BULLETIN No. 32. SAN FRANCISCO, MARCH, 1904. PRODUCTION AND USE OF PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. COMPLI MENTS OF F. McN HAMILTON tttATt MiMSAAkOttlllT ISSUED BY CALIFORNIA STATE MINING BUREAU, FERRY BUILDING, SAN FRANCISCO. LEWIS E. AUBURY - - State Mineralogist. SACRAMENTO. W. W SHANNON - - - SUPERINTENDENT STATE PRINTING 1904. UBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CM .IFORNIA DAVIS LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. To Hon. George C. Pardee, Governor of the State of California^ and the Honorable Board of Trustees of the State Mining Bvrenv : Gentlemen : I have the honor to transmit to you Bulletin No. 32, entitled "Production and Use of Petroleum in California." This bulletin has been prepared by Mr. Paul W. Prutzman, Engineering Chemist, of this city, from his own observations and from data and photographs furnished by Field Assistants of the State Mining Bureau; also from authorities to whom credit is given in the following pages. The work on the bulletin has extended over a period of two years, and the greatest care has been exercised in the collection of accurate data concerning the subject treated. It was completed and the manu- script handed to me in March of this year, but it has taken some time to prepare engravings, maps, etc., and to have the bulletin printed. The aim of the bulletin is to describe the conditions under which petroleum is produced, the amount, source, and character of ])r()duction of same, and to outline some of the more im})<)rtant ways in which tlie output is consumed. As the subject has been one of considerable detail, it has been necessary to condense the matter as far as possible. Bulletin No. 31, of this department, has been inserted in this pub- lication. This data concerning authentic samples of oil, collected l>y a Field Assistant of the Bureau, with analyses of the same n)ade by Mr. H. N. Cooper, has been embodied in Bulletin No. 32 in order that the information, which is considered of value to tliose interested in the oil industry, might be at hand with other data concerning the subject. The bulletin has been prepared with a view of submitting to the 4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. general public a knowledge of conditions existing in the oil industry at the present time. As in other bulletins prepared under my direction, endeavor has been made to avoid technicalities wherever possible, in- tlie hope of making the bulletin plain and readal^le to all interested in petroleum and its uses in this State. Thanks are due and are cordially extended to all those who have aided Mr. Prutzman in the preparation of this bulletin. Respectfully submitted. LEWIS E. A U BURY, State Mineralogist. San Francisco, June 30, 1904. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART 1. CHAPTER 1. CHAPTER 2. CHAPTER 3. PRODUCTION. PAGE. History and Production 9 Tables of pi'olack oil. The. interest caused by this discovery not only In-ought about the drilling of several hundred wells in the vicinity, most of which were and still are productive, but renewed interest also in the outlying tields. Again prospecting was undertaken at many points, and again with practically no results for the time. But it had been demonstrated that oil existed beyond the bounds of Ventura County, and the work of the wildcatter was now carried forward with much more vigor, and with immensely better chances of success. In 1895, C. A. Canfield and others took over a property in Fresno County, near the little village of Coalinga, where other Los Angeles parties had been drilling without results, and after much effort finally brought in a small well, which produced the lightest oil found in the State up to that time. Some little interest was aroused, and several companies based on local capital started to drill in or near the section where Mr. Canfield was still working, and in 1896, after a number of small wells had been finished, the Home Oil Company of Selma brought in the famous " Blue Goose," a flowing well of very respectable pro- portions. The boom which followed this discovery was unrivaled in the history of the State, for hardly had the interest in this discovery, and in the large wells which followed it, subsided, than oil was discovered on the James Means ranch near Bakersfield. Within three years some two thousand four hundred oil companies filed incorporation papers in this State; most of this number sold more or less stock, while at least twelve hundred companies did some actual drilling. Again the State was punctured from one end to the other, but this time with much more success, for while the northern counties again failed to fulfill expecta- tions, the operators in Kern River, Coalinga, Sunset, Midway, McKit- trick, Whittier, and Fullerton were more fortunate. The boom went the way of all booms. Great numbers of companies were promoted by unprincipled parties, who put the proceeds of stock sales out of harm's way; many more w'ere so mismanaged as to waste their entire resources on preparations, while others were unfortunate in their locations. The production of the Kern River field for the first year was several times the entire production of the State for an}-- year previous, and as a consequence the price of oil, which had ranged from $1 to $1.50 per barrel, fell to eight or ten cents, producing companies could not pay running expenses, stock sales ceased, and the bubble collapsed. H13TOUY AND rUODlCTloN. 11 But the boom, while disastrous to many individuals, was of much real benefit to the oil industry and to the State at large. Hundreds of companies located in the most remote and unlikely spots, where legiti- mate capital would probably never have been risked, and while the percentage of failures was of course very large, yet the wildcatters did develop several hundred wells in entirely new territory, thus proving up ground which would otherwise have remained untouched, and when the excitement had passed away the production of the State had in- creased from two and one-half million to nearly seven and three-fourths million barrels per annum, an enormous amount of well-invested capital remained in the business, and it had been shown that, under rational management, the production of and even the prospecting for petroleum in California formed legitimate employment for capital. Production. — The present production of petroleum in this State is purely and simply a matter of possible consum}>tion. The potential possibilities of increase of production is hardly a matter for figures. The fields mentioned farther on as producing fields include, as may readily ])e seen on examination of the accompanying maps, several hundred square miles of territory which, while not all definitely proven up, is highly probable to prove profitable ground. And further, of all the forty or so square miles of actually producing territory in the State, there is probably not one square mile, outside of Los Angeles, Summer- land, and some parts of Ventura County, which has l)een drilled to anything like its maxinuim capacity. This is not the place to go into details as to possible production, but it will probably be admitted with- out argument, by most persons familiar with the situation, that the present production could l)e increased, did the consumption w^arrant, by at least three or four times, within the time required to sink the necessary wells. In the year 1901 the production of petroleum for the entire world was 165,350,000 barrels (Mineral Resources, 1901, U. S. Geol. Survey), of which the United States produced 69,350,000, or 41.97%. In this year California produced about 7,750,000 barrels, equal to 12.7% of the production of the United States, or 5.33% of the production of the entire world. In 1902, the total mineral production of California was valued at $35,000,000. The })roduct of first importance was gold, valued at $16,900,000; petroleum was second, with $5,200,000; and structural materials third, with $4,100,000. The comparison of these figures does not, however, give petroleum its proper place as to imi)ortance to the prosperity of the State. The sums realized from manufacturing in- dustries made possible to the State by the large output of cheap fuel oil are not subject to calculation, ))ut must l)e very large. It would l)e difficult to overestimate the impetus given to local industry by the 12 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNLA.. cheaptniing of fuel (hiring the Last two years. At present prices, petro- k'lini for steam generation costs in Ban Francisco a very little more than the equivalent quantity of coal would cost in New York city. When it is remembered that for years coal of a rather inferior quality sold in cargo lots at this port at from $4.00 to $5.50 per ton, it will be seen that the reduction in fuel costs has been enormous. The folloAving tal)le shows the quantity of petroleum produced in California from 1898 to 1902, inclusive; the estimated value; the per- centage of the total i)roduction of the United States as to quantity and as to value; and the rank of California among the American states, as to quantity produced and as to value of the product: TABLE 1. Quantity of Petroleum Produced in California from 1898 to 1902, inclusive; Estimated Value; Percentage of Total Production of United States, and Rank of Califopnia among American States. Year. Prodi CTION. PERCENTAtiE. Rank. Barrels. Value. 1 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. 1898 2,249,088 2,677,875 4,329,950 $2,376,420 2,660,793 4,152,928 4.06% 4.60 5th 1899 5th 1900 6.76 5.36% 5th 5th 1901 - 7,710,315 2,961,122 12.70 4.46 4th 5th 1902 14,356,910 4,692,189 16.44 4th Table 2, following, shows the production by counties for the same years, in barrels, in value, and in percentages of the State's production as to quantity and value: TABLE 2. PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES, 1897 TO 1902. 1897. 1898.- Barrels. Value. Barrels. Value. Fresno - . 7(1,140 3.6%' !R70.840 3.7% 154,000 10,000 1,462,871 60,000 i:S2,217 3,000 427,000 2,249,088 6.8% 0.5 65.0 2.7 5.9 0.1 19.0 $154,000 10,000 1,462,871 60,000 112,549 6,000 571,000 6.5% Kern 0.4 Los Angeles Orange Santa Barbara Santa Clara Ventura 1,327,011 12,000 130,136 4,000 368,282 69.5 0.6 6.8 0.2 19.3 1,327.011 12,000 130,i;^6 10,000 :%8,282 69.3 0.6 6.7 0.5 19.2 61.6 2.5 4.7 0.3 24.0 1,911,569 $1,918,269 $2,376,420 HISTOKY AM) rRODlCTION TOVOGKAPHY, ETC. TABLE 2. PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES, 1897 TO 1902 Continued. 1 '> lo 189!). 1900. Barre s. Value. Barrels. Value. Fresno 489,372 16.5% .1:439,372 16.5% 547,i«30 12.6% $547,W)0 1.3.2% Kern 15,(X)0 0.6 13,500 0.5 919,275 21.3 827,348 19.9 Los Angeles l,mKS56 52.7 1,409,356 53.0 1,722,887 39.9 1 ,722.887 41 .5 Orange 108,077 4.0 108.077 4.1 254,397 5.9 2.54,397 6.1 Santa Barbara . . 2(IS.H70 7.9 191,288 7.2 183,486 4.3 165,138 4.0 1 500 1 3 000 0.1 Ventura -- - 496,200 18.2 496,200 18.6 443,000 10.3 398,700 9.6 T' nap] tort ion eti 248,945 5.7 236,498 5.7 2,677,875 $2,660,793 4,319,950 4,152,928 1901. 1902. I'resno 525,433 6.8% $236,444 8.0% 571,233 4.0% $199,931 4.2% Kern . 3,902,125 50.7 1,131,616 38.2 9,777,948 68.0 1,955,585 41.7 Los Angeles 2,304,432 29.9 1,062,038 36.0 2,198,496 15.4 1,075,868 22.9 Orange 302,652 3.9 181,591 6.1 1,103,793 7.7 824,492 17.6 Santa Barbara 203,616 2.6 113,385 3.7 230,440 1.6 181,.S13 3.9 Ventura . 472,057 6.1 2:36,028 8.0 475,000 3.3 455,000 9.7 7,710,-315 $2,961,102 14,356,910 $4,692,189 CHAPTER 2. TOPOGRAPHY: GEOLOGY: DRILLING.' Topography and Climate. — The State of California, covering an area of about 156,000 square miles, and extending over ten degrees each of latitude and longitude, embraces within its bounds all the variations of topography and climate known to the temperate zone. With the moun- tainous forest region to the north, the territory of the Sierra Nevada on the east, and the alkaline desert east of the mountains, this article has no connection, and they may be passed witliout comment. The oil deposits of the State have been confined to the central valley and to the ' Reproduced from a paper by tlie writer in " Petroleum Review and Mining News" (London), October 24, I'KtS. 14 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Coast Range, and of these districts both climate and topography merit a brief description. The magnificent Sierra Nevada range, which in general height about equals the Alps, slopes gradually down to the valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, lying in the center of the State, and paralleling its length for some four hundred miles. These rivers flow from north and south toward the center of the State, where they bend to the west, and enter the Pacific Ocean, through San Pablo Bay, at San Francisco. The two valleys thus formed have an average breadth of about forty miles, with a soil of exceeding fertility. The summer climate is hot and rainless, that of winter mild, with moderate rains. Between these val- leys and the ocean, and roughly parallel with each other and with the coast, lie a number of ranges of low mountains, which together form the Coast Range, rising sometimes to a height of 2000 feet. The eastern side of these mountains is generally barren, but as the coast is approached the fertility increases and the climate becomes more equable, until along the coast proper the difference between summer and winter can hardly be noticed, except for the absence of rain during the former season. The soil of these hills is usually of clay and shale, very little rock, compara- tively, being on the surface. Between these hill ranges lie many small valleys, resembling the central valley in soil and climate. The producing oil fields are found at the southern end of the central valley and along its southwestern slope, and on the ocean side of the Coast Range in its southerly part. Prospecting has been carried on in the central valley as far north as Shasta County, and on the ocean slope of the Coast Range almost to the northern boundary of the State. These fields are located with approximate correctness in the accompanying map (Fig. 1), which will also give an idea as to transportation facilities. It should be noted that the fields not contiguous to the coast depend entirely on the railroads, the rivers not being navigable, and that the Tehachapi Mountains in southern Kern County form a natural division to the State, on account of heavy grades and consequent high freights. It will be seen that the territory north of these mountains is tributary to San Francisco, as this is the only point at which the Coast Range is enough broken to allow easy access to the ocean, and south of these mountains to Los Angeles. The refining oil of Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties finds its way to San Francisco by water, and to Los Angeles by rail; the heavy oil goes to Los Angeles. Geolog'y. — The geological structure of the State is simple in theor)', though complicated enough in detail. The granitic core of the Sierra Nevada forms the backbone of the State, and carries on its flanks nar- row exposures of pre-Cretaceous strata running back as far as Devonian, usually much altered, and overlaid on the west by the Pleistocene for- mations of the central valley. West of the valley the Coast Range shows SISK 2— BUL. 32 OREGOM ^' .f/-' ^'®- ^->V-v TTE ,-45;.''sieSf HUMBOLTfr ,, ,.„, MENOdCNO . , ^ GLEN I «@ LAKE 6N0VIA VNAPfl MAP OF :RUB SHOWING LOCATION' OF OIL DISTRICTS CALIFORNIA STATE MINING BUREAU FERP^ BriLDING, SAN FRANCISCO LEWIS E AUBURY. State Minteralogist PA^UL ^V. FHXTTZM^AJs HoNT^Ef Principal Towns • Oil Prcducin^ Urea I MmorTowns o HreanmbeimPmfiectedi \ A INDEX-" MO COUNTY NAME FIELDS 1 rJCHCOUNTYl NAME. || 1 HuratoW run 1 etc 15 Kern McKtl ek 3 Shasta ° S7 TnZ a Cclusa Ibrms M 5anLut0bipt Car w Cuyoma 5 Menaoc no Ukiah a Kem SanEmiJ a 6 7 Napa % nt Rrena 30 31 SmBBirkiBi 8 9 Centra Co5^ t amuM ° 3a 33 iompoc Summc hnj 10 Sant'tatao la us 34 «. Tthochap ir 11" 13 ^anlaCtan "jan Ben to .oa &atg9 MoeOflSuitt ^ar^ents Ho 1 eler 55 56 57 38 SaaBermfn Ventura Knmer Vc or 3onii(huld ia 15 J tterwotc^ frttm inBtnt 39 ao 5s)pe To CrseU Pi u Bu Hhom 16 17 IB 19 ao Menttre^ Fritm Mm Hrrtfo Gmnae Coating SlaiUi SI He 03 ieiltnqelts Ventura HtnlvlhPM Fullsrjs^ fijtntl>Wh>ttitr Nordholf 21 SE Kern Hnyenhaqen nittleman Untelopilblieti Temblor OS a7 as lifHntjtlef SaalaBerluni 3an Oie^e San Pedro ^ o SJA SARBflRfl mi. & 7' *a^4BERNARDIN0 / \ l^ V ^^^^ ? riverVje \ -^\ 's^N OIESO ^V^ icxico 15 generally a core of igneous rock, overlaid on both sides by Cretaceous and later forma- tions. As the oil deposits in 2 the central part of the State S are principally found near the ^ foot of the Coast Range, wells ^ here penetrate formations of 57 Eocene to Pleistocene age, I largely shales, clays, and sand- 5, stones. The oil wells of Ven- tura County are partly located in a base limestone of Eocene age, partly in shales of a some- what later period. The Oil ^ City pool of Coalinga is in the g Tejon (Cretaceous), some prac- ^ tically unproductive wells in u Colusa County are in Creta- I ceous formation, and the New- ^ hall field of Los Angeles is at c the edge of a granitic intrusion. ■^ With these exceptions our oil 'J^ production is from strata of o Miocene and Pliocene age. o The accompanying sections J (Fig. 2), due to the kindness of . Dr. Harold W. Fairbanks, of ^ Berkeley, Cal., show in a gen- £ eralized manner the order of formation across the State, on two lines noted on Fig. 1. DifRculties of Drilling*.— The exposed formations in those parts of the State where oil is found being, as stated, of very recent formation, it is but nat- ural that they should be soft. There are small areas of re- gional metamorphism and a few exposures of eruptive rock, the latter being, as a rule, de- composed to soft serpentine, but neither metamorphic nor eruptive areas touch the oil 2— BUL. 32 °^*. -*< a 15 ^ generally a core of igneous S rock, overlaid on both sides bv S Cretaceous and later forma - ^ tions. As the oil deposits in 2 the central part of the State S are principally found near the c foot of the Coast Range, wells .« here penetrate formations of j? Eocene to Pleistocene age, I largely shales, clays, and sand- C stones. The oil wells of Ven- tura County are partly located in a base limestone of Eocene age, partly in shales of a some- what later period. The Oil ^ City pool of Coalinga is in the g Tejon (Cretaceous), some prac- ^ tically unproductive wells in u Colusa County are in Creta- I ceous formation, and the New- ^ hall field of Los Angeles is at c the edge of a granitic intrusion. ■^ With these exceptions our oil =c production is from strata of o Miocene and Pliocene age. o The accompanying sections J (Fig. 2), due to the kindness of Dr. Harold W. Fairbanks, of ^ Berkeley, Cal., show m a gen- S eralized manner the order of formation across the State, on two lines noted on Fig. 1. Difficulties of Drilling".— The ex})oscd formations in those parts of the State where oil is found being, as stated, of very recent formation, it is but nat- ural tliat they should be soft. There are small areas of re- gional metamorpliism and a few exposures of eruptive rock, the latter being, as a rule, de- composed to soft serpentine, ))ut neither metamorphic nor eruptive areas toucli the oil 2— BUL. 32 16 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. fields directly, with one exception. The characteristic formations exposed at points where oil has been found, and those penetrated by drilling, are of soft, often entirely incoherent, sandstone and soft gray, blue and black shales and clays, occasionally somewhat calcareous. There are also scattering layers of calcareous cement and of hard sand- stone, but probably ninety-five per cent of the depth of the average well is through loose sands and soft shales. While these materials are readily drilled through, they are nevertheless difficult to handle, unless precaution be taken against caving. The shales are stiff, and stand up reasonably well where the ground is not too wet, but the sand strata almost always carry some water, often a great deal, and run very badly, so that it is necessary to case every foot of the distance. These running sands are the great drawback to drilling in this region, as with the slightest carelessness in the handling of casing, they will freeze two strings together, so that it Avill be necessar}^ to draw both, if that be possible, or to insert a smaller string. The earlier wells were drilled largely by men accustomed to working in dry formation, with the result that some of these holes can be found in which four strings of casing were used to reach a depth of 800 to 1000 feet. With the expe- rience of the last three years a great improvement in this respect has been brought about, and it is now considered either bad drilling or exceptionally bad luck if more than three strings are used in a 1 200-foot hole, while often only two are used. The rotary hydraulic system was rather extensively tried, but abandoned on account of the common occur- rence of bowlders at considerable depth, and for other reasons. Several operators are now trying a combination standard and rotary rig, which promises well, but is too new to have proven its usefulness. The oil sands proper are, in this State, true sands, limestones being practically unknown, and the shales almost never giving more than seepages. In general, the paying streaks lie between layers of water- saturated blue or gray clay, and consist of incoherent sand or fine gravel. Often the sand is very fine, and where the oil is heavy and the gas pressure high, it is diflicult to penetrate the sand and land casing in the clay below. It is almost always necessary to case off the water above the oil sand with a larger string. After perforating, the well is sand-pumped, often for a considerable time, until the cavity around the perforations reaches a state of comparative stability, when it is put on the pump. But almost all wells drawing oil from this sort of reservoir will pump more or less sand continuously. In the Los Angeles and Ventura fields, where production per well is small, and at Coalinga, where the oil is light, jack pumping is largely practiced, but at Kern and Sunset, where the oil is heavy and production per well large, it has been found better practice to pump on the beam. In fact, at Kern topoghai'hy: geology: drilling. 17 River, wliere the sand is fine and runs badly, choking of perforations makes it necessary to clean often, and ahnost enforces leaving a rig at each well. It seems hardly necessary to state that wells in this:! soft formation are never shot. Cost of Wells. — Data are not at hand from which to state definitely the cost of completing a well, except in the Kern River field; in fact, at no other point are conditions uniform enough to allow one figure to apply to all parts of a field. In this district the average depth is about 1000 feet, and wells can be contracted, including casing, at about $3000 per Avell,Avhen several are to be drilled at once. Pumping rig and steam plant will, under the same conditions, add about $1000 per well, and general improvements another $1000, bringing cost per completed well to about $5000. In Sunset the average depth is somewhat less, but cost per well would be about the same as at Kern; in the Midway there is much more range of depth, and costs would run from $5000 to $10,000; at McKittrick, about the same; and at Coalinga, from $4000 to $8000. Costs, of course, vary largely with location and other circumstances, but it might be safe to estimate the average cost per producing well at from $6500 to $7000 in the larger producing fields. Wildcatting is, of course, much more expensive. Land values run from $3500 to $5000 per acre in the better parts of Kern River; from $500 to $1000 at Sunset; in Mid- way, as high as $1000; at Coalinga, from $250 to $4000 or $5000. At Kern it is customary to allow from one to two acres to each well; at Sunset, about the same; at Coalinga, from one to four acres. Land Titles. — The larger part of the State was originally the property of the Federal government. This public land is divided into townships, approximately six miles square, and with lines running about parallel to the lines of latitude and longitude. These townships are divided into sections, each one mile square, as near as may be. The earlier railroads (the Central Pacific and the Southern Pacific) were granted, as subsidies, each odd-numbered section for forty miles on each side of their roadbed, and these sections, an enormous area in total, were deeded or "patented" to them by the Government. Almost all the oil fields cover more or less of this railroad land. In tlie agricultural districts much of the land has been taken up on " homestead entry," that is, has been deeded to settlers by the Government in consideration of certain specified improvements and a nominal purchase price. Vacant govern- ment land may also be " located " under the placer mining laws, and on the discovery of mineral (with which petroleum is classed) and the performance of certain requirements, will be deeded to the discoverer by the Government. The holder of a Government deed or " patent " has an unassailable title, but this, of course, loses its force as the title passes 18 PETKOLEUM IN CALIFOKNIA. from hand to liund. In tlic southern })art of the State, and along the coast, considerable land is held on title acquired from grants by the original S]tanish government and from original settlement, and these titles offer nothing out of connnon. On account of the newness of the country and the large amount of land held ])y original patentees, it is proliably easier to get a good title here than in almost any other part of the United States. This, however, applies only to land held in -fee, by ])atent or otherwise, it being rather difficult to clear title to land held by location, l)ut not yet patented. chaptp:h >?. field operations. During the latter part of 1900, the California State Mining Bureau issued a bulletin (Bulletin 19) which set forth in nuich detail the devel- opments up to that time in all the fields, both producing and prospec- tive. The date of issue of this bulletin was during the height of the oil excitement, and nuich prospect work has since been done, covering in all twenty-six counties. To describe this work in detail would require a large volume, and would be devoid of present interest, as most of the prospecting was fruitless of result, and has ceased, for the time at least. The following table (No. 3) shows the number of wells drilled in each county, and such data as are at hand regarding the resiilts. In such counties as contain actually producing fields, the latter have been kept separate, and the figures given for the county at large apply only to that portion of the county outside thi' l)ounds of })i'0(lucing fields, as shown by maps on following pages. It should be noted that, while the numhers of producing wells stated are believed to be accurate, and while care has been taken in compiling all the figures, those for abandoned wells outside of producing fields should not he taken {oo litei'ully. Some work has undoubtedly escaix'd observation: In Los Angeles and Ventura counties, in particular, the records are so scattering that the numl>ers stated for abandoned jiros- pect holes are doubtless too small. Further details as to producing fields will be found on pages facing tlu' corresponding nia])s. FIKLD Ol'EHATIONS. 19 TABLE 3. RECORD OF FIELD OPERATIONS TO DECEMBER 31, 1903. Ri'inurks as to Results Total Alameda Butte Colusa Contra Costa Fresno Coaliufra field °. Some gas in one well. Nothing. Some gas in one well. Nothing. Nothing. Oil and gas in several wells. iThis figure is undoubtedly too small. -Only the portion shown by map— t on plots containing one or more producing wells. Further, the titles and bounds of named plots are largely taken from other sources than direct inquiry, and while believed to be in the main correct, are not guaranteed to be accurate. The discrimination between producing and abandoned wells is often a difficult, always a delicate matter. In such a tield as Coalinga, where the market for oil is ample, it is safe to say that any well not being pumped is incapable of producing, and maj' be set down as abandoned, allowing of course for cleaning operations, etc., on producing wells, which are evident enough. But in such fields as Sunset or Midway, where prac- tically no oil is being pumped, it is a nuitter of much difficulty to determine whicli wells are capable of production. To relieve this difficulty somewhat, the half-black mark has been adopted. This mark indicates a doubt as to producing value, or the lack of definite information. In Los Angeles, Whittier, FuUerton, Newhall, McKittrick, and Kern River, this mark is intended to indicate that the well is not pumping, while others nearby are at work; the presumption is that such wells are not profitable at present, yet there seems reason to believe that they might become producers under more favorable circumstances. In Summerland the mark indicates wells not being pumped, but which have not been abandoned, while wells from which pumping rigs have been removed are placed in the abandoned class. In Sunset and Midway wells so marked are rigged, but there is no information that they have ever produced commercial quantities of oil. In Ventura County the mark indicates that more definite information was not available. In cases where unfinished wells are rigged for drilling, the well is noted as drilling if work had been done on it within six months previous to examination, as abandoned if no work had been done during that period. In preparing these maps, use has been made of maps of Messrs. J. B. Lippincott and E. D. Severance, and of the Central Oil Company of Los Angeles, of the Santa F«'' Railroad at FuUerton, and of Messrs. Barlow and Hill of Bakersfield, while thanks are extended for much valuable information to Messrs. Wm. Plotts and W. E. Bacon of Whittier, and Mr. H. L. Dort of Bakerstiold. ■V X a^ II' ait-!3MWGrr .:;MWa1^ ~^= 3 t iMeMUjOO ; TO REDOtslDO pROOUCINa WCLLS • Abandonco tVfUS -:<^:w^»j(«^:V«i - ^vf^ ® 22 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. The Brea Canon wells appear to be on an extension of the north limb of the anticline, which here approaches the surface, the south limb being eroded away; this is not certain. These wells are close to extensive brea deposits, which follow the south slope of Brea Canon, and naturally produce rather heavy oil. The oils of Fullerton are produced from beds of fine incoherent sand, the heavier oils raising considerable of it to the surface at some points. Extreme range of gravity is from 14° to 35°, location of various gravi- ties being indicated on the map herewith. The lighter oils are highly valuable for refining, the heavier are used for fuel; most of the output of both kinds goes to Los Angeles by rail, though some of the light oil is piped to the refinery at Chino. A branch of the Union Oil Company's pipe-line to San Pedro enters the field from the Avest, and there are numerous pipe-lines connecting various parts of the field with the railroad. The Santa Fe Railroad has a branch to Olinda station, in the field proper, from Richfield, distant four miles. The distance from Los Angeles, by railroad, is thirty-five miles; to the coast at Anaheim, in a straight line, twenty miles. STATISTICS. (December L3, 1903.) Number of wells producing 138 Number of wells drilling 14 Number of wells not producing. (See explanatory note.) 3 Number of wells abandoned 15 Approximate area producing 1200 acres. Gravity of oil Maximum, 35°; Minimum. 14°; Average, 22° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel — Fuel oil . - 60 cents. Lighter grades 75c to$1.7."> PUENTE. The Puente oil field is situated near the southeast corner of Los Angeles County, the Avells, Avhich are all in one group, lying just north of the line betAveen Los Angeles and Orange counties, and some seven miles Avest of the line between Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties. The AA'ells farthest east in the Puente group are less than one mile northAA'est from the Avesternmost Avells in the Brea Caiion extension of the Fullerton field. The Avells in the Puente group are scattered over an area of nearly two square miles, Avell up on the south slope of the hill range of the same name, the loAvest wells being some 1000 feet above sea level, the highest some 1250 feet. The geology of the Puente Hills, which include the Whittier, Puente. and Fullerton oil districts, is described in detail in Bulletin 19 of the FIGURE -a. [FU[E[N]T[E oil— FIEL.D L_OS ANGELEIS CO., GAL- CALIFORNIA STATE MININS BUREAU STRTE f-IIMERAl-OOieT RANCHO L_A PUEMXE NGES OCO- - oec IS", 1003- r-^ e€ 24 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. California State Mining Bureau. The oil-producing formation is of Middle Neocene age, and that portion covered by the Puente wells is of modified anticlinal structure, somewhat deformed, and productive on both limbs. Depth of wells varies from 1000 to about 2000 feet, according to surface formation, the latter being very rough. The bounds of the producing formation do not seem to have been certainly determined. It is said that all these wells are drilled only throvigh the light oil sand, which lies above, and that paying quantities of heavier oils are known to exist at greater depths. The oils of the Puente district are produced from beds of fine sand, interstratified with soft shale. The extreme range of gravity is from 18° to 33°, location of some of these variations being indicated on accompanying map. The wells in this district belong, like the land, entirely to one company, the Puente Oil Company of Los Angeles, with its two sub- companies, the Rowland-Puente Oil Company and the Menges Oil Company. The entire product goes through the private pipe-line of the Puente Oil Company, to that company's refinery at Chino, distant fifteen miles. The nearest rail points are Puente, on the Southern Pacific, distant seven miles, and Olinda, the terminus of the Santa Fe branch into the Fullerton field, four and one half miles. STATISTICS. (December 13, 1!M,«.) Number of wells producing 7i> Number of wells drilling - Number of wells abandoned 4(?) Approximate area producing : 2 sq. ni. Gravity of oil Maximum, .33°; Minimum, 18°; Average, 27° Be. Approximate price at wells, per barrel None sold. WHITTIER. The Whittier oil field lies in the southeast portion of Los Angeles County, about two miles north of the south line, and thirteen miles west of the southeast corner of the county. The Puente Hills here bend abruptly to the north, and terminate at San Jose Creek. The Whittier district lies on the west slope of the hills, the wells being carried to a maximum elevation of 1000 feet. At the foot of these hills lies the pretty little town of Whittier (popula- tion 1(500), distant from Los Angeles (to the east) by rail twenty-one miles, by electric railroad eighteen miles, or in a straight line some fourteen miles. The town lies on the mesa, at an elevation of some 600 feet, and is beautifully situated among orange and lemon groves; the hills above the town are very steep and rough, and completely barren. Ar ^j djai'^ JJ FiGlIRK 5. WHITTIER OIL FIELD. I.OS ANGELES COUNTY, f'AL. KIKLI) OPKKATIO.NS WIIITTIKR. 25 No. 4. FULLERTON — LOOKING EasT FROM SeC. 8, 3 S., 9 W No. •'). Whittikk — \\'eli-s o.\ Ski-. 22, 2 S., 11 W i'lTIHW j i o r Gr 0£ 15 \ 1 01 KIKLI) OPKKATIONS WIIITTIKR. 25 No. 4. FULLERTON — LOOKING EaST FROM SeC. 8, 3 S., 9 W No. ■■). \Vhitt[?:r — Wkli.s o.n Ski-. 22, 2 S.. 11 W 26 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. The geological formation is of Middle Neocene age, the producing strata having the form of a steeply tilted plane, and outcropping farther up the hills. The depth of wells varies greatly: from a few hundred feet near the line of outcrop, to twenty-two hundred feet or more in the wells farthest down the dip. The productiveness increases rapidly as greater depths are reached, and on the west the extension of the field is limited solely by the difficulty of drilling. To the north the field appears to have reached its limits; to the northeast it is bounded by the cropping of the sands; to the southeast, though a num- ber of failures have been recorded in that direction, there appears to be a possibility of extension. The character of the formation penetrated is principally hard con- glomerate, with considerable water, and for this reason drilling is difficult and expensive, requiring the heaviest and best rigs and machin- ery. Oil is produced from a hard sandy conglomerate, and carries no sand. This is probably the only district of any importance in the State which produces oil from a hard formation, though limited areas in Ventura County have the same characteristic. The gravity of oil produced varies somewhat, principally with the location of the sand (of which there are several layers) from which the supply is drawn. The superficial position of the well on the sand does not appear to have much influence, though the gravities are probably rising some- what as drilling goes down the dip. A single well produces an oil far heavier than the average, though surrounded by ordinary wells; the anomaly does not seem to have been explained. The Union Oil Company's pipe-line to the coast enters the field at the northAvest, and is connected to most of the leases. Several com- panies at this end of the field also have pipe-lines to Whittier station on the Southern Pacific, while the two larger companies at the south- eastern end have pipe-lines to Los Nietos station, at the intersection of the Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific; distant from the field about three miles, from Los Angeles nineteen miles. All the oil from Whit- tier, except that taken by the Union Oil Company's pipe-line, goes to Los Angeles, where the larger part is refined. STATISTICS. (December 10, 1903.) Number of wells producing 99 Number of wells drilling . 6 Number of wells of uncertain value .- 4 Number of wells abandoned 46 Approximate area producing 1.5 sq. m. Gravity of oil Maximum, 24°; Minimum, 14°; Average, 19° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel 60 cents. •27 ■■i T I — « I I ' FIELD OPERATIONS — LOS ANGELES. 27 LOS ANGELES CITY FIELD. The City field of Los Angeles is peculiar in that it is situated, not merely within the eity limits, but in a thickly settled residence district. Los Angeles is built on low. rolling hills, and over these hills the oil field stretches in a strij) over three miles long, varying in width from one fourth to three fourths of a mile, I'unning a little north of east and south of west, through the northwestern part of the city. The geological formation is of Middle Neocene age, and has the form of a Hat anticline, though somewhat broken. At the western end the sands approach the surface, some wells here being as little as 300 feet in dejith; still farther west the sands crop. At the eastern end the greatest depth is some 1500 feet, the average being one or two hundred feet less; this end of the field is cut off abruptly, apparently by a fault. The production is greater at the eastern end of the field, and the oil lighter, though in all parts of the field the product is a heavy oil. The l)roduction per day per well is very small, even in the best wells, prob- ably owing to the excessive crowding. Oil is produced from incoherent sand interstratified with clay, and many of the wells pump consider- able sand and water. Owing to the location of the field in the midst of a large city, there are no pipe-lines of any length, nor do the railroads touch the field • lirectly at any point. The oil is used locally, principally for fuel, and is delivered by tank wagon. The greater part of the wells in the City field are pumped on the jack, the wells of several owners often being handled from one power. STATISTICS. (December lU, liWH.) Number of wells producing 5*79 Number of wells drilling -.-- 14 Number of wells not producing tw Number of wells abandoned "1 Gravity of oil Maximum, 16°; ^lininuini. 11°; Average, 13.5° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel - 70 cents. FIKM) OI'EHATIONS — LOS ANGELES. 27 LOS ANGELES CITY FIELD. Tlie City Held of Los Angeli's is pi'cnliaf in that it is situated, not merely within the eity limits, hut in a thickly settled residence district. Los Angi'les is huilt on low, rolling hills, and over these hills the oil tield stretches in a strij) over three miles long, varying in width from one fourth to three fourths of a mile, running a little north of east and south of west, through the northwestern part of the city. The geological formation is of Middle Neocene age, and has the form of a flat anticline, though somewhat broken. At the western end the sands approach tlie surface, some wells here being as little as 300 feet in depth; still farther west the sands crop. At the eastern end the greatest depth is some 1500 feet, the average being one or two hundred feet less; this end of the field is cut off abruptly, ai)parently by a fault. The production is greater at the eastern end of the tield, and the oil lighter, though in all parts of the field the product is a heavy oil. The ])roduction per day per ^vell is very small, even in the best wells, i)rob- ably owing to the excessive crowding. Oil is produced from incoherent sand interstratified with clay, and many of the wells pump consider- able sand and Avater. Owing to the location of the field in the midst of a large city, there are no pipe-lines of any length, nor do the railroads touch the field directly at any point. The oil is used locally, principally for fuel, and is delivered by tank wagon. The greater part of the wells in the City field are pumped on the jack, the wells of several owners often being handled from one })ower. STATISTICS. (Deceiuber 10, IWM.) Number of wells producing . !>79 Number of wells drilling -. 14 Number of wells not producing tM.> Number of wells abandoned 71 Gravity of oil Maximum, ltj°; Minimum, 11°; Average, 13.5° Be. Approximate [>resent price at wells, per barrel 70 cents. Fig. 7. Eastern portion of Newliall Oil Field, Los Angeles County, Cal. FIELD orKKATlONS — NEWHALL. 29 NEWHALL. The Newhall oil field, or properly group of fields, lies in the western portion of Los Angeles County, being some ten miles east of the Ventura county line, and some twenty-five miles northwest of Los Angeles city. The wells in the Xewhall district are situated in several canons in the higher part of the San Fernando Mountains, the elevation ranging from 1300 to 1700 feet. The town of Newhall, on the Southern Pacific Railroad, distant thirty miles from Los Angeles, occupies a small area of flat land in the center of this territory. The wells in Pico Caiion, belonging to the Pacific Coast Oil Comj)any, are some six miles due west of Xewhall. They are in a very rough, hilly country, vary in depth from 700 to 950 feet, and produce an oil of some 41° gravity from sandstone streaked with shale. (Bulletin 19, California State Mining Bureau.) There are also a few wells, belonging to the same parties, in Wiley Caiion, about three miles southwest of Newhall. These wells range in depth from 600 to 1600 feet, and produce an oil of about 30°, from shale and sandstone. (Bulletin 19, California State Mining Bureau.) In Placeritas Caiion, some four miles due east of Newhall, there were at one time several wells producing a light oil from conglomerate, shale, and crushed granite. The wells proved to be short lived, and there is said to be no production whatever from this district, at the present time. In Elsmere Canon and on the hills to the southwest, there are a number of wells producing heavy black oil (from 14° to 16°) from coarse sand and fine gravel. The depth of these Avells ranges from 400 to 1000 feet. These wells are some three miles southeast of Newhall. The Newhall field derives its principal importance from the old wells in Pico Canon, and from these principally because of their age and of the high gravity of their product. The production over this entire district is small. From Pico and Wiley canons the oil is taken into the Pacific Coast Oil Company's pipe-line, running east to the ocean at Ventura, through the Santa Clara Valley. The oil from Elsmere and vicinity goes through a pipe-line to the railroad near Newhall station, and from thence to Los Angeles by rail. Most of the wells in all parts of the Newhall field are ])umped by means of the jack. STATISTICS. (December 20, 1903.) Number of wells producing 55 Number of wells drilling 3 Number of wells of uncertain value 6 Number of wells abandoned --- - 31 Approximate area producing 1.4 sq. m. Gravity of oil Maximum, 41°; Minimum, 12°; Average, 25° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel -- None sold. 30 rE'l'HOLKr.M IN (ALIKdKMA. No. (i. Los Angeles City — East E.m> Xf). 7. Xewhall — LnoKiXG North from Sec. 13, 3 X., 1(> W. 1' 1 1: 1 . 1 1 (I I • !•: i ; A r 1 () N > — \ i; w 1 1 a i . i . 81 No. 8. Newhall — Pico Canon Wells No. ii. Newhall — Pico CaSon Well: 3— BUL. 32 32 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. SUMMERLAND. The Sumnierland oil field is situated on the sliore of the Pacific Ocean, six miles southeast of Santa Barbara, and in the county of the same name. The wells are, for the most part, directly along the shore line, both on the beach itself and on a low bank of clay back of it. Many, how- ever, have been sunk farther out than low tide, from light wharves, and there are also a fcAV farther back, in the town. The oils of this district are produced from loose sands, interstratified with clay, of Middle Neocene age. Depths vary from 150 to oOO feet, though there are a few deeper, one being 600 feet. Two holes of greatei- depth have been drilled, on the north side of the field, in the attem})t to find a lower sand, but these wells are not productive. The dip of the sand follows, in a general way, that of the ocean bottom, and the deeper wells are the better producers, giving also a rather lighter oil. The difference in gravity, however, is small, the range being not greater than from 10.5° to 15.5°. Most of the wells, the shallower ones more particularly, raise a good deal of sand and water. The bounds of the field have been determined on all sides, and in fact have contracted considerably during the last two years. As may be seen from the accompanying map, very few wells are being pumped on the town side of the railroad, and a number of plants are idle at the eastern end of the field. At one time there was considerable gas from these sands, and a number of wells were sunk for gas alone, but the production has now fallen very low, the pressure being so light that, it is said, the flow ceases with any considerable rise in the barometer. A considerable portion of the oil from this district is used by the local refinery, in the manufacture of asphalt, this oil being particularly suitable for this use. The balance goes to Santa Barl)ara. l)y rail, for fuel. At Serena, distant about one mile, there is a wliarf running out to deep w^ater, but this is rarely used. All the wells at Summerland are pum})ed on tlie jack. STATISTICS. (December 24, 19()3.) Number of wells i)roducing 198 Number of wells drilling (• Number of wells not producing 114 Number of wells abandoned l(Kj Gravity of oil Maximum, 15.5°; Minimum, 10.5°: Average, 14° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel 80 cents. FiGORE 8. SUMMERLAND OIL f lELD Santa Barbara Co., Cal. IBSUBD BY THE STATE MINING BUREAU LEWIS B. AUBURY State Mineralogist FIELD ()I'Kl{ATIONS SIMMKHLANO. 33 No. 10. SUMMERLANU — FrOM THE OcEAN. Xo. 11. SUMMEKLAMI — FkO.M THE ShOKE. .8 aaooi'i aj3ii Jio Q»iAJ93niiya .jaO ,.oO AHAaaAS atviaS aHT Yf; YfluauA .a aiw3j or^io/^^ FJKIJ) OPKHATIONS Sl'.MMKHLA N I>. 33 N". III. MM Mi:i;i, \ \ ii li:i>M niE Ocean. No. 11. Su.M.MEKI,A.\"li— FkOM THE SHORE. 34 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. No. 12. Kerx Rivek — LooKixci Xokth ki;om Hkc. 5, '2U S., 28 K. iTtjf-tv,'.-' '..rt No. l.'J. Kekx IlivEu — Looking Sorxn from Center op" Section 32. RANGE 11 ■9 -fe--! H (0 00 QJ T" I I/) z 23 ^G 35 ^ in z ^'■X'- », r^ FIELD OPEKATIONS KKliN HIVKIt. 