THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID t>f' tmE FOO'l Jfe ILE'B- ©IF TTdE Jia®]^^!. DTVIDEl) BY A VERTICAL SHCTIOrT. r/ic-.y/a/i TkeFerfymiusTeruian, : Die Perivra/is TendorL The Jajpejisori/ Ligament TheHrtcnsar Taidmr The CanruTiiIUmc Ont of the. Sesa/noid MoneJ- The Large. PasterrvBoru^ Ths-OffTuhlicnc The Navicular Dane Aligamem The chtst Tlu SeL- Uie Tnyj J TTie aeft crftJuTrog The Bar Tke^ OiihioiL & CartHapa Xigarrun/mis Ft Oi niA-Sc7isibl& Zaniuuz The. 3enml>le.SbU> The. Ccnvnary SuisUmee. The Sensible. Trvg The direction m. uhie/i u f^ og SOonu passi TheFetlccic Joint e Its Cttpsidar ligament in. ihmz lis ih/)sular Zifftfmenl b/uiti I7ie Jhstem Joint The. TfteMuibular Joint the LondcaLPoliiilic A COMPENDIUM THE VETERINARY ART: CONTAINING PLAIN AND CONCISE OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE STABLE; A BRIEF AND POPULAR OUTLINE OF THE STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE; THE NATURE, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS TO WHICH THE HORSE IS LIABLE ; THE BEST METHODS OF PERFOROTNG VARIOL'S IlLPORTANT OPERATIONS; WITH ADVICE TO THE PURCHASERS OF HORSES; AND ^ copious i^atcrm Jilctrica anH ^I)armacopffiia. BY JAMES WHITE, LATE VETERINARY SURGEON OF TIIE-FlKST OR ROYAL DRAGOONS EIGHTEENTH EBXTIOTT, ENTIRELY RECONSTRUCTED, WITH CONSIDER.U3LE ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS, BRINGING THE WORK UP TO THE PHESENT STATE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE, BY W. C. SPOONER, VETERINARY SURGEON, HOl-DRARY ASSOCIATE OF THE VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, AUTHOR OF TREATISES ON THE INFLUENZA, AND THE STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND DISEASES OF THE FOOT AND LEG OF THE HORSE, AND OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND'S PRIZE ESSAYS. LONDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS ; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. ; -WHITTAKER AND CO. ; HOULSTON AND STONEMAX ; AND TEGG AND CO. 1851. London : Spottiswoodes and Shaw, New-Street-Square. PREFACE THE SEVENTEENTH EDITION. Sixteen editions of this work have, it is hoped, sufficiently stamped it as a fiivourite of the public. In undertaking the seventeenth, with which he has been entrusted by the proprietors, the Editor feels that he can best carry out the wishes of the late respected Author by endeavouring to effect what improve- ments in it he is capable of doing, and such as the advanced and advancing state of the science on which it treats appears to demand. It will be seen that the work, which has hitherto been pub- lished in three volumes, is now embodied in one. In accom- plishing this, considerable alterations were necessarily required. Much superfluous matter has been removed ; and in arranging the work more systematically, it has been in many instances found necessary to re-write subjects entirely, as the more con- venient method of incorporating the Autlioi*'s ideas with the desired improvements. Besides this, many articles altogether new have been supplied, which it is hoped will add both to the interest and value of the work. The engravings, fifty-six in number, by Mr. Branston, are entirely new, and most of them are on new subjects. In effecting these alterations and intended impx'ovements, the original plan has yet been preserved ; for although the work has been much extended, it still gives a general and popular outline of the structure of the horse, and a compendium of the diseases to which he is liable. In former Prefaces the Author has reviewed in some measure the productions of our authors in this country, as well as on the Continent. Veterinary works being now however too numerous to permit us to follow out this plan to the same ex- tent, a glance at them must suffice. France has furnished a considerable addition to our veterinary literature. Messrs. Girard, both father and son, have pro- duced works of considerable eminence. Professors Rigot and Delafond have also by their writings established their claims as men of considerable scientific and veterinary acquirements. The Dictionary of Hurtrel d'Arboval, extending to four volumes, A 2 ivi378235 IV PREFACE. possesses great merit, and has reached a second edition ; and Professor Gclle has lately produced a valuable work on Cattle Pathology. To these we may add the writings of Vatel, Renault, Grog-, nier, Moii-ond, Dupuy, Bernard, and Bouley, besides two ve- terinary periodicals, which are carried on with some spirit. Professor Gurlt, of Berlin, has published some excellent plates of the anatomy of the horse and other animals, which, with those of jNIiiller, evince much accuracy and research ; and Pro- fessor Delwart, of Brussels, has presented the public with a useful pathological work. In this country, although our authors have not been quite so prolific, they have not been less worthy of approbation. First and foremost we must notice the works of Mr. Percivall, who some yeai's since presented us with three volumes of lectures, embracing the greater part of the anatomy and physiology, and extending itself to much of the pathology, of the horse ; and more recently they have been followed by a work on the ana- tomy of the horse, which for correctness and comprehensiveness has not been surpassed. This work has been succeeded by two volumes styled Hippo-pathology, both of which justly hold a foremost rank in our veterinary literature. Mr. Bracy Clark has from time to time presented us with elaborate treatises on various subjects, such as the Foot, Slioeing, Worms, &c., and, lately, on the Vices of Horses. They all display much talent, and develope considerable learning and ingenuity. Mr. Blaine's works, both on the Horse and the Dog*, have gone through several editions, each of which evinces consider- able and progressive improvement. This gentleman has re- cently completed a work, entitled " An Encyclopa3dia of Sport- ing," which, for its amplitude of detail and depth of research, is well worthy the latter days of this veteran in literature. Mr. Youatt has, under the superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, presented the public with three elaborate works, entitled severally the Horse, Cattle, Siieep. These works evince an extraordinary degree of labour and research. A great portion of each is devoted to the natural history of the animal on which it treats ; and the one on sheep contains some interesting discoveries on the nature and structure of the different wools. Mr. Youatt has also written an essay on Humanity to Animals, which has been very generally and deservedly praised. Its arguments are not based on any crude and Utopian theories, but on sound practical grounds. * A new edition of Blaine's " Canine Pathology," has recently appeared under the auspices of Mr. Mayer of Newcastle, who has very ably executed his task. — Ei>. PREFACE. V Ml*. Youatt is also the able editor of a monthly periodical, called "The Veterinarian," which first appeared in 1828 under the auspices of Mr. Percivall. This work is greatly supported by the contributions of veterinary surgeons in different parts of the country ; and it is not saying too much in its favour in asserting that, by thus collecting from so many sources, it has acquired a mine of valuable facts, which by distribution amongst the pro- fession has greatly assisted the progress of veterinary knowledge. For several years past a large space of this periodical has been devoted to reporting the proceedings of the Veterinary Medical Association, an institution arising out of the ashes of a former society, and consisting of practitioners and students who hold weekly meetings at the Veterinary College during the session, at which meetings many excellent essays have been read, and followed by valuable discussions. The association is composed of four classes, viz., members, fellows, honorary fellows, and honorary associates. Mr. Sewell is the patron, Mr. C. Spooner the president, and Mr. Morton the secretary, of this institution ; which it is hoped will continue to flourish, as it is calculated to assist greatly the acquisition and communication of scientific and practical knowledge. The council have lately resolved to publish their owm proceedings quarterl3\ Mr. James Turner has collected together and published his valuable papers on the Navicular Disease, the merit belonging to the discovery of which is justly due to him. He has also more recently published a Register of Experiments on the Nature of the Blood-vessels, which evinces much originality, and in some degree militates against the opinions of physiologists. Mr. Morton, Professor of Chemistry at the Veterinary College, has published a jNIanual of Pharmacy and a Toxicological Chart. Each exhibits great excellency, and places the accomplished writer high amongst our list of authors, and as a diligent inquirer after truth. To the former work this volume stands indebted. Mr. Stuart, of Glasgow, has published a useful work on the Soundness of Horses ; and more lately a larger one on Stable Economy. The latter has obtained a large share of public favour, and contains much useful and practical information. The Editor of this work has written several others ; one on the Influenza, and another on the Structure, Functions, and Diseases of the Foot and Leg of the Horse, and a third on Sheep. With regard to their claims he begs to refer to the opinions of the various veterinary, medical, and sporting re- viewers by whom the works have been noticed. Mr. Vines has written a treatise on the subject of Glanders, in which he displays some novel ideas, and in which he strongly advocates the exhibition of cantharides. A 3 VI PREFACE. jNIr. Darvill has published a work on the Race Horse, which exhibits much practical knowledge, and communicates useful information. There arc a few otlier minor authors, some of whom are justly entitled to merit; and there are others whose works we could not notice without expressing censure. It remains but to add that since the last edition of this work Avas published, the ruthless destroyer, Death, hath summoned away Mr. Coleman, who for nearly half a century had held the office of senior Professor at the Veterinary College. In his earlier career he was a diligent inquirer after truth, and a zealous friend of veterinary science. His mantle has fallen on Professor Sewell, so many years associated with him, whilst the sub-professorship is deservedly bestowed on Mr. C. Spooner, and j\Ir. Morton has more recently been appointed Professor of Chemistry.* From the extensive ex])erience and intuitive know- ledge of the first gentleman, the talents and scientific acquire- ments of the second, and the active and zealous genius of the third, much is expected towards the future })rogress of vete- rinary science, and much will undoubtedly be obtained. Southampton, December 27th, 1841. POSTSCRIPT THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION. The very complete revision which this work underwent In 1841, when it was in fact re-arranged, and for the most part re-written, precludes the necessity of a very extensive modifi- cation on the present occasion. It has, however, undergone a careful revision, and it will, it is hoped, maintain the prominent position in ])ublic esteem which it has so long enjoyed. So far as it goes, it may be relied on as a truJij practical work, founded as it is on facts accumulated, and observations made, both by the Author and the Editor during many years of active pro- fessional occupation. It may be well to observe that the original matter contributed by the latter is inserted within brackets, and is signed Ed. Eling, Southampton, October 18th, 1851. * J\Ir. Sinionds has shice been appohited to the office of Professor of Cattle Pathology, &c., the study of which is encouraged by a grant from the Royal Agricultural Society of England. — Ed. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Upwards of twenty years have elapsed since this work was first published, and during that time many very large impressions have been sold. So favourable a reception could not fail to stimulate the author to continued and increased exertions for the improvement of veterinary science, and to lead him to con- sider it as a duty he owes the public to communicate, when op- portunities offered, any useful discoveries that may have come to liis knowledge, whether the result of his own experience or that of others. The present edition is called for at a favourable time, as the ready intercourse we now have with the Continent enables him to give a short account of the state of the veterinaiy art in foreign countries, particularly in France, where it at- tracted the notice of scientific men, and where veterinary schools were established, at an earlier period than in any other country, Bourgelat, the first director, and the principal projector, of the French veterinary schools, has been justly regarded as the founder of the veterinary art, being the first who placed in a clear point of view the indispensable necessity of anatomical and physiological knowledge to the veterinary practitioner. Several works were published by Bourgelat on veterinary subjects, which are still held in considerable estimation : the principal are, — " A Treatise on the Anatomy of Domestic Animals ; " " A Eational Materia Medica ; " "A Treatise on the Exterior Conformation of the Horse ; " " Essays on the Theory and Practice of Shoeing and on Bandages," &c. " Bourgelat's Anatomy" appeared first in 1769, and has passed through several editions. It was ti'ans- lated into German, Italian, and Spanish. Though Bourgelat was the first to place the veterinary art on a proper foundation, some attempts were made, at a much earlier period, to diffuse a knowledge of veterinary anatomy, the principal of which was by Ruini, an Italian. This work Avas published at Venice in 1598, and entitled, " Anatomiadel Cavallo ; Infermita, et suoi Rimedi : dal Signor Carlo Iluini, Senator Bolognese." It treats of the anatomy of the horse as well as of diseases. This book seems to have been the groundwork of many others that were published A 4 viii niEFACE TO thp: thirteenth edition. at different periods afterwards, particularly the anatomical part and the plates, which appear to have been almost literally copied by all of them. Vitet, In his " Analysis of Veterinary Works," in speaking of Sollysel's, which was published In 1698, says, "In the 16th century, many veterinary books appeared, but Sollysel's work has caused them to be forgotten ; nor have we reason to regret their loss, as they contained only a very imper- fect description of the structure of the horse." It appears, how- ever, that Sollysel's celebrated work is in great measure copied from that of Ruinl. Snape's " Anatomy of the Horse," and the little that Gibson wrote on that subject, seem to have been drawn from the same source. One difference Is observable In the plates; those of Eulni being engraved on wood, and his imitator's on copper. La Fosse was contemporary with Bour- gelat, and communicated several memoirs on veterinary subjects to the Royal Academy. In 1766, La Fosse's son published his " Farrier's Guide," which treats, also, of the anatomy of the horse; and, In 1772, his Cours d'HIiipIatrique appeared, a splendid folio, containing sixty-five highly finished plates. Illustrative of the anatomy of the horse. In 1775, a Dictionary of Farriery was published by the same author, in 4 vols. 8vo. This work contains much useful information. In 1771, Vitet's "Vete- rinary Medicine" appeared, in 3 vols. 8vo. This work treats of the structure of the ox as well as of the horse. After the revolution, the art seems to have made but little pi^ogress. In 1797, a useful pamphlet on the glanders appeared, the joint production of MAI. Chabert and Huzard. This book was printed and distributed by order of the government. In conse- quence of the great number of horses that had been lost, and the contagious nature of the disease. It does not contain, how- ever, any information that would be new to the English reader. About the same time, M. Chabert published " A Description of the Digestive Organs of Iluminating Animals," and soon after there appeared "A Manual of the Veterinary Art," by La Fosse, son of the author before noticed, in one 12mo. volume. This practical compendium of the veterinary art seems to have been much esteemed, as a third edition was published in 1803. From this work, as well as from others of a more recent date, it ai)pears that the practice of veterinary medicine has not made much progress in France since the time of Bourgelat. In 1811, an account was published of some successful experiments on the treatment of glanders and farcy, by M. Collaine, Professor of the Royal Veterinary School of Milan. The successful remedy in these experiments was sulphur, given in very large doses, beginning, however, wi'th four ounces, and gradually increasing the dose until It caused purging and violent colic. It was then discontinued until these symptoms ceased. On repeating it TUE WORKS OF FOREIGN VETERINARY WRITERS. IX afterwards, it was found that much larger doses could be given without inconvenience. In some cases it was given to the extent of two pounds in the course of the day, made into an electuary with honey. It is stated that a considerable number of horses were thus cured. Besides giving the sulphur, about two quarts of blood were taken off every third or fourth day during the treat- ment. The following statement is annexed to the pamphlet: — " The veterinary surgeon attached to the imperial breeding stud of Borculo in Holland has practised M. Collaine's mode of treatment, and, after two months' trial, thirty glandered horses were perfectly cured, ten are in a state of convalescence, and twenty have died during the treatment." Notwithstanding the boasted efficacy of this mode of treatment, it appears, from a recent publication on glanders, by M. Dupuy, that it has been fairly tried at the Veterinary School at Alfort, and has not in a single instance succeeded. ^I. Dupuy's work appeared in 1817, in one volume 8vo., and treats of glanders as a tubercular or tuberculous affection, having for its title, " De I'Affection Tuber- culeuse, vulgairement appellee Morve (glanders). Pulmonic (consumption, or phthisis), Gourme (strangles), Fausse Gourme (spurious or bastard strangles). Farcin (farcy)." Some observ- ations on this work will be found in the Appendix, under the head Glanders. The most valuable w^ork that has appeared in France since the Revolution is A Treatise on the Anatomy of Domestic Animals, by Professor Girard, 1807, two volumes 8vo. In 1813, there appeared a Treatise on the Feet, &c., by the same author, in one volume 8vo. with six plates illustrative of the anatomy of the foot, not only of the horse, but of the other domestic animals, and poultry : this, also, is a work of consider- able merit. In 1817, the first part of a theoretical and prac- tical treatise on the horse's foot, and on shoeing, was published, under the title of " Cours Theorique et Pratique de Marechalerie Veterinaire, par F. Jauze." This work was completed in 1818, and forms one large 4to. volume, with no less than 110 plates. M. Jauze announces another work as about to be published in five volumes 8vo., with numerous plates. This work is said to treat of the internal and external pathology of the larger do- mestic animals, the veterinary jNIateria Medica, and the vete- rinary jurisprudence. " Every article in this treatise," the author says, " will be described with particular order and pre- cision, and nothing superfluous will be found in it." If we may judge from the work already published, and the number of volumes announced, it seems probable that the readers of the woi'k will be of a different opinion. The introduction to his " Coui's de JNIarechalerie" consists of an enumeration and short description of the works that have appeared from the earliest and, among these, the ingenious X PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. and valuable works of Mr. Bracy Clark make a conspicuous figure, but appear to be brought forward merely as a subject for criticism. " Mr. Clai'k," says the author, " takes great pains to prove that he has discovered that the hoof is elastic, a circum- stance that has been known for more than two hundred years; and that shoeing is productive of injury to the feet, which was known even before it was generally practised. Wild horses, as well as the greater part of those employed in agriculture and commerce, in Persia, Ethiopia, Tartary, Japan, &c., are never shoed ; how is it, then, that shoeing is so generally practised in Europe ? The answer is, that shoes are absolutely necessary, in consequence of the heavy burdens they have to carry, the hard stony roads they are obliged to travel on, and the necessity they are under of exerting, with so little cessation, the whole of their power," &c. " These considerations are sufficient to prove that shoeing is both injurious and necessary, and should arrest the pens of those modern writers Avho are daily claiming as discoveries what have been known for four hundred years." Mr. Clark has certainly taken pains to prove that shoes, of what- ever form they may be, are always injurious, and that however carefully the hoofs are pared and otherwise treated, as long as inflexible iron shoes are nailed to them, the feet are constantly in a progressive state towards disease. If this be really the case, — if shoeing is invariably so injudicious, — Mr. Clark has an indisputable claim to the discovery. I cannot find any passage in INIr. Clark's work to justify our author's assertion, that he has taken great j)ains {fait tons ses efforts) to prove that he is the discoverer of the elasticity of the hoof. He says, " I have detected some undiscovered parts in the hoof, and some circumstances in the plan of its structure, before unknown, and especially pointed out for observation its elastic properties." This surely cannot be considered as laying claim to such a discovery. One of the circumstances or parts of the hoof which Mr. Clark claims as a discovery is that which he calls the coronary frog hand. " This," says M. Jauze," has been described by Bourgelat, under the name of Bonrrelet grais- seiLv." Bourgelat, in his Essay on Shoeing, says, " When the foot is taken out of its horny box (the hoof), the first thing that strikes us is im hourrelet, which forms the sujierior part of it." This name is evidently applied by Bourgelat to that part which Mr. Coleman has named coronary ligament. In speaking of the hoof, Bourgelat says, " the thickness of this horny box is not the same through its whole extent; it is most considerable in front, and diminishes gradually towards the heels ; it is much thinner at tlie upper part, or coronet, than below, and the inside quarter is weaker than the outside ; the thickness of these as well as the fore part, increasing towards the bottom. On THE WORKS OF FOREIGN VETERINARY WRITERS. xi examining the inner surface of the hoof, we find it extremely- thin in its upper part, and presenting a sort of circular groove {un sorte dc biseau)" This blunder has been noticed by the translator of Mr. Clark's work, and M. Jauze attempts to pass it off as an error of the press ; for, in the third part of this work, which was published some time after the first, there is a list of errors, in which the word coj^e is substituted for graisscux. There is also a reply to some observations on M. Jauze's book, by M. Huzard ; but it is evident, from the above quotation from Bourgelat, that the coronary frog band of Mr. Clark was not noticed by that eminent veterinarian, nor is there any descrip- tion of it in his other works, or in the " Traite du Pied" of Pro- fessor Girard. " Mr. Clark," he says, " has erred in many other passages (dans une infinitey Page 28., line 1., he says, " In the foot of the ox there is neither pad nor cushion to diminish the reaction of the ground. (/? ny a ni matelas ni coussin pour jjallier les reactions du sol)." He is in error also when he states that the camel and the elephant have a cartila- ginous pad on the under part of their feet. Xow, in Mr. Clark's work, p. 119., the reader will find the matter thus stated : — "Indeed, we discover, most clearly, on investigation, that to every animal is given a share of elastic yielding to the foot, in order to destroy all jar and resistance, reciprocally to the j)arts of the foot as to the body, and a change of form takes place in the foot according to the weight or exertion brought upon it. Iti the elephant, cartilaginous cushions, for this purpose, are seen disposed under the foot, and in the camel oblong pads ; in the ox this non-resistarice to the load is effected bg a deep division of the foot to the fetlock joint, thus making of it two members, thereby giving a flexibility that ansicers the same end. In the horse, a single pad is seen, for of such nature is the frog ; and this yield- ing property in the foot of him and his tribe, or family, is less, perhaps, than any other family of quadrupeds, on account, it would appear, of the difficult combination of properties found with him, viz., an extraordinary degree of speed with a laro-e or heavy body, which, to be impelled with effect, required parts that should not be too yielding, by which the impulse had been diminished, and hence it is that this property has been nearly- overlooked, and the foot treated by the smiths as though this necessary provision and property had in him no existence more than in a mass of wood of the same figure." It appeared ne- cessary to transcribe the whole of the passage from Mr. Clark's work, that the reader may form a just estimate of M. Jauze's criticism. Mr. Clark is accused of another error in saying that "the thickness of the wall of the hoof diminishes from the front to the back part." There may be some few exceptions to this rule. XU PREFACE TO THE TIIIRTEENTn EDITION. but the truth of the statement with respect to the fore feet is well known to those who are acquainted with the structure of the foot, and the hoof is so described by Bourgelat in the above quotation. The reader will not, it is hoped, think it wholly unintei'esting, if a brief account be added of the present state of the veterinary schools in France and Germany ; drawn from a report made by Mr. Se well, assistant professor of the Veterinary College, London, to the governors of that establishment. Mr. Sewell first visited the Veterinary School at Lyons, which was established January 1st, 1762. "The museum," he says, "contains many prepara- tions of great utility and novelty; particularly subjects of the full size, displaying the muscles and blood vessels and the whole of the nervous system with the brain, entirely separate from the other parts, and well preserved : shoes of every description and from various countries, are also shown. The infirmary stables are not extensive, but paved and drained in the ordinary way, and ventilated by the windows only ; there are appropriate places for the other domestic animals. The forge is commodious, and well adapted for shoeing horses, and instructing the pupils in the art of making and putting on shoes; all which is superin- tended by a director of that particular branch of the art. A botanical garden is attached to the school, and lectures are given on botany and chemistry in rooms adjoining a laboratory. The theatre of anatomy is capable of containing about one hundred pupils ; where lectures are delivered on veterinary anatomy, surgery, and diseases ; and a convenient dissecting room is con- tiguous to the theatre. Behind the building are a yard and paddock, into which sick or lame horses are occasionally turned." * The present director is JNI. Bi-edin, who furnished Mr. Sewell with letters of introduction to M. Huzai'd, inspector of the French veterinary schools, with which he proceeded to Paris. He was accompanied by M. Huzard's son to the Veterinary School at Alfort, about four miles from Paris, which was opened in 1766, and is now the principal school in France. This is much more complete than the school at Lyons : three large rooms are occupied by the museum and an extensive collection of veterinary works. There is a powerful electrical apparatus for medical purposes. Lectures on agriculture, rural economy, * According to a report, made to the National Convention by Messrs. Gilbert and Hazard, in 1795, the veterinary school at Lyons was in a very bad state, and so situate (in the fauhowg de la Gidllotiere), as to be some- times inundated by the Rhone. In consequence of their representation, it was removed to a spot opposite to the city near the road leading to Paris. During the siege and bombardment of Lyons, the students were dispersed by the bombs or shells that were thrown into the house and stables ; but M. Bredin, the director, contrived to secure the preparations, &c. that were in the museum, and sent them off to a house he possessed at some distance from Lyons, where he collected the students and continued his instructions. FOREIGN VETERINARY SCHOOLS. XIU and medical jurisprudence are delivered at tliis school, in ad- dition to those given at Lyons. Stallions arc kept at the ex- pense of government, and sent annually into the provinces to improve the breed of horses ; asses are also sent for the purpose of producing mules, which are much used in some of the pro- vinces. The infirmaries for horses and the other domestic animals are more extensive, and better arranged than those at Lyons ; and the forge affords more convenience for giving in- structions in shoeing : there is also a portable forge, which may be removed to any part of the stables where its use is required. A field of about six acres is set apart for agricultural expe- riments. The royal stables at Paris are well constructed build- ings — well paved, drained, and ventilated : the horses do not stand on litter during the day. They appear capable of con- taining about two hundred horses. An infirmary and forge are attached to the stables. All the royal stud, as well as the cavalry horses, are shoed upon the plan established by the veteri- nary schools, under the superintendance of a resident veterinary surgeon. The following year Mr. Sewell visited the veterinary schools in Germany ; and, on his return, made a report of his ob- servations to the governors of the London Veterinary College, of which the following is an extract : — The Veterinary School at Vienna is inferior to that at Alfort ; but it aflfords a greater scope for practice, the stables and other accommodations being calculated for receiving a considerable number of patients ; all of them were then occupied, which aftbrded Mr. Sewell an op- portunity of seeing some diseases peculiar to the season, which was very hot and dry : the principal of these were lameness, called fever in the feet, and lethargic attacks. The lameness was treated as it is in this country, with the addition of turning the patient into a paddock, wliere the grass was high, kept watered, and well shaded with trees. The horses with lethargy were also kept in the paddock under the trees, and their heads were often placed under a shower bath. From the number of those that were in a convalescent state, Mr. Sewell concludes that the treatment was successful ; though, he says, it does not accord with the theory or treatment of the disease taught in this country. They consider the lethargic symptoms as dependent on some disorder of the digestive organs and liver, and treat it accordingly. The pupils are taught shoeing practically at the forge. The shoes are different from our own and those of France.* The stables are not of the first order, but roomy and * AccordinEf to M. Jauze, " the German shoes are, of all others, the most injurious for horses that have sound feet. There are three large crampons (caulking) ; one at the toe and at each heel, which make the shoe very heavy, and takes otF the aplomb of the foot." XIV mEFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. floored with wood, a common practice in Germany. The otlier acconnnodations are very good ; such as box stalls, and places for other domestic animals. The stables have no other means of ventilation than by the \vindoM^s, some of which open above the horses ; the plan of draining is very good, and the litter is removed during the day, unless required for particular cases. The pharmacy (place where medicines are prepared and dis- pensed) and other offices are well arranged. The buildings are constructed of wood, and ai*e considerably dilapidated ; but it is expected that the whole will be soon rebuilt. An old herma- phrodite horse is shown here, in which the male form seems to predominate ; of which, Mr. Sewell considers it a malformation. The imperial stable is a fine spacious building, floored with wood, well drained, and ventilated, and capable of accommo- dating several hundred horses ; an infirmary is attached to it ; also a forge, and a good contrivance for suspending and securing restive hoi-ses, for shoeing, or other operations. The horses, as well as those of cavalry, are shoed upon the school plan. Prince Charles's stables are exceedingly good as a model on a small scale; the floor is peculiar, being made of wooden piles or pieces, cut out of a rounded figure, like large paving stones : they are well drained and ventilated. At Prague and Dresden, ]\Ir. Sewell found nothing very in- teresting except the royal stables at the latter place ; in the coach horse stable, a covered stream of water passes down the centre, wdiich keeps it always clean and sweet. They are well ventilated, lofty, light, and spacious, and floored with w^ood. The saddle horses work unshoed from spring until autumn, when the wet season commences ; their feet are in a fine state of preservation in consequence : the kennel of boarhounds is Avorth attention. Late in August, INIr. Sewell visited the Veterinary School at Berlin; which was founded by the late king, Frederick II. The theatre of anatomy, museum, and dissecting rooms form one detached building, probably the most handsome and commodious structure of the kind in Europe. The museum is less extensive than that at Paris, but larger than the museum at Vienna, and contains some novelties which the latter does not possess. It has a complete series of skeletons, from the horse and ox down to the smallest quadruped, and the skin of an African horse, which has not the slightest appearance of hair upon it ; there is a good collection of shoes of difterent countries. The forge is well conducted, and the pupils are manually instructed by the professor. The method of securing horses for shoeing, or opera- tions, is very ingenious, and worthy of imitation. The king's horses are shoed at the school forge, and the cavalry are shoed according to the plan of the school. The stables are well con- FOREIGN VETERINARY SCnOOLS. XV structed, paved, and ventilated ; tlie box stalls, and places for other domestic animals, are well arranged. Litter is not used during the day, but sand is strewed under the horses. The stables were full of patients of all descriptions : there were several cases of lameness and lethargy similar to those at Vienna, and their treatment was nearly the same. There was a case of locked jaw that had been cured by a method different from that employed in this country.* A riding house is at- tached to the school, for the instruction of pupils intended for the army ; who receive pay from the time of entrance. There is a beautifully constructed warm w^ater and vapour bath, with a room adjoining, to receive the patients after bathing, which is heated occasionally by a stove : the bath is supplied with hot or cold water by an ingenious hydraulic contrivance. The royal stables are handsome buildings, and kept in excellent order. Sand is used under the horses instead of litter in the day time. They adjoin the river Spree, into which there is a paved slope, which enables them to bathe or wash their horses. INIr. Sewell brought with him some useful instruments for relieving oxen or sheep that are lioven or blown; he has, since his return, sent them into the country for trial ; they are said to be employed, with great success, in Germany. On arriving at Hanover, Mr. Sewell was introduced to Pro- fessor Havemann by Assistant Professor Housemann, whom he had seen in England. The infirmary stables had much dilapidated during the war, from being occupied by foreign cavalry. There were no patients in them. The royal stables, which will contain between two and three liundred horses, are near the school; they are handsome buildings, well con- structed, light, airy and sj^acious ; the windows have canvass shades." In Holland there are no veterinary schools. The Royal stables at the Hague are well constructed, and in fine order. The heads of the stalls and bottoms of the mangers are lined Avith glazed Dutch tile, and are kept in the cleanest state, with very little trouble. Sand is used in the stalls in the day time. At Brussels, there was nothing worthy of attention, except an effectual method of draining a large barrack stable, which Mr. Sewell does not describe. He says that by inquiries and ob- servation, he obtained in Holland some iLseful j)ractical informa- tion, which, with the new remedy for locked jaw, the German method of treating lethargic complaints, and the various im- * Had the governors of the Veterinary College known that locked jaw is very rarely cured in this country, they would porhajis have desired INIr. Sewell to describe the successful mode of treating it to which he alludes. This communication, probably, with the other useful observations he may have made, will be published at a more convenient time. XVI PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. provements he may have observed in the practice of the vete- rinary art, he will, no doubt, communicate to the public. It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to form a correct com- parative estimate of the state of veterinaiy science in this country and France, merely by perusing the works of the French pro- fessors and veterinaiy practitioners ; but, if one might presume to judge from such evidence, the author would feel no hesitation in saying, that he thinks the veterinary art has made greater progress in England than in France. In the latter country, it was cultivated by men of science at an early period ; but here, it can scarcely be said to have existed till the establishment of the Veterinary College. Some good practical works appeared before that time, particularly Gibson's and Clarke's ; but the anatomy and physiology of the horse had not been attended to. Since that period, however, it has been assiduously studied; and to the acquisition of this essential branch of knowledge we may attribute the great improvement that has been made in the treatment of diseases. French practitioners appear to be still influenced by the humoral pathology, as it is termed, and, con- sequentl}^, depend too much on decoctions of plants, and other vegetable preparations, in acute diseases, many of which are nearly, if not quite, inert, with respect to the horse; while similar diseases in this countr}' ai'e often subdued by one copious bleeding. Much praise, however, is due to the veterinary prac- titioners of France for the great attention they appear to pay to morbid anatomy. The accuracy and minuteness with which morbid subjects are examined after death, and the scrupulous attention with which every symptom of a disease is observed and noted, is worthy the imitation of British practitioners. In addition to the French veterinary works here noticed the following have since appeared : — 1. Traitement pour toute Espece de Maladies des Chevaux. Par M. Desmare. 2. Extrait d'Abreo:e de Medicine Veterinaire Pratique, publie en Itahen, 1813. Par J. P. Volju. 3. Tableau Indicatif des Maladies du Cheval, et des Remedes qu'on pent appliquer selon les Manx et Accidens. 2 feuilles, folio. 4. Pathologie Veterinaire. Par M. Dupuy. The earliest English writer on Farriery we have an account of, is Mascal, who lived in the reign of Edward the Sixth. He pul)lished a treatise on Farriery, Avhich was greatly esteemed, and passed through several editions. At the same time lived Martin Clifford, who also wrote a treatise on Farriery ; but it was not considered of any value, and passed through two editions only. Next to him appeared Captain Burdon, of the Dragoons, who published a very small treatise on Farriery, BRITISH VETERINARY WRITERS. XVH wlilch was universally read and esteemed in the relon of Queen Elizabeth. This small work Avas republished, with notes, by Dr. Bracken. Three years after appeared Gervase Markham, the most renowned of ancient farriers. He published a work, under the name of " Markham 's Masterpiece," in the year 1666: it passed through twenty-five editions, the last of which appeared in 1729. He was in practice more than sixty years. In the year 1740, De Grey published his "Compilation on Farriery," which was not much esteemed. Snape, farrier to King Charles the Second, published the first English treatise on the Anatomy of the Horse ; but it was taken in great measure from Ruini, an old Italian author of great merit. In the year 1770, Sir William Hope published a translation of Solleysel's work, which was much read and esteemed. In the reign of King George the First, Dr. Layard published an Account of a dreadful Epidemic which raged among Cattle. Other publications of a similar nature appeared about the same time. In the year 1750, appeared the best book on Farriery that had ever been written, by William Gibson, a surgeon. It went through many editions, and is still considered valuable. About the same time Dr. Bracken published two volumes on Farriery, which were greatly esteemed, and are still read. Bartlett's " Gentleman's Complete Farrier" next appeared. He published also a Veteri- nary Pharmacopoeia. The former was in great measure an abridgment of Gibson. It contained, however, a new method of uicking, and a description of Lafosse's supposed cure for the glanders. Osmer next published a treatise on Lameness, con- taining many new and useful observations ; also, a " Description and Recommendation of Lafosse's Half-lNIoon Shoe" — a shoe that I do not consider proper on any occasion whatever ; be- cause, with such a shoe, the heels are constantly wearing, while the toe is growing, which must be a great injury to the flexor tendon, or its appendages, and cause the frog to receive more pressure than it was designed for. He afterwards wrote a book on an epidemic disease that prevailed, which contained many useful observations. In the year 1780, Mr. James Clark, of Edinburgh, published a small work "on the Prevention of Disease by Exercise, Feeding, Bleeding, &c." This is an excel- lent work, and may be still read with advantage by veterinary students. Lord Pembroke, about this time, published a work on Horsemanship, which contained many sensible observations on the diseases of horses, and on shoeing. His lordship w^as Colonel of the First, or Royal Dragoons, and had the horses of his regiment shoed according to a plan of his own. This plan was continued while I Avas in the regiment, and is, I believe, still in use. This shoe is that which I now recommend for good feet. About the year 1789, Mr. Taplin's "Stable Directory" XVIU TREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. appeared : a book that was much read, and passed through many editions in a few years. A supplementary vokune was afterwards ]iublishcd, and a small pamphlet, uanicd, not very justly, ''■ ]Multum in Parvo." In the year 1792, the Veterinary College was established, and M. Saintbel, a French veterinarian, was appointed Professor. He died about a year after. Saintbel was the person who disco- vered that glanders may be communicated through the medium of the stomach. A few years after his death, a quarto volume appeared on veterinary subjects with his name to it, but it con- tained nothing of importance. The Professorship of the College was afterwards filled by ]Mr. Coleman and Mr. jNIorecroft, jointly ; but the latter soon gave it up for a more lucrative situation, as a private practitioner in Oxford Street, in which he acquired the highest reputation. In 1807, he was induced to go out to India, to superintend the breeding stud of the East India Company. He published a small but very useful book on Shoeing. I should have noticed before a small book by Mr. Prosser, a surgeon, on Strangles and Fever, in 1786. Mr. Prosser contends that the strangles could be, with certainty and ad\antage, communicated to colts by inoculation. In 1796, a quarto volume appeared on the Economy of the Horse's Foot and Shoeing, by ]Mr. Freeman, a gentleman much celebrated for his knowledge of horsemanship, on which he afterwards published a large treatise. The former work contains some good plates of the ditierent parts of the horse's foot. About the year 1800, Mr. Coleman published his splendid work on the Structure, Economy, and Diseases of the Horse's Foot, and Shoeing. This work contained many beau- tiful and accurate plates of the horse's foot. There afterwards appeared one volume of Veterinaiy Transactions, and a pam- phlet, describing an artificial frog, by the same author. About this time two octavo volumes were published, entitled, ••'A Philo- sophical Treatise on Horses," by Mr. John Lawrence. The first volume merits particular notice : it contained a forcible appeal to the feeling of the public iu support of the rights of horses, lUid ought to be read by all horse proprietors. The other con- tained much useful practical information; but, as ]\Ir. Lawrence was not a regular student of the veterinary profession, it of course contained some errors, and is valuable chiefly as a com- pilation. In the year 1801, Mr. Richard Lawrence published a quarto volume on some of the diseases of the horse, with some useful and accurate plates. This is a work of considerable merit, and has been since published iu one octavo volume. jNIr. Blaine's work first appeared in 1802 and 1803, in two volumes octavo. It has since been published, however, in one octavo volume. It is the only regular system of veterinary medicine that has been attempted in this country ; and, notwithstanding BRITISH YETEEIXARY WRITERS. XIX tlie severe remarks of Professor Glrard and M. Gauze oii it, I think the work much more valuable than that of the latter author, although his large quarto contains more than a hundred plates ; and of equal value to M. Girard's work, not excepting his " Traite du Pied." About this time appeared a book by Downing, and another by Topham, on the Diseases of Cattle. Clatcr's " Every Man his own Farrier" had been published some years before; and about this period appeared his volume "on the Diseases of Cattle." A quarto book on Cattle Medicine was published soon after by Mr. Skerrett, which contained some good representations of the calf in utero, and some useful ob- servations on the subject. But one of the best books that have ever appeared on cattle medicine was by Mr. John Lawrence. The great merit of this work consists in pointing out the pro- priety of attending to preventive measures, and the absurdity of incurring the useless expense of inert or poisonous drenches, and of attempting to cure incurable diseases. In 1803, a quarto volume, by jSIr. Fei'on, appeared, which contained nothing valuable. It has since appeared in an impi'oved state in one large octavo volume. About the year 1804, jSIr. Eiding, of the 28th Dragoons, now of the Royals, published his " Veterinary Pathology;" and Mr. Denny, of the 10th Dragoons, his "Trea- tise on the Diseases of Horses ;" both small octavos, and of con- siderable merit. In 1805, a large quarto dictionary appeared, by Thomas Boardman of the 3d Di-agoons. This book con- tained some good })late3 reduced from Stubbs, and is altogether a valuable compilation. In 1809, Mr. Bracy Clark published his " Dissertation on the Foot of the Horse." This is the best work on the subject that has appeared in any language. He has since published another work, named " Stereoplea," of great merit ; and a Treatise on Colts ; also, an Essay on the Flatulent Colic, showing that it depends on indigestion. About two years ago, Mr. Goodwin, veterinary surgeon to the king, published an octavo volume on Shoeing, and the various methods practised by foreign nations. He recommends an improvement on the French mode of shoeing, Avhich, he says, has been found ex- tremely useful. As the book will, no doubt, be generally read, no further description is necessary. Welb, Somerset, 1822. a2 CONTENTS. PART I. the economy of the stable. Introduction - - _ Chap. I. — On the Stable Chap. II. — Feeding - - . Chap. Ill — On the Treatment of Horses in Summer Chap. TV. — Exercise, Training, &c. Directions for managing a Horse on a Journey PART II. THE STRUCTURE AND EC0N03IY OF THE HORSE. Chap. V — A general View of the Structure of the Horse Chap. VL — On the Skeleton Bones of the Head Trunk Fore Extremity Hind Extremity Chap. VII. — On the Joints Chap. VIII. — On the Muscular System Chap. IX. — On the Brain and Nerves Chap. X. — On the Chest, its Contents and Connections Page 1 1 7 II 12 15 17 20 23 27 29 33 35 37 43 45 The Sternum — Diaphragm — Pleura — Lungs — Wind- pipe — Bronchia — Larynx — Nostrils 46 49 Structure and Functions of the Heart - .49 Chap. XL — On the Circulation of the Blood - - 50 Chap. XII. — The Blood, its Nature and Composition - 54 CONTENTS. Chap. XIII. — On Respiration, and its Effects Properties of Atmosplieric Air Production of Animal Heat Page 57 .08 61 Chap. XIV. — The Mouth and Throat, &c. The Tongue — Pharynx, or Food-bac gus — Os hyoides, &c • Q^sopha- Chap. XV. — The Viscera of the Abdomen or Belly The Peritoneum — the Stomach The Intestines — Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum, Colon, Cacum, Rectum The Liver The Pancreas, or Sweetbread The Spleen Chap. XVI. — On Digestion Mastication — Swallowing — Chymification Gastric Juice Sympathy between the Stomach and Skin The Chyle, its Properties and Uses - Office of the Intestines 62 63 • 64 64 66— G8 69 70 70 ■ 70 70 71 73 76 76" Chap. XVII. — On the Urinary Organs - - 78 The Kidneys — The Urine— The Bladder - 78, 79 Chap. XVIII, — On the Organs of Generation - - 81 Chap. XIX. — On the Functions of the Generative Organs, and the Growth of the Foetus - - 86 Chap. XX. — On the Principles and Practice of Breeding - 88 PART III. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Chap. XXI. — On Inflammation Its Nature, Causes, and Termination The Pulse, its Varieties Treatment of Inflammation Chap. XXII. — On Fever Symptomatic — Synochus Treatment of - Chap. XXIII. — Diseases of the Brain and Nerves Inflammation of the Brain (Phrenit's, Staggers), Epilepsy, Megrims Rabies, or Hydrophobia Palsy — Kumree Tetanus, or Lock-jaw String Halt - 96 97—99 100 - 101 - 103 103 104 - 104 Mad 104—107 - 107 108 110 114 CONTENTS. Chap. XXIV. — Diseases of the Chest and Air Passages Inflammation of the Lungs — Pneumonia Sub-acute Pneumonia Pleuritis, or Pleurisy Hydrothorax - _ . Chap. XXV. — Inflammation of the Bronchial Passages and Windpi^je - - . Bronchitis — Trachitis - 125 Chap. XXVI. — Catarrh, Cokl, Sore Throat, &c.- Scarlatina ... Chap. XXVII. — On Strangles Chap. XXVIII — Chronic Diseases of the Air Passages Chronic Cough - . . Broken Wind - . _ Thick Wind - _ . Chap. XXIX. — Roaring — its Nature, Causes, and Varieties - Chap. XXX. — Diseases of the Diaphragm and the Heart Chap. XXXL — Diseases of the Stomach and Bo\\-els Inflammation of the Stomach, Gastritis Cancer of the Stomach Loss of Appetite - _ _ Voracious and depraved Appetite - Page 115 115 119 120 121 122 — 125 125 128 129 131 131 133 135 136 141 143 143 145 145 147 Chap. XXXII. - -Stomach Staggers —Palsy of the Stomach - 150 Chap. XXXIII. — Diseases of the Bowels 160 Inflammation of the Bowels, Enteritis, tonitis, &c. Diarrhoea Peri- 160 163 Dysentery, Molten Greese - 164 Chap. XXXIV. — Diseases of the Bowels, &c. Colic, Fret, Gripes Ruptures of the Stomach and Bowels Stones in the Intestines Strangulation of the Bowels Intus-susception Crib-biting - 165 165 169 170 171 174 174 Chap. XXXV. - -"Worms - 175 Chap. XXXVI. — Diseases of the Liver 179 Hepatitis, or Acute Inflammation of he Liver ISO Chronic ditto Decayed Structure of Hepatirrhcea - 181 182 185 Xxlv CONTENTS. Page Chap. XXXVIL— Diseases of the Kidneys - - 187 Inflammation of (Nephritis) - - 187 Haeraaturia, or Bloody Urine - - 188 Chap. XXXVIII.— Diseases of the Bladder - - 190 Inflammation of (Cystitis) - - 190 Retention of Urine - - 1 90 Calculi in the Bladder - -192 Operations for Calculi in the Bladder (Litho- tomy) - - - 193 Diabetes - - - 196 Chap. XXXIX.— Diseases of the Mouth - - 196 Lampas, Bags, Ulcers in the Mouth, lacerated Tongue, Quidding - - 196 Obstructions in the Oesophagus - - 201 Chap. XL. — Acute and Chronic Rheumatism - - 202 Chap. XLI. — Epizootic or Epidemic Diseases - - 206 Influenza . . _ 207 Chap. XLIL — GLanders, &c. - - - 215 Farcy ... - 233 Chap. XLIII.— Anasarca, &c. - - - 235 Swelled Legs ... 236 Weed — Chapped Heels - - 238 Grease - - - 239 Bursautee ... 240 Chap. XLIV. — The Structure and Diseases of the Skin - 24" Surfeit - - - 24i Hide-bound ... 243 Mange - - - 243 Mallenders and Sallenders - . 246 Crown Scab and Rat Tails . . 246 Chap. XL V. — Warts — Wens — Encysted Tumours - 246 Melanosis - . . 247 Chap. XL VI. — The Structure and Functions of the Eye - 249 On Vision ... 258 Chap. XL VII. — Diseases of the Eye - - 260 Simple Ophthalmia . - 260 Specific Ophthalmia . - 261 Cataract - - - 264 Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena - - 265 CONTENTS. XXV Page Chap. XLVIIT. — On Lameness from Strains - - 266 Shoulder Strain ... 268 Strains of the Knee Joint - - 270 A Description of the Tendons, &c. of the Leg - 270 Strain of the Flexor Tendons, or Back Sinews - 272 Strain of the Fetlock Joint - - 273 Breaking Down _ , . 273 Strain of the Suspensory Ligaments - 274 Windgalls - . - 275 Strain of the Coffin Joint - - 275 Strain of the Loins - - - 275 Strain of the Hip Joint - - 276 Strain of the Stifle - - - 277 Dislocation of the Patella •• - 277 Chap. XLIX. — Exostosis - - - 278 Splints - - 278 Periosteotomy - - - 279 Ringbon? ... 280 Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages - 281 Chap. L. — Structure and Diseases of the Hock Joint - 282 Strain of the Ligaments, &c. - - 283 Bone Spavin - - - 284 Bog Spavin ... 285 Thorough-pins - . - 286 Curb ' - - - .287 Chai". LI. — Wounds, Bruises, Abscess, &c. - - 287 Wounds of various Parts and Cavities - . 287 An Abscess ... 290 Serous Abscess, Capped Hocks, Capulets - 290 Injuries of Bones . - - 291 Wounds of the Abdomen - . 292 Broken Knees ... 293 Opened Joints ... 294 Saddle Galls, &c. - - - 295 Fistula of the Withers - - - 296 Poll Evil - . .297 Chap. LIL — On Fractures - - - 299 Chap. LHL — On the Structure and Economy of the Foot - 301 Chap. LIV. — On Shoeinaj and the Manaojement of the Feet - 308 Chap. LV. — Injuries connected with Shoeing, and Wounds of the Foot - - - 320 Punctured Wounds of the Foot - - 323 Bruises of the Foot - - - 324 Cutting . . - - 326 Over-reaching ... 327 Halter Cast - - - 328 b CONTENTS. Chap, LVI. — Diseases of the Foot - Corns - - - Sand Crack — False Quarter Quittor Thrush Canker Laminitis, or Founder Chronic Lameness. — Contracted Heels The Navicular Joint Disease Pa-c 329 329 330 331 332 333 335 338 340 Chap. LVII. — Operations, &c. Bleeding Inflamed Vein Physic Clysters Blisters Rowels Setons - 342 342 346 347 - 349 349 350 351 Chap. LVITI. — Operations Casting, or Tlirowing - Common Hobbles Improved Hobbles, &c. Firing - Nicking Docking The Nerve Operation - Castration by Caustic Clams by Ligature - by Torsion On Hernia, or Ruptures 352 352 352 353 358 359 360 361 367 369 370 371 372 Chap. LIX. ■The Structure of the Teeth, and the Method of judging the Age - - - 37' Chap. LX. — Hints to the Purchasers of Horses Warranty Soundness 382 392 393 PART IV. materia MEDICA AND PHARMAC0PONE, of which the fabric of animal bodies is composed. Is a material possessing firmness and stability, which adapts it for the performance of the three-fold office of protecting the vital organs, supporting the softer parts, and affording points of at- tachment fur the various muscles. It consists of animal matter and earthy salts ; the former consisting of cartilage, gelatine, THE SKELETON. 21 and fat or marrow, and the latter of phosphate of lime in con- siderable proportion, a lesser quantity of carbonate of lime, and a small portion of other salts. The cartilage of bones is formed before the earthy matter, and constitutes in fact the nidus in which the latter is deposited. Bones can be freed from their earthy portion by immersion in an acid, by which process the gelatine is also dissolved, and pure cartilage is left, which is elastic, but retains the original figure of the bone. On the other hand, bones by exposure to a great heat are deprived of the animal substances, and the earthy part remains. The use of the marrow is more particularly to prevent the too great dryness and brittleness of bones. To the animal portion of their composition are they, therefore, indebted for their shape and what degree of elasticity they possess, and from the earthy portion they derive the important purposes of strength and sta- bility. Thus are these different elements combined together, and by an union of their different principles form a substance admirably adapted for affording full scope for the play of the various organs of life, protecting at the same time the vital parts from external injury, admitting and assisting the powers of locomotion, and, in fine, forming a secure fabric for the beautiful building of animal frames. Every bone is covered by a mem- brane called the periosteum, which also lines the internal ca- vities, and secretes the marrow : its use is to circumscribe the form of bones, and protect them by its tenseness, as well as to afford the medium whereby they are furnished with their vessels. The shape of particular bones intimately corresponds to the purpose for which they are intended ; where for the office of pro- tection, we find them flat; and where for the purpose of motion, long and cylindrical, as in the extremities. In the construction of the skull the most perfect mechanism is displayed. The first object to be obtained is the protection of the brain from the accidents to which, from the peculiarities of animals, it is mostly exposed. For this purpose the skull consists of two tables or jTlates; the outer thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle : the former, by yielding in a measure to resistance, diminishes concussion, whilst the latter by its hardness prevents sharp bodies from penetrating to the brain. Now, if these two plates were reversed, the brittle would not only be in great danger of fracture, but would also vibrate considerably ; and the injurious effect of this vibration may well be conceived when we find that, even with the pre- sent wise precaution, it often occasions greater mischief than the most serious fractures. Between the skull and the brain are interposed several membranes, which also assist materially in preventing vibration, just as a piece of parchment would inside a rummer glass. The skull is composed in animals of upwards of thirty bones, which are connected together by a dovetailed c 3 22 STEUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. suture. It used to be considered that the object of this exten- sive division of the bones was the convenience of ossification. The frontal bones. The parietal bones. The occipital bones. The temporal bones. The malar bones. Tlie superior maxillary bones. The nasal bones. The inferior maxillary bones. The posterior maxillary bones. The atlas, or first vertebra. The dentata, or second vertebra. The other five vertebrae. n n The dorsal vertebrae. The lumbar vertebrae. The sacral bone. The ossa coccygis, or bones of the tail, r The haunch bones, or bones of the pelvis, s The ribs. Tlie sternum, or breast bone. The scapula, or blade bone. The humerus, or shoulder bone. The radius, or fore arm. The ulna, forming the elbow. y The bones of the carpus, or knee. z The metacarpus, or cannon bone. 1 The small metacarpal, or splint bone. 2 The sessamoid bones at the back of the fetlock joint. 3 Tlie OS sulFraginis, or large pastern. 4 The OS coron;£, or small pastern, 5 The OS pedis, or coffin bone. The navicular bone is unseen. 6 The fiemur, or thigh bone. 7 The patella, or knee-pan, situated in front of the stifle joint. 8 The tibia, or leg bone. 9 The OS calcis, forming the point of the hock, 10 The astralagus, the principal bone of the hock joint. 11 The small bones of the hock, the seat of spavin. 12 The metatarsus, or cannon bone. 13 The small metatarsal, or splint bone. The other bones of the hind leg correspond with those of the fore extremity. which always commences at the centre, but a more extended view has discovered other wise purposes ; for not only is the dovetailed suture the strongest mode of union, but it is also the best adapted for securing the brain from injury, as it yields con- siderably to the impression received, and thus wards off both THE SKELETON. 23 concussion and vibration. There is an exception, however, to tliis usual connection in the temporal bones, which form the sides of the cranial cavity, and which are connected to the other bones by what is termed the squamous suture — one bone, in fact, simply overlaps another. This union is inferior in strength to the former; but nature has here another office to perform, and the reason of this exception will at once be comprehended on examining the skull. If a considerable blow be received on the upper portion of the arch, its sides are the parts most likely to give way ; and to guard against this consequence, the under bone overlaps the upper, and thus acts like the tie-beam of an arch in keeping the parts together. This dovetailed suture does not connect the bones of the inner table ; for though a carpenter might find this mode of union serviceable in joining the sides af a wooden box, a workman would by no means find it applicable in connecting together brittle substances, as it would be ex- tremely liable to chip off at the edges. The Cranial cavity, or that part which contains the brain, is not more than a fourth the size of the other parts of the skull, the remaining portions being devoted to mastication and smelling. There are no less than nine bones which enter into the com})o- sition of the cranium. The two Frontal bones form the anterior part, usually called the forehead ; but the internal plate of these bones separates and recedes from the external plate so as to form a cavity between them, which is called the frontal sinus, and is divided by a septum or ridge of bone between them : the inter- nal plate forms a covering for the anterior lobe of the cerebrum. The two Parietal bones are situated at the upper and middle parts of the cranium, and cover the middle lobes of the cere- brum, to which their internal part closely corresponds. These bones become closely united after the second or third year. The Occipital, a single bone of great strength, is found at the back and base of the cranium. Its internal surface covers the cerebellum, and on a strong process at the base the medulla oblongata rests. The external surface of this bone is extremely irregular. At its upper part we find a crest or ridge of bone, to which the cervical ligament is attached, as well as several muscles of the neck. Below tliis is the occipital hole, through which the spinal cord, as well as some nerves and an artery, make their exit from the brain. On each side of this hole the bone is smooth and rounded, for the purpose of articulating with the atlas, the first bone of the neck ; besides which there are several curious processes for the attachment of muscles. In the foal this bone may be separated into four pieces. The Tenijmral bones, forming the sides of the cranium, are composed of two parts, the squamous and the petrous. Though in man these pieces are united, yet in the horse they are distinct 24 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. from each other. The squamous portion is externally a convex plate, with a hooked projection arising from it; this process assists in forming the zygomatic arch. The squamous portion affords at the posterior part a shallow cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw bone. This glenoid cavity, as it is termed, is much deeper in carnivorous animals, who require to open their jaws more extensively ; and an inspection of this portion of the skeleton alone will enable the comparative anatomist to decide to what order the animal might have belonged. In herbivorous races a grinding lateral motion of the jaws only is required, and, accordingly, the articulation is wide and shallow. The zygo- matic arch, too, is much more arched in the carnivora, in order to afford more room for the development of the temporal muscle which governs the jaws, than is required for the more moderate exertions of herbivorous animals. The petrous portion of the temporal bone, so called from its rocky nature. Is apparently a solid convex figure. It contains, however, the organ of liearing, and has on its internal surltico orifices for the passage of the auditory nerve, and on the external part we find a larger orifice for the passage of sound. The internal structure of this bone is as beautiful as it is curious ; possessing vestibules and canals for the ramification of the nerve, and a singular cavity, having a communication with tlie mouth, in which are discovered four diminutive bones, with their corre- sponding muscles, which serve the purpose of propagating and modifying the sound. The inferior and middle parts of the cranium are formed principally by the Sphenoid, a bone which somewhat resembles a bird in flight, having a body and four processes, two of which are called the wings, and two the legs. This bone supports the middle lobes of the cerebrum, and presents several holes and depressions for the passage of nerves. The cranial cavity is separated from the nasal by the Ethmoid bone, which also somewhat resembles a bird in flight, but with- out legs, and is situated in front of the bone last described. It supports the anterior lobes of the cerebrum, and has holes for the exit of the olfactory nerves ; and on its internal and inferior surface it forms cavities, called the ethmoidal sinuses, which are separated by a bony septum from each other, and are perforated by a vast number of small holes for the passage of the olfactory nerves to tlie nasal cavities. Such is a very brief, and consequently imperfect, description of the bones composing the brain-case, which are arranged in a form at once the most compact and most durable ; so that the noblest bridge which spans our rivers, or the finest dome that surmounts our cathedrals, is Inferior to the mechanism displayed in the simple construction of the skull. THE SKELETON. 25 The Face occupies in horses much the largest portion of tlie skull, which is necessary more particularly to afford sufficient room for the development of the molar teeth. The superior and anterior part of the face is occupied by the nasal bones, which thus form the roof of the mouth, and the cavity of the nose. These bones are somewhat conical in shape, the base being above, from whence they taper irregularly to a point below. The Superior Maxillary bones form the greater portion of the face, extending the whole length of the molar teeth, for which these bones form suitable sockets, and, laterally, from the molar teeth to the nasal bones. Within the cavity of the mouth these bones form the roof of the palate, being united togetlier in the middle by a suture. They also form the greater portion of the nasal cavity, thus having three surfaces, the facial, the nasal, and the palatine. The Anterior or Inferior Maxillary bones are singular, inas- much as they are wanting in the hvunan subject. They com- mence in the angle formed by the separation of the nasal from the maxillary bones, whence they extend downwards, connected to the latter bones, but reaching much beyond them ; they then become larger and stronger, so as to afford deep and secure sockets for the upper incisor teeth. The Malar bones are situated on the sides of the face, above the large maxillary bones; tliey are somewhat singular, and very irregular in shape, a part being situated within the orbit of the eye. They form nearly half the border of the orbit ; and their upper part assists in forming the zygomatic arch, from whence a ridge of bone, called the zygomatic sj)ine, is continued down- wards, not only to the extent of these bones, but also to that of two inches of the superior maxillary bones. The Lachrymal bones, so called because the lachrymal duct for the conveyance of the superfluous teai's to the nostrils passes through them, is situated about half within and half Avithout the orbit, the latter portion being between the malar and the nasal bones. The Palate bones are situated at the base of the cranium, and at the upper part of the palatine surface of the superior maxillary bones. They jointly form the concave or semi-oval border, which sepai-ates the cavity of the nostrils from that of the mouth. A small portion of the bones assists in forming the back part of the orbit. The four TurUnated bones are situated within the cavity of the nostrils, the two superior being attached to the nasal, and the two inferior to the maxillary bones. They are oblong, porous, and extremely thin, and rolled up somewhat like a turban. By this conformation their surfaces are greatly ex- tended for the spreading out of the olfactory nerves. 26 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. The Vomer is a long thin bone, situated at the floor of the nostrils, and running throughout their length ; its upper or anterior part forms a deep groove, into which the cartihiginous septum of the nostrils is closely imbedded, by which these are sejjarated into two distinct cavities. The Inferior Maxillary, or lower jaw bone, is formed of two symmetrical halves, united at the inferior part by cartilage in the young subject, but by bone in the adult. This united por- tion forms deep and strong sockets for the inferior incisor teeth, and posterior to this for the tusks : above this, each half sepa- rates, and forms the bars of the mouth, as the space between the incisor and the molar teeth is termed ; the bone then becomes gradually wider and deeper, so as to form the sockets for the inferior molar teeth : after which it diminishes in size, and ter- minates in rounded extremities, which correspond to the glenoid cavity in the temporal bone before described, thus forming the maxillary joint. The bones which we have mentioned as composing the fiice are none of them solid in their structure : but in order that the requisite amount of surface should exist without too great weight, they are most of them hollow ; and thus various sinuses are formed, which are called after the bones in wiiich they are found. First we have i\\e frontal sinuses, which are situated between the orbits; they are triangular in shape, their flat surface being above, and two irregular ones beloAV : they have inferiorly blind terminations, which are called the nasal sinuses, being in the nasal bones ; and they communicate with the maxillary sinuses, which are situated somewhat below and in front of them. The Maxillary are the largest of the sinuses of the head, ex- tremely irregular in shape, and are formed principally by the superior maxillary bones : their upper part is separated from the orbit by the lachrymal and malar bones, which form their supe- rior parts ; their lower extremity is blind, but above this there is an opening into the chamber of the nostrils, besides the com- munication before spoken of with the frontal sinus. There are other small sinuses, called the Sphenoidal, the JEth- moidal, and the Palatine, being found within the bones after which they are called. The first of these is a single sinus, and the last is situated between the palatine and the maxillary bones. These singular cavities are not found in the young subject, but are gradually formed as the size of the head increases : one imi)ortant purpose which they therefore serve is, to increase the size of the head, without adding to its gravity. These sinuses are often the seat of disease in glanders, when they often contain matter, and are in an ulcerated state. The manner in which the head is connected to the body is very remarkable, and demands particular consideration. In THE SKELETON. 27 man It rests upon the spine, nicely balanced, as on a pivot ; but tlie larger heads of quadrupeds are suspended from the body. Now if we consider the immense weight of the head of the horse, which is much increased from being placed at the extremity of a lever, we cannot fail to be convinced of the prodigious power necessary to support it. If this weight were supported by mus- cular power, there would be a very considerable consumption of vital energy ; but to save the exhaustion this would produce, there is a large ligament rising from the occiput, attached to the bones of the neck and the spines of the back, which, being elastic, admits the motions of the head, and supports it at all times, even when the muscles are in a dormant state. This ligament is known as the ligamentum colli, or, commonly, as the pack wax. We must now proceed to describe the spine and chest. The spinal column has three important offices to perform : it is the gi'eat bond of union between all parts of the body ; it forms a tube for the passage of the spinal marrow, a part as Important as the brain itself; and, lastly, it is in animals the fixed object from whence the head is suspended. If the protection of the spinal marrow were the only object to be eflfected. It w^ould have been simply a strong bony tube : but whilst it possesses great strength for this purpose, considerable flexibility is also required, and accordingly it is composed of a multitude of bones, more or less in different animals, according to their wants and habits. The feline races require the utmost degree of elasticity, in order to climb up and spring from eminences, and seize their prey with facility ; but if these animals could be tamed sufficiently to make them bear burdens or go in harness, they could render us but little service In this new capacity, from the want of strength and stability in the spinal column. But in herbivorous animals, which ai*e required to draw or sustain heavy weights, strength is the principal object, and accordingly we find they have much less flexibility than carnivorous animals : this stability is the distinguishing feature of the whole skeleton, but more parti- cularly of the spinal colunm, of the horse. The N'^ch of the horse is composed of seven bones, the two first of wlilch will more particularly demand our attention, as they diff'er essentially from the others in their aspect and their use. The first is called the atlas, from the circumstance of its sustaining the head, as It does In man, although In the horse the head is rather suspended from it. The second is called the dentata, from having a tooth-like process on its front part. The atlas has concavities on its anterior part, which articulate with two smooth condyles or pi'omlnences on the occipital, the last bone of the skull ; this joint is called into requisition in bending the head backwards and forwards, and particularly in 28 STRUCTURE AND ECOXOMY OF THE HORSE. the act of nodding ; but it scarcely admits of any lateral motion, as a double movcuicnt, and too great flexibility, would have en- dangered the safety of the spinal marrow, which passes from the occipital hole through this bone. However, to admit the neces- sary horizontal motion required by the animal, the second ver- tebra is called into requisition, and its odontoid process fits into a cavity in the under and posterior surface of the atlas, and forms a sufficient rcseml)lance to a ball and socket joint to allow considerable lateral motion. We cannot sufficiently admire the beautiful mechanism by which these important movements are safely secured ; the second joint would have been as inapplicable for the uses of the first as the first would be for that of the second ; for if the second joint admitted vertical motion, the consequence would be that the tooth-like process would be forced against the spinal marrow every time the head was bent for- wards ; but by the actual structure, the joint being underneath the spinal cord, either a rotatory or a vertical motion can be safely enjoyed. The remaining bones of the neck are very similar to each other, their shape being very singular and irregular. They have each a large hole running through them, for the passage of the spinal marrow ; a ridge on the upper part for the attachment of the cervical ligament ; processes on the side for the insertion of the powerful muscles that move the head and neck ; small foramina or holes, for the passage of nerves and blood-vessels ; and on the anterior part a round head, which is received into a cavity in the back part of the bone in front of it ; also processes or legs which proceed from the front part of each bone, and meet and correspond with similar processes on the back part of each bone. These bones, however, never actually touch each other, for if they did there would be too much concussion ; but between every two bones, and extending throughout the whole spine, there is interposed a gristly substance, enclosed in an elastic body, which yields and recoils like an air cushion. In the human subject this power of dilatation exists in a very con- siderable degree, owing to which men will often measure more in the morning than in the evening after their daily toil is com- pleted. Though in horses this power of dilatation is not possessed in an equivalent degree, yet the elastic intervertebral substance greatly contributes to the elasticity of the frame. AVith the seven bones of the neck the spine is composed of no less than thirty separate pieces, which are distinguished as the dorsal, or vertebrai of the back, and the lumbar, or those of the loins. All these bones have a hole through their bodies for the passage of the spinal cord. Tiie dorsal vertebrae, eighteen in number, are connected with each other in a manner similar to those of THE SKELETON. 29 the neck. They have on the upper surfiice long processes, which proceed upwards and backwards, forming the withers ; these processes gradually increase in length from the first to the fifth *, when they gradually decrease to the twelfth or thirteenth, and then continue the same. Each dorsal vertebra Is connected, by means of a joint, with two ribs, of which there are usually eighteen pairs in the horse. The lumbar vertebras are five, and sometimes six, in number, and differ from the other vertebrae from having much longer lateral processes; but their spinous processes are somewhat shorter than those of tlie back. The lateral processes serve, in some measure, to supply the absence of the ribs, giving support on their upper surfaces for the strong muscles of the loins, and below forming a roof for the protection of the abdominal viscera. When we see a horse with a very light carcass these transverse processes are usually very short. These bones compose the spine, but the spinal cord is con- tinued through the sacrum or rump bone, which, in the young subject, is composed of five separate pieces, like the lumbar ver- tebrai, but in the adult is consolidated into one bone, and forms a roof for the pelvis, and a protection for its contents. At the extremity of the sacrum the bones of the tail, about eighteen in number, called the ossa coccygis, begin. The sacrum is slightly arched, so as to afford greater room below, and its spinous processes differ from those of the loins in sloping in an opposite direction. The Pelvis, so called from its resemblance to a basin, is an irregular cavity which contains the urinary and genital organs, and is formed by the sacrum and the ossa coccyijis above, and the two ossa innominata, or haunch bones, on each side and below. In the fatus this bone is composed of three separate pieces, the ileum, the ischium, and the pubes. The ileum is the largest division, forming tlie upper and anterior part of the bone, and those visi!)le projections in the horse, the hips, at the sides, and the part above close to the sacrum, which projects so much in goose-rumped horses, as they are called; the ischium is the part Avhich projects backwards, and the pubes the portion which joins inferiorly the corresponding part on the other side, the union forming the symphysis pubis. All these separate pieces unite in forming the socket into which the first bone of the hind ex- tremity fits, thus composing the hip joint. Tlie Bones of the Fore Extremity. A superficial observer would be apt to imagine that animals differ from each other and from man, and from birds, in * These bones are often diseased in fistulous withers. 30 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. no respect so mucli as In the shape, the structure, and bony- conformation of the fore extremity ; and certainly when we observe the great length of it in some animals, and its ex- treme shortness in others, scarcely projecting from the body, — in some expanded out into the form of the human hand, in others consolidated and protected by a horny case, — we cannot wonder at such an idea being entertained. The anatomist, however, finds that this diversity is much greater in appearance than in reality ; indeed, in all warm-blooded animals there is a general resemblance, all having four parts in common, viz. the shoulder, the arm, the forearm, and the metacarpus, or shank. The most striking variety obtains in the mode of connection with the body. Whenever the fore extremity is not used for the purpose of sus- taining the body or for locomotion, but for holding and retaining objects, as in man and in monkeys, or for that of flying, as in birds — where, in short, a degree of rotatory motion is required, the connection is bony, by means of the clavicle, or collar bone. But in animals in whom the weight of the body is to be sus- tained by the fore extremities, such a connection would be inad- missible, and would expose the body continually to concussions and fractures. In most quadrupeds, therefore, the connection is by means of muscle or flesh ; the body is in fact suspended, like a carriage on springs, between the two shoulder-blades. This it is which in great measure gives that springiness to the motions of the horse so delightful to the rider, which enables him to alight from the highest leaps with safety to himself, and to bear his master harmless over a brook or ditch nine yards wide. To accomplish this desirable faculty of sustaining great burdens without concussion, free motion is admitted in a backward and forward, but scarcely any in a lateral, direction. In dogs and cats a much greater degree of lateral motion is possessed, but the connection with the body is considerably weaker, and the power of sustaining much weight is not possessed. All animals have a Scapula, or shoulder-blade, which in the horse is a flat triangular bone, having its external surface divided vertically by a ridge which serves as a protection and an object of attachment for muscles. This bone is flat, in order to aiford greater space for connection with the body, but its breadth diminishes towards the lower part, for the pm-pose of forming the shoulder joint. The Humerus, the next bone, is rounded at its upper part, and is received into a cavity at the end of the sca})ula, which is extremely shallow in most animals, as there is but little danger of dislocation when the motion of the limbs is limited to two direc- tions. In man the motion of the joint is much more extensive; and although the cavity is considerably deeper in him, yet dis- location frequently takes place. The humerus is a cylindrical THE SKELETON. 31 bone, possessing great strength ; and we shall always find that when strength is chiefly required, a cylinder is the favourite form. In addition to this, in common with most of the bones of the extremities, the middle is hollow, and contains the marrow, a very light fatty substance, deposited in cancelli or bony cells. The reason of this conformation is, that a certain bulk is neces- sary for the attachment of muscles, and the utmost degree of strength is required with the least quantity of matter and a diminished weight, wliich purposes are effected by removing the material as it were from the centre, and accumulating it on the circumference. The extremities of the humerus, as well as of all cylindrical bones, are much larger than the middle portion, which is for the purpose of affording a greater surface for the articula- tion of the joints, and the insertion of muscles to mechanical advantage. This extension of surface, howevei', is procured without any increased weight ; for there being but little danger of fracture at the ends of bones, great strength is not there re- quired. The bony case is therefore much thinner than in the middle of the bone, and tlie internal part is filled with the can- celli, or bony cells, which contain the marrow. The lower portion of the humerus forms a very important joint, viz. that of the elbow, which in man admits of considerable rotatory motion ; but in the horse, as lateral movement is not required, the action of the joint is limited to one direction, backwards and forwards, and thus dislocation never takes place. The Forearm is composed of two bones, the radivs and the ulna. In man, both bones offer separate surfaces for articulation with both the elbow and the wrist, or carpal joint, by which means the arm possesses a rotatory motion ; but, in the horse, this not being required, the strength of the limb is concentrated in the radius, and the ulna serves merely as a powerful lever for the attacliment of muscles, and the security of the elbow joint. The radius is therefore a strong cylindrical bone, wdiilst the ulna is large at the upper part, which rises above the radius, and is attached to it, and gradually tapers downwards, but does not reach the knee. The Carpus, or, as it Is commonly termed In the horse, the knee, corresponds with the human wrist, although apparently so different. It is composed of seven bones in the hoi*se (one less than in man), ^\hich are arranged in two rows, thus forming three distinct joints — firstly, that between the radius and the first row ; secondly, between the first row and the second ; and, thirdly, between the last and the metacarpal bones. Each of these joints possesses considerable action, moving as it were like so many hinges, the fulcra of which are placed at the back parts of the knee ; the lowest joint, however, does not enjoy so much latitude of motion as the others. One of the 32 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. carpal bones is placed at the back of the knee, where it sustains no weight, but acts as a lever for the attachment of muscles, and forms that prominence so perceptible at the back of the knee in horses. Although the knee does not possess so much motion as the wrist in man, yet the horse requires a certain number of bones and joints, in order to obviate the concussion to which he would be otherwise liable ; for it is necessary that he should move with great celerity, and, at the same time, that the vital organs should be secured from the shock that would be experienced if the same concussion that the feet received were communicated to the internal organs. To accomplish this purpose the joints greatly contribute ; and none more so than that of the knee, Avhich is placed at an equal distance between the body and the ground. To neutralise the jar, no two bones are permitted to touch each other, for each is tipped with cartilage at the place of junction, and is covered with a fine delicate membrane, by which an albuminous fluid, called synovia, is secreted. This fluid, being confined by what is called the capsular ligament, lubricates the joint, takes away the jar, and prevents the bones from coming into contact with each other. The importance of this fluid is strikingly shown in cases where the joint is opened by some severe injury, and, the synovia escaping, the atmosphere is admitted ; the synovial membranes come in contact, and the most severe inflammation is set up, attended with excessive pain ; and the result frequently is, unless the cavity can be quickly closed, the horse either dies from irritation, or the motion of the joint is destroyed by the secretion of bony substance in and around it. The lower row of the knee bones rests upon the metacarpus ; which in man and many animals is composed of four bones, nearly equal in size, but in the horse consists of one large and two small metacarpal bones. The large one is commonly termed the cannon, and forms the principal bulk of the shank, being a strong cylindrical bone, often a foot in length, reaching from the knee to the fetlock joint. Like other cyhndrical bones, the cannon is smaller in the middle and larger towards the extre- mities. The small metacarpal, or splint bones, although they form a portion of the knee joint, yet do not reach more than three-fourths of the length of the shank. They are attached to the cannon by elastic ligamentous substance, and gradually taper downwards, and end in bulbous extremities. With age they become consolidated with the cannon, and in many horses a bony substance, called a splint, unites them even in youth. The length of the metacarpus corresponds inversely with that of the humerus, and in proportion as the former is long and the latter is short, and vice versa. Thus in man the humerus is THE SKELETON. 33 long and the metacarpus short, whilst in the horse we find the latter bones long, and the former comparatively short. The bones below the fetlock, the Phalanges, which in carni- vorous animals are in four divisions, in the horse are consolidated into one. Thus we have the first, second, and third phalano-e, witli a supplementary bone, called the navicular, or shuttle bone. The first phalange is called the Os Siiffraginis, or large pastern, which receives the lower extremity of the cannon on its upper surfiice, having depressions corresponding to the convexities of tlie cannon, thus forming the /e^focA joint. Immediately behind the fetlock joint, and indeed entering into its composition, are two small triangular bones, called the sesamoids. They are sus- pended from above by a very strong ligament, and thus, besides protecting the fetlock joint, are the means of affording an im- portant spring to the animal. The large pastern rests entirely on the small pastern, a shorter but sti'onger and thicker bone than the former ; thus forming the pastern joint, the frequent seat of those bony tumours called ringbones. Tlie small pastern bones rest upon two bones, the coffin, or OS pedis, and the navicular, or nut-bone, thereby forming the coffin joint. The coffin bone is the last phalange, and by means of its connection comes in contact with the ground. It is a very singular bone, both in its shape and construction, and will after- wards demand our more particular considei*ation. It corre- sponds in great measure to the horny hoof to which it is attached. The navicular is a considerably smaller bone lying behind the former, supporting a portion of the superincumbent weight, but affording likewise an important pulley for the flexor tendon. This pai't is the frequent seat of disease. The hind extremity of quadrupeds varies much from the fore in the manner of its connection to the body. There is less weight to support, and consequently there is less danger of con- cussion ; but as more motion is required, the connection is formed by means of a joint. The upper bone, called the femur, has a large globular head, which is received into a deep socket formed by the bones of the pelvis, and this joint is secured from dislocation not only by means of the capsular ligament, but likewise by one of immense strength situated within the joint. The motion of this joint is greater and the cavity deeper in the human subject ; but in the horse the motion is chiefly limited to a backward and forward course, there being but little in a lateral direction. Thus the horse cannot, like the human subject, stretch his legs very wide apart : but, however, nearly all the lateral motion that the horse possesses in the hind extremities is possessed by means of this joint, there being scarcely any afforded by any other. The femur is the largest bone in the body, and is extremely irregular D 34 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. in shape, having a number of protuberances for the attachment of muscles. Its lower end articulates with the tibia, forming Avhat is commonly termed the stifle joint, and which corresponds anatomically with the human knee. As an additional security, and to ward off concussion, there are two elastic substances, called from their shape the semilunar cartilages, interposed be- tween the bones which form this joint. In front we find a small bone called the patella, or knee-pan, which performs the office of a pulley, receiving from above the tendons of the strong extensor muscles of the thigh, and firmly fastened by equally strong liga- ments to the upper and front part of the tibia. In all animals the length of the femur depends on that of the metatarsus : in horses and cattle the latter is very long, and the former short ; whilst in man and in many animals we discover an opposite arrangement. In man the leg is formed by two bones, the tibia and Xhejibula, both of which enter into the composition of the joint, and thus afford a considerable extent of motion in every direction. In horses, however, the fibula is altogether small and uiiimportant, the leg being almost entirely formed by the tibia, which in the horse is much longer than the femur, and its lower end communicates with the tarsal joint, or, as it is commonly tei'med, the hock. The tibia extends obliquely backwards from the stifle joint, whilst the femur extends from above in a contrary direction, thus forming an angle which is more or less acute in different animals, being in speedy animals much more acute than in slower ones. The hock is composed of no less than six bones, but the motion of the joint is almost entirely confined to the upper bone, the astragalus, which articulates with the tibia. In the human subject, the tarsus rests on the ground, and the various bones which compose it, constructed in the form of an arch, form a very important spring, to which very much of the elasticity of the foot is owing. Man is the only animal whose heel rests on the ground ; but there are many who tread on the various pha- langes, whilst the horse treads entirely on the last toe. Thus, with the long metatarsal bone, which closely resembles the meta- car2:)us in the fore extremity, the hock is elevated considerably from the ground in a similar manner to the knee, but, unlike this joint, it forms an angle from the metatarsus, extending for- Avards under the body of the horse. The upper joint of the hock possesses a very considerable extent of motion in a forward direction, but none laterally ; and the joint is accordingly con- structed on the principle of the hinge, and secured from dislo- cation by means of two condyles, or rounded prominences, on the upper part of the astragalus, which fit into corresponding depressions in the tibia, and receive between them also a ridge in the middle of the tibia. THE JOINTS. 35' The next bone of importance belonging to the hock is the os calcis, which corresponds to the human heeL In the horse it does not bear any weight, but receives the insertions of some important tendons, and thus acts as a considerable lever. The other bones of the hock are placed below the astragalus in two rows, the lower of which rests on the metatarsus. These comparatively small bones contribute very much in taking off the jar, and are closely bound together by ligaments, by which all motion is prevented. The bones below the hock being similar to those below the knee, will need no further description. They are, however, somewhat longer and slighter in their construction. — Ed. CHAP. VII. THE JOINTS. The chief peculiarity in the construction of joints in tlie horse is that motion is almost entirely limited to one direction, and every security is afforded against lateral movement ; the result of which is that we scarcely ever hear of dislocation in the horse. Strength and speed are the chief objects required, and accordingly we find that the joints admit of a great extent of motion, but in one direction only. We have before observed that the ends of bones forming a joint are tipped with cartilage, which, being elastic, takes off the jar from the bones. This cartilage is lined by a fine membrane, which secretes a iluid, somewhat resembling the Avhite of an egg, by which means, however rapid or violent may be the motion of the animal, the part is yet effectually secured from friction. This fluid is pre- vented from escaping by a capsular ligament, which is strongly attached to the neighbouring bones, and thus surrounds and en- closes the joint, being however sufficiently loose as to admit the requisite motion. The capsular ligament is also lined internally by the synovial membrane, and is thus secured from injury. Many oi the joints of the horse are constructed on the prin- ciple of the hinge motion, being admitted extensively at one part and limited at another. The Shoulder joint is formed by the round head of the hu- merus fitting into a socket in the lower part of the scapula. This socket, however, is much shallower than in the human subject, there being no lateral motion required. The joint has no ligaments to protect it with the exception of the capsuhxr ; but this office is effectually performed by the tendons of the strono; muscles of the shoulder. 36 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. The Elbow joint is constructed on the principle of the hinge, and is formed by the rounded prominences of the humerus, moving in corresponding depressions in the radius and uhia, the bones of the arm ; and dislocation is effectually secured by a strong ligament on each side, besides the capsular. The Knee joint is composed of no less than three articulations, besides a smaller one behind the knee. The motion, however, is principally confined to the two upper articulations, the bones of which sepai'ate considerably in front, but are confined behind. These joints are each invested by a loose capsular ligament, which permits the necessary extensive motion of the joint, and are secured on each side by strong lateral ligaments ; besides which there are two annular bands, one behind and the other in front, which serve to tie down and confine the flexor tendons. Tha Fetlock joint is formed by the rounded extremity of the cannon approximating Avith the concave surface afforded by the large pastern below, and the two sesamoid bones behind. It has, in addition to the capsular, no less than nine ligaments, seven of which are connected with the sesamoid bones, and thus serve to keep them in their situation, in somewhat the same manner as the masts of a vessel are secured by means of the rigging or stays. The other two ligaments secure the joint firmly on either side. The Pastern joint possesses very little motion. It is formed by the convex extremity of the large fitting into corresponding concavities in the small pastern, and is secured by the capsular and two ligaments on each side, and protected by tendons both in front and behind. The Coffin joint possesses a greater degree of motion than the pastern. It is formed by the upper concave surfaces of the coffin and navicular bones receiving the convex extremity of the small pastern. It is secured by a capsular and three pairs of ligaments, connecting the coffin bone with the small pastern and the side cartilages ; and four other ligaments, two of which pass from the navicular to the small pastern, one joining the navicular to the coffin bone, and another to the flexor sinew. These ligaments, however, although numerous, are not strong, as the joint is within the cavity of the hoof, and is thereby well secured from injury. Joints of the Hind Extremity. The Hip or Thigh joint is situated so deep-seated, and so well protected by large muscles and tendons, that it requires but very few ligaments. It is, as before observed, a ball and socket joint, the ball being formed by the upper part of the femur or thigh bone, and the socket (which is considerably deeper than that of THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 37 the shoulder) by the bones of the pelvis. The socket is still further deepened by ligamentous substance attached to its rim. The capsular ligament is thin, protection being afforded by the muscles ; but within the capsular there are (unlike other joints) two ligaments, one of which is called the ligamentum teres, and is of great strength. It passes from a notch in the ball to a similar notch in the socket, whilst another portion of it is at- tached to the pubes. This ligament greatly assists in main- taining the weight of the limb during progression. The Stifle joint, which corresponds anatomically to the human knee, is formed, like it, by the apposition of the femur, the tibia, and the patella. Within the joint we find two moveable cartilages, which are confined to the tibia by several ligaments, but which enable them to slide about, and thus increase the motion of the joint without rendering it insecure. The patella is a small bone situated in front of the joint, which it protects, being bound by strong ligaments to the tibia, and receiving the attachments of tlie tendons of the strong extensor muscles of the leg, thus acting as a pulley. Besides those mentioned, there is a strong lateral ligament on each side of the joint, attached to the femur and the tibia; and within the cavity of the joint, ligamentous slips, crossing each other, are attached to the middle of these two bones. The Hock joint, like the stifle, is well furnished with liga- ments ; and it has no less than six separate articulations, the principal of which, however, is that between the tibia and astra- galus, to which bones the whole motion of the joint is confined. There are two strong ligaments on each side, both of which pro- ceed from the tibia, and pass, one to the astragalus, and the other to the os calcis, and expand on the other bones. There are other ligaments attaching the astragalus to the metatarsal bones. The os calcis is bound by ligaments to the astragalus, the tibia, and metacarpal bones ; and each articulation possesses separately its capsular ligament. The joints below the hock in the hind leg correspond with those in the fore extremity. Having much less weight to sus- tain, they are less exposed to concussion, and more rarely become diseased. — Ed. CHAP. VIII. ON THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. It is computed that there are no less than 312 separate muscles in the body of the horse, of which only ten are single, the 38 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMr OF THE HORSE. rest being arranged in pairs, so that both sides of the body cor- respond, whereby symmetrical appearance is preserved. These muscles have been an-anged by anatomists into various classes, according to their relative situation. Thus, we have the muscles of the head, the trunk, and the extremities, and these, again, are divided into various regions. Under that of the head we have nine muscles, whose office is to move the ears ; two attached to the eyebrows, eight to the eyes, and no less than seventeen connected with the jaws, twelve of which belong to the anterior and five to the posterior jaw. And between the jaws, the submaxillary space as it is called, there are twenty-four small muscles, six of which are connected with the OS hyoideus, the curious bone at the root of the tongue; four belong to the tongue, five to the pharynx, seven to the larynx, and two to the palate. The muscles of the Trunk, one liundred and thirteen in num- ber, are divided into those of the neck, the thorax, and the abdo- men. The muscles of the neck are forty in number, and are divided into five regions. The muscles of the Thorax are thirty-seven in number, and are divided into seven regions, of which we have three muscles connected with the shoulder and the back, three with the chest, three with the ribs, three with the breast bone, and three with the back and ribs ; besides wliich, we liave three large muscles on the back, one of which, the longissimus dorsi, is of great size and length, extending on each side of the dorsal spine almost the whole length of the back, of which it forms the prin- cipal strength : it is particularly observable in stout fleshy horses. The seventh region of the thorax is composd of one muscle, the diaphragm, which separates the thorax from the abdomen, and is the principal agent in respiration, acting independently of the will. The muscles of the Abdomen are thirty-six in number in the male, and three less in the female, and ai'e divided into five regions. There are six muscles belonging to the loins, four to the abdomen itself, their office being to support its contents and to assist in respiration; two muscles belong to the anus; four to the Genital region in the male, and two in the female; and four muscles are connected with the tail. The muscles of the Anterior Extremity are forty-eight in number, and are divided into eight regions. Thei-e are twelve muscles connected with the shoulder, two on the outside of the blade, one being in front, and the other behind its saline. One muscle connects the shoulder blade to the ribs, and two others are attached to the back part of the scapula and to the humerus. Two muscles are attached to the lower and THE MUSCULAll SYSTEM. 