REESE LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA < liirehvii ,190 . 3 Accession No. 82919 . CImsNo. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING BY C. FRANKLIN EDMINSTER Instructor in Department of Fine Arts, I'RATT INSTITUTK, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK ^ 01" THE ^J* UNIVERSITT PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 4 Copyright, IfOO, by C. FRANKLIN EDMINSTER. PREFACE. This book is planned to meet the demand for a treat- ise on elementary architectural drawing. The material of which it is composed is in line with the evening work carried on at Pratt Institute. The order in which the subjects are here arranged need not be followed by the student. He should, if a beginner, commence with elementary work, such as problems in projection or in geometry. As a rule it would be unwise to spend the time requisite to perform all the geometric problems ; but some of the more important ones will be found very helpful, especially in the matter of accuracy. From the work given, several courses can be mapped out to meet the varying demands. The plates in the various subjects are arranged con- secutively ; that is, each new sheet presents a problem a little more difficult than that of the preceding. For instance, in the study of the frame house the plan is first drawn, and with this as a basis a complete study of all its details and framing are given, and in many instances rriore than one form of detail which might be used in the same position. C. Franklin Edminster. 82919 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/architecturaldraOOedmirich 1. Drawing Materials and Their Uses II. Geometrical Problems .... III. Simple Projection, Introducing the Principles of Working Drawings - IV. Intersection of Solids and Development of Surfaces ----- 40 CONT ENTS. PAGF. CHAPTER. 7 V. 12 VI. VII. 22 VIII. IX. Projection of Shadows Instrumental Perspective Orders of Architecture Study of a Frame House Studies in Masonry Construction PAGE. 61 90 114 150 200 ^ OF THB 1 , UNIVERSITT ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. CHAPTER I. NOTES ON MATERIALS. The student beginning the study of architectural drawing should provide liimself with the necessary instruments of a good quality. He should not be hampered by using inferior materials, as many diffi- culties will arise under even the best conditions. Drawings Boards. — One of the best methods of making a drawing board is to glue together narrow strips of boards, fastening two cleats (about two inches wide) across the back in such a way that there will be perfect freedom for the wood to ex- pand and contract, which it surely will do as the humidity of the atmosphere changes. This freedom may be obtained by cutting slots in the cleats through which the screws pass and placing iron washers under the heads of the screws. A much cheaper board can be constructed by securing nar- row pieces across each end, which serve to hold the board from warping. This form of board will an- swer very well, especially if the paper used is not stretched. It is extremely important that one end and one side of the board should be perfectly straight. Drawing: Paper. — Drawing paper that is to be used for general draughting and line work in pencil or ink should have a firm smooth surface that is not easily roughened when erasures are made. As a rule, paper that is well adapted to line work will not receive a flat wash readily. Paper suitable for wash drawings is made with a less firm but rougher sur- face than for line work. Whatman's cold pressed ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. paper possesses unusual properties, in that it works well for both line and wash drawings. For general detail work, some of the tinted papers are more pleasant to work upon than white, as the white is rather trying to the eyes, especially when used in the evening. For highly finished drawings, how- ever, white paper is usually preferred. The right side of the paper can usually be determined by hold- ing it to the light and finding the water mark, which should read correctly on the side used. Drawing paper may be obtained in sheets of stand- ard sizes as follows: Cap, 13" x 17"; Demy, 15" x 20"; Medium, i7"x22"; Royal, 19" x 24"; Super Royal, 19" X 27"; Imperial, 22" x 30"; Elephant, 23" x 28"; Atlas, 26" x 34"; Double Elephant, 27" X 40"; Antiquarian, 31" x 53"; Emperor, 48" x 68". The above terms apply only to the sizes of the sheets, and not in any way to the grade or qual- ity of the paper. T-Square. — The T-square is made of two parts, tlie head and blade, which are fastened together at right angles to each other. This instrument should be used for drawing horizontal lines only, always holding the head against the left-hand edge of the board. Should the draughtsman allow himself to use either left or right side of the l)oard at will, the results obtained would be very inaccurate, owing to the fact that two ends or sides of the board are seldom, if ever, parallel. Again, many times the T-square blade does not form right angles with the head. One may readily see that horizontal lines drawn imder such conditions would not be parallel. Triangles. — The draughtsman should provide him- self with two triangles; the 45°, and the 30° and 60°. The triangles are used for drawing all lines that are not horizontal. Vertical lines should always be drawn by placing the triangle on the upper edge of the T-square blade, holding the pencil or pen in a plane perpendicu- lar to the surface of the paper, inclining it slightly, and drawing upward, but never downward. In drawing horizontal lines, the pencil or pen should l)e held in a plane perpendicular to the paper, inclining it slightly to the right. Draw from left to right. Angles of 45°, 30°, 60° and 90°, with a horizontal line can be drawn at once by placing the triangle on the T-square blade. Instruments.— Instruments should be selected with tlie greatest care. It is much better to have a few pieces of excellent quality, than a great number of in- ferior make. Choose quality rather than quantity. In- ARCFflTECTURAL DRAWING. struniciits should be well cared for, properly wiped each time after using and the points prevented from contact with hard substances which will tend to in- jure them. Compasses. — When drawing with the compasses the head should be held lightly between the thumb and two fingers, moving the leg containing the lead in the direction traversed by the hands of a clock, inclining it slightly in the direction of the line to be drawn. The joints in the legs should be so adjusted as to keep the lower sections perpendicular to the surface of the pa- ]jcr, and when a circle is of such a size as will not ad- mit of this the lengthening bar should be inserted. Ruling Pen.- — The ruling pen is a very important instrument and should be made of the very best hard- ened steel ; if not, it will give the student endless trouble. Most of the prepared inks in general use are provided with a quill in the cork of the bottle which lifts a certain amount of ink. The quill may be inserted between the nibs of the pen and the ink allowed to flow into the pen. The ink should not be more than one-fourth of an inch deep between the nibs. Clean the pen frequently by immersing it first into clear water and then passing a piece of cloth or chamois skin between the nibs. The pen should never be put away after using without being thoroughly cleansed. Pencil. — The character of the work performed by a student is greatly influenced by the condition in which he keeps his pencil. It is impossible to do ac- curate work with a dull point. For all rule work the wedge-shaped point possesses an advantage over the round point, in that it has a greater wearing surface, hence will not require sharpening so often. For all freehand work nothing but the round or conical point should be used. Some draughtsmen prefer this point for rule work as well. The wood should be cut well back, leaving at least one-fourth of an inch of the lead exposed. One of the best sharpeners for a pencil is a fine flat file, on which the lead should be frequently ap- plied, to produce a sharp point. Where great accuracy is required, the beginner should use a 4 H or 6 H pen- cil. As skill in draughting is acquired, a softer grade may be substituted. A medium grade pencil should be used for lining-in the drawings where strength of line is required. The Scale.— A scale is an instrument used in reduc- ing a drawing that would otherwise be too large for the sheet of paper on which it is to be placed. For in- stance, if we have a house measuring 40 x 60 ft., the drawing may be made on a scale of ^ of an inch to i ARCHITFXTURAL DRAWING. ft. The space occupied upon the plate would be lo x 15 in., exactly in proportion to the actual size. In using this scale, or proportion, we have taken an actual ^ of an -in. and considered it i ft. ; and this being taken as I ft. we divide it into 12 parts, each part being equal to I in. There will be found several different scales upon the instrument, all of which are divided in a simi- lar manner. Irregular Curve.— This instrument is used in draw- ing curves that cannot be accomplished by the use of the compass. Such curved lines usually pass through a succession of points which have already been foimd. The edge of the irregular curve should be so placed (by repeated trials) as to pass through as many points as possible and also a portion of the line already drawn. Never draw through the last point covered by the ir- regular curve. This operation requires a great deal of care in order to produce a perfectly smooth curve. Pcncilingf. — -Too much stress cannot be placed upon the first penciling of a drawing. All drawings, whether to be inked-in or left in a strong pencil line, should first be worked out with a light line and very ac- curately placed. Many students have the feeling that they can correct the little errors while lining-in the drawing; this is not so, the chances being that they will greatly increase rather than diminish the faults. Inking.- For highly finished drawings the stick In- dia ink is generally preferred, but for ordinary work the prepared will be found satisfactory. The great advantage that stick ink possesses over the prepared is, that in case of error the line can readily be removed with the ordinary eraser. The disadvantage in using the stick ink is that considerable time each day is re- quired to grind a fresh supply. In inking a drawing the student should ink all circles and arcs of circles firsts then beginning with the upper horizontal line, ink in order those below. With the vertical lines, begin on the left side of the plate and ink each line in succession. When several lines meet at a point always begin to ink from that point, allowing each successive line to dry before drawing another, thus preventing a blot that would otherwise occur at their junction. Visible Lines. — The visible lines of an object are represented by a full black line. Invisible Lines. — Invisible lines or lines that are hidden are represented by a dash line, the dashes be- ing about one-quarter of an inch long, the spaces be- tween them being less than one-eighth of an inch. This line should be of the same strength as a visible line. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Working: Lines. — Working lines are used to obtain certain results, and if left in pencil should be very light, or if shown in ink should be very light red or short dash black lines. Arrow Heads. — Arrow heads should always be in black and made with great care, their points just touching the line to be measured. Dimensioningf.— In placing the dimensions it is ail- ways well to group as far as possible and not scatter them over the entire drawing. As a rule the same measurement should not appear in more than one view. The measurement line upon which the di- mension is placed, should not be drawn too near the line measured, usually about one-quarter of an inch away. It is customary to place all dimensions under two feet as inches, thus: 21" (twenty-one inches), and for measurements over two feet as feet and inches thus : 5' 6" (five feet and six inches), or if in even feet thus : 3'-o" (three feet and no inches). When the space be- tween two lines is not sufficient to place the measure- ments in the usual manner they may be placed thus, Horizontal measurements should read 1% from left to right, and vertical meas- 4. ''^°° urements should read upward. Great care should be taken in making figures, as the worth and appearance of the drawing depends greatly upon them. CHAPTER II. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. Prob. I. — To bisect a given straight line A B. From points A and B as centers and with any radius greater than half of the line A B, describe arcs above and below intersecting in points i and 2. Draw a straight line through points i and 2, cutting the line A B at 3, so bisecting the given line A B. Prob. 2. — To bisect an arc of a circle A B. From a point A as center and with any radius greater than half of curve A B, draw arcs above and below. With B as center and the same radius cut the arcs al- ready drawn in points i and 2. Draw a straight line through points i and 2, intersecting the curve A B in 3, which will bisect the given arc, A B. Prob. 3. — To bisect a given angle ABC. With B as center and any radius draw an arc cutting the lines B A and B C in points i and 2. With points I and 2 as centers and any radius greater than half of arc 1-2, describe arcs intersecting in point 3. Draw a line through points B and 3 which will bisect the given angle, A B C. Prob. 4 — To trisect a given right angle ABC. With B as center and any radius draw an arc cut- ting the sides of the right angle in points i and 2. With points i and 2 as centers and the same radius draw arcs cutting in 3 and 4. Draw lines B 4 and B 3 which trisect the given right angle ABC. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 13 Prcb. 5. — To divide a given straight line A B into 6 equal parts (applicable for any number X. Draw the line A C at any angle to A B ; lay off on this line 6 divisions, being equal to about J of A B Connect points 6 and B by a straight line. From points I, 2, 3, 4 and 5 draw lines parallel to 6 B cut- ting A B in a, b, c, d and e. Prob. 6, — To divide line A B into the same proportional parts as the given line C D. From point A draw a line at any angle to A B. Lay off on this line the points corresponding to points on line C D. Connect points 4 and B. From points i, 2 and 3 draw lines parallel to 4 B, cutting the line A B in a, b and c. ^^ Prob. 7. — To divide a circle having the center given, into 6 equal parts. Draw the diameter 1-5. With points i and 5 as cen- ters and radius 1-2 describe arcs cutting the circle in points 3, 4, 6 and 7 which, with points i and 5, are the desired divisions. Prob. 8. — From point A above the givlen line B C, draw a perpendicular to B C. With point A as center and any radius cut B C in I and 2. With i and 2 as centers and any radius draw arcs below. From A draw a straight line to point 3, which is the desired perpendicular. Prob. 9. — On a given line A B to erect a perpendicular at point A. With point A as center and any radius draw an arc cutting A B in I. With i as center and the same ra- dius lay off points 2 and 3. With points 2 and 3 as centers, and any radius, describe arcs above, cutting in 4. Connect points 4 and A, so erecting the desired perpendicular. Prob. 10. — To draw a line C D parallel to a given line A B at a given distance, as E F above it. Erect perpendiculars at point i and 2 by Prob. 9, lay off on these the distance E F, giving points 3 and 4. Draw line C D through 3 and 4. 14 ARCHITF.CTURAL DRAWING. Prob. IJ. — Through point C draw the line D E parallel to A B. With point C as center and any radius, describe an arc cutting A B in i. With i as center and same radius describe an arc which will cut line A B in 2. With i as center and radius C 2 describe an arc cutting 1-2 in 3. Draw a straight line through points 3 and C, which will be the required line D E. Prob. J2. — To construct an angle equal to a given angle BAG. Draw the line D F. With A as center and any ra- dius describe an arc cutting the sides of the angle in points I and 2. With D as center and the same radius describe an arc cutting D F in 3. With radius 1-2, and 3 as center, describe an arc cutting 3-4 in 4. Draw D E through D 4. E D F is the angle required. Prob. 13. — Through point F draw a straight line which would meet the intersection of A B and C D if continued* Draw F i and F 2 at any angle. Connect 1-2. From point 3 anywhere on A B make 3-4 parallel to 1-2, 3 E parallel to 1 F, and 4 E parallel to 2 F. Pass a straight line through points F and E, which will be the desired line. Prob. J4. — Find the mean proportion between the two lines A B and C D. Lay off on E F, 1-2 equal to A B and 2-3 equal to C D. Bisect 1-3 in 4. With 4 as center and radius 4-1 describe a semicircle. From 2 erect a perpendicular (Prob. 9) to E F, cutting semicircle in 5. 2-5 will be the desired mean. Prob. J5. — On the given line A B to construct a square. Draw B i perpendicular to A B (Prob. 9) and equal to A B. With points A and i as centers and A B as radius describe arcs cutting in 2. Draw A-2 and 2-1. Prob. J6. — On a given line A B to construct an equilateral triangle. With A and B as centers, and A B as radius describe arcs cutting in i. Draw A i and B i. Prob. 17,— Having given the three sides of a triangle, as A B, C D and E F, to construct the figure. With point B as center and the radius C D describe an arc. With point A as center and E F as radius de- scribe an arc cutting the first in i. Draw A i and B I. Plate 1. PROB.I. PROB, a. PROD. 3. ')jC ^t 1/ / A / 3| A^ 1 -^B .^ ^ ^"^5 4 1 ^Y , Z PROB. A PROB. 5. PROB 6. / B yf / / / / / / 1 / 1 / ^^ / y \ '' \ 1 ,y\ \ \ a: \ \ \ \ \ / \ / \ o/- ^ 4 A' / \ ^^ \ ^ S \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ > \ \ \ \ \ b c 2 "abed e c 1 t 3 4° PROB. 7 PROB. a. PR0?3. a. l^ < ~">^6 A >^4 / \ / \ 2' C ' A N \ \ \ • \ \ 1 ^--- --^7 ) \ i — _^ ' ,,'' y 5) ^ \ i6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Prob. J8.— On a given base A B to construct a regular hexagon. With A and B as centers and A B as radius describe arcs cutting- in 1. With i as center and the same ra- dius describe a circle. A B is equal to I of its cir- cumference. Step off points 2, 3, 4, and 5 and draw B-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-A. Prqb. J9.— Within a given square, A BC D, to inscribe an octagon. Draw the diagonals A C and B D, intersecting in i. With A, B, C, and D as centers and radius A i describe arcs 2-3, 4-5, 6-7 and 8-9; draw 3-6, 5-8, 7-2 and 9-4. Prob. 20. — On a given line A B to construct a pentagon. With A and B as centers, and radius A B describe arcs cutting in i and 2. Connect i and 2. With i as center and the same radius describe an arc cutting at 3, 4 and 5. Pass a line through 3-4 to 6, and one through 5-4 to 7. With 7 and 6 as centers and radius A B describe arcs intersecting in 8. Draw A 7, 7-8, 8-6 and 6 B. Prob. 21.— On a given base A B to construct an octagon. Erect perpendiculars at A and B. Bisect the ex- terior angles and set ofif A i and B 2 equal to A B. Connect 1-2, cutting the perpendiculars in 3 and 4.. Make 3-5 and 4-6, equal to 3-4. Extend" line throu^ h 5-6 indefinitely. Make 5-7, 6-8, 5-9 and 6-10 equal to 3 A. Draw A i, 1-7, 7-9, 9-10, 10-8, 8-2 and 2 B. Prob. 22.— Within a given equilateral triangle A B C to inscribe a circle. Bisect the angles of the triangle by Prob. 3. The bi- sectors will intersect in i. The perpendicular distance from I to any side of the triangle will be the radius of the desired circle. Note, this problem is true in any form of triangle. Prob. 23.— Within a square A BCD to inscribe four semicircles, each touching one side of the square and their diameters forming a square. Draw diagonals A C and D B, intersecting in i. Draw diameters passing through i. Draw 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-2. Draw 6-7, 7-8, 8-9 and 9-6, which give us points II, 12, 13 and 14, the centers of the required semicircles. Prob. 24.— Within a given equilateral triangle A B C to inscribe three equal circles, each touching two sides of the triangle and two other circles. Bisect the angles of the triangle, letting the bisectors cut the sides of the triangle in i, 2, and 3. With cen- Plate 2 PHOH 10 I -li ^- I FHOH. II. "7X A ^ I fnOB. 12.. PROB. 13. PnOB. 14. PHOB, IS, PROB. 16. \ \ 1 ^'- \ V" ~ B ts ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. ters I, 2 and 3 and radius t-2 dcscril)e arcs cutting bi- sectors in 4, 5 and 6, the centers of tlic required circles. A perpendicular (Prob. 8) from the center of any circle to the side of the triano;le will determine the ra- dius of the circle, and also the point of tangency. Prob. 25. — Within a given circle to inscribe three semicircles, each touching the circumscribing circle and their diameters forming a regular triangle. Draw 2 diameters, 1-2 and 3-4 at right angles to each other, intersecting in 5. Divide the circle into twice as many parts as there are semicircles to be in- scribed, beginning at i. Draw diameters 6-7 and 8-9. Connect 2-3, cutting diameter 8-9 in 10, which locates one point of the required triangle. With 5 as center and radius 5-10 set ofif 11 and 12, which when con- nected form the triangle. Draw lo-ii, 11-12 and 12-10, giving points 13, 14 and 15, the centers of the re- quired semicircles. Prob 26.— Within a given square A B C D to inscribe four equal circles, each tangent to two otliers and two sides of a square. Draw the diagonals and thediameters intersectingin 1 and giving points 2, 3, 4 and 5. Connect points 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-2 intersecting diagonals in 6, 7, 8 and 9, which will be the centers of the required circles Prcb. 27. — Within a given circle to inscribe any number of equal circles which shall be tangent to each other and to the cir- cumscribing circle. In tliis problem, five. Divide the circumference of the circle into twice as many equal parts as there are to be circles inscribed: Produce the diameters on either side of 2-7 until they meet a perpendicular erected to 2-7 at 2. Bisect angles 12 and 13 and let bisectors cut diameter 2-7 in 14. With I as center and radius 1-14 draw a circle cutting diameters in 15, 16, 17 and 18, the centers of the re- quired circles. Prob. 28. — To draw a line tangent to a given circle through a given point A. Pass a line through center i and point A indefinitely. With point A as center and any radius cut this line in points 2 and 3. With 2 and 3 as centers and any ra- dius describe arcs cutting in 4 and 5. Connect 4 and S, which will be the desired line. Prob. 29. — To draw a line tangent to a given point A in a circle when the center is not accessible. Draw any chord A i. Bisect the chord and arc (Probs. I and 2) in 2 and 3. With A as center, and A 3 as a radius draw an arc 4-5 ; with 3 as center and 3-5 as a radius draw an arc cutting 4-5 in 4. Draw line through A 4 tangent to the circle. Plate 3. PROB. ID 7 8 1/ — -> X VWQXS.^ZQ. ^ I / \* +. T'HOH. 21. ?, iO IN i T I I I i PROB. 23. 3 c V ^/ 1 ^^. \ f / \ -X y" 7, " 1 la /^^ N IS \^^s. \ 11/ 12--*- 14 / 1^ / 4 v^ .^-^ rt V, x/ 6\ 1 -79 /' V^ 1 /J \.. 5 b PROB. 23. PROB. 1 26. 12 i^"°L\'r- .5 20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Profa. 30. — Draw a circle tangent to a given point C in line A B and through the fixed point D without the line. At point C erect a perpendicular (I'rob. 9). Connect C D and draw a perpendicular to its center (Prob. i) intersecting the first perpendicular in i, which is the center of the required circle. Prob. 3J. — Draw a circle tangent to a given circle A, also to a given line B C at given point D in the line. Pass a line through U perpendicular to B C. Lay off D I the length of the radius of circle A and draw A i . Draw perpendicular to A i (Prob. i) intersecting the line I D in 2, which is the center of the required circle. 3 and 1) are the points of tangency. Prob. 32. — At a given point E in line D B draw tw^o arcs of circles tangent at this point and to the two lines A B and C D. Make B i equal to B E. Make D 2 equal to D E. Draw E 3 perpendicular to D B. 1-4 perpendicular to A B and 2-3 perpendicular to C D. Points 3 and 4 are the centers of the required arcs. Prob. 33. — Having given parallel lines A B and C D, to connect by tw^o arcs of circles which shall be tangent at points B and C and pass through point E which is anyivhere on line BC. At B and C erect perpendiculars. Bisect B E and E C, intersecting the perpendiculars in i and 2. the cen- ters of the required arcs. y*^^^^ '-'^"^SH, ' ^~ OF the'*' UNIVERSITY Prob. 34. — To draw an ellipse by means of a trammel, having the axes given. The semi-diameters of the ellipse are represented by A B and A C. Lay off on the straight edge of a piece of paper 1-2 equal to A B also 3-2 equal to A C. Keep- ing point I on the short diameter and point 3 on the long, mark off as many points at 2 as desired to form the curve of an ellipse. Prob 35. — To draw^ a line tangent to an ellipse at any given point as E, in the curve. With point C as center and A i as radius describe an arc cutting diameter A B in F and F' which points are called foci. Extend a line from F' through E indefi- nitely. Make E 2 equal to E F. Bisect the angle F E 2, giving the desired tangent. Prob. 36. — To draw a line tangent to an ellipse, passing tlirough a given point E without it. Find the foci as in Prob. 35. With point E as center and radius E F describe an arc. With F' as center and A B as radius describe arc cutting the first arc in points I and 2. Connect F' i and F' 2, cutting the ellipse in points 3 and 4. Draw lines from E through 3 and 4, which will be tangent at 3 and 4. Plate 4- pnou .23. PROH. 29. PROB. 30. I-" ,^\ PROB. 31 PROB. 32. 