85 KERN RIVER. The Kern River oil field, by far the most important in the State in point of })roduetion, is situated in the eastern portion of Kern County, and at the eastern margin of the San Joaquin Valley. The producing wells cover an area about three and one half miles square, in the low foothills of the Greenhorn Mountains, tlie latter a spur of the Sierra Nevada. Kern River, a shallow tributary of the San Joaquin River, follows, and in a sense forms, the southern l)oundary of the field. The river banks here have an altitude of al)Out 450 feet, while north the hills reach a maximum height of about 950 feet. The nearest town of any importance is Bakersfield, distant three miles in a straight line, but eleven miles by railroad. The oil-producing formation is ex- tremely regular, in shape approxi- mating tliat of a flat saucer, inverted, and with its eastern rim somewhat raised. Depth of wells varies from 600 to 1200 feet, being least at the eastern margin of the field, and greatest at the western. The oil is produced from beds of incoherent sand, alternating with clay and shale streaks, both of which are remarkably persistent, over the entire producing area. The greatest thickness of paying sand is at the center of the field, where the net sand averages 850 feet; toward the edges the sand thins out, the percentage of sat- uration falls, and the gravity of the oil lowers somewhat. The ^VS i J=ic)HM9S I KlEl.D OrEKATIOXS 1 85 KERN RIVER. The Kern River oil field, by far the most important in the State ill point of production, is situated in the eastern portion of Kern County, and at the eastern martrin of the San Joaquin Valley. The produeing wells cover an area about three and one half miles square, in the low foothills of the Greenhorn Mountains, tlie latter a spur of the Sierra Nevada. Kern River, a shallow tril)utary of the San Joaquin River, follows, and in a sense forms, the southern boundary of the field. The river banks lierc have an altitude of about 450 feet, while north the hills reach a maximum height of about 950 feet. The nearest town of any importance is Bakersfield, distant three miles in a straight line, but eleven miles by railroad. The oil-producing formation is ex- tremely regular, in shape approxi- mating that of a flat saucer, inverted, and with its eastern rim somewhat raised. Depth of wells varies from 600 to 1200 feet, being least at the eastern margin of the field, and greatest at the western. The oil is produced from beds of incoherent sand, alternating with clay and shale streaks, both of which are remarkably persistent, over the entire producing area. The greatest thickness of paying sand is at the center of the field, where the net sand averages 850 feet; toward the edges the sand tliins out, the percentage of sat- uration falls, and the gravity of tlie oil lowers somewhat. The 36 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. bounds of the Kern River Held have been definitely determined in all directions. The gravity of oil produced over this area is remarkably uniform, the variation being from 11.8° to 17.0°, with the exception of a single well producing oil of 10.5°. In general, the lighter oil is in the upper, though not the uppermost, sands, while at the bottom a thin stratum carries a very heavy oil; water sands are found both above and below the oil. Aside from the oil converted into asphalt and crude distillate by the seven local refineries, the entire output of this field is used for fuel, principally at or near San Francisco. The Pacific Coast Oil Company has an eight-inch pipe-line connect- ing the Kern River field with Point Richmond, a station on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay, distant from San Francisco nine miles by water, and from Kern River two hundred and seventy-eight miles. This line is not at present in operation. There are numerous pipe-lines connecting all parts of the field with the railroad and the refineries. A railroad spur, used jointly by the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe. extends from Bakersfield, a distance of some fourteen miles, making the distance by rail to San Francisco some three hundred and twenty- five miles, and to Los Angeles some one hundred and eighty-five miles. The distance from tide water is about one hundred miles in a straight line, but considerable rough mountain country intervenes, and there is no present outlet in that direction. In the southeastern portion of the field, where the wells are shallow, and the production per well is comparatively light, many wells are being jacked, but in other parts of the field practically all wells pump on the beam. The oils in almost all parts of the field raise great quan- tities of sand, making frequent cleaning necessary. STATISTICS. (December 2. liA«.) Xuiul)er of wells produeiiig 7!Hj Number of wells drilling H4 Number of wells of uncertain value — IH Number of wells abandoned -.- US Approximate area producing 9 sq. lu. Gravity of oil Maxinmni, 17.0°; Minimum, 11.8°; Average, 15.5° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel 21 cents FIELD OPERATIONS — KKHN RIVER. No. 15. Loading a Tank Steamer. No. Ki. Oil Tanks at Kern River, in Course of CoNSTRUCTroN. Capacity, 'Ar>,{_m l)bls. each. No. 17. Tank Cars. (Cajiacity. 1.">0 an.l :'.()0 bbls.) 38 PEXrxOLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. SUNSET. The Sunset oil field is situated in the southwestern portion of Kern County, on the eastern slope of tlie Coast Range Mountains, and at the western side of the San Joaquin Valley. Tlie wells lie on the lower foothills of the Coast Range, and extend out on tlie mesa at their hase, where are located the stations Pioneer and Maricopa, and railroad station called Sunset. Th" elevation at Pioneer is 750 feet, and the wells rise to the maximum height of 1025 feet. The formation is of Middle Neocene age, and is in form an inclined plane, following the dip of the surface, in general. De})th of wells varies from 550 to 1000 feet, according to surface confori)iation. and to position on the dip; the average depth would fall below 750 feet. The ■producing strip is a very narrow one, and appears to have been deter- mined on all sides, with the possible exception of the southeast corner. The oils of Sunset are produced from beds of incoherent sand, vary- ing from moderately line to very coarse. In different parts of the field the gas pressure is high, and many wells flow when allowed to do so, raising quantities of sand where the latter is fine. Most of the wells penetrate the upper sand only, but a few reach a good second sand, lately discovered; this second sand has been proven in but one i)ortion of the field. The extreme range of gravity is from 17° to 10.5^; the heaviest oil being from the extreme south, near the outcrop of the sands; the lightest from the group of wells on the mesa, near the center of the field, and a medium oil from all parts north. The average gravity is not far from 14°. All the oil produced is used for fuel, except that converted into asphalt and distillate b}^ the refinery near Pioneer. On account of lack of transportation facilities, very little oil is being or has been produced except from wells close to the railroad. A spur used jointly by the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe extends from Bakersfield to Sunset, a distance of forty-one miles, and is now being extended to ]\laricopa, three miles farther north. A })i}te-linc is also being laid from the northern part of the field to the railroad. There are two or three short pipe-lines to the railroad from nearby wells, but the greater ])art of the field is without any i)resent means for getting out its product. All the wells at Sunset are riggt'd for l)eam pum})ing. STATISTICS. (December 12, 1908.) Number of wells producing 102 Number of wells drilling. _. 6 Number of wells of uncertain value ._. -_- 8 Number of wells abandonetl -- -- --- 62 Approximate area producing 4.2 sq. m. Gravity of oil Maxiiiuun, 17°; Minimum, l(i..'>° ; Average, 14° Be. Api)ro.\imate present price at wells, per barrel — 17° oil 25 cents. 14° oil 21 cents. .s> 32 _10. IL FIELD CALIFORNIA ma BUREAU TATE JIlNERALOGIST /. PRUTZMAX. 5 3 8 9 17 7 > 16 1 I 7 > > 20 Producing Welu PtdANDONED Wnu Wells of oouBTr Small r/Gut PHODUCED AT 21 W • - 2S ^ j / . FlGOEE 10. SUNSET OIL FIEI^D KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA THE STATE MINING BUEEAU LEWIS E. AUBURY, State Mineralogist FIELD OrERATIONS — SUNSET. 39 No. IS. i^iNSET — LooKixu North from Skc i:;, 11 N., '2i W No. l!t. M-.VSET— LoflKINi; ^OITII F!;, 11 N., 24 W. No. l!t. M-NSF.T— I>rioKINOrTl[ Flt'iM K\Il.l:i>\Ii l»l.l-')l. 40 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. MIDWAY. Tlie Midway oil tivUl is situated in the southwestern })orti()n of Kern County, on the eastern slope of the Coast Range Mountains, and at the western side of the San Joaquin Valley. The Midway wells form a narrow line, almost straight, from a point about one half mile north of the northernmost Sunset well, extending nortiiwest for some six miles. The j)rodueing strip does not ai)pear to be anywhere more than one mile in width. The formation is ])robably of the same age as that of Sunset and McKittrick, /. e., Middle Neocene, but drilling records are too incomplete to give much idea as to its form, or to determine the conditions which limit its productive area. It is prol)a])le, however, that it is generally flat, and follows the dip of the surface, as the wells farthest to the west have, in several cases, found the oil sand in place l)ut unjjroductive, while on the extreme east the oil sand has given place to a water sand. The boundaries of the producing ground seem to be fairly well marked out, but much of the intervening territory is undeveloped, though the work thus far done would give the impression that it is spotty. Depth of wells runs from 600 to 1500 feet, the average being probably over 1000 feet. The surface elevation ranges from 800 to 1200 feet. The oils of the Midway are produced from beds of incoherent sand, principally of a coarse texture. The gravities range from 14° to 22°, averaging somewhere about 16°. Some of the locations at which these different gravities have been found are noted on accompanying map; the principles governing these variations have not been established. The Midway district is without transportation facilities of any kind, supplies being brought in from either McKittrick or Sunset. For this reason, practically no oil has been actually produced, most of the wells capable of producing having been capped. It is, therefore, not alto- gether certain what the field will do when opened up, although pumping tests would seem to indicate that there is some very good territory. A pipe-line is now being laid from Sunset into the southern end of the field. STATISTICS. (December 13, 1903.) X limber of wells producing 24 Number of wells of uncertain value 7 Number of wells drilling 6 Number of wells abandoned 36 Approximate area producing 2 sq. m . Gravity of oil Maximum, 22°; Minimum, 14°; Average, 16° Be. Approximate piesent price at wells, per barrel None sold. 't ■^. C-; 5 P{^ f7 eo RANGE £ ^ ](3' 21* 40 1& g£ FlQUKE 11. M low AY OIL FIELD KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA ISSUED BY THE STATE MINING BUREAU LEWIS E. AUBURY, State Minkralogist [■..MPII.BD BV PAUL \V. PRUTZMAN Producing tt^sus • PVfiiJ DRlLLlNS o abanoonco Wells -i^ Oil tunks % >y€LLS or DOUBTFUL PROaUCTIVeNCSS e Oil FIFE LINES S/^ALi FIGURES 2 11 14 W - *• 26'- tt..*„„ 3,5 M DM ie 15 24 .> w25 se e T' o 1^.. ■^Qy RA \IQE 24 Q 20- e^ •^ 16 21 2S oo O JO ie> 2; 27 34 ivo AQ N^vMK-pa ■v*^^Kw^ ^•^i;)•^o wwTvn w^vi;>\^ iiKv\L -^ a ^0^^ '^ •f^. ■-, --^ 7 ' P'C^ «* Ebg- ^: ^ : • e. ^?-.l-1AP 40 -v Co we" . > ' ■) "' ^^ T ab< no be Mc to lin fla ha wh Th 0U1 wo of 10( pri av( dit the » aj rtAj*««ia V) jp« reaf-^ caj get tes pip tie! Xui Nui Nui Nui Api Gra Api iJAv.^S .11 a«iJOJ^ ai^ aiO TAV/riTT/r AiWao'iiKiAO ,yt;^uoo vuva — -Til ,Ya']H-' > ^ ^^ •■"■'' : a*\v\M ivv) tint* ttiVvOWkKaTV. fc^"^^^>^^\■^ >icKi<>f\ A\y\Ah\J0Q ^^o ?,i:iVt\ 'iyj\i«\ i\». .N<4AIVW''M> ■^^'^^ '*^'<^t' t^3RO VAWTV^i 6^V\\l.T\-\ iiKWL -1 ajjof'l ivo sQ NT\N«M»a •v»^•>^w^ ^■\w Number of weUa drilling - 11 Number of wells not producing 2.t Number of wells abandoned 50 Approximate area producing 940 acres . Gravity of oil Maxinuim, 19°; Minimum, 14° ; Average, 16° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel 21 cents. »>..■- •, ■I'O - ;::r a '^^^ •^3- 'ai^ -3 J*G «»0»MMI«. t.g' 5S I 59 S)S rs -u^ 3t-^A5' FIELD OPKKATIONS m'kITTRICK. 41 McKITTRICK. The Mc'Kittrick oil tickl is in the wi'stiTii portion of Kern County, :il)out six miles east of the San T.uis Obispo county line, on the east slo})e of the Coast Range Mountains, and on tlic west side of the San .Ioa(iuin Valley. The town of McKittrick lies in a Hat valley of the widtii of some two miles, and l)ounded l»y hill ranjies of no rineipal develoj)nients, following the liiu' of tlu' valley for three miles. Al)o\U midway between the town and tiie head of the valley a uroup of wells has l)een drilled in the mesa, while on the south sloi)e of the north hill range some oil has been obtained, though not in paying i|uantities. The town is at an elevation of 1114 feet, the highest wells 1400 feet. The formation is of Middle Neocene age, Init its shape has not been determined with certainty. It is probable that the parallel hill ranges, which are renuirkably regular and persistent, are of anticlinal forma- tion; but such anticlines, if they exist, are certainly nuieh faulted, and the productiveness seems to be largely determined by the presence or absence of these breaks. As will be readily seen, on examination of the map herewith, the field has been thoroughly tested, and proven to be very " spotty," a condition readily explained by the highly broken condition of the surface, and the numerous see})ages and evidences of chemical action. Nevertheless, the productive portions of the field have proven highly valuable, on account of the large production per well. Depth of wells varies from 400 or 500 feet to nearly 2000 feet. The oils of McKittrick vary in gravity from 14° to 19*^, the lighter oil being found entirely at the southern end. In several cases light oil and heavy oil are found in closely adjacent wells, and the variation in gravity in so short a distance is not readily explained. All the oil from this field is used for fuel. A branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad connects the town of McKittrick with Bakerstield, distant forty-eight miles, and extends two miles farther up the valley, to Olig station. There are numerous pipe- lines connecting various properties with the railroad, and with the Pacific Coast Oil Company and Southern Pacific Company tanks, but no outside pipe-line connection. The Avells on Sections 20 and 29 are puni})ed on the jack in large part, but north of this line practically everything is i)umi)ed on the beam. STATISTICS. (December 14, lfXi;i) Xuniber of wells producing T'l Number of wellts drilling - 11 Number of wells not producing.-. 2.5 Number of wells abandoned - 50 Approximate area producing 940 acres . Gravity of oil - Maximum, 19°; Minimum, 14°; Average, 16° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel 21 cents. 42 PETROLKlWr IN ('ArJKORMA. Nil. L'n. McKiTTRicK — Looking Soitheast fkom Sec. lit, 80 S., ■22 K. No. 21. CoAMNGA — Oil City Groip. fRF\ Id 5 2fe 35 i q! ; i i Tl ^ P FIKI.D OPERATIONS COALINOA. 43 COALINGA. The Coalin^a oil Ik'M lies al tlic eastern educ of the footliills of the Coast Range, and on the western l)onn(hiry of the San .Ioa(|uin \'alk'y, in Fresno County. Tlie viHage of Coalinga is situated on the mesa, at an elevation of (i(io feet; the developed field lies west and north of the town, at a dis- tance ranging from four to eight miles. The hills gradually increase in height and grow rougher toward the north, ranging from )lilr1 .YHIHtlA .M MI ^* f 5 et fcb ES ' S as es OC as dS \ f^^ '^ ir^ 21 *£ at St rt di 2C « oeL-J<=13~r /] nae w« R Mor-n M8tV/*5flM(f TSOt 1 (i9ew« « MG qi Mae \/M.fl M >■ 1 t s £ i^ a d ' S < .>^ ? -=3 1^' Sf rt Of e T St fr c Sdrt^ 0^ ! .^fieeovi /r ct At 2r df yi 5^ / N, 's OS i ef es •<> ss N L © O. MOjllU \ •"J ' , -M-a es 1 ne^T as \^ 1 85 1 \ 1 V 1 V Si r V - ;.?^ '"^ N \ X ^ 1. /I ^\ X 1^ i • ^ ^ / *^^9^ — m ei5WHo^ e /=nrK=i /=\TM/=vs Figure 14. SANTA MARIA OIL FIE:LD. SANTA BARBARA COUNTY, CAL. Issued by the Stute Mining Bureau. Lewis E. Aum'RY, Slate Mineralogist FIKLD OPERATIONS — SAN'PA MARIA. 4o south the Avells all puiu}) on the beam. TIutc air three or four wells in this part of the held whieli How cjuite freely. STATISTICS. (Doctiuh.T 1, l!Mi;;.) Number of wells i)roduciiif; _ lin Number of wells drilling :v.\ Number of wells not producing.. . « Number of wells abandoned -.. «)H Approximate area producing ...240() acres. (Jravity of oil Maxinuim, 33.3°; Mininuini, 11.8°; Average, 20° Be. .Vppro.ximate i)resent price at wells, per barrel — 20° and heavier 20 cents. 23° 25 cents. 83° 60 cents. 28° 80 cents. SANTA MARIA. The oil tields of northern Santa Barbara County, which for hick of a settled title have been noted here under this name, are yet too new to warrant any detailed description. A small number of wells are scattered over a very large area, and the intervening territory, while very hope- ful, is yet an unknown quantity. This district slopes gradually to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and is a country of parallel, low hill ranges, separating narrow valleys parallel to and south of the valley of the Santa Maria River. The more elevated portions of the district are suitable for grazing; the valleys are fertile farming land. The larger part of the area was covered by a Spanish colony of early date, and divided into large ranches, and the oil holdings are largely on mineral leases. As will be seen from attached map, most of the holdings are large, and the entire area which now appears promising is concentrated in the hands of a few large firms. The towns of Lompoc and Los Alamos are within the limits of the field, while the thriving little city of Santa Maria lies l)ut a mile to the north of the north line of the map. The coast line of the Southern Pacific Railroad lies along the western edge of the field, which is crossed also by the Pacific Coast Railway, a narrow-gauge line running from Los Olivos to San Luis Obispo via Santa Maria. The latter town is two hundred and fifty-three miles from San Francisco, while Casmalia on the Southern Pacific is distant one hundred and ninety miles from Los Angeles. The pipe-line facilities are, as would be expected in so new a field, rather incomplete. A line extends from the Pinal projjcrty in the north to the sugar factory at Betteravia; another from tlie same initial point to Graciosa on the Pacific Coast Railway, this line being surveyed to Point Sal landing, on the ocean. A third line connects the Western AIHAM ATTVIAS )0 AHAHilAH ATVIArl I S^^l-J-J-a^a/OO© UMAMUHOef eoTM/=^e eo ao"r --v^^c=\ U-1/=».© j^i -._. J.CI L^oeeir-i ooqMoj FIELD OPERATIONS — SANTA MARIA. 45 south the Avi'lls all ])uiup on the beam. There arc three or four wells in this part of the field whieh flow (juite fri-ely. STATISTICS. (DoceinlHT 1, 1!M«.) Number of wells produfinj; lin Number of wells drilling .« Number of wells not producing _ H Number of wells abandoned (jH Approximate area producing 2400 acres. (rravity of oil Ma.ximuui, 33.3°; Minimum, 11.8°; Average, 20° Be. Approximate ])resent price at wells, per barrel — 20° and heavier 20 cents. 23° 25centi'. 33° 60 cents. 28° 80 cents. SANTA MARIA. The oil fields of northern Santa Barbara County, whieh for lack of a settled title have been noted here under this name, are yet too new to warrant any detailed description. A small number of wells are scattered over a very large area, and the intervening territory, while very hope- ful, is yet an unknown quantity. This district slopes gradually to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and is a country of parallel, low hill ranges, separating narrow valleys l)arallel to and south of the valley of the Santa Maria River. The more elevated portions of the district are suitable for grazing; the valleys are fertile farming land. The larger part of the area was covered by a Spanish colony of early date, and divided into large ranches, and the oil holdings are largely on mineral leases. As will be seen from attached map, most of the holdings are large, and the entire area which now appears promising is concentrated in the hands of a few large firms. The towns of Lompoc and Los Alamos are within the limits of the field, while the thriving little city of Santa Maria lies l>ut a mile to the north of the north line of the map. The coast line of the Southern Pacific Railroad lies along the western edge of the field, which is crossed also by the Pacific Coast Railway, a narrow-gauge line running from Los Olivos to San Luis Obispo via Santa Maria. The latter town is two hundred and fifty-three miles from San Francisco, while Casmalia cm the Southern Pacific is distant one hundred and ninety miles from Los Angeles. The pipe-line facilities are, as would be expected in so new a field, rather incomplete. A line extends from the Pinal i)roi)erty in the north to the sugar factory at Betteravia; another from the same initial point to Graciosa on the Pacific Coast Railway, this line being surveyed to Point Sal landintr. on the ocean. A third line connects the Western 46 PETROr.Kl'M IN CALIFORNIA. No. 24. Saxta .Mai:ia Field, Santa Barbara Co. — Carreaga Weli,: "'"s^arsaii, <•-. No. 2.'). A Typical Oil Re.servoik XP SIHJ R £ 1 vy s Figure 16, VENTURA COUNTY OIL FIELDS, CouNxy, Cal. r\ FIELD OPERATIONS — \'KNTtl{A COINTY. 47 Union property with the oil ivtincrv at (Javiota. on tlic ocean. The soutliern portion of tlie tiekl has as yet no onth't. The larger i)art of the oil from this lidd is used for reliiiinii: pur})oses. STATISTICS. (I )(•(■(■ Ml her •_'(!, l!Hi:;. » X II 111 her of wells jiroducing 21 XuniluT of wells (Irillinu; IH X umber of wells of uiicortaiii vahie 2 X'unihor of wells nliandoiu'd _. 10 Approximate area produeiuj; _, 2(RI0 acres. (iravity of oil ..Maxiimini, 27°; .M iniiuiim, 16° ; Average, 20° Be. Appnixiniate prex'iit jiricc at wells, per harrel up to SO cents. VENTURA COUNTY. The coast lino of Ventura County lies roughly east and west, and is paralleled by a range of steep hills. North of these hills, and there- fore also parallel with the coast, lies the valley of the Santa Clara River, a small stream which takes its rise in the San Fernando Moun- tains, and enters the oeean at Ventura. The oil deposits of this region have been found along both sides of the Santa Clara, the larger area of {•rodneing territory ])eing to the north. The river valley is here some two miles wide, is fertile, and comjiletely farmed, supporting the small towns of Camulos, Pirn, and Fillmore, and the little city of Santa Paula. The hills to the south and north of the valley are steep, rough, and entirely liarren, those to the south being of moderate height, being some 2000 feet in general above the valley floor, which is itself at this point some 600 feet above sea level. The San Rafael Mountains, to the north of the valley, rise abruptly to a consideral)le height, not less than 4000 feet at some points. The wells to the south of the river are mostly well down the slope of the hills, some practically at river level, while those on the northern slope commence at an elevation of some 1200 feet, and rise to a maximum height of 2800 feet above sea level. Owing to the fact that these wells to the north are largely situated in canons among very rough hills, many of the leases are accessible only with difticulty. The major part of the production comes from the wells south of the river, and from those on Mount Cayetano to the east and Sulphur Mountain to the west of Santa Paula Cation. Many of these wells are (juite old, and a number have l)een })umi»cd out and abandoned, though in general the entire territory has been characterized liy great stability. As would be expected in such broken ground, the producing areas are small and somewhat scattered. In general, the producing formation seems to be lenticular, so far as productiveness is concerned, rich at the center and ra})i.Mcinl.fr -Jn. l!)(i.;. ) X umber of wells producing 21 XumbtT of wells drilling IH Number of wells of uncertain value 2 Number of wells abandoned _ 10 .Vi)pro.\iiuate area jtroducing . 2 acres. (iravity of oil ..Maximum, 27°: -Minimum, 1«°; Average, 20° Be. .Vpproximate present price at welTs. )ier barrel up to SO cents. VENTURA COUNTY. The coast line of \'entura County lies roughly east and west, and is [taralleled hy a range of steep hills. North of these hills, and there- fore also parallel with the coast, lies the valley of the Santa Clara River, a small stream which takes its rise in the San Fernando ^^oun-' tains, and enters the ocean at Ventura. The oil deposits of this region have been found along l)otli sides of the Santa Clara, the larger area of producing territory being to the north. The river valley is here some two miles wide, is fertile, and com})letely farmed, supporting the small towns of ('amnios, Pirn, and Fillmore, and the little city of Santa Paula. The hills to the south and north of the valley are steep, rough, and entirely barren, those to the south being of moderate height, l)eing some 2000 feet in general above the valley Hoor, which is itself at this point some 600 feet above sea level. The San Rafael Mountains, to the north of the valley, rise abruptly to a considerable height, not less than 4000 feet at some points. The wells to the south of the river are mostly well down the slope of the hills, some practically at river level, while those on the northern slope commence at an elevation of some 1200 feet, and rise to a maximum height of 2800 feet above sea level. Owing to the fact that these wells to the north are largely situated in canons among very rough hills, many of the leases are accessible only with difficulty. The major part of the production comes from the wells south of the river, and from those on Mount Cayetano to the east and Sulphur .Mountain to the west of Santa Paula Canon. Many of these wells are ([uite old, and a number have Ijeen pum})ed out and abandoned, though in general the entire territory has l)een characterized l\v great stability. As would be expected in such broken ground, the producing areas are small and somewhat scattered. In general, the producing formation seems to be lenticular, so far as productiveness is concerned, rich at the center and rapidly failing at distance, either from disaiipearance of the 4— BUL. 82 48 PETHOLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. sand or from })rogressiv(' lowering of its saturation. This spottiness, (•onil)im'(l with the diflficuhies offered by the surfaee, have made pros- peeting very ex})ensive and nncertain; but as the oil is largely of a high grade, and i)rodnction ])er well satisfactory and lasting, successful wells have been very profitable to tluni- owners. The coast line of the ►Southern Pacific Railroad extends through the Santa Clara Valley, distances from Santa Paula being, to Los Angeles sixty-five miles, to San Francisco four hundred and sixteen miles. Th(^ Pacific Coast Oil Company has a trunk pi})e-line through the valley from Pico Canon in Los Angeles C'ounty to Ventura; the L^nion Oil Company a line from Tapo Caiion, south of Camulos, to the same point. There are also three lines to the railroad from various points, and numerous branches connecting the trunk lines to various parts of the field. The larger part of the j)ro(luction goes from Ventura l)y water to San Francisco, and is there refined. STATISTICS. (December 20, l!t(i8.) Number uf wells jjruducing S(N) Number of wells drilling 11 Number of wells of uncertain value 2(5 Number of wells abandoned 144 Approximate area producing ._ , Tstj. m. Gravity of oil Maximum, 40° ; Minimum, 14°; Average, 24° Be. Approximate present price at wells, per barrel 40c to ^l.-'iO I-lKl.l) orKKATIoNS VKN'II HA COINTV. !•» No. 2li. VEXTrKA — WnKELEK CaXON WkLLS. HlKKOWS vV: Sox. No. 27. Vextura— ToRKEY CaSox Wells, Umon Oil Co. 50 I'KTKOLKl M IN CAMKOKMA. PART 11. USES OF CRUDE OIL. CHAPTER 4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CALIFORNIA CRUDE. Color. — The color of California crude })ctrolcuiii ranjics from a dec]) brownish black to water white, the usual color liein^- black or dark brown. This dark color is due to the asi)halt, and changes to green of more or less brilliancy on removal of tliis sul»stance; a few of the oils containing little or no as])halt are green in their crude state, while even some of the lighter asidialtic oils show a green tinge. The fluorescence of tlie crude oils is uniforndy green, and not very pronounced; the bloom on refined oils follows the usual rule, i. e., is absent in the naphthas, blue in tlie kerosenes and lighter lubricating oils, changing to green in the heavier lubricants. The blue fluorescence follows farther down the scale of lubricants than with the usual oil of the Eastern States, and the bloom on all products, both light and heavy, is less pronounced. OdOP. — The odor of the heavier oils is highly characteristic, but mild and rather sweet, very rarely sulphurous. The foul odor of the oils of Texas, Canada, and Ohio is entirely absent. Many of the lighter oils are sweet, resend)ling Pennsylvania crude in this res})ect. In brief, the odor is very seldom ol)jectional)le. Specific Gravity. — The si)ecitic gravity ranges from 1.025 (;>° on Beaume's heavy scale) to 0.7490 (58° Beaunie), but most of the produc- tion falls within the range between 13° and 35° Be. The i)roduction of the entire State would average about 16.5°. It will be noted that the specific gravity is very low. This is partly due to the fact that a large part of the petroleum of this State is highly oxidized and ([uite viscous. But it is also a fact that the lighter oils are also of (juite low gravity (l)y comparison), l)eing from 10^ to 15° Be. lower than would l)e indicated l)y the viscosity and boiling range. The very low gravity appears to indicate a radical difference of constitution from that of the paraffin oils, a subject which will be treated more in detail in later paragra])hs. Viscosity. — The viscosity of Califoi'uia ])eti-ok'um rangi's from tliat of a semi-solid sul)stance to less than 1.00 (the viscosity of water). The average viscosities arc: for oils of 14° gravity, 1000; for oils of 1(5° gravity, 400; for oils of 18° gravity, 75; for oils of 20° gravity, 15. Different rHYSICAI. CHAIJACPKIJISTICS OF CAMKOUN-IA t'ltrDK. 51 samples of tlic same i])ed cold without dithculty. Howing freely undei- a moderate head. Some oils of IS'^ <:ravity. even, may l)e pij)ed reailily, l>ut the handlin<: of the heavier oils throu,tj.h lines of any lemith is a matter of some dif- tieulty. and re(|uires sjieeial pi'eeautions. The viscosity as read in the lahoratory. thoujih compared directly with that of water, can not l)e I'onsidered an alisolutt- measure of the i-esist- ance to pumj)ing, as compared with the resistance of watei- under tin- same conditions. The lahoratory viscosity determination is made, as a rule, through a very small oi-itit'c, highly ])olished. and rathei- short, and it will l)e evident that ca})illarity and tlie sui-face tension of the oil cut a i-onsiderahle figure in determining the s})eed of discharge, while in pi])ing the oil the interior or fluid friction is the main source of resistance to How, that })ortion of tlu' oil in actual contact with the walls of the }>ii)e heing practically inimovahle. Nevertheless, the lahoratory determination of viscosity is, in the ahsence of more i)rac- tical data, a vakial)le indication as to the real tiuidity of the oil, jiarticularly if determinations ai'c made at vai'ious tempcratui'cs and the results })lotted. The viscosity of our 14° to 16° oil falls very rapidly with increasing temperature, the viscosity at 110° F. heing, as a rule, from one eighth to one tenth of the viscosity at 60° F.; that is to say, an oil which reads mo at 60° would generally read from ;;0 to 40 at 110° F, Ah..ve this tem})erature the decrease is mtich less rapid. This decrease in viscosity with rising temperature offers a means of rendering the oil sufficiently fluid to pipe, and this method is the one generally used on short lines. The oil is heated in the tank, l)y means of steam coils, to su(4i tempei'a- ture as is needed to render it sufficiently fluid, and enough in excess to offset the loss of heat from the line. The oidy drawl»ack to this method of working is that it is limited in its aj)})lication to the distance to which oil originally heated to 200° (whitli from a few liundred feet to al)out four miles, and in diameter from 4" to 7§". On one line in the southeaBtern part of the field, the followintr results have heen noted: Dianu'ter of i'ipf 5g inclie>. Length. - mnt feet. Course. Stf;iii;:lit : full about 1(K» feet, with very little unduhition. Gravity of oil '.... ..13.s° Be. I nitiaT temperature - - .140° F. Initial i^res.sure 25() to ;iOO pound.-^. Maximum discharge H per hour. These figures for discharge are the averages of the times required to discharge a 20,000-barrel tank, the maximum being in summer, when the surface of the ground is at least as hot as the oil, the minimum in Avinter, when the temperature of the air is about 60° F. on an average. This line is practically on the surface. A line was laid, not long .since, from the Kern River field to a point not far from San Francisco, a distance of two hundred and seventy- eight miles. This line is eight inches in diameter, laid about three feet beneath the surface, and very carefully wrapped in asphalted paper, to exclude dampness and retain heat. The line was divided into ten blocks, of ap})roxiniately equal length, each l)lock being an independent line, with its own pumps, heaters, and receiving tanks. The oil was lieated to 180° F., and punq)ed under six hundred pounds pressure. Details as to the results of this interesting experiment are not availaljle, but it is known tluit much difhculty was experienced, and that the carrying capacity was small. It is not now in operation (Ai)ril, 1904), although it is reported that work will l)e resumed during the summer. The entire course of the line is in the San Joacjuin Valley, through a sandy soil, temperatures dui-ing the summer ranging about 110° at noon and 70° at midnight, and in winter down to 50° F. Another, and more widely aitplicable, method is to i)Uinii water into the line with the oil. The disadvantages of this system are ol)vious: PHYSICAL CHAIiACTKRISPH'S OK CAI.IKOKN I A CIUDK. 53 that the water is valual)lr at many points wlicrc oil is produced, and lliat water, once mixed with a licavy oil, is not i-cadiiy scjiaratcd. There is the great advantage, however, that the system will work to a much greater distance than the other, and further that the rate of dis- charge varies little with fluctuations of temperature. The theory of the system is that the oil, from its great eohesion and high surface tension, will form a solid eoi-e, surroundeil and kept from contact with the pipe hy a layer of water, tlu' core rotating slowly as it passes through the pipe. Theoretically the friction is that of water in pipes, but practically it is greater, as the layer of water can not he kei)t intact over the entire surface, and wherever the oil lays hold of the pipe the resistance to How is increased. The essential factor in this process is to kvv\> oil and water separate, as far as ]H)ssil)le, in the pipe, as an emulsion of oil and water is often less tluid than the oil itself. The water shovdd lie introduced after the oil, from a separate source of supply, and in such manner as will tend not to mix the two, but to retain the water next to the walls of the pipe. In order to keep the oil from breaking through the water layer, any obstruction or enlargement wdiich would cause an eddy is carefully avoided, bends are made of long radius, and the level is pre- served as far as possible. Where care has been taken as to these points the system has worked admirably in a number of situations, and has made it possible to pipe oil from remote situations wdiere the pumping of hot oil would be impracticable. Arrangements have, of course, to l)e provided for separating water from oil at terminus. A line worked on this principle runs from the Buckhorn wells in \'entura County to the railroad at Buckhorn. ^Nlr. \V. L. Watts (Bulletin 19, California State Mining Bureau) reports as follows re- garding this line: Diameter of line '2 inches. Length of line 5 miles. Course . Sinuous, long bends, no great undulations. Temperature 7.1° in stimmer, 60° in winter. Pressure 5(X) foot head. Maximum discharge 21 barrels oil per hour, in summer. Minimum discharge !.'> barrels oil per hour, in winter. Flash Point. — The Hash point of California crude ranges from 400° V. down to iSO'^ F. or lower. Most of the oil classed as fuel oil Hashes above 150° F., and practically all of it above 130° F. It will be seen that none of the fuel oil of this State requires any preparation, in regard to Hash point, to tit it for use. Considerable quantities of pre- pared oil for fuel are now being put on the nuirket, these oils being the residues of the distillation of lighter oils, and similar to the "astatki'' of the Caucasus. These oils are of high Hash point, and are of excel- lent (quality in all respects. All the Hash points mentioned herein, with the exception of those in Table 4a, are by the open electric cup, standard in San Francisco. 54 'KTROI.EUM IN CALIFORNIA. Calorific Value. — Tlie calorific value of California crude ranges from 10,000 to 11,000 calories (18,000 to 19,800 B. T. U.), and averages 10,500 calories (18,900 B. T. U.). As a rule, the higher the gravity of the oil, the higher the calorific value, though this generality can not be applied too closely. This average of 10,500 calories is 1.8% lower than the average of six Pennsylvania and West Virginia petroleums (Poole, ''Calorific Power of Fuels," p. 251), and 1.1% lower than the average of six samples of Beaumont (Texas) oil (from various sources). Taking account, how- ever, of the difference in weight per unit of volume, the specific gravity of the Pennsylvania oils hcing 0.8490, of the Texas oils 0.9200, and of the California oils 0.9415, the figures would stand: California 1.000, Texas 0.988, Pennsylvania 0.918. The advantage would be slightly with the California oil, although the number of determinations is really too small to l)e the Ijasis for a general deduction. In TaV)le 4, following, will be found gravities, viscosities, flash and burning points, and calorific values of a number of samples of Cali- fornia crude oil. The figures in the first portion of the table are from a paper by Prof. Edmund O'Neill, of the University of California, pub- lished in the "Journal of tlie American Chemical Society," July, 1903. The figures in the second portion of the table were made by Mr. Wayne Colver and by the writer, in the latter's laboratory. A large number of determinations of physical properties will be found in the last talde in this volume, these figures being by Mr. H. N. Cooper. TABLE 4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CALIFORNIA CRUDE OILS. (A) Bji Prof. Eiliniuid O'Xeill, of the Uniiwrxili/ of Culifoniui. No. Fit^l.l. Couiily. Color. ■A "O P -"^ - ; 3-c Viscosity at OOO F. 185° F i : «< 145 Colusa Napa Colusa 14.3° 15.5 29.0 37.5 26.1 48.6 34.4 22.1 20.3 17.7 15.1 16.0 13.4 13.2 14.7 IH.O 16.3 17.0 14.7 28.0 12.1 23.0 4.88 1.28 10.35 1.34 1.57 1-05 ' 18,648 KHI Xapa Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Humboldt Santa Clara .. Brown Red-Brn. . Yellow-... Yellow Yellow 268° 280° 1HI Humboldt Humboldt ._ . Humboldt _ . . Humboldt Santa Clara... San Mateo Coalinga McKittrick ... McKittrick ... Sunset Kern River ... Kern River ... Kern River ... Kern River ... Kern River ... Kll !)5 b.50 228 63 b. .50 237 65 LIO 3.00 1.17 0.95 1.15 0.96 20,146 1H4 i;^4 San Mateo Fresno Kern Brown Brown 158 215 202 10.96 11.19 63.15 282.03 1.50 1.54 2.12 3.57 " 18^67.5 18 571 1S,5 Kern Black Black 108 Kern 18,684 18 478 110 Kern . 111 Kern Black Black Black Black 1759.13 274.35 373.11 2W).59 142.66 ;347.77 7.51 3. .35 3.67 4.70 2.85 3.37 18,:M2 18,848 18,646 18,797 U9. Kern __ Kern Kern .. \m iri7 118 18,630 187 196 221 ^99 19,440 149 Summerland.. Ventura Santa Barbara Ventura .. . Black 1462.83 34.28 8.35 LH4 IHfi 84 95 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTUP OK CAI.IF< >|{N I A CRl'DK. 55 TABLE 4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CALIFORNIA CRUDE OILS Cont'd. (B) By Watiiie L'olver and J'nul H'. I'nitznuin. 405 2413 2495 24&4 2425 2442 2492 2493 2441 14H3 2491 2451 2426 2421 2454 1419 2412 498 433 430 1465 444 4:^ 497 2490 1450 1466 1496 1493 2405 1454 1480 1471 24:i5 1482 1499 2443 2444 14!:tO 1470 1462 1489 KifM. Lo;- Angeles City Los Angeles City Los Angeles Citv ojai- _.. :. Ex- Mission Bardsilale P\illerton Fulleiton Fullerton Whittier Whittier Whittier Pnente Pnente Xewhall Newhall Santa !Maria Bitterwater Panoche San Mateo San ^lateo Colusa Napa Bolinas Bay Coalinga./- Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Sunset Sunset Sunset Midway Midway ^IcKittrick McKittrick McKittrick McKittrick Kern River Kern River Kern River Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles _. Ventura Ventitra Ventura Orange Orange Orange Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles __ Santa Barbara San Benito Fresno San Mateo San ^lateo Colusa Xapa Marin Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno Kern Kern Kern Kern Kern Kern Kern Kern Kern .. Kern Kern Kern ('..lor. Black Black Brown Black Green-Black . Brown Brown-Black Brown- Black Brown Black Black Black Brt)\vn-Black Brown Black __. White Black Brown-Green Brown Greenish Brown-Green Green Green-Brown Brown-Black Brown-Black Black Black-Brown Black ~3 '?'^: '^ ^•n^'-^'rr: Black Black Black Black Black Black Black-Brown Black Brown Black Brown-Black Black Black Black 15.2° 13.5 13.0 11.8 25.4 28.0 20,2 2ti.6 33.(1 19.0 20.4 21.0 20.1 27.2 14.0 42.7 16.9 42.7 32.9 41.7 48.8 15.2 1.5.2 21.5 28.5 21.9 19.8 16.8 12.6 11.9 9.9 14.4 16.5 13.0 20.2 11.9 13.6 15.1 19.0 10.4 13.9 15.6 258° 260 270 120 b.60 120 140 b. 60 108 1.54 i 127 60 78 263 b.60 ! 130 b.60 \h.m b.60 252 133 60 149 143 248 322 308 260 210 2m 162 304 275 267 178 MS 269 253 343° 310 139 192 196 b.60 "228 180 98 120 280 b.60 b.60 368 354 317 313 194 Vis Reading. At Decs. Fall. 63.4(1 730.44 1004.35 172S..33 O.iKi I3..">0 1.58.(HI 60 1513.00 282 716.00 1565.22 I 65 26.50 ; 68 Semi-solid 60 866.(Mi 60 338.30 ()6 21.90 65 Semi-solid 60 249.50 I 75 341.70 60 Cleaning" Crude Oil. — The lighter of the crude oils of California, being found, ay a rule, in coherent formations, are ohtained in a clean condition, any water or fine sand \vhich may be pumped \vith the oil settling out readily. But most of the heavy oils are found in loose sand, often of great fineness, and where the gravity of the crude falls below 18'^ a large amount of sand Avill be pumped with the oil. This sand, and the accompanying water, must be removed Ity long standing, or by the application of heat, or by both. In the Kern River field, where the greatest dilhcultics with sand are experienced, and where the most ingenuity has been exercised in pro- viding against these difhculties. it is customary to ])um]) into settling 56 I'KTKOLEr.M JN i ALIFOKNIA. holet^ or sumps, thesf being simply excavations in tlie sandy soil, of small size, and i)laced as close to the well as convenient. From these sumps, which are originally of from 500 to 2000 barrels capacity, but which rapidly grow shallower from the deposition of detritus from the oil, the latter flows by gravity to the storage reservoirs. These reser- voirs are large shallow excavations, formed in general in the following manner: A rectangle of convenient size is laid off, and an embank- ment formed about it by plowing and scraping. The ground is thoroughly wet down, both before plowing and on the embankment after the scraper is dumped. In this manner the hoofs of the horses drawing scrapers operate to thoroughly consolidate and tamp down the wet earth, and a very close bank is formed Avithout any further treat- ment. The embankment being brought to the desired height, and the bottom of the tank brought to grade, the reservoir is finished, except for a light roof of wood, covered with tarred felt or asphalt roofing. The oil is drawn off below through a pipe set in the bottom of the tank, and arrangements are also provided for drawing off any accumulation of water. These reservoirs are often of great size, and it is customary to carry in them as large a stock as possible, in order that the oil may stand quietly for some time, to settle thoroughly. During the sunnner months the oil stands continually at a high temperature, in spite of being roofed over, and becomes quite clean without further treatment. During cooler weather, or in any case where reservoir purification is not thought to be sufficient, the oil before shipment is passed through a cleaning tank, generally a small steel tank, provided with steam coils, and with two outlets. Here the oil is heated to from 110° to 150*^, according to gravity and to degree of impurity, and the purification is completed in the course of a few hours. The high degree of purity which is attained by the use of these simple methods is quite astonishing. Even where the impurities originally amount to fifty per cent of the bulk of the crude oil, which is often the case, the oil finally shipped will not contain more than two per cent of foreign matter of all kinds, and the larger part of the fuel oil found in the San Francisco market, at least, will be found to contain less than one and one half per cent of impurity. Where large surfaces of heavy crude oil are exposed to sunlight, in the hot climate incident to most of our oil fields, oxidation takes place, and the gravitj' of the oil is rapidly lowered, while the viscosity is increased. If this operation is allowed to go on too long, the oil will be reduced to a tarry condition, and its connnercial value destroyed. If sunlight be excluded, however, the effects of a high temperature are not very noticeable, onctithe fixed gas is eliminated from the oil. Heavy crude oil, as it comes from the well, contains considerable permanent gas, intimately mixed with the oil, and the latter thus shows, when PHYSICAL CHAKACTEKISTU'S OK CALIloi;M\ (KIDK. No. 28. Empty Oil Reskkvoik, McKittkick, Cai,., Associated On. Co. No. 29. Oil Kesekvoii;. McKittrick. Cai... I'ac iki<- ('i;ri>F. On, Co. 58 rKI'KOLKlM IN (ALIKOKMA. fresh, ii liiohci- ^navitv tliaii properly \)elongs to it. This gas soon finds its way to the surface, and when it is onee out, owing to an ahnost complete absence of substances volatile at ordinary temperatures, there is little further change in gravity if oxidation is prevented. It is thus possible to store oil for considerable periods in reservoirs of very low- cost, without diminishing the value of the ])roduct. The reservoirs are ordinarily not lined in any way, as ex})erience has proven that the loss of oil through seepage is very small. While the soil is, as a usual thing, light and sandy, the finer particles of sand from the oil rapidly till the i)ores in the earth, and the water from the oil makes this coating quite impervious to the passage of oil. The cleaning up of a large number of tanks in the Kern River field has shown that, even Avhere oil has stood in a reservoir for nionths, the penetration into the soil was rarely greater than four inches. CHAPTER 5. THE USE OF OIL FOR FUEL. The advantages attending the use of oil for fuel liave l;)een so often dwelt on, and have come to be so generally a})preciated, that it may .seem useless to go over them at this time. Nevertheless, some are yet unconvinced, and even to those avIio are using Ii(iuid fuel it may be a matter of interest to recall the various ways in which petroleum excels solid fuel. Transportation. — Tlu' Hrst advantage is ease of transportation. This may not amount to nnich to those who have their fuel delivered at their doors, but in situations where fuel must be transported as used, notably on steamships, it is a very important matter. The loading of a steam- ship with coal requires days where an equivalent quantity of oil may be loaded in as many hours, and entirely without labor. By modern devices oil may be pumped into or out of vessels at" points where it would be injpossible to dock and discharge or take on a cargo of coal, while vessels at sea may transfer supplies of oil in weather which would quite prevent transferring of coal. The fuel tanks of oil-burning loco- motives are loaded with the turn of a valve, and in a minimum of time, while tank wagons deliver oil to stationary plants where the handling of coal would create a nuisance, from the dust raised, as well as seriously depreciate tlie value of the solid fuel. Storage Space. — Where a su])})ly of fuel must be stored, a second advantage in the use of liquid fuel is shown. If we assume as a basis THE rSE OF OTT, FOR FUKL. 59 that four l)arr('ls of oil arr I'c^ual in fuel value to one ton ('2240 Ihs.) of good bituminous eoal, the oil oeeupies a space less than three fourths as great as would he re(|uire(l for tlie coal; — to lie more accui'ate, the four barrels of oil would oceu})y a space of 22.5 cubic feet, the ton of coal from 32 to -'5S culiic feet, making the S])aee reipiired for the oil from 59% to 70% of that taken by the coal. Fnrt hei'inoi'e, no matter how limited boiler-room sjjace may be (and in otlice l)uildine, and in such cases geni'rally is, buried under the sidewalk or the cellar Hoor, thus taking no space whatever which would be of any value for other })urposes, beyond that re([uire(l for the manhole and the con- nections. Cleanliness. — The cleanliness incident to handling and using oil is too manifest to need argument. The coals obtainal)le on the Pacific Coast, at least, produce great quantities of dust, soot, and ashes. With any proper care in the handling of oil, all these disadvantages may be done away with, and the boiler-room kept as clean as a well-regulated engine-room. In many lines of business, this is a very important matter to the user of fuel, and where oil is in general use, as it is in San Francisco, the alteration in the appearance of the city, due to the removal of the smoke from coal fires, is very great. Labor. — The lal)or of handling, and most of the labor of stoking, are done away with, though oil fires naturally require some attention. The greatest saving of labor, after that of firing, is in the cleaning of fires and fines. Oil fuel does away, of course, with clinkers, and there- fore with the very trying labor of slicing and cleaning fires, while if properly regulated the l)oiler fines may be kept much cleaner. The latter not only reduces the labor of keeping the fines clean, but also considerably reduces the waste of fuel through imperfect transference of heat through the tubes to the boiler water. The removal of the necessity of constantly opening and shutting fire-doors reduces strains on both brickwork and l)oilers, prolonging the life of l)oth, though this advantage may readily l)e lost by carelessness in handling an oil fire, due to the greater ease with which the latter may l)e forced. Reg'Ulation. — The ease of regulation is a great factor in the economy realized in the use of oil fuel. The fire may be kept at a constant point foi' hours at a time, or may by the turn of a valve be made to respond to the most unusual denumds for })ower. Where the call for steam is fiuctuating, as on locomotives, where the denumd for power may fall within a few seconds from the maximum capacity of the a})paratus to absolute zero, this is of great inq)ortance. By the sim- plest contrivances and the most ordinary attention, the needle of the 60 PKTROI.KrM IN CALIFORNIA. steam gauge on a licax y freight locomotive may be kept almost stationary, up hill and down, and through stops of any length. This ease of regu- lation is })erhaps most ap])reciated where temperature is a factor, as in running an oil still <>r in heating metals. The temperature of an oil still may he regulated to a nicety and with the greatest ease, while every one called on to heat iron or steel will appreciate the ease with which the right tempei'ature for foi'ging or other o])erations is reat.