39 front part of the scapula, one of which Is attached to the humerus, and the other to the radius. Another muscle is at- tached to the humerus just below the shoulder joint, and to the upper and outer part of the radius. Behind the shoulder joint, and filling up in great measure the space formed by the scapula and humerus, there is a very large muscular body, which is ex- ceedingly prominent in many horses, particularly in thorough- bred ones. It is this muscle which forms a principal part of a shoulder of mutton. It is called the triceps extensor hrachii ; and, if we regard it as one, has three separate origins and one insertion, namely, the ulna. One head rises from the posterior ridge of the scapula ; another from the outer part of the humerus; and the third head from the inner part of this bone. Thus situated, it principally extends the arm. There is also another muscle in this situation attached above to the humerus, and below to the point of the ulna and the capsular ligament of the elbow joint. The muscles of the Arm and Fore-leg consist of the extensors and the flexors, so denominated from their use being either to extend or to bend the leg. The extensors are four in number, and occupy the front of the arm, being very prominent in some horses, particularly those who stand firm on their legs. One of these muscles is attached to the lower part of the humerus, and to the upper and front of the cannon bone. Another is attached to both the humerus and ulna above, and below by means of a long tendon which commences above the knee, to the two pastern and the coffin bones. A third muscle is attached above to the radius and the ulna, and below to the large pastern. The fourth, smaller than the others, is attached above to the body of the radius, and below to the internal splint bone. The flexor muscles of the arm are eight in number, and are divided into two regions, four being deep-seated, and four super- ficial. Of the former, one is attached to the humerus above, and below to the bone wiiich projects behind the knee and to the outer splint bone. Another rises from the humerus, and also from the ulna, and is inserted, like the former, into the trape- zium. Thus, there are two muscles which are inserted into this small Lone behind the knee, which thus forms an important lever, and sliould therefore be prominent and well developed. A third muscle in this region is attached above to the hu- merus, and below to the internal splint bone, and the fourth is attached to the ulna above, and joins the perforans tendon below. The four muscles belonging to the deep-seated region are, of course, situated in front of those just described. Two of them, called the Jiexor perforatiis and perforans, so called because the tendon of the former is perforated by the 40 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMr OF THE HORSE. latter, have a common origin from the inner and inferior part of the humerus, become two separate tendons above the knee, and are inserted, the })erforatus into the small pastern, and the per- forans into the cotBn bone. A third muscle is attached above to the back part of the radius, and below joins the perforans tendon, which it assists. Besides these, there are some diminutive and Insignificant mus- cular slips below the knee. The muscles of the Hind Extremitij are more numerous than those of the fore limb, and are divided Into those belonging to the haunch, and those of the thigh and hind leg; of the former there are twenty, and of the latter nine. There are three very large and powerful muscles, called the gluteal, which are attached above to the haunch bones, and below to the upper part of the femur or thigh bone. These muscles are of great Importance in progression, as by their action they advance the body after the limb has been brought forward : they also act In both kicking and rearing. In man, they are still larger in proportion than in quadrupeds; and they mainly assist in preserving the erect position of the body. In fat horses these muscles appear externally mingled together, but In well-bred animals, particularly if they have been trained, the lines, or rather the furrows, of demarcation are readily per- ceptible. It is needless to observe, that these muscles form the greater part of a haunch of venison, and In deer are more largely developed than In sheep. There are four smaller muscles, attached below to the upper joart of the thigh bone, and above to the under parts of the haunch bone, their office being to assist in the extension of the haunch, and, in some measure, to i-otate it : some of them are situated within the pelvis, and are connected with the peri- toneum. There are three muscles which form the front part of the haunch. One rises from the spine of the ilium, the hip bone, and is inserted Into the membranous covering of the muscles of the thigh, whence it Is called the tensor vagina, and Is very per- ceptible in poor horses. Another large muscle is attached to the ilium above and pa- tella below, and is called the rectus. The third muscle Is of gi'eat size, and has three divisions, which are often considered as separate muscles. Each of these heads are Inserted into the patella below, but above, two are at- tached to the femur, and one to the bones of the pelvis. These powerful muscles, although not attached to the tibia itself, are yet connected with It by means of the patella, and thus become powerful extensors of the thigh, raising and ad- vancing the limb, and assisting in the progression of the haunch, THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 41 On the inside of the thigh, forming that fleshy prominence so perceptible in muscular horses, and which often causes the thighs to touch each other, we find four muscles. The first is a long slender muscle, attached above to the lumbar vertebra? and the bones of the pelvis, and below to the lower part of the femur and upper and inner part of the tibia. It assists in bend- ing the leg inwards, and is called the sartorius, which signifies a talloi', being supposed to be greatly employed by tailors when sitting cross-legged on a board. A thin broad muscle, super- ficially placed, is attached above to the pubes, and below to the former muscle. A thii'd muscle, short and thick, is attached to the pubes above, and the femur below ; and the fourth is a double muscle, attached also above to the pubes and below to the femur. The fifth is a powerful muscle, attached above to the bones of the sacrum, and the Ischium, and below to the lower and inner part of the femur, and upper and inner part of the tibia. The outer part of the haunch is formed by two double muscles ; one is denominated the biceps, and is attached above to the sacrum, the bones of the tail, and the ischium ; and below, one portion to the patella, and the other to the upper part of the tibia. Tliis large muscle is particularly conspicuous in thorough- bred horses, and forms the outermost part of the quarter. Its large development is deservedly admired, and is justly considered a sign of breed. The other muscle is situated behind the former, forming the most posterior part of the quarter ; it is well developed, and ex- ternally perceptible ; and the space between it and the former muscle is denominated the poor mark, being, of course, well marked in lean horses, and imperceptible in fat ones : it is attached above to the same bones as the former muscle, and below to the upper, anterior, and inner part of the tibia. These muscles raise the limb and abduct it. The muscles of the thigh and leg are divided into three regions, one in front, and two behind. The anterior is occupied by three muscles, two of which extend the foot, and at the same time flex the hock. Tlie first is attached above to the femui', becomes tendinous above the hock, where it passes through a sheath, and takes its course in front of the shank and the pasterns, and is in- serted into the front part of the cofB^n bone. The second muscle rises from the fibula, and joins the former below the hock. The third is attached above to both the femur and the tibia, and below, after passing through a sheath in front of the hock, to both the cannon and the inner splint bone. The two regions behind the tibia are distinguished as the superficial and the deep-seated : the former is occupied by three muscles, the first of which is attached above to the lower part of 42 STRUCTUIiE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. the femur, and below to the os calcis, or point of the hock. The second is attached above to the femur, becomes tendinous above the hock, passes over the point of the hock down the leo^, and is there called the perforatus, and is inserted into the small pastern bone. The third, a very slender muscle, is attached above to the fibula, and inferiorly to the os calcis. The deep-seated region is also composed of three muscles. The first is short and thick, and is attached above to the outer and back part of the femur and the capsular ligament, and taking an oblique direction to the upper and inner part of the tibia. Thus situated, it rotates in some measure the stifle joint. The next muscle, the flexor pedis, is attached above to the outer and back part of the tibia and the fibula ; becomes tendinous just above the hock, where it passes through a sheath, in a groove on the inner side of the os calcis, and below the hock is denominated the flexor perforans, having a similar destination to the same tendon in the fore extremity. The third muscle rises from the outer and back part of the tibia, becomes tendinous somewhat above the hock, on the inside of which it passes through a sheath, and joins the former tendon below. For a more particular account of the muscles, the student is referred to Mr. Percivall's excellent work " On the Anatomy of the Horse ; " and also to Mr. Blaine's " Outlines of the Veteri- nary Art." The muscles are abundantly supplied with blood by the blood- vessels, which renders their colour dark. The depth of their hue is more or less in proportion as they are exercised, and thus in the horse they are darker than in the ox or sheep. They are also placed to greater mechanical advantage, the joints admitting more extent of motion than in these weaker animals. Besides which they are more abundantly supplied with nervous energy by means of the nerves, to which, more than to any thing else, is owing the untiring energy which a well-bred horse so often displays. The muscles are susceptible of great alteration by means of training, the object of which is to obtain the greatest possible strength in the smallest possible compass. To effect this pur- pose, a large supply of nutritious food is given, and the super- fluous fat is removed by severe sweating. The muscles are thus rendered hard and firm, and well developed, and the wind greatly improved by exercise, until the animal reaches a degree of ex- cellence, to attain and ascertain which, demands the utmost skill and judgment in the trainer. The opposite effect to this takes place when a limb is thrown out of work by lameness ; the muscles shrink in a short time to THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 43 an incredible degree ; and thus in liorses that have been lame for a long time in their feet, we find the muscles of the chest greatly- diminished, from want of the same degree of exercise. From this circumstance, farriers, mistaking the cause for the effect, have given the name of chest-founder to the disease. — Ed. CHAP. IX. ON THE BRAIN AND NERVES. The brain, the seat of the mind, and the fountain of sensation, is a soft body, situated in a cavity of the skull called the cranium. In man it occupies by far the greater portion of the skull ; but, in the horse, from its much smaller size, and from the large space devoted to the face, the cranium is much the smaller part. It usually weighs about one pound and a few ounces in the hoi'se. It is closely invested by a membrane, called the pia mater^ whilst the cranium is lined by a firm, strong membrane, called the dura mater. Between these there is another delicate membrane, called the tunica arachnoides. The dura mater, by its duplications, forms several processes and sinuses, the former, by descending between its divisions, serve to secure the brain in its position, and the latter act as reservoirs for the venous blood, thus preventing the brain from being injured by any temporary imj)ediment to its passage. The jj'ia mater closely embraces the brain, and dips into its convolutions. The brain consists of three parts, the Cerebrum, the Cerebellum, and the Medulla oblonr/ata. The Cerebrum is considerably the largest, and is divided into two hemispheres, each of which closely corresponds with its fellow. On cutting into the cerebrum, we find that it consists of two portions, — the medullary, or white ; and the grey, or cortical part. The latter is mostly situated towards the surface, and the former towards the centre ; but both appear to run into each other. Within the hemispheres there appear to be various cavities, canals, and membranes, which, in this work, it is un- necessary to describe. The Cerebellum, or little brain, is situated behind the cerebrum, than which it is considerably smaller. It appears to consist of medullary and cortical substance mingled together. The Medulla oblongata, the smallest division, is situated at the base of the brain. It is medullary in its structure, and gives origin to the greater part of the cranial nerves. It is by far the most sensible part of the brain, for whilst portions of the cerebrum have been cut away, in some animals, without giving any apparent 44 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. pain, the least pressure on the medulla Is productive of injury, or death. Tlie brain is largely supplied with blood by means of the carotid arteries, which is returned to the heart by the jugular veins. The spinal marrow may be considered as the continuation of the brain, running from the medulla oblongata, throughout the spinal canal, to the tail. It is enveloped by the same mem- branes as the brain, and continues to the sacrum, where it ends in several nervous cords. Its form is cylindrical, and it has been found to consist of six bands, in the centre of which there is a sort of canal. The Nerves, arising from the brain and spinal cord, are forty- six pair, ten of which proceed from the brain, and the remainder from the cord, and are therefore called the spinal nerves. On examining a nerve, we find that it consists of a vast number of white filaments, each having its particular covering, and yet compactly bound together, and invested by membrane. Of the Cranial nerves, the first pair is the Olfactory, the nerve of smelling, pulpy in its structure, and the largest in the body. It rises from the cerebrum, passes out of the cranium, and is spread out on the membrane lining the nostrils. The second pair is the Optic, which rises from the cerebrum, but before they pass out of the skull join together, and decussate, the right nerve going to the left eye, and vice versa. It takes an oblique course, pierces the outer coats of the eye, and is spread out in the form of the retina, and thus conveys the impressions of objects to the brain. The sense of hearing is supplied by a soft nerve, the auditory, which enters an orifice in the temporal bone, where the seat of hearing is contained. The sense of taste is supplied by the fifth, which is a compound nerve, conveying both sensation and motion. The other cranial nerves convey sensation and motion to the various parts of the head ; but there is one nerve which demands more particular notice. This is the par vac/um or pneumo-gastric, of the French. It rises from the brain, passes down the neck close to the carotid artery, and distributes branches to the pharynx, larynx and oesophagus, heart, lungs, stomach, and liver. If divided on both sides in the living animal, death immediately ensues. Its importance may thus be readily conceived ; it is intimately connected with life itself, giving to the heart and stomach its power of motion, independent of the will. The Spinal are compound nerves, having a double function, and a twofold origin, conveying both sensation and motion. They arise by numerous filaments from both the upper and under surface of the spinal cord. The filaments coalesce, and, before they immerge from the dura mater, join together, previous to which, the upper nerve forms a sort of knot, called a ganglion. THE CHEST, ITS CONTENTS AND CONNECTIONS. 45 This latter is the nerve of sensation, the otlier the nerve of motion ; and thus, though united together, the filaments are yet distinct, and a part is endowed mostly with sensation, or with motion, according as the filaments of the former or the latter predominate. There is one other nerve that remains to be noticed ; it has been called the Ganglial, and also the Sympa- thetic. " It belongs," observes Mr. Youatt, in his admirable lec- tures, " neither to the cerebral nor the spinal system, and seems, in its function, to be independent of both. At the base of the cranium, and in front of the atlas, I find a pyriform reddish body, which gradually contracts, and terminates in a nerve. I inquire not now into the orighi of this ganglion, but a superficial glance at the nerve tells me that it is performing some important office. It is connecting itself with the cerebro-spinal, and with every cervical nerve ; but, more particularly, it is forming complicated plexuses on every neighbouring blood-vessel. I trace it particu- larly on both the external and the internal carotid, and I follow it in the subdivisions of these vessels, until, from the minuteness of the vessel, and the pulpiness of the nerve, it eludes my sight. Hereafter I shall have to trace the course of the nerve in the thoi-ax, forming, with the cerebro- visceral, a plexus, or rather, an investing membrane, around every vessel of the heart and lungs ; and then, having reached the abdomen, and combining in the semilunar ganglion its own influence with that of the cerebro-visceral and the phrenic, it becomes the seat or centre of organic nervous power, difl*using its radiations over every ar- tery and absorbent, and gland, and ganglion ; every thing con- nected with secretion, nutrition, and life ; itself the very principle of life and action — the soul of the organic system. It was termed, before its character and power were suspected, the sym- pathetic nerve, because it seemed to connect the whole system together: it is denominated by others the ganglial nerve, from its supposed origin, either in the superior cervical or the semi- lunar ganglion ; but it would more properly be designated the great organic nerve, ■ — the secretory, nutritive, chemical, — while the cerebro-visceral is the motor organic nerve. It is the power which presides over, and effects the changes in that fluid which the motor nerve keeps in circulation." — Ed. CHAP. X. THE CHEST, ITS CONTENTS AND CONNECTIONS. The formation of the chest of the horse is very different from that of the human subject. It is shaped very much like a ship. 46 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. a form well adapted for passing through the air with the least resistance ; and, at the same time, more favourable to the flexion and extension of the shoulders and the fore legs than any other. The upper part of the chest is formed by the spine or back bone, the sides by the ribs, and the lower and front part by the ster- num, or breast bone. The number of ribs varies in different animals ; in man there are twelve, in the elephant eighteen, but in the horse there are sixteen pair. Each rib possesses two heads or protuberances, each of which is connected by a joint ■with two vertebras or bones of the back, and to the breast bone by means of cartilage. The Sternum, or breast bone, in young animals is chiefly cartilaginous, and may be separated into eight pieces ; it afterwards becomes divisible into four only, and, with age, is consolidated into one. The ribs are externally convex, and are divided into the true and the false ; the former being situated anterior to the others, and immediately connected with the sternum ; whilst the latter are implanted into each other at their cartilaginous extremities, and are only connected with the breast bone by means of the true ribs. Their connection with the spine, by means of a double joint, affords to the ribs a motion backwards and forwards, by which means the cavity of the chest is enlarged or diminished. This motion, however, is consi- derably less in quadrupeds than in man, for in the latter the rising and falling of the chest is seen in common respiration, Avhilst in the former it is not perceived, unless the breathing be embarrassed. The ribs are connected together by fleshy sub- stance, termed the intercostal muscles, which are disposed in an oblique course, by which means their length considerably exceeds that of the space between one rib and anothex', so that a con- traction of one-third their length will bring the ribs together, which could not be the case if the muscles took the shortest course from one rib to another. The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly by a very singular and important muscle, called the Diaphragm, or midriff, which is convex towards the chest when in a state of rest. This muscle is shaped somewhat like a fan, and is attached to the inferior extremities of the ribs and to the spine, by which means its position is rendered oblique, and its development more ex- tended, and its action greater than it would otherwise have been. The diaphragm, unlike every other muscle, is fleshy at its circumference and tendinous at its centre. The reason of this peculiar construction may be thus explained. The central part of the diaphragm is pierced with two holes for the passage of the oesophagus, the tube which conveys food to the stomach, and the vein which conveys the blood to the liver for the secre- tion of bile. Now, if these important vessels Avere surrounded with muscular substance, they would be forcibly compressed THE CHEST, ITS CONTENTS AND CONNECTIONS. 47 every time the diaphragm contracted, and would, in consequence, be liable to considerable injury ; but being surrounded with tendinous substance which possesses no such power of con- traction, all danger of compression is at once removed, without any sacrifice of strength or power in the muscle. The dia- phragm, when in a quiescent state, is convex towards the chest ; and when in action, it becomes flat, thus enlarging the cavity of the chest. The thorax is everywhere lined internally by a thin serous membrane, which secretes a fluid, by which the surface of the cavity is lubricated, and its contents are enabled to glide upon each other without occasioning any friction or inconvenience. This membrane is called the pleura, and the portion which lines the chest itself, is designated the pleura costalis, while that which covers the lungs is distinguished as the pleura pulmonalis. This membrane divides the chest into three cavities, one on the right side, containing the right lung, and the other two on the left side, the smaller of which contains the heart, and the larger the left lung. The riglU lung is thus the largest, and consists of three lobes or divisions, whilst the left lung only contains two. These divisions of the chest do not communicate Avith each other, so that if one cavity Is injured, or air is admitted into It, respir- ation can be carried on in the other. The wind-pipe, or trunk of the lungs, is composed of carti- lages or cartilaginous rings, joined together by a strong and elastic membrane. The cartilaginous rings are strong and thick in the front part of the windpipe, but gradually become thinner, and terminate In thin slips, or mere membranes, which pass over each otlier, Instead of meeting end to end. By this contrivance the windpipe will admit of being compressed considerably, by the ends passing over each other ; but such is the elasticity of the cartilage, that the moment the pressure is removed, the windpipe returns to its original form. The use of the elastic membranes which unite the cartilaginous rings, is to admit of the various motions of the windpipe, especially that of its being elongated ; and so great Is their strength, that we never in any accident find it torn, or the cartilaginous rings separated from each other. The windpipe, on entering the chest between the first pair of ribs separates into two parts, one going to the right, and the other to the left lung ; from these divisions numerous branches, called the bronchi, proceed to every part of the lungs, dividing and subdividing, and diminishing In their course. These rami-- ficatlons gradually lose their cartilaginous character, and at length terminate In an Immense number of diminutive air cells. The lungs themselves, therefore, are composed of the air cells, 48 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. the bronchi connected with them, and an infinite nnmber of arteries, veins, and absorbent vessels, the whole being connected together by cellular membrane, thus forming these light, spongy, yet important bodies, which closely packed away in the cavity of the chest, exactly accord to it in shape and size. The upper part of the windpipe is connected wnth the mouth by means of a strong cartilaginous box, termed the Larynx, which is composed of five cartilages, the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytenoid, and the epiglottis.* The Thyroid is the largest of the five, and is so called from its resembling, and acting as a shield. It forms the front pai*t of the lai'ynx and great portion of its sides, and consists of two parts, the upper of which is con- tinuous, but the sides of the lower recede so as to form a trian- gular space, which is occupied by a ligament. The Cricoid, or ring-like cartilage, is placed below the thyroid. Its anterior portion resembles a ring of the windpipe, but its back part is considerably broader, so that it overlaps the first ring of the trachea, somewhat in the form of a helmet. The two Arytenoid, or ewer-shaped cartilages, are much smaller than the other, and are placed at the upper part of the larynx, immediately adjoining the back part of the cricoid ; thus placed, these triangular bodies leave an aperture between them, which forms the entrance to the windpipe, and their margins are covered by a membrane, which forms what is called the Rima- glottis. The fifth cartilage is called the Ejjiylottis, so termed from its office, which consists of shutting down upon the glottis like the lid of a tea-pot, to which, from its heart-like shape, it is ad- mirably adapted. Viewing this cartilage in its usual position, we find that its surface nearest the larynx is smooth and some- what convex, whilst that portion nearest the mouth presents a concave surface. The larynx is lined throughout its internal surface by a fine delicate membrane, which secretes a mucus for its protection. It is also abundantly supplied with nerves, by Avhich it is ren- dered peculiarly sensible, and in this respect greatly differs from the membrane lining the windpipe ; for whilst the latter may be scratched with impunity after the operation of tracheotomy, the slightest intrusion of a foreign body on the former produces the most immediate and violent coughing, thus expelling the in- truding body. The glottis, thus constituted, is admirably adapted for guard- ing the entrance to the windpipe, and, generally speaking, a cough arises from some irritation of this part. * A cut representing the various cartilages of the windpipe will be found in the chapter on Roaring. THE CHEST, ITS CONTENTS AND CONNECTIONS. 49 The Nostrils. — The cavity of the nostrils is very extensive in the horse, affording a large entrance for the air in breathing, and a considerable surface for the development of the organ of smell. It is lined throughout by a mucous membrane called the Schneid- erian or pituitary membrane, on which is spread out the nerve of smell as well as a nerve of feeling. The cavity is divided by a thick cartilage, called the septem nasi, which is fixed in front to the nasal, and behind to the maxillary, bones. This cartilage is also covered by the membrane before spoken of; which, when inflamed, as in colds, becomes very red, and in glanders is often the seat of ulcei's. The nostrils communicate with the sinuses of the head, and above with the larynx. The entrance to the nostrils is formed by what is called the false nostrils, which is formed by the skin, and possesses consider- able flexibility, particularly in well-bred horses, in whom the opening to the nostrils is much larger than in coarse-bred animals. The false nostrils form a sort of cavity, which has no opening at the upper part ; and this circumstance gives them their name. The Heart Is a strong hollow muscle, of a conical shape, with its base towards the spine, and its apex towards the left side, against which it is thrown at every contraction. It is double, having a right and a left side, the former containing black, and the latter red, blood ; the right side is the thinnest and weakest, being devoted to the lesser office of the circulation of the lungs ; the left, the stoutest, having to govern the general circulation of the system. Each of these halves consists of two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle : the former, which derives its name from its re- semblance to a dog's car, is considerably thinner than the latter, and is situated towards the base. The heart is formed prin- cipally of fleshy fibres, connected together by cellular tissue, whence it obtains its elasticity ; and its surfaces, both internal and external, arc lined by a fine transparent membrane. The blood is prevented from moving in a retrograde course by means of a number of valves : there are three in the left ven- tricle, the edges of which are connected by tendinous cords (cordaj tendinere) to small fleshy eminences on the inside of the ventricle, called carneaj columns or fleshy columns. These tendinous cords are more numerous in the valves of the left ventricle than in the other parts, and being supposed with the valves to resemble a mitre, are named mitral valves. There are valves also in tlie right ventricle for a similar purpose, which are named tricuspid, or three-pointed ; also in the great artery or aorta, and in the pulmonary artery, where, having no cords, 50 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. and resembling in shape a half moon, they are named semi- lunar. The heart is enclosed in a strong membranous bag, which is named pericardium, and this encloses also the trunks of the veins and arteries, as well as the appendages or auricles. The heart is a muscle, but, unlike other muscles, it is invo- luntary, being altogether independent of the will, and is for this purpose supplied by a peculiar set of nerves. It is also furnished abundantly with blood for its support, by means of arteries which arc the first that are given oft", and these arteries are accompanied by veins, for the return of the blood to its proper receptacle. — Ed.] CHAP. XI. ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, [The right side of the heart being devoted to the pulmonary circulation, its auricle receives the blood which has travelled throughout the system from a large vein, called the vena cava, Avhence it passes, by the action of the heart, into the right ven- tricle, which, by its contraction, forces it into a large vessel, called the pulmonary artery. Thence the blood is sent into the lungs, and ramifies through- out its minute vessels, where it is exposed to the action of the inspired air, and becomes, by means we shall afterwards speak of, reddened and purified. This process being accomplished, the blood passes into minute veins, which, coalescing, become the pulmonary veins (in the horse eight in number), and through them the blood again returns to the heart. This is the pul- jnonary circulation. The left auricle, receiving the purified blood from the pul- monary veins, forces it into the left ventricle, which, contracting, sends the vital fluid into a large strong vessel, called the aorta, whence it passes into smaller arteries, to be distributed through- out the whole system. The remote divisions of the arteries are called the capillary vessels, and in them the blood, after having accomplished its purposes and conveyed nourishment to all parts, becomes black and impure, and in this state enters the capillary veins ; which, conjoining and increasing in size, and diminishing in number, convey the blood again to the right auricle of the heart. Just before it enters the heart, it receives a supply of a milky fluid, called chyle, which is extracted from the food, absorbed by certain small vessels, called lacteals, and conveyed by a specific channel into the vena cava. Such, then, is the circle, or rather the double circle, which the blood takes, THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 51 and by which so many important purposes are beautifully and correctly accomplished. The circulation of the blood is accomplished by the joint action of the heart and arteries, but principally by that of the former. Experiments have been instituted, with a view of ascertaining the amount of power possessed by the heart ; and it has been computed by Dr. Hales, that the force exercised by the left ventricle alone is equal to 113 lbs. in the horse, and it is believed that the blood is projected into the aorta, with a ve- locity equal to twenty-one feet per minute. The contraction of the ventricles and the auricles immediately succeed each other ; as one expands to receive the blood, the other contracts to force it forward, and thus the unequal double action of the heart that we feel. These actions, however, of the different cavities, could not be correctly performed, unless some provision were made for preventing the blood, when the ventricles contract, from retrograding into the auricles. This, however, is effected by means of a valve, situated between these cavities, which is formed by a duplication of the inner membrane of the heart, thickened by fibrous substance. The floating edges of this valve in the right ventricle presents three points, and in the left two ; whence the former is called the tricuspid, and the latter the mitral. The edges of each valve is joined by numerous short tendons to the fleshy columns of the heart ; and whilst the blood is flowing into the ventricles, the fleshy columns are passive ; but when the ventricles act, these columns also contract and draw the edges of the valve together, and thus closes the cavity in that direction, and prevents the blood re- entering the auricle. There are also valves that guard the entrance of the aorta and pulmonary arteries ; but they arc of a different description, being of less strength, because they are not called upon to oppose the powerful action of the ventricles. Accordingly, we find they consist of three folds of membrane, and are called, from their shape, semilunar. They are so situated, that when the blood passes into the arteries they are thrown against their sides, and when the blood has passed, they are thrown up, so that their edges meet, and thus prevent the blood returning to the heart. In fishes, the heart is single, and only serves the office of the pulmonary circulation, that of the system being accomplished by the arteries alone; in the horse, though the heart is the principal power, yet the arteries greatly assist. The Aorta, which receives the blood from the left ventricle, divides into two branches, called the Anterior and Poste/'ior Aorta; the former conveying the blood to the head and neck, and the latter to the lower parts of the body. These arteries are strong and thick, and consist of E 2 52 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE, three coats ; the outer, the strongest and thickest, gives to the vessel the remarkable elasticity which it possesses ; the middle coat is the fibrous, which seems to be a modification of muscular power, and enables the arteries to contract on their contents; the third coat is the serous, which lubricates the interior of the vessel, and facilitates the passage of the blood. Thus, to these several coats, but particularly to the two former ones, do the arteries owe the remarkable property they possess, of contract- ing when distended with blood, and almost immediately after- wards expanding to receive a fresh supply ; and which, assisted by the action of the heart, constitutes the pulse, and may be felt in every part of the body, where an artery is sufficiently near the surface of the skin to be perceptible. The arteries, however, do not all possess an equal thickness and power ; for instance, the pulmonary artery, tliough quite as large as the aorta, is neither so thick nor so strong ; and the reason is, that the same power is not required to send the blood over the smaller circuit of the lungs as over the larger one of the whole system ; and for the same reason, the right side of the heart is weaker than the left. The arteries, as they divide and subdivide in their course, become weaker in their coats in proportion to the diminution of their size, till at length they terminate in the minute branches called the capillary vessels, which do not possess any pulsating power, and many of which do not contain red blood. Dimi- nutive, however, as these branches may be, yet it is by them that the most important offices ai'e performed; by them the different parts of the body are nourished, whether bone, flesh, nerve, or skin ; by them the various fluids are secreted, liow- ever different in their appearance they may be; by them the most gliastly wounds are healed, and often in a remarkably short space of time ; and all these various offices are performed not only by the same class of vessels, but by the same fluid, the blood. Having accomplished these important purposes, the capillary arteries terminate in equally minute vessels, called the capillary veins ; and so abundant are these diminutive vessels, that the finest point of the finest needle cannot be plunged into the body without penetrating some of them. By the time the blood reaches the veins, it becomes dark and impure, and loaded with carbon ; the office of the veins, therefore, is to return it to the heart to be again purified. The circulation, however, becomes much slower, as it is further removed from the impulsive power of the heart ; and the veins, which arc supposed to contain two thirds of the whole blood circulating in the system, are conse- quently much more numerous than the arteries, They do not, however, possess the same strength in their coats as the arteries. i THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 5^ nor have they any pulsating jiower. They have, however, the assistance of other agents in ])ropening the blood to its destina- tion. The greater number of them possess valves, which admit the blood to pass in one direction, but effectually prevent its passing in any other. It was, indeed, from reflecting on the structure and necessary office of these valves, that led the immortal Harvey to discover the circulation of the blood. Another circumstance peculiar to the veins is their situation, being mostly near the surface of the body, whilst the arteries are generally deep seated. The wisdom of this provision is evident : it is well known that in wounds it is readily ascer- tained if an artery be wounded by the jet of blood that ensues, and which, even from an artery of small size, is very consider- able, and the danger of death from bleeding is often great in consequence of the force with which the blood is thrown into these vessels. Now such being the danger attending the divi- sion of arteries, it was necessary to remove them as much as possible from the risk of injury, and accordingly they are almost invariably deep seated, and when they do approach the surface it is in parts least likely to be injured. Thus round these im- portant vessels nature throws a thick muscular covering, and protects the whole by a mantle so sensitive as to give warning to the least attack. The veins, however, do not require this care ; in them the cii'culation is languid, and their wounds are com- paratively unimportant and unattended Avith danger, for the blood genei'ally stops, without assistance, from its coagulating quality. It is also of importance that the greater portion of the veins should be situated near the surface, iu oi-der to receive the influence of the atmospheric pressure, which greatly assists the motion of the blood ; and it has also been found that veins possess a power of absorption in common with a particular order of vessels called the absorbents ; thus these various purposes are effected by the relative position of the veins and arteries. The structure of the veins is very different from that of the arteries ; for whilst the latter are thick, elastic, and composed of three coats, the former are thin, inelastic, and composed only of two coverings. But although thin, they are yet capable of affording great resistance to pressure ; for Dr. Hales found that the jugular vein of a marc required a force equal to a column of water 144 feet high to burst it. We have seen that the blood is sent to all parts of the body by the action of the heart and arteries, but what is the cause of its return ? First in importance is the law of hydrostatics, " that all fluids support their level." Thus the same law by which springs arise, and streams are produced, and rivers flow towards the sea, is brought to bear in the living system, and enables the blood in the arteries to support that in the veins. This effect 54 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. is greatly assisted by the action of the valves in supporting the column of blood. The blood, thus supported and propelled by the arteries, assisted by atmospheric pressure, must go somewhere, as the valves prevent return : it goes, therefore, where a vacancy is afforded, and that is in the right auricle of the heart, which has just propelled its contents into the ventricle. To these several forces may be added a power of suction the heart possesses whenever the chest is enlarged in respiration. Tlie manner in which the chyle is mixed up with the blood, so that its colour quickly disappears, is worthy of particular notice. It is owing, indeed, to the great agitation the blood receives, and to the irregularity of the heart's internal surface. When the auricles contract, their contents are in a great mea- sure discharged into the ventricles, but a portion is thrown back into the veins, which constitutes what is called the venous pulse, and may sometimes be seen in the jugular veins. In like manner, when the ventricles contract, a portion of their con- tents is thrown back into the auricles, at any rate that part of it situated behind the valves. By these means an agitation is produced, which effectually mixes these different fluids to- gether. It has been ascertained that the veins possess a jDOwer of absorption in common with a numerous class of vessels called the absorbents, or lymphatics. These vessels are very minute, and are distributed throughout the whole body ; they generally accompany the veins, and, like them, are furnished with valves ; sometimes, as in farcy, they become inflamed, and greatly en- larged. In the course of these absorbent vessels there are a great number of glands, in which they appear to terminate, and others to begin, and thus their contents are passed onwards into the circulation. These glands are subject to disease occasion- ally, as in strangles ; and it is the hardness and swelling of these glands under the jaw that gives its name to the disease called glanders. By rubbing various medicines on the skin, they are taken up by the absorbent vessels, and carried into the circula- tion ; and any interruption in the action of these vessels pro- duces dropsical swellings. — Ed.] CHAP. XII. THE BLOOD ITS NATURE AND COMrOSITION. [The Blood is justly regarded as the most important fluid in the animal machine : it stimulates the heart to contract, secretes and nourishes the various organs, and supplies the body with THE BLOOD, ITS NATURE AND COMPOSITION. 55, heat; and although It Is the source whence other fluids are obtained, It is yet a fluid sui generis, differing from all others. Soon after It Is drawn from the body It coagulates, and then separates Into two parts, — the Serum, a watery colourless fluid which floats on the top, and the Crassamentum, which appears of a firm consistency and a red colour. The serum is a peculiar fluid, and may be separated Into Its constituent principles. If subjected to a temjierature of 150° a portion Is converted Into a substance resembling albumen, or the white of an egg ; the other portion remains fluid, and Is termed the seroslty of the blood, and Is that which constitutes the gravy in meat. The serum contains several salts in solution, the most abundant of which is soda. The Crassamentum Is likewise divisible Into two portions ; the Cruor, which gives to the blood its purple hue ; and the Lymph, which is more solid In Its nature, and Is considered the basis of the coagulum. The latter can be separated from the former by washing, and It likewise separates when the blood is a long time coagulating, in which case the red portion of the blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of the vessel, leaving the lymph on the top. The cruor, or red portion of the blood, has been found, on submitting it to a microscope, to be composed of globules, which are su])posed to be each about the thi'ce or four thousandth part of an Inch In diameter. It Is therefore to these globules that the blood owes Its redness ; but the Intensity of the colour Is subject to great variation, being darker In animals that are poorly fed ; or when exposed to carbonic acid ; and becoming more florid In others that are well fed ; and also when exposed to oxygen, or to atmospheric air. The other part of the crassamentum, the lymph, which, from its nature, is also called Fibrin, Is, In fact, the most important of all ; for It is that which mainly supplies the different parts of the body, particularly the muscles, Avith nutriment, and repairs wounds and fractures In an extraordinary manner. Unlike the cruor, it exists in the blood of all animals, and In every part of the system. Some animals have entirely white blood, the cruor being absent ; and In red-blooded animals there are some por- tions of the body, such as the white of the eye, where the vessels are so small that they do not admit the red globules. The specific gravity of the blood rather exceeds that of water ; but venous blood is somewhat heavier than arterial The temperature of the blood varies In different animals; In man It Is 90°, but In the horse upwards of 100°. It Is rather warmer in the arteries than in the veins, and is liable to variation from disease, it having been found In severe Inflammations to be raised 7° in man, and In the cold fit of agues 4° lower than In a state of health : It Is, however, but slightly raised or depressed 56 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. by external temperature. It was not till comparatively a recent date, that the blood has been considered to possess vitality, which, however, is now generally acknowledged. The vitality and fluidity of the blood is intimately associated ; in fact, its coagulation, when removed from the body, constitutes its death. The time in which this is taking jjlace is different in different animals, and is influenced by various circumstances. In strong animals, such as the horse, it is longer than in such weak animals as the sheep : in the former, it is often as long as fifteen minutes ; and, if the body be in a state of plethora, the vital power being too highly developed, the death of the blood is much longer resisted. In these cases coagulation is delayed, and, in conse- quence, the red portion of the blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of the vessel, and the fibrin remains at the top, con- stituting the buffy coat of inflammation. This separation, when arising from the above cause, takes place long before the serum is developed. The coagulation of the blood has been endeavoured to be accounted for without success : it was held by some, that it was produced by the cessation of its motion ; but it has been found that, if stirred in a vessel, it will coagulate quicker than before. It was thought that exposure to the atmosphere was the cause ; but it has been known to coagulate in a vacuum, and likewise in the body when a vein has been tied.* It was next conceived that it was caused by the low temperature to which it is exposed; but it has been ascertained, that it will coagulate quicker, if the temperature is either higher or lower than natural ; but if so low as to freeze the blood, it will not coagulate when afterwards thawed. These experiments show, that the blood is analogous to no other fluid, and that coagulation cannot be owing to physical causes, but can be exj)lained only by reference to its vitality. Although the blood will coagulate In the body if obstructed, yet there is a considerable diflference between this state, and its coagulation out of the body. In the former instance coagulation is longer occurring, new vessels are thx-own into its substance, and it becomes organised. So, likewise, if a part be Avounded, the divided vessels throw out clots of blood, which adhere to the surface of the wound ; the red particles become absorbed, the glutinous fibrin organised, and the breach is thus gradually restored. Thus we see how important it is that the blood should * Mr. James Turner has instituted and published some singular experi- ments on the blood vessels. He invented an instrument, by means of which several inches of the carotid artery in a living horse was seized instanta- neously, and the blood it contained suddenly imprisoned. It was then taken from the body, and twenty -four hours after it was found that the blood was in a florid and liquid state. RESPIRATION, AND ITS EFFECTS. 57 its peculiar properties, its state of fluidity, and its dispo- sition to coagulate : if the former did not exist, the blood would be obstructed in the capillary vessels, and the vital functions could not be carried on ; and, if deprived of its coagulating pro- perty, no wounds could heal, or loss of substance be restored ; but the most trifling cut would be the precursor of death. The quantity of blood contained in the body it is very diflScult to ascertain ; for if an animal be bled to death, a good deal will still remain in the blood vessels. It has, however, been estimated to be about one fifth the weight of the body ; and of this, about three fourths is contained in the veins, and one fourth in the arteries. In young animals there is more than in old ones ; as in them the body must not only be sustained, but increased in size. It is likewise more abundant in Avild animals than in tame ones ; and in proportion to the vigour of the animal. — Ed.] CHAP. XIII. ON RESPIRATION, AND ITS EFFECTS. [The process of respiration, which is carried on from the first minute after birth to the last of existence, consists of two acts, expiration and inspiration. The former, that of inhaling the at- mosphere, is accomplished mostly by the diaphragm,' which, in its relaxed state, is convex towards the chest. As its fibres contract, the muscle flattens, and thus enlarges in a considerable degree the cavity of the thorax. A vacuum is thus produced, or rather a tendency towards it; for the air rushes into the lungs, and the blood into the heart ; and, as the lungs are elastic and spongy in their nature, they become closely adapted to tlic enlargement of the chest, and prevent any vacuum from taking place between them and the sides of the thorax. The diaphragm is thus the chief agent in the act of inspiration, although it is in some degree assisted by the intercostal muscles, which raise the chest ; and, also, when the breathing is violently excited by those muscles that in quadrupeds attach the fore ex- tremities to the body. This may be witnessed in horses after severe galloping, and also when labouring under inflammation of the lungs, in which disease the animal seldom or never lies down, but makes use of the fore legs as fixed points to assist in enlarging the chest. The air thus drawn into the lungs traverses throughout its internal surface, and, having fulfilled its office, is forced out by the act of expiration. This part of the process is effected chiefly by means of the elasticity of the lungs, which acts as soon as the diaphragm becomes passive, assisted, however. 58 STRUCTURE AI^^D ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. in some degree, by the elastic cartilages of the chest, and occa- sionally by the abdominal muscles. In a healthy horse, in a state of rest, there are from four to eight respirations in a minute, which, however, are increased by the slightest exercise. Atmosphej'ic air consists of unequal parts of two aeriform fluids; viz., 79 of nitrogen or azote, and 21 of oxygen in each 100 parts (which are not chemically but mechanically com- bined) ; besides which it contains other heterogeneous matters, such as odorous effluvia, aqueous exhalations, electric matter, and carbonic acid gas. It every where surrounds and embraces the globe, extending, in the opinion of some, a distance of forty- five miles, and in others a much greater height. Its gravity differs very much at different times and in different places, being heavier on a clear than on a close day, and also in low places than in lofty ones. The small portion of carbonic acid gas which the atmosphere contains, is mechanically mixed with it. This gas is evolved by the fermentation of beer, and the decomposition of vegetables, and is often found in wells and deep places. It is much heavier than the atmosphere, and thus remains in these low places by its gravity. A lighted candle placed in this gas is immediately extinguished; so that it is used as a safeguard in descending into these low and foul places, for whatever will not support combustion will not support life. It is not a simple gas like oxygen, but is formed by the union of carbon and oxygen. Nitrogen or azote is a simple gas, but its use in the atmosphere seems to be of a passive nature, being for the purpose of diluting the oxygen, and rendering it less stimulating. It will not alone support either life or combustion, but it is chemically mixed with the oxygen. Oxygen is essential to the support of both life and combustion; for if air be deprived of it no animal can live, nor will a candle remain lighted. It is abundantly furnished by plants and shrubs, which thus counteract the diminution of it created by animals. When a flame is exposed to this gas it greatly increases in bril- liancy ; and when venous blood is submitted to it, it quickly becomes florid. We have before shown, that all the blood in the body was in its turn carried from the heart to the lungs by means of the pulmonary artery ; this divides and subdivides into the smallest branches, and terminates in small capillary veins, which, coalescing, become larger, and convey the blood again to the heart by the pulmonary veins. Before it reaches these veins, how- ever, an important change takes place : the blood proceeds from the heart in a black and impure state ; it returns reddened and purified ; it is submitted in its course to the action of the air in the air cells, not by actual contact, but through the membrane RESPIRATION, AND ITS EFFECTS. 59 which forms these cells; and by this means the important change is effected. There is, we well know, a considerable difference between the expired and the inspired air ; the former is hot, the latter cold ; this is healthy, that injurious ; one will support combustion and life, the other is unfit for breathing and will extinguish a flame. There is but little difference in quantity between the air in its different states ; but the oxygen in expired air has nearly dis- appeared, and carbonic acid gas is found in its stead ; it also contains much aqueous vapour, which is condensed in a visible form, at a temperature of 60°. Thus, although the carbonic acid gas is much heavier than common air, yet, partly from the aqueous vajoour Avhich the expired air contains being much lighter, but principally from its increased temperature, the ex- pired air, notwithstanding its carbonic acid, is yet specifically lighter than the atmosphere, and consequently rises upwards, and thus, in great measure, is prevented from being respired a second time. It has been found by experiment, with a portion of atmospheric air, containing 80 parts of nitrogen, 18 of oxygen, and 2 of cai*- bonic acid, that, on being respired, the nitrogen continued the same, but the carbonic acid was increased to 13 parts, and the oxygen reduced to 5 ; whence it appeared, that 1 1 parts of car- bonic acid were substituted for 13 of oxygen, 2 parts having entirely disappeared. Thus, the disappearance of the greater portion of the oxygen was accounted for by its being converted into carbonic acid ; but there remained a small portion, whose absence could not be thus explained, more ])articularly as Sir H. Davy calculated, that about 32 ounces of oxygen were necessary for twenty-four hours' expenditure in a man ; but only 26^ ounces are requisite for the formation of even 37 ounces of carbonic acid gas, giving us an unexplained surplus of 5^ ounces of oxygen during the above period. By some it was supposed, that this surplus oxygen unites with the hydrogen thrown off by the blood, and is thus converted into watery vapour : by others it is held, that this oxygen is absorbed by the blood, and enters the circulation. Carbonic acid gas is exhaled from the lungs in different quan- tities during different periods of the day, being generated in the greatest quantity about noon, decreasing in the afternoon and night, and again increasing in the morning. It also increases in man by taking animal food. Sir H. Davy contended, that a small portion of nitrogen ia absorbed by the blood; but this has been denied by others. The chief use of nitrogen, however, is to dilute the oxygen ; for if the latter is inspired pure, a sense of warmth is felt in the chest, the heat of tiie skin is raised, the pulse quickened, and 60 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. Other symptoms of excitement are produced ; but if the oxygen is diminished, a sense of languor, and disposition to sleep, is pro- duced. A given quantity of oxygen will, however, support life longer than the same quantity of atmospheric air. It has been computed that, in the course of twenty-four hours, about 2 lb. 8 oz. of oxygen is consumed by a man. After an ordinary respiration, a considerable quantity of air still remains, perhaps five fourths more than has been expired. Having mentioned the changes that take place in the atmo- sphere, wc must next consider in what manner the blood becomes so altered by its passage through the lungs. The blood, as it traverses through the body, gradually becomes darker ; it is loaded with carbon, and is rendered unfit for the circulation, and in this state it is called venous blood :_ if venous blood taken out of the body be exposed to oxygen, it quickly becomes red ; and so it does if exposed to the atmosphere, but not so rapidly. So, likewise, if arterial blood be exposed to carbonic acid, it quickly acquires the colour and character of venous blood. In the same manner is the colour of the blood changed in the lungs ; thus the principal use of respiration appears to be, to free the blood from its impurities ; and this is effected, although the air and the blood do not actually come in contact. It was found, that if blood in a connnon bladder were exposed to the atmosphere for some time, it acquired a coating of florid blood ; and thus, as the membrane lining the air cells is by no means so thick as that of the bladder, there is no longer any dif- ficulty in accounting for the change taking place. It has been the subject of some dispute, as to where the change, or rather exchange, takes place, some contending that the carbon unites with the oxygen in the air cells, whilst others maintain that the oxygen enters the blood, and there unites with the carbon, forming carbonic acid gas, which is then exhaled into the air cells. It was found, however, that if venous blood was put within the exhausted receiver of an air pump, a quantity of carbonic acid escaped, thus proving the presence of this gas in the blood, and supporting the second theory. And as there appears to be a greater quantity of oxygen abstracted from the atmosphere than can be accounted for by the formation of car- bonic acid, we must conclude that a portion mingles with the blood and enters the circulation ; which theory agrees with the fiict, that it has recently been discovered, by correct analysis, that both venous and arterial blood contains carbonic acid, nitrogen, and oxygen, but that the latter gas is most abundant in arterial, and the tbrmcr in venous, blood. Although the action of the heart is much more frequent than that of the chest in respiration, yet there is a most intimate con- nection between the one and tlic other ; for besides the changes RESPIRATION, AXD ITS EFFECTS. 61 which we have spoken of in the blood, it rushes into the heart when the chest is expanded, and when from any cause respiration is delayed, the pulse becomes less frequent and more languid, in consequence of the obstruction in the current of the blood. Thus in violent fits of coughing, the chest collapses, the air is expelled, and the blood, not being purified, is unfit for cir- culation ; and the consequence is, the veins of the head become distended, and in man the person becomes red or black in the face, and sometimes a blood vessel has ruptured, and death supervened. The Production of Animal Heat. — This important operation is effected by means of respiration, — the chemical process carried on in the lungs. The sensation of heat is derived from the presence of an ex- tremely subtle fluid, called caloric, the particles of which have a tendency to repel each other, and unite with other substances. Thus if we touch a body whose temperature is lower than that of our hand, caloric passes from the hand to this substance, and the sensation of cold is experienced ; and if, on the other hand, the temperature of the substance is higher, we feel a degree of heat from the passage of caloric into the hand. It is a singular fact, that this caloric may exist in two different states, the one in a free or sensible form, the other in a latent or combined form. Thus two substances may appear to be of the same temperature, and yet one may contain a much greater degree of caloric than the other, but so combined with tlie substance that it is not sensible to the touch. If, however, the object be exposed to the influence of some chemical agent, its latent caloric may be set free or rendered sensible. For instance, if sulphuric acid and water be mixed together, although each fluid were before cold, the mixture is raised to a high temperature, and caloric is evolved. In the fermentation of malt liquors the temperature of the liquid is raised Avith the process, and carbonic acid is pro- duced. And it is found that whenever this gas is evolved, that caloric is produced and rendered sensible : thus in the lungs, the oxygen of the atmosphere combines with the carbon of the blood, and carbonic acid is produced as in fermentation. What becomes then of this caloric ? One portion is expired in a sensible form with the breath, which is thus rendered hotter and conse- quently lighter, and thereby ascends : another portion becomes sensible in the blood, and raises its temperature two degrees ; but by far the greater portion of caloric is acquired by the arterial blood, and there remains in a latent form. Some substances have a much greater capacity for caloric than others : thus arterial blood has more than venous blood : this being the case, as the blood loses its arterial character in the course of circulation, it loses also its capacity for retaining caloric ; and as the blood 62 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OP THE HORSE. acquires carbon, it gives out caloric in a sensible form, and tbereby every portion of the body is supplied with heat, with th-e regu- larity and precision of the most beautiful machinery. And thus every animal l)ears about with him, safely packed away in the cavity of the chest, a chemical apparatus, superior to any which the laboratory of the chemist can supply, — an apparatus adapted to all climates and all temperatures, which in one moment can convert the frozen element of the northern pole into the very material of physical heat. — Ed,] CHAP. XIV. THE MOUTH AND THROAT, ETC. [The cavity of the mouth is very spacious in the horse, which is necessary in order to contain a large quantity of food, and, also, to afford sockets for the large molar teeth. It is wider and deeper at the upper part towards tlie throat than at the lower. It is bounded in front principally by the anterior maxillary bone, by which it is separated from the nostrils, and posteriorly by the numerous muscles situated between the branches of the posterior jaw bone. It is lined at every part by a mucous membrane, which, however, is not immediately placed on the bone, there being a thick firm substance interposed. These membranes are corrugated at tlie upper jaw, and be- tween the incisor and maxillary teeth, forming what are com- monly called the bars, and where horses ai-e sometimes bled : these bars are also the scat of lampas. The gums of the mouth are also composed of these membranes, which thus afford security to the teeth. The sides of the mouth are formed by the cheeks, which arc composed of skin and membrane, sufficiently loose to admit the limited motion of the jaws ; they are connected with the powerful masseter muscles, which form the greater part of the bulk of the face, and principally assist in the grinding motion of the jaws. In the skull we find the lower jaw considerably narrower than the upper ; but in the living animal tliis does not appear, the space being occupied by the masseter muscles. The lips greatly assist in gathering together the food, and are largely furnished with the nerves of feeling ; they are composed of skin, muscle, and membrane, and possess the powers of motion and sensation in a liigli degree. The mouth is abundantly supplied with a watery fluid called saliva, particularly during mastication, when it is secreted and poured in in considerable quantities. This fluid is secreted by THE MOUTH AND THROAT, ETC. 63 three pairs of glands, the hirgest of which are the parotid, situated at the root of the ear, and from which ducts convey the fluid to the mouth, terminating opposite the second molar teeth. The submaxillary glands are situated under the jaws, and their ducts terminate in tubular eminences near the frrenura or bridle of the tongue. The other salivary glands are the sub- lingual, situated under the tongue, and its ducts terminate rather higher up than those last described. The mouth is principally filled with the tongue, M'hich Is muscular in its structure, and very flexible, being indeed a prin- cipal agent in mastication and swallowing. It is larger at the upper part than towards its tip, and is confined poste- riorly to the muscles between the branches of the lower jaw, by a sort of fleshy bridle, and above to a singularly shaped bone, called the os hyoidcs. It possesses both the power of feeling and tasting, and for this purpose is well supplied with two descriptions of nerves, and is covered by both cutis and cuticle. The cavity of the mouth is separated from that of the nostrils by the soft palate, a muscular membranous substance fastened to the semicircular border of tbe palate bones, and hanging down on the back of the tongue, so that in the ordinary state there is no open communication between the mouth and the throat, and thus all breathing is carried on by the nostrils, and fluids coming either from the lungs or the stomach pass into the nostrils. AMien, however, food is passing to the stomach, it raises this membrane, and then enters the pharynx, the mem- brane immediately afterwards falling down into its old situation. The Pharynx, or food bag, is a muscular cavity, situated at the root of the tongue, and immediately above and adjoining the larynx. It receives the food from the mouth, and by its mus- cular power forces it into the oesophagus. It is this part that is affected in catarrh when there is a difficulty in swallowing. The QLsopltagus is a long tube, commencing at the pharynx, and ending in the stomach. It passes down the neck rather above the windpipe, and towards the left side enters the chest ; it traverses its upper part, pierces the diaphragm, and ends by a sort of curvature in the cardiac orifice of the stomach. It is lined, in common with the mouth and alimentary canal, by a mucous membrane ; but it is principally composed of two orders of muscular fibres, one circular, the other longitudinal, by which it is enabled to propel the food forward, into the stomach. In addition to this there is a white cuticular coat between the muscular and the mucous, and which also lines half the stomach. The larynx, the pharynx, and the tongue, ai'c connected together, and to the upper jaw bone, or rather to the bones of the head, by means of the os hyoides, so called from its resem- blance to a spur. The semicircular part of the spur embraces 64 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. in a manner the larynx; whilst the shaft is intimately con- nected with tlie root of the tongue : this part in the horse is much longer than in the ox, and thus confines the motion of the tongue in"a great degree. The os hyoidcs has two long appen- dages, which articulate with the temporal bone. Thus situated and constituted, this bone gives great support to the soft parts connected with it, whilst, at the same time, it freely admits their extensive mobility. In the act of swallowing, therefore, this bone is greatly called into action. Adjoining the pharynx arc two large spaces, called^ the Eustachian cavities, situated one on each side, and communicat- ing by means of a tube with the internal ear. Their use is not kn'own, but they are supposed to assist in neighing; occasionally they are full of matter in strangles and other diseases of the throat. — Ed.] CHAP. XV. THE VISCERA OF THE ABDOMEN, OR BELLY. As compared with man or with carnivorous animals, the abdomen of the horse is of large size; the nature of his food requires con- siderable volume in the intestines, and these, of course, demand a corresponding cavity for their reception. We find it almost an invariable rule, that horses with very small belUes are incapable of much or long continued exertion. The abdomen is bounded, anteriorly, by the diaphragm, which separates it from the chest ; posteriorly, Ijy the bones of the pelvis ; supei^iorly, by the ribs and back bone, and their muscular coverings ; laterally, by the ribs in front, and tlie abdominal muscles ; and, inferiorly, by tlie abdominal muscles, which form their most extensive covering. On cutting into the cavity, we perceive a smooth shining membrane, called the peritoneum, which every where lines the interior of the abdomen, and is also reflected on the viscera, so that no two organs touch each other, this membrane being interposed between them. Its use, then, is principally to pre- vent friction, and to enable the almost continual motion of the bowels to be executed without injury. For this purpose it secretes a watery fluid, which, in the living animal, exists in a vaporous form, and perfectly lubricates every part it ap- proaches- The peritoneum is composed of dense cellular membrane, is very strong, and yet extremely elastic, whereby it can accom- modate ittfolf to the ever-varying size and disposition of the ab- dominal contents, particularly during gestation in the female. THE VISCERA OF THE ABDOMEN, OR BELLY. G5 When the animal Is in a standing posture, the lower part of the abdomen is occupied by the large intestines ; the apex of the caecum being about the centre, and the colon around it : above them are the small intestines, which, however, sometimes in- sinuate between the large. The most important of the abdominal viscera is the stomach, which in the horse is of a peculiar structure, and considerably smaller than in any other animal of similar bulk and power. It is a strong muscular cavity, capable of considerable distention, as has been found on opening horses that have died of stomach staggers, in which disorder it has been stretched to a most enormous extent. In one instance I have known the stomach, with the hardened undigested food it contained, weigh more than sixty pounds. Sometimes it is distended with air to a considerable degree, as in indigestion or flatulent colic : but in the healthy state it is comparatively small, and of great strength. The stomach is situated on the left side, with its convex part against the diaphragm ; it has the spleen attached to its left ex- tremity, and its lower j)art is covered with the omentum or caul. When the stomach is full, its situation so close to the diaphragm Avill sufficiently account for the fact that, after being loaded, the horse is incapable of great exertion, and respiration becomes disturbed : the action of the diaphragm becomes indeed mechanically impeded. The stomach possesses four coats. The first is formed by the peritoneum ; the second, situated next to the first, is, like the former, white, and is composed of two sets of muscular fibres ; one set running in a longitudinal direction, and the other in a circular course ; the latter are stronger than the former, and are situated within them. The third and fourth coats line the interior of the stomach. On turning this viscus inside out, we find one half occupied by a white, cutlcular, and almost insensible membrane, separated from the fourth coat by a waving line. It extends over the left extremity, and its elasticity enables it to accommodate Itself to the varying size of the stomach. The fourth coat, called the villous or mucous, lines the larger half of the stomach. It Is somewhat red or yellow in its colour. Is very vascular and sen- sible, and exhibits numerous processes, having the appearance of velvet, which are indeeu the minute ramifications of blood vessels, by which a most important fluid Is secreted, called the gastric juice. The stomach has two extremities, the right and the left ; the latter of which is the larger, and terminates In a sort of pouch. It has also two curvatures, a large and a small one : to the former the omentum and spleen are attached. It possesses two F 66 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. openings, one communicating with the oesophagus, the other with the small intestines. The former is called the cardiac orifice, and is situated about the middle of the small curvature. It has a sort of valve formed by the duplication of its mem- branes, and is kept constantly closed, except when food is passing. This cut represents the Stomach and Liver cut open, so as to show their internal surfaces. 1, The oesophagus. 2, The cardiac orifice of the stomach, so arranged as to prevent vomit- ing. 3 3, The white, cutieular, insensible portion of the stomach. 4 4, The line separating each portion. 5, The villous, or sensible, portion. 6, The pyloric orifice, opening into the duodenum. 7, The red mucous membrane of the duodenum. 8 9, Orifice of the duct leading from the liver. 10, Orifice of the duct leading from the pancreas. The other orifice, called the pyloric, is situated at the right or small end of the stomach, and is usually open, but has the power of closing. Thus situated, these openings are not far distant from each other, and in the usual position of the animal they are situated superiorly. The oesophagus, just previous to its entering the stomach, makes an acute angle, by which means, in great measure, vomiting in the horse is almost entirely for- bidden. The stomach is kept in its situation principally by the oesophagus and the duodenum ; but it is also attached by means of peritoneum to the spleen, liver, colon, and diaphragm. The stomach of the horse will usually contain about three gallons. The intestines are usually distinguished into the small and the large. They are more bulky and longer than in the human subject, being nine times the length of the body in the horse, THE VISCERA OF THE ABDOMEN, OH BELLY. 67 and only six times in man, as demonstrated by Mr. Percivall. Of these ninety feet of intestines the greater part is formed by the small guts. They possess three coats ; the peritoneal, the muscular, and the mucous : the first, as its name implies, is formed by the peri- toneum ; the second is composed of two orders of muscular fibres, the external of which are ari*anged in a longitudinal, and the internal in a vertical, direction, by which means the intestine can be shortened or contracted as may be required. The inter- 1, The caBcum. 2, Its apex. 3 3, Tlie inferior portion of the colon, 4 4, Its superior portion. 5, Its inferior and anterior curvature. 6, Its superior anterior curvature. 7, Its posterior curvature. This plate represents the Intestines. 8, The mesocolon. 9, The duodenum. 10 10 10 10, The jejunum. 1111, The ileum. 12 12, The mesentery. 13, The rectum. nal or mucous coat is of immense extent, being greater indeed than the whole surface of the body. This coat secretes a mucous fluid for its protection, is extremely vascular, and is every where supplied with a set of vessels, called the lacteals, which absorb the nutritious part of the food. The small intestines in the human subject are distinguished into three, — the Duodenum, the Jejunum, and the Ileum ; and although these names are not applicable, and their distinctions by no means marked, they are yet still preserved in the horse. The Duodenum then, though twice twelve inches in length, is 68 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. the first part of the small intesthies ; and being more closely bound by peritoneum, its motions are more confined than the others. It is connected by peritoneum to the right kidney, is larger and more vascular than the other small guts, but shorter than either ; it is also redder, and takes a straighter course than the others ; and about six inches from the stomach it receives the ducts or tubes of two important glands, the liver and the pancreas, which fact aflFords a reason for the confinement of this gut. The Jejunum and the Ileimi float loosely about the abdomen, being attached to the spine by means of the mesentery. The latter gut is considered to be longer than the former, but there is no proper distinction between the one and the other. They ai-e both paler and less vascular than the duodenum ; and the jejunum, which joins the duodenum, is somewhat redder than the ileum. The small intestines together contain about eleven gallons of fluid, and from them the chyle is principally absorbed by the lacteals. The large intestines are considerably more capacious than the small, though less in length, and altogether will contain nineteen gallons of fluid. They are, with much more justice than the others, distinguished into three divisions ; the Ccecum, the Coloji, and the Rectum. The small intestines terminate in a peculiar manner, by projecting at right angles into a cavity, called the blind head of the colon, at which place there is a valve which prevents the food returning. From this blind head the caecum, which will contain about four gallons, extends downwards and forwards into a blind extremity, it having, indeed, but one opening. This gut may be considered as the principal recep- tacle for fluids ; for it has been found that shortly after a horse has had water, it has passed the whole length of the small guts, and entered the caecum, whilst the solid food has been left behind. The internal surface of this gut is formed into cells, by which it is considerably extended. On examining the inside of the cfficum, the part where the ileum enters will be found closed up by the internal coat, being loose and in folds, something like the part where the oesophagus enters the stomach. This kind of structure serves as a valve, and prevents the return of the excrement into the alimentary canal. It is necessary that the reader should bear in his memory the structure of this part ; for in flatulent colic, in addition to the resistance made by this valvular structure to the escape of the air which is generated in the stomach and alimentary canal, the caicum is often so loaded with excrement as to render the escape of air impossible without the assistance of clysters, which, if properhj administered, will completely cmjjty the crecum and large bowels in general. THE VISCERA OF THE ABDOMEN, OR BELLY. 69 The Colon Is the largest gut, containing as much as twelve gallons, being more than the whole of the small intestines. This gut commences at the blind head in which the ileum terminates: it quickly assumes a great size, being larger than the stomach ; it takes a course round the ca3cum, becomes considerably smaller, then makes a sudden turn, after which it again enlarges. It again diminishes, makes another turn, and ends in the rectum. The first part of this intestine is formed into a number of folds, by means of three longitudinal bands, which, being shorter than the intestine, causes it to pucker up, and form internally a number of cells, by which the food is retarded in its progress. The second part of the gut has only two of these bands, and the folds are much fewer in consequence. The Rectum is a straight gut, holding about three gallons. It has no cells, and is only partially covered by peritoneum; but its muscular coat is considerably stronger than the others, and enables it, with the assistance of the abdominal muscles, to expel the f»ces. This gut terminates in the anus, which is kept closed by means of a circular muscle, called the sphincter ani, which is always in action, except when the dung is being expelled. The small intestines are about twenty-two yards in length, and the large about eight. The LIVER, whose office it is to secrete or separate the bile from the blood, is a gland, and the largest one in the body. It is confined to the diaphragm, and kept in its situation by strong portions of peritoneum, called its ligaments. It is divided partially into three lobes, — the right, the left, and the middle, — of which the former is the largest, and the latter the smallest ; besides these there are two small lobes. Its figure, therefore, is very irregular, and its colour between red and brown. It is supplied with arteries for its nourishment, with their correspond- ing veins, together with nerves and absorbents ; but, in addition to these, there are some large veins which convey to the liver black, impure blood, from which it secretes or separates the bile. The bile, being thus secreted, is conveyed by means of the hepatic duct to the duodenum, which it enters about six inches from the stomach. INIan and most animals possess a gall bladder for the reception of, and as a reservoir for, the bile ; but the horse dues not possess any, so that the bile is almost continually being poured into the bowels. The reason of this peculiarity is, that the horse in a state of nature is continually feeding ; having a small stomach, it requires frequent replenishing, and, consequently, there is a continual demand for bile. The ox, on the other hand, fills his paunch, and then ceases to eat for some time ; consequently, he requires a large supply of bile at par- ticular periods, and this is afforded by means of a reservoir — the r 3 70 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. gall bladder. The bile is a yellow bitter fluid, and its chief uses appear to be those of a chemical agent, promoting the decom- position of the chyme, and, also, stimulating the secretion of mucus, and the peristaltic motion of the intestines. The Pancreas, or Sweetbread, is also a gland which secretes a thin watery fluid, similar to saliva. It lies close to the spine, is connected with the diaphragm and the left kidney. It is of a pale red colour, and, like other glands, is furnished with arteries, veins, nerves, and absorbents. Its fluid is separated from arterial blood, and is conveyed into the intestines by means of a tube, which empties itself close to that of the liver. The Spleen is a peculiar organ, loosely attached to the convex portion of the stomach. It is about three pounds in weight, long, and larger at one end than the other. Its colour is exter- nally blue ; but, when cut into, is the same as venous blood, of Avhich it seems filled. In its structure, it appears to consist of numerous cells. Its use has long been a subject of difficulty and dispute with physiologists ; but it is now supposed to act as a reservoir for superfluous fluid. It has been removed from living animals Avithout subjecting them afterwai'ds to apparent in- convenience ; consequently, its purpose cannot be of vital im- portance. — Ed.] CHAP. XVI. ON DIGESTION. [The horse is strictly a vegetable feeder : in a state of nature his food is confined to the grass of the field ; and althougli in a domesticated state he largely subsists on nourishment in a more concentrated form, such as grain, yet it is impossible to make him live on animal food ; his teeth, his stomach, and intestines are all adapted for the comminution and digestion of vegetables : the former are broad, for the purpose of grinding the food as in a mill ; and the intestines are bulky, so as to contain a large quantity of food. The horse at grass is almost constantly feeding ; he does not, like the ox, gather together large tufts of grass, but he takes a short bite, and delights in a sweet herbage. The manner in which he gathers his food is worthy of notice : he does not bite it oflT with his teeth, but having closely embraced a short bite between the incisor teeth or nippers, he pulls it off" by making a slight motion of the head : this is the only duty of these teeth, for the tongue immediately passes on the food to the molar teetli, between which it is ground as in a mill The under molar teeth DIGESTION. 71 do not extend so wide as the upper, but by the lateral motion of the jaws a grinding process is effected. During the time the food is thus being masticated, an abundant supply of saliva is furnished by the various salivary glands, and the soft bolus is then passed into the gullet by the tongue. By the muscles of the gullet or pharynx the food is passed into the oesophagus, by the muscular coat of which it is forced into the stomach. In swallowing liquids a vacuum is formed in the mouth, and the water is thus sucked in, the tongue forming a sort of channel for its passage. In this operation the lips are surrounded with water, and the air carefully excluded. When grain forms the diet of the animal, the nippers have very little to do ; they merely collect the food, which is transferred to the molar teeth to be effectually ground. Mastication is, of course, much slower with this food than with grass, otherwise a portion of the food would be swallowed whole, and passed through the body without having its nutritious principle ex- tracted ; a circumstance which often happens with very greedy feeders, and likewise in old horses, from the teeth being im- perfect. We have before remarked that the stomach of the horse is very small in proportion to the size of the animal, for which fact a reason is afforded by the habits and peculiarities of the animal. The ox, we find, has no less than four stomachs : in him the process of digestion is comparatively tedious and slow ; for having filled his paunch, he becomes more sluggish and disinclined for motion ; he lies down, and his food undergoes a second process, that of rumination. Carnivorous animals have a capacious stomach, which they ravenously fill with a large quantity of animal food, after which they become sluggish, and lie down and sleep. The horse, however, in a natural state, is almost constantly in motion. He eats Avhen he can, and as often as he can, and is almost immediately afterwards prepared for flight. Having a small stomach, it does not, even when filled, press so heavily against the diaphragm as to impede respiration, as with other animals we have mentioned ; and although the practice of work- ing him on a full stomach is by no means to be recommended, yet it is surprising what exertions he is capable of even in this state. Thus a horse, from being furnished with a small stomach, is rendered more useful for purposes of speed, or draught, and con- sequently more serviceable to man. The food having entered the stomach, is there submitted to the action of a fluid secreted by the villous coat of the stomach, and termed the gastric juice. This fluid is very peculiar in its nature, and has the power of separating the whey from milk. It operates chemically on the food, and converts it into a soft pulpy mass, called chyme, in which state it is pass,ed into the 72 STRUCTUEE AND ECONOMY OF THE HOUSE. small intestines. To effect this purpose, the food is detained in the stomach a considerable time, during which time it is pressed npon by the muscular coat of the stomach, and moved about so as to submit every portion of it to the action of the gastric juice. The stomach of the horse differs from that of carnivorous animals, not only in the possession of its cuticular coat, but likewise in the fact of having a fundus or blind end, which serves the pur- pose of detaining the food, making it necessary for it to return almost to the same place where it entered the stomach before it can pass into the duodenum. Food is detained in the stomach different periods, according to the time required for its conversion ; and it is found that if both corn and grass be given a horse, that the latter will pass into the duodenum first, although eaten some time after the former. It has been ascertained by Mr. Percivall that corn given to a condemned horse, destroyed six hours afterwards, still remained in the stomach. The properties of the gastric juice are peculiar, being at the same time a powerful solvent, and an antiseptic, and having a power of coagulation. It is capable of dissolving the hardest materials, such as bones; and when meat in a state of putre- fiiction has been given, it has quickly removed all appearance of putrescence. Its property of coagulating milk and albuminous fluids is useful in converting a fluid into a solid state, and thus detaining it in the stomach much longer than would otherwise be the case. It is found, in the horse, that if a quantity of water be given even just after the food, it quickly passes through the stomach, and is conveyed to the ca3cum, the principal office of which ap- pears to be that of a receptacle for liquids. There is little or no difficulty in its passing through the stomach, as its two orifices are not very distant from each other ; thus we discover another use of the fundus in affording a reservoir for the solids Avithout obstructing the passage of liquids, besides the purpose of de- taining the food longer in the stomach. It has been found by actual experiment that vegetables are longer digesting than animal food. In the human subject, it has appeared that the too great use of soups, although containing a very large proportion of nutri- ment, was yet productive of injury, from being passed too quickly through the stomach. I have found likewise, that when bruised oats have been given to horses without any counteractive agent, it has been productive of diarrhoea, in all probability from the circumstance of being passed too quickly through the stomach. And the vulgar way of explaining the looseness in washy horses is not altogether destitute of foundation, " that the food does not remain long DIGESTION. 73 enough in them to do them good." During the active process of chymification, as it is called, going on in the stomach, its orifices are in great measure closed ; but after it is eiFected, the food is gradually forced through the pyloric opening into the duodenum, where it has to undergo that further process of digestion, called chylification. The pyloric orifice is furnished Avith a circular band of fibres, covered by a fold of the villous or nervous coat, which appears to have, by its extreme sensibility, a power of selecting that portion of the food which has been sufficiently chymified. Not but what food frequently passes through without being acted on by the gastric juice ; for we find in birds that seeds are frequently dropped with the dung in a perfect state, and in the fjeces of horses we may frequently de- tect grain in a whole state. The stomach is largely supplied with nervous energy, by means of an important nerve, called the par vagum, or pneumo- gastric ; and it has been found that on dividing this nerve, the process of digestion has ceased, showing how essential this connection is between the stomach and the bi-ain. It has, how- ever, been found, that where galvanism has been applied to the mutilated nerves, digestion has again commenced, and been carried on for some time. It should not be forgotten that the process of chymification is very much assisted by the high temperature of the stomach, which during the process is very much increased. The process of chymification may be disturbed, and the func- tions of the stomach deranged, by various causes. We well know that in ourselves fear and anxiety will both destroy the appetite and produce dyspepsia ; and in irritable horses the same effect will be produced. Cold ap[)lied to the skin will also derange the stomach, and still more frequently will disordered stomach derange the skin ; so intimate is the sympathy between these parts. — Ed.] It has been remarked that cavalry horses, stationed near the sea, have rough staring coats, are hide-bound, and often other- wise diseased : this pi-obably depends upon the bad quality of the water in such situations. M. Collaine, Pi'ofessor of the Ve- terinary School at Milan, says, " I have remarked that in Italy many corps of cavalry, after being stationed a few months near the sea, have been strongly affected with the farcy." I have seen a large dose of infusion of tobacco cause violent shivering ; and in some experiments I once made on a glandered horse, the same effect was uniformly produced by a large dose of a solution of arsenic. Many other circumstances might be adduced to show tlie connection or sympathy that exists between the digestive organs and the skin, or, in other words, the organ of perspir- ation. Many of the diseases of cattle may be traced to this 74 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE UORSE. source ; and the common term chill is by no means an unfit one for many of the diseases of cattle, especially when considered in connection with the digestive organs, for on these the mischief generally falls. Sometimes, however, the organs of respiration or breathing suffer, or, in other wox'ds, the lungs ; and so it is in horses, as will be shown in a future chapter. From the above circumstances it will be seen how necessary a healthy state of the skin is to the digestive process ; and we cannot expect a smooth glossy coat on a horse unless he is kept on wholesome food and water. This sympathy, or consent, be- tween the stomach and skin, must dejiend upon their communi- cating with each other tlu-ough the medium or intervention of the nerves. It is obvious that the sensorium or brain must be a means of communication between all the nerves or organs of the body ; this is shown by making a wound in the skin, or by whipping the animal. This painful impression on the skin, which is the organ of feeling, is communicated with inconceiv- able rapidity to the sensorium or mind of the animal ; and a considerable degree of muscular motion takes place in conse- quence. But, besides this common medium of nervous commu- nication between the skin and the digestive organs, there is another, through which slight impressions are communicated from one to the other ; that is, through the great sympathetic nerve. There is a circumstance to be kept in view with regard to the connection between the digestive organs and the skin which is of a strictly practical nature, and will be found of great use. If the horse's skin has been brought to a higher degree of sensibility than is consistent with the purposes he is wanted for by hot stables, warm clothing, and regular grooming, it may well be expected that exposure to cold and wet, especially if he has been heated and fatigued by exercise, will make such a pain- fid or chilling impression upon the skin as will be communicated to the stomach ; in consequence of which there will be a depres- sion of appetite, if there is no food in the stomach ; and if that organ has food in it, there will be an interruption to, or a sus- pension of, the digestive process. The bowels may be aifected by the same cause ; and when the chilling impression is strong, even the heart may be depressed. When this happens, the blood accumulates in the lungs, the heart, and the brain, and internal inflammation or fever may be the consequence. Another evil arising from chills is a suppression of the perspirable dis- charge, either wholly or in part. The excrementitious parts of the blood which would have passed off through this outlet are then thrown back upon the circulation, and cause some degree of disturbance in the body, or fever, until thrown off by the other cmunctories In horses and cattle the kidneys are considerable cmunctories, and are easily excited to action ; these readily carry DIGESTIOX. 75 off the excrementitious matter as well as the superfluous serum of the blood : but in chills it often falls upon the mucous mem- brane which lines the respiratory or air passages, causing cough, sore throat, and running from the nostrils, often attended with fever. The importance of the nervous system has not been sufficiently attended to in the treatment of horses and cattle. It is only necessary at present to show how materially diges- tion is influenced by it, not only in regard to the state of the skin, or to impressions made upon its nerves, whether painful or otherwise, but likewise as it regards the animal's mind and temper. To obtain a perfect digestion, it is not sufficient to supply the horse liberally with good food and water ; it is neces- sary also that he should be made comfortable by being kept in a suitable stable, and being properly groomed, and in every respect treated with kindness. He should never be worked beyond his strength or condition. A horse's capacity for exer- tion or work depends not only upon his general strength, but upon his habits, and upon the state of his health at the time he is employed. Thus a powerful horse, from living well, and in a state of idleness, may, though looking fat and sleek, be unfit for a moderate journey ; or if by living in this manner his stomach has been enlarged and weakened, his bowels loaded with excre- ment, and consequently stretched and weakened, his liver, and all the venous system, surcharged with blood, a moderate journey may, under such circumstances, bring on a fatal disordei'. It requires but little reflection to perceive that whatever contri- butes to easy digestion in ourselves will do the same in horses ; and every one knows that calmness and cheerfulness of mind or temper are conducive, if not absolutely necessary, to a perfect digestion. Thus it is that horses which have been accustomed to company and kind treatment pine and fall off in condition under different management. Old horses that have been accus- tomed to warm stables often fall off in appetite and condition Avhen placed in such as are cold. A damp stable, or letting a current of air come upon a horse's head, especially if he is brought in sweating from exercise, will so far chill the skin, and interrupt its functions, as to cause that excrementitious matter Avhich should have been discharged by the skin to fall upon the mucous membranes. Those of the lungs, or air passages, are generally aflected, or rather most visibly affected, as is denoted by cough, dulness or watering of the eyes, and discharge from the nostrils : but the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels seldom escapes uninjured, as is seen by the diminished appetite, impei'fect digestion, and the looseness or alteration in the state of the dung which follow. [Shortly after the food enters the duodenum it is submitted to the action of two fluids ; one furnished by the pancreas, and the 76 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. other by the hver. The pancreatic juice is very similar to that of saliva ; its principal use, therefore, appears to be to dilute the food ; but it also contains much albumen, which forms an import- ant constituent in chyle. Wc can readily understand how essen- tial it is that a watery fluid should here be supplied. In the stomach it would be unnecessary, indeed hurtful, as it would hasten the expulsion of its contents too rapidly ; but in the intestines, in order that the chyle should be extracted, it is essen- tial that the food should be liquefied. The formation of chyle is the immediate result of the admix- ture of the bile, which thus has a chemical action on it. The properties of bile have before been noticed, and its prin- cipal use is that above stated. Chyle is a thick white fluid, resembling cream, when recently extracted, but it soon separates into a coagulum and a watery fluid: it is found to be composed of minute globules, smaller than those of the blood : its taste is both sour and sweet. The chyme, when it enters the duodenum, has a considerable quantity of acid in its composition ; but as it advances it is deprived of this acid, and alkali is found to preponderate. This change is effected by the bile, which contains a large quantity of alkali, the alkali combining with the muriatic acid of the chyme. By this combination carbonic acid is set free, which accounts for the presence of this gas in the intestines. There are other gases found in the intestinal canal, which in the stomach principally consist of oxygen and nitrogen, and, in the large intestines, of hydrogen in several combinations. The gx'cater part of the chyle is extracted in the small intes- tines by means of the lacteals ; but in the large intestines also this process goes on : for it has been found that life has been supported for some time by nutritious injections. The food having entered the large intestines, is prevented from returning by the valve at the place of entrance. The colon and the cfficum commence from the same place, so that a portion of the food enters each intestine. On examining the crecum after death, we find that its contents are more watery than the others ; and it has been found that when a horse takes a large quantity of water, it passes in the course of ten minutes into the cajcum, whose principal oflace may therefore be considered as a re- ceptacle for water. The importance of such a reservoir in the horse is very evident, when we consider, on the one hand, the small size of the stomach, and, on the other, the large quantity of water, three or four gallons, taken at a time. A great portion of the contents of the Cfficuni is taken up by the absorbent vessels, and the remainder is returned to the place of entrance, and. passes into the colon and mixes with its contents. The structure of the colon wc have before noticed : its interior is formed into DIGESTION. 77 cells, it has several convolutions, and Its diameter varies at different parts. This peculiar structure eminently qualifies it for retaining its contents, so as to perfect the process of digestion ; for it appears that the large intestines in the horse effect a more important service than in man or carnivorous animals, a much greater portion of nutriment being absorbed in them. From the colon the fjBces pass into the rectum in the form of balls of a tri- angular shape, having been so modified by the latter part of the colon. The rectum, as its name implies, is a straight gut acting as a reservoir for the faeces, and is furnished with a powerful mus- cular coat, by the contractions of which it is, from time to time, expelled ; with the assistance, however, of the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles. The intestines, both large and small, are fiistened to the spine by means of a strong membrane, whicli is spread out in a radiated direction, like a fan, the foci of which are of course towards the spine. That part of the membrane which is attached to the small intestines is termed the mesentery ; and the other portions are termed the mesocolon and the mesorectum, according to the gut with which it is connected. This membrane, which we may as well designate as the mesentery throughout, not only serves to sustain the bowels, but also to aff^brd a vehicle for their important vessels. Thus we have numerous arteries for the nourishment of the coats of the bowels, and to furnish their internal secretions. We have likewise the mesenteric veins, which have been found not only to return the venous blood, but also to have a power of absorbing the more fluid contents of the bowels, as well as some chemical agents which have been administered for experiment, and which the lacteals have refused. There is also an abundant supply of nerves passing to the bowels, furnishing them Avith nervous energy, and keeping up their connection with the sensorium. These are not only nerves of sensation, but also of involuntary motion: the former are at all times the medium of common feeling, and sometimes, as in spasms or inflammation, the source or seat of the most intense pain ; the latter endow the muscular coat of the bowels with the peculiar peristaltic or vermicular action it possesses, and by which the contents are passed onwards. Lastly, the mesentery abounds with minute vessels, called the lacteals, which open into the intestines, and absorb the chyle, and convey it through a number of glands, called mesenteric glands*, to a canal denominated the receptaculum chyli, which takes its course along the spine, and terminates in a large vein, just before It reachesthe heart. The lacteals are so small as to * These glands sometimes become hardened and enlarged, and thus inter- rupting the course of the chyle, causes the animal to lose tlesh. 78 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. be ordinarily imperceptible to the naked eye ; and they seem to possess a peculiar sensibility for the absorption of chyle, which, however, is urged onwards by means of capillary attraction.* Thus the beautiful process of digestion is carried on, whereby the grass of the field is gradually converted into the various and complicated structure of animal frames. In this process it is easy to believe how the imperfection of one part may neutralise the operation of another, and thereby materially impair the effect of the whole. Thus, loss of condition, so often met with in the horse, may arise either from deranged stomach or intestines, from diseased secretions of the glands, or from obstruction or disease of the absorbent vessels. — Ed.] CHAP. XVII. ON THE URINARY ORGANS. [The urine Is separated from the blood by means of the kidneys, two glands of well-known shape, lying one on each side of the spine, immediately under the lumbar vertebrae. Unlike the liver, their lower surfaces only are covered by peritoneum ; and they are kept in their situation partly by cellular membrane which attaches them to the psoas muscles above, and to the neighbouring parts ; partly by the fat in which they are im- bedded ; but still more by lai-ge and important blood vessels, which enter the gland at the notch in its centre. On cutting into the kidney, we find that the outer part is a dark red, and the inner a lighter colour : the former is termed the cortical, and the latter the medullary, part ; and the sub- stance of the former runs into the latter. The kidneys are covered by a membrane peculiar to itself. The blood enters the kidney at its notch by means of the emulgent artery, which divides into four or five branches, taking their course towards the cortical part, where they end in minute vessels. These vessels, which are exceedingly numerous, terminate in little globular bodies, by which the urine is separated. The superfluous blood is returned by the veins ; but the urine is conveyed by a particular set of * Modern researches in organic chemistry have thrown considerable light on the subject of digestion. It is now ascertained beyond doubt that food consists of two characteristic elements, one being for the nourishment of the body, the other for the support of combustion in tlie lungs. The former contains nitrogen, and the latter does not. Thus flesh, grain, and pulse contain nitrogen, and are capable of affording nourishment; whilst oil, fat, and starch are only able to supply carbon for the purpose of respira- tion. Hay and corn contain both these elements in combination, and are thus well adapted both for recruiting the wear and tear of the muscular structure, and for keeping up the temperature of the body. — Ed. THE URINAKY ORGANS. 