2 _D PROR 33. PROB. 3G. f.*- OK TBK UNIVERSITY CHAPTER III. SIMPLE PROJECTION, INTRODUCING THE PRINCIPLES OF WORKING DRAWINGS. The working drawings of any object a're such draw- ings, accompanied by the proper measurements, as will tell all the facts concerning that object. Such drawings if sent to a mechanic would be sufficient to enable liim to perform the desired piece of work without further explanation. The number of views required depends entirely upon the character of the subject to be drawn ; for instance, in Plate 5, Fig. i, two views are sufficient to tell all that concerns the cube, whereas for a more complicated object three or even more views may be necessary to tell all the facts. Plate 5. — To draw the front and top views of the cube in three positions. Fig. I represents the cube so placed in the top view that two edges are parallel to an imaginary hori- zontal line. In drawing the front view we suppose the cube to be resting upon a horizontal plane upon one of its faces, and so placed as to appear as a square if seen directly in front. In the top view we are sup- posed to be looking down upon the cube, its position being unchanged. As noted before, the cube will be seen as a square in both the front and top views and these should appear directly above one another. The space between the two views is immaterial, but should be such as to appear well on the sheet. The horizon- tal lines should be drawn with a T-square, having its head against the left-hand edge of the board, whereas the vertical lines should be drawn with a triangle rest- ing on the edge of the T-square blade. Only three measurements are necessary. They should be carefully placed as indicated in the drawings, the arrow heads just touching the extension lines from those that they measure, not over-running or' falling short. Plate 5. FIG. I. TOP VIEW - \. UNIVERSITY I shortened surfaces and of placing measurements upon inclined lines. Plate 6. — Fig. i represents the front, top and side views of an equilateral triangular prism placed so that two of its faces are equally visible in the front view. In this drawing the top view should first be made, from which the front and side views are projected. The student should take notice that the width of the side view is equal to the altitude of the triangle formed by the top view and not to one of its sides, as many begin- ners are apt to suppose. Fig. 2. — Draw the front and top views of a reg- ular hexagonal prism according to the measurements given. In this, as in Fig. i, the top view should be drawn first and the front view projected directly below. Both the triangle in Fig. i and the hexagon in Fig. 2 may be constructed by the use of the 30° and 60° tri- angle, or more accurately, by the use of the compasses as given in geometric problems 16 and 18. Plate 6 FIC. I. riG. I. t.- TRIANGULAR AND HEXAGONAL PRISMS ITOP VIE\A/1 TRONT VIEW SIDt VIEW FRONT View 26 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 7. — The drawing to the left represents the views and a vertical section ; this section is supposed to front and top views of a square pyramid. Note that be cut through line A and the front half removed. The the height of the pyramid is given on a measurement line parallel to the axis and not parallel to the slant line of the pyramid. The chimney model is represented by front and top OF TBB ' ^ UNIVERSITT surface cut by this vertical plane is section lined at 45° Different pieces of material adjoining one another are section lined in different directions, as shown in this problem. Plate 7. FRONT VIEW SQUARE PYRAMID AND CHIMNEY MODEL ^ Is: I I*— I I I I I I -4 5'tl'^ —2" T^ -ll- mi. "^' TOP VIEW I I I I I I I I ^__. SECTION FRONT VIEW 28 ARCFrTTECTURAI, DRAWING. Plate 8. — The dravvinnf to the left represents the front and top views of a paneled prism turned at an angle of 30° and 60°. The top view should be drawn first ; the main lines of the prism and the vertical lines of the panel may then be projected down to their re- spective places as indicated by the connecting lines. In the drawing to the right we have the front and top views, and a vertical section of a hollow flanged cylinder. The top view should be drawn first, as in nearly all cases when the object is based upon the cyl- inder. As but one piece of material is shown in the section, all the section lines run in the same direc- tion. In mechanical drawing, the front view of ob- jects based upon the cylinder are frequently represent- ed half in elevation and half in section, instead of mak- ing a separate drawing of the section, as in this case. Plate 8. SQUARE PRISM ANO HOLLOW CYLINDER I I I m FRONT VIEW StCTION TRONT VIEW 30 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 9. — Draw the front, top, right, and left side views of a cylinder and a cube, as placed in the draw- ing. Locate the top view, from which project points down, so placing the objects in the front view. The spaces A', B', C, D', and E' of the right side view are equal to spaces A, B, C, D, and E of the top view. The vertical heights in the side views are equal to those of the front. Plate 9 COMBINATION o-" CYLINDER *"" CUBE "-I* n -aI ^<— B-> Ct LEFT SIDE VIEW. TRONT VIEW. RI&MT SIDE VIEW. 32 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING Plate JO. — Fig. I represents the front and top views of a hexagonal prism. In the front view this object shows two of its faces equally and is so inclined that its base makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal plane. First, draw the front view, making the short lines at 30° and the long lines at 60°, and the distances A and B in the front view equivalent to A' and B' in the diagram Fig. 2 ; this diagram being a regular hex- agon. In the top view the distances C, D and E are equal C, D', and E' in the diagram. Having obtained the position of these horizontal lines, project points in the front view to corresponding lines in the top view, giving points to be connected by straight lines. Fig. 3. — The top view as shown in this figure is the same as in F"ig. i, but turned at an angle of 45°. The front view of this ol)ject in the turned position must be quite dififercnt in appearance from that in Fig. i ; but all its points will appear to be at the same height as before it was revolved. This being so, we have simply to project corresponding points in the top and front views until the lines intersect, giving the several points, which are connected by straight lines. For instance, point F may be traced from one view to an- other, as shown in the drawing. ■^ OF THK ^y-^ UNIVERSITY Plate 10 FIG. I. HEXAGONAL PRISM FIG. Z. FIG. 3. FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW 34 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate I J. — Draw tlie front and top views of a square prism resting across a triangular prism according to given measurements. Draw the front view as shown, from which project the ]5oints of the triangular prism locating the top view. The points in the square prism are projected in a similar manner. Being a square prism the space between the two long edges in the top view equals one side of the prism. Transfer the top view to the right portion of the sheet at angles of 30° and 60°. F"in(l the front view by projection, as in plate 10. Plate 11. SQUARE AND TRIANGULAR PRISMS 2" -»^ FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW 36 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J 2, — In this plate we have the hexagonal prism resting across the square prism, their projec- tions to be carried out precisely as in the plate preced- ing To find the projection of the hexagonal prism as shown on the left portion of the plate, proceed as in Plate 1 1 . Measurements should only be placed upon lines that are not foreshortened. OF TVV. ' \ UNIVERS]' ■ CALIFOPt'- '^ Plate 12. HEXAGONAL ANO SQUARE PRISMS FRONT VCW FRONT VIEW 33 ARCtllTIXTURAl, DRAWING. Plate 13. — This plate fjivcs an excellent problem in projection ; the student being obliged to follow each point carefully through the several views in order to produce correct results. Draw first the front and then the top view. Having completed the top view, transfer it to the right portion of the sheet, turning it at angles of 30° and 60°. The fourth view is found by project- ing horizontally from the front view and vertically from the top view as in the foregoing drawings. Great accuracy is required to make this last result satisfac- tory. Plate 13. DOUBLE CROSS TOP VIEW FRONT VIEW FRONT VIEW CHAPTER IV. INTERSECTION OF SOLIDS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES. The surface of an object is developed by laying out its several faces accurately upon a plane. If this draw- ing be cut out and folded where its several faces inter- sect it will produce an object of the same shape and equal in size to the original. Any object based upon the cube, cylinder or Cone may be developed, but those based upon the sphere are non-developable. Plate 14. — Draw the front and top views of the cube. Its pattern is found by unfolding or laying out its several faces. As the cube has six faces, we have simply to lay out six squares in some convenient form. Usually it is desirable to tint the pattern with some light wash of color. It gives the student practice in lay- ing on flat washes and the efifect of the plate is much roved. Plate 14. TOP VIEW CUBE PATTERN FRONT VIEW ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J5. — The pattern of the cyHnder is ob- tained by dividing the circumference into a cer- tain number of equal parts, generally 12 or 24. The greater the number the more accurate will be the re- sult, which is not absolutely correct, though near enough for all practical purposes, for we are measuring the chord each time instead of the arc. Having divided the circumference say into 24 elements, take .^^ and step off 24 divisions on a horizontal line. The entire space upon this line will be equal to the circumference of the cylinder, and upon this line complete the rect- angular figure, which will be equal in height to the length of the cylinder. The circles represented in the pattern are equal to the bases of the cylinder. Plate 15. CYLINDER PATTERN FRONT VIEW 44 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J6. — The base of the cone is divided into a cer- tain number of elements as was that of the cyUnder. But instead of being rolled out upon a horizontal line its elements will form an arc of a circle, the radius of which will be equal to the slant height of the cone. Locate a circle equal to the base of the cone at any point tangent to the great arc. ^^ or THu f^ UNIVERSITY , Plate 16. FRONT VIEW CONE PATTERN 46 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 17. — The pattern of a square pyramid is made up of four triangles, equal in size to the faces of the pyramid, and a square equal to its base. The arc cut- ting the boundary lines of these triangles has for its radius the true length of one of the edges of the pyra- mid. This is found by revolving the line A B until it becomes parallel to the plane upon which the front view is supposed to be made. In the top view A' C represents the revolved position of A' B', and if pro- jected down to the front view will give us A C, which is the true length of A B. Notice that only such lines as are parallel to the plane upon which the view is made, can be measured their actual length. Plate 17. SQUARE PYRAMID B c TRONT VIEIW PATTERN 48 ARCFdTECTURAL DRAWING. Plate J 8. — Right elbow joint. In thi.s plate we have the intersection of two cylinders, each being cut off at an angle of 45°, formng a mitre joint. Each section should be developed separately. First develop or roll out the lower member as in the previous sheet, then measure the length of the elements in their proper sequence ; and through the points obtained, pass a smooth line by the use of the French or irregular curve. The upper member is developed in a manner similar to the lower. Plate 18. RIGHT ELBOW TRONT VIEW PATTERN 50 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate (9. — To find the intersection of the two pipes in the front view, divide angle ABC into six equal parts. Three of these divisions will form lines of inter- section, two of which are seen as ellipses in the top view and may be found by projecting the several points in the front view caused by the intersection of the elements, to the corresponding elements in the top view. Members H and I are developed as in the fore- going sheet. Sections J and K should be laid out on center lines D' E' and F' G' which lines correspond to D E and F G ; the elements being measured above and below the lines to correspond with each section. Plate 19 .