-hed and maintained. Capacity. — The inei-ease in steaming cajjaeity of l)oilers is considei-- able. There is some disagreement as to figures, hut it would certainly be conservative to claim that, with a i)roper oil installation, a boiler may be made to deliver from 80% to 50% luore steam than could pos- sibly be gotten from it with coal, without the use of forced draft.' But these points, while all important enough, are subordinate to the question of cost, in the mind of the average consumer. The great economy in the use of oil (at present prices) has been too thoroughly demonstrated to perndt of any (juestion, yet it may be permissible to point out briefly the reasons for and the extent of this economy. Economy. — Theoretically, the saving realized from the use of liquid fuel depends on three factors: first, the less cost of the fuel per unit of heating value; second, the greater efficiency of the fuel, that is, the greater proportion of the ultimate heating value which may be actually developed around or under the object to be heated, or in other words, the possibility of more perfect combustion; third, the avoidance of loss of heat in various Avays. The first point is by far the most important, as it can be shown that, theoretical heating values being equal, oil costs only from one half to three fourths as much as coal. Let us take as an instance the case of a small consumer, who would pay about $6 per ton (2240 lbs.) for average coast coal, or 65 cents per barrel (in carloads, at present prices. Feb. 1904) for crude oil. Coal at $6 per ton costs 0.268 of a cent per pound. A barrel of 15° oil weighs 337 pounds, making the cost at 65 cents per barrel equal 0.193 of a cent per pound. Assuming the calor- ific value of 15° oil to be 18,360 B. T. U., and of average coast coal to be 12,600 B. T. U. (and the latter figure is more than fair to the coal), the cost of each fuel per 1000 B. T. U. would be: For the coal, 0.268c. X 1000 ^ 12,600 = 0.0213 cent; For the oil, 0.193c. X 1000 h- 18,360 = 0.0105 cent; i. €., the cost of the coal would be exactly twice that of the oil. But while the small consumer can buy oil almost as cheaply as the large iSee Tables 5 and 16; also compare capacity figures in Tables 20 and 21 with tlie capacity of the same boilers with coal.— Hutton, Steam Boiler Const., pp. 554-5. THE rSK OF OIL FOR FFRL. 61 ('onsuiiier, this is not the case with coal, wliicli can be contracted in quantities at lower tiuures. With coal at $5 i)er ton the cost of coal would be 1.66 times that of oil; with coal at $5.50 per ton, 1.83 times. These are theoretical heating values only, and in ])ractice, owing to the greater percentage of efficiency of oil, the con)parative cost of coal is somewhat greater. It has been })retty well proven in practice that, under average con- ditions, four l)arrels of California oil would do the work of one ton of average coast coal. Four barrels of 15° oil would weigh 1348 pounds, and the heating value at 18,360 B. T. U. per })ound would be 24,739,280 B. T. U. One ton (2240 lbs.) of coal, at 12,600 B. T. U. per pound. would have the heating value of 28,224,000 B. T. U. Oil with the heating value of 24,750,000 units will therefore do the work of coal with the heating value of 28.250,000 units, a difference of 3,500,000 units, oi- slightly over 12% of the heating value of the coal. For the explana- tion of this saving of heat, which of course means simply that a larger proportion of the available heat in the fuel is put to actual use, we must look to the second factor of economy. The losses suffered in burning any kind of a fuel under a boiler arise in part in the escape of unburned fuel in its original form through the grate bars, in part in the escape of unburned combustible gases through the stack. In burning coal, particularly a coal which forms much ash or a heavy clinker, a portion of the fuel wall always fall between the grate bars without being burned. Clinkers and cinders always contain more or less coal, and where the clinkers are very hard, considerable fuel may be sliced down in this Avay and removed unburned. Where coal is fine or dusty, a good deal will go through the bars Avith the ash. It has been found in some cases that ash from industrial estal)lishments contained more than ten per cent of combus- tible matter, which, if the ash was ten per cent of the coal (a fair per- centage on this coast) would equal one per cent of the coal. This is a small loss, certainly, but has its part in making up the total economy in burning liquid fuel. With oil this source of loss is entirely obviated. The only approach to such loss is w^here carbon forms on walls or l)ridges, from imperfect regulation of the burner. The most extreme case of such carbon formation which ever came under the writer's notice was where a cone-shaped lump weighing about 30 pounds was formed under a small boiler, during a two days' run, the amount of oil burned in this time being approximately 675 pounds. The loss here was almost four and one half per cent, as the carbon was removed for examination ; in all ordinary cases such formations are stopped by proper regulation of the burner, and the deposit allowed to burn away slowly, without any loss whatever. It goes without saying that to allow unburned oil to 62 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. ac-cunmlate in tlie Jislii)it, or to flow out on tlie boiler-room tloor, as may occasionally l»e seen, is the grossest carelessness. Combustion. — A mueh more ini])ortant saving is realized through the perfect combustion of the gases in the firebox. It would be better to say may be realized, as this is a matter where the skill and atten- tiveness of the fireman, as well as the care taken in designing tlie firebox, are brought very much into evidence. There is hardly a doubt, however, that it is now jwssible to secure with oil a much more com- plete combustion than may be had with l)ituminous coal under any ordinary conditions, and that the skill on the part of the fireman which, applied to the burning of coal, would secure very mediocre results, will obtain very much better results in this respect when applied to the burning of oil. It is a well-known fact that the flames from the fire beneath a boiler are immediately quenched on entering the mouths of the tubes, and that any gases not burned before reaching this point will not be burned at all, but will pass out of the flues into the stack, having parted with only a portion of their available heat. For this reason it is veiy evi- dent that it is important to burn the gases as completely as possible innnediately under the boiler. But at the same time it is necessary to limit the amount of air entering the firebox, for two reasons: that the air passing through the fire will go out of the stack at a much higher temperature than that at which it entered the firebox, thus carrying away part of the heat; and that an excess of air at any one point may cool the combustible gases below the point at which they will ignite, thus causing them to pass away unburned. To obtain perfect combustion with the minimum quantity of air, it is necessary to completely mix the air with the combustible gases. This may be done completely in burning gas proper {e. g., coal gas), as may be seen in the small gas burners used by chemists and known as Bunsen burners, but in burning solid or liquid fuel it may be done only in part. It may easily be shown, however, that this mixture of the combustible gases with the necessary air may be obtained much more readily when burning oil than when burning bituminous coal, and that it is possible to keep the amount of air used in combustion nmch nearer to its proper point. In burning bituminous coal on a grate, the coal is first distilled with the production of coml)ustible gases, and these gases then burn. When fresh fuel is thrown on a fire, it is heated by the coal already burning, the heat causes it to distill, when it gives off inflammable vapors and gases, which burn in the fire space, causing flame. The coke left l)ehind by this distillation is then further heated until it ignites, and irraduallv l)urns awav, but without flame. As it l)urns it grad- THE rSK OF OIL FOR FUEL. 63 \ially shrinks in bulk, until nothing remains l)ut a layer of ash, which continually works its way through the grate liars into the ash- ]>it. A coal tire, then, consists of four parts: a layer of ash on the grates; a layer of red-hot coke above the ash. Imrning, Init without flame; a layer of fresh coal above the coke, not burning, but giving off MO SC^UE Fig. 20. Showing Course of Draft, etc.. Coal- and Oil-Burning Boilers. combustible vapors and gases; and al)ove all, tlie ^burning gases, or flame. With ordinary bituminous coal, about lialf the heat is generated by the burning gases, the other half by the burning coke, so that if any large ]):irt of the gases pass off unburned, the loss may be considerable. '^ — HiL. '.yi 64 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. As above said, to burn these gases they must be mixed with the right amount of air, as any portion of the gas not coming into contact with air before entering the flues will escape unburned. Now, in a coal fire, a large part of the air necessary for combustion must enter through the ashpit, and therefore pass up through the layer of ash and the burning coke, and the air which mixes with the combustible gases above is already deprived of a portion of its oxygen. To mix this air with the gases, dependence must be had on the natural tendency of gases to diffuse, and on the currents created by the draft. These currents tend naturally to move in straight lines, and have very little mixing effect, except where thrown out of line by the bridge wall or similar obstruc- tion. But where oil is used, we have the powerful mixing effect, in addition, which is due to the high velocity of the jet of steam and oil entering through the burner. This jet is almost always set at an angle to the currents caused by the draft, and keeps the burning gases in continual and very strong agitation, so that they are thoroughly mixed, and the gases completely consumed very close to the tip of the burner. (These comparisons may be made somewhat clearer by reference to Fig. 20, which indicates in a general manner the course of the draft through the firebox of a horizontal boiler.) This effect is so marked that while with a coal fire it is easy to get almost any length of flame desired, with oil burners special measures must be taken to get a long flame, when for any reason this is desirable. It is probable that the greater part of the increased efficiency of oil as a fuel is due to this cause: the more complete combustion of the gases in the fore part of the firebox. With careful firing it is possible in many cases to reduce the percentage of combustible in the flue gases to a negligible quantity, by the use of but a small excess of air. Air for Combustion. — The third cause of the greater efficiency of liquid fuel lies in the possibility of reducing the loss of heat, by reduc- ing the amount of air taken into the firebox. That this is possible is due to the fact that with an oil fire both the draft and the amount of fuel being burned may be kept nearly constant, while with solid fuel both the combustible and the air supply are continually changing. The amount of air entering the firebox of a furnace burning coal under nat- ural draft is regulated by the draft or pull of the hot gases rising in the stack, and the resistance to the entering air offered by the layer of fuel, and b}' the ashpit openings. So long as atmospheric conditions remain constant, the draft of the stack will not change, and of course the resistance of the ashpit openings will not vary except as intentionally changed by adjustment of the ash-doors. It follows, then, that if the resistance to draft of the bed of fuel should change, the other factors being constant, the amount of air entering the firebox would also THK USE OF OIL FOR FUEL. 65 change, and it will be seen that this change will always be in the wrong direction. The densest part of the tire, and therefore the part most tending to restrict the draft, is the layer of comparatively fresh fnel on top. As this layer is gradually distilled down to coke, after the addition of a fresh supply, it becomes more open, and therefore the I quantity of air passing through it will increase. But on the other hand, it is at the time when fresh coal is being distilled down to coke, and therefore the greatest quantity of combustible gas is being given off, that the greatest quantity of air is needed to consume this gas com- pletely. As the smallest quantity of air is passing through the fire at the time when the greatest quantity is needed, it is evident that the draft must be so regulated that the maximum quantity will be passing through at all times, and therefore when the bed of fuel is the most l)urned out, that is, just before refiring, a considerable excess of air will be passing through the firebox and carrying off heat with it to the stack. The extent of the loss from this cause may be greater or less according to circumstances. In very large fireboxes, where the bed of fuel is thick at all times, it may become very small, and where large quantities are required to maintain the fire, it is possible to add the fuel so gradually, especially if mechanical stoking appliances are used, as to keep the conditions in the firebox practically uniform. But w^here the fires are small, and particularly where they are thin, the losses from this source may become a serious percentage of the total value of the fuel. To sum up, we have in favor of liquid fuel, the following points: Ease of transportation and handling. Reduction of storage bulk. Increased cleanliness both inside and outside of l)oiler-room. Reduced labor in firing. Reduced cos't per unit of heating value. Increased percentage of efficiency. Increased steaming capacity of generators. Greater ease of regulation. All these advantages taken together make up the well-known and (at present) very great economy in the use of fuel oil. What the saving will be in any particular case wall depend on the relative importance of the various factors, and as these vary the saving will vary. So that, while we may say with perfect safety that in almost every case there will be considerable saving resulting from the use of oil fuel, it is very difficult to say just what the saving will be in any particular case, except by actual trial, followed by a ver}^ careful analysis of the results. But if we bring the matter down to a basis of comparative price 66 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. and efficiency, neglecting such matters as labor and cleanliness (generally of minor importance), we'may get at some fairly accu- rate comparisons. Horizontal Boiler Trials.— The following table (No. 5) con- tains a record of tests made with horizontal tubular boilers, under different conditions. These columns are not strictly com- parable, being made with two different sets of apparatus. Column 1 gives results ob- tained by the Santa Fe Railroad Company, on a stationary boiler in the shop at San Bernardino, using 19.3° Fullerton crude. Column 2, the same, but using 19.6° Fullerton oil. Column 3, the same, using 12^ Kern oil. The boiler used in these three tests was the same, being a 60" X 18' horizontal tubular, with 1600 square feet heating surface. (See Fig. 20b.) These figures were obtained by Mr. 0. S. Breese through the courtesy of the Mechanical' Department, A. T. & S. F. R. R. Column 4 gives figures ob- tained with a 72" x 18' hori- zontal tubular boiler with one hundred 2^" tubes, burning Beaumont crude oil. Column 5 gives figures made with the same boiler, using "buckwheat" anthracite coal. The figures in these columns (4 and 5) are from a series of tests made by Prof. J. E. Denton, in November, 1901. (See "The Engineer," February 15, 1902.) THK rSK OF on, KOH Fl'EL. 67 TABLE 5. 1. 3. Fuel used lbs. \ 14,142 (';il(.ritie value -. H. T. [L] l»,o(IO Tlieoreiical evaporative I'ower per pound of fuel, from and at 212° F lbs. i 20.20 Water evaporated from and at 212° F._ .IbK. 188,042 Kvaporation ixM-jxmnd of fuel as tii'ed, jrross J/>.s'. 13.29 Steam used in injecting percent Net available evaporation per pound of h\e\-lbs. Ktlicieney: percentage of theoretical heating value realized in actnal evaporation /«>r cmt '< Ho.8 Evaporation per hour i)er square foot of heat- ! ing surf ace lbs. I 5.45 17,fil6 19,5(X) 20.20 248,472 14.10 Gross. Gross. B8.8 i«,:«o 18,2(KI 18.85 219,156 13.18 G ross. 69.9 5,393 19,U>(» 19.74 83,542 15.49 4.8 14.75 Net. 74.7 4.08 5,517 12,100 12.53 49,309 8.94 8.94 Net. 71.3 2.21 The tables lielow give tlie details of the tests suimiiarized in columns 1. 2. and >l: TABLE 6. DETAILS OF EVAPORATIVE TESTS BY SANTA FE RAILROAD. Fullerton Oil. (See Column 1 in Table 5.) 1)ATE-1 W2. •z. 1 Duration of Test. Wateh. Oil. Water Kvi per Poun -1 c is 'S " : ^ lbs. 88.5 deq.F. 72 P r3 (teg.F. 'I 94^ ] S3 •< Total. 40,431 Per Hour. Total. Per Hour. t Evap- rom and porated d of Oil. August 16-- 1 hrs. mill. 5 35 lbs. 7,246 lbs. 3,515 lbs. 630 lbs. It. .50 lbs. 13.60 'g.B. 19.3 August 18-- 2 4 29,751 7,438 2,690 673 11.06 13.06 89.1 73i 85 18.8 August 18-- 3 4 30 34,045 7,566 3,016 670 11.29 13.:36 91.0 72 92 ] 19.0 August 19-- 4 4 28,412 7,103 2,608 652 11.89 12.93 90.1 68i 82 * August 19.- Ke.. .5 3 3t» 26,174 7,478 2,313 661 11.32 13.42 88.3 69 88 * Avert 11.23 1.3.27 89.4 71 88.3 1 93 *Ordiiiarv Oliiida crude oil. which will averaire l'.t° B 'rtmni 68 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. TABLE 7. DETAILS OF EVAPORATIVE TESTS BY SANTA FE RAILROAD. Fullerton Oil, (See Column 2 in Table 5.) Date-1902. e c TO Duration of Test. Water. Oil. ^1 1-0 -. ; 3- ; 3w ; 0.V W o c re 1 "1 2^ O TO r"3 TO •1 i •< ' o Total. Per Hour. Total. Per Hour. ; 2 1 s° August 20-- August 20.. 1 hrs 4 min. Ihs. 29,427 lbs. 7,357 lbs. 2,588 lbs. 647 11.37 lbs. lbs. 13.48 88.5 69 desr.F. 80i 19.55 2 4 30 29,681 5,996 2,364 525 11.41 13.52 89.3 70^ 85i 19.55 August 21-- 3 4 26,370 6,593 2,190 548 12.04 14.28 89.0 68i 85^ 19.65 August 21.. 4 4 32 32,011 7,066 2,629 580 12.13 14.37 88.6 70 91^ 19.45 August 22.. 5 4 29,721 7,430 2,577 644 11.53 13.69 89.8 68i 84i 19.80 August 22.- 6 4 33 31,369 6,894 2,619 582 1L84 14.03 89.0 70 93 19.20 August 23.. 7 4 30,925 7,731 2,649 662 11.67 13.85 89.1 68i 84$ 19.75 Average 11.72 13.89 89.0 69.3 86.4 19.56 1 Special Olinda oil from Santa Fe Well No. 26. TABLE 8. DETAILS OF EVAPORATIVE TESTS BY SANTA FE RAILROAD. Kern Oil. (See Column 3 in Table 5.) p. Water. Oil. so c ^ 2^ 2^ S Duration %ol iOTQ O TO Date-1902. o 5 of Test. ^2 1 o '^ TO _-TO 2 ^ °2 o Total. Per Total. Per O : Hour. Hour. r-o- TO 1 TO 1 •"* p hrs. min. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. Jbs. I bs. deg.F. deg.F. di '.Q.B. October 23.. 1 3 28 29,195 7,549 2,404 693 10.90 12.95 £ 3.1 68 110 .- October 23. - 2 4 28,058 7,015 2,506 627 11.19 13.27 J «.4 67i 124 ] 3.8 October 24.- 3 4 1 28,506 7,091 2,567 639 n.io 13.21 S 10.0 65 117 ] 3.4 October 24.. 4 3 50 24,110 6,295 2,170 567 11.11 13.21 8 7.8 66 144 ] 1.7 October 25.. 5 4 21,900 5,475 1,936 484 11.31 13.48 fl 3.6 64^ 140 ] 1.2 October 28.. 6 4 26,019 6,505 2,302 576 11.30 13.45 8 9.7 65i 147 1 1.4 October 28.. 7 4 26,687 6,672 2,445 611 10.92 12.90 9 1.0 72 160 ] 0.9 Average.. 1L12 13.21 8 0.2 67 135 1 '' 1 Evaporation per Pound. — These tests, of which a hirge number might be quoted, would seem to justify tlie statement that, under ordi- nary conditions, oil burned under horizontal tu])ular boilers should give an evaporation of from 13^ to 15 pounds of water per pound of oil. To compare this with the performance of coal is a very difficult THE USE OF OIL FOR FUEL. 69 matter, as while almost all kinds of (clean) oil give about the same results under identical conditions, it is well known that the evapora- tive power of different coals varies enormously. There is considerable <-oal sold on the Pacific Coast which will not evaporate more than 5 pounds of water per pound of coal as tired, while others can be made to evaporate as high as 11 pounds. But it is probably fair (to the coal, at least) to say that run-of-mine steam coal, as shipped into San Fran- cisco, will average not far from 8 pounds actual evaporation from and at 212° F. at an efficiency of 70%, equal to a theoretical evaporative power of 11.4 pounds, or a calorific value of 11,340 B. T. U. At an average evaporation of 8 pounds for coal and 14 pounds for oil, 1 pound of oil would be directly equal to If pounds of coal, or one ton (2240 lbs.) of coal to 1280 pounds or 3.8 barrels of oil. So when we say that four barrels of oil are eqvial to a ton of coal for steam making, the expression, Avhile entirely true and conservative as applied to aver- age fuels and local conditions, may not hold good in every case. Comparison of Costs. — With oil at 65 cents per barrel, coal which will evaporate 5 pounds of water, per pound is worth, in comparison, $1.56 per long ton. Average coast coal, good for an evaporation of 8 pounds of water, is worth $2.48, while very high-grade coals, capable of evaporating 11 pounds of water per pound, are w'orth $3.40 per ton for steam generation in competition with oil. The table following shows the relative actual cost of coal and oil at various prices for each. This table is based on a relative value of four barrels of oil to the (long) ton of coal, and the figures given show the cost, at various rates per ton, of the amount of coal required to do the work of an amount of oil costing ^1, at the different prices named for oil. TABLE 9. COMPARATIVE COST OF COAL AND OIL. COAL- OIL— per Barrel. per Ton. $1 00 $0 95 10 90 $0 85 $0 80 $0 75 $0 70 $0 65 .$0 60 $0 55 $0 50 ,$4 00 .$1 00 .$1 05 $1 11 |1 18 |1 25 $1 33 $1 43 $1 54 $1 66 .|1 82 .$2 00 4 50 1 12 1 18 1 25 1 32 1 41 1 50 1 61 1 73 1 87 2 04 2 25 o 00 1 25 1 32 1 39 1 47 1 57 1 66 1 79 1 92 2 08 2 27 2 50 5 50 1 37 1 45 1 53 1 62 1 72 1 83 1 96 2 11 2 29 2 50 2 75 6 00 1 50 1 58 1 67 1 77 1 88 2 00 2 14 2 31 2 50 2 73 3 00 € 50 1 67 1 71 1 81 1 91 2 03 2 17 2 32 2 50 2 71 2 95 3 25 7 00 1 75 1 84 1 94 2 06 2 19 2 33 2 50 2 69 2 92 3 18 3 50 7 50 1 87 1 97 2 08 2 21 2 34 2 50 2 68 2 88 3 13 3 41 3 75 8 00 2 00 2 11 2 22 2 35 2 .50 2 67 2 86 3 08 3 33 3 64 4 00 70 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. It should always be borne in mind, in makinji comparisons of this sort, that no general rule can give other than average results. In some cases the coal would make a better showing tlian the al)ove, in others worse, depending on the quality of the coal, the quality of thr oil, and the nature of the work to be done. The above figures j)urport only to compare the ordinary British Columitia coal of fair (quality, with an average grade of Kern River or similar oil. for use in steam generation under normal conditions. As an illustration: In Sacramento, average steam coal is quoted at $7.50, carloads,' while fuel oil sells at 65 cents. At these rates the steam user receiving an ordinary grade of coal pays at least two and nine-tenths times as much for his fuel as his competitor using oil, or in other words, his ton of coal could be replaced by oil costing $2.60. At Salinas, coal is quoted at $7.00, oil at 80 cents,'^ making coal cost some two and two-tenths times as much as oil, or $3.20 for oil to replace a ton of coal. At Los Angeles, fuel oil is sold at 75 cents, coal at $8 up.' A ton of $8 coal at Los Angeles costs about two and six-tenths times the price of an equivalent amount of oil, the latter being $8 or less per ton e(|uiva- lent. At Santa Barbara, steam coal is (juoted at $9.50 per ton. Sunnuer- land oil at 80 cents per barrel.* This makes the cost of coal about three times that of oil, the cost of the oil to replace a ton of coal being not far from $8.20. At Redding, pine wood is quoted at $8.50 per cord.* A cord of pine wood equals, roughly speaking, two and one-half barrels of fuel oil. The latter can be laid down at Redding, carloads, for $1.06 per barrel, or $2.65 for the equivalent of a cord of wood. At San Luis Obispo, oil is quoted at 75 cents, wood at $4.50 per cord.* At this rate, a cord of wood costs some two and four-tenths times as much as an equivalent quantity of oil, the cost of the latter being $L88 for the equivalent of a cord of wood. At Auburn, pine wood is quoted at $4 })er cord; fuel oil can be had at 97^ cents per barrel.' This makes wood cost at least twenty-three per cent more than oil, although Auburn is situated very close to a timbered country, and far from oil supply. It would seem that oil can compete with solid fuel at all parts of the State, except perhaps in upper Mendocino and in Humboldt County. 1 Communication from Sacramento Chamber of Commerce. ■''Communication from Chamber of Commerce, Salinas, February 13, 1904. 'Communication from Los Angeles Cliamber of Commerce, January 15, 1904. ♦Communication from A. W. Grant, Summerhind. » Communication from Board of Trade, Redding. ^Comnmnication from Board of Trade, San Luis Obispo, .January 20, 19W. 'Communication from Placer County Improvement and Development Association. IN.IKC'TION AND BUHNEKS. 71 CHAPTER (>. INJECTION AND BURNERS. Tlu' Hrst lU'ccssity in huniinu; fuel oil ccoiioniiciilly is to atomize the oil tinely into tlie tircbox. Whether steam or air be used as the injeet- inti' agent, the oil must be broken by it into the linest possible spray, while at the same time the steam or air used nuist 1)e reduced to tiie smallest possible (juantity, both on account of the i-ost of steam oi' (.f compressed air, and on account of the waste of heat due to use of an excess of either. The necessity of atomizing tlie oil completely is prob- ably apparent enough, yet a short explanation may make it clearer to some who have not thought out the process by which oil is consumed in the tireljox. It is well known that before liquid fuel can be consumed by the aii- passing through the tirebox, it must be converted to a state of vapor by the radiant heat of the firebox walls. When oils are vaporized, oi- more simply, boiled, they leave behind a residue of coke. So when a particle of oil leaves the nose of the burner, it inunediately commences to evaporate in the high heat of the furnace, at the same time traveling across the furnace with the velocity imparted to it by the steam jet, until the liquid portion is completely changed to gas, when the residue, a tiny speck of coke, will also burn. But if the drop leaving the nose of the burner is too large to evaporate completely in the time it takes to travel across the furnace, the residue will not be burned, but will be projected against the target, side wall, or bridge, whatever solid body happens to be in its way, and will stick there. If the particles striking the target or other obstruction are dry carbon, the deposit of carbon formed on the target will not be very hard, and will burn off in the course of time, if the accumulation stops for any cause; but if the par- ticles are of the consistency of asphalt, as is more likely to be the case, they will form a carbon deposit of great hardness. This carbon deposit is necessarily formed in the axis of the jet cast by the burner, that is, in the line where the jet of flame impinging on the wall is turned out and ])ack by the resistance, and being thus in the center of the Hanie is practically protected from the air currents of the firebox. Thus })ro- tected, it of course can not burn off, and will accumulate just so long as the supply of unburned oil continues. This deposit of carbon causes a number of undesirable results. In the first place, it wastes an appreciable portion of the fuel. Then again, oil thus thrown against furnace walls or targets vaporizes slowly and imperfectly, and the vapor, being drawn along the fire-floor, does not mix readily with the air supply, but is likely to be drawn out partly unburned, causing waste and smoke. And finally, if a boiler furnact; 72 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. particularly is being forced to its utmost capacity, a deposit of carbon is likely to seriously disturb the draft conditions of the furnace, causing great waste and a loss of steaming capacity. This is particularly objectionable in the small fireboxes of locomotives, where the carbon ironi an imperfectly adjusted burner may have to be broken down at frequent intervals to enable the engine to hold its steam. In internally fired boilers the necessity of complete atomization is still more strongly felt. It is apparent that the smaller tlie ])articles of oil leaving the burner, the finer will be the carbon dust left V)y the evaporation of these particles. As carbon burns slowly compared with gas, the portion of the flame farthest from the burner will be due in large part to solid carbon, and the larger and slower burning these particles of carbon, the longer will be the flame. If the flame be too long, in such a boiler as this, it will reach the back connection sheet, causing injury to it and to the staybolt heads, while t,^:y?a - ^,'^g^f i : Si ^j??:yy— ^^ Fig. 21. Forms of " Pipe Bunu-rs." alternatinrd' Bureau of 5tc^m En^inetnn^, U 5 Kayy, /'^^^ 28 y SUa.m USIN6 STEAM AND AIR (FM.REED BURNER) L ongitudinal Section. and where large amounts of oil have to be burned in small fireboxes, as in [marine or locomotive work, the theory at least is good. The complication of such arrangements is troublesome, and where air is taken in through the burner, the flame is likely to be extremely noisy. Figure 29 mmm burner TUBULAR TYPE ROTARY FLAME (SRUNDELL-TUCKER BURNER) / nnqitudinal Section An air-operated burner of the tubular type is shown in Fig. 29, the oil passing out of the inner tube through small holes at right angles to the stream of air, which latter has been set rotating by the spiral slots shown, and the mixture ejected in a hollow cone from the adjustable ring nose. This burner does not differ in any essential principle from INJECTION AND BURNERS. 79^ i^ome steam burners, though the adjustment for air is somewhat different from that required for steam. Selection of Burner.— In the selection of an oil burner, the first consideration is its adaptability to the work to be done, as no one burner will answer for all situations if the greatest economy and l)est results are required. If a small, steady tire is to be kept up, and particularly if noise is objectionable, a burner of the "chamber mixing" type will usually be found the most satisfactory. The more thoroughly the oil is atomized within the burner body, the less will be the velocity of tlie steam jet from the burner nose; and other things being equal, the noise pro- duced by a burner is proportional to the velocity of the jet. If the work to be done is heavy, without great fluctuations, a simpler type of tubular burner will give as good results, with less liability to break- downs; in hard, steady firing a very important point is that the burner should be readily kept clean, both at the nose and within the tubes, and that it should be easy to replace without loss of time. Where the demands for steam are variable, an "outside mixing" burner with adjustable steam orifice will respond to regulation more readily than other types. To secure intense local heat, an air-injecting burner may be used, though the same results may often be obtained by manipula- tion of the draft. Adjustment. — Whatever type of burner is used, it must be adjusted to the particular conditions to be met. The size of the flame must be adjusted to the dimensions of the firebox, by varying the relative sizes of the openings. It is evident that the flame proper should never reach any metallic parts, nor should it impinge too strongly on the walls. Owing to the intense heat of an oil fire, even the best fire-brick will soon crumble or melt if set too far up in the flame; and if the flame strikes the wall at short range, carbon deposits are hard to avoid. If the firebox is wide and flat, a slotted nozzle burner of some kind should be used, and the flame be spread evenly over the whole surface without directly playing on the side walls or the shell; while in a long, narrow firebox a round nozzle is better, that the nearest and hottest part of the flame may be kept from the walls. When the firebox is short and deep, as with a water-tube or an internally-fired boiler, a rose-flame burner may be so set as to carry the fire very close to the burner, and reduce danger of burning lower tubes or back connections. Where water-tube boilers are forced hard, this is often a very difficult matter, requiring much skill and ingenuity on the part of the engineer. Some ■contrivances for this purpose are shown in a later paragraph. Installation. — Where any considerable amount of fuel is to be used, it is economy to put the installation of the burners in the hands of a person or firm skilled in the work. The adjustment of an oil burner 6— BUL. 32 80 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. to give the best results is a very delicate matter, requiring special knowledge on the part of engineer or mechanic, and the increased cost of installation by an expert will soon be returned in added economy, and reduced wear and tear on boilers and settings. A good burner, carefully adjusted, under a water-tube boiler, should consume approxi- mately 4% of the steam generated by the l)oiler when running at or near rated capacity. As the steam used ])y the burner must be heated in the firebox to at least stack temperature before being discharged from the flues, every per cent of steam used by the burner reduces the available energy of the fuel by from 1^% to 1-^%. A burner consuming 6% of the steam generated by the boiler, not an uncommon occurrence, is eating up not less than 7% of the fuel, perhaps even 10%, while from 3% to 5% of this loss is absolute waste. Economy in steam consumption seems, from the results of a number of competitive tests, to depend much less on the form of the burner than on the adaptability of that form to the special use, and on the skill exercised in the adjustment of the mechanism. The question is often debated as to the relative merits of the various patented burners, and their superiority to the simpler and unpatented forms. There can be no question that the patented burners, when installed by their inventors (naturally, men skilled in their adjustment), give better results than are ordinarily had with home-made burners installed by mechan- ics of no special skill in the matter. On the other hand, there is little doubt that an expert can, with the simplest form of pipe burner, nearly if not quite equal the best performance of the more expensive types. So while it is undoubtedly good policy to entrust the installa- tion of a large fuel-oil plant to an oil-burner man, yet no prospective small consumer should be deterred from the use of oil by the cost of burners, as with care and the special skill which comes Avith practice the best results may be obtained, and even with the crudest contriv- ances the cost of liquid fuel may be made much less than that of either coal or wood. Compressed Air. — The idea of using compressed air in place of steam as an injecting agent in oil burners early suggested itself , as it can readily be shown that the steam required to compress the air for a burner is but a small fraction of the amount required for the burner itself. There was thought to be the further advantage that the air would be supplied at the point most needed, at the center of the flame, and thus assist com- bustion. It seems now to be the general opinion that burners worked with air at high pressure throw too fierce and concentrated a flame, dif- ficult to handle, and likely to burn out walls and boilers unless care- fully controlled. There is the further drawback that the necessary apparatus and first cost are greatly increased, and that breakdowns are THE FIREBOX. 81 much more likely, nevertheless where water is expensive, as on ship- board, the system is very generally used. Some very satisfactory installations use air at low pressure (two to ten ounces). The results seem to be better as regards both economy and control of fire. The burners used with both systems are practically identical with those used with steam. CHAPTER 7. THE FIREBOX. The proper construction of the firebox intended to burn oil is prob- ably the most important matter connected with the installation of liquid fuel, while at the same time it is that part of the construction which has received least attention from engineers. The reason is easy Fig. oi). Grate Bar Setting. to find: that the original installations of fuel-oil apparatus were in fur- naces previously burning coal, that the least possible alteration was desired, on account of the cost of changes, and that the degree of econ- omy realized in this crude manner was so great that incentive for improvement was lacking. Still it can not be doubted that the coal- burning furnace is particularly ill adapted for use with oil, and that a radical change in boiler-setting methods is desirable. The common way of adapting the firebox of a horizontal boiler to use with oil (water-tube boilers are mentioned in Chapter 11) is to cover the grate bars with loose fire-brick, in a checker, leaving an opening under the nose of the burner, and to insert the l)urner through a hole in the boiler front, between the doors. (See Fig. 56.) The ash- pit openings are sometimes closed with brick, sometimes left open, and 82 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. the bridge wall is leveled with the grates. The faults of this system are apparent enough: The burner points directly toward the back plate, and the velocity of the burner jet is usually such that combustion hardly commences further forward than three or four feet from the front. Under a small boiler, the hottest part of the fire is near the rear end, and if the fire is forced the back plate will often be raised to a red heat, with ruinous effect on rear tube sheet and tube ends, besides forcing considerable amounts of combustible gas into the stack unburned. If it is attempted to break the course of the flame by leaving the bridge wall in place, the flame will l)e forced directly against the fire sheet, causing blistering and sagging, even with good boiler circulation. Where a strong, steady flame is directed against Fig. 57. Target Setting one point at the bottom of a boiler, it is quite possible for the steam to drive and hold back the water at that point for any length of time, so that, the water having no access to the plate, this spot would be rapidly burnt out. This method of firing oil is wasteful in the extreme, as well as very destructive, where the boiler is forced, though for very light work it will answer well enough. A burner for this setting should be of the flat-flame variety, and should spread the flame well up to the side walls. Some prefer to set the burner level, others to tip it slightly toward the brick covering the grates. The setting generally used with oil stills is sometimes applied to boilers. (See Fig. 57.) The grates are removed, the bridge wall cut down to the height of the rear bearing bar, the back filling dressed off to an even slope, and a fire-brick target run from ground to top of bridge wall, inclined from 30° to 45° to the vertical. The burner is inserted through the front, and set so that the flame will strike in a pile of broken fire-brick near the bottom of target. The ashpit open- ings are closed with brick, only a small draft opening being left in each, THE FIREBOX. 83 and the firebox is lined with one or two courses of fire-brick to the bottom, as the heat is highest at that point. This setting gives excel- lent results, particularly with hard firing, gives the use of the entire lower surface of the boiler, and considerably reduces the amount of air required for combustion, as the burner jet is practically at right angles to the line of draft, and the flame rolls over in the fore part of the furnace before going over the bridge wall. With this setting it is necessary to regulate the draft very carefully, as an excess interferes with the proper working of fire. A rather similar method (see Fig. 58) is to practically remove the bridge wall, and to bring the back filling to a nearly even slant from front to a rear bridge wall, leaving a circulating chamber at rear end. PAUl- W PRUTZMAM Fig. 58. Half Target Setting. The burner is set low, and the flame strikes a pile of broken fire-brick placed about where the foot of bridge wall would be. This arrangement is less severe on the front fire sheet than the target setting above, but is rather less efficient as regards combustion. With either of these settings any form of burner may be used, either round or flat nozzle, though a round nozzle is prolmbly better. If a round-nose burner is used, and the flame strikes the target squarely, carbon deposits are likely to form while the firel)Ox is cool, but these w^ill burn off as the heat rises. ^^'ith any form of target setting the cast boiler front is entirely unnec- essary, a wall of red brick with fire-brick lining being as good or better. In any setting without grate bars it is obviously impossible to fire up with coal; wood may be used, or if oil can be gotten through the burner in any way, the boiler may be fired up with cold oil by flowing a small stream onto a pile of waste, burlap, or broken brick, in the center of the firebox. This method, which of course causes some smoke, is largely practiced in the oil fields. To secure perfect combustion, and to obtain the full heating value of 84 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. the fire gases without danger of burning tubes or back tube sheet, the set- ting shown in Figs. 59 and 60 was devised and used by Mr. Frank Fether, superintendent of the Monte Cristo Oil Company of Kern River. The tunnel is built of the best fire-brick, and covered in with fire-tile, of the dimensions shown, which are made to order. An arch made of fire- m m m \5pec\al Filre Til^ < e'c — y Closed Tunnel ' I I I I JPAUL W PRUTZnAN LONSITUDINAL SECTION Fig. 59. Tunnel Setting, Back Fired. brick will melt down in the intense heat generated in the combustion chamber, and the fire-tile must be of the very best quality. This sj'-s- tem secures perfect combustion with the minimum amount of air, draft being under perfect control, and the mixture of air with fire gases very thorough, and where a boiler is run twenty-four hours per day, is very economical. If a boiler is to be run day shift only, the setting is not very suit- able, as the great mass of fire- brick in the combustion tunnel stores up a large quantity of heat, which is given off and practically lost during the night. The heat maintained while run- ning is very even, but on account of the heat-storage capacity of the brickwork, does not respond very readily to varying demands for steam. To obtain the same results, i. e., perfect combustion at the front end and close regulation of draft, the setting shown in Fig. 61 has been devised by Mr. E. N. Moor, superintendent of the Capitol refinery. The iron front is discarded here also, and the coml)ustion chamber built out Fig. CROSS SECTION 6U. Tunnel Setting, Back Fired. STORAGE AND HEATING. 85 in front of tlie l^oiler, two coursoH of fire-brick and two of red brick, the top being of arcli fire-tile. The advantage of this method of setting is that the high heat of the eonil)Ustion chamber secures perfect consump- tion of the oil at the front end, shortens the flame, and does away with burning the rear head, while at the same time the heat-storage capacity of the comlmstion chamber is comparatively small, and the fire suscep- tible of close regulation. With either of the above settings a burner with round nozzle, or other tip throwing a narrow flame, would be used, in PARTIAL SECTION FRONT ELEVATION Fig. 61. Tunnel Setting, Front Fired. order to minimize the burning of side walls of combustion tunnel or box. With this provision, any form of burner would be applicable. There is undoubtedly great room for improvement in the matter of setting horizontal boilers for oil burning, as the systems most used at present are admitted to be highly unsatisfactory. When the price of fuel oil rises, as it undoubtedly will in time, engineers will be forced to figure more closely as to the efficiency of the oil plant, and when this is done a radical alteration in present methods may be looked for. CHAPTER 8. STORAGE AND HEATING. Temperature. — The temperature at which oil is passed into the burner will de})end largely on the character of oil used, as to its viscosity and flash point. If the oil is to be heated at all in the tank, it is desirable to heat to such temperature as will render the oil fluid, to permit of handling with reasonal)le steam consumption at the pump; on the other hand, it is not desirable, for several reasons, to heat the oil beyond its flash point, and as a rule that point should not be approached too closely. The temperature between the discharge end 86 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA, of the fuel pump and the burner is, however, much less important than that between the suction end and the storage tank. In some cities there are insurance or fire regulations which prevent the heating of fuel-oil tanks, but in many situations where oil is used for fuel there are no requirements except such as the consumer sets for his own safety. The steam required to keep a fuel supply at a moderately high temperature being considerably less than that required to pump the same oil cold (owing to the heat being, in the first case, largely returned to the firebox), the temperature at which the oil is pumped should be the highest consistent with safety and with the avoidance of gas in the suction line and pump. The average oil of 14° gravity reaches practically its maximun) fluidity at 150° F., losing very little in viscosity between 150° and 250°: the average oil of this gravity, where properly prepared for fuel purposes, flashes at from 250° to 300° F., and could l)e kept at 150° F. with perfect safety. The average oil of 16° gravity reaches its maximum fluidity at about 140°, while its flash point will range from 240° up; such an oil would properly be stored and pumped at about 140°. The average oil of 18° gravity reaches its maximum fluidity at about 110° F., while the flash point would be 175° or above; such an oil should be kept at about 110°. The average oil of 20° to 22° gravity is usually sufficiently fluid at ordinary temperatures. Its flash point will range from 130° up to 180°, and it may be heated, if necessary, to 100° with safety, but not higher unless the flash point of the particular oil were known. Oils lighter than 22° are rarely used for fuel purposes, being of more value in other ways. Distillates are used for fuel in some cases, being particularly easy to handle in some situations where there is difficulty with heavy crude; for instance, where very small flames are required. The flash point varies from below normal to as high as 200° F., but the average fuel distillate, of 25° to 27° gravity, should flash at from 130° to 180^. Where fuel distillate is to be handled in any quantity, its flash point should always be taken, either by producer or consumer, as it is very liable to fluctuation. It is rarely necessary to heat distillate used for fuel. Gas. — It has been contended that heating a heavy oil in the tank, »>r l)etween the tank and the pump, increases the liability to gas trapping in the suction, and this is undoubtedly true under some circumstances. But it should also be borne in mind that the giving off of gas from a crude oil is greatly facilitated by reduction of pressure; that is, if the oil is rendered fluid, so that the vacuum in the suction pipe is low, the amount of gas given off may be less than if the oil is cold, making the vacuum in the suction pipe much liigher. The question as to which STORAGE AND HEATING. O/ oondition is most favorable to the avoidance of gas will depend for its answer on the nature of the oil, and the size and length of the suction; tliere will necessarily be great difference in different cases. The formation of gas in both suction and discharge ends, but particu- larly in the suction, is one of the most annoying difhculties encountered in handling crude oil. In many cases it can not be avoided by any practical>le arrangement, but much trouble can often be obviated if, in installing a fuel-oil plant, attention be paid to the kind of oil to be handled. If the oil to be used is 18° or lighter, the arrangement of pump and connections need not be very different from what would be put in for water; but if the oil is, as is usually the case, to be 14*^ to 16° in gravity, great care must be taken with tank and suction connections. It goes without saying that the storage tank should be set as close as possible to the oil pump, and as nearly as possible on its level. The ideal arrangement is to have the storage tank feed the pump by gravity, l)ut in cities, or where the danger of tire is considerable, this is out of the (juestion. But it is absolutely necessary to keep the lift within reasonable limits, for if the oil is to be pumped cold, it is hardly pos- sible ever to lift more than six or seven feet in cool weather, while even with a four-foot lift it will be difficult at times to make the pump take up heavy oil. For this reason, and as the gas in the discharge may be l)led off, which can not be done in the suction, the pump should be kept as low as possible, preferably on the boiler-room floor, even at the expense of some inconvenience in cleaning, etc. The suction pipe should be large; if cold oil is to be pumped it should have not less than twice the area of the discharge, and where the trail is long this suction area can l^e considerably exceeded. The drawback to large suctions is in first cost only; once installed they cost no more than a smaller pipe, and the difference in first cost Avill soon be balanced by saving in time and repairs. Where the suction has two or more bends they should, if possible, be made with pipe bent to a long radius, or where this is impracticable, with long sweep ells, while any unneces- sary fittings on the suction should l)e carefully avoided. Size of Pump. — As to size of pump required to handle any quantity of oil, a great deal will depend on the quality of the oil. A pump will handle very nearly as much oil of 18° or lighter as of water, whether the oil is hot or cold, but where 14° oil is to be pumped cold the water end should have at least five times the cubic capacity required for an equal delivery of water. In pumping cold heavy oil it is necessary to reduce the piston speed much below what would be good practice in pumping water, while even with light or hot oil it is not desirable to speed a pump very high. The valves in the water end, where seated by springs, should be set at the lowest tension consistent with prompt 88 PETROL?:i'M IN CALIFORNIA. seating. A small amount of slip through the valves because of slow seating is better than continual trouble with gas binding in the cylinders. Owing to the high compressibility of oil gases, they are slow to lift the valves when the latter are heavily weighted, and it is no uncommon sight to see an oil pump alternately compressing and distending the gases in both ends of the cylinder, without the valves lifting from their seats. In regard to the size of steam end, it is impossible to give any rules from the data so far worked out. It is probable that with low pressures (twenty to thirty pounds) an oil of 14° gravity offers from three to four times the resistance in the pump which would be given by water, but only where the oil is being circulated very slowly, as is visually the case in a fuel-supply system. The resistance to flow through pipes rises very rapidly as the speed is increased, much more rapidly than with water or other light liquids. Where the oil goes from the discharge immediately to the heater, and is carried in the discharge system at 150° or above, the resistance offered to its flow through the pipes is not much greater than that of water. Pressure. — The pressure at which the oil is carried to the burners is a matter of opinion. It is probable that moderately high pressures (forty to sixty pounds) assist in atomizing, and lower the steam con- sumption at the burner more than enough to make up for the extra steam consumed at the pump. There is very little doul)t that more oil can be burned under a boiler with high oil pressure than with low, and where boilers are being forced to their maximum capacity this is a material advantage. But on small plants, where boiler capacity is usually sufficient, this is of less importance than the difficulty of mak- ing tight joints with hot oil under high pressure. High pressures, particularlj^ if carried on the oil orifice of the burner rather than on the needle valve, serve to prevent choking up. Gravity Feed. — For small plants, where insurance regulations do not figure, gravity feed has several advantages. The great drawback to this system — the danger in case of fire — does not amount to much if the tank is set at some distance from the buildings, and on a foundation which can not burn out. As with gravity feed it is rarely possible to get more than eight or ten pounds pressure at the burner, there should be provision for keeping the oil very hot, the burner should be of some form Avhich will work to satisfaction at five pounds oil pressure, and traps or siphons in the feed pipe must be aA'oided. Gravity feed is not at all economical of steanij as the saving in pumping is more than compensated by the extra steam required to inject low-pressure oil, but it has the great advantage that it is independent of steam or solid fuel for starting (a layer of brickbats or other non-combustible material. STORAGE AND HEATING. 