79 vessels into a reservoir, called the pelvis, situated in the me- dullary part of the kidney. From the pelvis of the kidney arises a long white tube, called the ureter, which leaves the kidney at its notch, and runs along the lumbar vertebroe to the pelvis of the body, where it is attached to the upper and lateral part of the bladder, on which it continues its course towards the neck of the bladder. Before it reaches the neck it disappears, by penetrating the external coats of the bladder, passes a short distance, and then terminates by piercing the internal coat in an oblique direction. The kidneys are well supplied with nerves, which enter them Avith the blood vessels. Near the kidneys are two small bodies, called the capsula; renales, whose use is unknown. The BLADDER is situated entirely within the cavity of the pelvis, when in an undistended state; but when full, a portion of it projects into the abdomen. It is attached to the pelvis by cellular membrane, but is chiefly kept in its situation by means of peri- toneum, by which it is partially covered. It is jilaced at the lower part of the pelvis, having immediately above it the rectum in the male, and the vagina in the female. The bladder is usually distinguished into three parts : the fundus, the body, and the cervix, or neck. The fundus is the round extremity, which often projects into the abdomen ; the body forms the principal bulk of the bladder ; and the cervix is the posterior narrow part, which, however, is thicker than the rest, and is united to the urethra. The bladder is composed of three coats : the external, the in- ternal, and the muscular. The former is formed by peritoneum, and covers the anterior part of the bladder only. The internal or mucous coat forms the principal thickness of the bladder, and secretes a mucus for its internal lubrication, and to prevent the irritating efi'ects of the urine. This coat possesses much sen- sibility, and is largely supplied with nerves. The muscular coat is composed of two orders of fibres, longitudinal and circular ; the former of which will diminish the length, and the latter the breadth, and the united contraction of both will lessen the cavity so as to expel the contents. The nock of the bladder is more abundantly furnished with circular fibres than the other parts, and their office in this situa- tion is to prevent the urine from escaping by closing the cavity. These fibres, when contracted from spasm, occasion a retention of the urine. The urine is discharged from the body through a membranous canal, called the urethra, which, in the male, is of considerable length, extending from the bladder to the extremity of the penis. 80 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. It first takes a course from the neck of the bladder backwards, and becomes increased in size, and approaclies very near the skin, being, indeed, just under the anus ; it then forms an acute angle, turning downwards and forwards, and is here surrounded by a muscle called the accelerator urina3, and continues to the extremity of the penis. In the female the passage is considei*ably shorter, being about two inches backward, and slightly upward, when it opens into the pudendum, and is connected with the organs of generation. The Urine is a fluid secreted or separated by the kidneys, and poured by them through specific channels, the ureters, into the bladder. In a state of health it is of an amber colour, and its peculiar odour is well known. It is composed chiefly of water, Avhich contains some salts, and a peculiar substance, called urea, to which its properties are more particularly owing. The colour of the urine is much lighter after a large quantity of water has been drunk ; and darker, and more acrid, after solid food. There is a great sympathy between the kidneys and the skin ; as the secretion of the one increases, that of the other diminishes : when horses sweat much, they urine little, and vice versa. The urine is separated from the blood, which is conveyed to the kidneys by the emulgent artei'ies ; these organs, therefore, serve the purpose of separating the excrement from the system, and conveying it away : and it is also thought they serve an oflice subordinate to the skin, — that of removing the superfluous fluid that is not actually required by the skin, or cooling the body by means of perspiration. The Bladder, is, of course, a reservoir for the urine, preventing the great inconvenience that would result from discharging the urine as fast as it is secreted. It receives the urine by means of the ureters, and suffers it to accumulate to a certain degree, differing in different individuals : it then pi'oduces an uneasy feeling, which induces the animal to discharge it. The act of staling is therefore a voluntary act, but the inclination urging it is much affected by nervous influence ; e. g. fear, and anxiety of mind, will repeatedly cause a disposition to urinate, both in the horse and in man. The act of staling is more simple in the mare than in the horse ; and in the former a retention of urine is much rarer, and is more easily removed, which is owing to the straightness and shortness of the canal in mares, and the great length and obliquity of the external passage in horses. In the urinary act the horse stretches out his legs, and after a few moments' preparation, in wdiich he inspires a greater quan- tum of air than common, he expels the urine by the conjoint assistance of the diaphragm, the abdominal muscles, and muscular coat of the bladder. Towards the conclusion of the act, the THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 81 expulsion of the urine from the urethra is assisted by a small muscle, called the accelerator urinae, which clears the passage completely. The mare has, likewise, the power of ejecting the last portion of the urine, by inverting repeatedly the nymphse and clitoris. — Ed.] CHAP. XVIII. THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. [The Organs of Generation are intimately connected with the parts last mentioned ; they are in both sexes very complicated ; but in this place a general description must suffice. In the male Ave find glands to secrete the prolific fluid, and an instrument to convey it to the necessary receptacle in the female ; the first are called the testes, the other is the penis. The Testes or Testicles are two glandular bodies, suspended between the thighs, and contained within a bag called the scro- tum. They are of an oval shape, flattened at the sides, and somewhat about the size of a hen's egg when full grown. To the upper and posterior part of the testicle is attached the vas deferens ; and to the upper and anterior end is joined the sper- matic cord, by which the gland is suspended, and retained in its situation. The substance of the testicle is soft, and of a light brown colour. At the upper part of the testicle is found what is called the Epididymis, which is composed principally of a white tube containing semen, coiled up to that extent that when unwound it has been found several yards in length. The epididymis is larger at each extremity than in the middle. These extremities are severally called the globus major and minor. The former, is situated towards the front, and the smaller globe is found towards the back part of the testicle ; from the larger globe, Avhich is commonly termed the nut, and is indeed about the size of a small walnut, the vas deferens arises. The Spermatic Cord, by which the testicle is suspended, is composed of numerous parts, although not by any means bulky in their ^tructure. There are, in the first place, no less than four distinct coverings : one of which, called the cremaster, is muscular, and has the power by its contraction of drawing up the testicle. The other parts of the cord consist of arteries, veins, nerves, and the vas deferens. The arteries are two in number ; a small one, belonging to the cord ; and a larger one, the spermatic, supplying the testicle itself, and from which the semen is secreted : from the latter the G 82 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. principal bleeding takes place in tlie operation of castration. The veins are large and numerous, and accompany the arteries in their course, together with the nerves, which, although small, are, as well as the absorbent vessels, very numerous. The Vas Deferens, as the duct which conveys the seminal fluid is termed, forms a part of the cord, which can readily be distin- guished from the other parts, being stout and firm to the touch. It springs from tlie small end of the epididymis, at the anterior part of the testicle, and consequently does not at first join the other parts ; it, however, gradually approaches them, and enters the abdomen with them, when it ascends to the pelvis, and passes by the side of the bladder, about an inch posterior to which it terminates in another duct not yet described. The Scrotum, or bag in which the testes are found, is com- posed of several coverings. We have externally the skin, which is soft and thin, and usually dark. It is equally divided by a longitudinal crease called the raphe. On cutting through the skin, we find a layer or coat, supposed to be muscular, called in human anatomy the dartos. It is loosely connected by mem- brane with the skin and other parts ; and a portion of it passing upwards from the raphe, divides the scrotum into two equal parts, and thus separates the testicles from each other. The third covering of the scrotum is formed by cellular mem- brane. The testicles themselves have two coats ; one intimately connected with the gland itself, and the other external to this, and common to both the testicle and the cord. The latter is called tunica vaginalis, or vaginal tunic, and is formed of peri- toneum, and accompanies the testicle in its descent. After en- veloping the cord and the testicle, it is reflected, so as to invest them a second time, and is thence called the tunica reflexa. Between these two membranes a fluid is secreted for the lubri- cation of the parts, which spurts out in the operation of castra- tion. In performing this operation, we therefore first cut through the skin, next the fibrous coat, then the cellular covering ; these membranes belonging to the scrotum. The knife next divides the tunica vaginalis, on which the fluid before spoken of spurts out, and the testicle sj)rings from the bag through the incision. Thus, by one stroke of the knife, we sever no less than three coverings, besides the skin; but there is no occasion to cut through the reflected coat or tunica albuginea, as the white coat immediately enveloping the testicle is termed. The testicles at birth are, like those of man, contained within the scrotum ; but, after five or six months, they are drawn up between the external and internal abdominal rings, where they remain six or seven months, and then again descend to the scrotum. THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 83 The abdominal rings are two on each side, the external and the internal ; the former is the opening in the transverse muscle, the latter in the fascia, or strong membrane, which immediately contains the intestines. They are not placed opposite each other, but about tliree inclies apart, the external ring being situated at the posterior and inferior part of the abdomen. The testicle itself, too, has a coat of peritoneum ; and, when it leaves the abdomen, it forces that portion of the peritoneum which closes the opening with it, and carries it down to the scrotum, thus accounting for two things, — the double membrane of the testicle, and the circumstance of the open communication existing between the scrotum and the abdomen, which, indeed, is the principal cause of the dangerous symptoms which sometimes supervene after the operation of castration. The Penis, which serves the double office of aifording a pas- sage for the urine, and ejecting the semen, is a long fleshy body, attached to the pelvis by ligaments and muscles. It is composed of several distinct parts, besides its muscles, which are, first, a pair called the erectors, situated at the root of the penis, and at- tached to the bones of the pelvis, which assist in the erection of the organ, by promoting the influx of blood. Then we have a small triangular muscle, situated at the root of the organ, besides the Accelerator, which envelopes the urethra, and ejects with force both the urine and the semen. The body of the penis is formed principally of two cavernous bodies, which, by the power they possess of containing a large quantity of blood, increase almost suddenly in size, and thus cause the erection of the penis. The extremity of the penis is called the glans, which, in its distended state, is large and rounded, and is the counterpart to the mouth of the uterus in the female, to which it is applied in the act of copulation. At the extremity of the glans is the mem- brane of the urethra, which, in some measure, projects beyond the glans. At the commencement of the urethra, near the neck of the bladder, are found three small bodies, called the prostate glands, one of which is much larger than the others. These glands secrete a white fluid, or mucus, which mixes with the semen pre- vious to its ejection. The penis of the horse, in its flaccid state, is not usually seen, being altogether situated within its sheath, which is formed by loose folds of skin, reflected on the body of the penis, so as to permit the ready projection or retraction of the organ. Within the sheath are situated a number of small glands, which secrete a w^hite odorous substance, which often collects and becomes offensive ; and sometimes insinuates within the ure- thra, and obstructs the passage. 84 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. The seminal fluid, from the place of Its secretion to that of Its departure from the body, traverses a considerable length of passage ; that of the urethra alone being nearly two feet. It is secreted by the minute branches of the spermatic artery, whence it passes into small tubes, which convey it to larger ones, which from being assembled in the form of network are" called the rete : thence a still larger set of tubes, the vasa efferentia, convey it from the testicle itself to the epididymis. The epi- didymis, which we have before observed lies on the upper part of the testicle, receives the semen from the vas efferentia, which unite at the anterior part of the epididymis, and terminate in a single duct several yards in length when unwound, but colled up in the small compass of the large head or nut of the epidi- dymis. From this part the vas deferens proceeds, which, join- ing the cord, enters the abdomen through the ring, and ti-a- versing the pelvis, conveys the semen to about one inch posterior to the neck of the bladder. The Vesiculce Scminalis, oblong membranous bags, are sup- posed to act as reservoirs for the semen ; they are situated in the space between the bladder and the rectum, and open by means of ducts into the urethra, very near the termination of the vas deferens. The female organs of generation are usually classed by ana- tomists into the external and the internal. The opening just under the anus, so much larger in brood mares, is termed the pudendum or vulva, and is formed by the labia or lips on each side, the places of junction of which above and below are termed the commissures. The Labia Pudendi are covered externally with fine soft skin, generally of a dark colour, under Avhich there is a fatty and fibrous substance, which forms their principal bulk. Within the vulva, the labia are covered by a mucous membrane, and possess some degree of muscular power, which Is exemplified in mares after staling. On separating the lips of the pudendum, we find at the lower part, the clitoris, a fleshy body, somewhat analogous to the penis, having like it a power of erection, and furnished with muscles for the purpose. Anterior to the clitoris and about four inches from the vulva, we find the commencement of the passage to the bladder, the meatus urinarlus. It is large enough to admit the finger, is about two Inches in length, and passes downwards and forwards to the bladder ; its entrance is guarded by a membrane, which lies upon it, and thus acts as a valve. The Internal Organs of generation are the vagina, the uterus, the fallopian tubes, and avarice. The Vagina is a cylindrical canal of great dimensions, being THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 65 eighteen inches in length, extending from the vulva to the uterus. It is situated between the rectum above, and the bladder below; is partly membranous, and partly muscular in its composition ; and is lined internally by a mucous membrane, which is col- lected in loose folds. The Uterus, or womb, in the mare, is very singular in shape, having a body, a neck, and two horns ; the body is the cylin- drical part, having the neck behind and the horns in front ; the neck is the posterior contracted part, which projects into the vagina ; it presents a wrinkled flower-like appearance, and has in its middle an opening into the vagina, called the os uteri. The horns, which are each almost as large as the body, proceed backwards from it, diverging from each other. They proceed upwards, into the abdomen, and end in I'ound extremities, to which are connected the fallopian tubes. The uterus possesses considerable strength, which is chiefly owing to its thick fibrous coat, which, during gestation, possesses great contractile power. The Fallopian Tubes are two very small tubes, about an inch and a half in length, leading from the horns of the uterus to the ovaria. The Ovaria or female testicles are considerably smaller than the male organs, which in shape they resemble, being about the size of walnuts ; they are situated in the abdomen, a little ante- rior to the kidneys, and are loosely connected to the spine by membrane. They are well supplied with blood vessels and nerves, and supply small ova or vesicles, one of which, during copulation, is conveyed through the fallopian tubes to the uterus, and being impregnated by the seminal fluid of the male, becomes the germ of a new animal. The operation of spaying, so often performed in tlie pig, and sometimes on the cow and mai'e, consists in making an opening at the flank into the abdomen, and introducing the finger, with which the ovaria are brought out and cut off. The Udder of the mare is situated at the lower and back part of the abdomen between the thighs ; in the virgin state it is exceedingly small, but towards the latter period of gestation en- larges considerably, and a few days before parturition milk is secreted. The udder is a glandular structure, well furnished with blood vessels, by Avhich the milk is secreted, which is then poured into specific canals, which convey it to the teats or dugs, the ex- tremities of which are pierced with three small holes, for the exit of the milk. Both udder and teats are covered by soft skin, generally of a dark colour. — Ed.] 86 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. CHAP. XIX. ON THE FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS, AND THE GROWTH OF THE FCETUS. [The purpose of the complicated structures which we have de- scribed, both in the male and the female, is the preservation of the species. For this object, it is not only essential that the seminal fluid should be ejected into the uterus, but that the mare should be in a proper state to receive it. The human female is in a state fit for breeding all the year round ; but in the mare this condi- tion only exists at the period of horsing, which is generally con- fined to the spring, and early part of the summer. Mares go eleven months with foal ; but they usually exhibit the disposi- tion to copulate — which is well known by the increased heat and swelling of the parts of generation, and the emission of a white fluid — about nine or ten days after gestation, and afterwards, at intervals of a few days at first, and then about three weeks from this time; the brood mare is consequently enabled to breed a colt per annum, for several successive years. The stallion being highly fed, although he impregnates a great many mares in the course of the season, is yet very soon excited to the act by the presence of the salacious female. The testicles are drawn up and the penis is quickly erected by the sudden accu- mulation of blood in its cavernous substance and glans, which by the angle formed at the root of the penis is prevented return- ing. In this state, the leap having been taken, the penis enters the female parts, and the glans, by successive efibrts, is pushed against the os uteri, to which it exactly corresponds. The fric- tion of the parts produces exquisite pleasure to both sexes, at the climax of which the semen is ejected into the uterus with con- siderable force. This done, the act is completed on the part of the male, the penis becomes flaccid, and is withdrawn, and the feeling of lassitude succeeds the intensity of pleasure. The female often rejects the semen shortly afterwards, to pre- vent which, it is sometimes customary to throw cold water over the loins to diminish the excitement of the parts, and thus cause them to retain the prolific fluid. Bleeding has been sometimes practised with the same view, and, it is stated, with success. When the mare is impregnated, the os uteri is closed, and there is no longer a disposition for the horse; this rule, however, is not without exception. The phenomena which supervene in the female uterus after a successful nupregnation have been the subject of much dispute, and are still surrounded with mystery. The Ovaria are found FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS, ETC. 87 to be composed of vesicles, or sacs, which contain a fluid, within which are small bodies called ovula, and whicli ai-e, indeed, the germs of young animals. Whether the seminal fluid is conveyed by the fallopian tubes to the ovaria, and there impregnates an ovulum, as is supposed, or whether the vesicle bursts indepen- dently of the copulative act, and is then conveyed to the uterus there to be impregnated, or not, we cannot determine. The ovulum, being impregnated, is termed the ovum, and on departing from the ovarium leaves a scar behind, which is called a corpus luteum. The impregnated ovum, soon after its arrival in the uterus, becomes firmly attached to this body, prior to whicli a quantity of blood is determined to the uterus, by which a substance re- sembling lymph is secreted, which furnishes not only a lining membrane for the uterus, but also for the ovum itself. The former is termed the deciduous, and the latter the reflected coat; and each of them soon becoming abundantly furnished with blood vessels, they together are called the Placenta, and the foetus is thereby supplied with nourishment. The vessels of the mother, and those of the foetus, do not communicate with each other by any direct channel ; but it is supposed that the foetal vessels derive nourishment and purification by a sort of imbibition from the mother's blood. The ovum, on leaving the ovaries, is furnished with a mem- brane, called the Amnios, which afterwards increases in size, and furnishes a liquid in which the foetus floats, comparatively free from danger, and in all the ease and luxury of an hydrostatic bed. It is supported in its situation by the umbiUcal cord, or navel string, which is nearly three feet in length, and is composed of the blood vessels, and a canal communicating with the bladder, and proceeding from the navel of the foetus, and passing to the deciduous membranes of the mare. This canal is called tlie urachus, and serves to convey away the superfluous water that the foetal bladder would be incapable of containing. The circulation of the blood in the foetus, it is evident, must be very diflerent from that after birth. Nourishment is not afforded by the stomach, bile is not secreted by the liver, nor is the blood purified by the lungs : these organs are only supplied with nourishment sufilcient for their own support and increase. The arteries belonging to the maternal portion of the placenta terminate partly in veins, and partly in exhalent surfaces : from these exhalent surfaces, the minute branches of the umbilical veins of the foetus absorb blood in a comparatively red and purified state : they convey this blood into the foetal circulation through the vein, which, in the animal after birth, is wholly en- gaged in supplying the liver. It Avill thus be seen that the umbilical veins convey red blood, and the umbilical arteries black 88 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. blood, contrary to the usual custom. The blood from the um- bilical veins, as well as the lower part of the body, enters both sides of the heart at once, and a small portion is thence sent into the lungs from the right ventricle, whilst the largest portion is distributed to the system from the left ventricle. There is a communication, too, between the aorta and the pulmonary artery, by which the blood not required by the lungs is sent into the system through the aorta. It will thus be seen that the heart of the foetus, though double in its construction, is single in its office ; and, in this respect, is very analogous to the single heart of some cold-blooded animals. No sooner, however, does the animal breathe, than the right side of the heart has an independent office to perform, and the communications before spoken of are closed up. — Ed.] CHAP. XX. ON THE PRTNCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. [The comparative influence of the male and female in the formation of the offspring has been the subject of much dispute amongst physiologists, and is a matter on which there is still much diffisi'ence of opinion. Some contend, that the influence of the male is every thing, and that the female only affi)rds the soil for the nourishment of the fostus. Others argue, that the seed is afforded by the female, who has therefore the greatest influence over the future offspring, and that the male only ex- cites this seed into the action necessary for the production of the young animal. The question, however, is not to be de- cided by anatomy, or physiology, but only by the evidence of a number of piMctical results. The germ of the future oftspring is certainly supplied by the female ; but still the form and qualities may be the effect of the male, just as the ductile wax receives whatever impression the stamp may be calculated to produce, whether the head of a prince or that of a peasant. We must therefore look only to facts, to decide the point. It is a matter of some importance in the breeding of animals to have as correct views as possible on this subject, for it is too fre- quently the case that either one parent or the other is entirely disregarded in the choice, and the result is a weakly, mongrel, or bad-shaped animal. In crossing the bi'ced of animals, I think it will be found that the offspring turns mostly after the sire both in shape and in size. The common mule begotten by the male ass out of the mare certainly discovers a much stronger affinity in shape and size, and in disposition too, to his plebeian THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 89 sire, than to bis more aristocratic dam. The lengthy ears, the narrow foot, the coarse head, the hght and wiry limbs, the com- paratively insensible skin, are all derived from the ass, and even his size is more accordant to the sire than to tlie dam. It must be borne in mind, that the large Spanish mules that we occa- sionally see are begotten by asses of great size. In the breeding of sheep, it is found that the qualities of the ram preponderate over those of the ewe, a fact which is well illustrated by the cross between the South Down ewe and the Cotswold or Leicester ram, in which the progeny very nearly approaches the Cotswold both in size, length of wool, and general appearance. In horses it is surprising what large animals pony mares will breed when covered by horses much larger than themselves, and it is rarely the case that a large roomy mare will produce a colt that will reach her own size, if put to a small stallion. There are of course exceptions, but such is the general rule. From these facts, I think we are justified in concluding that the influence of the horse is superior to that of the mai'e, and that the offspring, in shape, size, and general qualities, turn more after the father than the mother. This fact, however, will by no means justify that total indif- ference as to the qualities of the mare, so generally pursued, particularly by farmers. When a mare is unfit for every other purpose, she is generally considered worth something for breed- ing ; whereas, in many cases, it would be more prudent and economical to destroy the poor brute, than suffer her faults and misfortunes to become hereditary. For, although the influence of the horse may be greater than that of the mare, yet the bad qualities of the latter are just as likely to be hereditary as those of the sire; and indeed any constitutional defects, such as a scrofulous disposition, are more likely to be derived from the mare than the horse, inasmuch as the intimate connection be- tween the maternal and fcetal system is considerable before birth, and is kept up afterwards by means of the milk. It must not be forgotten, too, that amongst mares and horses kept for breeding, the proportion of bad mares is greater than of bad horses. A horse is rarely preserved entire, and used generally as a stallion, unless he has some excellences ; whilst, as before observed. It is very frequently the case that the only claims a mare has to the embraces of a horse are her total un- fitness for every other purpose. . A bad mare will scarcely ever produce a good colt, however excellent the horse may be ; and although a very superior stallion may be introduced in a country where the qualities of the horses are bad, and the benefit may be immediately perceptible, yet it; takes some years and several generations before the character of the stock is materially changed. 90 STRUCTUKE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. The Arabs of the desert, we are told, prize their mares in- finitely beyond their horses, and while they part from the latter freely, yet nothing can induce them to give up their favourite mares. To this scrupulous attention to the female is doubtless chiefly owing the fact of their preserving their race of horses free from degeneracy, and in such great perfection for so many years. While they preserve good mares they cannot have bad horses; whereas, had they allowed degeneracy to creep in amongst their mares, the qualities of their horses could not have supplied the deficiency. It is a question, however, whether they would not have im- proved their race of horses still more, if they had bestowed more of that scrupulous attention on the sire which they pay so ex- clusively to the dam. And although, from the impossibility of getting the choicest Arab mares, we cannot reduce their powers to a fair comparison with our own, yet, from tlie great ease with which our second-rate horses have beaten the Arabs, some of them perhaps the own brothers of their favourite mares, I am inclined to think that if even their choicest mares were entered for those of our stakes confined to the feminine sex alone, we should find that the pride of the desert would be unable to wrest the laurels from our " Crucifixes" or ^' Black Besses,''^ and that the winner of the Oaks would still remain of English blood. Breeding horses is generally considered an unprofitable branch of a farmer's business, but this, I take it, is in great measure owing to the want of judgment displayed; for, certainly, keep- ing an animal till he is four or five years old, taking all the risks to which young stock are exposed, and then realising a price ranging between 20Z. and 30/., will most assuredly leave a balance on the unfavourable side of the profit and loss account. I am here not alluding to those large breeders who make it their principal business, having extensive pastures applicable for no other purpose, but to those agriculturists who cannot keep their colts for less than three or four shillings per week. To this description of farmers breeding cart horses is more profitable than hacks, as the colts come into work at two and three years old, and thus earn their keep at this early age, and if they are large and promising often realise high prices by the time they are five years old. Although more judgment has been displayed in this stock than in that of a better breed, yet there is still much room for judicious improvement. By using a horse as a stallion better bred than those generally used, many advantages are se- cured, without any proportionate drawbacks. The advantages are, by slightly reducing tlie weight we gain an improvement in the action, so much so that a pace of four miles an hour will be easier executed than three miles an hour by the heavier horse. By getting more breed a greater degree THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREEDING. 91 of nervous energy is obtained, and the horse is less likely to tire, and will consequently do more work. For common agricultural purposes, there is no horse so handy as one about 15 hands or a little more ; and where the land is not particularly heavy, and the principal object of the farmer is to get useful horses for his own use, he cannot do better than breed these little active animals, which, by a judicious attention to the qualities of the sire and the dam, he may obtain with such a degree of speed in the walk as to do half as much work again as the heavy, hairy-legged sort. When, however, the farmer intends selling off his stock after working them two years, so as to realise large prices for the London market, it is then essential that a much greater size should be attained, viz. from 16 to 17 hands, together with a disposition to carry plenty of flesh, for the Londoners will not buy unless a horse is fat. These purposes, however, may still be effected without losing sight of the principle we have advocated, that of improving the breed ; for, by selecting large, active, good-shaped cart mares, and by quitting them to a powerful half-bred stallion (better bred than he looks), we may secure size and shape, at the same time have substance and flesh enough to please the metropolitan eye, and to obtain as high prices as any tliat are sent to the London markets. I have myself seen many of this breed whom no one Avould condemn as too light for any purposes of drauglit. I do not like the plan, however, of putting a cart mare to a thorough- bred horse, as, generally speaking, these extremes are not equally mixed in the offspring, but are harshly conjoined ; for we often see them with the legs of the sire, and the carcass of the dam, the two extremes ineetimj, but not mingling, in the young animal. In breeding half-bred horses, so as to realise a profit, the principle to be kept in view is to produce an animal that will at four or five years old realise 50/. or 60/. ; to do which no greater expense is incurred than in breeding an animal of one half this value. In the first place, then, we have to inquire what sort of animal it is that realises this high price. They are principally of two kinds, hunters and carriage horses. By hunters, however, we do not mean any animal that can gallop fist over a light country ; but one that can carry a heavy weight in deep ground, well up to hounds when the scent is good, and the pace proportionate. For this purpose we require breed and substance in the highest degree the two qualities can be combined together. The horse should be as nearly as possible 16 hands, with a deep chest and barrel ; not too short in the back, but with strong loins and quarters ; good fore-arm and legs ; light head and neck, but the 92 STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE HORSE. latter not too short. These qualities are more easily obtained in a smaller horse, but this will not do if a good price is expected ; there must be a large frame to carry weight, and this can be ob- tained if the breeder will get the right sort of mare, which can be done by not sparing a few pounds. The mare then should be half-bred, and as near as possible 16 hands; not under 15^ nor over IG^, unless, in the latter case, the other qualities are very excellent. She must not be blind or half blind, unless from an accident, as the diseases of the eye are very hereditary. If she is lame, we must assure ourselves that it has not been produced by natural defect. We must take care that she is not too long and oblique, or too short and upright, in the pasterns; or knuckling at the knees or fetlocks, or small under the knee. If she be washy or light carcassed, although as fleet as the wind, we had better shoot her than breed from her. Her paces should be good, at any rate not bad ; and if she has been a good hunter, so much the better. And now what sort of a horse should such a mare be put to ? A thorough-bred, by all means, but not any one that may offer. He should have good fore-legs, and a large frame, and his per- formances should have been sufficient to show that his large frame was no hindrance to him. It is by no means essential that he should have won the Derby or St. Leger ; better far that he should have been in the tail at these great races, and have run honest and well afterwards, than that he should have come in first, and never raced again. It is essential that his consti- tution should be good, and there is no better proof of this than his capability of standing training without being ever and anon amiss, and his /r<'5'?]ified by the healing of a wound by the first intention, and the formation of new substance, or the union of old substances, in the chest or al)domen, after inflammation in those parts. Circnmscribed cavities, such as the chest and abdomen, have a disposition to adhesion in preference to suppuration ; but when both these sequela? occur in the same part, adhesion usually precedes suppuration. An effusion of serous fluid is also a frequent termination of inflammation of the membrane of the chest or abdomen. Suppuration, or the secretion of pus or matter, is a termination of inflammation to which internal canals, such as the bowels, urethra, or windpipe, are particularly disposed. In these parts, when both sup})uration and adhesion takes j)lace, the former always precedes the latter, contrary to the course which takes place in circumscribed cavities, and likewise in external wounds. The best illustration of suppuration is the formation of an abscess. An injury is received, inflammation follows, and blood and serum is effused, and is succeeded by the deposition of matter under the skin, or amongst the muscles ; the abscess bursts, or is opened, the matter is evacuated, and the vacant space is healed by the adhesive process. The adipose membrane is particularly disposed to take on the suppurative process, whilst the cellular membrane has a greater disposition to adhesion. Ulceration is a sequel of inflammation that may occur with suppuration, or independently of it. It consists in the absorption or removal of substance. Ulceration always occurs in abscesses before they burst ; the substance between the matter and the surface is gradually removed by ulceration, at the place where the abscess points. Thus it is a useful process of nature, though often a troublesome disease. An ulcer is a running sore, which may be healthy, and have a disjiosition to heal ; or unhealthy, and be disposed to enlarge and extend. The cavities of joints, when exceedingly inflamed, have a tend- ency to both ulceration and adhesion, either together or sepa- rately, an illustration of which is often afforded by the navicular joint disease. Besides the terminations we have mentioned, inflammation may end in gangrene, or the death of the part. 100 DISEASES OF THE TIORSE. Parts in wlncli the circulation is inactive, such as bone and cartilage, are more disposed to this process than other parts. A severe injury is received on a bone, and in the course of time a portion of" the bone sloughs off, or exfoliates, as it is called, that is, deprived of nourishment, dies and separates. Gangrene, as a termination of internal inilammatory diseases, is less fre- quent in the horse than in man. Inflammations in the former are usually more violent, run their course quicker, and are often succeeded by death, before gangrene has time to supervene. The Pulse affords us the best criterion of the presence and degree of internal inflammation, and its cliaracter is the surest guide we can follow as to treatment. It denotes the action of tiie heart, and may be felt in any superficial artery as well as at the region of the heart. The most convenient vessel for examin- ation, however, is the sub-maxillary artery, which passes over the under jaw-bone. The ordinary pulsation in the horse is about 32 to 36 in a minute. In inflammatory diseases, it is often greatly increased, sometimes exceeding 100. Besides the increase in its frequency, there is an alteration in its character, which is of still greater im- portance. Some horses have naturally a mucli stronger pulse than others, which it would be useful to ascertain, if possible ; but this is rarely the ease. The principal varieties in the kind of pulse are a soft, hard, strong, weak, full, oppressed, and intermittent pulse. A horse may have naturally either a strong or weak pulse, according, in a great measure, to the vigour of his constitution. Under disease we may have the above varieties in the pulse differently combined. A fidl pulse denotes an abundance of blood in the system, a strong pulse a vigorous action of the heart, and if with these states we have also a quickened action, copious blood- letting is demanded. A hard pulse is considered characteristic of inflammation: we then bleed, in order to produce a soft pulse. When the vessels are exceedingly full there is sometimes an op- pressed pulse, which demands copious bleeding. A weak state of the pulse forbids bleeding, and often requires stimulants ; this state of the pulse is often present in influenza, being, at the same time, greatly quickened. It is also the case towards the fatal termination of inflammatory diseases. An intermittent pulse is, in a few cases, natural to some horses ; it also attends some diseases of the heart, and is by no means a desirable symptom, for it is often attended by a fatal result. We can often pro- duce an intermittent pulse, by the administration of digitalis in inflammation of the lungs. In tills case it is rather a favour- able symptom, as it exhibits a diminution in the action of the lieart. Sometimes the intermission is regular, being at every INFLAMMATION. 101 fourth, sixth, or tentli pulsation, at others very irregular, the intermission varying continually. An intermittent pulse rarely calls for blood-letting. The effect of bleeding on the pulse is, at first, to quicken its action as well as to diminish its force, and, if carried to some extent, to render it imperceptible, and to cause syncope or fainting, which is temporary cessation of the flow of blood to the head. The Treatment of Inflammation Avill mainly depend on the object we have in view, whether to seek for resolution, or any of the other terminations we have mentioned. In inflammatory affections of vital parts, our treatment should be such as to bring about the restoration of the organs to their normal state ; in fact, resolution. For this purpose large blood lettings are generally had recourse to, and with great advantage. By general bleed- ing we subtract blood from the system, and consequently there is less blood sent to the inflamed part, the capillary vessels of which may thus have time to relieve themselves. The benefit of general bleeding is much assisted by abstract- ing blood rapidly, and from a large orifice ; a sudden check is thus put upon the circulation, which, though of short duration, is yet of great service in acute inflammation. In cases of active inflammation, the best guide as to the quantity of blood to be abstracted is obtained by observing its effect on the pulse, and on the mouth. We should bleed until the latter feels con- siderably cooler, and the former becomes altered in its character, becoming softer and weaker, though generally quicker. The state of the blood is a very uncertain criterion, and should have but little influence over our treatment. This, how- ever, may be observed, that when it presents a buffy coat, there is usually a capability for bearing bleeding, and the contrary when the blood is very black, sup])Osing it is drawn from a large orifice. Local bleeding for internal inflammations can seldom be practised in the horse. Althour!;h bleedino- is the sheet-anchor in acute inflammation, other remedies are of importance. Purging, though useful in some inflammations, is to be con- demned when the chest is affected; as, by sympathy between the lungs and the bowels, the irritation of the latter by purga- tion has a very injurious effect on the lungs, besides lowering the system to a great extent. It is, however, desirable to obtain a moderately relaxed state of the bowels. Diuresis is of much greater benefit : by detennining a greater quantity of blood to the kidneys, a portion is diverted from an inflamed part, and the system is also unloaded by the increased secretion of urine. Medicines are often administered having a tendency to produce nausea on the stomach; the effect of Avhich H 3 102 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. is to lessen the sictiou of the heart, and others are given to have a direct eftect in lowering the heart's action.* It is desirable to keep up the circulation in the extremities and the surface of the body by clothing and bandaging, as \vc thereby draw to the surface a portion of the blood which has a tendency to concentrate within. This principle is still further carried out by counter-irritation — by creating artificially an in- flanunation, and, consequently, a determination of blood to an external part. These are the leading principles by which we are to treat in- ternal inflammations, regulated, of course, by the peculiar fea- tures of each individual case. In external injiammations we have a greater number of means for our employment ; for instance, local bleeding, warm and cold fomentation, besides external stimulants. The benefit to be ob- tained from the first mentioned is very considerable; we thereby abstract blood either from the inflamed part itself, or its imme- diate vicinity, and thus deprive it of the very food whereby inflauuuation is kept up. Where, however, the case is severe, as in fever in the feet, or the part of much importance, as in ophthalmia, local venesection will have much greater effect if j)receded or assisted by general bleeding. Warm fomentations are of much importance in the early stages of local inflammation ; they act b}' relieving the inflamed vessels by means of perspiration, or the escape of fluid externally through the pores of the skin. The human surgeon has a great advantage over us, in being enabled to determine blood to the skin by means of the warm bath, which is of great utility in many internal inflammatory diseases. But, from the large size of our patients, and their being covered with haii-, it is next to im])ossible to make use of it : the warm vapour batli has, however, been used with benefit, although attended with much trouble and inconvenience. In inflammatory afli^ections of the bowels, we may employ a local warm bath with great advantage. In employing warm water as a topical remedy, it is necessary to continue its use for a long time ; otherwise the reaction by which it is succeeded will produce more inconvenience than otherwise. Poultices are extremely useful in aftbrding a means of em])loying fomentations for a long time : it is therefore essential to saturate them frequently with warm water. When inflammation has a tendency to suppuration, the process is greatly assisted by warm applications. Cold apjAlcations relieve local inflammation, by encouraging * The use of calomel and tartarized antimony are of great assistance in reducing inflammatory action. — Ed. FEVER. 103 evaporation. Caloric, the principle of heat, is thereby abstracted from tlie part aifected. If we wish to prevent the formation of matter in an external part, we apply cold lotions ; but, if our object be to encourage suppuration, we have recourse to warm poultices and foment- ations. In severe strains, warm fomentations are often employed first with advantage, and are succeeded by cold applications ; we thereby relieve the inflamed part, first by means of perspiration, and afterwards by evaporation. Counter-irritants, such as blisters and setons, are employed after the inflammation has abated ; their beneficial effect is pro- duced by withdrawing the blood from the inflamed part to another and a healthy locality. If employed, however, in too early a stage, they often increase the inflammation they are in- tended to abate. — Ed.] CHAP. XXII. ON FEVER. [Having largely noticed the subject of Inflammation, we shall have but little to say on that of Fever. It is, however, usually considered of two kinds — Symptomatic, or Injlammatory Fever; and Simple continued Fever, or Synochus, The former we have already alluded to, under the head of inflammation. In an inflammatory disease, when the pulse is full and frequent, the mouth hot, and the membrane of the nos- tril injected, we say, there is much fever ; and the presence of these symptoms usually guides us in the abstraction of blood. In such cases, generally, though by no means invariably, the blood presents a buffy coat, which is usually considered, and often with justice, an evidence of the propriety of blood-letting. Where there is much general fever, accompanied by local inflammation, such as from an open joint, or external injury, there is a gi-eater proportion of fibrine in the blood than in a state of health ; and so, likewise, in acute rheumatic aftections. Simple continued fever is a well recognised disease in man ; but, in the horse, its existence has been often denied. It is, however, the fact, that we have occasional cases of fever in the horse, without any symptoms of local inflammation, and, in such cases, we rarely find a butty coat presented by the blood, and there is, generally, an inability for bearing large venesections. Such cases are often ushered in by shivering fits, and which sometimes recur during the progress of the complaint. In some epidemic diseases, particularly in the influenza, so prevalent in 104 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 1836 and 1840, the symptoms of fever were strongly marked, and often without any local inflammation. In other cases, local inflammation would afterwards supervene; in which cases, the partial flame was li-hted up, as it were, by general fever. The importance of this disease, however, will demand a separate con- sideration ; but, under the head of fever, we may consider an affection which is by no means unfrequent, particularly during the autumnal season, when the system is debilitated by moulting. A horse will appear dull on his journey, particularly towards the latter part, and, on reaching his stable, is much fatigued. He refuses his food — hangs his head in the manger — breaks out in a cold sweat — his mouth is hot, and pulse quick, but weak ; but his breathing, after a while, is in its natural state. In such cases, bleeding is generally forbidden ; and we find the best treatment consists in' the administration of febrifuge, sudorific, and tonic medicine, such as the following, which will often prove successful in immediately checking the disease : — Spirit of Nitrous Ether U oz. Camphor 1 dr. Nitre 4 dr. Gentian 2 dr. In a pint of warm water. — Ed.] CHAP. XXIII. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. htjiammation of the Brain {Phrcnitis or Mad IStaygers), Epi- le-psy. Megrims, Rabies, Palsy, Kumree, Tetanus or Locked Jaw, Stringhalt. Phrenitis, or inflammation of the brain, is generally occasioned by overfeeding and too little exercise. The first symjjtoms, and these often escape notice, are — heaviness, redness of the membranes under the eyelids, want of appetite, and disinclination to motion ; but the symptom most conmionly first observed is delirium, or madness. The horse becomes violent, plunges about the stall, endeavours to bite those who approach him, or the horses that happen to be near him. A horse has been known to leap out of a small window when aflfected with this disorder ; and he is sometimes so violent as to drive every one out of the stable. Sometimes he falls down exhausted, and after lying for a time, gets up suddenly and becomes as violent as ever. The treatment is immediate and copious bleeding : that is. DISEASES OF THE BEAIN AXD XERVES 105 bleeding until the animal is perfectly free from delirium, and this seldom happens until from two to three gallons of blood are taken off. 1 have known four gallons abstracted at one time, and the horse recovered in consequence. If the fit should return, he must be bled again, until the disorder ceases. As soon as the horse becomes ciuiet, a dose of physic and clysters should be given. After the horse is recovered, he should be kept to a spare diet for some time : grass is the most suitable. The jugular veins are the vessels from which blood should be drawn in this disorder, and if both are opened it will be better. After which it is usual to tie a cord round the neck, by Avhich the bleeding will be kept up without the necessity of standing near the horse. There is no occasion for measuring the blood. Bleeding from both of the temporal arteries at once has been practised in preference to the jugular or neck veins, and I have recommended the practice. Stomach stagc/eis, though not a primary affection of the brain, like phrenitis, or mad staggers, and apoplexy, not only requires bleeding, but copious bleeding, and that too as early as possible. Still, however, in stomach staggers, the stomach must be a principal object of attention ; for, unless the hardened undi- gested food be removed from it, it will lose its vitality, and the animal will die. I have seen cases where the abstraction of arterial blood has afforded relief, after bleeding from the jugular vein had failed ; and it is probable, that when there is considerable delirium, arteriotomy, as bleeding from arteries is termed, would be found the most effectual practice. The temporal arteries may be felt about two inches from the outer corner of the eye : by placing, or rather pressing, the fingers upon this part, they may be dis- tinguished by their pulsation or throbbing. Into this part a lancet is to be plunged freely and without fear. Frenzy generally happens to young vigorous horses, Avhilst old horses are generally the subjects of apoplexy and stomach staggers. The early age, however, at which horses are often Avorked, and the Immoderate degree In which they are worked, often makes them old in constitution whilst young in years, so that even young horses may become the subjects of apoplexy. Megrims, Vertigo, Epilepsy, Convulsiojis, Hydrocephalus, Dropsy of the Brain. These various names arise from the different appearances pro- duced either by fulness of the blood-vessels of the brain, perhaps with weakness of that Important organ, or by water in Its ventri- cles or cavities. Water In the ventricle of the brain may produce a variety of effects, from that of giddiness or vertigo, to that of 106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. reariiig up suddenly and falling backwards, hanging back sud- denly upon the halter, and falling back with violence against the wall, or dropping suddenly while at work, as if shot with a pistol, lying motionless some time, then getting up again and appearing quite well. Sometimes when ridden hard, the animal tries to stop suddenly, rambles or staggers, appears confused and lost, and often falls down. Blindness in one eye is a common symptom of this disorder, and always in the eye opposite to the affected ventricle.* Horses with this complaint, when their stomachs are loaded, and their bowels full of excrement, by eating immoderately of hay, have the symptoms much increased, and not unfrequently are attacked with mad staggers from this cause, or, what is not less frequent, the stomach staggers ; for when the stomach has been much distended Avith hay, and the practice is continued, the organ itself at length becomes para- lysed, which is what may properly be named stomach staggers. Dropsy of the brain sometimes assumes a violent form, producing epileptic fits. The horse falls down, and sometimes remains motionless, at others he struggles violently, and after a time gets up again and becomes violently delirious. Copious bleed- ing often affords relief for a time, but the disorder sooner or later terminates fatally. When a horse is attacked with symptoms which come under the name of megrims, giddiness, or vertigo, it indicates either the existence of water in the ventricle of the brain, or an accu- * Megrims is a sudden determination of blood to the head, producing gid- diness, and often insensibility. Old horses are more subject to this disease than young ones ; and after several attacks there is usually a predisposition left to receive other attacks. The horse is nearly always affected in his work, and more frequently in harness than otherwise. He first shakes his head, and suddenly stops ; and sometimes, if allowed to remain quiet, the symptoms go off, but if not, he staggers, and falls down, and continues struggling for some time in a state of unconsciousness ; the eyes roll, the nostrils are dilated, and the whole frame appears convulsed. The fit may last from five to fifteen minutes. The causes are a redundancy of blood in the system, induced by good feeding and little exercise : thus it usually occurs in fat subjects, though sometimes in the ^converse. There is, therefore, in the animal a predisposi- tion for the blood to fly to the head, and perhaps a weakness of the cephalic vessels. It occurs most frequently in the spring or early summer months, when there is a plethoric state of the system. It may be immediately excited by great exertion, the heat of the sun, or the pressure of a tight collar pre- venting the free return of blood from the head. It has been connected ■with, if not caused by, worms. The treatment must consist in bleeding freely, and if the horse is in good condition a dose of physic will be useful. Sometimes a small blood-vessel in the head is ruptured in this disease, which, if at the base of the brain, generally produces death. In cases of very frequent recurrence, where the slightest cause will pro- duce a fit, there is probably some organic disease of the bruin, probably, as observed by the author, water in the ventricles. — Ed. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 107 niulatlon of blood In the vessels of the brain. A slight degree of liydrocephalus, or rather a small quantity of water in the ventricle, may exist without producing any visible effect upon the liorse ; but if he is ridden hard, if his stomach and bowels are loaded, or if by high feeding and want of regular exercise he becomes plethoric or too full of blood, the disorder will then be aggravated, and the symptoms I have described will be produced. From this view of the subject it will appear that hydrocephalus may be relieved by avoiding those circumstances by which it may be aggravated and heightened into a visible disorder : and if that disorder does take place in any degree whatever, bleed according to the urgency of the case, and unload the stomach and bowels by physic and clysters. Green food is the best diet for such horses, and if that cannot be had, bran mashes. Very little hay should be allowed. Hanging down the head at grass may favour the accunmlation of blood in the vessels of the brain ; when this seems to be the case, the horse should be kept loose in a cool box. I have known distension of the stomach and bowels alone produce a serious attack of vertigo or megrims ; in such a degree, indeed, that a horse rambled and fell down while the owner was riding him. This horse, from being fed moderately and having his bowels emptied with a dose of physic, never had a return of the disorder, and lived many years afterwards. Rabies, or Hydropliobia. [Rabies, or Hydrophobia, is a disease of the nervous system, somewhat resembling phrenitis in its symptoms, but differing from it in the great disposition to mischief evinced in rabies : " there is method in the madness." It is invariably produced in the horse by the bite of a rabid animal, generally a dog, and it may manifest itself at various periods, from one month to several after the bite. Mr. Youatt observes in his lectures, Vet. vol. X., " The earliest, and perhaps the most decisive, symptom of the near approach of rabies in the horse, is a spasmodic move- ment of the upper lips, particularly of the angles of the lip." " Close following on this, or contemporaneous with It, Is the depressed and anxious countenance, and enquiring gaze, sud- denly however lighted up and becoming fierce and menacing, from some unknown cause, or at the approach of a stranger. From time to time different parts of the frame, the eyes, the jaws, particular limbs, avIII be convulsed ; the eye will occa- sionally wander after some Imaginary object, and the horse will rear again and again at that which has no real existence. Then Avill come the Irrepressible desire to bite the attendants and the animals within its reach ; to this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger, the whole furniture of the stable, accora- 108 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. panied by the peculiar dread of water. Towards the close of the affair there is genei-ally paralysis, principally of, or generally confined to, the loins and the hinder extremities, or involving those organs which derive their nervous influence from this portion of the spinal cord ; hence the distressing tenesmus which is occasionally seen." This disease invariably proves fatal in the course of three to six days. Treatment, when once the complaint has manifested Itself, is perfectly v;seless : the animal should therefore be shot. Preventive treatment, however, may be em[)loyed with success, if we can find out the bitten part. It sliould as soon as possible be excised completely with the knife, or the lunar caustic freely applied to the wound and repeated. I have operated with the caustic on various hoi'ses bitten by rabid dogs, and none of them have become mad. The last case was a pony bitten rather extensively. A child bitten by the same dog, but in whom proper treatment was neglected by the surgeon, died in about two months after the bite. " The post-mortem appearances," says Mr Youatt, " of rabies in the horse are, to a considerable degree, uncertain. Nothing unusual may be found in the membranes or substance of the brain; the stomach may be slightly or deeply inflamed, the lungs and the heart may be sound, but, at least in every case that I have seen, the pharynx, the fauces, and the epiglottis have been considerably affected." — Ed.] Palsy. [This disease is, as its name implies, a loss of power of tlie nervous system. It is never found complete in the horse, though partial paralysis frequently occurs. There are two descriptions of this affection, hemiplegia and paraplegia. The former is a paralysis of one side of the body, the latter of the hind ex- tremities. The former is extremely rare in the horse, and there are not above one or two cases on record. One case is related by Mr. Bull in vol. v. of the Veterinarian. The symptoms came on without any visible cause ; and, though very severe, disappeared in a few days. The treatment employed was, friction on the affected side, laxative and febrifuge medicine, followed by tonics. Paraplegia, or loss of power of the hind extremities, is much more frequent, and generally arises from some sudden injury of the spinal cord, produced by keeping back a loaded waggon, or sllj)ping up, or a severe strain in leaping. It may also be ])roduced by some tumour pi'cssing on the nerves which supply the hind extremities, and is tlien gradual in its approach. When this injury is produced by an accident, the vertebras of the loins DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 109 jire sometimes completely fractured, and a portion of bone pressing on the spinal cord not only destroys the power of motion, but produces the most acute suffering, under which the animal dies in a few days. In other cases of somewhat less severity, there is a partial dislocation of the vertebra, so that the cord is pressed on, or quite as frequently some vessels are ruptured, and the blood presses on the cord. If the upper roots of the nerves are materially injured, there is loss of feeling, as Avell as of motion ; but this is rare. When there is much pres- sure on the spinal cord, the horse is rarely of much service afterwards, although he may get considerably better ; there is generally a weakness left, which incapacitates him for bearing burdens or for heavy draught: he may afterwards, however, work lightly. These accidents are comparatively frequent in the army, where they arise from bringing young horses sud- denly on their haunches : horses in this state are said to be chinked in the back. The treatment in severe cases should consist of copious vene- section, laxative and febrifuge inedicine, and the application of wai'm sheep skins at first to the loins, and succeeded by setons, blisters, or a blistering charge. There is a disease in India very similar to this, called Kumree. It is described by Mr. Hughes in the Veterinarian, who says, " I am of opinion, that the kumree is a weakness in the hind extremities, produced by pressure on the nerves going to these parts ; or it is a symptom, or rather a termination, of inflammation of the brain, or its membranes, which, in the human subject, would produce hydrocephalus ; but probably from the structure of the horse, the accumulation of the effused fluids is prevented, and they pass down within the thecal of the medulla spinalis. This inflammation of the brain is of a mild or subdued form ; were it greater, it would induce phrenitis. The causes of it are heat, sudden changes from heat to cold, and from cold to heat, and plethora. Severe blows on the head may also occa- sion it." Mr. Twining, in a paper presented to the Calcutta Medical Society, and copied into the Veterinarian, attributes the kumree to animalcules, either about the vertebra? or the cellular texture connected with them : and Captain Wyatt says, that he has often been present during the dissection of horses that had died of kumree, and that he has seen these worms. The statement of Mr. Gill, however, does not confirm these statements. " I have," he observes, '' almost invariably found in the stomach and in- testines, worms similar to those in the eye, and also in tumours in the stomach, but never in any other part of the body, or the cellular membrane of any part, or in the spinal canal. In most of the jjost-mortem examinations which I have seen made, there 110 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. has been either effusion of blood between the membranes cover- ing the kimbar region of the spinal cord, or anchylosis of the lumbar vertebras, or exostosis in the great foramen. In other cases I could see nothing to cause it, except that the spinal marrow appeared somewhat softer than usual. " In nearly all the instances that have come under my ob- servation, 1 could trace the origin of the disease to wrenches, falls, or blows ; and I have little doubt that the hardness of the ground, and the manner in which the horses are picketed, together with the falls they get, owing to the carelessness of the native grooms in forcing them in and out of the ferry-boats, in their way from one station to another, are fertile sources of the disease. The frequent occurrence of fractured ilia, in that country, can only be attributed to the same causes. " I cannot, however, consider the difficulty of going up and down hills any proof of fluid in the spinal sheath; but I at- tribute it to the want of energy in the hind quarters — the propelling influence being mainly in the hind quarters when going up hill, and there being a necessity for extending them more under the body in going down hill. " With respect to the remedial means had recourse to, I believe them to be nothing worth, not even as palliatives. I have seen counter-irritants in the form of deep firing, blisters, setons, sheep skins, &c., employed; but they have been of no avail. I cannot, therefore, advocate any of them." — Ed.] Tetan us. This dangerous, and often fatal, disorder may be either Symptomatic, or Idioj^athic ; the former when it proceeds from an external injury, the latter when otherwise occasioned. The former, also called Traumatic, is most commonly caused by punc- tured wounds of the foot, such as pricks in shoeing, or stepping on a nail in the streets. Sometimes it happens after docking, nicking, or gelding ; but seldom till two or three weeks after the oi)eration. So likewise when it is caused by punctured wounds, which are generally in a healing state, or nearly well, before the locked jaw takes place. Idiopathic tetanus may be produced by exposure to wet and cold, and is often complicated with in- flammation of the liver, the lungs, stomach, and bowels ; which, indeed, is one cause of its great fatality. According to Gibson, it is sometimes caused by botts in the stomach. I have seen two cases which appeared to be caused by the irritation of worms in the bowels. It may be produced by violent exertion ; and I have seen a case where it took place in consequence of severe punishment in the riding-school. In the latter stage of stomach staggers the jaws are sometimes locked, and the disease sometimes Gomes on when no cause can be assigned for it. DISEASES OP THE BRAIN AND NERVES. Ill The siimptoms are spasm or cramp of the muscles of the jaw, which prevents the horse from openhig his mouth, or if lie Is able to open it a little, it is not sufficient to enable him to feed or masticate, though he sometimes appears to have a good appe- tite. Occasionally there is a considerable flow of saliva from the mouth, and the tongue has been found diseased. The disease gradually increases, and the spasm or cramp extends to the muscles of the neck, back, and limbs, so that when the animal is made to walk, he appears as if all his joints were stiffened ; his nose is poked out, his ears and tail erect, and sometimes his eyes are distorted. The nostrils are generally expanded, and the breathing often disturbed. On the first appearance of the disorder the horse often seems to ail little, but neighs upon any one entering the stable, and seems eager for his food ; in the latter stages, however, the cramp is so general and so painful, that it is distressing to look at the animal. The affected muscles feel exceedingly hard, and the animal moves as if he was a single piece : the least motion is painfid, and agitation produces the greatest distress. Sometimes the disease is entirely confined to the head and neck, and then it is more likely to be curable than when the spasm becomes general This local affection is called by surgeons 7"rismus, whilst the other is designated Tetanus. Opium and camphor are generally considered the most effectual remedies for locked jaw, and when the mouth is so close, or the power of swallowing so diminished, that medicine cannot be in- troduced into the stomach, it is thrown up as a clyster. A late writer, Mr. Wilkinson, has published an account of twenty -eight cases of locked jaw, twenty-four of which he cured ; but in all the successful cases, the jaws were sufficiently open to admit of medicine being given, though with diflficulty, while, in the four fatal cases, they were so close as to prevent any medicine from being introduced. ]\Ir. Wilkinson first gives a purgative and an emollient clyster ; he does not bleed unless the pulse points out the propriety of that evacuation. He directs the jaws, and all other parts affected with spasm or cramp, to be well embrocated with a mixture of oil of turpentine, olive oil, liquid ammonia, and mustard, and afterwards covered with fresh sheep skins, the flesh side inwards; which must be continued and changed as often as is necessary, so as to keep up a constant perspiration from the parts. After the operation of the purgative he gives a drench, composed of opium, camphor, and assafoetida, one drachm of each or more, according to the occasion, and throws up a clyster composed of the same ingredients, with a de- coction of rue. If the disease continue, and the horse become costive, the purgative and emollient clyster are repeated, and the opium, &c. discontinued until the effect of the purgative has ceased. Mr. Wilkinson appears to have been very diligent and 112 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. patient In the treatment of this disorder, and not discouraged, as we too often are, by the difficulties that occurred. It was gene- rally found necessary to continue the treatment three, four, or even five weeks, before the disease was subdued. As a further encouragement to future patience and perseverance in the treat- ment of this dangerous disorder, I shall notice a case related by Gibson, from which it appears that not only medicine, but noTU-isluuent also, may be administered in the form of clysters. " The horse was seized rather suddenly with this kind of con- vulsion (locked jaw), which was first observed as he was leading out to water in the afternoon. He came reeling along with his nose turned out, his eyes fixed and immovable, with all the other sio-ns that usually attend this disorder ; and when he came to the trough could not reach the water because of the cramp and stifl- ness in his neck, and when it was held to him in a pail he could not drink, though he showed an eagerness for it ; his mouth beino- shut up so close that it was scarce possible to put a knife between his teeth. We found it impracticable to administer any kind of medicine, till, by rubbing his cheeks, jaws, temples, and his whole neck for a considerable time, we made a shift, with o-reat difficulty, to thrust down part of a calomel ball on the end of a small stick, and then to pour into his nostrils a very small portion of a strong cephalic drink ; thinking by that means to convey the ball downward into his stomach, which, however, had but little effect, any further than this, that he had not such sud- den fits and agitations as I have seen in others in the like circumstances, but continued more quiet ; neither did his fever increase, as usually hnppens when the disorder is gaining ground. But all this while his mouth continued so much shut that he could neither eat nor drink for three weeks, only by continually rubbing his jaws and neck, he Avould sometimes make a shift to suck about a handful of scalded bran, or sometimes a little oat- meal moistened with warm water, but in so small a quantity that it is possible he might have starved, had not other methods been taken to keep him alive. I have often observed that the forcing the jaws open by violent means puts a horse into such agonies that it rather increases than abates the symptoms, and therefore I contrived to give him both his food and physic by the funda- ment, through a pipe fourteen inches long ; by which he seemed to receive great benefit, for we could perceive the symptoms abate daily. His flanks grew more quiet, he stood more still, and free from sudden fits and startings, all which symptoms are usual in the increase and continuance of this disorder. " The clyster was repeated once a day for a fortnight ; and, by way of diet, three or four quarts of milk boiled with oatmeal and water was given every day, a bag with a long pipe being left in the stable for that purpose only. He retained every thing DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 113 that was administered that way, which the guts appeared to suck up, their natural motion being inverted for the purpose : and as he scarcely ate more in three weeks than was sufficient to support him one day, there can be no doubt that he derived much nou- rishment from these clysters. He had two men constantly to look after him, who had orders to rub his whole body often, which greatly helped to relax his skin and remove the craaipiness of his muscles : and although he had not for the first fortnight recovered the use of his jaws, yet we observed him daily to move with less stiffness, and often to lick the manger as if he craved for food. He also breathed with less difficulty, and had several other good signs. I now determined to try the effect of an opium clyster ; therefore I dissolved half an ounce of crude opium in one of his clysters, which was followed with these circum- stances — that the horse soon lay down, he began to point his ears backwards and forwards, and could move his neck pretty freely, and his mouth was so far at liberty that he took his drinks with little or no difficulty, and could eat hay and bran sufficient to sustain him. He likewise moved his whole body so readily that we could walk him an hour every day. That I might follow up this good effect of the opium clyster, I gave him some days after 1 oz. of Matthew's pill, Avhich contains about two drachms of opium, and the same quantity of assafoetida. This was given by the mouth, in a ball, and repeated the following day. He now recovered daily, and took his drinks only twice a week : and as soon as he recovered his flesh was gently purged, after which he got perfectly well." Gibson attributes this disorder to the irritation of botts, or other worms in the stomach. He disapproves of purgatives (either as drenches or as clysters) and bleeding. Modern prac- titioners do not reckon botts among the causes of locked jaw, which is most commonly brought on by the causes before noticed. The great benefit derived from the opium clyster should be carefully recollected. Mr. Wilkinson examined four horses that died under his care, and found the pia mater of the spinal marrow inflamed, and the marrow itself of a dark colour. The pia mater of the brain was likewise inflamed in a slight degree. When locked jaw comes on after docking or nicking, he applies fomentations to the tail, and afterwards dresses thewound with digestive ointment. I cured one case of locked jaw by blistering the back from the withers to the tail, and giving opium and camphor — which we found great difficulty in giving. Every now and then a little gruel was given. By persevering in this treatment the jaws gradually relaxed, and in twenty-four hours the horse was able to eat hay. [Mr. W. Percivall relates a successful case of Traumatic tetanus treated by bleeding, physic, opium injections, and blisters. I 114 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Mr. Saunders relates two successful cases of Idiopathic tetanus. Treatment: — large blood-lettings, purgatives, digitalis, camphor, and blistering the loins. Mr. W. Henderson relates in the 5th vol. of the Veterinarian two successful cases of tetanus, one idiopathic, the other symp- tomatic. The treatment consisted of purgatives, injections, and opiates, and blisters and setons to the spine. Mr. Youatt relates a successful case, which he treated with copious and repeated bleeding, croton seed, and digitalis. Mr. Karkeek, in a valuable communication to the Veterinarian, vol. viii., considers the brain and spinal mari-ow to be principally the seat of the disease ; but he has found in idiopathic tetanus that the stomach and bowels, and sympathetic nerve in the neighboui'hood, have been considerably diseased — a fact which can be borne out by the present writer. Mr. K., therefore, recommends blistering the abdomen extensively, to produce a counter-action in the system. He goes so far as to consider that a diseased state of the digestive organs is invariably the primary cause in idiopathic tetanus. Mr. Karkeek relates four successful cases treated by large and repeated bleeding, purgatives, opium and camphor injections, and blisters in some cases to the spine, in others to the abdomen. He considers the disease to be very frequent in the w^est of Cornwall, owing to its being almost surrounded by the sea ; and believes idiopathic much more curable than traumatic tetanus. —Ed.] Stinng Halt. This disease is characterised by the sudden and spasmodic manner in which the hock is bent, the leg at the same time being carried very high. It is not a lameness, for there is no dropping on the other leg, and it cannot be felt by the rider like hock lameness ; but it is an unequal action of the muscles, arising, most probably, from some affection of the nerves. In some cases it is said the stifle joint has been found diseased, and in others the spine itself has been affected. But a few years ago I had the pleasure of spending a day with the late Dr. Jenner at Berkeley, when he informed me that string halt depended upon a disease of the spine, and showed me several vertebrae, which afforded a proof of it. [Mr. C. Spooner, the talented assistant professor at the Veteri- naiy College, has clearly shown that in the majority of cases it is owing to disease of the great sciatic nerve, which supplies the muscles of the hind extremity. Nervous energy is thus imper- fectly supplied, and, consequently, the more powerful muscles act the most. It is often connected with disease of the hock, and is sometimes preceded by it. Treatment is useless. — Ed.] DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR-PASSAGES. 115 CHAP. XXIV. DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR-PASSAGES. Injlammation of the Limgs. — Pneumonia. [Some years since, when the earlier editions of this work were printed, it was customary to class all the diseases of the chest under one head — inflamed lungs ; and the same treatment was prescribed for all. Later research, however, has considerably altered this opinion ; and although it is an undeniable fact that inflammatory affections of the different contents of the chest are often extremely complicated with each other, yet in numerous instances the symptoms of the different affections are so dis- tinctly marked, that it would be absurd to deny their separate and distinct existence. Thus, without making any distinctions but what are warranted by observation and experience, and are necessary for the judicious employment of remedial measures, we shall have to consider — Pneumonia, or inflammation of the substance of the lungs. Pleuritis, or inflammation of the membrane covering the lungs and lining the chest. Bronchitis and Tracliitis, or inflammation of the mucous mem- brane lining the bronchial tubes and the trachea; besides Catarrh, or inflammation of the membrane lining the nostrils and the throat. — Ed.] Pneumonia, or Peripneumony. [Even this disease often presents itself in different forms r sometimes running its coiu'se and ending fatally in less than twenty-four hours, and in others extending to four or five davs. In the former variety the lungs after death appear black, in fact gorged with blood ; this used to be considered as a state of mortification, and it was common to say of such an animal, that " his lights were rotten as a pear ;" and if the horse had recently been purchased of a dealer, and an action were brought for the recovery of the value of the horse, the black appeai-ance of the lungs was generally considered as a suflficient proof that the animal had been previously rotten and unsound, and the dealer was cast in consequence ; whereas the congested appearance of the lungs ought to have been considered, in the absence of any appearance to the contrary, as a proof of the recent production and rapid nature of the disease. Such appeai'ance of the lungs is generally afforded when a horse dies after over-exertion in the chase, or from being violently driven when not in proper condition. 116 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The symptoms of this form of inflammation of the lungs are strongly marked, and at once point out the suffering organ. The breathing is greatly affected ; quick, short, distressed, and often as many as sixty or seventy respirations in a minute. The i)ulse, too, is very quick; seventy, eighty, or ninety a minute, and often small and almost imperceptible. The legs and ears are, or soon become, icy cold; the mouth usually hot ; the membrane of the nostrils intensely red, or of a livid colour. The horse j^refers a standing posture, with the fore legs stretched apart, so that the muscles external to the chest may assist in respiration ; the appetite is altogether lost, and the horse eagerly thrusts his head towards the door, or the coolest place in the stable. If relief be not very soon obtained, the severity of the symptoms increase ; the air cells become choked with blood ; and the horse dies, as it were, from suffocation, in the course of twelve to twenty-four hours. Mr. Percivall distinguishes this disease from pneumonia, and designates it congestion of the lungs. When blood is abstracted, it is almost invariably found of a very dark colour, which is owing to the gorged state of the lungs preventing the purification of the blood from taking place. True Inflammation of the Lungs, when its symptoms are un- subdued, usually terminates fatally in the course of four or five days ; though sometimes it gets into a sub-acute state, and lingers on for several weeks. Its first symptom is usually a diminution or loss of appetite, but in some cases a troublesome cough may precede this want of appetite for sevei^al days. The pulse and respiration are soon affected, both becoming exceedingly quick ; the pulse from sixty to one hundred in a minute, and the breathing either almost as fast, or otherwise laborious and diflticult. The pulse may be either full, and strong or hard, or otherwise weak and almost imperceptible ; in the latter case our prognosis is more unfavourable than in the former. The legs and ears are usually cold and the mouth hot, and the membrane of the nostrils and eyelids intensely red. In some cases there is a cough, in others none whatever ; and often when there has been a cough before, it ceases as the inflammation becomes more intense. The bowels are generally inclined to be costive, and after the disease has existed for some time, the dung is coated with mucus. Some insight into the nature and extent of the disease may be obtained by what is called auscultation. On applying the ear to the sides of the chest, when the animal is in a healthy state, we notice a murmuring sound, difficult to be described, but readily heard. This sound is produced by the DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR-PASSAGES. 117 air rushing into the air cells, and is much greater in the young than in the old subject. When the lungs are partially induratecF, the cells being filled up, there is at that part an absence of the usual umnnur, and an increase of it elsewhere. This result sometimes attends the presence of fluid in the chest. After exercise the murmur is increased ; and if in a state of rest the sound at one part is increased, and not at another, the latter part is probably in a state of disease. The principal indication of a diseased state of the lungs is de- rived from a sound called hroncMal respiration, and somewhat resembles the sound made in sawing Avood. It is occasioned by the air rushing in and out of the large bronchial tubes, there being some impediment to its passage. This sound is heard in peripneumony and in acute pleurisy, and more particularly when both diseases are combined. There are various other alterations of sound noticed, but they are of minor importance, and less readily detected ; they may, however, be found described in j\Ir. Percivall's work on the Dis- eases of the Chest, &c., where tlie essay of M. Delafond on the subject is translated. The employment of auscultation is much assisted by per- cussion. On tapping the chest sharply with the knuckles, the sound elicited, if the lungs are indurated, or there is water in the chest, will be much more dead than in a healthy state; whilst, on the other hand, when the lungs are emphysematous, as in broken wind, the sound will be augmented. The treatment of this disease must depend on the particular stage in which we may find it, and must be modified by the peculiar symptoms that may be present. In the first place, let us suppose a horse is blown in hunting; ridden till nature is ex- hausted, and the animal can go no further. In such case the lungs are in a congested state, and the proper changes in the l)lood cannot take place ; the breathing is of course accelerated to the greatest degree, and the pulse quick and weak, and pro- bably imperceptible. If the vein be opened, the blood flows with difficulty, and is exceedingly dark and thick. In such case it is of little use to abstract blood until the pulse becomes per- ceptible, and our best plan is at once to administer a stimulant. A bottle of wine, administered in the hunting-field, has in many a case proved of essential service, and in some instances saved the animal. Two ounces of spirit of nitrous ether, administered in a pint of warm ale or water, is still better: its eftect will be to equalise in some degree the circulation, and to rouse the nerv- ous system ; and soon after its administration we shall pro- bably find the pulse becoming fuller and more perceptible. In this state we should abstract blood — as much as we can obtain I 3 118 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. "Without producing fainting. The same method of treatment may be pursued whenever the lungs are in this congested state, though arising from other causes than over-exertion ; if, indeed, in inflamed lungs, the pulse is at the onset particularly weak or imperceptible, a stimulant may be employed with advantage, though it is not desirable to continue it. Bloodletting is, however, our sheet-anchor in the treatment of inflamed lungs ; and unless we are enabled to abstract a large qunntity, our chance of recovery is but slight. It is, however, useless to prescribe the abstraction of any particular quantity of blood ; its effect on the pulse should be our guide. A large orifice should be made in the jugular, and the bleeding continued until the mouth becomes considerably cooler, and the pulse altered in its character, and if before hard or full, till it becomes soft and scarcely to be felt. The quantity of blood abstracted before this effect is obtained may vary from eight pounds to sixteen, according to the state of the pulse and the peculiarities of the animal. The bleeding may, if necessary, be repeated in diminished quantities, once or twice, with intervals of six or twelve hours ; but it is the first bloodletting on which we must principally depend. Tiie appearance of the blood must not be allowed to have much influence over our treatment. It is not, however, to be altogether despised, but is chiefly useful in assist- ing our prognosis as to the termination of the case. If the blood flows tardily, is very black, and forms a very weak coagulum, the chances are altogether unfavourable : if, however, it presents a thick buff}' coat, and very firm coagulum, we may conclude that the horse is in a state not only to demand but to bear extensive bleeding, and we shall generally find beneficial effects succeed its employment. Indeed, in cases of inflammation, it is better to find the blood presenting a buffy coat than otherwise ; unless it should be likewise of a thick muddy aspect, which is a bad sign. Medicines.- — Although bleeding must be our pi'incipal remedy, yet we must not despise other assistance. Although it is desir- able in some degree to unload the bowels, we must take care not to purge, for if we do so, death will probably follow ; and from sympathy between the bowels and other parts, a much smaller dose will act on them than in a state of health. If, therefore, the bowels are not costive, no aperient will be required ; but if otherwise, we should administer an injection, after backraking, and give about a pint of linseed oil ; after this mild aperient, which should not be repeated, we may give a drachm of tartarized an- timony, half a drachm of calomel, three drachms of nitre, and one of digitalis. It is a dangerous practice to administer small doses of aloes until the bowels are acted on, as by this time a sufHcient quantity may accumulate in the system to do irreparable DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR-PASSAGES. 119 mischief. These medicines may be repeated, in diminished doses, three times the first day, and twice the second. Mr. Percivall recommends half a drachm of white hellebore twice a day instead of the digitalis. It is a powerful medicine, and lowers the pulse by producing nausea. It requires to be given with caution, under the eye of the practitioner, and its effects carefully watched. Mr. Mavor advises two drachms of exti-act of belladonna as a sedative. I have employed both these medicines, and can speak to their good effects. Counter-irritation. — After the urgency of the symptoms have been in some measure relieved by bloodletting, counter-irritation may be very serviceable in preventing change of structure from taking place. A blister is to be preferred, and should be applied, as recommended by INIr. Percivall, to the breast, in preference to the sides, as it is much more likely to act in the former muscular situation than in the latter. In fatal cases, a blister will scarcely ever produce any effect ; and this symptom is therefore justly regarded as one of the most unftxvourable that can possibly occur. If the case be protracted, or takes on a sub-acute form, rowels and setons may be useful, as well as blisters. The diet in inflammation of the lungs should consist of bran mashes, hay, carrots, or green food ; and care should be taken that the horse is not restored to his usual diet until the inflam- matory symptoms have entirely ceased. The body should be kept tolerably warm by clothing, and the legs encased in flannel bandages ; their warmth having been pre- viously restored by hand-rubbing, assisted by the application of a liniment, composed of four parts of oil, one of sjMrits of turpen- tine, and one of hartshorn, which should be rubbed in as often as they become cold. It is of great importance that the horse should be allowed to breathe the purest and the coolest air; for which purpose he should be turned into a loose box, well ventilated, and in the summer he may be turned into a paddock with advantage. — Ed.] Sub-acute Pneumonia. [When inflammation of the lungs takes on a sub-acute form, either from the beginning or after an acute attack, our treat- ment, though conducted on the same principles as that before mentioned, must be less active in its nature. The symptoms are more obscure, and demand more tact and discrimination : the breathing is less disturbed, the pulse not so quick, the appetite not so much impaired ; and yet fatal mischief may be going on under this insidious form, and, if not checked, may end in death. The bleeding should be less extensive, but more frequent than I 4 120 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. in the acute attack ; and we must still more have recourse to counter-irritation, setons or rowels being called for, as well as blisters. The Terminations of inflamed lungs are various : in the first place we may have resolution, in which the inflammatory action is quickly checked, and the lungs are restored to a normal state; but more frequently we have some alteration of structure. This, however, after a while, may be restored to a healthy state ; but often a portion of the lungs becomes indurated or hepatized ; the air cells are filled up, and sometimes the bronchial tubes, so that the part frequently becomes so heavy that it would sink if placed in water, and it is no longer able to perform its function ; the animal becomes thick-winded, being obliged to breathe, so to speak, with diminished lungs. In some cases abscesses may form in various parts of the lungs ; and the case, though flattering for a while, will become fatal at last. — Ed.] Pleuritis. — Pleurisy. [It was formerly the custom to class this disease with that before described ; but although, in many complicated cases, they may both exist at the same time and in the same subject, yet there are others in Avhich the symptoms of pleuritis are distinctly marked, and in which the jjost mortem appearances have proved the nature of the disease. For first pointing out the distinction of these diseases, as well as for some valuable knowledge on the treatment of pleuritis, we are indebted to the late Mr. John Field, who thus describes the symptoms : — " A depressed appearance ; hard, full, strong pulse, from 42 to 54 ; ])ainful and limited respiration; inspiration quick and in-- terrupted ; expiration slow and prolonged ; ijressure on the sides ■painful, occasioning a peculiar grunt ; twitchings of the skin ; faint suppressed cough or sneeze ; the membrane of the nostrils of a natural colour, and the tongue moist and clean. '' As the disease proceeds, the pulse becomes more fi'equent, small, and wiry ; respiration accelerated ; full inspiration ; diflfi- cult and painful expiration ; tongue furred ; patches of sweat ; restlessness, delirium, and death. " The symptoms of the first stage continue from three to seven days, when the disease terminates fatally, or symptoms of the second stage commence. " In favourable cases the quickness of pulse gradually dimi- nishes, the appetite returns, the horse lies down ; and in three or four weeks may be considered v/ell, though unfit for woi'k." Mr. Field thus distinguishes the symptoms of pneumonia from those of pleurisy : — The oppressed pulse of the former, the hard DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND AIR-PASSAGES. 121 febrile pulse of the latter ; the difficult convulsive expiration of the one, tiie peculiar respiration of the other; the intensely red hue of the eyelids and nostrils in pneumonia, the absence of this in pleuritis ; the freedom from pain on pressure in the former, and its exhibition in the latter ; the coldness of the extremities in the one, the variable temperature in the other; the obstinate standing in the one, and the frequent lying down and getting up in the other. The post mortem appearances are sometimes merely inflam- mation of the pleura, with patches of lymph, but more frequently a considerable collection of fluid, pale or yellow, or reddish or bloody, in all three cavities, with adhesion of the lungs to the sides of the chest, and other morbid changes; sometimes the pleura appears in a state of gangrene. Treatment. — Mr. Field recommends the immediate abstraction of blood, to the quantity of from ten to twenty pounds, to be re- peated as the case seems to require. The bowels to be mode- rately relaxed by a small dose of aloes, assisted by injections (we prefer doing this, however, by means of linseed oil — Ed.) ; and he wau then in the habit of giving white hellebore, in doses from one scruple to half a drachm, combined with spirit of nitrous ether, nitre, and tartarized antimony. A blister on the thorax and sides should be applied, and a rowel in the brisket inserted. When the inflammatory symptoms evidently abated, vegetable tonics, as gentian and ginger, were advised ; and to which, when the possibility of hydrothorax was suspected, mild diuretics were added. When effusion has evidently taken place, the operation of paracentesis, or tapping, is called for. — Ed.] \_IIydrothorax, As the deposition of water in the chest is termed, although an eflfort of nature to relieve inflammation, is yet generally attended with a fatal termination. The only chance of relief is aflforded by an operation called paracentesis, or tapping, which consists in plunging an instru- ment called a trochar between the ribs into the cavity of the chest, and leaving the canula, or tube which encases the trochar, and withdrawing the latter, by which an exit is aflforded to the fluid contained within the chest through the canula. The best situation for the operation is between the eighth and ninth ribs, and near the cartilages ; and the skin should be pre- viously drawn tightly forwards, by wdiich means the opening will be closed after the operation. It should be performed on 122 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. both sides of the chest, and may be repeated several times, and diuretic and tonic medicine should be given at the same time. Although the majority of cases in which this operation has been practised have ended fatally, yet there are several success- ful cases on record, — sufficient to justify its adoption when there is a reasonable presumption of the presence of water in the chest. This is denoted by the sudden cessation of the violence of the symptoms at first, and an amendment of the appetite; but as the water increases, the respiration becomes still more embarrassed, and very frequently a spontaneous purging ensues._ On applying the ear to the chest the natural respiratory sound is lost ; and on striking the chest it no longer sounds hollow, but dead. The symptoms of hydrothorax, however, are by no means always tlie same — they principally depend on the cause. It may succeed intense inflammation of the lungs and the pleura, or sub-acute or chronic inflammation of these parts. The symp- toms may either nearly subside as the water is secreted, and the case present altogether a flattering appearance, or otherwise un- favourable appearances, though modified, may still exist. — Ed.] [^Complicated Cases. — Although we have spoken of pneumonia and pleurisy as two distinct diseases, and although the symptoms of each are distinctly marked, yet it is still the fact that they are very frequently combined together; and then the symptoms may either denote the preponderance of the one disease over the other, or otherwise they may be so nearly balanced as to render the symptoms altogether obscure. The treatment of these complicated cases must be conducted on the same principles as before detailed ; modified, however, by the leading symptoms. It may, however, be observed, that these complicated cases are more frequently fatal than simple affections either of the pleura or the substance of the lungs. They rarely present the same activity in the symptoms, but are usually more protracted in their progress, and more deceitful in their character. — Ed.] CHAP. XXV. BRONCHITIS. — TRACHITIS. INFLAxMMATION OP THE BRON- CHIAL PASSAGES AND WINDPIPE. [The membrane which lines the bronchial tubes, as the air pas- sages of the lungs are termed, as well as that which aflbrds an internal covering for the larynx and trachea, is termed a mucous membrane, and is very liable to inflammation. When thus in- BRONCHITIS, TRACHITIS, ETC. 123 flamed, the disease is termed Broncliitis, Tracliitis, and Laryn- gitis, according as the bronchia^, the trachea, or the larynx bears the brunt of the attack. These parts are sometimes separately diseased ; but more frequently they are affected simultaneously, though not perhaps in the same degree, or to the same extent. There are two forms of this disease, each distinctly marked, the acute and the sub-acute; the latter being perhaps the more frequent. The former Is an extremely dangerous disease, and very fre- quently proves fatal. This is owing partly to the great extent of membrane diseased, and the difficulty of affecting it by our treatment, and partly to the obscurity of its symptoms, and the insidious nature of its approach, whereby it has often existed to a great extent before attention has been called to it. It may be produced by exposure to cold or sudden changes of temperature, there being a predisposition in the part to become affected. It more frequently occvirs in the autumnal and winter seasons, but particularly in the former, and during the prevalence of wet weather. The symptoms are at first very obscure : a cough, a staring coat, and slight impairment of the appetite, and a discharge of mucus from the nostrils. The case perhaps is regarded as a common cold ; suddenly the appetite is lost, the pulse is remark- abl}^ quick and weak, and the membrane of the nostrils intensely reddened. In very severe cases there is a suppression of all nasal discharge, and often a disappearance of the cough. In fatal cases the symptoms increase in intensity for several days. There is a total loathing of all food ; the nasal membranes change -from a red to a purple hue ; the extremities are cold ; the pulse becomes quicker, weaker, and more imperceptible ; the respiration is for some time not quickened, but deeper than natural ; at length it becomes quicker, and the horse obstinately prefers a standing posture. Thus the symptoms continue getting gradually more aggra- vated, until death closes the scene in the course of a week, more or less. An inspection after death shows the mucous membrane of the bronchiie and trachea, instead of being w^hite, its natural colour, absolutely purple or dark green, from inflammation and gangrene. This, however, is bronchitis in its most severe and dangerous form ; but it is fortunately not so frequent as when it assumes a milder appearance. In severe cases, there is often a consider- able discharge from the nostrils, and a distressing cough ; the pulse is quick, from 50 to 70; the respiration is disturbed, but not much quickened; the extremities preserve their temperature; and the appetite, though considerably diminished, is not totally lost. 124 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. This form of broncliltls is more frequent than the former ; and though severe, and attended with danger, is yet not so fatal as that "before described. In the latter kind the inflammatory action in great measure expends itself in the increased secretion of mucus ; whilst in the former description the intensity of the inflammation suppresses all secretion, and quickly passes on to a more malignant and fatal termination. Besides the two forms of bronchitis just described, we have often a milder description, termed sub-acute, in which the symptoms of the latter kind are present, but altogether in a milder form ; the pulse is less frequent, the cough less severe, the appetite not so impaired ; and yet these symptoms may in- sidiously creep on, until many of the bronchial tubes and air cells are destroyed by a change of structure, the capacity of the lungs impaired, and the animal becomes thick-winded. This alteration of structure may result from bronchitis, either in its acute or sub-acute form. Occasionally bronchitis degenerates into what is called a chronic state ; that is, the inflammation nearly or quite ceases, but the discharge and cough continue, particularly the former. Bronchitis is very apt to be mistaken for inflammation of the lungs ; and although the part attacked is a portion of these organs, and the diseases are often present at the same time, yet the distinction is important, inasmuch as in one case a mucous membrane is diseased, in the other the cellular structure of the lungs : the symptoms of these aftections are not only diflerent, but the treatment too requires modification. Bronchitis very frequently assumes the form of an epizootic, attacking a number of horses at the same time. When this is the case the discharge from the nostrils is exceedingly profuse, and is often of a yel- lowish and sometimes of a greenish hue. This disease is generally longer running its course than pneu- monia ; and when its progress is unfavourable, it terminates in death in the course of from five to ten days. The treatment of bronchitis must depend on the form which it assumes. We must have recourse to bleeding in the acute disease, but not to the same extent as in pneumonia. From three to five quarts of blood will generally be a sufficient ab- straction, but this must be regulated by the state of the pulse during the operation ; as soon as it fails under the finger the bleeding should cease. It is sometimes, though rarely, requisite to bleed again the same day, but more frequently on the follow- ing day ; and sometimes three or four venesections are required, which of course must be regulated by the symptoms. The later bloodlettings, however, must be in diminished quantities. When bronchitis assumes an epidemic form, we must be still more moderate in our venesections, and likewise when it appears in a sub-acute state. CATARRH, COLD, SORE THROAT, ETC. 125 The bowels are very frequently in a costive state, and should be unloaded by raking and injections ; but the greatest caution must be observed in the administration of aperients, for purgino-, which is so dangerous in pneumonia, is still more injurious in bronchitis. It is found that when one mucous membrane is dis- eased, other membranes of the same nature are from sympathy in a very irritable state. Thus, though it is desirable in this disease to unload the bowels, it is injurious to do so by irritating their internal coats. We may, however, venture on giving a pint or nearly so of linseed oil. This aperient, however, should rarely be repeated. It will be desirable to give likewise, in the form of a ball, digitalis half a drachm, calomel half a drachm, tartarized antimony one drachm, nitre three drachms ; to be repeated twice a day. Mr. Pereivall recommends white hellebore instead of the digi- talis, in the same doses : this medicine, however, requires cautious watching. Extract of belladonna is also employed with ad- vantage. Counter-irritation is of great importance in this disease. In the course of six or twelve hours after the first bleeding, the course of the windpipe should be blistered as well as the breast: or setons should be inserted in the course of the windpipe, and a rowel in the brisket. JBlisters have the advantage of exciting a quicker action, and roAvels and setons a more lengthened effect. In the sub-acute or chronic forms of the disease, the latter may be preferable, but in the more severe cases the speedier action of the blister is demanded ; and it is often desirable to employ both methods of counter-irritation. The proper action of the blister or the seton leads us to form a favourable prognosis, but not to the same extent as in pneumonia ; for in the latter disease the case scarcely ever becomes fatal after the blisters or setons have produced a proper effect, whilst in bronchitis it occasionally does. This Is owing to the circumstance that in pneumonia the circulation is more languid on the surface of the body, and the blood more inwardly determined than in the other disease. — Ed.] CHAP. XXVI. CATARRH, COLD, SORE THROAT, ETC. [Catarrh, or cold, as it is commonly called, is an inflammation of the membrane lining the nostrils and the throat, and neigh- bouring parts. It may attack the whole of these parts, or be 126 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. confined to one only. It may be so slight as to pass away with- out treatment, or so severe as to threaten suffocation and en- danger life. The symptoms depend very much on the particular part attacked : if the inflammation be confined to the nostrils, there is sneezing, redness of the membrane, and an increased secretion, at first often watery, and afterwards of a raucous character: if the pharynx is affected, there is a difficulty of swallowing ; and if the larynx is involved, there is a cough. In some cases abscesses form about these parts ; in others the throat may become ulcerated. In very slight cases there is no con- stitutional disturbance; in others there are feverish symptoms — a hot mouth, an impaired appetite, and a pulse quickened to from 40 to 50. Veiy frequently the attack commences in the chambers of the nostrils, and afterwards extends itself to the throat. This disease has been termed a cold, from the supposition that it was produced by cold ; but it is more frequently occasioned by the alternation from cold to heat, for few horses get cold from being turned to grass from the stable ; whilst nothing is more common than for horses to be affected with catarrh on being taken from grass into a warm stable. Exposure to cold will, however, produce the disease ; but it is then rather owing to the reaction which follows than to the cold itself. Catarrhs are much more frequent dm-ing the moulting season than at any other period ; and particularly in the autumn, and during the prevalence of wet weather. This disease frequently appears as an epizootic, when the symptoms are usually more urgent, the discharge more profuse, and the debility greater. In this form it is very common amongst the young stock in racing stables, Avhere it is termed the distemper; and sometimes the symptoms of catarrh appear in other diseases, as in influenza, an account of which will be separately given. The duration of an attack of catarrh is very uncertain ; it may last only a few days, or as many weeks. This is owing partly to the violence of the attack, and partly to the idiosyn- crasy of the animal. Some horses are so susceptible as to take cold from the slightest cause, and are frequently suffering from the disease ; others are rarely, if ever, so affected, however much exposed. The termination of catarrh may be, as it generally is, reso- lution or restoration to health ; or ulceration of the throat, or roaring, or glanders; besides which, the inflammation may extend itself down the windpipe, and the lungs may become affected, and death may ensue. The treatment must depend on the severity of the attack. In some slight cases a few bran mashes, and a little nitre, six CATAKEH, COLD, SORE THROAT, ETC. 127 drachms, perhaps, two daj's successivelj, may be all that Is necessary. In other cases, in which there are the symptoms of fever, together with a cough, it will be prudent to abstract from 5 to 10 lbs. of blood, and to administer from 2 to 3 drachms o aloes, so as mildly to relax the bowels ; and to follow this with the following ball, given several days successively : — • Nitre 3 dr. Camphor 1 dr. Tartarized Antimony 1 dr. Digitalis i dr. Made into a ball with treacle. When there is a difficulty in swallowing, or a cough, it will be advisable to stimulate the throat externally by rubbing on a mild liquid blister, or in severe cases inserting a seton. "When there is a considerable discharge from the nostrils, it is a good plan to steam them, by suspending a nose-bag containing bran infused in boiling water.