-^ y*-w '^ y \ FOUR PART ELBOW / X ^v \ / \ / / w \ ( 1 M\ » 1 _ ..__ 1 V_L 1 Pt ' V \ Afi t \ :;\ / 'A) 1' , ^ K r , V ^\,^\ /■ F - --, - ;z^ — g' !* •vjj. ; 7v' ^ t '\ / ' ij ! II 1 1 ™p I ^^i 1 ' 1 ' '' < ill i ■ ! ! ; c •3V' 1— r—r— '^mn fV i "^ ' \ ' "Z- f/ / / / V\/ A -f^i 1 -J- — '■^ 'i"\ ' ^■"Z^^ "^ r^>^^ i'*N \ 1 1 — r 1 I^l>^\ ' 0' p 1 " -~» ;^ ■^ — - ^ *^*' \^\= ^■"^ — ' ^y ■A ^ ^ 1" ' B 3 i5' > '4 * 1 « k FRONT VIEW PATTERN 52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 20. — The intersection of the horizontal pipe with the vertical is found by dividing the horizontal cyl- inder into 24 elements. Where the corresponding ele- ments in the top view pierce the vertical cylinder, points are obtained which, projected down to the front view, will determine points through which to pass the curve caused by the intersection. The intersection of the oblique cylinder with the vertical is carried, out in a similarmanner. The three cylindrical pipes should be V OF IBE T. developed first as right cylinders and their elements measured, giving points through which to pass curves, as in the preceding plate. The opening for the hori- zontal pipe in the pattern of the vertical pipe may be found by laying ofif the elements 1', 2', 3', 4', and 5' which correspond to 1,2, 3, 4, and 5 in the top view. On these elements lay ofT their corresponding lengths as found in the front view. The opening in the center of the pattern is found in a similar manner. *Pa CALIFO PV*^ INTERSECTION OF THREE PIPES rRONT VIEW Plate 20 PATTERNS 54 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 21.— In this problem we have a hexagonal pyr- amid piercing a square prism ; the hexagonal pyramid is drawn so it shows three faces in the front view, and tile square prism is turned to present two equal faces. The intersection of the hexagonal pyramid and the square prism in the front view may be determined by projecting points from the corresponding intersection in the top view. In finding the patterns, lay out both the square prism and hexagonal pyramid as though they had not been cut, then measure the various lines as in the preceding problems. . , -J TUB UKIVERSITY^ Plate 21. 56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 22.' — To find the intersection of a square pyra- mid and a cylinder, the square pyramid being turned to show two ecjiial faces in the front and top views, and the axes of the two solids intersecting'. Three points, as may he seen, are determined at once ; but points 2, 3', 4' and 5' and other correspond- ing points are found by dividing the faces of the pyra- mid into a certain number of elements. Where these elements pierce the solid in the top view in 2, 3, 4 and 5 project down to corresponding elements in the front view, and so obtain 2', 3', 4' and 5'. The pattern of the cylinder is found as in the ])revious problems. Points 2"', 3'", 4'" and 5'" in the pattern of the square pyramid are found as shown in point 5'", in which the distance from 9' to 8', and 9' to 8" is equal to 9-8. Connect 8' and 8" cutting the corresponding element, which gives 5'". T* or TBK r UNIVERSITY j Plate 22. FRONT VIEW PATTERNS 58 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 23. — Tliis problem presents the intersection of a cone and a iiexagonal prism. The principles differ little from those of the preceding plates. The student should not forget that the elements upon the cone should be measured on the outline, as has been ex- plained. Plate 23. rrop view TRONT VIELW PATTE.RNS CHAPTER V. PROJECTION OF SHADOWS. The principal object of working out the shac^es and shadows upon a drawing is to reveal form which would otherwise appear flat. By the cast shadows upon the faqade of a building one may readily determine the sliapes of its various details, making the drawing far more comprehensive. We consider the rays of light falling upon an object as direct, indirect, diffused, or artificial. Direct rays are those that fall directly on the object. Indirect rays are reflected back from some other object. Diffused light is that reflected from innumerable surfaces. Ar- tificial light is sometimes used in interior perspective, but never in projection of shadows. The high light of an ol)ject is tliat portion which re- ceives the rays direct. Shade on an object is due to the interception of the sun's rays by its own form. It varies in intensity, being darker at the dividing lines of light and shade, since the side directly opposite the light receives more reflected light. Shadow on any surface is due to the absolute cutting off of direct rays by some object. The shape of the shadow will be de 8o ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 33. — This plate is given especially to show that the shadow of any object may be worked directly tipon the front view without the use of a top view, pro- vided that the draughtsman knows how far the lines He in front of the vertical plane receiving the shadow. .In Figs. I, 3 and 5 the: shadows are cast by the use of the front and top views ; in Figs. 2, 4 and 6 the objects are identically the same, the top view being omitted. Fig. 2. — To cast a shadow of a rectangular body upon a vertical plane. Point 2 is found by first making the distance A i equal to A B in Fig. i, after which let fall from i a vertical line, and from A draw a line at 45°, cutting it in 2. Points 3 and 4 are found in a similar manner, as shown in this drawing. Fig. 4. — Cast the shadow of one-half of a hexagonal plinth upon the vertical plane. Point 2 is found by making distance A i equal to A B in Fig. 3 ; from i let fall a vertical line and from A a line at 45°, uitersecting in 2. Points 3 and 4 are found in a like manner. Fig. 6. — We have a rectangular body casting a shadow partly upon a molded surface and partly upon a vertical plane. It will be noted that the outline of a shadow on a molded surface cast by a horizontal line parallel to the vertical plane is a curve iden- tical to its section. Having found point i by the method given in the two previous problems, it becomes a very simple matter to complete the outlines of the various members of the molding. ^^i^ or IBB ^NIVZRSITT Plate 33. riG. r. PROJECTION or SHADOWS riG. 3. no. 5. FIG. e. riG. 4. riG. 6. 82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 34. Fig. i.— This plate illustrates the method of casting the shadow of a chimney upon the roof of a building. The student should notice that vertical lines cast lines of shadow parallel to the angle of the roof on which they are thrown. Horizontal lines that are parallel to the oblique plane cast horizontal lines of shadow, and horizontal lines that are at right angles to the vertical plane cast lines of shadow at 45°. Fig. 2. — The principles in this problem are car- ried out as in Fig. i. The beam A projects the dis- tance 1-2 beyond the surface of the building. Point 3' is found by letting fall an imaginary vertical line to in- tersect the edge of the roof in 4. Line 4-3' is parallel to the angle of the roof, which line is cut by a 45° line from 3. Fig. 3. — The shadow cast in the niche is found by the slicing method, as described and carried out in Plate 31. •^pTOe^; OF THi UNIVERSITT SpA S^IFOfiT^ Plate 34. FIG. I. riG. t. PROJECTION or SHADOWS FRONT VIEW FIG. 3 84 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 35. Fig. i. — The shadow cast by the line A B of the plinth upon the cylinder may be found by drawing lines from A and B at 45°, intersecting in i, and with i as center and 1-2 as radius describing an arc cutting the 45° lines in 3 and 4. Let drop a vertical line, 4-5, which will be the dividing line of the light and shade of the cylinder. Shadow line A 3 is cast by a horizontal line which is perpendicular to the ver- tical plane, and as we have noted before such a line always casts a shadow at 45°. The arc 3-'4 is really part of an ellipse, but is foreshortened exactly enough to appear as an arc of a circle. Cast the shadow upon the vertical plane according to principles brought out in the preceding problems. Fig. 2. — Find the dividing line of light and shade on both the circular plinth and cylinder. The shadow cast upon the vertical plane may be found by points or by method given in Fig. 4, plate 26. The intersection of the shadow upon the vertical plane with the cylinder in I will locate the first point of shadow upon the cylin- der. Point I will also determine the height of 2, as it will be seen in the top view that they are equally distant from the central ray R, which passes through the axis of the cylinder. Point 3, which lies in ray R, is de- termined by first revolving ray R in the front view until it becomes parallel to the vertical plane in line 4-5 (at an angle 35° 16"). This line swung back to its apparent angle of 45° will intersect the horizontal from point 6 in 3. Point 8 is found bj' cutting the dividing line of light and shade with an arc which is drawn with 9 as center and 9-7 as radius. The arc 7-8-5 is the shadow of a portion of line A B upon an auxiliary plane which is supposed to be passed through the dividing line of light and shade at an angle of 45° with the vertical plane. This plane is represented in the top view as C D. Fig. 3 demonstrates by actual projection that a horizontal circle (such being the lower surface of the plinth), will cast a circular shadow upon an oblique plane at 45°. The actual shape of the shadow cast upon this plane is elliptical, but it is so foreshortened as to appear circular. Plate 35, riG. I. FIG. 2. Fie. 5. 4 PROJECTION or SMADOWS 86 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 36. — Before beginning this plate the stu- dent should thoroughly understand the principles brought out in the previous sheet. Fig. I. — The half column is resting with its axis against the vertical plane upon which the shadow is cast. Points i and i' on the contour of the torus are found by drawing 45° tangents. As the object is sym- metrical, 3 will be on a level with i. Point 5' is the lowest point in the curve, and is found by revolving a ray of light until parallel to the vertical plane, when it will become tangent to the torus in 2. Project point 2 over horizontally until cut by a ray brought back from 5 at 45°. The shadow cast by the dividing line of light and shade on the torus, upon the vertical plane, will pass through points i, 5, 3', 4' and i'. Point 5 is found in the axis which is. resting upon the vertical plane. 3' is cast by 3, which distance in front of the vertical plane is equal to 3-6. From 6 let fall a ver- tical line to be cut by a 45° line from 3 in 3'. Point 4' is cast by 4, the distance of whi^h in front of the vertical plane is equal to 4-7. Lay off 4-7' equal to 4-7, and proceed as in the last point explained. The method of casting the shadow of line A B is ex- plained in plate 26. The dividing line of light and shade of the torus will cast a shadow upon the cj rr^^^ Points 8 and 9 are on the same level, 8 being the inter- section of the colunm and the shadow already found upon the vertical plane. Point 5" will be the highest point in the curved shadow, being cast by the lowest point (5') of the dividing line of light and shade on the torus, and the same revolved ray is used in finding 5" as when obtaining 5'. Point 10 is found similarly to point 8 on plate 35, Fig. 2. In this figure however, we have the dividing line of light and shade of the torus instead of a circle, casting a shadow upon the imaginary oblique plane. The shadow of this dividing line will produce an oval curve passing through points 4, 3" and 5. The intersection of this oval curve with the dividing line of light and shade on the column will give point 10. The shadow of point 3 upon the oblique plane will give 3". This is found by passing a hori- zontal plane through 3, producing a horizontal circle, the shadow of which, when cast upon the oblique plane, gives arc 11-3". This arc cut by a 45° line from 3 gives 3". Point 1 1 is found as in point 7, on plate 35, Fig. 2. Fig. 2. — The dividing lines of light and shade upon this object are so simple that explanations are not necessary. Fig. 3. — First find the dividing line of light and shade of the torus, as in Fig. i. The fillet may be con- OF Plate 36. FIG. I. /\ nc. 3. / v- M N ^. _ ■;. ^ J. "f riG. t/ g'/^^/'.'.v// ' '^.'.^.