89 saturated with oil, providing a means of starting up a small boiler) and that gravity is much more dependable than a small feed pump. Piping^. — Two recognized methods for bringing oil to the burners are used: the circulating system and the "dead end" system. In the first, more oil is pumped into the feed pipes than the burners consume, the excess being taken from a point near the burners, through a pressure regulator or standpipe, back to the suction of the pump. In the second, there is no outlet for the oil, even pressure being maintained by pro- portioning the steam end of pump to steam and oil pressures; it is apparent that this would work only where boiler pressure remained constant, but governors are also in use which regulate^ the steam supply to pump, according to pressure on oil system. The first method has the advantages: first, that even pressure is maintained independent of fluctuations in steam pressure or in temperature of oil; and second, that the constant flow of oil through the pipes |;ends to prevent their being stopped up by sediment deposited from hot oil. A third point, sometimes of much importance, is that the quantity of oil passing through the heater, being independent of quantity used, is much more constant than where it varies with the adjustment of burners, and thus the temperature of oil issuing from heater is much more likely to be constant. This is a material advantage, for where there is much fluctua- tion in the temperature of the oil brought to burners, the quantity fed through a valve set at a certain point will also vary greatly, and thus disturb the relative adjustment of steam and oil, and require more attention from the fireman. Of course, in circulating the oil there is some loss of power, but the quantity of steam required by the oil pump is a very small matter, at most, compared with the steam consumed in the burners. There is one material disadvantage attached to this system; that the gas, more or less of which is always carried into the pipes from heater, is turned back into the pump suction. If conditions are such that the returned oil can be carried to the storage tank, this does not figure, but it should be borne in mind that even where the quantity of oil circu- lated is but little more than the burners use, the constant return of hot oil to the tank will, if the latter be small, raise its temperature considerably in the course of a day's run. In some cases, where it is desired to carry the storage tank hot, this method is used for heating the stored oil, instead of putting coils in the tank itself. Heaters. — The heater should of course be at the discharge end of the pump, and is best arranged so that oil and steam flow in opposite directions. It is desirable that the oil should move from bottom to top, and there should be considerable space below the inlet to allow dirt to settle on the bottom, w^here a plug is provided for cleaning from 90 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. time to time. Space should also be left above the tubes for gas, and a bleeder or other device placed on the crown so that the gas may be removed, while oil is taken from the side, two or three inches from the top. This arrangement separates gas from the oil, and keeps it out of the pipe system, thus helping to avoid the blowing out of burners by gas bubbles. A simple petcock for bleeding off the gas requires a good deal of attention, and where the quantity of oil handled is large, it may be economy to use an automatic l>leeder, similar in construction to the air bleeders used on water pipe- lines. This contrivance is roughly sketched in Fig. 16, where it is shown in place in the top of a column heater, though it could be applied as well to any other form of heater having a gas chamber on top. The inner and outer shells of heater are held in position by the 1" pipe, inside of which is passed a piece of f " XX pipe, bored out to V', held below by the valve seat D, above by the faced lock nut E, with rubber gasket, bearing on flange of outer shell. The float A moves the stem B, carrying the valve C. The stem makes a neat sliding fit in the hole through seat D, and in the |" pipe; the valve is ground into seat after setting up entire apparatus. The stem is supported above by a nut F, which carries the weights, and is channeled lightly on four sides, the channels being carried below bottom of thread where stem passes through nut. The length of stem is so adjusted that the float will be about half submerged when the oil in inner chamber is at the desired height above outlet. By placing ordinary iron scale weights over top of stem, the buoyancy of float and gas pres- sure on stem are exactly balanced. As gas accumulates in top of heater the oil will be forced down, the float will fall, carrying valve away from seat, gas will escape through the grooves in stem, and the oil rising to balance pressure will raise the float, closing valve. The entire play of the stem need not exceed i", as the rise and fall of stem when in use are almost imperceptible. This contrivance is sensitive and reliable, as there are no packed joints Automatic Gas Relief Valve. STORAGE AND HEATING, 91 to gum, and sticking of stem or valve may be relieved by running light mineral oil into grooves, and revolving stem. The cost of the appa- ratus is considerable, and its use is hardly justified unless considerable quantities of oil are being handled. Probably the best arrangement for a heater, though a rather expensive one, is a battery of small t ubes, connecting chambers above and below, and jacketed for steam outside. (See Fig. 17.) The tubes should have a combined area some- what larger than that of the outlet pipe; the length is figured from the heating sur- face required, and this from the tempera- tures and the amount of oil passed. In fig- uring on the basis of heating an equal amount of water, al- loAvance must be made for the fact that with oil, while the specific heat (that is, the heat required to raise a given amount of oil to a given tempera- ture) is less than with water, the speed of absorption and trans- ference of heat through oil is very low. This makes a larger heating surface necessary than would be required for water under the same conditions, but there are not, so far as the writer knows, any figures to be had which will determine how large this allowance should be. A heater of ample size is an excellent investment. PBUU W- PPUTZMfl/M • NOV- 1103 Fig. 17. Oil Heater, Tubular Pattern. 92 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. The chamber heater (see Fig. 18) is a cheap device, which takes up much room in proportion to its capacity, but otherwise gives good results. If made of 6" pipe inside 12" casing, a length of five feet over all will heat the oil required for two or three burners, using exhaust steam. The details of construction shown in the figure would not, of course, answer for steam under any pressure. This heater is difficult to clean, the inner chamber being accessible only by breaking down the whole apparatus, but may be gotten in shape, if very dirty, by blowing steam from top to bottom, and ordinarily may be kept fairly clean by occasionally drawing down while hot. Where but a single burner is to be supplied, a i" steam pipe may be run inside either suction or discharge line, and will heat the oil very thoroughly with a small amount of waste steam. If placed in the suction, the steam pipe must follow the oil line into the tank (discharg- Steam nUcL, -Oil nnn Fig. 18. Oil Heater, Chamber Type. ing outside), as otherwise the vacuum raised by the plug of cold oil in the end of the pipe, combined with the heating of the oil, would fill the suction with gas. A coil of small pipe, laid inside a short length of 4" to 6" pipe, the latter being capped, and connected with pump discharge (steam inside, oil outside of coil), makes a cheap and efficient heater, but the back pressure of the coil will usually make it undesirable to use exhaust steam. Both of the above systems have the drawback that they do not take care of the inevitable gas, but pass it to the burner. Suitable heating arrangements of simple form, adapted to the particular case, will readily suggest themselves to the engineer. Some users of oil prefer to take it to the burner cold, but the diffi- culty of pumping, and even more, of regulating cold heavy oil, would seem to make it desirable to heat the oil wherever possible. A heater of ample capacity has a strong cleansing effect on the oil, depositing STORAGE AND HEATING. 93 sand and water, and causing tlie t^ludge to be taken up by the oil, and while this may be of little inii)ortaiU'e so long as the oil oonies to the tank clean, it is very useful if the oil is bad, as will oecasionally hai){)en. Pressure Regulation. — The pressure in a circulating system is regu- lated either by a pressure relief valve such as is used for water, or by a standpipe with overflow. For the former use, a standard water relief valve, operated by a spring, and adjustable with wheel, is on the market. If a relief valve is needed where the regular article is not obtainable, a very satisfactory regulator may be made from an old globe valve, by removing the threads from stem, and putting in place of the wheel a broad iron disc, to be loaded with the proper weight. As it is necessary in doing this to exactly center the weight, to prevent the stem binding in the packing, it is sometimes thought preferable to remove the wheel and fit a lever resting on top of stem (as in the lever safety valve) with ball weight. These relief valves work very well when made with care, and an old valve answers as well or better than a new one; it seems unnecessary to remark that the pressure comes below, not above, the disc. In regulating pressure by standpipe and overflow, Avhich is more reliable than any relief valve could be, it is merely necessary to figure the height required above burner. The following brief table gives the height (in inches and tenths) of a column of oil of known gravity, at known temperature, required for a gauge pressure of one pound : TABLE 10. Temperature of Column, in Degrees Fahrenheit. 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120° f I 10° 27.7 27.8 27.9 28.0 28.2 28.3 28.4 1 .a •■V 11° 27.9 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.4 28.5 28.6 pq 12° 13° 28.1 28.3 28.2 28.4 28.3 28.5 28.4 28.6 28.6 28.8 28.7 28.9 28.8 2i).0 5 C 3 2. it 14° 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 29.0 29.1 29.2 (i ~ a 15° 28.7 28.8 28.9 29.0 29.2 29.3 29.4 o 16° 17° 1 28.9 29.1 29.0 29.2 29.1 29.3 29.2 29.4 29.4 29.6 29.5 29.7 29.6 29.8 5 - > 18° 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.8 29.9 30.0 ??i' g 19° 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.9 30.0 30.1 30.2 l-J i 20° 29.7 29.8 29.9 30.1 30.2 .30.3 30.4 ' i ^ 94 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Connections. — Tlie accompanying sketches (Figs. 30 and 31) show connections and pipe arrangements between the tank and boiler front. Tlie order of these connections is apparent enough without any descrip- tion. The pi})es are all small, unless a large number of burners is to be su})plied, as a single burner is amply taken care of by ^' oil ])ipe and |" steam pipe. It is always well to have a cock in the oil ])ipe back of the main valve controlling the burner supply, and to have a stop in a handy situation on the main oil feed, so tliat all the burners may be shut down at once in case of accident. CQVfPMENT rott t — ^^ _ _ Fig. 30. Oil Burners, Front End Connections. The valve controlling burner oil supply must be very sensitive, and is always likely to choke. Needle valves are often used, though stopcocks are sometimes preferred. If the latter are used, they should be of the lever-handle variety, and work rather stiff. They may be made much more sensitive by stopping up the opening in the plug, and drilling through the latter, at right angles to the opening, a hole ^" in diameter. Or with less trouble, one face of the opening in plug may be widened with a file, say /^" above its original size, while at one side of the other face a V-shaped cut is made with a small file. Either of these arrange- STORAGE AND HEATING. 95 iiients offei> a very .small o])ening to the first passage of oil. while with the second the valve may he thrown wide o})en if desired. Impurities in Oil. — Oils lighter than 18'^" in gravity are generally almost free from water and sediment, hut heavier oils sometimes contain notal)le quantities of both, though a great change for the better in that respect has been made of late. Both impurities are very objectionable. Water not only displaces its own bulk of oil, but also lowers the total evaporation by its own weight or more; the principal objection, however, is due to its tendency to emulsify with the oil, forming a froth which is OIL TO BURNERS =«a :^^= J SSTEAM TO BURNER* Fig. SI. Oil BiiriuT Connections. (Reiinxlnccri fi-diii "The Engineer." Feb. l.'i. 1902.) difficult to i)ump, and which is likely to form a layer in the tank, )»ractically non-combustible when pumped to the burner. This is ])articularly true in circulating systems where the excess oil is returned to the service tank, as any water is here in a short time thoroughly churned up with the oil. The writer once saw thirty barrels of heavy oil so completely emulsified with water as to form a pasty mass, which could not be forced through the needle valve, wide open, for more than a minute at a time, with thirty pounds pressure. The paste was so thick as to suggest a large amount of sand, yet a test showed nothing to be present but oil and water. The latter was put into the tank 7— Bi-L. 32 96 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. accidentally, was al)out half the bulk of the oil, and had l)een thoroughly- agitated with tiie oil l)efore its presence became known. Such a case as this is extreme, yet in many cases difficulty in making burners feed properly may be traced to the presence in oil of a small percentage of water in a finely divided state. Sand or other dirt is even worse, as when once packed it can not be forced through burners or valves by any amount of pressure, and as it rapidly settles to a hard mass when allowed to stand. Tanks in which oil is to be heated should always be provided with means for cleaning, sags in pipes should l)e avoided as far as possible, and pro- vision should l)e made for ])lowing steam back from the burners to the pump, and from pump to supply tank. As this means of cleaning throws more or less water into the oil, it should be used only when tank is empty, or in case of emergency, l)ut is highly efficacious. Where tanks are set underground it is considered desirable to })ut in suction from top rather than through bottom, and to have it clear bottom of tank by at least an inch — two or three inches are better. Where draw- ing oil from tanks above the surface, it is well to set the outlet three or four inches up the side; in no case should the outlet be brought out from the bottom and then up, as is occasionally done, as the bend thus formed is absolutely certain to fill with sand in a short time, and is very difficult to clear. Estimation of Impurity. — When crude oil is bought on contract, a clause is generally inserted providing for a maximum amount of water and sediment. This percentage may readily be ascertained by the buyer, if desired, in the following manner: A stoppered glass cylinder of 100 cubic centimeters capacity (which may be had from dealers in chemical apparatus for less than a dollar) is filled to the 50 c.c. mark with the oil to be tested, being careful not to get more oil on the sides of cylinder than is necessary, and to take a well-mixed average sample of the oil. The cylinder is then filled to the 75 c.c. mark with com- mercial benzole (not benzine, which is entirely different and will not answer; benzole may be had from wholesale druggists at about fifty cents per quart) and well shaken, until the oil is dissolved off sides and ])ottom; this can be readily seen by the darker color of the undissolved oil. The stopper is then removed, and the cylinder filled to the 100 c.c. mark with ordinary gasoline, stoppered, well shaken, and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. At the end of this time the water and dirt, if any be present, will have settled in a clean layer on the bottom, and can be read off, each 1 c.c. of this bottom layer representing 2% of foreign matter in the oil. The cylinder should not be handled until after the reading is made, for if disturbed the bottom layer may be again mixed with the oil above. This method is accurate to one half of one per cent, after reasonable practice, and requires but a few minutes, aside from the time allowed for settlement. REGULATION OF OIL FIRES. 97 Gasoline Test. — The figures obtained in this manner do not corre- spond with those given by the ordinary gasoline test, the i)ereentage given !)y the hitter being higher. But there is no question that the usual gasoline cut is, when applied to California oils, inaccurate, and unfair to the producer, for the following reason: Gasoline of 74° gravity, when mixed with heavy crude oil, separates not only sand and water, l>ut also a Haky black or ])rown su])stance commonly called sludge. The sludge i)recipitated in this manner is really asphaltene, a solid sub- stance, which normally remains dissolved in oil, but which is separated l)y the gasoline in a spongy form, at least eighty per cent of the bulk of the sludge as it settled out in the gasoline cut consisting of gasoline. Asphaltene is an integral part of the oil, will not separate under nor- mal conditions, and has practically the same value for fuel as any other part of the oil. There seems no reason why this substance should be arbitrarily separated and classed as an impurity, nor why its bulk should be read under conditions which give a much greater percentage than the true one. Further, the percentage of impurity determined in this manner, on any one sample, will vary widely with slight differ- ences in the gravity of gasoline used, and with the temperature at which the test is made. The gasoline test as commonly used in the oil fields gives a reading from two to six times as great as the true percentage of foreign matter. The test with Ijenzole, above outlined, is by no means a perfect one, as the reading of small quantities in a comparatively wide graduate can never be very accurate, and as the water sticking to the sides of graduate is not included in the reading. It is, however, much more relial)lc and nearer the truth than the common gasoline cut, and is prol)ably as accurate as any process which can be conducted by unskilled persons without laboratory facilities. CHAPTER 9. REGULATION OF OIL FIRES. The proper regulation of an oil fire is learned by experience, and by experience only. But the regulation of draft is a matter of much importance, and a few words on this subject may not be out of place. Quantity of Air. — The quantity of air required for the complete combustion of a pound of oil does not vary much with various grades of oil (ranging from 170 to 175 cubic feet per pound of dry oil), but the amount actually used in different cases does vary enormously. If the excess of air can be restricted to three fourths of the amount required (making total consumption a])proximate .SOO feet per j)ound), 98 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. the apparatus and regulation are probably as perfect as there is any reason to expect, under the best conditions. But where the excess amounts to two or three times the amount used, the waste is very great, and should be corrected. An oil-burning furnace always works under forced draft, the jet of steam from the burner being a powerful injector. For this reason the draft openings should always be considerably smaller than would be used with solid fuel. Air should be taken into the firebox, in most cases, both at ground level and at a higher point, at or near level of burner. With draft openings of a fixed size, the amount of air passing into the firebox will vary with the amount of steam issuing from burner, and to this extent the draft is self-regulating, but by careful manipulation of draft openings the fireman can almost always improve the efficiency of the firebox. Unfortunately, there is no direct way of telling when the point of greatest efficiency has been reached, without analysis of chimney gases; but by balancing steam against air until the smallest draft opening is found which will keep the fire clear, a fair degree of economy can always be had. An over-supply of air to an oil fire not only wastes fuel, but also causes a tendency to puffing, particularly Avith low fires. This may often, though not always, be better corrected by reducing the draft than by turning down the steam supply to burner. When a burner puffs persistently at a point where it should carry a clean fire, it is good proof that the burner does not atomize properly. Some burners, particularly home-made ones, have a space just inside the nozzle where oil might collect in a little pool. When running hard the velocity of steam will carry out this oil as it runs down, but when running with a low fire the oil will collect, finally be bloAvn out in a spurt, then collect again, causing strong puffing of the fire. This can be done away with only by altering the shape of the burner. When burners are expected to run regularly on a small steam supply, they should be so designed that oil entering them will run out clean and freely without the assist- ance of the steam. Explosions. — Any trap of this sort will occasionally cause an explo- sion in the firebox, which may be dangerous under some conditions. Explosions are more often caused by a temporary stoppage of the oil supply through grit, gas, or a globule of water; the oil being suddenly turned again into the hot furnace, often in quantity, will be gasified and ignited by the hot brickwork. These explosions can never be entirely prevented, but may be reduced in number by care in keeping pipes clean, by bleeding off gas, by preventing gas traps and pockets, and by running with fairly high pressure on the oil feed. Serious accidents from this cause are very rare. REGULATION OF OIL FIRES. 99 Carbon Deposits air (luc to imperfect atomization, or to improper settinjj; of burners in the furnace. A burner should be chosen to throw a tlame of length suitable to the length of the furnace; a long flame in a long and narrow furnace, a short flame in a short furnace. The most |)rolific source of carbon deposits is improper working of the burner, and this can be corrected only by increasing the steam supply, restrict- ing the area of nozzle, or more often by entire change in form of burner. It is poor economy to shut off incipient carbon formations by increasing the draft — the remedy is worse than the disease. Burners set into a furnace at an angle are sometimes set too close to the opposite wall, and in this case they can be turned, or better, the nozzle so adjusted as to throw a shorter Hame. In adjusting a burner into the firebox, it should be remembered that, to restrict excess of draft, it is best to have the jet from burner meet the main current of entering air at or near a right angle. This greatly promotes mixing of air and oil vapor, but generally involves pointing the burner at a wall or target. An over-supply of steam, or the use of very wet steam, will some- times partially extinguish an oil fire, causing it to give off a dense white smoke, of a foul and characteristic odor. This smoke consists principally of unconsumed petroleum gases, and is usually seen only tor a moment at a time. Where it is produced often, or for any length of time, it indicates an unusual degree of either inattention or igno- rance on the part of the fireman, or else a radical defect in the instal- lation. Too much water in the steam is most likely to be the trouble, and this can be corrected either by slightly superheating, or by the use of proper bleeders. It is rarely possible to dry the steam enough to give really satisfactory results with small burners, unless some super- heating device is used. Superheating" is often practiced in large as well as small plants, and in many ways is very desirable. It greatly assists in heating and therefore in atomizing the oil, reduces amount of steam used by burner, and prevents accidents due to fire being extinguished by a gush of water. Special superheaters are sometimes used in large plants, but in small installations a coil of pipe in the firebox answers every purpose. The pipe should be extra or double-extra strong, the fittings inside tirebox should be cast, and the pipe should have at least twice the diameter of the steam supply to burner (inside). Valve should be placed between superheater and boiler, not between superheater and burner, and it is well to place a trap in the steam pipe at the point where it enters the coil, with bleeder at the bottom. If so set that the flame does not strike coil directly, it will last for some time, and the cost of an occasional renewal is unimportant compared with the satis- faction realized from the use of dry steam in the burner. 100 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. CHAPTER 10. LIQUID FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES. This! chapter is slifihtly iibridgcd from a report to the State Miiiinji; Bureau by Mr. O. S. Breese. The use of petroleum as fuel for locomotives involves a number of variations from established principles. The work is very heavy, that is, a large amount of oil must be burned in a small firebox ; the demand for steam varies enormously, and the system must be flexible enough to meet these variations without excessive waste; and further, provision must be made for carrying a very low fire, or entirely extinguishing it for several minutes at a time, during stops. The first attempt to meet these difficulties was made with various appliances for vaporizing the oil in separate apparatus, it being thought that in a locomotive firebox it would be impossible ever to vaporize the oil by radiant heat. These systems, however, proved so cumbersome and expensive to maintain, that very little advance was made along such lines, and it was not until the invention of the combustion-chamber firebox, about the year 1882, that the use of liquid fuel on locomotives became a practical possibility. This invention is credited to a Scotch- man, Thomas Urquhart, who was Superintendent of Motive Power on the Garzi-Tsaritzin Railroad, in southeastern Russia, from 1881 to 1884. The Combustion Chamber, which now forms the basis of the ordi- nary system for burning petroleum in locomotives, consists essentially of a fire-brick box supported by the ashpan (the grate bars being removed), the flame of the burner entering at the front, and the fire gases passing out, and into the firebox proper, through checker work or other suitable openings in the top. The object of this combustion chamber hardly needs explanation. It is well known, of course, that oil must be vaporized before it enters into combination with air, and this vaporization is effected by radiant heat from the brick walls sur- rounding the fiame. The higher this heat, the more readily and quickly will the oil be vaporized, and the more complete and controllable the combustion. The combustion chamber, being of comparatively small size, and out of contact with the water legs of the boiler, reaches a much higher heat than it would be either possible or desirable to bring the entire firebox to, thus vaporizing the oil rapidly and completely, avoiding smoke or waste, and making it i)0ssiV)le to regulate the fires very closely. Further, by storing up consideral)le quantities of heat (by reason of its high tenq:)erature) it enables the fire to be turned very low without going out, a difficult matter in a large firebox, or even to be turned completely out for several minutes, and restarted by simply nf<<. «avAif»us: ARCH SAN1 OIL BURT SANTR FE RAILROAD OIL BURNING "locomotives BA •> ^'^^ avr'5VAv*>'a ^■ti^■t 5v^*'*'i'M'' -.i^-~Lz:t-l.4^i ^ OH J\0- aj-r-- •.i3'ivtv\o:> I ""'Sfl ii^4y-; :, a 4 ^^^'^ -» IM LN C ALIFORM A uui diing It terns, noNij^ ■TV Httlo ;ii ,-;,fi V " ^) -variour icLiir thought ,,. to $JiiH>rize the VJr,^V?^vt9lW (.umljcrsonu' and ,1 ~i" r~^ ;ii!i(lc\l«ilong such ustion-chamber if liquid fuel ou locomotives Msciition is crediteAo a Scoteh- -erintendent of Motilp Power on utlieastcin Russia, fvnu ^sl to 1884. ail ist 4AATmn m «ro'rili- the brick walls sur- ■ readily and quickly ;iiid controllable the of comparatively small f the boiler, reaches \\ ble or desirable to bring vc: 3>=)u€>r-R :/ing the oil rapidly and completely, ^O e_iiA"T-3a •^'.' it possible to i ihe fires \APF\ HeA QMA HO^A.sid.r.vble XW^V<0'3 i'^ A- ' C. "• .» -I! — - * '^ ^. -W b -4- -* ^\o -HO-i R^TRSh -in I i i^iJUtll/:j^.4.i. C H/ilS C0NN£CT£D •^iDfAIM *« I ,/' _ ,.. ,.„. HOSE rffOUT ELCVfillQN ji Der/iiL or BKHcKer □ EXAILS OF OIL TENDER TANKS USED BY ■"> SANTA FE RAILROAD ■^f OONVERTED LOCOMOTIVES . nr^^^i^^ ^nr^ o if- 4"H COJ^PER ef*SK£T LIQUID FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES. 101 turning on the oil. It should l)e said, however, that turning out fire at stops is very hard on Hues and firebox sheets, and is not countenanced by many superintendents. To Convert a Coal-Burning" Eng-ine into an Oil-Burner, it is neces- sary first to remove the grates and grate-frame, then to fit inside the ashpan a suitable casting, riveted to the pan at the sides and near the top. This casting acts as a support for the interior brickwork, and is cored out to admit air to the firebox for combustion. After many experiments a number of methods of admitting the air have been adopted, some taking the air at the rear and sides, others at the front of the ashpan. The one most suitable in any particnhir case will uts it entirely out. Take into eon- U i. ^ F L ■ 1! LK^riD FIKI. IN 1,()C()M()I'I\KS. 107 " sidcratioii natural draft, ami add to it velocity of moving train, and " punij) exhaust, all drawing cold air through the tirel)ox, cooling sheetn "and flues, and it will l)e seen that the conse(iuences are sure to be *' disastrous. '■ Of course, burning oil in this c-ountry is in its infancy, and there 1? *' room for a great deal of imi)rovement, but considering the length of •'time we have been at it, it is certainly remarkable to see how those " engines go up the hills with their heavy trains, with plenty of steam, ■■ no smoke, no dust, no cinders, and no sweating fireman." Combination Tenders. — Through the courtesy of the Southern Pacitic Railroad Comi»any, it is possible to present here a drawing of a semi-cylindrical tender and tank for oil-burning engines, of which several have been constructed. (See Fig. 36.) The tank is divided into oil and water compartments, the former of 3300 gallons, the latter of 7300 gallons capacity. The length, outside, is 28' 6", width 9' 4", height 6' 5", these being measurements on the tank j)roper. The curvature of top is struck on radius of 4' 8", the lower part of the sides l)eing straight. The tank is constructed of i" steel (sheets used being 69|" wide), with lap seams, single riveted wdth f" rivets, pitched 2". A running board of j\" material, 10" in width, is carried along each side, with hand holds of 1" iron pipe. Manhole ring and plate for oil compartment are of cast iron, with oj)ening HV in diameter. The cover is slightly convex in form, and is held in place by three bolts having hand wheel heads for ease of removal. The opening is provided with a six-mesh strainer, 22" deep, and tapering to 6" at the bottom. The interior of the compartment is provided with lateral and intersecting splash plates, and with a steam coil of 1" pipe on the bottom. A small coil of i" pipe, in series with the larger coil, surrounds the oil outlet. (It should be noted that these tanks are built for the heavy oil of Kern County.) The outlet valve, which discharges into a I5" pipe, is controlled by a vertical lift rod attached to a bell crank, the latter being connected wdth another bell crank on the outside of the front head. It is customary to connect the outside bell crank with some point in the cab by means of a string, so that in case of a break-in-two the jerk on the string, in conjunction with the spiral spring above the valve, will operate to close the latter. The vertical rod just beside the valve rod, and extending through the top of the tank, is a measuring stick. The water compartment has the usual equi})ment of splash jtlates and outlet valves, the latter being surrounded by copper strainers, and dis- charging into 3" pipes leading beneath the floor to the front of the tender. Cost of Converting" a Coal-Burning- Engine. — Through the cour- tesy of the Santa Fe Haili-oad ( '()nii)aiiy, a detailed statement is here T"" " ' ' { ■ ^' -6— -4 1' n'^di^ 1^ J I L i.t, ii ..4 -J ...4 1,1(^111) KIKI. I.N l.oiOMdl'lX'KS. 107 '' sideratioii natural draft, aiul add to it velocity of moving train, and ^' pump exhaust, all drawing eold air through the tirebox, cooling sheet? ■' and Hues, and it will l)e seen that tlie conseciucnces are sure to be '■ disastrous. '"Of course. l»urning oil in this country is in its infancy, and there ie '' room for a great deal of improvement, but considering the length of •"time we have been at it, it is certainly remarkable to see how those ''engines go up the hills with their heavy trains, with plenty of steam, ■■ no smoke, no dust, no cinders, and Jio sweating fireman." Combination Tenders. — Through the courtesy of the Southern Pacific Railroad Comi)any, it is possible to present here a drawing of a semi-cylindrical tender and tank for oil-burning engines, of which several have been constructed. (See Fig. 36.) The tank is divided into oil and water compartments, the former of 3300 gallons, the latter of 7300 gallons capacity. The length, outside, is 28' 6", width 9' 4", height 6' 5", these being measurements on the tank proper. The curvature of top is struck on radius of 4' 8", the lower part of the sides l)eing straight. The tank is constructed of i" steel (sheets used being 69|" wide), with lap seams, single riveted with |" rivets, pitched 2". A running board of j\" material, 10" in width, is carried along each side, with hand holds of 1" iron pipe. Manhole ring and plate for oil compartment are of cast iron, with opening 16" in diameter. The cover is slightly convex in form, and is held in place by three bolts having hand wheel heads for ease of removal. The opening is provided with a six-mesh strainer, 22" deep, and tapering to 6" at the bottom. The interior of the compartment is ])rovided with lateral and intersecting splash plates, and Avith a steam coil of 1" pipe on the bottom. A small coil of i" pipe, in series with the larger coil, surrounds the oil outlet. (It should be noted that these tanks are built for the heavy oil of Kern County.) The outlet valve, which discharges into a I5" pipe, is controlled by a vertical lift rod attached to a bell crank, the latter being connected with another bell crank on the outside of the front head. It is customary to connect the otitside bell crank with some point in the cab by means of a string, so that in case of a break-in-two the jerk on the string, in conjunction with the spiral spring above the valve, will operate to close the latter. The vertical rod jvist beside the valve rod, and extending thnnigh the top of the tank, is a measuring stick. The water compartment has the usual equi})nient of splash j»lates and outlet valves, the latter being stirrounded by copper strainers, and dis- charging into 3" pipes leading beneath the floor to the front of the tender. Cost of Converting" a Coal-Burning- Engine. — Through the cour- tesy of the Santa Fe IJaili-oad ('()iii])aiiy, a detailed statement is here 108 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. given of the cost, for labor and material, incurred in changing a 20" by 26" ten-wheel engine from coal to oil burning, the figures being approxi- mately correct for nearly all classes converted by that company, with the exception of the charge for fire-brick, which would naturally be less in a smaller engine. Oil reservoir: drilling, tapping, placing, and securing $21 60 Automatic valve 3 90 Heater in oil tank 5 20 Heater pipes 1 20 Reducing valve i TA Air pipes 6 30 Burner 3 10 Heater box 3 00 Heater hose 1 40 Oil hose 2 15 Stopcocks 1 53 Regulators 2 16 Atomizers and pipes 95 Brick walls and arch 42 25 Oil pipes 55 Erecting: blacksmith, machinist, and labor 32 50 Removing coal-burning appliances 3 00 Ashpan: material, building, and placing 14 75 Sandbox and funnel 2 50 Pop and air gauge 5 06 Oil tanks (two) 174 83 Total $332 47 The first engine fitted for burning oil, on the Santa Fe Railroad, was? Southern California No. 10, in the local freight service between Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and Barstow. The oil-burning apparatus was put in place early in December, 1894, and the performance card for that month shows as follows: Total miles run 3,147 Fuel oil, cost per mile 21.68 cents. Repair accotint, per mile 2.25 cents. Miles run per ton of fuel oil 34.34 Total fuel oil used 91 tons 1290 lbs. Cost of oil per ton $7.44 During this time, engines burning coal on this run made about fif- teen miles per ton of coal. Locomotive performance statistics for the year ending June 30, 1902, for the Southern California Division of the Santa Fe Railroad are as follows : Total miles run 1,948,522 Average miles run per engine 48,987 Fuel oil, cost per mile 17.34 cents. Repair account, per mile 9.35 cents. Miles run per ton of fuel oil 29.91 Total fuel oil used 65,157 tons. Average cost of oil, per ton $5.18 LIQUID FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVES. 109 The great divergence in rei):iir charges per mile is due to two reasons: tirst, that engine No. 10 was thoroughly overhauled ])efore heing oil- titted, and all brickwork, arches, etc., were ni'w; second, that the repair account for 1901-02 included the retitting of a nund)er of old engines. Locomotive Fuel Tests. — The following records of fuel tests on loco- motives are due to covirtesy of the Motive Power De])artment of the Santa Fe Railroad Company, Southern California Division: A comparative test of Texas and California petroleums (see Tal)Ie 11 below) was made under the conditions here noted: Texas Petroleum^ Source — Beaumont, Texas. Gravity— 21.5° Beauin^. Weight per gallon — 7.644 pounds. Viscosity — Thin, used cold. CaJifornia Pet role ii ni — Source — Olinda (Fullerton tield), California. Gravity— 15.5° Beaum4. Weight per gallon — 7.710 pounds. Viscosity — Thick, warmed before using. Engine Used — 18" X 24" eight-wheel Manchester. Running in — Local passenger service, Los Angeles and San Bernardino. Ntnnber of Trips — Ten with each oil, over the same run, with the exception that on two trips, due to change in time-card, run was extended from Riverside to Casa Blanca, 4.1 miles. This accounts for the difference of 16 engine miles and 32 car miles on the two records. Roiindhov.se Oil Consumption — On account of the varying amount of oil used in the roundhouse on the different runs, due to varying lay-over, it was thought fair to divide the total amount used equally between the runs; this accounts for the uniform figure of 440 pounds. Injector Waste Water — The water wasted is the amount lost at the injector overflow. This was determined by attaching an automatic counter to the injector handle, thus recording the num- ber of times of application, and averaging the waste per application from a number of trials collected and weighed, the average being 20 pounds overflow to each opening of the injector. no I'KTKOLEUM IN CAI.IFOHNIA. TABLE 11. COMPARATIVE LOCOMOTIVE TESTS OF TEXAS AND CALIFORNIA OILS BY SANTA FE RAILROAD. ouiids of oil used on roiid Pounds of oil roundliousc used in r, )il used, total. Pounds of oil used per ton mile, excludinfi amount used in roundhouse Pounds of oil used per ton ( mile, incluiling amount -; used in roundhouse ( I'ounds of oil used per car ( iinle, excluding amount -' used in roundhouse ( Pounds of oil used per car mile, including amount used in roundliouse lOngine miles per ton of oil, excluding amount used in roundhouse Engine miles per ton of od, including amount used in roundhouse \\'ater used, pounds Water wasted, pounds \ Waterevaporated, pounds - Pounds of water evajjor ated per pound of oil- actual Pounds of water evapor- ( ated from and at 212° F. 4 per pound of oil I Steam pressiire (average), ( pounds "/ 'I'emperature of feed water \ (average), °F "( Temperature of fuel oil ( (average), °F '( Average speed in miles per j hour,deductn'g for stops 1 Kngine mileage Car mileage . a: P 3 3 '■ §a ; vz ; g(H ' 2 o E» 2-'^ cc5 ra 5Sc ■fon miles- Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. Tex. Cal. 3,50<^ .3,573 440 440 3,946 4,013 0.31728 0.32342 0.35706 0.36331 9.6840 9.7455 10.8585 10.9478 49.70 48.80 44.16 43.44 38,324 40,430 780 807 37,544 39,624 10.707 11.091 12.869 13.286 159.8 161.0 66.2° 70.2° 69.8° 80.4° 36.72 36.05 87.1 87.1 :i65 368 11,109 11,079 SC2 c z fo a •C ft C 3,291 3,620 2,735 2,592 440 440 440 440 3,731 4,060 3,175 3,032 0.29333 0.2. ' ' ' ' ' « in Oi , to O d . 8 s 8 ^ s 8 1 Tj ' CO eo r- in 00 1 ft CI CO g g 1 4= J= M Cfi CO rt ^ ^ & cent ■ ' ' ' — Qj 0) a; Steam Used bv CO t- ^ t^ o CO 00 S CO ^ Ift S! N N N N N N Atomizer, per 00 lO r^ CO t~ o t^ X ^ o o o o o cent N CO eo CO ■?; •/5 !« !i5 Evaporation from and at t- X 3- X ^ iC M X t^ O CO CO CO -H X CB t^ X ec X c^ CO ■* 02 1ft C) CD 1- CO CO 212°, corrected ec c<- C CO CO iC ■o ^ CO _^ ^ g 1 c^ IM M "-; 1-* tH '-J '- m fe ^ '"' '^ "^ "* ^ '^ "^ '^ '"' T^ 1- ^ *^ '" iH Evaporation X X CO l^ -X f X ift ?5 O ? ^ CO Z 11 per Pound of _• _• _; _: -^ :6 c-i '^1 c CO Tl cc Fuel— Actual _ ^ '^ " -" ■" '^ ^ 1- Horsepower De- CO t^ 1? X IM 53 1-1 iM o X CO 1^ t-- ^ CI 1^ ^ Ift CO veloped (M IM !M !M rH CI (M CO CI — '^ '^ rn o •■o O _ ^ iC 1ft ift O 1ft c CO o c t^ ^Vater Used per * CO TX CO OJ ^^, -* CO CD IM !s ii: o CD cc 8 CD vO -* X X I~ iC 1ft CD CD o t-- Ift Tf Ift 1ft 1* ; Oj i i _,; 0/ 1 3j D 1> r ? r s c r p — S •,~ !^ n o — ■T; — ■::: O •^ '■^ C^ -^ "^ ^ ^' O ci O ? c o c 3 5 o = s Cj s § .5 1 .2 P 5 3 o ■II cc .2 1 '? 5 o cfJ « t- ;^ u ^ tl 0/ 0/ 0; Q a- a. o o O O o *^ •<-« • r- ■ ^ « cq m Q CQ a; o u CJ O o U '-' <^ f- r* f^ (M CO CO Tf uo Iftl -^ (M CO 1ft '- X i \ Duration of Test, 0^ CO 0^ ^ -; .c ^ JZ ^" ■ ■^ _; .__ o c. c V "^ - ^ ;! z^ z^ z. rt r: :t c: T^ w :3 CS 7i <; -^ '^. •^ '"• *< ,-'. <'. f. r" ^ r' ^ 1 8— BUL. 32 112 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Comparative tests of various coals and oils have also been made ])y the Santa Ft; Railroad, Table 12, on page 111, Ijeing from a series of tests made at Toi)eka, Kansas, during 1901. For a variety of reasons the burners used are here designated by number, it being desired to show at this point merely a comparison Ijetween the values of the stated varieties of coal and oil, in this service. It may be noted, however, that the difference between the performance of the various burners is not great enough to lead one to look for any great difference in their value, so far as efficiency is concerned ; this corresponds with the general experience in stationary work. The details as to conditions under which these tests were made are not included in the data at hand: TABLE 13. EVAPORATIVE TESTS OF OIL ON LOCOMOTIVE, MADE BY SANTA FE RAIL- ROAD AT SAN BERNARDINO, CAL., OCTOBER 14, 15, AND 16, 1902. Date, 1902. Oct. 14. Oct. 15. 1 Oct. 16. Oct. 16. Average. Extra. Clear. 2h 1501 25°' Extra. Clear. 2" 47'° 13" Extra. Clear. 4h 50m Ih 54m Extra. Clear. 4h 4ni Ih 13m 3i> 29>'< 56™ Actual running time Ih 50m 2h 34m 2" 56"° 2h 51m 2h 33"> Average running jjpeed, miles per hr. 1.3.77 9.81 8.60 8.84 10.26 i Loads. -- Number of cars in train __ J 1 Empties 3 11 10 9 10 9 8 8 318 +351 365 360 349 Temperature of oil, degrees Fahr 115 126 147i 150 134.^ Gravity of oil, degs. Beaumg at 60° F. 12.9 14.1 1.3.0 13.8 13.5 Average pounds boiler pressure 168 184 186 185 181 Total pounds of oil consumed 4,922 6,820 6,990 7,285 6,5(H Total i)<)unds of water evaporated*.. 53,740 69,135 78,679 75,508 69,266 Pounds of water evaporated i)er 10.92 8,014 10.14 8,443 11.26 9,198 10.36 9,072 10.67 8,682 Oil ])urni'd i)cr ItHi ton miles 61.42 72 80.78 70 75.99 66 80.30 65^ 74.62 Temperature of water, degrees Fahr. 68.^ Remarks Low steam; oil too cold to atomize well. Engine smoked badly. Engine smoked slightly. Engine smoked, slightly. *No deduction- iiir water lost at overtiow. t'2;i-t(iii car set out at Verdeinoiit. No. of Traill. 2 No. of Stops. 20 (illlllMlS of Oil. ItJO.lH (ialloiis of Walor. 2,146 2 20 13. oiO Sacramento River. San Joaquin No. 4. 365 Sacramento River. San Jose 111.5 Berkeley ferry. San Pablo 1.5*4 Pt. Richmond ferry. Santa Monica 497 Coaster. Sarah .. 