86
The Aspen ... 0.80
0.49
The Pear 1.01
0.72
The Birch ... 0.94
0.64
The Rowan 0.96
0.67
The Common Beech 1.01
0.74
The Common Walnut 0.91
0.68
The Oak 1.10
0.86
Ebony
1.20
The Com. Juniper 1.07
0.61
Mahogany
0.81
The Scotch Fir ... 0.70
0.52
Lignum vitse ...
1.40
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 51
The absolute weight per cubic foot in any given timber is
ascertained by multiplying the specific gravity given above
by G2.5 -the number of pounds iu a cubic foot of water.
7. The durability of timber. This and the circumstances
which favour if have been touched on in connection with
the sap, with seasoning, with decay, and the means of its
prevention.
The conditions under which timber is used have the
greatest influence on its durability. Thus, timber which
is kept under cover and protected from moisture is very
durable, and may last for many centuries. Some kinds of
timber are extremely durable if kept under water. Thus, The dur <*-
the oak used in ancient lake-dwellings and bridges, or found
in bogs, has been preserved for thousands of years.
If timber is exposed to alternations of moisture and dry- when mo
ness, its durability is diminished ; and yet, in most cases, it ^ulalu.
is precisely in these unfavourable conditions it has to be used.
Hence it follows that it is impossible to give precise The. most
details regarding the durability of timber. Under this head
all that can be done is to mention the trees which in all
circumstances give the most durable timbers, viz. : the oak,
and resinous, close-grained Scotch fir and larch. The elm
comes next to these. If exposed to alternations of moisture
and dryness, oak is said to last one hundred years, birch
fifteen years, and beech not more than ten. Durability is
also mentioned in the description of different kinds of
timber, which follows.
II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees.
Here follows an enumeration of the different kinds of
wood which are available for slb'jd work, together with a
condensed statement of their properties, in order that, as far
as is possible in a brief description, the reader may be made
acquainted with each kind of timber.
[The following kinds of wood can be easily obtained in
52 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
England, and are therefore specially recommended : Scotch
fir, spruce fir, alder, birch, beech, oak, chestnut, lime, and
poplar. See also p. 254. TRS.]
1. Needle-leaved Trees.
The Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris). The ripe timber is
yellowish white or reddish white. The boundaries of the
annual concentric layers are light brown in the heart-wood ;
white in the sap-wood. It is the heaviest, hardest, and most
resinous of all the needle-leaved trees, and has a tolerably
strong smell of turpentine. Its resinous, fine-grained heart-
wood is very durable.
The spruce fir (Pinus dbies). The wood is yellowish
white. In a longitudinal section it shows dark reddish
streaks. It is very elastic, and is easily split with the axe.
As it contains a good deal of resin, it resists damp ; though,
being less resinous than the pine, it is more easily glued.
Like the pine, it makes excellent timber. Very hard knots,
which loosen and fall out when the wood is seasoned, are,
however, of frequent occurrence in this wood.
The common larch (Pinus larix). The wood of this tree
is reddish, with dark annual layers and white sap-wood.
It warps but little, and does not readily become worm-eaten.
It is more durable than the Scotch fir and the spruce fir.
The common juniper (Juniperus communis). The wood
of the young bushes is white, and it deepens from yellow to
brown as it increases in age. It is hard, tough, close, strong,
and durable, and whenever it can be obtained large enough
it is much in request for slojd articles. The juniper has a
peculiar and agreeable smell.
2. Broad-Leaved Trees.
The hornbeam (Cai^pinus betulus). The wood of this
tree is white, very hard, heavy, close and very tough. The
medullary rays are very little darker than the wood, and are
not easily distinguished. They are curved, appearing in a
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 53
longitudinal section like narrow inconspicuous flecks. The
wood is very difficult to split. It dries slowly and warps
easily. It is very durable if kept dry, and is a favourite
timber for slojd work.
The common alder (Alnusglutinosa). The wood is whit-
ish or brownish-yellow, often deepening to brown, and in
the newly-felled tree light red. The annual layers are diffi-
yult to recognise; the medullary rays are rather broad, and
brown in colour. The timber is only of medium hardness,
and is neither very tough nor very elastic ; it splits readily,
and does not crack or warp easily. It is very durable if con-
stantly kept wet, but it is of low durability if exposed to
alternations in the degree of moisture. If felled at the wrong
time it is speedily attacked by worms. Its close and even
texture make it good timber for slojd work.
The hoary-leaved alder (Alnus incana) furnishes timber
which is whiter, finer, and closer than the preceding.
The elm (Dlmus montana, U. campestris). The colour of
the young wood in general, and of the sap-wood in older trees,
is whitish-yellow. The old heart-wood is reddish-brown,
streaked and veined. The inner boundary of the annual
layers is somewhat lighter in colour and looser in texture
than the rest, and has visible pores. The medullary rays are
very narrow and numerous, giving to this timber in longi-
tudinal section a dotted and streaked appearance. This
timber is moderately fine in fibre, tough, hard, given to warp,
difficult to split, and not liable to the attacks of worms. Its
durability under all circumstances is very great. It is often
beautifully marked.
The common ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The colour of
the young wood is white ; of the older, yellowish brown,
deepening almost to brown in the heart-wood. The medul-
lary rays are not easily distinguished. The annual layers are
generally broad, and, as in the case of the oak, the large pores
on their inner edge render them very conspicuous. This
54 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
timber is tough, elastic, very hard, easily split, not liable to
crack, and, if kept in a dry atmosphere, extremely durable.
If exposed to the open air it is of low durability. It is much
esteemed for its strength and toughness, and is used with
advantage for springs of all kinds, tool handles, etc., etc.
The young wood is used for barrel-hoops, etc.
The aspen (Populus tremula). The wood is white, with
coarse annual rings. It is fine in texture ; tough, easily
split, and warps but little. It is very durable if kept under
cover or in the ground. It is not of much use in slojd work,
and in Sweden it is used chiefly in the manufacture of
matches.
[The poplar (Populus). The colour of the wood is a yellow
or brownish white. The annual rings are a little darker on
one side than on the other, and are therefore distinct. The
texture is uniform, and there are no large medullary rays.
The wood is light, soft, easily worked, and does not splinter.
When kept dry it is tolerably durable, and it is not liable to
shrink. TRS.]
The common birch (Betula alba). The wood of the
young tree is white. Older wood is reddish white in colour.
The medullary rays are very narrow and scarcely distinguish-
able. The timber is tolerably hard, and very tough ; it dries
very slowly, and swells easily. It is very durable if kept dr}-,
but is of low durability if exposed to the open air, and is very
apt to become worm-eaten.
The quality of birch varies very much, and depends greatly
on climate and soil. Birch grown in favourable soil is
straight in fibre, easily split and easily worked: Birch
grown in dry and stony ground or in marshy places is crook-
ed in fibre and more or less knotty, gnarled and cross-
grained, and difficult to split. Timber of this kind is beauti-
fully marked. In most parts of Sweden birch furnishes the
greater proportion of the wood used in slojd, and takes the
WOOD, OR TIMBER, 55
place of the beech and the hornbeam of southern Sweden and
southern countries.
The common beech (Fagus sylvatica). The wood in the
young tree is light brown ; old wood is very dark. The
medullary rays are large, glossy, and dark brown, and the
general colour of the wood is uniform. The concentric annual
layers are not specially conspicuous, but they are easily
distinguished. Beech timber is hard, close, heavy, and easily
split, especially in the direction of the medullary rays. It is
inelastic and rather brittle. It dries very slowly, and warps
easily.. It is very durable under water and when kept dry,
but if exposed to varying degrees of moisture it is the least
durable of all timbers. It is highly valued for its hardness,
and much used for barrels.
The oak (Quercus robur). The sap-wood and the wood in
young stems is nearly white. The heart-wood in older trees
is brownish. The large pores on the inner edges of the annual
layers, and the broad, yellowish brown, frequently glossy,
medullary rays are specially noticeable. This timber is
peculiarly hard, strong, and durable. It is not affected by
alternations in the degree of moisture, and it is in all cir-
cumstances the most durable of all our timbers. It dries
slowly, and is very apt to warp unless thoroughly well
seasoned. After being in water especially salt water for
many years, its colour becomes bluish black. The oak fur-
nishes better timber than any other tree of Northern Europe.
[The chestnut (Oastanea vesca).The colour of the sap-
wood is yellowish white ; that of the heart-wood is light to
dark brown. The wood of the chestnut resembles that of
the oak in colour, but it may easily be distinguished from it
by the absence of the broad medullary rays which are found
in the oak. The timber is heavy, hard, elastic, and very
durable if kept uniformly either dry or wet. If subjected
to variations in the degree of moisture it is of low durability.
Tns.1
56 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
The maple (Acer platanoides). The wood is white, with
very narrow and numerous medullary rays of a faint brown
colour, which give it a beautifully " waved " lustrous appear-
ance. The annual layers are inconspicuous. The wood is
uniform in texture, hard, strong, tough, and difficult to split ;
it presents a glossy surface to the plane, and does not crack
or warp readily. In consequence of these good qualities, it is
much sought after for slqjd timber.
The white-beam (Sorbus Scandica). The wood of the
young tree is yellowish. Older wood is light brown or red-
dish in colour. It is frequently speckled or veined. This
timber is fine and uniform in texture, hard, close, and very
tough. It warps but little, and is much valued as slojd
timber.
The pear and the apple (Pyrus).-The wood of the
young tree is nearly white. Older wood is dark brown,
sometimes red in colour, and often streaked. It is very fine
and close in texture, hard, heavy and tough. The medullary
rays are small, and they and the annual layers are incon-
spicuous. It can be cut easily in all directions, and does not
splinter, owing to the uniformity of its texture.
The wood of the apple tree has a general resemblance to
that of the pear, but it is closer, redder, and harder indeed
the apple furnishes one of the hardest timbers. The wood of
the wild pear or apple is superior to that of the cultivated
varieties. The wood of both trees is much esteemed.
The rowan (Sorbus Aucuparia). The wood is whitish or
light brown. In some respects it resembles the white-beam,
but it is not so good. As slojd timber it may often rank
with the birch.
The common walnut (Juglans regia). The wood of
the young tree is almost white, loose in texture, and soft.
Older wood is brownish grey or dark brown, and is often
beautifully marked. It is hard and strong, and generally
WOOD, OR TIMBER. 57
close in texture, though, like the oak, it has particularly
large pores. The medullary rays are almost invisible. It
dries very slowly, and shrinks a good deal. It is one of the
most beautiful European timbers, and is extensively used.
The following tropical timbers may also be mentioned :
Ebony (Diospyros). From Africa and the East Indies.
The sap-wood is quite white, the heart-wood generally quite
black, though sometimes brownish black with white streaks
and flecks towards its inner edge, which detract from the
value of the wood. Its texture is so uniform that it is im-
possible to distinguish the annual layers or the medullary
rays. The timber is brittle, but very hard, close and heavy.
On account of the three last-named qualities, and its beauty.
it is much esteemed, but it is too expensive to be used to
any great extent.
Mahogany (Swietenia Mahogani). From Central America
and the West Indies. Other kinds of timber are also sold
under this name. When fresh the wood is generally reddish
or brownish yellow, but it gradually darkens, and finally
becomes almost black. It has narrow, rather inconspicuous
annual layers, and small but distinctly visible pores. In
longitudinal section the figuring of this timber is very
beautiful. It has fleck-like or pyramidal markings, with a
fine satin-like lustre. It varies much in hardness, weight,
closeness, and general texture in different varieties. Ma-
hogany is under all circumstances very durable. It warps
but little ; shrinks less than any other timber ; and is never
attacked by worms. It is highly esteemed as timber, and is
very extensively used.
Lignum vitse (Guaiacum oficinale). From Central
America. The wood is greenish or blackish brown, with
58 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
yellowish and dark streaks in longitudinal section. It is
heavy, resinous, very close-grained, and almost as hard as
metal. It is twisted in fibre, very difficult to split, and there-
fore not easy to work. Its extraordinary hardness and great
durability make it valuable in the case of articles which are
exposed to much wear and tear.
59
CHAPTER III.
TOOLS.
A. Choice of Tools.
The tools used in slojd teaching must be chosen with due ChoUe of
regard to the pupil's capacity. They ought to be neither
too large nor too heavy, but such as can be easily handled.
It might perhaps be considered advisable to use tools slighter
in make than those generally employed in slqjd-carpentry,
and the question might be raised whether such small tools as
are to be found in "children's tool-boxes" should not be
procured. Tools of this description are, however, usually too
inferior to be taken into consideration at all ; and, if specially
ordered in a good quality, they would be much dearer than
those sold in the ordinary course of trade. This applies
particularly to tools made of iron or steel. Moreover, such
small tools are particularly difficult to keep in order, because
they are very slight and brittle. And further, a little
experience in teaching proves that children from eleven to
fourteen years of age require tools quite as substantial and
durable as their elders. Whether or not a tool is too heavy
depends upon the person who uses it, for one child may have
the strength required to use a much heavier tool than can bo
used by another. In connection with this it should be noted,
tli at if children are not accustomed, while receiving instruction,
to use and to keep in order the tools used in ordinary life, it
will be very difficult for them to manage them when they are
older. It may be objected that if children use the ordinary
knife, saw, axe, etc., they may easily hurt themselves ; but
this is quite as likely to happen with " toy tools." Besides,
it is the duty of the teacher to insist that the children pay
60 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
attention to the manner of using the tools, and use them in
such a way that they do not hurt themselves.
Although we maintain that the tools used in slojd teaching
should be of the size generally employed, it does not therefore
follow that the largest size is to be selected, but rather that
the smallest should be chosen, such as the little hands of the
youthful pupil can efficiently wield without much trouble.
The handle of the knife should not be larger than can be
grasped, though the blade maybe of the usual size. The smooth-
ing plane should be 7 inches long and 2f inches broad. The
trying plane should not be unnecessarily long ; 22 inches is long
enough, though the breadth ought to be 3^ inches, or broad
enough for an iron of 2| inches. If the trying plane is
narrower, it is difficult to plane a surface of any size, and
the smaller tool would occasion more work and trouble than
one of the dimensions given above. The handles of chisels
and similar tools should not be larger than is necessary.
The axe should not weigh more than 2 Ibs. The frames of the
bow saws should be of the lighter description of those used
in carpentry.
As one of the aims of slojd teaching is to develop the
physical powers of the pupil, each separate exercise must
lead up to the next in such a way that the pupil proceeds
from easier to more difficult work. But the most perfect
gradation of exercises arranged on this principle will not en-
sure success if the teacher does not know how to choose
suitable wood for the pupils' work, and does not take care
that they have good tools in good condition. As we demand
of the pupils work well executed and accurate in all its
details, we are bound to see that they are provided with
suitable wood and good tools.
As regards suitable wood, the reader is referred to Chapter
II. It need be merely named here that the wood must be
sound, well seasoned, straight in fibre, and, as far as possible,
free from knots.
TOOLS. 61
The tools selected should always be of the best quality, Quality of
even if these should prove rather more expensive. Instead of loo!t '
buying a large number of inferior tools at once, a few good
ones should be procured. But it is not enough to buy good
tools, they must be kept in good order. Ability to keep
tools in order is an indispensable qualification in a good
teacher of slojd, for if he lacks skill in this respect his Good tool*
teaching will also lack one of the first conditions of success. JJ**" 1 *"
There are two rather complicated tools which are particularly
difficult to keep in order, i.e., the plane and the saw. A
great deal of energy is wasted in slojd teaching if the pupils
work with badly set planes or with blunt saws. Hence
special care should be bestowed on these tools.
Practice in grinding tools and keeping them in order must Grinding-
be included in the instruction given. Great demands in this to 1 *'
respect must not be made at first, but they may be gradu-
ally increased until the pupils, at least towards the end of
the course, are able to grind a plane iron and sharpen a
saw. If this is expected of the pupils, so much the more
must it be demanded of the teacher.
The description which follows attempts to give, to some
extent, detailed knowledge of the tools which are used in
educational wood - slojd, together with instructions for
keeping them in good condition. The illustrations accom-
panying the description are taken from selected tools and
appliances, and the scale is indicated by the fraction after
the name of the figure. Want of space prevents the insertion
of complete representations of all the tools, etc. A few
illustrations of this kind, particularly of benches and of a
cupboard for tools, have been added on separate plates at
the end of the book, for the guidance of those who wish to
make these articles. The technical names are, generally
speaking, those employed in carpentry ; but a proportion of
the names of tools, exercises, and methods of manipulation,
have originated and been adopted in the course of the de-
velopment of slojd teaching.
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
B. Appliances for holding the work.
1. The bench is the article most frequently used for
holding the work steady during its execution. It is the
most indispensable part of the apparatus required for slojd.
A complete
bench.
Fig. 5. Bench, '/ao-
A bench top, D front bench vice, C back bench vice, D bench well, E bench
drawer or till, F front rail of bench box, aa bench pegs or hooks, bb holes for
bench pegs, c vice tongue or key, ee screw-bolts, / back rail of bench box, gg vice-
screws, h front rail of bench.
The Single Bench (Fig. 5) is practically a strongly con-
structed table, heavy enough to stand steady during the work.
The bench top consists of a strong, hard, close piece of
plank about 3 inches thick. For the purpose of holding the
work fast it is provided either with one screw or two, ar-
ranged in a particular way, called the back bench vice and the
front bench vice. A complete bench (Fig. 5) has both ; one
ck bench of simpler construction (Fig. 8) has only the back bench vice.
e. At one end of the bench-top, to the right of the worker, a
rectangular piece is cut away from the anterior edge, its
length being parallel to the edge, and where this piece lias
been cut away a prismatical frame- work is moved by the
turning of a wood-screw. The nut into which this screw
catches is firmly fixed to the end of the bench top. The
frame-work is directed partly by the screw, partly by
separate bolts, and the screw is held fast by means of a wedge
or flat pin, which catches like a fork in a groove on the screw.
TOOLS. 63
This arrangement is called the back bench vice. The frame-
work is perforated perpendicularly by one or more square
holes, from 4 to 6 inches apart, and a row of similar holes is
introduced in the bench top, in a straight line with those in
the frame-work. When a plank is to be held in a horizontal
position on the bench, a bench peg is placed in a hole in the
bench vice, and another in a hole in the bench top at a dis-
tance corresponding to the length of the plank, and the screw
is applied. Care must be taken that the head of the bench
peg does not rise above the upper surface of the wood, and
also that, during planing, the iron of the plane does not como
in contact with the head of the peg, a fault often committed
through carelessness by beginners.
The bench pegs (Fig. 6) are rectangular pieces of iron from
8 to 10 inches long, which fit rather loosely into the holes of
the bench top, and are provided on one side with a steel
spring, in order that they may remain fixed at
any desired height. The head of the peg is
double-grooved, to hold the work securely. To
make room for the head of the peg, the holes in
the bench top are usually sufficiently enlarged
at the upper end to permit the head to be
pushed down, until its top is level with the
Fig. 6. bench top.
Bench Peg. Vic- ^he arrangement of the screw, to the left of Front tench
the worker, is termed the front bench vice. It is much *'
simpler in construction than the back bench vice. Fig. 5
shows its construction. A movable piece of wood is placed
in front of the end of the screw, called the vice tongue or key
(Fig. 7), partly to hold the work
more securely, partly to prevent
its being injured by the screw.
When a long piece of wood is
fastened into the front bench
vice for edge-planing, it is ad-
Fig. 7. Vice Tongue or Key. Vio-visable to allow the under edge
64 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
to rest upon a little block on a swivel, attached to the under
side of the bench top. If the screws do not turn easily, the
friction may be reduced by rubbing them well with pul-
verised plumbago.
On the side of the bench farthest from the worker is a
trough or channel, called the bench ivell, in which tools not
in actual use may be laid. Triangular pieces of wood, firmly
attached to the ends of this well, facilitate the sweeping out
of shavings, etc.
The different portions of the bench are fastened together
by dovetailing, mortising, and iron screws.
The bench top rests upon feet or rails, and it is often
furnished on the under side with a drawer or till. A similar
drawer may be connected with the rails.
The wood used for the bench top should be oak, ash, beech,
or hard pine ; for the screws, horn-beam or " figured " birch ;
for the well and the rails, fir or pine.
Fig. 8. Single Bench. Vso-
Top, 5 feet long by 1J feet broad. Height, 2 feet 7 inches. Naas pattern.
A simpler and somewhat cheaper bench for one worker is
represented in Fig. 8. It takes up little space, and it can be
procured for one-half indeed one-fourth of the cost of the
bench first described. It is furnished with a back-bench vice
only, consisting of a piece of wood moving on bolts, and
TOOLS. 65
worked by a screw fixed with a forked ivedge to the movable Bench after
front jaw of the vice. The bolts must be firmly inserted in
the detached portion of the vice, and must have their anterior
ends made fast in a cross-piece ; otherwise the movable por-
tion of the vice will not move easily and surely backwards and
forwards by means of the screw. To fasten a piece of wood
quite steadily in the vice it should be balanced as nearly as
possible on the top of the screw. When this is not done, it
has a tendency to fall to one side, and if this frequently hap-
pens the vice will finally be destroyed. This drawback
renders the bench less suitable than the one previously
described.
rs
C-I-
u ^ssrn.
-:
E
1
.OJUJUJ li i if If if JLJ'
"
SO 100 410 4XO -tBO /*O ISO C.TTls.
Fig. 9. Double Bench.
The complete bench, represented in Fig. 5, is too large for Adjustable
general use in School-slojd, the space for which is generally
limited. A simpler bench, adapted from Fig. 8, is therefore
used, which has a " back-bench vice " at both ends, as indi-
cated in Fig. 9, with a shorter bench- well than is shown in
Fig. 5. When this bench is firmly fixed to the floor, two
pupils can work at it without disturbing one another.
Fig. 10 is a bench of English manufacture, well adapted for
slojd work, and is known as R. Trainer's Improved Bench.
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
Fig. 10. Trainer's Bench.
A bench top, D. tool tray or bench well, C. back stri
^. . , -, _. _ , - back strip, d. tail (or back) bench vice,
e side (or front) bench vice, /. plane rest or fillet,
should be
80 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
The blade of the saw is placed between them, teeth upwards,
and the points turned from the operator, or in the direction
from d to c (Fig. 32), the handles are grasped with one hand
to bring the gouges close together, and the blade of the saw
is drawn forwards between them.
setting In consequence of the difficulty of setting a saw evenly
*** and at a good angle, many different kinds of saw-sets and
setting-tongs have been devised. The latter are intended
to be adjustable for any desired inclination of the teeth.
Some of these tools, however, are not practically useful, and
those which are fully adapted for use are generally too expen-
sive for ordinary purposes.
As indicated above, setting must not go beyond a fixed
limit. Provided that the saw has free passage through the
wood, the finer the cut it makes the better ; and much less
inclination of the teeth is necessary, in the case of dry timber,
than in unseasoned or loose-fibred wood.
sate biada Less setting is also necessary in the case of saw-blades
%ackf '" which increase in thickness towards the teeth. These are
made in the best manufactories, and are always preferable
to blades of equal thickness throughout. So-called compass
saws often have blades of this kind, and require no setting.
sharpen Quite as important as the setting of the saw is its sharpen-
tatc ' ing, and it is often necessary to perform both operations at
the same time.
To sharpen a saw, it is secured in the saw-sharpening
clamps; and the ordinary kinds of saw used in wood slb'jd
are sharpened by means of a triangular file (Fig. 3G).
Fig. 36. Triangular or Three-square File. J.*
Care must be taken that the two sides of the file which
* The file represented in the illustration is a single-cut file ; but a double-
cut file should be used. TRS.
TOOLS. 81
are to be used form the angle necessary to produce the in-
clination in the edges of the teeth indicated above. This
being secured, the file is drawn across the blade at right
angles to it. Every indentation must be filed equally deep,
or, in other words, the point of each tooth must stand equally
high. The row of teeth is next tested with the straight edge,
and if any of the teeth stand higher than the others, they
must be topped or filed doivn with a fine broad file, and then
sharpened once more.
Sharpening is begun at the end of the blade, towards
which the points of the teeth are turned, or from c to d
(Fig. 32). The degree thus produced on the points is always
in the direction to which the teeth are turned, not away from
it. In the latter case, the saw would be rather blunt. Each
tooth must be carefully filed, that its edges may be quite
sharp, and the cutting side quite straight.
Should the saw, after sharpening, be insufficiently set, it
must be set again, after which the file must be once more
passed over the teeth to remove any irregularities. Generally
speaking, setting precedes sharpening.
Sharpening is sometimes performed by passing the file
obliquely over the edge of the blade, instead of at right angles
to it. The edges of each tooth are thus sharpened obliquely
from within outwards (see Fig. 33). The file is first passed
obliquely through every alterative tooth-space. The saw is
then reversed, so that its ends change places, and the remaining teeth.
spaces are operated on in the same way. This gives a knife-
like edge to both sides of the teeth, and makes the saw cut
particularly swiftly and well. The common wood-saws, some
tcnon-saivs, and hand-saws, are sharpened in this way.
It need hardly be added that setting and sharpening are
not only necessary in the case of new saws, but also as often
as the teeth become worn or lilutit.
p
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
The saws now to be described may be classed in two groups,
i.e., saws with frames, and saws without frames.
The former have the ends of the blade fastened into a
frame, the tension of which may be regulated to produce the
necessary amount of resistance. In the latter kind of saw
this power of resistance is
given by means of the greater
breadth and thickness of the
blade, or by setting the back
of the blade in a binding of
metal. This binding is called
the saw-back.
1. Saws with Frames.
1 . The Frame Saw (Fig. 37)
is the largest saw used in
Slb'jd. It is used for sawing
up planks and other pieces
of wood lengthwise into thin-
ner pieces. It is worked by
two people, and in a hori-
zontal direction. The blade
has from 3 to 4 teeth per inch,
and it is fastened into an
oblong wooden frame, mid-
way between the side-rails.
The ends of the blade are
enclosed in and strengthened
by pieces of white-iron, and
are fastened by the attached
pieces running through each
top-rail. Tension is produced
by turning the winged nut.
The ^^^ot the teeth
Fig. 37. A. Frame Saw.
B. Saw blade end with attachment. 1.
at an angle of 90.
S3
2. Bow Saws (Fig. 38) are of different sizes. They are
much used in wood-slbjd, not only in the earlier, but in the
later stages of work. Bow saws have all the same kind
of frame, consisting of a bar called the stretcher, longer than
the blade and parallel to it, at each end of which there is
either a square mortise or a fork-like notch for the recep-
tion of the cross-pieces or side-arms. The latter, though care-
fully fitted in, yet have a certain amount of play at the ends
of the stretcher, in order that they may be drawn closer
to each other on either side of the stretcher when the saw is
tightened. At one end of each side-arm there is a round
hole, through which passes a well-
fitting peg with a handle. This peg
is sawn through the middle length-
wise to form a slot for the saw blade,
which often extends a certain length
into the handle. The blade of the
saw is narrower at the ends where it
enters the handle. In it are one or
two holes, through which the fasten-
ing pin runs.
Blades fastened in this way often
-twist when tightened, and conse-
quently cut badly. This happens
especially when the axis of the handle
is not exactly in line with the blade.
This defect may be remedied by sub-
stituting for prolongations of the
blade itself, the white-iron attach-
ments (Fig. 39), and securing them in
the usual way. The ends of the
blade are fastened between the plates Fig. 38. Broad- webbed
of the attachment merely by a screw 8tretch e r B ?ftIifieIms. c blade.
-or nail, in order that the blade may
.be freely adjusted.
? handle -
84 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
The side-arms are connected at the other end by several
strands of strong string, which are twisted together by a
tightener, in order to give the required tension to the blade.
When the string is put on, the frame is fastened between the
bench pegs.
The stretcher is made of fir or pine; the side-arms of harder
wood, e.g., beech or oak. The different parts of the frame
are made as light as is compatible with strength, that the
saw may not be too heavy to manage with one hand.
wanner of j n wor king, the saw should be
holding th
firmly grasped by the side-arm
- _ : -j just above the handle. In the
case of the lighter description of
saws, the handle, as well as the
Fig. 39. Saw-blade end, lower part of the side-arm, should
with attachment, j. be held in the hand, and the index
finger should steady the blade.
Generally speaking, the blade is fixed obliquely to the
plane of the frame; partly that the worker may saw deeply
without hindrance from the frame, and partly that he may
be able to see the line \\shich the saw is to follow.
In tightening the blade which is best done by turning
both handles simultaneously care must be taken that it is
perfectly straight. Otherwise a straight cut can hardly be
obtained.
If the saw is out of use for any length of time, the tightener
should always be slackened. When this is not done the side-
arms may become twisted.
Bow-saws have different names, depending on the nature
of the blade. The " hook," i.e., angle of the teeth is shown
in Fig. 32.
TOOLS. 85
A. The Broad-webbed Bow-saw is shown in Fig. 38. Its
blade is 1 to 1J inches broad. It is used
in numerous cases, e.g., in sawing off long
slips of wood, where a straight cut is all
that is required. It has 4 to 5 teeth
per inch.
R The Turn-saw (Fig. 40). The frame
resembles the preceding, but the blade is
very narrow about inch, or very little
more because it is used to produce cur-
vilinear cuts. The toothing is very fine
7 teeth per inch and the setting is
sometimes less than in the bow-saw, that
the cut may be accurate, and not unneces-
sarily broad. Fig. 40. Turn-saw.
Turn-saws, the blades of which are over half an inch in
breadth, are also used. These are called broad-webbed turn
saws.
2. Saws without Frames.
1. The Hand-saw (Fig. 41) has a very broad blade, which
is narrower at one end, and is provided at the broader end
with a convenient handle. The large blade gives it sufficient
strength, and this is often increased by the thickness of the
blade, which may exceed that of the frame-saw. The teeth
are set to cut, when the worker pushes the saw away from
him, but not when the saw is drawn back.
This saw, distinguished for its simplicity and convenience
in working, is in general use in England and North America,
but has only within recent years been adopted in Sweden,
where it is now rapidly gaining favour.
Pig. 41. Hand-saw,
86 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
2. The Dovetail saw (Fig. 42) has a very broad blade of
equal breadth throughout, with a handle. To give sufficient
strength to the blade, its upper edge is enclosed in an
iron back. This
thick back
limits the depth
of the cut ; con-
sequently this
saw is only
used for shallow
Fig. 42. Dovetail-saw. . incisions, e.g.,
in sawing out tenons, dovetails, etc. This saw has 10 to 12
teeth per inch. The shape of the teeth is shown in Fig. 32,
but they are often sharpened with advantage in the manner
shown in Fig. 33.
[3. The Tenon-saw is practically the same as the dovetail-
saw, but it is rather larger, and it has what is called a Box-
handle, somewhat like that of the hand-saw. TRS.]
4. The Compass-saw (Fig. 43). The blade is very nar-
row, and terminates in a point. This saw is used when
an excision
has to be
made in the
centre of a
piece of
Fig. 43. Compass-saw. . work, and
cannot be begun from the edge. For this purpose a hole must
be bored, into which the point of the saw can be inserted.
To give the blade sufficient strength it is made tolerably
thick, but it becomes thinner towards the back. Compass-
saws are of various sizes, and the teeth are set in different
Ways. The number of teeth varies from 5 to 12 per inch, but
their form is in most cases that shown in Fig. 32.
4. The Groove-saw * (Fig. 44) has a tolerably thick blade
* Unknown in England, but recommended as useful. TRS.
TOOLS.
87
of equal breadth throughout, the upper edge of which is
entirely enclosed by a handle, which is worked by both
hands. The teeth are inclined towards the worker, and
consequently act when he draws the saw towards him.
It sometimes
happens, especi-
ally in clamping
and grooving,
that an incision
must be made in
a broad flat piece
of wood, and in
many cases it I
must not be Fig. 44. Groova-saw. J.
carried to the edge. With the exception of the tenon-saw,
the saws hitherto described cannot be used for this purpose.
The groove-saw is perfectly adapted for it, whereas the tenon-
saw is not quite so convenient, because the setting of its teeth
is not suitable, and it has only one handle.
.
II. The Axe.
After the saw the axe is one of the most useful tools in the
earlier stages of any piece of work. Axes are of various
kinds, manufactured for different purposes. An axe of
American construction, very suitable for slojd work, is shown
in Fig. 45. The edge and faces are slightly curved, and
ground on both
sides. The axe
should not weigh
more than about
21bs., that it
may, without
trouble,be wield-
ed by one hand. Fig. 45. Axe. Ohio pattern. \.
The handle, of hard and tough wood, such as oak or ash,
should be curved so as to fall well into the hand, and the axe
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
shaft must be firmly secured by wedges into the eye of the
axe-head.
In working with the axe the wood is supported on a block,
formed of an evenly sawn-off piece of the trunk of a tree.
The best tree for this purpose is the poplar.
The surface of the block must always be kept free from
sand, which would destroy the edge of the axe.
It is of the utmost importance for beginners to hold the
piece of wood in such a way that the hands may receive no
injury.
grinding In grinding 1 (see under this head, pp. 115-118) the axe
the axe. an( j a j} other edge-tools, the tool must be held steadily
against the grindstone, in order that the bevelled edge may
be quite regular and of the same breadth, not waving. The
two bevelled edges should form an angle of about 20.
III. The Knife.
The knife is the slojder's indispensable and most important
tool> and ifc is the rst to be pkced in the hands o a Beginner.
It is therefore important to select for slojd suitable knives
of the best quality. The blade of the slojd knife should be
made of good steel, about 4 inches long, and not more than
inch broad.
The edge
should be
Fig. 46. Slojd-knife Niias pattern, i. straight, and
the two faces which form it should extend over the entire
breadth of the blade. The back of the knife should not be
more than ^ inch thick. The blade ought not to taper tc a
dagger-like point, but should terminate as is shown in Fig.
46. The best angle for the edge is 15. The other end of
the blade terminates in a tang which slots into the handle.
TOOLS.
A commoner,
though by no
means so suit-
able form of
knife is shown Fig. 47. Slojd knife. I.
in Fig. 47. Directions for using the knife are given in Chap.
IV The Draw-Knife.
This consists of a steel blade with an edge formed by
.grinding on one side only. This blade is furnished at both
ends with handles, at right angles to it, and in the same
plane. The tool is worked with both hands, so that the
Fig. 48. Draw-knife. J.
"whole strength of the slb'jder can be thrown into its use. use of the
The draw-knife is chiefly used in modelling and smoothing
objects with curved outlines. It is also used in making
hoops for barrels, &c. Directions for its use are given in
Chap. V.
V.- Chisels, Gouges, Carving- Tools, &c.
These terms include a whole group of tools which are used
in wood-slqjd for the removal of small pieces of wood, in
cases where the knife, the saw, or the plane could not advan-
tageously be used.
They consist of a flat or concave blade made of steel, the Parts of a
cutting end of which is cut straight across and sharpened to chliel> &e '
90
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
an edge, and the other wrought into a four- sided tang, which
is set into a wooden handle. The tool in working is driven
into the wood either by the pressure of the hand, or by
blows from a mallet. In order that the handle may not slip,.
or twist round when grasped, it is generally made with four
sides, greater in breadth than in thickness, and with the
broader sides rounded.* To keep the handle from splitting
under violent pressure, the base of the-
tang is furnished with a shoulder, on
which the handle rests.
These tools vary greatly in size both as
regards length and breadth. The latter
dimension determines the dimensions of
the edge. The broadest tools are gener-
ally also the longest.
In order to be able to execute all the
different kinds of exercises which occur,
it is necessary to have a complete set of
each description of tools. There are
usually 12 in a set, all of different breadths.
Tools of this kind are classified accord-
ing to the different shapes of the blade
and edge, and the different methods of
A J
Fig. 49. Firmer Chisel \.
A. Blade and handle.
B. Blade showing a face
and edge.
C. Blade, c. shoulder, d.
tang.
sharpening as follows :
1. Chisels.
The face side A. of the firmer chisel is perfectly flat.
1. The Firmer Chisel (Fig. 49). The breadth of the blade,
which varies from 1 inches to inch, is generally much
greater than its thickness. The angle between the bevel
and the flat face varies from 25 to 30.
The firmer chisel is used in paring plane or convex surfaces ;
in mortising, when it often does duty instead of the mortise
* English handles are generally turned in boxwood or beech. TRS.
91
chisel ; in curved work ; in facing off; and, generally speak-
ing, in all cases where no other tool can be made use of with
advantage.
2. The Mortise-chisel (Fig. 50). The thickness of the
blade generally exceeds its breadth, which varies from inch
to 1 inch. The front face of the blade is always a little
broader than the back.
The mortise-chisel is used for mortising; and, whenever
possible, a blade of the same breadth as the mortise to be
made should be selected. The great thickness of the tool
enables its sides to act with
steady force upon the sides
of the mortise, and makes
accurate execution of the
operation much easier. It
is driven into the wood by
blows from a mallet. The
angle of the edge is tho
same as in the firmer chisel.
2. Gouges.
These tools have a
curved edge.
The blade of the gouge
is concave. The bevelled
edge may either be (a)
ground from within out-
wards, in which case the
edge will lie upon the inner
or concave side, or (6) in
the reverse way, when the A- Fig. 51. Gouge i.
edge will lie upon the outer Fig 50. Mortise-chisel. J. *> ^ edge on
or convex sidS ^J^"* . ~t
Gouges ground in the
first mentioned manner are used in the formation of grooves
or bowl-shaped depressions. Those ground in the other way
92 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
are used chiefly in perpendicular paring to produce concave
and cylindrical surfaces.
The breadth of the gouge varies from ^ inch to 1| inches,
and the curve of the edge may include from one-tenth to one-
half of a circle, or 36 to 180. All the gouges in one set
should have the same curve in the edge. The gouge is driven
into the wood by the hand, or in the case of gouges of large
size, by the mallet.
3. The Spoon Gouge and the Spoon Iron.
Ordinary gouges are often used in forming the bowls of
spoons and similar articles, but the tools specially adapted,
and best for the purpose, are the spoon gouge and spoon iron.
The larger illustration (Fig. 52) shows the spoon gouge. In
construction, and in the way it is used, it somewhat resembles
A (Fig. 51) ; but it differs from it in having the blade curved
lengthwise, to facilitate the work of hollowing out.
The spoon iron is
different in form.
It is shown in the
smaller illustration
(Fig. 52), and re-
sembles a knife
Fig. 52. Spoon Gouge and Spoon Iron. \. with a lancet-
shaped blade, with two edges, curved like a bow, and taper-
ing to a point at the end. It is worked with both hands, and
cuts to either side.
4. Carving Tools.
A number of tools, more or less like the preceding, are used
in wood-carving. Some of thess carving tools are flat, with
rectangular edges; others ars oblique to the direction of their
length, with a bevelled edge on both sides; others are concave,
with a circular edge, or have two edges meeting in a point.
They are straight in some cases ; in others, curved.
As only a few of these tools are used in slojd carpentry, to
TOOLS.
93
any extent worth mentioning, no description of them is given;
but those in most common use, with their names, are shown
in Fig. 53. The full size of the edge is given in the outline
beside the representation of each tool.
Fig. 53. Carving Tools.
Curved gouge.
Front bent gouge.
Straight parting tool:
Bent parting tool
Bent chisel
Parting gouge.
VI. Plr.nes.
The edge tools hitherto described consist of a single steel
blade, with a cutting edge of various descriptions, and a
handle for one or both hands. The inclination of the edge
to the surface of the wood may thus be altered at will, as the
circumstances of the case require. Narrow surfaces, or sur-
faces of generally circumscribed area, may thus be levelled
and smoothed to a certain extent (though not perfectly) by
the knife, the axe, the chisel, etc. ; but when long and broad
surfaces have to be made absolutely smooth, we require an
94 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
edge-tool which, by attacking in the first place all the eleva-
tions, and by always cutting equally deep on a plane surface
(i.e., by always removing shavings of the same thickness),
finally reduces the surface to one uniform level.
The plane is the tool which fulfils these requirements.
In the plane, the steel blade called the plane-iron is wedged
tightly into a parallelopiped-shaped wooden block, called the
plane stock, which is formed in various ways for various
' purposes. The edge of the blade extends slightly beyond the
under side of the block.
The plane is used not only in the dressing of plane surfaces,
but also in the preparation of all surfaces on which straight
lines can be drawn in at least one direction ; e.g., in smoothing
the surface of cylindrical and conical objects, etc. Con-
sequently, many different kinds of planes are required.
All planes, however, consist of two principal parts : tho
sole or stock, and the iron. The stock is formed of hard,
tough, straight-fibred wood in the form of a parallelepiped,
the under side of which, the sole, glides over the work when
the tool is used. The best wood is elm, beech, pear, or box-
wood, which has been well seasoned to prevent warping.
The plane is worked with both hands. The front part of
Swedish planes is often provided with a rest for the hand,
called the horn. The larger kind of planes have a handle
behind the iron.
The plane-iron is placed obliquely in a hole in the stock,
called the socket (Figs. 54 and 56), with its edge extending a
very little beyond the sole, and it is secured by a wooden
wedge. It is made of iron, with a steel front. In shape it
resembles a wedge, the thicker end of which is sharpened.
The wedge-like shape gives the required thickness and
strength to the sharpened end, leaves more room towards the
upper end, and also helps to keep the plane-iron firmly in its
place when the edge comes against hard knots in the wood
and the pressure tends to force the iron upwards.
TOOLS. 95
To form the edge, the plane-iron is ground on the posterior Ang i e ofthe
or bevelled edge. This forms an angle of from 20 to 25 totf*
with the front face of the plane-iron. The former angle is ^nd'ittpoti-
suitable for loose fibred timber ; the latter for hard or knotty tion in the
wood. The edge must not be too thin, for if so, the iron will
fly, i.e., become jagged. The iron is generally placed in the
socket at an angle of 45 to the plane of the sole, with the
bevelled edge downwards.
It occasionally happens, e.g., in small American planes with
iron stocks, that the bevelled edge of the plane-iron is turned
upwards at an angle of 25 to the plane of the sole. It may
-also be mentioned, in passing, that in planes manufactured for
special purposes, e.g., planing particularly hard kinds of wood,
the irons are placed at an angle of 50, 55, tiO, or even 90.
As indicated above, the plane acts by removing thicker or
thinner shavings, according as the plane-iron extends more
or less beyond the sole. In working with the knife it is
always possible to alter the position of the edge in order to
prevent its cutting in the same direction as the fibres run,
which would tear them, and render the surface uneven. But
at is not always possible to guide the stationary plane-iron
in this way. Hence in cross-grained wood, or in timber
where the fibres lie parallel with the surface, the plane has a
tendency to split or tear them, and the resistance offered by
the torn fibres is often so great that the plane cannot be
driven forward. The fibres also, by their elasticity, tend to
drag the iron downwards. To prevent the fibres tearing in
front of the iron, provision must be made (1) for breaking
them off at once, and (2) for bringing at the same time pres-
sure to bear on them from above, just over the edge of the
iron, by means of which their elasticity may be diminished
or wholly neutralised. The first object is attained by placing
a cover above the iron, the effect of which is to break off the The cover.
fibres as quickly as they are detached ; the second, by re-
ducing the set or opening in front of the iron as much as is
compatible with the free passage of the shavings through it.
5 T o put on
fre^ier.
The wedge
and the
tocket.
i-ig.54. Trying Plane. |.
A stock, B handle, C socket, D D cheeks, E wedge, F cover, iron, II boss.
A rectangular opening in the iron, enlarged and rounded
at one end, admits the screw of the cover, and permits of its
adjustment. The lower end of the
cover is curved, with the concave side
inwards, and it terminates in a sharp
edge. When the screw is tightened
this sharp edge must lie close against
the surface of the iron (see Fig. 55),
If the slightest space is left the shav-
ings will force their way through.
The other side of the cover must be
carefully rounded to permit the shav-
ings to glide freely over it. The edge
of the cover should be very near the
edge of the iron. In finishing up a
surface, and plain jointing, the dis-
tance should be about ^ inch, and about double that distance
in cases where coarser shavings may be removed. The dis-
tance between the socket and the edge of the plane in front
should be about T V inch for fine planing, and not more than
T 3 B inch for coarser work.
In planes like the smoothing-plane and the trying-plane,
where the iron is narrower than the sole, and is inserted in
the socket from above, the front side of the socket should bo
at right angles with the plane of the sole, and of the same
i'ig. 55. Plane Iron.
A seen from the front J.
B seen from the side \,
a iron, b cover.
breadth as the iron. The inclination of the side of the socket
on which the iron rests has been already indicated ; the other
two sides, i.e., the cheeks, are thicker towards the iron, in order
to give support and steadiness to the wedge, and the sides of
the wedge are inclined towards one another at an angle of
about 8. If this angle is much greater the wedge fits
loosely ; if it is less it may fit so tightly that it cannot with-
out difficulty be loosened. The wedge, which is forked at
the lower end,
must fit accur-
ately into the
space in the
socket left by the
iron, otherwise
shavings may
gather round its
points (see Fig.
56). These points
require frequent-
ly to be trimmed,
because from re-
peated sharpen-
ing the wedge-
shaped plane-
iron gradually
sinks deeper in
the socket, caus-
ing the wedge to do the same.