* When the inflammation appears to be extending down the windpipe, it is necessary to aj^ply a blister, or insert setons in its course. The diet during a severe catarrh should consist principally of mashes, and of succulent food, such as carrots in the winter, and grass in the summer. If the case becomes chronic, the nasal gleet continuing, and the animal becoming poor, it will be desirable to administer tonics, such as the following : — Sulphate of Iron 2 dr. Ginger 1 dr. Gentian 2 dr. To be made into a ball with treacle, and administered once a day for several days. — Ed.] * By means of Read's patent medicated Vapour InLaler (represented below), the nostrils can be conveniently steamed, either with hot -nater or a medicated fumiiration. The water may be kept heated by a small lamp, or an iron heater similar to those used for tea-urns, &c. 128 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Scarlatina. [This disease is very rare in the horse, there being but a few- cases on record. Mr. Percivall treats of it in his late work, and thus describes its nature, symptoms, and treatment : • — " Febrile catarrh, speedily succeeded by the appearance of scarlet spots upon the Schneiderian membrane and surface of the skin, attended with anasarca, and in some cases dyspnoea. " Symptoms. — For two or three days at the commencement it will probably be mistaken for catarrh ; about this time, however, its veritable nature becomes manifested by the apjiearance of numerous scarlet spots or blotches upon the membrane lining the nose, jDOssessing the hue of artei'ial blood, irregular in size and figure, and visible as high up as the membrane can be inspected. These appearances mostly assume the character of petechias, though I have seen them running in streaks. They look like so many patches of extravasated blood ; but if one of them is wounded, blood instantly trickles down the nose, and assures us that, partially and singularly distributed as it is, it is still fluid, and still contained within its vessels. " In passing our finger over the red spots, nothing like pimple or pustular elevation of surface is discoverable. The skin is every where similarly bespotted ; at least, I infer so from the results of my examination of the body of one horse that died of the disorder. A mucous defluxion proceeds from the nose. Anasarca is a common attendant ; the legs, sheath, and belly being on occasions considerably tumefied. The respiration is quickened, but in such a manner as rather to indicate pain than embarrassment. The pulse is likewise accelerated, and beats with force. There exists great disinclination to move about. The appetite is either quite lost, or very much impaired. " Treatment. — In two cases, early venesection, closely fol- lowed up by the exhibition of piu'gative and diui'etic medicine, with walking exercise, proved completely successful. Another case, however, had a fatal termination: it was not altogether in my own hands, and I attributed the unfortunate issue in some measure to excess of walking exercise, practised for the purpose of keeping down the anasarca which supervened upon the primary attack." — Ed.] STRANGLES. 1 29 CHAP. XXVII. STRANGLES. [This disease probably derives its name from a symptom which is occasionally present, in which the animal is threatened with suffocation. It is a disorder peculiar to younsr horses, and attacks them most frequently between the third and fifth year, though not un- frequently before this period, and sometimes after it, and now and then we even meet with it in old horses. It used to be supposed that every horse becomes affected with it at some period of his life, and that it was necessary for the constitution, and a means of carrying off impurities. From the number of hands througli which horses usually pass, it is difiicult to ascertain whether they invariably become subject to this dis- ease or not ; and therefore this antiquated assertion is rather dif- ficult to disprove. My own opinion is, that not only is the complaint not invariable, but that a moiety of our horses alto- gether escape, which I think will be borne out by observation amongst agricultural horses, that are both bred and worked on the same farm. The disease sometimes occurs at grass, when the animal is under two or three years of age, and sometimes the symptoms are so mild that no treatment is required, at others so severe as almost to threaten suffocation ; and it then becomes imperative to take up the colt, and have recourse to the most judicious treatment. The symptoms of strangles are a swelling and abscess between the lower jaw bones, accompanied frequently by sore throat, and other catarrhal symptoms. There is often a considerable degree of fever present, together with an indisposition for food, as well as an inability to swallow it; liquids being swallowed with greater difficulty than solids. The swelling under the jaw, slight at first, gradually increases, the other symptoms increasing in severity at the same time. When matter has formed, it usually points, as it is termed, exter- nally ; and if not opened, the abscess bursts, and the symptoms are afterwards much relieved. Sometimes an abscess bursts internally, and the matter is dis- charged through the nostrils. * Occasionally the neighbourhood of the parotid glands is affected, and the swelling is so consider- able as to threaten suffocation, and demand the performance of the operation of tracheotomy. Sometimes the enlargement of the glands becomes hard and ♦ In a few instances the Eustachian cavities have been filled with matter. K 130 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. sluggish; and the symptoms, though mild, are obstinate. The disease is then termed the bastard strangles. When the glands thus become indurated, some ointment of hydriodate of potash should be rubbed in every day. Treatment. — The object to be kept in view is to bring the ab- scess to suppuration as quickly as possible, and to moderate the fever at the same time. Unless the symptoms of fever are particularly severe, and in- flammation of the windpipe and the lungs is threatened, it^ is better to avoid bloodletting ; but if employed, it should be with moderation. The bowels should be moderately relaxed, _ for which purpose two or three drachms of aloes may be given in a ball, but rarely, if ever, repeated. Two drachms of nitre and one of tartarized antimony may be given twice a day, in a mash. We should avoid drenching as much as possible, in consequence of the soreness of the throat. A stimulating liniment should be rubbed on the swelling, and a warm linseed meal poultice applied, and changed twice a day. If this cannot be conveniently done, the hair should be cut off and the part blistered. When matter can be readily felt, a large opening should be made with a lancet, and the matter pressed out. After this a poultice may be api)lled for one night. Some- times there are several smaller abscesses, which, however, must be treated in the same manner. The diet should consist of bran mashes, green food, and car- rots, with a little hay, and thin gruel may be given to drink. If the colt is much reduced, a little tonic medicine may be afterwards given, but this is rarely necessary. In our treatment of strangles, it is necessary to be on our guard, as other diseases may supervene, particularly inflamma- tions of the windpipe and the chest. It is desirable, therefore, unless the case be slight, to rub a blistering liniment in the course of the windpipe. The symptoms of strangles sometimes occur even in very old horses; and when the parotid glands are alone attacked, the disease used to be called the vives, or ives, and is sometimes very troublesome, but should be treated as we have recommended for strangles. If the swelling continues hard, some ointment of hydriodate of potash may be rubbed in daily. The consequences of strangles are sometimes very severe, and even fatal. In some cases large abscesses have been found to arise in different parts of the body, sometimes on the surface, at others internally, and so occasioning death. These cases arc supposed to arise from the absorption of pus, and are more likely to occur when the sub-maxillary abscess has been imperfectly developed. CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES. 131 • In some cases of disease somewhat similar to strano-Ies, Mr. Carlisle found the Eustachian cavities full of pus, and he had recourse to an operation, by which he evacuated them with success; and he relates the cases in the Veterinaria?i fov iiep- tember, 1841. Although strangles is principally confined to young horses, yet a disease, in every respect similar, sometimes appears in the form of an epidemic, and principally in farmers' stables. It is then by no means confined to young horses, but attacks all ages, and is attended by accompanying symptoms of a severe character. The treatment should be regulated by the same principles we have laid down, recourse being had, however, to more active counter-irritation, either by blisters or setons, to obviate the severe inflammatory affections of the windpipe which often attend. — Ed.] CHAP, xxviir. CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES. Chronic Cough. [^yE have spoken of cough as a symptom of catarrh, or rather of inflammation of the larynx ; and although we have now to consider it under a distinct designation, it is yet in all cases a symptom of diseased action, rather than a disease itself. There are various descriptions of cough, such as hard, soft, dry, short, strong, weak, and convulsive" cough. These nume- rous distinctions will, however, answer no useful purpose. It will be sufficient for us to distinguish the short dry coufjh of broken wind, which is familiar to all practised ears ; the dry, or cough xLHthoid discharge ; and the cough attended by an increased secretion of mucus. Cough, indeed, denotes the presence of some irritation, and is in fact the noise made by the forcible endeavour to expel this cause of irritation; for instance, in catarrh there may be a great increase in the secretion of mucus, so much so that if not removed it will threaten suffocation. The entrance to the wind- pipe is lined by a membrane endowed by means of nerves with the most delicate sensibility. The presence of mucus on this part produces irritation. The sensation is instantaneously sent to the brain, and thence, by means of the nerves of motion, an impression is conveyed to the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, by which these parts are thrown into violent action ; air is rapidly expelled from the lungs through the Avindpipe, carrying with it most probably the offending object ; and thus a cough is produced. 13^ DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The same effect is occasioned when any foreign ])Otly enters or endeavours to enter the larynx, and likewise from simple irri- tation of the part without any increased secretion of mucus, as well as from too great dryness of the part, and probably also from sympathy with another part. Cough is, indeed, but an efltbrt of nature to ward off mischief, and in endeavouring to cure it we shonld strive to remove the cause by which it is produced. Too much regard should not be paid to the sort of cough that may be present ; for we may have in catai-rh, and even in the same case, various coughs, according to the stage of the disease, and the severity of the symptoms. Many profess to distinguish by the sound of the cough whether it is chronic or otherwise ; such profession, however, is altogether Avithout foundation. We may indeed easily tell the cough of broken wind ; but we cannot dis- tinguish that of catarrh, or sore throat, from a chronic cough. By chronic cough, then, we understand a cough, either trifling or severe, that has existed for a long time without being attended by any active inflammatory appearances. Such a cough may either be so excessive as to be exceedingly annoying to the owner, or so slight as scarcely to engage attention. Sometimes a day or two may elapse without its being heard ; at other times the paroxysms may be fi'cquent and severe. Some horses cough in the stable, and never out of it ; others are only heard in their Avork and never in the stable. Generally speaking, however, a horse with a chronic cough is heard chiefly during the first mile of his working, and moi'e when ridden than in harness. In many cases the disease can be traced back to an attack of sore throat, which most probably had been protracted, and has left behind some alteration of structure, either a thick- ening or an irritated state of the membrane lining the larynx. Horses with chronic cough are generally (not always) subject to frequent attacks of sore throat, each attack probably making the cough worse. It is considci-cd that the affection is sometimes produced by the presence of worms in the stomach or intestines, or by a dis- ordered state of the digestive organs. Treatment. — We may often materially benefit a chronic cough, although we can rarely achieve a perfect cui-e ; and as in many cases Ave cannot be sure that the case has become chronic, it is therefore desirable to attempt relief Avhenever the animal is valuable. It will be proper to take a few quarts of blood to relieve the local inflammation ; to administer (if the horse can be spared) a mild laxative, so as to get the digestive organs into a healthy state ; to stimulate the throat externally by means of a mild liquid blister frequently repeated, and to give the following ball several nights successively : — CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES, 133 Camphor 1 dr. Tartiirized antimony 1 dr. Digitalis ^ dr. Powdered squill 1 dr. To be made into a ball with treacle. The diet during this time should principally consist of mashes and succulent food, and the hay and corn should be free from dust, and wetted before it be given. In obstinate cases the in- sertion of a small seton between the jaws has been productive of great service. — Ed.] Broken Wind. [Horses with broken wind are usually called Pipers by horse dealers. The symptoms of a badly broken-winded horse are readily perceptible ; the peculiar catching of the flanks is seen by the common observer. There is in fact a double expiration to each single inspiration ; the horse readily draws in his breath, but has a difficulty in forcing it out, and the abdominal muscles are called on to assist the operation in a much greater degree than in a state of health. The respiration is also quicker than natural, and there is generally a peculiar short cough. This cough in mild cases may be slight, but in bad cases it is extremely distressing, continuing perhaps almost incessantly for half an hour together. The symptoms may rapidly get worse, until a horse is unfitted for any thing but slow work ; or they may continue in the same state for years, during which the animal is capable of doing a good deal of Avork. It is very common for the symptoms in draught horses to ap- pear suddenly, particularly if the animal is worked severely on a full stomach. We find this affection more frequently in cart horses than in any others. On the dissection of broken-winded horses, we notice the lungs to be considerably larger than in a healthy state, and much whiter on the surface. On cutting into them, we find that their increased volume is owing to air extravasated under the membrane which invests them. The air-cells are supposed to have been ruptured, so as to have admitted the escape of the inspired air, which is thus easily drawn into the lungs, but has nuich greater difficulty in escaping. The membrane lining the bronchial passages is also generally found in an unnatural state, being much thicker than in a state of health, and this circumstance is considered to account for the cough that attends the disease. K 5 134 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The symptoms of broken wind have been suddenly manifested by some horses, and on dying soon afterwards, it has been found that the diapliragm has been ruptured. Any thing, therefore, that will materially embarrass the action of this muscle is likely to occasion these symptoms. Broken-winded horses rarely carry much flesh, which is owing to the disordered state of the stomach and bowels ; a greater quantity of wind is formed in the bowels than common, which is frequently expelled from the anus. There is no way of account- ing for this disordered state of the digestive organs, except from the sympathy. The immediate cause of broken wind Is obviously the circum- stance of sudden exertion on a full stomach. In proportion to the indigestible nature of food is the disease hkely to occur. Thus, fusty and damaged hay is a very frequent cause ; and this hay being frequently given to agricultural horses, accounts in great measure for the disease being more frequent with them than with any others. Nimrod, the celebrated sporting writer, states that the disease is extremely rare in France, where he resided ; and this he attributes to the fact of sweet straw being generally used instead of hay, particidarly amongst farm-horses. It has, however, occurred in this country with horses otherwise healthy being turned out to straw-yard ; and may be explained by the fact, that the poverty of the diet obliges an undue quan- tity to be taken, the pressure of which on the diaphragm so impedes respiration, that a sudden effort has been sufficient to rupture the air-cells. Treatment. — Although a perfect cure for this disease cannot be attained, yet we can do very much towards alleviating it, and rendering the animal useful. Nothing, indeed, is more common than for bi'oken-winded horses to get considerably better after being worked for some time in a coach. This improvement is owing to the alteration In their diet : instead of hay forming the principal part of the food, it is given only in small quantities, but in its place plenty of sweet corn is allowed. Tiiis, then, is the plan to be adopted ; viz. to give the greatest quantity of nourish- ment in the smallest bulk, by which two objects are accomplished: the condition and strength of the animal are Improved, and he is capable of making greater exertion wuth the same amount of breathing as before ; and, in the second place, the stomach never being so distended as before, no longer presses so much against the diaphragm, and respiration is thus rendered less difficult. Little or no hay should therefore be allowed, except in the form of chaff; but in the winter caiTots may be given, and in the summer vetches; but both In moderate quantities. The digestive organs should be kept in as healthy a state as possible, and care should be taken that the horse is fed some hours before he is worked. — Ed.] CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES. 135 I have several times so far succeeded as to cure the disease for a time ; and in one case, a horse of my own, the disease was so completely removed, that I kept the animal in constant work for more than a year afterwards. This horse was as badly broken winded as a horse could be. He was kept on bran and oats and a moderate quantity of good hay. In the spring he had some vetches and grass in the stable, which was cool, and well ventilated. He was worked at first very moderately ; but after two or three months he was ridden at a full trot, and sometimes galloped without inconvenience. I have seen another case of complete broken wind apparently cured by turning the animal, in dry summer weather, into a field where there was no water. This mare had been purchased as a subject for some experiments relative to glanders, being so bad as to 1)6 thought fit for nothing else. After the experiments were finished I thought it right to kill her, when I found the lungs, and all the parts connected with them, perfectly sound, and at the time she was killed not a symptom of broken wind could be discovered. I have seen other broken-winded horses treated in a similar manner, and with the same result ; and I have known broken-winded horses apparently cured by being kept at grass a short time, but get as bad as ever a little time after they had been taken back into the stable. If the cough be troublesome, the ball advised for chronic cough may be administered occasionally. Thick Wind. [This disease is very difierent from broken wind, although they are often confounded together. It is characterised, not by a double, but a quickened respiration, it being frequently treble or quadruple its natural state. It is, indeed, more serious than broken wind, inasmuch as it has usually been preceded by an inflammatory attack, which may again recur. The lungs of thick-winded horses have their capacity for air diminished — the structure of the lungs is changed — a part becomes heavy, indurated — the air-cells and bronchial passages become filled up, so that the lungs no longer afford the same room for the reception of the atmospheric air, and, inconsequence, the horse is obliged to breathe doubly or trebly as quick as in a state of health. This disease is usually the effect of an inflammation of the lungs; but sometimes thick wind comes on without any acute inflammatory attack. In such cases there has usually been chronic bronchitis, which has probably been mistaken for a cold, and has not left the horse until it has sadly altered the structure of the lungs. K 4 136 DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. The symptoms of thick wind are more obscure than those of broken wind; as the quickness of respiration after exercise is so much affected by the condition of the animal, a horse weak and out of condition will often, under severe exertion, breathe quicker than a thick- Avinded horse in good condition. This fact must be borne in mind and allowed for, when passing an opinion on the case. It is astonishing Avhat great alteration of the structure of the lungs may exist, and the horse be still able to perform his accustomed work. I remember a horse that for some months worked in a fast coach, doing a stage of twelve miles daily in about one hour and a quartei'. He was seized with inflammation of the lungs, and died in the course of sixteen hours. On ex- amining the body after death, it appeared that one half the lungs for a long time past must have been perfectly useless for the purjx>se of respiration, being so completely hepatized as to be heavier than water. Little can be done by way of remedy for tliick wind ; but we may alleviate the symptoms by attention to the general health, and by the treatment recommended for broken wind. — Ed.] CHAP. XXIX. ROARING. [Tnis disease receives Its denomination from the nature of the noise made by the horse affected Avhen his respiration is quick- ened by exercise. It arises in fact from a diminution of the calibre of the windpipe, or the larynx, or some portion of the air-passages. There are various names used in horse pliraseology to express this disease, or rather different degrees of it, such as grunter, Avhistler, wheezer, highblower, trumpeter, &;c. The first denotes the noise made by a roarer when suddenly fright- ened. All roarers do not make this noise, but Avhen it is present the roaring is generally sevei'e and confirmed. A whistler is a very bad roai'cr. Inasmuch as the shrill noise of whistling is a sign of there being a smaller passage than when the graver sound of roaring is heard. This was put to the proof by Mr. Percivall, Avho tied a ligature round the windpipe of a horse moderately tight, and tlien, trotting the animal, found that he roared ; but on drawing the ligature tighter, so as to lessen the calibre of the windpipe one half, a whistling noise was heard. A wheezer makes a noise, the character of which gives a de- signation to the disease, being less loud than that of roaring. It ROARING. 137 arises of court^e from obstructed respiration, either in the larynx or windpipe, or the bronchial passages; such obstruction, how- ever, not being so great as in roaring. Wheezing is frequently present in thick wind, and indeed is generally owing to obstruction in the lungs themselves. A trumpeter is merely a fancied distinction ; but a Mgliblower is usually no roarer at all, the noise he makes being a sort of snort, arising from the peculiar action of the false nostrils which many horses possess. This sound is frequently mistaken for roaring, but may be readily distinguished by galloping the horse, when it will be found that the noise is greatest at first, lessens as he proceeds, and goes off as the speed increases ; an effect precisely contrary to that attending roaring. A case of this kind lately came under my notice, in which the noise made by the horse somewhat resembled a steam engine at work, so consider- able was it. This noise commenced immediately the horse was excited ; but after several trials I found, by causing the horse to gallop without unduly exciting him, that no noise was produced. Various parties learned in horse matters pronounced him a roarer, biit I gave a contrary opinion ; the truth of which was proved by the horse carrying a heavy Aveight in capital style through the following season, the noise going off as the pace improved. It is, I think, very probable that the case of the celebrated Eclipse was one of this description. The noise of roaring, and its modifications, is produced by various diseased structures which morbid anatomy has brought to light. Thickening of the membrane of the larynx is a very frequent cause of roaring, and is generally produced by sore throat or bronchitis. Sometimes bands are thrown across the windpipe, which is the effect likewise of inflammation. It is impossible to ascertain when they exist, or where, otherwise it would be no difficult task to open the wind])ipe and divide them. This was once done with success, but was afterwards attempted in numerous cases, and failed. Ossification of the cartilages of the larynx is another cause of roaring, and is pro- duced by previous inflammation. Ulceration of the membrane of the glottis is likewise another cause of roaring ; and it is sup- posed by Mr. Field that when this is the case, tlie irritation experienced in breathing induces the animal to partially shut the glottis, and thus occasion tlie noise of roaring. — Ed.] On this point the Author remarks: — " I found two cases of very bad roaring occasioned by ulceration within the larynx; in one of them the ulcer was very small, and close to the chink. One of these horses had been affected for some time with the mild or chronic glanders, and belonged to Mr. Russel's glandered team. He was in good condition, and breathed freely until put into motion. It rendered him, however, so useless 138 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. that he was destroyed. The otlier horse was attacked in the stable with violent coujrhing, and soon after with roaring, pro- bably from an oat or some of his food getting into the larynx. He was turned to grass, and soon became so distressed, his breathing being heard at a considerable distance, that it was thought right to destroy him. The only morbid appearance, found u})on a careful examination, was a small ulcer on one side of the chink of the glottis." [lioaring is frequent witli carriage horses, in whom it is gene- rally produced by tiglit reining, so as to make the neck more arclied ; by this unnatural position the windpipe is distorted so as to cause an impediment to respiration, and thus produce roaring. In some cases, although they are not numerous, the cause of roaring has appeared to be in the lungs ; but when this is the case thick wind is also present. The various proximate causes which produce roaring, may be better understood by an inspection of the cuts which follow. Fig. I . represents the healtliy larynx and trachwa. a the thyroid cartilages. b the arytenoid. cc the cricoid. d the epiglottis. e the trachjea or windpipe. Fig. 2. represents a curvature of the windpipe producing roaring, caused by tiglit reining. ROARING. 139 Mr. James Turner has found that roaring has been produced by enlargement of the turbinated bones of the nostrils, but we imagine it is not a frequent cause. Fig. 5. f\ These figures are taken from three cases of roaring. The upper and posterior part of the larynx is shown in each. In fig. 3. the roaring is produced by contraction of the windpipe, which may be seen by comparing it with the others : this is not a frequent cause of roaring. a the cricoid cartilage. h the arytenoid. c the epiglottis. d the windpipe. Fig. 4. A case of roaring from inflam- mation and ulceration of the glottis and epiglottis. This case is not unfrequent, though it seldom exists in such a formidable extent : it pro- ceeds from repeated sore throats, and is generally attended with a cough. Fig. 5. sliows a case of roaring from absorption and want of power in the muscles which open the glottis on one side (here the left), so that there is an obstruction to the jjassage of the air. Instances of this descrip- tion are not unfrequent ; they are usually not very severe, and often manifested only when the horse makes great exertion : there is no cough. It is now supposed that the attenu- ation of the muscles is an effect and not a cause, being thrown out of use from an affection of the nerves which supply the part. It has been found also that roaring has been produced by a diseased affection of the recurrent nerves; and we not unf're- quently find, on dissecting the windpipe of roarers, that the muscles that assist in opening the glottis present the appearance represented in our cut {Jig. 5.), the muscles on one side being powerless, and almost absorbed. It is, however, a matter of dispute, whether in these cases this appearance of the muscles is a cause or a consequence of roaring. Some contend that the 140 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. roaring arises from an affection of the nerves, before alluded to, by which the muscles are thrown out of action, and therefore become absorbed. To this opinion I am disposed to incline. Such are the various diseases which produce roaring in the horse ; and to them may be added tumours pressing on the wind- pipe, polyi)i in the nostrils, and indeed any thing, either tempo- rary or not, that becomes an impediment to respiration. The usual method pursued by dealers to detect roaring is to strike the horse in the flank with a stick, or pretend to do so ; when, if a roarer, he generally makes a granting noise. This method, however, will very frequently fail, and sometimes a horse will grunt when he is not a roarer : the better plan is to ride the horse, if fit for the saddle, or if a draught horse to put him in harness. On galloping the horse, so as to accelerate the respiration considerably, he will not fail, if a roarer, to exhibit its symptoms. Some horses will roar in the trot, some not till they canter, and others only Avhen they gallop, depending of course on the degree of impediment existing, and on the exhaustion of the animal. In the treatment of the majority of cases we can render no service whatever. It is only when there is sore throat or actual inflammation existing, that we can bestow benefit by external counter-irritation, and other treatment before advised. It is an object of much importance to bring the horse to the highest possible condition, so tliat his wind shall be in a good state, as he will then be much less likely to roar than if out of condition. For the same reason the rules recommended for broken wind should also be observed in roaring ; for although the wind is not usually impaired, yet the noise will be great in proportion to the demand made on the lungs. Thus we often find that a thorough-bred horse will roar in racing, but not in hunting ; a hunter will do so in hunting, but not in harness ; a harness horse may roar in fast work, and not in slow ; and yet all these horses may have the defect in the same degree, the difference arising from their different natural capacities. lioaring is decidedly hereditary, at least the disposition to become so is, for the offspring of roarers have in a great number of instances become roarers themselves. When the roaring is so severe as to render the horse quite useless the operation of tracheotomy is to be recommended, a tube made for the purpose being kept in the opening made in the windpipe, out of wiiicli the horse will breathe. By taking great care that the tube remains in its place, the animal may be able to do moderate work. — Ed.] On this suV)ject the Author states: — "I once saved a horse's life that appeared to have an oat or some of his food in the larynx, by the operation named bronchotomy. I found the DISEASES OF THE DIAniRAGM AXD THE HEART. 141 horse In the most distressing situation. He was scarcely able to breathe, and his breathing was so loud as to be heard at a distance of many yards ; and there was a discharge of bloody mucus from the nostril. Attempts had been made to wash down Avhat appeared to be sticking in his throat, and to force it down with a probang. I made an opening in the front of the wind- pipe about 6 inches below the throat, and then thrust a probang upwards through the larynx, and immediately withdrew it again. The horse was relieved, and got quite well. He worked as a post-horse for several years afterwards, and was named by the post-boys Cut-throat.^'' [If the roaring is recent, and produced by tight reining, we may effect considerable benefit by leaving oiF the bearing rein, and elevating the head and muzzle for some hours daily in the stable, in a contrary position to that produced by tight reining. — Ed.] CHAP. XXX. DISEASES OF THE DIAPHRAGM AND THE HEART. [The diaphragm, or muscle which separates the chest from the abdomen, is liable to two diseases, spasm and rupture. Spasm of the diaphragm, of which there are several cases on record, is denoted by a loud thumping noise, sometimes per- ceptible several yards off, and felt at various parts of the body, but particularly at the region of the diaphragm ; the heart, at the same time, being, though quick, yet very weak in its action, and the pulse at the jaws almost imperceptible. The respiration is usually quick and laborious, and is sometimes attended by shivering. The cause of these symptoms is over-exertion, particularly on a full stomach. The treatment which is generally successful consists of bleed- ing, followed by aperient medicine, and opiates. Rupture of the diaphragm is to be attributed to the same causes as the foregoing disease, — any thing, indeed, Avhich sud- denly demands a powerful respiration ; and in several instances it has been known to occur to broken- winded horses. The exertions used in parturition have sometimes ruptured the diaphragm, and so likewise have the struggles of colic. This disease, although always attended eventually with a fatal termination, has yet been known to exhibit for some time the symptoms of broken wind. In such cases the diaphragm has been only moderately ruptured, and a portion of the intestine insinuated through the fissure. — Ed.] 142 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Diseases of the Heart. [Amongst all the diseases to which the horse is liable, there are none more obscure in their symptoms, or more fatal in their terminations, than affections of the heart. They rarely, however, occur, but as connected with other diseases, the danger of Avhich they greatly increase, whilst the symptoms are rendered more obscure. Dropsy of the heart, or water in the pericardium, often ac- companies hydrothorax, and sometimes occurs in inflammation of the lungs and pleura ; the water being occcasionally so great in quantity as absolutely to choke the action of the heart. We sometimes find lymph floating in the water, or streaks of lymph adhering to the pericardium. This disease often accompanies enlargement of the heart itself, which organ sometimes weighs double its usual gravity. Hypertrophy. — With an increased size we may have either a dilatation or a diminution of the cavities of the heart. The heart is sometimes found not only gretitly increased in size, but quite altered in its appearance, presenting an irregular fungous mass. In a case of this sort that I met with a few years since, the beating of the heart was particularly loud, hollow, and thumping, though not greatly increased in numl)cr. The seat of disease was pointed out by the apparently laborious action of the heart. Mr. Pritchard, who has communicated several interesting cases of disease of the heart, observes, in the 6th vol. of the Veterinarian, on the subject of hypertrophy, or enlargement of the heart: — "It has always struck me forcibly that over- exertion is the pi-incipal exciting cause of hypertrophy, and of dilatation ; and, I may add, the possibility that the original structure of the heart may, in some subjects, be unequal in power to the office it is designed to perform. " This opinion is strongly supported. Horses, particularly those employed in quick draught, are commonly called on to perform arduous tasks with full stomachs, by which the free action of the lungs is considerably impeded ; thus, obstruction being given to the circulation through the pulmonary vessels, corresponding increase of force in the action of the heart is the consequence. *' The first inconvenience felt by the animal during exertion is in the respiratory organs, and this more especially when the stomach is distended, as then the cavity of the chest is di- minished : the lungs are not inflated with ease to the extent required for the blood to flow uninterruptedly through them. " Hypertrophy of the right side of the heart is liable to be con- founded with pneumonia, as the lungs arc readily affected in this DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS. 143 case; but there is this obvious difFerence, — the breathing, although quickened and laborious, is less frequent than in imeumonia ; the pulse, notwithstanding it is quick and intermittent, is not so much oppressed; the sub-maxillary artery is more dilated, the flow of blood through the jugular is more current; the mem- branes of the eye and nostrils are less injected ; the surface of the body and extremities is of a moderate warmth, and these last symptoms are present when the respiration is exceedingly difficult and laborious. Copious bleeding does not cause that change in the character of the pulse, nor afford comparative relief to the respiration." There are one or two cases on record of ossification of the substance of the heart. Ossification of the valves is still more frequent, though by no means so common as in the human subject. A case of the kind has recently been brought before the writer's notice, and was likely at one time to have led to litigation. Carditis, or inflammation of the heart, is exceedingly rare in the horse, and is always connected with other disease. The heart, in a few instances, has been ruptured ; in one case from severe exertion, and in another from previous ulceration. Aneurism of the aorta and other arteries has been discovered in the horse, but is by no means so frequent as in the human subject. Little can be stated by tlie way of treatment for the foregoing diseases. They have generally existed some time previous to the requisition for medical assistance, and there is generally an inability for bearing extensive bloodletting. The treatment, however, must be altogether adapted to the symptoms that may present themselves, and regulated by the principles before men- tioned. — Ed.] CHAP. XXXI. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS. Injlammation of the Stomach, Gastritis. Acute inflammation seldom takes place in the stomach but from swallowing poisons, or some powerful stimulant, at a time when this important organ is already in a morbid or irritable state. INIr. James Clarke relates a case where a horse was destroyed by inflammation of the stomach, in consequence of being drenched with a pint of vinegar; and another in which the same fatal effect was produced by a drench which contained half an ounce 144 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. of spirit of liartsliorn. It is probable that neither of these drenches would have had any injurious effect had the stomach been in a healthy state. I have known a horse quickly destroyed by being- drenched with a quart of beer in which one or two ounces of tobacco had been infused, and have seen other horses take much larger doses without any ill effect. I have also known a drench which contained two ounces of ether destroy a horse by inflaming his stomach ; and in one instance four ounces of oil of turpentine produced a similar effect, but this horse was under the effect of a moderate purgative at the time the tui'pentine was given. Whenever a medicine produces an injurious effect upon the stomach, I think it is generally indicated by the shivering, shaking, or trembling which immediately follows. I have seen a strong infusion of tobacco produce this effect; also a solution of arsenic. I gave several doses of arsenical solution to a glan- dered horse, and it was invariably followed by shivering ; it was a large dose, from two to four ounces of Fowler's solution. The shivering went off in about an hour. At first I gave the horse a little warm beer, with some ginger in it, to stop the shivering, but afterwards I suffered it to go off of its own accord. It is worthy of remark, that although this horse did not appear to be injured by the arsenic, but continued in good condition, and in good spirits, yet some time after, when it was necessary to destroy him, upon examining the body after death the stomach appeared in a morbid state, and the spleen considerably enlarged. From these and many other circumstances of a similar kind, it appears that although acute inflammation does not often take place in the stomach, yet a chronic kind of inflammation, or some other morbid state, is by no means an unfrequent oc- ■currence. I am inclined to think that botts disoi'der the stomach in this way more frequently than is generally suspected. The symptoms of acute inflammation of the stomach are, a very quick and weak pulse, great depression of spirits, quick breathing, and coldness of the ears and legs. I have seen all these symptoms brought on by giving four ounces of nitre at one dose. I have seen it produced also by large doses of sublimate, arsenic, and blue vitriol. [Acute inflammation of the stomach is, as the author observes, extremely rare, unless produced by poison ; but in a well-marked fixtal case that occurred to the editor a few years since, the symptoms presented were, an exceedingly dull and stupified ap- l^earance — eyes suffused with tears — eyelids swollen, and nearly closed — mouth hot — fjeces hard, and coated with mucus — ab- domen enlarged — pulse 55, and oppressed. The mare had been ill several days before I saw her. On the second day the dull and heavy appearance was entirely gone, but the pulse 68. The third day the mare appeared in the same dull state as on DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOAVELS. 145 tlie first clay, the pulse 60. On the fourth clay she ajipeared worse, the pulse 94 ; but the heavy appearance of the head had agani disappeared. The mare died during the night ; and on examining her the stomach was found excessively inflamed, and a thick deposit of coagulated blood between its coats, affecting more particularly the cuticular portion. The bowels were in- flamed in a minor degree, as well as the lungs and liver. The mare had been taken from grass and fed with dry and stimulating food, without any physic or other preparation. The treatment in such cases, where we have reason to believe that the stomach is the seat of active inflammation, should con- sist in extensive bloodletting ; relaxing the bowels by medicine least likely to injure the coats of the stomach, such as linseed oil, assisted by the frequent administration of injections, and blister- ing the side opposite the stomach. An infusion of linseed should be given voluntarily, if the horse will take it ; if not, by occa- sionally drenching him. The most frequent cause of inflammation of the stomach Is the administration of poison, either wilfully or by mistake ; but as the effects of poison are different, not always acting by inflam- ing the stomach, we shall best do justice to the subject by con- sidering it under the head of Poisons, in that part of the work devoted to the Materia Medica. Cancer of the stomach is a disease of extremely rare occurrence In the horse. I have, however, met with one or two cases, the chief symptom of which, in one instance, was an emaciated appearance which resisted all medical treatment, as well as the richest food. The animal was, in consecj[uence, destroyed ; and the coats of the stomach were found considerably thickened, and in a schirrous and cancerous state. — Ed.] Loss of Appetite. Want of appetite is more frequently complained of in horses than an excessive or craving appetite ; this, indeed, so far from being complained of, is generally considered a desirable qualifi- cation in the animal ; but, as I have before observed, more dis- eases arise from this cause than from want of appetite. A distinction, however, must be made, between an excessive or voracious appetite, and a hearty and healthy appetite. The lat- ter is denoted by the horse being ready for, or desirous of food, as soon as he comes in from a journey, and eating his allowance with an evident relish. The former, by an almost constant craving for food and water, without any regard to the equality of either. In weakness of appetite, a horse is rather indifferent about food when he comes in from a journey, and will only eat such as is of good quality. He feeds slowly, and languidly, L 146 ' DISEASES OF THE HORSE. especially if he has been ridden at all hard. In this case, he often refuses his food for some time -, and if any cold water is given him is attacked with shivering, and sometimes with looseness and colic. Delicacy, or weakness of appetite, is often constitutional, and the effect of being kept hard when a colt, or of being kept in cold wet situations ; it may be also liereditary. Sometimes it is brought on by too early and immoderate work, and inattention in regard to feeding. In all these cases, the horse's work, especially with regard to the pace he is ridden at, the quality of his food, the temperature of his water, and all those attentions which constitute good grooming, must be constantly observed. When such a horse happens to be worked harder than usual, the extra labour must be compensated for by extra attention : his water should have the chill taken off; and if a handful of fine wheat Hour w^ere stirred into it, it would be still better, especially if the bowels are rather loose. A cordial ball may be useful on such occasions, or a moderate dose of warm ale. Young horses, however, seldom derive that benefit from cordials and ale that older horses do, and particularly those which are accustomed to such treatment. The most effectual, and the most innocent restorative, is rest ; for which, in summer, a field is the best situation : but if, during the time of rest, the horse be kept in a stable, his diet must be carefully attended to. This should be rather opening, and such as the horse appears to relish: A^etches, or other green food, are perhaps the best. Good sweet bran is an excellent thing to keep the bowels cool and open, and may be rendered nutritious in almost any degree by the addition of good fresh bruised oats, or malt. A small quantity of good sweet and clean oats, thrown into the manger now and then, will often induce a horse to feed when there is want of appetite ; and a very small quantity of the sweetest hay, given occasionally, is generally eaten with great i-elish. Young horses often fall off in their appetites during the time of cutting teeth. At this pei'iod there is often a soreness of the mouth, in which the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels seems to participate. In such cases the want of appetite is generally attributed to the lampas, or a swelling or fulness in the roof of the mouth, adjoining the front teeth ; because the horse is sometimes observed to mangle his hay, as it is termed, that is, he pulls it out of the rack, and after chewing it a little while throws it out again. The common remedy, if such it may be called, is the application of a red-hot iron to the part, and burning out the prominent part, or lampas ; but this is never necessary. All young horses have that fulness in the roof of the mouth which is named lampas, and it never interferes with their appetite, or the chewing or gathering of their food. There may, however, be some degree of tenderness about the gums at DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AXD BOWELS. 147 the time of teething, when soft food, such as bran mashes, should be given for a few days ; and as the stomach and bowels are sometimes affected also, a little nitre may be given in the mashes, and an emollient clyster thrown up. When there is costivencss, or slimy dung, a laxative drench may be given also, com[)oscd of 4 oz. Epsom salt; 2 drachms of carbonate of soda; 1 pint of warm water ; and 4 oz. of castor oil. If the mouth appears very tender, or sore, it may be washed or syringed with a lotion, composed of alum, honey, and water. Keeping a horse on new oats, or new hay, is often followed by some derangement of the stomach and bowels, indicated by looseness and want of appetite; and sometimes by excessive staling also, with considerable thirst, and a staring coat. A change of diet is, in such cases, the most essential thing; but it is often necessaiy, also, to give some tonic medicine, or a warm laxative, such as three or four drachms of aloes, three drachms of soap, and a drachm or two of ginger, with a few drops of oil of caraway. Horses sometimes fall off In appetite merely from loading their bowels, or from staying Idle In the stable too long. In this case, an abstemious diet, principally of bran mashes, or grass, and a clyster, are necessary ; and if that fail, a mild dose of physic should be given. Voracious and depraved Appetite. These are different degrees of the same morbid condition, and the origin of many diseases. The distinction pointed out In the foregoing article, between a strong healthy appetite and an inordinate or craving appetite, must be still kept In view. I have there stated, that a strong healthy appetite Is denoted by a horse being always ready for his food as soon as he comes In from his work, even if it be rather harder than usual. But there are other circumstances connected with such an appetite, which must now be considered. A good feeder, as such horses are termed, does his work well, and with spirit. He Is seldom craving for water. If properly supi)lied with corn ; he eats only moderately of hay ; he carries a good carcass, as it is termed, and is not drawn up towards the flanks, or let down In the belly like a cow; his dung is solid, and not slimy, soft, and stinking; he does not break Avind much, or stale very largely, and his urine is not foul and stinking. But a horse with a voracious and depi-aved appetite has, frequently, all these defects : he does his work languidly, and unwillingly ; and is eager for water whenever he sees a pond, however filthy It may be. This disease, for such It really is, Is not always curable ; yet the state of the stomach, and consequently of the whole body, may always be greatly improved, and the horse's life and services con- 148 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. sideraLly prolonged. There is more difficulty in accomplisliing this when the disease is of long standing, or acquired by hard keep when a colt, or derived from the sire or dam. Bran is an excellent diet for such horses, with a moderate quantity o^ good hay. A small quantity of oats may be given now and then, according to the horse's work. When only a small quantity of oats is thrown into the manger, they are eaten with greater relish, and are more perfectly digested. A mild dose of physic is often useful, and afterwards a few tonic balls. In summer, a run at grass will do good ; but the horse must not be turned at first into good pas- ture, where he would be able to fill his stomach quickly ; short sweet grass should be chosen. When a considerable reduction is suddenly made in a horse's diet, he may feel at first dispirited and weak ; therefore it should be done gradually. Professor Coleman was of opinion that a mail-coach horse, which is allowed two pecks of corn a day, requires only five pounds of hay. I once was employed to examine some mail- coach horses, and found that nine horses were consuming nine hundred of hay a week, with an allowance of two pecks of corn a day each ; that is, nearly sixteen pounds a day for each horse. In another coach concern, whose horses I examined, the allow- ance was seven hundred of hay a week for eight horses, and the same quantity of corn. In this establishment a very useful rule Avas uniformly ado})ted, which was, to keep the horses without food two hours before they started. This the owners had been taught by the loss of three or four horses, in consequence of working them with too much food in their stomachs, and too much dung in the large bowels. I do not think, howevei', that a horse in regular mail work, which eats two pecks of oats a day, is capable of eating sixteen pounds of hay, and that there must have been a great deal wasted. I remarked, when four of them were taken out to put to the coach, that there were some oats left in the manger, perhaps from a quarter to half a peck ; so that it was evident that the allowance both of hay and oats was more than they could make use of: and if we suppose that six pounds of hay per day might have been taken from each horse, for the benefit of his health, it would have saved the proprietor three hundred of hay a week, or nearly eight tons a year. As coach proprietors purchase horses of all ages, and, conse- quently, of various habits and appetites, also with stomachs and bowels of various capacities, and greatly diversified with regard to condition, or nervous and muscular powder, they would find great advantage from attending to a horse's feeding, until they are perfectly acquainted with the state of his appetite, and, con- sequently, of his stomach and digestive organs generally. This would enable them to keep their horses in the best condition, as DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS. 149 they wouki soon discover an inordinate or depraved appetite, and be enabled to correct it. This, however, is scarcely ever done. The general opinion among persons Concerned with horses is, that they cannot eat too nnich. Bad feeders, or horses with weak appetites, are sure to be found out, because they soon be- come unable to perform the work that is expected of them ; but the effects of over-feeding are almost always attributed to other causes; and physic, cordials, bleeding, diuretics, in short, every thing, except the most simple, economical, and effectual remedy, is employed for their removal. When a horse, therefore, is observed to eat a great deal of hay, and to devour his litter if there be no hay before him, and especially when he is found to be dull and sluggish, or thick-winded, he should be pi'cvented from eating so much hay. This can be done at first by weighing out a certain quantity daily, and dividing it into three portions. If, after eating his allowance, he is found to eat his litter, he should be still further restrained by a muzzle. A horse belonging to the Oak-hill Brewery, having been discovered languid and weak in his work, was left in the stables for two or tliree days' rest. On the second day he was attacked with violent colic, which terminated fatally in a few hours. On opening the body, the stomach was found loaded with undigested food, and the bowels distended with excrement and air, and highly inflamed. It was evident, then, that what was intended for the horse's benefit was the cause of his death; that is, leaving him in the stable to eat and drink as much as he liked. This horse laboured under another disadvantage besides that of an immoderate appetite ; there were sharp edges on his grinding teeth, which rendered mastication rather painful, and caused him to swallow some of his corn and beans unchewed. I once examined a horse that died of the fret or colic, and found his bowels so enormously loaded (and his stomach also pretty full) that I was induced to inquire how the horse had been fed. The man who had the care of him informed me that the night before the horse was taken ill he put, as near as he could judge, three quarters of a hundred of hay in the rack for two cart-horses, and that he had given this horse, in addition to a share of this allowance, about half a peck of barley : this ap- peared to be the usual allowance for the two horses. Horses that eai so much acquire a permanent enlargement of stomach and bowels, and a constant craving for water as well as food, generally preferring dirty or muddy water, and seldom refusing the most filthy. I knew a team of cart-horses, at Wells, that were allowed to eat as much hay and drink as much water as they liked. The pond at which they drank was formed by the rain which came from the roof of the stable, and from the court, Avhere there was a large dung-heap constantly kept, the drain of which 150 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. entered the pond. The water was always of a dark or dung colour, like an infusion of horse dung, and would have been found, I should think, excellent manure. Mr. Garrod, the proprietor, assured me that his waggoner had repeatedly tried to make them drink at a running stream about a mile from Wells, when they ■were returning from a journey and thirsty, but they always re- fused ; yet as soon as they got home, and were permitted to go to this filthy pond, they drank with the greatest avidity. CHAP. XXXII. STOMACH STAGGERS. PALSY OF THE STOMACH. This disease appears to consist In a palsy of the stomach, generally arising from over-distention, by taking too large a quantity of food of an indii^estible nature. It is seldom observed imtil the symptoms are fully established, for the animal is induced to continue feeding as long as the stomach is capable of holding its food, and fermentation is thereby prevented. What that ]ieculiar condition is, nobody can tell; it does exist, and pro- duces the effect I have described, and that is all that appears to be known of it. It happens at grass as well as in the stable, but generally occurs in low wet situations, where the grass is coarse and abundant, and most frequently in the fall of the year, or October. There is rarely any symptom of acute pain as in flatulent colic, or of violent delii'ium as in inflammation of the brain ; and, what is remarkable, the pulse is seldom altered in any degree Avhatever, nor is respiration or breathing much affected. But Avhen the disorder has proceeded to some length, both the pulse and the breathing become affected, and I hnve known it terminate, in one case, in inflammation of the lungs. Sometimes it inflames the stomach and bowels ; but most commonly the fatal termination depends upon the torpor of the stomach itself, or upon apoplex}'. The symptoms of this disorder are, great heaviness and drow- siness, resting the nose in the manger, or inclining the head, and resting the cheek, or bearing against the wall. The head is forced against the manger, or rack, or the nose between the rack staves. In this way, the eyes and fiice are often much briused and swollen. The horse stands with his fore legs much under him, appearing to give way every now and then, as if he would fall. There is an appearance of convulsive twitching of tlie muscles of the neck and chest. There is, too, a great degree of yellowness, apin-oaching to orange- coloui-, of the membranes of the eyes, and often a yellowness of the mouth also. Urine STOMACH STAGGERS. 151 scarcely any, and high-coloured ; sometimes none is voided, and occasionally it is discharged by a convulsive effort. Sometimes the disorder is attended with locked jaw, ending in paralysis and death. In the early stage of the disorder the horse is often suddenly roused by opening the stable door : he lifts up his head, and sometimes neighs ; but this is only a momentary effort. When the disease happens at grass, the animal is generally found forcing his head against the hedge, or a gate, or moving about in a state of stupor and apparent insensibility. Sometimes he is found struggling in a ditch, and in that situation he often dies. In the low country, in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury and Wedrnoor, the disorder was very prevalent before the en- closures were made, and the land drained. It generally, or always, ended fatally ; but the horses lived sometimes a month or two under the symptoms of the disorder, but in a less degree. It is probable the disease was thus slow in its progress, from the stomach not being so loaded as in the cases which commonly occur. The horses generally at length fell into a ditch, and died. Tlie disorder was attributed by the proprietors of the country to tlie plant named ragwort, which cattle were observed to eat freely, and were said to die in consequence, in a similar manner to horses. The truth, however, appears to be, that the disorder was brought on by the coldness of the situation, and the poor keep or very bad hay that is generally given to horses and cattle in that country ; for it was observed that sheep ate greedily of ragwort, and never suffered from it : but they would eat the plant during the first year only of its growth, when it is tender and succulent, while cattle and horses were observed to eat it in the second year of its growth, when the stalks become large, and of course difficult of digestion. If horses had but little else to eat, and were thus compelled to eat such indigestible food, the disease might have been so produced ; but the hay in that country is generally bad, and the country low, o})en, cold, and damp, and the horses and cattle of course unhealthy. Since the land has been drained the grass and hay have been Improved, and the staggers seldom occur. Some time since I received a letter from a gentleman of Swansea, in which he says that a disease has many times occurred among the horses that work in the mines, resembling stomach staggei's, but in a more violent form. It has l)een so destructive at times, that one pro- prietor lost more than a hundred horses by it. It uniformly proved fatal ; and thougii it was carefully investigated, no satis- factory account could be given of it.* * The following is a copy of the letter alluded to : — " Sir, — Permit me, though a stranger, to address some observations to you on a disease which you have described under the name of Stomach Staggers in your first volume, or Compendium of the Veterinary Art. I have never L 4 152 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. After considering carefully all the circumstances connected with this disorder, I still feel at a loss to account for it. As the seen any mention of it in any other treatise before, though I have seen it rage ■vvitli the most destructive violence in the neighbourhood of Swansea, in Gla- morganshire, where it is called the distemper. For a long series of years it has been the object of inquiry ; but it has never been investigated on the spot by any one having a scientific knowledge of the diseases of horses, except Mr. iiickwood of Brighton, who was sent down some years ago, when the disease raged most violently, by a gentleman who owned a very large number of horses; but he was not successful. Permit me now to say, that I do not think you have seen the disease raging with the violence, or to the extent, it has frequently done near Swansea. Its commencement is dreaded like the plague. The symptoms you mention are exactly such as occur ; and the distinction you point out between the brain staggers and stomach staggers is correct ; for, though the yellowness of the eyes and mcmth has generally escaped observation, I have a memorandum particularly noticing that a man, in giving a ball to a horse in this disorder, had his hand tinged quite yellow, and I have no doubt it generally occurs. But besides the symptoms yovi mention, the animal is subjected to a general conviilsive affection ; frequently attempts to stale, and discharges a little urine at a time, by shoots, as if con- vulsed, and most commonly the animal's jaw is locked some time previous to his death. " Having now stated the immediate symptoms, I will give a succinct history of the disorder as it appeared, or rather raged, near Swansea. The earliest account I have of any particulars begins about the year 1782, but I know it has at times visited the neighbourhood ever since the year 1760. It generally begins to rage between July and the end of September ; the cold weather in winter has generally stopped it ; but the last visit it made lis it continued two entire ye.ars. In one year a neighbour of ours lost more than a hundred horses by it, and the next year we lost about thirty. It attacks both sexes, and every age indiscriminately ; but animals at grass, in high condition, and at easy or no work, appear to be most subject to it, and to have it with more violence. Till the time it visited us, animals kept in a stable were considered as protected from it. Horses kept in the mines under ground had never had it. I made a stable in one of our under-ground works, to remove all our horses, but before I carried this plan into effect the disease began to decline. At the height of the disorder horses seldom or never recover. When an animal does recover it is considered as a favourable prognostic, and we look for a delivery from this plague. The animals at grass are most liable to it ; but such as are kept in a stable, under the best management, are also subject to the disorder. In the year 1801, when it last raged with us, I lost a valu- able horse that was perfectly well groomed ; but 1 shall have to make some observations on his case when I mention the dissections, and the appre- hensions I have of the disorder being contagious, which I shall now proceed to do. The appearance and state of the stomach are, generally, such as you have described ; but in the valuable horse before mentioned, and a few others which died of this disorder, this was not the case. I beg here to observe, that I had been very strict in my stable regimen, and particulai'ly in the quantity, quality, and time of giving food and water ; and I attribute the emptiness of the stomach to this cause. Though I did not prevent the disease by this precaution, it made all the symptoms milder. I am not a surgeon or a scien- tific man ; but in examining the bodies of horses after death, I have been assisted by a surgeon, and have generally found, with the exception of the loaded stomach, and a slight inflammation for a small length, below the pylo- rus, and sometimes a little repletion of the vessels of the brain, every part free from disease. I could not, for a long time, believe that the disease was STOMACH STAGGERS. 153 stomach was in almost every instance found loaded with dry un- digested food, I have considered that as the immediate cause of contagious, but now fear it is highly so ; yet do not think this circumstance has been proved. When the disorder last began, a neighbour who had lost a great many horses by it sent a parcel of their skins to a neighbourino- town to be sold. The horses that drew the waggon in which they were conveyed were the next — and that in a short space of time — which fell victims to the disorder. Horses that had been in the stables where the disorder raced were sent to work under ground : there, also, the disorder soon after made its appearance, for the first time. Our neighbours firmly believe it is conta- gious. They took every precaution to prevent contagion, and the disease left them. I was incredulous, and at that time we had not suffered. A horse from their neighbourhood came to graze in some fields through which some of our horses passed; he died of this disorder, and was left unburied. From this moment the distemper began with us ; but not knowing the cir- cumstance of the horse remaining unburied, I took no precaution to prevent contagion. The valuable horse before mentioned was taken ill the next da}', and soon died. He had been at a neighbouring fair, and was left with a man to hold while I did my business. I do not know that he had any commu- nication with other horses, but suppose he must. The common farmers' horses in this neighbourhood are all badly managed ; yet 1 have known those who take proper care of their horses, who do not overwork them, and even those who keep them at grass, lose all their horses, when their less care- ful neighbours lose none. I have known a man lose his whole stock twice in one year. When I began to fear contagion, every horse that died of the distemper was buried without being skinned. We have had no return these five years." According to the observations of a surgeon who had many opportunities of seeing the disease at Swansea, and examining the bodies of horses that died of it, the symptoms of stomach staggers at that place are, heaviness, stupor, laziness at work, swinging the head from side to side, or pushing it forward, or resting it in the manger, but never turning it round, or drawing it back- wards ; often standing for hours motionless, then slight twitches of the limbs and other parts of the body ; they seem weak, too, and afraid of falling. There is a heaving of the flanks, the ears are cold, the eyes glassy : some grow immediately stiff, and the jaw is frequently locked ; some beat their heads about, and kick out at everything, but are never observed to kick their bellies, as in gripes. The first symptoms, beating the head against the ground, or manger, increase ; they often force the nose through the bars of the hay racks; the jaw becomes closely locked; they fiiU ; the twitching increases ; violent perspiration breaks out in some ; in others the skin is dry and tight, and the eyes open and staring, yet the horse appears to be blind. He makes water frequently, Avhich is forced out as if by a general spasm. Fatal Symptoms. — The coldness and stiffness of the whole body increase; the loins become extremely pinched in ; the eyes very glassy ; the jaws closely locked ; and the dung very hard and dry. Sympt ms of Recovery. — Very few recovered : in these the coldness of the ears and body lessened ; the jaws became relaxed ; convulsions abated ; the eye appeared more lively ; staling less frequent, and without appearance of spasm. They attempted to eat and drink ; and the dung became moister and of a light colour. Out of fourscore only four were supposed to have reco- vered ; and one of tliese, on being turned out, ran round the field several times, then fell and died. Another seemed to have been relieved by profuse bleeding. The disease is not discovered till the case is become desperate, and then it usually kills in twenty or thirty hours. Almost every remedy has been tried ; 154 DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. the disease ; but the difficulty lies in accounting for the appetite which leads the animal to cram his stomach in such a manner. viz. bleeding (query, to wliat extent ? was It copious or otherwise?), hot baths, calomel, purging medicine, salts, opium, camphor, James's powder, and assa- foetida ; none of them appeared to be of service. Six horses that died of this distemper were examined by this gentleman. " In four of them the stomach was loaded and much distended. In one the stomach was nearly empty ; but the large bowels were much loaded. In the sixth the large intestines were loaded, and the rectum was full of hard dung ; but the stomach was not much distended with food. In all of them the lower part of the stomach was more or less inflamed ; and in some the intestines also, as well as the membrane which covers them, and by which they are connected together." From the foregoing observations, it is evident that the Swansea distemper is the stomach staggers in a more severe form than I have generally seen it ; and this probably depended on the horses being kept in good condition and full of blood. It seems to have occurred most connnf)nly at grass, when the pasture was abundant and very nutritious : for though in one year, 1800, the summer was remarkably dry, yet in meadows that had been well watered, the little grass there was, or even the roots, were exceedingly nutritious, which is evident from horses getting so fat as they are found to do in such pastures, and at such seasons. In 1786, the first time any accurate account has been kept of this occur- rence, though the disease had been traced back to the year 1760, the sum- mer was wet, and it then began in June, and continued during July, August, and September. In 1787 it began in July, and continued during August, September, and great part of October. In this year the spring was wet, but the summer warm, and there was a very luxuriant crop of after-grass. In 1800, the summer was unusually dry and hot; great crops of hay, but no after-grass. It should be observed, that "animals at grass, in high condition, and at easy or no ivork, appear to be most subject to it, and to have it with more violence ; " that " it generally rages between July and the end of September ;" and that " the cold weather has generally stopped it." The same writer says also, in another letter, "I have mentioned our horses being attacked the year follow- ing our neighbours great loss, and when they were iree from it: now most of our horses were purposely kept in the stable, and I have some idea they were fed upon hay of the same year that our neighbour's horses were fed upon the preceding year : could this be ascertained, it might lead to a discovery of the real cause of the distemper." I perfectly agree with my intelligent corre- spondent in this opinion; and if the hay was made in the tine dry summer of 1800, when the crops are stated to have been so luxuriant, the cause appears to me very evident. With regard to the opinion of its being contagious, it is not so easy to determine ; but it is always advisable on such occasions to act as if it really were so. The conclusion of the gentleman's letter is suffi- cient to show the propriety of this advice. " When I began to fear conta- gion," he says, " every horse that died of the distemper was buried without being skinned, and we have had no return these five years." Whether the poison which produces this disease be contagious effluvia, or arises from luxurious feeding, it is evident from dissection that the stomach was the injured organ ; and that if, by the unusual strength of the stomach, or by the medicine which was given, the load was removed from that organ, the great bowels were found loaded ; " and sometimes there was a little re- pletion in the vessels of the brain." One was relieved (recovered) by pro- fuse bleeding. Now, though bleeding is mentioned as one of the remedies employed, it is not said in what manner they were bled — probably it was in STOMACH STAGGERS. 155 In one case that occurred near Exeter, I had an opportunity of wei^hinfT the stomach with its contents, and it amounted to rather the common way; that is, about two or three quarts were taken off: whereas, by profuse bleeding, I should suppose two gallons at least. I have known more than four gallons of blood taken from a horse in about an hou:-, with success. Mr. Rogers, of Exeter, informed me that he took five gallons from a horse in brain staggers or phrenzy in the course of two or three hours, and the horse recovered. Mr. Coleman states, in his Lectures, that 44 lbs. have been taken at one time. It appears to me that the Swansea distemper depended upon repletion of the blood-vessels, as well as of the stomach and bowels, an(l should have been treated with copious bleeding, stimulating clysters of salt and water, and stimulating purgative drenches. A disorder very similar to the Swansea distemper has occurred among cattle at times in some rich meadow farms in Somersetshire ; about which I have been con- sulted. The proprietors have the same opinion with regard to its origin and nature as the Swansea people have ; that is, they think it contagious, and imagine it originates in some poisonous herbs growing in the pastures, which flourish at some seasons and in some situations in a greater degree than at others. The first occurrence of this disorder, or more probably tlie first time it attracted notice, was in the remarkably hot and dry summer of 1819, in the beginning of which a cow died on one of the farms, and was thrown into an adjoining river. The animal was washed a little way down the stream, and was left on the opposite side, which belonged to another farm. Here it be- came putrid and very offensive ; and from this period the distemper began, and has been occurring at different periods ever since. The occupier of the farm where the putrid carcass was washed lost a considerable number of cattle ; and, considering the putrid carcass as the cause, brought an action against the farmer who threw the dead cow into the river. A verdict, how- ever, was found for the defendant ; some eminent physicians and surgeons who were subpoenaed on the occasion, as well as Mr. Barrett, veterinary sur- geon, and myself, being of opinion that the loss did not originate from the putrid carcass. At present, however, I have some doubt upon this point ; and at all events woixld advise every one to bury animals immediately, skin and all, when they die of highly inflammatory disorders, as these cei'tuinly were, especially in summer. Only one of the animals attacked with this distemper recovered, and he was bled profusely, that is, to faintness. It is worthy of remark, that in every animal that has died of this disorder (for sheep, and pigs, and one horse, have died of it, besides a great number of cattle), and they appear to have examined a great number, if not all, that have died, the spleen or milt has been found greatly enlarged and distended, or even burst- ing with dark fluid blood. According to the account of those people, this was the only morbid appearance. This, however, I have reason to believe is an error, owing to their incompetency to examine or judge of the state of the internal parts ; for since that time, I have been sent for to examine three cows that lay dead of the disorder. In all of them I found the spleen as they described , that is, enlarged to about four times its natural size, and nearly bursting with dark-coloured fluid blood : a great deal appeared to have oozed through its investing membrane into the abdomen, and to have tinged and even penetrated into the texture of some of the neighbouring parts. But this was not the only morbid appearance ; there was a considerable accumu- lation of blood in the brain, especially in two of them, and some of the small vessels had burst. One of them, being rather fat, was stuck a short time before the fatal symptoms came on, and in this the spleen and the brain were the organs chiefly affected ; but in the others the heart and lungs were much affected, or rather distended with blood ; and in one of these the heart and 156 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. more than 64 lbs. The disorder which appeared at Swansea was generally supposed to be contagious ; and from so many the liver were very tender, and easily broken with the finger. Whether this enlargement of the spleen is a singular or peculiar occurrence or not, is at present uncertain ; for it is an organ to which so little importance has been attached in veterinary examinations, that I can easily conceive that a con- siderable enlargement of it may have escaped notice ; or, not being thought worthy of notice or recollection, may have been entirely forgotten. I cannot find a similar disease of the spleen described in any English or Frencli veterinary book. It appears to me that one important use of the spleen is pointed out by these cases, especially when we consider how spongious and dilatable it is, and how little sensibility it possesses. It seems to siei-ve as a receptacle for superfluous blood, when the sanguiferous system is in a state of repletion, and there happens to be a retrocession of blood from the surface of the body in consequence of the chilling impressions of a cold foggy atmo- sphere ; for I should have observed, that the stomachs of the cattle I ex- amined were loaded with food, and that a river ran through the meadows in which they were kept ; in which situation the night fogs are often very cold, and particularly a\it to chill animals when the stomach is loaded with food, and the sanguiferous system with blood. An animal dying in this state, or "in the blood," as it is commonly termed, soon becomes putrid, and may be a source of contagion. I am indebted'to the late Mr. Poole, an intelligent farrier, who practised extensively at Pansborough, near Wells, in the M(jois or Moor Country, as it is termed, for some valuable information on this subject. He says, "that before the moors in the district where he resided were enclosed and drained, st-gggers or lethargy frequently happened, and destroyed more horses than any other disorder ; but that since they have been enclosed it scarcely ever happens. The following are the symptoms: — standing in one place three or four hours while others were feeding ; gaping several times without inter- mission ; resting the chin on a gate, stile, or manger, or pushing the head ao-ainst a tree or post ; the urine and dung in small quantity, the latter often with slime or mucus on its surface ; at length rambling about, catching here and there a mouthful of grass, till at last they terminate their life in a ditch, pond, or river." Bleeding in the usual quantity, he says, was sure to prove fatal. The disease was generally considered incurable ; but he cured one horse with beer and ginger, and another with snake-root, mustard, saftron, compound spirit of lavender, and ginger. They attributed the disorder to the animals eating the plant ragwort (Senecio jacoba'a) or staggerwort. In the next parish moor, where this herb abounded, and where many cattle were kept, cows were seized with this disorder, and died in the same manner. He never heard of one being cured. The disease was much slower in its pro- gress than any cases of staggers I have met with. In some instances it con- tinued nearly two months. Mr. Poole did not examine the body of any animal that died of this disorder. From the foregoing accounts, it is evident that there are different degrees of stomach staggers, both in horses and cattle, and that all of them are in- curable, unless seasonably attended to. In the first, or acute degree, early and copious bleeding seems to be an essential remedy. Afterwards raking the animal, that is, drawing out the hard dung with tlie hand, and afterwards throwing up a clyster of salt and water every two or three hours ; then giving the following drench or ball, and afterwards three or four drachms of com- pound spirit of ammonia in a pint of warm water every two hours, and a quart of warm water every hour, in order to soften tlie contents of tlie stomach and bowels. In the second stage, that is, in the cases I have gene- rally met with, copious bleeding is not so essential as in the first stage : still STOMACH STAGGERS. 157 horses being seized with it about the same time, it seems rather probable that it was either contagious, or caused, like other epi- demic diseases, by some peculiar state of the air with which we are unacquainted. Gibson relates a case of stomach staggers which occurred at grass. " On opening the body," he says, " I was greatly surprised to find his Stomach and all his guts, both large and small, filled and crammed to such a degree that it would have been impossible, by any means in the world, to have procured the least vent ; for all the aliment that was in the stomach, as well as the dung in the bowels, from one end to the other, was entirely dry and without moisture, and, before they were opened, appeared as hard and as full crammed as a Bologna sausage, without the least softness or yielding in any part. The matter contained in them was no less extraordinary, the stomach being filled with acorns, sloes, oak-leaves, and such other things as he could pick up about the hedges ; some green and some withered. The contents of the guts were chiefly leaves, neither well-chewed nor digested, with a mixture of grass. But there was little or no grass in his stomach, but chiefly acorn cups and leaves. This horse had been turned into a very rank after-marsh, and had probably acquired a de- praved appetite, which led him to eat indigestible and astringent food." The horses which I have seen in this complaint have generally bleeding is generally necessary. As to the extent of the bleeding, we must be guided by circumstances. I have seen the most copious bleeding avail nothing; but then probably the vital jjower of the stomach was irrecoverably lost before the disease was observed. In the first kind, there is a repletion of the blood-vessels as well as of the stomach, and the i-elief of the former is often the primary object ; but in the second kind, which occurs generally among small farmers' horses, which are badly or indifferently fed, and worked hard, probably kept out in some cold wet situation, the horses are generally suffering from poverty of blood and a deficiency of vital power. Here with- out early assistance the stomach soon becomes paralysed, and the relief of this important organ is generally the primary indication. In the third kind, or moor staggers, bleeding "was sure to prove fatal;" and the remedies em- ployed for the two horses which IVIr. Poole cured were powerful stimulants and cordials. In the second kind, I have sometimes succeeded by giving warm stimulating purgatives, and clystering the horse frequently, until a discharge was obtained from the bowels. I have bled according to circum- stances, — sometimes from the temporal arteries; but am inclined to believe that bleeding from the jugular veins is preferable, as it is the veins of the brain that are loaded in such cases, and these empty themselves into the jugular veins. A horse affected with stomach staggers recjuires constant attention. The contents of the stomach and bowels are generally in a dry state ; therefore he should be frequently drenched with warm water, with two or three tea-spoonfuls of com])ound spirit of ammonia mixed with it. I am inclined to think the cai'bonate of soda would greatly assist the warm water in softening the contents of the stomach, and thereby facilitate their discharge. 158 DISEASES OF THE- HORSE. been farmers' horses that have been kept hard, and worked hard, and in whom the stomach has been gradually weakened, and at length brought to that ultimate degree of weakness which is named palsy. In several that I examined, the vessels of the brain were not loaded in a remarkable degree ; the stomach only was affected, and evidently paralysed. Tiie disease is scarcely ever noticed in this class of horses, until it is absolutely incurable. Mnny of those horses were attacked at grass, and almost always in low wet situations, where the grass was rank and abundant. It is not unlikely that in such situations the cold night air and fogs con- tribute something to the increase, if not to the production, of the disorder. In the neighbourhood of Exeter the disease has at times been very common, especially in low, open, wet situations, as in the parish of Stoke, Exrainster, and Dawlish, I have cured several cases ; but in these the disorder was taken rather early, and the horses were in tolerable condition, and had been kept in a stable on good food. In none has a cure been effected without a considerable discharge from the bowels of excrement that appeared to have been pent up in them for some time. In establishments where horses are worked fairly and pro- perly fed, I have scarcely ever known this disorder happen. Not a single case occurred in the Royal Dragoons during the time I was veterinary surgeon to the regiment ; nor in ]Mr. Russelfs establishment in Exeter, whose horses I attended for many years. I am inclined to think the disease is not so prevalent as it was twenty years since ; and this may be owing to an improvement in the method of keeping and feeding horses. Probably, too, the o-reat progress that has been made in the cultivation and draining of low marshy land may have contributed to the decrease of the disorder. As soon as stomach staggers are observed, the horse should be bled in order to relieve the head in some degree ; but the prin- cipal object is to enable the stomach to get rid of the load which oppresses it. Various remedies have been proposed for this purpose. The best, I believe, are purgatives joined with cordials and stimulants, and small quantities of warm water fre- quently, in order to soften the contents of the stomach. Clysters of salt and water are useful also, and should be thrown up several times a day. The disease is often incurable, probably from a want of early attention. When medicines cannot be readily procured, two or three table-spoonfuls of flour of mustard, and three or four ounces of common salt, may be tried. On whatever cause stomach staggers may depend, I think it a useful precaution, as soon as the disease has made its appearance, to remove other horses from the situ- ation ; and if there is the slightest ground for supposing that the manner of feeding the horses has contributed to it, that likewise STOMACH STAGGERS. 159 should be clianged. I would advise, also, a dose of warm or stomachic physic being given to the other horses, to improve the state or condition of the digestive system. Some relief may be afforded in stomach staggers by placing a cask with a little straw upon it, for the horse to rest his head upon. Drench for the Staggers. No. 1. Barbadoes aloes 6 dr. to 1 oz. Calomel 2 dr. Oil of peppermint 20 drops. Warm water 1 pint. Tincture of cardamoms 2 oz. Mix for one dose. No. 2. Common salt 4 oz. Ginger 2 dr. or 2 tea-spoonfuls. Carbonate of soda 1 oz. Water 1 quart. Mix for one dose. About a quart of water may be given every now and then with a horn ; and if a tea-si)Oonful or two of compound spirit of am- monia (sal volatile) be added to it, the effect will be promoted. A table-spoonful or two of common salt may also be added three or four times a day. The horse should be drenched and clystered during the night as well as the day ; in short, without unremitting attention success must not be expected. [This disease has become considerably less frequent than when the previous account was written by the author, although then he states it was not so common as formerly. The cause of this must be attributed to the better system adopted in feeding horses at the present day. Formerly it was customary for agri- cultural horses to go from six in the morning till four in the after- noon without either food or water, and then to be allowed a large quantity of food without water. Now their daily work is either divided into two periods, or otherwise they are allowed a little food in the middle of the day. Thus their stomachs never being so emptj , they no longer gorge themselves to the same extent, and the disease is therefore much less frequent. When the dis- ease occurs at grass, and particularly if a number are attacked together, it is owing, in my opinion, to some poisonous vege- table, and I do not think the idea that the ragwort had much to do in causing the disease in Wales, is by any means destitute of foundation. In a farm in Hampshire, about two years since, in the course 160 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. of some months, thrcG or four horses died of a disease somewhat similar to that described in the account from Swansea. There was great drowsiness and lethargy manifested, the horses were weak and staggered in their walk, and the membrane of the nostrils and eyelids was pale. The next case that occurred was sent to me, and it slowly recovered after a fortnight's treatment, consisting chiefly of tonics and stimulants in order to rouse the system into greater action. This horse had for some time past been feeding on spring vetches, which contained an immense quantity of weeds, amongst which that locally termed Morgan greatly abounded. Whether this was the cause, I cannot say ; but at any rate it appeared highly probable that the disease was owing to some 2)oisonous substance calculated to depress the vital powers. With regard to the treatment of stomach staggers when pro- ceeding from distension with food, in addition to that recom- mended by Mr. White, it would be advisable to pour liquids into the stomach by means of Read's patent syringe, so as to dilute its contents, and if possible to evacuate a portion of it by these means. Instead of aloes, it would be advisable to administer croton oil in doses of from twenty to forty drops, not only be- cause this medicine is so much smaller in bulk, but also because its action is quicker and more immediate on the stomach and small intestines. — Ed.] CHAP. XXXIII. DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. Iiiflammation of the Boivels, Enteritis, Peritonitis, Sfc. [There are three varieties of inflammation of the bowels : enteritis, or inflammation of the muscular coat ; peritonitis, or inflammation of the peritoneal coat ; and dysentery, or inflam- mation of the mucous or internal coat. The two first are generally connected together; at least, one coat is rarely affected without in some measure involving the other. Cases of Enteritis, however, are far more frequent than those of Peritonitis. The instances in which the latter exists as a pri- mary disease are cases following castration, when the inflam- mation spreads along the course of the cord to the peritoneal membrane in the abdomen. The symptoms of peritonitis are somewhat similar to, though by no means so acute as in, enteritis, and the treatment should be pretty much the same. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 161 Enteritis may come on suddenly, and may at once exhibit the most violent and intense character ; or it may be preceded by milder symptoms, which may exist either for several hours or for several days. AYhen it is slow in coming on, the first symptoms are diilness, want of appetite, and uneasiness ; the pulse some- what quickened, and the horse occasionally pawing his litter. When relief is not obtained in this stage of the disease, the symp- toms become aggravated, and the pain greater ; the horse lying down, stretching himself out, and struggling violently. Tiie pulse, at first usually distinct, although quick, becomes quicker and weaker, and almost imperceptible. The bowels are con- stipated, and the dung coated with mucus. The legs and ears are cold, the mouth hot, the membrane of the eyelids highly injected, and the breathing gi-eatly accelerated. This stage of the disease rarely lasts long : unless relief be obtained, death generally closes the scene in the course of six to eighteen hours. AVhen such is the case, the symptoms become more distressing, the horse lying down, and rarely rising, but straggling almost in a frantic state, though with diminished strength ; at length cold sweats break out, and the mouth feels cold, and death soon follows. In some instances I have known the animal continue his struggles till within a few minutes of his death, and in others the violence of the symptoms has disappeared for some hours before the fatal termination. In these latter cases the attendants usually imagine the horse to be considerably better, and expect his recovery ; but the practitioner finds that the pulse is imper- ceptible, the extremities obstinately cold, and anticipates what he surely finds, dissolution in the course of a few hours. The symptoms of enteritis somewhat resemble those of colic, and indeed the disease is termed by farriers the red colic. It is, however, of great importance to distinguish the two dis- eases, as the treatment for colic would be highly injurious in a case of enteritis. It has been stated that a horse will not roll on his back in inflammation of the bowels ; but this is erroneous. The chief distinctions are these, — in enteritis the pain is con- stant, though not at all times equally severe ; whilst in colic the pain, though more violent than in enteritis during the paroxysms, yet disappears, or nearly so, between them. There is, too, an important difference in the pulse, which in enteritis is constantly quick ; whilst in colic it is but little increased, except during a paroxysm, after which it subsides. The causes of enteritis are (in addition to natural weakness of the part affected, which induces one horse to receive the disease more readily than another, though exposed to the same exciting cause), over-exertion, exposure to cold, particularly standing in water, or passing through streams in a state of perspiration, and standing still afterwards. To which may be added ckinking M 162 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. largely of cold water when heated, and subsisting on unwhole- some food. Treatment. — Having properly examined the case, we should immediately have recourse to bleeding, and that as extensively as possible: for this purpose, a large opening should be made in the jugular vein, or one on each side, and from six to eight quarts taken as quickly as possible, continuing the bleeding till the pulse becomes almost imperceptible. The bowels being costive, the dung should be removed by back-raking, and a copious in- jection thrown up. A pint and a half of linseed oil and one drachm of powdered opium may next be given, and a half pint of the oil, with half a drachm of opium, may be repeated every six hours, till the bowels are relaxed : the injections being also frequently repeated. The abdomen should be fomented with very hot water, which should be continued for some time ; and it will afterwards be very useful to apply hot sheep-skins, just removed from the dead animal, to the abdomen, the woolly side outermost. If thesa cannot be procured, the fomentations should be repeated, or the abdomen may be stimulated by a blistering application.* The legs must be kept warm by flannel bandages, assisted, if neces- sary, by rubbing in a stimidating liniment, composed of oil and spirits of turpentine. During the continuance of pain the horse Avill, of course, take no food, nor is any desirable. He will most probably be disposed to drink, of which circumstance advantage should be taken, by offering him oatmeal gruel, or linseed tea, as often as he Avlll take it. If relief be not obtained in the course of six hours, our prognosis will be unfavourable, particularly if, on again resort- ing to bleeding, we find the blood very dark and thick, and with diflficidty obtained. A second, and even a third, bleeding should be tried, though in less quantity than at first. If the pain ceases, or greatly di- minishes, the pulse becoming more distinct and moderate, we may then augur a favourable result, which opinion will be greatly strengthened by the bowels becoming gradually relaxed. If a favourable result should attend, great caution is necessary for some little time as to the diet, and soft food should be given for sevei'al days. When death occurs, we find, on examination, the muscular coat, particularly of the large intestines, quite black from in- flammation, and the other coats likewise involved in a secondary degree. — Ed.] * Mr. Mayor bas introduced some apparatus, whereby the steam from hot water may be applied to the abdomen for an hour together, and which is likely to prove of great service in cases of enteritis in particular, as well as in inflammation of the Q\\^^i.— Veterinarian, vol, xii. p. 198.; VcL Med. Ass. DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 163 DiarrUce.a. — Dysentery, Molten Grease. [Inflammation of the mucous coat of the intestines has been c;zA. 209 often staring, and, when so, the attack usually became more severe. This symptom, however, was far from being universal. The extremities were rarely cold. In the course of six or twelve hours, the symptoms became more aggravated, the pulse increased in frequency, and the appetite more diminished, and probably the legs and eyelids considerably swollen. In some cases the respiration became quickened, and in others there was cough and sore throat, but in the majority of my patients thei'c was no bronchial affection whatever. " In a £ew instances, the disease quickly reached its acme, but, generally, the symptoms increased in severity for two or three days, when, supposing judicious treatment had been employed, they gradually declined, and at length totally disappeared, the animal slowly regaining his former health and spirits. " The bowels, generally speaking, were not apparently much deranged, but their mucous coat was particularly susceptible to the action of aperient medicines ; and the fteces were frequently enveloped in thin slimy mucus, and often softer than in a state of health. " In some cases the affection of the eyes was so violent as to occasion temporary blindness ; and in others pneumonia was pre- sent, but more frequently severe bronchitis. In many patients the ccdematous swelling of tlie legs was enormous, and continued obstinate when the other symptoms had abated ; but, commonly, in proportion as the legs and eyes were much affected, the in- ternal viscera were fi'ce from disease, and ince versa. This rule, however, was by no means universal, for in several patients severe cephalic and thoracic symptoms were present in the same sul)ject, and at the same time. " When an animal had been previously suffering from some chronic afll^ection, such as diseased or hcpatized lungs, the influenza was almost sure to light up afresh the embers of the former fire, and the local disease generally proved troublesome and obstinate. So, likewise, when from the idiosyncrasy of the animal, an organ was in a weak and susceptible state, inflamma- tion in that part was quickly excited by the general fever pre- sent in the system. " The only cases that I have lost were two, with previously diseased lungs. One was an extremely old broken-winded pony that sunk rapidly in the course of two or three days, apparently more from the weakness induced by old age and broken wind than from the amount of new disease, which was by no means great. The other case exhibited, during life, very obscure symptoms, which were subsequently explained in some measure by the most complicated derangements after death. The lungs, the windpipe, the pleura, the pericardium, and the heart itself, as well as the liver, exhibited the ravages of the most intense p 210 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. inflammation, approaching to gangrene. The lungs, as far as could be judged, appeared to have been antecedently disor- ganised. This animal lived about fifteen days. In the earlier stage the pulse was strong and full, and he was bled largely, more so than any of my other patients. *' Treatment. — Whenever the pulse was full and strong, I ab- stracted blood, and always, I imagine, with the best effect. In such instances I observed the blood slow in coagulating, and invariably presenting a buffy coat. I took great care, however, not to abstract too large a quantity ; and I found I could produce the desired influence by half the quantity which, in ordinai-y in- flammatory affections, it would be necessary to take away. The amount of blood withdrawn was always determined by its effect on the pulse, taking care, as soon as its character was materially altered, and becoming softer and less perceptible, to pin up the orifice. This alteration was sometimes produced by the loss of 4 lbs. of blood, oftener by 6 lbs., occasionally by 8 lbs., and in a few instances by lOlbs. In two or three cases where there ap- peared to be severe internal inflammation, I repeated the blood- letting on the following day, and in one case in the same day ; but, as a general rule, even in cases where the pulse had on the following day regained its strength and fidness, I abstained from a second bleeding, trusting to medicine and the progress of the disease to soften the pulse, which I found to take place commonly on the second or third day. " I had recourse to local venesection still more frequently than to general bleeding ; indeed, whenever the eyes were much in- flamed, or the lids swollen, I scarified the latter with a lancet, and ojiened the angular veins, which course of procedure I found attended with the best results ; for the local inflammation gene- rally subsided in the course of twelve or twenty-four hours, whether I had bled generally before or not. " On referring to abovxt fifty cases, I find that in twenty-three I employed general bleeding, in the remainder I did not ; but in twenty-five cases I bled locally, either from the eyelids and veins, or the bars of the mouth. The majority of these were cases in Avhich I had not bled previously, and the minority belonged to those in which I had before employed venesection. More than one half of the horses that were bled generally were from the same stable, principally young cart-horses that had been recently purchased, and afterwards worked very hard. They had also been allowed a considerable quantity of beans, a diet to which they had not previously been accustomed. " Among these horses I found my severest cases, which were often complicated with pneumonia, bronchitis, and other visceral derangements. In them, too, the blood presented a thick buffy coat, and the pulse was strong and full. INFLUENZA. 