1211 Yukon River. Sausalito 1766 Sausalito ferry. Sea Fox 69 Tug. Sea King 181 Tug. Sea Prince 58 Tug. Sea Queen Ill Tug. Gross Name. Tonnage. Service. Searchlight l()i> - Sea River 80 Tug. Shasta 722 Coaster. Solano 3549 PortCosta fr'glil ferry. South Bay ften need not be more than will hold a few hours' run; but where oil- using vessels ply to distant ports at which oil is not to be had, provision for the return trip must be made in calculating the necessary tankage. Fuel oil is now^ kept in store at Los Angeles, Port Harford, San Fran- cisco, and Portland, on the Pacific Coast, at points in the Hawaiian Islands, and at some Asiatic ports. Storag'e Space. — If a vessel was intended to run between San Fran- cisco and some port where oil for the return trip could be had, the storage space would be about 56% of that required for coal. For every liundred tons of coal recjuired on the trip, four hundred barrels of oil would be needed, if we take the usual estimate of four barrels to the ton of coal; this tigure probably holds good, on the average, on sea as well as on land. Four hundred barrels of oil occupy a space of 2246 cubic feet, net. One liundred tons of average steam coal would occupy a space of about 4000 cubic feet, making the space required for the oil 56% of that taken liy the coal. But if the vessel ran to a })ort where coal fuel for the return trip was available, while oil was not to l)e had, the space required for the oil would be just double the above amount, or 12% in excess of the coal space necessary. This comparison overlooks, how- ever, one fact of considerable practical imi)ortance: that coal must, for obvious reasons, be stored close to the boiler, while oil, being readily 116 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. l)Uini)ed from any point desired, may often be stored in space not other- wise useful. Fuel Weig'ht. — If a vessel plies to a port where oil for return fuel is available, the weight of oil carried is about 60% of that of the equivalent coal. For every hundred tons (224,000 pounds) of coal consumed on the trip, four hundred barrels of oil would be required, weighing, at 15^ gravity, 337 pounds per barrel, or 134,800 pounds. As the fuel is, gen- erally at least, used in equal amounts every hour of the trip, V)oth solid and liquid fuel carried would diminish in weight from the gross amount at the start to zero at the end of the trip, and the average weight carried would of course be half the initial weight, or 112,000 pounds for coal, and 67,400 pounds for oil, making the weight of oil 60.2% of weight of coal. But if a vessel is on a run where oil is available at one end only, while coal may be had at both ends, the weight of oil carried is mucli in excess of that of coal. Taking the same hundred tons of coal to represent the amount used on the run, the coal carried would be the half of one hundred tons to each run, or one hundred tons (224,000 pounds) to the round trip. Oil Avould have to be carried on the out trip for the return, so that the vessel would carry on the out trip 202,200 pounds, and on the return 67,400 pounds, a total of 269,600 pounds, or an excess of 20.4% over the average weight of coal. As would be expected from experience on land, the use of oil at sea is the means of increasing the speed capacity, and of extending the sailing radius. It materially reduces the fire-room force, as the coal-passer is eliminated, and one fireman can, on a large vessel burning oil, do the work of four where coal is used. It reduces the labor in port, on clean- ing both outside and inside of boiler-room. The claim was once made that the use of oil shortened the life of the boiler, but this belief seems to be amply disproven by longer experience. In tropical climates it is a material factor that the fire-room temperature is considerably reduced, where oil is used, and the very hard labor of shoveling coal and slicing fires at high temperatures done away with. The oil fire, also, for reasons already pointed out, contains in itself the elements of moderate forced draft, and obviates the necessity of air pressure on the fire-room, up to a certain point, say that at which one inch of water pressure would be carried with coal. In spite of the wide extent to which oil has been and is being used on vessels sailing from San Francisco and other Pacific Coast ports, but little definite data are available as to relative economies. The eco- nomic advantage in using oil for fuel, at present prices, is so manifest that those who have looked into the matter have usually adopted oil without much experiment, while those by whom it is used are usually LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 117 satisfied to find their fuel Itills decreased fifty per cent or more, without earing to inijuire into tlie details. Government Boiler Tests. — The most, one might almost say the only, eomprehensive tests whieh have heen made with liquid fuel in direct comparison with coal were undertaken in 1902 hj' the Bureau of Steam Engineering of the United States Navy. These tests are still nnder way, l)ut a rei)ort lias lieen issued describing the results obtained from the first trials, thirty-one in number.^ The tests were made with the Hohenstein water-tube boiler, in a special experimental plant so constructed as to imitate, on land, the conditions met in the fire-room of a war vessel. For the details of these tests, which will amply repay the closest examination, reference must be had to the original report, as the figures are far too voluminous to reproduce in full. But the main points l)rought out in the course of the trials may be gathered from the following tables, summarized from the various tables in the report. The coals used were Pocahontas and New River, rated among the best of American bituminous coals, and having the following analyses : Pocahontas Coal, Run of Mine. Pocahontas Coal, Run of Mine. Pocahontas Coal, Hand Picked Run of Mine, and Screened. Xew River Coal, Proximate Analysis. Fixed carbon \'olatile matter .Mui^^mre Ash Sulphur, seiiarately determined Ultimate Analysis. I 'arbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulplmr Ash Calorific Value (B. T. U.) per Pound. Coal Combustible 14,992 15,475 • " Report of the 'Hohenstein Boiler' and 'Liquid Fuel' Boards," of the Engineer- ng Department, U. S. Navy, um. 118 I'KTKOLKKM IN CALIKOKNIA. MIC^ Drah- Gauge Conmctiom Mica Windows Fig. 39. Hohenstein Expfriiiifiital Boiler, arranged for Oil. (Reproducefi from Ki'iiort of tlic Liiiuid Fml Hoiud, U. S. N.) The oil used was a reduced oil from Beaumont, Texas, having the following analysis: Proximate Analysis. First ten per c«'iit passed over Second ten per cent passed over Third ten per cent passed over Fourth ten per cent jiassed over , . Distillation at atmospheric pressure. -Between 212° and 482° V. ..Between 482° and 523° F. .-Between 523° and 5.52° F. -Between ,552° and 680° F. IJQriD FUEL ON STKAMSHIl'?- 11V> i l iWiiWW"'* -^ Fig. 40. Hohenstein Expei'inieiital Boiler, arranged for Coal. (Reproduced from Report of the Lii|uid Fuel Board, U. S. X.) Ultimate Analysis. Carbon Hydrogen . Sulphur... Oxygen Physical Properties. Specific gravity at _ 21.2° . . 216° F. -. 240° F. .. 142° F. 21.65% 19,481 B. T. V. 120 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Fig. 39 herewith shows general arrangement of boiler and setting for use with oil; Fig. 40, the same as used with coal; and Fig. 41, the arrangement of hoih'r-rooni and connections during oil tests. LIQUID FIEL ON STEAMSHIPS. TABLE 16. HOHENSTEIN WATER-TUBE BOILER. 121 Coal Tests. Oil Tests. Fuel used, total -. lbs. < 'alorific value, average B. T. U. Theoretical evaporative power per pound of fuel, from and at 212° F. /^N. Water evaporated from and at 212° F., total lbs. Evaporation per pound of fuel as fired, gross — Maximum /&.•!. Minimum lbs. Average Ib.^. Steam used in injecting, or in compressing air for injection, average % 166,778 12,iKi5 1:^.42 1,528,260 10.20 8.22 9.16 .lbs. Net available evaporation per pound of fuel, average . Pounds of steam used in spraying oil, per pound of oil, using steam only — ilaximum lbs. Minimum lbs. Average lbs. Efficiency: percentage of theoretical lieating value realized in actual evaporation, net — Natural-draft trials — Maximum % Minimum % Average % Forced-draft trials — Maximum % Minimum % Average % Number of trials using forced draft Number of trials using natural draft Average fire-room pressure during forced-draft trials, in inches of water Evaporation per hour per square foot of heating surface, net — Natural-draft trials — Maximum lbs. M inimum lbs. Average lbs. Forced-draft trials — Maximum lbs. Minimum lbs. Average lbs. 0.00 9.16 68.3 60.0 64.4 65.6 .54.0 59.5 11 1.5 199,770 19,481 20.17 2,714,420 14.4:i 10.77 13.59 3.02 13.18 0.701 0.464 0.568 70.7 60.9 65.6 61.3 51.1 56.7 4 10 2.4 5.40 9.45 4.38 3.91 4.82 6.36 4.15 16.7(1 6.26 10.50 9.61 14.00 Fuels Used. — The coal used in these tests was of a much higher grade than any of the Pacific Coast coals, which will not average more than 10,500 to 11,000 B. T. U. per pound as fired. This makes the figures for evaporation with coal higher than they would be with local coals, both because of the higher evaporative power directly, and also because, in general, the better the coal used the higher will be the percentage of effi- ciency. On the other hand, the Beaumont oil used in the oil tests could hardly have been of better quality than the average California crude, and there is no reason to suppose that any higher rate of evaporation was secured than would have been had, under the same conditions, with local oil. The evaporation obtained with oil is, in fact, notably lower 122 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. than has been had in California, in very carefully conducted tests, and under the same conditions, so far as efficiency of apparatus is concerned. Steam in Burners.— Only a few of the trials used steam alone in the burners, some using air alone, others both air and steam. In the trials which used steam alone, the burners were of very simple construction, in two tests being practically a pipe burner, in three tests of the type shown in Fig. 23. The steam used, ranging from 0.701 lb. to 0.464 lb. per pound of oil used, would equal, at the average evaporation for these tests of 13.5 pounds, 5.12% to 3.4% of the total evaporation, the average being 4.2%. The lower percentage shown in the table above, in the line ■' Steam used in injecting," is due to this average covering also the tests using air in the burners, it being well known that air burners use less steam in the compressor than steam burners consume direct. As this average of 4.2% is somewhat larger than is customarily estimated in Pacific Coast practice, either the tests were wasteful of steam, or else the prevailing figures on the coast are wrong; probably the latter, as the greatest precautions were taken by the board to secure an accurate account of the steam used by burners, which were handled by skilled firemen and were of approved form. Efficiency. — The efliciency during natural draft trials is notably low, being only slightly greater than realized with coal. A great number of tests made in California, by careful engineers, gave given efficiencies with oil fuel of 75% to 80%, with evaporation of 4^ pounds per hour per square foot, or better, under ordinary conditions of service. The effi- ciencies obtained with coal in these tests being good, it is probable that the low efficiency figures in the oil tests are due to over-estimation of the calorific value of the oil, this being calculated from the ultimate analysis by Dulong's formula. A number of comparative determina- tions made on California oil would indicate that the calorific value calculated from analysis in this manner is higher than the value found by combustion, and it is possible that the theoretical evaporative power stated for the Beaumont oil used is too high by 5%; if this is the fact the efficiencies as stated would average about 3% too low, though even if corrected by this amount they would still be considered low in California. As would be expected, the efficiencies found on forced draft trials are somewhat low'er than in the coal tests. It does not appear that oil is very suital)le to use under forced draft conditions, though it may be that further experiment as to firebox and baffling arrangements will make it more adaptable. The board found in the tests above that they could not evaporate more than thirteen pounds of water per hour per square foot of heating surface, without forming a great deal of smoke and greatly lowering the efficiencies. As to this, much would Ligiii) ki;ki- on stkamshii's. 123 depeiul on the form of tlie tirebox, and })rol)al»ly also on the atomizing efficiency of the burners. Capacity. — The evaporation i)er hour i)er siiuare foot of heating sur- face (/. e., the capacity) is considerably liiglier on the oil trials than when using coal. This agrees with the results of numerous trials in this State, which show tliat a good water-tube boiler using oil fuel can be forced, under natural draft, from (50% to 75% above rated capacity, without lowering the cfiiciency below 75%. Conclusions of the Board. — The general conclusions drawn by the Engineers of the Board from the data collected are sunnned up as fol- lows: "It is believed that expert engineers will be able to make " imj)ortant deductions from the trustworthy data that have been so "carefully collected. The table should be carefully studied in connec- " tion with the information secured during the coal tests, and the lioard *' enjoins that the two reports be studied together. "The following information has undoubtedly been secured: " [a] That oil can be burned in a very uniform manner. " (h) That the evaporative efficiency of nearly every kind of oil per " pound of condjustible is probably the same. While the crude oil may "be rich in hydrocarbons, it also contains sulphur, so that, after refin- " ing, the distilled oil has ])ro))ably the same calorific value as the crude "product. " (c) That a marine steam generator can be forced to even as high a " degree with oil as with coal. " {(]) That up to the present time no ill effects have been shown upon " the boiler. " (e) That the firemen are disposed to favor oil, and therefore no "impediment will be met in this respect. " {/) That the air requisite for condiustion should be heated if possi- " ble before entering the furnace. Such action undoubtedly assists the " gasification of the oil product. " (g) That the oil should be heated so that it could be atomized more " readily. "(/() That when using steam higher pressures are undoul)t(M]ly more '"advantageous than lower pressures for atonuzing the oil. " (i) That under heavy forced draft conditions, and particularly " when steam is used, the board has not yet found it possible to prevent " smoke from issuing from the stack, although all connected with the " tests made special efforts to secure complete cond)ustion. Particularly " for naval purposes it is desirable that the smoke nuisance be eradi- " cated in order that the presence of a warship might not be detected " from this cause. As there has been a tendency of late years to force ''the boilers of industrial plants, the inaliility to ])revent the smoke 124 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. "nuisance under forced draft conditions may have an important inHn- " ence ui)on the increased use of li(iuid fuel. " (_/) Tliat the consumption of licjuid fuel can not probably be forced "to as great an extent with steam as the atomizing agent as when com- " pressed air is used for this purpose. This is probably due to the fact " that the air used for atomizing purposes, after entering the furnace, " supplies oxygen for the combustible, while in the case of steam the " rarified vapor simply displaces air that is needed to complete combus- "tion. " {k) That the efficiency of oil-fuel plants will be greatly dependent " on the general character of the installation of auxiliaries and fittings, " and therefore the work should only be entrusted to those who have " given careful study to the matter, and who have had extended expe- " rience in burning the crude product. The form of the burner will " play a very small part in increasing the use of crude petroleum. The " method and character of the installation will count for much, but where " burners are simple indesign and are constructed in accordance with " scientific principles there will be very little difference in their effi- " ciency. Consumers should principally look out that they do not " purchase appliances that have been untried and have been designed " by persons who have had l)ut limited experience in operating oil " devices." Steamer " Mariposa." — One of the first deep-sea vessels on the Pacific Coast to l)e fitted for oil was the Oceanic Steamship Company's "Mari- posa," running from San Francisco to Tahiti. Through the courtesy of the Steamship Company, the Navy Department was permitted to send out a representative on the " Mariposa " on her first trip after being fitted with oil-burning apparatus. The following' is a description of the steamer " Mariposa," of the Oceanic Steamship Company, as fitted for oil fuel burning, with an account of the preliminary trial trips of the vessel as witnessed by Commander H. N. Stevenson, United States Nav}'^; also the report of Lieut. Ward P. Winchell, U. S. Navy, who officially represented the Department on the round trip of the steamer between San Francisco and Tahiti : The " Mariposa " is a single-screw iron steamer, built at the yard of William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia, Pa., in 1883. She has just hail new engines and boilers installed by the Risdon Iron Works, San Fran- cisco, Cal. The oil-burning plant has just been installed by the same company. (July, 1902.) This vessel has been employed in the Pacific trade, and is now run- ning to Tahiti from San Francisco, making the round-trij) voyage of 7320 knots each month. 1 Quoted from " Report of the Liquid Fuel Board." LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 125 Description of the "Mariposa." (ii'oss tiinnagi" ;-il()(( [jengtli between perpen(Ucular;s _ 'MA feet Beam 41 feet Mean draft 22 feet Depth of hold IT^^j feet There is a sin<>le bottom with four watcr-titiht athwartsliip hulklicads, and two masts, s(|Uare ritrjicd on the foremast. The total crew was 81, but since the cliange from coal to oil l)urning 16 men have been taken out of the engineer's force, reducing the crew to 65 men, and making the engineer's force for oil burning 20 men, as follows: 1 chief engineer, 3 assistant engineers, 3 oilers, 1 electrician, 1 attendant for ice machine, 1 attendant for air-compressor, 3 water- tenders, 6 firemen, 1 storekeeper. The Engines and Boilers. — There is one triple-expansion engine of the inverted direct-acting type, with cylinders 29", 47", and 78", by 51" stroke, designed for 2500 indicated horsepower, fitted with piston valves on the high-pressure and intermediate-pressure, and slide valve on the low-pressure cylinders, all draw'n by link motion. The condenser is part of the back framing. The cylinders are not jacketed. The air, feed, and bilge pumps, of which there are two sets, are driven from the forward and after cross-lieads. The centrifugal circulating pump is driven by a separate engine. The four-bladed propeller is 16' 6" diameter, and has a pitch of 23'. There are three cylindrical tank boilers, placed fore and aft in the line of the shi]) —two are double-ended, 15' 3" diameter by 15' 3" long, and one single-ended, 14' diameter l)y 9' 9" long, the latter placed amid- ships, forward of and worked from the forward fire-room. Each double- ended boiler has six corrugated furnaces; the double-ended boilers have a common combustion chamber for opposite furnaces, while the single- ended one has a common combustion chaml)er for its three furnaces. There is one smokestack for all the boilers. The combustion chambers of the double-ended boilers have a brick wall, and the back sheet of the single-ended one is covered with fire-brick. The decision to use oil in place of coal was not made until the changes in engines and boilers were well under way, and it was decided to put the ship on the route to Tahiti. The steam pressure is 180 pounds. There is one auxiliary boiler, two-furnace return tube type, in upper fire-room hatch, and fitted to burn coal only. The Oil Tanks. - These were constructed out of the old coal-bunker space, forward of the boilers, and as the steamer is intended to carry oil for the round trip of aliout 7320 miles, some additional space had to be taken from the fore-hold. They are arranged as follows: Just for- ward of the boiler space a solid water-tight bulkhead, well ])raced, was 12fi PETHOLKl'M IN CALIFORNIA. built from the berth deck to the single bottom of the ship, extending to the single skin of the shi]), from side to side; four feet, or two frame spaces, forward of this, was also built another similar solid bulkhead, which formed the after ends of the oil tanks; forty-eight feet farther forward another similar solid l)ulkhead was built to form the forward heads of the oil tanks, and four feet forward of this another solid bulk- head. The spaces of four feet at each end of the tanks being a coffer- dam space to catcli any oil from leakage or accident, these cofferdam spaces can be filled with water if necessary. The tank space is divided into six tanks by a middle Inilkhead and two side partitions. Splash plates to break the impact of rolling are placed in each tank, a small opening at the to}) allowing any accumulation of gas to pass off to the ventilating trunk. Small o])enings at the bottom allow free com- munication for the oil. Along the top of the tanks is provided an expansion head or trunk, being 4^' high and 4V wide. Over each a ventilating trunk connecting with the top of each tank extends up to about five feet above the hurricane deck. The cofferdam spaces are ventilated by tubes reaching to the upper deck, fitted with cowls, one tube reaching to near the bottom to carry out any heavy gas that might accumulate there. From the upper deck the sounding pipes to each tank are reached. There are no pipes in or through the tanks except those connected with the oil service. The total capacity of the tanks, exclusive of expansion trunk, is 6338 barrels of oil — about 905.43 tons. One barrel of oil equals 42 gallons. To fill the tanks, on the port side outside the ship a 6" connection is fitted; from this a pipe leads to the forward fire-room, where the tank oil pump is placed. This pump, horizontal duplex, steam cylinders 9", oil cylinders 8^", stroke 10", can be used to draw its supply from the pipe and deliver into each of the tanks, or by using by-passes, which are provided, the oil barge alongside can fill all the tanks; an overflow pipe from each tank, carried at height of deck above them, leads to an over~ flow outside the ship near the supply hose coupling. There are two service or settling tanks, placed in pockets formed on either side of the single-ended boiler. They are reached by doors from the forward fire-room; each of these tanks holds about twelve hours' sui)])ly. They are filled by the oil tank pump, and have overflows back to the main tanks; ventilating tubes lead from near the l)ottom of the pockets in which they are placed to the smokestack. Each service tank is provided with glass gauges, by means of which the an)ount used every hour or watch can be easily measured. Each settling tank has two suction pipes, one at bottom to draw off water if necessary, the other at a height of about two feet for the oil supj)ly to the service pumps. All the tanks are provided with man- holes to reach the interior. LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 127 The Oil Service Pumps. — The oil service punij^s, of whicli there are two, liorizontal duplex, steam cylinders 6", oil cylinders 4", and stroke of 6", one being large enough to supply all the burners, are placed in the forward fire-room on either side. They draw their supply from the settling or receiving tank through removable strainers, jjlaced so that they can be easily changed for cleaning, and discharge into the bottom of the small heating tank near them, where the oil is heated by a steam coil to not more than 150° F., and thence by a pipe to the burn- ers. The air from the compressors, under a pressure limited to 40 pounds, discharges into the top of the heater tank on its way to the burners, so that the oil and the air go to the burners under the same pressure. The heater tank is provided with glass gauges, also a float to work a telltale and automatic control of oil supply pump. The Air-Compressor. — The air-compressor is placed in a pocket off the upper engine-room platform, and consists of duplicate steam and air cylinders, connected to a crank shaft carrying a flywheel turning between the cylinders. Either set is large enough to supply all the air necessary. The air-compressor is horizontal, double acting, duplex. Air cylinders 22", steam cylinders 12", diameter, by 18" stroke for all cylinders. Capacity equals 1000 cubic feet of free air per minute, com- pressed up to 30 pounds, and 120 revolutions per minute. Air is used at the heat of compression, or as heated by the air heater. The Atomizer. — The atomizer, for which patents are pending, is the joint invention of Messrs. Grundell and Tucker, San Francisco. The atomizer consists of a hollow plunger for the oil, screwed into a pipe through which the air passes. The outlet for the oil is through a series of small holes, at right angles to the central hole. The air meets the oil through spiral directors and is sprayed into a rose shape by the expanded end of the atomizer. The air and oil pipes have glol)e valves to regulate the supply of either, also plug cocks connected together to a handle, by means of which each burner can be shut off innnediately in case of necessity, a slow-down bell, or other cause. The air-supply pipe is also connected with the steam line, so that steam can be quickly substituted for air if desired. The length of the oil plunger is adjustable, to give the best form to the rose-shaped flame. Two burners are fitted to each furnace. The Air Heater. — A part of each furnace front is a hollow iron cast- ing, through which the air passes on its way to the atomizers and becomes heated. The chamber surrounding the burner is lined with a crucible lead lining; a by-pass to the burners is provided for use in case of accident to the heater. The lower part of the furnace front is a; door on hinges that can be fastened open at any desired degree to give air 9— BUL. 32 128 PETROLEUM IX CALIFORNIA. for combustion. Then; are also two louvres iu the door for the same purpose. Near the front of the furnace inside the door is placed a brick wall made to dellect upward the inward current of air to meet the rose-shaped Hame from the burners. There is ample space over the brick wall for a man to enter the furnace through the ashpit door. The double furnace condnistion chambers have a brick bridge wall reaching above the top of the furnaces, and in the single-ended l>oiler the common combustion chamber has the back sheet covered with fire- l)rick to protect it. The Trial Trips. — Two trial trips with the vessel under way were made on July 5 and 11, the vessel being under way about eight hours each day, running from the vessel's dock to the Farallon Islands and return, and were made for the purpose of ascertaining if the oil apparatus, the new engines and boilers, were in good working condition. On the first run the boilers primed badly, owing to the construction dirt not having been thoroughly cleaned out. Before the second run they were cleaned, and worked well on this run. The strainers on the oil-supply pipes were not tinished and consider- able trouble was found with dirty oil which clogged the burners. Neither the telltale to show the height of oil in the heated tank, nor the controlling device for the oil service pump were fitted, not being finished in time for use. No attempt was made to measure the amount of oil burned, nor to attain the maximum speed, and it was therefore impos- sible to obtain any data other than observation of the working of the oil apparatus. Very few of the fire-room force had ever had any experience with oil burners on steamers, and one object of the trials was to give the force practical experience. When properly regulated the burners gave no smoke, but that they were not properly regulated is shown by the fact that more or less smoke was visible most of the time, and at times dense black. Owing to lack of the telltale and regulating device of the small heating tank the pump-tender once allowed this tank to fill up and the oil to flow over into the air pipe and flood the burners. As soon as this was discovered every burner was immediately cut off by means of the lever connecting to the plug cocks on the oil and air supply pipes at the burners. The atomizer tubes were unscrewed and on some of them, where the oil had caked, considerable force had to be applied to pull them out. New, clean atomizers were screwed in, and as soon as the oil heater tank could be brought to the proper oil level the burners were started again. Some steam pressure was lost during this delay, but the engines did not stop nor slow down very much; some of the burners were started in a few minutes and all of them in not over fifteen minutes. The value of being able to shut off the air quickly and clean or substitute LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 129 other atomizers was sliowii l>y this mishap. The l)urncrs made consid- erable roaring- noise, and the air pressure was, in order to clean the hurners of dirt, carried to ahout tlie intended pressure, owing to the lack of strainers which allowed dirty oil to choke them, and they had to be taken out frequently for cleaning. Ry sliutting off with the level- the regulating valves were left in adjustment for starting again, provided it was right before. The new fire is started by a torch inserted into the plug hole around the burner. On the second run the strainers and the regulating device for the heater tank had been completed. The oil apparatus was handled with greater ease and uniformity, and the less amount of smoke was very noticeable. For intervals of an hour or more scarcely any or none would be observed. On the run in from the Farallones the engine was speeded up to 74 to 77 turns, and an average speed of 14-5 knots was obtained. The steam pressure was uniformly maintained at the point desired without difliculty, and the oil-l)urning apparatus gave no trouble whatever. The oil used on both runs was from the Kern River district, near Bakersfield, Cal. The following data were observed: Steam pressure . 160 to 170 lbs. Revolutions of engine 74 to 77 Revoliitions of air-compressor 60 Pressure of air 20 lbs. Temperature of oil entering heater ,30° F. Temperature of oil leaving heater 120°-130° F. Temperature at base of stack 750° F. It is regretted that the nature of the trials did not permit of obtain- ing a greater amount of data beyond observing the apparatus in use. The chemist of the New York yard submitted the following report upon the sample of the Kern River district oil sent him for analysis: The sample is practically free from low-boiling naphtha, as on distil- lation only a small percentage passed over below 150*^ C, and less than 10% below 225° C. A boiling point above 360° C. was reached before the second 10% was collected. It shows on ultimate analysis the following composition: Carbon 84.43% Hydrogen 10.99 Oxygen 3.34 Nitrogen ,.. 0.65 Sulphur 0.59 This gives a calorific value, by Dulong's formula, of 18,806 B. T. U. The specific gravity at 60° F. is 0.962 (15.5° Be.). Flash point, 228° F. Fire point, 258° F. Vaporization point, 178° F. Loss for six hours at 212° F., 12.01%. 130 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. REPORT OF LIEUT. WARD WINCHELL ON THE VOYAGE OF THE " MARIPOSA." U. S. Steamer " Boston," At Sea, August 15, 1902. Sir: In accordance with the Department's telegraphic order of July 7, 1902, delivered July 8, 1902, and the instructions from the Bureau of Steam Engineering, dated July 7, delivered a few minutes before sail- ing, I took passage on the Oceanic Steamship Company's steamer '" Mari- posa," leaving San Francisco at 10 a. m. July 15, 1902, for the round trip to Tahiti. In accordance with the instructions of the Bureau, I took two sets of indicator cards each day, making forty-five sets in all, the data of which were worked .up. There have been no tests to determine the evaporative efficiency of the two main double-ended boilers used on the run, and I regret to report that the chief engineer of the ship w^as unable to improvise any apparatus by which the amount of feed water could be determined with accuracy enough to give the data any value. The amount of oil is a matter of much importance, since the tanks hold barely enough to make the round trip and but one day's supply of coal is aboard. The oil was measured first by the amount pumped into the two settling tanks, as shown in inches on the scale back of the gauge glasses on the tanks; second, this amount was checked by the number of inches used out of each tank for each watch; third, another check, and the one considered most accurate, as dealing with large quantities and small errors, was by sounding the tanks from time to time and comparing the amounts taken out with the expenditures in the log. The latter method gave a correction which was applied to the daily log, increasing the daily expenditure slightly, as summed up by inches in the settling tank. The most careful inspection at Tahiti failed to show^ any bad effect of the flame upon the boilers. No leaks nor defects developed anywhere about them and there was no difficulty at any time in feeding them. As I was ordered to the " Boston " immediately on my arrival at San Francisco I lost the oi)portunity of again inspecting the boilers, but no defects showed from the outside. At Tahiti the tubes were swept by tube-scrapers, and back connections, uptakes, ashpans, and furnaces were cleaned. All refuse from these various places barely filled two ash buckets. This refuse, mainly soot, was the result not only of the twelve days' run to Tahiti, but also of the three preliminary trials by the con- tractors. The first one, a four-hour trial of engines and boilers, was made with Comax coal, and the other two were free runs at sea, of about eight hours' duration each, burning oil. The tubes had never LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 131 been cleaned previous to arrival at Tahiti. It is the intention here- after to make the round trip of twenty-four days' steaming without sweeping tubes. There are no precautions other than those usually taken on board ship to guard against tire or explosion. All spaces to which oil has access are well ventilated by both inlet and outlet ducts. The oil is a thick, dark liquid, like molasses, and in the open air burns slowly, giv- ing off nuich smoke. But it gives off volatile gases which form explo- sive mixtures with air, tanks empty or nearly so being more dangerous than full ones in this respect. The ship is electrically lighted, but in addition an open hand lamp is burning in the fire-room all the time to light the burners; the firemen smoke on watch, and the oil is treated no more tenderly than if it were coal. On the run back, the cargo of copra was stored all about the expansion trunk, which projects up 4^ feet between decks, completely covering the tanks and making them inaccessible for examination. Of the six firemen, three were relieved from watch the second day out, leaving but one man on a watch to fire twelve furnaces in two dif- ferent fire-rooms separated by the length of the double-ended boilers. The water-tender did not touch the burners except in emergency, his duty being to 'tend water, fill settling tanks and record height of oil in them, record temperatures of oil at settling tank and in heater, of fire- room and of superheated air, take reading of lower pyrometer where the two uptakes meet, and run oil pump supplying oil to the settling tanks and small oil pump supplying oil to the oil heater. As a coal burner the "Mariposa" formerly had the following engineer force: 1 chief engineer, 3 assistant engineers, 3 oilers, 12 fire- men, 12 coal-passers, 3 water-tenders, 1 messenger, 1 storekeeper; total, 36. A reduction of 16 men in the fire-room force is effected by oil burn- ing. At sea she now needs but 3 firemen, but carried 6. This would reduce the force by 19 men. Temperatures of fire-room seem to be about what one would expect in coal burning, but the temperature of the uptake and smokepipe gases runs high, the maximum being 925°, wliich shows an undue loss of heat here. The temperature of the oil in the settling tanks ranged between 68° and 100° F. on the trip out, and between 90° and 108° F. on the trip back. The oil auxiliaries comprise 1 large oil pump, 2 small oil i)unips, 2 oil heaters, 1 air-compressor, and 4 strainers. There is a steam pipe connection to blow out the oil strainers, and another one to blow out the oil burners when clogged. On August 3 the air-compressor needed overhauling, and steam atomizing was kept up during two and one half hours until the com- 132 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. pressor was again working. During this time the evaporator supplied enough feed water to use 20 burners; the engines were not stopped while shifting from steam to air atomizing, and averaged 67.8 turns for tlie two and one half hours. They had before been making 70 turns. Also during the four days in port at Tahiti the forward main single-ended three-furnace boiler was used, atomizing with steam. Generally two burners in the middle furnace gave ample steam to run the following auxiliaries, all exhausting into the atmosphere, the boiler being fed with fresh water from the dock: Ice machine, dynamo, flushing pump, feed injector, two cargo winches, small portable steam pump, and steam for cooking, bathtubs, etc. At first two firemen and a water-tender were on watch at a time, each fireman having one fire-room of six furnaces or twelve burners. The men had but little experience, combustion was poor, much smoke was made, much oil burned, and poor speed attained. To locate the respon- sibility for bad adjustment of burner valves, but one fireman was put on at a time to attend twelve furnaces (twenty-four burners). This made an improvement in the combustion. Unfortunately, the top of the funnel can not be seen from either fire- room, and while the fireman can tell by the appearance of the flame as shown in the sight-hole, or even by the roar of the burner, when the combustion is perfect, in designing a boiler-room for liquid fuel the ventilators should be so arranged that the top of the smoke-pipe can be seen from each fire-room. The work of the fireman Avould be even easier than it is and better results attained if the oil and air' pressure is kept constant and the heated temperature of the oil constant. The apparatus then, once properly adjusted, would need very little change. To get these results is a mere matter of detail easily arranged. If the temperature of the oil rises it feeds more freely and a readjustment is necessary, and the same conditions hold with regard to the pressure. It will be noticed that in addition to the independent oil and air sup- ply valves the burners are fitted with an air plug cock and an oil plug cock connected to one lever, which then controls both oil and air supply, enabling the opei"Titor to shut them both off at once in emergency. At first when steam went up too high and a burner was shut down this lever was used; but shutting off the air thus gave the compressor less work, and as its governor was not sensitive the air pressure increased, making a readjustment of all oil and air supply valves necessary, with consequent smoke. Later on, when it was desirable to shut down a burner, the oil alone was shut off by the independent feed valve on the burner, and the untouched air valve kept the air-compressor's work more nearly constant; then when the burner was again required, the oil valve was opened and immediately lighted from the flame of the adjacent burner. LlyllU FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 133 In starting fires with everything cold, steam is raised on the auxiliary boiler which burns coal, and the air-compressor, oil pumps, and oil heater are started. The oil is lighted by inserting oil-soaked rags in the air space surrounding tlie burner and touching a lamp to them, or an arrangement like a gas-lighter may be used. Sometimes when the air pressure is too high, or insufficient oil is feeding, the flame flickers and may go out. If the oil is kept feeding under these conditions, on relighting there is a small explosion of the gases in the furnace, with a momentary back draft through the peepholes and ashpans. When shut down July 19, for two and one half hours, plugging con- denser tubes, one burner at each end of each boiler (four burners in all) furnished steam to run all auxiliaries, including feed pump, bilge pump, air-compressor, ice machine, dynamo, and flushing pump, all of which were exhausting into the atmosphere. In the Grundell-Tucker burner the oil, heated by a steam coil under boiler pressure throttled down, passes through the inside pipe and is thrown out radially through the series of small holes. The air, first heated by compression up to 20 pounds, is further heated to a tem- perature of about 350° F. in the air chamber surrounding the burner, and called the air superheater. Air can be used at the temperature at which it leaves the compressor, and was so used on the trip down until July 17, when the superheaters were connected up. This air under the pressure of about 20 pounds surrounds the oil pipe in the burner and passes axially along the pipe until near the end, where it is given a whirling motion through small helical passages arranged like the rifling of a gun. It crosses axially and whirling through the fine oil streams spurting radially from the end of the burner, breaking up the oil into fine spray, the drops of which can be seen before they ignite. A fur- ther air supply (cold) is admitted through the hinged door of the ash- pan, and is directed up across the path of the flame and heated also by a curved fire-brick wall built in the ashpan close to the front. This ashpan door is not moved much, but the regulation of the air supply is by the valve control of the air and oil in the burner. The flame should be a steady, full, white or yellowish white one, filling the furnace. The principal difficulties encountered were in the regulation of the supply of oil to the heaters by the pump and the consequent variation of the temperature of the heated oil and the freedom of fiow through the burners. An automatic submerged float, arranged like a steam trap and fitted in the oil heater to control the throttle of the pump, failed to give good automatic results, and the supply of oil was regulated by hand. If the oil was heated too much (above 150° F.) some of the volatile gases are given off and mingle with the air pressing on top of 134 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. the oil in the heater, thence passing with the air into the air super- heaters and burners, the result being that on one occasion a heater got red hot from this cause. Another difliculty was due to the choking of the strainers by foreign matter and impurities in the oil, shutting off the supply of oil, and on one occasion, August 10, putting out all the fires. Just previous to the fires going out, and while the usual air supply was on, and an insufficient amount of oil being fed, a dense white smoke like steam arose from the funnel. This strainer difficulty will be solved by fitting the strainers in pairs, so that a clean one can always be switched in while the choked one is being cleaned. Generally the revolutions of the engines did not vary much during the day, and in calculating the horsepower for each day's average revolutions, when the cards for that day differed much, that set was selected whose revolutions were near the average for the day witli the indicated horsepower, assumed to vary as the cube of the revolutions. If the two sets of cards for the day had the same number of revolutions their average indicated horsepower was used as a basis to compute the day's horsepower as before. It will be noted that the log accompanying this report is kept from noon to noon. This was done as the patent log was inaccurate, and the speed of the ship was got from noon positions as given by sights. It will be noted that speed was much higher on the return trip than on the outgoing, which is ascribed partly to the better combustion as the firemen got experience, partly to the overhauling of the bearings at Tahiti by the force on board, and mostly to the increased oil con- sumption allowed after the run down had proved that there was plenty of oil for the return trip, which was a matter of some doubt before, the ship being provided with coal for twenty-four hours to cover possible emergency. Full power was not developed in the two boilers used, as schedule time was easily exceeded with from two to four burners shut off, though it would not appear, from the tabulated results, that the indicated horse- power would equal what can be got with a good system of forced draft. This burner, however, works well with the Howden system of forced draft, as seen on the tank steamer "George Loomis." It must be remembered that the tabulated calculations are all based on the indicated horsepower of the main engines only, as it was con- sidered better to use only data actually obtained, and afterwards esti- mated data, such as indicated horsepower of auxiliaries, could be applied without vitiating the observed data and results. No cards could be taken from any of the auxiliaries, Ijut careful estimates give the following results: LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 135 Air-compressor, at GO revolutions per minute 110 I. H. P. Auxiliary feed pump and two oil pumps, one used intermittently 30 " Dynamos 30 " Ice machine 7 " Circulating pump 5 " Flushing pump 2 " Baths, steam tables, evaporator, cooking, etc 11 " Total 195 The steering engine was not used except near port. The size of air-compressor was based on the assumption that it requires one cubic foot of free air for every pound of water evaporated from and at 212° F., as shown by tests of various oil burners at Western Sugar Retinerv, San Francisco.^ The weights of oil auxiliaries are as follows : Air-compressor . 9 tons Two settling tanks 12 Two oil heaters 2 Two oil pumps (small) ^ One oil pvimp (large) 1^ Fifteen superheaters (air) front 3.1 All pipes, valves, fittings, ventilators, etc. 8 It should be remembered that the boilers were designed for coal burning; that the oil-burning plant was fitted in a hurry, the machin- ists not leaving the ship until the gong rang for people to go ashore; that the firemen Avere without experience in oil burning, and that most of the automatic gear did not function properly. With the air pressure constant; with the oil heated at constant tem- perature near 140° F.; with oil strainers arranged in pairs, so that one is always efficient, and with experience in firing, the results in economy of oil should be much better on the next trip; and the fireman's work, already very easy, will approach supervising automatic regulation. The fireman does not need strength nor previous training with coal. He should have a good eye, good ear, some common sense, and a desire to learn a new and easy trade. In conclusion, I wish to state that every facility was given me by all the officers of the company, the chief engineer of the ship being par- ticularly zealous in arranging for the taking of required data. Very respectfully, Ward Winchell, Lieutenant, United States Navy. Chief of Bureau of Stecnn Engineering, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. 1 The eight tests made by the Liquid Fuel Board of the Bureau of Steam Engineer- ing, in which air burners were used, consumed from 34.3 cubic feet to 78.3 cubic feet of free air per pound of oil, an average on the quantities of oil burned on the eight runs of 52.7 cubic feet, which at an average evaporation for these runs of 13.53 pounds of water per pound of oil, woukl be 3.9 cubic feet of free air per pound of water evaporated from and at 212° F. 136 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Actual Time. Slip of Screw, in per cent Knots Made per Barrel of Oil... Knots Made per Ton of Oil Pouiiils of Oil per Knot Run Pounds of Oil per Hour per I. H. P. .■- Sijuare Feet of Heating S u r- faceperl. H. P, I. H. P., Main Engines, per Pound of Oil per Hour. I. H. P., Main Engines, per Square Foot of Grate Oil Used per Hour, Pounds. Oil Used per Day, Tons of 2240 pounds . . . Oil Used per Day, Barrels.. I. H. P., Main Engines Only. Revolutions per Minute .- Knots per Hour. Knots per Day. lO i-H rH ^ d c^ oc i^ t-( irt i^ :c ^ cc .-1 rt C-l 1-1 I-H C^ f 1 C-) CI C^ CJ M !N ^4 C^ C^ (N ic^ o -r -.= o X ■^ i~ a-. ^(N CC GO I"- >n O i-C iC c. « r-^ 00 ac cc 00 ai 00 X oi ai OS X i^ i~ ^ ic cc t^ »c cc cc -4^ cc'<*0'^xoxccaiXi-i CC O lO -f t~ O -Xi O O CO o Tf iC »C iC '~C t^ --O l^ l^ P^ o o o o o o o o o o o o ■*imC'00oooot^>c i-fXXO-^COiCOOlXC^I iccccCTt0ixc^c — -■-- ■■ if^cOcOCDCOCDCDCDCDtOCO OaXC^r-llCr-l<;Dl^lCrHC0 XOiO<-lX(MOOCCiOCC tot^xaio^Hc£ -a e c ri o -t ic^ '1' I-': I- « ic '^ Q - 1-H Tf Ci 1- 3 ti GC iC "^C '^ O l-- C^ !"• O O _. _ _ _)!"* cc :^ 'Xi :c t^ tr^ v^ t^ t^ t^ t^ •^c^GCoooo-t;r-;oD X l^ X l-^ 'Tf t^ x" 1-^ iC iC C^ iC l^ 1^ t^ r^ X O C O: CTi o ' X' I- O X CC—t o c. 1^ o o O O -x; 'x; a: c^i -^ -^ MiO*^0.-iOOXOiO -^ O C^ X C^X t-; CO GO r-H iC X as O O r-To O rH OS ^* rH 1 I^ I- iC (M -i- i-t r- 1^ t^ OS c (N r- 1^ a: rH rH T H^C^^rHCC^ rfOOrHCC^-^LCCCiC'^ o c; o o lO o o uc »c o c^ -fXXOsOrH,-i,-(C:C l-^ I- I— t-- l"^ CO l^ I-- X CC C^ -f l^ '^ (M CO r* t^ rH OS(NC^?CiOrt*C^'^ .1 g £2 LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 137 The Bureau of Steam Engineering lias also received the following summary of the second voyage of the steamship " Mariposa " on the round tvi}) hctween San Francisco and Tahiti. The data show that the oil consumption on the second voyage was considerably less than that on the tirst, due to two causes: Imi)rovements in detail of the oil- fuel installation and increased skill and intelligence upon the part of the engine-room force. The Oceanic Steamship Company is fitting an oil-fuel installation on the sister ship "Alameda," and it can \h' expected that when a spirited rivalry is created between the crews of the "Alameda " and "' Mai-ij)Osa" even better results Avill lie forthcomino;. TABLE 18. GENERAL SUMMARY OF LOG OF 0. S. S. "MARIPOSA. Voyage No. 2, from San Francisco to Tahiti. D.*^TE— 1902. 1-% t^ w — to"' -2 o-^ •J. -?r -"^"^ August 21- 22 22,. 24. 25- 26- 27- 28. 29. 30. 31- 328 297 282 330 310 311 292 305 305 322 326 13.3 12.3 13.3 13.6 12.8 12.8 12.1 12.6 12.6 13.3 13.5 63.7 62.6 64.0 65.9 62.0 62.0 62.0 62.1 62.2 65.0 66.0 255 225 210 235 220 210 220 220 220 230 240 Average, U days.- Voyage 1, 11 days- 309.9 312.7 12.96 13.12 63.4 65.2 226 264.8 36.43 32.14 30.00 33.59 31.43 30.09 31.43 31.43 31.4.-; 32.>SH 34.28 3,400 3,000 2,800 3,133 2,933 2,800 2,933 32.28 36.40 :;,iitit; 3,200 248.8 242.8 237.4 227.9 227.1 216.1 241.1 230.8 L'l^s.e 235.6 3,013 3,412 233.3 260.9 9.00 9.24 9.43 9.82 9.86 10.37 9.29 9.70 9.70 9.80 9.51 1.29 1.32 1.35 1.40 1.41 1.48 1.33 1.39 1.39 1.40 1.35 9.60 8.585 1.37 1.22 7.0 13.4 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.5 13.8 10.3 10.5 9.5 9.4 9.9 13.14 Average temperature of uptake, 548*; average temperature of superheaters, 360*; average temperature of cold oil, 91*. Voyage No. 2, from Tahiti to San Francisco. Date— 1902. ?1 7\ o -1 ■ 2 ■"i •5 OO 1-1 i 2.? 1— 1 '^- s2 = 5 ■d 3 ft '-~ ■-I is ft September 6 7 8 292 301 288 298 276 327 303 317 307 324 321 12.2 12'.6 12.1 12.5 12.2 13.7 12.7 13.2 13.2 62.1 62.6 62.9 63.1 64.7 66.9 67.1 67.3 67.4 215 220 220 220 30.71 ' 2,867 235.6 31.43 1 2,933 233.8 31.43 2,933 244.4 9.51 9.57 9.16 1.36 12.6 1.37 11.2 1.31 15.5 9 31.43 2.93;^ 2.36.2 i 9.48 1.35 12.6 10 11 220 ' 31.43 2,933 255.1 245 1 35.00 j 3,267 240.0 250 1 35.71 i 3,333 264.0 265 i 37.44 3,533 267.5 260 37.45 .3.466 1 271.0 8.46 9.34 8.48 8.53 8.20 8.54 8.32 1.25 13.4 1.33 9.4 12 1.21 i 16.5 13 . 1.20 13.0 14 1.18 13.0 15 13.8 69.0 265 270 37.ifl 3,533 '261.7 38 57 ^ 3,600 269.1 1.22 12.0 16 13.5 69.2 1.19 ' 13.9 Average, 11 days Voyage 1, 10 days 304.9 331.9 12.7 13.96 65.7 70.6 241 295.5 34.46 3,212 j 252.6 42.22 3,981.6 284.79 8.87 7.841 1.27 ! 