Should the sole of the plane become warped, or uneven /> Z(ini -,, ff t h
through wear, it must be carefully planed. It follows from soieandin-
the construction of the socket that the opening in front of the P i ece ^
iron, after repeated planing, becomes too large. It is usual wood -
to remedy this by inserting in front of the iron a piece of
very hard wood, e.g., ebony, beech, or boxwood (see Fig. 56).
Brass is also used for this purpose. New planes are also
G
Fig. 56. Portion of Plane. Socket. }.
F section through cd showing plane iron, wedge and
piece of wood inserted.
98 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
often furnished with such pieces, in order that the portion in
front of the plane-iron's edge may longer resist the wearing
effect of the shavings.
Putting- in the Plane-Iron or Setting the Plane.
The cover is screwed tightly on the iron, with its sharp
edge at the proper distance from the edge of the iron, which
is then laid in the socket, just deep enough to allow its edge
to lie in the same plane as the surface of the sole. The
wedge is then put in, and secured by a couple of light blows
from the hammer. The plane is then taken in the left hand,
with the thumb resting on the wedge in the socket. The
sole is turned upwards, and the iron is carefully driven in a
little more, so that its edge shows just as much beyond the
plane of the sole as the occasion requires. If it seems crooked,
i.e., if one corner seems lower than the other, this must be
rectified by light taps on its free edges. When its position
appears to be right, the iron is secured by driving the wedge
in more firmly. If, after this, the iron is found to be too low,
it may be made to recede by a blow on the back part of the
stock, or, in the case of the trying-plane, by a blow on the
boss, a piece of hard wood or metal inserted in front of the
socket (see H, Fig. 54). [This boss is not always found in
English planes. It is useful in slojd as indicating the place
to which the blow should be directed, and thus saving the
stock of the plane from injury. TRS.] The loosened wedge
is then fastened once more, and the position of the iron is
tested by the thickness of the shavings it removes, and raised
or lowered, if necessary, according to the above directions.
When the iron is removed, the plane is held in the way
indicated above.
1. Planes with Flat Soles for the dressing of plane
surfaces.
1. The jack-plane (Fig. 57). To give certainty and ease in
working, the front portion of the stock of a Swedish jack-
plane is furnished with a horn for the hand, and a metal
99
Leiujth of
the jack-
plane.
support of American invention is sometimes placed behind
the iron to prevent the other hand from coming in contact
with its sharp edges. The iron is single, i.e., it has no cover,
and the edge is curved, not square. The Swedish jack-plane
is 9 inches long. [The English jack-plane is 17 inches
long. TRS.]
The jack-
plane is used
on rough un-
planed sur-
faces as a pre-
paration for a
finer plane,
when the ob-
ject in view is
more to re-
move thick
Fig. 57. Jack-plane. J.
Shavings ra- A horHi B sup port for hand, C single iron.
pidly by an iron which cuts deep, than to produce a smooth
surface. As the iron is single, and the opening in front of it
tolerably wide, the jack-plane has a tendency to tear up the
wood ; and it is therefore not advisable to use this tool very
near the surface which is ultimately to be produced.
2. The trying-plane is the largest and most indispensable
of all the planes in use. That it may be wielded steadily it
is provided with a handle for one hand. The iron is double,
i.e., provided with a cover. Its various parts and their con-
struction are fully described in connection with Fig. 54, and
the method of using it is described in Chap. V.
It is employed in shooting, i.e., in producing level surfaces use of the
of all kinds, and it is sometimes used in preparatory work tr ying plane
instead of the jack-plane, in which case the iron should be
set rather deeper than for shooting. When the trying-plane
is used instead of the jack-plane, the space between the socket
and the edge of the iron in front should be wider than
in the later stages of planing.
100 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
In all planes used for shooting, the surface of the sole must
iron. lie altogether in the same plane ; and the edge of the plane-
iron must be ground quite straight, and at right angles with
the middle line of the iron. As, however, the corners of a
perfectly straight-edge are apt to tear up the fibres by the
side of the iron, or at least to leave a mark on the wood, they
should be very slightly rounded. The sole is sometimes
rubbed with raw linseed oil, that it may glide more smoothly
over the wood.
The trying-plane should always be worked in the direction
of its length, not obliquely to it, as is often improperly done.
tiie trying The trying-plane should be about 20 inches long. [The
?&" English trying-plane is 22 inches long. TRS.]
3. The smoothing-plane (Fig. 58) resembles the jack-
plane, but is broader, and has a double iron.
Vseo/the The smoothing-
tmoothing ~ . -IP,
plane. ^^^r plane is used after
the trying-plane to
produce a very
smooth polished sur-
face. As the shav-
ings it removes must
be extremely fine, the
edge of the cover is
Fig. 58. Smoothing-plane. . placed very close to
the edsre of the iron, or, as it is called, is " set fine in front."
O
The smoothing plane should be about 9 J inches long. [The
English smoothing-plane
is 7 inches long. TRS.]
The smoothing-plane and
planes like it may be fur-
nished with a support for
Fig. 59. Iron Smoothing-plane (American the hand, behind the iron,
pattern;. |. like the jack-plane.
on planes As mentioned above, the stocks of planes are sometimes
101
made of iron. Planes of this kind are used in England, and
to a still greater extent in America. The plane-iron is ad-
justed by means of a screw. Small iron smoothing-planes
are very useful for children, whose hands are not large enough
to hold planes of the ordinary size. A plane of this pattern
is shown in Fig. 59.
4. The rebate-plane (Fig.
60). When the adjacent sur-
faces of a rebate have to be
planed, the ordinary smoothing-
plane does not answer because
the iron is narrower than the
sole. In the rebate-plane the
edge of the iron is as broad as Fig- 60. Rebate-plane. |.
the sole, sometimes even a little broader. The upper part of
the iron is much narrower, and it is wedged into a mortise
in the stock. The iron may be single or double, and the
shavings escape through an opening above the edge.
2. Planes for the Dressing of Curved Surfaces.
1. The round. This plane is used for hollow grooved
surfaces. It resembles the smoothing-plane and the jack-
plane, but differs from them in the more or less convex sole,
the degree of convexity depending on the degree of concavity
it is desired to pro-
duce. The iron
may be single or
double, and the
edge is rounded
to correspond with
the sole. An ordi-
nary jack-plane
may easily be con-
verted into a
round, by round-
ing the sole and the edge of the iron. In working the round
102 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
it must always be driven forward in a line with its length.
In consequence of the shape of the tool, any other method
would destroy the surface required.
[2. The hollow, another plane of this kind, has the sole
concave, and an iron to correspond. It is used in planing
round surfaces. TRS.]
3. The compass plane. In this plane the sole is curved
lengthwise, and the iron is an ordinary double one with a
straight edge. It is used in planing hollow curved surfaces,
fcoles of different degrees of curvature are required, according
to the radii of the surface to be planed, but it is not necessary
that the two should accurately correspond. The curvature
of the sole must not be less
^- than the curvature of the
/ T /Jr surface of the work, but it
/ I Mir maybe greater. The differ-
ence, however, if any, must
be slight, because the two
opposing surfaces must
correspond closely enough
to permit of the steady
Fig. 62. Compass Plane. \. guidance of the tool. One
compass-plane, therefore, will not suffice for surfaces of
greatly varying curvature.
American compass-planes of iron, called adjustable planes,
have flexible steel soles, which can be adapted to surfaces of
different degrees of curvature. One plane of this kind is
therefore enough.
3. The Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, and Dove-tail Filletster.
The old woman's tooth-plane is quite unlike the planes
hitherto described. It consists of a block of wood on the inner
side of which is fastened an iron, secured by a thumb-screw.
(Fig. 63). The construction of some planes of this kind is
much simpler ; they consist merely of a parallelepiped piece
TOOLS.
103
of wood, in the middle of which is wedged a straight or curved
iron. In this case the blade of a firmer chisel is often used.
Fig. 63. Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, seen from above and from the side. \.
The dove-tail filletster is like the rebate plane, but differs
from it in having the plane of the sole oblique to the sides of
the stock, instead
of at right angles
to them, and also
in having a rebate
either in a piece
with the sole, or
attached to it for
the purpose of Fig. 64. Dove-tail Filletster, seen frcna the side
guiding the plane and from behind. *.
along the line of the dove-tail rebate to be formed.
In the simple kind of filletster shown in Fig. 64, the rebate
is fixed, but in the more complicated kind (Fig. 65), the
rebate is adjustable to suit deeper or shallower work ; the
latter is also provided with a " cutter" which determines the
line within which the surface is to be planed. This line, in
other cases, must
first be gauged
X^Sy
with a cutting
jauo"e' otherwise
the plane will
tear the fibres on
that side and
make it uneven.
Fig. 65. Dove-tail Filletster.
104 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
Both these planes are used in making, dove-tail rebates ;
the old woman's tooth in smoothing and levelling the bottom
of the groove into which the dove-tail is shot, and the
filletster in working the dove-tail.
4. The Plough.
When a rectangular groove is made in a piece of wood
the off plough is used. The breadth of the iron must not
exceed the breadth of the groove to be made, and the sole
consists of an iron splint set into the stock. The plough
is furnished with a directing gauge, adjustable by bolts and
wedges or screws. From 6 to 12 irons of different breadths
accompany each plane.
5. The Iron Spokeshave.
The Spokeshave may be included in the same class as the
plane. It is made entirely of iron, with two handles, and is
worked with both hands. The sole is very short shorter
than the breadth of the iron and this renders the tool very
useful in forming narrow convex or concave surfaces.
The iron is se-
cured by a screw
and a fixing plate.
The latter also
does duty as a
Fig. 66. Spokeshave. J. cover, and make&
the tool more serviceable (see Fig. 66).
The Spokeshave is a simple, practical, and easily-managed
tool. It is made in several sizes, and the iron may have a
straight edge, or one which curves outwards. The former is
more common.
105
v VU. Files.
The files used in wood-si ojd are the same as those used in
metal work. The file plays, however, a much less important
part in the former than in the latter. In wood-slbjd it is
used chiefly to smooth curved surfaces, the interior of holes
and depressions, and the ends of pieces of wood, in all cases
where edge-tools cannot be used advantageously.
The file consists of a piece of steel, the shape of which may
vary, and on the surface of which sharp ridges have been cut
with a chisel. These ridges are equidistant the one from the
other, and oblique to the length of the file. They form the
file-grade (Fig. 67) the essential characteristic of the tool.
A single-cut file is cut in one
direction only ; in a double-cut file
the cuts cross one another. Both
cuts incline towards the point of Fi- 67. File-grade. -?.
the tool, the result of which is that the file acts chiefly when
driven forward, and has little effect when drawn back. The
files used in wood-slb'jd have usually a tapering point. All
files terminate at the other end in a tang which slots into
the handle.
Fig. 68. Files. .
flat file, b half-round file, c round file.
Files are called triangular, square, flat, round, half-round,
etc., accordino- to the form of the blade in cross-section. Flat
106 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
round, and half -round files are most used in wood-slojd
(Fig. 68). The triangular file is used for sharpening saws
(Fig. 36).
The fineness of the file depends on the number of cuts per
inch. They are usually classified as coarse, medium, fine,
and very fine.
Medium files, about 12 inches long, are the most useful for
working in wood, but coarse files, or rasps, may be used in
the first stages of work.
Method of When in use, the file is grasped by the handle by one hand,
and the wrist or fingers of the other are laid on the point to
produce the required pressure. The file is passed steadily
and slowly backwards and forwards over the work if the
surface desired is level, and with a circular motion if it is
curved. Pressure is exerted only when the file is driven
forward ; when it is drawn back again it is allowed to glide
over the surface. When the work cannot be made fast, the
file must be worked with one hand ; .but, whenever possible,
the work should be secured to the bench, that both hands
may be free to direct and steady the file.
Cleaning the In filing resinous or unseasoned wood, the cuts of the file
are apt to become clogged with sawdust. The file may be
cleaned with a stiff steel brush, but the simplest method of
cleaning a wood file is to dip it in hot water to loosen the
sawdust, and afterwards dry it and brush it. The same file
should never be used for wood and metal.
VIII. Methods of Finishing Work.
1. The Scraper.
This tool consists of a highly-tempered piece of steel (Fig.
69). The edges of the scraper are
f^ |B generally straight, but sometimes the
fkeicraper en ds are rounded or hollowed to suit
1 concave or convex surfaces. The two
longest parallel edges are ground at
Fig. 69. Scraper. J. right angles to the sides. When the
TOOLS. 107
scraper is sharpened, it is placed at the edge of a plank,
and a very hard piece of steel is drawn against its edge as
nearly as possible on the plane of the plank. This, when
repeated several times backwards and forwards, levels the
sharp edge of the scraper, which is raised up again by having
the steel once, steadily but not too heavily, passed along it.
During this the steel is held almost perpendicular, with its
upper end inclined very slightly towards the upper side of
the plank. The raised edge of the scraper now forms a fine
edge, which takes hold of the wood when drawn across its
surface, and removes minute shavings. When it becomes
blunt, it must be sharpened once more, and as its edge, after
repeated sharpening, becomes uneven, it must finally be re-
ground. A worn saw-file, the cut of which has been carefully
ground off, and the edges slightly rounded, or a firmer chisel,
may be used.
The scraper should be held easily in the hand. In polish- Method &
ing a plane surface, the tool should be taken in both hands, temper.
The scraper should incline towards the surface of the work
(see Chap. V., page 142), and should be worked always in the
direction towards which it leans, and with the grain of the
wood, but somewhat obliquely to the direction of the fibres.
Towards the end, pressure should be diminished, to produce a
finer polish. Care must be taken lest the cutting edge
become ragged from careless "setting," and scratch the
surface. Should this be so, the scraper must be re-ground,
and then sharpened.
2. Sand-Paper.
Sand-vaver is made of paper with a coating of finely- sand- P a P tr
r f x . . made of flint
ground flint, glass, or quartz glued on to it. Ine grains on aildofg i asi ,
the same paper are always of the same size, and, according to
the finer or coarser quality, the paper is numbered from to
rough 2.
[Sand-paper made of flint is generally used in Sweden.
In England, glass-paper is considered the best. TRS.]
108 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
When in use, the sand-paper should be torn off in pieces
of convenient size, and a bit laid on the plane surface of a
piece of cork or wood, f -inch thick, and of a good size to be
held in the hands. If a sufficiently thick piece of cork can-
not be obtained, a thin piece should be glued on a piece of
wood, or, failing cork, a piece of card-board will answer the
purpose. This serves the purpose of a soft rubber (wood
alone being too hard), and gives the necessary support to the
sand-paper, which, used in this way, acts much in the same
manner as the file, and may be considered to all intents and
Sand-paper ' J
really a tool, purposes as a tool.
Sand-paper may be used without a rubber only in the
case of concave or convex surfaces, where there are no sharp
edges. Care must be taken in finishing off not to work the
paper in the direction of the fibres, but either at right angles
or obliquely to it, in order to produce a smooth surface. Just
at the last, the paper may be passed once or twice in the
same line as the fibres, to remove any ridges or marks which
may have been produced. For similar reasons, the paper last
used should be finer than that first employed, in order to
secure a perfectly smooth surface.
Sand-paper should never be used to form or smooth up the
surface of objects. The knife, the file, the smoothing-plane,
sand-paper the scraper, etc. are the proper tools for this purpose. Sand-
paper should be used only in finishing off, and when the use
sparingly, of the smoothing-plane is understood, it is not much needed
for plane surfaces. In the case of objects with curved
surfaces, on the other hand, it is almost indispensable.
Finishing off with sand-paper should never be done in a
thoughtless, mechanical way. To attain a satisfactory result
the greatest attention is requisite.
IX. Brace and Bits.
Bits of different kinds are used in making round holes.
Bits for wood are made of a special kind of steel, one end of
which forms the cutting portion of the tool, and the other is
TOOLS.
109
wedge-shaped, that it may be securely fastened into a handle
or brace, by means of which it revolves. In working, the
brace is always turned to the right, and the bits are made to
cut in the same direction. The edge of the bit is designed to
make its way into the wood without great pressure, and
without risk of splitting it. The bit must work without
hindrance from the shavings ; otherwise
it will become hot from friction, and
boring will be difficult. A good bit cuts
like a knife, detaches smooth spiral
shavings, and becomes only moderately
warm, even when worked quickly.
The brace may vary in construction.
Fig. 70 shows a very strong Swedish
brace made of iron. The upper end, or
tang of the bit, forms a square truncated
pyramid, which slots into a hole in the
brace socket, and is fastened by a spring.
Fig. 71 shows an American brace, also
made of iron. It has a screw adjustable
socket, into which the bit is secured. The
tang of the bit may be of any form, pro-
vided it is somewhat rectangular.
Eig. 70. Swedish Brace.
Fig. 71. American Brace ; section of screw adjustable socket, or bit holder,
110
HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
The bits in most general use are quill-bits and centre-bits.
Small quill-bits are called pin-bits.
A U C D E F C
Fig. 72. A, Auger-bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Quill-bit. D, Hole-rimer drill.
E, Screwdriver bit. F and G, Counter-sink drills. .
1. The quill-bit (Fig. 72, G} is gouge-shaped, with the end
curved like the point of a spoon. Unlike the centre-bit, it
has no middle point, and it is therefore more difficult to gauge
to holes of any given size, especially if the latter are large.
This bit is better than the centre-bit for boring end pieces.
Quill-bits are made in various sizes, from those adapted for
holes of r x 5 inch in diameter to those suitable for holes of
1 inch in diameter. The smallest kind, the pin-bit, is most
used in wood slojd. A set of pin-bits includes from 8 to 10,
varying in size from | inch to \ inch.
2. The Centre-bit.
1- The ordinary centre-bit (Fig. 72, B, and 73, B) has a flat
blade, the lower portion of which is broader than the upper,
as is shown in the illustrations. In the middle of the lower
edge is the centre-point a, and at one side is the cutter b. In
TOOLS.
Ill
Fig. 73. A, Portion of Auger-
bit. , Portion of Centre-bit.
aa Centre-point, 666 Cutter, ccc Lip.
boring, the cutter makes a circular incision corresponding
to the circumference of the hole, and thus determines its
diameter, prevents the wood from splitting, and facilitates
the removal of shavings and sawdust by the lip c, the edge
of which is horizontal to the point
and oblique to the blade, and which
cuts at right angles to the cutter.
The centre point is longer than the
cutter, which again cuts deeper than
the lip. In sharpening the centre-
bit, which may be done with a small
half-round file, care must be taken
that the edge of the cutter is on the
outer side, and the edge of the lip
on the under side. A set of bits should contain 8 to 12 centre-
bits, from inch to 1 inch broad.
2. The auger (Fig. 72, A) belongs to the same class. In
boring with the bits previously described, it is necessary to
exercise a certain degree of pressure, but the auger works its w y '"
way into the wood by means of the conical screw which forms auger <,/**
its centre point, and after the screw has once started all that
is needed is to make it revolve. The auger is besides fur-
nished with a cutter and a lip on both sides of the screw.
(See Fig. 73, A.)
Above the cutting portion it is spiral in form, and thus we
have a double spiral with sharp edges. This gives plenty of
room for the sawdust and shavings which are worked out of
the hole without the removal of the auger. The American
augers are the best. A set includes 6 to 12 pieces, from The best
T : V inch to 1 inch.
Fig. 74. Expansion bit. i
112
HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
Adjustable
orex
Screwdriver
bit, counter-
link drill,
ami hole-
rimer.
The expansion bit (Fig. 74) is of American construction.
"Within certain limits it admits of holes of different sizes
being bored with one and the same bit. Its point, lip, and
cutter are tolerably like those of the auger, but it is furnished
with two loose cutters, which may be screwed in to suit the
diameter desired. The adj ustable cutter does the work both of
lip and cutter. The expansion bit makes holes with remark-
ably even surfaces, and with two different sizes it is possible
to bore holes varying in diameter from inch to 3 inches.
A screw-driver bit (Fig. 72, E), two or three counter-sink
drills (Fig. 72, F and G), and a couple of square or hexagonal
hole-rimers (Fig. 72, D) are usually included in
a complete set of bits. The counter-sink drill
is used to produce a conical hole in wood or
metal, suitable for sinking screw-heads. The
rimer enlarges holes in thin metal plates, e.g.,
screw holes in hinge-plates.
3. The Bradawl (Fig. 75). This tool consists
of a steel bit T V inch to inch thick, and 2 inches
long. Its point is like that of an awl, or it may be
chisel-pointed. The bit is secured in the handle
by a screw-socket. Several bits of different
sizes belong to the tool, and the handle, which
is hollow, serves as a case for them. The brad-
awl is used to bore holes for sprigs, nails, etc.
When holes are bored with the chisel-pointed
bit, the edge is placed across the grain of the
Fig. 75^ Brad- wood, and pressure is exerted in this direction
to prevent the splitting of the wood.
awl. 4.
X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand Vice, Pincers,
and Screwdriver.
The Mallet (Fig. 70) is made of hard, strong wood, pre-
ferably of figured beech. It is used for striking tools with
wooden handles, because the hard hammer in such cases
TOOLS. 113
would not only do damage, but would not serve the purpose
so well.
The Hammer (Fig. 77) con-
sists of a piece of steel with a
hole for the handle, called the
eye. One end is cylindrical and
terminates in a flat surface,
called the face; the other end,
which is called the pane, is
wedge-shaped, with a rounded
edge. That the handle may be
quite firm, the eye widens at the
sides, and wedges driven hard
into the end of the handle cause
it to fill up the cavity entirely. Fig. 76. Mallet. .
Fig. 77. Ham-
mer. .
There are various kinds of pincers, but only those used
in wood slojd need be named here. Pincers have two steel
arms rivetted together. The rivet divides the arms into two
unequal portions,
the longer, or
handles, and the
shorter, or jaws.
The ordinary
pincers have Fig. 78. Pincers. $.
short, broad, sharply curved jaws, and are used to extract
nails, etc.
The wire-cutter resembles the preceding, but is slighter in
make, and its
arms are curved
and its jaws
sharper. It is
used to snap off
pieces of wire, tin- Fig. 79. Wire-cutter. 3.
tacks, etc. Thfe jaws of the flat pliers are flat on the inner
114
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
Fig. 80. Flat-jawed Pliers.
Fig. 81- Round-jawed Pliers.
Shape of the
screwdriver.
Fig. 83.
Screwdrivei.
i
a the point,
from the side.
side, which is file-
cut to enable
them to take fast
hold of small
pieces of metal to
be filed, bent, &c.
In the round
pliers the jaws
are more or less
conical in shape,
for the bending of
I- wire, etc.
The hand-vice is not so
much employed in slojd-
carpentry as in metal slb'jd.
Its chief use is to secure
small pieces of metal for
filing. It may be held in
the hand, or, after the piece
of metal has been made
fast, it may itself be screwed
into a hand-screw or to the
bench, that both hands may
be free for the work of
filing.
The screwdriver is used for driving in screws,
and is made of hard steel. At the end it is bev-
elled to a thick point, which varies from ^-inch
to yV-inch in thickness, depending on the size of
the screw for which it is to be used.
The bevelled edges should be parallel, and the
point should be as little as possible like a wedge
in shape, but should lie flat in the slit of the nail*
otherwise it will have a tendency to slip and
become chipped.
Hand-vice.
TOOLS. 115
E. The Grinding- and Sharpening of Tools.
Work must never be done ivith, blunt or badly-set tools.
Tools must always be kept sharp and in good order.
These rules should aliuays be kept in mind. Many a
slojder toils in the sweat of his brow with a blunt saw, or a
badly set blunt plane, rather than take time to put his tool
in order, though tools in good condition save hours of work,
much unnecessary trouble, and needless vexation. Blunt
tools demand more strength and exertion than sharp ones,
and seldom, if ever, produce such good results. The rules
given above are especially important in the case of children,
for whom work ought not to be made unnecessarily difficult.
The sharpening of edge-tools is performed on the grind-
stone and the oilstone. The method of sharpening a saw has
already been described (pp. SO, 81).
The ordinary Grindstone consists of a circular slab of
sandstone, which rotates oa an axle, and is provided with a
handle for turning. It is supported on a grindstone stand
or bench. Below the stone is a wooden well, lined with zinc,
partially filled with water, into which the stone is sunk
about one inch when in use. The stone should not be too
fine in the grain or too hard.
The grindstone should never be used dry, because the steel care of the
does not " catch " well unless the stone is wet, and the friction y rtndst 1ie -
on a dry stone " burns " the steel and makes the edge of the
tool soft. Exposure to the sun for any length of time makes
the stone too hard, while prolonged immersion of any portion
of it in water renders that portion soft. Consequently it
wears faster, and the stone becomes uneven or eccentric.
The stone should therefore be kept dry except when in use.
A frame-work attached to the stand prevents splashing
when the stone rotates by directing the water down into the
well, and splashing may still further be avoided by fastening
a thick piece of stuff in front so that it trails upon the stone
116 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
and absorbs a portion of the surplus water. The stone must
always be turned tmvards the worker and towards the edge
of the tool, which must be moved steadily, and with equal
pressure from side to side, across the whole breadth of the
stone, to prevent the formation of scratches or depressions on
its circumference. The bevelled edge produced by grinding
must present either a flat or a concave surface to the convex
surface of the stone. It must never be convex. The con-
straight cave form of the bevelled edge is advantageous, because it
materially lightens the final sharpening on the oilstone.
The edge must also be quite straight unless a curved edge is
actually required.
As it is difficult, especially for the inexperienced, to hold
the steel steadily enough against the stone, a grinding sup-
iccurate P or ^ nas been invented. Such a support of American make
winding. } s shown in Fig. 84. It consists of an iron frame into which
the plane-iron or the chisel is screwed. A small wheel below
Fig. b4. Grinding-supporl, or grinding-rest. .
the frame revolves upon the grindstone, and the desired angle
on the edge of the tool is obtained by fastening it in with
the edge at a shorter or longer distance from the frame. By
means of this simple contrivance even an inexpert pupil is
able to grind a plane-iron correctly.
A very common fault in grinding is to make the angle
which the bevelled edge makes with the face of the tool too
TOOLS. 117
great, i.e., to make the edge too thick. This is often done
by beginners in their haste to be relieved from grinding.
The tool must be ground till a raw edge appears, i.e., the The raw
very thin " film " or hair produced by the grindstone's remov- edge -
ing the very edge of the steel. This, in its turn, is removed
by the oilstone.
Sharpening with the oilstone is necessary, because the edge
produced by the coarse-grained grindstone is neither fine
enough nor even enough for immediate use.
The oilstone is a
slab of specially fine-
grained stone. "Wash-
ita" and "Arkansas"
stones from America, The best
and " Turkey " stones Ustone *-
Fig. 85. Oilstone and case. . ,, , rv , r , ,
are the best. [Welsh
oilstones are less expensive, and can thoroughly be recom-
mended. TRS.] The oilstone should be 8 inches long and 2
inches broad, and it should be kept in a wooden box with a
cover (Fig. 85). " Arkansas " stone is very hard and close-
grained, and it " takes well," i.e., it acts almost like a very
fine file on the steel. The colour is yellowish-white. These
stones last a long time, but are expensive to buy.
When in use, the oilstone should be moistened with veget-
able oil. The addition of a little paraffin is an improvement. Method of
The tool is held in both hands, and the bevelled edge is applied ^st'one*
closely to the stone in such a way that, while the bevel is
altogether in contact with the stone, the edge presses rather
more heavily on it, and this angle of inclination must be
steadily maintained to prevent the edge from becoming
rounded. The steel is now drawn over the stone with a slow,
steady, backward and forward motion. When this has been
repeated often enough, it is turned over and passed once over
the stone with the face flat. The worker must not confine
his operations to the middle of the stone, but must use the
whole of the surface.
118 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
[This is contrary to the English method of grinding, the
principle that no wire edge should be formed holding good.
TBS.]
An oilstone slip, i.e., a piece of the same kind of stone as
the oilstone, but smaller and thinner, and rounded at the
edges, is required for the sharpening of gouges, spoon-irons, etc.
A sharp Sharpening must be continued until the edge itself is not
visible when held up against the light, or until it no longer
appears white and rounded. Its sharpness is tested by touch
ing it lightly with the finger.
F. The Tool Cupboard.
For the benefit of those who wish to procure a tool cup-
board, complete drawings of one are given in Plate XI. It
is so arranged that every tool has a fixed, easily observed
place, in order that the absence of any may be readily dis-
covered when the tools are laid past. Tools must further be
so arranged that when one is taken out another is not dis-
placed ; and all sharp edges must be protected.
Any alterations in the size of the cupboard, required by a
larger or smaller stock of tools, could easily be made.
119
CHAPTER IV.
JOINTING.
Different parts of articles are connected or jointed partly
by glue, nails, or screius, and partly by the special adaption
of the parts themselves, as in mortising and dove-tailing.
A. Glueing.
The simplest way of jointing two pieces of wood is to
introduce between them a connecting medium in liquid form,
i.e., glue.
Glue is made from the refuse, clippings, etc., of tanneries
and glove manufactories. After being subjected to a boiling
process, these materials are reduced to a viscous fluid, which
solidifies on cooling into a stiffish jelly, which is then cut
into thin slices and dried upon nets stretched on frames.
Good glue is known by its light brown or brownish yellow
colour; its sparkling transparency; its hardness and elas-
ticity ; by the way it breaks off in flakes and whitens in the
line of fracture ; and by its power of resistance to the damp-
ness of the air. It swells if steeped in cold water, but does
not melt even aftei one or two days' immersion. The ulti-
mate test of good glue is, however, its cementing power.
1. The Preparation of Glue.
The cakes of glue, either entire or in pieces, are first
soaked in cold water. After the glue swells it is put in a
glue-pot (Fig. 86) and melted by heat. The glue-pot consists
of two pans usually made of cast-iron or tin-plate. The
larger of these, the outside pan, is, when in use, half filled
120 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
with water, and the smaller one, the inside pan or glue-pot
proper, in which the glue is placed, rests upon a rim or flange
round its mouth. This inner pan should always be lined
with tin. The water in the outer pan prevents the glue from
burning, (an accident which must always be carefully
avoided), and as the contents of the glue-pot are surrounded
by warm water, they may be kept fluid and tit for use a con-
siderable time after the pan has been removed from the fire.
If glue is wanted in a hurry, the cakes may be put in a
towel or a similar piece of stuff' to keep the glue from being
scattered about, and broken to pieces with a hammer. The
pieces are then put into the glue-pot and stirred during boil-
ing, to prevent unmelted glue sticking to the bottom. This
mode of preparation is quite as good as the preceding.
Fig. 86. Glue Pot Outside Pan. \.
(inside pan) and Brush.
Glue is applied with a strong brush, of which there should
be two sizes, one for large surfaces and one for small sur-
faces, e.g., mortise holes, etc.
Liquid Glue. The addition of acetic acid to melted glue
prevents putrefaction, and, without lessening its cementing
power, keeps it liquid at ordinary temperatures. " Liquid
glue " may be made as follows : Four parts of good glue are
melted in four parts diluted acetic acid, in the outer pan, or
JOINTING. 121
on the top of an oven. One part spirits of wine and a small
quantity of alum are then added, and the mixture is kept in
a wide-mouthed bottle, the cork of which has a hole to admit
the brush.
This glue remains liquid at + 14 to 18 C., and does not
solidify until + 8 to 12 C. ; it is very convenient for small
articles, as it is always ready and in good condition, and its
cementing power is quite equal to that of glue prepared in
the ordinary way. Its only drawback is that it dries more
slowly.
In the case of articles exposed to moisture, the addition of
10 per cent, of boiled linseed oil is advantageous. The glue
to which it is added should be hot and strong, and should be
stirred till the varnish has been thoroughly mixed. The
wood to which this ivood-cement is applied should be dry and
warm, and the pieces should be firmly pressed together until
the glue dries.
2.. Glueing.
The process of glueing is very simple, but it must be care-
fully performed to ensure a strong inconspicuous joint. The
general rule holds good that the layer of glue shall be so
tliin that the seam can hardly be seen, and this presupposes
that the pieces fit accurately (see page 152), that they are
kept in sufficiently close contact while the glue is drying,
and that the glue itself does not cool before they are put
properly together.
To keep the glue from cooling, the wood should be warmed
as well as the glue, and the operations of applying the latter, the
putting the pieces together and applying the required pressure,
must be rapidly performed. Generally speaking, it is suffi-
cient if one of the wooden surfaces is warmed : thus in dove-
tailing and slotting the pins only are warmed; in blocking,
the blocks only, etc.
The glue, which must be neither too thick nor too thin, is Laying m
laid evenly and quickly, in as small a quantity as possible, the 9 lut -
over the surface of the wood with the brush.
122 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
In the case of pins for mortising, the glue should be thicker
than for jointing boards, and the glue is generally applied to
the hole as well as to the previously warmed pin, though
sometimes only to the latter.
Screwing together is performed either in the bench, which
is the simplest method, or in hand-screws, or in a press with
wedges. The article must remain under pressure till the
glue dries. If the glue is too thick or the wood cold, or if
the glue cools before screwing up, the joint will show, and
will not be good. A joint of this kind does not look well,
and is less durable than one properly glued together.
Making a The bench pegs or the hand-screw should always be in
joint. order before glueing, to save time. Just before the final
tightening of the screw, the work should be carefully ex-
amined to see if the parts are in their right places. If not
they must be made to fit. If the staves of a barrel are not
in the same plane, the screw must not be loosened, but the
stave which is not flush must be hammered into place, and
the screws tightened. The work must not again be disturbed
till the glue has hardened.
In screwing up finished pieces of work, bits of wood must
always be put between the work and the bench-pegs or the
point of the screw, to prevent marks. When large plane
surfaces are glued together, it is necessary to use several
cramps to obtain strong enough pressure.
Removal of The glue which exudes from the joints of objects which
superfluous arg fi^ghg^ o ff before glueing, e.g., the inside of a drawer,
must be carefully wiped off with a clean sponge or rag dipped
in warm water immediately after glueing together, before it
completely dries. Care must be taken not to wet the wood
unnecessarily.
The better the glue penetrates the pores of the wood, the
stronger the joint. Consequently, glue holds better in loose-
fibred than in close-grained wood, which presents a hard,
smooth surface. Broad surfaces of the latter description are
roughened a little before glueing, by drawing a coarse file
JOINTING. 123
over them.* Glue which dries slowly is stronger than that
which dries quickly.
A well-fitting joint made with good glue is so strong that, strong and
when long boards -are joined together, the wood itself gener- weak
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PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS
FOR MAKING
THE HIGH SCHOOL SERIES
SLOJD MODELS.
BY
ALFRED JOHANSSON,
Teacher at the Slojd Training College at Nads, Sweden.
(203
TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.
This little book is intended to be a supplement and companion to the
Teachers' Handbook of Slojd.
The directions which it contains constitute only a part of the Swedish
book from which they are taken. There was originally at Nilas only
one series of models, which every student was obliged to make. There
are now three series of models, adapted for Elementary Schools, Second-
ary Schools, and High Schools respectively. Each series gives practice
in the same exercises, and each series includes a number of models
common to all; but each also includes particular models which are more
especially suitable for the particular class of school : e.g., all series in-
clude a paper-knife, a footstool, and a box ; a spoon, an axe-handle, and
a plate-rack, are included in the Elementary and Secondary School
series ; whilst a drawing-board, a tea tray, and a bracket, are peculiar to
the High School series.
The directions given for the High School series have been chosen for
translation as more suitable for English people than those of the other
two series, which include articles that are quite unknown, and that would
be quite useless in English schools and houses. It is true that even the
High School series does not in all points conform to the principles laid
down in Herr Salomon's Introduction (see pp. 205-207) from the point
of view of English conditions, but this is due to the fact that English
Slojd teachers are not yet agreed as to the best English substitutes for
certain Swedish models. The Appendix to this book contains some
suggestions toward this end, and it is open to every Slojd teacher to
adopt his own substitutes, provided that the articles he selects give
practice in the right exercises in the right order.
The directions given are not intended to supersede the instructions of
a teacher for those who are ignorant of Slojd. They are merely con-
densed notes for the guidance of a pupil working with a teacher, or for
the refreshment of his memory after a course of instruction.
It is assumed throughout that the student has before him a pattern
model, a drawing, and the geometrical construction when necessary. A
list of the exercises occurring in each model will be found on pp. 196-199,
and by referring to the instructions for the execution of the exercises
given in the Teachers' Handbook of Slojd, pp. 126-183, the student who
is working by himself will always secure sufficient guidance.
INTRODUCTION.
BY OTTO SALOMON.
THERE- is perhaps no more dangerous attitude of mind than that of the
people whose opinions remain stationary. Everything, so far at all
events as regards the outward form, is subject to the laws of change and
development. That which was admirably adapted for the past, may be
unsuitable for the present, and entirely useless in the future. We may
admit this general truth without committing ourselves to the pro-
positions that everything old is bad, and that everything new is good.
There arc truths which hold good for all time, and which, at the outside,
merely assume a different form of expression at different periods ; while
many new doctrines, at first sight satisfactory, prove insufficient when
tested by experience.
It is especially important in educational matters, that we should
understand how to steer the middle course between that conservative
spirit which is identical with surrender to the enemy of all progress
"use and wont," and the nervous, restless search alter novelty which is
ever replacing one imperfectly tested method by another equally untried.
The zealous teacher must always bear in mind that, while his work both
in form and spirit should bear the impress of development, this develop-
ment must be gradual and well-considered. The older he is and the
greater the stores of experience at his command, the more clearly will he
apprehend that the whole question of education is much more compli-
cated than he at first imagined it to be. Much that on superficial
observation seemed simple and clear, on closer inspection turns out to be
the result of many and complex factors. The experienced teacher
therefore guards against hasty conclusions regarding the merits of par-
ticular educational methods. Not content with seeing them in operation,
he studies them, and before abandoning one and adopting another, he
seeks assurance that the new method is not only newer, but better than
the old. He knows too well that what promises well in theory, docs
not always stand the test of practice.
Educational Slojd, the latest addition to the school curriculum, is yet
in the earliest stage of development, and though there exists an increas-
ing agreement as regards its fundamental principles, much serious work
200 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD.
remains to be done in the practical application of these principles.
Hence we must utilize in every possible way the ever widening ex-
perience of the labourers in this comparatively virgin soil. This is
especially the case as regards the models used in Slojd teaching. Tho
teacher who has paid close attention to the subject may now discover
striking defects in a series of models, which only a few years ago seemed
to meet all demands. In an institution, therefore, like the one at Nails,
the object of which is to render teachers capable of directing instruction
in educational Slojd, it would be inexcusable if no effort were made to
keep pace with the times, by taking advantage of the observations made
during each course, and of the advice and the suggestions which the
students are able to offer. During the discussions which are held weekly
for this purpose, each brings his contribution to the common stock, and if
it is true that " two heads are better than one," it is to be assumed that
fifty heads are better still for the purpose of detecting faults and perceiv-
ing the means of improvements. Hence no course of instruction given at
Naas has been in all respects arranged in the same Avay as its imme-
diate predecessor, though it does not follow that every change has been
for the best. On the contrary, it has not seldom been found advisable
to revert to old methods.
The essential characteristic of method at Nails, is the fact that the
principle of arrangement lies in the exercises occurring in Slojd carpentry.
This indeed is the only rational principle on which any method of educa-
tional Slojd can be based. Neither the tools used nor the models
produced furnish a suitable starting point. Exercises which may be
executed with one and the same tool, are not all easier or all more
difficult than the same exercises executed with another tool ; while the
models, regarded from the educational point of view, are merely the in-
cidental means by which various combinations of exercises are expressed.
The exercises themselves may be denned as the elaboration of
material by means of one or more tools in a definite manner, and with
a definite aim. Therefore the principle that the models in any series
shall be arranged to proceed gradually from the more easy to the more
difficult, and from the simple to the complex, refers to the order of the
exercises of which thnt series of models constitutes, for educational
purposes, the practical expression.
The following principles must also be kept in view in the arrangement
of any series of models :
All articles of luxury must be excluded.
The articles must be such as can be used by the children, or in their
homes, and such as they can make without any help whatever.
INTRODUCTION. 207
The articles must further be of such a nature that the children's sense
of form and beauty will be cultivated in making them.
The earlier articles made should be objects which can be finished
quickly and without much physical exertion. Models requiring longer
time and greater strength should only be introduced gradually.
Wood should be the only material employed, and no more than is
absolutely necessary should be used.
Both hard and soft wood should be employed.
Turning and wood-carving should not be included.
The articles made should not be varnished.
Sufficient variety in the exercises and in the character of the models
should be provided.
All the exercises incidental to wood-slujd should be adequately
represented.
The knife, as the fundamental tool, is the first which should be placed
in the hands of the children.
It is hoped that this little book may worthily do its part towards the
establishment in our schools of educational Slojd, i.e., to a system of
Slojd teaching, rightly understood and practically carried out.
Printed on Cards (size 15 by xo inches), in stout wrapper, with
elastic band. Price 45. per set.
WORKING DIAGRAMS
OF THE
HIGH SCHOOL SERIES OF
SLOJD MODELS
New Edition .Drawn to Metric Measurement", and intended to accompany
JUHAX.SSUN'S ** Practical Directions.**
BY WILLIAM NELSON,
Organizer of Manual Training to the Manchester School Board.
The Set consists of detailed Diagrams of all the fifty Models forming the High
School Series, together with five ad.iitional Diagrams of Alternative
Models, specially adapted to English requirements.
N.B. The Original Edition of these Cards (xi by 7 K inches) with
ENGLISH Measurements can still be had, price per set, 33.
(209)
LIST OF EXERCISES
OCCURRING IN BACH MODEL.
I A. Long cut, cross cut.
1 B. Long cut, cross cut, oblique cut.
2. Long cut, cross cut, bevel cut.
3. Sawing off, long cut, cross cut, convex cut.
4. Sawing off, long cut, cross cut, convex cut.
5. Sawing off, long sawing, edge planing, squaring, oblique cut, convex
cut.
6. Sawing off, long cut, boring with pin-bit, convex cut, cross cut,
filing.
7. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring-up,
gauging, boring with pin-bit, convex cut, cross cut, filing,
oblique cut.
8. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
boring with centre-bit, gauging, wave sawing, long cut, convex
cut, concave cut, filing.
0. Sawing off, long sawing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, bevelling,
convex modelling with the plane, convex cut, cross cut, filing.
10. Sawing off, chopping, edge planing, squaring, gauging, sawing with
tenon saw, long cut, cross cut, convex modelling with the plane,
filing.
11. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, wave sawing, concave cut, convex cut, surface cut,
filing, scraping.
12. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, obstacle planing, perpendicular chiselling, boring with
centre-bit, filing, scraping.
13. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, filing, gouging'
with gouge and spoon-iron, oblique chiselling, convex cut,
scraping.
14. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, wave
sawing, smoothing with spokeshave, bevel cut, modelling with
spokeshave, cross cut, filing, scraping.
210 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD.
15. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, scraping, perpen-
dicular chiselling, filing, convex modelling with the plane,
smoothing-up.
16. Sawing off, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, boring
with centre-bit, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, end
squaring, filing, smoothing-up, scraping.
17. Sawing off', long sawing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, cross cut,
kng cut, convex cut, filing, halving with knife.
18. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, obstacle planing, smoothing with spokeshave, wave
sawing, concave cut, long cut, convex cut, cross cut, bevel cut,
filing, scraping.
19. Sawing off, chopping, face planing, squaring, boring with centre-
bit, long sawing, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, oblique
sawing, oblique planing, oblique chiselling, gouging with gouge
and spoon-iron, filing, convex modelling with the plane, convex
cut, concave cut, cross cut, scraping.
20. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, boring with centre-bit, wave sawing, perpendicular
chiselling, filing, bevelled edge planing, bevel cut, cross cut,
convex cut, fitting-in pegs, oblique chiselling, smoothing-up,
glueing, sinking iron plates, scraping.
21. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, end squaring, sawing with tenon-saw, perpendicular
chiselling, long cut, cross cut, filing, nailing, punching, smoothing-
up.
22. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, squaring, gauging, boring
with centre-bit, bevelling, convex modelling with the plane, per-
pendicular chiselling, filing, scraping, edge planing, wave sawing,
perpendicular gouging, oblique planing, boring with shell-bit.
23. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug-
ing, end squaring, wave sawing, perpendicular gouging, oblique
sawing, oblique chiselling, boring with centre-bit, filing, smooth-
ing-up, nailing, punching.
24. Sawing off, face planing, edge planing, squaring, dove-tail clamping,
glueing, gauging, end squaring, sawing with tenon-saw, perpen-
dicular chiselling, long cut, wave sawing, concave chiselling,
cross cut, convex modelling with the plane, filing, bevel cut,
scraping, boring with the shell-bit, fixing with screws.
25. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug-
ing, square shooting, nailing, punching, smoothing-up, scraping.
, LIST OF EXERCISES. 211
26. Sawing off, chopping, face planing, squaring, gauging, oblique saw-
ing, wave sawing, oblique planing, oblique chiselling, boring
with centre-bit, perpendicular chiselling, gouging with gouge
and spoon-iron, wave sawing, modelling with draw-knife, model-
ling with spokeshave, long cut, convex cut, concave cut, filing,
scraping.