211 " My usual treatment in the way of medicines consisted in administering the following : — Croton oil 5 drops. Nitre 4 to 6 dr. Tartarised antimony 1 dr. Spirit of nitrous ether 4 to 8 dr. Spirit of mindererus 2 to 4 oz. Warm water, sufficient to form a draught. " Sometimes 4 drachms of bi-tartrate of potash were added to the above ; and when the head appeared much affected, 1 drachm of camphor. This draught was administered generally once, but sometimes twice a day, the croton oil being omitted after the first dose. After tlie first day, in by far the greater number of cases, 2 drachms of gentian were added to the draught ; and after the second or third day a ball was substituted for the draught, consisting of — Nitre 3 dr. Tartarised antimony 1 dr. Gentian 2 dr. Pimento 1 dr. " In one case the above draught produced profuse perspiration immediately after, and each time, it was administered. Although this efi^ect may be pi'incipally ascribed to the idiosyncrasy of the animal, yet it proves the diaphoretic pro[)erties of the medicine, although this may not generally be distinctly perceptible.* " Counter Irritation. — In by far the greater number of cases there was no inflammation of the air passages ; but wlienever it was denoted, I blistered the throat, the course of the windpipe, and the breast, or inserted setons or rowels, as the particular case appeared to demand. " Such is a brief, but I trust a succinct, account of the treat- ment 1 have found successful, not only in conquering the dis- ease, but in restoring the health and strength in a sliort space of time. Although the majority of cases were not dangerous, yet many of tliem were so ; and it Is notoriously the fact, that a great number of horses liave died from the disease in various places. Indeed, in the establlt^hment to which I have referred, three horses died from it under the care of another person, not * Since the above was written, we have had occasional recurrences of this disease, though not to the same extent as before, and we have found the best results attend the administration of calomel with tartarised antimony. Either a drachm each should be given once a day, or one half this dose both morning and night, and so continuing for several days, adding occa- sionally febrifuge and diuretic medicines. — Ed. 212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. a member of the College ; and in several Instances where horses have been treated by the owners, although the case was not dangerous, they recovered but slowly, and with great loss of condition. " General Remarks. — I have found in the present epidemic a greater disposition to oedematous swelling of the extremities and sheath than in that of 1836 ; and so obstinate, occasionally, were these enlargements, that they were reduced with much difhculty, and only after the frequent and continued employ- ment of diuretics, and the insertion of setons in the thighs. There likewise appeared to be throughout the attack a capa- bility of taking large and repeated doses of diuretic agents with- out exciting the kidneys in any great degree. At least double the quantity could be given, and with no greater action than half the quantity in a state of health. " In one place where I attended, the prevailing epizootic was raging amongst sheep, and at another place amongst cattle ; but the owners requii'cd no professional assistance, as they in- formed me they readily cured the affection, both of the feet and the mouth, by the application of salt and tar. Are these dis- eases to be attributed to the same cause as that producing influenza in horses ? And is it not probable that the influenza will appear amongst mankind during the approaching winter or spring, as it succeeded the disease in horses in the year 1836?* " As I find at this, the eleventh hour, that It Is impossible to be personally present when this paper is submitted to the con- sideration of the members of the Association, I think that I can- not do better than atone for my absence by Instituting a few questions naturally springing out of the foregoing account ; not, however, with the expectation of being enabled satisfactorily to solve them, but in order to elicit profitable discussion. " 1st. To what cause must we attribute the injluenza ? " On this point I must refer to the theory of Professor Sewell. I can go so far with him as to believe that, in common with the epizootic amongst cattle, it is derived from some pecu- liar atmospheric poison, the nature and the source of Avhich I do not profess to know. I am not inclined to consider that it can be assigned to the influence or fluctuation of the weather, although I believe that these changes will considerably modify the symptoms ; for it is a fact worthy of especial attention, that the disease made its appearance, and continued to prevail, in this neighbourhood, during the prevalence of remarkably fine jrenial weather. * This prognosis was verified by the appearance of the human influenza in the following spring. INFLUENZA. 213 " 2dly. Is the blood the seat of the disease ? " In my opinion, certainly not; for I have fonncl this fluid in two very opposite conditions, — one slow in coagulating, and presenting a thick and firm buify coat ; the other dark-coloured, quick in coagulating, and with no bufFy surface. The former appearance I have invariably found connected Avith a strong and full pulse, the latter attended by a weak soft pulse ; but quick in both instances. Under the last- mentioned circumstances, I bled in very few instances, and then only in small quantities ; but I have no doubt the appearance of the blood would have been the same in every case in which I abstained from general bleeding. The appearance of the blood, and the state of the pulse, are, probably, rather to be attributed to the idiosyncrasy of the patient, and the diet to which he had been accustomed, than to the effect of the disease. I coincide with your pre- sident's opinion, that the state of the blood ought to have little or no influence over our treatment of disease ; but I cannot go so far as to discard it altogether from consideration. I must confess that I almost always examine its appearance after venesection, which, however, can be ascertained as well in a few minutes as in as many hours ; and in an inflammatory disease I am alwavs pleased to find a buffy coat, for it assures me that, at any rate, my patient can endure bloodletting. In a case in which I may be in doubt as to the propriety of repeating the withdrawal of blood — being, perhaps, influenced, pro and con, by equally weighty reasons — I should incline to the performance of the act if the blood, at the previous abstraction, had presented a fibrous coat. This, however, is a digression for which I must apologise, and return to another query. " 3dly. JJliere, then, is the seat of the disease ? or in icliat does it consist ? " Surely not in the presence of any symptoms that, however frequent, are yet in some cases wanting. And it is a curious fact, respecting the quick pulse, the tumeftiction of the extremi- ties and the eyelids, the loss of appetite, the affection of the throat or the lungs, that, however frequent these appearances may be, yet there are some instances in which one or more of them are absent. The only symi^toms universally present are fever and prostration of strength. We must, therefore, regard it as a fever siil generis, in which the mucous membranes are consider- ably affected, and the nervous system greatly deranged. It will run its course. — There is no knocking it down. — All that we can do is to regulate its progress, to moderate its fury, and to assist Nature in her own operations. We may, indeed, conquer by a siege, but not by an assault. " 4thly. Is bleeding desirable in this complaint ? 214 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. " On this question I do not expect your members to fight over again the well- contested battles of 183f)-7 ; but it will, perhaps, be interesting again to canvass the opinions of many of those Avho then fought in the foremost ranks, and to ascertain whether any, and if any, what alteration, has taken place in their opinions from ruminating over the cud of reflection during four years. My own opinion is shown by my practice. I cannot say that it has undergone any change, or, if any, it slightly leans towards the side of the opponents of venesection. I take it for granted that the chief art in treating the disease is to know when to bleed, and when to abstain ; being guided in this matter chiefly by the state of the pulse. Where, however, I have not bled generally, I have witnessed the very best effects from local bleed- ing. It has, in a few hours, relieved the tumefiiction of the eyelids, and the heaviness of the head, to a great extent. One thing is most clear, — we can produce a very great effect on the system by moderate bleeding. " 5thly. Is aperient medicine judicious? " This, too, is an old disputed point. I am myself in favour of a very moderate dose at the commencement, but against its repetition. I have most commonly administered five drops of croton oil, which has generally produced a sufficiently laxative effect. The addition of a few drops more I have known pro- duce purgation. I am inclined to believe that a very mo- derate action on the intestines will hasten the recovery of the patient.* *' I have been required to attend several cases of superpur- gation from the administration of full doses of physic in this disease by empirical practitioners. " In one instance I was called to see an animal which one of these savans had previously visited, and for which he had im- mediately put in practice the whole list of his remedies — a mild dose of physic, a rowel in the brisket, a blister on the throat (there was no affection of the air passages), and he was just going to take away six quarts of blood ; but this the employer would not permit until he had consulted me. I attended a few houi's afterwards, and, from the pulse, I deemed it prudent to abstract a few pounds of blood, which proved buffy. The next morning I found the pulse much softer, and not increased in quickness, the fever less, and the general symptoms more favourable ; but, notwithstanding this, the man had been there before me, and, finding the physic had not yet operated, he wished to give another dose, and to take away six quarts more * Additional experience has so far modified this opinion, that in ordinary cases the administration of a few drachms of the proto-chloride of mercury in small doses, will have a sufficiently laxative effect on the system. GLANDERS AND FARCY. 215 of blood. The owner fortunately declined his further assistance, or he would certainly have destroyed the horse ; for, as it was, in the succeeding night severe purgation ensued, anticipating which I had left some medicine to counteract it. The appe- tite, which a few hours previously had been improved, was now totally gone, and the animal appeared in the greatest debility. His recovery was, in consequence, very much protracted. " 6thly. Is the injiuenza infectious ? " This question will admit of no absolute demonstration. We must content ourselves with reasoning on the facts that may come before us, and be satisfied with approaching the con- fines of probability. After a few scattered cases, I was called to attend a pony at some livery stables. A few days afterwards I had another, and, in all, nine cases in these mews. At this time there were no other cases in the neighbourhood of these stables, but six weeks afterwards I attended a case at another mews not more than 100 yards distant from the former, and here I had, one after another, five cases. " In the establishment where I had the greatest number of cases, there was a young horse in whom the approach of strangles was indicated. He was removed to the hospital stable, in which were several horses with influenza. He remained there eight or ten days, getting on pretty well, when he suddenly showed the symptoms of influenza, in addition to those he had before, and his pulse rapidly rose from 46 to 80. This certainly looks like infection. On the whole, I am disposed to regard the disease as infectious, believing, at the same time, that the greater num- ber of cases are produced from the same unknown atmospheric cause." There are several other useful communications on the sub- ject of influenza in the Veterinarian, together with an interesting debate. — Ed.] CHAP. XLII. GLANDERS AND FARCY. Glanders. This is a contagious disorder, and one that Is generally thought incurable. [Its symptoms are a discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, and enlargement of one or both submaxillary 216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. glands. "When one nostril is affected only, the corresponding gland is almost invariably found enlarged. The membrane of the nostril, called the Schneiderian membrane, is generally of a pale or leaden hue ; and sometimes ulcerations are visible on its surface. The discbarge usually sticks to the nostrils, and is sometimes white and thick, but oftener of a greyish aspect. The late Professor Coleman divided the disease into two kinds, which he termed the acute and the chronic ; the former embracing cases in which ulcers were visible, and the latter in which none could be seen. This definition, however, though sometimes correct, is too arbitrary for general admittance ; for there are cases of acute glanders occurring without any ulcers being within sight. It is still, however, convenient to observe the terms acute and chronic, to denote different varieties of the disease. A dis- charge from the nostrils, and the appearance of ulceration, is not alone sufficient to establish the presence of the disease', for these idcerations are sometimes produced by the acrid nature of the discharge from catai'rh. If the discharge is accompanied, from the first, by an oflfensive smell, the probability is that the case is not glanders, but ozena. — Ed.] The great number of horses that have been destroyed by glanders, especially in the army, and in establishments where great numbers of horses are kept, has excited particular at- tention to the subject, especially in France and Italy, where many attempts were made, in the beginning of the last century, to discover a remedy for it. The reader may form some idea of the extent of such losses, when informed that large innkeepers have been nearly ruined by them. I had occasion to condemn eight horses at one time, in one esta- blishment, which, added to those already lost, amounted in value to 500/. In one regiment, 50 glandered horses were shot in one day. The 23d French dragoons, when quartei-ed in Italy, in March, 1809, had 76 horses at one time aftected with glanders and farcy, or suspected of being so aftected. Lafosse, an emi- nent French veterinarian, considered it as a local disease, and thought he had discovered a successful mode of treating it, which consisted in pei'forating the bones which cover the frontal and nasal sinuses, and injecting through the openings astringent and other liquids. After this opinion had been published, some English farriers made trial of it, and by others detergent lotions Avere poured into the nostrils ; the nose being drawn up for the purpose by means of a pulley. Attempts were also made to cure it by arsenical fumigations, and by burning out the swollen glands under the jaws, or sloughing them out by caustics. The various preparations of mercury, copper, iron, and arsenic, have likewise been tx'ied, and after all, the general opinion is that the slanders is incurable. GLANDERS AND FARCY. 217 From the circumstance of horses liavhig sometime escaped the disorder, though they have been standing in the same stall or stable, or drinking out of the same bucket or trough with a glandered horse, many have been led to doubt its being con- tagious ; and the little care that some large proprietors have taken to prevent the spreading of the disorder, in consequence of such opinions having been held, has been the cause of very serious losses ; many instances of which have come within my personal knowledge. That the glanders is contagious has been clearly and indisputably proved by numerous experiments ; and the manner in which it is propagated has likewise been satisfactorily demonstrated. At the same time, it is generally believed that the glanders takes place also independent of contagion ; but from what causes or circumstances it is then produced, no author has attempted to state precisely. It has-been said, in a general way, that close unwholesome stables, haixl work, and bad provender, sudden changes from cold and wet weather to hot close stables, hard work, and in- sufficient keep, and, in short, any thing that will weaken the animal considerably, is likely to produce glanders or farcy. There will be no danger in admitting this opinion if, at the same time, we keep in view the contagious nature of the dis- order, in whatever manner it may be produced. For if such cruel and foolish treatment of horses does not produce glanders and farcy, it produces other disorders which are often more speedily fatal than glanders ; and if it does not actually produce a disorder, it weakens the constitution to such a degree that the animal is rendered more susceptible of the contagion of glan- ders, as well as of other diseases. It is from this cause that glanders spreads so rapidly among post and stage-coach horses, while among horses of a different description, its progress is generally slow, Mr. Russel, of Exeter, had, for many years, some glandered teams of horses constantly working from Ply- mouth to Exeter. But they were worked with moderation, well fed, and taken great care of. I attended these teams for several years ; the horses generally looked well, and in excellent con- dition. Many of them lasted four or five years; some fell oflf after a few months. As they dropped off, the teams were re- inforced by horses that happened to become glandered on an- other line of road belonging to the same proprietor, or by horses free from glanders that did not suit other teams, or were not supposed good enough for them. Such horses Avould some- times escape the contagion, at others they would become glan- dered in a few weeks. After some time, the person who had the care of the teams from which these reinforcements used to be drawn, became con- vinced, by experiments, of the contagious nature of glanders, 218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. find therefore diligently employed every precaution tliat could be thought of to prevent the disorder from occurring. In con- sequence of this, and the great care that was taken on the line of road Avhere the glandered horses were worked, the number gradually diminished ; and the last time I heard, there Avas not one left. About the same time, I attended the horses of Messrs. Sweet and Co., common carriers, of Exeter, who had also a team of glandered horses. Here the work was harder, and somewhat irregular. The feeding did not appear to be so care- fully attended to, nor was the general management of those horses in any respect so good as that of Mr. Hussel's. In con- sequence of this, the horses did not last so long, and much loss was sustained, so much so, that the two concerns afforded a striking proof of the truth of a former observation, that it is de- cidedly the interest of all horse proprietors to work those useful animals with moderation, and feed them proj:)erly. It has been said that glanders has often been produced in the cavalry by putting the horses, immediately after coming from camp, where they are constantly exposed to the weather, into warm stables, and giving them the full allowance of oats. This, it is true, has often brought on inflammatory disorders, which were very destructive, and sometimes of the catarrhal kind, in which case, they were accompanied with a discharge from the nostrils. The acrimony of the matter would sometimes even ulcerate the nostrils, and the disease would then be considered as a decided case of glanders. I have known the distemper, or epidemic catarrh, produce this effect. In the distemper that prevailed in the summer of 1799, several horses in the Scotch Greys were said to have become glandered from the violence of the distemper, and were accord- ingly destroyed. Such cases may have been of a different nature from glanders, though resembling the disease in one symptom, which is generally considered decisive of its being so, that is, in the ulceration within the nostrils. [Later researches have fully proved that glanders may be produced, not only by contagion and the causes before enu- merated, but also by catarrh, either in its common or epidemic forms, also by strangles, and by inflammation of the lungs. In such cases these diseases are said to degenerate into glanders. In the last three cases that came under my attention, one w^as preceded by strangles, another by bronchitis, and the third by catarrh. That form of the disease called bastard strangles, in which the glandular swelling does not suppurate kindly, but becomes hard and scirrhous, is very apt to degenerate into glanders. — Ed.] In 1784, a law was enacted by the French government to prevent any one from keeping a glandered horse, under a GLANDERS AND FARCY. 219 penalty of 500 livres. Every animal suspected of glanders had the words "suspected animal" impressed in green wax on his forehead; and the penalty for selling such an animal, or offering him for sale, was 500 livres. Persons having suspected animals were to report the same immediately to the mayor, syndics of villages, or other proper authorities, under a penalty of 500 livres. Such horses were then inspected by experienced veterinai'ians, or other competent judges, appointed by the mayor, or other officer, and if found glandered were destroyed. If only suspicious, or suspected, they were marked in the forehead as before described. At the same time, a pamphlet on the glanders was published by order of the government, drawn up by two eminent veterinarians, viz. MM. Chabert and Huzard. This pamphlet, which was repub- lished in the fifth year of the French Revolution, viz. 1797, contained instructions for the veterinary surgeons employed to examine suspected horses, pointing out the steps they were to take with regard to the constituted authorities, and the pro- prietors of such horses. Glanders, as before observed, has been divided into two stages, the acute and the chronic, or the first and second stage. The acute glanders is generally attended with acute farcy, such as chancrous ulceration about the lips, face, or neck, with con- siderable and painful swellings on different parts, some of the swelling appearing as a corded vein ; ulceration and swelling of the hind leg or sheath, or testicles, and sometimes of the fore leg, with corded veins, and farcy buds on the inside of the limb. The acute glanders often spreads rapidly, and either destroys the animal, or renders him such a pitiable and hopeless object, that the proprietor is generally induced to have him knocked on the head. Chronic glanders is generally very mild in the first stage of the disorder, and does not aftect the appetite, or the general health and appearance of the animal. Such horses, when ])ro- perly fed and taken care of, and worked with moderation, will often continue in regular work for several years. I have been in the habit of attending several teams of glan- dered hoi'ses since I left the army, and have known them last four or five years. Sometimes, however, they would go off in a few months; and whenever a glandered horse fell off much, and became unequal to his work, he was destroyed. Many glandered horses have been known to get rid of the disorder while working in these teams ; and sound horses that have been put in occasionally to fill up the teams, especially old horses, have escaped the disorder. It is this circumstance, as I have before stated, that has led many to believe that the glanders is not contagious. 220 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The second stage of glanders is marked by ulceration within the nostrils^ or an appearance in the matter which indicates ulceration, though sometimes too high up to be seen. The matter is in larger quantity, more glutinous, sticking about the margin of the nostril and upper lips, and sometimes obstructing the passage of air, so that the horse makes a snuffling noise in breathing. The matter is sometimes streaked with blood; and the horse sometimes bleeds from the nostrils in working. When this happens in the first stage of the disorder, however early it may be, it indicates the approach of the second stage. The matter begins to have an offensive smell, which it scarcely ever has in the first stage, though an offensive smell is by many supposed to be a decisive mark of glanders. In the second stage, the matter generally runs from both nostrils ; the glands under the jaw become larger, harder, and fixed more closely to the jaw- bone. They are also generally more tender than in the first stage ; the inner corners of the eyes are mattery. The horse loses flesh and strength, stales more than usual, coughs, and at length dies in a miserable condition, generally farcied as well as glandered.* In the pamphlet before noticed, by Chabert and * Although the disease is here divided into the first and second stage, it is not essential that in each case the former should precede the latter, for some- times the acute only is present, and the horse speedily dies if not destroyed. In other instances, the acute stage may be succeeded by the sub-acute. It may, however, be observed, that the first stage never ends In death, but always in the second stage, before the disease proves fatal. Besides these stages, glanders sometimes assume a still more insidious appearance, In which the discharge is so slight, and the enlarged gland so trivial, as not only to deceive the ignorant, but often to mislead the well-instructed practitioner. The dis- charge is thin, and appears no more than a slight increase of the natural discharge, and the sub-maxillary swelling is no larger than a bean, though hard and indurated. Such cases as these have proved of irreparable injury to many horse proprietors, from the symptoms not being sufficiently urgent as to excite alarm ; and when a veterinary surgeon has given his opinion that such case was one of glanders, there have not been wanting plenty of farriers and others who have altogether contemned such an opinion, and for a time, at least, have exulted over their own superior sagacity. ]\Ir. James Turner relates a striking instance of this, in which his advice was disregarded, and a horse, with these insidious appearances, was allowed to mix with other horses, to several of which he communicated the disease In the course of a few months. Several Instances of a similar nature have occurred In my own practice. One In which, after attending a horse with a suspicious gleet, I pronounced him glandered ; and to be still more certain, inoculated a donkey with the matter, which communicated the disease in a few days. By some underhand means, the donkey was smuggled away contrary to the wishes of the owner, and destroyed without affording me the opportunity of examining the body. The horse was shortly afterwards sold for 5l., and then a neigh- bouring farrier offered to cure him, which, according to the report which he circulated, he accomplished In a fQVf weeks, stating that the horse had never been glandered. Shortly afterwards the horse was sold by the owner, a low dealer (rather too low for the shafts of the law to affect liim), for 20Z. He was turned with other horses, to whom he communicated the disease, and I was requested, some months afterwards, to give a certificate as to the state the GLANDERS AND FARCY. 221 Huzard, they divide the disease into three stages or degrees. " In the first there is a discharge from one nostril only, of a whitish humour, which is inconsiderable, except when the horse has been exercised for soine time. There is an increased red- ness of the membrane within the nostrils. The swelling of the glands under the jaw is on the same side as the affected nostril. There is a healthy appearance of the horse's coat, and he seems in" good health and condition. The urine is crude and trans- parent. " The symptoms of glanders arising from communication Avith a glandered hoi'se are different from those of glanders produced by bad provender, excessive exertion, &c. In the former the discharge is from one nostril only, or much more from one than from the other; and there is no cough or other symptom of catarrh or cold, or any other disorder. In the latter, on the contrary, there is cough, either dry or moist ; and it is preceded by loss of appetite, or falling off in appetite, and depression of sj)irits. " The symptoms of the second degree are the altered appear- horse was in whilst under my care. Another case occurred within a few months of the other, in which the symptoms were not so strongly marked, and therefore more insidious. A young carriage-horse, belonging to a noble- man now deceased, was ill with a severe catarrh in the early jiart of 1839, and was for some time under the care of a veterinary surgeon of Bath. He got considerably better, but the discharge from the nostril continued. A few months afterwards the establishment coming, according to custom, into my neighbourhood, I saw the horse, and recommended that he should, by all means, be separated from the other horses, which was accordingly done, and he was placed under my care. The symptoms, at this time, were a rather considerable discharge of white healthy-looking matter from the near nostril, and enlargement of the corresponding sub-maxillary gland, wliich felt hard, and was about the size of an egg; no ulceration could be perceived, and the animal looked in other respects healthy and well. The horse was valualile, having recently cost 70/. The treatment was pursued for several weeks, and consisted of blisters and setons to the throat and glands, and vegetable and mineral tonics internally. Under this treatment the horse got considerably better ; the swelling very much diminished, as well as the nasal discharge. After five or six weeks, however, I felt no hesitation in pronouncing the case to be one of glanders, but that I had no doubt the symptoms might still be amended. Soon after this the owner made a present of the horse to a relative (with all his faults), and I heard nothing more of the case for two months, when I was told that the horse was entirely well, and a neighbouring farrier (whose only treatment of the case I afterwards found consisted in applying a blister to the gland) industriously reported that he had cured the disease that had baffled me, but that it was never one of glanders. The owner, not quite satisfied with the case, consulted JNIr. Field, and by his desire the horse was sent to town by railroad. The discharge from the nostrils was very slight, but sufficient to enable I\Ir. Field to inoculate with it a donkey, which shortly afterwards became glandered. The horse was now ordered to be destroyed, and, being examined by Mr. Field, the evi- dence of the disease was decisive, and the lungs were foiuid in a tuberculatcd state. — Ed. 222 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. ance of the running from the nose, which has become more glu- tinous, and adheres to the edges of the nostril with a contraction and partial closing of the nostril, an increased tenderness of the swelling under the jaw, which begins to adhere more closely to the jaw-bone. In the third degree, the running from the nose becomes of a darker colour, sometimes streaked with blood, and of an offensive smell. There is sometimes a bleeding from the nostril. The running is from both nostrils. There is a slight tumefaction of the under eye-lid, a swelling or elevation of the bones of the nose or foi-ehead. Loss of appetite, debility, cough, and swelling of the legs and sheath, or testicles, if a stallion ; also lameness without any apparent cause. Chancres or ulceration within the nostrils, great tenderness of the glands under the jaw, which now stick close to the ])one. A small discharge of matter fx'oni the inner corner of the eye on the same side as the affected nostril, or in both eyes, when the running is from both nostrils. "When these symptoms appear the disease soon proceeds to a fatal termination. The above symptoms are not all peculiar to glanders, but may take place also in strangles, bastard strangles, peripneumony, distemper (mo?-fondure) and pleurisy. The dis- charge of a glutinous matter from the nose, the swelling of the glands under the jaw, and the ulceration within the nostrils are symptoms which occur In the above diseases as well as In glanders, but with this essential difference. In the latter, the three symptoms just noticed generally occur about the same time, which is not the case in glanders ; and are, in the first instance, acute and inflammatory, and such as to excite apprehension of immediate danger. They go through their course in a short time, the running from the nose gradually diminishes, the blood is depurated, and a perfect recovery takes place. Glanders, on the contrary, is extremely slow In its progress : the first degree often continuing a considerable time ; and it is only towards the end of the second degree, or the beginning of the third, that the symptoms appear to Indicate an alteration, or disease of the internal organs. This slow progress of glanders, and especially its continuing for some time without any apparent Injury to the animal's health and condition, the state and progress of the swelling under the jaws, and the ulceration within the nostril, furnish such clear marks of distinction between those diseases and glanders, that they cannot well be mistaken for each other." It Is a remarkable circumstance that glanders cannot be com- municated by applying the matter which is discharged from the nose of a glandered horse to the nostrils of a sound horse, unless there be an open wound or sore, even though a piece of lint soaked in the matter be put up the nostrils, and kept In contact Avith the pituitary membrane for a short time ; or even if the GLANDERS AND FARCY. 223 matter be thrown tip the nostrils with a syringe. But, if the smallest quantity of matter be applied in the way of inocula- tion, either to the membrane of the nostrils, or to any part of the body, a glanderous ulcer will be produced, fx-om which farcy buds and corded lymphatics will proceed. After a few weeks the poison will get into the circulation, and the iiorse will be completely glandered. The circumstance of glanders not being communicated by applying matter to the nostril, enables us to account for a horse escaping the disorder, as he sometimes does, after being put into a glandered stable, or standing by the side of a glandered horse. I believe, however, that glanders is fre- quently communicated by (accidental) inoculation; and that there is only one other way in which it can be communicated, that is, by swallowing the matter which flows from the nose of a glandered horse. M. St. Bel, the first professor of our Veteri- nary College, mixed some glanderous matter with flour, and formed it into balls. These balls were given daily to three horses for one week. The youngest of the horses became glan- dered in about a month ; the others were not affected till some time after.* Glanders cannot be comnmnicated through the air by effluvia issuing from the glandered horse in the way that putrid fever is communicated ; for I have kept a horse badly glandered in a stable with other horses, but with such a separa- tion as would effectually prevent the sound horses from swallow- ing or touching any of the matter, yet they were living in the same air, there being a free communication with respect to any effluvia there may have been between the sound and the glandered horses. This trial was continued for some time, and several horses were at different times placed in this situation. Glander- ous matter has been rubbed on a sore place, or ulcer, that had a healthy appearance in a sound horse : it altered the appearance of the sore for a time ; but, after a few days, the healing process went on again, and the sore soon got well. From this it appears that, to communicate the glanders, the matter must be api)lied to a scratch or wound fresh made, and not to a sore on which matter has formed. A sound horse has been inoculated with glanderous matter that had been mixed with ten times its weight of water. This produced some degree of inflammation, and a small ulcer of a suspicious appearance ; but after two or three days it got quite well. This shows that glanderous matter may be so far weakened by dilution with water, saliva, or the watery secretion from the lower part of a glandered horse's nostrils, when he has the disease in a very slight degree only, as to ren- der it incapable of communicating the disease. On the other * It is said this experiment has been repeated, but not with the same result. 224 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. hand, when a large opening is made in the skin of a sound horse, and a piece of tow or lint, soaked in glanderous matter, put into it, in the manner that rowels are inserted, the disorder is com- municated in so violent a degree that the animal is generally destroyed by it in a few days. The same effect is produced when glanderous matter, mixed with a little warm water, is injected into the jugular vein of a sound horse. A horse affected with glanders may inoculate himself, and thereby produce the farcy. I have known this happen to a horse while at grass. The horse had an itching in the hind leg, which led him to rub and bite the part, and, at the same time, rub on it the glanderous matter which flowed from his nosti-il. The possibility of this circumstance taking place may be easily proved by inoculating a glandered horse, in any part of his body, with some of his own matter. There are many ways in which a sound horse may bo accidentally inoculated with the matter of glanders, for the slightest scratch in any part of the body is suflicie]it. Horses that are cleaned with a curry-comb are very liable to be scratched in those parts where the bones are pro- minent, such as the inside of the hock and knee, the shank bones, and the head. To such scratches glanderous matter may be applied by the hands of the groom after he has been examining the nose of a glandered horse, or wiping off the matter from his nostrils ; or by the horse himself transferring glanderous matter from the nose of a diseased horse, or from the manger, or other part where any matter has been deposited, for horses are very fond of rubbing their noses against the manger or stall, and a glandered horse will generally try to rub off the matter from his nose against the manger, the rack, the stall, or against another horse ; and, if a sound horse happened to stand by one that is glandered, they will often be seen nabbing or gently biting each other, or rubbing noses. In short, having proved that glanders is thus communicated, we can conceive a variety of ways in which a liorse may be accidentally inoculated. When a horse has been twitched, he generally rubs his nose and lips with considerable force against the manger, and may thus easily inoculate himself with a glandered s[)linter. Now, the parts where the local farcy first appears are those most likely to be accidentally inoculated, that is, the inside of the hocks and knees, the shanks, the lips, the under jaw, where grooms are often trimming oiF the long hair with sharp-pointed scissors, or singeing them with a candle, and often causing an itching, which makes the horse rub the part against the manger. In this way the heels also are often Avounded. Horses that are too highly fed and little worked are liable to itching humours, which make them nab or bite their skin, and scratch the hind leg Avith the opposite foot ; and we GLANDERS AND FARCY. 225 may often see them bite, rub with the nose, and scratch with the hind foot, alternately, the other leg. If we take all the foregoing circumstances into consideration, and recollect that in M. St» Bel's experiment a month elapsed before the first horse became glandered, and that, from nu- merous experiments and observations made with regard to acci- dental and intentional inoculation with glanderous matter, some days will elapse before any ulcer or chancre is produced, a week or two before farcy buds or corded lymphatics appear, and, probably, a month or two before the running from the nostril comes on (except when an ass is the subject of experiment), ' — if we reflect upon all these circumstances, there will be no difficulty, I think, in admitting the following positions, or rather inferences or conclusions, with respect to glanders, viz. that glanders is a contagious disorder, which is communicated by inoculation, and by swallowing the matter, and not by effluvia ])roceeding from a glandered horse, or a stable in which a glandered horse is, or has been kept ; secondly, that the degree in which the glanders takes place depends on two circumstances, chiefly on the quantity of matter applied, and next, upon the state or health of the animal that receives it. This is more strictly the case with regard to glanderous inoculation, it having been proved that by introducing a considerable quantity of mat- tei', the horse is speedily destroyed. The same rule will pro- bably be found to hold good, in a certain degree, when glander- ous matter is swallowed ; but the horse's stomach possesses a wonderful power of resisting the impression of poisonous matter, as has been proved by the large doses of arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, &c., that have at difierent times been given, by way of experiment, to glandered horses. A horse, therefore, may possibly swallow one large dose of glanderous matter without being injured by it, while a repetition of smaller doses will readily produce the disorder. M. St. Bel gave it daily for a week ; and the same method has been pursued in other experiments. I am inclined to believe that the disorder is more readily caught by eating the glanderous matter mixed Avith oats or hay, than by drinking it with water, as in the former case it is so intimately mixed with the food by mastication. M. St. Bel placed two sound horses by a glandered horse, drinking out of the same pail, and eating out of the same manger. One of the sound horses was six years old, and just taken from grass ; the other nine years old, and taken from regular work. The first showed evident signs of glanders at the expiration of thirty-four days ; it fully declared itself in the second at the end of six weeks. Two horses in good health, the one seven, the other eleven, years old, both just taken from work, were placed by a horse Q 226 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. that had the glanders. The former caught the disease In fifty- two days, the other in three months. A horse thirteen years old, very lean, was made to drink the same water out of the same pail with a horse that had the glanders, and continued so to do for two months ; he did not catch the disorder. A horse nine years old, in tolerable condition, was placed by a horse that had the glanders in the last stage of the disorder : he caught it at the end of forty-three days. M. St. Bel's trials by inoculation were attended with a different result, which I am at a loss to account for ; as I have clearly proved, by numerous experiments, that glanders may be communicated almost with certainty by inoculation, especially to young asses. Old horses appear to offer the greatest resistance to it, both by the way of inoculation and by swallowing the matter. M. St. Bel inoculated three old horses with glanderous matter, and they all escaped. He adds, this experiment was repeated on various horses of all ages, without producing any effect. It was also performed on an ox, a sheep, and a dog, without impairing in the least the health of these animals. I have known a horse, fifteen years old, stand by the side of a glandered horse, constantly feeding, drinking, and working with him for many months, without catching the disorder; and I had occasion to inoculate another old horse several times before I could produce the disease, and at last it was about three months before the glanders took place in him. In younger horses, and especially in asses, the disease is pro- duced with great certainty by inoculation. In doubtful cases, that is, when there is much difficulty in determining whether the discharge from a horse's nostril is glanderous or not, and such cases often occur, I have for some time made use of a young ass, which costs only a few shillings, in order to decide the point beyond all possibility of mistake. If the matter is really glanderous, a peculiar kind of sore or chancre Avill be produced by inoculating the young ass with it in any part of the body. From this ulcer, corded lymphatics or veins, as they are termed, will proceed, and farcy buds or small tumours will take place. After a week or two the animal will begin to run at the nose ; and then, in a short time, he will be completely glandered. The disease in this animal is almost always quickly ftital. If the matter is not glanderous, no effect whatever will be produced by it. In the army, and in establishments where many horses are kept, this will be found a valuable test for determining with certainty the nature of a discharge from the nostril. However mild the glanders may be, though no kind of ulceration can be seen within the nostril, and the quantity of matter discharged is but small, and the animal in good health and condition, the ass will be as certainly infected by the matter as if the disease were in the last stage, or in the most virulent degree. GLANDERS AND FARCY. 227 The following is the method of performing the inoculation : — Cut off a little hair fx'om the side of the neck or any other part of the body, for about the space of half-a- crown; then take a lancet and pass it under the cuticle or scarf-skin, for about a quarter of an inch : it should not wound the skin much, but be sufficiently deep to tinge the lancet with blood, or make one or two drops of blood appear. The matter may be introduced into this opening (first wiping off the blood) by means of a thin slip of wood, of the form of a lancet. If the matter is glanderous, the part will become sore in two or three days, and a scab will form on it, which in a few days will be thrown off, leaving a peculiar kind of ulcer, which will often spread rapidly, causing a painful swelling of the adjacent parts, with corded lymphatics and farcy buds. In about a fortnight, sometimes less, the glanders will appear. No other matter will produce this effect. There is only one kind of matter, besides that of glanders, which, according to my experience, will produce any effect, and that is the matter of virulent or chronic grease; when the dis- charge from the heels is of a dark colour, something like dirty kennel-water, and of a peculiarly offensive smell. (See Grease.) When a horse is inoculated with this matter, a small but very painful tumour will arise in the part. After a few days the skin covering the tumour will become of a dark colour, and in a few days more the dark-coloured skin will slough off, and leave a healthy granulating sore, which will soon get well of its own accord. A horse who had been thus inoculated, was inoculated also with glanderous matter ; and it is worthy of remark, that while the grease sore was going on, the glanderous inoculation had no effect. The Nature of Glanders. — [There is still much difference of opinion as to the real nature of glanders. Professor Coleman considered that it was a specific inflammation of the membrane of the nostrils, produced by a poison in the blood, and on trans- fusing the blood of a glandered horse into the veins of an ass, it quickly communicated the disease, clearly pi-oving that the blood was affected. Mr. Dupuy, who has written an elaborate treatise on the disease, considers it to be of a tuberculous nature, and that it is always preceded by tubercles in the lungs, that is, small white grey bodies, which are principally composed of carbonate of lime, but which, in time, are converted into pus. These tubercles were, likewise, he asserts, found on the nasal membrane. He considers that they may exist for several years before the developement of glanders, and that ere this they increase in number and coalesce, and at length are changed into pus and occasion ulcers both in the lungs and the nasal membrane. Professor Sewell in some measure coincides with these views, Q 2 228 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. and has found that on inoculating a healthy donkey with glanderous matter, it has produced tubercles in the lungs in a very short space of time. These views are deserving of great weight, but we cannot altogether coincide with them ; for, although perhaps in the majority of cases tubercles are found in the lungs of glandered horses, yet there are other instances in which there are none to be found there «r elsewhere. The particular seat of glanders is certainly the membrane lining the nostrils and chambers of the head, although iu a great number of cases the lungs are likewise involved. We cannot say whether in all cases the con- stitution is affected, or Avhether in some instances the disease is entirely local ; but in the subject chosen by Professor Coleman for experiment, it was clearly proved that the blood was infected. There is evidently a much greater predisposition in some horses to receive the disease, either from infection or otherwise. Horses with narrow chests, long legs, and light carcasses, are more liable to take the disease than others ; and some consider that colour has something to do with the matter. Some years since, during my pupillage at the Veterinary College, having to read a paper on glanders to the Veterinary Society, I examined the record of cases kept there for many years, and I found that the number of chesnut glandered horses was greater than that of any other colour. Next to that of curing this disease, it is desirable to be able to decide in difficult and obscure cases as to its actual presence ; and on this matter the opinion of veterinary surgeons is fre- quently demanded. Grooms and farriers more frequently give a wrong than a right opinion, imagining when the symptoms are very mild, that the disease cannot be glanders, and often pro- nouncing a horse to be glandered when he has only the strangles or catarrh. The first mistake, however, is the most frequent. In examining a suspected case, if we find a discharge of matter from one nostril, and a portion of it sticking to the entrance with a hard and fixed enlargement of the submaxillary gland, although the enlargement may be slight, and the dis- charge inconsiderable, yet, if these symptoms have existed for two or three months or upwards, we may safely decide the case to be one of glanders, even if there be no ulceration within sight. When these symptoms exist, but there is no means of ascertaining the history of the case, we may justly consider that the probability is in favour of its being one of glan- ders ; and this opinion avIU be gi'eatly strengthened If there are any mysterious or suspicious circumstances connected with it, such as the horse having been sold at a very low rate. If, however, Ave cannot trace the history of the case, and the animal is of any value, it will be desirable either to keep it for some GLANDERS AND FARCY. 229 weeks, or otherwise to inoculate an ass with tlie suspected matter. If both nostrils are affected, and the symptoms are but slight, the case is not so decided as if one only is affected. If there be a cough, and the other symptoms are slight, the chances are, that it is not a case of glanders, for although cough is sometimes present in glanders, yet it denotes some pulmonary affection, in which case the symptoms of glanders are usually severe. The absence of a cough, therefore, and the presence of the other symptoms, is very suspicious. The existence of ulcers in the nostrils, together with a discharge, is not alone sufficient proofs of glandei"s being present, for these symptoms are some- times produced by catarrh, the previous existence of which it is desirable to ascertain. If the discharge from the nose be very offensive when it first appears, the probability is, that it is not a case of glanders, although ulcers may be seen. These symptoms are called ozena, and are sometimes produced by the influenzn. Some time since, I met with a case of this sort ; it was preceded by swellings of the extremities. There was considerable ulcer- ation in both nostrils, together with a discharge so horribly offensive, that it could be discovered thirty yards off. The horse was young and valuable, and being separated from other horses, he was submitted to treatment which consisted of vegetable and mineral tonics internally, and the nostrils were daily injected with a weak solution of chloride of lime. The diet was liberal, and the horse was worked moderately by himself in the course of a month, and about six weeks after- wards the symptoms disajipeared, and he has been regularly at work for the last two years. By an attention to these rules, assisted by experience, the veterinary surgeon will generally be enabled to decide correctly as to the presence of glanders, and the owner himself to form a pretty shrewd opinion respecting it. — Ed.] According to MM. Chabert and Huzard, the following morbid appearances are observable on opening glandered horses : — 1st. "Tumours are generally found on the lungs, such as hydatids, tubercles, and obstructions. The bronchial glands ai'C enlarged, and sometimes contain matter, and this sometimes is the only morbid apj^earance observable in the lungs. The membrane which lines the windpipe and its branches is often inflamed and ulcerated, and the latter are often filled with matter similar to that discharged by the nostrils. The internal surface of the bones, which form the nose and the cartilaginous partition between the nostrils, are often carious and covered with matter. The spleen, the liver, and the kidneys, are often diseased, sometimes in a considerable degree. When these last organs are injured, it may be known by the pus discharged with Q ^ 230 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the urine. 2d. On opening the skull, the brain is found softer and more flaccid than in the healthy horse, and there is gene- rally more or less water in the ventricles. The plexus choroides appears gorged, the crystalline humour of the eye dull, and without consistence, or, as if it were decomposed. It is not to be supposed that all these morbid appearances will be found in the same horse, or that they are all necessary to enable us to declare that the horse was glandered ; it is sufficient if some of them are found, provided the external symptoms during the horse's life were such as we have before described as charac- teristic of glanders."* As I have demonstrated the manner in which glanders Is communicated, it is needless to say any thing of the mode of prevention, except briefly observing, that it can be accomplished only by preventing any glanderous matter from coming near a horse, or mixing with his food or water ; and that the only method of purifying an infected stable, is to remove every thing on which glanderous matter may have fallen, and to wash and scrape the fixtures, such as the rack and manger, thoroughly. I have. In a former edition, advised a fumigation with the gas which arises from a mixture of common salt, manganese, and oil of vitriol, because I have found that glanderous matter which has been exposed to this gas Is rendered quite Innocent, though an ass be Inoculated with It ; and I have directed the stable to be first thoroughly cleansed, because, if any dry hard glan- derous matter should remain, the water employed In cleansing the stable will have moistened It, and thereby enable the fumigation to mix with It, and destroy Its poisonous quality. [Some persons fancy that It Is necessary to pull down and remove the racks and mangers of a glandered stable. This, however, is altogether unnecessary. The following plan will be found at once effectual, convenient, and economical : — Let the whole of the stable, or at least every part to which the diseased animals could possibly have had access, be washed with a solu- tion of chloride of lime, and the following day well scrubbed with soap and water, and as soon as It is dry again, washed with the chloride of lime. In a few days afterwards, It may be used without any danger. — Ed.] Treatment. — I have already observed that a glandered horse has. In several Instances, been known to get entirely free from the disorder while employed in moderate work, and carefully fed and attended, without taking any medicine : I have also Been the disorder cui'cd by mercury, and have known Instances * In some cases, when horses are destroyed on account of chronic glanders in a mild form, the post mortem appearances are very slight ; a paleness or leaden hue of the nasal membrane, with very diminutive specks of ulceration, are all that can be discovered. — Ed. GLANDERS AND FARCY. 231 of farcy being so cured. The general opinion, both of English and French veterinarians, is, that glanders is incurable, and that farcy is curable. According to my experience, there is seldom any difficulty in curing farcy, when it is a local disorder, merely by local ap]jlications ; but such cures are generally followed by glanders, there being often a considerable interval (from a few weeks to a few months) between the disappearance of farcy and the appearance of glanders. Before any attempt is made to cure a glandered horse, with a view to publishing the case if it prove successful, it would be right to make it appear satisfactorily that the horse is really glandered. This rule has been seldom attended to ; for, in general, when such cures have been pub- lished, or talked of, it has been merely asserted that the horse had the glanders. Now, it is well known that there are diseases which resemble glanders, and that the most experienced prac- titioners are sometimes unable to give a decisive opinion upon such cases. A blow on the nose, for example, may injure the bones, and cause a running from one nostril, and a swelling of the kernels under the jaw, for years, which will exactly resemble glanders, except in not being contagious, or fatal in its termi- nation. The cure of glanders, however, cannot be accomplished without great care, and considerable expense ; and rarely, I believe, except in its first stage, or mild form. The expense of the cure does not depend so much on the value of the medicine employed, as the length of time that is necessary ; therefore, unless the horse is of considerable value, in good condition, and glandered only in a mild degree, it is not worth while to attempt the cure. It should also be recollected, during the treatment, that as long as there is any discharge from the nostril, there is danger of his communicating the disease to other horses. Cor- rosive sublimate and calomel have been found to have con- siderable power in correcting the glanderous poison ; but they weaken the animal so much, that most frequently they accelerate the progress of the disease. I now recommend the mildest preparations of mercury, such as Ethiop's mineral, or quick- silver rubbed down wath chalk, or honey and liquorice powder. In the last case of mild glanders I was consulted about, 1 ad- vised small doses of Ethiop's mineral to be given daily for some time, and a seton to be passed through the swelling under the jaw. The seton, however, was omitted, but the Ethiop's mineral eifected a perfect cure. Dr. Malouin, a French physician of the last century, first employed Ethiop's mineral as a remedy for glanders, and, it was said, with considerable success. Since that time, however, this preparation seems to have lost its reputation, not only as a remedy for glanders,^ but for every other disorder. I have found it, on many occasions, a valuable alterative, especially when mixed with an equal quantity of 232 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. finely levigated antimony. The dose of Ethiop'e mineral is half an ounce, once or twice a day, according to circumstances. A hoi'se readily eats it in his corn. During the whole of the treat- ment, the horse should be regularly exercised and cleaned, and be fed with the best hay and a moderate quantity of oats. The medicine should be continued until the constitution appears to be affected by it ; that is, until the mouth becomes sore, the appetite diminished, the bowels loosened, or until the disorder is subdued. The nose of the glandered horse should be kept clean by sponging it now and then, and the i-ack and manger should be kept as clean as possible. The stable should be kept clean, and properly ventilated. The only objection to working a glandered horse moderately, is the danger there may be of his infecting others, through the carelessness of the person who has the care of him. A little work rather contributes to health and cheerfulness ; and it should never be forgotten, that by making a horse comfortable and cheerful, we improve the digestive functions, and thereby strengthen the constitution. The infected horses that gradually got well without medicine, in Mr. Russel's glandered teams, owed their recovery, T have no doubt, in great measure to the comfortable state they were kept in, being taken gi-eat care of, having always the best food and good stables, and being always with their companions, and in moderate but regular work. [Professor Sewell has for some years been in the habit of giving the sulphate of copper, in large doses of four and six drachms, which being administered in the form of a draught, and with plenty of linseed meal, is not found to produce that erosion of the stomach which the same dose given as a ball would occasion. This medicine is doubtless a powerful tonic, and thus assists the constitution of the animal in throwing off the disease ; but Mr. Sewell, I believe, considers that it has in addition some specific action on the malady. In addition to this Mr. Sewell frequently inserts setons over the face. By this treatment cures have unquestionably been effected, and Mr. Sewell used for many years a mare that he had cured of glanders. These successful cases, however, are exceedingly few, compared with the number submitted to treatment. Mr. Vines, in a work published some years since on glanders, recommends powdered cantharides in doses of four to twelve grains, together with gentian and ginger, one to three drachms each, and caraway seeds one to two drachms. A ball thus com- posed he has administered daily to glandered horses, and in some cases with success. Other practitioners likewise testify to the valuable tonic properties of this medicine thus administered, and in numerous instances I have seen its good effects. Mr. Storry i-elates several instances of glandered horses cured GLANDERS AND TARCY. 233 by him by fumigating the nostrils with carbonic acid gas, assisted by tonic medicine. Creasote has been used with success in glanders of the human subject as a topical application to the ulcers, and it has in a few instances been tried on the horse with good effect. I have, myself, in a case of glanders, entirely stopped the nasal dis- charge and healed the ulcers by its use. The combination of iodine and sulphate of copper, which readily unite by adding a little proof spirit, has been recom- mended by Mr. Norton, and administered with excellent effect in doses of two drachms daily. To sum up the best system of treatment to be adopted in this disease, it should first be repeated that there are but few cases in which the symptoms are sufficiently mild, and the horse of sufficient value, to justify the expense incurred in keeping and treating the animal except by way of experiment ; and we must, therefore, narrowly examine the horse previous to our attempts. If the pulse is increased, though only eight or ten beats in a minute, the lungs are probably affected, and it is better to de- stroy the animal. So likewise if the animal has been affected for several years, although the symptoms may still be mild. Should, howevei', the case be comparatively recent, and the appearances favourable, we should then administer daily the tonic recommended by Mr. Sewell, or that advised by Mr. Vines; or what, perhaps, is still better, to give one for several days, and then to try the other, or the iodide of copper in doses of one or two drachms daily. If there are any ulcerations within sight, a solution of creasote should be syringed up the nostrils daily ; and if there are none visible, it may be well to try the effect of fumigating the nostrils Avith carbonic acid gas; and if creasote could be applied in this form it would still be better. An ointment of hydriodate of potash should be rubbed on the enlarged glands ; and if the symptoms should disappear with the exception of the indurated gland, it would be advisable to excise it, as it generally contains glanderous matter, which may fresh inoculate the system. The above, I take it, forms an epitome of the most judicious treatment to be employed in glanders. — Ed.] [This disease is similar in its nature to the glanders, though attacking a different part. It has been proved by numerous instances that the matter of glanders will produce the farcy, and that of farcy occasion glanders. But whilst the peculiar seat of glanders is the membrane of the nostrils, that of farcy is the lymphatics or absorbent vessels. 234 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Farcy sometimes commences with an apparently trivial sore, which often escapes notice. Soon after which there appears a small tumour called a farcy bud, but which is at first hard, but soon becomes soft, and contains, indeed, the infectious virus, which, however, resembles common pus or matter in appearance. Between these buds there are generally hard corded swellings, which are, indeed, the diseased lymphatics ; and the buds are considered to occur at the situation of the valves of these vessels. Farcy may at first be either local or constitutional, but it rarely remains local long. The poison is soon absorbed from the buds, and the constitution is impregnated. The most frequent seat of farcy, at first, is the inside of one of the hind legs and thighs ; next to this, the inside of the fore legs, or the neck and the lips ; wherever, indeed, the skin is thinnest. The buds are sometimes small, about the size of a shilling, at other times as large as a half crown. The disease, at first, is usually confined to one leg ; but as it progresses, the buds appear in various parts of the body, and as they approach the head and throat, the symptoms of glanders appear, and the animal soon sinks, if not destroyed. There is often a considerable dropsical enlargement of the leg aflfected in farcy ; and sometimes a peculiar noise is heard when the animal walks, as if the joint-bones slipped in and out of their sockets. These appearances, particularly the latter, are very unfavourable, and the horse rarely recovers when it is present. The causes of farcy are similar to those of glanders, being produced either by contagion or otherwise, although it may be justly considered that it is much less fre- quently occasioned by contagion than glanders. When a number of horses are worked hard, fed on poor or unwholesome provender, exposed to wet and cold, or closely confined in an impure at- mosphere, ■ — when either the whole or part of these causes are present, farcy will very probably be engendered. Mr. Coleman used to relate in his lectures, that in the expedition to Quiberon, the horses had not been long on board of the transports before it became necessary to shut down the hatchways ; the con- sequence of this was, that the horses were almost suffocated with heat, and that almost all of them disembarked either glandered or fiircied. When farcy thus breaks out in an establishment, its symptoms are generally very severe, and its course rapid. At other times its progress is slower, but it never continues for years, like chronic glanders. The Treatment must be very similar in its nature to that recommended for glanders, but with a much greater probability of success. The system must be supported by a generous (though not too stimulating) diet, and the vegetable and mineral tonics administered as in glanders ; but if the sulphate of copper ANASARCA, SWELLED LEGS, ETC. 235 be employed, two or three drachms will be a sufficiently strong dose. Carrots or green food will form a useful addition to the diet. The buds should be opened with a lancet, and when the matter is evacuated a caustic should be applied to the ulcers. The lunar caustic will form a useful application, but other caustics may be employed. An ointment composed of hydrio- date of potash 2 drachms, lard or palm oil 2 ounces, mercurial ointment 2 ounces *, should be rubbed daily in the course of the enlarged lymphatics. The horse should be exercised daily, and properly groomed, and the above treatment continued until all symptoms of farcy entirely disappear. It must be confessed that the most favourable symptoms often prove delusive ; for often when the disease appears to be conquered, it will break out again and again, and sometimes the morbid poison has lurked insidiously for many months in the system, and fatal farcy or glanders has again appeared. The probability of eradicating the disease will depend on the circumstance as to whether it be local or constitutional ; and if constitutional, on how far the system is affected. — - Ed.] CHAP. XLIII. ANASARCA. — SWELLED LEGS. — AVEED. — CHAPPED HEELS. — GREASE. — BURSAUTEE. Anasarca in the horse is of two kinds ; one depending on general debility, and the other on a high degree of inflamma- tion. The former most commonly occurs in old horses, when turned out into poor pasture, particularly in cold marshy situations. It is known by considerable swellings of the belly, chest, and hind legs, attended with great debility ; of this they generally die, unless relieved by a strong diuretic, sudorific, and cordial; these are combined in the celebrated old drench of Markham, which has cured a great number of horses of this disorder, and is considered in the low country, about Glas- tonbury and Wedmoor, where this disease is prevalent, an invaluable medicine. It consists of a decoction of wormwood in a gallon of ale, which is boiled down to two quarts and skimmed. In this 1 oz. of Castile soap is to be dissolved, and then there is to be stirred in 6 drachms of grains of paradise, powdered, and the same quantity of long pepper. The whole of this mixture is to be given at once, fasting. The horse is to be clothed, and rode about until he sweats and stales profusely, * A better form for this ointment will be found In the Materia Medico, in which the mercury and the iodine are chemically combined. — Ed. 236 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. which he soon does, and is then reheved. Some people may be apprehensive of danger in using this formidable remedy ; in that case cordial diuretics may be given, so as to make the horse stale considerably.* The otlier kind of dropsy, or that which depends on a high degree of general inflammation, most commonly attacks colts during the first, second, or third year, or before they begin to change their grinding teeth. At this period there is less blood formed, not only from the state of the grinding teeth, the gums, and the mouth in general, which is such as to render masti- cation painful, difficult, and imperfect, but from the stomach participating in, or sympathising with, this state of the mouth. This disorder in young colts is first observed by dulness, dis- inclination to motion, hanging the head, and iudifterence in grazing. There are swellings, also, on the belly, chest, sheath, or udder, which are sometimes very considerable. When these symptoms are observed, the colt should be taken up and bled. I have been assured by a respectable farrier that he has given Markham's drench to colts when affected with the moor-ill, as the disorder is termed, and almost invariably with success. In the last case I heard of, the colt was so ill that he was unable to rise ; but when he had taken the drench, he broke out into a profuse perspiration, and soon after got up and perfectly recovered, f Sicelled Legs. [This disease occurs most frequently in coarse horses, having naturally round gummy legs. It consists of a dropsical or watery swelling, the nature of which may be readily detected, and dis- tinguished from that of phlegmon, by pressing it with the fingers, when it pits ; that is, the impression of the fingers are left for a short time. It is, in fact, a deposition of the watery portion of the blood in the cells of the membrane ; the absorbents or lymphatic vessels are unable to take up or carry into the circula- * Instead of giving so large a quantity of medicine, the following will be found effectual : — Yellow resin powdered 4 drs. Nitre 4 drs. Ginger powdered 2 drs. Gentian powdered 4 drs. Sulphate of copper 2 drs. The powders to be mixed together, and two pints of warm ale gradually added, with two ounces of spirit of nitrous ether. It may be repeated, if necessary', in the course of 36 or 48 hours. — Ed. I The draught prescribed in the preceding note may also be given here ; but for colts one half will be sufficient. If there is no debility, however, the same quantity of ginger and gentian will not be required. — Ed. ANASARCA, SWELLED LEGS, ETC. 237 tion the serum so fast as it is deposited. It may arise from the weak state of the lymphatics, from cold applied to the legs, from the plethoric state of the system, or from the redundancy of serum in the blood. It exists in various degrees : sometimes the legs are merely filled, as it is termed, producing no lame- ness, and but little apparent inconvenience ; at other times the limbs are immensely gorged, and attended with considerable pain and stiffness. Between these two extremes the disease may exist in every intermediate degree. It may thus appear either in an acute or subacute form, and may be produced either sud- denly or gradually ; when, however, it exists in a severe form, it usually appears suddenly. The horse perhaps is well over night, but the next morning one of his legs is amazingly swelled, and on handling it the horse often catches it up suddenly, and so violently that he nearly falls. If the disease be not very soon relieved, large abscesses either form in different parts of the limb, or the skin gives way ; the heels are affected with grease, or the vessels become enlarged and the swelling organised, and the horse has for life a big leg. We often see an animal with one of the hind legs twice as large as it ought to be ; the poor brute, in addition to his accustomed labour, condemned to drag for life this wearisome load, which, in nine cases out often, is to be ascribed either to the negligence or ignorance of his owner. These big-legged horses usually belong either to poor men or to farmers; the former neglecting them from poverty, and the latter because many of them prefer treading in the footsteps of their forefathers, and employing ignorant empirics in preference to skilful practitioners. The Treatment of a very slight case may consist either in the administration of a dose of physic or a few diuretics ; but a severe case demands very prompt and energetic treatment, if we would avoid the troublesome consequence to which I have just alluded. It must, however, be materially regulated by the state and con- dition of the horse, and the most predominating cause of the disease. If the horse be in full condition, we should bleed, and that very freely, particularly if we find, as wx usually shall find, that the upper surface of the blood is colourless ; when this is the case during the bleeding, there is usually a thick coat of buff afterwards. If, however, the horse is in a state of much debility, bleeding is not appropriate; and if the disease is brought on, as it sometimes is, by the redundancy of moisture in his food (the horse being at grass), we must bleed with caution and modera- tion, and sometimes not at all. Sliould the horse be prepared for physic, we may at once ad- minister an active dose ; but if not so prepared, in order to lose no time we should give him a diuretic ball, and the physic the following day after he has had some mashes. If the swelling ex- 238 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tend much above the hock, we may make some punctures with a lancet, which will produce great relief, particularly if the leg be afterwards fomented with warm water. Care, however, must be taken to rub the leg dry afterwards. Walking exercise should be given twice or three times a day. It will be necessary to repeat the diuretic medicine every alter- nate day ; and if the animal is debilitated, we should give in addition a tonic : such as the following, Powdered ginger 2 dr. Sulphate of iron 3 dr. Either as a powder or in a ball. If in the course of two days the leg is not so materially reduced in size, as to lead us to infer its speedy restoration to a normal state, we may insert a rowel in the thigh. If abscesses should form in the thigh or leg, we must take care to distinguish the case from farcy, to which it then bears some resemblance ; but in the latter disease the abscesses are usually smaller, and in the course of the absorbents, which are enlarged, whilst in oedema they are larger and more independent in their position. These abscesses being opened, usually heal with little difficulty ; but if the skin should slough, as it sometimes does, the cure is much more tedious. There is, however, a difference in this respect between the human and the equine subject ; for whilst in the former the cure of ulcers is tedious and protracted, in the horse it is generally accomplished with speed and safety. TJ^eed. — There is a disease very similar to oedema, or humour, as it is commonly termed ; but, though usually confounded with it, it is yet different in its nature, — in Scotland it is termed IFeed. The horse is found in great pain in one of the hind legs, but the swelling is consideraljly less than in oedema, and is situated above the hock at first, from whence it extends downwards. On examination, we find a swelling in the course of the thigh vein, extending nearly from the hock to the groin, very hot, and extremely tender to the touch. It is, in fact, a local in- flammation of the lymphatic vessels. The treatment consists in venesection, purgatives, and diu- retics, together with warm fomentations to the affected part. Chapped Heels. — Some horses are so predisposed to this com- plaint, that they prove a source of great annoyance to their owners during the winter months. They have frequently white legs, and the texture of the skin gives way from the least ex- citing cause, and a crack takes place, which, from the motion of the limb, becomes widened and deepened, and from this circum- stance is often exceedingly difficult to heal. It is usually pre- ANASARCA, SWELLED LEGS, ETC. 239 ceded and accompanied by oedema of the legs, and a thin acrid discharge issues from the wound, and from the irritation and pain produced it is often attended with considerable lameness — the horse catching up his leg in a peculiar manner on being moved. The Treatment should consist of purgatives and diuretics, as- sisted by venesection if the system be plethoric. The heels being in a state of inflammation, a linseed poultice should be applied to them for several nights, in which there may be a solution of alum or sulphate of zinc. By this medicated poultice we accomplish two purposes at the same time — we reduce the local inflammation, and bring about a healthy action of the part, by means of the sti- mulant the poultice contains. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the heels must be kept clean, and the hair closely cut from them. When the poultices are discontinued, the crack should be washed twice a day with a solution of sulphate of zinc ; and, if the horse is obliged to work, a little astringent powder, such as prepared chalk with Armenian bole, should be scattered over the wound. Generally speaking, the cuticle is broken, and the cutis denuded and abraded ; but it sometimes happens, from the repetition or long continuance of these cracks, that the cutis itself is completely divided, and the case then becomes very troublesome, and cannot be cured without a cicatrix. And when the wounds appear to be healed, it often happens that, after exercise or work, the great motion of the parts causes a separation of the newly-formed skin, and the heels appear in a bleeding state. In these cases, after the inflammatory action is subdued by the local and constitutional treatment we have re- commended, it is necessary to keep the parts as much in a state of rest as possible, and the wound must be kept clean, and stimulated with tincture of myrrh. It sometimes happens, when there is no crack, or wound, or discharge from the heels, there is often a thick dry scurf. This is best treated by frequent ablution, rubbing the part carefully dry, and applying the ung. hyd. nit. Grease is a white offensive discharge from the skin of the heels, frequently extending as high up as the hock or knee. It is generally the consequence of the dropsical enlargement of the legs before spoken of, and it is indeed an efibrt of nature to re- lieve the inflammation and tension of the integuments. Horses with much hair about the legs are more particularly disposed to grease, and well-bred horses are rarely affected. The skin in grease is usually red, and the hair appears staring, and there is at first considerable pain and stiff'ness of the part. After a while, however, this stiffness goes off"; and, If the disease Is neglected, the discharge continues in increased quantity, the skin becomes 240 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. gradually thickened, and sometimes large excrescences, deno- minated from their appearance grapes, thickly cover the skin. Sometimes abscesses form about the heels, and large portions of the heels slough away. Treatment. — The constitutional treatment of grease is similar to that recommended for oedematous legs, regulated, of course, by the age and condition of the anim;d. Our local treatment is, however, a matter of much importance likewise, as it is in- cumbent on us to cure the disease, if possible, without rendering the predisposition of the horse to become affected greater than before. The parts should first be well fomented and cleaned ; and the hair being carefidly cut away from the neighbourhood, we should then apply a linseed poultice to the heels, in which a little solution of sulphate of zinc has been mixed. This will be found a convenient method of applying the astringent, and, at the same time, the inflammation of the heels will be lessened. In the course of a few days it will be proper to discontinue the jjoultices, and to apply the astringent lotion alone. If the dis- charge should be unusually offensive, a little solution of the chloride of lime will be found a useful adjunct to the poultice. When the excrescences called grapes have formed, the only method of removing them is by casting the horse, and cutting them off, and ajiplying a caustic to the surface afterwards. This operation, however, should not be practised if the legs are con- siderably enlarged, and have been so for some time, nor if the grapes are so thick as to occupy nearly the whole of the surface, so as to leave little or no sound skin between them. — Ed.] Bursautee. [There is a disease peculiar to India somewhat resembling those treated of in this chapter: it is thus described in the ele- venth volume of the Veterinarian, by Mr. Armstrong : — " The disease ' Bursautee ' is most prevalent in July, Au- gust, and September, which are the wet months ; and thence it derives its name, ' a disease peculiar to the rains.' " Horses of every breed, age, and condition, are subject to the bursautee ; but the second generation of imported horses are most liable to it. I attribute this to the effect which climate has in weakening the constitution of the horse ; and the same thing applies to all animals imported into that country from a more genial temperature. " The second generation is still worse than the first. " Nature and Causes. — I trace this disease to the change which the atmospheric air undergoes at this season of the year. During the three previous months the hot winds prevail. " An animal exposed to the parcliing influence of this air is, ANASARCA, SWELLED LEGS, ETC. 241 to a very considerable degree, relieved by copious perspiration from every part of his frame ; and, strange as it may appear, the hot season is remarkable, both in the biped and quadruped, for the absence of disease. '' Then comes the rainy, or what might be with equal pro- priety called the pestilential season. Land storms, hurricanes, suffocating heat, and horrid stenches usher in this awful period. The filth of ravines, drains, and other receptacles of putrid animal and vegetable matter becomes saturated with rain, and being acted upon by the heat already in the soil, generates the most noxious gases, which speedily mingle with the circum- ambient air. " The bursautee is an eruption all over the body, arising from the pores of the skin being stimulated by the increased animal heat to discharge the perspirable matter ; but this is prevented by the thickening of the epidermis, or the tenacious matter before alluded to. " The bursautee sore in the horse very much resembles the boil in the human being. It forms a painful tumour, which suppurates and breaks ; or should the skin of any horses pre- disposed to the disease become abraded, it will run into a bur- sautee sore, and spread. The ex{)osure of common wounds to the action of the air, or to the irritation produced by flies, will dispose them to take on the bursautee character. " Sometimes, from the great irritation of these tumours or sores, the pulse becomes accelerated, and the general system deranged, and depletion must be resorted to. In all the horses that had been previously attacked with bursautee, and which experience had told me were more liable than others to a re- currence of the eruption, I would at the beginning of the rains insert setons as near as I could to the parts previously affected, provided they did not interfere with the action of the animal. This, by forming an artificial drain, Avould prevent the unsightly appearance of the foul ulcers w^hich are too frequently seen, and would rob the disease of all of its terrors. At the same time I would not foi'get the importance of cleanliness, and regimen, and regular exercise. During the existence of bursautee the food should be nutritious, but not too stimulating. Fresh grass should be avoided, for it as surely tends to the formation of bursautee sores as the eating mangoes does to the appearance of boils in the human sul)ject." — Ed.] 242 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. CHAP. XLIV. THE STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. [Before we proceed to its diseases, it will be proper to notice briefly the structure of the skin. It is composed of three sepa- rate portions. The outer, called the cuticle, is thin, transparent, and insensible, and when removed is quickly restored again. The next portion, immediately under the skin, is the rete- mucosum, being a sort of network secreting a pigment, on the colour of which depends that of the skin. The internal coat is the cutis or true skin ; it is considerably thicker than the other coats, though its thickness varies at different parts, being thinner on the inside of the limbs and about the mouth and nostrils. It possesses great sensibility, and is largely supplied with nerves. It is porous in its structure, enabling the perspiration to pass out freely ; and it has, by the same means, a power of absorption, and is well supplied with absorbents as well as other vessels. It not only possesses in itself a high degree of feeling, but also in- timately sympathises with other parts, and particularly with the stomach. Its sensibility is much greater than the parts under- neath, so that it is enabled to guard them from danger. It gives support to the roots of the hairs, Avhich are found towards its internal surface ; thus if the hairs are plucked out they are soon reproduced, but if the cutis is destroyed the roots of the hairs are so likewise, and the hair does not again appear, as the new skin is incapable of producing it. The growth of new skin is exceedingly tedious, as it only grows from the edges of the old. It is, however, greatly assisted by the great extensibility possessed by the old skin, Avhich is thus enabled, in some mea- sure, to cover the wound. — Ed.] Surfeit. This is a disorder of the skin, consisting of small tumours or piuiples all over the body, which become small scabs, and then gradually get well, while fi-esh ones continue to break out and pursue the same course. The horse has generally a dry un- healthy coat, and is hide-bound; sometimes there is swelling of the hind legs likewise, and general debility. This disorder is commonly produced by unwholesome feeding and general ill treatment. [In other cases the affection appears in horses fidl of flesh, in whom it is usually manifested in the spring or early summer months, and is caused by plethora or a redundancy of blood, wiiich, at this season of the year, is most likely to occur. Some- times it is caused by a draught of cold water in hot weather. THE STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 243 and is then often preceded by sliivering and a staring coat. The symptoms of this complaint are often very similar to the early stages of mange, and require much d' .crimination to dis- tinguish the difference. I have known tiiis disease, or an affect on similar to it, appear periodically, and occasion the animal to be denuded of hair, in spite of every thing that could be thought of to prevent it. Some foreign breeds of horses are much disposed to cutaneous eruptions, particularly white Turkish horses. Treatment. — If the horse is in a plethoric state, or in full condition, he should be bled, and have a dose of physic ; and, if necessary, the following alterative may be afterwards given. If, however, the animal is poor and out of condition, the blood- letting and purging should be abstained from, and the following alterative given daily for several days : — Nitre 3 drs. Sulphur 4 drs. Black antimony 2 drs. To be mixed with a little bran, and then given with the corn. — Ed.] Hide-bound. When a horse's hide or skin sticks to his ribs, as It were, and cannot be drawn out or moved as in the healthy state, he is said to be hide-bound. It indicates great weakness and poverty, and sometimes a diseased state of the mesenteric vessels, and consumption. It is generally occasioned by ill-usage, and bad or insufficient food, and cannot be removed without proper feeding and good treatment. The following powder may be given daily in the food, the effect of which will be, by stimulating the stomach and bowels, not only to assist digestion, but also to affect the skin by sym- pathy : — Cantharides, finely powdered 5 grs. Pimento 2 drs. Sulphate of iron 2 drs. If the horse refuses this powder in his food, it may be made into a ball with treacle, and continued for a week or a fortnight. A good piece of grass is of great service in the early part of summer. Mange. [This disease is analogous to the itch In the human subject, and is one of the most infectious diseases to wdiich the horse is liable. It usually commences with small pimples in different parts of 244 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the body, wliicli burst and form scabs. On rubbing off tliese scabs, there appears a white spot covered by a thin acrid fluid, which contains the source of infection. These scabs, at first, are confined to one or two spots, but, if not removed, gradually spread over the body. The parts most frequently attacked are the withei's, the roots of the mane and tail, and the rump or buttocks. The animal, from the irritation received, rubs off the scab, and the acrid fluid spreads and forms a larger scab, and thus deprives the affected part of hair. As the disease pro- ceeds the greater part of the body becomes affected, and the animal presents a miserable appearance. The constant irritation allows him no rest ; he rapidly loses flesh, and the skin, particu- larly that of the neck, becomes considerably thickened and wrinkled. When the disease has existed some time, its appearances are too striking to be for a moment mistaken ; but in the earlier stages it may, in a great measure, be detected by rubbing the animal with a stick ; when he immediately expresses his pleasure by elevating and moving quickly the upper lip, and extending the head in a peculiar manner. It is likewise by the diminution of this symptom that we are enabled to ascertain the progress of the disease towards a cure. The nature of this disease has been found, by microscopic observation, to be owing to the presence of minute insects which have been denominated acari. Similar insects have been found in the itch of the human subject, but of a different species. It has been found that mange can be communicated to the human subject and to other animals from the horse, although by no means so readily as between animals of the same species. A curious experiment was tried by a German student, a few years since, by taking eight horse acari, of both sexes, and confining them to his arm by means of a plaster. In a few minutes they produced a great itching, which continued five days ; but the part afterwards got well of its own accord. After the lapse of thirty-two hours, four of the insects had disappeared ; but there were found several eggs and small passages under the skin made by the insect, — in forming which, in all probability, the itching was produced. This disease is most frequently produced by contagion, either by direct contact with a mangy horse, or by rubbing on the spot where a diseased horse has been rubbing himself previously. Poverty, also, not unfrcquently produces It ; and thus it is often found on poor commons or moors, where, however, it quickly spreads from one horse to another by contagion. When it gets into a large stable of horses, it is difficult to eradicate it, in con- sequence of its infectious character, and the greater portion of the stud will probably become affected. THE STRUCTUIIE AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 245 The treatment of this disease must principally consist In the topical application of some specific. As in the itch of the human subject, the chief remedy should be sulphur, which is indeed more certain than any other. The animal should be well cleaned, so as thoroughly to expose the surface of the affected parts, and the following liniment rubbed in with the liand or a piece of flannel : — Sulphur vivum, or yellow sulphur 4 oz Train, linseed, or olive oil 12 oz. Oil of turpentine 2 oz. Mix. The efficacy of the above may be greatly assisted by substi- tuting three or four ounces of oil of tar for a similar quantity of the oil. If the smell of train oil be objected to, the olive oil may be substituted instead; and if necessary, the ointment may be rendered the same colour as that of the horse. If black or brown, a sufficient quantity of soot may be used to render the ointment black, and it Avill, at the same time, assist its efficacy, for soot has been found of great assistance in this disease. If the animal is bay or chesnut, the ointment may be coloured with Armenian bole. In obstinate cases, white hellebore has been added to the ointment with advantage. Bleeding is useless in this disease ; and although it is customaiy to recommend mer- curial physic, its exhibition is not always unattended with danger, owing to the poverty of the animal, unless administered in very moderate doses. In general, it is better to avoid physic altogether, but to give the following powder daily for a week with the food : — Yellow sulphur 4 dr. Black antimony 2 dr. The ointment should be applied daily for three or four days, when the skin should be well washed Avith soap and water, and the ointment repeated. If necessary, as before. There is little or no danger of infection after the ointment has been thoroughly applied. Unless the animal Is much wanted, his best place is at grass during the progress of the cure. Thf^ mange Is very frequently attended by the presence of a great number of lice, and sometimes these lice occur without the mange, and occasion an itching similar to It. If they cannot be removed by washing, the ointment for mange will destroy them. — Ed.] [There is a disease very much resembling the mange, and which Is apt to be mistaken for it, there being the same irritation of the skin, and the same disposition to bite the body, and the R 3 246 DISEASES or THE IIOESE. hair in consequence is sometimes rubbed off to some extent. It is not, however, infectious, but at the same time, it is very diffi- cult to cure, and is, indeed, sometimes incurable, and continues through life, though not always to the same extent. The treatment should consist of venesection, physic, and diuretics, and the application of a stimulant to the skin, such as the oil of tar combined with olive oil. — Ed.] Mallenders and Sallenders. IMallenders is a disorder that attacks the back part, or flexure, of the knee joint, and is sometimes owing to a combination of mange and grease. It appears as a scurfy or scabby eruption, and is often very painful, causing some degree of lameness, from the pain the animal feels in moving the joint. Sometimes it is not so considerable as to produce lameness, or any apparent in- convenience, but generally becomes troublesome and obstinate unless attended to. Sallendei's occurs in the fore part, or flexure, of the hock joint, and is of the same nature as mallenders. They should first be well washed with soap and water, and all the scurf and loose cuticle completely removed. They may then be cured by the following ointments : — Ointment for Mallenders and Sallenders. No. 1. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, commonly named citrine ointment. No. 2. Hog's lard, 4 oz. ; melt, and stir in Goulard's extract, 1 oz. This ointment is milder and more cooling than the fonner. Croicn Scab and Rat Tails. These are of the same nature as mallenders, and may be cured by the same means. They generally, however, leave a blemish, consisting in a loss of hair, and thickening of the cuticle. Crown scab occurs on the coronet, and rat tails in lines on the back part of the leg, extending from the fetlock upwards. CHAP. XLV. WARTS. — WENS. ENCYSTED TUMOURS. — MELANOSIS. Warts are schirrous excrescences, which appear on different parts of the skin. They are sometimes very large ; at others small, but very numerous. In some cases the roots are small, in others large, and involving a considerable portion of the skin. The AVARTS, WENS, ETC. 247 ilanks, the belly, the j)cnis, the nose, and the lips are the most frequent situations of warts. If not too extensive, they should be excised with the knife or the hot iron. The worst situation for warts to appear is the penis, the extremity of which is some- times so covered with them as to produce great inconvenience, and even to interrupt the passage of urine. The glans penis, in bad cases, appears quite a fungous mass, presenting a bleeding and disgusting appearance. In these cases, the only remedy is to amputate the penis above the seat of disease. The horse being cast as for castration, a straight staff is to be passed up the urethra, and cut down upon with a circular incision. The divided arteries may be closed by torsion or ligature. Mr. Blaine recommends the following ointment for the re- moval of warts, when they cannot be conveniently removed by the knife : — Muriate of ammonia 2 dr. Powdered savin 1 oz. Liud li oz. To be a[)plied once a day. The success of this ointment is, however, doubtful ; arsenic is often employed with greater effect in the form of an ointment. f'Fens are oval or round bodies found in various parts of the body, under the skin generally, in a detached state. They are easily removed by making an opening with a knife. An encysted tumour is a collection of fluid within a mem- l)ranous sac, which often floats loosely under the integuments. It must be cut into, and dissected out. Sometimes we find a hard white tumour under the skin, and closely connected with the muscles. It often arises from an external injury, and is frequently found at the shoulders, where it is produced by repeated galls with the collar, and its size and protuberance render it impossible for the horse to work without galling. The only remedy is to dissect the tumour carefully from the surrounding skin and flesh, removing at the same time the galled skin. I have in this way removed enlargements weighing fifteen pounds and upwards, and ren- dered an animal before useless again valuable. — Ed.] \_Melanosis, Another description of tumour, appears in different parts of the body. I lately met with a case in a white Ai-abian horse, belonging to a distinguished nobleman, in which the symptoms were very singular and obscure. At first the horse was attacked with spasmodic pains ; then R 4 248 DISEASES OF THE IIOKSE. followed wcakuess of the hind quarters, which, though slight at first, gradually increased until the neck of the bladder was paralysed, and rendered incapable of retaining the urine, which flowed away as it entered the bladder. On passing my hand up the rectum, 1 detected a large tumour, which appeared to adhere to the spine, and which, from pressing on- the nerves of the hind extremities, accounted for their partial palsy. The animal was destroyed, and the tumour was found of great size, not only pressing on the nerves, but appearing within the cavity of the large vein, the vena cava, the disposition and appearance of which it had completely altered. On cutting into the tumour, it was found to be melanosis, a disease that had not been pre- viously noticed by any English veterinary author. Melanosis is defined by Laennec as " a pathological produc- tion deposited upon the surface, or in the substance of an organ, of a darkish or blackish colour, having no analogy with the liealthy tissues of the body." The disease which was de- scribed by Brugnini in 1781, as being hereditarily transmitted among the horses of Chevasso, and which he termed hemor- rhoids, was evidently melanosis ; it was usually developed around the root of the tail and the anus. Some years later, in 1784, the same disease was observed at Bresse Gollety. Latournelle transmitted an account of it in 1809. He says, " there supervened in a young stallion, on the second year of his covering, black ' boutons,' or iDuds, around the anus. They soon extendetl to the scrotum and sheath. They were placed between the skin and muscles, at first as large as a small nut, and they increased until they attained the size of a pullet's egg ; they did not suppurate, and were insensible to the touch. In a short time all the cellular tissue was similarly affected, and the animal died. When cut into, a matter like the grease of a cart wheel flowed out. All the progeny of this stallion which had the same colour was similarly affected ; those which were black, bay, roan, or iron grey, escaped." In 1806, Laennec 'communicated to the faculty the result of his observations on the same subject, which has been further elucidated by other writers since ; but much still remains to be done for it. The tumour may either be a black, opaque, homo- geneous mass, or may contain a darkish-coloured fluid. Gohier saw a tumour of the kind in a horse weigliing thirty-six pounds. The opinions of most writers as to the composition of the mela- notic substance agree that its black colour is owing to the presence of a large quantity of carbon. Many persons are of opinion that the black principle is an aberration of the pigment destined by nature to be deposited elsewhere, as the rete muco- sum, the choroid, the hair. It is said that persons with light hair, and elderly persons whose hair is white, as well as light I MELANOSIS. 249 grey or white horses, are most commonly the subjects of this disease. This opinion is certainly supported by the case related by me, the horse being a white Arabian. He had one tumour only externally percei)tible, which was about the size of a walnut, and had existed for some years ; but he had an immense number deeper seated in various parts of the body. It will be an interesting subject for future observation to ascertain whether, and to what extent, his progeny are affected ; because, if they really become affected to any extent, it will offer a strong objection to the use of these white horses as stallions. Lec- turers and writers have but little to say on the treatment of the disease, and that little not very satisfactory. It appears to me that, amongst our remedial agents, the use of iodine demands some attention. Melanosis api)ears to be a much more common disease in India than in this country. In April, 1840, Mr. Jackson, of the East India service, communicated the following paper on the subject to the Veterinarian : — "I was pleased to find that the conclusion I had come to in my own mind as to the identity of the disease common among horses in India, known by the name of ' diseased tail,' with ' melanosis ' in the human subject, was confirmed by your intelligent correspondent, Mr. W. C. Spooner. The disease, as described at pages 163 and 164. of this journal, is very common about Madras, but in most cases is confined externally to the tail, which is occasionally enormously enlarged. I have seen tumours round the anus, and in various parts of the body. Light grey horses are most subject to it, and of that colour those with curly manes and tails. I have never had an opportunity of making a jwst mortem examination : for though cast when they can no longer bear the crupper, horses affected with this disease do not generally suffer in health. " The treatment usually adopted is, to cut away the tumours when practicable. I have seen Mr. Hooper, V. S., 4th regiment Light Cavalry, take slices off a tail like a wheelwright would from a spoke of a wheel. The skin soon healed over again, and the tail looked quite respectable to what it did before. " I have never tried any internal remedy ; but I think, as Mr. Spooner suggests, that iodine might be useful." — Ed.] CHAP. XLVL THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE. [The eye may be appropriately regarded as an optical instru- ment, by means of which pictures of external objects are trans- ferred to the brain by the aid of the optic nerve and its expansion. 250 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. the retina. It is fixed in a socket of the head, moved by various muscles, and bedded in fat, in order to afford facility to its motions. It is nearly globular in shape, or rather, it resembles parts of two globes, a segment of a smaller one being apparently joined to the frustrum of a larger one. It consists of several humours, and of various coats or membranes, some being transparent and others opaque. In describing the ana- tomy and physiology of the eye, the most convenient method is to divide the subject into two parts, that is, the eye itself, and Its appendages. Under the latter head is comprehended the eyelids, the muscles which move them, the eyelashes, tlie la- chrymal gland, the puncta lachrymalia, and lachrymal duct, the caruncle of the eye, the haw, and the membrane named con- junctiva, and the muscles by which the eye is moved. The palpebrje, or eyelids, may be considered as the shutters of the eye, their office being to exclude light when so required. They consist of cartilaginous bodies covered with soft and elastic skin, and lined internally by the conjunctive membrane. They are moved by two kinds or orders of muscles. The one, com- posed of circular fibres, and named orbicularis, is situated im- mediately under the skin, and, by contracting, closes the eye- lids ; the other, named levator, is composed of straight fibres, is situated under the upper eyelid, and, by contracting, opens the eyelids. The margin of the eyelids is smooth and thickened, and secretes a mucous fluid, as well as the hairs, named cilia, or eyelashes. In the horse there is only one eyelash, that is, the superior, which serves to keep out dust from the eye, and mode- rate the light which comes directly from the sun, without offering any impediment to the reflected light which comes from the surface of the earth. Immediately under the superior part of the orbit, or socket of the eye, and rather towards the inner corner, there is a gland of considerable size, which forms the fluid named tears. This fluid is conveyed to the under surface of the upper eyelid, and is then diffused all over the eye, by the motion of the lids, as well as by the motion of the eye itself. In this action the upper eyelid is principally employed. As the tears accumulate, they are directed, by the closing of the eyelids, towards the inner corner, where they are received by the open extremities of two ducts, which, soon uniting, form the lachrymal duct, a long membranous tube which terminates in the lower part of the nostril, where it may be distinctly seen, with the fluid named tears flowing from it. The inner surface of the eyelids is formed by the membrane named conjunctiva, which, passing inward, embraces the globe of the eye, and serves to keep it in its situation ; at the same time it is sufficiently loose to admit readily of all its various motions. This membrane, in its healthy state, is nearly white ; but in all cases of internal THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE. 251 inflammation, or inflammatory fever, becomes very red. In stagtjers, and some other disorders of the stomach, and organs subservient to digestion, it becomes of a deep yellow or orange colour. This membrane is closely united to nearly one half of the sclerotic coat, or white of the eye, and has been thought to be continued in a very attenuated and transparent state over the cornea also. In injuries of the eye, this membrane becomes red; but, in internal diseases, it should always be examined, as redness in that case indicates general inflammatory action, and points out the necessity of copious bleeding. In the inner corner of the eye there is a small fleshy eminence, named caruncle, which separates the two open extremities of the lachry- mal ducts, named puncta lachrymalia, and thus allows the tears to be forced into them by the contraction of the orbicular muscle. In the human eye, the tears pass from the puncta lachrymalia into a small bladder or sac, which does not exist in the horse ; in him there is one continued membranous tube from the inner corner of the eye to the lower part of the nostril. The termi- nation of the lachrymal tube, or duct, in the horse, has often been mistaken for an ulcer in horses suspected of glanders ; but it does sometimes become ulcerated from the acrimony of the tears, or from the strong preparations that are sometimes ap- plied in diseases of the eye. I have seen this happen from the application of powdered sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia) to the eye. Sometimes the termination, or orifice, of the lachrymal duct becomes closed by inflammation, or the cicatrisation of an ulcer, and then it bursts above, and the ruptured part becomes an ulcer. According to Lafosse, the disease named fistula hichrymalis takes place in the horse ; but of this I have seen only one case. In glanders, however, there is often, indeed generally, a slight purulent or mucous dischai-ge from the inner corner of the eye, which probably proceeds from the lachrymal duct. The membrana nictitans, or haw, as it is commonly named, is situated in the inner corner of the eye. That part which comes over the eye is a thin slippery membrane, which, towards its basis, becomes thicker, and cartilaginous. Its basis is of some thickness, and imbedded in fat ; there are no muscles attached to it ; but when the eye is drawn into the orbit, and towards the inner corner, the basis of the haw is prevented from following it by the bones of the orbit ; the thin membranous part of the haw is thus forced over the eye, and serves to re- move dust or flies that may have fallen upon the cornea. The eye is moved by seven muscles, which arise from within the orbit, or socket, and terminate in thin sheets of tendon, which, with the sclerotic coat and conjunctiva, form what is called the white of the eye. Of these there are four straight muscles rising from the bottom of the orbit, and inserted into y this simple method of treat- ment, the most formidable muscular injuries may be readily cured. A simple bruise, where no wound is inflicted, merely requires to be treated with poultices, fomentations, or cooling lotions, in order to remove the infianunation by resolution, as it is called, that is, to cause its dispersion. This, however, cannot always be done; suppuration takes place, and an abscess is formed. — Ed.] [ Wounds of the Salivary Ducts Are very rare, but sometimes they prove very troublesome fi'om the saliva escaping and preventing the wound from healing, and a fistulous wound. In a recent case, the u 290 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. application of a caustic to the part will sometimes quickly suc- ceed ; and, indeed, tliis should also be tried in cases of longer standing, — the hot iron being the best mode of application. Sometimes it is necessary to obliterate the functions of the parotid gland, which Mr. Percival has accomplished by the injection of a liquid caustic; and to whose work I beg to refer for a lengthened account of the disease, — Ed.] \_Aii Abscess Is a collection of matter in the membranes under the skin, frequently the effect of a bruise, but sometimes an effort of nature to throw off something detrimental to the constitution. When there is reason to believe that matter is formhig, we should hasten it by poultices or fomentations. We may judge whether matter is collected under the skin, by placing the fingers of one hand on the swelling, and, with those of the other, tap- ping it lightly at another part, when the undulation of a fluid will be distinctly felt ; and if matter is contained, the animal will generally evince pain on pressure. On pressing an abscess with the fingers, no marks will be left as in dropsical swellings. After some time, the abscess points, as it is termed ; that is, the matter approaches the surface at one point in particular, at which part, if left alone, the skin being gradually thinned by absorption at length bursts. Before this takes place, it is better to open the abscess ; because the external wound will thereby be less, and also because we can choose the best place for the opening, which should be at the lowest part of the abscess. The opening should be made with a lancet, and should be large, so that it may not heal very rapidly, and the matter being eva- cuated by pressure with the hands requires no tents or ointments, but generally heals rapidly with little further assistance. Some- times, however, the ulcer, as it then becomes, is ill conditioned, and does not heal. It will then be necessary to inject some stimulating application, such as a solution of sulphate of copper, or of zinc ; and if any sinuses have formed, to lay them open Avith the knife. — Ed.] Serous Abscess, Capped Hocks, Capnlets, §t. [Sometimes we find that the contents of an abscess are of a watery nature. It is then called a serous abscess, and though productive of less pain than if pus is secreted, its cure is attended with greater difficulty. It does not j)oint like a common abscess, nor is It so circumscribed, l)ut often extends itself very considerably. It is generally situated under the fascia? of the muscles or cellular membrane, as well as the skin. It is usually produced by blows or external injuries, and we often AVOUNDS, BRUISES, AND ABSCESS. 291 find It at the point of tlie elbow, where it Is termed capulet, and is produced by a bruise from the heel of the shoe in lying down. We also find It at the pf)Int of the hock, where it is termed capped JiocJi, and is occasioned by kicking in the stable against the stall post. It has been stated by authors, that the fluid in capped hocks Is collected within the capsular sheath of the tendon ; but if we examine this sheath, we shall find that its great strength renders such distension impossible. The fluid, in fiict, is col- lected outside the tendinous sheath, but underneath the strong- cellular membrane, which is here interposed between the skin and the tendon, in order to admit the extensive motion of the hock. "VYc sometimes find considerable collections of serum in the thigh, either behind or on the inside of the stifle joint, and also on the inside of the fore leg, where It Is produced by striking. The treatment of serous abscess Is sometimes tedious and troublesome, which Is owing principally to the fact that, If we evacuate the fluid. It Is sure to form again, frequently several times, and Is often attended by much Inflammation. If the col- lection of fluid be not extensive, we may first endeavour to dis- perse It by external stimulants : in this attempt, however, we shall generally fail, when we must evacuate It by making a considerable opening, so as to admit a fi'ce escape for the fluid which will again form, or, what will still be better, we may insert a seton through the tumour. After this, a solution of blue or white vitriol should be injected, so as to stimulate the sides of the cavity, and produce an altered action. After some time, pus will be secreted Instead of serum, and then the part will soon get well. By this mode of treatment, I have succeeded in curing both capulets and capped hocks ; hut the latter with greater difiiculty than the former. — Ed.] Injuries of Bones. [When a bone Is much injured, either In a lacerated wound or a bruise producing an abscess. It Is still more essential to make a large external opening, and to keep it open for some time ; for the chances are that a jiortlon of the bone will exfoliate ; when this appears likely to take place, we may expedite the process by applying a strong caustic to the bone. I lately met with a case In which a horse ran with great violence against the corner of a lamp post, which caused a very deep and extensive wound In the breast, and Injured the breast bone to such a degree that three or four pieces of the bone ex- foliated at diflterent times before the wound would heal. The application of the caustic proved very serviceable, and the animal entirely recovered. u 2 292 d:sea.ses op the horse. The lower jaw bone is sometimes injured to such a degree, either by a kick, a blow, or the pressure of the halter from hang- ing back, that an abscess forms within the plates of the jaw, and close to the teeth, and sometimes the bone is fractured. The external opening being exceedingly small, the mischief often goes on for months, and proves a source of great annoyance. To effect a cure, the horse should be cast, and a portion of the bone removed by means of a trephine, and caustic applied to the exposed cavity, so as to cause an exfoliation of the injured bone. — Ed.] Woiaids of the Abdomen, or Bdli/. "Wounds in the belly may happen in leaping over hedges, or pale gates, or may be inflicted by the horns of a cow. Some- times the strong tendinous covering of the belly is ruptured, Avhile the skin remains entire ; the gut then protrudes and forces out the skin like a tumour. This is a rupture of tlie belly, and is thought incurable. I have known one very large rupture cured by cutting out a j)iece of the skin which covered it, and then sewing up the wound and sujjporting it with a bandage. In some accidents the skin also is divided, with its peritoneal covering ; the gut then comes out, and the wound is of a very dangerous nature, still more so if the gut itself is wounded. The first thing to be done is to put the gut back, taking care to re- move any dirt or other matter that may be sticking to it ; for which purpose, should it be found necessary, it may be washed with warm water alone. If the gut cannot be returned, from its being full of air, and the opening in the belly too small to put it back again, that opening may be carefully enlarged to the necessary size. But if the animal can be thrown upon his back conveniently, a great deal may be done that cannot be otherwise accomplished. After the gut is returned, the skin onlij should be stitched up ; and a cushion of several folds of old linen and tow being placed on the wound, it should be kept in its situation by means of a wide bandage rolled round the body, and carefully secured. The animal siiould then be copiously bled, and have his bowels emptied by clysters. The only food he should be allowed is grass or bran mashes, and that only in moderate quantity. Wounds from tJiorns are often very troublesome. It is neces- sary in the fii'st place to examine the part carefully, and extract, with a pair of dissecting forceps or pliers, every part of the thorn that may remain. When a tendinous part or a joint has been punctured by a thorn, a very troublesome lameness is sometimes the consequ(?nce, especially when the thorn has not been ex- tracted immediately, or soon after the accident. Emollient poultices do not always remove the inflanunation produced by WOUNDS, BRUISES, AND ABSCESS. 293 such wounds, as might be expected ; and when they are found to fail, lunar caustic should be applied ; and if the lameness still continues, the part should be blistered. In dissecting the legs of horses after death, that have been perfectly sound and free from swelling, I have found thorns in different parts, lying flat, and evidently harmless ; but I lately dissected the leg of a pony that had been very lame, and found that the two flexor tendons had formed adhesions immediately below the fetlock joint, evi- dently from inflammation produced by a thorn ; for I found the point of the thorn, though probably the accident had occurred several months before. It is remarkable that the thorn was very black, as if charred, and all the surrounding parts were nearly of the same colour. \_Brolien Knees INIay be so slight as to occasion little inconvenience, or so serious as to render the animal entirely useless. Between these extremes there are a great variety of degrees. The knee consists of three separate articulations, the upper- most of which is that between the radius or forearm and the upper row of bones ; the next is that between the upper row and the under ; and the third between the under row and the cannon or shank. Thus there are three joints exposed to in- jury, and placed very near the surface, being protected only by the capsular ligament and the skin, and partially by the extensor tendons. When the knee is bent, as it necessarily is when the animal falls, the joints are opened to the utmost, and the skin is drawn down : — this accounts for the fact that in broken knees the wound appears to go downwards, and the internal injury appears lower situated tlian the external one. A broken knee may be confined to an injury of the skin, or the tendons may be lacerated and even divided, or one of the joints may be opened, and the bones greatly injured. Sometimes the liga- ments of the knee are severely strained by the fall. AVhen the injury is confined to the skin, and is not extensive, the wound may be covered daily with the astringent powder or paste, before recommended, and the knee frequently wetted with a cooling lotion. A little work will not be injurious. If the wound be extensive, or the tendons injured, then after fomenting the part, removing the dirt or gravel, and cutting off any ragged parts, the knee may be poulticed for a few days, taking care that the ligature which confines the stocking below the knee should not be so tight as to produce mischief; the poultice may be prevented from slipping down by tape or list passing over the withers. In a few days the knee may be treated in the same manner as another lacerated wound, but sometimes it is very desirable to insert a seton through its lowest ])art. 294 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. We find that sinews and ligaments will heal readily, allhongh not so rapidly as the flesh. — Ed.] Opened Joints. [When in a broken knee the joint is found to be opened, — which, however, cannot always be ascertained at first, — it becomes a very serious affair, and must no longer be treated as a common wound. Our prognosis in such case will depend on the extent of the \vound, particularly that of the capsular ligament, and on the circumstance as to whether inflammation has been set up in the cavity of the joint. In the treatment of such cases our object must be to close the joint as quickly as possible, and thus to prevent the escape of synovia ; unless we succeed in doing this, the inflammation of the knee will greatly increase, and the discharge of synovia be- come augmented in quantity, partly coagulating as it escapes from the knee, and hanging in large flakes from the Avound ; the animal, from the pain experienced, keeps the knee in a bent position, or paws with the foot continuall3% A vast deal of fever is excited in the system, which in some cases wears down the animal, and produces death. In other cases, bony substance is thrown out round the joint, which at length closes the wound, but destroys the motion of the joint, and renders the animal useless. To ])revent such result we must by no means keep poulticing or fomenting the knee, as this will only encourage the discharge and keep up the irritation ; the real soothing method will be the application of styptics or caustics to the knee. In many cases, if the opening is small the application of the hot budding-iron will produce an eschar that will close the Avound ; or if it be a punctured wound, the application of lunar caustic, cut to a point, will accomplish our purpose. In other cases, wdiere the injury is more extensive, the aj)plication of spirits of wine saturated with corrosive sublimate several times a day, as recommended by Mr. Dawson, has succeeded. The clot of coagulated synovia should not be removed from the wound, but the caustic applied round it. It may sometimes be necessary to apply the sublimate in a solid state, alone or mixed with flour or powdered chalk. It is very important to keep the animal in a state of perfect quietude ; he should be removed to the nearest stable, but by no means walked a considerable distance after the accident. The leg should be kept as straight as possible, and, if necessary, splints should be placed at the back of the knee. The animal should by no means be allowed to lie down, as this will open the wound and increase the irritation. In many cases it will be judicious to suspend the horse by means of slings. In severe AVOUNDS, BRUISES, AXD ABSCLSS. 295 and desperate cases it will be advisable to adopt the plan recom- mended by Mr. -Thomas Turner. After washing the wound, and removing all dirt and gravel, he prepares a paste of wheaten flour and table-beer with a little Armenian bole, which he spreads thickly on and round the kneej and above and below it. A pledget of tow is then applied round the joint, then some stout brown paper, and over this a cotton stocking; on the outside of the stocking another layer of paste and a calico bandage six yards long is then to be rolled round with moderate and regular pressure ; after which another bandage of the same length. Tlie horse is bled, and has a laxative, but the dressing is not removed until the joint is closed. He advises the horse to be slung. In the course of a few days there will pi'obably be much swelling of the leg from the pressure of the bandage, which he relieves by making small incisions thi'ough each layer of the bandages on each side of the knee, but not in front. In the course of six or seven days, if thei'e is much accunuilation of fluid within the bandages, an incision nuist be made to afford an exit, and another dressing of paste and a bandage applied. INIr. Turner keeps the horse suspended until a week after the joint appears to be closed, after which the bandages are removed, and the leg washed, and the wound dressed in the usual way. The swollen parts above the knee he has rubbed with an evaporating lotion several times a day, but does not allow it to wet the bandage. The wovmds of other joints must be treated on the same prin- ci[)le as that recommended for the knee. — Ed.] Saddle or Harness Galls, Warhles, Navel Galls, §'c. These may be considered as bruises, and when it can be done, should be poulticed, until the swelling has been dispersed or has suppurated. If the matter has not sufficient vent, the opening may be enlarged or the sinus laid open, if there is any. It must then be dressed with digestive ointment, and when it has been reduced to the state of a clear open sore, the cure may be finished by the astringent paste or powder. Sitfasts. These appear like dark-coloured scabs on the back, but are really dead hard skin, and cannot be removed until they have been poulticed a few days. Then they may be separated by means of a pair of pliers ; but it requires some force to remove them, and generally a few strokes with the knife. When this has been done, the cure may be completed with the astringent paste, applied once in two days, and the scab removed previ- 296 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. ously to each application. A little salad oil may be necessary to soften the cicatrix after the wonnd is healed.- By repeated bruises of the back part of the saddle, the spinous process of one of the lumbar vertebra; is sometimes injured, and an enlargement takes place, which is very tender, and re- quires to have the saddle elevated or channelled in that part, to secure it from pressure. Sometimes a hard white substance forms, which can only be removed by laying open the skin and dissecting It out. Horses sometimes become very lame by travelling In muddy roads, merely, by the mud being splashed up between the arm and chest, where, by friction of the girth against the skin. It causes inflammation and great soreness. The best remedy for this is fomentations, or the saturnine lotion, and rest. I have found the following lotion an excellent application in such cases, as well as In allaying the excessive Irritation of a blister, when It has been made too strong : — Lotion. Sulphate of zinc 1 oz. Super-acetate of lead 1 oz. AYater 1 quart. Mix. Fistula of the Withers. This disease comes by very severe bruises from the fore part of the saddle, which being neglected and repeated from time to time, produces at length an Inflammation of tlie spinous pro- cesses of the dorsal vertebra;. A deep-seated abscess Is the consequence, and the matter penetrates In diflerent dii'cctions before it arrives at the surface, where at length it causes a tumour, which Is very difl"erent from a common abscess, and always takes a considerable time to be cured. To give vent to the matter Is the first object, and when that has been done, the extent of the injury must be ascertained. When this cannot be done, and this Is sometimes the case, the caustic tents must be Introduced ; and when the slough or core which this causes, has separated, which will generally be In three or four days, the finger should be introduced as well as a probe, and the direction of the sinuses ascertained. A depending opening for the matter to run off" freely must always be obtained, by cutting open the part freely.* If a clean sore has been thus produced, or if it can be ascertained that there are no more sinuses or pipes, the cure may be effected by mild dressings, or * It is a matter of much importance to lay open the sinues as much as can be done with safety. — Ed. POLL-EVIL. 297 tents of digestive ointment, tincture of myrrh, &c. ; but this is seldom the case, find rc])cated dressings with caustic tents are generally necessary.* As soon as the bottom of the soi-e is arrived at, it will often be found that the tops of the spinous processes, or the ligament covering them, have been injured, and the bare bone may be distinctly felt with the probe. When this is the case, the l)one must be scraped with a suitable in- strument, and then dressed with tincture of myrrh ; after this the wound will readily heal by continuing to dress it with tinc- ture of myrrh or digestive ointment, according to the directions given in the ch;ipter on wounds. [Fistulous withers sometimes proceeds from a carcinomatous tumour which at first may assume the appearance of a wen or encysted tumour, and may be found between or above the shoulder blades. I have known such tumour exist for three or four years before it suppurated, when, by bursting its cyst, it be- came the cause of fistulous withers of a very virulent character. This fact forcibly points to the desirableness of cutting out these tumours iu an early stage. — Ed.] Poll-Evil This disease may be produced by a mangy horse rubbing his head under the manger, and sometimes lifting it up suddenly Avhen frightened, and also by hanging back upon his halter. It is more frequently produced by striking the poll in going under a narrow doorway, or running back when partially got through. The part principally injured is the sharp ridge of the occiput and the neighbouring parts ; and thus the mischief being so deep seated, it is some time before the swelling appears exter- nally, and still longer before the matter approaches the surface. The matter that forms in consequence being so completely con- fined, spreads and renders carious the under surface of the ligament of the neck, as well as the posterior part of the occi- pital bone, and sometimes the atlas or first bone of the neck also. I once attended the opening of a horse that was never suspected of having a disease, but died in consequence of son;ie accident. On cutting off the head, I found that the first bone of the neck, as well as the under surface of the great cervical ligament which passes over it, were highly diseased. Since that I have examined another horse that died of an inflammatory disease ; I had no suspicion of any disease in the ligaments which unite the two fii'st vertebra? of the neck, but merely wished to examine the part. I found them, however, in a state of disease. This disorder, then, is precisely of the same nature * The cblorlde of lane has been employed successfully In these cases. — Ed. 298 DISEASES OF THE IIOKSE. as fistula of the withers, and requires a similar treatment. There is great difficulty in obtaining a depending opening or drain for the matter in this case, and from the large arteries near the bones of the neck, it cannot always be effected by the knife. Caustic tents, therefore, must be depended upon for that purpose, and if properly applied and persisted in, will generally accomplish a cure. The wound, however, must be carefully examined from time to time with a probe, and if a carious bone can be felt, it must be freely scraped, and if a loose bit is found, it must be taken out. When the direction of the sinuses can be ascertained, it will be found sometimes that a drain can be made by means of a seton. But setons should never be put in, as they sometimes are, witliout it lias first been ascertained that a drain can be immediately made by them, and that it cannot be obtained but by laying open the parts freely.* Many country farriers have a secret method, or rather some receipt, for the cure of the fistula and the poll-evil, and they certainly sometimes succeed. The preparation they employ ap- pears to be arsenic mixed with a little lard, which, however carefully employed, produces the most alarming degree of inflammation and sloughing, so much so, that I have no doubt of its sometimes proving fatal. I have lately known an intract- able case of fistula, cured apparently by this application. The fistula was in the lower part of the neck, near the withers, and not in the usual situation of fistula. It appeared as if about the fifth cervical vertebra had been injured. The wound had been healed several times, but always broke out again. At length the case was undertaken by a farrier possessing this secret, wlio, after making a suitable opening with a hot iron on the opposite side obliquely upwards, introduced his arsenical remedy. The consequence was, a dreadful degree of inflam- mation and sloughing, wliich greatly alarmed the proprietor. But the wound gradually filled, and after some time perfectly healed. [The employment of external pressure by means of splints has been found of great service in the treatment of poll-evil. Mr. A. Gray relates two successful cases of ])oll-evil of long standing thus treated, in the fifth volume of the Vitcrinarian : he says, " The mare was sent to me, and I ])roceeded to examine the extent of the disease. I found two deep sinuses, one on each side of the neck, the bones of which could be distinctly felt with the probe. After cleaning away the matter, I took a * Mr. James Clark strongly recommends setons for the cure of the poll evil, not only as the most expeditious and least painful uieLhod, but likewise on account of their causin'^ little blemish. FRACTURES. 299 scalpel, and laid both orifices open in an oblique direction down- Avards ; then, having fomented the parts with warm water, I dressed the wounds with tincture of myrrh and aloes; and, in order to apply pressure to the parts (for in this I founded all my hope of success), I had two pieces of wood prepared, about twelve inches long and three broad, thicker in the middle than at the edges, which were rounded off, and also a long flannel bandage, four inches broad. I then placed two pledgets of tow next the wounds, putting on the pieces of wood one on each side, and then aj)plied the bandage over all, and as tiglitly as I could, without impeding deglutition. It is necessary, while putting on the bandage, to keep the nose extended, in order to adapt the bandage more perfectly to the part, and ap})ly it more closely. I removed the bandage night and morning, and had the parts well fomented and dressed with the tincture; and in the course of four weeks the marc was well." — Ed.] CHAP. LII. FRACTURES. [Fractures ai*e much rarer in the horse than in the human subject, arising, no doubt, from the greater uniformity in the labour of quadrupeds, and from their being much less exposed to casualties than men. They are, however, by no means un- frequent, and the metacarpals and phalanges are probably more subject to the accident than the other bones, and they likewise admit a better chance of cure than if the radius or the humerus in the fore, or the tibia or femur in the hind extremity, are fractured. From the powerful muscles attached to these bones, and the shape of the limb, it is extremely difficult to retain the parts afterwards in a proper position for union, and in the generality of cases it is most prudent to destroy the horse. The want of success that attends the greater number of cases of fractures in the horse, is owing to the following circumstances : — The restlessness of the animal; the impossibility of making him assume the recumbent position as in a man ; the difficulty of slinging him for any length of time ; the probability of his having, in many instances, used the limb after the fracture, thus displacing the bones to a considerable extent; the fracture extending into a joint, or being very complicated or severe. To ensure a cure, therefore, it is necessary that the horse should be tractable — that tlic fracture should not be very complicated — that the horse should not have walked a distance after the accident — and that the bones should not have been much 300 DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. displaced. AVhcn these favourable coincidences are present, and the animal is of sufficient value to pay for the expense of a ^c\v months' keep, we may certainly be justified in attempting a cure. Treatment. — There are many successful cases of fractures on record, a full account of which may be found in the editor's treatise 'On the Foot and Leg of the Horse ;' and in the eleventh volume of the Veterinarian, Mr. Friend, in a judicious paper on the subject, mentions a case of fracture of the humerus, with- out displacement, which he treated by depletion, absolute rest, astringent applications, and low diet, under which it perfectly recovered. In the same volume, p. 144., there is an interesting paper on the subject from Mr. Mayer, in which he supports Mr. Friend's views, and strongly advises the employment of splints and bandages, so as to prevent the displacement of the bones : in support of which, he adduces a case of fracture of the tibia, to which he applied an adhesive plaster, and over this three splints on the outside and two on the inside, bandaging the whole liml) from the stifle to the fetlock, and keeping the parts wet with a cooling application. He also mentions a successful case, in which the large pastern bone was fractured and displaced. To these I could add some successful cases of fracture of the large pastern, in which the bones were not displaced : one, a coach horse, that had walked some miles afterwards, in whom no other treatment but bandages and cold applications was employed; the animal took great care of the lame leg and the parts united, though accompanied with some ossific enlargement. Another was a very singular case of a thorough-bred mare that had injured herself in racing, and could scarcely be got to the stable, where she almost constantly preserved a recumbent posture, the pain she experienced when standing being so excessive. I found one fetlock dreadfully strained, and the large pastern of the other leg fractured, but not displaced. The case appeared hopeless ; but as the mare was likely to be useful as a brood mare, she was put under treatment, which consisted chiefly of antiphlogistic measures. The fractured leg entirely recovered, but very con- siderable bony deposition took place round the joint of the other fetlock, which rendered her afterwards lame, though fit for the purpose intended. — Ed,] STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE FOOT. 301 CHAP. LIII. ON THE STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE FOOT. It has been justly observed that without a sound foot a horse is but of Httle value, however perfect he may be in all other respects. It is the basis of the Avhole superstructure ; and when we consider what immense weight is sometimes thrown upon this part in the violent exertions to which the animal is exposed, it will not appear strange that it should be so frequently (as, indeed, we find it) affected with lameness. It has been the fashion for some years to attribute the frequency of the horse's lameness to bad shoeing; but it is time, as Mr. Bracy Clark has observed, for all this idle declamation to cease. It is not shoeing that causes the peculiar frequency of lameness, and incurable lameness, in this country ; but the fast and immoderate work the horse is made to do. IMuch has been said of the superiority of the French mode of shoeing, and attempts have been made to introduce an improvement on the French method into this country, and a very important improvement it certainly is ; but as to the French shoe, considered without the method of nailing, in which they certainly excel, I think it the very worst form I ever saw in this country. As the diseases of the horse's foot form an essential branch of the subject upon which I am now writing, it is presumed that a brief description of its structure and economy will not be unacceptable to the readers of this volume. There is scarcely, in the whole structure of the animal, any part so richly organised as the foot, although the eye perhaps may be offered as an exception ; for it exceeds in the extreme delicacy of its structtn-e any thing that can possibly be imagined. To a common observer the foot may appear a mass of in- sensible horn ; but it is composed of an assemblage of springs, especially when considered in relation to the fore leg, which admirably adapt it, not only to the uses of the animal considered individually, but to the uses of man also ; and so carefully has it been guarded, that were the animal employed only to supply the necessities of man, his feet would last as long, even if not shoed, ns any other part of his body. He has been made, how- ever, subservient to his luxuries, and that too in so high a degree that he has materially degenerated from his original strength and hardihood of constitution. The immoderate exertions in which he is now generally employed are such as sufficiently account for the great number of crippled horses that are con- stantly offering themselves to our notice, especially in stage coaches and post-chaises. 302 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. la describing the horac's foot it may not be amiss to take a general view ol' tlie fore leg, in which we shall find an assemblage of large springs, assisting in the same purpose however as those of the foot. The shoulder blade is placed obliquely against the side, and attached solely by muscles, by the elasticity of which the body of the animal, as well as the ridei", is enabled to bear those violent motions which must have otherwise been insup- portable. If we look at the skeleton of a horse, Ave shall l)e struck with the position of the shoulder blade and the shoulder bone, each lying obliquely, but in opposite directions, so as to form an acute angle at the joint, and of course a considerable spring. We may observe the same admirable contrivance in the hind parts, where the femur, or thigh bone, forms an angle with the pelvis, and with the tibia or leg bone, or, as it appears, and is commonly named, in the living horse, the thigh bone. In viewing the fore leg of the animal, we shall find in the obliquity of the pastern another powerful spring ; and when we consider the immense weight it must occasionally support, as in pitching fi'om a high leap on the ground with a heavy weight, it must appear astonishing how such a tremendous shock can be sup- ported by so small a body; yet we shall find upon examination such provisions as will enable it to bear any reasonable weight that can be placed upon it. If we now descend to an exami- nation of the foot we shall find in its horny covering another simple and effectual spring ; simple as to its construction, and effectual as to the purpose which it answers, which is that of yielding to the impulse of the animal's weight, and thereby breaking the shock, which must otherwise have been gradually destructive to the foot itself. The hoof is a secretion from the living part of the foot, not wholly from the coronet, but from the living surfiice wliicli it covers, named by iVIr. Coleman tiie laminated substance of the foot; and by others the elastic laminffi or processes of the foot. As the quantity of horn necessary for the defence of the sensible foot is considerable, a large quantity of blood is distributed to it for the purpose, and is supplied by two large arteries which pass down on each side of the pastern ; these give off considerable branches to the frog, cartilages, and coronary ring ; but the trunk of the artery enters in at the posterior and inferior part of the coffin bone, and divides into eight branches within the bone, which pass out at the circumference, or angle of the toe, and give off innu- merable branches about the inferior part of the laminated sub- stance, especially about the toe. The distribution of blood to the frog is remarkable : here we find several branches of con- siderable size without giving off other branches, as in the other parts of the foot, until they arrive near the surfiicc, and here they spread into innumerable branches, supplying the skin or STRUCTURE AND EC0XO3IY OF THE FOOT. 303 secreting surface of the froo;, and communicating with those of the skin of the sole, or sensible sole : so that the fi'og and sole form one continued surface of skin, of great vascularity and sen- sibility ; but greatly inferior in both respects to the laminated substance, which is more richly organised, both as to blood- vessels and nerves, than any other part of the body. From this view of the foot it will appear that, when the horse stands in the stable, without exercise, the veins of the fore leg do not return the blood freely, from want of the pressure which exercise occasions. The blood therefore accumulates in the foot. The vessels of the laminated substance, from the pressure of the hoof, admit only of a determinate Cjuantity, especially at that part where the horn is remarkably thick, and where elasticity is not so essential. The lateral cartilages ai"e two elastic bodies attached to the coffin bone, at its upper part, and proceeding- backward, like expanded wings, terminate at the extremity of the heel : they assist, as I have before observed, in expanding the lieels and quarters. The navicular, or nut bone, is placed behind the coffin bone, and is attached to it as well as to the small pastern bone, and affi^rds a synovial or slippery surface for tlie flexor tendon to move upon. This bone with the coffin and small pastern forms the coffin joint, and is represented in the perpendicular section of the hoof. See Frontispiece. The small pastern thus articulates with the coffin bone and the nut bone below, and with the great pastern above : these ai'c all the bones comprehended in a descri|)tion of the foot. The coffin bone is completely cellular throughout, and has more blood within it than any one bone in the body, though not far from being the smallest of the whole. Tlie great flexor tendon is inserted into the bottom of the coffin bone, and the extensor tendon on its front and upper part. Thus the sensible foot is composed of the pastern, the navicular, and the coffin bone; the lateral cartilages, the sensible frog and sole, and the laminated substance; at the upj)er part of which there is a kind of car- tilaginous ring, which has been named by Mr. Coleman the coronary ligament. This coronary substance, instead of termi- nating at the heels, is continued into the sensible frog, and from this connection, and its situation over the lateral cartilages, it nuist be subject to the same motion which these parts have. When the frog, then, is exposed to that pressure for which it was evidently designed, it expands and contracts, and in so doing communicates a similar motion to the cartilages, the co- ronary ring, and the heels and quarters of the hoof.* * Tlie followinp: experiment serves to show the expansive properties of the foot. After the shoe of a moderate-sized foot was removed, and the sole part pared out, a smooth sheet of paper was applied to it -while off the ground, and being pressed against the foot, the edges of the crust were carefully marked, so as to give the exact size of the foot This being done, the foot was then placed on a smooth deal board, with another sheet of paper placed upon the board; 304 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. [For an intimate acquaintance of the foot of the horse, otlier works may be consulted : but a careful inspection of the plates in this work will give a very good general idea of the situation of the parts, and this will be greatly assisted by a comparison of these parts with the foot and leg itself. Fig. 1. The Foot with the Wall or Crust removed. a. The sensible lamiiice attached to the coffin bone by elastic substance, sa- cietes the horny lamince, and the internal layer of the crust. b. The coronary substance or ligament which secretes the greater portion of the crust. Fig. 1., p. 3('4., represents the foot with the crust removed, thereby exposing to view the sensible lamina?, the natural colour of which is red, and the coronary substance above, which secretes the greater jjart of the crust. Figs. 3. and 4. represent the bones of the foot and pastei'n Fig. 2. The Bottom of the Sendble Foot, the horny parts being removed. a, Tiie sensil)le sole. b b. The sensible bars. c c, Tiie sensible frog. These parts being largely supplied with blood, secrete the horny sole, bars, and frog to which they are attached. and the other foot being now held up, the border of the crust was marked with a pencil, taking care that the marks were not made more exterior to the border of the crust than before. On comparing the papers together, the one last taken was found perceptibly wider than the other. The increased width was seen to commence gradually about the middle of the foot, till it reached about half an inch anterior to the heels, when it very slightly diminished. The dif- ference was found to be, as near as possible, one twelfth of an inch at the heels. The experiment was conducted with care and exactness, and clearly proved that the foot expanded from superincumbent weight ; and if the horse had been in fast motion, the pressure would, of course, have been greater and the expansion more. It did not appear from the experiment that the front part of the foot expanded at all, so without asserting that it possesses no power of the sort, we must be contented with observing that if possessed, it is not in a sufficient degree to be detected by admeasurement. We are there- fore justified in concluding, that the parts anterior to the toe of the frog possess very little expansive power ; and this theory, if correct, will agree with the experiments we have detailed. The case, however, is very diffijrent with the posterior parts. Tiie navicular bone, we have seen, rests on the llexor sinew, and the sinew upon the elastic frog in the centre, and on the commissures and sole on each side. These commissures are the highest part of the sole, and form, indeed, a sort of a ridge, so that, as any pressure on this part must tend to flatten the ridge, it must consequently expand the foot. Whatever weight, then, is supported by the navicular joint must contribute to the expansion of the foot. — Spooned- on the Foot, S^^c. STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE FOOT. 305 both in front and behind. The compact and solid structure of the pasterns, and the irregular surface and porous nature of the coffin bone are exhibited, but may be better understood by au examination of the bones themselves. Fig. 3. Front View of the Bones of the Foot and Pastern. b. The large pastern or os suffVaginis. c. The small pastern or os corona?. d. The coffin bone, or os pedis, showing its perforated and irregular surface. Fig. 4. Back Vieio of the Bones of the Foot and Pastern, a a. The sesamoid bones. h, Tlie large pastern. c. The small pastern. d. The coffin bone, showing its lower surface with the holes for the passage of the arteries to the centre of the bone. e. The navicular bone. The bottom of the horny foot is shown in fig. 1., page 309., Avhere the sole, bars, and frog of a good-shaped foot in a natural unpared state are shown. The lower part of the foot is shown by fig. 2., p. 304., the horny parts being removed, so as to exhibit the sensible sole, frog, and bars, the shape of which correspond exactly with their horny coverings. The parts, though largely supplied with blood, are yet not so vascular as the laminaj. Fig. 5., p. 306., principally shows the singular manner in which one flexor tendon forms a sheath for another, thus permitting the very great extent of motion these parts possess, without any diminution of strength. The sheath thus formed is lubricated with synovia, and thus any penetration or injury of the sheath is a matter of great consequence, quite as much indeed, as that of a joint, for inflammation of the most violent degree is likely to X 306 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. follow, and there is danger of adhesion of the tendons taking place. This plate also exhibits the manner in which the tendons are tied down at the back of the fetlock, and the expansion of Back of the Pastern and Fetlock. Fig. 6. a a. The flexor perfornns tendon emerg- ing from its slieath, expands as it passes down, and is inserted into the bottom of the coffin bone. h, Tlie flexor perforatus tendon, forming a sheath for the other ; and after divid- ing is inserted into the small pastern. c c. The lateral cartilages attached to the coffin bone. d. The bottom of the coffin bone. Fig. 6. represents the back part of the foot, pastern, and fetlock joint, dis- sected, in order to show the ligaments and cartilages. a. The smooth surface, over which the back sinews pass. h. The ligament which encloses the back Back of the Foot, Pastern, and Fetlock Joint. sinews, forming a sheath for them, and keeping them in their situation. In this preparation some part of the liga- ment was removed, in ortler to show the smooth surface a. d d d, A ligament, going from the sesa- moid bones to the small pastern; its use seems to be that of giving strength to the pastern joint, which, from the oblique jiosition of the pastern bones, would otherwise have been very inse- cure. e. The insertion of the ligament ; on each side is shown the perforatus ten- don, cut off just previous to its in- sertion. //, The lateral cartilages. f), Tlie bottom of the coffin bone. the perforans tendon as it passes over the navicular bone and is inserted into the bottom of the coffin joint. The lateral car- tilages are also clearly shown. Fig. 6. exhibits the ligaments underneath the flexor tendons, as well as the sinooth surface at the back of the sesamoid bones, over which the tendons pass. The frontisjncce is an important figure, as exhibiting, by a vertical front section, the situation and the natural colour of the STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE FOOT. 307 different parts of the foot and leg, and also the manner in which the weight is supported. It shows the relative proportion sup- ported by the coffin and the navicular bone, and the manner in which it is distributed. The names of the different parts are given on the plate for the convenience of reference. The various joints are disj)layed with their capsular ligaments, which, in the upper joint, the fetlock, are particularly shown, being- formed to admit the considerable action which this joint pos- sesses. The coffin joint is clearly distinguished from the navi- cular joint capsule, the furmer being in front and the latter behind the navicular bone. The course of the back sinews is clearly exposed, as well as that of the suspensory ligament, and the internal structure of the bones is developed, and the colour of the various parts correctly given. The hoof may be separated from the internal parts either by boiling, by soaking in cold water, or in hot dung ; but the natural colour of the parts is altered by this method. The crust may be separated from tlie coffin bone by putting the foot in a vice, and tearing it off with pincers, first, however, separating the sole from the crust by means of a drawing knife. By this plan, the natural colours of the lamina3 arc shown, and the tenacious union between the horny and sensible laminjB strikingly proved.* The external shape and appearance of the foot can be most readily observed by an inspection of the living foot. * For a further description of tliese parts the reader is referred to a " Treatise on the Structure, Economy, and Diseases of the Foot and Leg of the Horse," by the editor of this work, from which the following brief sum- mary of the springs of the leg and foot is obtained. " We have seen that the leg of the horse is furnished with a vast number of beautiful springs for the purpose of warding oflf" concussion, and that these springs are mostly situated at the posterior part of the limb. First we have the splint bones, which re- ceive some portion of the superincumbent weight, and which we do not find in oxen ; then we have the suspensory ligament, a spring of much greater im- portance, and whose operation, we have seen, extends to both fetlock and pastern joints; next we find the elastic cushion, on which the small pastern rests, and which, though unnoticed by physiologists, is yet of much import- ance. Within the hoof we find the horny and sensible laminte extending so considerably the surface of connection between the hoof and coffin bone, and greatly diminishing, by their elastic connections as well as by their extent of surface, the concussion of the foot. We have, also, the lateral and inferior cartilages, and the horny and elastic frog, thus affoi'ding altogether a collec- tion of beautiful apparatus far superior to any which tiie most skilful inge- nuity of ii'.an can devise. All the superincumbent weight borne both by the splint bones and suspensory ligaments are again transferred to the cannon bone, so that all the weight of each limb is supported by both pastern bones. Below this, however, provision is made not oidy for rendering easy the sup- port of the weight, but for transferring a portion of it to the ground without bearing on the extreme bone. Each fore leg alternately bears a weight equal to the animal's entire gravity, all which is supported by the small pastern bone, and is thus distributed to the parts below. A moderate proportion is first communicated to the elastic cushion, whence it is impressed on the X 2 308 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. CHAP. LIV. ON SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. So much has been said of late on the subject of shoeing, and so many imaginary improvements have been introduced since we have had a free intercourse with the Continent, that an inex- perienced person is naturally enough led to imagine that it is a very intricate art, and one that requires a great deal of study and reflection to be understood. But notwithstanding the great attention that has been paid to the sulyect during the last thirty years, it is rather questionable whether lameness has become much less frequent, or whether many real improvements have been made since the time of the late Lord Pembroke, who pub- lished some observations on shoeing, the utility of which has been confirmed by nearly fifty years' practice of the method he recommended in the regiment of cavalry which he commanded, — the First, or Royal Dragoons. The French shoe is held up by 6ome as the standard of perfection, while others think that the hinged shoe of Mr. Bracy Clark is indispensably necessary to the preservation of the foot, and capable also of restoring it, in a certain degree, when injured by other modes of shoeing ; for he considers all shoes, except that which admits of some motion in the hoof, by means of a hinge at the toe, to be injurious to the feet, gradually, and sometimes very slowly, bringing on a contraction of the hoof, and the diseases which result from such contraction. If we consider the horse as he stands at rest, we observe that the feet are the basis of the whole body, and that it is desirable that the whole of the lower circumference of the feet should have a bearing upon the ground. Bourgelat, in his Essay on Shoeing, lays it down as a fundamental law that the shoe should be fitted to the hoof. lateral and inferior cartilages and posterior part of the frog. The remainder being the principal portion is transferred to the navicular and coffin bones, the former of which, by the interposition of the flexor tendon, bears partly on the frog and partly on the sole; and the latter, by the intervention of the lamina^ distributes its weight to the crust throughout its whole circumference, and a very slight portion of it is borne by the sole which may or may not bear upon the gi-ound. Thus, at the same moment, these various actions go on in the foot. The coffin bone descends lower into the hoof, the lamina?, by their elastic connections, perniitting it, and the sensible sole is compressed, and perhaps the horny sole opposite the coffin bone descends. Well, the horny sole and the anterior part of the frog opposite the navicular bone descends and expands the quarters parallel to them, whilst at the same time the elastic or sensible frog being compressed, is forced down upon the horny frog and contributes to the exjjansion of the heels ; but if the horny frog meets the ground, the cushion being pressed upon both above and below, enlarges late- rally and expands the upper part of the foot and lateral cartilages." — Ed.] SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 309 and not the hoof to the shoe ; and this law has been admitted by all succeeding veterinarians ; first, as it regards the foot ia a sound healthy state, and likewise when defective or deformed. Notwithstanding this agreement with respect to the funda- mental law of shoeing, there has been a considerable difference of opinion as to the practice of shoeing, each party bringing forward plausible arguments in defence of his favourite method. It has always appeared to me that it is desirable to reduce this useful art to as great a degree of simplicity as possible ; and to attain this desirable object, we cannot, I think, clioose a better guide than Nature. Let us take a view of the horse then that has never been shod, and observe in what manner the foot bears on the ground. We shall then find that the outer edge of the bottom of the foot, named the wall, or crust, forms a large portion of a circle, as in the annexed figure, and that the deficiency in this circle is filled up by the frog. If we look at the foot as it stands on a flat surface, we sliall find that every part of tire ex- ternal portion of the circle is in contact with the ground ; I think, therefore, that this should be considered as the natural bearing of the hoof, as the horny sole which lies within this circle is rather concave, or hollow, so that it receives no bearing when the horse stands on a plain hard surface. Sometimes the frog is sufficiently prominent to take a part in this bearing ; moi*e frequently, however, it is otherwise, so that neither the sole nor the frog has any bearing luiless the horse stands on soft ground, which allows the outer part, or crust to sink sufficiently into it. From this view of the foot it is obvious, I think, that having rasped the bottom of the foot, d, to a level surface, there can be no diffi- culty in covering it with a circular piece of iron, of sufficient width and thickness to have nail holes punched in it, as well as to resist the pressure and blows to Fig. 1. The Bottom of the Foot. a a, The frog. b b, The bars, c c. The sole. d d, The seat of corns. Fig. 2. French S/t a. The ground surface Tvith whlch it'is CXpOSCd. the large counter-sunk nail ]^o\v let US See how fiu' the French holes. b c, A side-view of the shoe, method of shoeing, so highly extolled by showing its ajusture. somc English Veterinarians, is conforra- h b, represents the ground or able to the law SO Universally admitted. . ;r r; ;;,«, .he do,,- Tl.ey dU-ect the smith to_ .Iter this vation at the toe and heel. Uniform bearing of tlic outcr Circle of the X 3 ■ 310 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. bottom of the hoof, by paring away the horn at the toe and the liecl, until it is brought to the form represented in the diagram, and then forge a shoe of a similar form. I have given the outline view of the hoof, with a shoe attached to it, copied from jNI. Janze's view of a perfectly shod foot. The question then, Avith regard to the French ■^. „ A ir . t 1 ~7i shoeino;, is, whether it is conformable or FijJ. 3. A Foot shod on the o' ' i • i ti French System, showing the not to the fundamental law winch iiour- eievation at the toe and heel, gclat, thc great fouudcr of Veterinary 2fll'^'^^'''''''''^''f'^'''''''^lc\wo\s, has'laid down. An outline view of a hoof shod in the French manner is given in fig. 3. : fig. 2. is the French shoe. Bourgelat directs that this curvature, or boat-like form, in the shoe, should be in the following proportion : — The curvature in the branch, or side of the shoe, is to begin at the second nail-hole from the heel ; and the curvature is to be such, that the toe of the shoe should be raised above thc bearing part (that is, the lowest part, which is to bear on thc ground), a distance equal to twice the thickness of the shoe, and that from the bearing part to the heel the shoe should gradually rise so that at the extremity it is raised from the ground a distance equal to half the thickness of the shoe.* Thus ac- cording to the French method, as a well-shod horse stands on the ground the feet have only a partial bearing. M. Janze, who has published a large quarto volume on shoeing, with numerous plates, differs a little from M. Bourgelat with respect to the degree of curvature, or the ajusture of the shoe, as they term it, but not materially ; but both direct the shoe to be made concave, or hollow, on that surface which is in contact with the bottom of the foot, and convex, or projecting, on the surface which rests on the ground, so that they resemble one half of a walnut-shell, with a hole cut in the centre, for they make the shoe very wide, so as to cover a gi'cat deal of the bottom of the foot. Mr. Goodwin, in his new system of shoeing, gives an ex- planation of the advantages arising from the curved, or French shoe. " If we refer," he says, " to the action of the fore leg, it will tend to explain some of the advantages to be derived from the curved shoe. When a horse is about to move, the first in- dication of motion is a bend at the knee, which necessarily raises the heels, and they become more and more elevated, till the toe (which is the last part that leaves the ground) is suspended for the moment that the foot is lifted. The base of the foot, just at its leaving the ground, is almost perpendicular : when the knee * The convexity of the under surface of the shoe is equal to one and a half times its thickness. SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 311 is bent to its fullest extent, the foot is then in the same position, with the heels of the shoe pointing upwards. If we consider this first part of the motion of the limb, we find the movement of the foot very nearly describes a semicircle ; and on viewing the form of the joints connected with action, the necessity for a curve at the toe is clearly demonstrated : again, the form of the shoe Avorn out at once shows that it must be more suitable to put on a new one of that form, rather than to suffer the action of the leg to be opposed until it is worn to that form. In the second part of the action, when the foot comes to the ground again, the quarters and heels touch first, and they are the only parts occupied in placing it on the ground again. There may be deviations from this general rule, as in those horses that have bad action ; also when horses are drawing heavy weiglits it must necessarily differ. The fore legs may be considered simply as pillars of su[)port, having no power of themselves to propel the body forward, progression being entirely performed by the hind parts. If it were not so, the action would be different, as I have before observed it to be in those horses that have great Aveights to draw ; and this may be more readily observed in any draught horse going up hill. I have offered these few remarks upon action in order to bring the reader's attention to the curve of the French shoe at the toe. This form of shoe certainly harmonises more with the motion of the fore foot than the English does ; it affords a greater surface of bearing at the toe than the projecting ridge of the straight ordinary shoe, and is much more calculated to allow of the motion of the leg and foot ; the labour of the muscles is also diminished, and the limb being in its natural position, the ligaments have less imposed upon them ; they are more at ease, and consequently are not so liable to be strained. The shape of the coffin bone is also another proof of the French system being more consistent with tlie prin- ciples of nature than the straight ordinary shoe. If the coffin bone of a fore foot be placed on a level surface, the quarters and heels are the the only parts in contact with it, which proves that they are intended by nature to meet the ground first (quaere, Avhy the curvature of the heel of the shoe then ?) and to bear tiic greater proportion of weight ; but if the quarters of the hoof be removed (lowered, or diminished) to admit of the straight shoe, the portion of weight intended to be borne on the quarters must be thrown upon the heels; and hence the great mischief \\\\\q\\ ensues from the common (plain) English shoe." I perfectly agree with Mr. Godwin as to the "decided superiority" of the French method of nailing on the shoes ; but the curvature of the French shoes towards the heels is certainly contrary both to his own principles and practice, for he expressly tells us in the foregoing quotation that the quarters and heels are intended by 312 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. nature to meet the ground first : and the plate of his improved French shoe shows that he disapproves of the French curvature towards the heels. Plaving given what I consider a sufficient description of the French shoe, I shall make a short remark on Mr. Goodwin's improvement, which consists in making the quarters and heels on a level, and the reverse of the French shoe with regard to its surfaces ; that is, Mr. G. directs the foot surface to be convex, and the ground surface concave. This form of the foot surface appears to me to originate in a very absurd notion with regard to the foot : it was thought that, by making the surfiice on which the foot rests incline or slope a little towards the outer edge, it would promote the expansion or spreading of the hoof, or at all events prevent that much-dreaded evil, contraction. This notion, I believe, is fallacious ; both expansion and contraction must be prevented by the nails, as far as they go ; and if any motion takes place in the horn that is confined by them, it must be either from a bending of the nails or from their becoming loose in their situations. This notion of expanding the quarters and heels, by making that part of the shoe on which they rest slope outwards, is not only very old, but also very foolish, in my opinion, and requires only an examination of the foot, and a little reflection, to appear so. When the hoof becomes hot and dry, and consequently shrinks or contracts, that contraction is general, but takes place princi- pally in those parts where there is least resistance, that is, at the heels and quarters, and at the upper circle of the hoof, or coro- nary band. This contraxition of the heels and coronary band must com- press, and give pain to the sensible parts underneath, especially in trotting. The great merit of the French shoe consists in its placing no restraint upon the necessary motions of the hoof; there are no nails in the heels, or in the moveable parts of the quarters ; and instead of making the nail-holes near the outer edge of the shoe, they are placed nearer the centre, and inclining a little outward, so that the nails arc driven through the lower and stronger part of the hoof, where there is no danger of their wounding or compressing the sensible parts. Lafosse, who was cotemporary with Bourgelat, and who greatly distinguished himself, not only as a veterinary writer, but as a practitioner of the art in all its branches, gives a de- scription of the shoe he recommends for a sound foot, which is the once celebrated half-moon shoe. This shoe was soon after strongly reconnnended by Mr. Osmer, an eminent veterinary practitioner and author of this country. For good feet, he says the short shoe is the best; it should be made gradually thinner from the toe to the extremities, and so short that both the heels SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 313 and the frog may bear on the ground. Very little cover or width is permitted, because the sole, the frog, and the heels are never to be pared, being with this shoe exposed to the pressure and friction of the ground, which is sufficient to wear away whatever is superfluous. There is something in this shoe whicli strongly recommends it to every one who studies the structure and economy of the horse's foot ; yet it has not been found to answer in general pi'actice. Our worthy and truly eminent Professor, Mr. Coleman, was struck with the merit of this shoe, and thought he had succeeded in obviating the only incon- venience that belonged to it, which was leaving the heels un- covered, and thereby exposing them, especially in wet weather, to more wear than they could bear. lie, like Lafosse, strongly pointed out the necessity of applying it to the healthy foot only ; and went still farther in showing the danger of applying it suddenly, and without suitable precautions, to the foot of a horse accustomed to wear thick-heeled shoes. He considered some degree of bearing on the frog necessary to the health of the foot, and that it serves also as a spring, and as a stop, to the animal in his various motions. He found, however, that by leaving the heels imcovered they were often worn down too much, especially in wet weather ; therefore he extended the iron covering, or shoe, to the whole of the crust, that is, from the toe to the heels. Mr. Coleman's thin-heeled shoe, as it was termed, was flat on the foot surface, and concave on the ground surfoce. If the sole was not concave, or hollow enough to admit of a flat shoe of moderate Avidth resting on it, it was pared out sufficientlv with the drawing knife ; and if the sole was too thin to allow of this being done, the foot surface of the shoe was made concave, and the ground surface flat. The shoe was made of the usual, that is, of a moderate thickness at the toe, and became gradually thinner towards the heels, and in such a degree, that the toe was three times thicker than the heels. The principal pre- caution to be observed in applying this shoe was to pare away from the toe of the hoof as much as would make up the dif- ference between the thickness of the toe and the heel of the shoe, and thereby jirevent too much pressure upon the great tendon of the foot and navicular joint; and if the heels of the hoof Avere unusually high, so as to raise the frog considerably from the ground, they were to be lowered very gradually, removing only a small portion of the horn at each time of shoeing, until the frog had a bearing on the ground. This shoe Avas tried in the army, and found frequently to occasion lameness. The principal trial was made in the Koyal Artillery, and I had an opportunity of witnessing the eftect of it sit two different periods. About twenty-three years since, when 314 DISEASES OF THE UORSE. I was in tlie Royal Dragoons, and quartered at Canterburj', I was desired by JNIr. Coleman to examine several horses of the Royal Artillery, in that garrison, that were said to be lame from wearing the thin-heeled shoe. I did so, and was of opinion that the report was well-founded : therefore I directed the common shoe to be applied, and to keep the feet moist, and at rest for a short time, or until the lameness was removed. A few years after this, veterinary surgeons were appointed to the artillery corps, and then, I believe, the thin-heeled shoe Avas found to answer better ; for when I resided at Exeter, the veterinary surgeon of the artillery quartered in that district was transferred to another station, and I was employed by the Board of Ord- nance to attend the horses in that capacity; when I found that Mr. Coleman's shoe, both for the fore and hind feet, had been employed several years, and that no inconvenience had re- sulted from it ; on the contrary, I never saw a corps of horses with better feet. Their work was regular, and very moderate, chiefly walking, and in harness. It seems to be a general opi- nion with English veterinary surgeons of the present time, that the thin-heeled shoe is not fit for English horses, and experience has shown that no shoe whatever will materially diminish the lamentable frequency of incurable lameness in this country while such facility is given to rapid travelling by smooth turnpike roads. I shall say nothing here of the various contx'ivances that have been proposed for expanding contracted hoofs, and for prevent- ing contraction, except that they have all been fairly tried, and found either useless or hurtful : but proceed to an examination of Mr. Bracy Clark's shoe, which has of late found so many zealous advocates. If it is found, after a fair trial, that this shoe, which is called the expanding steel tablet shoe, will either so far improve a horse's feet as to relieve him from lameness, or enable a horse to go better than he can in any other kind of shoe, then the only objection that can be made to it is the price, which I understand is half a crown for each shoe ; and ff ig. 1. The common Eiif/Utk Shoe usiadly Fig. 2. A hinged Shoe, employed for Hunters. a, A steel rivet by wliich the two branches of the hinged shoe are held together, b. The rivet detached from the shoe. SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 315 tins would be an unreasonable objection, because the shoe would be capable of doing what no other shoe can. The peculiar principle of the shoe consists in a joint at the toe, so constructed as to admit of a limited and small degree of motion between the two branches of the shoe. I have already said that I do not think the various degrees of chronic lameness, which are noAV so loudly and justly complained of, are caused by bad shoeing; nor do I think that any mode of shoeing will cure them. In making this assertion, however, I wish to be understood clearly : in those chronic lamenesses, I do not include corns, or bruises of the foot from the shoe bearing improperly, or from the nails being of a bad form or size, or from being driven improperly. If I rightly understand Mr. Bracy Clark, he is of opinion that all the shoes hitherto employed, except his, must inevitably produce con- traction, by the restraint they impose upon the elastic parts of the hoof. In direct proof of this, he brings forward a few ex- periments ; and, in support of his opinion, he argues with great learning, zeal, and ingenuity ; still he cannot get over this plain matter of fact, that the plain English shoe, such as I shall next describe, has been employed in a regiment of cavalry for nearly fifty years, without producing the effect generally, or in any de- gree noticeable, tffat he has ascribed to it. When I was appointed Veterinary Surgeon to the Royal Dragoons, I waited upon General Goldsworthy, the commanding officer, who advised me not to make any alteration in the shoeing, as the method they practised, which had been introduced by his predecessor, Lord Pembroke, had been found to answer completely. I continued in the rcf^iment seven years, and found that this was really the case. When I was last at Exeter, that is, in June 1822, some part of the regiment was quartered there, and, upon inquiry, I found that they still shocd in the same manner, and with the same effect. As Lord Pembroke's work is out of print, and perhaps rather scarce, I trust it will not be an unacceptable ad- dition to this small volume, if I transcribe the most interesting ])art of it, and Introduce such remarks as may appear to me useful. ^ *' Physic and a butteris," his Lordship says, " in well-informed hands would not be fatal ; but in the manner we are now (1778) provided with farriers, they must be quite banished. Whoever lets his farrier, coachman, or groom ever even mention anything more than water gruel, a clyster, or a little bleeding, and that too very seldom, or pretend to talk of the nature of feet, of the seat of lamenesses, sicknesses, or their cures, may be certain to find themselves very shortly and very absurdly quite on foot." The instrument named the drawing-knife is generally em- ployed to remove what appears to be superfluous in the hoof at the time the horse is brought to be shoed. The mischief that is 316 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. done by paring the foot improperly is of two kinds. If too much horn be pared from the sole, it will be incapable of de- fending the sensible or fleshy sole ; and if the bars or frog are improperly pared, we remove parts which are designed to prevent a contraction of the heels. Making a groove (fullering) round the edges of shoes, if the iron is not very good, may cause a partial yielding there ; but, if the iron is good, a groove is very useful to protect the heads of the nails. Farriers should always examine a foot before they shoe it, make the shoe, and pierce the holes for the nails further from or nearer to, the edges of the foot accordingly as they find the foot requires ; the holes for the nails should always be pierced slanting rather outwards. The best way to forge shoes, in respect to the nails, is to make the holes for the nails at twice, with two different instruments. First, on the outside of the shoe, punch a place, not quite through the shoe, big enough to receive and cover the head of the nail when driven in ; next punch a smaller hole from the centre of the above mentioned larger one, for the blade of the nail, quite through the shoe. This method of punching the nail-holes, Avith the remarks on the groove or fullering round the shoe, do not differ materially from that now adopted at the Veterinary Colfege, or from Mr. Goodwin's remarks upon it, who says, " The object of this groove or fullering is to receive the nail-heads, but in general it is too superficial for this purpose ; when a countersink head is used, the groove is made deeper; but the inner edge of the groove is perpendicular, and the outer edge slopes towards the exterior rim to give the edge of the nail a slanting direction in- ward. It is considered that the smith, who can keep this groove neai'est to the edge of the shoe is the best workman, and it is denominated fine fullering. If this groove is cut deep into the shoe, it is evident it must weaken it; and if the iron is not good, it will crack in the outer edge of the fuller; and, if it is superficial, it affords no security to the head of the nail ; yet, if made with accuracy, and deep enough to afford security to the head of the nail, it is a tedious process, and takes up much time. The fuller, or groove, has been recently altered at the Veterinary College ; it is now carried further into the shoe, and is similar to the German method of making the groove, which gives an advantage in taking more hold, by driving the nail through a portion of the sole on the inside of the crust, similar to the French method of nailing. " If the quality of the iron is not good, it will be put to the test by the application of the punch ; it will either burst on the outer part of the hole, or cracks or flaws will be seen ; neither of which will appear if the iron is good." (Goodumi's JVciv Sijstem of Slioeinr/ Horses.) I cannot leave Mr. Goodwin without noticing SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 317 a remark he has made on an opinion of IVIr. Bracy Clark, in which I perfectly agree with him. " Mr. B. Clark prefers the common to the countersink head, believing that it leaves a de- gree of room between the shoulder of a nail and the shoe for the EXPANSION OF THE HOOF. I confess I should not like to com- mence a journey if there was any play between the shoe and the hoof; as it must be quite clear that, under such circumstances, a shoe could not remain on long. In the seated shoe there is not that strain on the nails and in the clenches that there is in the common (hollow or concave foot surface, like the French) shoe ; for the crust, instead of bearing on an edge, bears on a flat surface." There is but little difficulty in adapting a shoe to a sound foot ; that is, a foot that has a sound well-formed frog, open heels, good bars, strong and rather concave sole, and a strong well-formed crust or wall. To such foot, the best shoe that can possibly be applied is that which has for many years been em- ployed in the Royal Dragoons. I may have made some devia- tion from the form which was employed, and so may others ; but the following is that which I now recommend. The shoe should be from half an inch to five eighths of an inch thick, all round from toe to heel, and of the same width, except at the heel, where it should be three fourths of an inch wide. The nail holes should be made somewhat similar to those of the French shoe, and the nails driven in a similar direction. When a foot deviates from the sound form, the shoe must be shaped ac- cordingly. If the sole is in any degree flat and thin, the wide hollow shoe is absolutely Har Shoe (foot side'), necessary.* a, A piece of leather If the hccIs are tender, and have corns, the In^'order t' teTr' ^''^ ^^'«^ ^^ ^he best that Can be applied: and upon the frog. the tender heel, including part of the quarter, * No general rule can be laid down as to either the weight of the shoe or its width, as this must be governed by the peculiarity of the foot and the severity and character of the work of the horse. Saddle horses require nar- rower shoes than harness horses, and particularly if they are used for hunting. The purpose of wide shoes is to protect the sole and to diminish concussion ; they are therefore necessary to effect the former object in flat feet, and also for the latter purpose on the road. The Leather Sole. — For weak feet the leather sole is found particularly useful. It is thus described in my work on the " Foot and Leg of the Horse :" — "It consists of a piece of leather cut exactly the shape of the shoe, covering the sole and frog, and applied between the foot and shoe. In the application of the sole it is requisite, first, to soak it in water a short time, in order to render it more elastic and softer, and to apply a stopping to the sole so disposed as to fill up the vacancies between the bar and frog, so as to pre- vent any gravel or dirt penetrating. The stopping we have found best adapted and most convenient, is composed of two parts of tar and one of fat 318 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. crust as well as sole, should be so pared down as to be at the dis- tance of a quarter of an inch or more from the corresponding part of the shoe.* melted together, and applied on tow. Some little tact is required in dis- posing the tow so as to fill up the vacancies we have mentioned. The ad- vantages of the leather thus applied are manifold. It diminishes concussion in a considerable degree by its interposition between the iron and the foot. It preserves the elasticity and stimulates the growth of the sole, at the same time that it protects it from the effect of nails and sharp flints. It preserves the frog likewise from injury and from undue moisture, the source of thrushes. It strengthens the crust in weak feet, particularly at the quarters and heels; and affords to the sole and frog, when the surface of the ground is the least irregular, that moderate degree of pressure which it meets with in a state of nature." — Ed.] * The Unilateral Shoe. — The next great improvement in the art, and one which, in justice to its merits, we must characterise as the most important hitherto noticed, consists in applying the nails round the toe, and on the outside c^uarter, but leaving the inside quarter unfettered. The advantages Vif. 1. Mr. Turner's Shoe (^font aide). Fig. 2. Mr. Turner's Shoe modified, liuving showing six nail holes on the outside, an additional nail on the inside, and one and two only on the inside, of the toe. less on the outside, of the foot. of this method may be readily seen. The foot, we have seen, expands, or ought to expand, whenever it conies on the ground ; and this expansion is greatest at the heels and quarters. If, therefore, the nails on one side be removed, so that those on the other have no antagonists, the same effect will be produced as if they were removed on either side, on the same princij^le as a common vice operates, one side being moveable and the other fixed. A shoe on this principle has been applied for many years for cases of cutting, the nails being removed from the inside quarter for this purpose only ; and it was from witnessing the effect of this shoe in a contracted foot, though applied for cutting only, that first induced Mr. James Turner to recommend its ge- neral ap])lication. The merit belonging to this shoe is, therefore, due to Mr. Turner quite as much as if he was its original inventor ; and the author reflects with pleasure, that he was one of the first to give the plan a trial, and the very first, after ]\Ir. Turner, to make its merits known to the public. It would be well, perhaps, to describe the shoe which I make use of, as it is a slight modification of that used by Mr. Turner. It is, then, a seated shoe, with the flat part rather wider than common. The web of the shoe for a mo- derate-sized horse, used on the road, is about an inch in Avidth, but varying accordin" to circumstances, and being narrower at the heels, where the upper wearing surfixce is very slightly bevelled outwards, than at the other parts ; the ground surface quite flat, sometimes fullered and sometimes stamped ; but when the former plan is adojited, the fuller is not deep, or too near the edo-e, but somewhat wider than common. Three nails are stamped on the inside toe and five on the outside toe and quarters, with a clip at the toe, and another at the outer quarter. In light horses one or two of these nails can be dispensed Avith, sometimes, instead of a clip at the toe, the shoe is turned up in the French fashion, as recommended by Mr, Goodwin ; this plan is very advantageous where horses are in the habit of hitting the toe and trip- SHOEING AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 319 In prcjmring tlte foot for tlie shoe, the loose parts only of the sole may be removed with the drawing knife ; the ragged parts of the frog should be cut away, as they may serve to harbour dirt or gravel. If the toe of the frog is very hard and more pro- minent than the other parts, it should be pared down moderately. The heel of the shoe should have a perfectly flat and level bearing upon the junction of the bar and crust, which should be rasped to a flat surface for receiving it. The shoe should never extend beyond this part. The whole bottom of the foot, indeed, should be rasped so as to be perfectly flat and level all around ; so that when the horse stands on a plane surface, every part of the crust should bear on that surface. The shoe should be made level also on both surfaces, by the same criterion, and then it must of necessity be fitted to the foot. When this is the case, there will not be that motion in the shoe in travelling by which so many shining surfaces are often worn in it, and by which the nails are loosened, and if they are made of indifferent iron, or badly made, often broken. The hind shoes should be narrower than the fore ones, and made square, as it is termed, at the toe, for the space of one inch. Ey making the shoe, as well as the hoof, square at the toe, a steady point of bearing is afforded to that part which is the last to leave the ground. "We may readily conceive that as this is the part from which those amazing bounds are made, in galloj)- ing and leaping, a more steady and firm point of beaiing will ping, or wearing it in undue proportion. In contracted feet, the application of this shoe has materially enlarged the foot, quite as much as it is desirable to do ; indeed, I believe, if it were applied early, contracted feet would be altogether avoided. It is also calculated, in great measure, to prevent corns, i'rom bearing so easy on the inside heel. In wide flut feet, side nailing is unnecessary ; there is no danger of con- traction taking place in this description of feet, for they have rather a ten- dency to expand too much. For hunting, the shoe must be narrower than for the road, and an additional nail may be placed on the inside ; no evil will result from this, because in the field the pressure on the crust is, in a great degree, relieved by the sole and frog. 'There must be space for a picker to pass between the foot and inner rini'of the shoe, but no more, as the fo(jt can then be withdrawn from heavy soil with less diffic-ulty than when the usual space is permitted. To avoid overreaching, the heels of the fore shoes should scarcely project beyond the heels of the crust, and they should be rounded off, instead of being left square, as is usually the case. The hind shoes should also, where there is any disposition to overreach, be square at the toe, set a little within the crust; and the inner rim at the toe should have a piece cut out, so that, in- stead of a sharp edge, there should be a rounded svirface, which, of course, is not so likely to catch the heels of the fore feet. — Spooner on the Foot, ^-c. Mr. ]\liles has of late called the attention of the public to theadvantage of employing a lesser number of nails in connection with side nailing : he has exercised much zeal in advocating the system, but it would not have de- tracted from his just merits if he had rendered justice to those who had preceded him in the matter. — Ed. 320 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. be tlius afforded, tliau by the single point wliich a perfectly- round shoe would give. They are less liable also than the round shoe to interfere with the fore shoe. The heels should never be turned up for saddle horses unless it is in frosty slippery weather, and then it is an evil that must be submitted to. CHAP. LV. INJURIES CONNECTED WITH SHOEING, AND WOUNDS OF THE FOOT. These accidents most commonly arise from the carelessness of the smith in nailing the shoe to the hoof. The nail is either driven so as to wound the sensible parts, or so near them, as to occasion, by its pressure, pain, inflammation, and, in a few days, suppuration, or the formation of matter. When a nail is driven so close as to wound the sensible parts, the animal suddenly draws back his foot, from the pain he suf- fers ; and the smith, aware of what he has done, removes the nail, and takes no further notice of it ; though, sometimes, to avoid suspicion, he fills the vacant hole in the shoe with the head of a nail ; and when the horse is afterwards found to be lame, he too often denies having any knowledge of the cause. When the horse is not worked immediately, and the wound is not consider- able, it may not occasion lameness ; most commonly, however, it is of a more serious nature, causing violent inflammation, which terminates, in a few days, in suppuration. The matter which is formed, being confined, spreads under the horny sole, and causes so much pain that the horse can scarcely put his foot to the ground, and if he be not relieved, by giving vent to the matter, it continues to spread, and ultimately breaks out at the coronet, or top of the hoof. When the disease has been suffered to proceed thus fiir, it is difficult to cure, and often leaves a per- manent tenderness of the part.* As soon as it is known that a horse has been pricked, as it is termed, in shoeing, if the smith, were to remove the horn, where the nail entered, with a small drawing knife, so as to allow the matter which may form to escape freely, all this mis- chief might be avoided. It would be proper to let the horse stand without a shoe for a few days, and wrap up the foot in a * Sometimes lameness is produced by the nail being driven too near the quick, without penetrating it. Lameness in this case is not perceived at first; not until the pressure of the internal parts forces the sensible parts against the offending nail. In slight cases a removal of the cause imme- diately affords relief; in others it is necessary to poultice the foot for several days. — Ed. INJURIES CONNECTED AVITH SHOEING, ETC. 321 large bran poultice. It is a common practice with smiths, on these occasions, to pour oil of tui'pcntine into the wound ; and, sometimes, in order to increase its power, they set it on fire ; after this the shoe is put on, and the bottom of the foot filled up with tow dipped in hot mixture of lard and turpentine. In trifling wounds of the foot, the horse often gets well under this treatment, though more slowly, perhaps, than he would had these remedies been omitted. It may be proper, however, to pour a little Friar's balsam into the wound, which fonus a sort of coating, and may serve to exclude air and moisture from it, and thereby prevent the formation of matter : with the same view, the cavity that has been made by removing the horn may be lightly filled with tow dipped in digestive ointment. But in ■wounds of a more serious nature there is generally a high degree of inflammation, sometimes so considerable as to excite fever ; and, in a few instances, it has been followed even by locked jaw. All stimulants should here be avoided, until the inflammation has subsided, and matter is formed, which invariably happens in wounds of this description. The first thing to be done in these cases is to enlarge the opening made by the nail, and pare away the horny sole, on the same side, until it yields to the pressure of the thumb ; a large poultice is then to be applied. After two or three days matter will have been formed ; and upon pressing the sole, near the wound, a little dark-coloured fluid will be seen issuing from it. On introducing a probe into the wound, it will be found to pass under the horny sole, sometimes to a considerable extent ; and so far as the horny and sensible sole are separated is the former to be removed. A dressing of tar ointment is then to be applied ; by means of which a new horny sole will be gradually produced. Should the matter have penetrated to the coronet, the same operation and treatment are necessary, excepting the poultice : for, when the disease has proceeded thus far, we may be sure that there is matter confined under the horny sole. The sore or opening on the coronet is to be dressed with solution of blue vitriol or tincture of myrrh. After being dressed for three or four days with either of these preparations, Friar's balsam and a plaster of digestive ointment may be used. When the nail has been driven so near the sensible parts as to cause pain by its pressure, inflammation comes on slowly and gradually : and sometimes the lameness does not appear until several days after the shoe has been applied. This may more properly be termed a bruise of the sensible parts of the foot, than a wound ; but it pi'oduces the same effects, which are inflammation and suppura- tion. This kind of lameness comes on gradually ; and is often so inconsiderable at first, that it is not observed by a careless rider. "When the smith is consulted on these occasions, he sel- Y 322 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. clom discovers the seat of the lameness (unless it be after matter has been formed, when the cause is too manifest to escape his notice), but attributes it to a strain of the shoulder, or a hit of a wrench in the fetlock joint. This is more likely to be the case when the smith that shod the horse is applied to ; but, if an- other is consulted, he takes care to search very diligently for any errors his rival may have committed ; and, though he find no- thing to account for the lameness, will often affirm that the horse has been pricked; he then stops up the foot Avith some greasy substance, and trusts to nature and rest for making good his assertion ; for, should the horse recover, he depends on its being attributed to his superior skill and penetration, JNIuch mischief, however, is often done by their mode of in- vestigation ; for they cut away the horn so freely, between the bottom of the crust and the sole, or where the nails are placed, that scarcely any room is left for nailing on a shoe ; and it is, perhaps, a considerable time before the horn can be reproduced which has been unnecessarily removed. When a horse has been pricked in shoeing, and the lameness does not go off spontane- ously, it must, in a short time, be discovered. The lameness gradually increases ; and, when matter is formed, it is very easily detected, by pressing moderately with pincers, or by a slight blow on the part : or, should it escape observation at this period, it cannot fail of being noticed when it breaks out at the coronet. The part of the fore foot most commonly wounded is the inside quarter, from the horn being thinner in that part of the foot than any other ; but, in the hind foot, the quarters are generally thicker ; and here we most commonly find the wound nearer the toe. When it is suspected that a horse has been wounded or pricked in shoeing, the first thing to be done is to strike on the foot gently with a hammer all around the hoof where the nails are clenched, and on the shoe also. The wounded part may thus be generally discovered by the horse suddenly withdrawing his foot when it is struck. The shoe is then to be taken off and the wounded part opened with a drawing-knife, and treated as we have before described ; but should no tenderness be observed in the foot, it would still be advisable to take off the shoe, and apply a poultice to the foot ; that is, supposing every other part of the limb to have been carefully examined also, and no cause for the lameness dis- covered. If the lameness should arise from a Avound in the foot, it will gradually get Avorse ; and, Avhen matter has been formed, the tenderness is so considerable, that it can scarcely fail of being- detected. Sometimes the horny sole, by Avhicli the matter is confined, is of considerable thickness ; and it sometimes happens that the smith, having pared away as much of the horn as he thinks can be done Avith safety, is afraid to go any further. But, INJURIES CONNECTED WITH SHOEING, ETC. 323 whenever we find great tenderness, upon pressing the sole with the thumb, or striking it gently, we may be assured there is matter underneath, and that it ought to be let out, however thick the horn may be which covers it. If there be no matter, the fact may be known by minute specks of fluid blood appearing on the horn, as we approach the sensible sole. This indicates that no separation has taken place between the sensible and horny sole, and that there is no disease in the part. Supposing this mistake to have been made, which, however, is very unlikely to be the case if the directions we have given are attended to, the part is to be covered with digestive ointment, and de- fended from pressure, until the horn has grown to its usual thickness. Punctured Wounds. The horse's foot is often wounded by his stepping on a nail, which, in technical language, is termed picking up a nail. The frog is the part genei-ally wounded, and most commonly on one side. When the nail enters at the back or wide part of the frog, that is, towards the heel, there is much less danger than when it enters near its toe, or termination. In the latter situation, the navicular joint is exposed, and is often wounded, causing obstinate or incurable lameness ; and, should the nail not liave penetrated so far as to enter the joint, it generally wounds the tendon by which it is covered. The treatment is similar to that we have recommended for wounds in shoeing ; that is, opening the wound, paring away the surrounding horn, and pouitices. When the inflammation is considerable, bleeding, bran mashes, and a purgative are useful. After a few days, it will be found that the horn surrounding the wound has been separated from the sensible parts ; when, by pressing gently on it, a little dark- coloured fluid will be observed to ooze from the wound. All the horn that has been thus separated should be carefully re- moved, however extensive it may be. A dressing of digestive ointment is then to be applied, having previously poured a little Friar's balsam or tincture of myrrh into the wound. If the wound does not appear to get better, but discharges a thin yellow fluid, it should be touched carefully with the nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic, and afterwards dressed with Friar's balsam. It sometimes happens, howevei*, when the nail has penetrated through the tendon, and injured the navicular joint, that the disease gradually increases, and at length becomes so bad, and so hopeless a case, that it is deemed necessary to destroy the animal. I have seen buttyr of antimony applied with suc- cess to a wound of this kind, a few hours after it happened, and am inclined to believe that in all wounds of tendinous or Ymix- 324 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. mentous parts a caustic is the best application. I prefer lunar caustic, or nitrate of silver, but in some situations a fluid caustic, such as muriate of antimony, may be better. If these wounds are not immediately attended to, and properly treated, a serious and obstinate lameness is often the consequence.* On Lameness from Bruises of the Foot by Stones, Gravel, S^c. Cases of this kind are by no means uncommon, and are generally caused by the pressure of the shoe, particularly in horses with thin flat soles. Horses, also, with good soles, are occasionally lame from this cause, through the injudicious management of the smith, Avho, being generally ambitious of improving the natural form of the foot, pares away so much of the sole for this purpose, that there is not enough left to defend the sensible parts from the blows and pressure to which it is necessarily exposed ; for, if the shoe is not made so flat as to bear on this thin part, any vacancy that is left is soon filled with dirt or gravel in travelling : and the same effect is produced as if the shoe were in contact with it. The method of detecting and treating this kind of lameness is similar to that we have recommended in wounds of the foot ; that is, by pressing it, or striking it lightly with a hammer ; and giving free vent to any matter that may be confined. A horse is sometimes observed to be tender from this cause, immediately after shoeing, particularly in the fore feet ; and it will generally be found that the tenderness arises from the toe having been pared too much. If the shoe does not press on the thin part, the horse should be allowed to rest a few days, and a little tar ointment should be applied to the sole, by which it will acquire its usual firmness ; but if the shoe is bearing on the sole, it must, of course, be taken off" and altered. I have known many cases of lameness, from matter forming under the sensible sole, without any apparent cause. It is pro- bable, however, that, in almost all these cases, it was occasioned by a bruise. I have known it happen in several instances at grass; also in the stable, when the horse has been at rest; or while he has been doing his ordinary work. The following cases are given as examples of such lameness, and of the manner in which they were treated. Case 1. About forty cavalry horses were turned to grass in soft meadow ground, their shoes having previously been taken off, and the fore feet pared. About two or three weeks after, * I have cured several cases of this kind by the application of corrosive sublimate and spirits of wine to the wound, and keeping the foot in poultice for some time. When permanent lameness has succeeded, the horse has been rendered useful by the nerve operation. — Ed. INJURIES CONNECTED WITH SHOEING, ETC. 325 several of them were observed to be very lame ; and on ex- amining the feet it was found that matter was confined under the sole. All the horny sole, which had separated, and by which the matter was confined, was completely removed, a hollow shoe applied, and the whole of the bottom of the foot covered with digestive ointment ; when they all got well in a short time. From this we may learn that when a horse is turned to grass without shoes, his feet should be pared with caution ; perhaps it would be the safest plan, merely to rasp the bottom of the foot to a level surface, and leave the sole un- touched. It must be recollected, however, that in certain cases of lameness, thinning the sole, previously to the horse's being turned to gi'ass, is recommended as a remedy. Case 2. A horse that had been at grass some time was ob- served to be lame ; he was taken up and examined by the smith, who could not find anything to account for the lameness, and, therefore concluded that it must be in the shoulder. On ex- amining the foot, I found a little moistui'c oozing from a small fissure in the coronet ; and, on finding the horse flinch, when struck on the bottom of the foot, towards the inside heel, I pared away the horn from that part with a drawing-knife, and let out some dark-coloui'cd fluid. A separation between the sensible and horny sole had taken place to a considerable extent. All the horny sole that had been detached was carefully removed, and a dressing applied of digestive ointment. The fissure in the coronet was dressed, at first, with a solution of blue vitriol, afterwards with Friar's balsam. By this treatment the horse soon became perfectly sound. Case 3. A horse had been fired for a lameness in the fetlock joint of one hind leg, and turned loose into a large box : about three or four weeks after, he was observed to be lame in the other hind leg ; the smith was called in to take off" the shoe, and examine the foot ; nothing was found to explain the lameness in the foot or in any other part of the limb, except that the horse generally stood with the fetlock joint bent, resting chiefly on his toe. This was supposed to arise from some injury of the fetlock joint, as the position in which he stood tended to favour the liga- ments of that part ; at the same time it was observed, that there was neither increased heat, swelling, nor tenderness of that joint. It was supposed, however, that the lameness was similar to that in the other leg ; and, as firing had proved effectual in that case, it was thought proper to have recourse to it in this also. I was sent for to perform the operation; and, on my arrival, being informed that the foot, as well as every other part, had been already carefully examined, we proceeded immediately to the operation. The horse had been fired on the outside of the joint, and turned over, that the inside might be fired also. At this Y 3 326 DISEASES OF TITE HORSE. time, a little matter was observed issuing from a transverse crack, or fissure, in the coronet. This immediately led me to suspect that matter was confined under the sole. On paring it away, this was found to be the case ; and so far had the matter pene- trated, that it was found necessary to remove about one half of the horny sole. The same treatment was adopted as in the former case, and the horse gradually recovered. This case shows how necessary it is to examine every part minutely before a severe operation is resorted to; and may teach the young prac- titioner, that he should never trust to the smith on these occa- sions, but depend only on his own investigation. On Lameness from Cutting. In cutting, a horse sometimes strikes himself so severely, or in so tender a part, as to cause lameness for a short time, but generally it soon wears off, and he goes on again very Avell until the blow is repeated. When the blow is inflicted on the inside, and lower part of the knee joint, it is called the speedy cut, be- cause it commonly happens when the horse is trotting fast. The pain this occasions is so severe, that the horse often falls down suddenly from it, which causes it to be considered a very dan- gerous failing, more especially as it is a faihng that is not easily remedied. In carriage horses, the best remedy is to drive them without a bearing rein, which enables them to go with more ease, and without that high action which this gagging rein occa- sions : at the same time the shoeing should be attended to, and when the part of the foot or shoe (most frequently it is the former) which inflicts the injury has been discovered, it should be rasped away as much as can be done with safety or propriety. I have seen a severe lameness produced by a horse striking his fetlock joint, which continued for several days, and was mistaken for an injury of the shoulder, because, though it was evident the horse had struck the fetlock joint, he had not even knocked off the hair. Upon a careful examination, I found he had struck that part over which the nerve passes, and had left it so tender that the hoi'se could scarcely bear to have it touched.* Cutting is often a consequence of weakness or fatigue ; in such cases the remedy is obvious. The part most commonly injured * Sometimes considerable swelling, as well as lameness, is produced on tlie inside of the leg by repeated striking, although there may be no external wound. Such case requires poultices and fomentations ; an abscess generally forms, through which a seton should be passed so as to secure a depending opening. Large splents, from their prominence, frequently occasion cutting, particularly when they are situated near the fetlock joint; and sometimes cutting produces bony enlargeraents on the inside of the leg, which, by re- peated blows, increase greatly in size. — Ed. INJURIES CONNECTED WITH SHOEING, ETC. 327 in cutting is the inside of the fetlock joint, and the common remedy is to make the inner branch of the slioe thicker than the outer branch, gradually swelling it from the toe to the heel. This is supposed to alter the position of the fetlock joint, and place it at a greater distance from the striking foot. As cutting, however, is often an effect of weakness or fatigue, and not un- frequently of awkwardness in going, this remedy often fails. Mr. Moorecroft, on this account, Avas induced to try another method, quite the reverse of what I have just described, and in a few instances I have found it successful. He advises the outer branch of the shoe to be raised in the manner before described, so that it may be higher than the inside. For he says, " When a horse is at rest, he supports his weight equally on both feet ; but having the inner heel and quarter raised when one foot is elevated, he must be supported obliquely on the other, and hence have a tendency to fall outwards ; to prevent which, he brings the moving foot nearer to the supporting one, by which he strikes it; but by raising the outer instead of the inner branch of the shoe, Ave necessarily give it a disposition to lean inwards, Avhich Avill induce the horse to throw or incline the moving foot farther from the supporting foot."* Mr. Goodwin describes an improvement of the common boot, as it is termed, for defending the fetlock joint, Avhen cutting cannot otherwise be prevented, which may be had at ]\lr. Long's, veterinary instrument maker, 217. High Holborn, London, t When cutting appears to depend upon weakness, or riding a horse, though it happen to be a moderate journey, until he is fatigued, the most effectual, as Avell as the cheapest remedy, is to turn him to grass until he recovers his strength. Over 'reaching. These, in old books of farriery, were termed according to their situation in the heel, or above the fetlock joint, the higher and the nether attaint ; from the Fi-ench atteint. These acci- dents sometimes happen from the toe of the hind foot being too long and not squared off as I have advised, but more frequently from the sharp edge afforded by the inner rim of the hind shoe towards the toe. It may also occur from bad riding, in pulling * In the hind feet there is no shoe more likely to prevent cutting than a three quarter shoe, the inside heel being left uncovered. — Ed. t The best boot for cutting the leg is formed with leather fitted to the leg and laced, the leather being double at the part struck by the other foot. In some instances it is found that a boot buckled round the hoof that cuts, and softly stuffed, prevents injury from the blow when other methods fail. For cutting the fetlock, a piece of cloth tied round above the joint and doubled down over it answers the purpose. — Ed. 328 DISEASES OF THE IIOKSE. up a horse badly, and making him gallop false, as it is termed. Whenever the Avound is such as to leave a flap of skin, whether it be upwards, downwards, or sidewise, it should be immediately cut off as close as possible ; a reunion of the parts can never happen, and by leaving the flap, and attempting to effect the reunion of the parts, there will be thickening and a greater blemish, and its removal will be found necessary at last. This may be considered as a contused wound, and to all such wounds I think a poultice the best remedy. This probably will be doubted by surgeons ; but in horse surgery it will be found the best practice. "When the inflammation has been completely subdued by this poultice, the astringent paste may be applied, and nothing more done for two days, when it is to be soaked and Avashed off, and a similar dressing laid on. Three or four of these dressings w^ill generally effect a cure. Astringent Paste. Finely powdered alum and pipe-clay, in equal proportions ; water enough to give it the consistence of cream. When the wound is perfectly healed, a little salad oil or hog's lard may be necessary to soften the cicatrix. Halter Cast* When the horse entangles his hind leg in the halter, he often injures himself considerably ; the heel is the part that generally suffers, and the only remedy required is wrapping up the part in a lai'ge emollient poultice, until the inflammation is completely removed ; if any sore remains, the digestive ointment, or Goulard ointment, may be applied for a day or two, and then the astringent paste of pipe-clay and alum mixed with water. Goulard Ointment. Fresh hog's lard 1 lb. Linseed oil 2 oz. Palm oil 2 oz. Melt over a slow fire, and when removed and getting cool, stir in 6 oz. by measure of Goulard's extract of lead. Continue stirring until it is perfectly cold. * The subject is included in the present chapter from the similarity of the injury and the proximity of the part to that just described. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 329 CHAP. LVI. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. Corns. This is a very common and a very troublesome disorder, and may truly be said to be often occasioned by the smith, being generally in consequence of bad shoeing. Corns most commonly happen in white feet, with weak low heels ; but they are too common in feet of all colours. They are occasioned by the pressure of the heel of the shoe, either by its bearing directly on the sole when it is too thin to bear the pressure, or by its forcing the heel of the crust inwards. In this way the sensible sole is bruised, the small blood vessels ruptured, and the blood pene- trates into the pores of the horn, causing the dark red appearance observable on removing the shoe, and scraping off the surface of the sole at the part marked dd, fig. 1. page 338. This bruised part is exceedingly tender, and incapable of bearing the pressure of the shoe, and so are the crust and bar on each side of it. In the treatment of this complaint, therefore, all the parts must be so cut down, crust, bar, and sole, situated behind and on each side the part marked d, fig. 1. page 338., that when a bar shoe is applied, it may be full half an inch distant from the heel. In this way a horse will be able to do his work, provided the shoe is removed, and the heel pared down as often as is necessary, and a little caustic, such as buttyr of antimony, applied with a feather. As in this case the frog will be constantly receiving considerable pressure from the bar shoe, it is necessary to take care that the heels are not too thick and inflexible, in which case it is necessary to rasp them ; and whenever there is a morbid degree of heat in the feet, or dryness, they should be kept con- stantly moist and cool in the stable, either by poultice, or by several folds of old woollen wrapped round the coronet, and kept constantly wet. The common practice of paring out the corn, and leaving the bar and crust to be in contact with the heel of the shoe is doing no good ; nor would it afford even temporary relief, if the shoe were not bent up, or made to bear off that quarter a little, as they term it ; yet, after riding a few miles, the shoe is sui-e to yield to the horse's weight, and bear upon the tender heel. It is thus that corns are made so troublesome as we find them, and many horses are rendered nearly unser- viceable, or absolutely ruined, by this improper treatment. Matter is often formed within the heel from this sort of manage- ment, and breaks out at the coronet, frequently doing great 330 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. mischief and even rendering u horse useless. When corns liave been suffered to go this length, the foot must be poulticed, and all the hollow horn cut away. After the inflammation has been thus completely subdued, the sensible parts which have been laid bare may be dressed with Friar's balsam, and the tar ointment, or with a solution of sulphate of zinc. The radical cure of corns is always practicable if taken early ; but in old cases, the sensible parts will always remain in a tender state, however care- fully they may be treated, and will always require the defence of the bar shoe, applied as I have described. A run at grass xoithout shoes is a great relief to a horse with corns, provided the tender heel is cut down as I have described, and the heel and quarter rasped very thin. When a radical cure is attempted, this is the most likely means of effecting it. Sand Crack. This is an accident that happens to dry brittle hoofs, and is, in fact, a breaking or fracture of the horn in the weakest part ; that is, at the upper part of the inner quarter of the fore feet, and the front part of the hind feet, A sand crack almost always extends to the sensible parts, and can seldom be cured if the korse is kept in work. The first thing to be done is to open the crack with a di*awing knife, for it generally runs obliquely under the horn, and cut out every hollow part completely, however far it may extend under the crust. Every particle of horn that is hollow, or detached from the sensible parts, must be completely cut away, and the bar shoe applied eased off the affected heel and quarter. When a little sound horn has grown from the coronet, a line should be drawn transversely between it and the crack with a firing iron ; and as the hoof grows down, the crack will disap- pear. A strap, however, should be applied round the hoof for some time so as to prevent too much motion in the foot. A little blister ointment just above the crack often does good, and tar ointment on the crack on the adjacent horn. Observe, too, that the quarter where the crack is must be rasped away as thin as possible. In this way, sand cracks may be always cured with- out difficulty. The brittle state of the hoof, however, must be corrected by anointing the foot with the tar ointment ; this will be absorbed through the horn, and stimulate the secreting vessels. False Quarter. When the coronary ligament has been much injured by quit- tors, treads, or other contused wounds, it sometimes forms horn DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 331 of a lighter colour than the rest of the hoof, and less perfect, often leaving a fissure or seam from the top to the bottom. Sometimes the whole quarter is imperfect, and incapable of bear- ing pressure ; therefore, in such cases, a bar shoe is necessar}'-, by means of which, when the false quarter is kept properly- pared down, it will be at some distance from the surface of the shoe, and thus be always free from pressure. Quittor. This is a consequence of a contusion on the coronet of the worst kind. The injuries that a horse does himself in the stable by step- ping accidentally on the coronet, or a little above or below it, are seldom so severe as to come under the denomination of quittor. It is more frequently occasioned in frosty slippery weather, when, in endeavouring to save themselves from falling sidewise, horses step with dreadful violence on the foot that is sliding inwards, and generally upon the coronet of the inside quarter. The injury is so considerable, that the cartilage, the extensor tendon, or the coffin bone, is always more or less injured. This is the cause of the obstinacy of the disorder. In the first place, it is neces- sary to find out with a probe the direction and extent of the sinuses or pipes ; this being done, let some powdered sublimate be spread on some whity-brown paper that has been smeared with lard, and then let it be cut out in narrow slips ; let these slips be folded up, and twisted into a point at the ends. One of these slips is to be first introduced carefully, and forced, if pos- sible, to the bottom of the sinus ; and if not, so far as it can be forced with a strong probe. When this has been done, another slip is to be forced in, in a similar manner, and so on, till the sinus is quite full. A piece of tow is then to be placed on the part, and bound down with tape or listing, so as to keep the dressing in. This dressing, in the course of four days, will have done its work ; the bandage is to be removed, and then a slough or core will readily come out, and leave a large open sore, which will enable the operator to see the bottom of the injury; and then, if he dresses it daily to the bottom, with tents of lint dipped at first in a solution of blue vitriol or buttyr of antimony, and afterwards in Friar's balsam, the wound will heal gradually, and the horse will be radically cured. [The objection to this severe method of treatment is, that a considerable portion of the lateral cartilage is destroyed, as well as the coronary substance, which secretes the crust, and in consequence, a false quarter frequently follows. In the greater number of cases, the treatment re- commended by Mr. Newport, V. S., will eifect a cure. It con- sists In injecting a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc every twenty-four hours. I have found this treatment effectual in 332 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. many cases, taking care to poultice the foot also for several days. In other more severe cases, I have found the insertion of se- tons attended with success, the setons being carried to the lower part of the sinuses, and brought out either at the heels, or be- tween the bars and frog. See my Treatise on the Foot, &c. — Ed.] Thrush. This is a disease of the frog, causing a discharge of matter from its division or cleft, not often productive of lameness, especially in the hind feet, where it is frequently a consequence of negligence in the groom, in jjermitting a horse to stand in his dung, or upon foul wet litter. This softens and rots the horny frog, the putrid and acrid fluids penetrate through the soaked and rotten horn, and inflame the sensible frog, causing it to discharge a fetid acrimonious matter, instead of secreting horn for its own defence, as it does in the healthy state. Thrushes in the fore feet are sometimes occasioned by con- traction of the heels, but more frequently by the horny box or hoof, considered altogether, becoming too thick, and conse- quently inelastic. The treatment of thrush must depend alto- gether upon the cause which produces it. When in the hind foot, and occasioned by filthiness, the cause must be removed, and then the disorder may cease ; but this is not always the case, for the thrush sometimes has proceeded so far as to produce ulceration of the sensible frog, which then requires to be dressed with a solution of blue vitriol, or oxymel of verdigris. Before this is done, the cleft of the frog should be thoroughly cleansed to the bottom by means of tow ; and if there is any ragged horn covering a diseased part, it should be completely removed. One of these dressings, when it is properly done, is sufficient for the cure. Some tar, or hoof ointment, may be applied, to promote the regeneration of horn, and to defend it from moisture. In cases where the frog has become very tender or rotten, I have found it necessary to apply a mixture of tar and sulphuric acid, which is made by adding one ounce, by weight, of sulphuric acid to one pound of melted tar, and stirinng the mixture for some time. As to the thrush in the fore feet, when it is attended with heat of the parts and contracted foot, the treatment is dif- ferent : by attempting to stop it by those preparations which are usually employed, the lameness is often inci'cased. The first thing to be done is to rasp the heels and quarters, thin the soles, cover the frog with tar ointment, and wrap the foot in an emollient poultice ; in slight cases, complete and permanent I'e- lief will be thus aftbrded. Should the thrush continue after the hoof has been well soaked with the poultice, and especially if the DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 333 frog Is very tender and rotten, apply the mixture of tar and sul- phuric acid. In old thrushes, physic may be useful, and some alterative medicine. In bad cases, palliation only can be ex- pected, unless a new hoof be obtained of a better kind, by rasping the quarters and thinning the sole, until spots of blood appear; and then, after stopping the feet with tar ointment, turning the horse to grass. Thrushes may happen in the fore feet merely from filthiness, and may then be cured as they are in the hind feet. The third kind of thrush I have to describe is not so common as the two foi'mer, and is no other than incipient canker. It may always be cured by removing from the frog every bit of horn that is detached from the sensible fx'og, and by which a diseased part may be concealed, and then applying to the affected part a saturated solution of blue vitriol, or tar ointment, with sulphuric acid. Cleanliness must be carefully attended to ; and when the disease of the frog has been cured, tar or hoof oint- ment may be employed to promote the regeneration of horn. Canker. This is an obstinate, and often incurable, disorder of the foot, generally beginning in the frog, and spreading from thence to the other parts, even to the coffin bone. It is often a con- sequence of neglected thrush, or grease, but sometimes comes on without any apparent cause, and most commonly in one or two feet, but sometimes it attacks both the fore and hind feet at the same time. I have now two cases under my care. In one, the near fore foot is principally affected ; the off fore and near hind foot slightly. The first animal is a fine saddle horse, and the disorder seems to proceed from the liorse standing idle in the stable upon litter, and upon good keep. The latter is a waggon horse that has been worked rather hard, and kept upon oats, chaff, and beans, with a small portion of grains, and as much hay as he liked to eat. The saddle horse is nearly cured. The Avaggon horse appears better ; still I fear that the disease in him will prove incurable. One thing is essential in the cure, and that is to remove carefully every bit of horn by which a diseased part may be concealed: this must be done at every examination, and the foot must be carefully examined and carefully dressed every day. The treatment of canker and the probability of success, depend upon the length of time it has been^ standing. When taken in hand at an early period, and before it has ex- tended beyond the frog, a daily dressing of a strong solution of blue vitriol, and a stopping of melted tar ointment, or the mixture of tar and sulphuric acid (one ounce of acid to one 334 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pound of tar), may be sufficient to effect a cure. Should this fail in bringing on a healthy appearance, let some butty r of antimony be applied, or add to two ounces of the solution of blue vitriol ten drops of sulphuric acid. A solution of blue vitriol in vinegar may be tried. Whatever caustic may be found necessary for the cure of canker, some preparation of tar is useful in promoting the reproduction of horn * ; pressure on the diseased parts is conducive to the cure, and may be applied by means of tow dipped in the melted tar ointment, or tar and sulphuric acid, and kept in by ti'ansverse slips of wood, or splints as they are termed, confined under the shoe. It would be difficult to enumerate all the remedies or means that have been employed for the cure of canker, and most commonly with- out success : for the disease after some time appears to penetrate to the ligaments, cartilages, and bones ; and those who have been most successful have been, in general, most free in the use of the drawing-knife and caustic. In two bad cases that I have seen cured, after a considerable time and much labour, the horses were rendered irremediably lame. Mr. Leigh, Veteri- nary Surgeon of Bristol, had a carriage horse under his care with a canker in the hind foot. After a little time the horse became so troublesome that it was found almost impossible to dress him, and pare out the foot properly. He tlierefore threw him down and performed the nerve operation upon the leg; after which the foot was dressed without resistance, and the canker soon got well. When I heard of this case, the horse had been in work four yeai's after the operation. f The only caustic I have not seen tried in canker is arsenic, or some pre- paration of that poisonous mineral: I have known it applied with success in fistula of the withers and poll-evil, also for the removal of warts, still I should be afraid to apply it in canker, as its destructive influence cannot be limited. I have seen the actual cautery applied, and, I think, with good effect ; also oil of vitriol, nitrous acid, corrosive sublimate, quicklime, tar and sulphuric acid nearly boiling hot, quicksilver, or red precipitate, dissolved in nitrous acid, and many other caustic preparations. * An excellent application in this disease is formed by nitric acid, verdi- gris, and Barbadoes tar. — Ed. f The advantage afforded by this operation is not simply the convenience of dressing the foot, but also that it enables the animal to bear freely on the diseased parts, pressure being of the greatest service. The operation is, therefore, very useful in bad cases. It is, indeed, by pressure, caustic, and the knife that a cure is effected. It must, however, be borne in mind that in this disease the pressure may be too great instead of too little, in which case formidable inflammation may supervene in the joints, and the navicular bone may ulcerate with the flexor tendon, a result which I have known to follow the operation of neurotomy in canker, and whicii is more likely to occur if the operation has been performed than if not. — Ed. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 335 A mixture of corrosive sublimate, blue vitriol, and prepared chalk, has done good ; also a solution of sublimate in tincture of myrrh, or spirit of wine.* At every time of dressing, the spongy surface should be scraped off; and, if any horn remain of the sole and bars, it should be carefully examined in order to discover whether the disease is creeping under it or not ; if there is even a suspicion of its being so, the horn must be completely removed, and the diseased part dressed. If, upon a careful examination with a probe, the coffin bone be found carious, it must be freely scraped with a drawing-knife, and whatever part there may be in the way so as to impede this operation, must be removed. Sometimes the disease spreads under the wall or crust, and then generally affects the coffin bone. In this direction also it must be scrupulously followed with the drawing- knife. It often happens after a great deal of time and labour has been bestowed on this disease, that the practitioner is un- expectedly defeated by suffering the disease to creep gradually under the horn of the bars, sole, or crust. In the case I have now under my care, in which all four feet are cankerous, I have told the farrier who attends, that unless he dresses the feet daily, and observes carefully the directions I have given with regard to paring the feet previously to every dressing, whatever time it may require, his labour will certainly be in vain, and he may as well do nothing.! It is not unlikely that canker, when of long standing, is, in some degree, a constitutional disease ; and, in this case, it may be useful to turn the horse into a dry field or paddock, or, at all events, to keep him on green food. [It must be acknowledged that there are some cases of so long a standing and so inveterate, that the cure is altogether hopeless, and should not be attempted unless the horse is very valuable. - Ed.] ^ Laminitis, or Founder " Is, as its name implies, an inflammation of the sensible laminas of the foot, as well as the elastic and very vascular substance that connects them with the horny laminte and the coffin bone. It is a disease, compared with other lesions of the foot, of somewhat rare occurrence ; but it most frequently attacks horses whose crust and laminte are weak, and very obliquely placed. We meet with two varieties of laminitis, the acute and the chronic or sub-acute. " The Sijmptoms of this disease are a quick and generally a full jjulse, accelerated respiration, the feet and coronets hot, and * Quicklime and cliloride of lime have been used with advantage. — Ed. t This horse is now sufficiently recovered to return to his work. 336 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the horse ahnost constantly lying down. It is Avith difficulty that he can be induced to stand or move, and when he does, his hind feet are placed as much as possible under the body, and the fore ones stretched out, the animal resting almost entirely on his heels : the feet and coronets feel very hot. The hind feet may be involved as well as the fore ones, but the latter are more frequently alone affected, the proportion of weight sup- ported by them being so much greater. " The causes are — first, long-continued and rapid exertion on the hard road during the summer months; secondly, con- finement in a standing posture, for a long period, as on board transports; and, thirdly, metastasis. " That the first cause should produce the disease is an object of less surprise than that it does not more frequently induce it, when we consider that the effect of shoeing is to make the crust and laminre support the whole weight of the animal Avhilst travelling on the road. " Some curious cases are on record of horses becoming af- fected by this disease on board transports, from being unable to lie down. By constantly standing in one position, the elastic connections of the laminae are put continually on the stretch, more particularly if the shoes are on ; and this constant action, though not carried to its greatest extent, is yet much more fatiguing than when the natural functions of alternate elongation and contraction are permitted. The third cause to which we have alluded is, perhaps, a more frequent one than either of the others. After a horse has been labouring for a while under inflammation of the lungs, or the muscles of the chest, it is by no means unfrequent for the disease to leave the part originally affected, and to attack the feet — to fall down into the feet as it is vulgarly supposed. This metastasis is a very singular phe- nomenon of nature, and one which cannot easily be explained. When laminitis is thus produced, it is usually less acute than when induced by the other causes we have mentioned ; but although less acute, it is more obstinate in its character, and more likely to produce permanent disorganisation of the foot. Treatment. — The shoes being removed, the feet should be pared out, and a large quantity of blood abstracted from the toe, taking care that the artery itself is opened, and not merely the vein. We cannot well take too much blood from the feet ; if both are affected, four or five quarts of blood will not be too much from each foot. " To promote tlie flow of blood, it is well to immerse the foot in a pail of warm water during the bleeding. If the horse cannot be made to stand upon one leg long enough for the performance of the operation, we should bleed from the coronet, putting the feet in a warm bath immediately afterwards, and, if sufficient blood cannot be procured from the coronet, we DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 337 sliould take an additional quantity from tlie plate veins. A dose of physic should be given as soon as possible, and followed by febrifuge medicine. Unless the urgency of the symptoms is considerably remitted by the following day, the bleeding should be repeated. The poultices should be continued for several days together with the warm fomentations, and should then be succeeded by cold a])plications, applied by means of cloths tied round the pasterns, and made to fall closely over and around the crust. The refrigerating lotion recommended for strains will be found vei*y useful at this stage of the disease. " After this treatment has been practised for about a week, we y, shall find it advantageous to blister the coronet, taking care to foment the parts about twelve hours after the application of the blister, which, by this method, may be repeated in a few days. Should the treatment be neglected at first, or not sufficiently energetic, and, in some cases, even in sj)Ite of all we may do, disorgan- isation will take place ; the elastic con- nections of the laminag will give way, at any rate will be unable to oppose the action of the flexor tendon, which thus, having no antagonist, draws the toe of the coffin bone downwards and back- ^0 ^' wards, and away from the crust, and the ^^m ^ole, at the same time, becomes convex : y^^^^^ ^"^^ thus we find in morbid specimens of M^^ y^^^ ^^^^^ disease a considerable si)ace between ^K//Iljim£ ^m ^ the toe of the coffin bone and the crust, iB^BMBBH ^ the bone becoming preternaturally iijt- Three side views of the Hoof, ^''^S^^^> ''^"tl the Crust morC obliquC, this showing the difftrent de- spacc being filled up by a morbid depo- grees of obliquity in i/s gition, the character of Avhlch appears r T n -1 • f .1 somewhat between horn and bone. \Vhcn rig. ]. A side view of tlie , . . , sound hoof, with a scale, tiHs IS the casc, the horsc IS rendered al- showing the proper degree mOSt USclcsS, fit Only for sloW WOrk OU Soft of obliquity to be 45 de- g^Q^nc] ,^.\,q^.q thc'frog and bars can as- grees of elevation; «, the *. . ' . i • n quarter; b, the heel; c, sist m supportmg the auunal S Weight. the toe. Chronic Laminitis is a disease very insidious in its approach, and the first natural form, and ap- syniptoms being obscurc, its effects are proachcs 5 degrees toward oftencr destructive than the more active malady Ave have just noticed. In the ften knock d first blow, by means Fig. 2. Side view of the con vex, . or pumice foot, in : which the hoof has lost its the horizontal line. Fio, 3. A hoof approaching j^^^^^.^- ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ j,^^^j^ ^^^^^.^ ^^^ too nearly the perpendi lar. disease with the z 338 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. of extensive blood-letting; but in the former, disorganisation has probably commenced before -sve are called upon to combat the evil. " The symptoms, I have said, are obscure : there is lameness, bvit it is by no means severe at first, and not sufficient to induce the animal to prefer the recumbent posture much more than usual ; he can generally relieve himself sufficiently by making greater use of his heels. The crust feels warm, and this warmth is constant, but it is often not palpably greater than in a state of health. The surest symptom to direct our judgment is the action of the animal : it is diametrically opposite to that in the navicular disease. He throws as much of his weight as he can on the posterior parts of the foot, his object being to relieve the front portion as much as possible. " The treatment must be very similar to that we have recom- mended for the acute disease, namely, blood-letting, cataplasms, fomentation, and blisters; but it is necessary to resort much sooner to the Last-mentioned prophylactic, repeating it frequently with short intervals." — Spooner on the Foot, Sfc Pumiced feet are often the effect of the previous disease ; the laminae give way and the sole becomes convex. This, however, may be produced naturally, or from the weakness of the horn and the weight of the animal. A cure cannot be obtained, but the case may be greatly palliated by bar shoes carefully seated out and the application of tar ointment to the feet. — Ed.] Chronic Lameness, Contracted Heels. This is one of the most common and destructive disorders to which the horse is liable, and may almost be said to be peculiar to this country. According to M. Jauze, the number of foundered A healthy Foot in an mipared state. A contracted Foot. a a the frog, b b the bars, ccc the sole, d d the seat of corns. horses in this country, compared to those of France, is as ten to one ; and this he attributes to our mode of shoeing. I believe he is perfectly right as to the proportion of foundered horses DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 339 between this country and France ; but as to shoeing, it has little or nothing at all to do with it. It is entirely caused by the immoderate work that horses are made to do, and until this evil is corrected, the number of such lamenesses will not diminish, whatever mode of shoeing may be employed. I think it necessary, however, to observe in this place, that a great deal may be done for the relief of post and coach, and I may add waggon, horses, but more especially for the two former. They are generally shod in the most slovenly and injurious manner imaginable, and this not altogether from the fault of the smith, but of the proprietor ; who, in endeavouring to get his work done as cheap as he can, is not aware that he is causing his horses to be crippled. Corns are very common among such horses, and instead of being properly managed, the horse is compelled to work with them as long as he is able to stand. Their feet are always in a state of inflammation, and no means are employed for relieving them. The low price at which the smith works will not permit him to do what is necessary to the feet. He is sometimes allowed, it is true, a compensation in attending them when they break out at the coronet from neg- lected corns, or become so lame from excessive inflammation in the laminated substance of the foot that they are unable to stand. He is then permitted, perhaps, to rub in some strain oils on the shoulder or fetlock joint ; or he may be paid for bleeding now and then when a horse is too full of corn, or worked into a fever, and then suddenly cooled in a pond or river ; or he may be allowed to give some cordials when a horse is exhausted by excessive labour. But it is better for a post-master to attend to a horse's feet himself, and pay the smith a fair price for his labour. Chronic lameness may exist in various degrees, and in the early stages of the disorder a horse may do considerable work by paring his feet properly, and keeping them cool and moist ; by paring the soles, putting on a wide hollow shoe, and keeping them stopped with tar ointment. By such management, the progress of the disease may be retarded, and the horse much relieved ; but it can never be cured. Most commonly the dis- ease gradually gets worse, and at length the horse becomes unfit for every kind of work. At this period the horse is generally blistered or fired, and turned to grass. But this never does any good. Shoes with claws, or hinges and screws, have been proposed and employed with a view to open the heels, but of course they have never done any good, either in the way of prevention or cure. The hoof has been all rasped away, and the horse turned to grass until a new hoof has grown down of a proper foi'm, but it has never done any good. That cruel operation of tearing off the sole, technically termed drawing the 340 DISEASES OF THE nOKSE. sole, Avas formerly practised for it, but is now, I trust, com- pletely discontinued. In short, every thing that human in- genuity can devise has been tried, but nothing has ever been found to cure this disorder. I believe, at this time, all vete- rinarians agree in the opinion of its being absolutely incurable. A frequent cause of chronic lameness is a disease of the lowest synovial cavity, that is, where the tendon moves upon the navicular or nut bone. I have lately examined the feet of two horses affected with this kind of lameness. In one, a car- riage horse that had been lame two or three years, I found the cavity quite dry and of a yellow colour, and on the surface of the nut bone there were many minute bony excrescences, about the size of millet seeds. In the second, a stage-coach horse that had been working in a crippled state for some time, I found the navicular synovial cavity in a similar state; but hei-e the coffin joint also was diseased. There was one part of the articulating surface of the coffin bone, where the cartilage had been worn away, and appeared as an ulcer, and on the lower articulating surface of the small pastern there were three spots from which the cartilage had been Avorn. [It has now been ascertained that the chronic disease here spoken of, which used to be attributed to the contraction of the foot, is almost invariably seated in the navicular joint, and that contraction alone, although it may be both a cause and effect of the other disease, does not, in itself, produce lameness. It is therefore termed the navicular disease. — Ed.] The Navicular Joint Lameness. [The joint above mentioned is the seat of the greater number of obscure lamenesses of the fore extremity. But although so frequent, it Avas not till some years after the commencement of the present century, that the nature and situation of the lame- ness was discovered. Before this, the shouklei's were invariably pitched upon as the seat of the disease by farriers (and, indeed, this is pretty much the practice with them at the present day), Avhilst A^eterinary surgeons considered that Avhen the foot Avas contracted, that this contraction Avas the cause of the lameness, and Avhen it Avas not, that the seat of mischief Avas the coffin joint. The great merit of pointing out the real nature and seat of this before obscure disease is due to Mr. James Turner, of Begent Street, London, avIio has written various essays on the subject. The sipnptoms are lameness, pointing or resting the affected foot, and sometimes contraction of the foot. The lameness is rarely perceptible in the Avalk, and is generally greatest at first, diminishing or disappearing from exercise. Its degree depends DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 341 altogether on the severity of the case, being sometimes so severe as to render the animal useless, and in other cases so slight, as scarcely to be perceived. Pointing, or resting, is an almost invariable symptom ; the foot is generally thrust in a straight line beyond the other, but some- times only slightly extended. Contraction of the foot is genei'ally the consequence of the lameness, and is owing to the horse not bearing the same weight ujion it as before. Sometimes, however, the lameness is jire- ceded by contraction, particularly by contraction of an insidious kind. The nature of this disease is peculiar, and has been brought to light by morbid dissections. Sometimes, it comes on sud- denly, and then the injury, though severe, is more curable; but generally, it is gi'adual and insidious in its approach, and is for some time preceded by pointing. In dissecting feet affected with this disease, we find it existing in various stages. In many, the sinew is found adhering to the bone, and then the action of the joint is obliterated ; but the case may remain stationary for a long time. In others the cartilage is abraded, and partially ab- sorbed, and little bony excrescences appear on the surface of the bone, or carious holes may peneti'ate its substance. In some instances of long continuance, the sinew is found exceedingly thin. The causes of this disease are either predisposing or exciting. Long rest in the stable without exercise, the heat of the litter, and the confinement of the shoe, all predispose the joint to be injured by a sudden bruise, on the horse being suddenly taken from this state of rest to fast work on the hard road. The same causes, too, produce a morbid thickness of the horny sole, with some contraction of the hoof, whereby the navicular joint has a hard unyielding surface to rest on, instead of a soft cushion, and thus becomes more likely to have its synovial mem- brane bruised from concussion. The treatment of this disease is not generally attended with success ; if ulceration has commenced, we may relieve, but can- not cure. If the horse become suddenly lame, our chances of success are greater, as then inflammation alone may exist. The sole should be pared thin, the quarters rasped, the toe shortened, and thrco to five quarts of blood taken from the foot, by opening the artery at the toe. The foot should then be immei'sed in a linseed meal poultice, and so continued for a week, after which a frog seton may be inserted, and kept in for a month. If after this treatment the horse is not considerably better, we may then despair of success, nnless we have recourse to the nerve operation, by which we may remove the lameness, although we cannot eradicate the disease. — Ed.] z 3 342 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. CHAP. LVII. OPERATIONS. Bleeding, and its Consequences. This operation is frequently required in the diseases of horses ; and if employed seasonably, and to a sufficient extent, is the most efficacious remedy wc are acquainted with. When ahorse appears dull and heavy, and indifferent about his food, by bleed- ing Ave often prevent a fever. If a horse is bled at the com- mencement of a cold, the complaint generally proves moderate, and of short continuance. In all cases of internal inflammation, or symptomatic fever, bleeding is the most essential remedy, provided the operation be performed at an early period, and the blood drawn in sufficient quantity. In such cases I have often taken away six quarts or more, and repeated the operation the same or the following day when it appeared necessary. By bleeding copiously at first, those formidable diseases are often crushed at once ; while by sufi'ering them to proceed, or become at all violent, which they will do unless this practice is adopted (or if only a small quantity of blood is drawn), they generally prove fotal. Bleeding is either general or local ; that is, it is done either so as to affect the system in general, or a particular part only. Lancets. This lancet is usually employed for bleed- ing. The blade with concave edge is used for opening abscesses. Improved Fleam. This fleam, introduced by the Editor, is recommended as being very li^jht and small, so as to be carried conveniently in the waistcoat pocket; the back is one fifth of an inch broad, so that it can be struck with the right hand, and requires no blood-slick. OrERATIONS. 343 For general bleeding, the jugular or neck vein is most conve- nient. The proper situation for bleeding is about four inches from the part where the vein divides into two branches. Farriers sometimes tie a cord round the neck in order to raise the vein ; but this is unnecessary, and may do mischief. When the jugular vein is firmly pressed with the fingers of the left hand, the blood is prevented from descending, and that part of the vein which is above the fingers is considerably dis- tended, and becomes very conspicuous. In this state it may be easily opened with a lancet held in the right hand.* The vein Avill continue to bleed so long as the pressure below is con- tinued. Farriers bleed with a Jleam, which, though apparently a clumsy method of operating, is certainly safer than the lancet in unskilful hands.f In topical bleeding, a vein is chosen as near as possible to the affected part, or the vessels covering the part are opened ; in the inflammation of the eye, for example, it is done by scarifying the inner surface of the eyelid, or by opening a small vein, which is easily seen going from the inner corner of the eye towards the nose.$ * In bleeding wltli a lancet, tlie off-side is most convenient. The head should be elevated so as to put the vein in some measure on the stretch, the flow of blood should then be stopped by the fingers of the left hand, and the lancet being held in the right hand between the finger and thumb, the vein should be opened by one incision, not two, as advised by some writers. It is necessary that the lancet should be very sharp, particularly at the point, otherwise the vein is apt to roll from the instrument. This, indeed, forms the principal objection to its use, for the thickness of the skin and the coat blunts the point after being used some time, and it then renders the operation difficult. — Ed. t In bleeding with a fleam, the near side is most convenient. In skilful hands, there is no occasion for a blood-stick, as the fleam may be struck with the right hand if it is made broad and round at the back. It may also be made much smaller and neater than that generally employed. — Ed. X The situations most favourable for local bleeding are the toe and co- ronet in both hind and fore feet ; the inside of the arm and elbow joint in the fijre leg, and the inside of the thigh in the hind ; the angular or facial vein and the palate. A fleam is a rather more convenient instrument in bleeding, either from the arm or thigh, as the vein is somewhat apt to roll Avhen a lancet is used. In other places a lancet is preferable, except for the foot, where a sharp drawing knife is the most suitable and is less likely to occa- sion festering. In thi's situation the artery itself should be opened, which lies somewhat nearer the frog than the vein ; the blood is readily stopped with a compress of tow. There is some difference of opinion as to the benefits of local bleeding, some denying its efficacy altogether. For my own part, I am favourably inclined towards it if judiciously practised, and have,_inmany cases, witnessed its good effects. It should, however, be borne in mind, that it is of very little service to abstract a pound or two of blood locally if the system is in a plethoric state, unless we relieve this plethora, for the inflamed part will very soon be loaded with blood again. In such a case we should first have recourse to general bleeding so as to'reducc the system, and then having, z 4 344 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. A graduated tin vessel, capable of containing six or seven quarts, is very convenient for the purpose of receiving the blood, every pint being marked on the inside of the vessel, so that the quantity of blood drawn may be exactly known. The blood should always be preserved, that we may judge from its appear- ance of the nature of the disease, and whether it is proper or not to repeat the operation. When it continues fluid a considerable time, it denotes an inflammatory state of the system. Should a whitish or light buff'-coloured jelly appear on its surface, after it has coagulated or settled, and should this jelly be of consider- able thickness, rather firm, and not easily penetrated by the finger, we may be satisfied that the horse's comjjlaint is inflam- matory, that bleeding was a proper remedy, and that if the symp- toms continue, the operation may be re])eated with advantage ; but if the blood coagulates quickly, is uniformly of a dark liver colour, loose and easily broken, with a considerable quantity of water upon its surface, it denotes debility, and shows that the disease arises from a weakness of the system ; that, instead of bleedim/, tonic and cordial medicines are to be employed, with every thing that may tend to restore the animal's strength. In order to judge correctly by the appearance of the blood, it should be drawn from a large orifice, and not suffered to run down the sides of the vessel which receives it, and should be put aside for examination, and not shaken or disturbed in any Avay until it has perfectly coagulated.* in great measure, stopped the supply, we may employ topical bleeding with advantage. It is for want of attending to this that local bleeding lias, in some instances, been held in disrepute. In those situations where a large quantity of blood can be abstracted locally, general bleeding is, of course, most required. To relieve local inflammation we should, if possible, either bleed from the gorged vessels themselves, or from a vein proceeding from them, or from an artery going to the inflamed part. Farriers will bleed in the thio^h veins for an inflammation of the kidneys, which is ridiculous and absurd as a topical remedy. For inflammation of the brain great benefit has been obtained from opening the temporal arteries. Now these vessels do not supply the brain it is true, but by opening them an artificial drain is made, through which much of the blood escapes that would otherwise have gone to the brain, besides which a large quantity of blood is abstracted in a short time, when, perhaps, it would have been difficult to have bled from the neck at all, owing to the violence of the animal. The benefit of the topical bleeding is duly appreciated in human surgery, where, by means of cupping and leeches, it is very frequently practised. By such means enteritis and pleurisy have been quickly alleviated in numerous instances. I have known a person suffering most acutely from the former disease relieved from acute pain in a few minutes, by cupping as near the seat of pain as possible. "We cannot very conveniently employ cupping in the horse, but may often obtain much benefit from scarifying with a lancet — dry cui)])iiig as it is termed. — Ed. * We must be cautious in not placing too nnich reliance on the appearance of the blood. Connected with other symptoms it will prove very serviceable, but taken alone it is likely to deceive. — Ed. OrERATIONS. 345 When bleeding is cm])loyecl as a preventive, or in any slight complaints, from two to three quarts of blood may be taken away, according to the horse's strength and condition; but in cases of internal inflammation or fever, a more copious evacuation is necessary. The quantity of blood generally drawn in inflammatory dis- orders is too small. It should always be carried so far as to weaken the pulse. Two gallons may sometimes be necessary to produce this effect ; and in mad staggers, I have seen four gallons taken oif in the course of an hour with the best effect. When horses are taken from camp or grass, and put into warm stables, they are very subject to inflammatory complaints and dangerous fevers; under th.ese circumstances, moderate bleeding now and then will prevent such diseases. Horses that are getting into condition, as it is termed, are liable to similar disorders, unless moderate bleeding be occasionally employed. I am inclined to believe, however, that it is a bad practice to bleed often upon trifling occasions ; it is liable to induce ple- thora or fulness of habit, whereby a horse is rendered more sus- ceptible of disease than he would otherwise be.* Moderate purging and regular exercise, with a proper regulation of diet and temperatui-e, are fully adequate to the prevention of disease on those occasions ; but these are too often neglected. It has been asserted, that it is seldom necessary to pin up the orifice, which is made in the skin by bleeding. I grant there is not often any danger to be apprehended from its bleeding ao-ain; but unless it be pinned up, that is, unless the lips of the wound be brought into contact, and kept in that situation, by passim)- a pin through the edges of the skin, and twisting a little tow round it, as is generally done, inflammation and swelling will sometimes take place in the Avound, and matter will form in consequence. [In pinning up, the edges of the skin should be brought inti- mately together, and care should be taken that no hair insinuates between them. The skin should be drawn from the vein as little as possible, and the pin should not be too large. For want of attending to these precautions, those disfigurements are produced which we often perceive in the necks of horses that have been bled. Sometimes, after bleeding, the part swells considerably from blood escaping from the vein, and diffusing itself under the skin. The best application, in these cases, is cold water, which should * Mr. Taplin's story is a very instructive one. He tells us, a coachman requested his master to let him have the horse bled and physicked, because they had been upon high feed, and had had but little work : he was permitted to have it done provided he would submit to the same ojierations himself, as there was exactly the same reason for it ; but told to avoid the expense for the future, by using less food or more exercise. 346 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. as be frequently applied, the horse's head being tied to the rack, it always ought to be after bleeding from the neck, for one or two hours, "with this treatment the swelling will commonly subside, but sometimes it terminates in an Inflamed Vein. [This is a very troublesome complaint, requiring a consider- able display of that patience, of which, very frequently, the owner has little to spare. It may commence with a swelling just after the bleeding ; but generally the first appearance is a little swelling, and a few days afterwards a separation of the lips of the wound and a little acrid fluid oozing from it. In slight cases, matter may form external to the vein, and the part soon gets well, the vein itself not being much affected. ]\Iore fre- quently, however, a considerable swelling takes place, the vein above the wound feels hard, and the parotid gland is greatly en- larged. This denotes a stoppage in the passage of the blood, which therefore becomes stagnant, and chokes up the vessels passing through the gland. When this occurs, the vein will un- questionably be lost. Sometimes there is considerable hemor- rhage fi'om the vein, which is stopped with some difficult}'. Treatment. — If there be considerable swelling, and some heat, the best ]>lan is to foment with warm water the first day, and keep the swelling wet with cold lotion for a day or two afterwards ; by so doing, we get rid of a good deal of superficial enlargement, although the principal swelling still remains. We should next blister the enlargement, either by a strong application at once, which may be Avashed off the second day and repeated, or by frequent mild blisters in a liquid form. The horse should be tied up to the rack as much as possible, so as to prevent the head from being held in a depending position. The diet should con- sist principally of mashes ; hay should be avoided, as it requires so much mastication ; the action of the jaws forcing the blood towards the jugular veins, and thus increasing the swelling. A mild dose of physic should be given, and a little nitre subse- quently. This simple mode of treatment I have found effectual in every case (a great number) in which it has been employed. The vein is generally lost; but in the course of a month the swelling is in great measure absorbed ; the blood finds other channels, and the horse is fit for the saddle, and a few weeks afterwards for harness. I deprecate the practice of using caustic injections, not only because they are uncalled for, but also be- cause they are dangerous ; they have, in a few instances, entered the vein and caused death. I have experienced no difficulty in healing the sinuses when they have formed, merely by pressing out the matter and applying the blister as before observed ; and riiYSic. 347 if matter forms at another spot and points, it should merely be opened with a lancet ; but the knife should be used sparing!}^, and setons should be avoided, as well as the plan of dissecting out the diseased vein or its contents. In some instances, there is considerable haemorrhage; when this is the case, a little caustic powder, such as the sulphate of copper, should be applied to the lips of the wound; and the horse's head being tied up, he should be kept from feeding for twelve hours. This plan will generally succeed in stopping the bleeding ; but if it fail, the orifice must be pinned up, or, if necessary, two small pins may be inserted, and tow wound round each. If the parotid gland continues enlarged, a little iodine oint- ment may be rubbed in daily several times. I have not found any inconvenience fi-om turning horses to grass subsequent to the loss of a vein ; the principal evil is the circumstance that we cannot bleed on the side the vein is lost. The proximate causes of inflamed vein are very obscure. Bleeding with a rusty instrument, striking too hard, cutting through'or across the vein, badly i)inning up, neglecting to tie up the head, rubbhig the neck afterwards, have all been considered as causes: but it has been found that, when these supposed agents have been purposely tried, they have failed in producing an inflamed vein; whilst it has occurred when the operation has been properly performed, and every precaution exercised. It must, however, be confessed that it occurs much more fre- quently when the operation is performed in a bungling manner, and proper means neglected afterwards. It may, however,' depend, in some measure, on the state of the atmosphere ; for, at some periods, the disease is much more frequent than at others ; and it may also be influenced by the constitution of the animal. It has been a matter of surprise that the swelling should almost invariably extend towards the head in inflamed jugular vein; but this is produced by the blood being rendered stagnant at this part, and not below; the inflammation probably does not extend more in one direction than the other; but as soon as it is suiiicient to produce a stopi)age in the vein, it of course occasions it to swell above. — Ed.J Physic. The usual period for physicking horses is at the time or soon after they arc taken up from grass, or the straw yard, and when they are getting into condition by suitable feeding and exercise : three doses are generally thought necessary.* There is no * The immediate effects of purgative medicine are a determination of blood to the intestines, and the removal of a portion of its watery part with 348 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. foundation, I believe, for this opinion : for when horses are brought gradually from green food and the open air to a stable diet and temperature, they bear the change very well. It is not often, however, that Iiorses have all the care and attention paid them that are necessary on such occasions, and therefore two or three doses of mild physic generally do good ; probably prevent- ing illness and promoting condition. Physic is useful when a horse appears heavy and feeds badly, and especially if the eyes and mouth arc of a yellowish colour. A horse should be kept chiefly on bran mashes for one, two, or three days before he takes physic* The ball should be given him after fasting a few hours, and no food should be given till two hours after he has taken the physic. He should then have a bran mash and a little warm water, and in the afternoon another and some warm water. In the evening another bran mash and one or two pounds of hay, with a little warm water. Next morning, the horse should be exercised with clothing according to the season and weather; and on his return from exercise he should have some warm water and a bran mash. The physic will now begin to work, and its operation must be promoted by a repetition of the exer- cise f, warm water, and mash. About the afternoon, a little hay may be given, and some warm water. In the evening a mash and warm water; at night a little hay. The following morning a small quantity of oats may be given : still the water must have the chill taken oif, and only a small quantity of hay should be given. The horse may, on the fourth day, be brought to his usual diet. There should be an interval of a week before another dose is given. When a horse is weak, or low in flesh, a handful or two of ground malt or ground oats may be put into each mash. When the physic makes a horse sick, and does not operate at the usual time, that is, the morning after it is given, and especially if he appears griped or in pain, throw up a clyster, and give him a little exercise, which will make the physic work and relieve him. If the physic works too violently, or continues its operation too long, it must not be hastily checked by astringents or cordials ; but by giving arrow-root gruel now and then; and if arrow-root cannot be had, some fine wheat the fajces. It also cleans out the intestines, and thus removes unliealthy secretions. By the first purpose it lessens inflammation, and by the two hitter it removes superfluous fat and improves the digestive organs, and thereby promotes condition. — Ed. * By keeping the horse two or more days on mashes, a lesser dose will be 3-equired and the same etfect produced with less irritation. The mashes before j)hysic should be cold, as the horse is then not so likely to sicken and refuse the warm mashes which are necessary after the dose has been given. — Ed. f The degree of exercise should depend on the operation of the physic : if it operates very little the horse may be trotted, but if it operates freely little or no exercise is required. — Ed. OPERATIONS. 349 flour must be suLstitiitcd for It. This ^Yill almost always be found to be effectual ; but should it prove otherwise, give a tea- spoonful or two of tincture of opium in a little warm water.* The strength and composition of j)]iysic will be found in the Materia BletUca. Clysters. This useful and innocent mode of exhibiting medicine Is too much neglected, and when employed is frequently done in a slovenly and ineffectual manner. The usual apparatus is a pewter pipe, about 14 Inches long, and an inch in bore, to which a large pig's or bullock's bladder is firmly tied. The apparatus Invented by INIr. Read affords, however, by far the best method of administering a clyster. Any quantity may thus be given, and with a moderate force only. An opening clyster Is made by mixing a handful or two of salt with four or five quarts of warm water : to this a little hog's lard or sweet oil should bo added. Linseed tea or thin gruel, with a little treacle or sugar makes a good emollient clystei*. And an anodyne or opiate clyster Is made by dissolving from one to three or four drachms of crude opium In three or four pints of warm water. This last kind of clyster is employed in locked-jaw, especially when It Is found impossible to give medicine by the mouth. In this case, nourishment must be given also in clysters. Nourishing clysters are made of broth, milk, rich gruel, and sugar. It was observed by Gibson, that when nourishing clysters are given in locked- jaw, they are sucked upAvards by the bowels, and absorbed Into the blood. He sustained a horse a considerable time In this way. I have seen clysters sucked as It were upwards after the pipe has been withdrawn, which Is evinced by the rumbling- noise made In the bowels soon after, and the plentiful discharge of dung, evidently from the colon. The stimulus of a saline clyster In flatulent colic seems to be propagated by the nerves of the bowels, throughout the greater portion of the alimentary canal. Blisters. Before a blister is applied the hair must be cut off from tlie part as closely as possible. The blistering ointment is then to be well rubbed into the part with the hand ; and after this has been continued about ten minutes some of the ointment may be smeared on the part. In blistering the legs the tender part of the heel, under the fetlock joint. Is to be avoided, and It may be better to rub a little hog's lard on it In order to defend it * If the purging, liowever, should be excessive, we may treat the case as advised for diarrhoea. 350 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. from any of the blister that may accidentally run down from the leg. When the legs are blistered all the litter should be removed from the stall, and the horse's head should be carefully secured, to prevent his rubbing the blistered parts with his nose. On the third day he may have a cradle put about his neck, and be turned loose into a large box, or a paddock, or an orchard. In a field he would be apt to take too much exercise. -About a week or ten days after the blister has been applied, the parts should be oiled with some mild oil, such as olive oil, or fresh made neat's foot oil. If flies are troublesome, and make the horse restless, they may be kept off by the tar ointment, or tar and ti'ain oil mixed. [The formula for blisters will be found under that head In the Materia Medica. It will there be seen that cantharides forms the principal and indispensable ingredient, and that its effect is to pro- duce considerable pain and irritation. The statements put forth therefore by the puffers of quack blistering ointments to the effect that their nostrums produce no irritation, and that no precaution need be exercised afterwards, are altogether fallacious, and calculated to do much mischief. The fact is, the greater number of horses will not rub or blemish themselves after any blister ; but If one In ten will do so It is desirable to use pre- cautions with the whole number. If, however, a very slight blister Is used there will be no occasion to tie up the head, as the Irritation will depend on the degree of vesication excited. — Ed.] Roioels. Rowels are seldom so convenient or so useful as setons. They are formed by making an Incision In the skin where it Is rather loose, as in the chest, about an inch In length. This being- done the finger Is to be Introduced, or an Instrument called a cornet, that is, the crooked end of a small horn made for the purpose, and the skin separated from the parts underneath all around for the space of about an inch. Into the cavity thus made a round piece of leather, with a hole In the middle, wrapped In tow and smeared with digestive ointment. Is to be introduced. The orifice In the skin is then to be plugged up with tow, and kept there until suppuration takes place, that Is, four or five days. The tow Is then to be taken out, when a great deal of matter will flow from the orifice. The rowel is afterwards to be moved daily and kept clean. OPERxVTIONS. 351 Sctoiis, These consist of tape, threads, or lamp cotton i)assed under the skin, and smeared with digestive ointment.* The instrument employed for conveying; these under the skin is named a seton- ncedle, and may be purchased at the instrument makers. When lamp cotton is used it can be withdrawn gradually, thread by thread, which on some occa- sions is desirable. Setons are preferable to rowels, being more convenient and equally efficacious. [The frog scton, recommended for the navicular disease, may be inserted through the heel, the horse being either thrown or in a standing posture. I generally insert it standing. The twitch being applied, the foot to be operated on must be held up by an assistant. I then plunge the curved seton-needlc into the heel, with a second effort bring the point out at the cleft of the frog, which has been ])reviously thinned for the purpose, and by a third effort draw it through, after which knots are tied at each end of the tai)e, which may be rendered thicker by means of tow. When the horse is thrown it is more convenient to insert the seton in a contrary direction, viz. from below up- wards. The seton should be kept clean, occasionally dressed, diminished, in the course of three weeks, and removed a week or two afterwards. — Ed.] * Mr. Moi'ton recommends the tape or cotton to be saturated with the following mixture : — "One part of powdered cantharides is to be digested with a gentle heat for fourteen dajs in eight parts of oil of turpentine. The solution being filtered, an equal portion of Canada balsam is added. The tape or cotton to be drawn between the finger and thumb and di'ied." When this is used digestive ointment is not requii-ed. — Ed. 352 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. CHAP. LVIII. OPERATIONS. On casting or throwing down a horse in order to secure him for operations. Horses are thrown down by means of hobbles, all of which are represented below fixed on a horse's legs. The hobble is The common hohhles, and the mode affixing them ; also the seat of several diseases, and the different methods of firing, a. Enlargement of the flexor tendons, and e, The seat of bone spavin, and a mode of the veitical method of firing. firing for ditto. h. The seat of splent. /, A curb, and another, though not an r. The seat of ringbone. advisable, method of firing. (/, The seat of enlargement of the sue- g, The seat of capped hock. pensory ligament, and a mode of firing h, The seat of thorougli-pin. for ditto. about two feet in length, two inches and five eighths in width, and about a quarter of an inch thick. It is formed by a strong- piece of leather, about four feet in length, which, being doubled, has a strong iron buckle included at one end, and firmly sewed in. About four inches and a half further back, a large iron ring is to be sewed in the same manner for the purpose of SECURING A nORSE FOR OrERATIOXS. 353 allowing a strong rope to pass through it easily. The ring, or rather the part so named, may be made straight where it is sewed into the leather, and the rest may be rounded. The remaining part of the leather is to be strongly sewed together, which will make the thickness of it what we have before de- scribed. Several holes are to be punched at this end of the hobble, to admit the tongue of the buckle when it is put round the horse's leg. On the under side of the hobble a piece of thinner and wider leather is to be fixed, extending from the part where the ring is attached to about half an inch beyond the extremity of the buckle : this is intended to prevent the latter from galling the horse's leg. The rope should be strong, not twisted tight, but made flexible, like a bell-rope, and about six yards in length. One end of tlie rope is to be firmly and per- manently attached to the ring of one of the hobbles ; and this hobble must be placed on the fore leg, opposite to the side on which the horse is to be thrown. If the hobble to which tiie rope is attached is placed on the left fore leg, the other end of the rope is to be passed first through the ring of that on the left hind leg, then through that on the right hind leg, next through that on the right fore leg, and lastly through the ring where the rope is attached, that is, the left fore leg hobble.* By this contrivance it will be readily seen that the legs of the horse may be drawn together, so that if pushed or forced towards the right side he must of necessity fall. Three men are ge- nerally required to pull the rope, in order to draw the legs together; and, to render this more easy, the hind legs should be placed under him as much as possible before any attempt is * Mr. Gloag has very praiseworthily introduced, through the medium of tlie Vete?-ma?-ia7i, some improved hobbles which possess all the advantages of those just mentioned, and are far more convenient. Each of his hobbles he advises to be furnished with a buckle, as well as with a D at ea(;h end, of un- ecpial sizes, so that one can be passed through the other. Thus, by means of the buckle, the size of the hobble can be varied so as to suit diflerent legs, as well as to unloose any that may be required during an oiieration, and the D's will enable each leg to be free the instant the screw is withdrawn. INIr. Daws has still furtlier improved these hobbles ; and I cannot do better than introduce his description of them, as well as his drawings, which are given in the eleventh volume of the Veterinarian. He says : — " The alter- ations I have made are, first, in having the iron work a size larger, so as to admit of an easier passage for the chain, which, in my opinion, should not be more than eighteen inch'es long ; the long D's should be an inch and a half wide, and two and a quarter inches long in the clear. The squares should be made sufficiently large to allow the others to pass through them with freedom. Each hobble shoidd have a curved buckle, two inches in the clear, the leather of the same width, and not less than half an inch in thickness, and four inches long, with a galling leather under each buckle, and the long D attached to it by means of an iron chape and rivets. The strap end should not be less than eighteen inches long, with the square attached to it by the same means as above. Instead of the cottrell recommended by Mr. Gloag, I A A 354 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. made to pull the rope.* The horse should have blinds, oi' have his eyes covered with a piece of rug, before the hobbles are put on : it may be necessary, also, to twitch him, and hold up the fore leg while the hind leg hobble is putting on. But the twitch must be removed before he is thrown, and not used unless absolutely necessary. The men who are to pull the rope should stand within two yards of the horse, as they then pull with have found it more convenient to liave one of the long D's made open at the curvature, and its end tapped for the screw, with its head downwards, as in the diaofram. SQ*°° a, Strap-end ; the square attached. two ends of the D being connected to- h. Buckle and D attached. gether by iron on the left of the screw. c. Buckle with open D. This would d, The hook. be improved and strengthened by the " This hobble I always place on the near fore leg, and it matters not which side the horse lies upon after the operation, as the thumb-screw is removed with more ease than from the cottrell. The hook for securing I have made ■with a spring ; and there is no necessity for a small chain attached to it. These hobbles have been still further improved by Mr. Bowles, the long D's being placed on the long strap of two of the hobbles for the off fore and hind legs in the place of the squares, by which means the chain will pass easier and the buckles be on the outside. " From the description of these hobbles, it must be evident that they can be placed on the legs and removed with the greatest fiicility, and any leg that may be required can be unloosed by means of the buckle during the operation. Mr. Gloag advises the chain to be two and a half yards long, so that there may be no impediment to the passage through the D's by the place of junction between the rope and the chain. Mr. Daws, on the other hand, ]irefers one of eighteen inches only. It is a matter of little importance which plan is adopted." — Spookier on the Foot. ]Mr. Bowles has constructed a new set of hobbles, to which he has given the name of Cross Hobbles. They are for firing horses while standing, shoeing vicious animals, docking, and various other purposes, for which they will be found extremely useful. They consist of a neck collar, to which is attached a broad leather strap, passing between the fore legs. A surcingle is passed over the withers, embracing this strap, which reaches beyond the imibilicus ; a D buckle is attached, with which are connected two chains about fourteen inches in length. These terminate in two D's to which leather straps are affixed for the purpose of buckling, either below or above (he hocks, thus confining tlie animal. — Veterinarian, vol. xiii. * It is advisable to place flannel bandages on the legs of light or well bred horses, in order to prevent the skin from being injured by the hobbles. — Ed. SECURIKG A HORSE FOR OPERATIONS. 355 (loiil)lc the force they wouhl at a distance of four yards, their power then having a tendency to draw the legs off tlie ground and upwards, wliich causes him to fall more quickly. One man should stand at the rump, on the left side, to push him when the legs are drawn up together; and another should hold him steadily by the head, standing in front of him ; and as soon as the horse is down that man shovild throw himself on the neck, and incline the nose upward by lifting the halter ; thus he can kecj) the head and neck down without difficulty. JNl. Girard, in his Traite du Pled, has proposed an improve- ment in throwing horses, which is very simple, and should always he employed. If the horse is to be thrown on the right side, a long piece of web or a rope is to be fastened round the right fore arm, close up to the elbow. The other end is then to be ])assed over the withers, and held at a little distance by one or two men. The force which is applied in this way will cause the horse to fall more readily, and with more certainty, and exactly in the situation where he is required to be thrown. This con- trivance, therefore, is extremely useful in confined places, where there is just room enough to throw a horse, and no more.* Tlie horse being thrown down, and his legs closely drawn together, tlie end of the hobble rope is to be passed under tlie hobble rings, between the fore and hind legs, and secured with a hitcii as it is termed, so that he cannot separate them again until the hobbles are unbuckled, and then they all may be taken away at once, and the horse suffered to get up. f In lettiug the horse get up again the hobbles must be un- buckled cautiously, beginning with the under fore and hind one. These should be unbuckled gently, and not jerked, as that would cause the horse to struggle, and render it difficult to take them off, or the leg might get loose, and he may thus hurt one of the assistants who happens to be standing incautiously within the stroke of his fore or hind leg. % I have seen hobbles in which the tongues were moveable, so that by drawing them out with a pair of pincers the hobbles were all taken off at once. In performing operations upon the horse it is not only necessary to throw him down as I have described, but in firing the out- * A roller round the horse's body and a piece of web attached to its upper part is stiM better. One man, unless the horse is very heavy, is quite sufficient to pull this web. It' hands are scarce the operator himself can pull the web ; and he will then rerpiire only four other men to assist him in casting a horse, and two only after the horse is down. — Ed. f This trouble is obviated by having a chain at one end of the rope to pass through the rings, and a hook at the otlier end of the rope, which, being inserted into one of the links of the chain, firmly secures it. — Ed. I By the improved hobbles, all this trouljle and danger is obviated ; all that is necessary being to remove the screw which loosens all tlie hobbles at once. — Ed. 35(y SURGICAL OPERATIONS. side of the fore Icsi:, for example, In the pastern, the hobble must be taken off and the leg secured by means of a web passed round the leg above the knee, and secured to the upi)er hind leg immediately above the hock, or it may be secured to the under fore leg; perhaps both these contrivances would be found useful in strong horses that struggle much. In firing the inside of the fore leg, that is, the under fore leg, nothing more is ne- cessary than to take it out of the hobble, and draw it forwards by means of a web passed round the hoof or the pastern.* Horses, however, have sufficient power to extend even the under fore leg considerably, unless a man lies on the shoulder, which should always be avoided. It is better to restrain the leg, by passing a web round it above the knee, and fastening the other end to the hind leg above the hock. If, then, the other three legs are drawn backward, by means of the hobble rope, the under fore leg will be sufficiently exposed for any operation that may be required. In firing the upper hind leg, in the pastern, it is necessary to take off the hobble ; but the leg must first be secured by means of a web, fastened above the hock, and the other end brought forward, and, under a collar of web, passed round the neck, close to the shoulder. The leg may thus be effectually restrained ; but, as an additional re- straint, it may be tied also to the under hind leg. In secui'ing a horse for castration, he should be placed on his left side; the right hind leg shovdd then have one web placed above the hock, and another above the pastern ; both of these webs should then be passed under the collar, and the leg drawn up as far as possible, or until the hind foot is brought consider- a])ly beyond the fore leg. Here it must be firmly secured, for unless this is done, the operator will be in great danger. When the upper hind leg is thus secured, the testicles will be com- pletely exposed. I have found it useful, also, in this operation, to make a man lie down on the horse's body, and grasp the hock and hind leg with his hands : this seems to confine the leg more completely. Another method of hampering a horse is sometimes em- ployed, but is far from being so safe or effectual as throwing him down. This is termed the side line. The rope hobble is buckled on one of the hind legs : the rope is then brought for- * Instead of this web the cross straps are much more convenient and secure ; they consist of four straps, one of which is buckled on each leg above the hocks and knees, and two of them are furnished witli buckles and the others with straps that correspond to these buckles. Tims the legs of the animal are additionally secured, and the straps can be tightened or slackened as we please. When it is necessary to unbuckle a hobble, as in the nerve operation, and in firing the pasterns, a piece of web is slipped round the foot and drawn forwards, by which means the web pulling in one direction, and the straps in another, the leg is straightened and secured. — Ed. FIRING. 357 ward between the fore legs, and over tlie opposite shoulder ; the end is then passed under the rope at the chest, and after draw- ing up the leg sufficiently, it is secured in this situation with a hitch, which may be quickly loosened in case of the horse's strufTolino" so as to be in danger of falling. This contrivance is rendered much more secure if the horse's head be firmly secured to a strong ring in the manger, and his hind parts sup})orted by a breeching, while kicking and lying down may be prevented by a back and a belly strap. There*is a permanent contrivance ft)r securing a horse in this way, named a break, or a trevis. I once knew a horse die by struggling in a break, therefore I consider them dangerous: they are chiefly used in nicking and docking horses, and in shoeing vicious animals. A plate, and description of a break, may be found in Bourgelat's " Essai sur les Appareils et sur les Bandages propres aux Quadrupedes." Another method is commonly employed in throwing down cattle. A long i*ope is doubletl, and tied in a bow at the doubled end, of sufficient size to go over the animal's head, and rest at the bottom of his neck like a collar. The two ends, of equal length, are tlien to be In'oug'it down between the fore and hind legs, and one of the ends round each hind leg. The ends of the rope are now drawn forwards on both sides, by which the hind legs are so drawn up under the belly, that he is easily pushed down, and must tiien be secured.* [Since the last edition of this work was published, a new agent has been introduced to facilitate the performance of opera- tions, and by which pain is altogether abolished. Tliis effect is produced by the inhalation of the vapour of sulphiu-ic ether or * In casting colts that have never been handled, and likewise some vicions horses, there is a dithculty, and sometimes an impossibility, in placing the hobbles on the hind legs. To obviate this, the colt may he thrown by a com- mon cart rope, or, what is much better, by the following contrivance recom- mended by JNlessrs. Simonds and A\'ardle : — " It consists of two ropes, to the end of one of which was sewed a leather strap with a buckle attached to it, and to the other another strap with holes pierced in it. At the distance of fifteen inches from these ends, the ropes were sewed together by strong waxed thread. When this point of union was placed under the neck, and the ends buckled together, the ropes formed a collar for the neck, and could be slackened or tightened at pleasure. To each side of this rope collar, and somewhat nearer to the point of union than to the buckle and strap, an iron ring was attached on each side, inclosed in a piece of roping. " These ropes, dividing under the neck, were passed between the legs and under the belly and round the hind legs on each side, and then brought forward outside the legs, and the extremities passed through the iron loops at the shoulder on each side. "When every thing was ready, the ropes were gently lowered to the heels, and, running over the hollow of the heels, as a kind of pulley ; the colt was brought down in an instant by a man on each side pulling at the portion v.hich had passed through the ring." — Ed. A A 3 358 SURGICAL OrEExVTIONS. chloroform. The latter being found superior in its effects, the former is therefore now discontinued. On applying a sponge wetted with chloroform to the nostrils of a horse, so that he inhales the vapour for the space of some minutes, excitement is first produced, which is soon afterwards followed by insensibility, so that the animal exhibits no symptoms of pain on being sub- mitted to severe operations. Several ounces of the fluid are required before such effect is produced, but the torpor remains for some time after the operation has ceased. The exhibition of the chloroform requires care and tact, so that but little of the vapour is allowed to escape externally, and yet the animal is not altogetlier deprived of atmospheric air. In operations of some little continuance, or of a very painful nature, such as cutting out a tumour or castration, the assistance of chloroform is found very serviceable. — Ed.] Firing. [The principal object of this operation is to produce consider- able superficial inflammation, and thus, by counter-irritation, to withdraw it from some deep-seated part. It also causes a thickening, and contraction of the skin, and thus occasions, in some degree, a permanent bandage. It produces considerable pain, and leaves a blemish : it therefore should not be employed unnecessarily, but when had recourse to, it should be done effectually. This operation is sometimes performed standing, but generally the horse is thrown, and indeed this plan is preferable. For curbs, ringbones, and whenever the surface to be fired is incon- siderable, and the animal is tolerably steady, we may fire stand- ing, the horse being secured with the side line for the hind leg, and one foot held up, when the fore leg is operated on. A twitch should always be used. In other cases, the horse may be cast, which is the safest method, and the legs secured in the manner before stated. The firing iron should have a smooth round edge, nearly as thin as the edge of an old shilling. The skin should never be penetrated ; but the cuticle should be destroyed, and a dark brown impression left on the skin, from which there will be a glutinous exudation soon after the operation, when the iron has been properly applied. The hair should be cut off from the part previously to the operation, as closely as possible. Messrs. Turners advise for many cases to fire quite through the skin, which they find far more effectual than the common method. The irritation, by this plan, is kept up much longei', and the benefit is greater, and it will no doubt succeed in re- moving lameness in many cases when tlie usual plan will alto- NICKING. 359 getlier fail. It Is liable, however, to considerable objection, on account of the long time necessary to keep the horse In the stable, and also from the great blemish It produces. To obviate these objections, and at the same time to derive the benefit of deep firing, I have been in the habit of penetrating the skin with a small pointed iron In numerous places, either on the fired lines or without them, according to the nature of the case. This l^lan I have found to create little or no blemish, and Is yet attended with considerable advantage. A horse may or may not be blistered after firing, according to the degree of Irritation we wish to produce. There Is much difference of opinion as to the best direction for drawing the lines In firing, some pre- ferring a vertical, others a horizontal, and some an oblique direction. The first plan is the best adapted for forming a bandage, the second for leaving little blemish ; but for my own part, for ordinary purposes, I prefer the third or feathered form, conceiving that It unites the advantages of both allowing the hair to cover the mark, as in horizontal, and forming a bandage as In vertical, firing. It is a bad plan to cross the line, as this Isolates the skin, and is thus likely to Increase the blemish. I have found the use of a double iron very useful In facilitating this operation, by using which two lines can be made at the same time, and equidistant from each other. — Ed.] N^ickt lUJ, This operation Is now seldom performed : It consists In weak- ening or destroying the power of the flexor muscles of the tail. This is done by making two or tlu'ee transverse Incisions on the under part of the tail, through the skin and muscles. The horse should be thrown down for the purpose, or put Into what Is termed a break. The first Incision should be about two or three Inches from the origin or basis of the tail, continuing it from one of the sides where the hairy part terminates, to the other, and quite down to the bone, except in the centre, where the skin only should be divided. There are some, however, who go deeper than this, by which there is more bleeding. The second Incision should be made In a similar manner, and three Inches distant from the first, and so with the third. On making the second Incision, the ends of the muscles will protrude through the first, and must be drawn out with forceps, and cut oflF; the same with the second. This being done. It Is usual to place bandages round the incisions, and then put the tail in what Is termed a pulley, which may be seen In the stables of horse-dealers, and need not be described. The weight first applied to keep the tail up should be moderate, not exceeding three pounds ; and It Is necessary the following morning to 360 SURGICAL OPERATIONS. loosen the bandages, or cut them through on the back part of the tail By neglecting this precaution, a serious and even fatal inflammation ha"s taken place. In about three days matter will form, and then the bandages will fall off. They must on no account be forced off; but the loose ends may be cut off with scissors. A large gaping wound will then appear, but it re- quires no kind of dressing, and is generally completely filled up, and sometimes cicatrizcdin about sixteen days, or three weeks. About the third or fourth day after nicking, the weight employed to keep the tail up should be increased to six or seven pounds ; and the transverse line upon which the pulley runs^ may be placed a little further back, so as to bring the tail a little oyer the back. After a week, the horse may be led out for exercise, and if he carries his tail on one side, the pulley on the trans- verse line should be so confined as to draw the tail in a contrary direction, for a suflicient time to make him carry it straight. The time of keeping the horse in the pulley is from three weeks to a month. [This cruel and unnecessary operation has now gone into general disuse in England, though it is still practised in Ireland. — Ed.] JDochi7i(j. A convenient instrument for docking, or cutting off a horse's tail, is sold by Mr. Long, and other veterinary instrument makers, ^W iniii^^ i / A 7 The semicirculii notch iecLi\es tlie tail, winch is held cut by an assistant, and the operator pressing on the handle, by one motion divides the tail. in London. Colts may be docked even while suckers, as it gene- rally renders nicking unnecessary. The tail should be divided at a joint, which may be ascertained from being somewhat thicker than the other parts. It is necessary to api)ly a hot iron after- wards to stop the bleeding, but it should only be of a dull red heat, and smaller than is generally emi)loyed, so as not to sear the skin, which is the most sensitive part. TUE NERVE OPERATION. 361 On the Nerve Operation. This operation was discovered by Mr. Sewell, Assistant Pro- fessor of the Veterinary College, and first communicated by liini to the Royal Society.* * " This operation is likewise known by the different appellations of nerving, imnerving, and neurotomy, and consists in tlie division and excision of a por- tion of the metacarpal or plantar nerves, thus destroying sensation in the foot. The nerves which arise from the spinal column have been found by the discoveries of Sir Charles Bell and others to have a double origin, one from the back, or, in brutes, iipper part of the cord by a number of filaments which coalesce, and then form a sort of knot called a ganglion ; the other portion rises in a somewhat similar manner from the under or anterior part of the spinal column, and joins the other without forming any ganglion. Thus, though the nerves are apparently united, the filaments are yet distinct, each having its neurilema or nervous covering. The former is the nerve which communicates sensation; the latter that which conveys the power of motion, and a part is endowed mostly with sensation or with motion, according as the filaments of the former or of the latter predominate. It is a law of nature that no structure nor function is ever supplied in a situation where it cannot be brought into operation ; conserpiently, as the motion of the limbs is effected by means of contraction of the muscles, and there are no muscles below the knee, there are therefore no motor nerves below the knee ; sensation alone is cut off; and pain being the cause of lameness, the eflect ceases with the removal of the cause. " The lionour of the discovery of this important operation belongs to Pro- fessor Sewell. "We are told that Mr. Moorcroft and others had previously performed it, but, be this as it may, they never publicly introduced or recom- mended it, and could therefore have no confidence in its merits. It was Mr. Sewell, and he alone, who first generally practised and recommended it for incurable foot lameness. Like most other discoveries it has met with assailants, from all quarters, both in the profession and out of it ; and not a few of them have been owing to the careless and indiscriminate manner in which many practitioners have performed it, heedless altogether as to the nature and history of the case, or of the work the horse was afterwards to perform. This was the fiict more particularly during the early days of the operation. There were groggy horses all over the country far more than there are at present, particularly in coaches. Many of these had been lame for years, and were at once submitted to the operation, and soon afterwards resumed their work at a quick pace on the road ; the conse(juence was, in a number of cases, the inflammation that, perhaps, had never subsided, became vastly increased by the renewal of severe labour and the unusual boldness, with which the animal put his foot to the ground and bore his weight upon it; swelling and moi'bid fomentations succeeded, or, in other instances, suppura- tion supervened, the hoof sloughed off, and the animal was obliged to be shot. " In other cases, where lameness has existed for years, and ulceration had been going on to a great extent, and the flexor sinew had become attenuated, the horse with the removal of pain and lameness, no longer having these often useful monitors to tell him of the consequences, treads boldly on these diseased parts, and the thin sinew which, perhaps, never would have given way as long as the foot possessed sensation, suddenly snaps like a thread, and the horse presents the sad aspect of walking entirely on his heels, the toe being elevated from the ground. Notwithstanding these deplorable re- sults, which the practitioner should always bear in mind when he recommends the operation, in spite of their very frequent occurrence in times past, and their occasional recurrence at the present day, the operation still continues to be successfully practised, when performed with discretion, and proper care 362 SUllGTCAL OPERATIONS. It consists in cutting out a portion of the metacarpal or pastern nerves on each side. The portion cut out, he directs, should be one inch or more. I have generally performed the operation above the fetlock (see the Plate), in order to destroy the sensibility of the foot entirely ; but am inclined to think that the lower opei-ation is preferable ; and this, I believe, is the opinion of Mr. Colman and Mr. Sewell.* This plate of the Nerve Operation shows the situation of the section both in the upper and lower operation on the inside of the leg. The skin is held back by hooks, in order to display the parts, and for the same purpose more of the cel- lular membrane is removed than is necessary in the operation. Upper Section. A probe passed under the nerve. The nerve. The artery. The back sinews, or flexor tendons. Lower Stctioyi. a, The nerve. b, The artery. c, The vein. (/, A branch of the nerve between the vein and artery, not divided in the low operation. is exercised afterwards ; and although it is vilified by a few veterinary sur- geons, and often condemned by the ignorant as a cruel and barbarous opera- tion inflicted on a dumb creature, yet I, for my own part, having fairly tested its merits, must regard it as one of the most merciful and humane operations that surgical science has ever invented for the relief of guifering quadrupeds." — Spoonei' on the Foot, &j-c. * There are two situations for the operation of neurotomy, the high and the low, the former being above the fetlock, and the latter just below or upon it. Each of tlicse situations is attended with peculiar advantages and dis- advantages, the nature of which it is well to understand. It must be borne in mind that each metacarpal nerve, just above the fetlock joint, gives oil an THE XERVE OrERATIOX. 363 To perfonn the nerve operation so as to render the foot com- pletely insensible, the following directions must be followed, as being the best and easiest method I am acquainted with, and uniforndy producing the desired effect.* The incision should begin between three and four inches above the fetlock joint, that is, the most prominent part of the side of the joint, and extend downwards for an inch and a half. By making a free in- cision in the space that is felt between the suspensory ligament, and the tendon, the nerve may be almost immediately exposed ; and it is only necessary to remove a little cellular membrane, and then it will be distinctly seen : one inch or more of the nerve is usually cut out. Thus the foot may be rendered ab- solutely insensible, and the lameness cured, if a proper subject has been chosen for the operation. There are many circum- stances to be considered with respect to the nerve operation, and it is a subject of such importance as to demand a full and im- partial consideration. Before this operation is performed, all the circumstances of the case should be carefully inquired into, and practitioners should be cautious as to the subjects they select for the operation.f It has Ijcen a subject of admiration important branch, which takes an oblique course towards the front of the pasterns and descends to the coronet, on which it is dispersed after giving off branches to the neighbouring parts. This being the case, it must be evident that if the operation be performed below the departure of this branch, the front of the foot and coronet will still possess a degree of feelingof much im- portance to the animal, and which will enable him to travel with a greater degree of safety than he would possess if sensation were entirely cut off. When, therefore, we have reason to be pretty certain that the disease is limited entirely to the sphere of the navicular joint, and the horse is of suf- ficient value to make the possession of a slight degree of sensation an object of importance, we may justly give a preference to the low operation. In fiivour of this situation, it is proper to mention that Mr. Sewell generally ad- vises and practises the low operation. On the other hand it must be ob- served, that, although the low operation generally removes the lameness at first, yet it is by no means unfrequent for it to return some weeks or months afterwards, either from the extension of the disease beyond the sphere of the joint and the dominion of the nerves whose source is cut off, or otherwise from some anastomosis of nerves which cannot easily be anatomically traced. — Spooner on the Foot, ij-c. * Before the operation is perfoinned it is necessary, nay, all important, that the leo- should be cool, not simply free from inflammation, but in a state of preternatural coldness. If the practitioner venture on the operation before this state is produced, be will have, at best, a very troublesome affair from the vascularity of the smaller blood-vessels ; it will occupy a much longer time, and from the greater dissection of parts required, the wound will not granulate so well nor so quickly, but will leave a much greater blemish than other- wise ; the leg for some days previously should be immersed in a bucket of cold water several times a day for half an hour at a time. — Spooner. + The nature of the cases which justly call for the operation of neurotomy demands peculiar attention, as we'll as those from which we have the best reason to anticipate success. Diseases of the navicidar joint capsule form the bulk of foot lamenesses, 364 SUliGICAL OrEKATIONS. and astonishment^ that although the nervous communication with the foot has been completely cut off, the secreting arteries, as they ai'e termed, continue to perform their functions as well as before.* In determining upon the expediency of performing the nerve operation, it is necessary to consider, not only what probability there is of its being successful, or in what degree it may be so, but likewise whether the chance of cure is equal to the expense of the operation, and that of keeping the horse before he is fit for work. The expense of keep need not be considerable ; for after a few weeks, or even before, he may be turned to grass, where he should be kept two monthst, and then may be put to and, consequently, those wbicla too frequently, from their incurable nature, call for the aid of neurotomy. If the foot be strong, and there be but little contraction, the operation is more likely to succeed ; but should there be a great deal of contraction there is danger of inflammatory action going on ex- ternally to the joint, and enlargements of a soft spongy nature taking place. If the foot is flat and weak the operation is not to be recommended, as there is great danger to be apprehended from bruises and pricks in shoeing. And here it may be observed that great care should be always used in shoeing afterwards ; the smith should be cautioned that the foot does not possess its usual sensibility, and that he must not expect the horse to flinch from the nail going too close; every nail must therefore be driven with unusual care. The operation is sometimes performed for ringbones and ossification of the car- tilafres. In these cases we must always suppose that other treatment has been previously tried without success ; and we must bear in mind that from these ossific depositions thei'e has been considerable loss of elasticity, and, consequently, great concussion ; and that the operation is likely to increase this concussion, by preventing that care being taken which pain and lameness induces. This being the case the operation should not be performed unless the horse be too lame to be useful ; and, after the operation, means should be used to ward off concussion by the interposition of leather between the foot and the shoe, and the employment of the horse in moderate work only. The operation should not be performed when there are corns, unless they are very slight ; because these corns are likely to inci-ease and fester, without the annual testifying their existence by the exhibition of lameness. — Spooner on the Foot, Sfc. * It was doubted when the operation was first introduced, and there are some who doubt it still, whether if nervous coram anication were cut ofiTthe proper secretion of parts could be carried on in the foot. The fact, however, is, there are a set of nerves which supply the various arteries of the body with nervous enei'gy of a peculiar kind, and which are independent of those of common sensation, both in their nature, distribution, and course. Accord- ingly we find that the hoof and other parts of the foot are reproduced Avith the "same energy after the operation as before ; and even extensive wounds have been found to heal with ecpial facility. AVe have here much pleasure in referring for further information to Mr. Youatt's beautiful lectures in the Vetei-inarian, where the separate functions of the nervous system are ad- mirably enforced and clearly explained. — Spooner on the Foot, ^-c. t I do not recommend the nerved horses to be turned to grass, having seen the bad effects of such plan in several instances. The horse no longer suffering from pain gallops carelessly about the field, using the affected limb unduly," by which the sinew opposite the navicular joint is ruptured, as previously noticed. — Ed. THE NERVE OPERATION. 365 work. Now if the expense of the operation and the expense of keep can be afforded, there can be no objection whatever to the operation. Relief from pain and lameness is, in almost all cases, inniiediate and certain ; and the duration of this relief, if limited, may extend to a period of some months, or even years ; and so comi)lete is this relief, that during this period the horse may do considerable work without suffering pain.* But there are cases of lameness where the relief it affords is complete and permanent. These cases may be known by there being no deformity in the hoof, no ossifications about the coronet or pastern, and no particular appearance of injury about the fet- lock joints. The horse being thrown down and secured, according to the directions given under that head, an incision is to be made through the skin, three inches above the most prominent part of the fetlock joint, when viewed sideways, and just within the flexor tendon, or back sinew, as rei:)resented in the plate of the nerve operation. The incision having been carried quite through the skin, the white cellular membrane will appear ; this must be carefully lifted up with the forceps, and as carefully and gradually dissected off, and then the nerve will appear (as represented in the figure). As soon as the nerve is seen, a tenaculum, or a large crooked needle, armed with a little small twine, is to be passed under it, from within, outward, in order to avoid puncturing the artery ; and, with the same view, the point of the needle may be blunted in the most trifling degree. A needle should be made for the purpose, not quite so crooked as they commonly are, and curved only towards its extremity. The needle then may be taken out, and the nerve being gently lifted up with the twine, the cellular membrane underneath may be snipped away with a pair of scissors, or with a knife, carefully, so as to admit of a slender curved bis- toury being passed under it without touching the nerve with the edge ; as soon as this is done, and the nerve cleai-ed up to the highest part of the incision, the probe-pointed curved bistoury is to be passed under it at the highest part, and the nerve * We have collected no less than sixty-three cases of the successful performance of neurotomy, nearly all of them being on horses that stood sound a considerable time afterwards, some of them being hunted, and others severely worked. Of these cases we find twenty-seven, in which it is not mentioned whether the operation was performed above or below the fetlock. There are eight cases of the low operation on one leg, and two in which it was thus practised on both legs. We have thirteen cases of the high opera- tion, nine out of which are on'one fore leg, two on both fore legs, one on one side of the leg only, and one on both legs, but one side of each. Besides which we have six casesin which it was performed on one or both hind legs. There are many other cases mentioned, though not related ; and there are two instances in which the operation failed. —Spooner on the Foot, SjX. 366 SURGICAL OPERATIONS^ quickly dlvideJ by a drawing kind of a stroke. This is necessary that the nerve may be divided with as little violence as possible: for, when it is done with scissors, or by lifting the knife directly up, or with a knife that does not cut well, a thickening will re- luain at the upper extremity of the divided nerve, with consider- able tenderness ; and when this happens to be struck in going, it gives the horse intolerable pain, and makes him go lame for a short time. The nerve cannot be divided with too keen an in- strument, or too gently. The division of the nerve causes great but momentary pain, like that of an electric shock, apparently, and the horse's struggling at that moment must be guarded against : but as soon as it is done, the pain of the operation may be considered as over : the inferior portion of nerve is then to be laid hold of by the forceps, and from an inch to an inch and a half cut out. The skin may be closed with one stitcli, for no bandage or dressing is required. For the first four days, the leg should be sponged several times a day with tepid water ; on the fifth the stitches will give way and the wound will open, but this must not be attended to. No kind of dressing is neces- sary ; the wound will be completely healed in four weeks, and then, or even a week before this time, the horse may be turned to grass, and there he may be kept three weeks or longer.* * The horse being cast by the method before advised with the leg to be operated upon uppermost, the cross straps are to buckled on, the web ap- })lied to the foot just above the heels of the shoe, which being then released from the hobble is drawn forwards by an assistant, so that by the cross straps pulling in one direction and the web the other, the leg is brouglit j)erfectly straight. A truss of straw covered with a horse-cloth, or a bag stuffed with straw, is then to be intei-posed under the leg to be operated on, so as to afford it a firm and secure resting-place; and a piece of tape may be tied tightly round the leg, just below the knee, so as to diminish sensation. Tlie operator having all his instruments in readiness, will find it convenient to kneel on one knee. In a very well-bred horse the pulsation of the artery on the inside of the leg may be seen, and, in most horses, felt in the hollow between the flexor tendons and suspensory ligament. Having felt it, a free vertical incision is to be made, with a convex-edged scalpel, about two inches and a half above the fetlock joint, and slightly posterior to the artery. The incision by a second application of the knife is to be lengthened to about an inch and a quarter. A little cellular membrane may next be removed by means of the knife and forceps, so as to distinguish the artery from the nerve. The quan- tity of cellular membrane necessary to be removed will dejjend on the breed of the horse, and the state of the legs ; if they are very clean, it is scarcely necessary to remove any ; and the less taken away the better, and the sooner will the wound heal. Having clearly made out the nerve and artery, a curved needle threaded is to be passed under the nerve at the upper part of the incision i ; the thread ' I have found that the facility of the operation may be much increased by using a curved needle, pointed like a lancet, and with cutting edges for the space of half an inch in length from the point where the width of the needle should be about one-sixth of an inch. The act of passing such needle will open a passage large enough for a small bistoury to be passed under, by which the nerve may be divided. — Ed. CASTRATION. 367 Castration. The best method of performing this openitiou is that com- monly employed, and one year old is the best period.* is then to be cut and twisted several times with the left hand, by which it is slightly drawn up, whilst it is separated from the artery and cellular mem- brane sufficiently for a probe pointed bistoury to be passed under it, which being done, the nerve is quickly divided, the pain of which induces the animal to struggle violently, but this struggle is generally the last he makes. The nerve is now to be carefully dissected out to the full extent of the incision. The edges of the skin may or may not be connected with sutures, but the bandage should be applied, and the horse turned for the operation on the other side. Nerving Knife. This knife should be sharp on the point, and cut both on the concave and convex edges. New Nerving Knife. The point of this knife may be readily passed under the nerve, which may then be divided by its concave edge. The inside of the leg requires more care than the outside, inasmuch as the nerve lies close to the artery in the former, and in tlie latter there is no artery very near it. It is better, therefore, to operate on the inside of the leg first. The precise situation of the nerve is pretty much the same in every horse, being in the inside, somewhat behind and within the artery; and in the out- side "rather nearer the sinew than the ligament. When the low operation is preferred an incision is to be made just behind the course of the artery, which may be felt, and extending from about the middle of the fetlock joint to some- what below it. After the operation is completed on both sides, a linen bandage, being rolled from each end to the middle, is then to be carefully wound round the leg, so as to assist in keeping the edges of the wound together. The after treatment of the wounds requires much care and atten- tion ; for, when they are not nicely managed, the granulations being too luxuriant and unchecked are skinned over, and form an enlargement, which from its connection with the divided nerve is endowed with acute sensibility, and from its prominence is very likely to be struck with the other leg, the pain of which often throws the horse down. The bandages may remain un- moved for two or three days, but should be frequently wetted with cold water, as it is an object of mucli importance to keep down the inflammation that succeeds the operation, as otherwise the leg may be permanently thickened. — Spooner on the Foot., er Cuheha. See Cubebs. PEPPER, LONG. — Piper Longum. This is much stronger than black pepper, and may be used for the same purposes. PEPPER, 3 K^lKlCK.—PimentcB BacccB : Myrtus Pimenta. See Jamaica Pepper, or Allspice. PEPPERMINT.— il/ewi-Aa Piperita. See Mint. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. — SodcR Phosphas. This is similar in its effects to sulphate of soda or Glauber's salts. PHOSPHORUS. A very combustible substance, made ei- ther from bones or urine. Experiments have been made at the Veterinary College to ascertain its medical qualities : it proved to be a dreadful poison, inflaming the stomach in small doses. PHYSIC. See Cathartics. PIMENTO. See Allspice and Jamaica Pepper. PITCH. — Pix. A black and impure resinous substance, obtained by boiling or distilling tar to the desired consistence, and used by farriers in making charges. See Burgundy Pitch. PLAISTER, or PLASTER.— ^m/^Zas^rwrn. A composi- tion of wax, resin, &c., or of oil boiled with the oxide of lead or litharge. See Diachylon and Charge. Plaister, Adhesive. — Empla&trum Adhcesivum. This is made with diachylon and a small portion of resin, and still less of common turpentine, or with diachylon and galbanum. Sticking-plaister is sometimes employed to keep the edges of a fresh wound together ; but in horses this is generally done more effectually by suture, that is, by sewing up the wound. 524 MATERIA MEDIC A POISONS. These are noticed in a Materia Medica for the purpose of showing the means Ave are acquainted with of coun- teracting their baneful eifects. Poisons are of three kinds, viz. mineral, vegetable, and animal. Of the first kind are arsenic, corrosive snblimate, and certain preparations of lead. The best antidotes to arsenic are oily and mucilaginous liquids, sulphate of potash, soap, and castor oil in a solution of sulphate of mag- nesia.* The same means may be employed to counteract the effects of sublimate.f When there is much purging, give lin- seed tea, tripe liquor, or thin gruel, or gruel made of arrow-root. Such immense doses of sugar of lead have been given by way of experiment to glandered horses without producing any effect, that the preparations of lead are not considered poisonous ; cer- tain it is, however, that a great number of horses and cattle have been poisoned by grazing near those places on the Hill of Mendip, where lead ore is smelted. Great mischief has thus been done in a village named Wookey, through which a small river, or rather brook, runs. After very heavy rains, the water that flows down the hill seems to be impregnated with lead ; for at such times it overflows certain meadows, and on the water retiring these meadows have poisoned horses, cattle, and other animals. This fact is well known in the village and its neigh- bourhood ; and animals thus poisoned are said to be minderedy or vioindered. Animals very seldom recover from it, though they sometimes linger a considerable time. I have been in- formed that one farmer in Mendip lost fifteen head of cattle in consequence of their breaking down the fence which surrounded the smelting place, to get at the grass which grew within. They suppose that it is the fine particles of the lead ore which does the mischief; but I think it more probable that it depends upon the fumes or volatile parts that are carried up in smelting, whicli, * Mr. Morton recommends lime water and liquids in large quantities ; also, large doses of the hydrated peroxide of iron precipitated by ammonia from a solution of the sulphate of iron. Avoid bleeding, but use other measures to subdue intlammation, and afterwards give vegetable tonics. When death ensues the stomach and bowels are highly inflamed and ulcer- ated. The presence of arsenic may be discovered by various tests. The contents of the stomach should be boiled in distilled water and filtered. The ammo- niacal sulphate of copper being added, causes a precipitate of an apple green colour. There are other tests employed, the most delicate of which is by means of Marsh's apparatus — Ed. t The best treatment for poisoning by corrosive sublimate, consists in ad- ministering the albumen, or white, of eggs suspended in water, which renders the sublimate insoluble. In addition to this, wheat flour, gruel, or milk may also be given. The presence of sublimate may be discovered by lime-water, which causes an orange-yellow precipitate. — Ed. AND PHARMACOPCEIA. 525 being condensed, fall gradually down in the fox*m of a lio-ht powdery oxide or cai'bonate of lead.* Sulphate of copper f is poisonous if given in too large a dose. The most powerful of the vegetable poisons is Woorali or Ti- cunus, Avhich destroys small animals in a few minutes if applied to a wound in the skin. I have seen a rabbit die in about five minutes after it was inoculated. In the horse, its effect has been on the nervous system, producing a sort of trance. Cicuta virosa, Long-leaved Water-hemlock, or Cowbaue, is a strong poison, and has been the means of destroying a great number of cattle. Its deleterious property, with respect to cattle, was first discovered by Linnajus, in a country where a great number of cattle had been destroyed by it. It is seldom found, I believe, in England. The leaves of the yew tree are a strong poison, and have often destroyed horses and cattle. I once gave five ounces to a young donkey, and it killed him within an hour. % Pro- fessor Viborg, according to Mr. Bracy Clark, gave twelve ounces of the green plant to a horse, of which he ate eight ounces, and fell dead, without any indication of suffering, at the end of one hour from his swallowing it. The same effect was produced by six ounces in an experiment of MM. Bredon and Henon, of Lyons. A mule died in five hours after taking six ounces with some hay. They all died suddenly and without convulsions. The only effect observed, on examination after death, was that the intestines of the mule had a small spot of * The best antidotes are Epsom and Glauber's salts with croton or linseed oil, and followed by opium. The salts of lead may be discovered by iodide of potassium, Avhich causes a yellow precipitate. The effects of copper smoke have been also found exceedingly detrimental to the health of horses, and producing considerable swellings of the joints in animals exposed to its influence near the mines; an immediate change of locality should be resorted to in such cases. — Ed. t The best antidote is soap and oily purgatives with gruel, &c. — Ed. _ Under mineral poisons should be included sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, which produce the most rapid and intense inflammation and excoria- tion of the coats of the mouth and stomach, &c., attended with great agonj', and soon followed by death. The antidotes are large quantities of liquids with chalk, magnesia, or soap, so as to dilute and neutralise the poison, and afterwards exhibiting opiates. Blood-letting may also be employed. _ _ Oxalic acid has been sometimes given in mistake for Epsom salts; it is a very powerful poison, producing effects similar to the mineral acids. Chalk, magnesia, &c. may be given in large quantities, with solution of gum, linseed tear&c, but water should not be given freely. Most powerful medicines become poisons in large doses. — Ed. + There are a number of instances of death being produced by the yew tree. I ima"-ine it is much more poisonous in its dry state, when it will be eat with avidity by sheep and cattle. I have known forty or fifty sheep de- stroyed in one day from eating the withered leaves of the yew tree. We know of no antidote for this poison, but recommend large doses of oily pur- gatives with a view of expelling it. — Ed. 526 MATERIA MEDICA extravasated blood. But it is remarkable, that eight ounces of the yew plant with twice as much oats did not kill or produce any sensible inconvenience ; and the same result took place in three or four experiments of Professor Viborg A farmer near Exeter lost several cows by eating the leaves of some yew trees Avhich grew in the hedge of the field where they were kept. The following circumstance, also, Avas related in Woolmer's Exeter Paper : " A yew tree having been felled in a field at Warley, Somerset, belonging to farmer Hiscox, in the course of the ensuing night, six out of seven cows, that were with calf, died in consequence of eating its branches." We know of no an- tidote to this poison, but we can certainly prevent our cattle from eating it. Common Hemlock is said to be poisonous, but 1 have given eight ounces to a young ass, which he ate readily, and suffered no inconvenience from it. I once gave two drachms of Stavesacre to a glandered horse ; he died in great pain the following night.* It is probable that more horses have been killed by aloes than by any other vegetable preparation ; that is to say, by strong physic, or by neglecting the horse during its operation. The animal poisons are the stings of venemous reptiles, for which stimulating embrocations seem to be better remedies tlian fo- mentations. The saliva of a mad dog is a deadly poison to man, and to all animals, and one for which, as yet, we know of no remedy, but its effects may be prevented by the knife or cau- tery.!— Ed.] POMEGRANATE.— Pz^7z?ca Granatum. The dried fruit is a moderately strong astringent ; and is sometimes employed in diarrhoea, particularly in horned cattle, but generally im- properly. The bark and flowers possess the same properties. The dose is from half an ounce to an ounce. POPPY, RED or CORN, and ^\WLT1£.. — Papaver Rhoeas et somniferum. The heads of the white poppy di'ied make a good fomentation for wounds and tumours that are in a painful or irritable state; for which purpose they are to be * Amongst vegetable poisons we must include hydrocyanic or prussic acid, wliich in a sufficient dose produces sudden death, acting as a powerful se- dative on the nervous system ; its effects in lesser doses are violently spas- modic. As antidotes Mr. Morton recommends cold effusions over the body, blood-letting, diffusible stimulants, and tonics. The vomic nut and strychnia are powerful narcotic poisons. Purgatives and chlorine and iodine are the best antidotes. Croton seed, foxglove, water pai-sley, dropwort, most of the different species of ranunculacefe, hellebore, tobacco, and opium are also powerful vegetable poisons in sufficient doses. — Ed. t For a full and particular account of the various poisons, with their tests and antidotes, I have much pleasure In referring to a Toxicological Chart published by Mr. Morton. — Ed. t AND PHARMACOrCEIA. 527 broken in pieces, and boiled in water, so as to make a strono- decoction. This decoction proves very serviceable in irritability of the bladder, if used as a glyster, the bowels having been pre- viously emptied : for this purpose the decoction should be made stronger, by boiling it for some time. Although the capsules of the red poppy contain opium, yet it is in such small quantity, that they are rarely, if ever, used as an anodyne. It seems very probable that the good eifect of this decoction depends in a great measure upon the opium which is extracted from the poppy heads : it may be better, therefore, to dissolve in gruel a proper dose of opium, Avhen an anodyne glyster is re- quired, as we cannot be accurate in respect to quantity when the decoction of poppies is employed. It has been ascertained that the anodyne or narcotic qualities of opium are diminished by long boiling, and that the extract of poppies, however care- fully prepared, is very inferior in every respect to opium. No hesitation, therefore, should be felt in preferring opium to the extract or decoction of wdiite poppy heads, whether it be wanted for a clyster, a drench, or a fomentation. POTASH. — Potassa. (New name. Protoxide of Potas- sium.) There is a great variety of preparations of potassa used in medicine, as the liquor potasses, or solution of potassa, which is diuretic and antacid ; the potassce fusa, or fused potassa, a caustic deliquescent salt ; the potassa cum calce, or potassa with lime, a milder caustic ; the potassa hitartras, or bitartrate of potassa. With sulphuric acid it forms vitriolated tartar, or sal polychrest {Sulphate of Potash); with nitrous acid, that very useful medicine termed nitre {Nitrate of Potash), which, contrary to what we have just observed, is a diuretic in a moderate dose (see Nitre); and with vinegar, or acetous acid, it makes so- luble tartar {Tartarised Potash). The pearlash of commerce is the carbonate of potash, and is in a very impui-e state, and not applicable to chemical or medical purposes. When sufficiently purified, it is joined with diuretics, purgatives, and tonics, with advantage. In those cases which require the use of tonics there is sometimes an acidity in the stomach, which potash corrects; and it renders purgative medicines more easy of solution. Given alone it acts as a diuretic. When neutralised with acids it has a laxative property, but requires to be given in large doses. The purified potash is named in the shops Sub-carbonate of Potash ; formerly called Salt of Tartar, or Prepared Kali, or Salt of Wormwood. When potash is deprived of the carbonic acid with which it is naturally combined, it becomes a strong caustic ; and when diluted is sometimes employed as a wash for the mange. In this state it is termed Pure Potash, or Kali, and is seldom used internally. (See Alkalies.) With carbonic acid it is named Carbonate of Potash. 528 MATERIA MEDICA POULTICE, or CATAPLASM; of LINSEED; of BEER-GROUNDS; of CAUUOT. — Cataplasma ; Uni ; Cerevisi(B ; Dauci. Cataplasms are useful applications for pro- moting suppuration in inflamed tumours, and in those diseases of the horse's heels, named grease, scratches, cracks, &c., con- sisting in inflamed swellings of the heels, fetid discharge, painful and troublesome ulcers, or cracks generally under the fetlock or bend of the heel. The poultices commonly employed on those occasions are of the emollient kind. EMOLLIENT POULTICE. No. 1. Linseed meal \\h Bran 2 quarts. Hog's lard 4 ozs. Boiling water, enough to make a soft poultice.* No. 2, Turnips, thoroughly boiled and mashed; any quan- tity. Linseed meal, enough to form the poultice. A poultice made of carrot, grated very fine, is detergent and stimulating. Either of these simple poultices may be converted into an anodyne poultice by the addition of opium ; into a fermenting poultice, by the addition of yeast, and by substituting oatmeal for linseed meal ; into an astringent poultice, by the addition of Goulard's Extract, sugar of lead, or powdered alum ; and into a detergent poultice, by the addition of white or blue vitriol. In obstinate cases of virulent grease, where there is much pain, and a stinking dark-coloured discharge, and especially when emollients are found ineffectual, the detergent poultice has quickly cured the disease ; and, in such cases, even a solution of corrosive sublimate has been used with the best effect. But emollients should always be first fairly tried, and some diuretic medicine given. For poulticing the foot, a leathern boot affords the most suit- able method, as a bag or a stocking will be soon worn through by the edge of the crust. A stocking, however, with the foot part cut off", affords a convenient mode of applying a poultice to the knee or leg. POWDERS. — Pulveres. These are sometimes convenient forms for giving medicines, as many horses will take them in their corn Avithout reluctance. It is by no means proper, how- ever, for such as have a delicate appetite and are remarkably nice in feeding; for although they may, after some time, eat their food, yet the reluctance with which it is taken would pre- * The best poultice is made with linseed meal jrround with the oil. It keeps soft, and can be medicated as we may wish. — Ed. AND FHAllMACOPCEIA. 529 vent Its being readily digested, or proving so nutritious as it would do, were it not so medicated. Some horses, however, eat their corn very readily when mixed with powder; and to such it may be given without incon- venience. There is another objection to this mode of givlno- medicine, which is the difficulty of ascertaining whether the whole or a part, and how much of the powder that Is mixed with the corn, is taken. But this may In a great measure be done away, by sprinkling the corn witli water, and mixing the powder with it very carefully. As we have before observed, whenever a horse appears unwilling to eat his corn thus medicated, the medicine should be given in some other form. The medicines best suited to this purpose are antimony, sulplmr, resin, emetic tartar, nitre, caraw\ay seeds, anise-seeds, &c. Medicines that are given In the form of powder should be finely sifted, or levigated; and, when kept in that form, should be preserved In a well- corked bottle. PRECIPITATE, EED (by nitric acidX — Hydrargyri Nitrico-Oxydum. This is the nitric oxide of mercury, or red nitrated quicksilver, and is useful as a mild caustic or de- tergent, and has a good effect in foul ulcers. It may be used either alone, finely powdered and sprinkled on the affected part, or mixed with various ointments. (See Detergents.) It is made from quicksilver and nitrous acid, but is considerablv weaker than a solution of that metal In nitrous acid. It becomes, however, a strong and very efficacious caustic, when dissolved in nitrous acid. This solution may also be mixed with unctuous substances, forming with them good detergent ointments ; or it may be diluted with water, so as to form a detergent lotion of considerable efficacy. PROOF SPIRIT. — Spiritus Tenuior. Equal parts of rectified spirit of wine and water. See Alcohol. PURGATIVES. See Cathartics. QUASSIA. — Quassia. There are two species of quassia, the quassia simaruha and excelsa. The first is a native of South America and the AVest Indian Islands; the last of Surinam, Ja- maica, and the Caribbean Isles. The bark of the foi*mer and the wood of the latter are generally employed In medicine. Both of them are powerful bitters and extremely efficacious in cases of weakness of the stomach and bowels. They may be given in powder, in doses from one to two drachms, joined with ginger, or some other stimulant, and a small quantity of car- bonate of soda or potash. QUICKSILVER. — Hydrargyrum. This metal and Its pre- parations have been noticed under the head Meiicury. QUINIXE, SULPHATE OY.— QuinincB Sulphas. See Bark. M M 530 MATERIA MEDICA RAGWOKT. A flowering plant that grows principally on moors and other moist situations. I have been informed that it causes lethargy or sleepy staggers in horses, and that sheep eat it freely, and without injury ; but this opinion is somewhat doubtful. RAKING. A term employed for an operation which con- sists in introducing the hand into the horse's rectum, and draw- ing out any hard excrement that may have lodged there. This may generally be effected more to the purpose, and with greater ease to the animal, by means of clysters. In some cases, however, the straight-gut is so loaded with hard dung that raking is a necessary operation ; and it is some- times difficult or impossible to throw up a clyster before it is done. The operation is useful also for the purpose of ascertain- ing the state of excrement, when none can be found about the litter : whether it be soft, hard, or slimy. The only method of knowing whether the urinary bladder is full and distended, or empty, is by introducing the hand into the straight-gut, where the bladder can be easily felt, as it lies immediately beneath the gut next to the belly or abdomen. The nails should be pared smooth, and the hand oiled or smeared Avith hog's lard or soft soap, before the operation is performed. See Clystees. RATTLESNAKE ROOT. Seneka Root. — Polygala Se- nega. Seneka is a perennial plant found in North America. The root is inodorous, and is, on being first chewed, of a sweetish and mawkish flavour, but, after being chewed for a short time, has a hot and pungent taste. It is thought to possess consider- able power as a tonic and stimulant, and may be employed in the dose of three or four drachms. RECTIFIED SPIRIT. Alcohol or Spirit of Wine. — Spi- ritus Rectijicatus. See Alcohol. REPELLENTS. A term given to applications or medi- cines that are supposed to have the power of causing tumours or eruptions to recede from the surface of the body. RESINS ai-e distinguished by their inflammability, and by combining readily with rectified spirit and oils. They are gene- rally solid, and incapable of being mixed with Avater. See Rosin. RESOLVENTS. Medicines that disperse tumours, either external or internal. RESTORATIVES. Medicines that restore the strength of the body after violent fatigue or illness. For this purpose a light and nutritious diet, assisted by good grooming, and voluntary exercise, is generally the only thing necessary: sometimes, how- ever, it may be proper to give also some cordial or tonic medicine. [See Tonics, Cordials, and Stomachics.] The food on such occasions should consist of bruised oats, gruel, mashes of fine sweet AND PHARMACOrCEIA. 531 bran and malt, gruel of wheaten flour, or boiled barley. In India strong broths, or soup, thickened with barley or some other o-vain, and rendered stimulating by spices, are frequently given as restoratives to horses when worked hard; perhaps good mild beer or ale, mixed with good gruel made of groats or oatmeal, or, what is still better, fine wheaten flour, would be found on some occasions equally effectual. But it will be found, that, when a horse has for some time been worked hard and fed high, there is nothing that will so completely restore him as rest in a laro-e box, or well ventilated stall, with a diet of bran mashes, and only a moderate quantity of hay for two or three days. This will empty the large bowels, and afford that rest to the stomach and bowels, which, in such cases, they always require. Three or four drachms of aloes, with a little ginger and soap, may some- times be useful in such cases. RHUBARB ; the Root. — Rheinn pahnatum. This is a native of China and Tartary. Turkey or Russian rhubarb is obtained from the last-mentioned place, besides which a great quantity is sent to this country from the East Indies, but it is not prepared with the same care as that imported from Turkey, which has a peculiar aromatic odour, and a bitter, slightly astringent, and subacid taste ; is easily pulverised, and produces a powder of a light yellow colour. Rhubarb is stomachic, astringent, and pur- gative, according to the dose in which it is exhibited. It is not, however, employed for the latter purpose as a horse medicine, but is not unfrequently administered as a stomachic, in doses from half an ounce to an ounce, combined with aloes and ginger. ROSEMARY. — Rosmarinus officinalis. This plant is cul- tivated in Britain, but is a native of the South of Europe, Greece, and Earbary. It flowers in April and May in this coun- try, and the leaves and flowers yield an essential oil, which appears to contain camphor, and which is frequently used as an embroca- tion for strains and bruises, mixed with rectified spirit and soap. This mixture is nearly the same as the celebrated Opodeldoc ; and by the addition of camphor it becomes the same thing. ROWELLING. An operation often performed in veterinary practice. It consists in making an incision in the skin, about an inch in length, with a pair of short and strong-bladed scissors. Tiie finger is then introduced, in order to separate the skin from the subjacent parts all round the incision, that the cavity may contain a circular piece of leather about an inch and a half or two inches in breadth. Before this leather is introduced, a hole is made in the centre about half an inch in diameter ; it is then covered with tow [the hole being left open],^ and smeared with digestive ointment : when the rowel is put in, the hole in the middle of the leather is plugged up with a little tow. I 532 3IATER1A MEDICA In this situation it is left until matter forms, which generally happens in three or four days ; the plug of tow is then with- drawn, the rowel moved, and the matter suffi'red to flow out, in which state it remains as long as it is thought necessary. Thus we see that a rowel is an artificial issue or abscess, the leather first causing inflammation, which ends in suppuration or the formation of matter ; and the matter continuing to be formed so long as the extraneous body or leather remains under the skin. The rowel must be moved every day. The intention of rowelling is to divert inflammation from any important organ or part of the body. Thus, when the lungs are inflamed, the animal certainly dies, unless it is put a stop to ; but the skin may be inflamed to a considerable extent with- out danger : we therefore put a rowel in the chest, which, though not sufficient of itself to stop the inflammation of the lungs, con- tributes materially to this purpose, and, with the other necessary remedies, often effects a cure. In large swellings of the hind legs, and obstinate cases of grease, rowels in the thighs are good remedies. In shoulder-strains, a rowel may sometimes be put in the chest with good effect. In short, when inflammation attacks an essen- tial and important part of the system, much benefit will often be derived from inserting a rowel in some contiguous part that is of little importance. When a rowel is removed, the part generally heals of itself; if not, a little Friar's balsam may be applied. Many practitioners consider blistering the sides extensively as a more effectual means of diverting inflammation from the lungs than rowels ; and I am inclined to think they are right. Tiic rowel is sometimes smeared with blistering instead of digestive ointment: but there is danger of the cantharides being absorbed and causing inflammation of the kidneys. I have known a horse destroyed in this way. In cases of very severe internal in- flammation, very little can be accomplished either by rowels or blisters. Whenever it is thought necessary to make the ointment which is used in rowelling more stimulating, it may be easily done by adding oil of turpentine to it. IlIJBEFACIENTS. A term in human medicine, applied to compositions or simples that redden or inflame the skin. Of this kind are mustard, turpentine, and liquid ammonia. See Embrocations. E,UE. — Ruta r/ravcolens. This is a perennial evergreen, a native of the southern parts of Europe, but cultivated in this country. Its properties are stimulant and antispasmodic. It has been recommended in locked-jaw as a vehicle for opium, camphor, and assafoetida, in the form of decoction. It may possess some power as an antispasmodic, but certainly is very inferior to many AND PIIARMACOrCEIA. 533 Others. Gibson often prescribes it, but generally as a vehicle for other more active medicines. Many farriers still employ rue in farcy with soap and other diiu-etics, which they give in large doses ; it is used also as a fomentation, and is by some thought to possess considerable power as a preventive of hy- drophobia, but it has no such effect. RYE, SPURRED. Ergot of Rye. — Secale cornutnm. [This substance is found on other grain as well as rye, and it is a matter of dispute whether it is a disease of the grain, produced by insects, or a fungous ])lant growing upon it. When partaken of in the form of bread it has been known to [)roduce the most poisonous and fatal results ; and its effects on deer and swine have been to cover the body Avith ulcers, and j)roduce dreadful and fatal convulsions. Its medicinal effect is that of a powerful stimulant to the uterus, and is therefore very useful Avhen par- turition is greatly delayed by a want of activity in the womb. It has been given to cows with good effect, in doses of from two to four drachms, in powder, combined with some carminative, and given in beer every hour until a proper effect is produced. The same dose is pro])er for a mare ; and in the dog from live to ten grains. This medicine should be administered carefully, and only when absolutely required. — Ed.] SACCHARUM, ejusque SYRUPUS EMPYREUMA- TICUS. Sugar and Molasses. The dust of sugar is some- times blown into the eye in some diseases of that organ. A small quantity of molasses, mixed with a horse's water eveiy day, will speedily fatten him. SAGO. A farinaceous substance, which, when boiled, in water, is a proper drink for sick horses that are incapable of feeding. See Gruel. SAL AMMONIAC, or MURIATE of AMMONIA.— AmmonicB Murias. New name, Hydrochlorate of Ammonia. A neutral salt, composed of muriatic acid and ammonia, which, when dissolved in vinegar and water, forms a good embrocation for strains and bruises. Mixed with nitre it lowers the tempe- rature of water. Osmer, an old veterinary authoi*, prescribed it for a distemper or epidemic catarrh in horses, that prevailed in the year 1750, in a dose of one ounce, joined with one ounce of nitre, half an ounce of Castile soap, and two drachms of camphor, to be given three times a day. This, I should think, would operate not only as a powerful diuretic, but would be liable to irritate the stomach in a dangerous degree. It is a medicine I have never given internally, not considering it either so safe or so efficacious as nitre. SAL POLYCHREST. — 5'MZ/>Af/s Potassce cum Sulphure. This is made by mixing together equal weights of powdered 534 MATEllIA ?>1ED1CA nitre and sublimed sulphur, and throwing the mixture, in small portions at a time, into a red-hot crucible. As soon as the de- flagration is finished, the salt is to be allowed to cool, and then put it into a close-stopped glass vessel. Its properties are similar to those of sulphate of potass, and it is sometimes combined with aloes as a laxative or cathartic. It passes through the kidneys undecomposed. SAL VOIjATILE. This term is indiscriminately applied to compound spirit of ammonia, and prepared ammonia, or smelling salts; but the former is often distinguished by the name of spirit of sal volatile. SALIX CAPKEA. The Willow. There are three varieties of -willow, the barks of which are tonic and astringent, and have been successfully substituted for Peruvian bark. A preparation called salacine is now made from willow bark, which possesses its tonic princii)le in a concentrated state, in the same manner as quinine does that of cinchona. The dose may be from ten to thirty grains, or perhaps more in some cases, twice or thrice a day. SALT, COMMON. — 5'wZ(E Murias. See Muriate of Soda. SALTPETRE.— Poi'rtssffi Nitras. See Nitre. SALT OF STEEL, SULPHATE OF IRON, or VL TRIOLATED IROl^ . — Sulphas FerrL A combination of sulphuric acid and iron. This is by no means so remarkable for its tonic power in the horse, as in the human subject ; but it is said to possess this quality, and is often given in doses of from one or two to four drachms. See Iron. SALT OF TARTAR, or WORMWOOD. Pure carbo- nate of Potash. — PotusscB Carhonas Purissimus. Sec Potasu and Alkalies. SALTS. When an acid combines with an alkali, earth, or metallic oxide, it is termed a salt. The alkali, earth, or me- tallic oxide is denominated the base, and when neither the acid nor the base predominates, it is called a neuti-al salt. When, on exposure to atmospheric air, it is either reduced to powder or becomes covered with a white crust, it has received the appella- tion of an efflorescent salt ; but if it absorb moisture from the atmosphere, it is termed a deliquescent salt. The name of each salt is compounded of two words ; the one indicating its acid, the other its base. Thus Glauber's salt, which is composed of sulphuric acid and soda, is called sulphate of soda. Nitre, which is compounded of nitric acid and potass, is termed nitrate of potass. When a salt is formed with an acid not completely oxygen- ised, it terminates in ite instead of ate, as phosphite of soda ; but if the salt contain acid in excess, the word super is prefixed AND PHARMACOPCEIA. 535 to its name, as super-acetate of lead. Should, however, its base not be fully saturated with oxygen, the word sub is substi- tuted for super, as sub-carbonate of potass.* See Acids and Alkalies. SATURNINE 'LOTIO'R. — Loiio Satumina. This is made by dissolving two ounces of superacetate (sugar) of lead in one pint of vinegar, and three or four pints of water, and is con- sidered an useful application to recent strains, bruises, and other injuries attended with inflammation. 'SATUENINE OINTMENT. — t%z«m^Mm Satuminum. This is made by incorporating Goulard's extract of lead, or sugar of lead (superacetate of lead) with hog's lard or wax oint- ment. See Goulard, AstringeiNts, and Ointments. SATURNINE POULTICE. — Cataplasma Satuminum. See Poultice, Astringent Ointments, Acetate of Lead, and Embrocations. S AVINE. — Juniperus Sahina. This shrub is a native of the South of Europe and the Levant. Farriers often employ the leaves in a green state as an anthelmintic ; but I have never seen them do any good. Savine is recommended by Mr. Blaine as a principal ingredient in an ointment for the removal of warts ; its effect, however, is doubtful. It is also sometimes used for keeping up the action of blisters. SCAMMONY. — Convolvulus Scammonia. This plant is a native of Syria and Cochin China. The scammony of com- merce is a gum-resin obtained from the root of the plant. It should be light, friable, and resembling a honey-comb. Its colour is blackish, or dark grey. It is a strong purgative, but is scarcely ever employed in veterinary practice when aloes can be procured.! SEA-WATER. Some horses will drink a sufficient quan- tity of sea-water to excite purging, which may be useful, should . such horses be affected with swollen heels, inflamed eyes, or other inflammatory complaints. Sea-water is useful as a cool- ing application to an inflamed part. SIALOGOGUES. Medicines that cause an increased se- cretion of saliva ; the principal of which are the preparations of mercury. Local means were formerly employed to effect this^ in the horse ; that is, by bridling him, wrapping round the bit some * The terms hi and proto are employed instead of super and sub in modern nomenclature. — Ed. . , i i t I have lately tried scammony in various doses ; it produced scarcely any effect until six drachms were given at one dose, which was followed by mo- derate puro-in"-. This experiment was made only on one horse: should another trial be made of it, a smaller dose of two or three drachms should be first given. M M <* 536 MATERIA MEDICA linen that had been soaked in vinegar, in which garlic, assafoc- ida, pellitory of Spain, &c. had been steeped ; also by putting balls between the grinders, composed of similar ingredients, or others capable of stimulating the salivary glands, and bringing on a discharge of saliva : these were called masticatories or chewing ])alls, A late writer (Mr. Wilkinson) haa recommended chewing balls, composed of antimonial powder, gum, &c. in epi- demic catarrh or distemper, when attended with sore throat and difficulty of swallowing. SILVER. — Argentum. The only preparation this metal affords is the lunar caustic, or nitrate of silver ; an application of great importance in surgery, whether human or veterinary. See Caustics, Lunar Caustic, and Argenti Nitras. SINAPISMS. — Catoplasma Sinapis. Stimulating poul- tices, or liniments, in which mustard is a principal ingredient. See Embrocations and Mustard. SNAKE-ROOT. — Puh/gala Senega. This, which is a peren- nial plant, is a native of North America. It is inodorous, of a sweetish taste on being first chewed, and afterwards hot and pungent. It is a stimulant and diuretic, increasing the action of the absorbents, and occasionally producing ptyalism. The idea that this root counteracts the bites of serpents is now disregarded; but it is considered a useful medicine in cases of weakness, and may probably be employed with advantage in veterinary practice. The dose is from two to four drachms or more, and is gene- rally given with carbonate of ammonia, or salt of hartshorn, camphor, and bark ; in some cases opium is added. See Tonics and Antiseptics. SOAP. — !Sapo. The various kinds of soap have all a strong and diuretic quality ; and these are Castile, Spanish, and pui'e white soap. Soap is an useful ingredient in purgative as well as diuretic preparations. The dose is from two or three drachms to an ounce, but it is sometimes given in larger doses. Soft soap is very useful in cleansing foul heels ; and when mixed with oil of turpentine and spirit of wine, forms a good embrocation for indurated tumours, or callous swellings. See Embrocations and Liniments. SODA ; Natron, or the mineral alkali. This is procured chiefly from the ashes of marine plants. Its medicinal proper- ties are nearly the same as potash, but the prepared natron or soda is sometimes preferred as an ingredient in purgative and tonic medicines. The dose is from two to four drachms. There ai-e various preparations of soda, as the carbonate of soda {soda carbonas), which is antacid anddeobstruent; the dried AND niARMACOrCEIA. 537 SLibcarbonate (sodcB suhcarhonas e.vsicrata), wliicli is perhaps more conveniently administered than the carbonate, and answers the same purpose : it is extremely useful in painful affections of the lu'inary organs arising from acid in the urine : the sulphate of soda (sodce sulphas), or Glauber's salts (see Sulphate of Soda); and the tartarised soda {soda tartarizata), which is cathartic, but not often prescribed by veterinarians. SOILING. By this term is meant feeding horses with grass, clover, lucern, vetches, or other green food, in the stable, instead of turning them to grass in spring or summer. Some horses are so restless at grass, and so apt to stray, that turning them out is attended with danger and inconvenience. Horses also that are lame, or just recovered from a lameness, sometimes injure themselves at grass by taking too much exercise. In such cases, soiling for about a month in a large airy box is exceedingly useful. I consider vetches the best vegetable for soiling. Some people are advocates for keeping a horse all the year round upon hay and corn, and only allowing them green food in the spring now and then in sufficient quantity to open the bowels, and ntf more, and assert that by this mode of management they are able during the winter to go through a greater degree of labour than they otherwise would, and to keep in much better con- dition. This method of feeding hunters is now very extensively adopted. SOLUBLE TARTAR, or TARTRATE OF POTASH. — Tartras Fotassce. This is a laxative saline preparation, com- posed of cream of tartar and potash. It is sometimes given with infusion of senna, and is supposed to correct the griping so fre- quently induced by resinous cathartics. The dose may be from four to eight ounces, according to the proportion of aperient medicine with which it is combined. SORREL. — Rumex Acetosa. An acidulous plant, some- times prescribed by the veterinary practitioners of France in dysentery and molten grease ; but not used by English veteri- narians. SPANISH FLIES. See Cantharides. SPEARMINT. — Mentha viridis. See Mint. SPERMACETI. — Cetaceum. An unctuous substance, procured from the head of a certain species of whale. In medical practice it is often employed as a demulcent to allay irritation, as in cough, but is rarely employed in^ veterinary practice, and appears to differ very little, in its medical proper- ties, from hog's lard or suet. It has been lately discovered that the muscular parts of all animals may be converted into a sub- stance resembling spermaceti by maceration in water. SPIKES, FLOWERING; ofljaycndeY.—Lavendula Spica. A volatile oil, termed oil of spike, is made from lavender, and is 538 MATERIA MEDICA much used by farriers; it appears, however, to be often nothing more than oil of turpentine coloured with alkanet root. SPIRIT OF .IM^IONIA. — Spiritus Ammonics. See Am- monia. SPIRIT OF MINDERERUS. — Spiritus Mindereri. See Acetate of Ammonia. SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER. — -S>mYi/5 u^theris Ni- trici. See AciD, Nitric, and Nitrous. SPIRITS. Brandy, rum, gin, or cordial liquors ; but In medicine the word spirit is applied to alcohol, either pure or diluted. See Alcohol. There are various kinds of spirits used in medicine ; such as spirit of nutmeg, spirit of juniper, &c., which are made by distil- lino: the medical substance with dilute spirit. SQUILL, or SEA ONION. — *SW//a maritima. This is a native of Sicily, Syria, Barbary, and Spain. The bulb is exti-emely large, and is in one variety white, in another reddish. It is inodorous, bitter, and acrid. The best prepara- tion of squill for veterinary purposes is the powder of the dried root, which, in the dose of one drachm or more, is considered a good expectorant, and useful in chronic cough : in larger doses it generally acts as a diuretic, but is not a desirable medicine fur that purpose, there being many diuretics more certain in their effect. Gum ammoniacum is an eligible addition to squill; and I have sometimes seen camphor and opium joined to It with good eftect. One draclun of the dried squill is equal to about five drachms in its fresh state. There are three other prepara- tions of squill made, viz. the spirituous and acetous tinctures, and the oxymel ; but these are not so well calculated for veterinary purposes. See Expectorants. STARCPI. — Triticum hyhernum. Starch glysters with opium are sometimes employed in obstinate diarrhoea or irritation of the rectum. In no other way is starch useful in veterinary practice, while the cheaper mucilages, such as linseed, marsh - mallow, &c. can be procured ; but when these are wanting, it Is capable of making a good mucilaginous drink. See Emol- lients and Demulcents. The preparation named Arroic-root Is a pure starch, and when made Into gruel Is the best and safest preparation that can be employed in diarrha:?a, or to restrain the eftect of purging medi- cine when it has been given too largely. Mixed with a watery solution of opium, It forms a good anodyne glyster. STAVES ACRE; the seeds.— Delphi?ii urn Staphisagria. This Is a species of larkspur, and Is a native of the South of Europe, flowering from June to August. The seeds of stavesacre are re- commended as a topical application in cutaneous complaints, and for destroying those animalcules which are sometimes generated AND rnAUMAC'orcEiA. 539 upon the horse's skin. They are used either in the form of a decoctionj or finely powdei-ed and mixed with tniiu-oil, turpen- tine, &c. Two drachms of stavesacre were given to a glandercd horse ; he died during the night following in great ])ain. STEEL. The medical properties of steel are not supposed to differ from those of iron. See Irox. STIMULANTS. A term of very extensive signification, and which may with propriety be applied to the greater part of the articles of the Materia Medica. According to the celebrated Dr. John Brown, every medicine was considered as a stimulant; but it is probable that some, particularly the narcotics, have an opposite effect ; especially the distilled laurel water. The term stimulant is generally applied to those substances which percep- tibly increase the motion of the heart and arteries. Under this head a great variety of remedies are included, both internal and external ; among the former are cordials, cathartics, diu- retics, &c. ; the latter consist of embrocations, ointments, lini- STOMACHICS. IMediclnes that strengthen the stomach and excite appetite. The term is nearly synonymous with cordials in veterinary medicine ; though from stomachics we generally expect a more ])ermanent effect than from those preparations denominated cor- dial, as they approach luore to the nature of tonics. A few receipts will be given under this head, which are intended for horses that feed badly without any apparent cause, and such as are subject to fiatulent colic and indigestion. Horses of this description are generally lean and in bad condition. STOMACHIC BALL. No. 1. Powdered gentian 2 drs. to ^ oz. Powdered ginger Idr. tol^d. Carbonate of soda 1 dr. Treacle, enough to form the ball for one dose. No. 2. Cascarilla, powdered 2 drs. Myrrh U drs. Castile soap 1 dr. Syrup, enough to form the ball for one dose. No. 3. Powdered Colombo root ^ oz. Powdex-ed cassia 1 dr. Powdered rhubarb 2 drs. to ^ oz. Syrup, enough to form the ball for one dose. Before stomachics are given, a mild cathartic ball is generally required. Improper management w^ith regard to food and water 540 MATERIA MEDICA is most commonly the cause of this disorderecl state of the diges- tive organs ; too often assisted by immoderate work and general ill-treatment. STOPPING, for the feet. A mixture of clay and cow-dung, or either of tliese separately, is commonly used for this purpose ; and, by keeping the bottoms or soles of the feet moist and cool, often do good. In soles that are too thin and soft, or for the Irogs when in that state, the following composition is more proper — Tallow and tar, of each, 1 lb. To be mixed by melting together. IMr. Goodwin has contrived a kind of boot for keeping the feet cool and moist, as well as for applying the above composition ; and Mr. Cherry, of Clapham, has recommended a piece of firmly compressed felt or sponge, to be cut to the size of the sole of the foot, and inserted within the shoe, after which it is to be wetted with cold water ; this, by causing it to expand, will prevent it from falling out. Linseed meal forms a good stopping. STRYCPIXIA. See Xux Vomica. STYPTICS are medicines which constringe the blood-vessels Avheu wounded^ so as to stop an effusion of blood. Many pre- parations have been recommended for this purpose : but when the size of the wounded vessel is at all considerable, an adequate degree of pressure by means of bolsters and bandages should rather be depended upon ; and when that cannot be done, the vessel must be tied up above the wound and below, by which the bleeding will be effectually suppressed. No danger is to be ap- prehended from slight bleedings in the horse, as they always cease spontaneously. The styptics commonly employed are oil of turpentine, di- luted vitriolic acid, muriate of iron, absorbent earths, and flour. SUBLIMATE, COREOSIVE. Oxymuriate of Quick- silver. — Hydrargyri Oxymurias. New name, Bichloride of Mercury. — Hydrargyri Bichloridum. This is by far the strong- est of the mercurial preparations, and requires to be used with great caution. It has been employed with success in farcy : and in one instance I have seen it cure the glanders ; but the horse was shot soon after, therefore it is uncertain whether the cure was permanent or not. In many cases of farcy that were su])posed to be cured by sublimate, aided by external applications, I have seen the glanders break out after an interval of a few weeks or even month?. The dose of sublimate is from eight to ten, twelve, or fifteen grains, given daily, until the desired effect is produced, or until the mouth becomes sore, or the horse stales * According to the new view of the atomic constitution of this salt, it is a chloride of mercury. AND niAKMACOrcEIA. 541 profusely, and then it sliould be discontinued a short time. Whenever sublimate makes a horse sick, or causes any uneasi- ness in the bowels, it should be immediately discontinued. In the various experiments that have been made upon glandered horses, it has been given in very lai'ge doses, even to the extent of two drachms twice a day. Xo good, however, has ever re- sulted from such large doses, and the poor animals have often been dreadfully tortured by them. I am now decidedly of opinion, that in glanders and farcy the milder preparations should be preferred, especially Ethio[)s mineral, and the mercu- rial or blue pill. M. Dupuy injected a solution of sublimate into the jugular vein of a glandered horse. It caused almost immediately severe colic pains, and a continual shaking of the tail. It produced also a remarkable effect upon the kidneys, causing the horse to stale frequently, even twelve times in the space of a quarter of an hour. The following day he injected a stronger solution, which caused still more distressing symptoms ; the next day a still stronger solution, which, after tormenting the poor animal for some time, put an end to his sufferings. The symptoms of glanders were not at all diminished by it. Another glandered horse took sublimate for a month, without receiving any benefit from it. M. Ilouba, a French veterinarian, gave an ounce of sublimate in a mucilaginous decoction, to a colt of one year old affected with farcy. He increased the dose of sublimate until it amounted to 2 ounces, 3 drachms, 21 grains, or 64 grammes (a gramme is 18 grains). This immense dose, he says, after some days, made the ulcers look red, the discharge lost its offensive smell, and became whiter and thicker, and some of the ulcers cicatrised; the colt also fed well and appeared cheerful, but after a short time he began to discharge at the nostrils, and had a swelling under the jaws ; in short he became so badly glandered that it was thought necessary to destroy him. (See Diqmy, Be V Affection Tuherculeuse, vulgairement ap- pelee Morve, p. 188.) Sublimate is often used externally, either in powder or solu- tion. It is a useful caustic and external stimulant, and is sometimes an ingredient in blisters ; but its employment in this form is not to be recommended. In virulent cases of chronic grease I have seen a solution of sublimate effect a cure in a very short time. In obotinate cases of mange a solution of sublimate is some- times employed ; but in three instances I have known inflamma- tion of the bowels take place very soon after. Sublimate is difficult of solution in water only ; it is usual, therefore, to rub it first in a mortar with a little proof spirit, or with a little muriate of ammonia ; but the most ready method of dissolvino- it is to rub it with an equal vrelght of muriatic acid. 542 MATERIA MEDIC A and then to add as much water as is required. This last sohi- tion is mnch stronger than any other. A soUition of sublimate in spirits of wine or diluted hydrochloric acid, is employed with advantage for coagulating the synovia as it escapes from open joints, so as to afford a temporary plug to the opening. SUBMURIATE OF MEUCUUY.—Hi/drarrji/ri Subnw- rias. New name, Pkotochlouide of Mercury. — Hijdrargyri Chloridum. See Calomel. SUCCINUM. See Amber. SUDORIFIC S. Medicines that cause sensible perspiration or sweating. In the horse there is no medicine that will, with certainty, produce this eifect, and it is only by exercise or warm clothing that it can be produced. In locked-jaw a horse has been kept in a state of perspiration for a considerable time by being covered with sheep-skins. Vinegar and acetate of am- monia will sometimes cause pers])iration ; and opium, with eme- tic tartar, camphor, and cordials, is said to have a sudorific effect ; also ipecacuanha, with opium, camphor, and salt of hartshorn. [Spirit of nitrous ether will more frequently produce a sudorific effect than any other medicine, particularly if joined Avith camphor. — Ed.] SUET, MUTTON"; BEEF.— &m«« Ovillum; Bovhivm. Prepared suet is used in the composition of ointments and plasters. Suet boiled in milk has been recommended in the scouring rot of horned cattle. SUGAR OF LEAD. Acetate and Superacetate of Lead. — Snccharum Satunii. Plumhi Acet.as et Superacetas. See Lead. SULPHATE OF MAJlsll^A. — AlumincB Sulphas. See Alum. SULPPIATE OF COPPER.— C«/>/7 Sulphas. Blue vi- triol, or Blue stone. This preparation of copper is much used in veterinary practice as an external application ; it is a mild caustic or escharotic, and, when dissolved in water, forms a good detei*- gent or astringent lotion. The addition of a little sulphuric, nitrous, or muriatic acid to this lotion increases its strength as a detergent, and, when the proportion is considerable, makes it a strong caustic. A solution of sulphate of copper in vinegar, or vinegar and water, makes a good wash for the foot rot in sheep. Sulphate of copper should be finely powdered when sprinkled on ulcers, or when mixed with lard or other unctuous matter into an ointment. When a solution of sulphate of copper is suffi- ciently diluted, it may be used as a mild astringent, and, when very weak, may be applied even to the eye. Sulphate of copper has been given internally as a tonic in diabetes, and in farcy: the dose, from half a drachm to a drachm.* * ]\Ir. Sewell recommends sulphate of copper, in doses of three to six drachms with linseed meal, in the form of a draught for glanders. Thus AND rHAIlMACOrCEIA. 543 SULPHATE OF IROK Salt of steel. Ferri Sulphas. A preparation composed of sulphuric acid and oxide of iron. It is sometimes used as a tonic. The dose from one to three or four drachms. SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA, or EPSOM SALT.— Magnesm Sulphas. A mild laxative that may be given with advantage in catarrhal disorders. Tiie dose, from four to twelve ounces, dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water. When a small dose is given, it should be repeated every four or six hours, imtil some effect is produced. From four to eight ounces of castor or olive oil are sometimes added to a dose of the solution of sulphate of magnesia. SULPHATE OF POTASH. — Poto55«? Sulphas. Vitrio- lated tartar, or Sal-polychrest, This neutral salt is a more powerful laxative than the sul- phates of magnesia and soda, and more sparingly soluble in water. On this account, it is most commonly employed in human medicine, in powder ; and, when joined with rhubarb, makes a good purgative. It is seldom nsed, I believe, for horses or cattle, though it may, perhaps, make a good laxative if well rubbed in a mortar with aloes, and then formed into a ball. SULPHATE of QUININE. — quiniiKB Sulphas. See Bark. SULPHATE OF SODA.— ^or/c^ Suljyhas. Vitriolated soda, or Glauber's salt. This is a good laxative, and rather stronger than sul])hate of magnesia. I have been informed by a correspondent in Ireland, that he employed it with great success in an cjiidemic catarrh, and without losing a single patient, while a great number died under a different treatment. He gave about four to six ounces three times a day, in a quart of water or gruel, until the bowels were opened. It is a good laxa- tive for cattle : the dose, from six to twelve ounces. SULPHATE OF ZINC. — Zm« Sulphas. Vitriolated zinc, White vitriol, or White copperas. This is a strong asti'in- gent application, but may be dissolved in water, and so diluted as to make a useful wash for the eye. It is sometimes given in- ternally as a tonic ; and, though very large doses have been given to glandered horses as an experiment, without causing much in- convenience, and half an ounce or more as a tonic, I am inclined to think, by giving daily one or two drachms, it is more likely to do good. A strong solution of sulphate of zinc is an excellent application to quittors and other ulcers. combined, it can be administered in much larger doses than in a ball, witlioiit irritating the coats of the stomach and intestines, being immediately diffused over a much larger surface. See Glanders. — Ed. 54.i MATERIA MEDICA SULPHATES. Neutral salts composed of sulphuric acid and alkalies, earths, or metals, SULPHUR. Brimstone. KoU sulphur is chiefly obtained from the sulphuret of copper. It is purified by fusion, and is cast into moulds. It is insoluble in water. Sublimed, or, as it is commonly called, flower of, sulphur, is procured from the former by heating to a great heat and col- lecting the vapour, which is the flower, whilst the dregs is the sulphur vivum. Floicer of Sulphur is generally given in the dose of one ounce : it is commonly joined with nitre and antimony, or nitre and resin ; and is then thought to improve the coat and general condition of the horse, or remove swellings of the heels, and surfeit. I have given sulphur in a variety of doses ; but the only effect I could perceive was that of a mild laxative, and that did not take place until four ounces were given at a dose. From the observations I made on this occasion, I do not con- ceive that sulphur is of much use as an internal remedy in the horse, nor that it possesses any diaphoretic power. As a topical application in luange, it is certainly very efficacious, particularly if mixed with other remedies. See article Mange. Sulpliur is very serviceable to young dogs, when they have any appearance of plethora or cutaneous disease, generally acting as a mild laxative : it may be given to them in milk, from one tea-spoonful to two or three. A few years ago, M. Collalne, Professor of the Royal Veteri- nary School at Milan, published an account of some successful experiments he made on glanders. The medicine he employed Avas sulphur, l)cginning with a dose of four ounces, and increas- ing it gradually until he gave two pounds daily, mixed into an electuary with honey ; he also took away about two quarts of blood once in two or three days. A dose of six ounces caused purging ; ten or twelve ounces, griping pains and purging. Six ounces of sulpliur vivum were then given, which produced a similar effect, and some of the horses became so exceedingly Aveak that they lay down, and were unable to rise for three or four days, AVhen they recovered a little from these alarming symptoms, he found the discharge from the nostrils much lessened, as well as the swelling under the jaws. In some, the disease entirely disappeared, but after a few days returned, and was not permanently cured till it had fluctuated in this way several times. After they had got over the effect of the sulphur, on giving it again he found that a dose even of twelve ounces produced no effect; he therefore increased it to eighteen ounces, and from that to twenty-four ounces ; but it no longer caused cither purging or griping. Having continued the use of the medicine in this large dose for some time, and finding the' AND PIIARMACOFCEIA. 545 disease remain stationary in some of the horses, he discontinued it for eight or ten days, in order to restore the susceptibility of the 'animal to the action of sulphur. On recommencino- the treatment, he joined to six ounces of sulphur an equal quantity • of antimony, wliich produced a considerable effect for about fifteen days, when it became inactive; he then gave from twelve to fifteen ounces of sulphur, with six ounces of liver of anti- mony, and in less than fifteen days all the horses that had not a very severe local affection were perfectly free from the disease. Similar trials have been made in France since M. Collaine's Report appeared, but the result was very different. According to M. Dupuy, in his work on glanders ( Traite de V Affection Tuherciileuse, vidgairement appellee MoRVE, &c.), lately pub- lished, sulphur has been fairly tried at the Veterinary School of Alfort, near Paris, and has not succeeded in any one instance : in large doses it causes very distressing symptoms, viz. colic, purging, and great debility ; and some of the horses died under the treatment. It is probable that sulphur may sometimes have caused a temporary cessation of the discharge from the nostrils, and as M. Collaine has not published anything further on the subject, he is probably become less sanguine in his expectations from this mode of treatment. He observes in his Eeport, that sulphur vivum (sou/re brut) produced a greater effect than flowers of sulphur ; and I am inclined to believe that sulphur vivum, when finely powdered and sifted through a fine sieve, will do just as well, if not better, for mange ointment or liniment, than the flower of sulphur, which is more expensive. When flower of sulphur is given internally, for mange or other cutaneous diseases, it may be joined with levigated antimony, or tartarized antimony, as in the formula under the head Alteratives. SULPHURETS. Combinations of sulphur with alkalies, earths, or metals. The preparations of this kind used in vete- rinary medicine, are sulphuret of antimony (see Antimony), sulphuret of arsenic (see Orpiment), sulphuret of mercury, black and red (see Ethiop's Mineral and Cinnabar), sulphuret of potash, or liver of sulphur. This last is a good remedy for dis- eases of the skin, such as mange, and may be given inwardly as an antidote to certain poisons, as arsenic, lead, and 2)reparations of mercury. SULPPIURIC ACTD. — Acidum Sulpkuricam. Vitriolic acid, or oii of vitriol. See Acids. SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE. See Acid, Nitric and Nitrous. SYRUP. — Syrupus. For all veterinary purposes treacle is a good and a cheap substitute for syrup. TALLOW. A mixture of equal parts of tar and tallow is a good application to brittle hoofs. N N 516 MATEKIA MEDIC A TAR. — Fix Liquida. This is a good remedy for thrushes, and other diseases of the frog. It appears to promote the growth of horn, by gently stimulating the secretory vessels of that part. The rotten parts of the frog having been carefully removed • with a knife, and the rest well cleansed, the tar is to be melted and poured into the cleft or cavity : a pledget of tow is then to be laid on the part and confined by some proper contrivance. In bad cases, a small proportion of sulphuric acid should be carefully mixed with the tar ; and when a thrush has degenerated into the disease termed canlier, a large proportion of the acid should be employed. See Liniments. Tar mixed with oil of turpentine and cantharides forms a strong blister. It is sometimes employed as a remedy for cough. Tar, when mixed with verdigris or finely powdered blue or white vitriol, forms a good liniment or ointment for canker or thrushes. It may be occasionally employed with alum, and, when mixed with tallow, is an excellent stopping for flat thin soles. In the latter form it makes a good hoof ointment ; and, when rubbed about the coronet and hoof, is said to render the hoof tough. TARTAR. — Tartarum, An acid substance, found about the sides and bottoms of casks in which wine is fermented; when purified, it is termed crystals, or cream, of tartar. Farriers gene- rally employ it in their purging medicines, upon the authority of some old writers, who supposed it to have the property of cor- recting aloes. See Cathartics. TARTAR, VITRIOL ATED. See Sulphate op Potash, TARTARIZED ANTIMONY. See Emetic Tartar and Antimony. TARTRATE OF POTASS. See Soluble Tartar. TEREBINTHINA. See Turpentine. TIGLII OLEUM. Croton oil, which see. TIN. — Stannum. This metal is a good anthelmintic for dogs ; and, though not employed in veterinaiy practice, appears to be worth a trial. I have known great numbers of worms dis- charged from dogs, by giving filings or scrapings of pewter, which is composed principally of tin and lead. The dose about a drachm. See Anthelmintics. TINCTURES. — Tincturce. Medical preparations made by infusing or digesting vegetables, &c. either in rectified or proof spirit. Examples : — Compound tincture of benzoin, commonly named Friar's or Traumatic balsam, is made by digesting gum benzoin, aloes, &c. in rectified spirit. Tincture of opium is made by digesting opium in proof spirit. There are also tinctures made with vinegar, such as squill and meadow saffron. AND PHARMACOPCEIA. 547 Compound spirit of ammonia, likewise, is sometimes employed as a menstruum, as in the volatile tincture of guaiacura, and foetid spirit of ammonia. TOBACCO. — Nicotiana. This is sometimes given to horses by grooms, for the purpose of keeping tlieir leo-s fine. * TOLU, BALSAM OF. See Balsam of Tolu. TONICS. Tonics, according to Murray, are those sub- stances whose primary operation is to give strength to the sys- tem. Their operation is not mechanical, as was once conceived; they act not on the simple solids, increasing their tension or tone, but on the living fibre, and are merely powerful stimulants per- manent in their operation. By producing a gradual excitement, they give vigour to the actions of the system ; and as that ex- citement is gradually produced, it is in like manner gradually diminished, and the habitual stimuli continuing to operate, di- minished action does not succeed. Where tonics, however, are given in excess, are used unnecessarily, or for too long a time, they weaken the powers of hfe. Tonics act primarily on the stomach, the action they excite in that organ being communicated generally by the medium of the nerves to the rest of the system ; some of them, however, are received into the mass of the blood. The immediate effects of a tonic, given in a proper dose, are to Increase the force of the circulation, to augment the animal heat, promote the various secretions, or moderate tliem when morbidly increased, quicken digestion, and render muscular action more easy and vigorous. By some of them these efi'ects are very slowly Induced. The afl^ections of the system In which tonics are employed must be obviously those of debility. But pre- viously to their being employed, it is necessary to inquire on * A short time since an infusion of about two ounces of tobacco, in a quart of beer, was given to a horse merely for the purpose of lieeping his heels fine. He died immediately after taking it. I was not present when this circumstance occurred, but am satisfied of the truth of it. I am inclined to believe, however, that there must have been something in this case that was not discovered ; — the stomach may have been previously diseased. I have, within a short period, given an infusion of to- bacco, as well as the tobacco that the infusion had been made from, in the dose of two, three, and four ounces. The only perceptible effect was a shivering, and an appearance which indicated a considerable affection of the stomach, not altogether like nausea, yet approaching towards it; but the effect was transient. According to Boardman, an infusion of three pounds of tobacco has been given without effect. In Bourgelat's " Matiere Medicale Kaisonnee," it is said to make an efficacious clyster in obstinate costiveness ; and is prescribed also in chewing balls or masticatories. Muriate of am- monia, dissolved in a decoction of tobacco, is said to be a good remedy for the mange ; rubbing the afiected parts with the fresh leaves of tobacco is said to have the same effect. It is also employed for the mange in sheep and dogs, and in the latter serves to kill fleas and ticks. [The smoke of tobacco has been employed as an injection in obstinate con- stipation with good effect. — Ed] 548 MATERIA MEDICA what that debility depends ; if it be simply on want of tone, as it is termed, in the stomach, and consequently in the system in general, the use of tonics is clearly indicated; but if it arise from unwholesome, or an insuflficient quantity of food, hard labour and exposure to the inclemencies of the weather, or the exhalations of a damp, close, filthy stable, tonics will avail nothing until the situation, treatment, and food are materially improved; that such cruel and abominable treatment is fre- quently, if not always, the cause of debility in liorses is well known ; therefore, no further comment upon the folly and cruelty of such treatment is necessary in this place. Before tonics are given, it is generally necessary to give some warm purgative medicine. While the horse is taking tonics, great attention should be paid to his diet ; and it would not be going too far, I believe, were I to assert that, by judicious management with regard to food, grooming, and exercise, and the occasional use of mild physic, horses would seldom require tonic medicine. Tonics may be divided into minerals and vegetables; the former are genei-ally considered the most powei-ful, and, I believe, are at this time genei'ally preferred, not only on account of their supposed superior efficacy, but likewise, probably, from their being less expensive, and the dose less bulky and incon- venient. In the former editions of this work, I have generally given them a preference, but subsequent experience and reflection have led me to employ them with more caution, and with less confidence in their reputed innoxious qualities; for, notwith- standing the immense doses of arsenic and blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) that have been given without producing any imme- diate ill effect, it is highly probable that the stomach suffers ma- terially, especially when the use of such medicines is persisted in. I have examined a horse's stomach that had been taking these mineral tonics, and thought they had not diminished the animal's appetite or altered his appearace ; on the contrary, he was in high condition, and did his work well, yet, being glandered, was destroyed. The stomach, however, had been greatly injured, and would, no doubt, had the animal lived much longer, have jDroduced some serious disorder. Tins question naturally arises: — In what respects are those mineral tonics, so well known as powerful poisons in the human body, preferable to those obtained from the vegetable kingdom ? In the first place they are considered as the only medicines capable of curing the glanders and farcy, and are therefore pre- scribed for those diseases. I have never seen a single case of glanders permanently cured, either by arsenic or blue vitriol, notwithstanding the numerous trials I have witnessed during a period of more than twenty years. Farcy has certainly disap- AND PHARMACOPCEIA. 549 peared in many Instances while taking those medicines, but at the same time some local remedies were employed, that is, the farcy sores were dressed with some caustic, escharotic, or deter- gent composition ; and it is well known that farcy, i. e. the sores, buds, and all the external symptoms or appearances, may gene- rally be removed by external applications alone ; therefore, it is uncertain what share the tonic, whether it be arsenic or blue ■vitriol, has had in the cure of the disease. Another circumstance to be considered is, that farcy, though apparently cured by means of those strong medicines, is often not really or permanently eradicated, but frequently is succeeded by glanders ; and, though the interval between the disappearance of farcy and the appear- ance of glanders is sometimes considerable, there are circum- stances which render it extremely probable that they are con- nected, and depend on the operation of the same cause. But whatever share arsenic, blue vitriol, or sublimate may have had in the cures that have been effected, whether permanent or only temporary, small doses have generally been found sufficient ; that is, of arsenic, from ten to fifteen or twenty grains ; subli- mate, from ten to fifteen grains ; blue vitriol, from half a drachm to one drachm, or, at most, two drachms ; white vitriol, from one to three drachms. The experiments, therefore, in which large doses have been given, such as two drachms of arsenic or subli- mate once or twice a day, and continued for some time, should never be repeated, as they arc really more likely to defeat the purpose for which they are given than to promote it ; and there can be no doubt that, notwithstanding the little immediate effect they appear to have on the stomach, this important organ is often most seriously and permanently injured by them. The following are formulae for tonics : — IS'o. 1. Arsenic from 5 to 10 grs. Sulphate of copper \ dr. Opium i dr. Powdered caraways \ oz. Treacle, enough to form the ball. No. 2. Arsenic 5 to 10 grs. Opium i dr. Sulphate of zinc 2 dr. Caraway seeds i oz. Treacle, enough to form the ball. No. 3. Powdered cantharides 6 to 12 grs. Sulphate of iron 2 drs. Gentian 2 drs. Ginger 1 dr. Treacle, to form a l)all. N N S 550 MATERIA MEDICA The opium iu these balls is intended to enable the stomach to bear the mineral preparations better than it otherwise could ; but by many practitioners it is thought unnecessary. • In farcy, sublimate (oxymuriate of mercury) may be added to either of the balls ; but this medicine cannot, with propriety, be classed with tonics in veterinary medicine, for its effect, when given for several days, is that of producing debility, and an in- creased flow of urine. The dose is the same as arsenic. The vegetable tonics I consider as an important class of medicines. A description of each, as well as of each mineral tonic, will be found under its respective name. VEGETABLE TONICS. jS^o. 1. Peruvian bark 1 oz. Opium ^ dr. Ginger 1 1 dr. Oil of caraways 20 drops. Treacle, enough to form the ball. — One dose. No. 2. Cascarilla 2 drs. Gentian root 2 drs. Opium i dr. Oil of caraways 20 drops. Treacle, enough to form the ball. No. 3. Gentian root 3 drs. Opium i dr. Cascarilla 1 dr. Myrrh 1 dr. Carbonate of soda I dr. Treacle, enough to form the ball. No. 4. Colombo 3 to 4 drs. Opium i dr. Cassia 1 dr. Powdered allspice 2 drs. Treacle, enough to form the ball. These formulae may be considerably varied, or given as drenches in warm ale, or in an infusion of some aromatic or bitter herb, and, if preceded by a mild purgative, and, assisted by a light nutritious diet, will often do much good, more perhaps than the mineral tonics. TOIIME^TII^'ROOT.— Tormentmaofficmalis. This is an indigenous perennial plant, growing chiefly in dry heathy spots. It is a powerful astringent, and is sometimes employed in diar- rhoea in horses and horned cattle. AND PHARMACOPCEIA. 551 One ounce, or one ounce and i\ half, being boiled in tbrcc pints of water to one pint and a half, with a little cassia and caraway seeds, makes one dose, which may be repeated if ne- cessary. TRAGACANTH GUM; or GUM DRAGON.— ^.^m- c/alus verus. The shrub from which this gum is obtained is a native of Persia. When good, tragacanth should be whitish, semi- transparent, inodorous, and leaving a slightly bitter taste in the mouth when chewed. Its properties are demulcent, and, as it yields a strong mucilage, it may be employed instead of gum arable in the foi'mation of emollient drinks. TRAUMATIC, or FRIAR'S BALSAM.— 2"mc^«m Ben- zo'ini Comjyosita. Traumatic balsam is the compound tincture of benzoin, and is made in the following manner: — Benzoin .. = 3 ozs. Strained storax balsam 2 ozs. Balsam of tolu 1 oz. Extract of spiked aloes ^ oz. Rectified spirit 1 qt. Digest for fourteen days, and filter or strain. As the name of this balsam implies, it is generally employed as an application to wounds Avhich require a slight stimulus. It is rarely prescribed as an internal remedy, although it has been deemed useful in chronic cough, and some other pulmonary af- fections. As it is decomposed by water, it must, when adminis- tered internally, be first triturated with mucilage or yolk of egg, in order to suspend it in aqueous fluids. See Benzoin. TRITICUM; FARINA; AMYLUM. Wheat; wheat- flour ; starch. Wheat is never given to horses as food in this country, both on account of its price, and because it is apt to produce colic. Wheat-flour gruel is occasionally given in diar- rhoea, and starch is sometimes used in the composition of clysters in the same disease. TURNIPS. Boiled turnips make an excellent poultice for the heels when aftected with grease. TURPENTINE.— Terei'm^Ama. This term is applied to the resinous juices of certain trees. There are four kinds, viz, Chio, Strasburgh, Venice, and common turpentine; the two last only are employed in veterinary medicine. They are effectual diuretic. , and possess a considerable carminative power. Com- mon turpentine is a principal ingredient in digestive and deter- gent ointments. In speaking of the turpentines, Dr. Paris says, they all possess the same chemical as well as medicinal properties ; viz. Canada turpentine, or Canada balsam, as it is sometimes improperly called, is obtained from the Pinus Balsamea. 2dly, Chian or N N 4 552 MATERIA MEDIC A Cyprus turpentine, from the Plstachea Terebinthlnus. 3dlj, Common, or horse turpentine, from the Pinus Sylvestris, or Scotch fir. 4thly, Venice turpentine, from the Pinus Larix; from the twigs of which species of fir the essence of spruce is made. True Riga balsam is made from the shoots of the Pinus Cembra, previously bruised and macerated for a month in water. The same fir afibrds also Brian^on turpentine. By distillation we obtain the oil, or, as it is sometimes termed, the spirit, of turpentine, a medicine of great utility. In doses of two, three, or four ounces, it frequently cures the flatulent colic, or gripes ; and, when combined with camphor and other stimulants, makes a good embrocation for indurated swellings, strains, and bruises.* When properly mixed with nmstard, it forms an embi'ocation that has been found serviceable in coun- teracting internal inflammation. I have seen it ap[)lied to ob- stinate ulcers with good effect. It is an useful ingredient in blistering-ointment and liniments. It is also, if properly managed, the most efficacious medicine that can be employed for expelling worms from the bowels. In Inrge doses it generally acts as a purgative, especially when the bowels are previously relaxed by bran mashes, or a small dose of aloes. In small doses it is a powerful diviretic. Mr. Coleman considered it almost a specific in flatulent colic in a dose of four ounces, mixed with gruel. It has been given to the extent of eight ounces at a dose, without injury; but in one case a dose of four ounces produced a fatal inflammation of the stomach and bowels : in this case, however, a dose of physic had been given the day before, and the horse had a considerable purging at the time the turpentine was exhibited. In the human body two drachms of oil of turpentine may so excite the kidneys as to produce bloody urine, whereas six or eight drachms will sti- mulate the bowels, and purge without affecting the urinary organs, or only in a moderate degree. It is said to be almost a specific remedy for tape worm, in the human body, always dis- charging it dead ; and also in obstinate constipation, depending on affections of the brain. Dr. Paris says he has several times witnessed its beneficial effects. Dr. Latham considers it a valuable medicine in epilepsy. As a veterinary medicine it is certainly of great value ; and though in a few cases, when given internally, it has produced violent effects, merely, I believe, from bad management, yet, when judi- ciously administered, it may be employed in a dose of four ounces, with advantage and safety. I have long discontinued the use of oil of turpentine in my * Oil of turpentine, wlien applied to the skin of the horse undiluted, pro- duces an excessive degree of irritation : it should, therefore, always be mixed with oil when so applied. — Ed. AND PHARMACOPCEIA. 553 practice as a remedy for flatulent colic, gripes, or fret, findino- the preparations of opium far more effectual. (See Opium.*) With respect to worms, I consider it is of more importance to prevent worms than to expel them from the bowels. When the stomach has been weakened or disordered, worms will be t^-cne- rated in the bowels, and even in the arteries, on whatever food the animal is kept. To expel them, therefore, from the bowels is doing but little for the cure of the disorder ; and those medi- cines which do expel them, such as oil of turpentine, and laro-e doses of calomel, may increase that morbid state of the stomach on which their existence depends. See article Worms. Venice turpentine is generally made by mixing the oil with the common turpentine, which is easily done when the latter is melted. Venice turpentine is sometimes employed as an ingredient in cough medicines. The dose is about half an ounce. But if given as a remedy for flatulent colic, or as a diuretic, a larger quantity is necessary. It makes a good detergent ointment, if mixed with about a fourth or a third part of red precipitate, finely powdered. TUKPETH MINERAL, or YELLOW SUB-SUL- PHATE OF QUICKSILVER. — JSub-sidphas Hijdrargijri Flavus. This mercurial prejsaration is seldom used in veteri- nary practice, being apt to irritate the stomach and bowels, and bring on violent purging ; but it has been recommended as a remedy for farcy. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm. It is given as an emetic to dogs, when they have swallowed any poisonous substance, or at the commencement of the dis- temper ; but it should give place to better treatment. UNGUENTS or OINTMENTS. — Unguenta. See Oint- ments. VALERIAN ROOT, WILD. — Valerimm officinalis. This is an indigenous perennial plant, the root of which has a strong unpleasant odour, and a bitter and rather acrid taste. The dried root is employed by medical practitioners in spasmodic and nervous complaints. Tincture of valerian is employed for spas- modic colic. The dose is an ounce. VERATRUM ALBUM. White hellebore. See Helle- bore. VERDIGRIS. — JErugo^ Suhacetas Cupri iminira. Imimre subacetate of copper. This is made in wine countries, by buiy- ing thin copper plates in the refuse parts of the grape, after the juice has been pressed out. It is employed externally as a mild caustic or detergent, and is frequently mixed with common tur- pentine, or ointments, for the same purpose. See Detergents and Digestives. Common verdigris has been recommended as 554 MATERIA MEDIC A a remedy for the farcy ; but I have never seen it do any good in that complaint, though I have several times given it a trial. It has been fairly tried in the glanders ; half an ounce was given daily for a considerable time, but it had no effect on the disease, nor did it occasion any inconvenience to the animal. This is rather remarkable, as verdigris is considered as a poison in the human body, and is the substance which causes the dele- terious effects which copper vessels, when employed for culinary j)urposes, have sometimes occasioned. VESICATOE.IES. A term synonymous with blisters. VINEGAR. — Acetum. Though medical practitioners prefer distilled vinegar, yet for veterinary purposes the best undistilled vinegar is just as proper. It makes an useful embrocation, with about a tenth part of sal ammoniac or muriate of ammonia, for inflamed swellings; and, when neutralized Avith prepared am- monia, or salt of hartshorn, forms a preparation, sometimes em- ployed in fevers, and termed Mindererus's spirit. Vinegar is sometimes used alone as an embrocation for strains, bruises, or inflamed swellings of any kind, and often with suc- cess ; it may be made more effectual, however, by the addition of sal ammoniac and proof spirit, or by being mixed with a small quantity of sugar of lead and water, according to the circum- stances of the case. A solution of honey in vinegar is termed an oxymel, and is sometimes used as a remedy for coughs : this is said to be nearly the same preparation as Godbold's Vegetable syrup, which has been sometimes recommended by farriers to cure bi'oken wind, an incurable disease ! See Acetates and Embrocations. VINUM. See Wine. VITRIOL, BLUE and WHITE. See Sulphate of Cop- per, and Sulphate of Zinc. YIT^IOIAC ACYD.—Acidum Snljihuricum. This, which is more commonly named oil of vitriol, is now in all modern dis- pensatories named sulphuric acid, and its combinations are therefore named sulphates. WATER. — Aqua. Much has been written respecting the different qualities of water, some having been considered as very injurious to horses, while others have been said to promote health and condition. Dr. Bracken thought hard or pump water liable to produce the gravel or stone ; and other authors have had still more whimsical notions on this subject. It appears probable that transparent and sweet water, that is, such as is most grateful to man, is most wholesome for horses, whether it be taken from a well or from any other situation. The ill effects that have sometimes resulted from drinking certain kinds of water may depend upon its being drank too largely, or at too cold a temperature, at a time when the stomach was not in a condition for receiving so much, or upon its being so ill-tasted AND PHARMACOPCErA. 555 that the horse does not take a sufficient quantity for the purposes of digestion ; or, if he does, it may create that degree of nausea, which proves injurious to the stomach. In deep wells the water is generally about the same temperature, both in winter and summer, that is, about 40° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. If a horse, therefore, in a hot summer day, after being heated by exercise, should drink freely of such comparatively cold water, it would probably do him a serious injury ; for the water of ponds or running streams may at that time be fifteen degrees warmer. In winter, however, the water of deep wells is generally to be preferred, being considerably warmer than that of ponds or streams. As to the small quantity of sulphate of lime that hard water may contain, it is not probable that it contributes in any degree to the formation of stones either in the bowels or bladder. It is certain, however, that the temperature of water, the quan- tity taken at a time, the state of the body when taken, and especially the state of the stomach, are circumstances that ought to be carefully attended to. The practice of medicating water, that is, of mixing nitre, salts, &c. with it, may be proper when horses require only a moderate quantity of water : but, Avhen dilution is considered necessaiy, their water should be as free from taste or smell as possible. Horses under the operation of cathartic medicine, or physic, sometimes refuse warm water, often because it is too warm, or of an unpleasant or smoky smell or taste ; in such cases it should be offered a little colder, and free from any offensive smell. Horses are often watered only twice a day, and then suffered to drink as much as they have an inclination for ; this is particu- larly injurious to such as have voracious appetites, or worms, chronic covigh, imperfect or broken wind. Such horses should have a small or moderate quantity three or four times a day, and their hay and corn should be moistened; this would diminish their appetite for water, which is generally inordinate ; and, if they are allowed to drink much, they are the more in- clined to eat immoderately of hay, if they are restrained in which they will often devour even their litter, however foul it may be, and therefore greatly aggravate their complaint. WAX, BEES'. — Cera Flava. Bees- wax is used only in the composition of ointments and plasters. WHEAT. See Triticum. WEITE-WATER. This is a mixture of oatmeal and water, and is a good noxu"ishing drink for horses that have done a hard day's work. It is a good thing to accustom horses to drink white- water, as, when greatly fatigued, a horse will generally drink, but cannot sometimes be induced to eat. WINE. — Vinum. In French books on farriery, wine is generally recommended, not only alone, but as a vehicle for other cordials. This probably has led some farriers of this 556 MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACOPCEIA. country to prescribe port wine in liberal doses, both to horses and cattle. There is a great difference, however, both in the quality or strength, as Avell as in the price, of port and the French wines ; and it is not probable that the best French wines are ever given to horses or cattle. The port wine of this country contains a large proportion of alcohol (see Alcohol) ; no less, indeed, according to Mr. Brande, in some specimens he ex- amined, than 25 per cent. That is to say, taking the alcohol naturally contained in the wine, or rather the quantity produced by the fermentation of the juice of the grape, with the brandy added to it previous to exportation, it amounts to one-fourth part of alcohol, or one-half of proof spirit ; but, when the wine is of sufficient age, the spirit is so intimately blended with the other constituent parts, that the strength of the liquor is not manifest to the taste. The French wine commonly employed for horses and cattle is not stronger, perhaps, than our cider. In M. Volpi's veterinary work, which I have before spoken of (see Ethiop's Mineral), he directs no less than two or three bottles of genei'ous wine to be given at one dose, in a disease he terms Jievj-e pernicieuse. With regard to wine in this country, I know of no disease in Avhich it is i-eally necessary ; as a little warm beer and ginger, or diluted brandy, will effect everything that can be accomplished by wine. A bottle of port has been occasionally given with good effect after severe exhaustion from hunting. WINTER'S BKBl^.— Winter CB Aromaticce Cortex. The tree from which this bark is obtained is a large evergreen, a native of the straits of Magellan. The bark has an aromatic odour, and a hot spicy taste. It is a pleasant stimulant ; and, though not commonly used in veterinary practice, may be given with good effect in cases of indigestion and weakness of stomach. The dose from thi'ee drachms to one ounce every morning. WOLF'S BANE, or ACONITE. —Aconitum. A danger- ous medicine in the horse, and never employed, its effect having been ascertained upon glandered horses. See Remarks on Flour of Sulphur and Aconitum. YEAST. — (7erey/s2ffi Fermentiim. Yeast may be used to form a poultice with linseed- meal for the purpose of correcting the offensive discharge from foul ulcers. YEW TREE. The leaves of this tree are poisonous to horses and cattle. See Poisons, Vegetable. ZINC. — ~ Zincum. A metallic substance, or rather a semi- metal, the oxide of which is named Flowers of Zinc (whicli see). It affords other medicinal preparations, the most useful of which is sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol. This is employed in making astringent lotions and eye-watei"s, and is sometimes given inter- nally as a tonic. See Eye-water, Astringents, Tonics, and Flowers of Zinc. INDEX. Abdomen, viscera of, 64 ; wounds of, 292. Abscess, 290 ; serous, 290. Absorbents, 401. Acute founder, 335. Age of a horse, mode of judging, 379. Air, atmospheric, composition of, 57. 409 ; properties of, changes effected in, by respiration, and its effects on the blood, 58. Air passages, diseases of, 115; chronic diseases of, 131. Alteratives, 415. Amaurosis, 265. Anasarca, 235. Animal heat, production of, 61. Anodynes, 419. Anthelmintics, 420. Antispasmodics, 424. Appetite, loss of 145; inordinate, and depraved, 147. Argand lamp, recommended for stables, 5. Ass, inoculation of, as a test for glan- ders, 225. Astringents, 428. Authors, Veterinary, English, iv. xvi ; French, vii. Back sinews, strain of, 272. Bags, or washes, 196. Balling iron, 430. Balls, see Materia Medica, 432 ; the tongue sometimes injured by, 199; caution to be used in giving, 201. Bar shoe, 317. Bathing, 438. Beans, 7. Bitting, 197 ; injuries produced by, 197. Bladder, structure and functions of, 78; inflammation of, 190. Bleeding, 342; local, 341. Blisters, 349. 438. Blood, circulation of, 50; its nature and composition, 54. Body founder, 202. Bog-spavin, 285. Bone-spavin, 284. Bones of the head, 23; of the spine and chest, 27 ; of the extremities, 29 ; injuries of, 291. Botts, 175. Bowels, structure of, 66 ; inflammation of, 160. Brain, 43; inflammation of, 104; dropsy, 105. Breaking down, 273. Breeding, principles and practice of, 88. Broken knees, 293. Broken wind, 133. Bronchial passages, diseases of, 122, Bronchitis, 122. BroncViotomy, 140. Bruises, 287 ; of the foot, 324. Bursautee, 240. Caecum, structure of, 68. Calculi in the intestines, 170; in the kidneys, 192; in the bladder, 192, Canker, 333. Capped hock, 290. Capulet, 290. Carditis, 143. Cartilages, ossified, 281. Casting, or throwing a horse down, 352. Castration, 367 ; by caustic clam, 369 ; by ligature, 370; by torsion, 371. Cataract, 264 ; partial, 264. Catarrh, 125. Cerebellum, 43. Cerebrum, 43. Chaff", remark on, 8. Chapped heels, 238. Chest, 45; diseases of, 115. Chill, 202. Chloroform, 355. Chronic cough, 131. Chyle, 75. Chymification, 72. Circulation of the blood, 50 ; in the foetus, 87. Clipping, 14. Clysters, 349. 459. CoflSn bone, 301. Coffin joint, strain of, 275. Colds, 125. Colic, flatulent, 165. Colon, structure of, 68. Contracted feet, 338. Cordials, 461. Corns, 329. Couching, 264. Cough, 126; chronic, 131. Crib-biting, 174. 558 INDEX. Crown-scab, 246. Curb, 287. Cutaneous diseases, 242. Cutting, 326. Cystitis, 190. Dentition, 377. Diabetes, 196. Diaphoretics, 469. Diaphragm, 46 ; diseases of, 141. Diarrhoea, 163. Digestion, 70. Distemper, 126. Diuretics, 470. Docking, 360. Drenches, 472. Dresden, royal stables at, xiv. Dressing, 474. Dropsy of the brain, 105; general, 235. Duodenum structure of, 67. Dysentery, 163. Embrocations, 475. Enteritis, 160. Epidemic diseases, 206. Epilepsy, 105. Epizootic diseases, 206. Eustachian cavities, 64. Examination of horses, 382. Exercise, 12. 482; necessity and import- ance of, 12; time, and manner of taking, 12. Exostosis, 278. Eye, structure, 249 ; functions of, 259 ; inflammation of, 260 ; worm in the, 269. False quarter, 330. Farcy, 233. Feeding ; oats, 7 ; beans 8 ; chaff, hay, 9 ; bad method of feeding generally adopted, 8 ; proper times for, 10 ; danger of improper feeding, 10. Fetlock-joint, strains of, 273. Fever, 103. Firing, 358. 486. Fistula of the withers, 296. Flatulent colic, 165. Fleam, 342. Flexor tendons, 270 ; strain of, 272. Foetal circulation, 87. Foetus, growth of the, 85. Fomentations, 485. Food, 7; green food, 12. Foot, structure of, 301 ; hoof, 301 ; functions of, 305; management of, 303 ; bruises of, 324; diseases of, 329. Foot founder, acute, 335 ; chronic, 335. Fracture, 299. French shoeing, 308. Fret, 164. Fumigating the nostrils, 231. 487 ; Mr. Read's apparatus for, 1 27. Fumigation of stables, 229. Gall-bladder, none in the horse, or ass, 69. Gastric juice, 71. Gastritis, 143. Generation, male organs of, 80 ; female, 84, 85 ; functions of, 85. Glanders, symptoms of, 215; loss of horses by, 215 ; law respecting, in France, 218; chronic, 219; commu- nicated by inoculation, 225 ; nature of, 227 ; treatment of, 230. Glottis, 48. Gravelling, 324. Grease, 239. Grinders to be filed, when unequally worn, 196. Gripes, 164. Gruel, 491. Grunter, 136. Gums, inflammation of, occasioned by the bit, 1 96. Gutta-serena, 265. Hematuria, 188. Halter, proper length of, 5. Halter-cast, 328. Haw, 251. Hay, 9 ; quantity to be given, 10. Heart, 49; diseases of, 141. Heels, cracks or ulcers in, 238. Hepatirrhoea, 185. Hepatitis, 179. Hernia, or ruptures, 372 ; scrotal, 372 ; operations for, 373 ; ventral, 374. Hide-bound, 243. Highblower, 136. Hints to purchasers of horses, 382. Hip-joint, strain of, 276. Hobbles, old and new, 352. Hock joint, structure of, 282 ; injuries of, 282. Hoof, the, 301. Hunting, injuries from, 292. Hydrocephalus, 105. Hydrothorax, 121. Hypertrophy, 142. Ileum, structure of, 67 ; strangulation of, 171. Inflammation, on, 96 ; treatment of 101. Influenza, 207. Intestines, structure of, 66 ; functions of, 76. Intus-susception, 174. Jaundice, 181. Jejunum, structure of, 67. Joints, 35 ; joints opened, 294. Journeys, directions for, 15. Kidneys, structure and functions of, 78; inflammation of, 187; decay of, 189. Knees, broken, 293. INDEX. 559 Knee-joint, strain of, 270. Kumree, 109. Lameness, 266. Laminitis, 235. Lampas, 196. Lancets, 342. Laryngitis, 1 22. Larynx, 48. Leg, fore, 270. Lethargy, 150. Lithotomy, 192. Litter, 2. Liver, structure of, 69 ; disorders of, 179; inflammation of, 180; chronic inflammation of, 181 ; decayed struc- ture of, 182. Locked-jaw, 110. Loins, strain of, 275. Lungs, 47; inflammation of, 115 ; chronic diseases of, 119. Mad-staggers, 104. Mallenders, 246. Mange, 243. Manger, 3. Mashes, 507. Mastication, 70; defective, causes of, 196. Materia Medica, 401. Medulla oblongata, 43. Medulla spinalis, 44, Megrims, 105. Melanosis, 246. Molten grease, 164. Mouth, diseases of, 195; structure of, 62. Muscular system, 37. Narrow heels, 338. Navel galls, 295. Navicular joint, lameness of, 340. Nephritis, 187. Nerves, 43. Nerve operation, 361. Nicking, 359. Nimrod's system of summering hunters, 11. Nostrils, 48. Oats, 7. CEsophagus, structure of, 63 ; obstruc- tion in, 201. CEsophaf otomy, 202. Operations, 342. 352. Ophthalmia, simple, 260 ; specific, 261. Ossified cartilages, 281. Over-reaching, 327. Palsy, 108 ; of the stomach, 149, Pancreas, structure of, 69. Paraplegia, 108. Pastern, 33. 303. Patella, dislocation of, 277. Penis, structure of, 82. Periosteotomy, 279. Peritoneum, structure of, 66. Peritonitis, 160. Pharmacopoeia, 401, Pharynx, or food-bag, structure of, 63, Phrenitis, 104. Physicking, 347. Pleura, the, 47. Pleurisy, Pleuritis, 120. Pneumonia, or peripneumony, 115. Poisons, 143. 524, Poll-evil, 297. Poultice, 524. Powders, 528. Pulse, varieties of, 100. Pumiced foot, 337. Purchasers of horses, advice to, 382. Purgatives, 452. Quidders, 199. Quittor, 331. Rabies, or hydrophobia, 107. Rack, improved, 3 ; new invented ditto, 4. Raking, 530. Rat tails, 245. Rectum, structure of, 69. Red colic, 160. Report, Professor Sewell's, xii. Respiration, and its effects, 57. Restoratives, 530. Rheumatism, 202 ; ditto, chronic, 204. Ring-bone, 280. Roaring, 136. Rowels, 350. Rowelling, 531. Ruptures, 372 ; of the stomach and bowels, 168. Saddle-galls, 295. Sallenders, 246. Sand-crack, 330. Scarlatina, 128. Scrotum, 81. Setons, 351. Shoe, French, 309; seated, 314; uni- lateral, 318 ; bar, 317 ; Mr. B. Clark's, 314. Shoeing, 308 ; injuries from, 320. Shoulder blade and bone, 30 ; strain of, 268. Singeing, 14, Sitfasts, 295, Skeleton, 20. Skin, structure of, 242 ; diseases of, 242. Sole, bruise of, 324. Sore mouth, 195. Sore throat, 125. Soundness, 393. Spavin bone, 284 ; bog-spavin, 285. Spermatic cord, 81. 560 INDEX. Spinal marrow, 44; diseases of, 108. Spinal nerves, 44. Spleen, structure of, 69. Splints, 278. St. Bel, M., his experiments relative to glanders, 225. Stable, construction and economy of, 1. Staggers, 104. Sternum, 46. Stifle joint, strain of, 277. Stimulants, 536. Stomach, structure of, 64 ; functions of, 71 ; palsy of, 150. Stomach staggers, 150, Stomach and skin, sympathy between, 73; inflammation of, 143. Stomachics, 539. Stone in the bladder, 190; in the bowels, 170. Stopping, 540. Strains, general observations on, 266 ; shoulder, 268 ; back sinews, 272; fetlock joint, 273 ; coffin joint, 275 ; hip joint, &c., 276 ; stifle joint, 277 ; hock joint, 270; knee joint, 283. Strangles, 129. Strangulation of the small intestines, 171 ; the rectum, 171 ; the ileum and colon, 171. String-halt, 114. Structure of the horse, general view of, 17. Summer, treatment of horses in, 11. Suppuration, 98. Surfeit, 242. Swansea distemper, 151. Swelled legs, 236. Teeth, structure of, 377 ; mode of judg- ing age by, 379. Tendons of the leg, description of, 270 ; strain of, 272. Testes, or testicles, SO. Tetanus, or locked-jaw, 1 10. Thickwind, 135. Thorough-pin, 286. Throat, structure of, 63; sore, 125. Thrush, 332. Tongue, the, 62 ; lacerated, 1 98. Tonics, 547. Traciiea, 48. Trachitis, 122. Training, 12. Treads, 331. Trismus, 111. Trumpeter, 136. Tumours, encysted, 246. Udder, S5. Ulceration, 98. Ulcers in the mouth, 198. Unsoundness, causes of, 393. Urinary organs, structure of, 78 ; dis- eases of, 108. Urine, the, 79; retention of, 190; bloody, 188. Vapour inhaler, 127. Vas deferens, 81. 367. Vein, inflamed, 346. Ventilation of stables, 409. Vertigo, 105. Vesiculse seminalis, 81. Veterinary schools : London, vii ; Han- over, XV ; Lyons, xii ; Alfort, xii ; Vienna, xiii ; Berlin, xiv. Viscera of the abdotnen, 64. Vision, 258. Vives, 130. Vomiting, horse incapable of, 66. Wall eye, 254. Warbles, 295. Warranty, 392. Warts, 246. Water, 11. 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THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE POPULARLY EXPLAINED, and Illus- trated by Lithographic Designs ; to wliich are added, Rules and Tables for ascertaining its amount of useful effect, resistance, &c. Eor general infor- mation. By William Templeton. 2nd Edition, 12mo. 4s. cloth. Thurlow's Land Surveyor. THE LAND SURYEYOR'S RE.iDY RECKONER; or. Gentlemen and Farmers' Guide to Land Measm-e : showing at one view the contents of any piece of Land, from the eightieth part of an Acre to any number of Acres : wdth plaiu and easy Directions for Measm-iiig Laud'by Gunter's Chain, as well as by other Methods. Also a Table, showing the Breadth requii-cd to any given Length, to make One, Two, Three, to Ten Acres : also, for converting Yards into Poles and Links* New Edition, corrected, square, 2s. bound. Tytler's Elements of General History. ELEMENTS of GENERAL HISTORY. To which are added, a Comjjara- tive View of Ancient and Modern Geography, and a Table of Chronology. By Alex. 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