13.01 1.122 12.89 -Average temperature of uptake, 546° temperature of cold oil, 90° average temperature of superheaters, 360°; average 138 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Steamer "Berkeley." — The bay and ferry steamers of the Southern Pacific Company Ijurn oil exclusively, with the most satisfactory results. The change from coal to oil burning involved merely the ))uilding of tanks in the coal-bunker space, the installation of the necessary pumps, etc., and the substitution of checker walls for grates in the furnaces. As giving an idea of the cost of such changes, it is stated that the oil installation on one of the largest ferry-boats cost $1700 complete. Through the courtesy of Mr. Wm. McKenzie, Superintendent of River and Ferry Steamers, Southern Pacific Company, it is possible to give a Fig. 42. Plan of Boiler Room, Steamer "Berkeley." description of boiler-room and fuel-oil plant on the steamer "Berkeley.' running between San Francisco and Oakland Mole. The "Berkeley'' is a propeller boat of 1245 tons, length 260', beam 40', draught 8' 9", constructed in 1902 by the Union Iron Works. The propellers, one at each end of the boat, are 8' in diameter, 14' pitch, with 34 square feet of surface. The engines, constructed by the Union Iron Works, are triple expansion, the cylinders being 22", 34", and 56" respectively, with 36" stroke, using steam at 165 pounds in high pres- sure, condensing at 26" vacuum through 1824 |" brass tubes, having 2475 square feet of cooling surface. They are handled by steam- operated link reversing gear. The boilers are four in number, placed end to end in pairs, with continuous furnaces. Fig. 42 shows the general arrangement of boiler- room and oil connections. Boilers are internally fired, two corrugated LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 189 furnaces to the boiler, the total heating surface being 4820 square feet. The Howden system of forced draft is used, air being forced by a fan through a series of pipes placed in the uptake, where it is heated to approximately the temperature of flue gases. The air pressure main- tained is sufficient to balance the draft, water gauge on ashpit fluctuat- ing somewhat, but showing on an average neither pressure nor vacuum. Oil is stored in four upright cylindrical tanks, placed at ends of the old coal spaces. The bunkers, two in number, are 8'xl4'x88'; the tanks, two to each bunker, are approximately 7' diameter by 10' high, and hold 2750 gallons each. They are of y\" steel, with flat bottoms and tops, the latter being tight, with gas outlet through side of vessel. They are connected in pairs with the main oil feed, the pipes entering tanks about one foot from the bottom, and being provided with inde- pendent valves to prevent passage of oil from one tank to another in case of listing or heavy rolling. From the tanks, the cold oil passes to the pumps, of which there are two — one in use, the other held in reserve. The pumps are Knowles duplex piston pattern, 4^ x 2f x 4. The oil is discharged through a spring- governed regulator, by-passed into the suction, into the pressure tank, a cylinder about 18" diameter by 5' high. The air cushion in this tank is maintained by occasionally pumping in air against oil pressure, and takes up the pulsations of the pump, oil entering and leaving the tank from sides near bottom. From the pressure tank the oil passes to the heater, consisting of a cylinder 5' high and 8" diameter, with a single l-j" pipe passing up through the center, through which passes the exhaust steam from oil pump. The oil entering the heater at the bottom is heated to about 70^ F. before being discharged from the top into a strainer of fine wire gauze, passing from the strainer to the main burner supply. The burners are the " Little Giant," an inside mixing burner of the tubular type. The atomizing agent is steam at boiler pressure, 165 pounds, controlled by a globe valve; oil is taken to the burner at 45 pounds, and controlled by a lever-handle cock. The air supply enters furnace at top and bottom, and is controlled by a globe valve. As these ferry steamers make a landing and a ten-minute stop every thirty minutes, it is necessary that the fires should be readily stopped and started, and in practice a single movement of the oil cock lever, the opening of air valve, and a slight adjustment of steam supply, are all that is required, the oil igniting readily from the brickwork in the furnace, and the steam only requiring adjustment, and that very little. Tlie oil supply is run steadily at full opening; if necessary to regulate the flow of oil, this is done, not by turning the lever, l)ut by altering the width of opening of the cock, the oil passage through the plug lieing of inverted V shape, and regulated by an interior sleeve by which the 140 I>KTIU)I,ErM IN CALIFORNIA. orifice may l)e j)artially or cntiri'ly closed. It is thus possible to run always with oil coek wide open, while if necessary to alter the rate of How for any reason, which seldom occurs, the adjustment may be read- ily effected from the outside, without stopping the flow or altering position of lever. The furnaces are lined from end to end with a single course of fire- l)rick, extending half way u}) the side. About three feet l^ack of the door is placed a checker wall of flre-brick, reaching rather more than half way up the furnace, and two feet farther back another wall of sim- ilar construction and height. The Inirner is entered near the bottom of firebox, and set level, the flame striking against and through the checker walls, the object ])eing to distribute the heat more uniformly through the furnace than can be done with a naked flame. The boilers being flred from l)oth ends have a common combustion chamber, but on installing oil burners this comlnistion chamber was divided by a light wall of flre-brick, placed crosswise, and reaching within an inch of toj) of chamber, thus making each boiler independent. The experience of the Southern Pacific Company in the use of liquid fuel on steamers, as stated by Mr. McKenzie, has been entirely satis- factory. Labor has been decreased, dust from handling coal and ashes entirely done away with, fire-room temperature lowered (though tem- perature in uptakes is higher than when using coal), time in loading is diminished (the "Berkeley" oils but once in two days), and a great economy in fuel costs realized. Mr. McKenzie states that l)y handling and injecting the oil practically cold (the gravity is 14°) formation of carbon deposits in the firebox is entirely avoided, and that the greatest economy is had when a faint trace of smoke is rising from the stack. It has l)een shown in their experience that the loss arising from the slight waste of combustible gases incident to producing traces of smoke is much less than that due to the use of the excess of air necessary to secure complete combustion. On the '' Berkeley," and other steamers of the Southern Pacific Com- pany, steam for the burners is superheated l)y means of a small coil of hydraulic pipe in the firel)ox. The temperature of steam as super- heated is regulated by altering length of coil. They find it desirable to heat the steam to a high temperature, just below the point at which ''starring" takes place. "Starring" is rather ditticult to describe, although easily recognized l)y the eye. When it is taking place the flame, instead of Ijeing smooth and of even color, is filled Avith small sparks, (u- stars, due pro!)ably to the oil being heated by the steam al)ove its vaporizing point, so that when ejected into the firebox and thus released from pressure, the drops actually explode, rather than burn. When " starring" is ol)served, carbon deposits are always found in the firebox, it is stated. LIQUID FUEL ON STEAMSHIPS. 141 The experience of the Soutliern Pacific Company has been tliat the form of atomizer is the least important essential to success in oil hurn- inu', the adjustment of atomizer, of steam, air and oil pressure, and particuhirly of the form of furnace, to the conditions, being far more important. Many of their heaviest furnaces are equipped with h(mie- made l)urners of the simplest construction, wliicli they iind entirely satisfactory. Economy. — As liearin-0to»Z- ^O-Vt't-^t^ of s/^^>**->«-«.Z>>t, .Sheis ^S¥y^ cross Ions, neasur.mrnt. / 5q t"<'S. - ^J Too bean i, itrnl // j^^ depth of hoht. uitd will be used for u^A^/i-OM' >-W«^ ■a. ::;^ tf ^ i5 N -^ .\ >- >\^ .X ^ X \- ^ ^ ::^ > ^ .X D ^^ >f h CO ID >^ a >^ ~^ a ^ T^ri - z k; I >^ J -o r ^ 0j\ ~) >^ ^ - >^ ■ I OJ w ^ ■rr^ a. = - iij ^ ^* Q v^ ^ ^-^ flO ^ :::^ CD ^ ^^^ ft^ i ^ -:< o 2 Z m 2 a: < Ed UJ hJ t; C cc s < o c a cu 2 J O -2l s MINOR USES OF FUEL OIL. 155 "ily when brought into contact with tlie oxygen of the surrounding " atmosphere. a* * * During the last few years I have been repeatedly " approached by parties asking me why I do not use oil in the blast *' furnace, and the only answer I can give them is the following : Solid " carbon plays a very important role, especially in the upper level of " the blast furnace shaft. Its function, especially with the fine ores, is " largely to limber up the charge and allow the flow of gases to pene- "trate the charge evenly; besides, incandescent carbon has certain " functions to perform in the blast furnace, which are of a chemical " nature, and which need not be discussed in this paper. If coke or " charcoal should be entirely replaced by oil in the blast furnace, the " blast furnace charge would very likely become too dense to allow the "combustion gases to escape freely. Besides, it seems to me, there " would be considerable danger from explosions if oil should be used as " fuel in blast furnaces. However, I think it may be possible to replace *' part of the solid carbon fuel with liquid fuel, but I am not prepared *' to state at this time what percentage of liquid fuel could be used, or *' what mechanical arrangements should be introduced for the use of " liquid fuel in the blast furnaces." The structural arrangements of metallurgical furnaces burning oil are, in general, very similar to what would be needed for solid fuel. The grates, etc., are of course dispensed with, and the burners intro- duced at points where flame is needed. A large number of burners of different types have been tried at Selby, but those now in use are of very simple construction, and give the most excellent results. In Fig. 48 is shown a sectional view of this burner. It should be pointed out that a light oil, such as used at Selby, in a very hot furnace, gives better results in so simple a burner than would a heavier oil in a smaller and cooler boiler firebox. Glass-Making-.— Through the courtesy of Mr. Edward Abramson, president of the Illinois-Pacific Glass Company, a representative of the Mining Bureau was permitted to see the application of fuel oil to the manufacture of glassware at that company's plant, where white, flint, and aml)er bottles and flint demijohns and fruit jars are manufactured. The operations of bottle-making are simple enough in theory, though requiring great skill on the part of the workman. The raw materials for the glass (principally a California sand) are mixed dry, and charged into a melting furnace. From the melting chamber the semi-liquid melt runs into another chamber, from which it is withdrawn, at the working holes, in the form of a stiffly viscous paste. This paste, as is Avell known, is handled on the ends of iron rods or tubes, and in mak- ing machine bottles and jars, dropped into the mold, where it is pressed, blown, and shaped by practically automatic machinery. 156 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Bottles, after being formed in the mold, have the neck shaped in a separate operation. For this purpose the necks are reheated to redness in a small furnace known as a " glory hole." The shaping being fin- ished, the bottles pass to the annealing leahrs, where they are subjected Fig. 49. Glass Furnace, Burning Oil— Plan. to a mild heat, about 1200° F., for several hours, then allowed to cool very slowly, sorted and packed. The glass furnaces vary in size, but approximate the proportions shown in Figs. 49 and 50. The raw materials are charged through the door a onto the floor of the furnace, the use of melting pots being un- necessary w^here oil is used for fuel. The burner ^ ranged along the outer edge of crown throw the flame through small holes directly on the sand, which melts at a dazzling whitt- heat, the glass thus formed running through the nar- row slot e into the collect- ing chamber c, where it i~ kept at proper temperature by the burner atf in center of crown. At the sides of the melting chamber are the air-heaters, brick boxes filled to a varying depth with a checker work of fire-brick. The air for combustion passes up through one box, through the melting chamber, and down through the other box to the stack. In this operation the inlet heater is cooled, while the outlet heater is raised to a very high Fig. 50. Glass Furnace — Cross-section. MINOR USKS OF FUEL OIL. 157 temperature by the tire gases from the melting chamber. At the end of an hour's run the order is reversed by means of a valve near the stack, the air now passing uj) through the heated box, the previously cooled box being again heated. In this way the air supplied for com- bustion in the melting chamber is always highly heated. The effect of these checkers, however, is to greatly obstruct the draft, and that so rich a fuel as oil can be used under such circumstances shows its great adaptability to diilicult conditions. In forcing a fur- nace of this kind, the pressure on the melting chamber is outward, the flame streaming out from every opening. Yet the consumption of the large amount of fuel required is effected without the formation of smoke or of noxious gases, the flame being perfectly clear and of great brilliancy. The advantages gained in this use of oil are numerous: saving in labor, and in wear and tear on furnaces, the operation becom- ing practically continuous, the removal of the expensive and fragile melting pots, ready and complete control over heats, and economy in cost of fuel. The " glory holes *' are small cubical l)oxes, about 12" in each dimen- sion inside, a small opening being left in the walls, which are one thickness of fire-brick, near the bottom at each end. The flame enters through a hole in the top, strikes the bottom, and is discharged at the ends. These very small furnaces run at a low white heat, with great steadiness, and with very little noise. The annealing leahrs are low, flat furnaces, the firebox being at the side, and the flame passing up throvigh a flue and down onto the Avare on the furnace floor. The most notable feature in connection with these furnaces is, that though run at a comparatively low heat, the bottles when removed after thirty-six hours' exposure to the fire gases are quite clean except for a slight cloudy film, showing that the oil is completely burned. This cloud, which is readily removed by wiping or by water, is of unknown composition, but from its white color when rubbed onto a dark surface, can not be soot. It may be due to deposi- tion of sulphur-carrying compounds from the fire gases at the end of the heat, or more likely, from its salty taste, to the traces of salt always found in water accompanying crude oil. The cleanliness of the annealed ware shows very plainlv the perfection of combustion, wliich is rather remarkable considering the low temperature and the length of time during which the glass is exposed to direct contact with the fire gases. The oil-burning plant at this works consists of: four melting fur- naces, with thirty-six burners; nineteen annealing leahrs, with thirty- five burners; fifteen "glory holes," with fifteen burners; one sand drier, with one burner; three boilers, with three burners. With the excep- tion of those under the boilers, all the burners use air for injection. 158 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Brick Kiln — Ground plan. unci are of the outside mixing tubular type, manufactured by the Cox '■ etc.. and the future protection and preservation of these structures. "A wharf or other structure to be treated, is surrounded by a float- •' ing dam. Within this dam is a suitable noxious substance of a specific " gravity less than water, so that it will float upon the water. The " escape of this substance is prevented by the floating dam. The dam ■' and noxious substance are raised and lowered by the tides and waves, ■■ bringing the substance into contact with the piles or other structure, " thereby killing all life and protecting these structures from the com- " ing of other worms, bugs and insects, and vegetation. " Good noxious substances are crude, heavy, California petroleum " oil, which usually contains from 30% to 40% of asphaltum, or asphal- '• tum dissolved in a distillate. The volatile parts of the heavy " petroleum or solution of asphaltum and a distillate, when spread on a "pile or other structure, gradually evaporate, leaving a coating of very " viscous li([uid asphaltum. which adlieres to the pile or other structure " with great tenacity. " Poisonous materials may l)e added to oil or the solution, such as " creosote or carbolic acid, etc. " Fig. 53 is a view of a wharf showing the floating body of noxious " material and the floating dam conflning it about all the piles of " the wharf. AA is a wharf, the piles of which are surrounded by a " floating frame BB, which serves as a dam, to confine the floating sub- 11 — BUL. 32 160 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. "stance, represented by BD, so that the said substance covering the " water with a thin layer remains in contact with the piles. " In Fig. 53 high water is indicated by the hne CC. It will readily be "seen that by the constant rise and fall of the tide, and the ceaseless] " action of the waves, the layer of petroleum oil confined by the float- : " ing dam will coat the piles between high- and low-water marks, being " that portion which sviffers from the limnoria. " The dam need not in all cases surround all the piles as a whole, for " as shown at G, Fig. 53, it may be applied about each single pile. " AAA are timber floats and braces held in position by being " attached to half-circle hoops RB, these hoops being hinged together . "at C. Around these braces and lioojis is nailed a canvas covering j " forming a canvas cylin- " der, opening at D. The " cylinder is opened and " placed around the pile " to be coated, and then " closed and tightly laced " together, as shown at " D, or it can be laced " with a double string, as " a shoe is laced. The " space between the can- " vas and the pile is then " tilled with noxious ma- ^^7=:^^' " terial of less specific z=Z^ "gravity than water. " The floating dam and ^ " noxious material are "^ "lowered and raised l)y "the tides and waves, " coating the pile. The " necessary amount of petrolcvun oil is })lac('d and tl " when the dam is changed, by a large syringe. "A square box six inches deep, without top or bottom, if l)uilt around "a pile and left free to float up and down with the tides, makes a gixxl " dam." - The creosoting process, many years in use for the j)Uri)osi' of ])r(- serving wharf and other timbers fi'om the attacks of limnoria and teredo, and from decay, consists in satm-ating the outer layers of wood of the pile with heavy oil from coal tar. The piles or other tim- bers, loaded on iron cars, are run into a i-ctort, a steel tube some S' to 10' in diameter, and up to UO' in lengtli. The ends of this tul)e beiim closed with heavy iron doors, clamped on, hot oil is run in, and tlir Fig. o3. ^urphis rt'UioNH'd PETROLEUM IN GAS-MAKING. 161 temperature brought to the boiling point of the sap. The water vapor fr(Hn the wood passes through a condenser to the vacuum pump, by wliich a high vacuum is maintained on the retort. The extraction of sap having been carried to the proper depth, and the pores of the wood thoroughly opened up by the boiling out of the sap, the vacuum is released, the retort completely filled with oil, and a high pressure applied by means of an oil pressure pump. Pressing is continued until the desired amount of oil has been forced into the wood, the ligliter portions of the oil penetrating deepest, while the heaviest part remains as a hard black coating on the surface. The oil consists principally of neutral hydrocarbons, of high l>oiling })oint, and considerably heavier than water, but contains also carbolic acid and other phenols, naphtha hnie, anthracene, and a number of otlier antiseptic substances. This treatment, which greatly prolongs the life of the pile, acts in two ways: Rot is prevented by the antiseptic elements of the oil, also, probaljly, by the exclusion of air, while the pile is protected from the action of marine boring insects by the layer of densely saturated wood on the surface, which they can not penetrate. The creosoting process is expensive, on account of the high price of creosote oil, and Dundon's " Petro- Asphalt Process" (used by the San Francisco Timber Preserving Company) aims to reduce the cost by sub- stituting heavy crude petroleum, the mechanical part of the treatment being the same. The lighter portions of the petroleum penetrate the wood, while a hard asphaltic coating is left on the outside. The anti- septic properties of the creosote are largely lacking, but the coating offers an effective protection from air and water, and from attacks of insects. CHAPTER 13. PETROLEUM IN GAS-MAKING. Petroleum and its products tind extensive use in the manufacture of gas, and this use has been enormously increased locally, within the last few years, by the application of oil to gas-making processes whicli dijretbane 1.0 100.0 The heating value of a gas of ahove analysis would he ahout ooO R. T. U. per cuhic foot. These constituents all hum with l)luish or colorless ilames, and water gas is suita])le for illumination only after being enriched hy the addi- tion of luminiferous elements. This process is known as "carburetting," and many methods of accomplishing the desired result have been tried, but at the ])resent the method exclusively used on this coast is to produce oil gas in mixture with the water gas, as al)ove outlined. Petroleum of whatever nature may, by heating to the proper temper- ature and under the proper conditions, be almost entirely converted into permanent gas, and at the temperature of the carl)urettor of the water gas set, these gases are extremely rich in illuminating elements. The nature of this petroleum gas may be approximated from the follow- ing analysis of a sam|)le of Pintsch gas, which is made l)y decomposing oil in iron retorts: Hydrogen 18.4% Metbane 42.9 Illunlinant^< 26.9 Nitrogen 11.8 100.0 The heating value of this sample was 1320 B. T. U. per cubic foot. The photometric value of the mixed gas will be generally proportional to the amount of oil used, though depending to some extent on the regulation of the apparatus. In California it was formerly the practice to use distillate exclusively, the distillate standard for this purpose having the following specifications: Gravity : 28° to 30° Be. Flash point l.'i()° to 180° F. Distilling below 150° C 1% to 15% Distilling between 1;50° and 270= C. 50% to 80% Residue at 3(Xl° C. 15% or less. An oil of this character gives a stable gas, and a com])aratively light tar. The quantity used varies with a great number of factors, but in making twenty-candle gas it is considered good practice if no more than five gallons of oil are used per thousand feet of gas, and to get this result requires care. 166 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Some companies specify a lighter distillate, while others use crude oil * of various gravities. Light crude, 22° or better, works very well, but the heavier oils are the source of some annoyance. The asphalt in these heavy oils is not gasified, but is largely carried forward into the tar, making the latter very heavy, and often causing troublesome stop- pages. The quantity of crude varies widely, but in any case con- siderably exceeds the quantity of distillate which would be required to do the same work. The manufacture of enriched water gas for illuminating purposes i-> by no means new, but was first put on a practical working basis by th. inventions of Mr. T. S. C. Lowe, and is now very widely used in tlv- United States and to a certain extent in Europe. Where bituminous coal is expensive, as it is on the Pacific Coast, enriched water gas can be manufactured at a considerably lower cost than coal gas, and in addition the installation, on a large scale, is much less expensive. Because of the high cost of anthracite, or other hard fuel suitable to use in the manufacture of ordinary water gas, many attempts have been made to devise processes which will entirely dispense with solid fuel in gas-making, using oil exclusively. Many difficulties were met, and for a long time the problem remained unsolved, but during the past three or four years successful apparatus has been devised, and has now replaced water gas apparatus in over fifty towns and cities of the- Pacific Coast. The generator for the manufacture of what is known as "crude oil water gas" is very similar to that used for ordinary water gas; in fact, in one system the old apparatus is converted to the new use by con- structing checker work in the generator proper and placing the oil burners (that is, the fire) at the top instead of at the bottom. But th'- greatest success appears to have been had with apparatus constructed specially for the purpose. In this apparatus, the generator, instead of a bed of fuel, has a fire-brick checker, which is heated by means of oil burners, carbon being at the same time deposited on the brick. Th- proper heat in generator and superheater being attained, the air supply is shut off, and steam and oil introduced, as in making ordinary water gas. The steam combines with the carbon on the checkers, forming water gas, while the oil is decomposed to form oil gas, which is fixed ii the usual manner. The apparatus, like the usual water-gas set, i- intermittent in its action. The following particulars as to analysis of this gas, and the advantage- of the process, are furnished by the California Light and Fuel Company, manufacturers of water-gas machinery using oil for fuel: "As generally manufactured, to meet the demands of custom, thi^ "gas is of from 20 to 22 candlepower, about 95 % combustible, and con- " taining from 650 to 675 heat units (B. T. U.) per cubic foot, and. PETHOLKl'M IN (iAS-.MAKING. 1()7 '' while it is an illuiuinating water gay in the ordinary acceptation of '• the term, its analysis shows its composition to he between that gas " and coal gas, as will be seen from the following table, which gives " average analyses of good qualities of these three gases, when made in " a first-class and thorough manner, and when purified by iron oxid. "The analyses show the seven constituents usually determined in " ordinary observations: Lowe Ordinary CoiistitiU'iits. Crude Oil Illuminating Coal Gas. Water Gas. Water Gas. Carbonic acid 2.0% 3.0% 2.0% Heavy hydrocarbons 10.0 11.0 S.O Oxygen .2 .2 .2 Carbonic oxid 7.0 22.0 6.0 Marsh gas 28.0 21.0 36.0 Hydrogen 48.0 38.0 47.0 Nitrogen 4.8 4.8 3.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Candle-power 20to22 20to22 16tol7 B. T. U. per cubic foot (calculated) 662 621 655 Specific gravity, calculated (Air = 1) 0.452 0.577 0.428 " The heating powers of the gases, as given above, are calculated from '• the thermal values of their various combustible constituents, as "determined by the observations of Bertholet (see 'Calorific Power of "Fuels,' by Poole, page 203), who gives the B. T. U. per cubic foot of "those gases as follows: Carbonic oxid, 341; hydrogen, 347; marsh "gas, 1073; and ethylene, 1712. " In the foregoing analyses the heavy hydrocarbons are estimated as " ethylene, as is the customary practice, and though this may, or may " not, be a correct value for these gases (there being a variety of opinions "on that subject), as all of the results given in the above table are " calculated from the same factors, a fair comparison is afforded. "The Lowe crude oil water gas process does not require the use of any " special kind or ({uality of oil, any grade being entirely suitable for its " use, either crude petroleum direct, or its distillates or residuums, but " as crude oil is generally the cheapest its use is ordinarily advised. " All grades and kinds are handled successfully and with facility, " including Texas oils, and not excepting even the very heavy and " viscous asphaltic oils of the Pacific Coast, some of which are of "extremely low grade (about as thick as molasses), being from 12° to "14° Beaume (specific gravity, 0.9859 to 0.9722), which grade of oil is " successfully handled in no other gas-making system. "The quantity of material necessary per 1000 cubic feet depends, of " course, on the amount of gas made, the quality desired, and also "somewhat on the grade of the oil; but, generally si)eaking, from S "gallons per 1000 cul)ic feet in large works, to 12 gallons per 1000 culiic 168 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. " feet in sniuU works, are required, with intermediate varying amounts, " depending upon the size of works and average gas output, the quan- " tity of materials stated also including the fuel necessary for steam- " making purposes. When using these amounts, the gas will have the " average composition given in the above table, when made in a skilled ''manner, although better .or poorer grades can be made at the will of " the operator by varying the quantity of material used. " In addition to oil, gas-making expense is covered by the items of " purification, water, and labor. " The item of purification is a very small one, the inexpensive iron *' oxid method being entirely suitable, and as there is usually much " less sulphur in this gas than in coal gas, or in water gas made from " coal and oil, less purification is necessary. " Water is used for steam-making purposes and also for condensing '' and cleansing the gas, the amount used being about the same as with " ordinary water gas. This is usually a very small item of expense, as "it is the custom in most gas works to pump the water supply, and as " there is sufficient steam estimated upon for this purpose in the stated '' amount of oil used per 1000 cubic feet, this item becomes insignificant. " Labor can be much less in this process than in any other, as, there '' being no solid fuels to handle, a gas-maker is able to accomplish very '' much more work than with any other gas-making method. Skilled " labor is not necessary, as the operation of the apparatus is extremely " simple and easily learned, and any man of average intelligence can " master its working with moderate instruction." CHAPTER 14. OILED ROADS. The necessity for road improvement in California is too apparent to need any argument. The Pacific Coast is a country of magnificent distances, and also a country of comparatively sparse population, so that while the importance of good roads to the welfare of the State is appreciated, the expense of putting and keeping the highways in order over long stretches of unsettled land is, or rather has been, prohibitive. The oiled road seems to offer the most feasible solution of the difficulty. The principle upon which road oiling operates is the binding together of the loose particles of the surface into a compact and resistant, and yet elastic mass, by an oil of asphaltic nature, thus preventing the grinding of the road into dust during the long summer, and into mud in winter, and preserving the roadbed from the destructive effects of OILED ROADS. Kii) running water. To accomplish this result economically, the asphaltic residuum must be a considerable part of the oil, and must be tough, clastic, and cohesive, while at the same time proof against the effects of the weather. The crude oils of California are jiarticularly suited to tliis use; in fact, it is probably safe to say that no other oils produced ill (juantity are so well suited. Oil Sprinkling". — Any passal)le road may be rendered i)ractically or entirely dustlcss by merely sj)rinkling with oil, leaving the mixing and compression to be done by passing vehicles. The disadvantages of this method are obvious: that it leaves the road surface covered with fresh oil, which is carried away on the wheels of vehicles and on the shoes of pedes- trians, and that the surface when finally settled will be extremely irregular, pasty with excess of oil in one spot, dry and loose in the next. Yet even this simple treatment is much more effective than sprinkling witli water, as it practically does away with dust, and as it is very much cheaper than either watering or proper oiling it has been and undoubt- edly will be much used. In Fresno.— During the summer of 1902 many of the streets of Fresno were oiled in this manner. The soil of this portion of the San Joaquin Valley is sandy, but also contains considerable clay or shale, so that during the long summer the unimproved roads become almost impassable from the depth of sandy dust, while the main roads, which have been graveled, have to be watered twice a day and then are dry most of the time. The oiling operation consisted simply in applying cold oil to the surface, with no attempt at mixing, rolling, or covering. The inniiediate result was a wide expanse of sticky black oil, which caused much complaint on account of being carried into houses and over carpets. But under the influence of the sun the surface oil soon soaked away, and while there were only occasional spots which had enough oil to be firm, the entire surface was cohesive enough to prevent dust from rising, and the condition of the road Avas, altogether, greatly improved, and at a very small expense. This method seems of doubt- ful economy in a city of the size and wealth of Fresno, but where long stretches of road over unsettled country are to be improved, it offers a means of considerably increasing the comfort and usefulness of a high- way at small cost. The same process has been much used by the railroads in California, a great many miles of roadbed having been oiled. It is customary in railroad work to apply the oil a little at a time, in several applications, allowing time enough after each for the oil to dry. In this way a coat- ing of the consistency of asphalt is formed over the ballast, and dust is entirely laid, but it is well to remember that this crust is not subject to wear, and would probably be ra})idly destroyed if traveled over by teams, as it has little solid foundation. 170 I'KTROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Complete Constpuction of Oiled Road.— It may be well to pass from the simplest form of road oiling, the mere sprinkling of the surfaee, to a description of the complete construction of a first-class road, as all intermediate grades of work would be carried out along the same lines. Grading. — The first element in the construction of a good road, whether oiled or not, is to })rovide proper crown and gutters for drainage, to insert cross drains or culverts on side hills, and to secure proper eleva- tion and sound foundation on low or marshy ground. These are problems for the civil engineer, and as they have been extensively treated by experts need not be dwelt on here. Suffice it to say that an oiled road, like any other, must be drained, and must have a founda- tion. An oiled road is very much like an asphalt pavement, in that the asphaltic or bituminous layer is merely a surface dressing ; the road is underneath. It took the city of San Francisco many years to learn that a tliin sheet of asphaltic composition spread over loose sand does not make a pavement. Further, a narrow roadbed, properly graded and oiled over the whole surface, is more serviceable and no more expensive than a wider road, necessarily of flatter section, and oiled in the center only. An eighteen-foot roadway will accommodate a very heavy traffic, Avhile on long stretches with light traffic a twelve- foot bed is amply sufficient. Wearing Surface. — We will suppose a roadway, say eighteen feet in width, to be properly graded, crowned from four to six inches, and drained where necessary. The next step is to provide the wearing sur- face. The bed material may be gravel, sand, sandy clay or loam, or adobe. If the bed is of gravel or of sand, the surface may be formed of the same material, or if of sandy clay, a good surface may be made if the sand approximates half the bulk of the soil. But if the bed is of adobe, it is very difficult to make of it a good wearing surface. If sand or gravel are to be had at a reasonable cost it is well to provide for a wearing surface of these materials over the adobe; if not availa- ble, a different treatment must be adopted, which will be described later. Rolling. — Supposing that the materials for the bed are reasonably porous, the road should be thoroughly consolidated by rolling, unless this has been done by use. To facilitate i)acking of the material, the roadbed should be well wet down during rolling, as much water being used as the material will take without becoming too sticky. The rolling can hardly be overdone, in any case it should be continued until no further settlement is evident, and the surface is hard and smooth. If a wearing surface of foreign material is to be used, this is now placed, spread evenly, and rolled in the same manner. If the improvements are being made on an old road the procedure is practically the same, OILED ROADS. 171 tlie old surface l)eing loosened uj), ehuckholes filled, and the surface graded, wetted, and rolled with care. Loosening. — We have now our road shai)ed and i-onsolidated, but sat- urated with water, and it nuist be allowed to dry to a depth of at least two inches, or to the depth to which the later harrowing operations are to be carried. On no account must the road he opened to travel lohile dryiuij, as it would thus be cut up and spoiled. Neither should the oil l)e applied until the road is dry, as oil will not adhere to a wet surface, nor penetrate a saturated mass. When dried sufficiently, the surface is loosened to allow the oil to penetrate. This is done with a harrow; the depth to which the loosening should extend is not entirely a matter of agreement among experts. It should not be less than two inches, and may be as great as four, and will depend to some extent on the nature of the bed material and on the probable firmness of the road- bed. If the bed is very firm and solid, only a thin layer need be loosened, as the bed can be depended on to carry the weight of traffic, and the oiled portion may be merely a wearing surface; but if the bed is incoherent, as in roads made over drift sand, the oil must be carried deeper, for in this case the oiled surface nnist take not merely the wear, but also the weight of the traffic. In any case the harrowing should be continued until the surface is thoroughly loosened and broken up to the required depth; a skilled man is necessary for this work, as the grade must be preserved and the surface left smooth and even. Oiling. — The harrowing being finished the oil is applied. This is a very important part of the work, and several points must be considered : The quality of tlie oil to be used will be spoken of near the end of this chapter. The quanfify of oil used will vary with the nature of the road material, coarse material taking more oil than fine, and with the depth to which the surface is loosened. Mr. T. F. White, a recognized author- ity, says:^ "No rule can be laid down as to the quantity of oil to be " used, except to put on all the oil the road material will bear, without '' being left in a sticky condition. This may vary from forty to one " hundred barrels per mile, per single width of the oiler (six feet), on a " newly oiled road. The first season of oiling a road is the most im- ■ portant one. On loose, sandy roads, two or three applications may "' often be put on to advantage, the first season. The more oil that can " be incorporated Avith the road covering the first season, the less will " be required the next season, and still less thereafter. The streets ■' treated in Chino in 1899 took for the two applications made during " the season about sixty barrels per mile, per width of the oiler. In 'From a paper by Mr. White, in "California Municipalities," 1903. Free use has been made of this and other papers by the same writer in tlie preparation of this cliapter. 172 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. " 1900 about half this quantity, in 1901 one quarter, and in 1902 none, " except on a narrow strip along the center of the streets, that had " become roughened up a little. This received a very light sprinkling, " followed by sanding. These streets are now like asphalt pavements, " and apparently will not need any oiling in 1903." The tempernfvre at ivfn'rh oil is to Jie applied (that is, the temperature of the oil) is a debated question. If the oil is heated, it is much more readily controlled, and can undoubtedly be spread more evenly than when applied cold. But on the other hand, the heating of the oil is the source of considerable expense, and it is rather doubtful whether the advantages gained compensate for the added cost. It was formerly assumed that oil ai)])lied hot would })enetrate farther and faster than cold oil, but if we reflect that the oil makes but a very small part of the bulk of road mixture, and that the spray of oil as it falls must be chilled almost instantly to road temperature if the oil is hot, or raised to road temperature if cooler, it will appear that the temperature at application will make very little difference in the penetration. The tendency at present seems to be toward the use of the oil cold, and while consider- able sums are invested in heating plants, most of the new work is being done with cold oil. The temperature of the road at the time the oil is applied is a matter of great importance. The very heavy oils used in road work are barely fluid at (30° F., while at 110° they are much more limpid. It seems evident that if the surface material is hot and dry the oil will be greatly assisted in thoroughly saturating the mass, while if the road is cold and damp the oil is much more likely to lie in pools on the surface, or on harrowing to " ball up " into lumps coated with oil but dry inside. Oiling should always be done in summer, and on dry days, damp and foggy mornings being carefully avoided. It is important, again, that the oil should be evenly spread over the surface, not left in patches, as may often be seen. Some ingenious devices to accomplish this result have been invented, but no machine will do away with tlie necessity for care on the part of the operator. Mixing. — The oil having been evenly spread, it is now to be incorpo- rated with the loose road material. In the city of Santa Barbara this is done by means of a ''tamper, consisting of large iron teeth resem- bling exaggerated railroad spikes, set into a wooden cylinder." This seems like a very rational apparatus, as the teeth have at once a cutting and a lifting action, and as the grade is likely to be better preserved than by a drag harrow, the teeth being always buried to the same depth. Wheel harrows are also used and a special machine of this construction will l)e descrilied further on. In any case mixing should be continued until free oil has disappeared, and until all lumps of dry material seem to be broken up and dispersed. OILED ROADS. 173 Finishing. — The road may now be rolled and opened for traffic, or better, it may be kept closed until the oil has had a chance to set. Rolling immediately after oiling is not very effective, as if enough oil has been used to make a good road, the material will have ])ut little body. It should be remembered that the oil when freshly ajjplied has no binding properties, but simi)ly moistens the grains of road material, making a mixture analogous to stiff mud. The cementing projx-rty is developed by evaporation and oxidation of the liquid portion of the oil, ])y which the latter is converted ultimately into asphalt. Now if the surface is rolled immediately after oiling, it is smoothed down and consolidated so that air will have access to the surface only, and drying- will ])v much retarded, while at the same time the surface has little stability and will quickly cut up under the wheels of vehicles. The surface has then to be reduced to shape by the traffic, which makes ruts and chuckholes almost inevitable. But if the loose oiled surface can be allowed to stand three or four weeks in summer, unused, before rolling, the air and light will have much more action on the oil, the latter will liave time to penetrate thoroughly and to become partly hardened, and if then rolled will form a tough surface, which will roll smoother and stand considerable wear from the first without cutting. Of course, in many cases it is quite necessary to open the road imme- diately after oiling, and here it is probably better to roll before opening, followed if possible by a second rolling after some weeks' use. Before rolling, enough sand should be spread over the surface to take up any free oil, and this sand should be clean and sharp. When an important road is to be oiled it may be possible to work half the width at a time, turning the traffic onto the other half, and the oiled portion may then be allowed to stand long enough to get the very best results. Reoiling. — The road is now finished for the time. No matter how carefully the work has been done, weak spots will always appear after a certain amount of use, and will cause no trouble if immediately attended to, but may be destructive if allowed to spread. After several months' use and after the surface has been raised somewhat by wear, l)ut before the winter rains set in, another light application of oil is advisable, followed by just enough sand to take up the free oil. This helps greatly to render the road impervious to winter rains, if applied at the end of the dry season. Some oil will be required the next year; after that the amount of oiling will depend on the amount of wear and the nature of the road material. If incipient chuckholes are promptly filled with oily sand and rolled or tamped so that traffic will pass over rather than around them, an oiled road constructed as above outlined should last many years without other care than a slight amount of oil a})plie(l annually or l)iennially. 174 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. Roads in Adobe Soil. — When oiled roads are to be constructed from adol)e soil, in such situation that absorl)ent material for top dressing can not be had, a different method is followed. The roadbed is formed, wetted, and very thoroughly rolled, and then allowed to become quite dry. The oil is then api)lied to the hard surface without harrowing or mixing, and best in two or three portions. After the last application, a very thin coat of sand, or failing anything better, dry road dust, is added, just sufficient to absorb the surplus oil, and the road allowed to stand for a short time before being used. Xo rolling is needed after the oil. The rationale of this process is, that sand and gravel are incoherent when dry, and must be cemented together to a considerable depth by the oil in order to give a durable surface, while adobe, on the contrary, is very hard when dry, and so long as the surface is protected from wear, and water kept out of the foundation, the clay itself makes a good and strong road. It is only necessary, therefore, to form an asphaltic skin on the upper surface of the road, to take the Avear of wheels and hoofs, and to keep out water, but this skin must be imper- vious to rain, and should be formed of several thin layers of oil applied at intervals. And as water from below has the same softening effect as water from above, great care must be taken to raise the roadbed well above water level in low ground, and to so gutter or tile sidehill stretches that water can not form pools on the uphill side of the road. If these precautions are taken, a very good road can be made over adobe ground with no other materials than a little sand for sprinkling; but if they are neglected, the oiling of an adobe road will not prove very satisfactory. A Road in San Bernardino County. - Following is a description in detail of the construction of a stretch of road across a portion of 8an Bernardino County, under the direction of Supervisor T. F. White.' While some of the conditions met in this particular case are a little unusual, the general procedure is the same as would be followed in any case where first-class results were desired, and the description is of importance as embodying the result of much experience and expert knowledge. The piece of road in question is one and one half miles in length, and was a new road, never before graded. Part of the road is through bot- tom land, with soil varying from loose sand to clayey loam, part around and up a hill, on a 4.5% grade. After the hill, the road encoimtered a piece of adobe soil, which works into deep, sticky mud during the winter rains. The" grading was done in the early s})ring, and the cost, esi)ecially in the hill portion, was heavy. A roadway forty feet wide, including ditches, was thrown up through the bottom, and a twenty-four foot 1 Coinnuiiiication from Mr. White to Mr. O. S. Bree^>e, Field Assistant. OILED ROADS. 