.27. Sawing off, chopping, face planing, plain jointing, glueing, squaring,
dove-tail clamping, wave sawing, gauging, smoothing with spoke
shave, planing across the grain, wedge planing with smoothing
plane, smoothing-up, scraping, fixing with screws.
28. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug-
ing, wave sawing, planing with round plane, smoothin^-up,
cross cut, convex cut, boring with centre-bit, boring with shell-
bit, modelling with spokeshave, filing, scraping, fixing metal-
hook, plugging.
29. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, boring with centre-bit, boring with shell-bit, fixing
with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), bevelled edge plan-
ing, cross cut, filing, scraping.
30. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
oblique sawing, wave sawing, gauging, smoothing with spoke-
shave, concave chiselling, single dove-tailing at right angles,
glueing, end squaring, oblique planing, modelling with spoke-
shave, concave cut, convex cut, cross cut, filing, scraping.
31. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, wave sawing,
concave cut, long sawing, convex cut, cross cut, filing, boring
with centre-bit, boring with bradawl, glueing, nailing, punching,
smoothing-up, scraping.
32. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, wave
sawing, smoothing with spokeshave, perpendicular chiselling,
hollowing out with gouge, gauging, convex cut, long cut, boring
with bradawl, axle fitting, filing, scraping.
33. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, square grooving,
glueing, boring with centre-bit, wave sawing, convex cut, concave
cut, cross cut, long cut, filing, plain jointing, smoothing-up, con-
vex modelling with the plane, nailing, punching, scraping.
34. Sawing off, wave sawing, face planing, gauging, smoothing with
the spokeshave, bevelling with the draw-knife, modelling with
the spokeshave, convex modelling with the plane, filing, scrap-
ing, work in hard wood.
212 HANDBOOK OP SLOYD.
35. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug-
ing, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), boring with
centre-bit, concave cut, long cut, cross cut, convex cut, filing,
square shooting, common dove-tailing, glueing with the use of the
handscrew, nailing, boring with bradawl, scraping.
36. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, squaring, gauging, long
oblique planing, bevelling, convex modelling with the plane,
convex cut, filing, scraping.
37. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug-
ing, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), bevelled
edge planing, square shooting, boring with centre-bit, oblique
sawing, oblique planing, setting out, scraping.
38. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, panel grooving,
glueing with the use of the handscrew, fixing with wooden pegs
(for planing thin wood), cross cut, smoothing-up, scraping.
39. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, plain jointing,
squaring, glueing, gauging, end squaring, oblique planing, boring
with centre-bit, convex sawing, convex cut, filing, oblique edge
grooving, sawing with compass saw, wave sawing, concave cut,
long cut, perpendicular chiselling, nailing, oblique cut, bevel cut,
punching, smoothing-up, scraping.
40. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, square shooting, slotting, glueing with the use of the
handscrew, boring with centre-bit, smoothing-up, scraping, work
in hard wood.
41. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, plain
jointing, glueing, gauging, square shooting, dove-tailing in thick
wood, dove-tail clamping, end squaring, oblique planing, smooth-
ing-up, mitreing, oblique chiselling, boring with the bradawl,
nailing, perpendicular chiselling, long cut, fixing with screws,
scraping.
42. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, common mortising, perpendicular chiselling, smoothing-
up, cross cut, long cut, convex cut, convex modelling with the
plane, filing, scraping, boring with the bradawl.
43. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
plain jointing, glueing, gauging, end squaring, convex sawing,
perpendicular chiselling, perpendicular gouging, filing, scraping,
notched dove-tailing, smoothing-up, concave cut, long cut, bevel
cut, common mortise and tenon, setting out, boring with centre-
bit, nailing, graving with V tool, scraping, fixing metal plates.
LIST OF EXEUCISKS. 213
44. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, square shooting, half-lapping, glueing, smoothing-up,
rebating, plain jointing, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin
wood), oblique chiselling, graving with V tool, boring with
centre-bit, sawing with tenon-saw, perpendicular chiselling, cross
cut, oblique cut, filing, scraping.
45. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, plain jointing,
squaring, glueing, gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing,
boring with centre-bit, convex sawing, obstacle planing, concave
cut, convex cut, cross cut, long cut, filing, half-lap dove-tailing,
nailing, oblique planing, perpendicular chiselling, convex model-
ling with the plane, punching, smoothing-up, scraping.
46. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, plain jointing, glueing, oblique sawing, oblique planing,
oblique dove-tailing, boring with centre-bit, perpendicular chisel-
ling, convex sawing, long cut, convex cut, concave cut, filing,
smoothing-up, convex modelling with the plane, boring with the
bradawl, nailing, punching, scraping.
47. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring,
gauging, square shooting, convex sawing, perpendicular chiselling,
smoothing with spokeshave, concave cut, convex cut, cross cut,
filing, scraping, notched dove-tailing, smoothing-up, convex model-
ling with the plane, glueing.
48. Sawing off, oblique sawing, oblique planing, concave modelling
with the plane, gauging, chopping, convex modelling with the
plane, face planing, circle sawing, oblique cut, smoothing with
the spokeshave, staving, boring with the bradawl, hooping, con-
vex sawing, concave cut, bevel cut, end squaring, filing, scraping.
49. Sawing off, up and down sawing, face planing, plain jointing, glue-
ing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, end squaring, half-lap dove-
tailing, panel grooving, nailing, bevelled edge planing, mitreing,
punching, smoothing-up, common mortise and tenon, hinge-
sinking, lock fitting, scraping.
50. Sawing off, up and down sawing, face planing, squaring, gauging,
edge planing, concealed tenoning, oblique planing, chamfering,
filing, smoothing-up, glueing, plain jointing, glueing with the
use of the hand-screw, blocking, perpendicular chiselling, end
squaring, mortised blocking, scraping.
PEACTICAL DIRECTIONS.
The Metric Measurements given for each Model are those used at Na'a's, and
uniform with those given in Nelson's Working Diagrams of the Slojd Models
(Metric Edition). The English Measurements are uniform with those given in
Nelson's Working Diagrams (English Edition).
No. la.-SMALL POINTER (Birch).
. ',;" Metric Length 10 cm. Thickness 0'7 cm.
English 4 in. by in.
1. In a suitable piece of wood, make two sides at right angles.
2. Set out the thickness with the metre-measure and pencil, and cut
down to the lines.
3. Draw lines on each side with the metre-measure to indicate how the
model tapers, and Cut down to them, keeping the sides at right
angles.
4. Cut off the edges to make the form octagonal, then make it round.
5. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off.
6. Finish with sand-paper.*
N.B. This model is made entirely with the knife.
No. lb. SMALL POINTER (Birch).
Metric Length 10 cm. Thickness 07 cm.
English 4 in. by in.
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. See No. la.
6. Make the oblique cuts.
N.B.^This model is made entirely with the knife.
No. 2. PARCEL PIN (Birch).
Metric Length 1 cm. Thickness 1 cm.
English 2f in. by f in.
1. On a suitable piece of wood make four sides at right angles. Set
out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off.
* As a general rule it is to be understood that models are finished with sand-paper where
this is necessary.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 215
2. Bevel the edges like those of the model.
3. Set out the place for the notch with the metre-measure, and make
the cross cut.
N.B. This model is made entirely with the knife.
No. 3. FLOWER STICK (Hard Pine).
Metric Length 30 cm. Thickness 1 cm.
English 12 in. by f in.
\. Saw off a suitable piece of wood with the hand-saw, and make four
sides at right angles, each I'l cm. broad.
2. Cut off the edges to make the stick octagonal, then make it round.
3. Make the point.
4. Set out the length, and cut off, then make the rounded top.
N.B. After the piece of wood is saion off, this model is made entirely with
the knife.
No. 4. LETTER OPENER (Birch).
Metric Length 17 cm. Breadth 1 cm.
English 6J in. by f in.
1 . Cut a suitable piece of wood to the required breadth and thickness.
2. Draw the outline after the model and diagram, and cut out.
3. Make one side round.
4. Set out the length and cut off. Shape both ends like those of the
model.
N.B. This model is made entirely with the knife.
No. 5.-FLOWER-POT STICK (Pine).
Metric Length 35 cm. Thickness 1 cm.
English 14 in. by f in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane, set out the thickness with the
metre-measure and pencil, and plane off.
3. Square the end with the knife, and draw the diagonals for the point
of the pyramid.
4. Draw the sides of the base of the pyramid at right angles, and cut
with the knife.
5. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off.
216 HANDBOOK OP SLOYD.
6. Make the tapering point and the notches with the knife.
7. Bevel the edges with the smoothing-plane.
No. 6. CRAYON HOLDER (Hard Pine).
Metric Length 20 cm. Thickness 1'2 cm.
English 8 in. by J in.
1. Saw off a suitable piece of wood with the hand-saw, and make it
square with the knife.
2. Draw the diagonals at one end, and bore a hole with the shell-bit
where they intersect.
3. Taper the sides and cut away the edges to make it octagonal, then
make it round.
4. Set out the length, and cut off with the knife. Smooth with the file.
No. 7. KEY LABEL (Pine).
Metric Length, II cm. Breadth, 4 cm.
English 4 in. by 1 in.
1 . Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Then set out the breadth
with the marking-gauge, and plane off.
3. Draw the outline, using square and compass.
4. Bore the hole with the shell-bit
5. Set out the thickness, after the model, with the marking-gauge, and
plane off.
6. Cut off the length with the dove-tail saw, and make the rounded end
with the knife.
7. Smooth both ends with the file.
8. Make the notches with the knife.
No. 8.-PACKTHREAD WINDER (Birch).
Metric Length 9 cm. Breadth 4'5 cm.
English 3 in. by If in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane.
3. Draw the outline from the diagram, with the help of the square and
the compasses.
4. Bore with the centre-bit for the curve at each end.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 217
5. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane to the line
with the trying-plane.
. Saw out the shape w ith the turn-saw, and smooth with knife and file.
7. Round the inner edges of the concave ends with the knife.
No. 9. ROUND RULER (Pine).
Metric Length 35 cm. Thickne&s 2 - 5 cm.
English 14 in. by 1 in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the
thickness with the marking-gauge and square the two remaining
sides.
3. Find the middle points in both ends and describe a circle round each,
the diameter of which is equal to the thickness given.
-4. Bevel the edges with the jack-plane and the trying-plane, to make
the piece of wood octagonal.
5. Make the cylindrical form with the smoothing-plane.
6. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off with the
dove-tail saw.
7. Round the edges of both ends with the knife.
8. Smooth with the file.
No. 10.-PEN REST (Birch).
Metric Length 9 cm. Breadth 2 cm.
English 3% in. by $ in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim it with the axe
as nearly as possible to the given thickness.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thick-
ness with the marking-gauge, and plane the other two sides.
3. Set out the length and the notches, from the diagram, with the com-
passes. Make the notches with the dove-tail saw and knife.
4. Saw off to the length with the dove-tail saw.
5 Find the middle point at both ends and describe round it a semi-
circle, the diameter of which is equal to the given thickness.
Hound with the smoothing-plane.
'7. Square the ends with the knife.
8. Smooth with the file.
HANDBOOK OF SLOYD.
No. 11. PAPEE KNIFE (Birch).
Metric Length 30 cm. Breadth 3 cm.
English 12 in. by 1J in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the harm-saw, and face and edge with
the trying-plane.
2. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, saw off with the hand-
saw, and plane to the line with the trying-plane.
3. Draw the outline from the diagram, cut out with the turn-saw, and
smooth the edges with the knife and spokeshave.
4. To make the sharp edge, draw a line down the middle of the front
edge, and cut down to this line on both sides with the knife.
Make the notch between the blade and handle with the knife.
5. Round the handle and the back of the blade with the knife.
6. Smooth with the file and the scraper.
No. 12. RAZOR STROP (Birch).
Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 4 cm.
English 16 in. ly \\ in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and
thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off.
3. Set out from the diagram, with the help of the square and the mark-
ing-gauge, the position of the part cut away. Cut out with the
hand-saw, smoothing-plane and knife. (Obstacle planing.)
4. Set out the length of the handle from the diagram with the metre-
measure, and cut off with the tenon-saw and the firmer chisel.
6. Set out the whole length and cut off. Set out the rounded form of
the one end with the square and compasses, and cut it out with
the turn-saw, firmer chisel, and spokeshave.
6. Bore the hole with the centre-bit from both sides.
7. Smooth with the file and scraper.
No. 13.-BOWL FOR WRITING TABLE-(Birch).
Metric Length 9 cm. Breadth 5 '5 cm.
English 3% in. by 2| in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the thickness
the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane.
LIST OF EXERCISES. 219
.'3. Make both constructions, using the square and compasses.
4. Saw out with the turn-saw, pare the edge with the firmer chisel, and
smooth with the file.
5. Hollow out (first with the mallet and gouge, then with the spoon-
iron), smooth with sand-paper.
6. Model the under surface with the firmer chisel, knife and file.
7. Smooth with the scraper.
No. 14. HAMMER HANDLE (Birch).
Metric Length 30 cm. Breadth 3'2 cm.
English 12 in. by ! in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane.
3. Draw out the shape on both sides. (Freehand from diagram).
4. Saw out with the turn-saw and smooth the sides with the spoke-
shave.
5. Cut away the sharp edges (chamfer) with the knife, and shape with
the spokeshave.
6. Set out the length with the metre-measure and cut off with tenon-
saw and knife.
7. Smooth with tile and scraper.
No. 15. PEN TRAY (Birch).
Metric Length 25 cm. Breadth 7 cm.
English 15 in. bij 2f in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth with the
marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane.
3. Make the drawing for the hollowed out part with the square, com-
passes, metre-measure, and marking-gauge, and hollow out with
the mallet, gouge, and spoon-iron. Smooth with the scraper and
4. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the trying-plane.
5. Set out the length, and cut it off at right angles with the tenon-saw.
6. Set out the curve of the edges with the compasses, and model with
the firmer chisel and smoothing-plane ; then smooth with the
file.
7. Smooth the whole of the outside with smoothing-plane and scraper.
220 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD.
No. 16. KNIFE-BOARD (Pine or Fir).
Metric Length 60 cm. Breadth 15 cm.
English 24 in. by 6 in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and plane it off.
4. Draw the outline of the rounded end with square and compasses.
5. Bore the hole with the centre-bit.
6. Shape with the bow-saw, firmer chisel, smoothing -plane, spokeshave,
and file.
7. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
jack-plane and trying-plane.
8. Smooth the plane surfaces with the smoothing-plane and the scraper.
No. 17. FLOWER-POT CROSS (Pine).
MetricLength 13 cm. Breadth 2'5 cm.
English 5 in. by 1 in. by $ in-
Saw out in one piece, with the hand-saw, sufficient wood for both
parts of the cross.
Fae and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane.
Set out the breadth and the thickness with the marking-gauge, then
cut in two with the dove-tail saw.
Draw the outline (exclusive- of the halving notches), using square,
marking-gauge, and compasses ; cut out with the knife, and
smooth with the file.
Set out the halving notches for the joint with the compasses, square,
and marking-gauge, and cut out with the knife.
Fit the pieces together.
No. 18. -METRE-MEASURE (Birch).
Metric Length 64 cm. Breadth 2'5 cm.
English 18 in. by 23 in. by 1 in.
Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and
thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off.
With square and marking-gauge set out the rectangular portion, and
cut it out with hand-saw, smoothing-plane, spokeshave, and
knife.
LIST OP EXERCISES. 221
4. Taper the blade on both sides with the trying-plane.
5. Draw the handle ; saw out with the turn-saw, and model with the
knife.
6. Bevel the edges of the handle with the knife.
7. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off with the
dove-tail saw.
8. Smooth with the file and scraper.
No. 19. SCOOP (Birch).
Metric Length 24 cm. Breadth 1 cm.
English 9| in. by 2f in.
1. Saw off a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim with the axe as
near the thickness required as possible.
2. Face and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Make the side construction with square and compasses.
4. Cut out with the centre-bit, hand-saw, and turn-saw, and smooth
with firmer chisel and smoothing-plaue.
5. Draw the outline of the upper curved surface on the edge prepared,
and cut out with the hand-saw and turn-saw, and smooth with
the smoothing-plane and firmer chisel.
6. The shape of the hollowed out portion is set out with the compasses
and marking-gauge, and cut out with the mallet and gouge, spoon-
iron, file, and scraper.
7. Draw the outline of the under curved surface, and saw out with the-
turn-saw.
8. Model with axe, smoothing-plane, and knife.
9. Smooth with file and scraper.
No. 20. CLOTHES RACK (Pine).
Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 8 cm.
English 16 in. by 3 in.
1. Saw out with the hand-saw a suitable piece for the back
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and the trying-plane. Set out
the breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-
plane and the trying-plane.
3. Draw a middle line for the holes for the pegs.
4. Make the construction with the square and compasses, cut out with.
the turn-saw and firmer chisel, and smooth with the file.
222 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
5. Bore the holes with the centre-bit.
6. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the
jack-plane and the trying-plane.
7. Set out the bevel with compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and
bevel with the knife and trying-plane.
8. Face and edge enough wood for the pegs in one piece, with the
trying-plane, and set out the breadth and thickness with the
marking-gauge.
9. Set out the length of the pegs 1 cm. longer than the length given, and
saw off with dove-tail saw.
10. On the pin ends of the pegs draw diagonals, and with the same
centre-bit as was used to bore the holes, describe a circle round
the centre point of the pin.
11. Set out the length of the pins with the square, and cut out with the
dove-tail saw, knife, and firmer chisel, and finish with the file.
12. Smooth the front side of the back with the smoothing-plane, and
glue the pegs into the holes.
13. Saw off the ends of the pins at the back with the tenon-saw, and
smooth with the smoothing-plane.
14. Smooth the whole with the scraper.
No. 21.-FLOWER POT STAND (Pine).
Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 11 cm.
Englith 16 in. by 4^ in,
1. Saw out a suitable piece from a plank with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the jack-plane and the trying-plane.
4. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right angles
with the tenon-saw. Square the ends with the smoothing-plane.
5. Set out the breadth (1'5 cm.) for the laths, by making points on the
plane surface 1 cm. from both ends, and join these points by
straight lines.
-6. Cut out the laths with the broad-webbed bow-saw, and plane to a
thickness with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth with the
marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane.
7. Saw out the feet with the hand-saw, and plane with the trying-plane
to the required breadth and thickness, and cut off with the tenon-
saw. Fasten them together into the bench, and square the ends
with the smoothing-plane.
LIST OF EXERCISES. 223
8. Draw the shape of the feet with the compasses, square, and marking-
gauge, and cut out with the tenon-saw, firmer chisel, knife, and
file.
9. Nail on the laths at right angles, and sink the heads of the nails
with the punch, then smooth the surface with the smoothiug-
plane.
10. Smooth the ends of the stand with the file.
No. 22. ROLLER & RESTS FOR FLOWER-PRESS (Birch).
Metric Length 38 cm. Thickness 6 cm.
English 15 in. by 2^ in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw for the roller.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane, set out the thickness with the
mnrking-gauge, and plane oft' with the trying-plane.
3. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right
angles with the tenon-saw.
4. Set out the holes with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge,
bore the holes from both sides with the centre-bit.
5. Find the middle point of both ends, and round it describe a circle,
the diameter of which is equal to the thickness required. Make
the article octagonal with the roughing-plane and trying-plane.
6. Make the cylindrical form with the trying-plane and the smoothing-
plane.
7. Smooth the roller with file and scraper.
8. Saw out sufficient wood for the rests with the bread-webbed bow-
saw, and face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the
breadth and thickness witli the marking-gauge.
9. Make the construction with the square and compasses ; cut out with
the turn-saw, gouge, and firmer chisel, and smooth with the file.
10. Set out the bevel with the compasses and metre-measure, and make
it with the trying-plane.
11. Set out the holes with the compasses, and bore them with the
shell-bit.
12. Smooth the parts with the scraper.
No. 23. FOOT-STOOL. (Pine).
Metric Length 27 cm. Breadth 22 cm.
English 10^ in. Inj 8 in,
1. Make the laths by the directions given in No. 21.
2. Saw out wood for the feet in one piece.
224 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD.
3. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the-
breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off.
4. Saw through the middle at right angles with the tenon-saw, and
nail the two pieces together with nails.
5. Set out the length at right angles, and saw off with the tenon-saw ;
square the ends with the smoothing-plane.
6. Make the construction on both sides with square and compasses ;
cut out with the tenon-saw and turn-saw, chisel, centre-bit and
gouge, smooth with the file, and take the pieces apart.
7. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the jack-plane and trying-plane.
8. Nail on the laths. (See further, No. 21).
No. 24. BOOK GABBIER. (Pine and Birch).
Metric Length 23 cm. Breadth 15 cm.
English 9 in. by 6 in.
1. Saw out pine for both boards in one piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the
breadth with the metre-measure and plane off with the jack-
plane and trying-plane.
3. Set out the grooves for the clamps with the square, compasses, metre-
measure, marking-point, bevel and marking-gauge, and cut out
with the knife, tenon-saw (or groove-saw), firmer chisel, and old
woman's tooth.
4. Plane up the clamps and fit them in with the jack-plane and trying-
plane.
5. Plane the surface level with the trying-plane ; set out the thickness
with the marking-gauge, and plane off with jack-plane and
trying-plane.
6. Set out the length of each board at right angles with the metre
measure and marking-point, and saw off with the tenon-saw.
7. Fasten the pieces together with nails ; square the ends with the
smoothi ng-plane.
8. Set out the notches on both sides with the compasses and square, and
cut out with tenon-saw, firmer chisel, and knife.
9. Saw out a suitable piece of birch for the handle with the hand-saw ;
plane up with trying-plane, setting out the breadth and thick-
ness with the marking-gauge.
10. Make the construction for the handle with square and compasses;
LIST OP THE EXERCISES. 225
cut out with turn-saw, firmer chisel, smoothing-plane and knife,
and smooth with file and scraper.
11. Bore the holes for the screws with the shell-bit.
12. Screw the parts together with the screwdriver.
No. 25.-BOX (Pine).
Metric Length 23 cm. Breadth 13 cm.
English 9 in. by 5 in.
1. Saw out the parts with the hand-saw, and face and edge with the
jack-plane and trying-plane.
2. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane
off with jack-plane and roughing-plane.
3. Set out the length of the sides with the metre-measure ; cut off at
right angles with the tenon-saw, and square the ends in the
shooting-board with the trying-plane.
4. Nail the pieces together, using bradawl and hammer.
5. Smooth the bottom with the smoothing-plane.
6. Saw off the bottom with the tenon-saw 5 mm. longer than the
length given, and nail it on ; sink the heads of the nails with
the punch.
7. Smooth the sides on the outside and the upper edges with the
smoothing-plane.
8. Finish the whole with the scraper.
No. 26.-LADLE (Birch).
Metric Length 34 cm. Breadth 8 '6 cm.
English -13J in. by 3| in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim it with the
axe as near as possible to the required thickness.
2. Face and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the
breadth 5 mm. more than is given with the marking-gauge, and
plane off.
3. Draw the upper curved outline on both sides ; saw out with the
hand-saw and turn -saw; and smooth with the smoothing-plane
and firmer chisel.
4. Make the construction.
5. Cut out the upper surface with the centre-bit, hand-saw, and turn-
226 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
6. Smooth to the lines drawn with firmer chisel and file.
7. Hollow out the bowl with the mallet and gouge and spoon-iron;
smooth with scraper and sand-paper.
8. Cut out the under surface like that of the model with the turn-saw,
drawknife, spokeshave, and knife.
9. Smooth with the file and scraper.
No. 27. FLOWER PRESS (Pine).
Metric Length 45 cm. Breadth 25 cm.
English 18 in. by 10 in.
1. Saw out pieces with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Plane up and fit the edges which are to be jointed with the trying-
plane, and glue together.
4. Face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the
metre-measure and plane off with the jack-plane and the trying-
plane.
5. Set out the grooves for the clamps with the square, compasses, metre-
measure, marking-point, bevel, and marking-gauge ; and cut out
with the knife, groove-saw (or tenon-saw), firmer-chisel, and old
woman's tooth.
6. Plane up, and fit the clamps with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
7. Level the whole with the trying-plane.
8. Draw the outline, and saw out with the turn-saw.
9. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the jack-plane and trying-plane.
10. Smooth the end with the spokeshave and file.
11. Set out the slope of the under board with the compasses, square,
and marking-gauge, and make it with the trying-plane and
smoothing-plane (wedge-planing across the gram).
12. Finish with smoothing-plane and scraper.
No. 28.-CLOAK SUSPENDER (Birch).
Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 3 '5 cm.
English 16 in. by 1$ in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the thickness with
the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane.
LIST OP EXERCISES. 227
3. Draw the outline, and saw out with the turn-saw.
4. Smooth the concave edge with the round plane, and the convex
edge with the smooth ing-plane.
5. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right
angles with the tenon-saw.
6. Draw the curves of the sides, and model with the smcothing-plane.
Model the ends with the knife.
7. Set out the hole with the compasses ; bore it with centre-bit and
shell-bit.
8. Round the edge with the spokeshave, and smooth with file and
scraper.
9. Fashion the hook with the round-jawed pliers, cold chisel, and
hammer. Use an iron vice (if one is available).
10. Set out the plug and make it with the chisel ; glue it in.
11. Smooth off the end of the plug with the knife to correspond with
the concave edge, and finish with file and scraper.
No. 29. FLAT RULER (Birch).
Metric Length 45 cm. Breadth 4-5 cm.
English 18 in. ly If in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the
marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane.
3. Set out the hole with the square and compasses, and bore with the
centre-bit ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and
saw out with the broad-webbed bow-saw.
4. Fix with wooden pegs to a thicker piece of wood, 1 cm. broader than
the work, and plane off.
5. Bevel the edges with the trying-plane.
6. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right
angles with the tenon-saw ; smooth the ends with the knife and
file.
7. Finish the wider flat surfaces with the scraper.
No. 30.-BOOT-JACK (Birch and Pine).
Metric Length 34 cm. Breadth 1 1 cm.
English 13i in. by 4J in.
Saw out a suitable piece of birch with the hand-saw.
Face and edge with the trying-plane.
228 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
3. Set out the outer contour with the square and compasses, and saw
out with the hand-saw and the turn-saw.
1. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane to the
line with the trying-plane.
5. Smooth the edges with the spokeshave and firmer chisel.
6. Saw out a piece of pine for the foot with the hand-saw ; face and
edge with the trying-plane ; and set out the thickness with the
marking-gauge.
7. Set out the dove-tail groove for the foot with the compasses, mark-
ing-point, square, set bevel, and cutting-gauge ; and cut it out
with the knife, groove-saw, and firmer chisel.
8. Fit the foot into the dove-tail groove, using the cutting-gauge and
the knife.
9. Cut out the fork with the bow-saw, knife, and spokeshave.
10. Glue in the foot.
11. Cut off the ends at right angles with the tenon-saw, and smooth
with the smoothing-plane.
12. Set out the slope of the foot and back with the compasses and
metre-measure ; cut out with the dove-tail saw, and smooth with
the smoothing-plane.
13. Model the edges with the spokeshave, knife, and file.
U. Finish with the scraper.
No. 31. WALL LAMP-STAND (Pine).
Metric Length 25 cm. Breadth 12 cm.
English 10 in. by 4| in.
Saw out material for the bottom and the back in one piece with the
hand-saw, and face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-
plane.
Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge, and
plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
Saw off the bottom and the back at right angles with the tenon-
saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying^
plane.
Set out the length of the dove-tails with the cutting-gauge, in
accordance with the thickness of the wood ; set out the shape of
the pins with the compasses, set-bevel and square, and cut it out
with the dove-tail saw and firmer chisel, by aid of the mallet.
Draw the sockets from the pins with the marking-point and square,
and cut out with the dove-tail saw and firmer chisel.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 229
6. Fit the pins carefully into the sockets, using the knife and firmer-
chisel.
7. Make the construction for the back with the square and compasses ;
cut out with the turn-saw and smooth with the knife and file.
8. Bore the hole with the centre-bit and bradawl.
9. Set out the length of the bottom, and saw off at right angles with
the tenon-saw, then square the end in the shooting-board.
10. Smooth up the two inside surfaces with the smoothing-plane, and
glue the bottom and the back together.
11. Saw out the sides of the bottom in one piece with the broad-webbed
bow-saw, and plane off with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth
and thickness with the marking-gauge.
12. Draw the shape, and cut with the knife and smooth with the file ;
then fit the parts and nail them together, using the knile,
hammer, shooting-board, and trying-plane.
13. Smooth the outer sides with the smoothing-plane.
14. Finish the entire model with the scraper.
No. 32.-SHUTTLE (Birch).
Metric Length 26 cm. Breadth 4 cm.
English 10| in. by 1| in.
1. Saw out a piece rather larger than the model with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane.
3. Draw the outline and saw out with the turn-saw.
4. Smooth the edges to the line with the spokeshave and firmer chisel.
5. Set out the position of the bowl with the compasses ; hollow out with
the gouge and mallet, and smooth with sand-paper.
6. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the
trying-plane.
7. Draw the curves of the sides on the edge of the work ; saw out with
the turn-saw, and smooth with the knife and the spokeshave.
8. Make the axle with the knife, and fit it into the hole, using the
bradawl and the firmer chisel.
9. Finish with the file and the scraper.
230 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
No. 33.-KNIFE-BOX (Pine).
Metric Length 30 cm. Breadth IT'S cm.
English llf in. by 1 in.
1. Saw out material for the sides in two pieces with the hand-saw, face
and edge with the roughiug-plaue and the trying-plane, set out
the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge.
2. Cut the pieces to the proper lengths with the tenon-saw, and square
the ends in the shooting-board with the trying-plane.
3. Set out the grooves for the handle with the compasses, square, and
marking-gauge, and cut out with the knife and firmer chisel.
4 Set out the length of the dove-tails with the cutting-gauge, according
to the thickness of the wood ; draw the shape of the pins with
the compasses, set-bevel, and square, and cut out with the dove-
tail saw, firmer chisel, and mallet.
5. Draw the sockets from the pins, using the marking-point and square,
and cut them out with the dove-tail saw, firmer chisel, and mallet.
6. Fit the pins carefully into the sockets, using the knife and the
^firmer chisel.
7. Smooth the inner surfaces with the smoothing-plane, then glue the
sides together.
8. Plain joint and glue the bottom.
9. Plane up the handle with the jack-plane and the trying-plane, set-
ting out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge.
10. Make the construction for the handle with the square and compasses,
and cut it out with the centre-bit, turn-saw, knife, and file ;
square the ends in the shooting-board.
11. Smooth the outsides and the top and bottom with the smoothing-
plane.
12. Fit the handle into the grooves, using the smoothing-plane and
the knife.
13. Plane up the bottom with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ;
set out the length and width with the metre-measure and square,
and cut off with the tenon-saw ; then set out the required form
of the edges with the square and compasses, and round with the
smoothing-plane and the file.
14. Nail on the bottom ; sink the heads of the nails with the punch.
15. Finish with the file and scraper.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 231
No. 34. AMERICAN AXE HANDLE (Oak).
Metric Length 48 cm. Breadth 6'5 cm.
English 19 in. by 2f in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood with the hand-saw.
2. Draw the outline, and saw out with the turn-saw.
3. Plane off one side with the trying-plane ; set out the thickness
with the marking-gauge ; make a fresh drawing ; cut off the
edges to the line with the draw-knife, and smooth with the
spokeshave.
4. Draw the shape of both ends, and model with draw-knife, spoke-
shave, and smoothing-plane.
5. Set out the length, and cut off with the tenon-saw.
6. Smooth with file and scraper.
No. 35.-MATCH BOX (Birch).
Metric Length 19 cm. Breadth 8 '5 cm.
English 7i in. by 3| in.
1. Saw out the pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the
trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the mark-
ing-gauge.
2. Plane off the back according to the directions given in No. 29 (4).
3. Make the construction with square and compasses ; cut out with
. the tenon-saw and knife, and smooth with the file.
4. Bore the holes with the centre-bit and the bradawl.
5. Dove-tail and glue according to the directions in Xo. 33.
6. Smooth the under side with the file ; then glue the bottom on with
aid of the hand-screw.
7. Shape the bottom with the knife ; smooth with the file and the
scraper, and nail on to the back.
No. 36.-ROUND STICK.
Metric Length 80 cm. Thickness 3 cm. at one end, and 4 cm. at the other.
English 32 in. by If in. by li in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the trying-plane.
232 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
3. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the trying-plane.
4. Find the middle point at both ends, and describe round each a circle,
the diameter of which corresponds to the given thickness of each
end.
5. Plane (oblique planing) with the trying-plane to the circles ; then
make the stick octagonal with the jack-plane and the trying-
plane.
6. Kound with trying-plane and smoothing-plane.
7. Set out the length, and cut off with the tenon-saw ; then model
the ends with the knife.
8. Smooth with file and scraper.
No. 37. SET SQUARE (Birch).
Metric Breadth 10 cm. Length 20 cm.
English % in. by 4f in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
U. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the thickness with
the marking-gauge, and saw out with the hand-saw.
3. Fix with wooden-pegs, because the object is too thin to be planed
between the bench-pegs.
4. Bevel the edges with the trying-plane.
5. Square the end in the shooting-board.
6. Set out the hole with the square and compasses, and bore with the
centre-bit.
7. Set out the angles and size with the metre-measure, square, and
marking-point ; saw out with the tenon-saw, and smooth with
the smoothing-plane.
8. Set out the divisions with the compasses, square, and marking-
point.
9. Smooth with the scraper.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 233
No. 38. PEN-BOX (Birch).
Metric Length 24 cm. Breadth 7 cm.
English 9\ in. by 2f in. by 2 in.
1. For directions for planing and dove- tailing, see No. 33.
2. Cut out the groove for the lid with the cutting-gauge, knife, and
firmer chisel.
3. Fit the lid into the groove with the smoothing-plane.
4. Smooth the bottom with the smoothing-plane, and glue it on, using
the hand-screw.
5. Smooth the outside with the smoothing-plane and the scraper.
No. 39. STOOL (Pine).
Metric Length 24 cm. Breadth 21 cm.
English 16J in. by 10 in. by 8J in.
I. Saw out the pieces with the hand-saw.
.2. Plane up one side with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Plane the edges with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; and plain
joint.
4. Plane the parts true with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ; then
set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness
with the marking-gauge.
5. Fasten the parts for the feet together with two nails. Cut off the
length at right angles with the bow-saw. Square the upper end
with the smoothing-plane.
6. Set out the inclination of the feet with the set-bevel and cutting-
gauge, and plane off with the smoothing-plane.
7. Make the construction for the feet with the square and compasses ;
cut out with the centre-bit and bow-saw ; and smooth with the
knife and file.
8. Set out the length for the top, and cut off at right angles with the
tenon-saw. Square the ends with the smoothing-plane.
9. Set out the groove for the feet with the compasses, square, marking-
point, set-bevel, and cutting-gauge ; and cut out with the knife,
groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old woman's tooth.
10. To fix the position of the hole, draw diagonals. Draw the outline
of the hole, and cut out with the centre-bit, compass-saw, knife,
and file.
234 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
11. Fit the feet into the groove with the knife, and glue them in.
12. Fasten the side pieces together -with two nails ; make the construc-
tion, and cut out with tenon-saw, turn-saw, smoothing-plane,
firmer chisel, knife, and file.
13. Smooth and fit the side pieces with the trying-plane, and nail them
together ; sink the nails with the punch.
14. Smooth the top and sides with the trying-plane and smoothing-
plane.
15. Finish with the file and scraper.
No. 40.-SQUARE (Beech)
Metric Length 25 cm. Breadth 5 cm.
English 10 in. by 6 in. by 2 in.
Saw out both pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the
trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the mark-
ing-gauge.
Square one end of the stock in the shooting-board with the trying-
plane.
Set out the slot for the blade with the compasses, square, and
marking-gauge, and cut out with the tenon-saw and firmer chisel.
Fit in the blade with the firmer chisel ; then glue the parts together
with aid of the hand-screw.
Smooth the sides and the outer edges with the smoothing-plane.
Set out the length, and cut off at right angles with the hand-saw.
Square the ends in the shooting-board.
Set out the position of the hole with the compasses and square. Bore
the hole with the centre-bit.
Finish with the scraper.
No. 41. DRAWING-BOARD, WITH FRAME (Pine).
Metric Length 54 on. Breadth 44 cm.
English 21^ in. by l?i in.
1. Saw out sufficient material for the board with the hand-saw.
2. Face one side with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Plain joint with the trying-plane, and fit the pieces together ; glue,
and cramp up in the bench.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 235
4. Saw out sufficient material for the frame with the hand-saw ; face
and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; and set out the
breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge.
5. Set out the length of each part of the frame with the metre-measure,
and cut off at right angles with the dove-tail saw. Square the
ends in the shooting-board.
6. For directions for dove-tailing the sides of the frame, see No. 33.
7. Plane up one side and one edge of the board true with the trying-
plane. Set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and plane
off with the jack-plane and the trying-plane.
8. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the jack-plane and trying-plane.
9. Set out the length of the board with the metre-measure, and cut off
at right angles with the hand-saw.
10. Set out the grooves for the clamps with the square, compasses,
metre-measure, marking-point, set-bevel, and marking-gauge ;
and cut it out with the knife, groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old
woman's tooth-plane.
11. Plane up the clamps, and fit them into the grooves with the jack-
plane and trying-plane. Set out the angle of the ends with the
set-bevel. Saw off with the dove-tail saw, and finish with the
smoothing-plane.
12. Set out the slope of the clamps with the metre-measure and com-
passes, and make it with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
13. Square the ends of the drawing-board with the trying-plane,. so that
it fits into the frame.
14. Smooth up the outer edges of the frame with the trying-plane and
the smoothing-plane.
15. Saw out the material in one piece for the blocks of the frame ; saw
them off with the dove-tail saw ; fit them in with the firmer
chisel, and secure them with nails, using the bradawl and the
hammer.
16. Plane up the buttons in one length with the trying-plane, and make
them with the firmer-chisel and knife.
17. Bore the holes with the bradawl, and drive in the screws with the
screw-driver.
IS. Finish with the smoothing-plane and the scraper.
236 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
No. 42. MARKING-GAUGE (Beech).
Metric Length 13 cm. Breadth 4 '5 cm.
English 9 in. by 5 in.
1. Saw out the pieces from a plank with the hand-saw ; face and edge
with the trying-plane, and set out the breadth and thickness with
the marking-gauge.
2. Set out the position of the mortise in the stock with the compasses,
square, and marking-gauge.
3. Cut out the mortise with a broad firmer chisel and a narrow
mortise-chisel, using the mallet.
4. Set out the length of the stock and saw off with the tenon-saw ;
smooth and shape the ends with the firmer chisel.
5. Plane up the spindle with the trying-plane ; fit it into the mortise
with the smoothing-plane, and then cut off the length with the
dove-tail saw ; shape it with the knife.
6. Make the wedges according to the model with the tenon-saw,
smoothing-plane, firmer chisel, and knife.
7. Finish each part with the file and scraper, and put the whole
together.
No. 43. BRACKET (Birch or Alder).
Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 20 cm.
English 16 in. by 71 in.
1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw.
2. Plane up one side of the pieces for the shelf with the trying-plane ;
plain joint and glue.
3. Face and edge the other portions with the trying-plane, and set out
the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge.
4. Fasten together the pieces for the feet with two nails.
5. Make the construction for the feet with the square, compasses, and
metre-measure.
6. Cut them off at the top at right angles with the hand-saw, and
square with the smoothing-plane.
7. Cut out the feet with the turn-saw, firmer chisel, gouge, file, and
scraper.
8. Face and edge the piece for the shelf with the trying-plane ; set out
the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the
marking-gauge. Plane off' with the trying-plane.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 237
9. Set out the length of the shelf.
10. Set out the grooves with the compasses, square, marking-point, set-
bevel, and marking-gauge ; cut it out with the knife, groove-saw,
firmer chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane.
11. Set out the depth of the dove-tail on the feet with the cutting-
gauge ; fit it into the groove with the knife and dove-tail saw.
12. Cut the shelf to the right length with the tenon-saw. Square the
ends with the smoothing-plane.
13. Glue in the dove-tails, and smooth the shelf with the smoothing-
plane.
14. Set out the length of the pillars with the compasses.
15. Set out the size of the dowelled ends of the pillars with a suitable
centre-bit, and round them to fit the holes with the chisel.
Chamfer the pillars with the knife.
16. Fit together the top rails with mortise and tenon, using firmer-
chisel and dove-tail saw. Set out the length with the metre-
measure, and saw off with the tenon-saw.
17. Set out the distance between the pillars with the compasses. Bore
the holes for the pillars with the centre-bit which was used in
setting out the dowels on the pillars.
18. Nail the back rail to the shelf. Fit the side rails and pillars
together, and glue.
19. Fit the coverings of side rails with the chisel, and nail on.
20. Smooth the outer edges of the bracket with the smoothing-plane.
21. Set out the lined depressions in the edges with the marking-gauge,
and grave with the parting-tool
22. Finish with the scraper.
No. 44 PICTURE FRAME (Birch or Alder).
Metric -Length 32 cm. Breadth 28 cm.
English 12 in, by 11 in.
1. Saw out the pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the
trying-plaue ; and set out the breadth and thickness with the
marking-gauge.
2. Set out the length of each side, and cut off at right angles with the
tenon-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board with the
trying-plane.
238 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
3. Set out the half-lapping parts with the square, marking-point, and
marking-gauge, and cut out with the dove-tail saw and firmer-
chisel.
4. Set out the rebate with the cutting-gauge, and cut it out with the
knife and chisel.
5. Smooth up both sides with the smoothing-plane.
6. Try the parts together, and glue.
7. Set out the fluting with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge,
and grave with the parting-tool.
8. Make the hanger with the smoothing-plane, centre-bit, and chisel.
Fit it in with the dovetail-saw and chisel, and glue.
9. Plane up the pyramidal facets for the front of the frame in one
piece with the trying-plane, and cut off each to the right length
with the dovetail-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board ;
shape with the chisel, and glue on.
10. Plane up the back-piece with the trying-plane, and fit into the
rebate with the shooting-board and trying-plane.
11. Finish with the scraper.
No. 45. STAND FOR TOOLS (Pine).
Metric Length 55 cm. Breadth 28 cm.
English 21 in. by II in. by 5 in.
1. Saw out the material for the back and the bottom portions in one
piece with the hand-saw. Plane up one side with the jack-plane
and the trying-plane.
2. Plain joint with the trying-plane, glue and " cramp up :> in the
bench vice.
3. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the
breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the
marking-gauge.
4. Cut off the parts which are to be dove-tailed at right angles with
the tenon-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board.
5. For directions for dove-tailing, see No. 33.
6. Make the construction for the back with the square, compasses, and
metre-measure, and cut out with the turn-saw, centre-bit,
smoothing-plane, knife, and file.
7. Set out the length of the bottom, and cut off at right angles with
the tenon-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 239
8. Glue the parts together.
9. Plane up the other parts with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge.
10. Dove-tail the box according to the model. (See No. 33,)
11. Set out the shape of the front of the box with the square, com-
passes, and marking-gauge ; cut it out with the turn-saw, knife
and file.
12. Fit the box on to the back and bottom, and nail, using the tenon-
saw, firmer-chisel, smoothing-plane, file, and hammer.
13. Smooth up the bottom, the back, and the box with the smoothing-
plane.
14. Make the construction for the bracket supports with the square
and compasses ; cut them out with the turn-saw, firmer-chisel,
knife, and file ; square one end in the shooting-board with the
trying-plane ; glue the supports on at right angles to the back,
and nail.
15. Set out the length of the shelves, and saw off at right angles with
the tenon-saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board ; set out
the holes in the shelves with the compasses and square, and cut
out with the centre-bit and the firmer-chisel.
16. Nail on the shelves.
17. Cut off the pieces for the divisions of the box at right angles with
the tenon-saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board with the
trying-plane ; then fit them in and glue.
18. Finish with the scraper.
No. 46. TEA TRAY (Pine).
Metric Length 35 cm. Breadth 24 cm.
English 9| in. by 6f in.
Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw.
Face and edge the sides with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ;
set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge.
Plane up one side of the bottom with the jack-plane and trying-
plane ; plain joint and glue.
Set out the length of the sides with the metre-measure, and the
required angles with the bevel ; saw off with the tenon-saw ;
square the ends with the smoothing-plane.
240 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
5. Dove-tail the parts according to the model, using the cutting-
gauge, compasses, bevel, square, marking-point, tenon-saw,
firmer-chisel, and mallet.
6. Set out the shape of the end pieces, and cut out with the centre-
bit, firmer-chisel, turn-saw, knife, and file.
7. Glue the parts together.
8. Plane up the bottom, on the side previously planed, with the trying-
plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the
thickness with the marking-gauge ; plane off with the jack-
plane and the trying-plane.
9. Smooth the outside with the smoothing-plaue.
10. Set out the shape of the bottom with the compasses and metre-
measure, and cut out with the smoothing-plane and file.