- -'--'Al PROJECTION or SHADOWS riG. 4. '■■y SB ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. sidered as a portion of a cylinder and the shadow found as in Fig. i. The shadow upon the coktmn is cast by the fillet. Point i is found as point 8, in plate 35, Fig. 2. Point 2 is found by projecting back at 45° from point 2', which point is cast by the shadow of the fillet crossing the oval curve, both being upon the oblique plane. Points t, and 4, as will be seen by comparison with Fig. I, are located approximately by tangents at 45°, this being near enough for all practical use. Fig. 4. — The shadow cast upon the vertical plane differs little in principle from that in Fig. i. The hori- zontal line of the abacus, which is at right angles to the vertical plane, will cut ofif a patch of light on the echinus at 45° in line 1-2. As the object is symmetri- cal it is evident that the front horizontal line will pro- duce a similar patch of light. This being so, point i may be projected over horizontally to i', and 3 over to 3'. Points 4' and 5' are found by projecting from 4 and 5, which points are caused by the intersection of the oval curve and the shadow of the lower line of the abacus upon the oblique plane. Points 5 and 6 are equal distances from the axis. Plate 37. — The student having thoroughly compre- hended the preceding plate, will have little difficulty in working this, as we have here a union of the several members explained in that sheet. Line 1-2 is cast by the lower line of the fillet. Line 3'-4 is cast by a por- tion of the dividing line of light and shade of the quar- ter round. Points 3 and 3', which are cast by the dividing line of light and shade of the quarter round are found by projecting back a line at 45° from 3", which point is caused by the intersection of the oval curve and the shadow cast by the lower line of the fillet upon the oblique plane. Arc 5-6 represents an imaginary shadow of the astragal cast upon the oblique plane, cutting the dividing line of light and shade of the column in 6. Strictly speaking, the dividing line of light and shade of the astragal would not cast an arc of a circle ; but it so nearly approaches a true circle that it is considered as such. CHAPTER VI. INSTRUMENTAL PERSPECTIVE. An instrumental perspective of any object is sup- posed to be drawn upon a transparent plane with the eye stationed at some particular point in front. While looking at any object from this fixed point through the transparent plane, lines may be imagined drawn upon it which would cover the outlines of the object; as for instance, one might stand in front of a window and trace upon a pane of glass the outlines of a build- ing in the distance. Such a tracing would illustrate an instrumental perspective. Line A B in Plate 38 represents the top view of this transparent plane, called the picture plane (P. P.). C D in the front view rep- resents the intersection of the transparent plane and the ground plane, and is called the ground line (G. L.). E F, which is also in the front view, represents the horizon line, (H. L.), and is located upon the trans- parent plane. The distance between this and the ground line is governed by the height of the eye above the ground. The distance from the picture plane to the eye, or station point (S.'P.), as presented in the top view, indicates the distance the observer is from the picture plane. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 91 Plate 38. — Draw two geometric solids of given dimensions at angles of 45° to picture plane, with the station point 2 '-4" in front of the picture plane, the horizon line 13" above the ground, the angle A 10" to the left of station point, and angle B 10" to the right of station point, and i" within the picture. Scale } in. equals i in. The principal lines may be located by actual measurement as follows: Margin lines 12" X 19". G. L., 2y above lower margin. P. P., 8" above lower margin. S. P., 10" to right of left margin. The vanishing points of any system of parallel lines may be found by drawing a line from the station point parallel to that system of lines until it intersects the picture plane. Therefore, to find the vanishing points of the rectangular bodies given in the top view, draw from the station point lines parallel to the edges of the objects, which will cut the picture plane in vanishing points I and 2 (V. P. 1, and V. P. 2). As the front edge of the cube is resting against the picture plane we have simply to project it down to the front view and measure off its actual length, 1-2 from the ground line. From points i and 2 draw lines to V. P. i and V. P. 2. The length of these lines is determined by drawing lines from 3 and 4 to the station point, inter- secting the picture plane in 5 and 6. From s and 6 project vertical lines, cutting the lines already drawn from I and 2 and forming two edges of the cube. From point 3' draw a line to V. P. 2 ; from point 4' draw a line to V. P. i, intersecting the line from 3' in 7. The back edge of the cube may be found by letting fall a vertical line from point 7 to intersect lines to the vanishing points from points 3" and 4". The second object does not rest against the plane, therefore its front vertical line cannot be measured directly, as in the first problem. We must prolong the plane of one of its sides, and in this case we will pro- long the left-hand one, meeting the picture plane in point 8. Drop a vertical line from this point, which line will be upon the picture plane. Being upon the picture plane its true length can be measured on this line, giving 8'-9. Dravy lines from points 8' and 9 to 92 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. V. P. I, locating the plane in which the square is con- tained. Draw a line from point lo to the station point, intersecting the picture plane in 1 1. Drop a line from this point until it crosses the lines drawn from 8' and 9; this will be the nearest vertical edge of the object. The rest of the problem is worked out on the principles illustrated in the cube. In casting shadows, we may suppose the light to be coming downward from the left in rays parallel to the picture plane and 45° with the ground. Vertical lines will always cast horizontal lines of shadow upon a horizontal plane, and vertical shadows upon a vertical plane. A line casting a shadow upon a plane parallel to itself will produce a parallel line of shadow ; in other words, this line of shadow will go to the V. P. of the line casting it. In the cube, line 1-2 being vertical, will cast a horizontal line of shadow on the ground, which will be cut off by a line drawn from point 2 at an angle of 45°, giving point 12. Line 2-4', being horizontal, will cast a line of shadow parallel to itself on the horizontal plane ; and as one extremity of the line strikes the horizontal plane at 12, a line drawn from 12 to V. P. 2 will be this line of shadow, wliich will be intercepted at point 13 by the second rectangular object. Should the vertical line under point 4' cast a shadow, this shadow would extend across the ground plane in a horizontal direc- tion, and upon reaching the vertical plane, would take a vertical direction until cut by a ray of light at 45° from point 4', giving point 14. Connect points 13 and 14, completing the shadow of line 2-4'. A por- tion of the line 4-7 is parallel to the receiving surface, consequently, its shadow must be parallel to it, or go to its vanishing point; therefore, draw a line from 14 to V. P. I, which will determine its direction. The process of finding the shadow of the remainder of the cube is similar to that already found. The main portion of the second figure is similar to that of the first. The shadow of the apex of the tri- angle is found by letting fall an imaginary line until it intersects the horizontal plane in 15, and intersect- ing the horizontal shadow of this imaginary line by a line of 45° from the apex in point 16. Having found the several points connect them by straight lines. Plate 38. 94 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 39. — Draw a pyramid of steps according to given dimensions at an angle of 45° to the picture plane. The station point is 2'-4" in front of the picture plane, the horizontal line 9" above the ground line, angle A 7" to the left of station point and 2" within the picture. Scale \ in. equals i in. The prin- cipal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement as follows : Draw margin lines 12" x 19"; G. L., i|" above lower margin; P. P., tV' above lower margin; and S. P., 11" to right of left margin. The vanishing points and station point do not appear upon this and the following sheets for want of space ; but they will be upon the plates drawn by the student, if he follows the measurements given. In this and in all other sheets, carry out system of lettering, as in lirst plate. Angle A is found, and the first step is drawn by principles illustrated in Plate 38. To find the second step, prolong its right-hand face until it intersects the picture plane in point i. Project a line downward and measure upon it the thickness of the first and second steps from point i'. Draw lines to V. P. 2, which will determine the up- per and lower lines of the step. Project point 2 down perspectively, as before done with A, until it inter- sects these two lines, which will give the nearest ver- tical edge of the second plinth. Complete the step. Find the prism by the same method. The shadows in this drawing are so simple that they need no ex- planation. ^ UBRA^ Plate 39. 96 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 40t — Draw a box of given dimensions, hav- ing the lid thrown back at an angle of 45° to the horizontal plane. The long sides of the box is to be at an angle of 30° with the picture plane, the sta- tion point 23" in front of picture plane, the horizon line 12" above the ground line, angle A 2" to the right of station point and 1" within the picture. Scale, \ in. equals i in. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurements, as follows: Draw margin Hues i2"x 19"; G. L., j" above lower margin ; P. P., 6" above lower margin; and S. P., 6" to right of left margin. The main lines of this box are placed at angles of 30° and 60°, instead of 45° as in previous drawings; accord- ingly lines drawn from the station point to obtain the vanishing point should also be at 30° and 60°, in other words, parallel to the main lines of the object. The long oblique lines of the cover of the box may be obtained by projection, as shown in this drawing, or by finding their vanishing point. To do this, take V. P. I as a center, the distance to the station point as a radius, and describe an arc cutting P. P. in i. Project point 1 down to the H. L., giving i'. I'"rom i' draw a line parallel to the slant line of the cover, (at 45°), intersecting a vertical line drawn through V. P. I, which point will be the vanishing point of the oblique lines of the cover. The vanish- ing point of the short oblique lines will be found by drawing a line from i' downward parallel to the cor- responding edges of the cover (at 45°) until it inter- sects the vertical line passing through V. P. i. The shadow cast in the box may be found by pass- ing any assumed vertical plane as 2-3, parallel to the picture plane, and appearing as a straight line in the top view ; which plane produced in perspective will cut the end of the box in a vertical line 3'-4. The ray of light passing through 2' in this plane will cut the line 3'-4 in 5. giving one point of the shadow cast by that line. As the shadow must begin at angle 6 we have simply to draw a line from angle 6 through point 5, giving us the direction of the shadow. The method of determining other lines of the shadow has already been given. Plate 40. 98 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 41. — Draw the corner of a Irouse according to given sketches, the front extending to the right at an angle of 30° to the picture plane, the station point 26' -o" in front of picture plane, the horizon line q'-o" above the ground, angle A 4-0" to the right of station point and 4-0" within the picture. Scale, I in. equals i ft. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows : Draw margin lines 12" x 19"; G. L., |" above the lower margin; P. P., 7I" above lower margin; S. P., 8i" to right of left margin. First draw the two eleva- tions, then locate the plan according to the conditions of the problem. The steps, water table, string courses, and trim about the door and window should not be considered until the main walls are drawn. The stu- dent should note that the trim occupies a different plane from that of brick and stone work, consequently it becomes necessary to use two separate planes, find- ing the lines of brick and stone in one and the trim in the other. Plate 41. 1 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 42. — The front, top, and side views of a stable with its general dimensions are given, the per- spective of which will appear in the following plate. >^ OF TH I- ' * university! PLAN AND ELEVATIONS or BARN I 1 Plate 42. ^^^^^^^^ .-^^^^----^iJ TOP VIEW a -24-0- -24-0" A 48-0 28-0- SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW lo; ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 43. — Draw in perspective a barn of given dimensions (according to plate 42). The long side is to be pieced at an angle of 30° to the picture plane, station point 46'-o" in front of the picture plane, the horizon line 12 -d' above the ground, angle A aj'-o" to the right of station point. Scale, \ in. equals i ft. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows : Draw margin lines 12" x 19", G. L. 2\" above lower mar- gin, P. P. 11^" above lower margin, and S. P. 3" to right of left margin. Draw first the rectangular body of the barn, not considering any of its details. Hav- ing completed the main body of the barn then locate the lower lines of the triangular roof. We must re- member that the gable and sides of the roof project beyond the barn and consequently must be worked in a different plane. The student will readily see by the drawing how the lines of the cupola are deter- mined. In^ casting the shadows the light is considered as coming from the right at an angle of 45°. The shadow of the door falls partly upon an oblique plane and partly upon the vertical surfaces of the barn. Tc find the shadow upon this oblique surface, pass a ver- tical plane 1-2 parallel to the picture plane, through the edge of the door, appearing in the top view as a horizontal line. Project points i and 2 down per- spectively, giving i'-2'. Connect i' 2' by a straight line, and intersect this line by one at 45° from point 3, giving 4. Draw 4-5, which will be the shadow of the lower edge of the door. The shadow of 3-6 will travel along in line 4-1' until it reaches the vertical surface, and then up in a vertical line until cut ofif by a line at 45° from point 6 in 7. Connect points 7 and 8. The principles just explained should be carried out in casting the shadow of the cupola on the oblique plane of the roof. To find the shadow cast by the cornice, use a vertical plane 9-10 in the top view which when projected down perspectively will produce a vertical trace upon the side of the barn. This trace, when cut by a line at 45° from 9', will give point 10'. This gives the shadow of one point of the cornice, through which draw a line perspectively parallel to the line of the cornice. The remainder of the shadows need no further explanation. LIBRA; UNIVEBSITY CALIf ^ ,V^ I04 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 44. — This plate is given to illustrate the simple methods by which circles and semicircles may be drawn in perspective. Lay out the diagram and place the geometric solids as given in this drawing. The student should at this stage of the work be able to lay out the diagram and arrange the sheet satis- factorily. The figure to the left is resting against the picture plane, the station point being directly in front. From this point of view the horizontal circles are seen as perfect ellipses, the long diameters of which are hor- izontal lines; but if seen from a point to the left or right the diameters will appear to slant. The same figure placed to the right illustrates this. In this the horizontal circles become so much distorted as to ap- pear unnatural. This should be corrected as far as possible in practical work. Of course an exaggerated case is shown. In the first figure the left vertical semi- circle is found by dividing the semicircle into a certain number of equal parts, finding the perspective of each point in the semicircle separately, and through these points drawing the elliptical curve. The lines of the arch on the right portion of the same figure are found by enclosing the semicircle within a semi-octagon, and after placing the semi-octagon in perspective, draw the ellipse which shall pass through the center point of each line, or in other words, be tangent to the sides of the octagon. Either method may be used for the up- per horizontal circles. Plate 44 zo6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 45. — This plate gives the front and side views of a simple tomb to be drawn according to measure- ments given, the perspective of which will appear on Plate 46. ELEVATIONS <^ TOMB Plate 45. -26-0- FRONT VltW Slot VltW to3 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 46. — If possible, this plate should be worked upon a large sheet of paper which may be made a ver- tical or a horizontal sheet, as will better fit the problem. The principles brought out in this plate dif- fer but little from those already presented. In laying out the cornice only two or three main outlines will be found necessary. Having found these, connect the points or extremities of the lines by the various curves. The student should make an effort to have the station point as far in front of the picture plane as possible, so that the vanishing points may be some distance apart ; otherwise the building will appear very much distorted. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 47. — Draw in perspective the simple out- line of a building of given dimensions at an angle of 45° to the picture plane. Station point 46'-o" in front of the picture plane, horizon line 6'-o" above ground line, angle A 6'-o" to the left of station point. Scale, ^ in. equals i ft. The principal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows : Draw margin line 12" x 19", ground line sV above lower margin, station point gY' to the right of left margin. This plate presents a method in which hori- zontal lines may be measured without the use of the top view. The principles of finding the vanishing points in this drawing differ little from those in the foregoing sheets. In this method the points are found directly on the horizon line without the use of the top view. The measuring points are found by taking V. P. I as center and with radius V. P. i to S. P., de- scribe an arc cutting the horizon line in M. P. i ; M. P. 2 is found in a similar manner. The student will readily see that all horizontal lines are measured by means of triangles, one side of which vanishes to the measuring point. To measure 19-0" upon the hori- zontal line drawn from angle A to V. P. i, lay off i9'-o" on the ground line to the left of A, giving B, from this point draw a line to M. P. i, which is the measuring point of all lines going to V. P. i. The 22'-o" line going to V. P. 2 is laid off to the right, and from that point taken to M. P. 2. The reason why the line drawn from B to M. P. i measures the re- quired distance A C, is shown in the diagram, which indicates the lines as they actually exist. Line A' B' is contained in the ground line as A B. A' C takes the place of A C. Connect B' C and we have an isosceles triangle. The student should note that a line drawn from S. P. to M. P. i is parallel to B' C, and that M. P. i consequently becomes the vanishing point of line B C, which cuts A C equal to A B. The system of measuring vertical lines does not differ from that already presented. Plate 47. "^^ ^ ""O"""^-^^ ' ^•'■^''' '->>-\ /-^ ' "-\^~--^ ^^ ,' V ^^ ^"^^ ^^^'^ "^ *> ^ ^""^ .^"^ '' \\^"\ .^ '-' ^^^ ^-^^ / P' V -v^ ^~V. _^^ , C ^^\ ^^ '■' /\ v^ ^'^v,^^ ^^ ^ / \ X V ^^--^ ^.^ -■'' / \ V ** ^-\ ^^ ■' / \ ^ '^ ^^-^^-^ ^ ■ / \ . ,p^^ ^ ■ / ^ ■V >> J^ 1 ^--^ ^ 1 V -^ !^-^^ 1 ^v,^ '' 1 N, -^^^^ ' ^"-^ '' / V J^ ^-^'' / N. 'i.^*"^ f-ii 1 '^"^ / N. .^^^^^~-^ "^XL ' ^^ / \. iS-^"^/' T^--^*^4>fc^ ^■^ "■"— ^ ^^~--^ / \^ ^i^^^ / 1 1 ^J iO^ "i^X ^^""--\ / ^ \ ^""^^^^^ /-'-^ '^ ^^ ' V ^\ / I ^ A ^\ B' 1 Nn 1 1 , s ^•^ ^ - ''' ' /' 1 ' ^ ~ ~~ ~~~~- ^""'•^ ^■^^''" ; \ ~~--"~^^^ « PJ ^" M^ M,,PI, H.U. ^"'"--^"^ \ij-z \ '^~"~~'~rrAyJ -ji.^ ' --f - , _T J k=^ i^t—:r""7 \ 6 / ' Z \ / ! '^; / \^ /' ' ' ^ / / \ / \^ t '_ 7 / "" T 1 y^ /C\ t .« JT / \ ^V ""f \ >//\ ^\. / \ .±-: : / ir ' 'n fi" 11 / \^ V / «/' lO O >1 / X . •«• '> / y/ ^\ \ J \ ° / /^ ^^ / ^ V- 5 \ \ \ / / \ / > \ s / / \ \ \\ // ^v ^/ !< •"•' n ^ )l rt / IS W N> Vp. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 48. — Draw in perspective a flight of steps and an adjacent post, according to the given dimen- sions, placed at an angle of 45° to the picture plane. Station point 11 '-6" in front of the picture plane, horizon line 5'-4" above the ground line, angle A 2'-6" to the right of the station point and 9" within the picture. Scale, f in. equals i ft. The prin- cipal lines of the diagram may be located by actual measurement, as follows. Draw margin line 12" x 19", ground line 4J" above the lower margin, sta- tion point gi" to the right of left margin. One of the principal features to be brought out in this problem is the finding of a point within the picture. Point A is 2' 6" to the right and 9" within the picture. From the line of direction lay off 2'-6", giving point B. From this point draw a line to C. V. It is evident that any horizontal line drawn between these lines will be just 2'-6". From point B lay off 9" on the ground line to the left, giving point C. From C draw a line to V. P. 2, cutting the line already drawn in A. The diagram to the left shows these lines in their relative position. The line that measures a line going to the center of vision should always go to a 45° vanishing point, no matter at what angle the object may be turned. Having obtained this first point within the picture, proceed as in the last problem, making all the vertical measurements on the picture plane. Plate 48 CHAPTER VII. ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. Plate 49. — This plate gives the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, according to the pro- portions set forth by Vignola, in which the module is used as a unit of measurement. The composite order is purposely omitted in this series, it being little tised and differing but slightly from the Corinthian. This ■plate is not given as an exercise in drawing, but as a reference sheet to show the main proportions of the several colunms. The module, according to Vignola, is equal to ^ the diameter of the column measured inmiediately above the conge on the base. This module is divided into twelve parts when used for the Tuscan and Doric, but into eighteen parts for the Ionic and Corinthian. The measurements on the plate are given in modules and parts ; the first figures indicating modules, and the second, parts. ii6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 50. — The drawing in the lower right-hand corner gives a simple elevation of a tomb in which the Tuscan order is used. The drawing to the left occupying a large portion of the plate, represents the working drawing of one of its columns and entabla- ture, drawn acording to the proportions given by Vignola. The measurements are indicated in modules and parts, and also by feet and inches, which are reckoned to the nearest eighth of an inch to which they figure mathematically, this being near enough for all practical purposes. This plate may be drawn by the use of a scale of modules or by feet and inches, the result being practically the same in either The elevation of the tomb being very small many of the lines are omitted by necessity. The technical terms applied to the various parts are as follows : A — Quarter round. B — Astragal. C— Fillet. D — Corona. E— Listel. . F^ — Ogee. G — Frieze. H— Listel. I — Architrave. J— Listel. K — Abacus. L — Quarter round. -M— Fillet. N— Neck. O — Astragal. P— Fillet. O— Shaft. R— Shaft. S — Conge. T— Listel. U — Torus. V— Plinth. -goi- -p-> ->f-j?-*) -f?-t,'* — S*" ^^^ I — f6- •>'<||B» 9 ■ i 4 xWWWWN^WWN o < o (0 n L-J ^a 10 O-L OJ- 'v u a u a. cy T^ K-^2 -»K- 1 7->t<-f 7-»i*|x 1.-: ^1^— ^-x'" I." «" ■• Ii8 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate St. — The drawing in the lower right-hand corner of this plate represents an entrance drawn in the Doric style. That occupying the remainder of the plate is a working drawing of one of the columns and a portion of the entablature. The method of drawing and placing measurements is similar to that carried out in the previous plate. A — Cymatium or cyma recta. B — Mutule with drops underneath. C — Capitals of the triglyphs. D — Triglyphs with channels. E — Drops. F — Metope. Plate 52. oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo nooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo iOOOOOO oooooo oooooo DORIC ORDER PLAN LOOKING UP ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 53. — This plate presents the working drawing of a window in which the Ionic order is used. The drawing of the window is particularly helpful to the student, in that it shows how to obtain the general efifect without drawing all of its details. The en- larged sketch of the volute is given to show the method of construction. A— Dentils. E— Egg shell. B— Volute. F— Dart. C— Lintel of the volute. G — Pods. D-Egg. g^^. LIBRA/ OF Tf CALIFOJ^ 124 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 54. — The drawing to the right represents a A- — Volute, porch in which the Corinthian order is used ; and B — Small stem, that to the left is a working drawing of one of its C — Great leaf, columns and entablature. D— Small leaf. E — Rosette. Plate 55, CORINTHIAN ORDER PLAN LOOKING UP in q: hi Q a: O g o a I o < in 132 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 58. — This sheet presents several forms of derived by making the drawings much larger than balusters in general use. A greater benefit will be in this plate. ~^ OT ^ CALlFOSlJiJ' 00 -5 Q- Kyc^t u a < m I- (/) _j < CD ^m -\ w Va^ \\^Va 134 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 59. — This sheet represents several typical mouldings drawn in section and elevation. In order to secure beautiful profiles upon moulding^s they should be drawn freehand. The surfaces of the mouldings may be rendered with India ink, as shown in the plate. in 0. 13') ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 60. — This and the five following plates are leproduccd from drawings made by students of the French school of architecture. They are given in this series to supplement the orders and will be par- ticularly helpful in rendering. The student should note the skillful draughtmanship with which these plates are drawn and the excellent printing upon them. ^'^ OF twr. "^ ■UNIVEBSITY^ CALIFO^!: o ID ■♦-' D. .'^^^ OF TBr XJNIVEBSTTY^ a. Plate 63, (i JO a. CHAPTER Vlll. STUDY OF A FRAME HOUSE. Plate 66. — With this plate we begin the stiuly of a series of drawings showing phms, elevations, framing and various details of a wooden building. A plan is nothing more or less than a horizontal section passing through the walls and partitions a few feet above the floor, showing the interior arrange- ments. The student should note the conventional method of representing its various parts, such as the veranda, outside and inside doors, windows, stairs, chimneys, etc. Portions of two flights of stairs are shown in this plan, one leading to the second floor and the other to the cellar. In the plan only the treads are visible, the risers being covered by lines which are the boundary lines of the treads. To obtain an easy flight of stairs the riser should bear a certain relationship to the tread ; that is, if we have a very wide tread the riser should be low, or if by necessity the tread is narrow the riser should "be proportionally high. A rule that is used to some extent is that the rise nuilti- plied by the tread should be about seventy or seventy- five inches. Fire-places are shown in both parlor and (lining room. The oblong space in the masonry be- tween the tire-places represents the flue which con- nects with the furnace in the cellar. The inner lines of the flues represent the linings, which are of terra- cotta. The flue for a fire-place will never appear on the same plan with it, but is shown in that of the floor above. The two doors leading from the parlor are made to slide, all others to swing in the direction indicated by the single line. The walls and partitions through which the section passes should be tinted with a light wash of burnt sienna or some similar color. The brick work of the chimney may be colored light red. Section lining as shown in the drawing, is sel- dorri used in practice ; only in reproductive work. r<- Of - 0-JI ^ H' C- z < o o I- -J-?fi -0-?l- & ^ »52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 67. — In this plan, as in the preceding, the section is taken some distance above the floor. Were the paper of sufficient size the two plans would be made side by side, in which case many of the principal lines might be projected directly from the first floor plan, saving the trouble of repeating measurements. All the principal parts are represented in the same conventional way as in the first floor, the chimney flues being nearly over those of the first floor. Parts of two flights of stairs are shown in this plan ; that leading downward to the first floor being the comple- ment of the portion seen in the first floor plan, and the other leading to the attic. -0-91 -9 -ze z < a: o o a z o o u to 154 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 68. — The detail to the left represents a ver- tical section of the water table, passing through the foundation and a portion of the building above the sill. In making a detail drawing it is always best to begin with some fixed part; in this case with the foundation, sill, floor beam and stud. Having fixed the frame work in its position, we next clothe it ; that is, on the outside we place the sheathing, water table, clap- boards and corner board, and on the inside draw the under flooring, lath and plaster, base board, and final- ly, the finished floor. The order given is similar to that followed in actual construction. The drawing on the right side of the plate repre- sents the elevation of this section. All horizontal lines may be projected directly from the section to the ele- vation ; and as will be seen, the members in both sec- tion and elevation project the same distance from the body of the house. The wood work should be tinted with a light wash of burnt sienna, and the stone work may be covered with a very pale wash of blue. _— LRSITT ) Plate 68. FINISHED FLOOR i i^\i FLOOR BETAM i^CORNtR BOARD 6"-- > SECTION THROUGH WATER-TABLE 156 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 69. — To draw this plate we proceed as in the last, beginning with the frame work, drawing first the stud and then placing the plate and rafter, cutting it to the desired shape to fit the trim. Complete the details as given in drawing. The shingles on the roof are i8" long and show 5" to the weather, their widths varying as shown in the elevation. The drawing at the right represents the elevation, and in this, as in the last plate, vertical measurements can be obtained by projecting horizontal lines from the section. The offsets in the section and elevation are equal. ' UNIVERSITY Plate 69 Kj^yj^f-AktHtP/^/m \ • _ ^ r \, 1 ^ SECTION THROUGH CORNICE 158 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 70. — The two sections given upon this plate represent cornices dii?ering in form from that in Plate 65. The one on the left shows the gutter built into the roof in such a way as not to be noticeable from the street. This form of gutter is built up with boards and lined with some kind of metal, usually copper, sheet lead or tin. The metal should be al- lowed to run up under the shingle for some distance. The section on the right shows the construction of a cornice suitable for a curved roof. The method of constructing the gutter in this case is similar to the first, differing only in minor details. Plate 70. r4 "II $ PLANCHER $$:\: DETAIL or CORNICES i i6o ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 71. — This plate shows still other forms of constructing the cornice, and their appearance when drawn to a small scale. This is intended especially for a suggestive sheet, t(j assist the student when de- signing. In the three plates of cornice designs given, the draughtsman can get an idea of the types in general use ; and with this knowledge will be able to vary the details as may best suit his design. Plate 71. I63 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 72. — This drawing represents a vertical sec- tion passing through the veranda cornice, showing the various i)arts in their relative positions. It should be drawn as nearly full size as possible. After placing the column, locate the cornice and the foundation ac- cording to nieasureinenls given. The column is sup- ported by the sill, and also by the girder which joins the sill directly under the column. UNIVERSITY CALIFOR^ o I- < O Q ^> u a ^rji*-f)->(*fi-^ I T-^ /^^TT -§7->i<-f7-X ■//,y///////////,y///A ,>>)■ >ii.vi//r/iii,. = r i64 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWTNG. Plate 73. — The tlrawing' on the left of the plate represents a i)ortion of the elevation of a window. The drawing on the right is a horizontal section of a window frame. In this, first draw the studs, after which place the sheathing, laths and plaster as shown. Place the other details in their relative positions as given in the drawing, according to dimensions. For a better understanding of the details, consult isometric views of the window in Plate "JJ. Cover the wood work with a light wash of burnt sienna, and the plaster with a pale tint of new blue. Plate 73. DETAIL <" WINDOW FRAMEl ^-PARTING BEAD SECTION ON A-B i66 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 74. — The drawing to the left represents a vertical section passed through the window sill, and shows the studs, header, sill and various other details in their relative positions. The angle usually made by the sill and header is about 15°. The casing, blind stop, pulley stile, parting bead, and stop bead are seen beyond the section, their position being ob- tainable from the previous drawing. The drawing to the right gives the construction of the upper portion of the window, the positions of the principal details being taken directly from the drawing just described. The construction of the meeting rails is shown at the bottom of the sheet. Plate 74. DETAILS or WINDOW jk - r - *^ < li-|> 0. u 1 v- =! '^ 2 0) rt < z u J -1 rrr55; a i i "Mi SECTION ON r-G SECTION ON c-D SECTION CN H-l I6S ARCHITFXTURAL U RAWI NG. Plate 75. — This plate gives two more forms of con- structinjj^ the window sill. In the drawing on the left the sheathing is allowed to extend into the sill, giving greater protection from the outer elements. The stool is ploughed into the sill, making a very strong neat trim. The drawing to the right shows the general method of putting together the window frame when the sill and sub-sill are used. They should be splined to- gether to form a greater protection against the wind and water, as the up]ier sill is verv likely to draw awav from the lower or sub-sill by the action of sun and rain. The other details are essentially the same as given before. DETAILS or WINDOW Plate 75. VERTICAL SECTION VERTICAL SECTION I70 ARCHITbXTURAL DRAWING. Plate 76. — The drawing' on the left represents a vertical section through the upper portion of the win- dow, and differs only in minor details from the one already ,sfiven. The drawing on the right is a horizontal section through the window. In this the blind stop runs back beyond the outside casing, so permitting the clap- boards to lap over and keep the outer atmosphere from entering the house. The ground is carried across the pocket and joins the pulley stile, again making it more difficult for air to penetrate. The other princi- l)les are essentially the same as in the previous plate. DETAILS or WINDOW FRAME Plate 76. -ID'S mm VERTICAL SECTION HORIZONTAL SECTION 172 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 77. — This plate gives an isometric view of the lower and upper section of the window frame. It is presented to give the students a clear conception of the manner in which the various parts of the window go together, and not as an exercise in drawing. Plate 77. ISOMETRIC DRAWING WINDOW FRAME 174 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 78. — The drawing to the left shows a portion of the elevation of a door and frame, and the drawing to the right is a horizontal section taken through A B. In making the section, it is well to begin with the double studs and then to place the ground, laths, plaster, and finally the jamb and casings. The jambs are rabbeted to receive the door, instead of using the nailed door stop which is very likely to become dis- placed. Draw the mouldings as given in the illustra- tion, taking great care with the curved lines to keep them smooth and of the same strength as the straight lines. r- OF THE ' UNIVERSITY r^ DETAIL <"' DOOR FRAME Plate 78. u* ^ SECTION ON A-B 176 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 79. — The drawing on the left portion of the sheet represents one of the best methods of supporting the floor joists of the second floor upon the partition below. The studs of the second floor should be al- lowed to extend through between the joists (as shown in the drawing), thus resting directly on the cap, and not upon a sole laid on the under flooring. The drawing to the right shows the proper way of supporting a light partition that runs jjarallcl to the floor beams below. The partition should be sup- ported by at least two floor timbers, which are suf- ficiently spread to allow proper nailing of the upper flooring to the joist. The details of flooring, base- l)oard, lath and plaster, are similar to those in previous sheets. Plate 79. SECTION FLOOR ' THROUGH PARTITION PAPTITlON RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLES TO TLOOR JOIST PARTITION Running PARALLEL WITH FLOOR JOIST 178 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 80. — Havint;- completed the various detail drawings the student has acquired sufficient knowl- edge to enable him to make an intelligent drawing of an elevation. That is, he should now comprehend that all the various lines of the windows, doors, cor- nices, and other parts, have a real meaning. Before beginning the elevation, it is always wise to draw a vertical section. In this section are indi- cated the levels of the foundation, sill, floor timbers, windows, girders and plate. The main outlines of the building, and the position of the windows, doors, columns, and chimney can be taken directly from the plans. The vertical heights of the various details are projected directly across from the section. The two details at the left of the elevation are not to be drawn by the student, but are placed there simply as an aid, being nearly the size of the required drawing, if drawn to a scale of \ in. equals i ft., which scale is very common for houses of this type. Plate 80. ,,1- TRONT ELEVATION l8o ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 81. — This drawing is to be carried out in a manner similar to the last, the principal horizontal measurements being taken from the plans, and the vertical measurements from a section, or from the front view already drawn. It would now be well for the student to draw another view without the aid of an illustration. Plate 81. SIDE ETLEVATION l82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 52. — In a frame house the outlines of the sills generally coincide with the outlines of the plan. Having drawn the sills in their proper positions, we next locate the girders which are usually placed un- der the main partitions, as in this drawing. Trimmers and headers should then be located about the stair wells and chimneys. Where partitions do not rest upon a girder, the floor should be reinforced by an extra joist. Last of all, place the center lines of the floor timbers, which are usually from 16" to 20" apart. The floor timbers in the piazza run parallel to the building, and their tops are in a plane which inclines slightly downward from the house. 1 84 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 83. — This drawing is carried out in the same general order as given in the first floor framing plan, the raised and drop girt taking the place of the sill, and the partition cap the place of the girder. Locate the proper trimmers and headers, after which place the remaining floor timbers. The student will also notice that in the piazza the plate has taken the place of the sill and the rafters the place of floor timbers. The rafters, however, are at right angles to the floor beams. 1* OF TBK t^ UNIVERSITY i86 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 84. — In this drawing the student should first locate the sill, then the corner posts, raised girt, attic floor beams, plate and rafters. The lengths of the sills are taken from the plans, and the vertical height of the posts from the vertical section on Plate 80. All windows and openings are located from the plan, their height being in the section on Plate 80. It will be noticed that the openings for the windows are con- siderably wider than in the plan. The difference is made to allow for the space occupied by the pulley stiles and pockets, which in small cottages is about 6". When we speak of a window 3'-o" wide, we mean that the sash is 3'-o", in other words, the space from pulley stile to pulley stile. The studs are usually placed 12" or 16" from center to center, and are indi- cated by a single center line. The piazza is not given on the front side of the building, as it would compli- cate the drawing, but a section is shown on one side. Plate 84. ^ ^y ^ \ y7\ ^ L :ih"1l C *('V' vT2'-»'- . r9% ^ yy n NX It'. // iJ ■^ c vf "' ^Uuuu 1 1 II A 1 r: ; ^ " MM "m f r -.«, »*h '•» ji^-_ / -6^ — r '^ - S'.fi- , v< t^ CO ^ *^ -err -. .«. •I6- r-li'*-^^ s *r 1 V Tn ^,,^;;>^^ 1 — ^ V t 1 1 III 1 Jl ifT Li // 1 1 f f^^ 1 1 l~" ■-- r ll 1 ^ 1 1 t ,, *a — »'«--. ■ 4-5'-9'- * ^ ^—s-e . - «■/-}- 6- t i to ^" 1 A r-'- - ■ftj I — - — 1 — - _ _ •■■ 1 z H «_— .. ^ m — . L. TRAMING FRONT ELEVATION l88 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 85. — This plate requires little explanation, as the method pursued is not unlike the foregoing sheet. The student may note that the ends of the floor timbers and the 6" faces of the corner posts are shown. This view also presents the drop girt, which supports the floor beams of the second floor, and the ledger board which supports those of the attic. Plate 85. -B « a -36'— 1 — 9--0' n « III m FTl^ B In >w Idl — h_,. n un OBQ P SIR' IX] 1 I » I n I n 6-0" — -»-^ FRAMING SIDE ELEVATION lyo ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 86. — This isometric view of the framing of the corner of a house is not given as an exercise in drawing, but to help the student who is not familiar with the subject to locate the different parts. 00 a. a: o o I- z 10 ic 192 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 87. — The foundation is built up to the grade level, or height at which the ground will be left, with i6" undressed stone masonry; and from that level to the sill line, with dressed stones 12" thick. As will be seen by the detail drawing of the water table in Plate 68, the outside line of this stone wall and the rough boarding are in the same plane ; consequently we must add the two thicknesses of sheathing boards, if", to the measurements given in the plan. For instance, if the front of the house measures 25'-o", the founda- tion should be 25'-! |". The piers in the cellar are lo- cated under the principal girderf, and those under the piazza should be directly in line with the columns. Tint the cellar walls gray or brown, according to the stone in use. If the piers are of brick, tint them red. r THH 'university tl --'-•« -r^ mmm CO y. ij % ^ i-..o.. „^l 9 I icdf k OS IS > ' * ^ll-OI -^ 1 ii I ; t.. Size a r* ;.«-.« ■ m Q P 1. •i T.TI.S- p - ^ i y.0.-.8-^ m-\ z < " < u H -m — .,0-,l ( ii--* 194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 88. — The drawing to the left represents the elevation of a chimney, showing fire-places on the first and second floors and the position of the flues from the two fire-places and the furnaces. Sections A-B, C-D and E-F show the mafmer of representing such in a plan. Section G-H gives the general construction of the fire-place, showing the flue to the ash pit, the trimmer arch, the fire-brick lining in the fire-place, the manner of narrowing the throat and the position of the terra cotta linings in the main flue. The chim- ney should always be constructed with an 8" wall around the flue or be lined with terra cotta linings, as shown in this drawing; these linings are about I" in thickness, and come in sections 2'-o" long. They are built into the flue during the construction of the chim- ney. 00 00 0- 196 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 89. — Several of the general methods of splicing timbers are illustrated in this plate. The I measurements are given merely to assist the student in drawing, as they differ materially in practice, ac- cording to conditions and the kind of lumber used. CTl CO TXT I I I LA. TPT -l+tf I 1 1 -I I TT" TT t44 rr- I I ;:{^ :;-[ -:i ] J M 9 4.3 198 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 90. —Fig. 1 shows the front and top views of a sill, corner post and stud, and the manner of framing the parts together. Figs. 2, 3 and 4 show different methods of framing sills together. Fig. 5 shows the method of supporting a floor timber upon a girder by means of an iron stirrup. Fig. 6 gives a very simple method of supporting a floor timber upon the girder. This is done by bolting a 2" x 4" joist upon the lower edge of the girder and allowing the floor timber to be notched out to rest upon this. Where this method is employed iron dogs should be used frequently to prevent the floor timbers from pull- ing away from the girder. Fig. 7 shows the method of constructing the regular tusk and tenon joint. The objection to this joint is that it is frequently made in a careless manner, bringing the full weight upon a small portion of the tusk, which is liable to give way and cause serious settlement. If made properly, how ever, it is a very good form of joint to use. Plate 90. riG. I. § L Mi I r-H I TOP VIEW i 1 f-r - It" ■1 L_ ■'J I FRONT VIEW riG. z. ^^ 9^ FRONT VIEW FIG. 3 SIDE VIEW I^^C^ ^GW^ 1 ^^l^Hy k^'^^ ■^ 1 FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW FIG. 4. fPf^ ^ ^ FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW FIG. S. — n -iC "^ TOP VIEW .^1, -16 FRONT VIEW FIG. G. '-5^ t . 1 Its FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW -3 FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW CHAPTER IX. STUDIES IN MASONRY CONSTRUCTION. Plate 9J. — In this plate are given several forms of arches in general use, and the names which are ap- plied to their various parts. Fig. I shows a relieving arch placed over a lintel in such a way as to take the weight from the lintel below. This form of arch should be used whenever there is danger of a lintel becoming injured by a heavy strain, or where wood is used, which may decay or be de- stroyed by fire. Fig. 2, on which the names of the various parts are indicated, represents two segmental arches. The segmental arch has for its intrados a seg- ment of a circle. Fig. 3 gives the drawing of a flat arch, or one that has a straight line for its intrados. In practical construction, this line should curve up slightly, as the arch is likely to sag as the building settles. Fig. 4 represents a semicircular arch, or one that has for its intrados a semicircle, Fig. 5, a pointed arch or one that has for its intrados arcs of circles, the chords of which usually form two sides of an equilateral triangle. Plate 91. h Id! :i '^ /' / FIG. I. ^^ » Pier . {, Abutmeisjt c S PAN . A/BACK . Center. -i — P" RELIEVING ARCM. SEMICIRCULAR . -I . ^ y 1 ^z- ^'o'— . [ " \ AO ii ^ > < \ "1, ' - 4'0 - 1 1 riG. 2. SEGMENTAL ARCM. FIG. 3. ri_AT ARCH FIG. 5. POINTED ARCH ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 92. — This sheet is planned particularly to show the principal methods of constructing a stone wall. The illustrations are so simple that explana- tions are hardly necessary. Plate 92. .4 ? ■He* t-13'-* «—'*'-* I REGULAR COURSCO MASONRY SECTION i~~r I I — r XT "TT" F ^^W^^ IRREGULAR COURSED RANDOM WORK im LtVEL COURSES t-'~! !'r^ -. pr^ ..J ^ij ra] C3 Ifri flZ^l 1:^^.4 c n r^jl C3; 1 |i 1 h-^l —J 1 ,T^ 1 h i^Y M ROCK FACED REGULAR COURSED SECTION TMIN ASHLAR FACING RANDOM ASHLAR IE m RUBBLE IN LEveu COURSES RANDOM RUBBLE A. QUOIN STONES 204 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 93. — We have the first and second floor plans of a city house of moderate cost. This house is sup- posed to be one of several in a block, therefore the two side walls become party walls. The width of the house is given to the centers of the party walls. The conventional method of representing the various parts in this plan dift'ers little from that of the cottage, the principal difference being in the manner of represent- ing the windows. The laundry is located in the cellar, of which there is no drawing in this series. The walls which are section lined, may be tinted, using light red for the brick work, and a light wash of burnt sienna for the wooden partitions. Ss\^m;m^w;\^ e-Qi- m 2 < X ^^ ^?^i;i^i^^::^!iM^"^^^ .3 -,9E y^MM^^^M^m^^M^ fe^j<^fe^p^^^^^ii^?^m^^^^^^^ U-DI-?-*) 2o6 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 94. — The vertical section on tlie left should be drawn first, according to dimensions given. The positions of the windows and door may be obtained from the plan. Usually it will be found desirable to draw this to a larger scale than that used in this drawing. .-i'.\'.v.\vN..-:^\.s.v.v (0 z> o r >- H u 208 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 95. — This drawing gives the horizontal and vertical sections through a window frame as con- structed in a brick or stone house. The principal features are practically the same as explained in the frame house. To obtain satisfactory results, the draw- ing should be made nearly full size, placing many measurements which are omitted in this. This draw- ing will be found to correspond to one of the lower windows in Plate 94. a. o I- lE ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Plate 96. — This offers a suggestion for an interior in the Colonial style, which should be drawn to a much larger scale. In addition to this, it would be well for the student to make several full-sized detail sections. Plate 96. '^f.*- or TBB UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. Fine schedule: 25 cents on first day overdue 50 cents on fourth day overdue One dollar on seventh day overdue. REC'D LD JAN 2 5 '65 -1PM LD 21-100m-12,'46(A2012sl6)4120 rohitectuni Drawing. YF ojo 08 n 2 i9ifi iLMi-U^f SEP 21 19 OV 18 1P1< ^-Ko \V 4 1917 NOV 15 UV EB 19193 JUL 9: 6 ^-w t< etr^.