175 roadway built around the hill. Through the bottom, which sometimes gets very wet during winter, the rt)adbed was thrown up to a good height, and crowned and well ditched to secure drainage, and rolled. Xo. .SO. Road Near Chixo. Before Oii.ixg. No part of the distance had material sucli as would make a satisfactory roadl)ed for the large travel it would have to accommodate. While grading over the hill a deposit of "oil sand" was struck, this being a disintegrated oil sandstone wliich is found in many places Nu. ol. iloAD Near L'hino, Foik Yeak.s Old — Three Oilingp. through these hills. This material had been tried the year before, on a bit of road and found excellent. It is sharp sand and gravel, with sufficient clay included to make it pack down firm and hard when properly heated, with good Avearing qualities, and further it is a natural absorbent of oil. Without oil, however, it becomes sticky and cuts up 12— BUL. 32 176 PETROLEl'M IN CALIFORNIA. in winter. Tl^ie deposit was uncovered, and the one and one half miles previously graded was surfaced with this material. This was done in the summer and early fall. The roadbed — the cuts and 1111s — had in the meantime become well settled and packed down. Stakes were set for a graveled way twenty feet wide, along the middle of the road. A blade grader was run over it, throwing the dirt out of this way to a depth of three or four inches, and forming a shoulder of eight or nine j inches, on either side, for the surfacing material to abut against. Upon : this foundation the gravel was spread, to a depth of nine inches in tin center down to eight inches on either side. The foundation wa:^ i watered, ahead of the spreaders, to keep it firm, and to cause the gravel I to unite better with it. After the gravel was spread and smoothly shaped, the watering carts were started, and the road thoroughly j soaked. That the Avater might wet it clear through, a heavy orchard ! cultivator was kept running over it while the water was being put on. This opened up the gravel, and allowed the water to go down through | instead of running off. The cultivator was^ kept running until sufficient i water had been put on, when the surfacing material had been worked into a homogeneous mass, of the consistency of mud for brick. The i Avetting down and stirring were done in sections of such length that ! each could be finished in one day, and the next morning a lever harrow was put on to smooth over and shape up the surface. This recjuired a , man with a good eye and some expertness, that the road might be gotten even and properly crowned. The harrowing was finished in the forenoon, and the weather being favorable to drying, the roller went on in the afternoon. Though all these steps are important, the rolling is perhaps the most important of all. The roller used on this work weighed 1600 pounds per foot width, without loading, which is about right for the first two days, or as long as the road is at all spongy. As soon as the sponginess is gone, the roller can be weighted, conveniently with pig iron, until the weight is finally brought to 3000 pounds per foot. The rolling was continued from day to day until no further impression was made, and the surface was left hard and smooth. After the roadbed had dried to the depth of two inches or more, the oil was applied, first sending out a man with rake and shovel to remove all manure or other loose material from the surface. The oil was applied hot, coming in this instance directly from the refinery, three miles distant, starting at a temperature of 250" to 300° F., and arriving at the work at from 200" to 250" F. One hundred and twenty barrels of oil were applied per mile (late in the fall another light application was given). Two men with four horses did this work, putting on one half mile per day. The total cost of construction of this one and one half miles closely OILED ROADS. 177 approximated $1800, or about 11200 per mile. But as the grading and graveling were elements entering into the eost of any pro})erly con- structed road of this character, whether intended for oiling or not, the only cost over and above that of a connnon macadam road was that of the oiling proper. This cost was, 120 barrels of oil at $1.25 per barrel, $150, plus the cost of sprinkling, $15 per mile, or $165 per mile cost of oiling. This bit of road, when exandned in 1902, had been down two and one half years, had received one light coat of oil the year following its con- struction, and was still in good condition, though needing some oil for the year 1902. The quantity of oil used in the second application was I not over one fourth the amount used in building the road. Roads in Golden Gate Park. — Some of the roads in Golden Gate ; Park, San Francisco, have been oiled during the last two years, with most ! excellent results, the roads being very smooth and firm, closely resem- I bling and in fact often mistaken for asphalt pavement, entirely dustless, I and perfectly clean and free from mud during the long rainy season of the spring of 1904. The roads were originally constructed of " red rock,'' the hard metamorphosed shale of which the hills around San Francisco are largely formed, and by much use and constant attention have been brought into excellent condition. The o]>ject of oiling here was, not to make a road, but to preserve the surface, lay the dust, and prevent any formation of mud during wet weather. The following description of the method used is from the Thirty-first Report of the Park Commissioners of San Francisco, June 30, 1902: " Previous to the use of oil on the drive, considerable trouble was " experienced, especially on the Main Drive, with the accumulation of " fine red dust. During the summer the prevailing winds carried this in " clouds, much to the detriment of the pleasure of driving and the " appearance of the plantations skirting the drive. To overcome this " a force of men was required to water the drives and lay the dust, while "in winter the formation of mud was unavoidable; but with the use of " oil these unpleasant features have disappeared. While possessing "many of the desirable features of bitumen, an oiled road is never " slippery or dangerous in wet weather, and the repair of road is com- " paratively simple and inexpensive. About six miles of drive have been " treated. As we are constantly in receipt of requests for information "on the method of preparation and application, the following is " appended: " Before oiling, the roadbed should be carefully prepared, well gradccl " and shaped, and the surface smoothed and packed as firmly as })ossi- " ble. If the roadbed is dry to a depth of over one inch give it a thorough "soaking with water, and as soon as the surface is dry again apply the 178 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. "oil as much in quantity as the material will ahsorb. This lias refer- " ence to a road never oiled before. "The roadbed being properly prepared, the next operation is the " heating of the oil. Our system is to run a coil of steam pipe of two "inches diameter placed in a four-wheeled sprinkling barrel of six " hundred and fifty gallons capacity, with ordinary sprinkling attach- " ment. Any sprinkler that is successful in distributing water will " serve the purpose. We use two wagons — one on the road, while the " oil in the other is heating. Steam for the heating of the oil is fur- " nished from the boiler at the i)umi)ing station. " The oil should be heated to a temperature of between 250° and 300° F. " As soon as it is heated the horses should be started \^^ and driven at " a smart pace to the prepared roadway and the oil a])plied much tli<- "same as if. sprinkling with water. A force of men follows with rakes " to stir in the dust and allow the oil to penetrate the solid roadbed, as " much oil being applied as the material will absorl). Should any pools " form, sprinkle as much sand or dust as the oil will take up, stir with " the rake and in a few hours the road will be ready for use. " In oiling the road, whether for the lirst time or subsequent to pre- " vious oiling, we find it most convenient and satisfactory for carrj-ing " on the work, to close a portion of the roadway or to fix up one side of " the road at a time, keeping the travel on the other side. When the " side operated on is oiled and dusted, we turn the travel on that side " while the other part is being w^orked. Under this plan little com- " plaint is heard from the traveling public. " Should the oiled surface wear through in spots, forming little " depressions, all that is necessary to repair it is to take a common " stable broom, sweep out the loose dust or gravel, fill the hole wath a " little oil, and spread enough dust or gravel to absorb it, care being taken " not to apply too much, or the repaired portion will be found too " soft and will require a second sprinkling of sand or dust to make the " patch even with the main surface, ^^^e use a conmion hand watering " pot for applying the oil in repair work. " The oil we use is the heaviest we can procure and is from 14° to " 16° gravity, and costs 72 cents per barrel delivered. "About four hundred barrels are required to coat a mile of driveway " sixteen feet in Avidth." Specifications for Oiling- Streets in Santa Barbara.— The method of oiling used at Santa Barbara, in a rolling country with rather light soil, is shown by the following " Specifications for Oiling Streets in the City of Santa Barbara": "Streets to be oiled shall first be plowed the entire width from gutter '■ to gutter, to a depth of eight inches, and shall then be gone over with " a harrow, disc or other suitable machine for breaking clods, until the OILED ROADS. 179 " street is properly prepared for rounding up with the grader. All "stones shall he removed from the streets and deposited in the gutters. "After the surfai'e has heen tlius prepared, the contractor shall crown "the street with a urader, to he furnislied 1)V tlie city free of charge. No. 32. Oiled Road Near Santa Barbara. " Any deficiency of earth necessary to give the street the proper crown '■ will he furnished hy the city. After the street has heen properly '• crowned to the satisfaction of the superintendent of streets, it shall "he thoroughly wetted and rolled with a heavy road roller, until the Mi ^ if i hM 1 ^' i X(j. On.f;ii Stiiekt in Santa I.arbara. " surface is unyielding. Depressions made hy rolling shall he leveled "up with good earth and again rolled. When the street has been " plowed, graded, and rolled, it shall then l)e harrowed and the surface " loosened uniformly for a depth of four inches, and shall then he 180 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. "' sprinkled evenly with oil, heated to a temperature of 180° Fahren- " heit. One hundred barrels of oil shall be used for each block, includ- "ing one crossing. The oil shall be an asphalt base oil of from 12° to " 14° gravity, and shall contain not more than 7% of water. After the " oil has been sprinkled uniformly over the surface of the street, it shall " be thoroughly tamped into the loose earth with a tamper, consisting of " large iron teeth resembling exaggerated railroad spikes set into a " wooden cylinder. This tamping shall be done until the oil and loose " earth are thoroughly mixed and consolidated. The oiling and tamping " shall be done only on days when the weather is warm and the sun is " shining. After the oil and loose earth are thoroughly mixed and " tamped, the surface of the streets shall be rolled with a heavy rollti " until the surface is uniform and compact." The balance of the speci- tications relates to damages, indemnities, and bonds, all as customary in such matters. Roads in Kern County. — Facts and figures collected by the Depart- ment of Highways show that there are now in use in Kern County one hundred miles of such roads, and about forty-five miles of oiled streets in cities and towns.^ The first work of this kind by the Supervisors of that county was done in 1901. The roadbeds, varying from sandy to heavy soils, were first graded and rounded up slightly, and the oil applied to a width of ten or twelve feet, and then thoroughly mixed with a harrow. In applying the oil, use Avas made of an ordinary Avagon tank Avith a sprinkler or distributor made of four-inch gas pipe, with half-inch holes drilled every two inches, the section of pipe used being about ten feet long. From seventy-five to one hundred barrels per mile were used on the first application, the sandy soil requiring the larger quantity to make a solid surface. After an interval of one or two weeks a second application of from forty to sixty barrels of oil per mile was made, the roads having been traveled in the meantime. The oil Avas a])plied in hot Aveather, artificial heating being considered unnecessary. The oil used, A^arying in gravity from 12° to 15°, Avas obtained from the Kern River, McKittrick, and Sunset fields, at from 20 to 30 cents per barrel, the expense of each application to the roads being from 30 to 45 cents per barrel, in addition to the cost of the oil. From thirty to fifty barrels per mile haA^e been used each year subsequently in main- tenance and repairs, but this has been found cheaper than maintaining roads not oiled. So satisfactory have the oiled roads of Kern County proven that arrangements are being made for the construction of about fifty miles more during this year. The level nature of much of the country and ^Sacramento "Union," March, 1904. OILKIJ JiOADS. 181 Xii. :;4. ItuAii ()ii,iN<, Machine. Xo. 35. Ro.\d-Saxihx(; Machine. 182 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. the nearness of the oil fields make Kern County particularly favored in the matter of oiled-road construction. Quality cf Oil.— The quality of the oil to he used in road work is a very important matter, as the success of the work depends to a great measure on the suitability of the oil. As already noted, the road- making value of the oil depends on the extent to which it is converted into asphalt, the latter binding together the loose grains of sand or other material into a tenacious mass, just as the asphalt of a city pave- ment Innds the wearing surface into a smooth and solid sheet. The liquid portions of the oil have no value as a binder, so long as they remain liquid, their only effect on the road being to lay the dust for "a time, as would water. For the present purpose, the black (asphaltic) petroleums of Califoi- nia may be said to consist of two parts: a liquid portion, mainly hydro- carbons, and a small proportion of asphalt, from 1% up to 7%, dissolved in the li(iuid part. There are also bodies containing nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen, but so far as the present subject is concerned, these may be classed with the liquid hydrocarbons. When a crude petroleum of this nature is exposed to the action of air, it commences to thicken, and will gradually become sticky, then hard and glossy, finally dry and brittle, falling ultimately (in month.- or years) into a brown powder. This cycle of changes takes place mor^- rapidly in dry than in moist air, more rapidly when warm than wheri cold, and much more rapidly in sunlight than in darkness or shade. The thickening is due to two causes : the evaporation of the lighter portion of the liquid fraction, and the conversion of the remainder into asphalt by the absorption of oxygen, or by the removal of hydrogen, which are much the same thing ultimately. Asphalt in Crude Oil. — As the asphalt is the only portion of the oil valua])le in rt)ad-making, the value of any particular oil for this pur- pose will depend on the percentage of asphalt originally contained, and also on the percentage of the oil converted into asphalt during the drying process. The percentage of asphalt originally contained is easily approximated by i)recipitating the asphaltene by means of gaso- line, weighing, and multiplying by four, the proportion of asphaltenr in "D" asplialt from oil being quite constant at about 25%. The per- centage of the liquid portion whicli will change into asphalt on drying we can only estimate approximately, as to allow a sample to harden takes too long a time for practical testing, and we can not be sure that any forced evaporation gives the same results as would be had from spontaneous drying. Testing.— Probably the best, certainly the simplest, test of the road- making value of an oil is to evaporate a weighed sample in an open OILKD HOAD? 18;^ No. 36. Asphalt Mixk, Caupixteria, Cal. Xo. 37. Asphalt ^fiNi:, McKittrick, Cal. 184 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. metal dish, down to the hardness of commercial "D" asphalt, and weigh the residue. We thus get at once both the original asi)halt and that formed during evaporation, and while it is not likely that the per- centage of asi)halt thus obtained is the same as would be gotten by allowing the oil to dry in the sun, yet it is highly probable that the comparison between different oils thus made is accurate. This test requires no apparatus except an iron or coi)per pan, a scale, and a plumber's fire-pot, though it must be admitted that the even grading of the asphalt requires care and a little skill. The following results were obtained in testing a number of California oils, and two or three others, by this method, and show the wide range of values of different oils for this purpose : TABLE 22. COMPARISON OF ROAD-MAKING VALUE OF CRUDE OILS. No. Source. Gravity. Asphalt. No. Gravity. Asphalt. 1 1464 1400 1407 2441 2438 2402 2426 2442 2433 495 2424 2448 494 1421 2450 1482 1403 Colorado Canada Coalinga Fullerton Fullerton Kansa.s Puente Ventura Ventura Wyoming Fullerton Whittier Beaumont. Tex Coalinga Whittier Midway "_. McKittrick (leg. Be. 41.3 34.9 33.3 33.0 .32.8 .31.4 28.0 28.0 26.8 23.7 23;3 23.1 22.6 21.2 20.4 20.2 18.9 per cent. None. None. Trace. 19.1 20.4 None. 26.1 29.5 13.1 33.7 36.5 23.3 11.0 25.0 .30.2 22.0 22.6 2452 2432 2462 2437 487 2445- 2453 2463 2440 2444 2496 1432 2454 2495 2405 486 2400 Coalinga Sargents Newhall Midway Kern River.. . Fullerton Coalinga Los Angeles _. Coalinga McKittrick ... Kern River. .. Sunset Newhall Los Angeles .. Coalinga Sunset Santa Barbara (leg. Be. 18.7 18.6 17.2 17.1 17.0 1.5.9 15.9 15.7 15.7 15.1 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.0 11.9 9.9 9.0 per cent. 24.7 41.3 28.9 40.5 25.0 45.9 35.5 25.7 30.4 27.8 48.5 29.2 52.4 42.2 33.2 61.8 85.5 1 The figures in these columns are considered to he accurate to within three per cent. Valuation. — These examples might be greatly multiplied, but the few here given are suflicient to show that the road-making value of the oil is very roughly if at all indicated by the gravity, and that the latter is not in any sense a proper test, as the percentage of valuable matter varies widely in oils of the same gravity from different fields, or even . in some cases, with oils from neighboring -wells. The unsuitability of ])articular oils for. road-making has been found, in a good many instances, by costly experience, but it would seem more rational to test all such oils as were availal>le at reasona1)li' cost in the localitv where CALIFORNIA OIL-REFINING INDl'STRY. 185 work is to be done, and to select the most suitable oil even at an advanced price. If an oil shows on careful testing (each sample should be tested twice, at least) say forty per cent of asj)halt, to twenty per cent from another oil, it is safe to say that the forty per cent oil is nearly if not quite twice as valuable, barrel for barrel, as the twenty ])er cent oil, and would be more economical in the lonu; run if it coiild \)v delivered for less than twice the price. Fortunately the oils most suitable to use in road-making- are, in general, those of least value for other purposes, and can as a rule l)e had at the lowest market price, so tliat intelligent exami- nation of the oils offered will often save money, not only in the long run, but even on the innnediate cost of the material. Dirt in the oil is no drawback, except that it is valueless and dis- places its bulk of oil, unless so much be present as to clog the outlets of the distril)Uting machines. Water also is permissible up to a reasonable amount: up to five per cent or even more it does no harm except to dis- place its Inilk of oil. The percentage of water and of sediment is easily found by the test given for fuel oils in Chapter 4. Residuum. — The residuum from petroleum refineries handling Cali- fornia oil is, if sufficiently reduced, often very suitable for this use. It sliould be tested as a crude oil, and has the same value in relation to its percentage of asphalt. In some situations it may be had within carting distance of work to be done, and if charged into wagons at a high temperature will retain its heat, in warm weather, for several hours. CHAPTER 15. CALIFORNIA'S OIL-REFINING INDUSTRY. The business of refining petroleum, while of many years' standing in this State, having originated in 1856, has come into commercial promi- nence only within the last few years. Ten years ago there were in California but two refineries worthy of note, that of the Pacific Coast Oil Company at West Alameda, and that of the Union Oil Company of California, then lately removed from Santa Paula to Rodeo. During this time the former institution has been merged in the Standard Oil Company, which has removed the plant to Point Richmond, where it has been reconstructed on a much larger scale, while the latter plant has also been much enlarged and improved. In addition, other plants have from time to time been erected, until there are now within the limits of the State some thirtv-four oil refineries, with a gross still 186 PKTROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. capacity appvoximatino; l>7,500 barrels, all of which plants, with possi- bly one or two exce])tions, are now in successful operation. Oil refining in California is divided into two very distinct classes: the refining of light oil for the production of the usual line of products, as made elsewhere; and the distilling of heavy asphaltic oil, the pro- duction of asphalt being here the main feature. The former operation uses the lightest oil obtainable, the larger the proportion of volatile elements the more profitable being the handling. On the other hand, the latter operation seeks the heaviest of the crude oils, or rather those containing the largest proportion of asphalt, the distillates in this case being of very little commercial value. Between the heavy asphalt oils and the light " refining '' oils there is an intermediate class, ranginu' roughly from 16° to 20° in gravity, which are little if at all refined. As is well known, the gravity of a crude oil is only the roughest indica- tion as to its value for refining, and the limits above given must be taken in a very general w^ay, there being a number of crudes falling within these limits which are of some value for refining purposes. As the two classes of refining operations mentioned above are essentiall}^ distinct, it may be better to consider them separately. Ligcht Oil Refining'. — The lighter crude oils of California are divided into the usual line of products: several gasolines and naphthas or "distillates,'" the latter being, in this sense, a cant term applied to naphthas lying between benzine and the burning oils, and ranging in gravity from 56° to 40° Be.; burning oils; "stove oil," a straw to amber colored oil of 35° or lower, used for fuel in gasifying stove burners; paint oils, used for adulteration principally, and other special products in this class; gas distillates, of 30° to 28"^' gravity, used in carburctting water gas; fuel distillate, of 28° to 24° gravity, used as fuel in the same manner as crude oil; and the lighter lubricating oils. Some difficulty has been experienced with the heavier lubricants, and the paraffin products are entirely absent. The residue is, in almost all cases, of an asphaltic nature, and in only a few works is it converted into coke. The following table exhibits a list of the commoner products of petro- leum, as made in this State, with remarks as to quality, market con- ditions, and })rice. As to the latter, it should be noted that the figures given are only a very rough approximation, it being very evident that current quotations, local conditions, quality of goods, and a dozen other factors will inffuence the price received for any of these articles: CALIFORNIA OIL-REFINING INDUSTRY 187 TABLE 23. LIST OF REFINED PRODUCTS. Degrees Be. Priee- -Cents. Quality. RfinurkH. Per Gallon. Per Barrel. liasoline 68 62 56 to 40 44 to 42 42 to 40 35 to 32 30 to 28 28 to 24 24 to 22 24 to 20 20 to 18 18 to 15 17 to 15 16 13 1 7 to 10 ? 4 to 5 6 to 10 8 to 14 14 to 20 20 to 50 24 to 5 The best The best.... Excellent ... Good mer- chantable. Fair to poor. Satisfactory. Good Good Good Good Good to fair. Poor Good Market excellent. Market fair. Made in many grades and sold under many fancy names. Market good and iiu-reasing. ^larket good. Some export market. Market mnch oversupplied. Stove Oil t Gas Oil Fuel Distillate 100 60 to 100 Demand decreasing. Some market at price given. Large outlet at price crude oil. Small market. Fair and growing demand. Fair market, growing stead- ily- Do not, as a rule, meet mar- < rude Lubricants, ket requirements. Demand oversupplied. Asphalts, of various grades— about i^l4.(Xi per ton— market rather oversupplied. but rapidly increasing. Qualities of Commercial Products. — Tlie Gasolines produced in California are undoubtedly of the very highest grade. AVith the excep- tion of the heaviest engine distillates, they are strictly water-white, and hold their color Avell. The odor is sweet and ethereal, the odor of the lighter grades reminding strongly of sulphuric ether, and they are free from the offensive after-odor of the gasolines of Pennsylvania. They volatilize freely, and leave very little residue when passed in quantity through vaporizers. At the same gravity they boil at a lower tempera- ture than Eastern gasolines, and volatilize more rapidly when exposed to the air, the difference in favor of the Western gasoline amounting to from 2^ to 4° in gravity; that is, a California gasoline of 68^ gravity will approximate the same boiling range and speed of evaporation as a Pennsylvania gasoline of from 70° to 72" gravity. Engine Distillates can be distinguished from the gasolines only by an imaginary line; the lightest distillates, prepared for small engines, automobiles, etc., run well up into the sixties in gravity, while the heaviest are intended to replace kerosene in engines prepared especially for that fuel. As a rule, they are less rigorously treated than gasolines or kerosene of the same gravity, and they differ, in the lower members loo PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. from kerosene, in that no attention is paid to flash point. The lighter distillates are usually nearly or quite water-white, but some of the heavier distillates are turned out in standard white shades, there appearing to be but little difference in their actual value where identi- cal except as to color. On account of their greater specific gravity they have a slightly higher fuel value than Eastern gasolines, and because of a higher carlion percentage require a little more air to secure perfect combustion. Kerosene. — It is generally admitted that the burning oils prepared from California crude are not of the highest quality. While the color can be made entirely satisfactory, and the odor is sweet and if anything less unpleasant than that of Pennsylvania kerosene, the burning qualities are not equal to those of the best Eastern oils, the flame being less white, and there being more tendency to smoke and to crust the wick. These faults have been variously ascribed to sulphur, to nitro- gen, even to silica (!), and to asphalt remaining in the finished oil, but there seems some reason to think that the trouble is due rather to the nature of the hydrocarbons constituting the body of the kerosene. As there has been much argument on this subject, it would be in poor taste to insist too strongly on an opinion, but it may be pointed out that the amount of sulphur found in the best California kerosenes, by combustion, is extremely small; that it has not been shown that the presence of sulphur in any amount would cause smoking and yellowness of flame; that the nitrogen is entirely removed in the acid treatment; and that asphalt is a non-volatile substance, not likely to be present in a distillate unless by accident. On the other hand, it is evident from mere consideration of the relation between specific gravity and boiling points of California kerosene, that the hydrocarbons making up the body of the oil are of entirely different nature from those found in Pennsylvania kerosene, and it has been shown by other methods that these hydrocarbons contain a larger percentage of carbon and a smaller percentage of hydrogen than do the hydrocarbons in the Eastern oil. As the amount of air required to burn an oil completely increases with the increase of carbon percentage, the excess of carbon in our local oils explains the tendency to yellow or smoky flame, the color of the flame indicating merely that the air supply is insufficient to completely consume the oil. If it l)e true that the comparatively low grade of local kerosene is due to the nature of the hydrocarbons of which it is composed, rather than to the presence of impurities, the evil probably does not admit of any remedy, as no chemical treatment would alter the constitution of the oil itself. It is probable, however, that a great deal of the trouble met with California kerosene in the past has been due to imperfect refining, substances having been left in the oil which could and should CALIFORNIA OIL-REFINING INDUSTRY. 189 have been removed. Where California kerosene is properly refined it is of good second quality, not equal to the best of the Eastern oils, l)ut fully equal to the oils from various sources sold under the general name of " bulk oil." Further, the difficulty is largely one of adjust- ment of air supply, and as the market becomes accustomed to local oil, as it will with increasing output, there is every reason to suppose that our product will be used Avith entire satisfaction to the consumer. A great change for the better in this respect has taken place within the last three years, the output of kerosene on the Pacific Coast having largely increased, and with this increase of output the prejudice against local oil has greatly diminished. A large proportion of the oil now used in California is supplied by local refineries, and it is probable that within a few years almost the entire market will be so supplied. Gumming or incrustation of the wick may be due to several causes, Ijut the one most likely to bring about this result is the attempt to run too heavy a distillate into the kerosene. The oils running at from S7'~' to 35° gravity may often be forced into the kerosene without lowering the gravity of the finished article below 42°, but these oils are so little volatile that they have a strong tendency to decompose in the wick, from the heat of the flame, without completely gasifying. This decom- position forms a body similar to asphalt, and ultimately carbonizes the wick, stopping the flow of oil, and thus lowering and distorting the flame. The remedy is to cut the kerosene within narrower limits, either raising the gravity, or keeping the gravity even by cutting out an equivalent part of the lightest portion. Gumming may also be due to imperfect removal of the original impurities in the oil, or to decompo- sition of the oil by overheating after treatment. California kerosene as now turned out by the better class of refineries is a water-white oil, of a SAveet odor, gravity from 42° to 44° Be., viscosity about 1.10, flash point from 111° to 122° F., burning point some 10° to 12° higher. As a rule, it distills within considerably narrower limits of temperature than does Eastern kerosene. Lubricants. — The lubricating oils prepared from California crude are of rather uncertain status as to quality. The lighter oils appear to be very satisfactory, but the heavier oils do not seem to have been able to take their proper place in the market. The color and odor are satis- factory; the flash points are low as a rule; the viscosity may be pro- duced as desired, but rapidly decreases with rising temperature, this being, indeed, the principal objection to their use; the cold test is very low. The following table shows the principal characteristics of several California lubricating oils. It should be noted that no two refineries turn out their lubricating oils according to exactly the same specifi- cations, and that for this reason tlie figures given for each grade arc suggestive only. These oils are all pure mineral stocks. 190 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. TABLE 24. PROPERTIES OF LUBRICATING OILS. Oil. Ice Macliine. Spindle Dynamo Machine Engine Engine Cylinder 2486 1416 2487 4.56 141.1 2489 1442 Gravity •Be. Viscosity at 60° F. Viscosity at 18.5° 1 to 200° F. I 23.1 4.2 LI 21.. 5 9.5 L2 21.2 12.2 L2 19.5 14.6 1.6 19.2 .30.5 2.1 19.4 103.7 2.3 13.5 25.21 1.9 Flash. °F. 334 309 :^54 335 378 430 455 Fire. °F. 361 35<) 406 360 430 471 515 Cold Test. •F. —12 Below 0° F. 1 Below 0° F. 15 20 28 1 At lu(i° F. It will be noted from the above figures that these oils lose their vis- cosity almost completely at from 185° to 200° F., and if this property is, as is highly probable, inherent in the nature of the hydrocarbons, it can not be overcome. But against this property must be set the low cold test, and the attendant ease of manufacture. While it is possible that, for some uses, the oils of the Pacific Coast will never be suitable, there seems no reason why. when properly prepared, they should not be entirely satisfactory for all ordinary purposes. Though there has been, and is, much prejudice against these oils, the output is growing steadily, and it seems almost certain that in time they will take their proper place in the market. It is doubtful whether an entirely satis- factory cylinder oil can ever be made from these crude oils. Heavy Distillates. — The products intermediate between kerosene and the lul)rieating oils are of uncertain properties. Stove oil, a heavy kerosene, is made to a certain extent, for use in gasifying burners in household and hotel stoves and ranges. A great number of devices for this purpose have been placed on the market, and a few of these have had a small measure of success, though it must be admitted that the search for a really satisfactory 1:)urner for household use seems to have advanced very little during the past three years. These devices are all difficult to regulate and to keep in order, they all produce more or less smoke, and are liable to sudden and annoying failures. In large restaurant and hotel kitchens, where strong fires are kept going con- tinuously, they are more satisfactory, as the skill available for regulat- ing and keeping them in order is generally of a higher class than in a })rivate family. Distillates for gas enriching have been used to a large extent, but dur- ing the last two years the demand has diminished considerably, owing to the introduction of processes using crude oil. Chapter 13 gives some details as to this subject. C'ALIFORMA OH. -REFINING INDl'STHY. IDl The distillates sold or used for fuel are generally mixtures of oils otherwise unsalable, and the eharaeteristies naturally vary somewhat widely. In general they run from 24° to 28° gravity, and should Hash at 120° F. or above. They are an excellent fuel. Some attempts have been made to use them in gasoline engines e 15.0 Lubricants 19.7 IQ.'A Loss ... 0.7 100.0 This is a greenish oil, containing traces of paraffin. The greasy residue contains traces of asphalt. Oil of similar character was found at various points through this county, but no paying i)r((diicti()n was developed. 13— BUL. 82 192 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. WeH. Gravity, 4L7° Be. Gasoline - B 430. San Mateo County. Gravity. 71° Be. Benzine - - -- 63 Engine distillate 53 Kerosene 43 Stove oil 33 Lubrican ts 27 Black grease -- Loss - - - - Percent. 8.6 12.9 25.5 23.6 11.1 8.0 7.0 3.3 100.0 This is a greenish oil containing traces of paraffin, and seems to be allied more closely to the paraffin oils than most of the petroleums of California. It is not, how- ever, a true paraffin oil. Several oils of higher gravity, but of the same general nature, have been found in this district. B 442. Moody's Gulch, Santa Clara County. Well— Golden Gate Petroleum Co. Gravity, 38.0° Be. Gravity. Engine distillate 56° Be. Kerosene 44 Gas oil 32 Paraffin, Coke -- Loss olid Per Cent. 25.0 38.1 33.9 0.3 2.1 0.6 100.0 This oil appears to be very closely allied to the true paraffin oils. There was at one time considerable production, the average being somewhat lighter than the sample above, but the output for the past two or tliree years has been practically nothing. A 411. Coalinga, Fresno County. Tank average— Oil City district. Gravity, .33.9° Be. Gravitv. Per Cent. Gasoline 75° Be 0.9 Benzine 63 4.1 Engine distillate 53 6.4 Engine distillate .- ■ Kerosene 45 9.8 Kerosene 41 26.0 Middlings -_ Lubricants .. Residue Liquid .52.8 Per Cent. 50° Be.--- -.- 25.7 44 .-- 10.0 40 ... 16.0 32 '... 24.8 22 ... 18.0 Pasty -.- ... 6.0 1(H).0 A 420. Coalinga, Fresno County. Tank average— Oil City district. Gravity, 33.4° Be. Gravity. Gasoline 73° Be. Engine distillate 57 Engine distillate 49 Kerosene 41 Stove oil 34 Gas oil - 28 Fuel distillate 25 Lubricant 23 Residite Pasty Loss. - . 100.0 Per Cent. 2.3 3.2 19.1 28.6 10.3 9.9 10.3 10.4 4.7 1.2 100.0 This green oil is, with the exception of the seepage oil from Colusa County, the farthest removed in its properties from the paraffin oils of any petroleum in the State. This sample is practically identical with the one preceding, and the three analyses show different methods of handling the same crude. CALIFORNIA <>IL-HEFIN1N({ TNDUSTKY. 193 A 1431. Coalinga, Fresno County. Tank average— ''top isiind oil." (iravity, 'Jti.u° [{e. (iravity. Percent. Gasoline 71° Be. 0.52 Benzine 60 7.96 Kngine distillate 50 3.90 Kerosene 44 15.30 Stoveoil 31 15.00 Fuel distillate 40 13.30 Lubricant 23 17.94 Lubrican t 15 4. 72 Asphalt Grade "D" 17.00 Losses . _ 4.36 100.00 This is a black oil, and resembles the lighter oils of Fullerton and of Ventura County. Gravity for gravity, the southern oils give a somewhat better analysis than Coalinga oils, as a rule. A 412. Ventura County. Pipe-line average. Gravity, 2«.(i° Be. Gravity. Per Cent. Gasolines— total 63° Be. 10.4 Kerosene . 42.5 28.0 Gasoil 28 16.1 Lubricant 23 20.3 Asphalt . .. 23.7 Loss :. .. 1.5 100.0 A 435. Ventura County. Pipe-line average. Gravity, 25.2° Be. Gravity. Per Cent. Engine distillate .55° Be. 14.5 Kerosene 42 13.8 Stove oil 33 14.4 Fuel distillate 26 22.8 Lubricant 21 16.0 Asphalt Soft, pasty 14.9 Loss .. 3.6 100.0 Both these oils, like many other of the oils produced in this district, contain a trace of paraffin. These pipe-line averages include all but the very heaviest of the oils pro- duced in Ventura County, and the outi)Ut of oil heavier than 20° is inconsiderable. A 1416. Coalinga, Fresno County. Pijie-line average — " Ora Crude." Gravity, 2(l.tj° Be. Gravity. Per Cent. Gasoline 81° Be. 0.15 Gasoline 74 0.46 Benzine 63 0.94 PZngine distillate 54 2..S4 Kerosene 42 11.47 Stove oil 33 1.88 Gasoil 31 32.24 Gasoil 28 3.43 Fuel distillate 26 5.06 Lubricant 22 17.88 Lubricant 17 4.84 Lubricant 15 \Mi Asphalt Grade "B" 13.:i4 Losses .. 4.36 10().00 194 I'KTKOLEFJM IN CALIFORNIA. A 492. Coalinga, Fresno County. Piin--line average — "Ora Crude." Gravity, '-'(•.2° He. (iravity. I'it Cent. Engine distillate r)4° He. 4.;^4 Kerosene 41. :h 7.69 Gas distillate 'M 18.5<> Fuel distillate - 2(i 20.6;> Lubricant 22 7.2(> Lubricant 16.5 4.20 Lubricant 15.4 Uy.m Asphalt .■ ..Grade"!)" 22.70 Losses .. 8.03 l(Kt.(H» The above oils, which are practically identical, represent the average output of the eastern i>ortion of the Coalinga field. B 456. Colusa County. Seepage oil. Gravity, 1.5,2° Be. Viscosity. Gravity. Distillate ..-- " 24.5° He. Lubricant . , '. 2.18 19.0 T^ubricant 4.50 l(t.5 Lubricant ". 10.00 1.5.0 Lubricant .. 10.21— 76° F. 11.0 Lubricant 42.02 Si>. Gr., 1.02.S Asphaltic residue Grade •' V" Loss 100.0 This is a very remarkable oil, different from anything else in the State, aside from this immediate locality, and from other oils of which analyses have been published. It maybe distilled freely, without steam or vacuum being used, and with little or no decomposition. The gravity of a distillate, from ordinary California crude, having the lioiling points of the tirst fraction above, would be about 33° to 35°. This petroleum appears to consist almost entirely of aromatic hydrocarbons; the high specific gravity. 1.028, of the last fraction, is due to the nature of the hydrocarbons, not to asphalt or other foreign substances, as it is quite clear, and transparent in moderately thin layers. Compare this analysis with that of the sample below, wliicli was handled in alnio>t the same manner. A 422. Summerland, Santa Barbara County. Tank average. Gravity, 14.0° Be. (iravity. I'orCciit. Engine distillate 48° Be. 0.1 Kerosene 41 3.0 Stoveoil 33 4.0 Gasoil 28 lt).3 Fuel distillate 25 lit.l Lubricants 2L5 2o.4 Asphalt -- Grade -'D" 37.1 100.0 This sami>le is sliglitl>- heavier than the average oil of tiie Sumniei'land district. CALIFORNIA OIL-REFINING INDUSTRY. 195 A 1432. Sunset, Kern County. Well. CJraviiy. 14.1° Bv. liravitv. Per Cent. Stoveoil- :«° Be. 12.7 Oas oil - 12S 20.1 Lubricant 22 5.7 Lubricant 20 12.7 I,ubricant l(3.«j 16.2 Aspbalt Grade "C" 29.3 Losses -3.3 100.0 This saiii|ili', wliicli about represents average Sunset oil. was distilled with care to avoid decomposition. Compare this analysis with that of sanijile below, whicii was crackeil as comjiletely as is possible in simple distillation. A 478. Sunset, Kern County. Well. Gravity, 14.0° Be. Gravity. Per <"ein. Per lent Distillate .=>6° Be. .... 4.(5 Distillate 44 .... 17.5 Distillate 33 20.4 Distillate 32 .... 14.0 Distillate 30 49.6 Distillate . 25.5 -... 13.3 Residue 19.5 .... 15.0 Asphalt Grade "A' 19.0 19.0 Gasloss .--- 11.0 Total losses 16.6 100.0 100.0 The products of a distillation of this character are. in the higher gravities, unsuited for the uses to which corresponding distillates from the crude oil would be put, on account of their instability. The .56° distillate above is almost entirely, and the 44° ilistillate very largely, soluble in ordinary sulphuric acid. A 1454. Sunset, Kern County. Well. Gravity, 9.9° Be. Gravitv. Per Cent. Stoveoil : 33° Be. 2.9 Gas oil 28 7.3 Lubricant 21 36.6 Asphalt Grade "D" 51.4 Loss .- 1.8 1IK).0 This oil is from the shallow sand in the southern portion of the tield, and i.-. about the heaviest oil x^roduced in the State from actual wells; that is, from sands which are covered from contact with the air. Similar or heavier oils are often found at seepages. A 1413. McKittrick, Kern County. Well. Gravitv. 18.0° Be. (iravity. Per Cent. Per Cent. Kerosene 4I..5° Be. 1.4 Kerosene 38 4.2 Stoveoil 34 2.4 Stoveoil 32 .... 14.0 Gas oil -. 28 68.0 62.0 Asphalt Grade ■•D" 22.5 22.5 Loss -- 1.5 1.5 100.0 1 .... Kerosene 41.2 1.5 Kerosene-.. 40.0 0.6 Kerosene.. SO..^ 2.4 Kerosene 37.6 0.9 Stove oil 33.0 Lfj (».(i ()..'> 3.0 Fuel and lubricant 25.0 <)4.0 tU.O 64.1 64.0 Asphalt..!. Grade "D" .32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 Loss 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 This is an average sample from the north center of the field, with the lighter portion separated and cut in different ways. It gives an idea of the variation in the yield of kerosene at different gravities. A 1441. Kern River, Kern County. Tank average. Gravity, 15.2° Be. Gravity. Per Cent. Kerosene 52.0° Be. 0.5 .Stove oil 33.5 1.5 Gas oil ■ 28.0 12.0 Lubricant 23.0 10.7 Lubricant 17.7 25.4 Lubricant 14.8 9.6 Asphalt Grade "E" 38.7 Loss __. 1.6 100.0 The sample above is an average sample of oil from this field, and was run in the manner usual when making asphalt and distillate, the distillate being fractionated from the crude still. A 1442. Kern River, Kern County. Tank average. Gravity, 15.2° Be. Flash. Gravity. Visecsitv. Point. Distillate •. 39.6° Be. Stoveoil 32.8 Gas oil 28.0 Lubricant 24.2 2.63 246° F. Lubricant 22.5 3.10 276 Lubricant 21.3 5.61 308 Lubricant 19.7 10.52 320 Lubricant 18.4 19.60 337 Lubricant 17.5 il.m 3:^ Lubricant 14.6 1.50.00 Asphalt GvadC'E" Losses ; - Surnin Point. g. Per Cent 2.6 3.4 6.7 281° F. 5.9 316 .3.3 342 2.0 364 5.1 398 5.3 414 4.6 19.2 ... 38.7 3.2 100.0 This sample is identical with tiie one above, but was run with special care to avoid decomposition, and the distillate then refractionated. The lubricants above are distil- lates, with the exception of the last. The gravity of the liulk distillate, before rerunning, was 20.5° Be. CALIFORNIA OIL-KEFINING INDUSTRY. 197 A 1487. Kern River. Kern County. Tank average. Gravity, 15.5° Be. Visoos- Flash Hviinins; Gravity, ity. Point. I'oiiit. Kuii 1. Ktiii 'J. Kiiii :i. Kun I. Ruii.">_ Kerosene..-. 42.0° .... 110° F. 122° F. 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% Paraffin oil.. 24.0 2.52 257 28t> 52.0 .... Distillate 38.(i .... 12.H Spindle oil-- 22.0 .5.02 298 828 -... 8i).0 _ Stove oil 34.1 -. 2().0 Neutral oil.- 20.4 11.20 320 372 .... .... 28.0 408 452 8.8 Gasoil 32.0 ---. 39.0 Neutral oil-. 21.5 ..-. _ 16.6 Asphalt Grade"!)" 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 3.3.0 Losses 2.2 1.5 2.2 2.0 2.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 This sample is very similar to the one above, but the lubricants were prepared by reducing the bulk distillate, in steam still. The comparison of gravities, viscosities, and Hash points, between this analysis and the preceding, will show plainly the much greater suitability of this method of working, particularly as the bulk distillate was run without care to avoid cracking, had the gravity 27.0°, and was therefore a much less satisfactory material to work with. It is obviously impossible to print any great number of commercial analyses in this connection, because of the considerable labor involved in the preparation of each, and of the fact that most of the analyses on file were made for private parties, and are not available for this pur- pose. But a simple distillation may, when interpreted with care, throw a certain amount of light on the nature of a crude oil, and on its prob- able value for refining purposes. The figures in the accompanying table (No. 25) were made by the following method: A small sample, from 100 c.c. to 250 c.c, was dis- tilled in a glass flask with side neck, the bulb of a thermometer being placed just below outlet. Fractions were collected, (a) from commence- ment of distillation to temperature of 150° C, {!>) from 150° to 270°. These fractions were then calculated to gasolines and naphtlias, and to kerosene, the gasolines being read together. The rules l)y which these calculations are made were deduced from results of experiment, and are not worth detailing; it should be noted that the figures thus obtained are estimates, and do not pretend to J>e arrnrate. The residue from this distillation is transferred to an iron retort, very low and wide, and further distilled until the asi)halt attains the desired consistency, usually a "D" grade. By making the retort of metal, and very low in proportion to its width, decomposition of the lul)ricating oils is almost entirely avoided. The distillate from the iron retort is placed in another small retort, and distilled under a vacuum of twenty-three inches, up to a temperature of 270° C, the thcrniomctci' bulb being in 198 PETROLEUM IX OAI.IKOKNIA. the vapor. The distillate from this rectification is classed as "mid- dlings," which would include stove, gas, and fuel distillates. The gravity stated for middlings is the gravity of this distillate, hut the (|uantity is found by adding to the percentage represented by this dis- tillate a calculated percentage of residue from the 150°-270° distillate. The residue from the last distillation is classed as lubricating oil, and the gravity stated. Where only a small sample is available or where the amount of labor to be expended on the analysis is limited, this method offers a satisfactory means of estimating the value of an oil. The results obtained in this way do not, of course, compare in accuracy with the results of a careful analysis of a large sample, as the laboratory analy- sis of a sample of several gallons should l)e almost if not quite as reliable as a refinery test. A number of the samples included in Table 25 were tested some time since, and on these the middlings and lubricants were not separated. A number of these tests were made in the writer's laboratory by Mr. Wayne Colver, several also by Mr. E. N. Moor. In this connection, see ; also "Analyses of California Petroleum," by ]Mr. H. X. Cooper, at end of this bulletin. Methods of Reflning. — The refining methods in vogue in California, while following in general along Avell-settled lines, vary considerably in details. Different crude oils require somewhat different treatment, the demands of the market vary somewhat at different points, while indi- vidual opinion differs widely as to the most suitable treatment in any given case. For these reasons, any description of refining processc- must be of the most general nature, and the following remarks are intended merely to show, to those entirely unfamiliar with the subject, " the outlines of the methods employed. Petroleum refining, in general, consists in a fractional distillation of the crude oil, followed by the action of chemicals and water on the crude fractions, and generally, though not always, of a second distilla- tion following the chemical treatment. The nature of a fractional distillation is too well known to need elaboration.' The essential principle is, that on heating a mixture of liquids having different boiling points, the most volatile will boil first, then the substance having the next higher boiling point, and so on. But the lowest boiling liquid will not distill over in a pure state, but will carry over with it portions of the heavier substances, so that the separation is but partial, and to effect complete separation the process must be many times repeated. lAny good organic chemistry will explain the scieiititic ]>riiiciples on which frac- tional distillation is based. .?.jio •saxino aihho^ua? no aaeTiAVA xtawix I TABLE 26. PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF CALIFORNIA CRUDE OILS. Sample. Distillation. Oalcdlated Analysis. District. County. 1 S' Taken from. 11 1? Below 150" to 270- C. .\bove 270° C. Asphalt. ■g 1 Total GaBoline. Kerosene. Middlings. Lubri- Is 1' Asphalt. S" s i No. 5 •< 1 i 1 1 1 i : i s i 1 3 3 1 1 i 1 ?5 tl sl 2445 2427 2466 2424 2465 2438 Fullerton - Fullerton FuUerton Fullerton. Fullerton FHillerton ■Fullerton Fullerton.- Fullerton Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange Orange 8 8 8 1 9 9 9 9 9 3S 3S 38 3S 38 38 38 38 38 9W 9W 9W low 9W 9W 9W 9W 9W 8. B. 8. B. S. B. 8. B. 8. B. S. B. 8. B. S. B. S. B. Well.... Tank ._. Well.... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well-... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well.... Well...- Well.... Well.... Tank ... Well.... Tank ... Tank ... Well.... Well.... Pipeline Well.... Tank ... Well.... Tank ... Well.... Well.... Tank ... Well.... Tank ... Tank ... Well.... Well.--- 16.9° 20.3 20.5 23.3 32.4 32.8 33.0 33.4 34.6 26.8 26.8 29.1 20.4 21.0 23.1 23.2 15.1 15.7 17.2 42.7 11.8 22.6 23.9 26.2 26.6 26.0 26.6 26.8 27.4 28.0 28.1 15.0 16.9 16.3 17.2 18.6 18.8 ■_>1.5 lM.4 ll-il 14.0 17.3 13.0 17.1 16.0 15.1 18.9 19.0 12.4 1.5.7 16.1 17.8 18.7 21.4 33.4 46.0 24.0 23.0 42.7 1.0 Tr. 3.4 10.6 21.7 23.8 24.8 22.1 22.9 10.5 12.5 21.0 .0 2.1 6.2 4.7 .0 .0 .0 51.0 .0 .0 7.2 12.5 10.0 10.0 13.8 13.0 19.4 13.0 16.6 .0 1.0 0.8 1.0 6.0 47.5 4.0 28.5 .0 .0 .0 .0 4.1 .0 .0 .0 .0 0.6 0.6 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 1.0 28.0 52.0 1.0 10.7 31.0 65.8" 67.0 69.1 69.6 60.9 60.9 62.1 69.2 58.8 58.2 55.0 55.0 67.3 'ii'i 41.0 42.9 47.6 31.4 41.8 31.2 31.4 37.6 33.4 33.0 33.0 30.0 45.3 48.4 44.7 46.9 63.7 64.1 60.2 4.0 66.6 25.6° "m.7 ■26.5 27V3' "22V6' mYs' 23.0 '26'.6 '24V7" 42.0 32.1 25.9 31.6 9.0 16.7 15.6 8.0 12.9 26.0 24.0 22.1 27.3 21.4 20.2 19.7 13.3 25.7 26.9 .0 41.7 16.4 26.6 11.8 25.3 16.0 12.9 11.1 18.8 25.6 21.1 32.2 41.9 24.2 27.0 37.0 .0 22.9 .0 31.9 35.2 17.0 32.0 24.0 36.0 36.7 26.9 28.9 22.0 27.6 34.8 27.9 21.7 20.1 22.1 18.2 Tr. .0 6.6 21.3 4.3 D D E D D D D D D D P D D D D E B D D "ii: D D D D D C D D D D E D D E D "d" c' E B D C D D D D C E D D D D D E b" E (') 2.0 2.0 4.3 1.0 1.7 0.6 0.6 1.5 2.9 2.6 1.6 2.0 4.0 4.2 2.6 4.7 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.7 .0 3!o 2.0 3.6 0.6 0.9 3.0 3.8 2.0 6.0 2.0 2.0 3.5 2.4 1.6 2.3 3.7 3.3 3.0 2.0 2.8 3.4 3.1 2.3 1.9 1.3 .0 1.8 1.8 3.0 0.6 1.8 1.0 3.0 1.5 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.8 4.4 12.3 24.3 26.0 27.6 24.6 26.7 13.3 16.4 22.9 0.7 2.8 6.0 6.9 .0 .0 0.6 62.3 .0 1.6 8.0 13.3 12.4 11.4 16.4 14.3 21.2 15.0 18.3 .0 i!o 1.0 6.5 60.3 6.0 32.5 .0 .0 .0 .0 6.1 .0 .0 .0 .0 0.7 6.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 1.8 20.0 64.7 1.3 11.6 34.8 '66° 64 66 68 69 60 60 61 68 68 68 '54' 55 66 "49' 54 64 53 67 65 59 63 68 60 64 '55" 54 61 55 57 '52' 48 '55' 48 60 '54" 60 7.7 17.9 12.3 17.8 20.6 20.8 24.8 23.1 25.1 25.2 24.7 17.0 14.0 14.4 16.4 16.6 4.0 S.O 12.1 26.8 .0 19.6 16.0 15.3 19.2 17.6 24.3 17.2 18.3 18.5 16.5 3.0 16.8 11.0 9.0 9.8 29.7 18.7 38.0 .0 .0 2.6 2.0 9.3 .0 2.0 2.0 4.0 12.1 8.0 .0 2.0 2.0 7.3 .3.0 16.0 12.0 24.3 18.2 18.6 30.1 40° 42 41 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 41 41 41 41 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 42 41 42 41 42 42 42 40 41 40 40 40 44 42 44 '46' 40 42 "46" 40 40 40 42 '40' 40 40 40 41 42 42 40 41 42 47.1 46.2 "3'7'.'3' '35.9" 31.4 42.8 "33".'o" '36.'o' 54.0 64.8 '6'8".'3 62.2 48.8 '52".'l' 44.4 53.9 41.2 40.0 4L1 'se.'o' 58.8 44.7 'ot.'o' 'U's m'i Ha 42.0 32.1 26.9 31.6 9.0 16.7 16.6 8.0 12.9 26.0 24.0 22.1 27.3 21.4 20.2 19.7 13.3 25.7 25.9 .0 41.7 15.4 26.6 U.8 26.3 16.0 12.9 11.1 18.8 26.6 21.1 32.2 41.9 24.2 27.0 37.0 .0 22.9 .0 31.9 36.2 16.2 32.0 24.0 ,36.0 36.7 26.9 28.9 22.6 27.6 34.8 27.9 21.7 20.1 22.1 18.2 Tr. .0 6.6 21.3 4.3 46.9 36.1 29.2 36.3 10.7 20.5 18.1 9.6 16.0 30.7 28.5 26.3 30.8 24.2 23.2 22.6 13.8 28.1 28.6 "44'."4' 18.1 29.6 13.7 29.5 18.8 15.2 13.1 22.1 29.1 25.1 36.0 46.2 26.6 29.6 41.3 .0 26.0 .0 35.0 38.1 17.6 35.6 '3'8'.'5' 40.6 .29.2 31.6 25.3 30.9 37.2 30.5 23.8 '24.'7' 20.6 ".0" 7.9 24.6 5.3 154.3 117.9 95.1 116.2 82.3 61.7 67.3 29.0 49.0 95.7 88.2 81.4 100.2 78.4 74.3 72.3 46.7 93.9 94.9 iii'i 66.4 98.6 43.2 92.9 69.0 47.4 40.8 69.0 92.1 77.7 117.3 154.0 88.9 99.0 135.8 "m'.'2" 'l'2'2'."3" 129.7 69.5 117.6 'mi" 123.9 98.8 106.1 82.9 101.4 119.5 102.3 79.8 "8'i."2" 66.7 "'24'.'2' 78.4 16.0 2.0 2.0 4.3 1.0 1.7 0.6 0.6 1.6 2.9 2.6 1.5 2.0 4.0 4.2 2.6 4.7 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.7 .0 2.7 3.0 2.0 3.6 0.5 0.9 3.0 3.8 2.0 6.0 2.0 2.0 3.5 2.4 1.5 2.3 3.7 3.3 3.0 2.0 2.8 3.4 3.1 2.3 1.0 1.3 .0 1.8 1.8 3.0 0.6 1.8 1.0 3.0 1.5 1.1 1.4 23.0 18.8 25.6 25.8 27.7 27.6 30.8 27.9 28.0 29.0 24.0 23.4 23.9 27.3 24.0 20.0 17.2 21.9 43.0 .0 41.2 39.3 39.9 41.5 40.7 42.8 41.3 43.0 43.6 42.4 41.4 38.1 38.2 38.4 39.3 30.2 30.2 36.9 38.0 18.4 34.0° 34.7 20.9° 15.4 33.7 29.0 21.0 2434 2467 12.1 32.7 21.3 23.0 16.4 32.5 18.0 22.3 2450 2451 2448 2470 Whittier Whittier.. Whittier Whittier Los Angeles Los Angeles Newhal! Newhall Santa Paula Los Angeles.. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles. - 26 26 26 26 28 2S 2S 28 11 W UW 11 W 11 W S. B. 8. B. 8. B. 8. B. 'a.'i 20'.6 37.2 '31.8 M.i" 31.8 '34'."! '3'3'.'6' 42.6 I's.'o' 18.7 2462 1419 2494 Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Ventura 13 4 U 3N 3N 4N lew 16 w 22 W S. B. S. B. 8. B. 23.8 19.9 24.3 M.'l 36.7 .0 32.3 'l'7'.'5' White oil. 54.11 -''■ : -.^ '1 - '1 63.7 ■ ■ " '. -■ J 23.0 58..-. i ■' 1 . • '1 29.8 Santa Paula 24.5 21.4 36.1 19.0 Green oil. Santa Paula Ventura 18 W 8. B. 59.4 .54.0 69.2 61.6 63.7 65.0 62.3 56.6 58.0 48.6 51.8 mVo' 60.7 32.4 26.6 20.1 20.6 23.6 10.0 24.0 20.0 18.0 19.5 33.0 20.7 42.0 .0 .0 13.0 12.0 12.3 .0 5.7 11.0 11.4 22.0 22.0 .0 5.8 6.5 18.3 16.0 26.0 60.0 27.0 83.0 31.0 37.6 40 » 1 MS ; 'ii'i 21.3 2{.6 27.5 28.0 21.6 23.1 21.2 21.0 24.2 22.7 'is'.s' 26.6 19.3 22.2 '24.5 26.0 23.7" 22.0 28.6 23.3 23.0 29.6 Santa Paula Santa Paula Bardsdale 39.0 40.1 43.4 39.8 35.4 39.6 37.0 36.3 36.0 46.0 43.1 46.6 '30.8 35.9 40.8 M.b" 33.4 35.4 36.6 38.7 32V9' 33.5 34.8 33.3 37.6 32.6 43.7 36.9 38.4 42.0 46.0 36.2 40.0 35.7 54.0 31.1 60.0 62.0 35.5 16.0 60.0 28.0 65.8 61.1 67.6 53.0 67.6 61.2 54.2 69.0 67.4 63.0 48.6 65.2 64.5 70.0 68.6 62.4 64.0 21.0 18.0 67.9 36.9 26.7 Ventura Ventura 17 12 4N BN 21 W 20 W 8. B. 8. B. 2498 Summerland Santa Maria Sargents Sargents Sargents HaRMoon Bay. Bolinas Bay.... Santa Barbara Santa Barbara 28.6 33.4 40.6 18.0 2412 23.0 31.0 38.0 17.7 1465 3.2 16.7 14.0 16.7 21.1 33.1 26.0 19.4 18.7 '36.8' 'Us 32.3 32.8 32.6 's'i.'e" 12.8 34.3 14.0 50.1 40.0 45.9 38.0 40.2 42.5 '23'."4' 'i8.'2' 18.6 16.8 17.0 I'v'.'o' affln. W.-M Kern River Kern River Kern River 8 3 5 34 34 22 17 13 12 20 29 8 298 298 12 N 12 N 32 N 32 N 30 8 308 30 8 28 E 28 E 28 E 24W 24W 23 E 23 E 2468 Kern M.Ii. U.ll . 3402 Kern 9499 Kern... 8. B. S. B. M.D. M.D. Pipeline Pipeline Tank ... Well.... Pipeline Well.... Tank ... Well.... Well.... Well.... Pipeline Well.... Well.... Tank ... Tank ... Well.... Well.... ^elr^" Kern.. 1409 McKittrick.-... McKittrick McKittrick McKittrick Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga.. Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Alcalde Kern 32.6 35.4 ?444 Kern 21 E IM.D. 22 E M.D. 1 30.9 14.4 12.8 "ss.'s' 31.8 43.7 40.7 1490 a403 ?44n Fresno... Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno Fresno.- Fresno 14 24 6 6 31 28 20 20 29 20 8 20 8 20 8 208 19 S 19 8 19 8 19 8 208 14 E i M.D. 14 E ! M.D. 15 E I M.D. 15 E M.D. 1.5 E M.D. 1402 1497 2452 22.5 34.4 62.0 35.2 3404 1407 1492 1.5 E 15 E 16 E 13 E M.D. M.D, M.D. M.D. 27.7 38.0 18.0 31.9 15.7 11.6 31.3 33.0 28.6 '84'.'3' 36.5 29.0 .0 40.5 16.8 17.8 19.7 '26.'6' 1408 Vallecitos. Bitterwater 2473 San Benito 32 18 8 10 EjM.D. Green oil. » The residue fro m this sample s n 3t as phalt, thoug ii contain ing t lat a ubsta nee. CALIFORNIA OIL-UEFIXIXC; IXDrSTHY. 199 As crude jx'troleum is a niixturt' of an inhalt is completely and rather thinly liquid. Oil asphalts are acted on in the usual manner by solvents for asphaltic bitumens. They give up a small amount of soluble matter to absolute alcohol, are partly soluble in light petroleum gasolines, completely but not permanently soluble in heavy California naphthas, completely and permanently soluble in the heavy oils from California petroleum, but less readily and completely in the heavy oils from paraffin-bearing petroleums. They are completely soluble in benzole and heavier coal-tar oils, in carbon bisulphid, chloroform, and carbon tetrachlorid, and partially soluble in ether and acetone. The usual analysis, by solution in turn in gasoline or ether, and carbon bisulphid or chloroform {i. e., the separation into "petrolene" and "asphaltene"), is not very informing, as the results are more or less influenced by the conditions under which the estimation is made, and seem to have very little relation to the working value of the bitumen. Neither petrolene nor asphaltene, as thus separated, are simple substances, as may readily be proven by the fact that asphalt of ordinary hardness (a " C " or "D" grade) will give up soluble matter in turn to alcohol, light petroleum gasoline, sulphuric ether, benzole, turpentine, and chloroform, all the substances thus isolated having different physical pro})erties. The actual chemical constitution of these asphalts may be said to be entirely unknown. They are knowm to contain a large percentage of carbon, and a small percentage of hydrogen; sulphur is nearly always present in slight amount, but appears to be incidental, as is oxygen, and occasional traces of nitrogen. It is very likely that these Ijodies consist of hydrocarbons with a very high carbon percentage. They are hardened by the addition of sulphur, at moderately high temperatures, hydrogen being given off as hydrogen sulphid, and this treatment carried to its limit will completely remove the hydrogen, leaving a 20(> PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. residue of coke. Oxygen has tlie same effect, eliminating liydrogen as water, but atmospheric oxygen at normal temperatures, acting much more slowly, seems in some cases to be actually absorbed, as there is sonu'times an increase of weight. The asphalts formed l)y spontaneous oxidation of crude oil are much tougher and more ductile than those due to forced oxidation, and there appears to be a constitutional differ- ence. Forced oxidation has a tendency to decom})ose the asi)halt itself. ])recipitating free carbon, even ])efore any great hardness is reached, and for this reason, though it is possible to convert almost the entire weight of the heavier crude oils into asphalt, by the ap])lication of oxygen or sulphur, the process is of little commercial value. The asphalt produced from crude oil is only in })art present in the oil before being distilled, being largely formed during distillation. This may readily l)e shown by washing crude oil with excess of sul- phuric acid, l\y which means the asphalt may 1)e entirely removed. An oil which would produce 35% of asphalt l)y distillation under ordi- nary conditions, or 45% to 50% by evaporation in contact with the air, at a temperature beloAv its l)oiling point, may be washed quite free from any black tinge witii a loss of from 10% to 15% of its bulk. The same thing may be inferred from the percentage of precipitable asphaltene in the crude oil. Many oils yielding the above percentage (35%) of asphalt on distillation contain less than 2% of as])haltene, which at the ordinary ratio of one part asphaltene to four parts petrolene (about the usual analysis of "D" asphalt) would represent 10% or less of actual asphalt in the crude oil. The asphalt appears to be produced by partial decomposition of the heavier portions of the crude, and the percentage yield is to some extent dependent on the conditions under which distillation is carried out. Forced distillation at high tempera- tures gives a larger yield of asphalt, Vmt of lower grade than that pro- duced by slow distillation witli a large steam supply. The critical temperature for the production of asphalt seems to lie about 600° F. Below this temperature the action of the still is merely one of concen- tration; that is, a sample of the residue drawn from the still, and l)lende(l with a })roportion of distillate equal to the amount distilled off, will have the same percentage of asphalt as the original crude. But a])()ve this temperature the crude commences to be actually converted into asi)halt, and a sample withdrawn from the still and blended with the proper proportion of distillate will contain more asi)halt than the original crude oil, the j)ercentage of excess increasing with the length of time to which the oil has been exposed to heat in the still. How- ever, where steam is used, the temperature need l)e raised but little above 600° F., it l)eing (piite possible to reduce the oil to any grade of asphalt desired without passing 600° F.; distillation in this manner is very slow, and a large amount of steam is recpiircd. The distillates CALIFOl^NIA ()II.-KKK1MN(; INDISTUV. '^07 show l)y their gravity that very much less ik-eDiiipositiou has taken phice than where higher temperatures are maintained, the gravity of the entire bulk distiUate from 15° erude running a))()ut 20° Be. where the still was kept at 650° F., while if run at 750° F., about the usual temperature, the gravity would run sonicwliere about 26° Be. Oil asphalts are very little affeeted by water, either i)ure or mineral- ized, or by solutions of an alkaline nature. Acids without oxidizing power attack them l)ut little, but the oxidizing acids and chlorin water destroy them rajjidly. Their innnunity from decay in contact with water particularly tits them for street paving, and for use in other situ- ations where natural asphalts are decomposed. In contact with air thev are reasonably durable, though somewhat less so than the natural asphalts, gradually losing their ductility, and becoming friable, and finally oxidizing to a l)rown powder; this action is very kIoav. The greatest advantage possessed by oil asphalts is their freedom from impurity. AVhere properly prepared, as almost the entire output now is. they contain Init a trat-e of mineral matter, and generally less than one per cent of "organic matter not bitumen.'' The latter is mis- named in this case, as the insoluble combustible matter in oil asplialt is not organic in any sense, Imt consists of free carbon in finely pul- verized form, produced by slight local overheating of the stills during distillation. This carbon, being entirely neutral and stable, is no det- riment to the quality of the asphalt, and should be carefully distin- guished from the organic matter in natural asphalts, which is actually organic, and subject to decay. The mineral matter consists of traces of sand and of microscopic silicious skeletons of marine diatoms. Clay is very seldom found in sufficient (luantity to l)e distinguished from the silica. Owing to their freedom from insoluble matter, these asphalts are very suitable for the preparation of paints and varnishes, though not of goods of the highest grade. The freedom from infusible matter is of considerable importance, as it enables them to be melted and kept melted without the coking or sedimenting of kettles, and as they melt at a comparatively low temperature, and are very fluid when melted, they are handled and applied with great ease. For operations involv- ing coating, dipping, painting, or saturating, they are unexcelled, as they adhere firmly to paper, wood, and all metals, and form a close, i-oherent, and l)rilliant coating. They are rather more affected l)y changes of temperature than are natural asphalts. Liquid Asphalts are used largely as fluxes f(n- hard natural asphalts, and for this purpose are unequaled. They are actual solvents of asphalts of all kinds, and the mixture once effected is absolutely per- manent, there ])eing no danger of separation, even if the mixture is 14— BUL. :52 208 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. kept molted for a long time. It is evident enough that a suljstanee which dissolves asphalt is a more rational flux than a substance which, like the residuum of paraffin petroleums, has to be mixed and kept mixed with the asphalt by a strong air l)last or other means of agitation. Paving". — Oil asphalts have, within the past few years, been exten- sively used for paving, and while the earliest experiments were not altogether successful, more extended experience seems to have proven their entire suitability to this use. The grades commonly used for this purpose are soft "D," or "E," ranging in penetration from 20 to 40 (Dow scale). These grades are solid at ordinary temperatures, but may be marked by the pressure of the fingers; at this hardness they are free from crumbling at low temperatures. As these asphalts are practically free from any foreign substance, it is usually considered essential to include in the paving mixture a certain amount, say ten per cent or so, of finely powdered mineral matter, to fill the voids between the finer sand grains. The nature of this mineral matter does not seem to be of any particular importance, so long as it is insoluble, as its action in the mixture is purely a physical one, and there is no combination except that of cohesion between the mineral matter and the asphalt. Some of the recorded failures of oil asphalt for paving were undoubtedly due to the omission of this fine mineral matter. It is a point sometimes overlooked, in proportioning a paving mixture, that an asphalt which will not crumble at very low temperatures, will be permanently plastic at normal temperatures, and that if voids are left between the sand grains, the latter will roll on each other, and the pavement be rapidly pressed out of shape. The object of the finely pulverized mineral matter is simply to wedge the grains of sand, and thus to prevent this rolling action, and where the sand is clean and the asphalt free from any insoluble matter, as is California oil as])halt, this detail is all important. Some of the best pavements in the city of San Francisco and of Los Angeles have been laid with oil asphalt, and numerous other satisfactory pavements of this nature are to be found in various parts of the State. Several of these pavements have been laid eight years or longer, and are still in the best of condition, having been practically free from the necessity of repairs in the meantime. The stone-block pavements in San Francisco are grouted with cement, but are laid on a foundation composed of broken stone with oil asphalt, as are also the later sheet asphalt pavements. The binder coat thus formed is elastic, durable, and cheap, readily cut and repaired. It is much more stable than a sand cushion, while the asphalt renders the pavement less noisy than where the wearing surface is laid directly over cement. ino^uja i w —ub .rs 3jaAT •aa J vH .1 f«dfc .a. '■^W^':' .iinlibATiUiiisO ahMatlH .*iL oia .A .H '"^'■""'^AWLiXi U_jq|jaifc*a«ra iO .A •\rk Refill •/9>« .a iniiollilbi .H .W il^tbaHuHM : i^titaiqeii\.1 .T iJulLS'iuuiL-i ^J>i«aii«fi.a .1 --.edmooO .0 .L K M 1 . Rf.RCVNI V(i . .I'j.'aelsgnA eoJi;,J99i^8 sonsiwaJilfi? 209 some nying )acity tliat n the -.j(JU ^jaelsgnA eoJ ,868*03; ^^ .-.ioo o. bl-iH^TiitJi ...laa I liv onaen'i ,1^it^^}H 'Iifl&T foi'^iil A the ..JJOO-. L!-..i... BIBdlfiS £ln«ci . . .4»»Bionfii'i tiaSt' .■gaibliuKoilsiS l&k - . lHKO'»ei j.-iaoia; »a .a .. oaabnail naa ,.)?. -ciemasnioMTSlI I M.iiiti jiiilBdttu .H >-Jt .H .—buBlTrbll .21 ;mW a iiiioL . -tiijij aglggiiAi 80 J ,3f ooIS 13:Ab3. fei ..0'Al.89l93nAJ6oJ 499i;t8 B47mia.raS ai/ioliH .H .0 |...000 i< a9t9^iiA tod ..VLeSdaili.AJ. |..24(X)-.b^ .aitftfaiJil bna sife^nA *t»>i, aogqdJotHP-.a iW.Al. .-iJ^JlggilA eoJ ijgnibliua iooIiWii**! ] .j-aA3ooM;v8 .fl i...Ln Oil Co -.- - Valley Oil Refining Co ■an Oil and Refining Co Plant. Los Angeles Los Angeles Lo^ Angeles Sunset Fresno Summerland Stockyards Kern River Carpinteria Los Angeles Los Angeles Kern River Los Angeles Kern River Los Angeles Rodeo _. Sunset Los Angeles Pdint Richmond. Los Angeles Gaviota. Bakersfield Fruitvale _. Chino Los Angeles Kern River Obispo , Los Angeles Parafl3n Station Los Angeles Kern River Oleom Half Moon Bay. Kern River Los Angeles ... Los Angeles ... Los Angeles -.. Kern Fresno Santa Barbara . Alameda Kern ._ Santa Barbara Los Angeles Los Angeles Kern Los Angeles Kern Los Angeles Contra Costa Kern Los Angeles Contra Costa Los Angeles Santa Barbara Kern.. Alameda San Bernardin Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Los Angeles .. Alameda Los Angeles -. Kem Contra Costa.. San Mateo — 731 Lawrence Street, Los Angeles ... Box 893, Los Angeles -.. 214 Stimson Building, Los Angeles.. Bakersfield 735 F Street, Fresno -. Santa Barbara ...^ 435 Rialto Building, San Francisco.. Bakersfield ._ San Francisco and Boston, Mass. .-- Los Angeles 2474 East Ninth Street, Los Angeles. Bridgeport, Conn. 545 Bradbur>' Block, Los Angeles 137 Montgomery St., San Francisco . Los Angeles 228 Parrott Building. San Francisco. Los Angeles Box 63. Los Angeles - Rialto Building, San Francisco Los Angeles 327 Market Street, San Francisco Bakersfield Alameda - 14 Baker Block, Los Angeles 237 Elmyra Street, Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles and Pittsburg, Pa.. 444 Wilcox Building, Los Angeles _. 24 Second Street, San Francisco Los Angeles Mills Building, San Francisco Mills Building, San Francisco. - 300 Clunie Building, San Francisco.. San Diego _ Carl F. Adam Jno. L. Sherwin .. J.H. McNeill H. A. Blodget .... A. C. Ruschaupt-, E. S. Hadley T. P. Spiers J. B.Fairfield.-. .T. C. Coombs E. Densmore ... Ernest Cady Geo. Hoehwell.. D. B. King F. H. Dunham . Chas. L. Swan .. A.W. E.Thompson. H. M. Tilford H. W. A-mes T. Spellacy G, W. C. Baker.-- Wm. E. Rowland... Harrington Brown, C. H. Ritchie J. A. Dubbs A.W. E.Thompson. R. S. Moore J. H. Plumraer Lyman Stewart Lyman Stewart Louis P. Dunand.. L. W.Goff F. E. Lowry 8. M. Butler F. R. Kellogg R. Shaw , K. W. Ruschaupt.. Edwin F. Smith .,. F. J. Brandon E. Stevens Florence Coombs . W. H. Barnard ... Geo. W. Bennett-. R. L. Yickery S. G. O. King A. M. Dunham ... W. W. Burns... H. C. Breed en (Treas.) H. J. Van Ness . C. H. Eliassen . H, E.Graves Jno. F. Bacigalupi.. John Die Geo. H. Speer L, Hope Coopers... R. S. Shainwald..- J. F. Cresser W. A. Carney W. A. Carney J. C. Perry (Supt.). Miss H. C. Sheldon California.. . California... California... Maine , California... California... California... California... Arizona Arizona Connecticut, California.. California... California... Arizona... - California.. Not incorp. California.. California. W. Virginia Delaware , California California. California. California California Arizona.. [. SouRCK OF Crcde Used. Lo8 Angeles _ Fullertbn and Coalinga . Whittier.. Sunset Coalinga Summerland Kern County Kern River Summerland Various Kei-n River Whittier Kern River _ Los Angeles Cotflinga Sunset Los Angeles Ventura, Newhall. and Coalinga. Santa Maria . Kern River .. Puente Whittier Kern River Whittier and Ventura . Los Angeles Coalinga and Kern Riv Distillate and asphalt. Light. Light, distillate, and asphalt. Distillate and asphalt. Light and asphalt. Distillates and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt Distillate and asphalt. Distillate and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Distillates, lubricants, and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Distillate and asphalt. Lubricants and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Distillate and asphalt. Distillate, lubricants, and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and coke. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Light, and fuel residue. Distillates and asphalt. Kern River.. Ventura, etc.. San Mateo ... Kern River - . Light. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Distillate and asphalt. Light. Distillate and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Light, lubricants, and asphalt. Distillates and asphalt. Light, distillate, and asphalt. Light, and fuel residue. Distillate and asphalt. (a) Owners refused information. (6) Figures doubtful. Owners refused information. CALIFOUNIA ()1I--RKFIN1N(; INDl'STRY 209 The Refining" Industry of California covers the oi)erations of some thirty-two tinus, with thirty-four rclining ])hnits. Tlic accoiupanying table (No. 27) gives a list of these ]»lants, with remarks as to capacity ami class of jirodiicts. In regard to the latter, it may be statejjnA eoJ PaVwi-ui, fcslas"^ 80»i4ii..-., eabsf'A *io»l Sively j^^^^ eabanA eoJ altoffel -ST their e lu.;^ on?9i1. piirpoi- f Dow I-- ^^^''^^ uia&8 may b| eiwoiclA are frtl mail practic essenti per ce betwee not se( as its { combir l jUj v^u- htj^I the as were u is a pi that a be pen left be pavem — asbgoA eoJ .-.^ 89l3§JrtA 80 J ii- ai9Ji L-.- gabgoA aoJ ;.--,a9fe§aA aoJ ifiJeoQ^iiaoO xnaX ^)iUiv«i»i&saA eoJL .j^tiioSt isxtnoG asIojjaA aoJ pulver ji. wiadsBa J810B8 thus tc asphal detail : Som Angele pavem PboDUCM Ma«?a''ko^ loaiinacvsaS. as& L— aalaaaA.aoJL . .-.ii. maJiL Severa^;,u.. «»f«i^toAaod. and ai from t] The but art as are dJiiifSsiosnA aoJL i !J4^ I. . .. . alisinsl A:' aab^aA aoJ 1 Jilsjj^ aiaJi formedfura-stBoO jiitaoO much ] pavemi iilivix ma^ over cei B^l98nA«OvI;],v»»»n(l-at'tai«P.lIfirfq8A baa liO naorrsmA oO gninftsH liO btiailaxiqaA ,,e9JiS«A^0iJ .;.Ur:!-'i!-...,,oO( s^^nSft? aimoiilaO-deiJha i^ntiuii u-.. ,oO ei(liM?>ltIiO batabiloanoO aimolilaO ,. onsyjil w>i-ii()^4)«U>, oO liO onaai'i-armolilaD . fifial-i9tea«jft a.«^M4H4-«».ph«5(*l«'IqaA blopiJ aimolilaO abia'fdp^HJr .. ^.^^^i^iipO ■sniaUsa loiiquD ... •lavifliOrwyl , .:- oO liO benfigfl jJialO i,oQ:8diac^ttvfina,Hadq8A ,110 naidmuloO lubricaJH>vujui^3'^«'oQ»S- i9ldaJ8-9iorn8n9C[ Uj*,.Ubxi«aiiieOi lilO .teJBbUoanoO mgiaaa luiui(Cii».w,^wtli»JBpi8lrJinfi9iI JiO 89l0Oi9H ».U'-j.'jMj-a*V^wiLu oO gninagH sniH aiUs.ttad.sto.i»lMUi oO I/O naibhaK Luivitaji.u,-»iiuUtOp!^na9S liO lanoitaZ iUiiuiii-aifJuiljoO jjninftoil hna liO oiavaX iUi,-Luhjti!i>.^iuaaa ;l>f»eiliO nililnail vrsV. luiuucaii.lti^a£ul£tikc-..oO liOvfeaoO oaiaal ajid.tutlj'ii.siitOi-noxJaJioqanaiT liO Dftioal iLas.a.'id^sj>halL oD 8nina9il aflbal oO Yignftgfl esiaiS oftioal dnidO oO liO 9ln90jnina9H mgdtuoS 1971^ iria3I'iiUi.aii J-a^iLlioO gainftgH liO moiegwdiuoB .-oq«idO oO ^aiaheSl iiO iaenx/g 89l9§nA'«Kl' tL'iiUid-fiePiadlna9fl aimoiilaO bna aaxeT ii noiJaJB iirBaiB'I _.... ^oOUirial nEBaia^ 9dT 8n*taI«(«Dl 89j93ai^)|||(Kl, e9l9§nAiaoJ, •i9YiH'aKw3i e9l93nA,>ao»I i9Yia!i«wHl e9i9gja AiBiOil. ,. cfefeja .- „.i48a«S) 89l9sn A> iaoill libaHindaiSL iaiAH.. 89l9anA!a0iI. - aiobmH. . Ji^-vix. aiaX j hlgfle-ldifaiai eb9iaaIA BlB'/ihn'i. 89l9§nAa{»J L yaimiJsillbslBbiloenoO noirtTT tavifl ktt»HiiiL'iij4.ijd.w»nh*lL oO JiO noin — niapIO, iH-Jal.ilaU:^»UjiASivtuUJ.. oO IiO noinU T -.-5iaa riooM'MaH ... ."„. .ovO griinftsfl liO \9lleY \ —Tdvia ith»(aUic^,......<^^^.oO ■gainiiaSi Ima IiO uaaloY (I)) Figures doubtful. Owners refiLsed informaiiou. CALIFOKMA <)ir.-RKKININ(; INDrSTKY 209 The Refining" Industry of California covers the operations of some thirty-two tinns, with tliirty-four refining ])hints. Tlie ae('oni})anying table (No. 27) gives a list of these ])lants, with remarks as to capacity and class of jiroducts. In regard to the latter, it may he state(l that "light products" is used to designate the articles ranging from the lightest gasoline to kerosene, and that "distillate" as here used does not refer to the high-grade article of that name used in exi)losion engines, but to the crude distillate used princi})ally for fuel. The as]dialt market is largely in the hands of the "California Asphaltum Sales Agency," a mutual association of a number of the larger refiners of asphalt, who pool their sales and maintain a uniforn) price. No. 38. Machine for Makixg Asphalt Paper Pipe. A. P. P. Co., Los Angeles. No. MSI. Calikoknia Oil Asi'halt -Heauinc; the IJakkels 210 PETROLEUM I\ CALIFOKNIA. CALIFORNIA OII.-HKKINING INDUSTRY 211 Nil. 4li. llKFlNKKV — Asi'HAl.TI M AMiOii, UkKIMM. I 'c iM I' A N Y . 1>c IS AngKLES, -4 k i . ...r^ iiirii ^.THMi mmm ■f ^'^ No. 48. Refinery— California LiQrin Asphalt Company. Simmerland, Cal. No. 44. Refinery— Clakk Refined Oil Company. Kern River Oil Fielh. 212 l'KTI{OI,KrM IN CALIFORNIA. No. 45. Refixeky— Columbian Oil, Asphalt axd Refining Company. Carpinteria, Cal. No. 46. Refinery' — Coomus Refining Company, Los Angeles. No. 47. Refineky— Dknsmoke-Stabler Refining Company, Los Angeles CALTFOKNIA OlI.-RKFINING INDUSTRY. 213 No. 48. Refinery — Capitol Refining Co., Stockyards, Cal. No. 49. Refinery — Eastern Cons. On, am> RKKixrNt; Co., Kern Kiveh (Mi. Fiki.d 214 PETROLET'M IN CAI>IF()KNIA. No. .")(!. IvEFixEKY— Globe Asphalt Company, Okispo, Cai,. Xo. ol. Refinery — Globe Asi-halt Company, Obispo, Cal. CAI.IFOHNIA ()II>-KKFININ(i INDISTRY 215 Ni'. vj. IIefixeky— Hekciles t)ii, Rekim.ng Company, Los Axwei.ks No. .").;. Refinkky — Kim; Rekixixg Company, Kki:n IIiveij On. I-'iki.h. 2ir> PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. i IP 1 A A ' i X] sA ' i >fi lil:^ *' '''". wW 1 ^ , IT ;*> _^ 2E1 gnrJiM ^ ■^ .,.*■?** >-^--j*^^:^i-- — '■ III lUl "._ p^ - ' " ~ No. 54. Refixeky— Navajo Oil and Kefim.xgCo., 8rNSET, Kerx Cotnty, Cal. No. 05. New Franklin Oil and Refining Company, Los Angeles Xo. 56. Pacific Oil Refinery, Los Angeles. CAI.IKOHMA ()1I.-1{KKININ(; INDfSTKV 21" Ni>. r>7. Refinery — Pacific On. Transportation Company, (iAVioTA. Cal. No. ."))S. Kefineky — Pacific Refinin<; ('o.mi-any. Bakeksfi No. .■)!». Kefineky — Piente Oil Company, Chino, Cm.. 218 ph:tkoleiim in California. N>>. (id. l^KFixEKY— SoiTHEKX Refixim; (Jdmpaxy, Los Axgeles. No. <)1. Rkfixery — SoiTHWESTEKX Oil, Refixixh ("().. Kekx RivehOil Field. C'AI.IKOKNIA (»ll.-KKl'ININ(i INDrsTHV 'IV.) No. Hi'. Hefinery— I'xiox Coxs. On. am> REFixiNaraffins, olefins, probably acetylenes and other highly unsaturated compounds. nai)litbenes (cyclo])araffins), and aromatic (ben/.ene) compounds. 1 Consult— A. S. Cooper. Mining and Scientitic Prej?s, 82-123 ; Bulletin 1(3, State Mining Bureau. Felix Lengfeld and Edmund O'Neill. Amer. Cheni. .Tour., 15-1!». Charles F. Mabery. Am. Cheni. Jour., l!)-7!)(v, Am. Cheni. .Tour., 2.V2.")8; .lour. Sdc. Chem. Ind., 19-502. S. F. Peckham. Am. ,Tonr. Science., 3-18-2.^0; Science, 23-74. Clinton Richardson, .lour. Soc. Cliem. Ind., l!t-123. Frederick Snhithe. 13lli IJe]>()rt of tlie State Mineralogist. CHEMISTRY OF CAIJFOKNIA PETROLEIM. 221 A very few of the local oils give a light clistilhite wliic li appears, from its specific gravity and other i)hysical properties, to consist largely of paraffins, but the major part of our oils give a light distillate which is much heavier than a mixture of paraffins of corresponding hoiling point could be. By acting on these gasolines and kerosenes, the olefins may be removed, and as sulphuric acid used in excess absorbs but a very small proportion, it niay be assumed that the olefins are not pres- ent in large quantity. After rigorous treatment with sulphuric acid, a varying but large proportion of the oil is acted on by nitric acid, form- ing a stable nitro-compound, and leaving a residue which can not be further affected. This residue is very much lighter than the original oil, and from its resistance to all reagents probably consists of pure paraffins. The portion removed by nitric acid may be either benzenes or naphthenes, or both. It is probable that the latter is the case, though the percentage of benzenes must usually be quite small, as the gravity of benzene proper (CMe) is about 28° Be., and the boiling point 80°, while the gravity of local petroleum distillate boiling at this tem- perature is well above 70° Be. It is apparent that if the distillate consisted of benzene and paraffins alone, the gravity of benzene being 0.885, and of a mixture of hexane and heptane, boiling at 80°, being 0.766, the greatest possible proportion of benzene in a mixture of 0.700 (70°) gravity would be 16%. There is no reason for supposing that the small proportion (if any) of aromatic compounds in California petroleum Avill ever repay the cost of separation, particularly as these substances are now very low in price, and readily obtainable otherwise. But the presence of the naphthenes very seriously affects the quality of some of the products of our petroleum, notably the kerosenes. It has been pretty well proven by experience that a kerosene, to be rated first quality, must consist practically of paraffins, as these bodies are the most stable of the hydrocarbons, and contain the largest pro- portion of hydrogen. It is necessary that the hydrocarbons should be stable, that is, not subject to oxidation or to spontaneous decompo- sition, as otherwise the kerosene Avill, on standing, lose its white color, acquire a foul odor, and be otherwise deteriorated. Also, the higher the percentage of hydrogen in the kerosene, the smaller will be the proportion of air required for complete combustion, and the less the tendency to smoking when burned. The olefins, which come next to the paraffins, contain more carbon and less hydrogen, and are more unstable. Consequently, kerosene, like the oils produced by cracking paraffin petroleums, which consist largely of olefins, is of distinctly inferior quality. The naphthenes contain a still larger percentage of car])on and a smaller percentage of hydrogen than the olefins, })ut are 222 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. more ntable, consequently a kerosene constituted (like that j)roduce(l locally) largely of these bodies, will have more tendency to l)urn with a yellow or smoky fiame than either of the foregoing, but will be some- what more stable, when purified, than a kerosene produced by cracking. The cracking of paraffins produces lighter paraffins and olefins, the cracking of olefins produces olefins and also acetylenes or other highly unsaturated and very unstable bodies, while neither the naj)hthenes nor the benzenes are susceptible to cracking, under ordinary conditions. For this reason, the attemi)t to improve matters with our oils by crack- ing has merely exaggerated the evil, destroying the best instead of the worst elements of the oil, and producing large quantities of very unstable bodies which have to be completely removed by the chemical treatment. It seems altogether probable that the bad qualities found in California kerosene are inherent in the nature of the oil, and can not be removed by any possible treatment or manipulation. The distillates heavier than kerosene appear to have the same general constitution, though the olefins are more in evidence. The rough separation, Ijy means of acid solvents, of a number of samples of heavy distillate from Kern River oil (gravity 25° to 27° Be.) indicates the following approximate constitution: Oletins ' 30% to 40 % Benzenes, or najilithenes, or l)oth 40% to 50% Paraffins 15% to 25% These figures are very rough, but they are sufficiently reliable to expose the fallacy of attempts to convert heavy crude, or the heavy distillate from our lighter oils, into light products such as gaso- line and kerosene. The decomposition by heat, on which all such processes must depend, converts the olefins into very unstable and foul- smelling bodies, while the benzenes and naphthenes are practically unaffected, and only the })araffins are changed to advantage. As the paraffins in the heavy distillates are but a small part of the whole, and as even on these there is considerable loss in the treatment, such meth- ods would be entirely impracticable, even aside from the very high cost of the decomposition itself, and of the subsequent chemical treatment necessary to remove the impurities produced from the olefins. Attempts to convert these heavy oils into marketable light products are based on what appears to be entire ignorance of the principles involved, and are foredoomed to failure. As an illustration of the small yield of even api)arently valuable products, take the case of a sample of distillate from 15° crude oil. This sample was an average of the entire run of distillate from a batch of " D " asphalt, and had the gravity of 25.6° Be. The crude oil would have yielded practically no distillate below 270° C, and whatever is fountl CHEMISTRY OF CALIFORNIA PETROLEUM. 223 in the distillate, boiling below this temperature, may be considered as the results of cracking. This sample, on redistillation, yielded })ractically nothing below 150° C. (the ujiper limit for the gasolines) and 37% between 150° and 270°, this distillate having the gravity 35°. On redistilling this frac- tion for the production of kerosene, the quantity was reduced from 37% to 17% of the bulk distillate. The kerosene thus made was of a dark brown color and had a frightful odor. On treatment Avith small doses of ordinary suli)huric acid until the odor was removed and a per- manent white color obtained, the 17% was reduced to 12%, the difference being absorbed by the acid, while the amount of acid used was about three times the bulk of the white kerosene finally produci'd. The losses due to conversion of oil into gas during the first distillation amounted to about 2%. In short, the total reduction (loss) in the bulk of oil, in decomposing and chemical treatment, was 7% in jiroducing 12% of kerosene, with an expenditure of acid which alone would amount, at current wholesale rates, to about 45 cents per gallon of kerosene. Incidental Constituents. — Sulphur and nitrogen are the only bodies found in California petroleum, aside from asphalt, which do not appear to be essential to the make-up of the oil proper. They are found in almost if not quite all of the petroleums of this State. The percentage of sulphur is usually quite small, and the mode of its occurrence does not seem to have been determined with certainty. From some crude oils it is given off during the early stages of the distillation as sulphuretted hydrogen, or where much water is pres- ent, even as free sulphur. The heavier oils usually pass some of the sulphur into the heavier distillates, where it forms some stable combination, which may be redistilled without decomposition. This element is not detrimental to the quality of products, as is the sulphur in some of the Eastern oils, as it is removed very readily during the treatment with sulphuric acid. Nitrogen is found in most local crude oils, and appears to exist in the form of organic (pyridin ?) bases, soluble in dilute acids. ^ It is readily removed by the acid treatment, and does not appear to have any detrimental effect. The following table shows the percentages of nitrogen, sulphur, and asphaltene in samples of crude oil from various parts of the State. The sulphur is determined by combustion with sodium peroxid, the nitrogen by Kjeldahl's method, and the asphaltene by j')recipitation with excess of 70° gasoline, washing and weigliing. As the samples on which these determinations were made are not always identical, the gravity of oil used is stated opposite each determination. For other 1 See F. Salathe, 13th Report of the State Mineralogist. 15— BUL. 32 224 PETROLEUM IN CALIFORNIA. figures on sulphur, reference may be had to the analyses of Mr. H. N. Cooper, in the last table in this bulletin: TABLE 28. INCIDENTAL CONSTITUENTS OF CALIFORNIA CRUDE. Nitrogen. Gravity. Per cent SULPHIR. ASPHALTEXE. Gravity. Per cent. Gravity. Per cent Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Coalinga Kern River. - 8nnset Sunset Midway McKittrick _. McKittrick ._ Santa Maria. Sumnierland Ventura Los Angeles. M° 22 19 18 16 1.5 10 17 20 19 15 17 0.063 0..302 0.314 0.299 0.375 0.600 0..S70 0.476 0.374 0.800 0.290 0.430 0.8801 0.606 3 0.648* 34° 0.068 0.817 18 0.874 1 14 1 0.612 10 1.2.53 1 18 0.870 .33° 22 19 18 16 15 10 17 20 19 None. 2.04 1.87 2.83 2.83 3.06 2.93 3.01 L80 2.35 14 0..565 15 I 0.898 28 j L500S 14 1.082 17 8.37 15 .3.36 26 2.a5 14 3.99 It will be seen from these figures that neither sulphur nor nitrogen are present in these oils in such quantity as would interfere with refin- ing operations. The following table, copied from a paper" by Professor Edmund O'Neill, of the University of California, will give an idea of the ultimate constitution of California petroleum: ' S. F. Peckhani, Am. Jour. Science, 48-250-2.55. Mean of 4 samples. ■' Mabery it Quayle, Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 19-502-508. ^ Mabery it Hudson, Am. Chem. .Jour., 2.5-2.53. Mean of 13 samples. ' Mabery & Hudson, Am. Chem. Jour., 2.5-253. Mean of 4 samples. '.Tournal of the American Chemical Society, 25-7, 709. CHKMISTKY OF CALIFORNIA PETROLEUM. 9-?; TABLE 29. ULTIMATE ANALYSES OF CALIFORNIA CRUDE. District. Specific Gnivity. Hydrogen. Carbon. Colu.sa Bakersficld Whittier Ojai Valley Kern BakerslieM Kern McKittrick. ().!)7(KI Sunset Contra Costa . Coalinga Napa Connty. Humbolilt Santa Clara.-. ().!«97 0.98;% 0.9572 0.9572 0.97(30 0.9458 0.9358 ().i).589 0.ft653 0.8620 0.9603 0.8810 0.8515 10.84% 11.30 11.50 10.81 12.16 10.72 11.18 11.45 11.30 11.30 10.83 11.80 11.13 12.03 12.88 88.26% 85.80 86.09 80.42 84.86 86..32 82.45 86.06 85.75 85.83 84.66 87.62 88.08 86.69 86.08 Regarding" Purification. — The objects and the limitations of the chemical treatment applied to petroleum distillates are so well known that no petroleum refiner needs any suggestions on this subject. But to that portion of the general public which comes into contact with tlie petroleum business on the refining side, a brief statement may be of interest, particularly in view of the large sums which have been wasted through the attempts of misguided or unscrupulous inventors of "processes.'' Petroleum distillates as they come from tlu' still are comaminated in various ways, with nitrogen and sulphur compounds, with asphalt or with the obscure substances which change into that body on exposure to the air, and with the unstable })roducts of decomposition. These are all detrimental to the quality of the oil, in a great number of ways, and the object of the ''treatment" is to destroy or remove these sub- stances, leaving the oil a mixture of pure and stable liydrocarl)ons. A large number of reagents will destroy or dissolve some of these impurities, but very few will attack all of them, especially when the choice is limited to the commonest and cheapest of chemicals. It has been proven by many years' experience, that to remove the most refractory of the impurities the treating agent must act not only as a solvent, but also as an oxidizing agent, actually burning up and destroy- 226 PETROLEUM IN CALIFOKNIA. ing a portion of the impurities. It is probal)le that every known oliemical which can be had at reasonable cost has been used for this l)urpose, but after numberless experiments refiners have settled on com- mercial sulphuric acid as being not only much the cheapest, but also l)y far the best, of all the reagents available. This material is a strong acid, neutralizing bodies of a basic nature, a powerful solvent for the unsaturated hydrocarbons, and one of the strongest oxidizing agents known. Furthermore, it is very heavy, settling readily from the oil, is extremely cheap and everywhere obtainable, and where handled with ordinary discretion is free from any bad effects on the oil. To remove certain bodies of an acid nature, not acted on by the first treatment, and to free the oil from any traces of the sulphuric acid, an alkaline solution must be used. Almost any alkali would answer this l)urpose, so long as it is soluble, and the very general use of caustic soda (sodium hydrate) for this purpose is due simply to the fact that, aside from quicklime, which is very difficult to handle, soda is by far the cheapest alkali known, in proportion to its neutralizing strength. In treating very heavy lubricating oils, any liquid treatment is unsatis- factory, for the reason that it is difficult to settle out the reagents and clear the oil. So that in this field there is undoubtedly room for improvement over the present processes, though there seems very little present prospect of such improvement being made. But so far as the treating of the lighter products from such petroleum as that of California is concerned, it seems very doubtful indeed whether any improvement over the present well-known methods could be made. To be an improvement, the new process must be either cheaper or more effective; effectiveness is a matter of proof in any particular case, and can only be determined by a careful balancing of the results of the new methods against those of the old, taking care that the present methods are applied to the samples under question, by some one familiar with the subject. But when the question of cost is considered, it must be borne in mind that the expense for the chemicals used in purifying the lighter oils is almost infinitesimal, Avhen figured down to a single gallon. The cost of the chemicals used in finishing a gallon of kerosene should not, under any ordinary circumstances, be more than one-third of one cent, while in many cases it is very much less. The claims, sometimes made, of a saving of two or three cents per gallon in the cost of treating kerosene, by the use of some process, are patently absurd. Another point which should be borne in mind in considering the claims of "process men," is that any chemical treatment has its limita- tions, which in the nature of things can not be passed. The object of any chemical treatment is to remove impurities, and when these are removed, purification inevitably ceases. If in any particular case the CHEMISTRY OF OALIKOKNIA PETROLEUM. 227 undesirable qualities to be corrected in a distillate are due to impuri- ties, proper treatment will correct these defects, but if they are due to the nature of the oil itself, treatment can not and Avill not be a remedy. Chemical treatment will never make any notable change in the specific gravity, viscosity. Hash point, or boiling ])oint of the lighter pro" Columbian Oil, Asphalt, and Refining Co., refinery . 212 Colusa County, analysis of oil from .. 194 Operations in 19 Combustion chamber, locomotive UK) Combustion chamber setting, water-tube boiler.. 147 Combustion of oil 62 Commercial analyses of crude 191 Comparative costs of fuel 69 Compressed air for burners 80 Condensers 200 Connections to burners 94 Construction of oiled roads 170 Consumption of oil on roads 171 Contra Costa County, operations in 19 Conversion of locomotives to oil-burning lOl-lo'i Cost.. 1117 ('oolers. asphalt 2oi Coombs Refining Co., refinery... 212 Copper-smelting with oil 151 Cost of oiled roads 177 of wells 17 of land 17 of fuel, comparative table 09 Creosoting process 160 Crude-oil water gas, manufacture lt'>0 Analysis 107 Densmore-Stabler Refining Co., refinery 212 INDEX. 229 Pa(;k. Distillate, for gas, analysis of 165 Down-flarac burners, water-tube boiler 147 Drilling ... 15 Dustless roads 169 Eastern Cons. Oil and Refining Co., refinery 2ia Economy in use of oil 60 Elsmere Cafion 29 Engine distillate 187 Enrichment of water gas, oil used 165 Explosions in firebox 98 Field operations 18 Finishing oiled roads 173 Firebox, for oil - 81 G rate bar 81 Locomotive 101, 105, 113 Semi-target 83 Target -.. 82 Tunnel 84, 85 Firing locomotives 102 Flash point, crude oil 53 Fresno County, operations in 19 Fresno, oiled roads in 169 Fuel consumption, steamship "Mariposa".. 136 Fuel costs, comparative. - 60, 70 Locomotive 108 Fuel tests, Government 117 Locomotive 109-112 Water-tube boiler 148 Fuel weight, steamship 117 Fullerton field, operations in 19 Description of. 20 Gas, calorific value of 163, 165, 167 Distillate, analysis of ._. 166 From oil 86 Gas-making 161 Gasoline 187 Gasoline refining... 202 Gasoline test for water. 97 Geology. 14 Glass furnaces using oil.. 155 Glenn County, operations in 19 Globe Asphalt Co., refinery 214 Golden Gate Park, oiled roads in 177 Grading oiled roads 170 Grate-bar setting, horizontal tubular boiler. 81 Water-tube boiler 146 Gravity feed 88 Heater, oil, chamber type 92 Coil type 92 Tubular type 91 Heating of oil - 85 Heating value; Heat units. See Calorific Value. Heavy distillates 190, 203, 204 Hercules Oil Refining Co., refinery 215 History 9 Humboldt County, operations in 19 Hydrocarbons of petroleum 220 Impurities in oil.. 95 Estimation of 96 Injection of oil 71 Installation of burners . 79 Inyo County, operations in 19 Jack pumping 16 Page. Kern County, oiled roads in 180 Operations in 19 Kern River field, analysis of oil from 196, 197 Description of 35 Operations in 19 Kerosene, California, quality of 188 Kerosene refining 202 King Refining Co., refinery 215 Kings County, operations in 19 Labor in handling oil 59 Land titles 17 Light oil refining 186 Liquid asphalt 207 Located land 17 Locomo t i ves 100 Los Angeles City field, description of 27 First well in 10 Operations in 19 Los Angeles County, operations in 19 Lowe oil-water gas, manufacture. 166 Lubricating oils 189 Manufacture of 203 Maps, note regarding 20 "Mariposa" steamship 124 McKittrick field, analysis of oil from ...195, 196 Description of 41 Operations in 19 Methods of refining 198 Middlings 198, 203 Midway field, description of 40 Operations in. 19 Moody's Gulch oil, analysis of 192 Mt. Cayetano 47 Napa County, operations in 19 Navajo Oil and Refining Co., refinery 216 New Franklin Oil and Refining Co., refinery 216 Newhall oil field, description of 29 Operations in 19 Nitrogen in oil 223, 224 Odor of crude oil 50 Oil asphalt 204 Oil burners 71 Oil City pool 43 Oiled roads 168 Cost of - 177 Oil gas, analysis of 165 Oil for roads, asphalt in 182 Method of testing 183 Quality of 182 Table of tests.... 184 Oiling roads, method of 171 Oil pressure 88 Oil sands 16 Oil tanks, locomotive 101, 106 Orange County, operations in 19 Pacific Coast Oil Co., pipe-line 36, 43 Refinery 210 Pacific Oil Transportation Co., refinery 217 Pacific Oil Relinery 216 Pacific Refining Co., refinery 217 Patented land 18 Paving, asphalt 218 Physical properties of crude oil 50 Pico Caiion 29 230 INDEX. Page. Pile preservation 159-161 Pipe burners 73 Pipe-lines, Kern River 52 Oil, capacity of 51 Oil, with water 53 Piping of oil 89 Placeritas Caiion 29 Pressure regulation 19 Producing wells, number of 19 Production of petroleum 11-12 Puente field, description of 22 Operations in 19 Puente Hills ...20, 22, 24 Puente Oil Co., refinery 217 Pumps for oil, size 87 Purification 225 Quality of oil for roads 182 Railroad land 17 Redistillation of oils 202 Refined products, list of 187 Refineries, illustrations of ..210-219 List of 209 Refining industry. 185 Refining light oil 186 Refining oils 191 Method of 198 Regulation, ease of 59 Of oil distillation 200 Of oil fire 97 Reoiling roads 173 Reservoirs, oil.. ._ 56 Residuum for oiling roads. ._ 185 Reversed-fiame setting,water-tube boiler 147-148 Riverside County, operations in 19 Roads, oiled 168 Rolling of 170 Running sand 16 San Benito County, operations in ._ 19 San Bernardino County, oiled roads in 174 Operations in 19 San Diego County, operations in 19 San Fernando Mountains 29 San Luis Obispo County, operations in 19 San Mateo County, analysis of oil from 192 Operations in ... 19 San Rafael Mountains 47 Santa Barbara County, oiled roads in 178 Operations in.. 19 Santa Clara County, operationsin 19 Santa Cruz County, operations in 19 Santa Maria field, description of 45 Operations in 19 Santa Paula Caiion 47 Selection of burner... 79 Semi-target setting, horizontal tubular boiler 83 Shasta County, operations in 19 Silliman, Prof. B 9 Smelting with oil 1.51 Solano County, operations in.. 19 Southern Refilling Co., refinery 218 Southwestern Oil Refining Co., refinery 218 Page. Specifications for oiled roads 178 Specific gravity of crude oil.. 50, 54, 55 Sprinkling roads with oil.. 169 Stanislaus County, operations in 19 Steaming capacity of boilers 60 Steam in oil stills 201 Steamship fuel, economy 141 S. P. Co.'s experience 140 Steamship oil e