11. Nail on the bottom, using the brad- awl and the hammer.
12. Shape the upper edge of the tray with the smoothing-plane, knife,
and file.
13. Finish with the scraper.
No. 47.-BOOKSHELVES (Pine).
Metric Length 52 cm. Breadth 45 cm.
English '20J in. by 18 in. by 6 in.
1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the
jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-
measure and the thickness with the marking-gauge.
2. Fasten the side pieces together, with two nails, and make the con-
struction with the square, compasses, and metre-measure.
3. Cut off the lower end at right angles with the tenon-saw, and
square with the smoothing-plane.
4. Cut out the shape with the turn-saw, firmer-chisel, spokeshave,
knife, file, and scraper.
5. Take the side pieces apart.
6. Set out the grooves in the side pieces for the insertion of the shelves
with the compasses, square, bevel, and cutting-gauge, and cut
them out with the knife, dovetail-saw, and firmer-chisel.
7. Set out the length of the shelves and cut off at right angles with
the tenon-saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board with the
trying-plane.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 241
8. Make the notch at the ends of the shelves with the cutting-gauge
and the dovetail-saw ; round the front edge with the smoothing-
plane ; fit into the grooves with the firmer-chisel.
9. Put the parts together at right angles and glue.
10. Smooth the sides and the back edge with the smoothing-plane.
11. Smooth the model with the smoothing-plane and file, and finish
with the scraper.
No. 48.-HOOPED BUCKET (Pine).
Metric Height 20 cm. Diameter 21 cm.
English 8 in. by 9 in.
1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw.
2. Plane the edges of the staves true with the jack-plane and trying-
plane.
3. Set out the curves at both ends of the staves according to the
model ; then work the concave surface of the inner side of the
staves with the Swedish jack-plane and round plane.
4. Set out the thickness of the staves with the marking-gauge ; then
dress down the outer surface with the axe, and finish with
jack-plane and smoothing-plane.
6. Face and edge the piece for the bottom with the jack-plane and
trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge ;
construct the shape with the compasses, and cut out with the
turn-saw and the spokeshave ; set out the inclination of the edge
with the bevel.
6. Set out the groove, according to the thickness of the bottom, with
the marking-point, bevel, and marking-gauge, and cut it out with
the knife and firmer-chisel.
7. Set out the position of the holes for the pins which hold the staves
together, with the square and marking-gauge ; bore the holes
with the brad-awl.
8. Put the parts together, and smooth on the outside with the
smoothing-plane.
9. Put on the hoops, using the punch and the cold-chisel.
10. Set out the distance between the bottom and the lower ends of the
staves with the compasses ; cut off with the tenon-saw, and
smooth with the smoothing-plane and spokeshave.
242 HANDBOOK OF SLO.TD.
11. Set out the height with the metre-measure, cut off with the tenon-
saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane and spokeshave.
12. Construct the shape of the under ends of the staves with the com-
passes ; cut out with the turn-saw and knife, and smooth with
the file.
13. Smooth the inside of the model with the spoon-iron and file, and
finish with the scraper.
No. 49. CABINET (Pine).
Metric Length 66 cm. Breadth 40 cm.
English 16 in. by 16| in. by 10 in.
1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw.
2. Face the pieces intended for plain jointing with the jack-plane and
trying-plane ; then plain joint with the jack-plane and trying-
plane, and glue.
3. Face and edge the top moulds and the lists with the jack-plane and
trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the
marking-gauge.
4. Set out the bevelled edges of the lists with the marking-gauge, and
plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
5. Face and edge the pieces for the sides, bottom, back, panels, and
shelves with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the
metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge, and
plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
-6. Set out the length of the parts to be dovetailed, and cut off at
right angles with the tenon-saw ; square the ends with the
sinoothing-plane.
7. Dove-tail according to the model. For directions see No. 33.
8. Fit the parts together ; level the back edges of the carcase with
the trying-plane, then take the pieces apart.
9. Set out the groove into which the back slides with the cutting-gauge,
and cut it out with the knife and firmer-chisel (or the plough).
10. Glue the carcase together.
11. Cut off the piece for the back at right angles with the tenon-saw,
and fit it into the groove with the smoothing-plane and trying-
plane ; then nail it at the bottom.
12. Smooth the outer sides of the carcase, and the front edge with the
trying-plane and smoothing-plane.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 243
13. Fit the lists and mouldings together, using the square, set bevel,
dovetail-saw, smoothing-plane, and firmer-chisel, and nail them on.
14. Set out the pieces for the door, according to the model, with the
square and marking-gauge.
15. Cut out the mortise-holes with the mortise-chisel, and cut the tenons
to fit the holes with the tenon-saw and firmer-chisel.
16. Fit the door-frame together, using the firmer-chisel. Smooth the
outside with the trying-plane.
17. Set out the groove for the panel with the cutting-gauge, and cut it
out with the knife and firmer-chisel.
18. Fit the panel into the groove with the trying-plane and smoothing-
plane.
19. Put the parts together, and glue.
20. Smooth the frame pieces for the door on both sides, and fit it into
its place with the trying-plane and smoothing-plane.
21. Sink the hinges and fit the lock with the square, marking-gauge,
pin-bit, firmer-chisel, and screwdriver.
22. Smooth the upper and under surfaces with the smoothing-pkme,
and finish the whole article with the scraper.
No. 50. -SMALL TABLE (Pine).
Metric Height 76'5 cm. Breadth 34 cm.
English- 30 in. by 13i in.
1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge the legs with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set
out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the
jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Face and edge the pieces for the rails with the jack-plane and
trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the mark-
ing-gauge.
4. Fix the pieces for the rails into the bench; set out the length
with the metre-measure ; set out the tenons according to the
model with the square and marking-gauge, and cut them with
the tenon-saw and firmer-chisel.
5. Fix the legs into the bench ; set out the mortise-holes, according to
the tenons, with the square and marking-gauge.
6. Cut out the mortises with the mortise-chisel and mallet.
244 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
7- Set out the shape of the legs with the square, compasses, and
marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-
plane ; set out the bevel with the marking-gauge, and make it
with the firmer-chisel and file.
8. Fit the tenons into the mortises with the firmer-chisel.
9. Smooth the inside of the legs with the smooth inj-plane.
10. Set out the block-mortise in the rails with the compasses, square,
and marking-gauge, and cut out with the firmer-chisel.
11. Glue the parts together.
12. Plain joint, and glue the pieces for the top and the shelf.
13. Cut off the legs at the upper end with the tenon-saw to the right
length, at right angles to the rails, then level with the smoothing-
plane ; smooth the upper edges of the rails with the smoothing-
plane.
14. Smooth the outer sides with the smoothing-plane.
15. Face and edge the top and the shelf with the jack-plane and the
trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and
the thickness with the marking-gauge.
16. Fit in the shelf, using the square, marking-gauge, dove-tail saw, and
firmer-chisel.
17. Plane up the blocks to the required breadth and thickness with the
jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out their length with the com-
passes, cut off with the dove-tail saw, and smooth with the
firmer-chisel
18. Hold the shelf close to the bottom rails with the hand-screw ; glue
the blocks to the shelf and the rails.
19. Set out the shape of the top with the square and compasses, and cut
it out with the firmer-chisel, smoothiug-plane, and file.
20. Plane up the blocks for the mortises, and fit them in with the dove-
tail saw and firmer-chisel ; set out their length with the com-
passes, and cut off at right angles with the dove-tail saw and
firmer-chisel.
21. Hold the top in position with the hand-screw ; glue the blocks, and
place them in position.
22. Smooth the edges of the top and the shelf with the smoothing-plane
and file.
23. Finish with the scraper.
(245)
APPENDIX.
As is well known to all students of the principles of educational Slojd,
the " models " are merely the means by which the pupil is made to pro-
duce a useful article at the same time that he practises the " exercises.'"
Hence, the more nearly the articles made conform to the national usage
and personal requirements of those who make them, the more nearly do
they fulfil their intention. Hence also, the more readily the English
Slojd-teacher can discover a substitute for any model included in the
High School series, which does not exactly meet the requirements of
English people, the more closely will he approximate to the ideal Slqjd-
teacher.
What follows may suggest further modifications to the minds of
English teachers.
ALTERNATIVES TO SOME OF THE MODELS IN
THE HIGH SCHOOL SERIES.
No. 9 page 11. As an alternative to this model, the pupil may make
the Dibble, the ninth model in the Secondary School series. Children
who are fond of gardening like it.
DIBBLE (Pine).
Metric Leng 'h 30 cm. Thickness 2*5 cm,
English 12 in. by 1 in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the
thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off.
3. Draw diagonals to find the middle point at each end, and describe
round it a circle, the diameter of which is equal to the prescribed
thickness of the model.
4. Bevel the edges with the jack-plane and the trying-plane to make
the article octagonal.
246
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
5. Make it cylindrical with 'he smoothing-plane.
6. Make the pointed end with the knife.
7. Set out the length, and cut off with the tenon -saw.
8. Round the upper end with the knife.
9. Finish with the file and sandpaper.
No. 12 page 13. As an alternative, the Bench Hook may be made.
BENCH HOOK (Beech).
Metric Length 28 cm. Width 1 cm.
English -11 in. by 2 in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood, 32 cm. long, 9 cm. wide, and 4 cm.
thick, with hand-saw.
2. Plane up face side and face edge at right angles.
3. Gauge to thickness and width, and plane off.
4. Set out the hook on each side, as shewn in diagram.
5. Saw out with the hand-saw, and plane true with jack-plane and
smoothing-plane, paring out the corners with knife and chisel.
6. Saw to right length with tenon-saw, and shoot the ends in the
shooting-board.
7. Round off the ends of the stops with the chisel and knife, and finish
with file and scraper.
8. Bore the hole for hanging with the brace and 1'5 centre-bit (from
each side).
No. 15 page 14. As an alternative, or as an opportunity for extra
practice, the Spoon, which is the fifteenth model in the Elementary
School series, may be made
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 247
SPOON (Birch).
Metric Length 21 '5 cm. Breadth 5 '2 cm.
English -8% in. by 2i in.
1 Saw off a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim with the axe to
the approximate breadth and thickness.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane, and gauge up
5 cm. brca ler than actual size and plane off.
3. Set out the side elevation of the spoon as shown in Construction
Sheet No. 15, PL 5. Saw out the upper side with the hand and
bow-saw, and pare to lines with firmer-chisel and gouge, finishing
with the file.
4. On the upper prepared surface, draw the plan of the handle and the
ellipse of the bowl, as shown in Construction Sheet No. 15,
PI. 5.
5. At the shoulders of the spoon bore two holes with the 2 '9 centre-bit,
then saw out shape with the bow-saw, pare the edges with the
chisel and gouge, and finish with the file.
6. Hollow out the bowl with a large gouge and the spoon-iron. Scrape
with the convex shell scraper, and sandpaper.
7. Draw the under curve and saw out with the bow-saw.
8. Model to right shape with the knife and spoke-shave, and finish with
the file, scraper, and sandpaper.
No. 16 page 15. This model, in the Swedish series, is only 45 cm.
long, is called a " cutting board," and is used in cutting slices of bread
from the small round loaves used in Sweden. By making it 60 cm. long,
the pupil can make it the shape of an English knife-board, but one side
would require to be coated with leather, or some other material, to make
it really useful.
Nos. 22 and 27 pages 19, 23, form together a very efficient contrivance
for pressing flowers, but not of a kind with which English people are
familiar. As a substitute for No. 22, a thoroughly useful and English
model, "a towel-roller and rests" has been suggested; but this model,
though complete in itself, does not furnish practice in all the exercises
included in the flower-press as a whole. The pupil who chooses the
towel-roller should therefore also make the "lid," the twenty-fourth
model 6f the Elementary School series.
248 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
TOWEL-ROLLER and RESTS (Birch).
Metric Length 43 cm. Thickness 4'5.
English n in. by If in.
1. Saw out a suitable piece for the roller with the hand-saw.
2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane, set out the
thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-
plane and trying-plane.
3. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off at right
angles with the tenon-saw.
4. Draw diagonals at each end to find the centre-point, and describe a
circle, the circumference of which is equal to the thickness re-
quired for the roller, and bore the holes for the pegs or dowels
with the centre-bit.
5. With the planes make the roller first octagonal, then sixteen-sided,
and finally round.
6. Make the pegs for the ends in the same manner, glue them in, then
cut off to the required length with the tenon-saw.
7. Finish with file and scraper.
8. Saw out sufficient material for both rests in one piece with the hand-
saw.
9. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane, set out the
thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-
plane and trying-plane.
10. Draw the construction on both sides of the wood, using the square
and compasses.
[Though there is no construction at present specially devised for the
rests of the towel-roller, the teacher or student will easily see by
comparing the construction for the rests of the flower-press with
the rests of the towel-roller, how to modify the former for the
construction of the latter.]
11. Make the holes with the centre-bit, cut out with the turn-saw,
gouge, firmer- chisel, and file.
12. Drill holes for the screws.
13. Finish with scraper.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 249
LID (Pine).
Metric Diameter 34 cm.
English 13^ in. by f in.
1. Saw out the material with the hand-saw.
2. Plane one side of each piece with the jack-plane and trying-plane.
3. Plain joint the edges which are to be glued with the trying-plane,
glue, and cramp up in the bench.
4. Make the surface quite level with the trying-plane.
5. Set out the circular shape with the compasses.
6. Set out the groove for the clamp with the square, compasses, metre-
measure, marking-point, set-bevel, and marking-gauge. Cut it
out with the knife, groove-saw, firmer-chisel, and old woman's
tooth.
7. Plane up the clamp, and fit it into the groove with the jack-plane
and trying-plane.
8. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with
the jack-plane and trying-plane.
9. Saw out the circle with the broad bow-saw. Smooth and shape
the edges with the spokeshave and file.
10. Smooth off with the smoothing-plane.
11. Saw out material for the handle with the hand-saw, and plane to
the required breadth and thickness with the jack-plane and
trying-plane.
12. Make the construction with the square and compasses.
13. Cut out with the turn -saw, firmer-chisel, smoothing-plane, knife,
file, and scraper.
14. Bore the holes for the screws with the centre-bit.
15. Screw the handle on to the lid, using the screwdriver.
251
Lists of Tools required for different numbers of Pupils.
A. List of Tools required for one pupil.
1 Shooting-board.
1 Hand-saw.
1 Half-round file.
2 Haridscrews.
1 Tenon-saw.
1 Round file.
1 Metre-measure or
1 Compass-saw.
1 Scraper.
Rule.
1 Groove-saw.
1 Brace, with set of
1 Mark ing- point.
1 Axe.
bits.
1 Marking-gauge.
1 Knife.
1 Bradawl.
1 Cutting-gauge.
1 Draw-knife.
1 Mallet.
1 pair of Compasses.
4 set (6) Firmer-
1 Hammer.
1 Square.
Chisels.
1 pah- of Pincers.
1 Bevel.
2 Mortise Chisels.
1 Wire-cutter.
1 Saw-set.
| set (6) Gouges.
1 pair flat-jawed Pliers.
1 Saw-sharpening
1 Spoon-iron.
1 pair round-jawed
clamps.
1 Jack-plane.
Pliers.
1 Triangular file.
1 Trying-plane.
1 Screwdriver.
1 Bow-saw.
1 Smoothiug-plane.
1 Glue-pot and Brush,
1 Dove-tail saw.
1 Compass-plane.
1 Grindstone.
1 Turn-saw (broad-
1 Old woman's tooth-
1 Oilstone.
webbed).
plane.
1 Oil-can.
1 Turn-saw (narrower
1 Spokeshave.
Sandpaper.
webbed).
1 Flat file.
B. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul-
taneous instruction of 6 to 8 pupils.
2 Marking- points. 1 1 Bevel.
1 Shooting-board.
2 Handscrews.
6 to 8 Metre-measures 3 pair Compasses,
or Rules. 3 to 4 Squares.*
3 to 4 Marking-gauges.*
1 Saw-set.
1 Saw-sharpening
clamps.
[* With regard to the minimum number of tools required, the reader is
referred to Chapter I., p. 24, and is strongly recommended to provide
each child, if possible, with a complete bench set, viz : knife, jack-plane,
trying-plane, smoothing-plane, square, marking-gauge, compass, rule or
metre-measure, and scraper. TRS.]
252
HANDBOOK OF SLOJD.
2 Triangular files.
set (4) Mortise
1 Brace, with set of
2 Bow-saws.
Chisels.
bits.
1 Dove-tail saw.
set (6) Gouges.
1 Bradawl
1 Turn -saw (broad-
3 Spoon-irons.
3 Mallets.
webbed).
2 Jack-planes.*
2 Hammers.*
2 Turn-saws (narrower
3 Trying-planes.*
1 pair Pincers.
webbed).
3 Smoothing-planes.*
1 Wire-cutter.
1 Hand-saw.
1 Compass-plane.
1 pair flat Pliers.
1 Tenon-saw.
1 Old woman's tooth-
1 pair round Pliers.
1 Compass-saw.
plane.
2 Screwdrivers.
Groove-saw.
2 Spokeshaves.
1 Glue-pot and Brush.
1 Axe.
1 Flat file.
1 Grindstone.
6 to 8 Knives.
2 Half-round files.
2 Oilstones.
Draw-knife.
1 Round file.
1 Oil-can.
set (12) Firmer
3 Scrapers.*
Sandpaper.
Chisels.
C. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul-
taneous instruction of 12 pupils.
2 Shooting-boards.
1 Hand-saw.
2 Round files.
3 Handscrews.
1 Tenon-saw.
6 Scrapers.*
12 Metre-measures or
1 Compass-saw.
1 Brace, with set of
Rules.
1 Groove-saw.
bits.
4 Marking-points.
1 Axe.
2 Bradawls.
8 Marking-gauges.*
12 Knives.
4 Mallets.
2 Cutting-gauges.
1 Draw-knife.
3 Hammers.*
6 pair of Compasses.
1 set (12) Firmer
1 pair of Pincers.
8 Squares.*
Chisels.
1 Wire-cutter.
2 Bevels.
set (4) Mortise
1 pair flat Pliers.
2 Saw-sets.
Chisels.
1 pair round Pliers.
2 Saw-sharpening
set (6) Gouges.
6 Screwdrivers.
clamps.
3 Spoon-irons.
1 Glue-pot with Brush.
4 Triangular files.
4 Jack-planes.*
1 Grindstone.
3 Bow-saws.
8 Trying-planes.*
2 Oilstones.
2 Dove-tail saws.
8 Smoothing-planes.*
1 Oil-can.
2 Turn-saws (broad-
1 Compass-plane.
Sandpaper.
webbed).
4 Spokeshaves.
2 Turn-saws (narrower
1 Flat file.
webbed).
3 Half-round files.
* See note, page 251.
LIST OF TOOLS.
253
D. Complete list of Tools required for the simultaneous
instruction of 12 pupils.
3 Shooting-boards.
3 Hand-saws (tenon-
4 Flat files.
4 Handscrews.
saws).
6 Half-round files.
12 Metre-measures.
1 Groove-saw.
4 Round files.
8 Marking-points.
2 Axes.
6 Scrapers.
12 Marking-gauges.
12 Knives.
1 Brace with set of
2 Cutting-gauges.
2 Draw-knives.
bits.
6 pair of Compasses.
2 sets (24) Firmer
3 Bradawls.
12 Squares.
Chisels.
8 Mallets.
2 Bevels.
1 set (8) Mortise
12 Hammers.
2 Saw-sets.
Chisels.
2 pair of Pincers.
2 Saw-sharpening
1 set (12) Gouges.
1 Wire-cutter.
clamps.
6 Spoon-irons.
1 pair flat Pliers.
4 Triangular files.
12 Jack-planes.
1 pair round Pliers.
4 Bow-saws.
12 Trying-planes.
6 Screwdrivers.
3 Dove-tail saws.
12 Smoothing-planes.
1 Glue-pot with Brush.
4 Turn-saws (broad-
1 Compass-plane.
1 Grindstone.
webbed).
1 Old woman's tooth-
3 Oilstones.
4 Turn-saws
plane.
1 Oil-can.
(narrower webbed).
6 Spokeshaves.
Sandpaper.
254 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD.
The cost of providing the above tools, calculated according to the
prices* now current (in Sweden), is as follows :
List (A) about 50 Kroner. +
.. (B) 85
(O 135
(/>) 20:,
The number of benches required is as follows :
For List (A) 1
,. (7?) 3 or 4
-, (O 8
(D) 12
If double benches are used, only half the number will be required in
the cases of (B), (C), and (D) respectively. As double benches are
cheaper in proportion to single benches, they may in some cases be
preferred to single ones.
Tools of the best quality should always be procured ; they are the
cheapest in the long-run.
It is also desirable that drawings and constructions of the models
should be procured.
In connection with this, it may be mentioned that the annual cost oi
timber and other materials in a small country school in Sweden, where
10 to 15 children receive instruction, is from 10 to 20 kronor, exclusive of
the outlay of replacing worn-out tools.
The same materials tor a class of 16 boys in England would cost about
l 10s. annually. Red deal pine is the best soft-wood for Slojd, and can
be obtained at any good timber yard. Lime-tree, sycamore, and chestnut
all make good substitutes for birch. The two former are very fine in the
grain, and are good for scoops, bowls, etc. They are a little dearer than
birch. American canary wood can also be recommended as a wood
suitable for flat articles ; it is a little harder than deal, and works easily.
This wood can be obtained anywhere, and is not dear.
* The English prices for the tools are given on pages 267-^70.
t The Swedish krona is worth Is. IJd. Eighteen kronor = 1.
INDEX.
Absolute weight of timber, 51.
Accuracy, habits of, 2, 14, 15.
Adjustable bench, 65.
bit, 112.
handscrew, 69.
planes, 102.
Age of the Slojd-pupil, 17.
of trees, 30.
Aim of Slojd, 2.
Air-tubes, 31, 32.
Albuminoids in sap, 34.
Alburnum, 32.
Alder, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50,
52, 53 ; the hoary-leaved, 53.
Alternatives to some of the Models,
245-249.
American Axe-handle, 231.
American Canary-wood, 254.
Angle formed by the bevelled edge
and front face of the plane-iron,
95 ; by the bevelled edges of the
axe, 88 ; by the face and front
side of chisels, 90, 91 ; by the
faces of the Slojd-knife, 88.
Annual layers, concentric, -29-31.
Apple, the, 38, 47, 50, 5G.
Area of Slojd-room, 20.
Articles of luxury, 12.
Articles, modelled, 12
rectangular, 12.
rejected, 15.
sale of, 26.
Artificial light in Slojd-room, 21.
Artisan, work of the, 1.
Asli, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 53.
Aspen, the, 35, 46, 48, 53, 54.
Attachments of saw-blade, 82-84.
Attention, habits of, 2.
Auger-bit, the, 1 10.
Autumn wood, 30-32.
Axe, the, 7, 22, 47, 59, 60, 87, 8S.
Axe-handle, American, 231.
Axle-fitting, 164.
B
Back bench-vice, the, 62,63,64,65,66.
Bark, 28.
Bast, 28.
Beam-compasses, 73, 74.
Beech, the, 33-35, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46-
48, 50-52, 55, 198.
Bench, the, 62-67.
adjustable, 65.
double, 65.
Naas pattern, 64, 65.
Philips' Registered, 66.
single, 62-64.
Trainer's, 66, 67.
Bench drawer, the, 62, 64.
Bench-hook, 246.
Bench-pegs, 62, 63, 66.
Bench-rails, 62, 64, 66.
Bench-top, 62, 64-66.
Bench-well, 62, 64, 66.
Bench-set, the, 24. 251, footnote.
Benches required, number of, 254.
Bench-vice, back, 62, 63, 64, 65, <>6.
front, 62, 63, 66.
Bevel -cut, 128.
Bevel, mitre, 76.
set, 76.
wooden, 76.
Bevelled edge-planing, 150.
Bevelling, 138.
with draw-knife, 152.
256
Birch, the, 32, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46-48,
50-52, 54, 196-198.
Birch, figured, 46.
Bits, 108-112.
Blade of a saw, 77, 80.
Blocking, 180.
mortised, 182.
Blocks, for table tops, 43.
"Blue surface," 40, 43, 44.
Bodily labour, 2, 8.
Body, position of, during work, 21-24,
127, 129, 135, 139, 147.
Plates I. VIII., 184-191.
Bolts, 62, 65.
Book-carrier, 224.
Book-shelves, 240.
Boot-jack, 227.
Boring, with bradawl, 150.
with centre-bit, 136.
with quill-bit, 134.
Bow-compasses, 73.
Bow-saw, the, 83.
broad-webbed, 83, 85.
Bowl for writing table, 218.
Box, 225.
Brace, the, 108, 109.
American, 109.
Swedish, 109.
Bracket, 236.
Bradawl, the, 112.
boring with, 150.
Broad-leaved trees, 30, 31, 33, 52.
Brushes for glue, 120.
Bucket, hooped, 241.
c
Cabinet^ 242.
Caliper-compasses, 74.
Cambium, 28.
Camphor, solution of, 45.
Camphor-tree, 49.
Canary-wood, American, 254.
" Captain " of Slojd-class, 25.
Carpentry, 7, 8.
Slqjd, 6, 7, 21.
Carving-tools, 89, 92, 93.
Carving wood, 8.
Cedar, the, 49.
Cells, wood, 28.
Cellulose, 29.
Centre-bit, the, 22, 110, 111.
boring with, 136.
sharpening the, 111.
Chamfering, 156.
Changes which wood undergoes, 35.
Chestnut, the, 52, 55, 254.
Chisel, the, 7, 89-91.
bent, 93.
firmer, 90.
mortise, 91.
Chiselling, concave, 144.
Chiselling, oblique, 144.
perpendicular, 142.
Chopping, 144. Plate VII.
Chopping-block, 88.
Circular sawing, 156.
Clamping, dove-tail, 154.
Clamps, 43
saw-sharpening, 79.
Class-teaching, 16, 17.
Cleavage of wood, 34.
Cloak-suspender, 226
Clothes-rack, 221.
Colour of wood, 48, 49.
Colouring matter, 34.
Common dove-tailing, 160.
mortise and tenon, 170.
Compasses, 24, 73, 74.
beam, 73, 74.
bow, 73.
caliper, 74.
Compass-plane, the, 102.
saw, 80, 86, 166.
Concave chiselling, 144.
cut, 138.
modelling with the plane, 1 78.
Concealed tenoning, 180.
257
Concentric annual layers, 29-31.
Constituents of sap, 34, 35.
Constructions, geometrical, 13, 254.
Convex cut, 128.
modelling with plane, 140.
sawing, 138.
Corky layer, the, 28.
Cost of providing tools, 254.
timber, &c., 254.
Counter-sink drill, the, 110, 112.
Cover of the plane, 95, 96.
Cracking of timber, 36, 39, 40-43.
Cramp, thumb-screw, 70.
Crayon-holder, 216.
Cross-cut, the, 126.
" Cross-grained " wood, 46.
Cross-section of stem, 27, 28.
Cut, bevel, 128.
concave, 138.
convex, 128.
cross, 126.
long, 126.
Cut, oblique, 128.
plane surface, 140.
Cutting-gauge, the, 73.
Day-book, teacher's, 26.
Deal, red, 254.
Decay of timber, 43.
Dexterity, technical, 3-5.
Dibble, 245.
Dove-tail clamping, 154.
filletster, 103.
saw, 86.
Dove-tailing, 15, 73, 125.
common, 160.
half-lap, 172.
in thick wood, 168.
notched, 176.
oblique, 174.
single, at right angles, 158.
Dowels, 124.
Drawing-board, 234.
Drawings, 13, 254.
Drawings in perspective, 13.
Draw-knife, the, 7, 89.
bevelling with, 152.
modelling with, 156.
Dressing up with the smoothing-
plane, 146; with spokeshave, 146.
"Dry-rot," 44.
Durability of timber, 45, 51.
Duramen, 32.
E
Ebony, 32, 47, 50, 57.
Edge-grooving, half concealed, 176 ;
oblique, 166.
Edge-planing, 130.
bevelled, 150.
Edges, straight, 76, 77.
Educational and practical Slojd, 1.
Educational Slojd, aim of, 2.
Elasticity of timber, 48.
Elder, the, 33.
Elm, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 44, 46-48,
50, 51, 53.
End-squaring, 148.
English handscrew, 69.
marking-gauge, 72.
Exercises, the, 6, 10, 11, 60, 126-183,
196-199, 209-213.
Expansion-bit, the, 111, 112.
Eye of the axehead, 88.
Face of chisel, 90.
Face-planing, 77, 136.
Fermentation of sap, 43.
Fibres of wood, 29.
File, the, 22, 80, 105, 106.
to clean, 106.
to use, 106.
triangular, 80.
File-grade, the, 105.
Filing, 136.
Filletster, the dove-tail, 103.
258
" Finer " kinds of manual work, 8.
Fir, the, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50,
51, 52, 196.
Firmer, the, 93.
the corner, 93.
Firmer-chisel, the, 90.
Fitting in pegs, 148.
Pixing hinges, 172.
Fixing with wooden pegs, 158.
Fixing with screws, 156.
Flat ruler, 227.
Flower-pot cross, 220.
stand, 222.
stick, 215.
Flower-press, 226.
Flower-stick, 215.
Fluting, 170.
Foot-stool, 223.
Frame-saw, the, 78, 82.
Fungi, 44.
Gauge, cutting, 73.
marking, 24, 71, 72, 236.
Gauging, 134.
Gee Cramp, the, 70.
Geometrical constructions, 13, 254.
Glue, 21, 119-123.
liquid, 120.
Glue-brushes, 120.
pot, 120.
Glueing, 121-123, 150.
with aid of handscrew, 166.
Gouge, the, 89, 91.
hollowing out with, 162.
scooping out with, 162.
curved, 93.
front bent, 93.
parting, 93.
spoon, 92.
straight, 93.
Gouging, oblique, 154.
perpendicular, 152.
Gouging with gouge and spoon-iron,
144.
Grain, against the, 49.
endway of the, 49.
length way of the, 49.
with the, 49.
the silver, 33.
Graving with V tool or parting-tool,
170.
Grinding tools, 88, 115.
Grinding- rest, 116.
Grinding-support, 116.
Grindstone, the, 115, 116.
Groove-jointing, 125.
Groove-saw, 86, 87.
Grooving, 73, 87, 166.
Gymnastics, 18, 21, 22.
H
Habits of accuracy, 2, 14, 15.
attention, 2.
industry, 2.
order, 2.
self-reliance, 2, 14.
Half-concealed edge-grooving, 176.
Half-lap dove-tailing, 172.
Half-lapping, 170.
Halving, 125.
with knife, 148.
Hammer, the, 113.
the set, 179.
Hammer-handle, 219.
Hand, use of the right and left, 22.
Handle of a saw, 83.
Hand-saw, the, 85.
Handscrew, the, 68, 69.
adjustable, 69.
English, 69.
iron, 70.
wooden, 68.
glueing with, 166.
Hard wood, work in, 148.
Hardness of timber, 46-48.
INDEX.
259
Harmonious Physical development,
21, 22.
Hazel, the, 48.
Heart-wood, the, 32, 47.
Height of Slojd-room, 20.
Hi-h School series of models, 196.
Hinges, fixing, 172.
Hinge-plates, 112.
Hinge-sinking, 172.
Hold-fast, the, 67.
Hole-rimer drill, 110, 112.
Hollow, the, 102.
Hollowing out with gouge, 162.
with plane, 178.
Hooped bucket, 241.
Hooping, 125, 178.
Hoops for barrels, 89, 178.
Horn of the plane, 94, 99.
Hornbeam, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48,
50, 52.
Housing, 164.
I
Impregnation of timber, 42, 45.
Individual instruction, 16.
Industry, habits of, 2.
Insects, attacks of, 44, 45.
Instruction, individual, 16.
intuitional, 13.
time given to, 18.
Intuitional instruction, 13.
Iron handscrew, the, 70.
plane, the, 100, 101.
Jack-plane, the, 24, 98, 99.
Jointing, 119, 125.
plain, 96, 152.
Juniper, the, 48-50, 52.
Key of bench, 63.
Key-hole saw, the, 166.
Key-label, 216.
Knife, the, 7, 22, 24, 88, 89.
Knife-board, 220.
Knife-box, 230.
Labour, bodily, 2, 8.
Ladle, 225.
Lamp-stand, wall, 228.
Larch, the, 32, 38, 39, 48, 50-52.
Letter-opener, 215.
Lid, 248.
Light in Slojd-room, artificial, 21.
Lignum vitoe, 47, 50, 57.
Lime, the, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 254.
Liquid glue, 120.
Lock-fitting, 174.
Long-cut, 126.
Long oblique planing, 164.
Long- sawing, 130.
Luxury, articles of, 12.
M
Mahogany, 38, 39, 49, 50, 57.
Mallet, the, 113.
Maple, the, 33, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50,
56.
Marker, the, 71, 72.
Marking-gauge, the, 24, 71, 72, 236.
English, 72.
Johansson's, 72.
Landmark's, 71.
Marking-point, the, 71
Match-box, 231.
Measurements, 70, 71.
Medulla, the, 28.
Medullary rays, the, 28, 33.
Metal plates, &c., sinking and fixing,
150.
Method, 9.
Metre-measure, the, 13, 24, 70, 71,
220.
Mitre-bevel, the, 76.
Mitreing, 125, 168.
Mitre-shooting, 68.
2GO
Modelled articles, 12.
Modelling, convex, 140.
Modelling with the draw-knife, 156 ;
with the plane, 140, 178 ; with
the spokeshave, 146.
Models, the, 11-14, 196 ; rejected, 15.
Monitor of Slojd-class, the, 25.
Mortise and tenon, common, 170.
Mortise and tenon-jointing, 125.
Mortise-chisel, the, 91.
Mortised blocking, 182.
Muriatic acid, 45.
N
Naas Slqjd diagrams, 13 (footnote).
Nailing, 123, 150.
Nails, beat, 123.
cut, 123.
Needle-leaved trees, 30-32, 34, 40, 44,
49, 52.
Notched dove-tailing, 176.
Oak, the, 31-35, 38, 39, 46-52, 55, 198.
Oblique chiselling, 144.
cut, 128.
dove-tailing, 174.
edge-grooving, 168.
gouging, 154.
paring, 144.
planing, 146, 164.
sawing, 146.
slotting, 176.
Obstacle-planing, 142.
Oil-paint, 45.
Oils, volatile, 35.
Oilstone, the, 117.
method of using, 117-
Oilstone-slip, 118.
Order, habits of, 2.
Osier, the, 48.
Outside-pan of glue-pot, 119, 120.
Packthread-winder, 216.
Panel-grooving, 166.
Panels of doors, 43.
Paper-knife, 218.
Parcel-pin, 214.
Paring, perpendicular, 142.
oblique, 144.
Parting-gouge, 93.
Parting-tool, bent, 93.
straight, 93.
Pear, the, 39, 47, 50, 56.
Pen-box, 233.
Pen-rest, 217.
Pen-tray, 219.
Peg of a saw, 83.
Pegs, fitting in, 148.
Pegs, fixing with wooden, 158.
Perpendicular chiselling, 142.
gouging, 152.
Perpendicular paring, 142.
Perspective drawings, 13.
Philips' Registered Bench, 66.
Physical development, harmonious,
21, 22.
Picture-frame, 237.
Pin- bit, the, 110.
Pincers, 112, 113.
Pine, the, 32, 34, 196-199.
Pins, wooden, 1 24.
Pith, the, 28, 30, 33, 41.
Plain-jointing, 96, 152.
Plane, the, 22, 61, 93 104.
the adjustable, 10J.
the compass, 102.
the hollow, 102.
the iron, 100, 101.
the jack, 24, 98, 99.
old woman's tooth, 102, I0a
the rebate, 101.
the round, 101.
the smoothing, 24, 60, 96, 100,
101.
INDEX.
261
Plane, the toothing, 123, footnote.
the trying, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100.
Plane, concave, modelling with, 178 ;
convex modelling with, 140;
hollowing out with, 178.
Plane, setting the, 98.
Plane-cover, the, 95, 96.
Plane-horn, the, 94, 99.
Plane-iron, the, 94, 96-98.
Plane sole, the, 94, 97.
Plane-stock, the, 94.
Plane-surface cut, the, 140.
Planing across the grain, 156.
,, with round plane, 156.
with shooting board, 162.
,, bevelled edge, 150.
,, edge, 130.
.. face, 77, 136.
,, long oblique, 164.
,, oblique, 146, 164.
,, stop, or obstacle, 142.
wedge, 156.
Pliers, flat-jawed, 114.
round-jawed, 114.
Plough, the, 104.
Plugging, 150.
Plumbago, 64.
Pointer, small, 214.
Poplar, the, 52, 54.
Pores in wood, the, 31.
Position of the body during work, 21,
24, 127, 129, 135, 139, 147.
Plates!.- VIII., 184-191.
Preliminary exercises, 11.
Projections, 13.
Punch, the, 124.
Punching, 152.
Pupils in Slojd-class, number of, 18.
Quill-bit, 110.
* boring with, 134.
Radial section, 27, 28.
Rails of the bench, 62, 64, 66.
Rasps, 106.
"Raw edge," 117.
Razor-strop, 218.
Rebating, 170.
Rebate-plane, the, 101.
Rebates, dove-tail, 104.
Rectangular articles, 12.
Red deal, 254.
Resin, 32, 35, 43, 45.
Resin-canals, 32.
Rip-sawing, 130.
Roller and rests for flower-press, 223.
Round ruler, 217.
stick, 231.
Round-plane, planing with, 156.
Rowan, the, 50, 56.
Rule, the two-foot, 13, 24, 71.
Ruler, the, 71 ; flat, 227 ; round, 217.
Rules for the Slojd-teacher, 24.
Sand-paper, 25, 107, 108.
Sale of articles, 26.
Sap, the, 28, 34.
constituents of, 34, 35.
crude or ascending, 34.
elaborated, 34
fermentation of, 43.
removal of, 42, 44, 45.
Sapwood, the, 32, 47.
SaAv, the, 22, 25, 47, 61, 77.
,, the bow, 83.
,, the broad-webbed bow, S3, 85
,, the compass, 80, 86, 166.
,, the dove- tail, 86.
the frame, 78, 82.
the groove, 86, 87.
the hand, 85.
the tenon, 86.
the turn, 85.
262
INDEX.
Saw, the wood, 78, 81.
Saw, frame of, 60.
Saw, setting the, 7S-S1.
Saw, sharpening the, 80, 81.
Saw, working the, 84.
Saw-blade, the, 77, 80.
Saw-blade, attachments of the, 82-84.
Saw-cut, width of the, 79.
Saw-peg, the, 83.
Saw-set, the, 79, 80.
Saw-stretcher, 83.
Saw-sharpening clamps, 79.
Sawing, circular, 156.
convex, 138.
long, 130.
oblique, 146.
rip, 130.
up and down, 182.
wave, 140.
Sawing off, 128.
Sawing with compass-saw, 166.
with tenon-saw, 140.
Scoop, 221.
Scooping out with gouge, 162.
Scraper, the, 24, 106, 107.
Scraping, 107, 142.
Screw-driver, the, 112, 114.
Screw-driver bit, the, 110, 112.
Screwing together, 122, 124, 156.
Screws, fixing with, 156.
Screws, wood, 124, 125.
Seasoning of timber, 40-42, 44.
Section of stem, cross, 27, 28.
radial, 27, 28.
tangential, 27, 28.
Self-reliance, habits of, 2, 14.
Septa, transverse, 33.
Set-bevel, the, 76.
Set-hammer, the, 179.
Set-square, 232.
Setting out, 70, 164.
Setting the plane, 98.
Setting the saw, 78-81.
Setting-tongs, 80.
Sharp tools, 24, 25, 61, 115.
Sharpening the centre-bit, 111.
the saw, SO, 81.
tools, SS, 115.
Shooting-board, the, 67, 68.
Shoulder of chisel, 90.
Shrinkage of timber, 36-39, 45.
.Shuttle, 229.
Silver grain, the, 33.
Single dove-tailing at right angles,
158.
Sinking and fixing metal plates, &c.,
150.
Situation of Sldjd-room, 20.
Size of tools, 59, 60.
Slojd, aim of, 1.
educational, 1 .
Slojd and gymnastics, 21.
Slojd-carpentry, 6, 7, 21.
Slbjd-diagrams, Niias, 13 (footnote).
Slojd knife, 88, 89.
Slojd-room, 18-21. Plate IX., 192.
Slotting, 125, 168.
oblique, 176.
Small table, 243.
Smoothing up, 146.
Smoothing with the spokeshave, 146.
Smoothing-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 100,
101.
Smoothing-plane, dressing up with
the, 146.
Sole of the plane, 94, 97.
Specific gravity of timber, 50.
Spindle of marking-gauge, 71-73.
Spokeshave, the, 104.
modelling with the, 146.
smoothing up with the, 146.
^poon, 246.
Spoon-gouge, the, 92.
Spoon-iron, the, 7, 92.
Sprigs, 123.
Spring-wood, 29.
263
Square, the, 24, 74, 75, 76, 234.
. steel, 75.
wooden, 75.
., to test the, 75, 76.
Square-grooving, 164.
Square-shooting, 162.
Squaring, 132.
Stand for tools, 238.
Starch, 34.
Staving, 178.
Steaming, 42, 45.
Stick, round, 231.
Stock of marking-gauge, 71, 72.
of plane, 94.
of set bevel, 76.
of square, 75.
Stool, 233.
Stop-planing, 142.
Straight-edges, 70, 77.
Straight- fibred wood, 29, 46, 94.
Strength of timber, 45, 46.
Stretcher of saw, S3.
String of saw, 83.
Sugar, 34.
Support for grinding, 116.
Support for hand, in jack plane, 93.
Surface cut, plane, 140.
Swelling of timber, 36, 39, 45.
Sycamore, the, 254.
Table, small, 243.
Tang of knife, 88.
of chisel, 90.
Tangential section of stem, 27, 28.
Tannic acid, 35, 43, 45.
Tea-tray, 23f).
Teacher of Slojd, the, 2-6, 61.
Technical dexterity, 3-5.
Teeth of the saw, 77, 78, 81, 84.
Tenon, common mortise and, 170.
Tenon saw, the, 86.
Tenoning, concealed, 180.
Texture of timber, 48.
Thumb-screw cramp, the, 70.
Tightener of saw, 83, 84.
Timber (see also Wood), 27.
., absolute weight of, 51.
colour of, 48, 49.
cost of, 25 i.
decay of, 43.
., durability of, 45, 51.
elasticity of, 48.
hardness of, 46-48.
seasoning of, 40-42, 44.
smell of, 48, 49.
Specific gravity of, 50.
,. strength of, 45, 46.
texture of, 48.
time for cutting down, 40, 44.
toughness of, 48.
., warping of, 36, 40-42.
weight of, 50.
Time given to instruction, 18.
Tools required for different numbers
of pupils, 251-253.
Tools, choice of, 59-61, 254.
,, cost of providing, 254.
cupboard for, 118. Plate XL,
194, 195.
sharp, 24, 25, 61, 115.
sharpening, 88, 115-118.
size of, 59, 60.
stand for, 238.
toy, 59.
Tool-cupboard, the, 118. Plate XI.
Toothing plane, the, 123 (footnote).
Towel-roller and rests, 247.
Trainor's bench, 66, 67.
Trammel-heads, 74.
Transverse septa, 33.
Trees, broad-leaved, 30, 31, 33, 52.
needle-leaved, 30-32, 34, 40, 44,
49, 52.
Trying-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100.
Turning, 8.
264
INDEX.
Turn-saw, the, 85.
Turpentine, 35.
u
Up-and-down sawing, 182.
Varnish, 45.
Vessels, 31, 49.
Vice-tongue, 63.
Volatile oils, 35.
V-tool, 170.
w
Wall lamp-stand, 238.
Walls of the Slojd-room, 20.
Walnut, the, 38, 39, 42, 47, 50, 56.
Warming the Slojd-room, 20, 21.
Warping of timber, 36, 40-42.
Water-capacity, 35, 36.
Wave-sawing, 140.
Wedge of the plane, the, 94, 96, 97.
Wedge-planing with smoothing-plane,
156.
Weight of timber, 50.
absolute, 51.
White beam, the, 39, 46-48, 56.
Width of saw-cut, 79.
Willow, the, 35.
Winding-laths, 76, 77.
Windows of the Slojd-room, 20.
Wire-cutter, the, 113.
Wood (see also Timber), 27.
autumn, 30-32.
colour of, 48, 49.
cost of, 254.
cross-grained, 46.
spring, 29.
straight-fibred, 29, 46, 94.
work in hard, 148.
Wooden bevel, the, 76.
handscrew, the, 68.
Wooden pins, 124.
Wood-carving, 8.
Wood-cells, 28.
Wood-cement, 121.
Wood-fibres, 29.
Wood-saw, the, 78, 81.
Wood-screws, 124, 125.
.Wood-Slojd, 6.
Work in hard wood, 148.
Working the saw, 84.
Yew, the, 33.
THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Santa Barbara
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW.