THE TEACHERS BY OTTO SALOMON SILVER, BURDETT&C91 BOSTON, NEW YORK* 1 CHICAGO, J THE TEACHER'S HAND-BOOK OF SLOJD ffew Manual draining Publications. RAFIA WORK. A course of practical work in Winding, Weaving, Plaiting and Sewing this new material : forming a valuable addition to the list of educative occupations for schools. With 60 beautiful Illustrations. By C. M. SWANNELL. F'cap 410, cloth, 2s. net (Postage 3d.). PAPER MODELLING. A combination of Paper Folding, Paper Cutting and Pasting, and Ruler Drawing, forming an introduction to Cardboard Modelling. Containing over 100 carefully drawn Diagrams, printed in monotint, in addition to the Illustrations of the Completed Models in black and white. By C. M. SWANNELL. Oblong 410, price 2s. 6d. net (Postage 3d.). CARDBOARD MODELLING. A series of 32 Models arranged for use in Elementary and Secondary Schools, Technical Classes, etc., and satisfying the re- quirements for the Advanced Teacher's Certificate of the Educational Handwork Union. By ALBERT SUTCLIFFE, Organiser of Educa- tional Handwork to the Glamorganshire County Council. New Edition. Imperial 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. Prospectus free. THE BOOLE CURVE-SEWING OCCUPATION. A Series of seven Packets of Designs, each containing 12 Cards, 7 by 7 inches, with Directions. By MARY EVEREST BOOLE. 8d. per packet net. TEACHER'S HANDBOOK to above. With four Coloured Plates and numerous Illustrations. By EDITH L. SOMERVELL. F'cap 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. net (Postage 3d.). Pt ospectus Jree. LEAF FOLDING : A New Nature-Study Occupation. For Infants' Schools, Kindergartens, and Junior Departments. By Mrs. BEVERLEV USSHER. With a Model Lesson on the Hart's Tongue Fern, by Miss FRYER, Kindergarten Mistress, Shrewsbury High School. In packet containing a series of 12 Designs with descriptive notes and full instructions, 8d. ; in box containing above set, also set of models on coloured paper, cut out and made up, 48 sheets of coloured papers for stencilling, cutting out and making up, with pair of scissors and pins. 2s. 6d. net. Prospectus free. List of Manual Training, Drawing, or Brushworh Publications free on application. LONDON: GEORGE PHILIP & SON, LTD. THE TEACHER'S HAND-BOOK OF SLOID AS PRACTISED AND TAUGHT AT NAAS CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS AND DETAILS OF EACH EXERCISE. WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE MODELS. By OTTO SALOMON, Director oj the Ndas Seminarium. ASSISTED BY CARL NORDENDAHL AND ALFRED JOHANSSON. TRANSLATED AND ADAPTED FOR ENGLISH TEACHERS BY MARY R. WALKER, AND WILLIAM NELSON, St. George's Training College, Edinburgh. Superintendent of Manual Instruction, Manchester. THIRD EDITION. WITH OVER 130 ILLUSTRATIONS AND PLATES. SILVER, BURDETT & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO. 1907. GEORGE PHILIP AND SON, LTD , PRINTERS, LONDON AND LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND. PREFACE TO THE SWEDISH EDITION. A DESIRE has for some time been expressed in various quarters for a Hand- Book of Slqjd, written from the educational point of view. There have been many indications, especially in connection with Slojd carpen- try, that teachers are not well enough acquainted with the tools em- ployed to select and manage them properly ; and a degree of uncertainty seems to prevail regarding the right method of executing the exercises. Now, it is true that no one can acquire this knowledge from books ; the way to acquire it is by practical, personal experience. Yet, to retain this experience, and apply it, is partially a matter of memory, and, therefore, systematically arranged directions are capable of rendering aid which is not to be despised. A hand-book like the present does not, and could not, supersede personal experience at the bench, or render a course of in- struction unnecessary. Its sole object is to supplement and complete the notes which every conscientious student takes during such a course. Its aim is, therefore, chiefly to strengthen and confirm knowledge already acquired ; but, though it is thus limited in scope, and, on this account, perhaps to be regarded as in some respects incomplete, the writers venture to express the hope that it will be welcomed by many teachers. Books are, perhaps, more frequently published before their time than after it ; and although there have been numerous opportunities for observ- ation in the province of Educational Slojd during the last eighteen years (the Slojd Institution at Naas having begun operations in 1872), the writers are nevertheless uncertain whether the time has really yet come for the publication of definite directions ; or, at least, whether tlieir know- ledge of the subject is yet complete enough to justify their appearance in print. But, if they have been premature, the sole reason is to be found in their desire to satisfy a want, which becomes every year more pressing. The views expressed in the book are, for obvious reasons, in full ac- cordance with the system of instruction followed at Naas. They are the outcome of careful observations, and of experiments tested by practice. Yet, even if these views should be confirmed by many teachers, the writers, knowing that opinions are divided in the matter of instruction in Slojd, as in most other questions, are fully prepared for adverse criticism. Whether this criticism be justified or not, of one thing they are certain, and that is, that in all honesty of purpose and strength of conviction IV. PREFACE. they have striven to fulfil a far from easy task. They trust that others with greater ability will succeed them and do it better. So little atten- tion has hitherto been paid to the subject in question that it has been necessary to generalise and draw conclusions almost exclusively from personal experience. But their motto has been " Prove all things, hold fast to that which is good " ; and much that in the beginning and in the light of comparatively limited experience met with their approval, has, on closer examination, been rejected or modified. But, though this hand-book is necessarily the outcome chiefly of personal observation and experience, the writers have to some extent been able to avail themselves of the knowledge of others, and to refer to competent authorities. This applies especially to Chapter II., for the contents of which frequent reference has been made to the writings of Karmarsch, Thelaus, and others. The Plates at the end, and most of the Illustrations in the body of the book, are executed from original draw- ings made for the purpose. In order to keep within due limits, much has been omitted which, per- haps, ought to have been included. Whether or not, on the other hand, some things have been included which ought to have been omitted, must in the meantime be left an open question. The parts taken by the respective authors are as follows : Chapter I. has been written by Otto Salomon ; Chapters II., III., and IV., by Carl Nordendahl, who also undertook all arrangements connected with the illustrations ; and Chapter V., by Alfred Johansson. Looked at as a whole, however, this little book is the product of united labour, and it contains nothing which is not the result of diligent interchange of thought TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. THIS Hand-book was written originally for Swedish people, and in ac- cordance with the conditions which prevail in Swedish schools ; but the presence of a large body of English teachers at the Autumn Slb'jd Course at Naas has testified for the last four years to the interest taken in the subject by English people, and the latest modifications of the English and Scotch Codes as regards manual training, point to the introduction at no distant date of systematic instruction in some branch of manual work in our state-aided schools. It has therefore seemed desirable that this Hand-book of "Wood Slojd should be translated for English readers with any modifications necessary to make it suitable for English teachers and students. These modifications consist partly of the omission of matter bearing on conditions peculiar to Sweden, and partly of the addition to the text of certain paragraphs, which seemed necessary from an English point of view. Nothing has been taken away or added without careful consultation with Herr Salomon, and without his approval. At the same time, as any additions to the original text have been made at the suggestion of the translators, and as they are responsible for them, these paragraphs have been enclosed in brackets as translators' notes. The whole trans- lation has been revised under the supervision of Herr Salomon and other competent judges at Naas, and the translators therefore trust that the work they have undertaken is a faithful representation of the ~~iews held and acted on at the headquarters of Educational Slojd. In giving this book to English readers, they feel, however, that one or two points of detail call for special explanation, particularly as these touch on the fundamental principles of educational Slojd, and as any misunderstanding as to details might lead to a more serious misunder- standing as to principles. One of these details is the use of the knife in educational Slojd. In the following pages the use of the knife is often recommended where the English carpenter would use the chisel, or some other special tool. The defence of the knife in such cases is to be found in the fact that, while it is the most familiar and the simplest tool which can be put into the hands of the pupil, it is full of potentialities in the hands of the intelligent worker, who can perform with it many exercises which the tradesman executes in a more mechanical way with some other tool. Again, directions are given which differ in other respects from those which the carpenter would give. The work of the slojder is often done VI. PREFACE. not only with different tools, but in a different order from that of the artisan. This inversion of order is a natural consequence of the principle that each article shall be executed entirely by the individual worker. Division of labour, though necessary from the tradesman's point of view, is not permitted in Slojd, deadening, as it does, individuality, and reducing to a minimum the calls made on the intelligence. These and other deviations from the methods of the carpenter are made not in ignorance, but of set purpose, and have their grounds in the com- prehensive principle that all method in Slojd must aim in the first place at the physical and mental development of the pupil, and only at the production of articles in so far as this subserves the primary aim. In close connection with this stands the question of the place occupied in the system by the articles produced, i.e., by the models. Clear as this question appears in the light of the fundamental principles on which educational Slojd is based, the idea still seems to prevail to some extent that, if the principles are accepted, the Niias models must also be accepted unconditionally, and that the two stand and fall together. So far is this irom being the case that, at the present time, one series of Naas models is gradually becoming English in its character, and only waits further sug- gestions from English teachers to become entirely so. , The sole reason that it still contains models which do not entirely fulfil the condition of being familiar and useful in the homes of English children, is that English people have hitherto been unable to suggest satisfactory substitutes. The models are merely the expression of the system, and to carry out that system thoroughly they must be national in their character, and ought, therefore, to vary in their nature with the countries into which Slojd is introduced as a subject of instruction. As this translation, like the original, is the work of more than one writer, it remains to add that the book has been translated into English hy Mary R. Walker, with the assistance of AVilliam Nelson on all points relating to technical knowledge and technical terminology. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THIS edition has been carefully revised, and at the suggestion of Teachers Chapter V. has been entirely re-written, greater detail being given to the de- scription of each Exercise. In addition to this, Plate VI. has been re-drawn, and the "Practical Directions for Making the High School Series of Slojd Models," by Alfred Johansson, of the Nails Seminarium, have been incor- porated, thus making the book complete from a practical point of view. These alterations and additions have been approved by Herr Salomon, and the Translators therefore hope that the Handbook will maintain, in this improved form, its position as the authorised English Guide to the Practice of Slojd. Table of Contents. CHAPTER I. Introductory Remarks. PAGE I. Educational Slojd - 1 II. The Teacher of Educational Slojd 2 III. The special kind of Slojd recommended 6 IV. Method - 9 V. The Pupils - 17 VI. The time given to instruction - IS VII. The Slojd-room - 18 VIII. The position of the body during work - 21 IX. Some rules for the Slojd Teacher - 24 CHAPTER II. Wood or Timber. A. THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF WOOD, Wood- cells, Wood-fibres, Concentric annual layers, Vessels or Air-tubes, Heart-wood and Sap-wood, the Pith and the Medullary Rays, the Sup, Water capacity - 27 B. THE CHANGES WHICH WOOD UNDERGOES 35 I. Changes in the water capacity. Shrinking, cracking, swelling - 36 II. Means of preventing cracking and warping. Season- ing. Precautions necessary to prevent cracking and warping under special conditions 40 III. The decay of timber. Means of preventing decay - 43 C. DlKFERENT KINDS OF WOOD 45 I. Comparison of the qualities of different kinds of wood. The strength, cleavage, hardness, toughness, elasticity, texture, colour, smell, weight, and durability of timber 45 II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees - 51 1. Needle-leaved trees. 2. Broad-leaved trees. 52 viii. CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Tools. A. A CHOICE OF TOOLS 59 B. APPLIANCES FOB HOLDING THE WORK - 62 I. The Bench - - 62 II. Handscrews 68 0. SETTING OUT - 70 I. The Metre-measure 70 II. The Marking-point 71 III. The Marking-gauge 71 IV. Compasses - - 73 V. Squares and Bevels. 74 VI. Winding-laths or Straight-edges - 76 D. TOOLS USED FOR CUTTING UP THE WOOD AND MAKING THE ARTICLES 77 I. Saws 77 1. Saws with Frames - 82 1. The Frame-saw. 2. The Bow-saw - 82 2. Saws without Frames 85 1. The Handsaw. 2. The Dove-tail saw. 3. The Tenon-saw. 4. The Compass-saw. 5. The Groove-saw - 85 II. The Axe - - 87 III. The Knife 88 IV. The Draw-knife 89 V. Chisels, Gouges, Carving tools, &c. 89 1. The Firmer-chisel, and the Mortise-chisel 90 2. Gouges 91 3. The Spoon-gouge and the Spoon-iron - 92 4. Carving tools - 92 VI. Planes 93 1. Planes with flat soles : 1. The Jack-plane. 2. The Trying-plane. 3. The Smoothing-plane. 4. The Rebate-plane 98 2. Planes for the dressing of curved surfaces : 1. The Round. 2. The Hollow. 3. The Com- pass-plane - 101 3. The Old Woman's Tooth-plane, and the Dove-tail Filletster - - - - 102 4. The Plough 104 5. The Iron Spokeshave - 104 VII. Files 105 VIII. Methods of finishing work - 106 1. The Scraper. 2. Sandpaper. IX. The Brace and Bits. 108 1. The Shell-bit. 2. The Centre-bit. X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand-vice, Pincers, and Screwdriver - 112 E. THE GRINDING AND SHARPENING OF TOOLS 115 F. THE TOOL CUPBOARD - 118 CHAPTER IV. Jointing 1 . A. Glueing - 119 B. Nailing 123 C. Screwing together - - 124 D. Jointing by means of the formation of the parts of the joint 125 CHAPTER V. I. The Exercises 126 Plates illustrating various positions, etc. 184 II. The High School Series of Models 196 Practical Directions for making the High School Series of Slojd Models 201 List of tools required for different numbers of pupils - 251 Index - 255 Price List of Tools, Benches, etc. - 267 FIRST CHAPTER. Introductory Remarks. Educational Slojd. By educational slojd is meant the application of slojd to educational purposes. Slojd is not to be confounded with the work of the artisan a mistake which may easily happen if the distinction is not sufficiently strongly emphasized. Speak- ing generally, the 'slojder' does not practise his art as a trade, but merely as a change from some other employment ; and in the nature of the articles produced, in the tools used in their production, in the manner of executing the work, etc., slojd and the work of the artisan differ very decidedly the one from the other. Slojd is much better adapted to be a means of education, because purely economical considerations do not come forward so prominently as must be the case with work undertaken as a means of livelihood. Educational slojd differs from so-called practical slojd, in- asmuch as in the latter, importance is attached to the work; in the former, on the contrary, to the worker. It must, however, be strongly emphasized that the two terms, educational and practical, ought in no way to be considered antagonistic to each other, as frequently happens in popular language ; for, from the strictly educational point of view, whatever is educa- tionally right must also be practical, and vice versa. When the educational and the practical come into conflict, the cause is always to be found in the pressure of adventitious circum- stances, e.g., the number of pupils, the nature of the premises, and, above all, pecuniary resources, etc. To make educational theory and practice coincide is an ideal towards which every teacher must strive. One man, perhaps, may be able to come 2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. nearer to this common ideal than another, but everyone, as he runs his course, must have this goal clearly in view, and in uvery unavoidable compromise he must endeavour to make what ought to be done and what can be done come as close together as possible. What, then, is the aim of educational slojd ? To utilise, as is ' suggested above, the educative force which lies in rightly directed bodily labour, as a means of developing in the pupils physical and mental powers which will be a sure and evident gain to them for life. Views may differ as to what is to be understood by a " cultured " or an " educated " man, but how- ever far apart in other respects these views may lie, they all have at least one thing in common, i.e., that this much dis- puted culture always appears in its possessors in the form of certain faculties, and that therefore the development of faculty, so far as this can be directed for good, must enter into all educational efforts. This being the case, the influence of slojd is cultivating and educative, just in the same degree as by its means certain faculties of true value for life reach a develop- ment which could not be attained otherwise, or, at least, not in the same degree. Educational slojd, accordingly, seeks to work on lines which shall insure, during and by means of the exercise it affords, the development of the pupil in certain definite directions. These are of various kinds. As the more important, it is usual to bring forward : pleasure in bodily labour, and respect for it, habits of independence, order, accuracy, attention and industry, increase of physical strength, development of the power of observation in the eye, and of execution in the hand. Educational slojd has also in view the development of mental power, or, in other words, is disciplinary in its aim. The Teacher of Educational Slojd. The quali- required That no one can teach what he does not know himself is a proposition the validity of which cannot be called in question. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3 It is equally incontestable that it is by no means sufficient to be in possession of a certain amount of knowledge and dex- terity in order to follow with success the important and responsible calling of a teacher. Teaching is an art quite as difficult as any other, and for its practice certain qualifica- tions are demanded which are far from being in the possession of all. The teacher must not only know ivhat he has to communicate, but also how he ought to do it. Nor is this all ; for if all instruction is in reality to be education, the teacher must rise from the instructor to the educator; he must not only understand how to impart knowledge and dexterity, but also how to impart both in such a manner that they make for the mental development of the pupil, especially with regard to moral training. But as we cannot give to others what we do not ourselves possess, it must necessarily follow that only he who is himself educated can have an educative influence over another. Therefore, exactly in pro- portion to the educative aim of the teacher does his person- ality enter as an important factor into the work of instruction. Now, since slojd is to be regarded more as a means of education than a subject of instruction, in the common acceptation of the term, the first demand of all made upon the teacher who undertakes it must be that he should feel himself to be an educator, and strive without ceasing to improve himself as such. This, however, is not sufficient. To be a teacher of educational slojd, it is necessary to be familiar with its aims, and with the means by which these are to be attained. One of these means is the possession of what is called technical dexterity, i.e., dexterity in the right use of tools, and in the accurate production, by their means, of articles involving the exercises required by the particular kind of slojd in question. The importance of this dexterity must neither be over-esti- mated nor undervalued. Unfortunately one or other of these errors is frequently committed. On the one hand it is maintained that if a person can only prove that he possesses Technical technical dexterity in sufficient degree, i.e., if he himself can dextent v- 4: HANDBOOK OP SLO\TD. produce good work, he thereby fulfils one of the most impor- tant requirements of a good slb'jd teacher. From this point of view the skilful artisan or "Slb'jder" would be the best teacher of slb'jd, because he can with justice be held to possess the best technical qualifications. Past experience, however, has shown that, as a rule, the skilful artisan or " slb'jder " is not the best person to fill the responsible post of the slojd teacher. This follows from the very nature of the case. The artisan has acquired his technical dexterity in a totally different way, and for a totally different purpose, from what is required in educational slojd. Technical dexterity is the principal thing with him. It is before every other consideration a source of income. In educational slojd, on the other hand, it is to be regarded only as one means among many whereby the teacher is able to bring an educative influence to bear on the The artisan P U P^ S - ^"he ar ti san who has great technical skill is too often at a teacher tempted while teaching to use this skill in a way which may ofsisjd. k e Qr ne advantage o f the work with which the pupil is occupied, but is certainly not for the advantage of the pupil himself. His " instruction " consists not infrequently of work which he does for the pupil, with results which are excellent from the economical point of view, but which are very objectionable in their educational aspect. Partly for this reason and partly because the artisan often does not under- stand how to maintain really good discipline with children ; and because, moreover, he is uji acquainted with the general principles which apply to all instruction, it has been remarked, that where instruction in slojd is concerned, even a very capable artisan often falls far behind the results attained by those who are in his opinion little more than bunglers, and who may be far inferior to him in technical dexterity. At the same time, it is by no means intended to convey the idea that the skilled artisan may not be a good teacher of slojd provided he understands the difference between slojd and his trade, and is in possession of the other necessary qualifications but it is maintained that in such a case it is less because INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5 he is an artisan than in spite of it, for the first condition is that he must renounce the traditions of his craft, and become penetrated by educational ideas. But the truth here, as in so many other cases, lies between the two extremes. It is as hurtful to under-estimate tech- nical skill as it is to over-estimate it. Therefore, let no teacher imagine that he can successfully undertake instruc- under- tion in slqjd With slight and superficial knowledge on the e *f^ purely technical side. It will soon and surely be made clear importance to him that this is not the case. If he has not himself the %% necessary technical dexterity for his purpose, it will be difficult, indeed almost impossible, for him to make clear to his pupils how they are to handle their tools and execute the work prescribed. Neither will he be able in an efficient way to supervise their work and criticise the quality of what they produce. The feeling of self-mastery which is so essential for the teacher when he stands face to face with his pupils, forsakes him, and the educative results which he intends to attain by means of slojd are diminished in proportion. It is most important that this should be laid down once for all, because some teachers possibly imagine that the technical skill necessary for teaching may be obtained by attending one or two slojd courses. This is by no means the case, and the organisers of such slojd courses are the first to understand and to insist upon the fact, that they can only aim at laying a foundation on which students may afterwards build by means of independent work. Just as little as one can learn to play on any instrument by merely taking lessons for a given time from a music teacher, can skill in the management of tools be acquired and maintained without continuous and earnest practice. The teacher who feels real interest in slojd must therefore, on his own account, endeavour to improve in respect of technical skill, and this will prove a two-fold gain, because the bodily exercise affords a healthy change from the mental work with which the time of the teacher is chiefly filled. 6 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. To summarise what has been said in the foregoing: the teacher of educational slojd must above all things have the habit of mind which is indispensable for the right perform- ance of the teacher's work ; his personality must be such as renders him fit to be a teacher ; he must know the objects of educational slojd and the means by which they are to be attained ; and finally, he ought to have sufficient dexterity to handle the tools and to execute accurately the work which is incidental to the course of instruction. These are the de- mands made on him ; may he strive to meet them. The special kind of Slojd recommended. Various materials, e.g., wax, clay, paper, pasteboard, wood, metal, &c., may be used in educational slojd. Wood, however, is for several reasons the most suitable material ; hence vjood- slojd has been the most popular of all, both in schools and for private instruction. As the name implies, wood-slojd means "slb'jding" in wood. This, again, includes several different kinds of work. Amongst these, however, it is the so-called slojd-carpentry which best fulfils the conditions required when instruction in slojd is given with educational ends in view. It is adapted to the mental and physical powers of children. By enabling them to make a number of generally useful articles, it awakens and sustains genuine interest. It encourages order and accuracy, and it is com- patible with cleanliness and tidiness. Further, it cultivates the sense of form more completely than instruction in drawing does, and, like gymnastics and free play, it has a good in- fluence upon the health of the body, and consequently upon that of the mind. Additional advantages are, that it is excellently adapted for methodical arrangement, comprising as it does a great number of exercises of varying degrees of difficulty, some of which are very easy ; and that it gives a considerable degree of general dexterity by means of the many different tools and manual operations which it intro- duces. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 7 We must not confound slojd-carpentry with the work done by the carpenter, properly so-called. This is the more neces- Jjjj^ r . sary because great confusion of ideas prevails on the subject ; pentry and not least, remarkably enough, amongst those who are in- terested in slojd, or give instruction in it. It must be borne in mind that although slojd-carpentry and ordinary carpentry have something in common, inasmuch as the same raw material (wood) is employed, and to some extent the same or similar tools are used, yet they differ one from the other in several very important respects. For example, the articles made in slojd-carpentry are in many cases quite different from those which fall within the province of the carpenter. The articles made in slojd-carpentry are differentiated partly by their smaller size, for the articles made in workshops are generally much larger ; partly by their form, for they are often bounded by variously curved outlines, whilst articles made by the carpenter are generally rectangular or cylindrical. This is especially shown in the case of the many different kinds of spoons, ladles, scoops, handles, &c., &c., which form such an important element in slojd-carpentry. Further, though many tools are common to both kinds of work, there are also considerable differences in this respect. Several tools which are seldom or never used in the car- penter's workshop, e.g., the axe, the draw-knife, and the spoon-iron, occupy an important place in slojd-carpentry. The most characteristic tool in slojd-carpentry is, however, the knife, and by the use of this, his chief instrument, the slojder may always be distinguished from the carpenter, whose favourite tool is the chisel, and who, as seldom as pos- sible, and never willingly, takes the knife in his hand. In carpentry, on the other hand, use is made of a number of tools more or less necessary, which are quite unknown to the slojder, who works for the most part under more primitive conditions. Distinct differences can also be pointed out in the manner of executing the work (for while division of 8 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. labour is practised in carpentry, it is not permitted in slb'jd) and in the manner of using the tools. It AY ill be seen from the foregoing that much may pass under the name of instruc- tion in slojd which, properly speaking, ought simply to be called instruction in carpentry. It is most important that this distinction should be maintained, because otherwise edu- cational slojd will by degrees be lost in instruction in car- pentry as a trade. In some schools where slojd is taught we find turning and wood-carving as well as slbjd-carpentry. This, however, is not so common now as it was a few years ago. People seem to be coming more and more to the conclusion that both occu- pations are more suitable for the home than for the school. Neither of them is to be commended from the hygienic point of view. As regards turning, the difficulty of procuring suitable turning-lathes presents in many schools a serious obstacle to its general use ; whilst the necessity of perform- ing preliminary exercises, apart from the actual objects made (a proceeding of very doubtful educational value) places turning quite in the shade as compared with slbjd-carpentry. Wood carving, on the other hand, does not involve that energetic bodily labour which is of such great importance in connection with educational slojd. Again, wood-carving, classed as it is with the so-called " finer " kinds of manual work, has a tendency to intensify in the child that contempt for rough bodily labour which has already unfortunately done so much social harm. The danger of this is however greatest when the children are imprudently permitted to ornament objects which they have not made. When wood- carving is used, not as a separate kind of slojd, but in order to complete slb'jd-carpentry, and when ornamentation is only allowed after the children are able in a satisfactory way to execute the articles to be embellished by its means, the dis- advantages are minimised. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, Method. Systematic action, directed towards an end, is termed The method. Every form of human activity, in so far as it is meaning of concerned with the attainment of a definite preconceived end, must therefore be regulated according to method, and this universally applicable rule holds good in the case of that activity which is directed towards instruction and education. Hence great importance has always been attached to methods of instruction. In fact, in many cases too much attention has been paid to the study of special methods. Not that we agree with those who, by strange confusion of ideas, regard the rules of scientific method as opposed to practice, saying : " We are practical people, and therefore we mean to teach in our own practical way, not to follow the theoretical methods of others." They thereby show that they do not understand how, in the very nature of things, there can be only one really practical mode of procedure, and that is the method which is in harmony with sound theory,and that any other way of going to work must be more or less unpractical. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that many teachers misunder- stand the true significance of method to such a degree that it becomes the Alpha and Omega of the work. They forget that, strictly speaking, method is merely a tool though a very necessary one in the hand of the teacher ; and that, just as little as a tool can execute a piece of work of its own accord, just so little can method ever be the chief factor in instruc- tion. The teacher's power to apply method is the determining factor. A good method in the hands of a truly capable teacher will always give better results than a bad method. The best method is of comparatively little value if the teacher is inefficient. It will now be clear that slb'jd, whether regarded as a subject of school instruction in the usual sense, or as a purely disciplinary subject, must be treated according to rules of 10 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. method. The ordinary rules of method can be applied to it ; and chief amongst them those which are generally regarded as fundamental principles, namely, that instruction shall proceed gradually from the more easy to the more difficult, from the simple to the complex, and from the known to the unknown, it being always understood that the starting point is sufficiently easy, simple, and well-known. The In drawing up a system of method in slb'jd teaching it is exercisu. Difficult to find any fully logical principle of arrangement elsewhere than in the exercises. By exercises in this connection is to be understood that manipulation of the materials by means of one tool or more in a definite way, for a definite object. Now these exercises can be arranged in a series, in conformity with the rules given above. This could not be done so easily if the tools themselves constituted the principle of arrangement, because, e.g., in the case of two tools, some exercises performed with the one may be easier, and some on the contrary may be more difficult, than the exercises which are performed with the other. It is obvious that the models cannot constitute the principle of arrange- ment, because they are merely the incidental expressions of the exercises. When, therefore, it is said that the models in a series are graded from the more easy to the more difficult, it is meant that the exercises occurring in these models proceed hi this way. The exercises themselves are partly simple partly complex : the latter consisting of two or more simple exercises in combination. The given number of exercises entering into the work of special kinds of slojd depends more or less upon opinion, for it often happens that what is regarded as one exercise might be analysed into two or more, or might be considered as a part of a more complex exercise. Hence the eighty-eight exercises in slojd-carpentry enu- merated further on, might easily be increased or decreased in number, depending entirely upon how far it is considered advisable to carry this analysis or synthesis. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 11 The exercises, their number, their names, and their order Method of are not, however, the only factors which determine method "*&* in slojd. The way in which they should be taught must be exercises. included. There are different modes of procedure. One of these is to teach the exercises one after the other, simply as isolated or " abstract " exercises, until they have all been per- formed. This may be justified from the point of view of method in general, but opinions may differ, not to put it too strongly, as to its educational soundness. Another mode of procedure is to apply each exercise, after it has been practised separately or in the abstract, in the construction of a given object or model. The exercises themselves are thus given as preliminary practice. This, though certainly a step in the right direction, does not fully satisfy the demands of educa. tional method, which requires us to proceed from the con- crete to the abstract, and not vice versa ; and, moreover, such unnecessarily round-about methods cause the loss of valuable time which might be better employed. Method in slojd only becomes educationally sound when the pupil, by constructing objects which can be used in everyday life, acquires dexterity in performing the exercises as they occur. To take an illus- tration from language teaching, the first mode of procedure corresponds to the learning of abstractions in the form of grammatical rules ; the second corresponds to the application of these rules in sentences after they have been learned ; the third corresponds to the method by which the pupil is led up, through sentences or combinations of sentences, to the laws of language which in them find expression. There are, however, other fundamental principles which Arrange- must be adhered to in arranging a series of models in such a J^^ a way that the exercises involved shall follow each other in models. methodical order. The general nature of the models and the manner in which the exercises ought to be introduced in them must be considered. In choosing a series of models the best plan is undoubtedly to consider local conditions, and endeavour to make it exactly representative of articles which can be 12 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. used in the homes of the pupils. By this means interest in the instruction given is better aroused and maintained, not only in the pupils, but and this is quite as important in the parents, and thus the bond between the school and the home is strengthened.* Opinion is now probably almost unanimous that all articles of luxury should be excluded. (Such articles, however, are by no means synonymous with articles intrinsi- cally beautiful.) The interest of the pupils is also heightened if the first articles presented to them are no larger or more difficult than can be executed satisfactorily in a comparatively short time. The first models ought, on this account, to include few exercises ; and it may be laid down as a general rule that, as far as possible, each successive model should include only one new exercise, or two at the most. In the arrangement of the series, attention must also be paid to alternation in the form of the models. The articles which are included in slojd- carpentry consist partly of " modelled " articles bounded by curved surfaces, and partly of rectangular articles bounded principally by plane surfaces. It is very important that any arrangement of models in a series should present good alter- nation between these two kinds, and, generally speaking, a modelled object should follow a rectangular object, and vice versa. As a result, each model acquires to some extent the * As some confusion of ideas appears to prevail in England between the importance of the educational principles on which slojd is based, and the models in which these principles are exemplified, it seems desirable to draw the attention of readers to this passage. It indicates sufficiently clearly that, in whatever country Swedish slojd may be adopted, the more familiar and the more serviceable the articles made are to the inhabitants of that country, the more nearly will the method of teaching conform to one of the great principles of educational slojd, viz. : that the pupil's interest shall be excited and sustained by the making of articles which he himself or the other members of his family can use. Many of the models at Nails have, within the last year or two, been either modified or changed entirely in order to render them suitable for English students, and it is incumbent upon every slojd teacher to make his own series of models conform to the ideas and requirements of the people among whom he teaches, keeping in view the general principles of method which would apply to any series. TBS. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13 charm of novelty, and this still further increases in the pupils that interest for their work which is of the very greatest importance as regards the educational benefits to be derived from slb'jd. The manner in which the details and finished appearance intuitional of the objects he is to execute are made clear to the pupil, ^ ure must be included within the province of method. It is instruction. assumed that in this, as in all other instruction, it is of the highest importance that the teacher strives to make his teaching as intuitional as possible. To this end, in the elementary stages, the models should always be executed after drawings and models, and in the first instance invariably after models which are placed before the pupils for accurate imitation. As, however, it has been proved to be difficult, in many cases indeed almost impossible, to preserve even a well-exe- cuted wooden model in its original shape and size, and as, for other reasons, it is highly advantageous to connect instruction in slb'jd with instruction in drawing, the model should be copied to as great an extent as possible by the aid of geo- metrical constructions, sufficiently simple to require in the pupil only a slight acquaintance with geometrical drawing. In addition to this the most important measurements of the model's dimensions should be given, in order that the pupil may make use of his rule or metre-measure.* By degrees drawings in perspective and projections may be introduced as patterns together with the model; and finally, when the pupil has reached the highest stage, and has attained suffi- cient dexterity in slojd and in the interpretation of a drawing, the model may even be taken away, and the work executed * Two Editions of the "Niias Slojd Diagrams" on cards have been pub- lished by George Philip & Son. One set has metric measurements, and the other English measurements, so that either the metric or the English rule can be used in the Classes. 14 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. after a drawing only. This may be regarded as the final aim in elementary instruction in slojd. .>-; in their places, care being taken that all the saws are loosened. the *^'' The tools should be counted by the " captain," or monitor, order. appointed for the class, after which the teacher sees that everything is in its right place. The wood and the pieces of work are put away tidily. The benches are brushed and made clean with a brush which should hang by the side of each bench, and the floor is swept. The shavings, however, need not be carried away oftener than once or twice a week. 26 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. When the finished pieces of work have been " passed " by the teacher, a label should be stuck on, and on this label should be stated the number of the model and its name, the name and age of the pupil, and the number of hours spent in making it. If it is considered desirable to give every piece of work a value, this also may be mentioned on the label. rainng the Although from the educational point of view it is advisable work home that the pupils should at once take home tneir work, it is generally for other reasons more expedient that it should remain in the school in the care of the teacher until it can be exhibited publicly at an examination or terminal break - ing-up. After this has taken place, the articles are to be re- garded as the property of the makers. The sale of work for the benefit of the school should never be thought of. A very good plan is to allow the pupils to take home their work as soon as it is finished, in order to show it to their parents, on the understanding that, after they have seen it, it is brought back to the school, to be kept there as long as necessary. Daybook. The teacher should enter in a day-book, arranged for the purpose, careful notes regarding the pupils taking part in the slojd lessons, their presence and absence from lessons, the articles they make, etc., etc. 27 CHAPTER II. Wood, or Timber. The material generally used in slqjd-teaching, and most suitable for the purpose, is icood or timber. Intelligent knowledge of the material used is as essential to the teacher as acquaintance with the tools required. He ought, e.g., to be familiar with the qualities which render different kinds of wood more or less appropriate for different purposes. Accordingly the description of the tools given in Chapter III. is here preceded by a brief account of the growth of trees ; of the most important properties of wood, and the principal changes which it undergoes; and by a comparison of the technical qualities of the various kinds of wood in common use. A. The Structure and Composition of Wood. Wood or timber forms the. greater part of the stems and branches of trees and shrubs. To examine the inner structure of a tree-stem, a section A t ret . st m may be made at right angles to the direction of its length, * B lection ' i.e., a transverse or cross section; or from the pith to the bark in the line of one of the radii and parallel to the direc- tion of the length, i.e., a radial section ; or a third section may be made at right angles to both the preceding as a tangent to the circumference, i.e., a tangential section. 28 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. On examining the cross-section of a stem we find an outer ring, the bark, consisting of a corky layer, the outer bark, and the inner bark or bast; next comes the wood, consti- tuting the chief portion of the Fis j Thrce sections o{ a trec . stenij at right stem, and in the angles to one another. ppntrnl r>ar-f io o T - cross section, K. radial section, Tg. tangential section. Central part IS a Jf . me dulla or pith, B. Bark, C. Cambium, ao. Concentric /ana1 -filial TTT*4-V> annual lavers, mm. Medullary rays, ab. thickness of medullary Canal, failed With rayS) cj . e ight of medullary rays, vessels. soft cellular tissue called the pith or medulla. Between the wood and the bast lies a narrow, light-coloured ring, the Cambium. This consists of a layer of embryonic cells, from which are developed on the one side wood, and on the other bast, and it is here that the growth of the tree takes place. The Cambium forms the soft, moist, spongy mass which may be seen under the bark in spring when the sap begins to rise. It consists of microscopic cells, some of which are long, prismatic, and pointed at the ends, while others are shorter and have ends which terminate abruptly. The inner bark and wood are developed chiefly from the long cells, the medullary rays from the short ones. Wood Cells. The forma- The young cells from which wood is developed have at which nourishes the growing tree, and which circulates with ease from one thin walled cell to another, and thus permeates the whole of the tissue. Gradually the walls of the cells become thicker ; the cell contents solidify ; the sap flows less WOOD, OR TIMBER. 29 and less freely ; the whole tissue assumes the characteristics of wood, and ceases to take part in the circulation and assimi- lation of the sap. The cellular tissue consists chiefly of cellulose, the chemical constituents of which are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Wood Fibres. The cells from which wood is developed are principally the long-pointed cells. They lie close together and overlap one another at the ends, thus forming minute tubes or fibres. The zone of wood in any stem consists of these fibres massed together, and extending in the direction of the length of the stem. The connection between separate fibres is often very slight, as is shown by the ease with which they may be separated. In trees of regular growth the fibres are straight and parallel. Wood of this kind is called " straight fibred." It is easily split. This is not the case with wood in which the fibres are crooked, or twisted about one another, as in gnarled or mis-shapen trees. The fibres in the root, the lower part of the stem, knotty branches and rough excrescences are always crooked, and sometimes they are twisted and involved in the most remarkable way. This gives rise to the peculiar speckled and veined appearance which is so highly prized in some kinds of wood. The bast also consists of fibres, but they are longer and usually tougher than wood-fibres. Concentric Annual Layers. A new layer of bast and a new layer of wood are formed annually. This new formation goes on rapidly in spring and early summer, when vital activity in the tree is at its height. The cells are then large, and the wood formed from them, i.e.? spring wood, is soft and loose in texture and light in colour. After the tree has budded the formation of wood goes on for 30 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. annual layert - a time, but less actively. The cells diminish in size and in diameter, and are more closely packed together. The wood formed at this period autumn wood is generally darker in colour and closer in texture than spring wood. There are fewer vessels (see p. 31 ) in autumn wood ; in spring wood, on the contrary, they are numerous and quite visible as pores. In consequence of the characteristics of autumn wood, the boundary line between two periods of vegetation is clearly defined, and it is easy to distinguish the concentric annual layers which mark each yearly increase in growth. These layers are most sharply defined in needle-leaved trees and in some broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the elm.* They are less conspicuous in the birch, the aspen, the alder, etc., and in some cases it is even difficult to distinguish them at all. As a new layer of wood is formed every year, the age of a tree may be determined by the number of layers. In the tropics, where vegetation goes on during almost the entire year without any well-marked period of rest, the con- centric annual layers disappear entirely. The breadth of the concentric layers varies in different trees. In some cases they are more than 1 inch broad, in others scarcely -^ inch. Their breadth may vary even in the same stem, depending on the more or less favourable weather of successive seasons. The layers on the side exposed to the south are often broader than those on the north. In old needle-leaved trees we usually find very nar- row layers nearest the pith; beyond these the layers widen for the greater portion of the stem, and then contract once more until the outermost ones are often so narrow that they can with difficulty be distinguished by the naked eye. See Fig. 2. * The terms needle-leaved trees and broad-leaved trees used throughout this book may be taken as practically synonymous with Conifers and Dicotyledonous trees. TRS. ig. 2. Showing mannerof growth in needle - leaved trees. WOOD, OR TIMBER. 31 Narrow annual layers betoken good wood in needle-leaved ciose and trees ; but the opposite holds good in the case of broad-leaved loose timbfr ' trees with large pores, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the elm. Here broad annual layers are characteristic of a good quality of wood, because the pores which render the wood open in the grain occur chiefly in that portion of the layer which is formed in early spring, and are less numerous in the closer tissue of the autumn wood. See Fig. 3. Fig. 3. Fir. Narrow layers. Broad layers, hard resinous loose fibred timber. timber. Oak. Narrow layers, Broad layers, loose fibred hard timber, porous timber. Vessels or Air-tubes. When a cross-section of a stem is carefully examined a number of minute holes or pores are seen. These are the mouths of vessels or air-tubes, which penetrate the whole substance of the wood, parallel with the fibres. Their func- tion is to enable the air to circulate in the stem, and they The porous- are found even in wood of the closest grain, rendering it nestofwood * porous. Vessels are most numerous in the wood formed early in spring, and very few are found in autumn wood, a circumstance which helps to make the annual layers more distinct. According to the size of these vessels wood is said to loefine or coarse-grained. Each kind of tree has something peculiar to itself in the manner of distribution, the number, and the size of its vessels. They are most marked in the oak, the ash, and the elm, giving to the wood of these trees, when seen in vertical gO HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. section, its striped or streaked appearance. In a number of trees on the other hand, e.g., the birch, the vessels are hardly visible, and they are distributed pretty equally over the con- centric annual layers, making it difficult to distinguish consecutive layers. Needle-leaved trees have no air vessels, but have channels Ruin. filled with resin, i.e., resin-canals. These occur chiefly in the autumn wood, to which they give a darker colour. Heart-wood and Sap-wood. In many kinds of trees, when the stem is sawn across, a considerable difference may be observed between the appear- ance of the inner and older, and the outer and younger concentric annual layers. The inner layers are usually firmer and closer in texture and darker in colour than the outer, which are less compact, lighter in colour, and full of sap. The neart- The firmer, darker wood is called heart-wood or duramen ; ^we *k e looser, lighter wood, sap-wood or alburnum. As a rule part of the the latter forms a comparatively narrow ring round the former, which constitutes the greater portion of the stem, and which, when sound, is the valuable portion on account of its firmer texture and greater durability. The proportion which the heart-wood bears to the sap- wood varies in different kinds of trees. For example, in the case of broad-leaved trees, the proportion is largest in the oak, the ash, and the elm ; least in the birch, the maple, the alder, the hornbeam, etc. In needle-leaved trees, it is greatest in the larch and the fir ; least in the pine. The resin in these trees is found chiefly in the heart- wood. It greatly increases its closeness and durability, and darkens its colour. The most striking example of the difference in appearance between heart-wood and sap-wood is presented by ebony, in which the former is black and the latter white. WOOD, OR TIMBER. 33 The Pith and the Medullary Rays. The pith forms a column in the central part of the stem, and the medullary rays radiate from the pith towards the bark. The pith is looser in texture, and is composed of shorter cells than the wood. The shape and size of the column vary considerably in different trees. In some, e.g., the yew, it is very thin ; in others, e.g., the elder, it occupies a considerable space. - The medullary rays or " transverse septa " are composed of flat cellular tissue, which forms thin vertical plates radiating towards the bark. During the first year of the growth of the tree, these rays originate in the pith, divide the patches of wood and bast, and reach as far as the bark. In sub- sequent years they are formed in connection with the new wood, not with the pith, and they extend into the bark. The medullary rays are the medium by which the pith and the wood are brought into communication with the baric. They also divide the wood into wedge-shaped bundles. They are seldom so straight and regularly disposed as is represented in the diagram (Fig. 1), but are generally more or less curved, and they often branch out obliquely. They vary considerably Different both in number and appearance in different trees, and thus, kinds of like the vessels, they serve as a guide to the recognition of by the different kinds of wood. For example, oak is easily known character by the smoothness and glossiness of its broad medullary rays medullary when these are seen in radial section. This gives to oak rays - timber the beautiful figured appearance called " silver grain." The beech has also long, broad medullary rays. The maple is distinguished by the fineness and number of its medullary rays. In the greater number of loose-fibred, broad-leaved trees, the rays are very narrow, and scarcely distinguishable by the 34 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. naked eye. This is also the case with needle-leaved trees, the rays of which are extremely numerous. The cleavage The medullary rays affect to a considerable extent the ease of wood. Qr Difficulty -with which wood may be split. As a general rule, timber is easily split if it has broad rays like the oak and the beech, or if the rays, though numerous, are straight and narrow like those of the fir and the pine. Other circum- stances, however, may determine the greater or less resistance which any given timber presents to cleavage. The Sap. Next to the wood the sap is the most important element in timber. Its chief constituent is water, which holds in solution various organic and inorganic substances, but its composition undergoes changes in the course of circulation through the different parts of the tree. The sap materials are absorbed by the roots, and as crude, or ascending sap, are carried by the still active cells of the sap-wood to the leaves. Here, through the influence of light and air, the crude sap is changed and made fit for the nourish- ment and growth of the tree, and is called elaborated sap. From the leaves it descends in the bast tubes to the cambium, where the new wood and bast are formed. The organic Amongst the organic substances which the sap holds in solution may be named, starch, sugar, colouring matter, tannic acid, and albuminoids. The latter render it very liable to fermentation, and when this takes place the wood decays. This is the reason why timber, felled when the sap is circu- lating, and allowed to lie unbarked, readily becomes " sour." It also explains why sap-wood decays more quickly than heart-wood. When wood is burnt the inorganic constituents remain in the ashes. Sap also contains substances which are not required for the growth of the tree, but which occupy space and channels WOOD, OR TIMBER. 35 in the wood. Amongst these substances are the volatile oils, which are found chiefly in needle-leaved trees, and of which turpentine is the most important. The resin or gum found Turpentine, in needle-leaved trees is also formed from these oils. Tannic acid is found in a great many trees, especially in the bark. acid - It is known by its acrid taste, and it abounds chiefly in the oak, the fir, and the alder. When fresh timber in which there is a great deal of tannic acid is split or sawn, the acid makes the polished edge of the tool become blue-black in colour. The destructive effect of the albuminoids of the sap is counteracted by the turpentine, resin, and tannic acid. Water Capacity. The sap, as stated above, consists chiefly of water ; and, as it circulates in the sap-wood, it follows that the latter con- tains more water than the heart- wood, and more in spring than in the height of summer. As a general rule the water contained in unseasoned wood is about 40 to 50 per cent, of the weight of the wood. In unseasoned ash and beech it is 20 to 30 per cent. ; in loose-grained oak, hornbeam, maple, elm, Scotch fi^ and spruce fir, 30 to 40 per cent. ; in the looser fibred trees in which sap abounds, e.g., the alder, the lime, the willow, and the aspen, 40 to 50 per cent. The presence of water has generally a hurtful effect upon timber, as is shown in what follows. B. The Changes which Wood undergoes. The changes to which wood is subject are partly mechanical in their nature, consisting of alterations in the water capacity, and consequent alterations in shape ; partly chemical, caused chiefly by the decomposition of the sap, which finally leads to the decay of the wood. 36 HANDBOOK OP SLOYD. I. Changes in the Water Capacity, and the changes in form which are thereby produced. Newly felled timber contains, as has been said, a large pro- " portion of water sometimes as much as 50 per cent, of its own weight. After lying for some time in a dry and airy place, it loses about half its amount of water by evaporation. Sawn or split wood, dried for a year or two under cover, still retains 10 to 15 per cent, of water, and only by con- tinuous application of heat, or drying in an oven, can the water in timber be completely expelled. chanya in During the process of drying, timber decreases in volume of timber, or shrinks. If exposed again to moisture it increases in volume or s^uells. If any given piece of timber were uniform in texture throughout, and if no obstacles in any direction were pre- sented to its expansion, the only result of shrinking or swell- ing would be alteration in volume ; there would be no change in form. This, however, is seldom the case. Generally speaking, the texture of the wood varies in different parts of the same piece. Again, it is often used under conditions which do not permit it to shrink or swell freely in all direc- tions ; consequently, it shrinks or swells more in one place than in another. When one part of a piece of timber shrinks more rapidly than an adjacent part, the wood cracks. If, on the other hand, one part swells more than another, or if the adjacent part meets with some obstacle to its expansion, the timber changes in shape it becomes warped. shrinkage The shrinkage of timber stands in close connection with the direction*. am unt of water contained. The more water it gives off while drying, the more it shrinks. Similarly the warmer and drier the air in which it is placed, the greater the shrinkage. Some kinds of wood shrink more than others, and the same kind of wood shrinks differently in different directions. WOOD, OR TIMBER. 37 All wood shrinks least in the direction of the fibres' length, and generally so very little that the difference need not be taken into consideration. But the difference caused by shrinking is very great across the fibres, and in tangential section it is two or three times greater than in radial section, or in the plane of the medullary rays. The sap-wood, which contains more water than the heart-wood, always shrinks more than the latter. The following table, taken from " Karmarsch's Technology," shows the results of experiments made on a number of trees, to ascertain to what extent their timber shrinks. It must be observed that (1) the experiments were made with thin pieces of wood ; (2) that the figures are understood to represent the difference between wood which is either quite green or satu- rated with water, and that which has been thoroughly well seasoned ; and that, therefore, (3) the shrinking of partially seasoned wood is considerably less than is stated in the table. (The same applies of course to the swelling of such wood, when it is again exposed to moisture.) The last column gives the average degree of shrinkage across the fibres. 38 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. Shrinkage of Timber. Degree of Shrinkage. Across the fibres in the dire< tion of Name of tree. In length. Per cent. The medullary rays. Per cent. The annual layers. Per cent. Average across the fibres. Per cent. The common alder 0369 91 5 07 399 The elm The apple The common ash (young) The common birch The common beech The hornbeam Ebony 0.1-J4 0.109 0.821 0.222 0.200 0.400 0010 2.94 3.00 4.05 3.S6 5.03 6.66 2.13 6.22 7-39 6.56 9.30 8.06 10.90 4 07 4.58 5.19 5.30 6.58 6.54 8.78 The oak (young) 0400 3.90 7 55 - -O The oak (old) 130 3.13 7 78 The Scotch fir The spruce fir The lime 0.120 0.076 OS 3-04 2.41 779 5.72 6.18 4.3S 4.29 The common larch The maple 0.075 07^ 2.17 335 6.32 6 '59 4.24 Mahogany 1 09 i 70 Lignum vitae fi25 5 18 7 50 The pear 394 1 7^ The rowan 1QO 2 11 8*88 The common walnut 0.223 3.53 6-25 4-89 General As is seen from the above table, the degree of shrinkage in result* the direction of the length of the wood is so slight that it afforded by the aboce may be left entirely out of consideration. In the direction of the breadth, however, it varies from 2 per cent, to 9 per cent. In radial section, the general average is 5 per cent. ; for fir and pine 3 per cent. ; for birch 4 per cent. In tangential section, where shrinkage is greatest, it varies from 2 per cent, to 13 per cent., the general average for wood iii common use being 7 per cent. ; for fir and pine 6 per cent. ; for birch 9 per cent. WOOD, OR TIMBER. When a tree stem is sawn up into planks by parallel longitudinal cuts, the planks shrink as is * shown in Fig. 4. The broadest portion shown, which includes the pith, 1 shrinks least in breadth, 4. Shrinkage in planks. most in thickness ; least nearest the pith, most near the sides. The outermost plank, however, shrinks most in breadth in the direction of the annual layers and least in thickness. The planks lying between shrink differently on different sides, and become concave to the pith, and convex on the other side. Of trees in most general use, beech, lime, hornbeam, and pear shrink most ; birch, apple, white-beam, walnut, ash, and oak shrink considerably ; alder, maple, Scotch fir, elm, spruce fir, and larch shrink in a medium degree. Mahogany shrinks least of all timbers. Cracks occur in timber, because, as indicated above, it is seldom uniform in texture, and it is therefore liable to shrink in different degrees during seasoning. The parts nearest the sap-wood shrink more rapidly than the heart-wood, and cracks, which run almost invariably in the direction of the medullary rays, are the result. The more rapidly wood dries the more it cracks, consequently timber should always be dried very slowly to prevent the formation of cracks. If it is tolerably uniform in texture, it may, with proper treatment, be kept entirely free from cracks. The swelling, or expansion of timber, takes place when it is exposed to damp air or water, and is in direct relation to its shrinkage. When a piece of dried wood is immersed in water, it swells until it occupies the same volume as it occu- pied in its fresh condition, after which no further expansion takes place. Its amount of water, however, and consequently 40 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. its weight, are greater than in its fresh condition, because the vessels originally filled with air are now filled with water. The warping of timber depends on differences in the nature of its texture, and on other circumstances which cause changes in form both when it shrinks and when it swells. For ex- ample, a plank will become twisted or curved if one side only is exposed to the sun without being turned. Thin, flat pieces of wood become convex or concave, according as one or other side is exposed to damp or to drying influences. II. Means of preventing- Cracks and Warping. The means taken to kepp timber as far as possible from cracking or warping during the process of seasoning, are very various. They are partly connected with the treatment of the wood when it is cut up into timber, and partly with its treatment for any special purpose. 1. Seasoning. when wood Trees should be felled when the sap is down or at rest, cut down. The best time is from the the middle of December to the end of February. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the im- portance of felling timber at the right time, for if felled at the wrong season, it will contain too much sap, which will make it very difficult to dry, render it much more liable to swell or shrink, and increase the risk of its becoming worm- eaten. In the case of needle-leaved trees excess of sap gives a bluish tinge to the surface of the timber. wood The more slowly timber is dried the less it cracks, and dried timber felled at the proper season and allowed to dry slowly slowly. cracks very little. Barked timber, which dries more quickly than unbarked, often cracks so widely that it is quite unfit for slb'jd-work. When the bark is left on, the cracks may be numerous, but they will be small. Thick pieces crack more than thin pieces ; logs or round wood more than split wood ; WOOD, OR TIMBER. 41 sap-wood more than heart-wood. Care should be taken dur- ing seasoning that the air has free access to the wood on all sides. Wood which has been split with the axe is apt to crack at the ends ; this may be prevented by pasting paper over them. Portions of timber containing the pith and the adjacent annual layers, always crack ; such pieces are there- fore unavailable for work. When round timber is split in order to facilitate seasoning, it should be divided through the pith. Boards or planks are best dried in a drying shed, where fresh air can circulate freely round each piece. The best ^ l ",-^' way is to place the boards on their edges, with sufficient by expomre space between, taking care that they are not twisted in any to the air ' way. If they are piled one on the other, pieces of dry wood should be placed between them, in order to separate them. For obvious reasons, none of the timber should touch the ground. Timber which has been felled at the proper time, takes no harm from exposure to a little rain in spring and early sum- mer, provided always that the air has free access, so that it may dry again quickly. Indeed, timber usually dries very rapidly out in the open air in early summer. The rain helps to wash out the sap, and the timber is thereby rendered more durable when thoroughly dried. When wholly or partially finished planks are laid by for future use, care must be taken that they do not lie one close upon the other, but that both sides are fully exposed to the air, to facilitate further drying and prevent warping. In the early stages of seasoning, evaporation goes on with tolerable rapidity, but afterwards it takes place more slowly, and timber must be kept in a dry and airy place for two or three years before it can be considered fully seasoned. Tim- ** ber is said to be seasoned when the quantity of moisture it said to be contains coincides with that contained in the atmosphere. As has been said above, the amount of water in timber 42 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. seasoned as indicated, never falls below 10 per cent, of its weight. To decrease the water still further, it is necessary to dry the timber in ovens constructed for the purpose, or in heated air, or else to keep it for a long time in a warm place. influence of Drying expels water only, not the essential elements of the the tap on s& ^ some o f w hich part with great difficulty from water, and also take it up again with great readiness when the timber is once more exposed to moisture. These properties of the sap make seasoning much more difficult than it would otherwise be, and retard the process considerably in wood which abounds in sap e.g., beech, birch, oak, and walnut. Removal of To overcome this difficulty, the sap may either be removed the tap. altogether, or its action may be neutralised. The first is accomplished by immersing the wood in cold water for some time, or in boiling water for a shorter time ; or, what is still better, by steaming it. In the second case the timber is impregnated with substances calculated to counteract the destructive effects of the sap e.g., a solution of common salt, vitriol, chloride of zinc, etc. These methods can, however, only be mentioned here incidentally, as any detailed descrip- tion would be entirely beyond the limits of this work. 2. Precautions necessary to prevent Warping and Cracking under special conditions. As shrinkage is greater in tangential than in radial section, the wood for any special purpose ought to be sawn out or split in the direction of the radii of the stem, in order that the article may the better preserve its form and size. There are, however, some practical difficulties which render it impossible to carry out this principle in all cases. jointing Uniformity of texture, and consequently less tendency to d-ack or wa rp, is more easily secured in small pieces of timber than in large pieces, and consequently it is usual in the con- struction of articles to employ smaller pieces of wood than of WOOD, OR TIMBER. 43 are required, and to joint them together ; and these pieces may often, without any disadvantage, be chosen from different kinds of wood, and may have their fibres running in different directions. Hence it is better in making a broad plane sur- face to select planks which have been divided in two, than to make it of whole planks. Planks containing the heart- wood nearest the pith which is generally cracked, are always divided in two to get rid of this portion. Jointing also permits large plane surfaces to shrink with- Frames ** out injury to parts of the work already completed. For example, blackboards, the panels of doors, etc., which are set into a groove in a frame, are thus permitted to shrink with- out cracking. Table-tops are strengthened by blocks which fit into a groove in the framing, and are glued to the under part of the top. Broad pieces of wood are furnished on one side with clamps, the fibres of which run at right angles to those of the broad piece, and which are inserted in such a way that the wood of the broad piece can shrink without hindrance. III. The Decay of Timber. After vital action ceases in a tree, its substance, like that of other organic bodies, undergoes a process of decomposition, which sooner or later terminates in the total decay of the wood. Decay takes place very rapidly if the timber is ex- posed to alternations of moisture, air, and heat. The wood fibres themselves have a high degree of durability, especially if the sap, which is the prime cause of decay, has been removed. Some of the constituents of the sap, e.g., starch and sugar, neither hasten decay nor retard it, while others, e.g., tannic acid and resin, counteract it. It is the albuminoids which are the cause of decomposition, and the sap-wood in which they abound is the part which decays most rapidly. The decay of timber is caused, in the first instance, by the Blue sur- fermentation of the sap, which in this state soon acts in- /aw - juriously on the wood-fibres. The first sign of this is a 44 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. bluish tinge on the surface of the wood. Timber which has assumed this bluish tinge is not only less durable and strong, but it is also extremely difficult to work. Though the fer- menting elements dry in the wood cells, they do not therefore lose their power. They remain dormant merely, and the application of moisture after the lapse of time is sufficient to wake them into activity. Hence, timber which is exposed to alternations of heat and moisture may very soon acquire a "blue surface," especially if kept where ventilation is deficient. Dr y rot - If the process of decay goes on further, fungi almost always make their appearance. One of the most destructive forms in which they appear is known as " dry rot." ofiruectt. Timber is also destroyed by insects or worms, which bore their way through the wood, and often reduce the inner portion completely to dust before any signs of destruction appear on the outside. Wood which is rich in sap, e.g., birch and alder, is most liable to such attacks ; beech is less liable ; while the elm, the maple, and resinous needle-leaved trees, are seldom attacked. Means of Preventing Decay. As the decomposition of the sap is the real cause of the decay of wood, the means taken to prevent decay are directed either towards the retardation of this decomposition or to the complete expulsion of the sap, e.g. : 1. The timber is cut down during the season of the year when there is least sap in the stem. 2. The timber is seasoned as thoroughly as possible, in circumstances which permit free access and circula- tion of air, and is protected not only during season- ing but afterwards, from alternations of moisture and dryness. The growth of fungus is prevented by exposure to light, and continuous and uniform ventilation. WOOD, OR TIMBER. 45 3. The wood, after it has been made into articles, is preserved from damp by varnish, oil paint, etc. 4. The sap is got rid of by steeping the timber in water or steaming it in ovens. It is to be observed, however, that in this way the constituents of the sap which contribute to the durability of the wood, i.e., resin and tannic acid, are also removed. 5. The timber is impregnated with some substance in solution which neutralises the effects of the sap. The two last named processes are not used for slb'jd timber. In conclusion, it may be added that when the sap is re- moved entirely, or when the timber is impregnated with some neutralising substance, it does not become worm-eaten. When insects attack wood which has not been treated in one of these ways, it is almost impossible to extirpate them. It has been recommended to apply an acid, e.g.. mvriatic acid, or a solution of camphor to the worm-eaten holes; but this is, generally speaking, not practicable, and it is, moreover, not a complete cure. C. Different kinds of Wood. I. Comparison of the Qualities of different kinds of Wood. The chief qualities of timber are: strength, the ease or difficulty with which it is split, hardness, toughness, elasticity, texture, colour and smell, weight, durability, and its capacity for shrinking and siuelling. The two last mentioned quali- ties have already been taken up. It is obvious that most of these qualities depend not only on the kind of tree from which the timber is obtained, but also on many incidental circumstances, such as climate and soil, the age of the tree, the season of the year when it was 46 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. cut down, subsequent treatment, etc. It is therefore hardly possible to make any general statements regarding them which shall hold good in all cases. 1. The strength of timber is shown by its power of resistance to pressure, rupture, tearing, and twisting. The oak and the Scotch fir present the greatest resist- ance to pressure. The oak, the ash, the spruce fir, and next after them the Scotch fir, the larch, and the aspen, resist rupture best. In this respect the beech and the alder are not so strong. The oak and the ash, and after them the beech, the spruce fir, the Scotch fir, and the elm, present the greatest resistance to tearing. 2. The ease or difficulty with which different kinds of wood may be split. By this is meant the greater or lesser ease with which timber may be divided by a wedge-shaped tool in the direction of the length of the fibres. It is closely related to the quality of the fibres and the manner of their distribution. Wood which has grown quickly has long straight fibres, is free from knots, and is easily split. " Cross- grained " wood, the fibres of which twist and cross each other, and the wood of roots and of branches with knotty excres- cences, is difficult to split. Wood from the lower part of the trunk nearest the roots is the most difficult of all to split. When the medullary rays are large and long as in beech and oak, or numerous and fine as in needle-leaved trees, timber is easily split in radial section, but all timber is harder to split in tangential than in radial section. The following timbers are difficult to split : figured birch, hornbeam, elm, maple, and white-beam. The following are easy to split: ash, beech, alder, oak, aspen, Scotch fir, spruce fir, lime, poplar, and chestnut. Old knotty oak, however, may present great difficulty. 3. The density or hardness of timber is shown in the resistance it offers to the tools with which it is worked. It is impossible to give definite statistics on this point, because WOOD, OR TIMBER. 47 it depends so much on circumstances, e.g., the varieties of texture in the same tree, the nature and arrangement of the fibres, the degree of moisture, the presence of resin, etc., etc. : the general rule, however, holds good, that close-grained timber with high specific gravity is hard (it being under- stood that comparisons are always made with seasoned wood). Seasoned timber is harder than green timber. Green heart- wood is harder than sap-wood. Resinous heart-wood is very hard, and this is also true of timber which has fine annual layers, as is shown especially in the extremely hard resinous knots often seen in planks. The resistance which timber presents to the axe is greatest at right angles to the length of the fibres, and it decreases in to proportion as the angle becomes more acute. It is least when saw. the blade of the axe is parallel with the direction of the fibres' length, as in splitting. The saw, on the other hand, works by tearing the fibres, and consequently it meets with most resistance in loose- textured timber with long tough fibres. Such timber makes the edge of the saw uneven. In close-grained timber with short fibres the saw works easily, and the edge keeps more even. Consequently, for heavy close-grained timber the saw does not require to be set so much. In certain kinds of timber moisture increases the toughness of the fibres, and on this account unseasoned timber is more difficult to saw than dry wood. The hardness of timber is very important in all cases where it is exposed to blows, concussions, and general wear and tear. For ordinary purposes the hardness of any piece of wood may be tested by cutting it with a knife. The hardest timbers of all are lignum vitse and ebony. The ordinary kinds of timber may be classified as follows : Hard : hornbeam, maple, apple, pear, oak, and beech. Medium: ash, elm, white-beam, walnut, birch, lime, and chestnut. to the axe id the 4S HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. Soft : Scotch fir, spruce fir, larch, alder, aspen, and poplar. As has, however, been indicated above, spruce fir with fine annual layers and resinous Scotch fir are often very hard, and they might thus find a place in the higher class. 4. The toughness and elasticity of timber. A piece of timber which may be bent without breaking, and which does not resume its former shape when the bending force is removed, is said to be tough; if it does resume its former shape, it is said to be elastic. Generally speaking, both these qualities co-exist in all timber, but one is usually more pre- dominant than the other, according to the kind of wood. Thus some timbers are said to be elastic and others tough. Unseasoned wood is tougher than dry wood, and what it gains in elasticity during seasoning it loses in toughness. Damp heat increases toughness ; hence hoops and sticks are ' steamed " in order that they may be bent. As a general rule light timber is tougher than heavy timber, roots are tougher than stems ; sap-wood is tougher than heart- wood, and young timber is tougher than old. The toughest timbers are the following : hornbeam, elm, ash, aspen, birch, juniper, hazel, osier, maple, and white-beam. Lime, alder, beech, and the heart- wood of oak are only moderately tough. Elasticity is increased by seasoning, and is generally great in heavy timbers. It is of great importance in the manufac- ture of many articles, e.g., masts, oars, wooden springs, the handles of spades, axes, hammers, etc. The following timbers are elastic: elm, ash, aspen, oak, spruce fir, birch, maple, and poplar. Hornbeam, alder, and Scotch fir are less elastic. 5. The texture, colour and smell of timber. Knowledge of these qualities is very important in connection with the recognition of different kinds of timber, and in estimating their value. AVOOD, OB TIMBER. 49 By texture is understood the way in which the vessels, fibres, medullary rays and annual layers are woven or con- nected together. (See fig. 1). Wood as it appears in cross section is said to be end way of the grain ; as it appears in radial and tangentia 1 section parallel with the fibres it is said to be length way of the grain, OP with the grain ; and as it appears when we look across the fibres at right angles to their length, it is said to be across the grain. We distinguish between coarse and fine texture according coarse and to the quality of the fibres, vessels, medullary rays and /In * texture annual layers, which, taken all together, give to wood its characteristic appearance. Similarly we speak of long-Jibred and of short-fibred texture, according as the wood " works " with long or short shavings. The colour of wood varies from white to deep black, with Different manyintermediate shades of yellow, red,brown, etc., depending on the kind of tree. It varies not only in different kinds of timber, but in the same kind of timber, and even in the same tree. As has been said above, the heart-wood is always darker than the sap-wood. Certain kinds of timber, again, e.g., oak and mahogany, become darker with time. Our ordinary timbers are whitish, yellowish, brownish or reddish, and are not so highly coloured as tropical timbers, some of which are very striking in colour. The smell peculiar to many kinds of timber is a mark by which they may sometimes be recognised. This characteristic f wood Jue smell does not proceed from the wood itself, for it has none. It is due to the sap, and is always strongest in fresh sappy wood ; though seasoned timber sometimes has a very decided smell, which is often quite unlike that of the unseasoned wood. Needle-leaved trees have a strong smell of turpentine, and certain broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, often smell of tannic acid. Many trees have an agreeable smell, e.g., the cedar, juniper, the camphor-tree, etc. The smell of some colours of wood. 50 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. Specific gravity of the cellular tissue. timber remains in it for a long time, and communicates itself to food kept in vessels made of it. A musty smell in timber is a sign of decay. 6. The weight or specific gravity of timber is very variable, depending as it does on a number of different cir- stances. Hence it is impossible to give such definite statistics under this head as can be given in the case of metals and many other substances. We have to take into consideration the closeness or the looseness of the fibres, which determines the hardness or density of the wood ; the presence of more or less sap ; the climate and soil in which the tree has grown ; its age ; its different parts ; the degree of seasoning, etc. The specific gravity of wood properly so called, i.e., of the cellular tissue which composes it, is very similar in all timbers, and even in the lightest kinds it is greater than that of water. Nevertheless, most timbers, owing to their porous nature, are lighter than water, and float in it. This is the case with all our indigenous trees after seasoning. A warm climate produces heavy timber ; and the heaviest timbers, such as ebony and lignum vitae, are found in the tropics. The presence of water is the circumstance which most affects the weight of timber. All timbers are heavier when newly felled than after seasoning. Hence, in determining the specific gravity of different kinds of timber, we must assume that the timber is fully seasoned. The average specific gravity of the most common kinds of timber is given as follows by competent authorities : NEWLY FELLED. SEAS- ONED. NEWLY FELLED. SEAS- ONED. The Hornbeam ... 1.08 0.72 The Spruce Fir ... 0.73 0.47 The Common Alder 0.82 0.53 The Lime 0.74 0.45 The Elm 0.95 0.69 The Common Larch 0.76 0.62 The Apple ... 1.10 The Common Ash 0.92 0.75 0.75 The Maple 0.90 The White-beam ... 1.04 0.66 0.86 The Aspen ... 0.80 0.49 The Pear 1.01 0.72 The Birch ... 0.94 0.64 The Rowan 0.96 0.67 The Common Beech 1.01 0.74 The Common Walnut 0.91 0.68 The Oak 1.10 0.86 Ebony 1.20 The Com. Juniper 1.07 0.61 Mahogany 0.81 The Scotch Fir ... 0.70 0.52 Lignum vitse ... 1.40 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 51 The absolute weight per cubic foot in any given timber is ascertained by multiplying the specific gravity given above by G2.5 -the number of pounds iu a cubic foot of water. 7. The durability of timber. This and the circumstances which favour if have been touched on in connection with the sap, with seasoning, with decay, and the means of its prevention. The conditions under which timber is used have the greatest influence on its durability. Thus, timber which is kept under cover and protected from moisture is very durable, and may last for many centuries. Some kinds of timber are extremely durable if kept under water. Thus, The dur <*- the oak used in ancient lake-dwellings and bridges, or found in bogs, has been preserved for thousands of years. If timber is exposed to alternations of moisture and dry- when mo ness, its durability is diminished ; and yet, in most cases, it ^ulalu. is precisely in these unfavourable conditions it has to be used. Hence it follows that it is impossible to give precise The. most details regarding the durability of timber. Under this head all that can be done is to mention the trees which in all circumstances give the most durable timbers, viz. : the oak, and resinous, close-grained Scotch fir and larch. The elm comes next to these. If exposed to alternations of moisture and dryness, oak is said to last one hundred years, birch fifteen years, and beech not more than ten. Durability is also mentioned in the description of different kinds of timber, which follows. II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees. Here follows an enumeration of the different kinds of wood which are available for slb'jd work, together with a condensed statement of their properties, in order that, as far as is possible in a brief description, the reader may be made acquainted with each kind of timber. [The following kinds of wood can be easily obtained in 52 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. England, and are therefore specially recommended : Scotch fir, spruce fir, alder, birch, beech, oak, chestnut, lime, and poplar. See also p. 254. TRS.] 1. Needle-leaved Trees. The Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris). The ripe timber is yellowish white or reddish white. The boundaries of the annual concentric layers are light brown in the heart-wood ; white in the sap-wood. It is the heaviest, hardest, and most resinous of all the needle-leaved trees, and has a tolerably strong smell of turpentine. Its resinous, fine-grained heart- wood is very durable. The spruce fir (Pinus dbies). The wood is yellowish white. In a longitudinal section it shows dark reddish streaks. It is very elastic, and is easily split with the axe. As it contains a good deal of resin, it resists damp ; though, being less resinous than the pine, it is more easily glued. Like the pine, it makes excellent timber. Very hard knots, which loosen and fall out when the wood is seasoned, are, however, of frequent occurrence in this wood. The common larch (Pinus larix). The wood of this tree is reddish, with dark annual layers and white sap-wood. It warps but little, and does not readily become worm-eaten. It is more durable than the Scotch fir and the spruce fir. The common juniper (Juniperus communis). The wood of the young bushes is white, and it deepens from yellow to brown as it increases in age. It is hard, tough, close, strong, and durable, and whenever it can be obtained large enough it is much in request for slojd articles. The juniper has a peculiar and agreeable smell. 2. Broad-Leaved Trees. The hornbeam (Cai^pinus betulus). The wood of this tree is white, very hard, heavy, close and very tough. The medullary rays are very little darker than the wood, and are not easily distinguished. They are curved, appearing in a WOOD, OR TIMBER. 53 longitudinal section like narrow inconspicuous flecks. The wood is very difficult to split. It dries slowly and warps easily. It is very durable if kept dry, and is a favourite timber for slojd work. The common alder (Alnusglutinosa). The wood is whit- ish or brownish-yellow, often deepening to brown, and in the newly-felled tree light red. The annual layers are diffi- yult to recognise; the medullary rays are rather broad, and brown in colour. The timber is only of medium hardness, and is neither very tough nor very elastic ; it splits readily, and does not crack or warp easily. It is very durable if con- stantly kept wet, but it is of low durability if exposed to alternations in the degree of moisture. If felled at the wrong time it is speedily attacked by worms. Its close and even texture make it good timber for slojd work. The hoary-leaved alder (Alnus incana) furnishes timber which is whiter, finer, and closer than the preceding. The elm (Dlmus montana, U. campestris). The colour of the young wood in general, and of the sap-wood in older trees, is whitish-yellow. The old heart-wood is reddish-brown, streaked and veined. The inner boundary of the annual layers is somewhat lighter in colour and looser in texture than the rest, and has visible pores. The medullary rays are very narrow and numerous, giving to this timber in longi- tudinal section a dotted and streaked appearance. This timber is moderately fine in fibre, tough, hard, given to warp, difficult to split, and not liable to the attacks of worms. Its durability under all circumstances is very great. It is often beautifully marked. The common ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The colour of the young wood is white ; of the older, yellowish brown, deepening almost to brown in the heart-wood. The medul- lary rays are not easily distinguished. The annual layers are generally broad, and, as in the case of the oak, the large pores on their inner edge render them very conspicuous. This 54 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. timber is tough, elastic, very hard, easily split, not liable to crack, and, if kept in a dry atmosphere, extremely durable. If exposed to the open air it is of low durability. It is much esteemed for its strength and toughness, and is used with advantage for springs of all kinds, tool handles, etc., etc. The young wood is used for barrel-hoops, etc. The aspen (Populus tremula). The wood is white, with coarse annual rings. It is fine in texture ; tough, easily split, and warps but little. It is very durable if kept under cover or in the ground. It is not of much use in slojd work, and in Sweden it is used chiefly in the manufacture of matches. [The poplar (Populus). The colour of the wood is a yellow or brownish white. The annual rings are a little darker on one side than on the other, and are therefore distinct. The texture is uniform, and there are no large medullary rays. The wood is light, soft, easily worked, and does not splinter. When kept dry it is tolerably durable, and it is not liable to shrink. TRS.] The common birch (Betula alba). The wood of the young tree is white. Older wood is reddish white in colour. The medullary rays are very narrow and scarcely distinguish- able. The timber is tolerably hard, and very tough ; it dries very slowly, and swells easily. It is very durable if kept dr}-, but is of low durability if exposed to the open air, and is very apt to become worm-eaten. The quality of birch varies very much, and depends greatly on climate and soil. Birch grown in favourable soil is straight in fibre, easily split and easily worked: Birch grown in dry and stony ground or in marshy places is crook- ed in fibre and more or less knotty, gnarled and cross- grained, and difficult to split. Timber of this kind is beauti- fully marked. In most parts of Sweden birch furnishes the greater proportion of the wood used in slojd, and takes the WOOD, OR TIMBER, 55 place of the beech and the hornbeam of southern Sweden and southern countries. The common beech (Fagus sylvatica). The wood in the young tree is light brown ; old wood is very dark. The medullary rays are large, glossy, and dark brown, and the general colour of the wood is uniform. The concentric annual layers are not specially conspicuous, but they are easily distinguished. Beech timber is hard, close, heavy, and easily split, especially in the direction of the medullary rays. It is inelastic and rather brittle. It dries very slowly, and warps easily.. It is very durable under water and when kept dry, but if exposed to varying degrees of moisture it is the least durable of all timbers. It is highly valued for its hardness, and much used for barrels. The oak (Quercus robur). The sap-wood and the wood in young stems is nearly white. The heart-wood in older trees is brownish. The large pores on the inner edges of the annual layers, and the broad, yellowish brown, frequently glossy, medullary rays are specially noticeable. This timber is peculiarly hard, strong, and durable. It is not affected by alternations in the degree of moisture, and it is in all cir- cumstances the most durable of all our timbers. It dries slowly, and is very apt to warp unless thoroughly well seasoned. After being in water especially salt water for many years, its colour becomes bluish black. The oak fur- nishes better timber than any other tree of Northern Europe. [The chestnut (Oastanea vesca).The colour of the sap- wood is yellowish white ; that of the heart-wood is light to dark brown. The wood of the chestnut resembles that of the oak in colour, but it may easily be distinguished from it by the absence of the broad medullary rays which are found in the oak. The timber is heavy, hard, elastic, and very durable if kept uniformly either dry or wet. If subjected to variations in the degree of moisture it is of low durability. Tns.1 56 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. The maple (Acer platanoides). The wood is white, with very narrow and numerous medullary rays of a faint brown colour, which give it a beautifully " waved " lustrous appear- ance. The annual layers are inconspicuous. The wood is uniform in texture, hard, strong, tough, and difficult to split ; it presents a glossy surface to the plane, and does not crack or warp readily. In consequence of these good qualities, it is much sought after for slqjd timber. The white-beam (Sorbus Scandica). The wood of the young tree is yellowish. Older wood is light brown or red- dish in colour. It is frequently speckled or veined. This timber is fine and uniform in texture, hard, close, and very tough. It warps but little, and is much valued as slojd timber. The pear and the apple (Pyrus).-The wood of the young tree is nearly white. Older wood is dark brown, sometimes red in colour, and often streaked. It is very fine and close in texture, hard, heavy and tough. The medullary rays are small, and they and the annual layers are incon- spicuous. It can be cut easily in all directions, and does not splinter, owing to the uniformity of its texture. The wood of the apple tree has a general resemblance to that of the pear, but it is closer, redder, and harder indeed the apple furnishes one of the hardest timbers. The wood of the wild pear or apple is superior to that of the cultivated varieties. The wood of both trees is much esteemed. The rowan (Sorbus Aucuparia). The wood is whitish or light brown. In some respects it resembles the white-beam, but it is not so good. As slojd timber it may often rank with the birch. The common walnut (Juglans regia). The wood of the young tree is almost white, loose in texture, and soft. Older wood is brownish grey or dark brown, and is often beautifully marked. It is hard and strong, and generally WOOD, OR TIMBER. 57 close in texture, though, like the oak, it has particularly large pores. The medullary rays are almost invisible. It dries very slowly, and shrinks a good deal. It is one of the most beautiful European timbers, and is extensively used. The following tropical timbers may also be mentioned : Ebony (Diospyros). From Africa and the East Indies. The sap-wood is quite white, the heart-wood generally quite black, though sometimes brownish black with white streaks and flecks towards its inner edge, which detract from the value of the wood. Its texture is so uniform that it is im- possible to distinguish the annual layers or the medullary rays. The timber is brittle, but very hard, close and heavy. On account of the three last-named qualities, and its beauty. it is much esteemed, but it is too expensive to be used to any great extent. Mahogany (Swietenia Mahogani). From Central America and the West Indies. Other kinds of timber are also sold under this name. When fresh the wood is generally reddish or brownish yellow, but it gradually darkens, and finally becomes almost black. It has narrow, rather inconspicuous annual layers, and small but distinctly visible pores. In longitudinal section the figuring of this timber is very beautiful. It has fleck-like or pyramidal markings, with a fine satin-like lustre. It varies much in hardness, weight, closeness, and general texture in different varieties. Ma- hogany is under all circumstances very durable. It warps but little ; shrinks less than any other timber ; and is never attacked by worms. It is highly esteemed as timber, and is very extensively used. Lignum vitse (Guaiacum oficinale). From Central America. The wood is greenish or blackish brown, with 58 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. yellowish and dark streaks in longitudinal section. It is heavy, resinous, very close-grained, and almost as hard as metal. It is twisted in fibre, very difficult to split, and there- fore not easy to work. Its extraordinary hardness and great durability make it valuable in the case of articles which are exposed to much wear and tear. 59 CHAPTER III. TOOLS. A. Choice of Tools. The tools used in slojd teaching must be chosen with due ChoUe of regard to the pupil's capacity. They ought to be neither too large nor too heavy, but such as can be easily handled. It might perhaps be considered advisable to use tools slighter in make than those generally employed in slqjd-carpentry, and the question might be raised whether such small tools as are to be found in "children's tool-boxes" should not be procured. Tools of this description are, however, usually too inferior to be taken into consideration at all ; and, if specially ordered in a good quality, they would be much dearer than those sold in the ordinary course of trade. This applies particularly to tools made of iron or steel. Moreover, such small tools are particularly difficult to keep in order, because they are very slight and brittle. And further, a little experience in teaching proves that children from eleven to fourteen years of age require tools quite as substantial and durable as their elders. Whether or not a tool is too heavy depends upon the person who uses it, for one child may have the strength required to use a much heavier tool than can bo used by another. In connection with this it should be noted, tli at if children are not accustomed, while receiving instruction, to use and to keep in order the tools used in ordinary life, it will be very difficult for them to manage them when they are older. It may be objected that if children use the ordinary knife, saw, axe, etc., they may easily hurt themselves ; but this is quite as likely to happen with " toy tools." Besides, it is the duty of the teacher to insist that the children pay 60 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. attention to the manner of using the tools, and use them in such a way that they do not hurt themselves. Although we maintain that the tools used in slojd teaching should be of the size generally employed, it does not therefore follow that the largest size is to be selected, but rather that the smallest should be chosen, such as the little hands of the youthful pupil can efficiently wield without much trouble. The handle of the knife should not be larger than can be grasped, though the blade maybe of the usual size. The smooth- ing plane should be 7 inches long and 2f inches broad. The trying plane should not be unnecessarily long ; 22 inches is long enough, though the breadth ought to be 3^ inches, or broad enough for an iron of 2| inches. If the trying plane is narrower, it is difficult to plane a surface of any size, and the smaller tool would occasion more work and trouble than one of the dimensions given above. The handles of chisels and similar tools should not be larger than is necessary. The axe should not weigh more than 2 Ibs. The frames of the bow saws should be of the lighter description of those used in carpentry. As one of the aims of slojd teaching is to develop the physical powers of the pupil, each separate exercise must lead up to the next in such a way that the pupil proceeds from easier to more difficult work. But the most perfect gradation of exercises arranged on this principle will not en- sure success if the teacher does not know how to choose suitable wood for the pupils' work, and does not take care that they have good tools in good condition. As we demand of the pupils work well executed and accurate in all its details, we are bound to see that they are provided with suitable wood and good tools. As regards suitable wood, the reader is referred to Chapter II. It need be merely named here that the wood must be sound, well seasoned, straight in fibre, and, as far as possible, free from knots. TOOLS. 61 The tools selected should always be of the best quality, Quality of even if these should prove rather more expensive. Instead of loo!t ' buying a large number of inferior tools at once, a few good ones should be procured. But it is not enough to buy good tools, they must be kept in good order. Ability to keep tools in order is an indispensable qualification in a good teacher of slojd, for if he lacks skill in this respect his Good tool* teaching will also lack one of the first conditions of success. JJ**" 1 *" There are two rather complicated tools which are particularly difficult to keep in order, i.e., the plane and the saw. A great deal of energy is wasted in slojd teaching if the pupils work with badly set planes or with blunt saws. Hence special care should be bestowed on these tools. Practice in grinding tools and keeping them in order must Grinding- be included in the instruction given. Great demands in this to 1 *' respect must not be made at first, but they may be gradu- ally increased until the pupils, at least towards the end of the course, are able to grind a plane iron and sharpen a saw. If this is expected of the pupils, so much the more must it be demanded of the teacher. The description which follows attempts to give, to some extent, detailed knowledge of the tools which are used in educational wood - slojd, together with instructions for keeping them in good condition. The illustrations accom- panying the description are taken from selected tools and appliances, and the scale is indicated by the fraction after the name of the figure. Want of space prevents the insertion of complete representations of all the tools, etc. A few illustrations of this kind, particularly of benches and of a cupboard for tools, have been added on separate plates at the end of the book, for the guidance of those who wish to make these articles. The technical names are, generally speaking, those employed in carpentry ; but a proportion of the names of tools, exercises, and methods of manipulation, have originated and been adopted in the course of the de- velopment of slojd teaching. HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. B. Appliances for holding the work. 1. The bench is the article most frequently used for holding the work steady during its execution. It is the most indispensable part of the apparatus required for slojd. A complete bench. Fig. 5. Bench, '/ao- A bench top, D front bench vice, C back bench vice, D bench well, E bench drawer or till, F front rail of bench box, aa bench pegs or hooks, bb holes for bench pegs, c vice tongue or key, ee screw-bolts, / back rail of bench box, gg vice- screws, h front rail of bench. The Single Bench (Fig. 5) is practically a strongly con- structed table, heavy enough to stand steady during the work. The bench top consists of a strong, hard, close piece of plank about 3 inches thick. For the purpose of holding the work fast it is provided either with one screw or two, ar- ranged in a particular way, called the back bench vice and the front bench vice. A complete bench (Fig. 5) has both ; one ck bench of simpler construction (Fig. 8) has only the back bench vice. e. At one end of the bench-top, to the right of the worker, a rectangular piece is cut away from the anterior edge, its length being parallel to the edge, and where this piece lias been cut away a prismatical frame- work is moved by the turning of a wood-screw. The nut into which this screw catches is firmly fixed to the end of the bench top. The frame-work is directed partly by the screw, partly by separate bolts, and the screw is held fast by means of a wedge or flat pin, which catches like a fork in a groove on the screw. TOOLS. 63 This arrangement is called the back bench vice. The frame- work is perforated perpendicularly by one or more square holes, from 4 to 6 inches apart, and a row of similar holes is introduced in the bench top, in a straight line with those in the frame-work. When a plank is to be held in a horizontal position on the bench, a bench peg is placed in a hole in the bench vice, and another in a hole in the bench top at a dis- tance corresponding to the length of the plank, and the screw is applied. Care must be taken that the head of the bench peg does not rise above the upper surface of the wood, and also that, during planing, the iron of the plane does not como in contact with the head of the peg, a fault often committed through carelessness by beginners. The bench pegs (Fig. 6) are rectangular pieces of iron from 8 to 10 inches long, which fit rather loosely into the holes of the bench top, and are provided on one side with a steel spring, in order that they may remain fixed at any desired height. The head of the peg is double-grooved, to hold the work securely. To make room for the head of the peg, the holes in the bench top are usually sufficiently enlarged at the upper end to permit the head to be pushed down, until its top is level with the Fig. 6. bench top. Bench Peg. Vic- ^he arrangement of the screw, to the left of Front tench the worker, is termed the front bench vice. It is much *' simpler in construction than the back bench vice. Fig. 5 shows its construction. A movable piece of wood is placed in front of the end of the screw, called the vice tongue or key (Fig. 7), partly to hold the work more securely, partly to prevent its being injured by the screw. When a long piece of wood is fastened into the front bench vice for edge-planing, it is ad- Fig. 7. Vice Tongue or Key. Vio-visable to allow the under edge 64 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. to rest upon a little block on a swivel, attached to the under side of the bench top. If the screws do not turn easily, the friction may be reduced by rubbing them well with pul- verised plumbago. On the side of the bench farthest from the worker is a trough or channel, called the bench ivell, in which tools not in actual use may be laid. Triangular pieces of wood, firmly attached to the ends of this well, facilitate the sweeping out of shavings, etc. The different portions of the bench are fastened together by dovetailing, mortising, and iron screws. The bench top rests upon feet or rails, and it is often furnished on the under side with a drawer or till. A similar drawer may be connected with the rails. The wood used for the bench top should be oak, ash, beech, or hard pine ; for the screws, horn-beam or " figured " birch ; for the well and the rails, fir or pine. Fig. 8. Single Bench. Vso- Top, 5 feet long by 1J feet broad. Height, 2 feet 7 inches. Naas pattern. A simpler and somewhat cheaper bench for one worker is represented in Fig. 8. It takes up little space, and it can be procured for one-half indeed one-fourth of the cost of the bench first described. It is furnished with a back-bench vice only, consisting of a piece of wood moving on bolts, and TOOLS. 65 worked by a screw fixed with a forked ivedge to the movable Bench after front jaw of the vice. The bolts must be firmly inserted in the detached portion of the vice, and must have their anterior ends made fast in a cross-piece ; otherwise the movable por- tion of the vice will not move easily and surely backwards and forwards by means of the screw. To fasten a piece of wood quite steadily in the vice it should be balanced as nearly as possible on the top of the screw. When this is not done, it has a tendency to fall to one side, and if this frequently hap- pens the vice will finally be destroyed. This drawback renders the bench less suitable than the one previously described. rs C-I- u ^ssrn. -: E 1 .OJUJUJ li i if If if JLJ' " SO 100 410 4XO -tBO /*O ISO C.TTls. Fig. 9. Double Bench. The complete bench, represented in Fig. 5, is too large for Adjustable general use in School-slojd, the space for which is generally limited. A simpler bench, adapted from Fig. 8, is therefore used, which has a " back-bench vice " at both ends, as indi- cated in Fig. 9, with a shorter bench- well than is shown in Fig. 5. When this bench is firmly fixed to the floor, two pupils can work at it without disturbing one another. Fig. 10 is a bench of English manufacture, well adapted for slojd work, and is known as R. Trainer's Improved Bench. HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. Fig. 10. Trainer's Bench. A bench top, D. tool tray or bench well, C. back stri ^. . , -, _. _ , - back strip, d. tail (or back) bench vice, e side (or front) bench vice, /. plane rest or fillet, should be 80 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. The blade of the saw is placed between them, teeth upwards, and the points turned from the operator, or in the direction from d to c (Fig. 32), the handles are grasped with one hand to bring the gouges close together, and the blade of the saw is drawn forwards between them. setting In consequence of the difficulty of setting a saw evenly *** and at a good angle, many different kinds of saw-sets and setting-tongs have been devised. The latter are intended to be adjustable for any desired inclination of the teeth. Some of these tools, however, are not practically useful, and those which are fully adapted for use are generally too expen- sive for ordinary purposes. As indicated above, setting must not go beyond a fixed limit. Provided that the saw has free passage through the wood, the finer the cut it makes the better ; and much less inclination of the teeth is necessary, in the case of dry timber, than in unseasoned or loose-fibred wood. sate biada Less setting is also necessary in the case of saw-blades %ackf '" which increase in thickness towards the teeth. These are made in the best manufactories, and are always preferable to blades of equal thickness throughout. So-called compass saws often have blades of this kind, and require no setting. sharpen Quite as important as the setting of the saw is its sharpen- tatc ' ing, and it is often necessary to perform both operations at the same time. To sharpen a saw, it is secured in the saw-sharpening clamps; and the ordinary kinds of saw used in wood slb'jd are sharpened by means of a triangular file (Fig. 3G). Fig. 36. Triangular or Three-square File. J.* Care must be taken that the two sides of the file which * The file represented in the illustration is a single-cut file ; but a double- cut file should be used. TRS. TOOLS. 81 are to be used form the angle necessary to produce the in- clination in the edges of the teeth indicated above. This being secured, the file is drawn across the blade at right angles to it. Every indentation must be filed equally deep, or, in other words, the point of each tooth must stand equally high. The row of teeth is next tested with the straight edge, and if any of the teeth stand higher than the others, they must be topped or filed doivn with a fine broad file, and then sharpened once more. Sharpening is begun at the end of the blade, towards which the points of the teeth are turned, or from c to d (Fig. 32). The degree thus produced on the points is always in the direction to which the teeth are turned, not away from it. In the latter case, the saw would be rather blunt. Each tooth must be carefully filed, that its edges may be quite sharp, and the cutting side quite straight. Should the saw, after sharpening, be insufficiently set, it must be set again, after which the file must be once more passed over the teeth to remove any irregularities. Generally speaking, setting precedes sharpening. Sharpening is sometimes performed by passing the file obliquely over the edge of the blade, instead of at right angles to it. The edges of each tooth are thus sharpened obliquely from within outwards (see Fig. 33). The file is first passed obliquely through every alterative tooth-space. The saw is then reversed, so that its ends change places, and the remaining teeth. spaces are operated on in the same way. This gives a knife- like edge to both sides of the teeth, and makes the saw cut particularly swiftly and well. The common wood-saws, some tcnon-saivs, and hand-saws, are sharpened in this way. It need hardly be added that setting and sharpening are not only necessary in the case of new saws, but also as often as the teeth become worn or lilutit. p HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. The saws now to be described may be classed in two groups, i.e., saws with frames, and saws without frames. The former have the ends of the blade fastened into a frame, the tension of which may be regulated to produce the necessary amount of resistance. In the latter kind of saw this power of resistance is given by means of the greater breadth and thickness of the blade, or by setting the back of the blade in a binding of metal. This binding is called the saw-back. 1. Saws with Frames. 1 . The Frame Saw (Fig. 37) is the largest saw used in Slb'jd. It is used for sawing up planks and other pieces of wood lengthwise into thin- ner pieces. It is worked by two people, and in a hori- zontal direction. The blade has from 3 to 4 teeth per inch, and it is fastened into an oblong wooden frame, mid- way between the side-rails. The ends of the blade are enclosed in and strengthened by pieces of white-iron, and are fastened by the attached pieces running through each top-rail. Tension is produced by turning the winged nut. The ^^^ot the teeth Fig. 37. A. Frame Saw. B. Saw blade end with attachment. 1. at an angle of 90. S3 2. Bow Saws (Fig. 38) are of different sizes. They are much used in wood-slbjd, not only in the earlier, but in the later stages of work. Bow saws have all the same kind of frame, consisting of a bar called the stretcher, longer than the blade and parallel to it, at each end of which there is either a square mortise or a fork-like notch for the recep- tion of the cross-pieces or side-arms. The latter, though care- fully fitted in, yet have a certain amount of play at the ends of the stretcher, in order that they may be drawn closer to each other on either side of the stretcher when the saw is tightened. At one end of each side-arm there is a round hole, through which passes a well- fitting peg with a handle. This peg is sawn through the middle length- wise to form a slot for the saw blade, which often extends a certain length into the handle. The blade of the saw is narrower at the ends where it enters the handle. In it are one or two holes, through which the fasten- ing pin runs. Blades fastened in this way often -twist when tightened, and conse- quently cut badly. This happens especially when the axis of the handle is not exactly in line with the blade. This defect may be remedied by sub- stituting for prolongations of the blade itself, the white-iron attach- ments (Fig. 39), and securing them in the usual way. The ends of the blade are fastened between the plates Fig. 38. Broad- webbed of the attachment merely by a screw 8tretch e r B ?ftIifieIms. c blade. -or nail, in order that the blade may .be freely adjusted. ? handle - 84 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. The side-arms are connected at the other end by several strands of strong string, which are twisted together by a tightener, in order to give the required tension to the blade. When the string is put on, the frame is fastened between the bench pegs. The stretcher is made of fir or pine; the side-arms of harder wood, e.g., beech or oak. The different parts of the frame are made as light as is compatible with strength, that the saw may not be too heavy to manage with one hand. wanner of j n wor king, the saw should be holding th firmly grasped by the side-arm - _ : -j just above the handle. In the case of the lighter description of saws, the handle, as well as the Fig. 39. Saw-blade end, lower part of the side-arm, should with attachment, j. be held in the hand, and the index finger should steady the blade. Generally speaking, the blade is fixed obliquely to the plane of the frame; partly that the worker may saw deeply without hindrance from the frame, and partly that he may be able to see the line \\shich the saw is to follow. In tightening the blade which is best done by turning both handles simultaneously care must be taken that it is perfectly straight. Otherwise a straight cut can hardly be obtained. If the saw is out of use for any length of time, the tightener should always be slackened. When this is not done the side- arms may become twisted. Bow-saws have different names, depending on the nature of the blade. The " hook," i.e., angle of the teeth is shown in Fig. 32. TOOLS. 85 A. The Broad-webbed Bow-saw is shown in Fig. 38. Its blade is 1 to 1J inches broad. It is used in numerous cases, e.g., in sawing off long slips of wood, where a straight cut is all that is required. It has 4 to 5 teeth per inch. R The Turn-saw (Fig. 40). The frame resembles the preceding, but the blade is very narrow about inch, or very little more because it is used to produce cur- vilinear cuts. The toothing is very fine 7 teeth per inch and the setting is sometimes less than in the bow-saw, that the cut may be accurate, and not unneces- sarily broad. Fig. 40. Turn-saw. Turn-saws, the blades of which are over half an inch in breadth, are also used. These are called broad-webbed turn saws. 2. Saws without Frames. 1. The Hand-saw (Fig. 41) has a very broad blade, which is narrower at one end, and is provided at the broader end with a convenient handle. The large blade gives it sufficient strength, and this is often increased by the thickness of the blade, which may exceed that of the frame-saw. The teeth are set to cut, when the worker pushes the saw away from him, but not when the saw is drawn back. This saw, distinguished for its simplicity and convenience in working, is in general use in England and North America, but has only within recent years been adopted in Sweden, where it is now rapidly gaining favour. Pig. 41. Hand-saw, 86 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 2. The Dovetail saw (Fig. 42) has a very broad blade of equal breadth throughout, with a handle. To give sufficient strength to the blade, its upper edge is enclosed in an iron back. This thick back limits the depth of the cut ; con- sequently this saw is only used for shallow Fig. 42. Dovetail-saw. . incisions, e.g., in sawing out tenons, dovetails, etc. This saw has 10 to 12 teeth per inch. The shape of the teeth is shown in Fig. 32, but they are often sharpened with advantage in the manner shown in Fig. 33. [3. The Tenon-saw is practically the same as the dovetail- saw, but it is rather larger, and it has what is called a Box- handle, somewhat like that of the hand-saw. TRS.] 4. The Compass-saw (Fig. 43). The blade is very nar- row, and terminates in a point. This saw is used when an excision has to be made in the centre of a piece of Fig. 43. Compass-saw. . work, and cannot be begun from the edge. For this purpose a hole must be bored, into which the point of the saw can be inserted. To give the blade sufficient strength it is made tolerably thick, but it becomes thinner towards the back. Compass- saws are of various sizes, and the teeth are set in different Ways. The number of teeth varies from 5 to 12 per inch, but their form is in most cases that shown in Fig. 32. 4. The Groove-saw * (Fig. 44) has a tolerably thick blade * Unknown in England, but recommended as useful. TRS. TOOLS. 87 of equal breadth throughout, the upper edge of which is entirely enclosed by a handle, which is worked by both hands. The teeth are inclined towards the worker, and consequently act when he draws the saw towards him. It sometimes happens, especi- ally in clamping and grooving, that an incision must be made in a broad flat piece of wood, and in many cases it I must not be Fig. 44. Groova-saw. J. carried to the edge. With the exception of the tenon-saw, the saws hitherto described cannot be used for this purpose. The groove-saw is perfectly adapted for it, whereas the tenon- saw is not quite so convenient, because the setting of its teeth is not suitable, and it has only one handle. . II. The Axe. After the saw the axe is one of the most useful tools in the earlier stages of any piece of work. Axes are of various kinds, manufactured for different purposes. An axe of American construction, very suitable for slojd work, is shown in Fig. 45. The edge and faces are slightly curved, and ground on both sides. The axe should not weigh more than about 21bs., that it may, without trouble,be wield- ed by one hand. Fig. 45. Axe. Ohio pattern. \. The handle, of hard and tough wood, such as oak or ash, should be curved so as to fall well into the hand, and the axe HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. shaft must be firmly secured by wedges into the eye of the axe-head. In working with the axe the wood is supported on a block, formed of an evenly sawn-off piece of the trunk of a tree. The best tree for this purpose is the poplar. The surface of the block must always be kept free from sand, which would destroy the edge of the axe. It is of the utmost importance for beginners to hold the piece of wood in such a way that the hands may receive no injury. grinding In grinding 1 (see under this head, pp. 115-118) the axe the axe. an( j a j} other edge-tools, the tool must be held steadily against the grindstone, in order that the bevelled edge may be quite regular and of the same breadth, not waving. The two bevelled edges should form an angle of about 20. III. The Knife. The knife is the slojder's indispensable and most important tool> and ifc is the rst to be pkced in the hands o a Beginner. It is therefore important to select for slojd suitable knives of the best quality. The blade of the slojd knife should be made of good steel, about 4 inches long, and not more than inch broad. The edge should be Fig. 46. Slojd-knife Niias pattern, i. straight, and the two faces which form it should extend over the entire breadth of the blade. The back of the knife should not be more than ^ inch thick. The blade ought not to taper tc a dagger-like point, but should terminate as is shown in Fig. 46. The best angle for the edge is 15. The other end of the blade terminates in a tang which slots into the handle. TOOLS. A commoner, though by no means so suit- able form of knife is shown Fig. 47. Slojd knife. I. in Fig. 47. Directions for using the knife are given in Chap. IV The Draw-Knife. This consists of a steel blade with an edge formed by .grinding on one side only. This blade is furnished at both ends with handles, at right angles to it, and in the same plane. The tool is worked with both hands, so that the Fig. 48. Draw-knife. J. "whole strength of the slb'jder can be thrown into its use. use of the The draw-knife is chiefly used in modelling and smoothing objects with curved outlines. It is also used in making hoops for barrels, &c. Directions for its use are given in Chap. V. V.- Chisels, Gouges, Carving- Tools, &c. These terms include a whole group of tools which are used in wood-slqjd for the removal of small pieces of wood, in cases where the knife, the saw, or the plane could not advan- tageously be used. They consist of a flat or concave blade made of steel, the Parts of a cutting end of which is cut straight across and sharpened to chliel> &e ' 90 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. an edge, and the other wrought into a four- sided tang, which is set into a wooden handle. The tool in working is driven into the wood either by the pressure of the hand, or by blows from a mallet. In order that the handle may not slip,. or twist round when grasped, it is generally made with four sides, greater in breadth than in thickness, and with the broader sides rounded.* To keep the handle from splitting under violent pressure, the base of the- tang is furnished with a shoulder, on which the handle rests. These tools vary greatly in size both as regards length and breadth. The latter dimension determines the dimensions of the edge. The broadest tools are gener- ally also the longest. In order to be able to execute all the different kinds of exercises which occur, it is necessary to have a complete set of each description of tools. There are usually 12 in a set, all of different breadths. Tools of this kind are classified accord- ing to the different shapes of the blade and edge, and the different methods of A J Fig. 49. Firmer Chisel \. A. Blade and handle. B. Blade showing a face and edge. C. Blade, c. shoulder, d. tang. sharpening as follows : 1. Chisels. The face side A. of the firmer chisel is perfectly flat. 1. The Firmer Chisel (Fig. 49). The breadth of the blade, which varies from 1 inches to inch, is generally much greater than its thickness. The angle between the bevel and the flat face varies from 25 to 30. The firmer chisel is used in paring plane or convex surfaces ; in mortising, when it often does duty instead of the mortise * English handles are generally turned in boxwood or beech. TRS. 91 chisel ; in curved work ; in facing off; and, generally speak- ing, in all cases where no other tool can be made use of with advantage. 2. The Mortise-chisel (Fig. 50). The thickness of the blade generally exceeds its breadth, which varies from inch to 1 inch. The front face of the blade is always a little broader than the back. The mortise-chisel is used for mortising; and, whenever possible, a blade of the same breadth as the mortise to be made should be selected. The great thickness of the tool enables its sides to act with steady force upon the sides of the mortise, and makes accurate execution of the operation much easier. It is driven into the wood by blows from a mallet. The angle of the edge is tho same as in the firmer chisel. 2. Gouges. These tools have a curved edge. The blade of the gouge is concave. The bevelled edge may either be (a) ground from within out- wards, in which case the edge will lie upon the inner or concave side, or (6) in the reverse way, when the A- Fig. 51. Gouge i. edge will lie upon the outer Fig 50. Mortise-chisel. J. *> ^ edge on or convex sidS ^J^"* . ~t Gouges ground in the first mentioned manner are used in the formation of grooves or bowl-shaped depressions. Those ground in the other way 92 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. are used chiefly in perpendicular paring to produce concave and cylindrical surfaces. The breadth of the gouge varies from ^ inch to 1| inches, and the curve of the edge may include from one-tenth to one- half of a circle, or 36 to 180. All the gouges in one set should have the same curve in the edge. The gouge is driven into the wood by the hand, or in the case of gouges of large size, by the mallet. 3. The Spoon Gouge and the Spoon Iron. Ordinary gouges are often used in forming the bowls of spoons and similar articles, but the tools specially adapted, and best for the purpose, are the spoon gouge and spoon iron. The larger illustration (Fig. 52) shows the spoon gouge. In construction, and in the way it is used, it somewhat resembles A (Fig. 51) ; but it differs from it in having the blade curved lengthwise, to facilitate the work of hollowing out. The spoon iron is different in form. It is shown in the smaller illustration (Fig. 52), and re- sembles a knife Fig. 52. Spoon Gouge and Spoon Iron. \. with a lancet- shaped blade, with two edges, curved like a bow, and taper- ing to a point at the end. It is worked with both hands, and cuts to either side. 4. Carving Tools. A number of tools, more or less like the preceding, are used in wood-carving. Some of thess carving tools are flat, with rectangular edges; others ars oblique to the direction of their length, with a bevelled edge on both sides; others are concave, with a circular edge, or have two edges meeting in a point. They are straight in some cases ; in others, curved. As only a few of these tools are used in slojd carpentry, to TOOLS. 93 any extent worth mentioning, no description of them is given; but those in most common use, with their names, are shown in Fig. 53. The full size of the edge is given in the outline beside the representation of each tool. Fig. 53. Carving Tools. Curved gouge. Front bent gouge. Straight parting tool: Bent parting tool Bent chisel Parting gouge. VI. Plr.nes. The edge tools hitherto described consist of a single steel blade, with a cutting edge of various descriptions, and a handle for one or both hands. The inclination of the edge to the surface of the wood may thus be altered at will, as the circumstances of the case require. Narrow surfaces, or sur- faces of generally circumscribed area, may thus be levelled and smoothed to a certain extent (though not perfectly) by the knife, the axe, the chisel, etc. ; but when long and broad surfaces have to be made absolutely smooth, we require an 94 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. edge-tool which, by attacking in the first place all the eleva- tions, and by always cutting equally deep on a plane surface (i.e., by always removing shavings of the same thickness), finally reduces the surface to one uniform level. The plane is the tool which fulfils these requirements. In the plane, the steel blade called the plane-iron is wedged tightly into a parallelopiped-shaped wooden block, called the plane stock, which is formed in various ways for various ' purposes. The edge of the blade extends slightly beyond the under side of the block. The plane is used not only in the dressing of plane surfaces, but also in the preparation of all surfaces on which straight lines can be drawn in at least one direction ; e.g., in smoothing the surface of cylindrical and conical objects, etc. Con- sequently, many different kinds of planes are required. All planes, however, consist of two principal parts : tho sole or stock, and the iron. The stock is formed of hard, tough, straight-fibred wood in the form of a parallelepiped, the under side of which, the sole, glides over the work when the tool is used. The best wood is elm, beech, pear, or box- wood, which has been well seasoned to prevent warping. The plane is worked with both hands. The front part of Swedish planes is often provided with a rest for the hand, called the horn. The larger kind of planes have a handle behind the iron. The plane-iron is placed obliquely in a hole in the stock, called the socket (Figs. 54 and 56), with its edge extending a very little beyond the sole, and it is secured by a wooden wedge. It is made of iron, with a steel front. In shape it resembles a wedge, the thicker end of which is sharpened. The wedge-like shape gives the required thickness and strength to the sharpened end, leaves more room towards the upper end, and also helps to keep the plane-iron firmly in its place when the edge comes against hard knots in the wood and the pressure tends to force the iron upwards. TOOLS. 95 To form the edge, the plane-iron is ground on the posterior Ang i e ofthe or bevelled edge. This forms an angle of from 20 to 25 totf* with the front face of the plane-iron. The former angle is ^nd'ittpoti- suitable for loose fibred timber ; the latter for hard or knotty tion in the wood. The edge must not be too thin, for if so, the iron will fly, i.e., become jagged. The iron is generally placed in the socket at an angle of 45 to the plane of the sole, with the bevelled edge downwards. It occasionally happens, e.g., in small American planes with iron stocks, that the bevelled edge of the plane-iron is turned upwards at an angle of 25 to the plane of the sole. It may -also be mentioned, in passing, that in planes manufactured for special purposes, e.g., planing particularly hard kinds of wood, the irons are placed at an angle of 50, 55, tiO, or even 90. As indicated above, the plane acts by removing thicker or thinner shavings, according as the plane-iron extends more or less beyond the sole. In working with the knife it is always possible to alter the position of the edge in order to prevent its cutting in the same direction as the fibres run, which would tear them, and render the surface uneven. But at is not always possible to guide the stationary plane-iron in this way. Hence in cross-grained wood, or in timber where the fibres lie parallel with the surface, the plane has a tendency to split or tear them, and the resistance offered by the torn fibres is often so great that the plane cannot be driven forward. The fibres also, by their elasticity, tend to drag the iron downwards. To prevent the fibres tearing in front of the iron, provision must be made (1) for breaking them off at once, and (2) for bringing at the same time pres- sure to bear on them from above, just over the edge of the iron, by means of which their elasticity may be diminished or wholly neutralised. The first object is attained by placing a cover above the iron, the effect of which is to break off the The cover. fibres as quickly as they are detached ; the second, by re- ducing the set or opening in front of the iron as much as is compatible with the free passage of the shavings through it. 5 T o put on fre^ier. The wedge and the tocket. i-ig.54. Trying Plane. |. A stock, B handle, C socket, D D cheeks, E wedge, F cover, iron, II boss. A rectangular opening in the iron, enlarged and rounded at one end, admits the screw of the cover, and permits of its adjustment. The lower end of the cover is curved, with the concave side inwards, and it terminates in a sharp edge. When the screw is tightened this sharp edge must lie close against the surface of the iron (see Fig. 55), If the slightest space is left the shav- ings will force their way through. The other side of the cover must be carefully rounded to permit the shav- ings to glide freely over it. The edge of the cover should be very near the edge of the iron. In finishing up a surface, and plain jointing, the dis- tance should be about ^ inch, and about double that distance in cases where coarser shavings may be removed. The dis- tance between the socket and the edge of the plane in front should be about T V inch for fine planing, and not more than T 3 B inch for coarser work. In planes like the smoothing-plane and the trying-plane, where the iron is narrower than the sole, and is inserted in the socket from above, the front side of the socket should bo at right angles with the plane of the sole, and of the same i'ig. 55. Plane Iron. A seen from the front J. B seen from the side \, a iron, b cover. breadth as the iron. The inclination of the side of the socket on which the iron rests has been already indicated ; the other two sides, i.e., the cheeks, are thicker towards the iron, in order to give support and steadiness to the wedge, and the sides of the wedge are inclined towards one another at an angle of about 8. If this angle is much greater the wedge fits loosely ; if it is less it may fit so tightly that it cannot with- out difficulty be loosened. The wedge, which is forked at the lower end, must fit accur- ately into the space in the socket left by the iron, otherwise shavings may gather round its points (see Fig. 56). These points require frequent- ly to be trimmed, because from re- peated sharpen- ing the wedge- shaped plane- iron gradually sinks deeper in the socket, caus- ing the wedge to do the same. Should the sole of the plane become warped, or uneven /> Z(ini -,, ff t h through wear, it must be carefully planed. It follows from soieandin- the construction of the socket that the opening in front of the P i ece ^ iron, after repeated planing, becomes too large. It is usual wood - to remedy this by inserting in front of the iron a piece of very hard wood, e.g., ebony, beech, or boxwood (see Fig. 56). Brass is also used for this purpose. New planes are also G Fig. 56. Portion of Plane. Socket. }. F section through cd showing plane iron, wedge and piece of wood inserted. 98 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. often furnished with such pieces, in order that the portion in front of the plane-iron's edge may longer resist the wearing effect of the shavings. Putting- in the Plane-Iron or Setting the Plane. The cover is screwed tightly on the iron, with its sharp edge at the proper distance from the edge of the iron, which is then laid in the socket, just deep enough to allow its edge to lie in the same plane as the surface of the sole. The wedge is then put in, and secured by a couple of light blows from the hammer. The plane is then taken in the left hand, with the thumb resting on the wedge in the socket. The sole is turned upwards, and the iron is carefully driven in a little more, so that its edge shows just as much beyond the plane of the sole as the occasion requires. If it seems crooked, i.e., if one corner seems lower than the other, this must be rectified by light taps on its free edges. When its position appears to be right, the iron is secured by driving the wedge in more firmly. If, after this, the iron is found to be too low, it may be made to recede by a blow on the back part of the stock, or, in the case of the trying-plane, by a blow on the boss, a piece of hard wood or metal inserted in front of the socket (see H, Fig. 54). [This boss is not always found in English planes. It is useful in slojd as indicating the place to which the blow should be directed, and thus saving the stock of the plane from injury. TRS.] The loosened wedge is then fastened once more, and the position of the iron is tested by the thickness of the shavings it removes, and raised or lowered, if necessary, according to the above directions. When the iron is removed, the plane is held in the way indicated above. 1. Planes with Flat Soles for the dressing of plane surfaces. 1. The jack-plane (Fig. 57). To give certainty and ease in working, the front portion of the stock of a Swedish jack- plane is furnished with a horn for the hand, and a metal 99 Leiujth of the jack- plane. support of American invention is sometimes placed behind the iron to prevent the other hand from coming in contact with its sharp edges. The iron is single, i.e., it has no cover, and the edge is curved, not square. The Swedish jack-plane is 9 inches long. [The English jack-plane is 17 inches long. TRS.] The jack- plane is used on rough un- planed sur- faces as a pre- paration for a finer plane, when the ob- ject in view is more to re- move thick Fig. 57. Jack-plane. J. Shavings ra- A horHi B sup port for hand, C single iron. pidly by an iron which cuts deep, than to produce a smooth surface. As the iron is single, and the opening in front of it tolerably wide, the jack-plane has a tendency to tear up the wood ; and it is therefore not advisable to use this tool very near the surface which is ultimately to be produced. 2. The trying-plane is the largest and most indispensable of all the planes in use. That it may be wielded steadily it is provided with a handle for one hand. The iron is double, i.e., provided with a cover. Its various parts and their con- struction are fully described in connection with Fig. 54, and the method of using it is described in Chap. V. It is employed in shooting, i.e., in producing level surfaces use of the of all kinds, and it is sometimes used in preparatory work tr ying plane instead of the jack-plane, in which case the iron should be set rather deeper than for shooting. When the trying-plane is used instead of the jack-plane, the space between the socket and the edge of the iron in front should be wider than in the later stages of planing. 100 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. In all planes used for shooting, the surface of the sole must iron. lie altogether in the same plane ; and the edge of the plane- iron must be ground quite straight, and at right angles with the middle line of the iron. As, however, the corners of a perfectly straight-edge are apt to tear up the fibres by the side of the iron, or at least to leave a mark on the wood, they should be very slightly rounded. The sole is sometimes rubbed with raw linseed oil, that it may glide more smoothly over the wood. The trying-plane should always be worked in the direction of its length, not obliquely to it, as is often improperly done. tiie trying The trying-plane should be about 20 inches long. [The ?&" English trying-plane is 22 inches long. TRS.] 3. The smoothing-plane (Fig. 58) resembles the jack- plane, but is broader, and has a double iron. Vseo/the The smoothing- tmoothing ~ . -IP, plane. ^^^r plane is used after the trying-plane to produce a very smooth polished sur- face. As the shav- ings it removes must be extremely fine, the edge of the cover is Fig. 58. Smoothing-plane. . placed very close to the edsre of the iron, or, as it is called, is " set fine in front." O The smoothing plane should be about 9 J inches long. [The English smoothing-plane is 7 inches long. TRS.] The smoothing-plane and planes like it may be fur- nished with a support for Fig. 59. Iron Smoothing-plane (American the hand, behind the iron, pattern;. |. like the jack-plane. on planes As mentioned above, the stocks of planes are sometimes 101 made of iron. Planes of this kind are used in England, and to a still greater extent in America. The plane-iron is ad- justed by means of a screw. Small iron smoothing-planes are very useful for children, whose hands are not large enough to hold planes of the ordinary size. A plane of this pattern is shown in Fig. 59. 4. The rebate-plane (Fig. 60). When the adjacent sur- faces of a rebate have to be planed, the ordinary smoothing- plane does not answer because the iron is narrower than the sole. In the rebate-plane the edge of the iron is as broad as Fig- 60. Rebate-plane. |. the sole, sometimes even a little broader. The upper part of the iron is much narrower, and it is wedged into a mortise in the stock. The iron may be single or double, and the shavings escape through an opening above the edge. 2. Planes for the Dressing of Curved Surfaces. 1. The round. This plane is used for hollow grooved surfaces. It resembles the smoothing-plane and the jack- plane, but differs from them in the more or less convex sole, the degree of convexity depending on the degree of concavity it is desired to pro- duce. The iron may be single or double, and the edge is rounded to correspond with the sole. An ordi- nary jack-plane may easily be con- verted into a round, by round- ing the sole and the edge of the iron. In working the round 102 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. it must always be driven forward in a line with its length. In consequence of the shape of the tool, any other method would destroy the surface required. [2. The hollow, another plane of this kind, has the sole concave, and an iron to correspond. It is used in planing round surfaces. TRS.] 3. The compass plane. In this plane the sole is curved lengthwise, and the iron is an ordinary double one with a straight edge. It is used in planing hollow curved surfaces, fcoles of different degrees of curvature are required, according to the radii of the surface to be planed, but it is not necessary that the two should accurately correspond. The curvature of the sole must not be less ^- than the curvature of the / T /Jr surface of the work, but it / I Mir maybe greater. The differ- ence, however, if any, must be slight, because the two opposing surfaces must correspond closely enough to permit of the steady Fig. 62. Compass Plane. \. guidance of the tool. One compass-plane, therefore, will not suffice for surfaces of greatly varying curvature. American compass-planes of iron, called adjustable planes, have flexible steel soles, which can be adapted to surfaces of different degrees of curvature. One plane of this kind is therefore enough. 3. The Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, and Dove-tail Filletster. The old woman's tooth-plane is quite unlike the planes hitherto described. It consists of a block of wood on the inner side of which is fastened an iron, secured by a thumb-screw. (Fig. 63). The construction of some planes of this kind is much simpler ; they consist merely of a parallelepiped piece TOOLS. 103 of wood, in the middle of which is wedged a straight or curved iron. In this case the blade of a firmer chisel is often used. Fig. 63. Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, seen from above and from the side. \. The dove-tail filletster is like the rebate plane, but differs from it in having the plane of the sole oblique to the sides of the stock, instead of at right angles to them, and also in having a rebate either in a piece with the sole, or attached to it for the purpose of Fig. 64. Dove-tail Filletster, seen frcna the side guiding the plane and from behind. *. along the line of the dove-tail rebate to be formed. In the simple kind of filletster shown in Fig. 64, the rebate is fixed, but in the more complicated kind (Fig. 65), the rebate is adjustable to suit deeper or shallower work ; the latter is also provided with a " cutter" which determines the line within which the surface is to be planed. This line, in other cases, must first be gauged X^Sy with a cutting jauo"e' otherwise the plane will tear the fibres on that side and make it uneven. Fig. 65. Dove-tail Filletster. 104 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. Both these planes are used in making, dove-tail rebates ; the old woman's tooth in smoothing and levelling the bottom of the groove into which the dove-tail is shot, and the filletster in working the dove-tail. 4. The Plough. When a rectangular groove is made in a piece of wood the off plough is used. The breadth of the iron must not exceed the breadth of the groove to be made, and the sole consists of an iron splint set into the stock. The plough is furnished with a directing gauge, adjustable by bolts and wedges or screws. From 6 to 12 irons of different breadths accompany each plane. 5. The Iron Spokeshave. The Spokeshave may be included in the same class as the plane. It is made entirely of iron, with two handles, and is worked with both hands. The sole is very short shorter than the breadth of the iron and this renders the tool very useful in forming narrow convex or concave surfaces. The iron is se- cured by a screw and a fixing plate. The latter also does duty as a Fig. 66. Spokeshave. J. cover, and make& the tool more serviceable (see Fig. 66). The Spokeshave is a simple, practical, and easily-managed tool. It is made in several sizes, and the iron may have a straight edge, or one which curves outwards. The former is more common. 105 v VU. Files. The files used in wood-si ojd are the same as those used in metal work. The file plays, however, a much less important part in the former than in the latter. In wood-slbjd it is used chiefly to smooth curved surfaces, the interior of holes and depressions, and the ends of pieces of wood, in all cases where edge-tools cannot be used advantageously. The file consists of a piece of steel, the shape of which may vary, and on the surface of which sharp ridges have been cut with a chisel. These ridges are equidistant the one from the other, and oblique to the length of the file. They form the file-grade (Fig. 67) the essential characteristic of the tool. A single-cut file is cut in one direction only ; in a double-cut file the cuts cross one another. Both cuts incline towards the point of Fi- 67. File-grade. -?. the tool, the result of which is that the file acts chiefly when driven forward, and has little effect when drawn back. The files used in wood-slb'jd have usually a tapering point. All files terminate at the other end in a tang which slots into the handle. Fig. 68. Files. . flat file, b half-round file, c round file. Files are called triangular, square, flat, round, half-round, etc., accordino- to the form of the blade in cross-section. Flat 106 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. round, and half -round files are most used in wood-slojd (Fig. 68). The triangular file is used for sharpening saws (Fig. 36). The fineness of the file depends on the number of cuts per inch. They are usually classified as coarse, medium, fine, and very fine. Medium files, about 12 inches long, are the most useful for working in wood, but coarse files, or rasps, may be used in the first stages of work. Method of When in use, the file is grasped by the handle by one hand, and the wrist or fingers of the other are laid on the point to produce the required pressure. The file is passed steadily and slowly backwards and forwards over the work if the surface desired is level, and with a circular motion if it is curved. Pressure is exerted only when the file is driven forward ; when it is drawn back again it is allowed to glide over the surface. When the work cannot be made fast, the file must be worked with one hand ; .but, whenever possible, the work should be secured to the bench, that both hands may be free to direct and steady the file. Cleaning the In filing resinous or unseasoned wood, the cuts of the file are apt to become clogged with sawdust. The file may be cleaned with a stiff steel brush, but the simplest method of cleaning a wood file is to dip it in hot water to loosen the sawdust, and afterwards dry it and brush it. The same file should never be used for wood and metal. VIII. Methods of Finishing Work. 1. The Scraper. This tool consists of a highly-tempered piece of steel (Fig. 69). The edges of the scraper are f^ |B generally straight, but sometimes the fkeicraper en ds are rounded or hollowed to suit 1 concave or convex surfaces. The two longest parallel edges are ground at Fig. 69. Scraper. J. right angles to the sides. When the TOOLS. 107 scraper is sharpened, it is placed at the edge of a plank, and a very hard piece of steel is drawn against its edge as nearly as possible on the plane of the plank. This, when repeated several times backwards and forwards, levels the sharp edge of the scraper, which is raised up again by having the steel once, steadily but not too heavily, passed along it. During this the steel is held almost perpendicular, with its upper end inclined very slightly towards the upper side of the plank. The raised edge of the scraper now forms a fine edge, which takes hold of the wood when drawn across its surface, and removes minute shavings. When it becomes blunt, it must be sharpened once more, and as its edge, after repeated sharpening, becomes uneven, it must finally be re- ground. A worn saw-file, the cut of which has been carefully ground off, and the edges slightly rounded, or a firmer chisel, may be used. The scraper should be held easily in the hand. In polish- Method & ing a plane surface, the tool should be taken in both hands, temper. The scraper should incline towards the surface of the work (see Chap. V., page 142), and should be worked always in the direction towards which it leans, and with the grain of the wood, but somewhat obliquely to the direction of the fibres. Towards the end, pressure should be diminished, to produce a finer polish. Care must be taken lest the cutting edge become ragged from careless "setting," and scratch the surface. Should this be so, the scraper must be re-ground, and then sharpened. 2. Sand-Paper. Sand-vaver is made of paper with a coating of finely- sand- P a P tr r f x . . made of flint ground flint, glass, or quartz glued on to it. Ine grains on aildofg i asi , the same paper are always of the same size, and, according to the finer or coarser quality, the paper is numbered from to rough 2. [Sand-paper made of flint is generally used in Sweden. In England, glass-paper is considered the best. TRS.] 108 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. When in use, the sand-paper should be torn off in pieces of convenient size, and a bit laid on the plane surface of a piece of cork or wood, f -inch thick, and of a good size to be held in the hands. If a sufficiently thick piece of cork can- not be obtained, a thin piece should be glued on a piece of wood, or, failing cork, a piece of card-board will answer the purpose. This serves the purpose of a soft rubber (wood alone being too hard), and gives the necessary support to the sand-paper, which, used in this way, acts much in the same manner as the file, and may be considered to all intents and Sand-paper ' J really a tool, purposes as a tool. Sand-paper may be used without a rubber only in the case of concave or convex surfaces, where there are no sharp edges. Care must be taken in finishing off not to work the paper in the direction of the fibres, but either at right angles or obliquely to it, in order to produce a smooth surface. Just at the last, the paper may be passed once or twice in the same line as the fibres, to remove any ridges or marks which may have been produced. For similar reasons, the paper last used should be finer than that first employed, in order to secure a perfectly smooth surface. Sand-paper should never be used to form or smooth up the surface of objects. The knife, the file, the smoothing-plane, sand-paper the scraper, etc. are the proper tools for this purpose. Sand- paper should be used only in finishing off, and when the use sparingly, of the smoothing-plane is understood, it is not much needed for plane surfaces. In the case of objects with curved surfaces, on the other hand, it is almost indispensable. Finishing off with sand-paper should never be done in a thoughtless, mechanical way. To attain a satisfactory result the greatest attention is requisite. IX. Brace and Bits. Bits of different kinds are used in making round holes. Bits for wood are made of a special kind of steel, one end of which forms the cutting portion of the tool, and the other is TOOLS. 109 wedge-shaped, that it may be securely fastened into a handle or brace, by means of which it revolves. In working, the brace is always turned to the right, and the bits are made to cut in the same direction. The edge of the bit is designed to make its way into the wood without great pressure, and without risk of splitting it. The bit must work without hindrance from the shavings ; otherwise it will become hot from friction, and boring will be difficult. A good bit cuts like a knife, detaches smooth spiral shavings, and becomes only moderately warm, even when worked quickly. The brace may vary in construction. Fig. 70 shows a very strong Swedish brace made of iron. The upper end, or tang of the bit, forms a square truncated pyramid, which slots into a hole in the brace socket, and is fastened by a spring. Fig. 71 shows an American brace, also made of iron. It has a screw adjustable socket, into which the bit is secured. The tang of the bit may be of any form, pro- vided it is somewhat rectangular. Eig. 70. Swedish Brace. Fig. 71. American Brace ; section of screw adjustable socket, or bit holder, 110 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. The bits in most general use are quill-bits and centre-bits. Small quill-bits are called pin-bits. A U C D E F C Fig. 72. A, Auger-bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Quill-bit. D, Hole-rimer drill. E, Screwdriver bit. F and G, Counter-sink drills. . 1. The quill-bit (Fig. 72, G} is gouge-shaped, with the end curved like the point of a spoon. Unlike the centre-bit, it has no middle point, and it is therefore more difficult to gauge to holes of any given size, especially if the latter are large. This bit is better than the centre-bit for boring end pieces. Quill-bits are made in various sizes, from those adapted for holes of r x 5 inch in diameter to those suitable for holes of 1 inch in diameter. The smallest kind, the pin-bit, is most used in wood slojd. A set of pin-bits includes from 8 to 10, varying in size from | inch to \ inch. 2. The Centre-bit. 1- The ordinary centre-bit (Fig. 72, B, and 73, B) has a flat blade, the lower portion of which is broader than the upper, as is shown in the illustrations. In the middle of the lower edge is the centre-point a, and at one side is the cutter b. In TOOLS. Ill Fig. 73. A, Portion of Auger- bit. , Portion of Centre-bit. aa Centre-point, 666 Cutter, ccc Lip. boring, the cutter makes a circular incision corresponding to the circumference of the hole, and thus determines its diameter, prevents the wood from splitting, and facilitates the removal of shavings and sawdust by the lip c, the edge of which is horizontal to the point and oblique to the blade, and which cuts at right angles to the cutter. The centre point is longer than the cutter, which again cuts deeper than the lip. In sharpening the centre- bit, which may be done with a small half-round file, care must be taken that the edge of the cutter is on the outer side, and the edge of the lip on the under side. A set of bits should contain 8 to 12 centre- bits, from inch to 1 inch broad. 2. The auger (Fig. 72, A) belongs to the same class. In boring with the bits previously described, it is necessary to exercise a certain degree of pressure, but the auger works its w y '" way into the wood by means of the conical screw which forms auger <,/** its centre point, and after the screw has once started all that is needed is to make it revolve. The auger is besides fur- nished with a cutter and a lip on both sides of the screw. (See Fig. 73, A.) Above the cutting portion it is spiral in form, and thus we have a double spiral with sharp edges. This gives plenty of room for the sawdust and shavings which are worked out of the hole without the removal of the auger. The American augers are the best. A set includes 6 to 12 pieces, from The best T : V inch to 1 inch. Fig. 74. Expansion bit. i 112 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. Adjustable orex Screwdriver bit, counter- link drill, ami hole- rimer. The expansion bit (Fig. 74) is of American construction. "Within certain limits it admits of holes of different sizes being bored with one and the same bit. Its point, lip, and cutter are tolerably like those of the auger, but it is furnished with two loose cutters, which may be screwed in to suit the diameter desired. The adj ustable cutter does the work both of lip and cutter. The expansion bit makes holes with remark- ably even surfaces, and with two different sizes it is possible to bore holes varying in diameter from inch to 3 inches. A screw-driver bit (Fig. 72, E), two or three counter-sink drills (Fig. 72, F and G), and a couple of square or hexagonal hole-rimers (Fig. 72, D) are usually included in a complete set of bits. The counter-sink drill is used to produce a conical hole in wood or metal, suitable for sinking screw-heads. The rimer enlarges holes in thin metal plates, e.g., screw holes in hinge-plates. 3. The Bradawl (Fig. 75). This tool consists of a steel bit T V inch to inch thick, and 2 inches long. Its point is like that of an awl, or it may be chisel-pointed. The bit is secured in the handle by a screw-socket. Several bits of different sizes belong to the tool, and the handle, which is hollow, serves as a case for them. The brad- awl is used to bore holes for sprigs, nails, etc. When holes are bored with the chisel-pointed bit, the edge is placed across the grain of the Fig. 75^ Brad- wood, and pressure is exerted in this direction to prevent the splitting of the wood. awl. 4. X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand Vice, Pincers, and Screwdriver. The Mallet (Fig. 70) is made of hard, strong wood, pre- ferably of figured beech. It is used for striking tools with wooden handles, because the hard hammer in such cases TOOLS. 113 would not only do damage, but would not serve the purpose so well. The Hammer (Fig. 77) con- sists of a piece of steel with a hole for the handle, called the eye. One end is cylindrical and terminates in a flat surface, called the face; the other end, which is called the pane, is wedge-shaped, with a rounded edge. That the handle may be quite firm, the eye widens at the sides, and wedges driven hard into the end of the handle cause it to fill up the cavity entirely. Fig. 76. Mallet. . Fig. 77. Ham- mer. . There are various kinds of pincers, but only those used in wood slojd need be named here. Pincers have two steel arms rivetted together. The rivet divides the arms into two unequal portions, the longer, or handles, and the shorter, or jaws. The ordinary pincers have Fig. 78. Pincers. $. short, broad, sharply curved jaws, and are used to extract nails, etc. The wire-cutter resembles the preceding, but is slighter in make, and its arms are curved and its jaws sharper. It is used to snap off pieces of wire, tin- Fig. 79. Wire-cutter. 3. tacks, etc. Thfe jaws of the flat pliers are flat on the inner 114 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. Fig. 80. Flat-jawed Pliers. Fig. 81- Round-jawed Pliers. Shape of the screwdriver. Fig. 83. Screwdrivei. i a the point, from the side. side, which is file- cut to enable them to take fast hold of small pieces of metal to be filed, bent, &c. In the round pliers the jaws are more or less conical in shape, for the bending of I- wire, etc. The hand-vice is not so much employed in slojd- carpentry as in metal slb'jd. Its chief use is to secure small pieces of metal for filing. It may be held in the hand, or, after the piece of metal has been made fast, it may itself be screwed into a hand-screw or to the bench, that both hands may be free for the work of filing. The screwdriver is used for driving in screws, and is made of hard steel. At the end it is bev- elled to a thick point, which varies from ^-inch to yV-inch in thickness, depending on the size of the screw for which it is to be used. The bevelled edges should be parallel, and the point should be as little as possible like a wedge in shape, but should lie flat in the slit of the nail* otherwise it will have a tendency to slip and become chipped. Hand-vice. TOOLS. 115 E. The Grinding- and Sharpening of Tools. Work must never be done ivith, blunt or badly-set tools. Tools must always be kept sharp and in good order. These rules should aliuays be kept in mind. Many a slojder toils in the sweat of his brow with a blunt saw, or a badly set blunt plane, rather than take time to put his tool in order, though tools in good condition save hours of work, much unnecessary trouble, and needless vexation. Blunt tools demand more strength and exertion than sharp ones, and seldom, if ever, produce such good results. The rules given above are especially important in the case of children, for whom work ought not to be made unnecessarily difficult. The sharpening of edge-tools is performed on the grind- stone and the oilstone. The method of sharpening a saw has already been described (pp. SO, 81). The ordinary Grindstone consists of a circular slab of sandstone, which rotates oa an axle, and is provided with a handle for turning. It is supported on a grindstone stand or bench. Below the stone is a wooden well, lined with zinc, partially filled with water, into which the stone is sunk about one inch when in use. The stone should not be too fine in the grain or too hard. The grindstone should never be used dry, because the steel care of the does not " catch " well unless the stone is wet, and the friction y rtndst 1ie - on a dry stone " burns " the steel and makes the edge of the tool soft. Exposure to the sun for any length of time makes the stone too hard, while prolonged immersion of any portion of it in water renders that portion soft. Consequently it wears faster, and the stone becomes uneven or eccentric. The stone should therefore be kept dry except when in use. A frame-work attached to the stand prevents splashing when the stone rotates by directing the water down into the well, and splashing may still further be avoided by fastening a thick piece of stuff in front so that it trails upon the stone 116 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. and absorbs a portion of the surplus water. The stone must always be turned tmvards the worker and towards the edge of the tool, which must be moved steadily, and with equal pressure from side to side, across the whole breadth of the stone, to prevent the formation of scratches or depressions on its circumference. The bevelled edge produced by grinding must present either a flat or a concave surface to the convex surface of the stone. It must never be convex. The con- straight cave form of the bevelled edge is advantageous, because it materially lightens the final sharpening on the oilstone. The edge must also be quite straight unless a curved edge is actually required. As it is difficult, especially for the inexperienced, to hold the steel steadily enough against the stone, a grinding sup- iccurate P or ^ nas been invented. Such a support of American make winding. } s shown in Fig. 84. It consists of an iron frame into which the plane-iron or the chisel is screwed. A small wheel below Fig. b4. Grinding-supporl, or grinding-rest. . the frame revolves upon the grindstone, and the desired angle on the edge of the tool is obtained by fastening it in with the edge at a shorter or longer distance from the frame. By means of this simple contrivance even an inexpert pupil is able to grind a plane-iron correctly. A very common fault in grinding is to make the angle which the bevelled edge makes with the face of the tool too TOOLS. 117 great, i.e., to make the edge too thick. This is often done by beginners in their haste to be relieved from grinding. The tool must be ground till a raw edge appears, i.e., the The raw very thin " film " or hair produced by the grindstone's remov- edge - ing the very edge of the steel. This, in its turn, is removed by the oilstone. Sharpening with the oilstone is necessary, because the edge produced by the coarse-grained grindstone is neither fine enough nor even enough for immediate use. The oilstone is a slab of specially fine- grained stone. "Wash- ita" and "Arkansas" stones from America, The best and " Turkey " stones Ustone *- Fig. 85. Oilstone and case. . ,, , rv , r , , are the best. [Welsh oilstones are less expensive, and can thoroughly be recom- mended. TRS.] The oilstone should be 8 inches long and 2 inches broad, and it should be kept in a wooden box with a cover (Fig. 85). " Arkansas " stone is very hard and close- grained, and it " takes well," i.e., it acts almost like a very fine file on the steel. The colour is yellowish-white. These stones last a long time, but are expensive to buy. When in use, the oilstone should be moistened with veget- able oil. The addition of a little paraffin is an improvement. Method of The tool is held in both hands, and the bevelled edge is applied ^st'one* closely to the stone in such a way that, while the bevel is altogether in contact with the stone, the edge presses rather more heavily on it, and this angle of inclination must be steadily maintained to prevent the edge from becoming rounded. The steel is now drawn over the stone with a slow, steady, backward and forward motion. When this has been repeated often enough, it is turned over and passed once over the stone with the face flat. The worker must not confine his operations to the middle of the stone, but must use the whole of the surface. 118 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. [This is contrary to the English method of grinding, the principle that no wire edge should be formed holding good. TBS.] An oilstone slip, i.e., a piece of the same kind of stone as the oilstone, but smaller and thinner, and rounded at the edges, is required for the sharpening of gouges, spoon-irons, etc. A sharp Sharpening must be continued until the edge itself is not visible when held up against the light, or until it no longer appears white and rounded. Its sharpness is tested by touch ing it lightly with the finger. F. The Tool Cupboard. For the benefit of those who wish to procure a tool cup- board, complete drawings of one are given in Plate XI. It is so arranged that every tool has a fixed, easily observed place, in order that the absence of any may be readily dis- covered when the tools are laid past. Tools must further be so arranged that when one is taken out another is not dis- placed ; and all sharp edges must be protected. Any alterations in the size of the cupboard, required by a larger or smaller stock of tools, could easily be made. 119 CHAPTER IV. JOINTING. Different parts of articles are connected or jointed partly by glue, nails, or screius, and partly by the special adaption of the parts themselves, as in mortising and dove-tailing. A. Glueing. The simplest way of jointing two pieces of wood is to introduce between them a connecting medium in liquid form, i.e., glue. Glue is made from the refuse, clippings, etc., of tanneries and glove manufactories. After being subjected to a boiling process, these materials are reduced to a viscous fluid, which solidifies on cooling into a stiffish jelly, which is then cut into thin slices and dried upon nets stretched on frames. Good glue is known by its light brown or brownish yellow colour; its sparkling transparency; its hardness and elas- ticity ; by the way it breaks off in flakes and whitens in the line of fracture ; and by its power of resistance to the damp- ness of the air. It swells if steeped in cold water, but does not melt even aftei one or two days' immersion. The ulti- mate test of good glue is, however, its cementing power. 1. The Preparation of Glue. The cakes of glue, either entire or in pieces, are first soaked in cold water. After the glue swells it is put in a glue-pot (Fig. 86) and melted by heat. The glue-pot consists of two pans usually made of cast-iron or tin-plate. The larger of these, the outside pan, is, when in use, half filled 120 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. with water, and the smaller one, the inside pan or glue-pot proper, in which the glue is placed, rests upon a rim or flange round its mouth. This inner pan should always be lined with tin. The water in the outer pan prevents the glue from burning, (an accident which must always be carefully avoided), and as the contents of the glue-pot are surrounded by warm water, they may be kept fluid and tit for use a con- siderable time after the pan has been removed from the fire. If glue is wanted in a hurry, the cakes may be put in a towel or a similar piece of stuff' to keep the glue from being scattered about, and broken to pieces with a hammer. The pieces are then put into the glue-pot and stirred during boil- ing, to prevent unmelted glue sticking to the bottom. This mode of preparation is quite as good as the preceding. Fig. 86. Glue Pot Outside Pan. \. (inside pan) and Brush. Glue is applied with a strong brush, of which there should be two sizes, one for large surfaces and one for small sur- faces, e.g., mortise holes, etc. Liquid Glue. The addition of acetic acid to melted glue prevents putrefaction, and, without lessening its cementing power, keeps it liquid at ordinary temperatures. " Liquid glue " may be made as follows : Four parts of good glue are melted in four parts diluted acetic acid, in the outer pan, or JOINTING. 121 on the top of an oven. One part spirits of wine and a small quantity of alum are then added, and the mixture is kept in a wide-mouthed bottle, the cork of which has a hole to admit the brush. This glue remains liquid at + 14 to 18 C., and does not solidify until + 8 to 12 C. ; it is very convenient for small articles, as it is always ready and in good condition, and its cementing power is quite equal to that of glue prepared in the ordinary way. Its only drawback is that it dries more slowly. In the case of articles exposed to moisture, the addition of 10 per cent, of boiled linseed oil is advantageous. The glue to which it is added should be hot and strong, and should be stirred till the varnish has been thoroughly mixed. The wood to which this ivood-cement is applied should be dry and warm, and the pieces should be firmly pressed together until the glue dries. 2.. Glueing. The process of glueing is very simple, but it must be care- fully performed to ensure a strong inconspicuous joint. The general rule holds good that the layer of glue shall be so tliin that the seam can hardly be seen, and this presupposes that the pieces fit accurately (see page 152), that they are kept in sufficiently close contact while the glue is drying, and that the glue itself does not cool before they are put properly together. To keep the glue from cooling, the wood should be warmed as well as the glue, and the operations of applying the latter, the putting the pieces together and applying the required pressure, must be rapidly performed. Generally speaking, it is suffi- cient if one of the wooden surfaces is warmed : thus in dove- tailing and slotting the pins only are warmed; in blocking, the blocks only, etc. The glue, which must be neither too thick nor too thin, is Laying m laid evenly and quickly, in as small a quantity as possible, the 9 lut - over the surface of the wood with the brush. 122 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. In the case of pins for mortising, the glue should be thicker than for jointing boards, and the glue is generally applied to the hole as well as to the previously warmed pin, though sometimes only to the latter. Screwing together is performed either in the bench, which is the simplest method, or in hand-screws, or in a press with wedges. The article must remain under pressure till the glue dries. If the glue is too thick or the wood cold, or if the glue cools before screwing up, the joint will show, and will not be good. A joint of this kind does not look well, and is less durable than one properly glued together. Making a The bench pegs or the hand-screw should always be in joint. order before glueing, to save time. Just before the final tightening of the screw, the work should be carefully ex- amined to see if the parts are in their right places. If not they must be made to fit. If the staves of a barrel are not in the same plane, the screw must not be loosened, but the stave which is not flush must be hammered into place, and the screws tightened. The work must not again be disturbed till the glue has hardened. In screwing up finished pieces of work, bits of wood must always be put between the work and the bench-pegs or the point of the screw, to prevent marks. When large plane surfaces are glued together, it is necessary to use several cramps to obtain strong enough pressure. Removal of The glue which exudes from the joints of objects which superfluous arg fi^ghg^ o ff before glueing, e.g., the inside of a drawer, must be carefully wiped off with a clean sponge or rag dipped in warm water immediately after glueing together, before it completely dries. Care must be taken not to wet the wood unnecessarily. The better the glue penetrates the pores of the wood, the stronger the joint. Consequently, glue holds better in loose- fibred than in close-grained wood, which presents a hard, smooth surface. Broad surfaces of the latter description are roughened a little before glueing, by drawing a coarse file JOINTING. 123 over them.* Glue which dries slowly is stronger than that which dries quickly. A well-fitting joint made with good glue is so strong that, strong and when long boards -are joined together, the wood itself gener- weak i bfipfl V CM' BG A 1 CM o fej ci co CM' o CM CO CO 00 00 o . . CO -* -* . 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CO id o" ** ^ "! o id o f d Q s ^ ~ .1 J 1 II 1 1 j i and Pine 1 J 1 b 1 1 1 ^ -QO cr (_, s g s 1 2 a 1 o *o 1 S & ** ? 1 -i I S o C, a ^o 1 E C 1 I 1 i! i -3 1 3 i I oc g S fjl s a ^ r* oo CN CN 03 CN s 198 panuojwad sasioaaxa JO aaquinu I'B'joi S 00 O5 O O CO S g S CO 00 CO CO s^ e H oo r-3 06 b ' CO p 00 !>. * d d fN M< CO CO CO CO S' S S c4 10 c*S ** M CO g* oq co CO' d ^- ^ i i (N t-t S - c4 ^ Tt< CN ^ CN eo co 5,5 oi ^ c CN ' J2 g jg a C CO O5 rH T CO ^ CO ^' g CO | . oi d g w g ^ g - oo ... I-H CO CO O ^ 2 ^ S * CO ~ i . CO rj< C5 CO :N Oi >^5 ^ CO 12 O ^ $ iO CO o (**\ | S TJ 1 a -i X * cS M ^ 1 1 1 ^ ^ "S cS ^> fcO i- * I PL, 73 o 1 || r ^ ^s o rt ^ S iS llli PH O2 PH O2 o .3 1ft 3-1 1 J3 -S S (S S rH 0"! CO CO CO CO eo co CD 1~- 00 C5 eo eo co co -; 3 Q 5 199 pauuojjad gaspaaxa jo aaqmnn re^ox 2 CJ S 1 00 S5 ' co 06 to g cc OC CO | fM 00 OC g y. CO C5 C5 O l^ oS H 2 oq (N d - CO c-i TC M S S3 oo ^ ci co 2 S ^' H 04 . oi i. rf o * 5 CM 3 ' ^ I^ CO CO co CO x i T d CO " ~ O r ~ l CO CM CH S ci pg o ^ n S CM iq' ^* | 2 I- 10 06 coS s s 1 ci 2 o CO ^^ Tf CO ci >o 9i . oc t~ cc x> a e5 d " co "^ ci L^. X CO -s^ ci " ^ . CO d J>- "^ CM OD ^ ' 2 CO CO ^ .0 ^ CO ^ CD ss1 <^ . CO 4 '"' I* ^ o' t4 * tC ^ ^ oo _; co S oc oo " 0? * >d d * id Wood employ o.l. d & ' " d Q 'o 3 1 -2 3 1 55 a t 1 J I 1 8 Cabinet i o co 55 00 S o PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE HIGH SCHOOL SERIES SLOJD MODELS. BY ALFRED JOHANSSON, Teacher at the Slojd Training College at Nads, Sweden. (203 TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. This little book is intended to be a supplement and companion to the Teachers' Handbook of Slojd. The directions which it contains constitute only a part of the Swedish book from which they are taken. There was originally at Nilas only one series of models, which every student was obliged to make. There are now three series of models, adapted for Elementary Schools, Second- ary Schools, and High Schools respectively. Each series gives practice in the same exercises, and each series includes a number of models common to all; but each also includes particular models which are more especially suitable for the particular class of school : e.g., all series in- clude a paper-knife, a footstool, and a box ; a spoon, an axe-handle, and a plate-rack, are included in the Elementary and Secondary School series ; whilst a drawing-board, a tea tray, and a bracket, are peculiar to the High School series. The directions given for the High School series have been chosen for translation as more suitable for English people than those of the other two series, which include articles that are quite unknown, and that would be quite useless in English schools and houses. It is true that even the High School series does not in all points conform to the principles laid down in Herr Salomon's Introduction (see pp. 205-207) from the point of view of English conditions, but this is due to the fact that English Slojd teachers are not yet agreed as to the best English substitutes for certain Swedish models. The Appendix to this book contains some suggestions toward this end, and it is open to every Slojd teacher to adopt his own substitutes, provided that the articles he selects give practice in the right exercises in the right order. The directions given are not intended to supersede the instructions of a teacher for those who are ignorant of Slojd. They are merely con- densed notes for the guidance of a pupil working with a teacher, or for the refreshment of his memory after a course of instruction. It is assumed throughout that the student has before him a pattern model, a drawing, and the geometrical construction when necessary. A list of the exercises occurring in each model will be found on pp. 196-199, and by referring to the instructions for the execution of the exercises given in the Teachers' Handbook of Slojd, pp. 126-183, the student who is working by himself will always secure sufficient guidance. INTRODUCTION. BY OTTO SALOMON. THERE- is perhaps no more dangerous attitude of mind than that of the people whose opinions remain stationary. Everything, so far at all events as regards the outward form, is subject to the laws of change and development. That which was admirably adapted for the past, may be unsuitable for the present, and entirely useless in the future. We may admit this general truth without committing ourselves to the pro- positions that everything old is bad, and that everything new is good. There arc truths which hold good for all time, and which, at the outside, merely assume a different form of expression at different periods ; while many new doctrines, at first sight satisfactory, prove insufficient when tested by experience. It is especially important in educational matters, that we should understand how to steer the middle course between that conservative spirit which is identical with surrender to the enemy of all progress "use and wont," and the nervous, restless search alter novelty which is ever replacing one imperfectly tested method by another equally untried. The zealous teacher must always bear in mind that, while his work both in form and spirit should bear the impress of development, this develop- ment must be gradual and well-considered. The older he is and the greater the stores of experience at his command, the more clearly will he apprehend that the whole question of education is much more compli- cated than he at first imagined it to be. Much that on superficial observation seemed simple and clear, on closer inspection turns out to be the result of many and complex factors. The experienced teacher therefore guards against hasty conclusions regarding the merits of par- ticular educational methods. Not content with seeing them in operation, he studies them, and before abandoning one and adopting another, he seeks assurance that the new method is not only newer, but better than the old. He knows too well that what promises well in theory, docs not always stand the test of practice. Educational Slojd, the latest addition to the school curriculum, is yet in the earliest stage of development, and though there exists an increas- ing agreement as regards its fundamental principles, much serious work 200 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD. remains to be done in the practical application of these principles. Hence we must utilize in every possible way the ever widening ex- perience of the labourers in this comparatively virgin soil. This is especially the case as regards the models used in Slojd teaching. Tho teacher who has paid close attention to the subject may now discover striking defects in a series of models, which only a few years ago seemed to meet all demands. In an institution, therefore, like the one at Nails, the object of which is to render teachers capable of directing instruction in educational Slojd, it would be inexcusable if no effort were made to keep pace with the times, by taking advantage of the observations made during each course, and of the advice and the suggestions which the students are able to offer. During the discussions which are held weekly for this purpose, each brings his contribution to the common stock, and if it is true that " two heads are better than one," it is to be assumed that fifty heads are better still for the purpose of detecting faults and perceiv- ing the means of improvements. Hence no course of instruction given at Naas has been in all respects arranged in the same Avay as its imme- diate predecessor, though it does not follow that every change has been for the best. On the contrary, it has not seldom been found advisable to revert to old methods. The essential characteristic of method at Nails, is the fact that the principle of arrangement lies in the exercises occurring in Slojd carpentry. This indeed is the only rational principle on which any method of educa- tional Slojd can be based. Neither the tools used nor the models produced furnish a suitable starting point. Exercises which may be executed with one and the same tool, are not all easier or all more difficult than the same exercises executed with another tool ; while the models, regarded from the educational point of view, are merely the in- cidental means by which various combinations of exercises are expressed. The exercises themselves may be denned as the elaboration of material by means of one or more tools in a definite manner, and with a definite aim. Therefore the principle that the models in any series shall be arranged to proceed gradually from the more easy to the more difficult, and from the simple to the complex, refers to the order of the exercises of which thnt series of models constitutes, for educational purposes, the practical expression. The following principles must also be kept in view in the arrangement of any series of models : All articles of luxury must be excluded. The articles must be such as can be used by the children, or in their homes, and such as they can make without any help whatever. INTRODUCTION. 207 The articles must further be of such a nature that the children's sense of form and beauty will be cultivated in making them. The earlier articles made should be objects which can be finished quickly and without much physical exertion. Models requiring longer time and greater strength should only be introduced gradually. Wood should be the only material employed, and no more than is absolutely necessary should be used. Both hard and soft wood should be employed. Turning and wood-carving should not be included. The articles made should not be varnished. Sufficient variety in the exercises and in the character of the models should be provided. All the exercises incidental to wood-slujd should be adequately represented. The knife, as the fundamental tool, is the first which should be placed in the hands of the children. It is hoped that this little book may worthily do its part towards the establishment in our schools of educational Slojd, i.e., to a system of Slojd teaching, rightly understood and practically carried out. Printed on Cards (size 15 by xo inches), in stout wrapper, with elastic band. Price 45. per set. WORKING DIAGRAMS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL SERIES OF SLOJD MODELS New Edition .Drawn to Metric Measurement", and intended to accompany JUHAX.SSUN'S ** Practical Directions.** BY WILLIAM NELSON, Organizer of Manual Training to the Manchester School Board. The Set consists of detailed Diagrams of all the fifty Models forming the High School Series, together with five ad.iitional Diagrams of Alternative Models, specially adapted to English requirements. N.B. The Original Edition of these Cards (xi by 7 K inches) with ENGLISH Measurements can still be had, price per set, 33. (209) LIST OF EXERCISES OCCURRING IN BACH MODEL. I A. Long cut, cross cut. 1 B. Long cut, cross cut, oblique cut. 2. Long cut, cross cut, bevel cut. 3. Sawing off, long cut, cross cut, convex cut. 4. Sawing off, long cut, cross cut, convex cut. 5. Sawing off, long sawing, edge planing, squaring, oblique cut, convex cut. 6. Sawing off, long cut, boring with pin-bit, convex cut, cross cut, filing. 7. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring-up, gauging, boring with pin-bit, convex cut, cross cut, filing, oblique cut. 8. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, boring with centre-bit, gauging, wave sawing, long cut, convex cut, concave cut, filing. 0. Sawing off, long sawing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, bevelling, convex modelling with the plane, convex cut, cross cut, filing. 10. Sawing off, chopping, edge planing, squaring, gauging, sawing with tenon saw, long cut, cross cut, convex modelling with the plane, filing. 11. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, wave sawing, concave cut, convex cut, surface cut, filing, scraping. 12. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, obstacle planing, perpendicular chiselling, boring with centre-bit, filing, scraping. 13. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, filing, gouging' with gouge and spoon-iron, oblique chiselling, convex cut, scraping. 14. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, wave sawing, smoothing with spokeshave, bevel cut, modelling with spokeshave, cross cut, filing, scraping. 210 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD. 15. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, scraping, perpen- dicular chiselling, filing, convex modelling with the plane, smoothing-up. 16. Sawing off, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, boring with centre-bit, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, end squaring, filing, smoothing-up, scraping. 17. Sawing off', long sawing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, cross cut, kng cut, convex cut, filing, halving with knife. 18. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, obstacle planing, smoothing with spokeshave, wave sawing, concave cut, long cut, convex cut, cross cut, bevel cut, filing, scraping. 19. Sawing off, chopping, face planing, squaring, boring with centre- bit, long sawing, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, oblique sawing, oblique planing, oblique chiselling, gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, filing, convex modelling with the plane, convex cut, concave cut, cross cut, scraping. 20. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, boring with centre-bit, wave sawing, perpendicular chiselling, filing, bevelled edge planing, bevel cut, cross cut, convex cut, fitting-in pegs, oblique chiselling, smoothing-up, glueing, sinking iron plates, scraping. 21. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, end squaring, sawing with tenon-saw, perpendicular chiselling, long cut, cross cut, filing, nailing, punching, smoothing- up. 22. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, squaring, gauging, boring with centre-bit, bevelling, convex modelling with the plane, per- pendicular chiselling, filing, scraping, edge planing, wave sawing, perpendicular gouging, oblique planing, boring with shell-bit. 23. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug- ing, end squaring, wave sawing, perpendicular gouging, oblique sawing, oblique chiselling, boring with centre-bit, filing, smooth- ing-up, nailing, punching. 24. Sawing off, face planing, edge planing, squaring, dove-tail clamping, glueing, gauging, end squaring, sawing with tenon-saw, perpen- dicular chiselling, long cut, wave sawing, concave chiselling, cross cut, convex modelling with the plane, filing, bevel cut, scraping, boring with the shell-bit, fixing with screws. 25. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug- ing, square shooting, nailing, punching, smoothing-up, scraping. , LIST OF EXERCISES. 211 26. Sawing off, chopping, face planing, squaring, gauging, oblique saw- ing, wave sawing, oblique planing, oblique chiselling, boring with centre-bit, perpendicular chiselling, gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, wave sawing, modelling with draw-knife, model- ling with spokeshave, long cut, convex cut, concave cut, filing, scraping. .27. Sawing off, chopping, face planing, plain jointing, glueing, squaring, dove-tail clamping, wave sawing, gauging, smoothing with spoke shave, planing across the grain, wedge planing with smoothing plane, smoothing-up, scraping, fixing with screws. 28. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug- ing, wave sawing, planing with round plane, smoothin^-up, cross cut, convex cut, boring with centre-bit, boring with shell- bit, modelling with spokeshave, filing, scraping, fixing metal- hook, plugging. 29. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, boring with centre-bit, boring with shell-bit, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), bevelled edge plan- ing, cross cut, filing, scraping. 30. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, oblique sawing, wave sawing, gauging, smoothing with spoke- shave, concave chiselling, single dove-tailing at right angles, glueing, end squaring, oblique planing, modelling with spoke- shave, concave cut, convex cut, cross cut, filing, scraping. 31. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, wave sawing, concave cut, long sawing, convex cut, cross cut, filing, boring with centre-bit, boring with bradawl, glueing, nailing, punching, smoothing-up, scraping. 32. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, wave sawing, smoothing with spokeshave, perpendicular chiselling, hollowing out with gouge, gauging, convex cut, long cut, boring with bradawl, axle fitting, filing, scraping. 33. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, square grooving, glueing, boring with centre-bit, wave sawing, convex cut, concave cut, cross cut, long cut, filing, plain jointing, smoothing-up, con- vex modelling with the plane, nailing, punching, scraping. 34. Sawing off, wave sawing, face planing, gauging, smoothing with the spokeshave, bevelling with the draw-knife, modelling with the spokeshave, convex modelling with the plane, filing, scrap- ing, work in hard wood. 212 HANDBOOK OP SLOYD. 35. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug- ing, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), boring with centre-bit, concave cut, long cut, cross cut, convex cut, filing, square shooting, common dove-tailing, glueing with the use of the handscrew, nailing, boring with bradawl, scraping. 36. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, squaring, gauging, long oblique planing, bevelling, convex modelling with the plane, convex cut, filing, scraping. 37. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gaug- ing, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), bevelled edge planing, square shooting, boring with centre-bit, oblique sawing, oblique planing, setting out, scraping. 38. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, panel grooving, glueing with the use of the handscrew, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), cross cut, smoothing-up, scraping. 39. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, plain jointing, squaring, glueing, gauging, end squaring, oblique planing, boring with centre-bit, convex sawing, convex cut, filing, oblique edge grooving, sawing with compass saw, wave sawing, concave cut, long cut, perpendicular chiselling, nailing, oblique cut, bevel cut, punching, smoothing-up, scraping. 40. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, square shooting, slotting, glueing with the use of the handscrew, boring with centre-bit, smoothing-up, scraping, work in hard wood. 41. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, plain jointing, glueing, gauging, square shooting, dove-tailing in thick wood, dove-tail clamping, end squaring, oblique planing, smooth- ing-up, mitreing, oblique chiselling, boring with the bradawl, nailing, perpendicular chiselling, long cut, fixing with screws, scraping. 42. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, common mortising, perpendicular chiselling, smoothing- up, cross cut, long cut, convex cut, convex modelling with the plane, filing, scraping, boring with the bradawl. 43. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, plain jointing, glueing, gauging, end squaring, convex sawing, perpendicular chiselling, perpendicular gouging, filing, scraping, notched dove-tailing, smoothing-up, concave cut, long cut, bevel cut, common mortise and tenon, setting out, boring with centre- bit, nailing, graving with V tool, scraping, fixing metal plates. LIST OF EXEUCISKS. 213 44. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, square shooting, half-lapping, glueing, smoothing-up, rebating, plain jointing, fixing with wooden pegs (for planing thin wood), oblique chiselling, graving with V tool, boring with centre-bit, sawing with tenon-saw, perpendicular chiselling, cross cut, oblique cut, filing, scraping. 45. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, plain jointing, squaring, glueing, gauging, square shooting, common dove-tailing, boring with centre-bit, convex sawing, obstacle planing, concave cut, convex cut, cross cut, long cut, filing, half-lap dove-tailing, nailing, oblique planing, perpendicular chiselling, convex model- ling with the plane, punching, smoothing-up, scraping. 46. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, plain jointing, glueing, oblique sawing, oblique planing, oblique dove-tailing, boring with centre-bit, perpendicular chisel- ling, convex sawing, long cut, convex cut, concave cut, filing, smoothing-up, convex modelling with the plane, boring with the bradawl, nailing, punching, scraping. 47. Sawing off, long sawing, face planing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, square shooting, convex sawing, perpendicular chiselling, smoothing with spokeshave, concave cut, convex cut, cross cut, filing, scraping, notched dove-tailing, smoothing-up, convex model- ling with the plane, glueing. 48. Sawing off, oblique sawing, oblique planing, concave modelling with the plane, gauging, chopping, convex modelling with the plane, face planing, circle sawing, oblique cut, smoothing with the spokeshave, staving, boring with the bradawl, hooping, con- vex sawing, concave cut, bevel cut, end squaring, filing, scraping. 49. Sawing off, up and down sawing, face planing, plain jointing, glue- ing, edge planing, squaring, gauging, end squaring, half-lap dove- tailing, panel grooving, nailing, bevelled edge planing, mitreing, punching, smoothing-up, common mortise and tenon, hinge- sinking, lock fitting, scraping. 50. Sawing off, up and down sawing, face planing, squaring, gauging, edge planing, concealed tenoning, oblique planing, chamfering, filing, smoothing-up, glueing, plain jointing, glueing with the use of the hand-screw, blocking, perpendicular chiselling, end squaring, mortised blocking, scraping. PEACTICAL DIRECTIONS. The Metric Measurements given for each Model are those used at Na'a's, and uniform with those given in Nelson's Working Diagrams of the Slojd Models (Metric Edition). The English Measurements are uniform with those given in Nelson's Working Diagrams (English Edition). No. la.-SMALL POINTER (Birch). . ',;" Metric Length 10 cm. Thickness 0'7 cm. English 4 in. by in. 1. In a suitable piece of wood, make two sides at right angles. 2. Set out the thickness with the metre-measure and pencil, and cut down to the lines. 3. Draw lines on each side with the metre-measure to indicate how the model tapers, and Cut down to them, keeping the sides at right angles. 4. Cut off the edges to make the form octagonal, then make it round. 5. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off. 6. Finish with sand-paper.* N.B. This model is made entirely with the knife. No. lb. SMALL POINTER (Birch). Metric Length 10 cm. Thickness 07 cm. English 4 in. by in. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. See No. la. 6. Make the oblique cuts. N.B.^This model is made entirely with the knife. No. 2. PARCEL PIN (Birch). Metric Length 1 cm. Thickness 1 cm. English 2f in. by f in. 1. On a suitable piece of wood make four sides at right angles. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off. * As a general rule it is to be understood that models are finished with sand-paper where this is necessary. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 215 2. Bevel the edges like those of the model. 3. Set out the place for the notch with the metre-measure, and make the cross cut. N.B. This model is made entirely with the knife. No. 3. FLOWER STICK (Hard Pine). Metric Length 30 cm. Thickness 1 cm. English 12 in. by f in. \. Saw off a suitable piece of wood with the hand-saw, and make four sides at right angles, each I'l cm. broad. 2. Cut off the edges to make the stick octagonal, then make it round. 3. Make the point. 4. Set out the length, and cut off, then make the rounded top. N.B. After the piece of wood is saion off, this model is made entirely with the knife. No. 4. LETTER OPENER (Birch). Metric Length 17 cm. Breadth 1 cm. English 6J in. by f in. 1 . Cut a suitable piece of wood to the required breadth and thickness. 2. Draw the outline after the model and diagram, and cut out. 3. Make one side round. 4. Set out the length and cut off. Shape both ends like those of the model. N.B. This model is made entirely with the knife. No. 5.-FLOWER-POT STICK (Pine). Metric Length 35 cm. Thickness 1 cm. English 14 in. by f in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane, set out the thickness with the metre-measure and pencil, and plane off. 3. Square the end with the knife, and draw the diagonals for the point of the pyramid. 4. Draw the sides of the base of the pyramid at right angles, and cut with the knife. 5. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off. 216 HANDBOOK OP SLOYD. 6. Make the tapering point and the notches with the knife. 7. Bevel the edges with the smoothing-plane. No. 6. CRAYON HOLDER (Hard Pine). Metric Length 20 cm. Thickness 1'2 cm. English 8 in. by J in. 1. Saw off a suitable piece of wood with the hand-saw, and make it square with the knife. 2. Draw the diagonals at one end, and bore a hole with the shell-bit where they intersect. 3. Taper the sides and cut away the edges to make it octagonal, then make it round. 4. Set out the length, and cut off with the knife. Smooth with the file. No. 7. KEY LABEL (Pine). Metric Length, II cm. Breadth, 4 cm. English 4 in. by 1 in. 1 . Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Then set out the breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off. 3. Draw the outline, using square and compass. 4. Bore the hole with the shell-bit 5. Set out the thickness, after the model, with the marking-gauge, and plane off. 6. Cut off the length with the dove-tail saw, and make the rounded end with the knife. 7. Smooth both ends with the file. 8. Make the notches with the knife. No. 8.-PACKTHREAD WINDER (Birch). Metric Length 9 cm. Breadth 4'5 cm. English 3 in. by If in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. 3. Draw the outline from the diagram, with the help of the square and the compasses. 4. Bore with the centre-bit for the curve at each end. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 217 5. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane to the line with the trying-plane. . Saw out the shape w ith the turn-saw, and smooth with knife and file. 7. Round the inner edges of the concave ends with the knife. No. 9. ROUND RULER (Pine). Metric Length 35 cm. Thickne&s 2 - 5 cm. English 14 in. by 1 in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge and square the two remaining sides. 3. Find the middle points in both ends and describe a circle round each, the diameter of which is equal to the thickness given. -4. Bevel the edges with the jack-plane and the trying-plane, to make the piece of wood octagonal. 5. Make the cylindrical form with the smoothing-plane. 6. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off with the dove-tail saw. 7. Round the edges of both ends with the knife. 8. Smooth with the file. No. 10.-PEN REST (Birch). Metric Length 9 cm. Breadth 2 cm. English 3% in. by $ in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim it with the axe as nearly as possible to the given thickness. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thick- ness with the marking-gauge, and plane the other two sides. 3. Set out the length and the notches, from the diagram, with the com- passes. Make the notches with the dove-tail saw and knife. 4. Saw off to the length with the dove-tail saw. 5 Find the middle point at both ends and describe round it a semi- circle, the diameter of which is equal to the given thickness. Hound with the smoothing-plane. '7. Square the ends with the knife. 8. Smooth with the file. HANDBOOK OF SLOYD. No. 11. PAPEE KNIFE (Birch). Metric Length 30 cm. Breadth 3 cm. English 12 in. by 1J in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the harm-saw, and face and edge with the trying-plane. 2. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, saw off with the hand- saw, and plane to the line with the trying-plane. 3. Draw the outline from the diagram, cut out with the turn-saw, and smooth the edges with the knife and spokeshave. 4. To make the sharp edge, draw a line down the middle of the front edge, and cut down to this line on both sides with the knife. Make the notch between the blade and handle with the knife. 5. Round the handle and the back of the blade with the knife. 6. Smooth with the file and the scraper. No. 12. RAZOR STROP (Birch). Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 4 cm. English 16 in. ly \\ in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off. 3. Set out from the diagram, with the help of the square and the mark- ing-gauge, the position of the part cut away. Cut out with the hand-saw, smoothing-plane and knife. (Obstacle planing.) 4. Set out the length of the handle from the diagram with the metre- measure, and cut off with the tenon-saw and the firmer chisel. 6. Set out the whole length and cut off. Set out the rounded form of the one end with the square and compasses, and cut it out with the turn-saw, firmer chisel, and spokeshave. 6. Bore the hole with the centre-bit from both sides. 7. Smooth with the file and scraper. No. 13.-BOWL FOR WRITING TABLE-(Birch). Metric Length 9 cm. Breadth 5 '5 cm. English 3% in. by 2| in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the thickness the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. LIST OF EXERCISES. 219 .'3. Make both constructions, using the square and compasses. 4. Saw out with the turn-saw, pare the edge with the firmer chisel, and smooth with the file. 5. Hollow out (first with the mallet and gouge, then with the spoon- iron), smooth with sand-paper. 6. Model the under surface with the firmer chisel, knife and file. 7. Smooth with the scraper. No. 14. HAMMER HANDLE (Birch). Metric Length 30 cm. Breadth 3'2 cm. English 12 in. by ! in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. 3. Draw out the shape on both sides. (Freehand from diagram). 4. Saw out with the turn-saw and smooth the sides with the spoke- shave. 5. Cut away the sharp edges (chamfer) with the knife, and shape with the spokeshave. 6. Set out the length with the metre-measure and cut off with tenon- saw and knife. 7. Smooth with tile and scraper. No. 15. PEN TRAY (Birch). Metric Length 25 cm. Breadth 7 cm. English 15 in. bij 2f in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. 3. Make the drawing for the hollowed out part with the square, com- passes, metre-measure, and marking-gauge, and hollow out with the mallet, gouge, and spoon-iron. Smooth with the scraper and 4. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. 5. Set out the length, and cut it off at right angles with the tenon-saw. 6. Set out the curve of the edges with the compasses, and model with the firmer chisel and smoothing-plane ; then smooth with the file. 7. Smooth the whole of the outside with smoothing-plane and scraper. 220 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD. No. 16. KNIFE-BOARD (Pine or Fir). Metric Length 60 cm. Breadth 15 cm. English 24 in. by 6 in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and plane it off. 4. Draw the outline of the rounded end with square and compasses. 5. Bore the hole with the centre-bit. 6. Shape with the bow-saw, firmer chisel, smoothing -plane, spokeshave, and file. 7. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with jack-plane and trying-plane. 8. Smooth the plane surfaces with the smoothing-plane and the scraper. No. 17. FLOWER-POT CROSS (Pine). MetricLength 13 cm. Breadth 2'5 cm. English 5 in. by 1 in. by $ in- Saw out in one piece, with the hand-saw, sufficient wood for both parts of the cross. Fae and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the breadth and the thickness with the marking-gauge, then cut in two with the dove-tail saw. Draw the outline (exclusive- of the halving notches), using square, marking-gauge, and compasses ; cut out with the knife, and smooth with the file. Set out the halving notches for the joint with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and cut out with the knife. Fit the pieces together. No. 18. -METRE-MEASURE (Birch). Metric Length 64 cm. Breadth 2'5 cm. English 18 in. by 23 in. by 1 in. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off. With square and marking-gauge set out the rectangular portion, and cut it out with hand-saw, smoothing-plane, spokeshave, and knife. LIST OP EXERCISES. 221 4. Taper the blade on both sides with the trying-plane. 5. Draw the handle ; saw out with the turn-saw, and model with the knife. 6. Bevel the edges of the handle with the knife. 7. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off with the dove-tail saw. 8. Smooth with the file and scraper. No. 19. SCOOP (Birch). Metric Length 24 cm. Breadth 1 cm. English 9| in. by 2f in. 1. Saw off a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim with the axe as near the thickness required as possible. 2. Face and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Make the side construction with square and compasses. 4. Cut out with the centre-bit, hand-saw, and turn-saw, and smooth with firmer chisel and smoothing-plaue. 5. Draw the outline of the upper curved surface on the edge prepared, and cut out with the hand-saw and turn-saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane and firmer chisel. 6. The shape of the hollowed out portion is set out with the compasses and marking-gauge, and cut out with the mallet and gouge, spoon- iron, file, and scraper. 7. Draw the outline of the under curved surface, and saw out with the- turn-saw. 8. Model with axe, smoothing-plane, and knife. 9. Smooth with file and scraper. No. 20. CLOTHES RACK (Pine). Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 8 cm. English 16 in. by 3 in. 1. Saw out with the hand-saw a suitable piece for the back 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and the trying-plane. Set out the breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack- plane and the trying-plane. 3. Draw a middle line for the holes for the pegs. 4. Make the construction with the square and compasses, cut out with. the turn-saw and firmer chisel, and smooth with the file. 222 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 5. Bore the holes with the centre-bit. 6. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and the trying-plane. 7. Set out the bevel with compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and bevel with the knife and trying-plane. 8. Face and edge enough wood for the pegs in one piece, with the trying-plane, and set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 9. Set out the length of the pegs 1 cm. longer than the length given, and saw off with dove-tail saw. 10. On the pin ends of the pegs draw diagonals, and with the same centre-bit as was used to bore the holes, describe a circle round the centre point of the pin. 11. Set out the length of the pins with the square, and cut out with the dove-tail saw, knife, and firmer chisel, and finish with the file. 12. Smooth the front side of the back with the smoothing-plane, and glue the pegs into the holes. 13. Saw off the ends of the pins at the back with the tenon-saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane. 14. Smooth the whole with the scraper. No. 21.-FLOWER POT STAND (Pine). Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 11 cm. Englith 16 in. by 4^ in, 1. Saw out a suitable piece from a plank with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and the trying-plane. 4. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right angles with the tenon-saw. Square the ends with the smoothing-plane. 5. Set out the breadth (1'5 cm.) for the laths, by making points on the plane surface 1 cm. from both ends, and join these points by straight lines. -6. Cut out the laths with the broad-webbed bow-saw, and plane to a thickness with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. 7. Saw out the feet with the hand-saw, and plane with the trying-plane to the required breadth and thickness, and cut off with the tenon- saw. Fasten them together into the bench, and square the ends with the smoothing-plane. LIST OF EXERCISES. 223 8. Draw the shape of the feet with the compasses, square, and marking- gauge, and cut out with the tenon-saw, firmer chisel, knife, and file. 9. Nail on the laths at right angles, and sink the heads of the nails with the punch, then smooth the surface with the smoothiug- plane. 10. Smooth the ends of the stand with the file. No. 22. ROLLER & RESTS FOR FLOWER-PRESS (Birch). Metric Length 38 cm. Thickness 6 cm. English 15 in. by 2^ in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw for the roller. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane, set out the thickness with the mnrking-gauge, and plane oft' with the trying-plane. 3. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right angles with the tenon-saw. 4. Set out the holes with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, bore the holes from both sides with the centre-bit. 5. Find the middle point of both ends, and round it describe a circle, the diameter of which is equal to the thickness required. Make the article octagonal with the roughing-plane and trying-plane. 6. Make the cylindrical form with the trying-plane and the smoothing- plane. 7. Smooth the roller with file and scraper. 8. Saw out sufficient wood for the rests with the bread-webbed bow- saw, and face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thickness witli the marking-gauge. 9. Make the construction with the square and compasses ; cut out with the turn-saw, gouge, and firmer chisel, and smooth with the file. 10. Set out the bevel with the compasses and metre-measure, and make it with the trying-plane. 11. Set out the holes with the compasses, and bore them with the shell-bit. 12. Smooth the parts with the scraper. No. 23. FOOT-STOOL. (Pine). Metric Length 27 cm. Breadth 22 cm. English 10^ in. Inj 8 in, 1. Make the laths by the directions given in No. 21. 2. Saw out wood for the feet in one piece. 224 HANDBOOK OF SLOYD. 3. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the- breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off. 4. Saw through the middle at right angles with the tenon-saw, and nail the two pieces together with nails. 5. Set out the length at right angles, and saw off with the tenon-saw ; square the ends with the smoothing-plane. 6. Make the construction on both sides with square and compasses ; cut out with the tenon-saw and turn-saw, chisel, centre-bit and gouge, smooth with the file, and take the pieces apart. 7. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 8. Nail on the laths. (See further, No. 21). No. 24. BOOK GABBIER. (Pine and Birch). Metric Length 23 cm. Breadth 15 cm. English 9 in. by 6 in. 1. Saw out pine for both boards in one piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure and plane off with the jack- plane and trying-plane. 3. Set out the grooves for the clamps with the square, compasses, metre- measure, marking-point, bevel and marking-gauge, and cut out with the knife, tenon-saw (or groove-saw), firmer chisel, and old woman's tooth. 4. Plane up the clamps and fit them in with the jack-plane and trying- plane. 5. Plane the surface level with the trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with jack-plane and trying-plane. 6. Set out the length of each board at right angles with the metre measure and marking-point, and saw off with the tenon-saw. 7. Fasten the pieces together with nails ; square the ends with the smoothi ng-plane. 8. Set out the notches on both sides with the compasses and square, and cut out with tenon-saw, firmer chisel, and knife. 9. Saw out a suitable piece of birch for the handle with the hand-saw ; plane up with trying-plane, setting out the breadth and thick- ness with the marking-gauge. 10. Make the construction for the handle with square and compasses; LIST OP THE EXERCISES. 225 cut out with turn-saw, firmer chisel, smoothing-plane and knife, and smooth with file and scraper. 11. Bore the holes for the screws with the shell-bit. 12. Screw the parts together with the screwdriver. No. 25.-BOX (Pine). Metric Length 23 cm. Breadth 13 cm. English 9 in. by 5 in. 1. Saw out the parts with the hand-saw, and face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 2. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with jack-plane and roughing-plane. 3. Set out the length of the sides with the metre-measure ; cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw, and square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying-plane. 4. Nail the pieces together, using bradawl and hammer. 5. Smooth the bottom with the smoothing-plane. 6. Saw off the bottom with the tenon-saw 5 mm. longer than the length given, and nail it on ; sink the heads of the nails with the punch. 7. Smooth the sides on the outside and the upper edges with the smoothing-plane. 8. Finish the whole with the scraper. No. 26.-LADLE (Birch). Metric Length 34 cm. Breadth 8 '6 cm. English -13J in. by 3| in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim it with the axe as near as possible to the required thickness. 2. Face and edge with jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the breadth 5 mm. more than is given with the marking-gauge, and plane off. 3. Draw the upper curved outline on both sides ; saw out with the hand-saw and turn -saw; and smooth with the smoothing-plane and firmer chisel. 4. Make the construction. 5. Cut out the upper surface with the centre-bit, hand-saw, and turn- 226 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 6. Smooth to the lines drawn with firmer chisel and file. 7. Hollow out the bowl with the mallet and gouge and spoon-iron; smooth with scraper and sand-paper. 8. Cut out the under surface like that of the model with the turn-saw, drawknife, spokeshave, and knife. 9. Smooth with the file and scraper. No. 27. FLOWER PRESS (Pine). Metric Length 45 cm. Breadth 25 cm. English 18 in. by 10 in. 1. Saw out pieces with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Plane up and fit the edges which are to be jointed with the trying- plane, and glue together. 4. Face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure and plane off with the jack-plane and the trying- plane. 5. Set out the grooves for the clamps with the square, compasses, metre- measure, marking-point, bevel, and marking-gauge ; and cut out with the knife, groove-saw (or tenon-saw), firmer-chisel, and old woman's tooth. 6. Plane up, and fit the clamps with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 7. Level the whole with the trying-plane. 8. Draw the outline, and saw out with the turn-saw. 9. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 10. Smooth the end with the spokeshave and file. 11. Set out the slope of the under board with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and make it with the trying-plane and smoothing-plane (wedge-planing across the gram). 12. Finish with smoothing-plane and scraper. No. 28.-CLOAK SUSPENDER (Birch). Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 3 '5 cm. English 16 in. by 1$ in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. LIST OP EXERCISES. 227 3. Draw the outline, and saw out with the turn-saw. 4. Smooth the concave edge with the round plane, and the convex edge with the smooth ing-plane. 5. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right angles with the tenon-saw. 6. Draw the curves of the sides, and model with the smcothing-plane. Model the ends with the knife. 7. Set out the hole with the compasses ; bore it with centre-bit and shell-bit. 8. Round the edge with the spokeshave, and smooth with file and scraper. 9. Fashion the hook with the round-jawed pliers, cold chisel, and hammer. Use an iron vice (if one is available). 10. Set out the plug and make it with the chisel ; glue it in. 11. Smooth off the end of the plug with the knife to correspond with the concave edge, and finish with file and scraper. No. 29. FLAT RULER (Birch). Metric Length 45 cm. Breadth 4-5 cm. English 18 in. ly If in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. 3. Set out the hole with the square and compasses, and bore with the centre-bit ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and saw out with the broad-webbed bow-saw. 4. Fix with wooden pegs to a thicker piece of wood, 1 cm. broader than the work, and plane off. 5. Bevel the edges with the trying-plane. 6. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and saw off at right angles with the tenon-saw ; smooth the ends with the knife and file. 7. Finish the wider flat surfaces with the scraper. No. 30.-BOOT-JACK (Birch and Pine). Metric Length 34 cm. Breadth 1 1 cm. English 13i in. by 4J in. Saw out a suitable piece of birch with the hand-saw. Face and edge with the trying-plane. 228 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 3. Set out the outer contour with the square and compasses, and saw out with the hand-saw and the turn-saw. 1. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane to the line with the trying-plane. 5. Smooth the edges with the spokeshave and firmer chisel. 6. Saw out a piece of pine for the foot with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the trying-plane ; and set out the thickness with the marking-gauge. 7. Set out the dove-tail groove for the foot with the compasses, mark- ing-point, square, set bevel, and cutting-gauge ; and cut it out with the knife, groove-saw, and firmer chisel. 8. Fit the foot into the dove-tail groove, using the cutting-gauge and the knife. 9. Cut out the fork with the bow-saw, knife, and spokeshave. 10. Glue in the foot. 11. Cut off the ends at right angles with the tenon-saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane. 12. Set out the slope of the foot and back with the compasses and metre-measure ; cut out with the dove-tail saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane. 13. Model the edges with the spokeshave, knife, and file. U. Finish with the scraper. No. 31. WALL LAMP-STAND (Pine). Metric Length 25 cm. Breadth 12 cm. English 10 in. by 4| in. Saw out material for the bottom and the back in one piece with the hand-saw, and face and edge with the jack-plane and trying- plane. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. Saw off the bottom and the back at right angles with the tenon- saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying^ plane. Set out the length of the dove-tails with the cutting-gauge, in accordance with the thickness of the wood ; set out the shape of the pins with the compasses, set-bevel and square, and cut it out with the dove-tail saw and firmer chisel, by aid of the mallet. Draw the sockets from the pins with the marking-point and square, and cut out with the dove-tail saw and firmer chisel. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 229 6. Fit the pins carefully into the sockets, using the knife and firmer- chisel. 7. Make the construction for the back with the square and compasses ; cut out with the turn-saw and smooth with the knife and file. 8. Bore the hole with the centre-bit and bradawl. 9. Set out the length of the bottom, and saw off at right angles with the tenon-saw, then square the end in the shooting-board. 10. Smooth up the two inside surfaces with the smoothing-plane, and glue the bottom and the back together. 11. Saw out the sides of the bottom in one piece with the broad-webbed bow-saw, and plane off with the trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 12. Draw the shape, and cut with the knife and smooth with the file ; then fit the parts and nail them together, using the knile, hammer, shooting-board, and trying-plane. 13. Smooth the outer sides with the smoothing-plane. 14. Finish the entire model with the scraper. No. 32.-SHUTTLE (Birch). Metric Length 26 cm. Breadth 4 cm. English 10| in. by 1| in. 1. Saw out a piece rather larger than the model with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. 3. Draw the outline and saw out with the turn-saw. 4. Smooth the edges to the line with the spokeshave and firmer chisel. 5. Set out the position of the bowl with the compasses ; hollow out with the gouge and mallet, and smooth with sand-paper. 6. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. 7. Draw the curves of the sides on the edge of the work ; saw out with the turn-saw, and smooth with the knife and the spokeshave. 8. Make the axle with the knife, and fit it into the hole, using the bradawl and the firmer chisel. 9. Finish with the file and the scraper. 230 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. No. 33.-KNIFE-BOX (Pine). Metric Length 30 cm. Breadth IT'S cm. English llf in. by 1 in. 1. Saw out material for the sides in two pieces with the hand-saw, face and edge with the roughiug-plaue and the trying-plane, set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 2. Cut the pieces to the proper lengths with the tenon-saw, and square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying-plane. 3. Set out the grooves for the handle with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and cut out with the knife and firmer chisel. 4 Set out the length of the dove-tails with the cutting-gauge, according to the thickness of the wood ; draw the shape of the pins with the compasses, set-bevel, and square, and cut out with the dove- tail saw, firmer chisel, and mallet. 5. Draw the sockets from the pins, using the marking-point and square, and cut them out with the dove-tail saw, firmer chisel, and mallet. 6. Fit the pins carefully into the sockets, using the knife and the ^firmer chisel. 7. Smooth the inner surfaces with the smoothing-plane, then glue the sides together. 8. Plain joint and glue the bottom. 9. Plane up the handle with the jack-plane and the trying-plane, set- ting out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 10. Make the construction for the handle with the square and compasses, and cut it out with the centre-bit, turn-saw, knife, and file ; square the ends in the shooting-board. 11. Smooth the outsides and the top and bottom with the smoothing- plane. 12. Fit the handle into the grooves, using the smoothing-plane and the knife. 13. Plane up the bottom with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ; set out the length and width with the metre-measure and square, and cut off with the tenon-saw ; then set out the required form of the edges with the square and compasses, and round with the smoothing-plane and the file. 14. Nail on the bottom ; sink the heads of the nails with the punch. 15. Finish with the file and scraper. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 231 No. 34. AMERICAN AXE HANDLE (Oak). Metric Length 48 cm. Breadth 6'5 cm. English 19 in. by 2f in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood with the hand-saw. 2. Draw the outline, and saw out with the turn-saw. 3. Plane off one side with the trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge ; make a fresh drawing ; cut off the edges to the line with the draw-knife, and smooth with the spokeshave. 4. Draw the shape of both ends, and model with draw-knife, spoke- shave, and smoothing-plane. 5. Set out the length, and cut off with the tenon-saw. 6. Smooth with file and scraper. No. 35.-MATCH BOX (Birch). Metric Length 19 cm. Breadth 8 '5 cm. English 7i in. by 3| in. 1. Saw out the pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the mark- ing-gauge. 2. Plane off the back according to the directions given in No. 29 (4). 3. Make the construction with square and compasses ; cut out with . the tenon-saw and knife, and smooth with the file. 4. Bore the holes with the centre-bit and the bradawl. 5. Dove-tail and glue according to the directions in Xo. 33. 6. Smooth the under side with the file ; then glue the bottom on with aid of the hand-screw. 7. Shape the bottom with the knife ; smooth with the file and the scraper, and nail on to the back. No. 36.-ROUND STICK. Metric Length 80 cm. Thickness 3 cm. at one end, and 4 cm. at the other. English 32 in. by If in. by li in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the trying-plane. 232 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 3. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the trying-plane. 4. Find the middle point at both ends, and describe round each a circle, the diameter of which corresponds to the given thickness of each end. 5. Plane (oblique planing) with the trying-plane to the circles ; then make the stick octagonal with the jack-plane and the trying- plane. 6. Kound with trying-plane and smoothing-plane. 7. Set out the length, and cut off with the tenon-saw ; then model the ends with the knife. 8. Smooth with file and scraper. No. 37. SET SQUARE (Birch). Metric Breadth 10 cm. Length 20 cm. English % in. by 4f in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. U. Face and edge with the trying-plane. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and saw out with the hand-saw. 3. Fix with wooden-pegs, because the object is too thin to be planed between the bench-pegs. 4. Bevel the edges with the trying-plane. 5. Square the end in the shooting-board. 6. Set out the hole with the square and compasses, and bore with the centre-bit. 7. Set out the angles and size with the metre-measure, square, and marking-point ; saw out with the tenon-saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane. 8. Set out the divisions with the compasses, square, and marking- point. 9. Smooth with the scraper. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 233 No. 38. PEN-BOX (Birch). Metric Length 24 cm. Breadth 7 cm. English 9\ in. by 2f in. by 2 in. 1. For directions for planing and dove- tailing, see No. 33. 2. Cut out the groove for the lid with the cutting-gauge, knife, and firmer chisel. 3. Fit the lid into the groove with the smoothing-plane. 4. Smooth the bottom with the smoothing-plane, and glue it on, using the hand-screw. 5. Smooth the outside with the smoothing-plane and the scraper. No. 39. STOOL (Pine). Metric Length 24 cm. Breadth 21 cm. English 16J in. by 10 in. by 8J in. I. Saw out the pieces with the hand-saw. .2. Plane up one side with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Plane the edges with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; and plain joint. 4. Plane the parts true with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ; then set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge. 5. Fasten the parts for the feet together with two nails. Cut off the length at right angles with the bow-saw. Square the upper end with the smoothing-plane. 6. Set out the inclination of the feet with the set-bevel and cutting- gauge, and plane off with the smoothing-plane. 7. Make the construction for the feet with the square and compasses ; cut out with the centre-bit and bow-saw ; and smooth with the knife and file. 8. Set out the length for the top, and cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw. Square the ends with the smoothing-plane. 9. Set out the groove for the feet with the compasses, square, marking- point, set-bevel, and cutting-gauge ; and cut out with the knife, groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old woman's tooth. 10. To fix the position of the hole, draw diagonals. Draw the outline of the hole, and cut out with the centre-bit, compass-saw, knife, and file. 234 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 11. Fit the feet into the groove with the knife, and glue them in. 12. Fasten the side pieces together -with two nails ; make the construc- tion, and cut out with tenon-saw, turn-saw, smoothing-plane, firmer chisel, knife, and file. 13. Smooth and fit the side pieces with the trying-plane, and nail them together ; sink the nails with the punch. 14. Smooth the top and sides with the trying-plane and smoothing- plane. 15. Finish with the file and scraper. No. 40.-SQUARE (Beech) Metric Length 25 cm. Breadth 5 cm. English 10 in. by 6 in. by 2 in. Saw out both pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the mark- ing-gauge. Square one end of the stock in the shooting-board with the trying- plane. Set out the slot for the blade with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and cut out with the tenon-saw and firmer chisel. Fit in the blade with the firmer chisel ; then glue the parts together with aid of the hand-screw. Smooth the sides and the outer edges with the smoothing-plane. Set out the length, and cut off at right angles with the hand-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board. Set out the position of the hole with the compasses and square. Bore the hole with the centre-bit. Finish with the scraper. No. 41. DRAWING-BOARD, WITH FRAME (Pine). Metric Length 54 on. Breadth 44 cm. English 21^ in. by l?i in. 1. Saw out sufficient material for the board with the hand-saw. 2. Face one side with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Plain joint with the trying-plane, and fit the pieces together ; glue, and cramp up in the bench. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 235 4. Saw out sufficient material for the frame with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; and set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 5. Set out the length of each part of the frame with the metre-measure, and cut off at right angles with the dove-tail saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board. 6. For directions for dove-tailing the sides of the frame, see No. 33. 7. Plane up one side and one edge of the board true with the trying- plane. Set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and plane off with the jack-plane and the trying-plane. 8. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 9. Set out the length of the board with the metre-measure, and cut off at right angles with the hand-saw. 10. Set out the grooves for the clamps with the square, compasses, metre-measure, marking-point, set-bevel, and marking-gauge ; and cut it out with the knife, groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 11. Plane up the clamps, and fit them into the grooves with the jack- plane and trying-plane. Set out the angle of the ends with the set-bevel. Saw off with the dove-tail saw, and finish with the smoothing-plane. 12. Set out the slope of the clamps with the metre-measure and com- passes, and make it with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 13. Square the ends of the drawing-board with the trying-plane,. so that it fits into the frame. 14. Smooth up the outer edges of the frame with the trying-plane and the smoothing-plane. 15. Saw out the material in one piece for the blocks of the frame ; saw them off with the dove-tail saw ; fit them in with the firmer chisel, and secure them with nails, using the bradawl and the hammer. 16. Plane up the buttons in one length with the trying-plane, and make them with the firmer-chisel and knife. 17. Bore the holes with the bradawl, and drive in the screws with the screw-driver. IS. Finish with the smoothing-plane and the scraper. 236 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. No. 42. MARKING-GAUGE (Beech). Metric Length 13 cm. Breadth 4 '5 cm. English 9 in. by 5 in. 1. Saw out the pieces from a plank with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the trying-plane, and set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 2. Set out the position of the mortise in the stock with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge. 3. Cut out the mortise with a broad firmer chisel and a narrow mortise-chisel, using the mallet. 4. Set out the length of the stock and saw off with the tenon-saw ; smooth and shape the ends with the firmer chisel. 5. Plane up the spindle with the trying-plane ; fit it into the mortise with the smoothing-plane, and then cut off the length with the dove-tail saw ; shape it with the knife. 6. Make the wedges according to the model with the tenon-saw, smoothing-plane, firmer chisel, and knife. 7. Finish each part with the file and scraper, and put the whole together. No. 43. BRACKET (Birch or Alder). Metric Length 40 cm. Breadth 20 cm. English 16 in. by 71 in. 1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw. 2. Plane up one side of the pieces for the shelf with the trying-plane ; plain joint and glue. 3. Face and edge the other portions with the trying-plane, and set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 4. Fasten together the pieces for the feet with two nails. 5. Make the construction for the feet with the square, compasses, and metre-measure. 6. Cut them off at the top at right angles with the hand-saw, and square with the smoothing-plane. 7. Cut out the feet with the turn-saw, firmer chisel, gouge, file, and scraper. 8. Face and edge the piece for the shelf with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge. Plane off' with the trying-plane. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 237 9. Set out the length of the shelf. 10. Set out the grooves with the compasses, square, marking-point, set- bevel, and marking-gauge ; cut it out with the knife, groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 11. Set out the depth of the dove-tail on the feet with the cutting- gauge ; fit it into the groove with the knife and dove-tail saw. 12. Cut the shelf to the right length with the tenon-saw. Square the ends with the smoothing-plane. 13. Glue in the dove-tails, and smooth the shelf with the smoothing- plane. 14. Set out the length of the pillars with the compasses. 15. Set out the size of the dowelled ends of the pillars with a suitable centre-bit, and round them to fit the holes with the chisel. Chamfer the pillars with the knife. 16. Fit together the top rails with mortise and tenon, using firmer- chisel and dove-tail saw. Set out the length with the metre- measure, and saw off with the tenon-saw. 17. Set out the distance between the pillars with the compasses. Bore the holes for the pillars with the centre-bit which was used in setting out the dowels on the pillars. 18. Nail the back rail to the shelf. Fit the side rails and pillars together, and glue. 19. Fit the coverings of side rails with the chisel, and nail on. 20. Smooth the outer edges of the bracket with the smoothing-plane. 21. Set out the lined depressions in the edges with the marking-gauge, and grave with the parting-tool 22. Finish with the scraper. No. 44 PICTURE FRAME (Birch or Alder). Metric -Length 32 cm. Breadth 28 cm. English 12 in, by 11 in. 1. Saw out the pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the trying-plaue ; and set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 2. Set out the length of each side, and cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying-plane. 238 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 3. Set out the half-lapping parts with the square, marking-point, and marking-gauge, and cut out with the dove-tail saw and firmer- chisel. 4. Set out the rebate with the cutting-gauge, and cut it out with the knife and chisel. 5. Smooth up both sides with the smoothing-plane. 6. Try the parts together, and glue. 7. Set out the fluting with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and grave with the parting-tool. 8. Make the hanger with the smoothing-plane, centre-bit, and chisel. Fit it in with the dovetail-saw and chisel, and glue. 9. Plane up the pyramidal facets for the front of the frame in one piece with the trying-plane, and cut off each to the right length with the dovetail-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board ; shape with the chisel, and glue on. 10. Plane up the back-piece with the trying-plane, and fit into the rebate with the shooting-board and trying-plane. 11. Finish with the scraper. No. 45. STAND FOR TOOLS (Pine). Metric Length 55 cm. Breadth 28 cm. English 21 in. by II in. by 5 in. 1. Saw out the material for the back and the bottom portions in one piece with the hand-saw. Plane up one side with the jack-plane and the trying-plane. 2. Plain joint with the trying-plane, glue and " cramp up :> in the bench vice. 3. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge. 4. Cut off the parts which are to be dove-tailed at right angles with the tenon-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board. 5. For directions for dove-tailing, see No. 33. 6. Make the construction for the back with the square, compasses, and metre-measure, and cut out with the turn-saw, centre-bit, smoothing-plane, knife, and file. 7. Set out the length of the bottom, and cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw. Square the ends in the shooting-board. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 239 8. Glue the parts together. 9. Plane up the other parts with the jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 10. Dove-tail the box according to the model. (See No. 33,) 11. Set out the shape of the front of the box with the square, com- passes, and marking-gauge ; cut it out with the turn-saw, knife and file. 12. Fit the box on to the back and bottom, and nail, using the tenon- saw, firmer-chisel, smoothing-plane, file, and hammer. 13. Smooth up the bottom, the back, and the box with the smoothing- plane. 14. Make the construction for the bracket supports with the square and compasses ; cut them out with the turn-saw, firmer-chisel, knife, and file ; square one end in the shooting-board with the trying-plane ; glue the supports on at right angles to the back, and nail. 15. Set out the length of the shelves, and saw off at right angles with the tenon-saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board ; set out the holes in the shelves with the compasses and square, and cut out with the centre-bit and the firmer-chisel. 16. Nail on the shelves. 17. Cut off the pieces for the divisions of the box at right angles with the tenon-saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying-plane ; then fit them in and glue. 18. Finish with the scraper. No. 46. TEA TRAY (Pine). Metric Length 35 cm. Breadth 24 cm. English 9| in. by 6f in. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw. Face and edge the sides with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. Plane up one side of the bottom with the jack-plane and trying- plane ; plain joint and glue. Set out the length of the sides with the metre-measure, and the required angles with the bevel ; saw off with the tenon-saw ; square the ends with the smoothing-plane. 240 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 5. Dove-tail the parts according to the model, using the cutting- gauge, compasses, bevel, square, marking-point, tenon-saw, firmer-chisel, and mallet. 6. Set out the shape of the end pieces, and cut out with the centre- bit, firmer-chisel, turn-saw, knife, and file. 7. Glue the parts together. 8. Plane up the bottom, on the side previously planed, with the trying- plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge ; plane off with the jack- plane and the trying-plane. 9. Smooth the outside with the smoothing-plaue. 10. Set out the shape of the bottom with the compasses and metre- measure, and cut out with the smoothing-plane and file. 11. Nail on the bottom, using the brad- awl and the hammer. 12. Shape the upper edge of the tray with the smoothing-plane, knife, and file. 13. Finish with the scraper. No. 47.-BOOKSHELVES (Pine). Metric Length 52 cm. Breadth 45 cm. English '20J in. by 18 in. by 6 in. 1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw ; face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre- measure and the thickness with the marking-gauge. 2. Fasten the side pieces together, with two nails, and make the con- struction with the square, compasses, and metre-measure. 3. Cut off the lower end at right angles with the tenon-saw, and square with the smoothing-plane. 4. Cut out the shape with the turn-saw, firmer-chisel, spokeshave, knife, file, and scraper. 5. Take the side pieces apart. 6. Set out the grooves in the side pieces for the insertion of the shelves with the compasses, square, bevel, and cutting-gauge, and cut them out with the knife, dovetail-saw, and firmer-chisel. 7. Set out the length of the shelves and cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw ; square the ends in the shooting-board with the trying-plane. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 241 8. Make the notch at the ends of the shelves with the cutting-gauge and the dovetail-saw ; round the front edge with the smoothing- plane ; fit into the grooves with the firmer-chisel. 9. Put the parts together at right angles and glue. 10. Smooth the sides and the back edge with the smoothing-plane. 11. Smooth the model with the smoothing-plane and file, and finish with the scraper. No. 48.-HOOPED BUCKET (Pine). Metric Height 20 cm. Diameter 21 cm. English 8 in. by 9 in. 1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw. 2. Plane the edges of the staves true with the jack-plane and trying- plane. 3. Set out the curves at both ends of the staves according to the model ; then work the concave surface of the inner side of the staves with the Swedish jack-plane and round plane. 4. Set out the thickness of the staves with the marking-gauge ; then dress down the outer surface with the axe, and finish with jack-plane and smoothing-plane. 6. Face and edge the piece for the bottom with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge ; construct the shape with the compasses, and cut out with the turn-saw and the spokeshave ; set out the inclination of the edge with the bevel. 6. Set out the groove, according to the thickness of the bottom, with the marking-point, bevel, and marking-gauge, and cut it out with the knife and firmer-chisel. 7. Set out the position of the holes for the pins which hold the staves together, with the square and marking-gauge ; bore the holes with the brad-awl. 8. Put the parts together, and smooth on the outside with the smoothing-plane. 9. Put on the hoops, using the punch and the cold-chisel. 10. Set out the distance between the bottom and the lower ends of the staves with the compasses ; cut off with the tenon-saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane and spokeshave. 242 HANDBOOK OF SLO.TD. 11. Set out the height with the metre-measure, cut off with the tenon- saw, and smooth with the smoothing-plane and spokeshave. 12. Construct the shape of the under ends of the staves with the com- passes ; cut out with the turn-saw and knife, and smooth with the file. 13. Smooth the inside of the model with the spoon-iron and file, and finish with the scraper. No. 49. CABINET (Pine). Metric Length 66 cm. Breadth 40 cm. English 16 in. by 16| in. by 10 in. 1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw. 2. Face the pieces intended for plain jointing with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; then plain joint with the jack-plane and trying- plane, and glue. 3. Face and edge the top moulds and the lists with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the marking-gauge. 4. Set out the bevelled edges of the lists with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 5. Face and edge the pieces for the sides, bottom, back, panels, and shelves with the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. -6. Set out the length of the parts to be dovetailed, and cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw ; square the ends with the sinoothing-plane. 7. Dove-tail according to the model. For directions see No. 33. 8. Fit the parts together ; level the back edges of the carcase with the trying-plane, then take the pieces apart. 9. Set out the groove into which the back slides with the cutting-gauge, and cut it out with the knife and firmer-chisel (or the plough). 10. Glue the carcase together. 11. Cut off the piece for the back at right angles with the tenon-saw, and fit it into the groove with the smoothing-plane and trying- plane ; then nail it at the bottom. 12. Smooth the outer sides of the carcase, and the front edge with the trying-plane and smoothing-plane. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 243 13. Fit the lists and mouldings together, using the square, set bevel, dovetail-saw, smoothing-plane, and firmer-chisel, and nail them on. 14. Set out the pieces for the door, according to the model, with the square and marking-gauge. 15. Cut out the mortise-holes with the mortise-chisel, and cut the tenons to fit the holes with the tenon-saw and firmer-chisel. 16. Fit the door-frame together, using the firmer-chisel. Smooth the outside with the trying-plane. 17. Set out the groove for the panel with the cutting-gauge, and cut it out with the knife and firmer-chisel. 18. Fit the panel into the groove with the trying-plane and smoothing- plane. 19. Put the parts together, and glue. 20. Smooth the frame pieces for the door on both sides, and fit it into its place with the trying-plane and smoothing-plane. 21. Sink the hinges and fit the lock with the square, marking-gauge, pin-bit, firmer-chisel, and screwdriver. 22. Smooth the upper and under surfaces with the smoothing-pkme, and finish the whole article with the scraper. No. 50. -SMALL TABLE (Pine). Metric Height 76'5 cm. Breadth 34 cm. English- 30 in. by 13i in. 1. Saw out suitable pieces with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge the legs with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Face and edge the pieces for the rails with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out the breadth and thickness with the mark- ing-gauge. 4. Fix the pieces for the rails into the bench; set out the length with the metre-measure ; set out the tenons according to the model with the square and marking-gauge, and cut them with the tenon-saw and firmer-chisel. 5. Fix the legs into the bench ; set out the mortise-holes, according to the tenons, with the square and marking-gauge. 6. Cut out the mortises with the mortise-chisel and mallet. 244 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 7- Set out the shape of the legs with the square, compasses, and marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying- plane ; set out the bevel with the marking-gauge, and make it with the firmer-chisel and file. 8. Fit the tenons into the mortises with the firmer-chisel. 9. Smooth the inside of the legs with the smooth inj-plane. 10. Set out the block-mortise in the rails with the compasses, square, and marking-gauge, and cut out with the firmer-chisel. 11. Glue the parts together. 12. Plain joint, and glue the pieces for the top and the shelf. 13. Cut off the legs at the upper end with the tenon-saw to the right length, at right angles to the rails, then level with the smoothing- plane ; smooth the upper edges of the rails with the smoothing- plane. 14. Smooth the outer sides with the smoothing-plane. 15. Face and edge the top and the shelf with the jack-plane and the trying-plane ; set out the breadth with the metre-measure, and the thickness with the marking-gauge. 16. Fit in the shelf, using the square, marking-gauge, dove-tail saw, and firmer-chisel. 17. Plane up the blocks to the required breadth and thickness with the jack-plane and trying-plane ; set out their length with the com- passes, cut off with the dove-tail saw, and smooth with the firmer-chisel 18. Hold the shelf close to the bottom rails with the hand-screw ; glue the blocks to the shelf and the rails. 19. Set out the shape of the top with the square and compasses, and cut it out with the firmer-chisel, smoothiug-plane, and file. 20. Plane up the blocks for the mortises, and fit them in with the dove- tail saw and firmer-chisel ; set out their length with the com- passes, and cut off at right angles with the dove-tail saw and firmer-chisel. 21. Hold the top in position with the hand-screw ; glue the blocks, and place them in position. 22. Smooth the edges of the top and the shelf with the smoothing-plane and file. 23. Finish with the scraper. (245) APPENDIX. As is well known to all students of the principles of educational Slojd, the " models " are merely the means by which the pupil is made to pro- duce a useful article at the same time that he practises the " exercises.'" Hence, the more nearly the articles made conform to the national usage and personal requirements of those who make them, the more nearly do they fulfil their intention. Hence also, the more readily the English Slojd-teacher can discover a substitute for any model included in the High School series, which does not exactly meet the requirements of English people, the more closely will he approximate to the ideal Slqjd- teacher. What follows may suggest further modifications to the minds of English teachers. ALTERNATIVES TO SOME OF THE MODELS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL SERIES. No. 9 page 11. As an alternative to this model, the pupil may make the Dibble, the ninth model in the Secondary School series. Children who are fond of gardening like it. DIBBLE (Pine). Metric Leng 'h 30 cm. Thickness 2*5 cm, English 12 in. by 1 in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off. 3. Draw diagonals to find the middle point at each end, and describe round it a circle, the diameter of which is equal to the prescribed thickness of the model. 4. Bevel the edges with the jack-plane and the trying-plane to make the article octagonal. 246 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 5. Make it cylindrical with 'he smoothing-plane. 6. Make the pointed end with the knife. 7. Set out the length, and cut off with the tenon -saw. 8. Round the upper end with the knife. 9. Finish with the file and sandpaper. No. 12 page 13. As an alternative, the Bench Hook may be made. BENCH HOOK (Beech). Metric Length 28 cm. Width 1 cm. English -11 in. by 2 in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece of wood, 32 cm. long, 9 cm. wide, and 4 cm. thick, with hand-saw. 2. Plane up face side and face edge at right angles. 3. Gauge to thickness and width, and plane off. 4. Set out the hook on each side, as shewn in diagram. 5. Saw out with the hand-saw, and plane true with jack-plane and smoothing-plane, paring out the corners with knife and chisel. 6. Saw to right length with tenon-saw, and shoot the ends in the shooting-board. 7. Round off the ends of the stops with the chisel and knife, and finish with file and scraper. 8. Bore the hole for hanging with the brace and 1'5 centre-bit (from each side). No. 15 page 14. As an alternative, or as an opportunity for extra practice, the Spoon, which is the fifteenth model in the Elementary School series, may be made PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 247 SPOON (Birch). Metric Length 21 '5 cm. Breadth 5 '2 cm. English -8% in. by 2i in. 1 Saw off a suitable piece with the hand-saw, and trim with the axe to the approximate breadth and thickness. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane, and gauge up 5 cm. brca ler than actual size and plane off. 3. Set out the side elevation of the spoon as shown in Construction Sheet No. 15, PL 5. Saw out the upper side with the hand and bow-saw, and pare to lines with firmer-chisel and gouge, finishing with the file. 4. On the upper prepared surface, draw the plan of the handle and the ellipse of the bowl, as shown in Construction Sheet No. 15, PI. 5. 5. At the shoulders of the spoon bore two holes with the 2 '9 centre-bit, then saw out shape with the bow-saw, pare the edges with the chisel and gouge, and finish with the file. 6. Hollow out the bowl with a large gouge and the spoon-iron. Scrape with the convex shell scraper, and sandpaper. 7. Draw the under curve and saw out with the bow-saw. 8. Model to right shape with the knife and spoke-shave, and finish with the file, scraper, and sandpaper. No. 16 page 15. This model, in the Swedish series, is only 45 cm. long, is called a " cutting board," and is used in cutting slices of bread from the small round loaves used in Sweden. By making it 60 cm. long, the pupil can make it the shape of an English knife-board, but one side would require to be coated with leather, or some other material, to make it really useful. Nos. 22 and 27 pages 19, 23, form together a very efficient contrivance for pressing flowers, but not of a kind with which English people are familiar. As a substitute for No. 22, a thoroughly useful and English model, "a towel-roller and rests" has been suggested; but this model, though complete in itself, does not furnish practice in all the exercises included in the flower-press as a whole. The pupil who chooses the towel-roller should therefore also make the "lid," the twenty-fourth model 6f the Elementary School series. 248 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. TOWEL-ROLLER and RESTS (Birch). Metric Length 43 cm. Thickness 4'5. English n in. by If in. 1. Saw out a suitable piece for the roller with the hand-saw. 2. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane, set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack- plane and trying-plane. 3. Set out the length with the metre-measure, and cut off at right angles with the tenon-saw. 4. Draw diagonals at each end to find the centre-point, and describe a circle, the circumference of which is equal to the thickness re- quired for the roller, and bore the holes for the pegs or dowels with the centre-bit. 5. With the planes make the roller first octagonal, then sixteen-sided, and finally round. 6. Make the pegs for the ends in the same manner, glue them in, then cut off to the required length with the tenon-saw. 7. Finish with file and scraper. 8. Saw out sufficient material for both rests in one piece with the hand- saw. 9. Face and edge with the jack-plane and trying-plane, set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack- plane and trying-plane. 10. Draw the construction on both sides of the wood, using the square and compasses. [Though there is no construction at present specially devised for the rests of the towel-roller, the teacher or student will easily see by comparing the construction for the rests of the flower-press with the rests of the towel-roller, how to modify the former for the construction of the latter.] 11. Make the holes with the centre-bit, cut out with the turn-saw, gouge, firmer- chisel, and file. 12. Drill holes for the screws. 13. Finish with scraper. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 249 LID (Pine). Metric Diameter 34 cm. English 13^ in. by f in. 1. Saw out the material with the hand-saw. 2. Plane one side of each piece with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 3. Plain joint the edges which are to be glued with the trying-plane, glue, and cramp up in the bench. 4. Make the surface quite level with the trying-plane. 5. Set out the circular shape with the compasses. 6. Set out the groove for the clamp with the square, compasses, metre- measure, marking-point, set-bevel, and marking-gauge. Cut it out with the knife, groove-saw, firmer-chisel, and old woman's tooth. 7. Plane up the clamp, and fit it into the groove with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 8. Set out the thickness with the marking-gauge, and plane off with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 9. Saw out the circle with the broad bow-saw. Smooth and shape the edges with the spokeshave and file. 10. Smooth off with the smoothing-plane. 11. Saw out material for the handle with the hand-saw, and plane to the required breadth and thickness with the jack-plane and trying-plane. 12. Make the construction with the square and compasses. 13. Cut out with the turn -saw, firmer-chisel, smoothing-plane, knife, file, and scraper. 14. Bore the holes for the screws with the centre-bit. 15. Screw the handle on to the lid, using the screwdriver. 251 Lists of Tools required for different numbers of Pupils. A. List of Tools required for one pupil. 1 Shooting-board. 1 Hand-saw. 1 Half-round file. 2 Haridscrews. 1 Tenon-saw. 1 Round file. 1 Metre-measure or 1 Compass-saw. 1 Scraper. Rule. 1 Groove-saw. 1 Brace, with set of 1 Mark ing- point. 1 Axe. bits. 1 Marking-gauge. 1 Knife. 1 Bradawl. 1 Cutting-gauge. 1 Draw-knife. 1 Mallet. 1 pair of Compasses. 4 set (6) Firmer- 1 Hammer. 1 Square. Chisels. 1 pah- of Pincers. 1 Bevel. 2 Mortise Chisels. 1 Wire-cutter. 1 Saw-set. | set (6) Gouges. 1 pair flat-jawed Pliers. 1 Saw-sharpening 1 Spoon-iron. 1 pair round-jawed clamps. 1 Jack-plane. Pliers. 1 Triangular file. 1 Trying-plane. 1 Screwdriver. 1 Bow-saw. 1 Smoothiug-plane. 1 Glue-pot and Brush, 1 Dove-tail saw. 1 Compass-plane. 1 Grindstone. 1 Turn-saw (broad- 1 Old woman's tooth- 1 Oilstone. webbed). plane. 1 Oil-can. 1 Turn-saw (narrower 1 Spokeshave. Sandpaper. webbed). 1 Flat file. B. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul- taneous instruction of 6 to 8 pupils. 2 Marking- points. 1 1 Bevel. 1 Shooting-board. 2 Handscrews. 6 to 8 Metre-measures 3 pair Compasses, or Rules. 3 to 4 Squares.* 3 to 4 Marking-gauges.* 1 Saw-set. 1 Saw-sharpening clamps. [* With regard to the minimum number of tools required, the reader is referred to Chapter I., p. 24, and is strongly recommended to provide each child, if possible, with a complete bench set, viz : knife, jack-plane, trying-plane, smoothing-plane, square, marking-gauge, compass, rule or metre-measure, and scraper. TRS.] 252 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 2 Triangular files. set (4) Mortise 1 Brace, with set of 2 Bow-saws. Chisels. bits. 1 Dove-tail saw. set (6) Gouges. 1 Bradawl 1 Turn -saw (broad- 3 Spoon-irons. 3 Mallets. webbed). 2 Jack-planes.* 2 Hammers.* 2 Turn-saws (narrower 3 Trying-planes.* 1 pair Pincers. webbed). 3 Smoothing-planes.* 1 Wire-cutter. 1 Hand-saw. 1 Compass-plane. 1 pair flat Pliers. 1 Tenon-saw. 1 Old woman's tooth- 1 pair round Pliers. 1 Compass-saw. plane. 2 Screwdrivers. Groove-saw. 2 Spokeshaves. 1 Glue-pot and Brush. 1 Axe. 1 Flat file. 1 Grindstone. 6 to 8 Knives. 2 Half-round files. 2 Oilstones. Draw-knife. 1 Round file. 1 Oil-can. set (12) Firmer 3 Scrapers.* Sandpaper. Chisels. C. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul- taneous instruction of 12 pupils. 2 Shooting-boards. 1 Hand-saw. 2 Round files. 3 Handscrews. 1 Tenon-saw. 6 Scrapers.* 12 Metre-measures or 1 Compass-saw. 1 Brace, with set of Rules. 1 Groove-saw. bits. 4 Marking-points. 1 Axe. 2 Bradawls. 8 Marking-gauges.* 12 Knives. 4 Mallets. 2 Cutting-gauges. 1 Draw-knife. 3 Hammers.* 6 pair of Compasses. 1 set (12) Firmer 1 pair of Pincers. 8 Squares.* Chisels. 1 Wire-cutter. 2 Bevels. set (4) Mortise 1 pair flat Pliers. 2 Saw-sets. Chisels. 1 pair round Pliers. 2 Saw-sharpening set (6) Gouges. 6 Screwdrivers. clamps. 3 Spoon-irons. 1 Glue-pot with Brush. 4 Triangular files. 4 Jack-planes.* 1 Grindstone. 3 Bow-saws. 8 Trying-planes.* 2 Oilstones. 2 Dove-tail saws. 8 Smoothing-planes.* 1 Oil-can. 2 Turn-saws (broad- 1 Compass-plane. Sandpaper. webbed). 4 Spokeshaves. 2 Turn-saws (narrower 1 Flat file. webbed). 3 Half-round files. * See note, page 251. LIST OF TOOLS. 253 D. Complete list of Tools required for the simultaneous instruction of 12 pupils. 3 Shooting-boards. 3 Hand-saws (tenon- 4 Flat files. 4 Handscrews. saws). 6 Half-round files. 12 Metre-measures. 1 Groove-saw. 4 Round files. 8 Marking-points. 2 Axes. 6 Scrapers. 12 Marking-gauges. 12 Knives. 1 Brace with set of 2 Cutting-gauges. 2 Draw-knives. bits. 6 pair of Compasses. 2 sets (24) Firmer 3 Bradawls. 12 Squares. Chisels. 8 Mallets. 2 Bevels. 1 set (8) Mortise 12 Hammers. 2 Saw-sets. Chisels. 2 pair of Pincers. 2 Saw-sharpening 1 set (12) Gouges. 1 Wire-cutter. clamps. 6 Spoon-irons. 1 pair flat Pliers. 4 Triangular files. 12 Jack-planes. 1 pair round Pliers. 4 Bow-saws. 12 Trying-planes. 6 Screwdrivers. 3 Dove-tail saws. 12 Smoothing-planes. 1 Glue-pot with Brush. 4 Turn-saws (broad- 1 Compass-plane. 1 Grindstone. webbed). 1 Old woman's tooth- 3 Oilstones. 4 Turn-saws plane. 1 Oil-can. (narrower webbed). 6 Spokeshaves. Sandpaper. 254 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. The cost of providing the above tools, calculated according to the prices* now current (in Sweden), is as follows : List (A) about 50 Kroner. + .. (B) 85 (O 135 (/>) 20:, The number of benches required is as follows : For List (A) 1 ,. (7?) 3 or 4 -, (O 8 (D) 12 If double benches are used, only half the number will be required in the cases of (B), (C), and (D) respectively. As double benches are cheaper in proportion to single benches, they may in some cases be preferred to single ones. Tools of the best quality should always be procured ; they are the cheapest in the long-run. It is also desirable that drawings and constructions of the models should be procured. In connection with this, it may be mentioned that the annual cost oi timber and other materials in a small country school in Sweden, where 10 to 15 children receive instruction, is from 10 to 20 kronor, exclusive of the outlay of replacing worn-out tools. The same materials tor a class of 16 boys in England would cost about l 10s. annually. Red deal pine is the best soft-wood for Slojd, and can be obtained at any good timber yard. Lime-tree, sycamore, and chestnut all make good substitutes for birch. The two former are very fine in the grain, and are good for scoops, bowls, etc. They are a little dearer than birch. American canary wood can also be recommended as a wood suitable for flat articles ; it is a little harder than deal, and works easily. This wood can be obtained anywhere, and is not dear. * The English prices for the tools are given on pages 267-^70. t The Swedish krona is worth Is. IJd. Eighteen kronor = 1. INDEX. Absolute weight of timber, 51. Accuracy, habits of, 2, 14, 15. Adjustable bench, 65. bit, 112. handscrew, 69. planes, 102. Age of the Slojd-pupil, 17. of trees, 30. Aim of Slojd, 2. Air-tubes, 31, 32. Albuminoids in sap, 34. Alburnum, 32. Alder, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53 ; the hoary-leaved, 53. Alternatives to some of the Models, 245-249. American Axe-handle, 231. American Canary-wood, 254. Angle formed by the bevelled edge and front face of the plane-iron, 95 ; by the bevelled edges of the axe, 88 ; by the face and front side of chisels, 90, 91 ; by the faces of the Slojd-knife, 88. Annual layers, concentric, -29-31. Apple, the, 38, 47, 50, 5G. Area of Slojd-room, 20. Articles of luxury, 12. Articles, modelled, 12 rectangular, 12. rejected, 15. sale of, 26. Artificial light in Slojd-room, 21. Artisan, work of the, 1. Asli, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 53. Aspen, the, 35, 46, 48, 53, 54. Attachments of saw-blade, 82-84. Attention, habits of, 2. Auger-bit, the, 1 10. Autumn wood, 30-32. Axe, the, 7, 22, 47, 59, 60, 87, 8S. Axe-handle, American, 231. Axle-fitting, 164. B Back bench-vice, the, 62,63,64,65,66. Bark, 28. Bast, 28. Beam-compasses, 73, 74. Beech, the, 33-35, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46- 48, 50-52, 55, 198. Bench, the, 62-67. adjustable, 65. double, 65. Naas pattern, 64, 65. Philips' Registered, 66. single, 62-64. Trainer's, 66, 67. Bench drawer, the, 62, 64. Bench-hook, 246. Bench-pegs, 62, 63, 66. Bench-rails, 62, 64, 66. Bench-top, 62, 64-66. Bench-well, 62, 64, 66. Bench-set, the, 24. 251, footnote. Benches required, number of, 254. Bench-vice, back, 62, 63, 64, 65, <>6. front, 62, 63, 66. Bevel -cut, 128. Bevel, mitre, 76. set, 76. wooden, 76. Bevelled edge-planing, 150. Bevelling, 138. with draw-knife, 152. 256 Birch, the, 32, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46-48, 50-52, 54, 196-198. Birch, figured, 46. Bits, 108-112. Blade of a saw, 77, 80. Blocking, 180. mortised, 182. Blocks, for table tops, 43. "Blue surface," 40, 43, 44. Bodily labour, 2, 8. Body, position of, during work, 21-24, 127, 129, 135, 139, 147. Plates I. VIII., 184-191. Bolts, 62, 65. Book-carrier, 224. Book-shelves, 240. Boot-jack, 227. Boring, with bradawl, 150. with centre-bit, 136. with quill-bit, 134. Bow-compasses, 73. Bow-saw, the, 83. broad-webbed, 83, 85. Bowl for writing table, 218. Box, 225. Brace, the, 108, 109. American, 109. Swedish, 109. Bracket, 236. Bradawl, the, 112. boring with, 150. Broad-leaved trees, 30, 31, 33, 52. Brushes for glue, 120. Bucket, hooped, 241. c Cabinet^ 242. Caliper-compasses, 74. Cambium, 28. Camphor, solution of, 45. Camphor-tree, 49. Canary-wood, American, 254. " Captain " of Slojd-class, 25. Carpentry, 7, 8. Slqjd, 6, 7, 21. Carving-tools, 89, 92, 93. Carving wood, 8. Cedar, the, 49. Cells, wood, 28. Cellulose, 29. Centre-bit, the, 22, 110, 111. boring with, 136. sharpening the, 111. Chamfering, 156. Changes which wood undergoes, 35. Chestnut, the, 52, 55, 254. Chisel, the, 7, 89-91. bent, 93. firmer, 90. mortise, 91. Chiselling, concave, 144. Chiselling, oblique, 144. perpendicular, 142. Chopping, 144. Plate VII. Chopping-block, 88. Circular sawing, 156. Clamping, dove-tail, 154. Clamps, 43 saw-sharpening, 79. Class-teaching, 16, 17. Cleavage of wood, 34. Cloak-suspender, 226 Clothes-rack, 221. Colour of wood, 48, 49. Colouring matter, 34. Common dove-tailing, 160. mortise and tenon, 170. Compasses, 24, 73, 74. beam, 73, 74. bow, 73. caliper, 74. Compass-plane, the, 102. saw, 80, 86, 166. Concave chiselling, 144. cut, 138. modelling with the plane, 1 78. Concealed tenoning, 180. 257 Concentric annual layers, 29-31. Constituents of sap, 34, 35. Constructions, geometrical, 13, 254. Convex cut, 128. modelling with plane, 140. sawing, 138. Corky layer, the, 28. Cost of providing tools, 254. timber, &c., 254. Counter-sink drill, the, 110, 112. Cover of the plane, 95, 96. Cracking of timber, 36, 39, 40-43. Cramp, thumb-screw, 70. Crayon-holder, 216. Cross-cut, the, 126. " Cross-grained " wood, 46. Cross-section of stem, 27, 28. Cut, bevel, 128. concave, 138. convex, 128. cross, 126. long, 126. Cut, oblique, 128. plane surface, 140. Cutting-gauge, the, 73. Day-book, teacher's, 26. Deal, red, 254. Decay of timber, 43. Dexterity, technical, 3-5. Dibble, 245. Dove-tail clamping, 154. filletster, 103. saw, 86. Dove-tailing, 15, 73, 125. common, 160. half-lap, 172. in thick wood, 168. notched, 176. oblique, 174. single, at right angles, 158. Dowels, 124. Drawing-board, 234. Drawings, 13, 254. Drawings in perspective, 13. Draw-knife, the, 7, 89. bevelling with, 152. modelling with, 156. Dressing up with the smoothing- plane, 146; with spokeshave, 146. "Dry-rot," 44. Durability of timber, 45, 51. Duramen, 32. E Ebony, 32, 47, 50, 57. Edge-grooving, half concealed, 176 ; oblique, 166. Edge-planing, 130. bevelled, 150. Edges, straight, 76, 77. Educational and practical Slojd, 1. Educational Slojd, aim of, 2. Elasticity of timber, 48. Elder, the, 33. Elm, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 44, 46-48, 50, 51, 53. End-squaring, 148. English handscrew, 69. marking-gauge, 72. Exercises, the, 6, 10, 11, 60, 126-183, 196-199, 209-213. Expansion-bit, the, 111, 112. Eye of the axehead, 88. Face of chisel, 90. Face-planing, 77, 136. Fermentation of sap, 43. Fibres of wood, 29. File, the, 22, 80, 105, 106. to clean, 106. to use, 106. triangular, 80. File-grade, the, 105. Filing, 136. Filletster, the dove-tail, 103. 258 " Finer " kinds of manual work, 8. Fir, the, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50, 51, 52, 196. Firmer, the, 93. the corner, 93. Firmer-chisel, the, 90. Fitting in pegs, 148. Pixing hinges, 172. Fixing with wooden pegs, 158. Fixing with screws, 156. Flat ruler, 227. Flower-pot cross, 220. stand, 222. stick, 215. Flower-press, 226. Flower-stick, 215. Fluting, 170. Foot-stool, 223. Frame-saw, the, 78, 82. Fungi, 44. Gauge, cutting, 73. marking, 24, 71, 72, 236. Gauging, 134. Gee Cramp, the, 70. Geometrical constructions, 13, 254. Glue, 21, 119-123. liquid, 120. Glue-brushes, 120. pot, 120. Glueing, 121-123, 150. with aid of handscrew, 166. Gouge, the, 89, 91. hollowing out with, 162. scooping out with, 162. curved, 93. front bent, 93. parting, 93. spoon, 92. straight, 93. Gouging, oblique, 154. perpendicular, 152. Gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, 144. Grain, against the, 49. endway of the, 49. length way of the, 49. with the, 49. the silver, 33. Graving with V tool or parting-tool, 170. Grinding tools, 88, 115. Grinding- rest, 116. Grinding-support, 116. Grindstone, the, 115, 116. Groove-jointing, 125. Groove-saw, 86, 87. Grooving, 73, 87, 166. Gymnastics, 18, 21, 22. H Habits of accuracy, 2, 14, 15. attention, 2. industry, 2. order, 2. self-reliance, 2, 14. Half-concealed edge-grooving, 176. Half-lap dove-tailing, 172. Half-lapping, 170. Halving, 125. with knife, 148. Hammer, the, 113. the set, 179. Hammer-handle, 219. Hand, use of the right and left, 22. Handle of a saw, 83. Hand-saw, the, 85. Handscrew, the, 68, 69. adjustable, 69. English, 69. iron, 70. wooden, 68. glueing with, 166. Hard wood, work in, 148. Hardness of timber, 46-48. INDEX. 259 Harmonious Physical development, 21, 22. Hazel, the, 48. Heart-wood, the, 32, 47. Height of Slojd-room, 20. Hi-h School series of models, 196. Hinges, fixing, 172. Hinge-plates, 112. Hinge-sinking, 172. Hold-fast, the, 67. Hole-rimer drill, 110, 112. Hollow, the, 102. Hollowing out with gouge, 162. with plane, 178. Hooped bucket, 241. Hooping, 125, 178. Hoops for barrels, 89, 178. Horn of the plane, 94, 99. Hornbeam, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 52. Housing, 164. I Impregnation of timber, 42, 45. Individual instruction, 16. Industry, habits of, 2. Insects, attacks of, 44, 45. Instruction, individual, 16. intuitional, 13. time given to, 18. Intuitional instruction, 13. Iron handscrew, the, 70. plane, the, 100, 101. Jack-plane, the, 24, 98, 99. Jointing, 119, 125. plain, 96, 152. Juniper, the, 48-50, 52. Key of bench, 63. Key-hole saw, the, 166. Key-label, 216. Knife, the, 7, 22, 24, 88, 89. Knife-board, 220. Knife-box, 230. Labour, bodily, 2, 8. Ladle, 225. Lamp-stand, wall, 228. Larch, the, 32, 38, 39, 48, 50-52. Letter-opener, 215. Lid, 248. Light in Slojd-room, artificial, 21. Lignum vitoe, 47, 50, 57. Lime, the, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 254. Liquid glue, 120. Lock-fitting, 174. Long-cut, 126. Long oblique planing, 164. Long- sawing, 130. Luxury, articles of, 12. M Mahogany, 38, 39, 49, 50, 57. Mallet, the, 113. Maple, the, 33, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 56. Marker, the, 71, 72. Marking-gauge, the, 24, 71, 72, 236. English, 72. Johansson's, 72. Landmark's, 71. Marking-point, the, 71 Match-box, 231. Measurements, 70, 71. Medulla, the, 28. Medullary rays, the, 28, 33. Metal plates, &c., sinking and fixing, 150. Method, 9. Metre-measure, the, 13, 24, 70, 71, 220. Mitre-bevel, the, 76. Mitreing, 125, 168. Mitre-shooting, 68. 2GO Modelled articles, 12. Modelling, convex, 140. Modelling with the draw-knife, 156 ; with the plane, 140, 178 ; with the spokeshave, 146. Models, the, 11-14, 196 ; rejected, 15. Monitor of Slojd-class, the, 25. Mortise and tenon, common, 170. Mortise and tenon-jointing, 125. Mortise-chisel, the, 91. Mortised blocking, 182. Muriatic acid, 45. N Naas Slqjd diagrams, 13 (footnote). Nailing, 123, 150. Nails, beat, 123. cut, 123. Needle-leaved trees, 30-32, 34, 40, 44, 49, 52. Notched dove-tailing, 176. Oak, the, 31-35, 38, 39, 46-52, 55, 198. Oblique chiselling, 144. cut, 128. dove-tailing, 174. edge-grooving, 168. gouging, 154. paring, 144. planing, 146, 164. sawing, 146. slotting, 176. Obstacle-planing, 142. Oil-paint, 45. Oils, volatile, 35. Oilstone, the, 117. method of using, 117- Oilstone-slip, 118. Order, habits of, 2. Osier, the, 48. Outside-pan of glue-pot, 119, 120. Packthread-winder, 216. Panel-grooving, 166. Panels of doors, 43. Paper-knife, 218. Parcel-pin, 214. Paring, perpendicular, 142. oblique, 144. Parting-gouge, 93. Parting-tool, bent, 93. straight, 93. Pear, the, 39, 47, 50, 56. Pen-box, 233. Pen-rest, 217. Pen-tray, 219. Peg of a saw, 83. Pegs, fitting in, 148. Pegs, fixing with wooden, 158. Perpendicular chiselling, 142. gouging, 152. Perpendicular paring, 142. Perspective drawings, 13. Philips' Registered Bench, 66. Physical development, harmonious, 21, 22. Picture-frame, 237. Pin- bit, the, 110. Pincers, 112, 113. Pine, the, 32, 34, 196-199. Pins, wooden, 1 24. Pith, the, 28, 30, 33, 41. Plain-jointing, 96, 152. Plane, the, 22, 61, 93 104. the adjustable, 10J. the compass, 102. the hollow, 102. the iron, 100, 101. the jack, 24, 98, 99. old woman's tooth, 102, I0a the rebate, 101. the round, 101. the smoothing, 24, 60, 96, 100, 101. INDEX. 261 Plane, the toothing, 123, footnote. the trying, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100. Plane, concave, modelling with, 178 ; convex modelling with, 140; hollowing out with, 178. Plane, setting the, 98. Plane-cover, the, 95, 96. Plane-horn, the, 94, 99. Plane-iron, the, 94, 96-98. Plane sole, the, 94, 97. Plane-stock, the, 94. Plane-surface cut, the, 140. Planing across the grain, 156. ,, with round plane, 156. with shooting board, 162. ,, bevelled edge, 150. ,, edge, 130. .. face, 77, 136. ,, long oblique, 164. ,, oblique, 146, 164. ,, stop, or obstacle, 142. wedge, 156. Pliers, flat-jawed, 114. round-jawed, 114. Plough, the, 104. Plugging, 150. Plumbago, 64. Pointer, small, 214. Poplar, the, 52, 54. Pores in wood, the, 31. Position of the body during work, 21, 24, 127, 129, 135, 139, 147. Plates!.- VIII., 184-191. Preliminary exercises, 11. Projections, 13. Punch, the, 124. Punching, 152. Pupils in Slojd-class, number of, 18. Quill-bit, 110. * boring with, 134. Radial section, 27, 28. Rails of the bench, 62, 64, 66. Rasps, 106. "Raw edge," 117. Razor-strop, 218. Rebating, 170. Rebate-plane, the, 101. Rebates, dove-tail, 104. Rectangular articles, 12. Red deal, 254. Resin, 32, 35, 43, 45. Resin-canals, 32. Rip-sawing, 130. Roller and rests for flower-press, 223. Round ruler, 217. stick, 231. Round-plane, planing with, 156. Rowan, the, 50, 56. Rule, the two-foot, 13, 24, 71. Ruler, the, 71 ; flat, 227 ; round, 217. Rules for the Slojd-teacher, 24. Sand-paper, 25, 107, 108. Sale of articles, 26. Sap, the, 28, 34. constituents of, 34, 35. crude or ascending, 34. elaborated, 34 fermentation of, 43. removal of, 42, 44, 45. Sapwood, the, 32, 47. SaAv, the, 22, 25, 47, 61, 77. ,, the bow, 83. ,, the broad-webbed bow, S3, 85 ,, the compass, 80, 86, 166. ,, the dove- tail, 86. the frame, 78, 82. the groove, 86, 87. the hand, 85. the tenon, 86. the turn, 85. 262 INDEX. Saw, the wood, 78, 81. Saw, frame of, 60. Saw, setting the, 7S-S1. Saw, sharpening the, 80, 81. Saw, working the, 84. Saw-blade, the, 77, 80. Saw-blade, attachments of the, 82-84. Saw-cut, width of the, 79. Saw-peg, the, 83. Saw-set, the, 79, 80. Saw-stretcher, 83. Saw-sharpening clamps, 79. Sawing, circular, 156. convex, 138. long, 130. oblique, 146. rip, 130. up and down, 182. wave, 140. Sawing off, 128. Sawing with compass-saw, 166. with tenon-saw, 140. Scoop, 221. Scooping out with gouge, 162. Scraper, the, 24, 106, 107. Scraping, 107, 142. Screw-driver, the, 112, 114. Screw-driver bit, the, 110, 112. Screwing together, 122, 124, 156. Screws, fixing with, 156. Screws, wood, 124, 125. Seasoning of timber, 40-42, 44. Section of stem, cross, 27, 28. radial, 27, 28. tangential, 27, 28. Self-reliance, habits of, 2, 14. Septa, transverse, 33. Set-bevel, the, 76. Set-hammer, the, 179. Set-square, 232. Setting out, 70, 164. Setting the plane, 98. Setting the saw, 78-81. Setting-tongs, 80. Sharp tools, 24, 25, 61, 115. Sharpening the centre-bit, 111. the saw, SO, 81. tools, SS, 115. Shooting-board, the, 67, 68. Shoulder of chisel, 90. Shrinkage of timber, 36-39, 45. .Shuttle, 229. Silver grain, the, 33. Single dove-tailing at right angles, 158. Sinking and fixing metal plates, &c., 150. Situation of Sldjd-room, 20. Size of tools, 59, 60. Slojd, aim of, 1. educational, 1 . Slojd and gymnastics, 21. Slojd-carpentry, 6, 7, 21. Slbjd-diagrams, Niias, 13 (footnote). Slojd knife, 88, 89. Slojd-room, 18-21. Plate IX., 192. Slotting, 125, 168. oblique, 176. Small table, 243. Smoothing up, 146. Smoothing with the spokeshave, 146. Smoothing-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 100, 101. Smoothing-plane, dressing up with the, 146. Sole of the plane, 94, 97. Specific gravity of timber, 50. Spindle of marking-gauge, 71-73. Spokeshave, the, 104. modelling with the, 146. smoothing up with the, 146. ^poon, 246. Spoon-gouge, the, 92. Spoon-iron, the, 7, 92. Sprigs, 123. Spring-wood, 29. 263 Square, the, 24, 74, 75, 76, 234. . steel, 75. wooden, 75. ., to test the, 75, 76. Square-grooving, 164. Square-shooting, 162. Squaring, 132. Stand for tools, 238. Starch, 34. Staving, 178. Steaming, 42, 45. Stick, round, 231. Stock of marking-gauge, 71, 72. of plane, 94. of set bevel, 76. of square, 75. Stool, 233. Stop-planing, 142. Straight-edges, 70, 77. Straight- fibred wood, 29, 46, 94. Strength of timber, 45, 46. Stretcher of saw, S3. String of saw, 83. Sugar, 34. Support for grinding, 116. Support for hand, in jack plane, 93. Surface cut, plane, 140. Swelling of timber, 36, 39, 45. Sycamore, the, 254. Table, small, 243. Tang of knife, 88. of chisel, 90. Tangential section of stem, 27, 28. Tannic acid, 35, 43, 45. Tea-tray, 23f). Teacher of Slojd, the, 2-6, 61. Technical dexterity, 3-5. Teeth of the saw, 77, 78, 81, 84. Tenon, common mortise and, 170. Tenon saw, the, 86. Tenoning, concealed, 180. Texture of timber, 48. Thumb-screw cramp, the, 70. Tightener of saw, 83, 84. Timber (see also Wood), 27. ., absolute weight of, 51. colour of, 48, 49. cost of, 25 i. decay of, 43. ., durability of, 45, 51. elasticity of, 48. hardness of, 46-48. seasoning of, 40-42, 44. smell of, 48, 49. Specific gravity of, 50. ,. strength of, 45, 46. texture of, 48. time for cutting down, 40, 44. toughness of, 48. ., warping of, 36, 40-42. weight of, 50. Time given to instruction, 18. Tools required for different numbers of pupils, 251-253. Tools, choice of, 59-61, 254. ,, cost of providing, 254. cupboard for, 118. Plate XL, 194, 195. sharp, 24, 25, 61, 115. sharpening, 88, 115-118. size of, 59, 60. stand for, 238. toy, 59. Tool-cupboard, the, 118. Plate XI. Toothing plane, the, 123 (footnote). Towel-roller and rests, 247. Trainor's bench, 66, 67. Trammel-heads, 74. Transverse septa, 33. Trees, broad-leaved, 30, 31, 33, 52. needle-leaved, 30-32, 34, 40, 44, 49, 52. Trying-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100. Turning, 8. 264 INDEX. Turn-saw, the, 85. Turpentine, 35. u Up-and-down sawing, 182. Varnish, 45. Vessels, 31, 49. Vice-tongue, 63. Volatile oils, 35. V-tool, 170. w Wall lamp-stand, 238. Walls of the Slojd-room, 20. Walnut, the, 38, 39, 42, 47, 50, 56. Warming the Slojd-room, 20, 21. Warping of timber, 36, 40-42. Water-capacity, 35, 36. Wave-sawing, 140. Wedge of the plane, the, 94, 96, 97. Wedge-planing with smoothing-plane, 156. Weight of timber, 50. absolute, 51. White beam, the, 39, 46-48, 56. Width of saw-cut, 79. Willow, the, 35. Winding-laths, 76, 77. Windows of the Slojd-room, 20. Wire-cutter, the, 113. Wood (see also Timber), 27. autumn, 30-32. colour of, 48, 49. cost of, 254. cross-grained, 46. spring, 29. straight-fibred, 29, 46, 94. work in hard, 148. Wooden bevel, the, 76. handscrew, the, 68. Wooden pins, 124. Wood-carving, 8. Wood-cells, 28. Wood-cement, 121. Wood-fibres, 29. Wood-saw, the, 78, 81. Wood-screws, 124, 125. .Wood-Slojd, 6. Work in hard wood, 148. Working the saw, 84. Yew, the, 33. THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW.