LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
cfl -o 
 
 N 03 
 
 W 
 
 Q 
 
 -\ N v3SBI^H 
 
INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 F. V. N. PAINTER, D.D., LITT.D. 
 
 '/ 
 PROFESSOR IN ROANOKE COLLEGE 
 
 AUTHOR OF "A HISTORY OF EDUCATION," "HISTORY OF 
 
 ENGLISH LITERATURE," " INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN 
 
 LITERATURE," " GREAT PEDAGOGICAL ESSAYS," 
 
 "HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN WORSHIP," ETC. 
 
 SIBLEY .& COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON CHICAGO 
 

 COPYRIGHT, 1911, 
 BY SIBLEY & COMPANY. 
 
 J. S. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co. 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 As every one knows, the number of books on the Bible 
 is very great. No other volume, not even Shakespeare, 
 has called forth so large a body of literature. But of all 
 that has been written there are very few books that have 
 been prepared with pedagogical insight to meet the wants 
 of young students. It is in view of this need that the 
 present work not fruitlessly, the author hopes has 
 been prepared. 
 
 The purpose of this book is to set forth the literary, 
 historical, and ethical value of the Bible. It aims to pre- 
 sent the principal facts that every intelligent person ought 
 to know. It directs the students' attention chiefly to the 
 Bible itself; and as a literary, historical, and ethical study, 
 the Scriptures will be found, in the case of many readers, 
 to be a book of unsuspected interest and value. 
 
 There is, at the present time, a wide and somewhat in- 
 sistent demand for Bible study in our schools. It has 
 been shown by actual test that a large majority of the 
 students in our colleges are lamentably ignorant of the 
 incidents and characters of sacred history. Yet the facts 
 and truths of the Bible are wrought into the very texture 
 of modern civilization, and ought, therefore, as a matter of 
 culture, to be carefully studied. 
 
 The restricted purpose of the present volume as a text- 
 book naturally determines its method. After an intro- 
 ductory chapter showing the relation of the Bible to 
 modern life, the historic conditions, in which the Old 
 
 iii 
 
 '225288 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 Testament originated, will be considered. The' discoveries 
 of recent years have greatly enriched this field of inquiry. 
 The several books will then be classified and studied in 
 some detail. Their character and purpose, with an analy- 
 sis of their contents, will be given, after which the student 
 will be in a position to read intelligently the passages 
 indicated for research work. 
 
 The author has tried to make a subject that is usually 
 regarded irksome interesting and instructive. From the 
 standpoint of modern scholarship, the Bible has acquired 
 a new and surpassing interest. Instead of being, as some 
 are led to believe, an obsolete book, it is seen to possess 
 a meaning and message for the modern world. Its funda- 
 mental ethical and religious truths are suited to every age. 
 
 It will be observed that a considerable number of foot- 
 notes have been introduced. In nearly all cases, these 
 notes are from the pens of eminent biblical scholars, and 
 serve either to reenforce the statements of the text or to 
 open up new aspects of the subject. It is hoped that they 
 will prove, not an encumbrance but a valuable addition. 
 
 The research work, which approaches the subject from 
 a different standpoint in each chapter, will be found to 
 have the force of a cumulative method. It may be safely 
 claimed that a reasonably faithful use of the book will give 
 both a comprehensive and a particular acquaintance with 
 the Scriptures. Should the book at the same time con- 
 tribute something to the revival of a vigorous moral sense 
 in our country, it would have a still higher excellence. 
 
 F. V. N. P. 
 ROANOKE COLLEGE, 
 Feb. 15, 1911. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE i 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 24 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL <;i 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 73 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 92 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON . . . . . 109 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 123 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 STUDIES IN THE POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS . . 135 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON . . . 153 
 
 V 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PAGE 
 
 STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS ISAIAH AND JEREMIAH . 170 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL . . . . ." .193 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS . . . 214 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 STUDIES IN JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK . .231 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 STUDIES IN ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI . 246 
 
INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 
 
 Modern Civilization. Our modern civilization is drawn 
 chiefly from three great historic sources. The refine- 
 ment of our literary and artistic taste is due chiefly to 
 the ancient Greeks. They have taught us the beauty of 
 form. Our legal system has descended to us, in large 
 measure, from ancjent Rome. The city of the Tiber 
 has bequeathed us law. Our religion has come from the 
 ancient Hebrews. They have taught us the great truths 
 of God and personal righteousness. 
 
 It may be justly claimed that the Hebrew or religious 
 element in modern life is the most valuable contribution 
 of the ancient world. An enlightened conscience counts 
 for more than does a cultivated taste or legal forms. 
 It is the religious element that distinguishes Christian 
 from pagan civilization that exalts individual life, and 
 begets the highest national welfare. The sacred Scrip- 
 tures of the Old and the New Testament are the sources 
 of this important element in modern life. 
 
 Culture Value. The chief elements of culture, are 
 breadth of knowledge and delicacy of feeling. With this 
 truth in mind, it will be readily seen that the Bible is 
 a potent means of culture. On many subjects it is a 
 
2 ' AN- INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 storehouse of information. It is our principal source book 
 for the history of the ancient Hebrews. It contains the 
 biographies of great personages Moses, Jesus, Paul 
 who have left a permanent impress upon the history of 
 mankind. It is filled with the noblest moral and reli- 
 gious sentiment ; and our race has only to live up to 
 the great principle of loving God with all the heart, and 
 our neighbors as ourselves, in order to realize the king- 
 dom of heaven on earth. 
 
 Carlyle's Testimony. The great Scotchman, Thomas 
 Carlyle, had a keen insight into the edueational value of 
 the Bible. He regarded books, particularly the sacred 
 Scriptures, as the great educators of to-day. " In the 
 poorest cottage," he says, "are books; is one Book, 
 wherein for several thousands of years the spirit of man 
 has found light, and nourishment, and an interpreting 
 response to whatever is deepest in them ; wherein still, to 
 this day, for the eye that will look well, the mystery of 
 existence reflects itself, if not resolved, yet revealed, and 
 prophetically emblemed ; if not to the satisfying of the 
 outward sense, yet to the opening of the inward sense, 
 which is the far, grander result." 1 
 
 Experience of Ruskin. Among the masters of Eng- 
 lish prose in the nineteenth century was John Ruskin. 
 In his autobiography he traces his literary culture, in 
 large measure, to his early study of the Bible. " My 
 mother forced me," he says, " by steady toil, to learn 
 long chapters of the Bible by heart ; as well as to read 
 it every syllable through, aloud, hard names and all, 
 from Genesis to the Apocalypse, about once a year ; 
 and to that discipline patient, accurate, and resolute 
 I owe, not only a knowledge of the book, which I 
 
 i Carlyle's Works, Vol. XVI., p. 125. 
 
RELATION OF THE^' BIBLE: TWMQDEKX* LIEE 3 
 
 find occasionally serviceable, but much of my general 
 power of taking pains, and the best part of my taste in 
 literature." 1 
 
 Fundamental View of the World. The greatest ques- 
 tion that can engage the thoughts of men is the origin 
 and purpose of the world. Whence came the globe 
 upon which we live, and all the shining hosts of the 
 sky? Whence came man, with all his wondrous facul- 
 ties, and what is the purpose of his being? These ques- 
 tions have engaged the attention of all thoughtful peoples, 
 and called forth various answers. Thus we have the pan- 
 theism of the Brahman, the materialism of the Greek, 
 and the agnosticism of modern times. 
 
 But the most rational and most satisfying philosophy 
 of life is found in the Scriptures. It is the prevailing 
 view of all Christian nations. According to this funda- 
 mental view, which is distinguished as theism, we believe 
 that " in the beginning God created the heaven and the 
 earth " ; 2 or, as Paul expresses it, that " of Him, and 
 through Him, and to Him are all things." 3 Behind the 
 visible world is an omnipresent personal Being, who 
 orders all things in wisdom and love. " In Him we live 
 and move and have our being." 4 
 
 Source of Christianity. Christianity, which is the 
 faith of about one-fourth of the population of the globe, is 
 one of the great world religions. Though it is perhaps 
 out-numbered by Buddhism, Christianity is the religion of 
 the most enlightened and most powerful nations of the 
 earth. It is making more rapid progress to-day than 
 any other religion ; and if the visions of its prophetic 
 seers are to be realized, it is destined to become the re- 
 ligion of all peoples. In the language of the second 
 
 l Ruskin's " Praeterita," ch. i. 2 Gen. i : i. 3 Rom. II : 36. * Acts 17 : 28. 
 
O BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Psalm, the heathen will become His inheritance, and the 
 uttermost parts of the earth His possession. 1 
 
 The source of this advancing and triumphant religion 
 is found in the facts and truths of the Bible. Old Tes- 
 tament history laid the foundation by substituting a pure 
 monotheism for the polytheistic idolatry of surrounding 
 nations. On this foundation there arose, in the fulness 
 of time, the gospel of Christ, with its reclaiming truth 
 and power. Since his brief ministry in the world, the 
 new religion has continued to extend its influence until 
 to-day the whole world feels its power. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Organizations. Though Christianity is 
 essentially a religion of the soul, it has naturally assumed 
 an outward form. The individual followers of Christ have 
 felt the invisible bonds of a divine brotherhood ; and in 
 the interests of their own religious life, as well as for the 
 propagation of their faith, they early associated themselves 
 in congregations. These congregations, moved by the same 
 impulse, gradually grouped themselves in larger bodies, 
 which had their limits set by national boundaries or by 
 considerations of administrative efficiency. At a later 
 time differences of theological belief created new divisions. 
 In these various ways originated the national churches of 
 to-day, and the great divisions of Protestantism and Roman 
 Catholicism. Unfortunately these ecclesiastical organiza- 
 tions have in many cases failed to exemplify the pure and 
 unselfish precepts of the gospel. 
 
 But however great the differences in other respects, all 
 parts of the Christian church agree in their profound 
 reverence for the sacred Scriptures. The Bible is regarded 
 by them all as the original source of the articles of faith 
 and of the rules of life. It is made prominent in all as- 
 
 iPs. 2:8. 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 5 
 
 semblies of worship ; and week after week without ceasing, 
 it is officially expounded to deepen the spiritual life and to 
 sanctify the daily conduct. It is multiplied by great pub- 
 lication societies, and systematically scattered among all 
 nations and tongues. 
 
 Modern Democracy. For more than a hundred years a 
 great democratic movement has been going forward through- 
 out Christendom. At the close pf the eighteenth century 
 that movement strongly manifested itself in the popular up- 
 rising of the American and the French revolutions. Its 
 fundamental principle, as stated in the Declaration of In- 
 dependence, is equality in civil rights. With the adoption 
 of this principle, all artificial distinctions, such as master 
 and slave, nobles and commons, kings and subjects, are 
 forever done away. 
 
 Whatever may have been the immediate agencies that 
 led to a recognition of the principle of civil equality, there 
 can be little doubt that it rests ultimately on a great truth 
 of the New Testament. That truth is the fatherhood of 
 God, and the consequent brotherhood of man. When 
 Jesus declared " all ye are brethren," He broke down once 
 for all the barriers of caste, and nullified the arrogant as- 
 sumptions of a privileged nobility and absolute sovereigns 
 by divine right. In its fundamental teachings the Bible is 
 unquestionably democratic. 
 
 Relation to Education. Though there was much in the 
 education of pagan antiquity that was admirable, it re- 
 mained for Christianity to extend the blessings of culture 
 to all classes of society. As we have just seen, it rec- 
 ognizes the endless worth of the individual as a child of 
 God. The faculties with which men are endowed are 
 regarded as talents which are to be improved and employed 
 in the service of righteousness. As a logical consequence 
 
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 of these truths, no one, whether high or low, rich or poor, 
 male or female, is to be excluded from the blessings of 
 education. The obligation of universal education is thus 
 seen to be involved in the fundamental teachings of the 
 Bible. 
 
 It is a notable fact that popular education to-day 'is due 
 to a movement originating in the need of Bible study. It 
 was a fundamental principle of the Protestant reformation 
 of the sixteenth century that the Scriptures are the only rule 
 of religious faith and life. This principle brought with it 
 the obligation to place every one in a position to read the 
 Bible ; and thus, by a logical necessity from its principles, 
 Protestantism became the mother of popular education. 
 Luther and the other great Protestant reformers became 
 earnest and successful advocates of public schools. 
 
 An Interesting Example. The relation of Bible study 
 to public schools is that of cause and effect. This fact is 
 clearly brought out in the remarkable action of the General 
 Court of Massachusetts in 1647. I R promulgating an order 
 for the establishment of primary schools, the Court explained 
 its action as follows : " It being one chief project of the old 
 deluder Satan to keep men from the knowledge of the 
 Scriptures, as in former times by keeping them in an un- 
 known tongue, so in these latter times by persuading from 
 the use of tongues, that so at least the true sense and mean- 
 ing of the original might be clouded by false glosses of 
 saint-seeming deceivers ; that learning may not be buried 
 in the grave of our fathers in the church and common- 
 wealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors, 
 
 "It is therefore ordered, that every township in this juris- 
 diction, after the Lord hath increased them to the number 
 of fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within 
 their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 7 
 
 to write and read, etc." l This was the beginning of popu- 
 lar education in our country. 
 
 Position of Woman. The fundamental teachings of 
 the Bible have contributed immensely to the social elevation 
 of woman. Though parts of the Scriptures reflect the 
 Oriental customs of the time, as in the polygamy of Abraham 
 and the harem of Solomon, the statement of underlying 
 principles is altogether in favor of woman's elevation and 
 independence. In the first chapter of Genesis it is clearly 
 announced that woman, no less than man, is created 
 in the image of God. Through many centuries the 
 feeling, often obscure and unrecognized, that woman is a 
 child of God has combated and gradually overcome many 
 of the prejudices and wrongs descending from barbarous 
 ages and Oriental countries. It is chiefly due to the influ- 
 ence of Scripture teaching that woman is no longer a 
 slave or chattel, as in ancient times and in non-Christian 
 lands to-day. 
 
 In recent decades the moral sense of Europe and 
 America a sense developed through Christian teaching 
 - has accomplished very much in securing for woman 
 her natural rights. The same sense of justice that swept 
 away caste and abolished African slavery, also moved for 
 the liberation of woman. She now has a large measure of 
 legal independence. Her property and earnings are her 
 own ; they cannot, against her will, be appropriated by 
 her husband. Nearly all occupations are now open to her 
 as a means of earning an honest livelihood. 
 
 Though woman is generally excluded from political life, 
 she shares in the larger social and intellectual interests of 
 our time ; and through various organizations, as in local 
 leagues and national unions, she has wrought mightily for 
 
 1 Painter's " History of Education," p. 383. 
 
8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 the moral betterment of the nation. In place of being 
 kept in ignorance, as in ancient Athens, she has the same 
 educational advantages as man, and her sphere of useful- 
 ness is vastly enlarged. Thus, though the fundamental 
 teachings of Scripture have not yet found complete ex- 
 emplification, they have achieved much for the freedom 
 and social elevation of woman. 
 
 Marriage. In no other particular, perhaps, has the 
 Bible accomplished more for the elevation of woman and 
 the welfare of society than in its teachings about marriage. 
 In the midst of the polygamous Orient, the Bible made 
 marriage consist in the union of one man and one woman 
 for life. The wife is not to be the slave of her husband ; 
 she is to be " a help meet for him," 1 and the two are to 
 work together in the most intimate bonds of love and help- 
 fulness in fulfilling the destinies of life. "Therefore shall 
 a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave 
 unto his wife ; and they shall be one flesh." 2 
 
 The teachings of Jesus in regard to marriage and di- 
 vorce are very explicit and forcible. The author of the 
 book of Deuteronomy, influenced by Oriental custom, had 
 permitted the husband on a slight pretext to divorce his 
 wife. 3 This procedure was at once a degradation of 
 woman and a danger to society. The attempt of the 
 Pharisees to entrap Jesus in His teachings led Him to re- 
 pudiate the easy Deuteronomic method of dissolving the 
 marriage tie. He concluded His interesting and profound 
 discussion in these words : " Moses because of the hardness 
 of your hearts suffered you to put away your wives ; but 
 from the beginning it was not so. And I say unto you, 
 whosoever shall put away his wife, except it be for forni- 
 cation, and shall marry another, committeth adultery ; 
 
 1 Gen. 2:18. 2 Gen. 2:24. 3 Deut. 24:1. 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 9 
 
 and whoso marrieth her which is put away doth commit 
 adultery." 1 
 
 It is the Scriptural view of marriage that prevails 
 throughout Christendom to-day. It is commonly cele- 
 brated by a clergyman as a religious rite. It is made a 
 union for life ; and according to Scripture teaching, its 
 celebration is generally attended with emphatic admoni- 
 tions to love and fidelity. Under the influence of the 
 Bible, we have outgrown the loose polygamous notions 
 and practices of the Orient, and now punish bigamy or 
 polygamy as a crime. 
 
 Slavery. The Bible does not directly prohibit slavery. 
 In accordance with ancient and Oriental custom, slavery 
 is permitted in the Old Testament. Both in Exodus and 
 Deuteronomy, we find laws for the regulation of slavery, 
 and for the mitigation of its barbarity. Unlike the prac- 
 tice elsewhere in the ancient world, the old Hebrew master 
 did not have the power of life and death over his slaves, 
 but was required to treat them with humanity, and to give 
 them freedom after six years of service. Only by the 
 choice of the slave himself did he become, by special 
 ceremony, a bondman for life. 
 
 But in the case of slavery, as in some other important 
 interests, it is the fundamental principle or spirit of the 
 Scriptures that has been effective in overcoming wrong. 
 The slave, no less than the master, is a child of God, who 
 is "without respect of persons." 2 The equality of all 
 classes in sharing the blessings of the gospel is explicitly 
 and repeatedly set forth. As Paul declares, "there is 
 neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, 
 there is neither male nor female; for ye are all one in 
 Christ." 3 
 
 1 Matt. 19 : 8, 9. ^ i Pet. i : 17. Gal. 3 : 28. 
 
10 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 A beautiful illustration of the spirit of the gospel is 
 given in the case of Onesimus, a slave who had robbed his 
 master Philemon at Colossae and fled to Rome. There he 
 came under the influence of Paul, by whom he was con- 
 verted to Christianity. By the advice of the apostle, the 
 converted slave consented to return to his former master. 
 He bore with him a letter from Paul to Philemon, in which 
 we recognize at once the soul of courtesy and the depth of 
 Christian love. The apostle calls Onesimus, not a slave, 
 but "my own son"; and he tenderly entreats Philemon 
 to receive the runaway " not now as a servant, but above 
 a servant, a brother beloved, both in the flesh and in the 
 Lord." 1 Thus, without any formal denunciation of slavery, 
 Paul dissolves it in the riches of a Christian love and 
 brotherhood. 
 
 Economic Questions. Though the Bible is not a book 
 on political economy, it announces ethical principles that 
 bear upon all the industrial and commercial relations of 
 life. On the one hand, it denounces the spirit of avarice, 
 dishonesty, and oppression, out of which have grown all 
 the wrongs that have disturbed the industrial conditions 
 of the past and that lie at the basis of the industrial con- 
 flicts of the present. Thus Paul, after speaking of the 
 temporary character of wealth, continues : " They that 
 desire to be rich fall into a temptation and snare and 
 many foolish and hurtful lusts, such as drown men in 
 destruction and perdition. For the love of money is a 
 root of all kinds of evil ; which some reaching after have 
 been led astray from the faith, and have pierced them- 
 selves through with many arrows." 2 
 
 On the other hand, a positive and all-embracing princi- 
 ple, which has been well designated the Golden Rule, has 
 
 1 Phil. 1:16. 2 i Tim. 6:9, 10 (R.V.). 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE n 
 
 been laid down for the guidance of all social life. " What- 
 soever ye would that men should do to you," said the great 
 Master, " do ye even so to them." l On another occasion 
 Jesus emphasized this positive principle still more strongly. 
 When a Pharisee, wishing to put him to confusion, inquired 
 which was the greatest of all the commandments, Jesus 
 answered : " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy 
 heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This 
 is the first and great commandment And the second 
 is like unto it, thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 
 On these two commandments hang all the law and the 
 prophets." 2 
 
 The tendency to substitute a religion of forms for a re- 
 ligion of righteousness has existed in every age. This ten- 
 dency manifested itself among the ancient Hebrews as it is 
 to be seen in many parts of the church to-day. It was this 
 tendency which permitted a man at the same time to be 
 religious and unjust in his social relations, that evoked some 
 of the most eloquent denunciations of the Old Testament 
 prophets. " Bring no more vain oblations," exclaims Isaiah, 
 as he speaks in the name of Jehovah ; " incense is an 
 abomination unto me ; the new moons and Sabbaths, the 
 calling of assemblies, I cannot away with ; 3 it is iniquity, 
 even the solemn meeting. Wash you, make you clean ; 
 put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes ; 
 cease to do evil ; learn to do well ; seek judgment, relieve 
 the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the widow." 4 
 
 Literature. The literature of Europe and America 
 may be fairly characterized as a Christian literature. The 
 ethical and religious principles that pervade its warp and woof 
 are drawn more or less directly from the Bible. The serious 
 
 1 Matt. 7 : 12. 2 Matt. 22: 37-40. 
 
 8 That \s,put up with, or endure. 4 Is. i : 13-17. 
 
12 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 intellectual activity of the Middle Ages an activity char- 
 acterized by rare acuteness was devoted chiefly to a 
 discussion of dogmas or truths originally derived from the 
 Scriptures. At the present time a considerable part of our 
 voluminous publications deals with historical, ethical, or 
 theological questions started by the Bible. 
 
 It is notable that some of the greatest poems of modern 
 times treat of biblical themes. Dante's " Divina Commedia " 
 records the incidents of an imaginative visit to hell, pur- 
 gatory, and heaven as these localities were conceived of in 
 the fourteenth century. Milton's great epic, based on the 
 opening chapters of 'Genesis, thus states its theme in the 
 opening lines : 
 
 " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
 With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
 Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
 Sing, heavenly Muse." 
 
 Likewise Goethe's great poem of " Faust " sets forth 
 Scriptural truth. It teaches, as does the book of Ecclesiastes, 
 the insufficiency of knowledge, self-indulgence, power, and 
 aesthetic culture, to satisfy the deep longings of our nature. 
 It reaches the conclusion that only the spirit of love and of 
 unselfish labor for others can bring deep-seated peace and 
 joy. The great tragedies of Shakespeare King Lear, 
 Hamlet, Macbeth are only illustrations of the biblical 
 principle that " the wages of sin is death." l 
 
 Lyrical Poetry. In addition to these long and cele- 
 brated poems, the number of which might be indefinitely 
 extended, the Scriptures have inspired an incalculable 
 quantity of lyrical verse. There is scarcely a prominent 
 
 l Rom. 6 : 23. 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 13 
 
 poet of Europe or America who has not somewhere treated 
 of biblical truth or biblical incident. The writers of religious 
 lyrics, many of which find a place in our hymn-books, are 
 literally to be numbered by the hundred. Even the less 
 serious poets, like Thomas Moore and Lord Byron, some- 
 times turn aside from their mocking, satirical, or secular 
 subjects to dwell on Scriptural truths. Thus Moore, expand- 
 ing a passage from one of the psalms, beautifully sings : 
 
 " Thou art, O God, the life and light ' 
 Of all this wondrous world we see ; 
 Its glow by day, its smile by night 
 
 Are but reflections caught from Thee. 
 Where'er we turn, Thy glories shine, 
 And all things fair and bright are Thine." l 
 
 In like manner Byron, in his " Hebrew Melodies," cele- 
 brates various themes drawn from the Old Testament. 
 In " Saul " he describes the spectral visitation of the 
 prophet Samuel; 2 in the "Vision of Belshazzar" he 
 portrays the frightful apparition of a hand as it traced 
 mysterious and ominous words on the palace wall ; 3 in 
 " By the Rivers of Babylon " he paraphrases a psalm of 
 the captivity; 4 and in " The Destruction of Sennacherib" 
 he versified an incident of Hebrew history in the well- 
 known lines beginning : 
 
 " The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
 And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
 And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
 When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 11 5 
 
 Poets of Truth and Righteousness. It is hardly too 
 much to claim that the great poets of the nineteenth century 
 
 1 Compare Ps. 74 : 16, 17. See also Moore's paraphrase of Miriam's song in 
 Ex. 15:20,21. 2 i Sam. 28:7-25. 8 Pan. 5. 4 PS. 137. 
 
 5 2 Kings, 18 and 19. 
 
14 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 in England and America were, like the ancient Hebrew 
 prophets, preachers of truth and righteousness. In the 
 presence of a materialistic philosophy, which denied the 
 high spiritual truths of God, and providence, and immor- 
 tality, they steadfastly clung to the invisible and eternal. 
 Wordsworth felt the mystery of that unseen Presence which 
 pervades all things and which the psalmist of Israel had 
 celebrated millenniums ago. In " Tintern Abbey " we 
 
 read: 
 
 " And I have felt 
 
 A presence that disturbs me with the joy 
 Of elevated thoughts : a sense sublime 
 Of something far more deeply interfused, 
 Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, 
 And the round ocean and the living air 
 And the blue sky, and in the mind of man; 
 A motion and a spirit, that impels 
 All thinking things, all objects of all thought, 
 And rolls through all things." 1 
 
 In the closing stanzas of " The Ancient Mariner " Cole- 
 ridge declares the supremacy of love. This is the truth 
 which Paul, in the famous thirteenth chapter of I Corin- 
 thians, had eloquently proclaimed many centuries before. 
 Here are the words of the English poet : - 
 
 " He prayeth best who loveth best 
 All things both great and small ; 
 For the dear God who loveth us, 
 He made and loveth all. 1 ' 
 
 One of the precious truths of the Scriptures is the fact 
 of divine providence. It was repeatedly and beautifully 
 presented by Jesus Christ. " The very hairs of your head," 
 He said, "are numbered." Now listen to Robert Brown- 
 
 1 Compare Ps. 139 : 7-10. 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 15 
 
 ing's expansion of this conception of the divine love and 
 
 care : 
 
 " God smiles as He has always smiled ; 
 
 Ere suns and moons could wax and wane, 
 Ere stars were thundergirt, or piled 
 The heavens, God thought on me His child ; 
 
 Ordained a life for me, arrayed 
 Its circumstances every one 
 
 To the minutest ; ay, God said 
 
 This head this hand should rest upon 
 Thus, ere He fashioned star or sun." l 
 
 Nearly three thousand years ago David, " the sweet 
 singer of Israel," celebrated the goodness of God. 2 Else- 
 where in the Old Testament, as in the New, the same 
 divine attribute is dwelt upon. In describing the divine 
 nature John declares that " God is love." 3 Many of our 
 modern poets have been inspired by the same exalted theme, 
 and have found comfort and strength in its truth. Thus 
 Whittier, as he thinks of death, gives admirable expres- 
 sion to his sense of trust : 
 
 " And so beside the Silent Sea 
 
 I wait the muffled oar; 
 No harm from Him can come to me 
 On ocean or on shore. 
 
 " I know not where His islands lift 
 
 Their fronded palms in air ; 
 I only know I cannot drift 
 Beyond His love and care. 1 ' 4 
 
 An endless life beyond the gates of death this is one 
 of the great truths of Scripture. It is not clearly revealed 
 in the Old Testament, but it is made prominent in the 
 New. In comforting His disciples in view of His approach- 
 
 1 Browning's " Johannes Agricola in Meditation." 2 Ps 25. 
 
 4 Whittier's " The Eternal Goodness." 3 i John 4: 16. 
 
16 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 ing death, Jesus said to them in a passage of exquisite 
 tenderness : " In my Father's house are many mansions : 
 if it were not so, I would have told you. I go to prepare a 
 place for you. And if I go and prepare a place for you, I 
 will come again and receive you unto myself ; that where 
 I am, there ye may be also." 1 This has been the faith of 
 Christendom for nearly two thousand years. In spite of 
 the doubts which a materialistic philosophy and the critical 
 spirit of the present age have sometimes started, the belief 
 in immortality a belief that confers infinite dignity upon 
 mankind is held to-day by our ablest thinkers and our 
 noblest poets. Tennyson has convincingly voiced this 
 belief in his " In Memoriam " : 
 
 " Thou wilt not leave us in the dust : 
 
 Thou madest man, he knows not why, 
 He thinks he was not made to die ; 
 And Thou hast made him : Thou art just." 
 
 In our sense of need and helplessness, the soul often 
 cries -out intuitively to the Invisible and Eternal. The 
 Scriptures teach that human prayer is heard and answered. 
 The great Teacher has given us a form of prayer, and en- 
 couraged us by the assurance that God is more willing than 
 earthly parents to bestow good gifts upon His children. 2 
 This same truth finds expression in many of our modern 
 singers, particularly in Tennyson, who in his " Passing of 
 Arthur " declares : 
 
 " More things are wrought by prayer 
 Than this world dreams of. Wherefore let thy voice 
 Rise like a fountain for me night and day. 
 For what are men better than sheep or goats 
 That nourish a blind life within the brain, 
 
 1 John 14 : 2, 3. 2 Matt. 7 : n. 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 17 
 
 If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer 
 Both for themselves and those that call them friend? 
 For so the whole round earth is every way 
 Bound by gold chains about the feet of God." 
 
 Architecture. The Scriptures have influenced art 
 scarcely less than they have influenced literature. This 
 is particularly true of the Middle Ages and the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries. Though the church is relatively 
 less prominent to-day than during the periods just men- 
 tioned, the truths of the Bible are still a potent influence in 
 the realm of art. Great cathedrals are still erected, and 
 great paintings are still devoted to Scripture scenes. 
 
 Among the architectural wonders of Europe are the 
 mighty mediaeval cathedrals, which have been happily 
 called " miracles in stone." They sprang from a deep 
 religious spirit. Their fundamental plan represents the 
 figure of the cross, on which the founder of Christianity 
 was put to death ; the nave, flanked with aisles, corre- 
 sponds to the base of the cross, the transepts to the arms, 
 and the choir to the top. This simple plan was subject 
 to numberless modifications, which produced the variety to 
 be seen to-day in those imposing mediaeval structures. 
 
 Ornamentation and Significance. The ornamentation 
 o'f these cathedrals is as admirable as it is astonishing. 
 In the hands of the mediaeval masons stone seems as 
 plastic as wood or clay. Foliage forms abound in the 
 minor ornaments ; and entire facades, as in the cathedrals 
 of Notre Dame, Westminster, and York, are wrought 
 into forms of elaborate beauty. Statues of saints abound ; 
 and the most striking incidents of the Old and New 
 Testaments are frequently portrayed in bas-relief. The 
 walls are generally adorned with Scriptural frescoes ; and 
 from the tall windows flame in beautiful colors the charac- 
 
l8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 ters and scenes of sacred history. In all the large towns 
 and cities these massive piles of speaking stone, towering 
 above the surrounding buildings and looking far away into 
 the country, remind the toiling population of the preemi- 
 nent claims of spiritual things. 
 
 Painting. For a thousand years throughout the 
 Middle Ages and longer painting was the servant of reli- 
 gion. It subserved a twofold purpose : first, it was used to 
 decorate cathedrals and other ecclesiastical buildings ; and 
 second, it was employed to teach biblical and theological 
 truths. As we run over the history of painting, it is astonish- 
 ing to note the preponderance of religious motive through 
 many centuries. There is scarcely any historic scene of 
 importance in either the Old or the New Testament that 
 has not been portrayed on cathedral walls or made to flame 
 from cathedral windows. 
 
 With the Renaissance of the fifteenth century, painting 
 started upon a new era of development. Since that time 
 almost every country in Europe has had its world-famed 
 artists. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italy 
 had Raphael, Michael Angelo, Titian, Correggio, Andrea 
 del Sarto, Paul Veronese ; Germany, Wolgemut, Diirer, 
 Cranach, Holbein ; France, Nicolas Poussin and Claude 
 Lorrain ; Spain, Murillo and Velasquez ; Flanders, Rubens 
 and Van Dyck ; and Holland, Rembrandt. All these 
 artists employed their extraordinary gifts, to a greater or 
 less degree, in illustrating biblical scenes. 1 
 
 1 Among the noteworthy paintings by these artists maybe mentioned Raphael's 
 "Transfiguration" and " Sisline Madonna"; Michael Angelo's "Last Judg- 
 ment"; Titian's "Scourging of Christ"; Andrea del Sarto's "Abraham offering 
 Isaac" ; Paul Veronese's " Adoration of the Wise Men "; Durer's " Descent from 
 the Cross " ; Murillo's " Thirsting Israelites in the Desert " ; Poussin's " Adoration 
 of the Magi," and "Rebecca and Eliezer " ; Rubens' "Presentation in the 
 Temple," and " Descent from the Cross " ; and Van Dyck's " Christ on the Cross. " 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 19 
 
 Though art has naturally shared in the expanding knowl- 
 edge of the nineteenth century, and has immeasurably en- 
 larged the scope of its work, great painters of recent years 
 have not disdained to exercise their genius upon Scripture 
 themes. Many will recall Munkacsy's " Christ before 
 Pilate," which was exhibited in different parts of the 
 world. The same artist's " Christ on Calvary " is likewise 
 a masterful production. The American painters, Charles 
 Sprague Pearce and Frank V. du Mond, have wrought in 
 the same field ; and the former's "Annunciation " and the 
 latter's " Christ and the Fishermen " are worthy of men- 
 tion. To these admirable productions might be added 
 Leroy's " Christ healing the Blind," Uhde's " The 
 Announcement to the Shepherds," and Julius Schmid's 
 "Suffer Little Children to come unto Me," and many 
 others. 
 
 Ethical Ideals. The high ethical ideals of the present 
 day are directly or indirectly traceable to the teachings of 
 the Bible. The Scriptures declare that our lives, lifted 
 above the insignificance of a brief material existence, are 
 brought into immediate and imperishable relations with the 
 Governor of the universe. The Old Testament enthrones 
 Jehovah as a God of righteousness, who demands the same 
 moral integrity of man. This fellowship in righteousness 
 is the law of divine harmony. In Leviticus the Lord is 
 represented as saying to the Hebrews whom He has deliv- 
 ered from the bondage of Egypt : " Ye shall therefore be 
 holy, for I am holy." 1 This same principle is inculcated 
 again and again in the Scriptures. 
 
 The type of character thus demanded of us embodies 
 every virtue and excludes every vice. Jesus distinctly set 
 up this ideal when He said, " Be ye therefore perfect, even 
 
 1 Lev. ii 145. 
 
20 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 as your Father which is in heaven is perfect." : The duties 
 and prohibitions involved in the biblical conception of what 
 human life should be are summarily set forth in the Ten 
 Commandments ; they are declared with still greater clear- 
 ness and fulness in the Sermon on the Mount; last of all, 
 they are exemplified in the purity, truth, and love of the 
 great Master Himself. Christ is the incarnation of the 
 highest manhood the realized ideal of the human race. 
 
 Philanthropic Movements. Through the propaganda of 
 the pulpit and the press, this noble Christian ideal has 
 made its way into the hearts and lives of men. Though 
 it may not at present be fully adopted as a working prin- 
 ciple, it has the respect and confidence of all right-thinking 
 people. In an increasing degree, it is coming to dominate 
 the personal and social life of Christendom. If at any time 
 it is temporarily obscured by the spirit of greed, it sooner 
 or later asserts itself with renewed vigor. 
 
 The Christian ideal of life has awakened a strong sense 
 of social obligation. Relentless war is being made upon 
 every evil that tends to degrade or disorganize social life. 
 It is a noteworthy fact that the most powerful temperance 
 organization to-day calls itself the Woman's Christian Tem- 
 perance Union. Men of wealth are feeling more and more 
 the obligation of stewardship. Never before were there 
 such munificent gifts for education, libraries, and missions. 
 Institutions for the care of the helpless and the needy 
 orphan homes, hospitals for the insane, schools for the deaf 
 and blind are multiplied on every hand. Every city has 
 its charitable organizations for helping the poor. And any 
 widespread calamity, like the distress of pestilence or> the 
 destruction of earthquake, calls forth a magnificent display 
 of unselfish munificence. 
 
 1 Matt. 2 : 48. 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 21 
 
 Hopefulness for the Future. The teachings of the 
 Bible have begotten a hopeful outlook for the future. It 
 is assumed throughout the Scriptures, as it is declared in 
 Revelation, " the Lord God omnipotent reigneth." 1 The 
 sacred writers recognize a forward movement in humanity, 
 "first the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in 
 the ear." 2 The national turnings and overturnings narrated 
 in the Old Testament are presented as preparatory to the 
 nobler Christian era. " When the fulness of time was 
 come," says Paul, "God sent forth His Son, made of a 
 woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were 
 under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons." 3 
 
 Jesus expected His gospel gradually to make its way 
 among men, and ultimately gain general acceptance. He 
 compared His work in founding the kingdom of heaven to 
 a grain of mustard seed, which afterwards grew into a wide- 
 spreading tree ; and also to " leaven which a woman took, and 
 hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened." 4 
 The prophet Isaiah looked forward to a time of peace 
 among all peoples. " They shall beat their swords into 
 ploughshares," he predicted, "and their spears into pruning- 
 hooks ; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither 
 shall they learn war any more." 5 Moved by the same uplift- 
 ing thought of universal peace, Tennyson sang in well- 
 known lines of a time, 
 
 "When the war-drum throbs no longer, and the battle-flags 
 
 are furled 
 In the parliament of man, the federation of the world." 
 
 What our seers and poets, with a divine hopefulness, 
 have thus dreamed of, seems to have the beginning of its 
 fulfilment in the Peace Conference of the Hague. 
 
 l Rev. 19:6. 2 Mark 4: 28. Gal. 4:4, 5. * Matt. 13:33. 615.2:4. 
 
22 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Conclusion. The relation of the Bible to modern life is 
 thus seen to be all-pervading. It has moulded our ways of 
 thinking; it has supplied our fundamental views of the 
 world ; it has developed our institutions ; it has inspired 
 our movements of reform ; it has exalted us with its 
 noble ideals, and cheered us with its bright hopes 
 of the future. No one can enter into the spirit of the 
 modern world or understand its deep ethical movements 
 without an acquaintance with the Scriptures. The utility 
 of a knowledge of Greek and Roman history and literature 
 is generally recognized ; but a fair consideration of the 
 matter shows that an acquaintance with the facts and 
 truths of Scripture is of still higher importance. It may 
 be justly claimed that such a knowledge, by far too much 
 neglected at the present time, is an indispensable element 
 of liberal culture. 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 The students should carefully look up the following 
 passages, which may be made the basis of comment and 
 discussion by the teacher. Many of these passages will 
 show that the Bible still has a message for our age. 
 
 The origin of the world, Gen. I : I ; Neh. 9:6; Ps. 33 : 6 ; Is. 42 : 5 ; 
 
 Heb. 3:4; Rom. 11 : 36. 
 The biblical view of man's origin, Gen. i : 26-29 ; 2: 7i Mai. 2: 10; 
 
 Acts 1 7 : 24-29. 
 
 The right use of our talents, Matt. 25 : 14-30 ; Lu. 19 : 12-27. 
 Marriage, Gen. 2:18; Matt. 19 : 3-9 ; Mark 10 : 2-12. 
 Bondmen or slaves, Ex. 21:2-6; Lev. 25:39-46; Dent. 15: 12-19; 
 
 Philemon. 
 Ill-gotten and ill-used riches, Jer. 17:11; Mic. 2 : 1-3 ; Lu. 12 : 13-21 ; 
 
 Jas. 5 : 1-6. 
 Commercial and social relations, Lev. 19:35, 36; Deut. 25: 13-16; 
 
 Is. I : 13-17; Matt. 7: 12; 22: 37-40; Lu. II : 37-44- 
 
RELATION OF THE BIBLE TO MODERN LIFE 23 
 
 The omniscience and omnipresence of God, Ps. 139: 1-12. 
 
 The nature and supremacy of love, I Cor. 13 ; I John 3 : 14-24. 
 
 Divine providence, Ps. 34 ; Matt. 6 : 25-34 ; 10 : 28-31. 
 
 Immortality, John 14: 1-3; I Cor. 15 : 53-58; 2 Tim. 4: 6-8. 
 
 Prayer, Matt. 6 : 5-15 ; 7 : 7-1 r ; Lu. 18 : 1-8 ; Jas. 5 : 14-18. 
 
 Ethical conduct and ideals, Ex. 20 : 2-17 ; Matt. 5:2-16; Gal. 5 : 14-26; 
 
 Eph. 5 : 1-18. 
 The goal of national changes, Dan. 2 : 19-45 ; Rev. 21 : 1-27. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 
 
 New Sources of Information. Until a few decades ago 
 the Bible contained the oldest trustworthy records of 
 ancient history. In recent years new and numerous 
 sources of information have been brought to light ; and 
 we are now acquainted with great world-empires .that form 
 a vast background for Hebrew history. The people of 
 Israel are antedated by the empires of Mesopotamia and 
 Egypt by thousands of years. Before Moses led his 
 people from Egyptian bondage or Abraham had left the 
 city of Ur in Chaldea, a high degree of civilization existed 
 on the banks of the Nile and the Euphrates. We cannot 
 fully understand the history and the literature of the 
 Hebrew people without a knowledge of these anterior 
 nations, with whom at times the Hebrews stood in close 
 political and commercial relations, and whose culture they 
 inherited and in some particulars developed. 1 
 
 Explorers and Excavators. For these new and invalu- 
 able sources of information we are indebted to the labors 
 of enthusiastic explorers and excavators. The French- 
 
 1 " In the age to which the migration of Terah belonged, Canaan and Babylonia 
 were in connection one with the other. Babylonian kings claimed rule over 
 Canaan, and Canaanitish merchants were established in Babylonia. The language 
 of Canaan was heard in the Babylonian cities, and even the rulers of the land were 
 of foreign blood. Between Babylonia and Canaan there was a highway which had 
 been trodden for generations, and along which soldiers and civil officials, merchants, 
 and messengers, passed frequently to and fro." A. H. SAYCE, " Early History of 
 the Hebrews," p. 134. 
 
 24 
 
- ; ^"'^ % *;.; 
 
 '^m 
 
 *W 
 
 r\ ~ 
 
 I 2 
 
 z 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 S 
 H 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 25 
 
 man Botta in 1842 and the Englishman Layard in 1845 
 opened the way with excavations at Khorsabad and 
 Nimrud, which brought to light long-buried records and 
 monuments of Assyrian civilization. A new interest in 
 archaeological research was awakened in Europe and 
 America. Many other explorers Rawlinson, George 
 Smith, De Sarsec, Peters, Hilprecht were despatched 
 to the Orient, whose excavations at Nippur, Babylon, 
 Nineveh, and elsewhere have uncovered buried temples 
 and palaces, and restored to the world great libraries 
 founded by enlightened monarchs. Explorers have been 
 no less active and successful in Egypt. As a result of 
 these investigations, we are able, in large measure, to re- 
 produce the wonderful historic drama that for thousands 
 of years before our era was enacted on the plains of Meso- 
 potamia and Egypt. 
 
 The Behistun Inscription. The key to the language of 
 Babylonia and Assyria was furnished by the Behistun in- 
 scription which, about 515 B.C., was cut on the polished 
 surface of a limestone cliff in the Zagros Mountains by 
 Darius, King of Persia. This inscription, which contains 
 a laudatory account of the king's numerous conquests, was 
 copied by Henry C. Rawlinson in 1835. When his labori- 
 ous and dangerous task was finished, he found that he had 
 not one but three languages in his possession. After years 
 of study, he succeeded in translating the five columns 
 nearly 400 lines of the old Persian writing. 
 
 The Median and Babylonian inscriptions were forced 
 later to yield up their secrets. And to-day Assyriologists 
 in Europe and America, developing the work thus begun, 
 are busy deciphering the small clay tablets of cuneiform 
 writing which have been dug up from the ruins of buried 
 and sometimes forgotten cities. The literary and his- 
 
26 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 toric treasures already translated into English fill many 
 volumes. 
 
 The Rosetta Stone. What the Behistun inscription did 
 for the language of Babylonia was accomplished by the 
 Rosetta stone for the language of Egypt. Unlike the 
 wedge-shaped characters of Mesopotamia, the writing of 
 Egypt was hieroglyphic. At first the hieroglyphs con- 
 sisted of pictures of objects; but at a later time they 
 acquired, to some extent, a phonetic or syllabic force. A 
 simplified form of this writing, which was current among 
 the people, is known as demotic. 
 
 The means of solving the mystery of this writing, which 
 had remained unread for more than 2000 years, was fur- 
 nished by the famous Rosetta stone, which was discovered 
 in 1799 during Napoleon's expedition into Egypt. This 
 stone, now an object of interest in the British Museum, 
 contains a trilingual inscription, the first part of which is 
 in hieroglyphics, the second in demotic characters, and the 
 last in uncial Greek. The Greek was easily read; and 
 finally, through the labors of Dr. Young, of England, and 
 Champollion, of France, the enigma of Egyptian writing 
 was solved, and the ancient records, which covered the 
 monuments and temple walls of that country, were opened 
 to the world. 
 
 i. MESOPOTAMIA 
 
 Mesopotamian Region. Though etymologically re- 
 stricted to the plain lying between the Tigris and the 
 Euphrates, the word Mesopotamia is loosely used to desig- 
 nate the entire region that stretches from the Zagros 
 mountains on the east to the Syrian mountains on the 
 west. On the north it is bounded by the mountains of 
 Armenia and on the south by the deserts of Arabia. This 
 
THE ROSETTA STONE 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 27 
 
 extended region the principal scene of the world's his- 
 tory for thousands of years is drained by two great 
 rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which rise among 
 the snow-capped mountains of Armenia. Though now a 
 desolate and arid region, the home of Arabian nomads, it 
 once Blossomed as "the garden of the Lord." 
 
 Its natural fertility was increased by a vast system of 
 irrigation, which carried the fruitful waters of the Eu- 
 phrates and the Tigris to distant parts of the lowland 
 plains. Traces of the great irrigating canals, some of 
 which are named in the Scriptures, are still discernible, 
 while the lofty mounds, which rise in every direction and 
 conceal the ruins of once splendid temples and palaces, 
 bear melancholy testimony to the former wealth and 
 grandeur of the country. 
 
 In the southeast lay the district of Chaldea; farther to 
 the north was Babylonia ; and northeast of the Tigris 
 stretched Assyria. To the east of these districts, each of 
 which was successively the seat of a monarchy, lay Elam, 
 Media, and Persia. All these countries were more or less 
 intimately associated with Hebrew history. 
 
 Chaldea. The southeastern part of the Mesopotamian 
 region, called in Genesis " the land of Shinar," was prob- 
 ably the cradle of human civilization. Though the be- 
 ginnings are lost in the darkness of antiquity, authentic 
 records, as carved on palace and temple walls, take us 
 back some five or six thousand years before the Christian 
 era. In the tenth chapter of Genesis, with its remarkable 
 ethnological traditions, Nimrod is made the founder of 
 " Babylon, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the 
 land of Shinar " ; and the language of the inscriptions in 
 the most ancient parts of the ruins shows that the original 
 occupants of the territory were not of Semitic origin. 
 
28 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Various Dynasties. The earliest glimpses we get of 
 Chaldean history, as derived from explorations, reveal to 
 us the rivalries of neighboring cities and* petty kings. 
 A parallel is found in the condition of Canaan at the time 
 of the Israelitish invasion. The tablets and monuments 
 recently exhumed at Telloh, Nippur, and Mugheir ac- 
 quaint us with various dynasties that had their capitals in 
 these and adjacent cities. Sargon I. (about 3800 B.C.) 
 was a great conqueror, and ultimately extended his empire 
 from Elam to the Mediterranean. He had a worthy suc- 
 cessor in his son Naram-Sin, who in the proud conscious- 
 ness of his power assumed the title of " king of the four 
 quarters of the world." 
 
 The city of Ur, called in Genesis " Ur of the Chaldees " 
 and interesting as the birthplace of Abraham, was at 
 intervals the centre of three dynasties. 1 Ur-gur, whose 
 reign is placed 3200 B.C., a thousand years or more 
 before the migration of Abraham to Canaan, was fa- 
 mous as a builder of temples, among which was a pyrami- 
 dal structure at Nippur. 
 
 Hammurabi (2250 B.C.). In the fourteenth chapter 
 of Genesis there is a brief account of a war between four 
 kings of the east with five kings of the west. It was 
 not the first time, as we have seen, that monarchs of 
 lower Mesopotamia had extended their arms toward the 
 Mediterranean. The most important of these allied in- 
 vading kings was "Amraphel, King of Shinar," who has 
 been identified with Hammurabi. He reigned at Babylon 
 
 1 " Great as is the place which Babylon has occupied in the world's history 
 beyond all the cities in the land of Shinar, its glory in those far-back' times was 
 eclipsed by the famous city of Ur. Its very name, signifying city, marks its pre- 
 eminence. It was a great emporium of trade : the ships of Ur brought the prod- 
 ucts of southern Arabia "to Babylonia, and, it may be, even traded with the land 
 of Egypt." THOMAS NICOL, " Recent Archaeology and the Bible," p. 112. 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 29 
 
 about 2250 B.C. ; and his martial prowess extended his 
 dominion in all directions. 
 
 Code of Laws. Hammurabi was not only a victori- 
 ous warrior, but also a beneficent ruler. His code of laws, 
 discovered at Susa in 1902, throws an interesting light 
 on the social conditions of Chaldea in the age of Abraham, 
 the progenitor of the Hebrew people. It is inscribed on 
 a pillar of black diorite nearly eight feet high. 
 
 The prologue to the code reveals the upright spirit in 
 which Hammurabi wished to rule. He recognized a 
 divine call " to cause justice to prevail in the land, to de- 
 stroy the wicked, and the evil, to prevent the strong from op- 
 pressing the weak, to enlighten the land, and to further the 
 welfare of the people." This code, which consists of two 
 hundred and eighty-two paragraphs, shows an elaborate 
 social organization. Besides miscellaneous laws, it con- 
 tains sections relating to the treatment of slaves, to leasing 
 and tillage, the management of irrigating canals, commer- 
 cial transactions, and divorce and inheritance. Through- 
 out the code the sense of responsibility and justice is 
 made very prominent. The general character of the 
 code makes good the king's claim that he desired to be 
 " like a father to his subjects." 
 
 The Assyrian Monarchy. As stated in the tenth chap- 
 ter of Genesis, Assyria was first colonized by emigrants 
 from Babylon. When the migration took place, it is im- 
 possible to say, but the city of Nineveh was already 
 in existence 3000 B.C. The relations existing between 
 Assyria and the mother-country were always intimate. 
 Their language and culture were substantially the same ; 
 and for the greater part of their history, they were polit- 
 ically united. At first Assyria was naturally a depend- 
 ency ; but it gradually grew in population and political 
 
30 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 power, and about 1290 B.C. its king, Tukulti-Ninib I., in- 
 vaded Chaldea, captured Babylon, and reduced that early 
 and powerful monarchy to a tributary relation. 
 
 The capitals of Assyria were at different times Asshur, 
 Calah, and Nineveh, all of which were adorned with mag- 
 nificent temples and palaces. In the Old Testament 
 Nineveh is described as " an exceeding great city of three 
 days' journey." 1 We have a tolerably complete list of 
 Assyrian kings from about 1800 B.C. to the fall of the 
 empire in 606 B.C., and ample means to recognize the 
 high state of civilization to which the empire attained. 
 
 Tiglathpilezer I. (1120 B.C.). One of the most vigor- 
 ous of Assyrian monarchs was Tiglathpilezer I., who 
 reigned about 1 1 20 B.C. He extended his empire abroad, 
 and as a wise ruler developed its strength at home. He 
 carried on many campaigns of conquest. In one great 
 battle on the confines of Asia Minor he is said to have 
 defeated twenty-five kings. 
 
 On a prism found at Calah Tiglathpilezer I. proudly enu- 
 merates his conquests. " In all," he says, " forty-two coun- 
 tries and their kings from the Lower Zab and the border 
 of the distant mountains to beyond the Euphrates and to 
 the land of the Hittites and the Upper Sea of the setting 
 sun [Black Sea], from the beginning of my sovereignty 
 until my fifth year my hand has conquered." It is thus 
 seen that he fixed the wide limits of the Assyrian empire 
 about the time the judges were ruling in Israel. 
 
 Later History. From the ninth century before 
 our era the western campaigns of Assyrian conquerors, 
 who came in contact with Israel and Judah, are frequently 
 mentioned in the second book of Kings. Asshurna- 
 zirpal III. (885-867 B.C.), who carried his victorious arms 
 
 i Jonah 3 : 3. 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 31 
 
 in all directions, conquered Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia, 
 and probably overran Palestine. He was vindictive 
 and cruel ; and in describing the capture of Bit-Uru, he 
 affords us a glimpse of the barbarities frequently practised 
 in war in those distant ages. " My warriors," he says, 
 " fell upon the city like vultures. I took the citadel, put 
 eight hundred men to the sword, and cut off their heads. 
 I made a mound with their corpses before the city gate ; 
 the prisoners were beheaded, and I put seven hundred of 
 them to the cross. The city was pillaged and destroyed ; 
 I transformed it into a heap of ruins." 
 
 Conquest of Israel. His successor, Shalmaneser II. 
 (858-824 B.C.), compelled Jehu, King of Israel, to pay trib- 
 ute. On a black obelisk containing the story of Shal- 
 maneser's wars, the payment of this tribute is depicted in 
 an interesting bas-relief. Tiglathpilezer III. (745-727 B.C.) 
 received tribute from Menahem, King of Israel, and 
 later from Ahaz, King of Judah, whom he supported 
 against a hostile alliance of northern Syria. A few years 
 later Hoshea, King of Israel, who had formed an alliance 
 with Shabak of Egypt, refused further tribute to Assyria. 
 Accordingly his territory was invaded by a formidable 
 army. After a siege of three years Samaria was captured 
 by Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.), who, according to a com- 
 mon custom, " carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed 
 them in Halah and in Habor, on the river Gozan, and in 
 the cities of the Medes." 1 The captives were replaced in 
 the land of Israel by settlers from the eastern part of the 
 Assyrian empire. 
 
 Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.). The empire of Assyria 
 was now at the zenith of its power. Sennacherib, the son 
 of Sargon II., was a great builder and great warrior. His 
 
 1 2 Kings 17:. 6. 
 
32 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 palace at Nineveh is, perhaps, the most magnificent of 
 Assyrian ruins. He subdued Babylon, carried on a tri- 
 umphant campaign in Phoenicia and Syria, and was pre- 
 vented from overcoming Hezekiah, whom he " had shut 
 up like a caged bird within Jerusalem," only by a sudden 
 pestilence that swept away 185,000 of his army. 1 
 
 But, if we may trust Sennacherib's own account, his ex- 
 pedition against Judah was by no means so disastrous as 
 might be inferred from the Hebrew chronicle. It will be 
 noted that he omits all mention of the disaster at Jerusa- 
 lem. " I then besieged Hezekiah of Judah," he says, 
 " who had not submitted to my yoke, and I captured 
 forty-six of his strong cities and fortresses and innumer- 
 able small cities which were round about them, with the 
 battering of rams and the assault of engines, and the at- 
 tack of foot-soldiers, and by mines and breaches made in 
 the walls. I brought out therefrom 200,150 people." 
 
 Fall of Assyria (606 B.C.). The end, however, was not 
 long delayed. Cruelty, pride, luxury these were the 
 vices of that warlike people which prepared the way for 
 their overthrow. In alliance with Nabopolassar, King of 
 Babylon, the Scythians and Medes invaded Assyria and 
 laid siege to Nineveh. When hard pressed and hopeless, 
 the Assyrian king, Sin-shar-ishkum, set fire to his palace 
 and perished in the flames. The city fell 606 B.C. 
 From this disaster the empire of Assyria never recovered ; 
 and henceforth that great power, which had dominated 
 western Asia for centuries, was lost in the movements of 
 still mightier nations. 
 
 In this destruction was fulfilled the remarkable predic- 
 tion of the Hebrew prophet Zephaniah a few years be- 
 fore. "The Lord," he said, " will stretch out His hand 
 
 1 2 Kings 19 : 35, 36. 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 33 
 
 against the north, and destroy Assyria; and will make 
 Nineveh a desolation, and dry like a wilderness. And 
 flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of 
 the nations ; both the cormorant and the bittern shall 
 lodge in the upper lintels of it ; their voice shall sing in 
 the windows ; desolation shall be in the thresholds ; for 
 He shall uncover the cedar work. This is the rejoicing 
 city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, 
 and there is none beside me ; how is she become a desola- 
 tion, a place for beasts to lie down in ! every one that 
 passeth by her shall hiss, and wag his hand." 1 
 
 Renaissance of Babylon. With the destruction of Nine- 
 veh and the overthrow of the Assyrian empire, Babylon once 
 more became the dominant power of the Tigris-Euphrates 
 plain. Nabopolassar, who had taken part in the campaign 
 against Nineveh, was succeeded by Nebuchadnezzar (605- 
 562 B.C.), whose long reign was the most splendid period of 
 the new but short-lived monarchy. A picture of his grandeur 
 is given in the opening chapters of the book of Daniel. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar made numerous military campaigns, in 
 one of which he subdued the whole of Syria. Not long 
 afterwards Zedekiah, King of Judah, backed by an alli- 
 ance with Egypt, rebelled. Jerusalem was captured by 
 the Babylonians 587 B.C., and all the people, except such 
 laborers as were absolutely necessary for the cultivation 
 of the soil, were deported to Babylon. A detailed account 
 of the event is given in the last chapter of 2 Kings ; and 
 in the 13/th Psalm there is a pathetic picture of the He- 
 brew captives in their foreign home : 
 
 " By the rivers of Babylon 
 There we sat down, yea, we wept, 
 When we remembered Zion." 
 
 i Zeph. 2 : 13 -15. 
 
34 A N INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 At this time Babylon, with its towering, many-colored 
 temples, its sculptured palaces, its verdant hanging gar- 
 dens, and its lofty castellated walls, was the most splendid 
 city of the world. 
 
 Fall of Babylon (538 B.C.). The successors of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar did not partake of his greatness. Of Amil- 
 Marduk, known in the Old Testament as Evil-Merodach, 
 but few records have descended to us. A pleasing 
 glimpse of him is given in the closing verses of the second 
 book of Kings, where his humane treatment of Jehoiachim, 
 King of Judah, is particularly mentioned. 
 
 The last king of Babylon was Nabonidus (555-538 B.C.), 
 who was distinguished for his interest in the archaeology 
 of his country. Unfortunately his interest in its early rec- 
 ords led him to neglect its welfare during his own reign. 
 It is particularly charged that he let the fortifications of 
 Babylon fall into ruin, and that he neglected the worship 
 of Marduk. A deep dissatisfaction laid hold of the peo- 
 ple. As a result, when Cyrus, King of the Persians, in- 
 vaded the country, he was received into Babylon without 
 a struggle. This event, which occurred 538 B.C., reduced 
 Babylonia to a province of the Persian empire. 
 
 Belshazzar, whose impious feast is the subject of the 
 fifth chapter of Daniel, appears from several inscriptions 
 and tablets to have been the son of Nabonidus, the last 
 king of Babylon. As prince regent or as heir to the 
 throne, he may have been properly called by the author of 
 Daniel " King of the Chaldeans." The Darius mentioned 
 as the victor and governor of Babylon was probably a 
 general or viceroy of Cyrus. 
 
 Civilization. Though three monarchies, as we have 
 seen, successively occupied the Mesopotamian region, 
 there was but one civilization. The Babylonians and As- 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 35 
 
 Syrians were of Semitic origin. The Semitic peoples are 
 highly endowed; and whether Babylonian, Hebrew, or 
 Arab, they are characterized by a glowing imagination, 
 quick invention, and restless impatience of control. 
 Whether in discourse or in architecture, they conceive 
 beautiful forms. The civilization of Babylonia and As- 
 syria, at which we marvel to-day, was a product of Semitic 
 genius. 
 
 The form of government, as in all Oriental countries, was 
 an absolute monarchy. The will of the sovereign was law. 
 As despotism depends ultimately on physical force, the 
 monarchies of Mesopotamia rested on a military basis. 
 While many of the sovereigns were humane and devoted 
 to the welfare of their realm, the majority, perhaps, were 
 chiefly concerned with their own pleasure and glory. 
 They were often ambitious, tyrannical, and cruel. 
 
 Science. Babylonia may be regarded as the original 
 home of astronomy, which was associated with the rites of 
 religion and the superstitions of astrology. Observatories, 
 which were built in connection with the temples, existed 
 in all the principal cities. The signs of the zodiac were 
 marked out, maps of the stars were made, and eclipses 
 were recorded. The year was divided into twelve lunar 
 months. The week consisted of seven days, and included 
 a day of rest, like the Hebrew Sabbath, in which ordinary 
 occupations were suspended. The mathematical sciences 
 reached an astonishing development. A tablet found 
 at Larsa contains a table of squares and cubes from one 
 to sixty ; and the plot of an estate lying outside the walls 
 of Babylon shows that the art of surveying was understood. 
 
 Architecture. The architecture of Babylonia and As- 
 syria was determined in large measure by the character of 
 the building materials at hand. As there were no stone 
 
36 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 quarries in the wide alluvial plains, the people were forced 
 to the use of bricks, which were either dried in the sun or 
 burned in kilns. 
 
 The temples and palaces were built on immense plat- 
 forms from twenty to forty feet high. The palaces, which 
 often covered several acres of ground, consisted of narrow 
 halls and large open courts. But little use was made of 
 the arch and column. At the principal entrances to 
 the halls stood colossal winged bulls or lions with human 
 heads, figures that seem to have symbolized the 
 swiftness, strength, and intelligence of the national 
 character. 
 
 The interior of the halls was decorated with elaborate 
 panels from nine to twelve feet high, which were covered 
 with inscriptions and bas-relief sculptures representing 
 martial events, hunting scenes, or mythological characters. 
 The space above this sculptured wainscoting, together with 
 the entire ceiling, was decorated with paintings, gildings, 
 and richly carved mouldings, the whole resulting in impres- 
 sive splendor. 
 
 Sculpture. The Babylonians and Assyrians excelled 
 in sculpture. Whether carving seals or gigantic symbolic 
 figures, they exhibited an admirable skill. We find at once 
 freedom of conception and carefulness of execution. The 
 dignity, strength, and conscious power of their human- 
 headed bulls witness to high artistic gifts. The Babylo- 
 nian sculptor was not hampered, as was the Egyptian artist, 
 by a rigid conventionalism. He understood anatomy and 
 studied the forms of nature ; and as- a result, there is often 
 a surprising realism in his portrayal of animals and the 
 human form. Through his fidelity to life we are made 
 acquainted with the physiognomy, the dress, and the 
 customs of Babylonia and Assyria thousands of years ago. 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 37 
 
 Manufacture. The Babylonians excelled likewise in 
 the manufacture of textile fabrics of linen, wool, and cotton. 
 They were renowned for the superior fineness and brilliant 
 colors of their garments. It is a significant fact that in 
 the conquest of Canaan under Joshua in the fifteenth 
 century before Christ, Achan fell into a mortal trespass 
 through the alluring beauty of " a goodly Babylonish gar- 
 ment." l Delicate perfumes, rich carpets, and precious 
 stones of various kinds ministered to the luxury of domestic 
 and social life at home, and furnished the materials of 
 commerce, which was carried on, by land and sea, with the 
 rest of the world. The description of Belshazzar's feast 
 in the fifth chapter of Daniel gives us a glimpse of the 
 voluptuous customs of Babylon at the period of its fall. 
 
 Religion. The religion of Babylonia and Assyria was 
 a complicated polytheism. At the head of the celestial 
 hierarchy was a triad of major deities called Ilu or Ana, 
 Bel or Baal, and Anu. There was also a second triad 
 associated with the visible world; namely, Shamash, god 
 of the sun, Sin, god of the moon, and Bin, Ramman, or 
 Abad, god of the higher regions of the atmosphere. A 
 series of divinities presided over the planets : Adar over 
 Saturn, Marduk over Jupiter, Nergal over Mars, Ishtar 
 over Venus, and Nabu over Mercury. Each city had its 
 tutelary deity, and vied with its neighbors in the erection 
 of imposing temples. Bel was worshipped at Nippur, 
 Shamash in Larsa, and Marduk in Babylon. 
 
 Though the religious rites of the Babylonians and As- 
 syrians contained licentious and degrading elements, the 
 people were not lacking in piety. In addition to the solemn 
 pomp of great annual festivals, the priests offered in the 
 temples daily sacrifices, which usually consisted of a ram 
 
 1 Josh. 7: 21. 
 
38 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 or kid. The people recognized the operation of a divine 
 providence in human life ; and while they practised magi- 
 cal arts and believed in the superstitions of astrology, they 
 often showed in their hymns and prayers a marked degree 
 of religious fervor. Some of their hymns, in sentiment and 
 expression, are comparable to the Psalms. 
 
 Tradition of Creation. Among the literary remains of 
 Babylonia is a remarkable tradition of creation, which has 
 points of striking resemblance with the narrative of Genesis. 
 It is preserved in a series of tablets, most of which have 
 been translated. The record of the first tablet describes 
 a chaotic condition of the world. " There was a time," so 
 reads the tablet, " when what is overhead was not called 
 heaven, and what is beneath was not yet called earth." 
 Afterwards, as other tablets record, the gods " created the 
 living creatures, the cattle of the field, the wild beasts of 
 the field, and creeping things." 
 
 Along with the points of resemblance between the Baby- 
 lonian and the Hebrew account of creation, there is one 
 fundamental difference. While the Babylonian tradition 
 is frankly polytheistic, the biblical narrative rises to a 
 monotheistic conception of God. Whether both narratives 
 sprang from a common source, or whether the record in 
 Genesis is drawn from the Babylonian tradition, the Scrip- 
 tural account bears the impress of an insight or inspiration 
 that lifts it far above the story of the cuneiform tablets. 1 
 
 The Deluge. The Babylonian account of the deluge is 
 a still more notable tradition. It is contained in the 
 
 1 " The early traditions of the Semitic race were yoked to the service of the 
 spiritual religion of Israel. The essential teaching of Jehovah respecting the 
 Divine nature, the universe, and man's nature, was conveyed in the outline of a 
 cosmogony, which, if it had its roots in the early Assyrian traditions, was finally 
 expressed in all the dignified simplicity of Hebrew monotheism." H. E. RYLE, 
 " Early Narratives of Genesis," p. 23. 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 39 
 
 Babylonian epic of Gilgamish, which was first dis- 
 covered and translated by George Smith, of the British 
 Museum, in 1872. It has points of remarkable agreement 
 with the story of the deluge in Genesis. Sit-Napishtim, 
 the Babylonian Noah, built a ship ; then, in anticipation of 
 the flood foretold by the gods, he says : " With everything 
 that I had of the seed of life I filled it. I embarked with 
 my whole family, my servants, the cattle of the field, the 
 wild beasts of the field, and the workmen, all of them I 
 embarked." 
 
 Then followed a violent storm of rain so that " the gods 
 crouched down like dogs." " Six days and seven nights," 
 says the narrator, "the storm raged, the flood, and tem- 
 pest ... I looked out over the sea, crying aloud, but all 
 mankind had turned to earth again. . . . The seventh day 
 at dawn I sent out a dove ; she left, she flew hither and 
 thither, there being no lighting place she returned. . . . 
 Then I sent out a raven and let her go. The raven flew 
 off and saw the diminishing waters ; she came near and 
 croaked, but did not return." These incidents will be 
 recognized as remarkably like the narrative in Genesis. 
 But here, again, the biblical story is exalted by its deep 
 moral purpose and its monotheistic idea of God. 1 
 
 2. EGYPT 
 
 Introductory. The northeastern part of Africa, known 
 as Egypt, occupies a very prominent place in the ancient 
 world. Its people, who probably migrated from Asia in 
 
 1 " The narrative of the flood records to us some terrible but local cataclysm 
 which overtook the original seat of the Semitic race. The Hebrew and Assyro- 
 Babylonian accounts are two parallel versions of it, transmitted, by the two strangely 
 different branches of that stock, in literature so varied as the clay tablets of Nineveh 
 and the Scriptures of the Jews." H. E. RYLE, "Early Narratives of Genesis," 
 p. 113. 
 
40 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 prehistoric times, belonged, as the sculptures of ancient 
 temples and tombs clearly show, to the white race. For 
 a long time the civilization of Egypt was thought to be the 
 oldest in the world ; but, as we have already learned, that 
 of the Mesopotamian region probably antedated it by some 
 centuries. A conservative estimate places the beginning 
 of the first dynasty at 4400 B.C., more than 2000 years 
 before Abraham left Ur of the Chaldees to become founder 
 of the Hebrew people. 
 
 The Nile. As Herodotus long ago observed, Egypt is the 
 gift of the Nile. But for this mighty river, that country, 
 famous in ancient as in modern times for its fertility, would 
 form a part of the great Sahara Desert. The Nile, whose 
 sources remained for ages a mystery, takes its rise in 
 equatorial Africa. The heavy rainfall of that tropical 
 region and the melting of the mountain snows of Abyssinia, 
 cause a yearly overflow, which makes portions of .the 
 valley like a sea. The numerous towns and cities, as the 
 Greek historian remarked, rise above the waters like 
 beautiful islands. This annual inundation, which begins 
 about the first of July, covers the river plain with a dark 
 muddy sediment, which renews the fertility of the soil. 
 
 Physical Features. Egypt extends from the first cata- 
 ract of the Nile to the Mediterranean Sea a distance of 
 about 570 miles. The fertile portion of the valley has a 
 width varying from five to twenty miles. As the river 
 approaches the sea, it divides into two main branches 
 which form a wide triangular plain known as the Delta. 
 On the west the Nile valley is, in -a measure, protected 
 against the encroachments of the desert by a range of 
 hills ; on the east it is bounded by a range of mountains, 
 which separate it from the sea. The fertile portion of 
 this valley, embracing about 12,000 square miles, became 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 41 
 
 in very ancient times the centre of a dense population, 
 which, largely cut off from contact with other nations, 
 developed a peculiar literature, religion, and art. 
 
 Influence of the River. The Nile may be regarded as 
 the controlling factor in Egyptian civilization. It not 
 only created the fertile valley, but it also determined, in 
 large measure, the pursuits and intellectual development of 
 the people. The fertility of the soil, annually enriched by 
 the overflow of the river, invited to agriculture, in which 
 wheat, millet, barley, and rice rewarded the husbandman a 
 hundred fold for his industry. The need of irrigation de- 
 veloped a mechanical ingenuity ; and the repeated efface- 
 ments of landmarks made mensuration a necessity. 
 
 The growing population led to the building of cities and 
 the enactment of laws for the maintenance of social order. 
 Even the deep religious sense of the people, which in the 
 course of time created an all-powerful priesthood, may be 
 traced, in some measure at least, to the beneficence of the 
 river. In its annual overflow, without which the country 
 was in danger of desolation by famine, the people learned 
 their dependence upon a higher power than their own. 
 
 Different Classes. The Egyptians were divided into 
 several well-defined classes or castes. The priests, who 
 constituted the highest caste, possessed immense wealth and 
 influence. They were supported by the state, and held 
 one-third of the land free of tax. They were the chief 
 representatives of learning, and the intellectual leaders of 
 the people. The king was regarded as a high priest, 
 whose absolute power rested on his character as represen- 
 tative of the gods. The military class ranked next to the 
 priests. The rest of the population was divided into three 
 general classes, of which the first included the farmers 
 and boatmen ; the second, the mechanics and tradesmen ; 
 
42 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 and the third, the herdsmen, fishermen, and common 
 laborers. 
 
 Old Memphis Empire. The history of Egypt before the 
 conquest of Alexander the Great, 332 B.C., includes three 
 empires, the old Memphis empire (4700-2700 B.C.), the 
 old Theban or Middle empire (2700-1635 B.C.), and the 
 new Theban empire (1635-332 B.C.). Ten dynasties belong 
 to the long period of the old Memphitic empire. Many of 
 the sovereigns of this remote empire have left monuments 
 of various kinds, which throw much light on the state of 
 society. For example, Zeser (3866 B.C.), a king of the 
 third dynasty, built the step pyramid of Saqqarah, of which 
 it has been said that " it is certainly the oldest of all the 
 large buildings which have successfully resisted the action 
 of wind and weather, and destruction by the hand of man." 
 The great Sphinx of Gizeh, which was sculptured at this 
 period, exhibits the high degree of intelligence and artistic 
 skill to which the Egyptians had attained. Khufu, or 
 Cheops (3733 B.C.), built the great pyramid that bears his 
 name. 
 
 The Middle Empire. The Middle or old Theban empire, 
 which includes the dynasties from the eleventh to the seven- 
 teenth, lasted about a thousand years(27OO-i635 B.C.). The 
 capital was transferred from Memphis to Thebes in upper 
 Egypt. The successive sovereigns of this empire have 
 left their names in notable monuments, literary productions, 
 or public works. Amenemhat I. (2466 B.C.) displayed 
 great vigor as a ruler, and made conquests in Asiatic terri- 
 tory. In describing his beneficent reign he says, " I caused 
 the mourner to mourn no longer, and his lamentation was 
 no longer heard." 
 
 Usertsen I. (2446 B.C.) extended his authority into the 
 Sinaitic peninsula, and built the temple of Karnak, which 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 43 
 
 was enlarged and enriched by subsequent sovereigns. 
 Usertsen III. (2340 B.C.) conquered Ethiopia, and fixed the 
 southern boundary of Egypt at the second cataract, where 
 he built two strong fortresses. He was succeeded by 
 Amenemhat III. (2305 B.C.), who constructed Lake Moeris 
 as a storage reservoir for the waters of the Nile, and built 
 the celebrated Labyrinth palace, which Herodotus says 
 surpassed all the architectural works of Greece. 
 
 The Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos or Shep- 
 herd Kings were an Asiatic people who during the thir- 
 teenth dynasty, about 2100 B.C., established themselves in 
 Egypt. They probably came from Syria or Arabia, and 
 are characterized by Manetho as " men of ignoble birth 
 out of the eastern parts." Their conquest, according to 
 the Egyptian historian, was characterized by ruthless de- 
 struction and cruelty. " They burnt down our cities," 
 Manetho says in a passage preserved by Josephus, " and 
 demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the in- 
 habitants after a most barbarous manner." The royal 
 residence of the conquerors was fixed at Pelusium, or Avaris, 
 a border stronghold, and at Tanis, a populous city of the 
 eastern Delta. The dominion of the Hyksos was confined 
 chiefly to lower Egypt ; only for a brief period did their 
 sovereignty extend over upper Egypt. 
 
 Whatever may have been the life of the Hyksos prior to 
 their invasion of Egypt, it is certain that they adopted the 
 higher civilization of the conquered territory. They 
 assumed the titles of Egyptian sovereigns, and erected 
 temples to the Egyptian gods. The monuments that have 
 descended to us from their time prove that they fully 
 adopted the culture, art, and religion of Egypt. The 
 length of the Hyksos domination is estimated by Manetho 
 at 5 1 1 years. 
 
44 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Relation to the Hebrews. The presence of these 
 Arabian or Syrian conquerors in Egypt throws an interest- 
 ing light on early Hebrew history. When Abraham was 
 driven from Canaan by a famine, he was kindly dealt with 
 by the Egyptian king, 1 who recognized in him, not an alien, 
 but a compatriot. This kindly attitude toward Syrian 
 immigrants explains the rapid advancement of Joseph in 
 the house of Potiphar, captain of the king's guard, and his 
 subsequent advancement, as related in the closing chapters 
 of Genesis, to the office of prime minister of the realm. 
 It explains, likewise, the courtesy with which Pharaoh re- 
 ceived Jacob's numerous household, and the readiness 
 with which he assigned them a home in the fertile dis- 
 trict of Goshen. The native Egyptians, to whose caste 
 prejudice "every shepherd is an abomination," 2 would 
 have shown themselves intolerant to the Hebrew 
 immigrants. 
 
 New Theban Empire (1635-332 B.C.). At length the 
 Hyksos kings were driven from their stronghold at Pelusium 
 by a vigorous king of upper Egypt, Aahmes I. (1635 B.C.), 
 and the new Theban empire was established. Egypt 
 speedily rose to the rank of a world power. Tehutimes I. 
 (1590 B.C.), for example, pushed his conquests in Asia as 
 far as the Euphrates ; and Tehutimes III. (1530 B.C.) made 
 no fewer than fifteen campaigns into Syria. 
 
 The eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, extending from 
 1635 to 1235 B.C., was a period of great national develop- 
 ment. Art, literature, and commerce flourished in a high 
 degree. Among the memorable achievements of this 
 period may be mentioned the temple of Luxor, the famous 
 avenue of the sphinxes between Karnak and Luxor, and 
 the palace and tomb of Tel-el-Amarna. An active corre- 
 
 1 Gen. 12 : 10. 2 Gen. 46 : 34. 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 45 
 
 spondence was maintained in cuneiform characters with 
 princes in Syria and Mesopotamia. The discovery of three 
 hundred cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna in 1887 has 
 thrown much light on the relations existing between 
 Egypt and western Asia. 
 
 Ramses II. (1345 B.C.). There is one king of the nine- 
 teenth dynasty who deserves particular notice. It is 
 Ramses II., whose warlike prowess has earned for him the 
 title of "the Great." He is well known to us through the 
 account contained in the first chapter of Exodus. He was 
 "the Pharaoh of the oppression," who regarded it as a 
 measure of wise public policy to prevent the multiplication 
 of an alien race in the midst of Egypt. " Now there arose 
 up a new king over Egypt," says the sacred record, " which 
 knew not Joseph. And he said unto his people, behold, 
 the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier 
 than we : come on, let us deal wisely with them ; lest they 
 multiply, and it come to pass that, when there falleth out 
 any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against 
 us, and so get them up out of the land." 1 
 
 During his long reign of sixty-seven years, Ramses II. 
 busied himself with building cities and creating works of 
 art. Through the enforced labors of the Israelites, he 
 built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Ramses, in which he 
 stored grain to provide for his people in case of famine or 
 invasion. The city of Pithom was excavated in 1883, and 
 the treasure-chambers themselves, with brick partitions 
 from eight to ten feet thick, were discovered. Ramses II. 
 constructed temples, palaces, and tombs, and erected tall 
 granite obelisks, one of which now adorns the Place de la 
 Concorde in Paris. The war poem of Pentaur, a produc- 
 tion of vigorous thought and expression, describes his 
 
 1 Ex. i : 8-10. 
 
46 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 heroism at the battle of Kadesh. A bust of this king, pre- 
 served in the British Museum, shows a countenance of 
 calm dignity, and resourceful intelligence. 
 
 Subsequent Relations with Israel. The cruel oppression 
 of the Hebrews, who had grown to be a numerous people, 
 was not to go on indefinitely. Under Meneptah II., who 
 lacked the martial genius of his father, Ramses II., there 
 were uprisings on all sides against the despotism of Egypt. 
 These revolts, which taxed the energies and military power 
 of the king to the utmost, afforded a favorable opportunity 
 for the Israelites to escape from their bondage. The 
 troubles of the Egyptian monarch were aggravated by a 
 series of national calamities described in Exodus as the ten 
 plagues. At length, under the able leadership of Moses, 
 the enslaved Hebrews rose in a body, and began a long 
 and toilsome march toward the home of their ancestors in 
 Canaan. The Egyptian army that went in pursuit of the 
 fugitives was overwhelmed in the waters of the Red 
 Sea. 
 
 During the later dynasties, Egypt frequently came into 
 touch with the Hebrews after their settlement in " the 
 Promised Land." As we learn in the third chapter of I 
 Kings, " Solomon made affinity with Pharaoh, King of 
 Egypt, and took Pharaoh's daughter, and brought her into 
 the city of David," where he built for her a magnificent 
 palace. The Egyptian king bestowed upon' his daughter 
 as dowry the city of Gezer, which he had captured from 
 the Canaanites. 
 
 The division of the Hebrew kingdom in 930 B.C. made 
 the people of Israel an easy prey. Accordingly, as we 
 read in 2 Chronicles, Shishak invaded Canaan 925 B.C. with 
 " twelve hundred chariots and threescore thousand horse- 
 men." He attacked Jerusalem, and "took away the 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 47 
 
 treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of 
 the king's house." l 
 
 Culture and Art As indicated in the preceding sketch, 
 the Egyptians excelled in culture and art. The ancient 
 Greeks looked upon Egypt as a school of wisdom. Long 
 before the Greeks were known to history, the dwellers on 
 the Nile had developed a high civilization. Grecian phi- 
 losophers and lawgivers Pythagoras, Plato, Solon, Lycur- 
 g us visited Egypt to increase their store of learning. It 
 is said in praise of Moses that he " was learned in all the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians." 2 
 
 The temples and tombs of Egypt were ornamented with 
 paintings and sculpture, which were in large measure con- 
 ventional and symbolic. Though Egyptian artists, as a 
 rule, did not follow nature, we have what seem to be excel- 
 lent likenesses of many sovereigns belonging to the Middle 
 empire. The Egyptians excelled in the mechanic arts. 
 Great perfection was attained in spinning and weaving; 
 glass was manufactured, and some of the secrets of color- 
 ing it have baffled modern ingenuity ; iron and the common 
 mechanical and agricultural implements made from it 
 were in general use. Mighty pyramids and majestic tem- 
 ples witness not only to lofty artistic conception, but to a 
 high order of mechanical skill. The temple 'of Karnak 
 has been pronounced the proudest architectural achieve- 
 ment of man. 
 
 Literature. The literature of Egypt, as it has been 
 preserved, represents almost every species of writing. The 
 inscriptions contain invaluable historical records. The 
 Prisse Papyrus, which was written in the fifth dynasty 
 (about 3400 B.C.), is said to be the oldest book in the 
 world. In subject-matter it resembles the book of Prov- 
 
 l 2 Chron. 12 : 9. 2 Acts 7 : 22. 
 
48 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 erbs. " If thou art become great," the author, Ptah-Hotep, 
 says, " after thou hast been lowly, and if thou hast heaped 
 up riches after poverty, being because of that the chiefest 
 in the city ; let not thy heart be puffed up because of thy 
 riches, for it is God who has given them unto thee. De- 
 spise not another who is as thou wast ; be towards him as 
 towards thy equal." 
 
 The " Book of the Dead " is a work of religious and 
 funeral rites. Its value is enhanced by illustrations. Its 
 moral code embraced all the prohibitions contained in the 
 Mosaic decalogue. Though parts of the " Book of the 
 Dead " are of far greater antiquity, the papyrus copy in 
 the British Museum dates from the eighteenth dynasty 
 (about 1500 B.C.). 
 
 In the literature of Egypt we find lyric and epic poems, 
 some of which seem quite modern in their heroic or tender 
 sentiment. What seems still more remarkable, there are 
 romantic tales, such as "The Shipwrecked Sailor" and 
 "The Story of the Two Brothers," that have the merit of 
 literary skill and personal interest. 
 
 Religion. The Egyptians were preeminently a religious 
 people. Their gods, among whom may be mentioned Ptah, 
 Amen, Ra, Osiris, Horus, and Isis, were almost innumer- 
 able. This extraordinary polytheism finds its explanation, 
 perhaps, in the divided state of the country in prehistoric 
 times, when every community or tribe had its patron deity. 
 In later times, with the establishment of a single govern- 
 ment, their various divinities were united in a single hier- 
 archy, in which their functions were often confused and 
 contradictory. 
 
 In honor of the various gods great temples were reared, 
 some of which, resisting the corroding power of centuries, 
 still excite a profound admiration. There were numerous 
 
BACKGROUND OF HEBREW HISTORY 49 
 
 festivals, which made the life of the Egyptians, in large 
 measure, a round of religious ceremony. A strange feature 
 of Egyptian religion was its animal worship. The cat, ibis, 
 hawk, and beetle were universally recognized as sacred. 
 Apis was the sacred bull worshipped at Memphis as an in- 
 carnation of Osiris. A reminiscence of Egyptian polythe- 
 ism and animal worship is found among the Hebrews at 
 Sinai, who, impatient at the prolonged absence of Moses, 
 gathered about the molten calf, and exclaimed, " These be 
 thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of 
 Egypt." i 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 See remark, under this heading, at the close of the 
 preceding chapter. 
 
 Hebrew ethnological traditions, Gen. 10. 
 
 Migration of Abraham, Gen. n : 27-32 ; 12 : 1-9. 
 
 The war between Mesopotamian and Canaanite kings, Gen. 15. 
 
 A description of Nineveh, Jonah 3. 
 
 The deportation of Israel into Assyria, 2 Kings 17. 
 
 The invasion of Sennacherib and his disaster at Jerusalem, 2 Kings 18 : 
 
 13-37; 19 : 1-36- 
 The character and destruction of Nineveh, Nahum ; Zeph. 2: 13-15; 
 
 Ezek. 31 : 3-17; Is. 10:5-19. 
 
 A description of Nebuchadnezzar's court and empire, Dan. 1-5. 
 The conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kings, 24 and 25. 
 
 As foretold by the prophet, Jer. 21 : 2-14 
 The lament of the captive Hebrews in Babylon, Ps. 137. 
 The destruction of Babylon as predicted by the prophets, Is. 13 : 1-22 ; 
 
 21 : i-io; 47: 1-15 ; Jer. 50: 1-46; 51 : 1-64. As accomplished, 
 
 Dan. 5. 
 
 The story of creation, Gen. I : 1-31 ; 2 : 1-25. 
 The story of the flood, Gen. 6, 7, and 8. 
 Abraham in Egypt, Gen. 12 : 10-20. 
 The biography of Joseph, Gen. 37-50. 
 
 i Ex. 32 : 4. 
 
50 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 The migration of Jacob into Egypt, Gen. 46, 47. 
 
 The oppressive measures adopted by Ramses II. against the flourishing 
 
 Hebrews, Ex. i : 7-22. 
 The childhood of Moses, Ex. 2 : i-io. 
 
 The migration of the enslaved Hebrews from Egypt, Ex. 3-14. 
 A beautiful triumphal ode, Ex. 15 : 1-22. 
 The expedition of Shishak, King of Egypt, against Jerusalem, 2 Chron. 
 
 12 : 2-12. 
 The worship of the golden calf at Sinai, Ex. 32 : 1-24. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 
 
 Historical Position. In many respects the people of 
 Israel were insignificant. They made no contribution to 
 art ; they were lacking in high intellectual culture ; and 
 for the most part, their political power was comparatively 
 feeble. Except for a brief period under David and Solo- 
 mon, the Hebrews were unable to resist a formidable 
 invasion from Babylonia or Egypt. Their national life 
 was developed in the presence of a much older civilization. 
 In comparison with the mighty empires of the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris, they counted for little. 
 
 Contribution to Human Progress. Nevertheless they 
 occupy a prominent place in the history of the ancient 
 world. On the moral and spiritual side of life, the He- 
 brews did far more for human progress than either the 
 Babylonians or the Egyptians. In the midst of a universal 
 polytheism, the rites of which were often cruel and im- 
 pure, Israel developed a spiritual monotheism, which 
 has since been generally accepted by the most enlightened 
 nations of the modern world. The Hebrew prophets and 
 lawgivers were the first to magnify the existence of one 
 Supreme Being, who in the beginning "created the heaven 
 and the earth." 
 
 Above all other peoples of antiquity the Hebrews empha- 
 sized the necessity of personal and civic righteousness ; 
 and in the fulness of time they brought forth the great 
 Teacher of our race. Religion, though with many back- 
 
 5 1 
 
52 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 slidings and perversions, was the central and controlling 
 influence in Hebrew life. Through the spiritual insight 
 of their greatest leaders, and through their strong empha- 
 sis^ji_lli_.mQraI.._elements of life, the people of Israel 
 achieved a distinct place in universal history, and placed 
 all subsequent ages under a deep and permanent obli- 
 gation. 1 
 
 Land of Canaan. The land of the Hebrews was a part 
 of Syria. From Mt. Hermon on the north it extended 
 southward for a hundred and fifty miles to the Arabian 
 desert. Its width, stretching from the Mediterranean on 
 the west to the desert region on the east, was about one 
 hundred miles. From the narrow strip of coast plain rose 
 a table-land, which was cut by numerous well-watered 
 vales and marked by the famous summits of Tabor, Car- 
 mel, and Gerezim. The country from north to south was 
 divided by the deep valley of the Jordan, beyond which 
 fertile highlands again stretched away to the desert of 
 Arabia. 
 
 In ancient times this land of the Hebrews, known as 
 Canaan, was exceedingly fertile " a land flowing with milk 
 and honey." 2 In Deuteronomy it is characterized as "a 
 good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains and 
 depths, springing forth in valleys and hills ; a land of 
 wheat and barley, and vines and fig trees and pome- 
 granates; a land of olives and honey; a land whose 
 stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig 
 brass." 3 
 
 1 " It is the marvel of history that this little people, beset and despised by all the 
 earth for ages, maintains its solidarity unimpaired. Unique among all the peoples 
 of the earth, it has come undoubtedly to the present day from the most distant 
 antiquity. Forty, perhaps fifty, centuries rest upon this venerable contemporary 
 of Egypt, Chaldea, and Troy." J. K. HOSMER," The Jews," p. 4. 
 
 2 Numb. 13 : 27. 3 Deut. 8 : 7. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 53 
 
 Native Tribes. From prehistoric times Canaan was 
 occupied by various tribes of Semites, among whom may be 
 mentioned the Philistines, the Jebusites, and Ammonites, 
 the Amorites, and the Hivites. These tribes were not 
 uncivilized ; and at the time of the Hebrew invasion, 
 presently to be noticed, they lived in cities, carried on 
 agriculture and trade, and maintained regal forms of 
 government. Situated between the great monarchies 
 of the Euphrates and the Nile, to which they were at 
 times in subjection, the Canaanites shared in the 
 culture, customs, and superstitions of Babylonia and 
 Egypt. 
 
 They were skilled in the arts of war. The name of one 
 of their cities, Kirjath-sepher, "the city of books," seems 
 to indicate the cultivation of literature. Their chief divin- 
 ities were Baal and Astarte, which were worshipped with 
 licentious rites ; and the people resorted to divination and 
 augury, consulted " familiar spirits," and practised other 
 superstitions which the sacred writer stigmatizes as "an 
 abomination unto the Lord." At various times the people 
 of Israel were contaminated by the corrupt teaching and 
 vile rites of their Canaanitish neighbors. 
 
 National Beginnings. According to the records in Gen- 
 esis, which constitute our principal source of information, 
 the progenitor of the Hebrew people was Abraham who 
 migrated some 2000 years before our era, from " Ur of 
 the Chaldees " to Canaan. His descendants, Isaac and 
 Jacob, led a patriarchal and nomadic life, which was dis- 
 tinguished alone for an unshaken faith in Jehovah. Many 
 interesting traditions of their early life in Canaan do- 
 mestic tragedies as well as romantic idyls have fortu- 
 nately been preserved to us. The wooing of seven years | 
 to gain the hand of Rachel, the reconciliation of Jacob and I 
 
54 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Esau, and the tragedy of Joseph these are delightful 
 pictures of that distant patriarchal life. 1 
 
 A famine in Canaan led to the removal of Jacob and 
 his numeroiiS-hQusehold into Egypt, where his son Joseph, 
 under afHyjcsos kin& had risen to high dignity and power. 
 In the course of several centuries, these Hebrew immigrants, 
 who had settled in Goshen a district in the northeastern 
 part of Egypt became so numerous as to excite fears 
 at the Egyptian court. Accordingly, as we have already 
 seen, Ramses II., "a Pharaoh who knew not Joseph," 
 adopted cruel measures of repression. The Hebrews were 
 enslaved and burdened with cruel tasks. At length, after 
 a period of extreme hardship and suffering, they migrated 
 in a body, about(749O B.3 according to the usual chronol- 
 ogy, toward the " .Promised Land " of Canaan. Their 
 number is given at " about 600,000 that were men, beside 
 children." The Egyptian army that pursued the fleeing 
 host met with irreparable disaster at the Red Sea. 
 
 In the Wilderness. But the Hebrews were not destined 
 to enter at once upon their promised inheritance. They 
 were to spend many years in the wilderness region south 
 of Canaan, where their religious and national life was to 
 assume definite shape. The bonds of racial sympathy, 
 which naturally drew the Hebrews together during the 
 trials of their Egyptian bondage, were to be further 
 strengthened by the common dangers and hardships of the 
 wilderness. The books of Exodus and Numbers relate many 
 interesting events of this migratory period, events that 
 
 1 " If criticism, with the help of archaeology, has failed to establish the literal 
 truth of these stories as personal biographies, it has, on the other hand, displayed 
 their utter fidelity to the characters of the peoples they reflect, and to the facts of 
 the world and the Divine guidance in which these peoples developed. The power 
 of the patriarchal narratives on the heart, the imagination, the faith of men can 
 never die ; it is immortal with truthfulness to the realities of human nature and 
 God's education of mankind." GEORGE ADAM SMITH, "Modern Criticism and 
 the Preaching of the Old Testament," p. 109. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 55 
 
 subsequently embedded themselves in the history of the 
 Hebrew people and in the thought of the Christian church. 
 
 The hero of this national movement was Moses, the law- 
 giver and prophet of Israel. He is deservedly regarded 
 as one of the great figures of history. His work was two- 
 fold in its character. He gave the multitudes under him 
 a complete civil administration. He not only_drew up_a 
 code of laws, which his Egyptian culture easily enabled 
 him to do, but he also appointed able and upright men to 
 be rulers and judges under him. "And Moses chose able 
 men out of all Israel," so runs the record, "and made 
 them heads over the people, rulers of thousands, rulers of 
 hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens. And they 
 judged the people at all seasons : the hard causes they 
 brought unto Moses, but every small matter they judged 
 themselves." l 
 
 But more significant still were the religious institutions 
 which, under divine guidance, he established for his people. 
 A special covenant was entered into between Jehovah and 
 the people, by which the polytheistic idolatries of Egypt 
 were completely swept away. Monotheism became the 
 official faith, as it had long been the traditional belief, of 
 the Hebrews. A comprehensive moral code r including 
 both religious and social duties, was promulgated. It is 
 known as the Ten Commandments, and is held in high 
 honor to-day. 2 An elaborate ritual of worship, suggestions 
 for which may have been borrowed from the temple cere- 
 
 1 Ex. 18 : 25, 26. 
 
 2 " The grand distinction of the Decalogue is that it deals only with that which is 
 fundamental in religion and morals. ' Love God with all your heart, and your 
 neighbor as yourself is its sum. There is no ritual, but only the ethical, the 
 universally important and perennially valid. Even the fourth commandment is 
 ethical at the core, a humane statute securing a resting-time for labor drudges, 
 slaves, and even for the beast of burden. " R. S. MOULTON, " The Bible as Litera- 
 ture," p. 39. 
 
56 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 monies of Egypt, was established, and a hereditary line of 
 priests was ordained to have charge of the services of the 
 tabernacle, a portable sanctuary suited to the migratory 
 life of Israel in the wilderness. 
 
 Conquest of Canaan. After wandering forty years in the 
 wilderness, the Hebrews turned northward and approached 
 Canaan from the eastern side of the Jordan. From the 
 summit of Mt. Pisgah, Moses, the strong and faithful 
 leader of Israel, caught a splendid glimpse of the Promised 
 Land, which he was not himself to enter. After his death, 
 at an advanced age, Joshua became his successor, and 
 pushed his conquests to the west of the river with tireless 
 energy and unsparing thoroughness. He displayed the 
 barbarous cruelty that was only too common in the military 
 campaigns of that age. In the capture of Jericho, for ex- 
 ample, it is stated that the Hebrew invaders " utterly de- 
 stroyed all that was in the city, both man and woman, 
 young and old, and ox, sheep, and ass, with the edge of the 
 sword." * 
 
 The twelfth chapter of Joshua the book that describes 
 the conquest gives a list of thirty-one kings, whom the 
 Hebrew leader subdued. Every town and city in the land 
 had its local prince or king. Sometimes these princes 
 formed extensive alliances against the invaders ; but the 
 Hebrews, hardened by their wanderings in the wilderness, 
 proved themselves irresistible conquerors. After the com- 
 pletion of the conquest, which still left here and there con- 
 siderable communities of the Canaanitish races, the country 
 was divided among the twelve tribes of Israel. Each tribe 
 constituted a province under its own elders or rulers. 
 
 The Hebrews were distinguished from the native popula- 
 tion of Canaan by the purity and exclusiveness of their 
 
 / ' 
 
 1 Josh. 6: 21. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 57 
 
 monotheistic religion. The religious element dominated 
 the life of Israel. Extraordinary precautions were exer- 
 cised to prevent idolatry. Intermarriage was prohibited ; 
 and all the monuments of idolatrous worship were de- 
 stroyed. "Ye shall destroy their altars," it is commanded 
 in Deuteronomy, " and break down their images, and cut 
 down their groves, and burn their graven images with fire." 1 
 The first and supreme duty of the Israelites is expressed in 
 these words : " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all 
 thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might." 2 
 
 Period of the Judges. After the conquest there followed 
 a long period the usual chronology makes it some three 
 hundred years in which the twelve tribes were without 
 political organization and unity. The only bon,d JiQjt al- 
 ways a strong one, was a common religious faith. 3 It was 
 a period of confusion, tumult, and bloodshed, for " in those 
 days," to quote the book of Judges, our chief authority, 
 " there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which 
 was right in his own eyes." 4 The children of Israel, for- 
 getful of the solemn admonitions of Moses and Joshua, 
 frequently apostatized from the religion of Jehovah to 
 engage in the alluring worship of Baal and Ashtaroth, 
 which they adopted from the older tribes of Canaan. 
 In addition to intertribal conflicts of the Hebrews, there 
 were frequent wars with the native races of Canaan, 
 and the Israelites were often brought into subjection. 
 
 Various Deliverers. These times of national trial and 
 disaster naturally brought strong, capable leaders to the 
 
 1 Deut. 7:5. 2 Deut. 6:5. 
 
 8 " In virtue of their common religion the Israelites of the north and the south 
 retained a sense of essential unity in spite of political separation and repeated 
 wars ; and it was felt that the division of the tribes was inconsistent with the true 
 destiny of Jehovah's people." W. R. SMITH, "The Prophets of Israel," p. 48. 
 
 4 Judges 17 : 6 
 
58 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY . 
 
 front, who, in the original records, are called Judges. 1 
 Several of them have become well known. Ehud, by an 
 act of treachery, slew Eglon, the king of the Moabites, 
 and summoning the tribe of Ephraim to his standard, he 
 threw off the Moabite yoke. Deborah and Barak deliv- 
 ered the northern tribes from the galling oppression of 
 the Canaanites a victory that is celebrated in a martial 
 song of exultant and pious fervor. The victory of Gideon 
 over the Midianites by means of a stratagem ; the narra- 
 tive of Samson's slaughter of the Philistines and of his 
 ignominious capture and death ; the triumph of Jephthah 
 over the Ammonites and his fatal vow leading to the 
 sacrifice of his only daughter, these are interesting stories 
 made familiar to many in childhood. 
 
 The Hebrew Monarchy. The time of the Judges was 
 essentially a formative, period. Through bitter experience 
 the Hebrew tribes, not unlike the American colonies, were 
 brought to recognize the need of closer union. Their only 
 security against internal anarchy and alien subjugation 
 was found in a national organization, such as existed 
 among the peoples about them. 
 
 When the Hebrew elders demanded a king, the aged 
 and saintly Samuel, the last of the Judges, endeavored to 
 dissuade them from their purpose. Accordingly, in an 
 interesting discourse, he portrayed the tyrannous rule of 
 an Oriental despot. " He will take your sons," he said, 
 " and appoint them for himself, for his chariots, and to be 
 his horsemen ; and some shall run before his chariots. 
 And he will appoint him captains over thousands, and 
 captains over fifties ; and will set them to ear his 
 ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instru- 
 ments of war, and instruments of his chariots. And he 
 
 1 Judges 2: 16-19. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 
 
 59 
 
 will take your daughters to be confectionaries, and to be 
 cooks, and to be bakers. And he will take your fields, 
 and your vineyards, and your olive-yards, even the best of 
 them, and give them to his servants." 1 
 
 Saul. But the monarchical movement was not to be 
 checked. Accordingly Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, was 
 selected as the first Hebrew king at a national assembly 
 held at Mizpelffr62O B.c.Jj' His tall and handsome person 
 delighted the multitude, who hailed the new sovereign 
 with the spontaneous acclaim, "God save the king." Im- 
 portant events speedily confirmed the royal power. Saul 
 waged a vigorous and successful campaign against the 
 haughty Ammonites a triumph that silenced the mal- 
 content opponents of the monarchy. A little later he 
 overcame the Philistines and the Amalekites. These 
 victories, which restored the independence of Israel, 
 amply vindicated the establishment of the kingdom. 
 
 But Saul, though a brave patriotic leader, was deficient 
 in statesmanlike ability. The latter years of his reign 
 were saddened by the alienation of the priestly class and 
 by his violent jealousy of David, whose heroism had won 
 him great popular favor. At last, in a battle with the 
 Philistines, in which three of his sons had been slain, Saul 
 himself was sorely wounded, and fearing torture at the 
 hands of the enemy, he fell upon his sword. 
 
 David (1002 B.C.). The second king of Israel was 
 David, a man of fearless courage, of large 'experience, 
 and of regal ability. His triumph over Goliath r the 
 Philistine champion, had made him a national hero. 
 Though the jealousy of Saul had for several years made 
 him an outlaw and driven him into exile, he tactfully cul- 
 tivated the favor of the tribal leaders. He was especially 
 
 1 Sam. 8: 11-20. 
 
60 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 strong in the favor of the influential priestly class. Ac- 
 cordingly, after a brief period of rivalry and confusion, 
 he was chosen king by "all the elders of Israel," and at 
 once he adopted thoughtful measures to strengthen the 
 royal power. 
 
 A National Capital. Unlike Saul, he recognized , the 
 utility of a national capital and princely court; and to 
 this end he forcibly took possession of the city of the 
 Jebusites, which was subsequently to be known through- 
 out the earth as Jerusalem, or the city of David. Here, 
 through the cooperation of Hirajn, King of Tyre, he built 
 a palace, and surrounded himself with all the ceremony 
 and insignia of regal authority. 
 
 Furthermore, he brought the ark of the covenant from a 
 private house at Kirjath-jearim, where it had long remained 
 in comparative neglect, and in the midst of" great national 
 festivities he installed it in a splendid tabernacle at Jeru- 
 salem. No wiser steps could have been taken. By 
 fixing the seat of government at Jerusalem, and by 
 making it, at the same time, the centre of the national 
 religion, David immeasurably strengthened his influence 
 and power. 
 
 A Strong Nation. In his long reign of forty years, he 
 raised the Hebrew people to a dignity and might which 
 they had not previously known. He overcame the Philis- 
 tines, the hereditary enemies of Israel; he defeated the 
 Moabites ; he established strongholds in Edom, an 
 Arabian district southeast of Canaan. For a brief period 
 he realized the, ambitious dreams of the people, and made 
 the Hebrew monarchy a formidable power in southwestern 
 Asia. 
 
 Personal Traits. Not wholly taken up with his regal 
 duties, he delighted in music and poetry. He wrote nu- 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 6 1 
 
 merous psalms or hymns, which have earned for him the 
 proud title of " sweet singer of Israel." But, in spite of his 
 high and varied endowments, there was a darker side to 
 his character. He was sometimes cruel and licentious ; 
 and the later years of his reign were disturbed by the 
 formidable rebellion of ,his favorite, uncontrolled son,_Ab-^ 
 salom. But in his darker deeds he never became entirely 
 "hardened, and every transgression was followed by heart- 
 felt penitence and humility. 
 
 Solomon (970 B.C.). In order to thwart the ambition 
 of his eldest suTvFvmg son, Adoni).ah. David, a short time 
 before his death, had Solomon proclaimed king. The 
 young sovereign entered upon his reign with a high sense 
 of responsibility, and in a notable prayer he asked, not 
 for riches or long life, but for " an understanding heart 
 to judge the people." 1 
 
 He was inclined to peace rather than to war. He 
 improved the civic administration of the kingdom ; and 
 for this purpose, without regard to the ancient tribal 
 limits, he divided the kingdom into twelve districts, over 
 each of which he placed an imperial officer. Each prov- 
 ince was required to provide in turn for the maintenance 
 of the court. This requirement was not a light burden, for 
 every day the king's household demanded, according to 
 the ancient record, " thirty measures [80 barrels] of fine 
 flour, and threescore measures [160 barrels] of meal, ten 
 fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pasture, and an hun- 
 dred sheep, besides harts, and gazelles, and roebucks, 
 and fatted fowl." 2 
 
 A Great Builder. Solomon was preeminently the build- 
 ing king of Israel. As his people were not skilled in the arts 
 of architecture, he concluded a treaty with Hiram, King 
 
 1 i Kings 3:9. 2 i Kings 4 : 22, 23. 
 
62 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 of Tyre in Phoenicia, by which, in return for grain, oil, and 
 wine, he was to receive lumber from Lebanon and skilled 
 workmen in wood and stone. In addition to the royal 
 palaces, the most famous of all his structures was the 
 temple at Jerusalem, which, in its rich gildings and furnish- 
 ings, displayed extraordinary splendor. 
 
 To carry out his vast building plans, which covered a 
 period of twenty years, Solomon imitated the kings of 
 Babylonia and Egypt, and kept a great army at work in 
 the forests and quarries. Influenced by the example of 
 Phoenicia, the most energetic and most daring maritime 
 nation of antiquity, he encouraged commerce, which had 
 previously been neglected by the Hebrews. An active 
 trade sprang up between the cities of Phoenicia and 
 Joppa, the seaport of Jerusalem ; and at Ezion- 
 geber, on the Red Sea, Solomon maintained a fleet of 
 vessels, which skirted the coasts of Arabia, India, and 
 Africa. 
 
 Decadence. The later years of Solomon's reign showed 
 signs of decadence. Though gifted with preeminent 
 wisdom, the report of which had drawn the queen 
 of Sheba to Jerusalem, he was led astray by the 
 voluptuousness of his splendid court. His harem con- 
 tained, if we may trust the figures of the record, seven 
 hundred princesses as wives and three hundred con- 
 cubines. 
 
 Through their influence, many of whom came from the 
 courts of surrounding nations, he was betrayed into an 
 idolatry that outraged the religious sense of his people. 
 In spite of the external splendor he had introduced into 
 his capital a period when "silver was as plentiful on the 
 streets as stones" the wisest of kings, as Jewish tradi- 
 tion regarded him, stirred up profound discontent among 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 63 
 
 the people, and effectually undermined the stability of the 
 monarchy. 1 
 
 The Kingdom Divided. The catastrophe, for which the 
 folly and oppression of Solomon had prepared the way, 
 was not long in coming. At his death, _Rehob.Q.am f .-hi_s_ 
 son by an Ammonite princess, ascended the throne. At 
 a national assembly convened at Shechem, the people 
 petitioned for an alleviation of their grievous burdens. A 
 spirit of patriotism and concession on the part of the new 
 king would have established his sovereignty. Unfortu- 
 nately, brought up in an atmosphere of luxury and abso- 
 lutism, Rehoboam, disdaining the wise advice of his aged 
 counsellors, and lending a willing ear to his young, inexperi- 
 enced courtiers, returned a haughty and exasperating 
 answer. " My father chastised you with whips," he said, 
 "but I will chastise you with scorpions." 
 
 This tyrannical spirit was immediately met by a general 
 revolt. Under the capable leadership of Jeroboam, who 
 had stirred up an unsuccessful rebellion under Solomon, 
 ten of the tribes at once set up a rival monarchy, known 
 henceforth as the kingdom of Israel (Q.^O B.C.). Only 
 two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, remained loyal to Reho- 
 boam, and form^rl rhf> Vinpfdnm of Judah. This unfortu- 
 nate breach between the tribes was never healed ; and 
 weakening the force of the Hebrew people, it led to their 
 early and inevitable overthrow. 
 
 1 " However great the splendor of Israel in Solomon's reign, this advance was 
 not without a darker side. The new paths in which Solomon led his people 
 brought the Israelites comfort and opulence, the advantages and impulses of a 
 higher civilization and more active intellectual life. But with the splendor and 
 luxury of the court, and the increasing wealth, the old simplicity of manners dis- 
 appeared. The land had to bear the burden of a rule which was completely as- 
 similated to the forms of court life and the mode of government established in 
 Egypt and Syria, in Babylon and Assyria." MAX DUNCKER, " History of Antiq- 
 uity," Vol. II., p. 192. 
 
64 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Social Conditions. It is not necessary to follow the his- 
 tory of the two kingdoms in detail ; it is largely a record 
 of hostility and war a period of confusion and decadence. 
 The worship of Jehovah declined, particularly in the king- 
 dom of Israel. As a matter of state policyjerobjcxani_had 
 introduced idolatry into his kingdom in order to weaken 
 the influence of the temple service at Jerusalem. " If the 
 people go up to do sacrifice in the house of the Lord at 
 Jerusalem," he argued, " then shall the heart of this peo- 
 ple turn again unto their lord, even to Rehoboam, King of 
 Judah." 1 
 
 From time to time there arose brave, pious, and patriotic 
 men, known as prophets, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, 
 and others, who rebuked, in words of glowing eloquence, 
 the idolatry, luxury, and vices of the people. In the time 
 of Ahab, about 870 B.C., who had formed an alliance with 
 Tyre and introduced the worship of Baal, Elijah stands 
 forth as a prophetic hero. Hosea, a little later, is sharp 
 and unsparing in denouncing the degenerate state of soci- 
 ety : " There is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God 
 in the land. By swearing, and lying, and killing, and steal- 
 ing, and committing adultery, they break out, and blood 
 toucheth blood." 2 These are representatives of the prophets 
 who in this period exerted a great influence, and at times 
 determined the course of Hebrew history. 
 
 Fall of Israel and Judah. The divided and weakened 
 condition of the Hebrew people invited foreign invasion. 
 Rehoboam had occupied the throne but five years when he 
 was attacked by/ShisTia^'of Egypt, who captured Jerusa- 
 lem and despoiled the temple a victory portrayed on the 
 walls at Karnak. The kingdom of Israel lasted about two 
 hundred years, during which there was a succession of nine- 
 
 1 1 Kings 12 : 27. 2 Hosea 4 : 2. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 65 
 
 teen kings. Finally, as we learned in the last chapter, it 
 was destroyed by Sa^qriJJ^_whojn ^22 B.C. captured Sa- 
 maria, the capital, and deported the people into the eastern 
 part of the Assyrian empire. 
 
 The kingdom of Judah lasted about three hundred and 
 fifty years ; and among its nineteen sovereigns there were 
 men of distinguished ability and_ character. Worthy of 
 special mention are[josiah and HezekiahJ under whom a 
 religious reformation was effected. Finally, like its rival 
 in the north, the kingdom of Judah fell a prey to foreign 
 invaders, and 586 B.C. the people were carried in captivity 
 to Babylon. 
 
 The Babylonian Exile. The Hebrews remained in 
 captivity, as their prophets had foretold, for seventy 
 ye_ars. It was a period of great significance. It 
 wrought a national transformation. With the extinction 
 of the political power of the Hebrews, there came in some 
 measure a spiritual regeneration. Never afterwards did 
 the Jews, as they are henceforth called, show any ten- < 
 dency to polytheism. Their adherence to Jehovah, the 
 one Supreme Being, remains unsullied by the frequent 
 lapses into idolatry that characterized their previous life 
 in Canaan. 
 
 Through contemporary prophets and a few of the psalms 
 we obtain glimpses of the period of exile. In the brief 
 chapter of his prophecy, Obadiah reveals the violence of 
 the Edomites toward his subjugated and enfeebled coun- 
 trymen who had been left in the land of Judah. The book 
 of Lamentations, as its name indicates, is a threnody over 
 the ruin of Jerusalem. " How doth the city sit solitary," 
 exclaims Jeremiah, " that was full of people ! how is she 
 become as a widow ! She that was great among the na- 
 tions, and princess among the provinces, how is she be- 
 
Li 
 
 66 .47V INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 come tributary!" 1 In the 13 7th Psalm there is a pathetic 
 picture of the sorrow of the exiles: " By the rivers of Baby- 
 lon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remem- 
 bered Zion. We hanged our harps upon the willows in 
 the midst thereof. For there they that carried us away 
 captive required of us a song; and they that wasted us re- 
 quired of us mirth, saying, sing us one ot the songs of 
 Zion." 
 
 But in this period of humiliation and sorrow, the leaders 
 of the Jews were upheld by a great religious and patriotic 
 faith. They encouraged the people with hopes of a com- 
 ing deliverance. "Build ye houses," wrote Jeremiah to 
 the captives in Babylon, " and dwell in them ; and plant 
 gardens, and eat the fruit of them. . . . For thus saith the 
 Lord, that after seventy years be accomplished at Babylon, 
 I will visit you, and perform my good word toward you, in 
 causing you to return to this place." 2 , And^EzekieJ^b}^ 
 the startling vision of the valley of dry bones, revived the 
 dead hopes of his people. He represents God as saying, 
 " Behold, O my people, I will open your graves, and cause 
 you to come out of your graves, and bring you into the 
 and of Israel." 3 
 
 The Restoration. After the capture of Babylon (538 
 B.C.) , Cyrus, the king of Persia, granted the Jews permission 
 to return to their native land. According to the proclama- 
 tion preserved in the first chapter of Ezra, the Persian con- 
 queror felt an obligation to restore the temple at Jerusalem. 
 He may have been moved to this remarkable step by the 
 friendly welcome he received from the Jews in Babylon. 
 A great Hebrew prophet had called him the anointed of 
 the Lord, and predicted his mighty conquests 4 an official 
 recognition that may well have conciliated his favor. 
 
 lLam. 1:1. 2 j er . 29 : 5, 10. 3 z. 37 : 12. 4 Is. 45 : i. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 67 
 
 The first expedition of the exiles was under the leader- 
 ship of Zerubbabel, who led about fifty thousand of the 
 Jews from Babylon to Jerusalem and neighboring cities. 
 The splendid vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzar 
 had carried away and consecrated to his gods, were mag- 
 nanimously restored to the Jews. In a few years the re- 
 building of the temple was completed, and the worship of 
 Jehovah solemnly reinstated. In promoting this work, 
 the prophets Haggai and Zechariah were especially ac- 
 tive. 
 
 There were other expeditions from Babylon under Ezra 
 and Nehemiah. After nearly a hundred years, the walls 
 of Jerusalem, in spite of the plottings of enemies, were 
 completed. Important social reforms were inaugurated. 
 A full account of the restoration is found in Ezra and Ne- 
 hemiah. Canaan did not regain its independence, but re- 
 mained a Persian province until that famous empire was 
 overthrown by Alexander the Great (333 B.C.). 
 
 The Controlling Factor. Throughout the long and H 
 varied course of Hebrew history, covering about a thou- 
 sand years, its central and unifying factor is the religion of 
 Jehovah. 1 The literature of this Old Testament, which re- 
 flects the inner life of the people, makes this, truth very 
 clear. In almost every book the presence and providence 
 of Jehovah are recognized. His hand was recognized alike 
 in the joys and the sorrows that came to the people of Is- 
 rael. In Exodus we read that "He relaxed the gripe of 
 cruelty by sore visitations in Egypt, and that He guided the 
 fleeing multitude by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of 
 fire by night. He established a covenant with them at 
 
 1 "The peculiarity of the biblical religion is that in it this idea of the connection 
 of religion with morality is the all-dominating one." JAMES ORR, "Problem of the 
 Old Testament," p. 43. 
 
68 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Sinai in the midst of imposing splendors. He provided 
 for their needs in the wilderness, and gave them victory 
 over the tribes of Canaan. 
 
 For a long time after -the settlement in the Promised 
 Land, the worship of Jehovah was the chief bond of unity 
 among the separate tribes. After the building of the tem- 
 ple, its splendid ceremonial sacrifices and the great annual 
 festivals at Jerusalem helped to centralize and strengthen 
 the monarchy. National disasters were regarded as puni- 
 tive acts of Jehovah on account of the sins of the people. 
 Their sacred poetry, particularly the Psalms, is filled with 
 the praises of Jehovah ; and the eloquent discourses of the 
 prophets set forth the character, sovereignty, and righteous- 
 ness of God with a fervor and insight that have never been 
 surpassed. Above all the other nations of antiquity, re- 
 ligion was the great factor of Hebrew life ; and their 
 thoughts of God have become a part of the religious treas- 
 ures of the modern world. 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 i. THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD 
 
 The separation of Abraham and Lot, Gen. 13 : 5-13. 
 
 An instance of Oriental hospitality, Gen. 18 : 1-8. 
 
 Abraham's intercession for the city of Sodom, Gen. 18 : 23-33. 
 
 The destruction of two wicked cities, Gen. 19: 1-29. 
 
 The offering of Isaac in the land of Moriah, Gen. 22 : 1-14. 
 
 The wooing of Rebecca, Gen. 24. 
 
 A villanous act of deception, and its consequences, Gen. 27. 
 
 A remarkable vision, Gen. 28 : 10-22. 
 
 A long period of loving service, Gen. 29: 1-20. 
 
 The flight of Jacob, Gen. 31. 
 
 Wrestling with a mysterious stranger, Gen. 32 : 24-32. 
 
 The reconciliation of a family feud, Gen. 33 : 1-17. 
 
 A case of family jealousy, and its results, Gen. 37. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 69 
 
 2. THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT 
 
 Joseph in the house of Potiphar, Gen. 39 : 1-20. 
 
 The dreams of two Egyptian prisoners, Gen. 40. 
 
 The striking dream of Pharaoh, and its interpretation, Gen. 41. 
 
 Joseph's brethren in Egypt, and his conduct toward them, Gen. 42-45. 
 
 The reception of Joseph's father in Egypt, Gen. 46, 47. 
 
 The measures of oppression adopted by Ramses II., Ex. i : 7-22. 
 
 The rescue of Moses by Pharaoh's daughter, Ex. 2 : i-io. 
 
 The call of Moses to be Israel's deliverer, Ex. 3, 4. 
 
 The increased oppression of the Hebrews, Ex. 5 : 1-19. 
 
 The various plagues sent upon Egypt, Ex. 7-12. 
 
 The institution of the Passover, Ex. 12 : 3-28. 
 
 The departure of the Israelites from Egypt, Ex. 13 : 17-22. 
 
 The pursuit and disaster of the Egyptians, Ex. 14 : 5-31. 
 
 A vigorous triumphal ode, Ex. 15 : 1-23. 
 
 3. IN THE WILDERNESS 
 
 The marvellous supply of quails and manna, Ex. 16 : 2-26. 
 A victory over Amalek, Ex. 17 : 8-16. 
 An improved civil administration, Ex. 18 : 13-27. 
 The giving of the Ten Commandments, Ex. 20 : 1-22. 
 Various civil regulations, Ex. 21-23. 
 The worship of the golden calf, Ex. 32 : 1-25. 
 The setting up of the tabernacle, Ex. 40 : 17-38. 
 ~The various kinds of sacrifices, Lev. 1-4. 
 Regulations in regard to animal food, Lev. 1 1 : 1-47. 
 The blessings of obedience and curses of disobedience, Lev. 26. 
 The sedition of Miriam and Aaron, Numb. 12. 
 The expedition and report of the spies, Numb. 13 : 17-33. 
 A rebellion and its severe punishment, Numb. 16: 1-35. 
 The visitation of fiery serpents, and the remedy, Numb. 21 : 4-9. 
 The story of Balaam, Numb. 22-24. 
 The appointment of cities of refuge, Numb. 35 : 9-34. 
 An interesting summary of Israel's life in the wilderness, Deut. 1-3. 
 Severe measures to guard against idolatry, Deut. 13. 
 The death of Moses on the mountain, Deut. 34. 
 
70 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 4. THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN 
 
 Two spies in the city of Jericho, Josh. 2. 
 
 The crossing of the Jordan toward the west, Josh. 3. 
 
 The capture and destruction of Jericho, Josh. 6. 
 
 The craft and bondage of the Gibeonites, Josh. 9 : 3-27. 
 
 War with the five kings, Josh. 10 : 1-28. 
 
 The distribution of the land among the invading tribes, Josh. 13-19. 
 
 Farewell discourse of Joshua, Josh. 23. 
 
 A brief summary of Hebrew history, Josh. 24: 1-28 
 
 5. THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 
 
 Two national deliverers, Judges 3 : 5-30. 
 
 The victory of Deborah and Barak, Judges 4. 
 
 A song of victory, Judges 5. 
 
 Gideon's stratagem and victory, Judges 7. 
 
 The fatal vow of Jephthah, Judges I r : 29-40. 
 
 The story of Samson, Judges 13-16. 
 
 The defeat of Israel and loss of the ark, I Sam. 4 : 1-18. 
 
 The ark of God among the Philistines, I Sam. 5. 
 
 Its subsequent return to Israel, i Sam. 6, 7. 
 
 6. THE MONARCHY ESTABLISHED 
 
 The demand for a monarchy, I Sam. 8. 
 
 The anointing and selection of Saul as king, I Sam. 10. 
 
 A great victory of the new king, I Sam. 2. 
 
 Incidents of Saul's reign, i Sam. 13-15. 
 
 The duel between David and Goliath, i Sam. 17: 1-54. 
 
 The jealousy of Saul, i Sam. 18: 5-27. 
 
 The famous friendship of David and Jonathan, i Sam. 20. 
 
 A magnanimous act of David, i Sam. 24. 
 
 The incident of Nadab and Abigail, i Sam. 25. 
 
 An instance of spiritualism, i Sam. 28 : 7-25. 
 
 The death of Saul, i Sam. 31 : 1-6. 
 
 David's elegy over Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam. i : 17-27. 
 
 Civil war between- David and Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 2. 
 
THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL 71 
 
 The murder of Abner by Joab, 2 Sam. 3 : 22-39. 
 
 A treacherous murder and its reward, 2 Sam. 4: 5-12. 
 
 The establishment of the ark of God in Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6: 12-19. 
 
 Expansion of the kingdom by conquest, 2 Sam. 8. 
 
 The famous oarable of Nathan, 2 Sam. 12 : 1-14. 
 
 David's psalm of penitance, Ps. 51. 
 
 The conspiracy of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15. 
 
 The death of Absalom and the king's lament, 2 Sam. 18 : 6-33. 
 
 A psalm of thanksgiving for deliverance, 2 Sam. 22. 
 
 Solomon made king, I Kings I : 32-49. 
 
 His celebrated choice, I Kings 3: 5-15. 
 
 A famous judgment of Solomon, I Kings 3 : 16-28. 
 
 His wide kingdom and magnificent court, I Kings 4: 20-34. 
 
 Preparation for building the temple, i Kings 5. 
 
 The construction of the temple, i Kings 6. 
 
 The dedication of the temple, i Kings 8. 
 
 The wisdom, commerce, and splendor of Solomon, i Kings 10. 
 
 The idolatry of Solomon, i Kings 11 : 1-13. 
 
 7. THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 
 
 The folly of Rehoboam and revolt often tribes, i Kings 12 : 1-20. 
 
 The prophet Elijah marvellously provided for, i Kings 17. 
 
 A famous contest with the prophets of Baal, i Kings 18 : 17-40. 
 
 The flight and vision of Elijah, i Kings 19: 4-18. 
 
 A victory over Benhadad, King of Syria, i Kings 20 : 1-34. 
 
 The murder of Naboth by Ahab and Jezebel, i Kings 21 : 1-24. 
 
 The translation of Elijah in a chariot of fire, 2 Kings 2 : i-i i . 
 
 The defeat of the Moabites by three allied kings, 2 Kings 3 : 4-27. 
 
 Various miracles wrought by Elisha, 2 Kings 4. 
 
 The prophet heals Naaman the Syrian of leprosy, 2 Kings 5. 
 
 The Syrians frightened away from Samaria, 2 Kings 7. 
 
 Jehu anointed king, and his reign, 2 Kings 9, 10. 
 
 The cruelty and overthrow of Queen Athaliah, 2 Kings 2 : 1-16. 
 
 8. THE PERIOD OF THE CAPTIVITY 
 
 The kingdom of Israel overthrown by Shalmaneser, 2 Kings 17. 
 The invasion and defeat of Sennacherib, 2 Kings 18, 19. 
 
72 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY - 
 
 The life of Hezekiah miraculously prolonged, 2 Kings 20: i-n. 
 
 The great religious reform under Josiah, 2 Kings 22, 23. 
 
 The overthrow and captivity of Judah, 2 Kings 24, 25. 
 
 The condition of Jerusalem after its fall, Obadiah I. 
 
 The pitiable condition of the exiles, Ps. 137. 
 
 Lament over the downfall of Jerusalem, Lam. 1-5. 
 
 The destruction of Babylon foretold, Jer. 50, 51. 
 
 Judgments denounced against Babylon, Is. 47. 
 
 Daniel at the court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. i : 3-21. 
 
 Interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2. 
 
 The incident of the golden image and fiery furnace, Dan. 3. 
 
 A second dream and its interpretation, Dan. 4. 
 
 The impious feast of Belshazzar, Dan. 5. 
 
 Official jealousy and its consequences, Dan. 6. 
 
 The story of Esther and Ahasuerus or Xerxes, Esther i-io. 
 
 9. THE RESTORATION 
 
 The proclamation of Cyrus for the restoration of the Jews, Ezra i, 
 
 A*list of those returning under Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 
 
 The worship of Jehovah restored, Ezra 3. 
 
 The decree of Darius, and completion of the temple, Ezra 6. 
 
 The expedition of Ezra at a later time, Ezra 7. 
 
 The agitation in regard to mixed marriages, Ezra 9, 10, 
 
 Nehemiah despatched to Jerusalem by Artaxerxes, Neh. 2. 
 
 The manner of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, Neh. 4. 
 
 Important social reforms of Nehemiah, Neh. 5. 
 
 The reading and expounding of the law of Moses, Neh. 8. 
 
 A solemn fast and confession, Neh. 9. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 
 
 Nature of Literature. Literature is the written expres- 
 sion of human life. It embodies the thought, emotions, 
 and achievements of man. When the intellectual element 
 predominates, the result is philosophy ; when the emotional 
 element is uppermost, we have poetry ; and when the 
 statement of events is supreme, we have history. When 
 the imagination is the principal faculty at work, the result 
 is fiction in some of its forms of parable, allegory, or tale. 
 In most books, however, these different elements are not 
 kept entirely distinct ; and hence we are apt to find in the 
 same book a combination of thought, feeling, imagination, 
 and fact. 
 
 We may take the book of Exodus by way of illustration. 
 It is chiefly, as its name indicates, a narrative of the deliv- 
 erance of the children of Israel from the bondage of 
 Egypt. Its statement of actual occurrences makes it 
 chiefly historical. But the author reflects upon the causes 
 of the mighty events that claim his attention. He traces 
 the deliverance to the direct interposition of Jehovah 
 a fact that renders the book at once philosophical and 
 religious. Furthermore, the soul of the old Hebrew writer 
 is deeply moved by the incidents of the Red Sea ; and 
 accordingly, his kindled feelings burst forth in a song of 
 triumph. Thus, in all the books of the Old Testament, 
 we may recognize, to a greater or less degree, the various 
 elements that enter into the life of man. 
 
 73 
 
74 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Hebrew Literature. In the Old Testament we have an 
 invaluable remnant of the literature of the Hebrew people, 
 a faithful reflection of their outward and inner life. 
 There are other writings extant, known collectively as the 
 Apocrypha, which are not usually included in the Old 
 Testament ; and many treatises the book of Jasher,* the 
 Wars of the Lord, 2 the Acts of Solomon, 3 and various 
 royal chronicles 4 have unfortunately been lost. 
 
 An examination of the Old Testament will show that it 
 is composed of thirty-nine separate books or pamphlets of 
 varying length. The prophecy of Obadiah, for example, 
 consists of a single chapter, while Isaiah contains sixty-six 
 chapters. The authors of many of these books are un- 
 known. If, following the usual view, we hold Moses to 
 be the author of the earliest writings, and Malachi the 
 author of the latest, then the literature of the Old Testa- 
 ment covers a period of a thousand years, a period longer 
 than the life of Grecian or Roman literature. 
 
 But however widely separated in time and place the 
 books of the Old Testament may be, they form a consist- 
 ent unity through their common religious faith and purpose. 
 With varying clearness and fulness they reveal the exist- 
 ence, righteousness, and providence of Jehovah. This 
 profound religious element distinguishes the Old Testa- 
 ment from all the contemporary writings of Babylonia and 
 Egypt 5 
 
 Influence of Environment. No literature can be fully 
 
 1 Josh. 10:13. 2 Numb. 21 : 14. 3 i Kings n : 41. 4 2 Kings 12 : 19. 
 
 5 " It records the history and the institutions of a most remarkable people. It 
 gives an insight into their character and usages, into their domestic, social, and 
 political life ; particularly it exhibits their religion in its spirit and its outward 
 forms, a religion altogether unique in the ancient world, and the influence oi 
 which has been deep and widespread in later times." W. H. GREEN, " Higher 
 Criticism of the Pentateuch," p. 172. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 75 
 
 understood without an acquaintance with the circumstances 
 under which it originated. Hebrew literature was born in 
 the presence of a much older and highly developed civili- 
 zation. Abraham carried with him from Chaldea a knowl- 
 edge of Babylonian literature, and Moses was " learned in 
 all the wisdom of the Egyptians." At the time of the 
 migration the Hebrew people as a whole shared the 
 Egyptian culture, in the presence of which they had dwelt 
 for more than four hundred years. Hence we need not 
 be surprised at the perfection of form which belongs even 
 to the earliest productions of Hebrew genius. The evolu- 
 tionary hypothesis adopted by Wellhausen and some other 
 German scholars seems to lose sight of the advanced civil- 
 ization that prevailed, long before the days of Moses, from 
 the Tigris to the Nile. 
 
 Race and Epoch. In a national literature race and 
 epoch are recognized as moulding influences of great po- 
 tency. It is important to remember that the Old Tes- 
 tament is an Oriental book, the product of a race of 
 imaginative temper and deep religious feeling. The He- 
 brews magnified the religious side of life, and poured 
 forth their religious emotions in fervent poetry and glow- 
 ing eloquence. It might almost be said of them that they 
 were a God-intoxicated people. The fulness and ardor 
 with which their poets have expressed every phase of re- 
 ligious feeling faith, penitence, praise, joy have made 
 the book of Psalms a devotional treasury for thousands of 
 years. 
 
 The ardent nature of the Hebrew sometimes manifested 
 itself in malevolence, and then it burst forth in cruel 
 hatred and unholy imprecation. In war he did not rise 
 above the barbarities of his Assyrian contemporaries, and 
 even his prayers to Jehovah sometimes breathed an im- 
 
76 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 placable vengeance. In the io8th Psalm, for example, we 
 find a pitiless hate of an enemy : " Let his children be 
 fatherless, and his wife a widow. Let his children be 
 continually vagabonds, and beg ; let them seek their bread 
 also out of their desolate places. Let the extortioner 
 catch all that he hath ; and let the strangers spoil his 
 labor. Let there be none to extend mercy unto him ; 
 neither let there be any to favor his fatherless children." 
 This merciless imprecation, so foreign to the teaching of 
 Christ, is an outburst natural to an offended Oriental. 
 
 Furthermore, it should not be forgotten that the age, in 
 which the scriptures of the Old Testament were written, 
 was lacking in the scientific spirit. The Hebrew writers, 
 like their contemporaries in Babylonia and Egypt, looked 
 on events with a childlike credulity. Ignorant, in large 
 measure, of the laws of nature, they attributed any un- 
 usual event to the immediate agency of Jehovah. Victory 
 was always ascribed to divine favor ; defeat was always a 
 proof of divine displeasure. This lack of a scientific spirit, 
 which took no account of secondary causes, was at once 
 a source of weakness and of strength. If it sometimes 
 presents us with a childlike conception of events, it em- 
 phasizes the divine element in history. One of the dis- 
 tinguishing and edifying features of the Old Testament 
 is its recognition of the hand of God in individual and 
 national life. It is Jehovah who personally calls Abra- 
 ham, chooses Moses, controls the destinies of Israel, and 
 directs the turnings and overturnings of the nations. 
 
 Personal Element. It is a mistake to suppose, as some 
 writers have done, that surroundings, race, and epoch 
 explain everything in history and literature. There is a 
 personal factor of great importance. From time to time 
 men of exceptional gifts appear, and rising above the level 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 77 
 
 of their age, become centres of a new and mighty influ- 
 ence. These are providential men the subjects of a 
 special inspiration, and the leaders of great movements. 
 
 Hebrew history, beyond that of any other people, is 
 filled with these inspired men. They stand at the begin- 
 ning of each era ; they lead every significant movement. 
 Abraham becomes the founder of the Hebrew people by a 
 divine vocation ; Moses is the chosen agent to lead his 
 people from bondage and give them a national organiza- 
 tion ; Joshua is the divinely appointed captain to direct 
 the conquest of Canaan ; and the judges and prophets 
 were raised up, according to the need of the times, to free 
 the nation from oppression or to call it to righteous- 
 ness. These providential men are the heroes of Hebrew 
 literature. 
 
 Formation of the Old Testament. From the long period 
 of time covered by its various books, it is evident that 
 the Old Testament is a growth. *At first there existed 
 only the law of Moses. In successive periods, as men 
 were moved to write or the events of Hebrew history made 
 it necessary, new books were added to the sacred collec- 
 tion. In some cases, as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and a 
 few others, the name of the author and the date of writing 
 are given ; but unfortunately, in most instances, these de- 
 tails have been omitted. This fact has given rise to differ- 
 ences of opinion as to the age of certain books ; but all 
 biblical students recognize a gradual development of the 
 Old Testament collection of writings. But two or three 
 centuries before Christ the Old Testament had assumed 
 substantially its present form, as is shown by the Greek 
 translation, called the Septuagint, which was made at that 
 time. 
 
 Its Careful Preservation. The careful preservation of 
 
78 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 the Old Testament was due to the profound reverence of 
 the Hebrews for their sacred writings. This reverence was 
 a part of their education. A copy of the Mosaic law was 
 preserved in the ark of the Lord as a precious treasure. 1 
 It was made the religious duty of every head of a family to 
 teach the law to his children. 2 At the end of every seven 
 years it was read in the hearing of all the people, and 
 every king was required to make a copy with his own 
 hand. 3 
 
 There is a striking instance of this reverence for the 
 Scriptures in Nehemiah. All the people of Jerusalem had 
 assembled to hear " the law of Moses, which the Lord had 
 commanded Israel. . . . And Ezra opened the book in the 
 sight of all the people ; and when he opened it, all tlie 
 people stood up." * In the iQth Psalm there is a fine eulogy 
 of the law, which is pronounced " perfect, converting the 
 soul "; and in the first Psalm the man is called blessed, 
 whose " delight is in th law of the Lord." 
 
 This reverent regard, which was first felt for the law of 
 Moses, was later extended to all the writings of the Old 
 Testament, and led to a painstaking and even superstitious 
 care in their preservation. " How firmly we have given 
 credit to these books of our nation," says the Jewish his- 
 torian Josephus, "is evident by what we do; for during so 
 many ages as have already passed, no one hath been so 
 bold as either to add anything to them, to take anything 
 from them, or to make any change in them." 5 
 
 Classification of Writings. A very superficial exami- 
 nation of the thirty-nine books of the Old Testament, espe- 
 cially in the Revised Version, reveals points of likeness and 
 difference, which enable us to divide them into several 
 
 i Deut. 31 : 26. 2 Deut. 6:7. Deut. 17 : 18. 4 Neh. 8:5. 
 
 5 Josephus, "Against Apion," i. 8. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 79 
 
 clearly marked classes. There are books that are plainly 
 historical in their character. They are chronicles of lead- 
 ing events in the life of the Hebrew people. As we have 
 already seen, Exodus narrates the escape of the Hebrews 
 from Egyptian servitude. Joshua tells of the conquest of 
 Canaan, and Judges sets forth the social and political con- 
 dition of Israel prior to the establishment of the monarchy. 
 The books of Kings and Chronicles are narratives of events 
 during the long regal period. 
 
 There are other books that are as plainly poetical in 
 their character. In the Revised Version they are printed 
 in poetic form. In Job several persons carry on a de- 
 bate or dialogue in verse, a fact that gives the book the 
 character of a drama. The Psalms are brief lyrics or hymns. 
 The book of Proverbs is made up of didactic verse, which 
 appeals to the judgment rather than to the emotions. In 
 the Song of Solomon, as it is called, we have a lyrical 
 drama of love. 
 
 The closing books of the Old Testament, beginning 
 with Isaiah, bear still a different character. Their main 
 purpose is neither historical nor poetical. They are col- 
 lections of brief sermons or addresses, which urge the 
 people to righteousness, and foretell approaching disaster 
 or blessing. Thus, in a general way, we may classify the 
 various books of the Old Testament as historical, poetical, 
 or prophetic. 
 
 Hebrew Historical Writing. The historical writing of 
 the Hebrews, as contained in the Old Testament, is unlike 
 the historical writing of the present day. It is not the 
 purpose of Hebrew history to exhibit the manifold life of 
 the people or to trace the political development of the 
 nation. Hence there is no effort to record the customs 
 and occupations of the people, and to present their artistic 
 
80 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 and scientific culture. There is no elaborate study of 
 social conditions. What we learn of these things is 
 merely incidental to the main purpose. 
 
 Hebrew history has a distinctly religious aim. Its 
 main purpose is to exhibit the dealings of Jehovah with 
 His people, and to establish His character as a covenant- 
 keeping God. It is a commentary on the principle stated 
 in Deuteronomy : " Know therefore that the Lord thy 
 God, He is God, the faithful God, which keepeth covenant 
 and mercy with them that love and keep His command- 
 ments to a thousand generations ; and repayeth them that 
 hate Him to their face, to destroy them ; He will not be 
 slack to him that hateth Him, He will repay him to his 
 face. Thou shalt therefore keep the commandments, and 
 the statutes, and the judgments, to do them." 1 
 
 This underlying principle of Hebrew history is clearly 
 brought to light in the book of Judges. National disaster 
 is there presented as a judgment of Jehovah on account of 
 the wickedness of the people. Accordingly we find it re- 
 peatedly stated that " the children of Israel did evil in the 
 sight of the Lord ; and the Lord delivered them into the 
 hand of Midian," 2 or the Philistines, or other enemies. 
 On the other hand, deliverance and blessing are presented 
 as acts of Jehovah in recognition of the repentance of the 
 people. " When the children of Israel cried unto the 
 Lord, the Lord raised up a deliverer to the children of 
 Israel who delivered them. 3 " This vibration between sin 
 and righteousness imparts a unique undulatory movement 
 to all Hebrew history. 
 
 Sources of History. The writers of Hebrew history fol- 
 lowed the methods of other historians. All history, as will 
 be seen on a moment's reflection, ultimately depends 
 
 !Deut. 7: 9-11. 2 Judges 6: 2. 3 Judges 3: 9. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 8 1 
 
 on testimony or records contemporary with the events de- 
 scribed. When the Hebrew historian was not contempo- 
 rary with the events that he narrated, he naturally made use 
 of oral tradition, official documents, and other earlier writ- 
 ings. This is made evident by an examination of the his- 
 torical books themselves. 
 
 The author of Genesis, whether Moses or some later 
 writer, probably utilized an oral tradition of creation and 
 the flood that Abraham had brought centuries earlier from 
 Babylonia to Canaan. In Hebrew history there are ex- 
 tracts from writings the book of Jasher and the Wars 
 of the Lord which are specifically named. 1 The Chron- 
 icles of the Kings of Israel and Judah are frequently cited 
 as sources; and documents like Sennacherib's blasphe- 
 mous letter to Hezekiah 2 and the decrees of Cyrus and 
 Darius 3 in reference to the rebuilding of the temple, were 
 probably taken from the royal archives of Judah and 
 Persia. 
 
 But whatever may be the nature of the material that is 
 used or the sources from which it is taken, the Hebrew 
 historian, with a deep spiritual insight, fitted it into the 
 great religious argument he was constructing. Through it 
 all we discern the agency of Jehovah the God of right- 
 eousness who exacts obedience from His children. 4 
 
 Interesting Biographies. There is, perhaps, no other 
 part of history that is more interesting than biography, 
 
 1 See Josh. 10 : 13 ; 2 Sam. i : 18 ; Numb. 21 : 14, 15. 
 
 2 2 Kings 19 : 9-13. 8 Ezra 6 : 1-12. 
 
 4 " The story of the campaign of Chedor-laomer must have been derived from a 
 cuneiform tablet ; the story of Joseph seems to have been taken from a hieratic 
 papyrus. The account of the deluge had made its way from Babylonia to Canaan 
 in the days when the culture of Chaldea extended to the Mediterranean. We 
 thus have narratives which presuppose an acquaintance not only with Babylon and 
 Egypt, but also with Babylonian and Egyptian documents." A. H. SAYCE, 
 " Early History of the Hebrews," p. 130. 
 
82 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 which traces the facts of individual life. We have a 
 natural desire to know the lives and characters of the men 
 who have in any way risen above their fellows, and taken 
 a prominent part in great social, political, or religious 
 movements. While great men are in large measure the 
 creatures of mighty movements, they at the same time give 
 direction to historical development. They act as divine 
 agents. There is truth in Carlyle's idea that general his- 
 tory "is at bottom the history of the great men who have 
 worked there." 
 
 The Old Testament contains a large number of interest- 
 ing biographical sketches. They are not, indeed, elaborate 
 studies, but brief outlines of salient facts. They are in- 
 cidental to the main purpose of Hebrew history. But in 
 many cases they present the facts with sufficient fulness to 
 enable us to form a just estimate of the leading spirits of 
 the Hebrew people. In their treatment there is a singular 
 and surprising impartiality ; and the frailties of even the 
 most illustrious characters Abraham, Moses, David 
 are not concealed or extenuated. 
 
 It is to be noted that in Hebrew biography, as in Hebrew 
 national history, there is a great ethical and religious pur- 
 pose. We there meet with the same inexorable law, that 
 sin brings suffering and punishment. When Jacob, for 
 example, deceives his father and wrongs his brother, he 
 pays the penalty in fear and flight ; when Moses forgets 
 his station and disobeys the divine command, he loses the 
 high privilege of leading his people into the Promised 
 Land; l and when David is too indulgent to a favorite son, 
 he is driven from his capital by rebellion and plunged 
 into the woes of bereavement. On the other hand, Hebrew 
 biography teaches, to use the words of the first Psalm, 
 
 1 Numb. 20 : 10-12. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 83 
 
 that " blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel 
 of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor 
 sitteth in the seat of the scornful. But his delight is in 
 the law of the Lord, and in His law doth he meditate day 
 and night." A 
 
 Hebrew Poetry. The essential nature of poetry is / 
 the same in all languages. It is fundamentally the 
 literary expression of emotion. It presupposes an exalta- 
 tion of soul, which sometimes suffuses the objects of nature 
 and the scenes of human life with a beauty and glory of 
 its own, 
 
 "The light that never was on sea or land." 
 
 It is this exaltation of soul, in which the feelings are 
 deeply moved, that distinguishes poetry from prose. In 
 the latter the intellect is dominant. When the psalmist 
 breaks forth 
 
 " The heavens declare the glory of God, 
 And the firmament showeth His handiwork," 
 
 we realize at once that we are above the realm of prose. 
 
 While the essence of poetry is everywhere the same, its 
 form is different. English poetry usually requires both 
 metre and rhyme. The presence of a regular rhythm or 
 metre distinguishes poetry from poetical prose. The 
 principle of Anglo-Saxon poetry is alliteration. In Hebrew 
 literature it is not rhythm or rhyme or alliteration that 
 distinguishes poetry from prose, but parallelism, the 
 repetition of the same thought in different words. Take, 
 for example, the words of Balaam as he stood on the hill 
 overlooking the camp of Israel : 
 
 " How shall I curse, whom God hath not cursed ? 
 And how shall I defy, whom the Lord hath not defied? 
 
84 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 For from the top of the rocks I see him, 
 
 And from the hills I behold him : 
 
 Lo, it is a people that dwell alone, 
 
 And shall not be reckoned among the nations. 
 
 Who can count the dust of Jacob, 
 
 Or number the fourth part of Israel? 
 
 Let me die the death of the righteous, 
 
 And let my last end be like his." 1 
 
 By omitting the alternate or parallel lines a process 
 that does not alter the sense this splendid outburst of 
 poetry is turned into prose. 
 
 Variations of Parallelism. Hebrew poetry is varied 
 in two ways: (i) by the number of parallel ideas; 
 and (2) by the relation of these ideas. In the example 
 just given, there is a single parallelism, the second line 
 of each couplet corresponding to the first. Sometimes 
 the parallelism is triple or compound ; and in that case it 
 gives a stanzaic structure to the poem. The looth Psalm 
 furnishes a beautiful illustration : 
 
 " Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all ye lands. 
 Serve the Lord with gladness ; 
 Come before His presence witli 'singing. 
 
 " Know ye that the Lord He is God ; 
 It is He that hath made us, and we are His ; 
 We are His people, and the sheep of His pasture. 
 
 <" Enter into His gates with thanksgiving, 
 And into His courts with praise ; 
 Give thanks unto Him, and bless His name. 
 
 " For the Lord is good ; 
 His mercy endureth forever ; 
 And His faithfulness unto all generations." 
 
 Sometimes there is a double parallelism extending 
 through four lines a combination that results in quatrain 
 
 1 Numb. 23 : 8-10. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 85 
 
 verse. Take this example from the third chapter of Prov- 
 erbs : 
 
 "My son, despise not the chastening of the Lord ; 
 Neither be weary of His reproof; 
 For whom the Lord loveth He reproveth, 
 Even as a father the son in whom he delighteth. 
 
 " Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, 
 And the man that getteth understanding ; 
 For the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of 
 
 silver, 
 And the gain thereof than fine gold. 
 
 " She is more precious than rubies ; 
 And none of the things thou canst desire are to be 
 
 compared unto her ; 
 Length of days is in her right hand ; 
 In her left hand are riches and honor." 
 
 Antithetic Parallelism. Sometimes the parallelism 
 takes the form of coordination, as in the preceding ex- 
 amples ; at other times it takes the form of antithesis or 
 contrast, one member expressing the idea positively and 
 the other negatively. This antithetic parallelism will be 
 made clear by the following example from the tenth chap- 
 ter of Proverbs : 
 
 " A wise son maketh a glad father ; 
 But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 
 
 "Treasures of wickedness profit nothing; 
 But righteousness delivereth from death. 
 
 " The Lord will not suffer the soul of the righteous to famish ; 
 But He thrusteth away the desire of the wicked. 
 
 " He becometh poor that dealeth with a slack hand ; 
 But the hand of the diligent maketh rich." 
 
86 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Elaborated Forms. By a combination of these various 
 forms of parallelism, Hebrew poetry exhibits a great 
 variety of structure. Sometimes, instead of using coup- 
 lets or quatrains, the Hebrew poet elaborated his thought 
 through a greater number of lines ; and in this case, the 
 result is an irregular ode-like stanza. The following will 
 serve as an illustration, though forms still more compli- 
 cated are met with : 
 
 " A worthless person, a man of iniquity ; 
 He vvalketh with a froward mouth ; 
 He winketh with his eyes, he speaketh with his feet, 
 He maketh signs with his fingers : 
 
 Frowardness is in his heart, 
 
 He deviseth evil continually, 
 
 He soweth discord. 
 
 Therefore shall his calamity come suddenly ; 
 On a sudden shall he be broken, and that without remedy." 1 
 
 Preachers of Righteousness. The third great division 
 of the Old Testament scriptures is the prophets. Their 
 writings form more than a fourth part of the entire collec- 
 tion, a fact that gives an idea of their importance. 
 Though little read and still less understood, the prophet- 
 ical books are full of interest and instruction. They are 
 contemporary documents of great historical value ; and the 
 moral and religious principles they embody are applicable 
 to the social and political conditions of the present day. 
 
 The prophets were not, as is commonly supposed, fore- 
 tellers of future events. They were preachers of right- 
 eousness, the bearers of a divine message to a rebellious 
 people. In setting themselves against the iniquitous ten- 
 dencies of their age, they often assumed the character 
 of reformers, and sometimes suffered cruel persecution. 
 
 1 Prov. 6 : 12-15. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 87 
 
 Elijah had to flee from the murderous Jezebel, 3 and the 
 faithful Jeremiah was cast into a dungeon. 2 The prophets 
 were patriotic and courageous men ; their vision penetrated 
 beneath the surface of things ; and with a strong con- 
 sciousness of the truth they were proclaiming, they im- 
 pressively spoke in the name of the Lord. Very often 
 their discourses begin with " thus saith the Lord." 3 
 
 Style of Discourse. The discourses of the prophets are 
 generally brief. The major prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
 and Ezekiel contain many separate discourses, which 
 were delivered at different times, and called forth by dif- 
 ferent circumstances. Like other orators who appeal to 
 the people, the Hebrew prophets employed all the arts of 
 eloquence. Their earnestness as the conscious represent- 
 atives of Jehovah suffused their addresses with a large 
 emotional element. Isaiah, for example, begins his proph- 
 ecy with a bold apostrophe : " Hear, O heavens, and give 
 ear, O earth, for the Lord hath spoken." 
 
 Their thought moves on a high level, and their language 
 is often glowing and imaginative. Thus, to the imagina- 
 tion of Isaiah, the advancing hosts of Assyria appear like 
 a tidal wave of the ocean. " Ah, the uproar of many 
 peoples," he exclaims, " which roar like the roaring of the 
 seas ; and the rushing of nations, that rush like the rushing 
 of mighty waters. The nations shall rush like the rushing 
 of many waters ; but He shall rebuke them, and they shall 
 flee far off, and shall be chased as the chaff of the moun- 
 
 1 Kings 19 : 1-18. 2 Jer. 37 : 11-21. 
 
 8 "All these men have the consciousness of not acting in their own personal 
 capacities, of not pronouncing the sentiments of their own minds, but as the in- 
 struments of a Higher Being, who acts and speaks through them ; they feel them- 
 selves to be, as Jeremiah expresses it once in a remarkably characteristic verse, 
 'the mouth of God."' CARL HEINRICH CORNILL, "The Prophets of Israel," 
 p. ii. 
 
88 .4 TV INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 tains before the wind, and like the whirling dust before 
 the storm. At eventide behold terror; and before the 
 morning they are not." 1 
 
 In their effort to make the truth impressive and effec- 
 tive, they exhaust the resources of figurative speech. 
 They not only use parable and allegory, but they, also 
 employ symbolical action. Thus when Ezekiel desired to 
 proclaim the overthrow of Jerusalem, he made a model of 
 the city, and in the presence of the people conducted a 
 mimic siege against it. 2 In like manner Jeremiah, to 
 emphasize the utter destruction of Jerusalem, dashed to 
 pieces a potter's vessel as he spoke. " Thus saith the 
 Lord; even so will I break this people and this city, as 
 one breaketh a potter's vessel, that cannot be made whole 
 again." 3 
 
 Foretelling Events. The prophets frequently foretold 
 coming events as impressive warnings. They based their 
 predictions on the character of God who rewards the 
 righteous and punishes the wicked. They were keen ob- 
 servers of moral and social conditions ; and in pride, dis- 
 honesty, and immorality they recognized the signs of 
 national decadence, the conditions that invited the divine 
 judgments. Thus, in predicting the overthrow of the 
 kingdom of Israel, Hosea says : " Hear the word of the 
 Lord, ye children of Israel : for the Lord hath a contro- 
 versy with the inhabitants of the land, because there is 
 no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the land. 
 There is nought but swearing and breaking faith, and kill- 
 ing, and stealing, and committing adultery ; they break 
 out, and blood toucheth blood. Therefore shall the land 
 mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein shall languish, 
 with the beasts of the field and the fowls of heaven ; yea, 
 
 Is. 17 : 12-14. 2 Ezek. 4 : 1-3. 3 Jer. 19 : 10, II. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 89 
 
 the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away." l The same 
 principle underlies all the predictions of national disaster 
 found in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the other prophets. 
 
 The predictions of coming good or ill were always con- 
 ditional. As an upright nation might invite disaster by 
 turning to iniquity, so a wicked nation might secure pros- 
 perity by turning to righteousness. The people of Nineveh, 
 for example, escaped the doom predicted by Jonah through 
 their prompt repentance. The conditional character of 
 prophecy is clearly set forth by Jeremiah. " At what in- 
 stant," says Jehovah, "I shall speak concerning a nation, 
 and concerning a kingdom, to pluck up and to break down 
 and to destroy it ; if that nation, concerning which I have 
 spoken, turn from their evil, I will repent of the evil that 
 I thought to do unto them. And at what instant I shall 
 speak concerning a nation, and concerning a kingdom, to 
 build and to plant it ; if it do evil in my sight, that it obey 
 not my voice, then I will repent of the good, wherewith I 
 said I would benefit them." 2 
 
 Spirit of Hope. The prophets were men of strong faith 
 in Jehovah. In a review of the marvellous history of their 
 people and in their surpassing knowledge of the character 
 of God, they found the basis of an inextinguishable hope. 
 Nearly all their predictions of coming disaster to Israel 
 are associated with a promise of blessing. It is their 
 ineradicable belief that God will ultimately rescue His 
 chosen people and make them a blessing to all the nations. 
 " It shall come to pass in the latter days," says Isaiah, 
 " that the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established 
 in the top of the mountains, and shall be exalted above the 
 hills ; and all nations shall flow unto it. And many peoples 
 shall go and say, Come ye, and let us go up to the 
 
 1 Hos. 4 : 1-3. 2 Jer. 18 : 7-10. 
 
go AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 mountain of the Lord, to. the house of the God of Jacob ; 
 and He will teach us of His ways, and we will walk in His 
 paths; for out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the 
 word of the Lord from Jerusalem. And He shall judge 
 between the nations, and shall reprove many peoples ; and 
 they shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their 
 spears into pruning-hooks : nation shall not lift up sword 
 against nation, neither shall they learn war any more." J 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 An extract from the Wars of the Lord, Numb. 21 : 14, 15. 
 
 A song from the book of Jasher. 2 Sam. i : 19-27. 
 
 The Hebrew spirit in imprecation, Ps. 109; also Ps. 35. 
 
 The call of Abraham, Gen. 12 : 1-9. 
 
 The call of Moses from the burning bush, Ex. 3. 
 
 Reverence for the law instilled and exemplified, Deut. 17: 18-20; and 
 
 Ezek. 8. 
 A poetic contrast between the beauty of nature and the perfection of 
 
 the divine law, Ps. 19. 
 
 Sennacherib's blasphemous letter, 2 Kings 19: 9-13. 
 The decrees of Cyrus and Darius, Ezra 6: 1-12. 
 Contrasted condition of the righteous man and the wicked, Ps. I. 
 An outline sketch of Isaac, Gen. 21-35. 
 Principal events in the life of Jacob, Gen. 25-49. 
 A sketch of Joseph's varied career, Gen. 30-50. 
 An outline of the life of Moses, Ex., Numb., and Deut. 
 A biographical sketch of Joshua, Josh. 1-24. 
 The story of Gideon, Judges 6-8. 
 A sketch of Samson's career. Judges 13-16. 
 The Life of Samuel, the last of the Judges, i Sam. 1-25. 
 A study of Saul, i Sam. 1-31. 
 
 A sketch of David's career, i Sam. 16-31 ; 2 Sam. ; i Kings i, 2. 
 The life of Solomon, i Kings i-ii. 
 The career of Jeroboam, i Kings 11-14. 
 The life of Elijah, i Kings 17-2 Kings 2. 
 The story of his successor, Elisha, i Kings 19-2 Kings 13. 
 
 1 Is. 2 : 2-4. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 91 
 
 A notable psalm of penitence, Ps. 51. 
 
 An example of didactic verse, Prov. 2. 
 
 The persecution of Jeremiah, Jer. 37 : 11-21. 
 
 An arraignment of Jerusalem for its sin, Ezek. 22. 
 
 The corrupt character of the leaders of the people, Hos. 5, 6. 
 
 The brief opening discourse of Isaiah, Is. I. 
 
 The parable of the vineyard, Is. 5 : 1-7. 
 
 The allegory of the vine, Ezek. 15. 
 
 The destruction of Jerusalem in symbols, Ezek. 4, 5, and 12. 
 
 The conditional character of prophecy, Jer. 18 : 1-12. 
 
 A message of hope, Is. n, 12. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 
 
 Historical Books. The historical books naturally stand 
 at the beginning of the Old Testament. They are seven- 
 teen in number, 1 and constitute more than half of the Old 
 Testament writings. They are widely different in character, 
 and, as in Kings and Chronicles, often contain duplicate 
 accounts of the same events ; but, as we have seen in pre- 
 vious chapters, they present collectively a pretty full account 
 of Hebrew life. 
 
 The authorship and credibility of some of these books have 
 in recent years been much discussed. But, in spite of the 
 conclusions of some recent critics, the historical books of 
 the Old Testament are here regarded as essentially trust- 
 worthy documents. Though they may sometimes fail in 
 absolute historical accuracy, though they may in part be 
 composed of earlier documents and in some cases employ 
 oral traditions containing imaginative elements, they are 
 immovably true in their great purpose of exhibiting the 
 agency of God in human, and especially in Hebrew, history. 
 They are rich in their lessons of truth for all time. 
 
 The Pentateuch. The first five historical books Gene- 
 
 1 Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 
 i Samuel, 2 Samuel, i Kings, 2 Kings, i Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, 
 Nehemiah, and Esther. 
 
 92 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 93 
 
 sis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy are 
 often called the Pentateuch, a Greek word signifiying the 
 fivefold book. It gives the history of the Hebrew people 
 from the creation of the world to the death of Moses. It 
 contains the Mosaic law, which is given in connection with 
 the Hebrew migration from Egypt. In view of this im- 
 portant element, which lies at the basis of the civil and re- 
 ligious institutions of the Hebrew people, the Pentateuch 
 is frequently referred to as "the law" or "the law of 
 Moses." 
 
 According to the traditional view, the author of the 
 Pentateuch is Moses. Whether he wrote it or not in its 
 present form, it obviously contains Mosaic elements that 
 justify us in associating it with the great lawgiver's name. 
 It is difficult to believe that later Hebrew writers were mis- 
 taken in referring to " the law of Moses," 1 or that a tradi- 
 tion running through Hebrew history for hundreds of 
 years was utterly without foundation. But while we accept, 
 in part at least, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, 
 we recognize obvious additions by a later hand. Moses 
 could hardly have written the account of his death in the 
 lastchapter of Deuteronomy; and the statement made more 
 than once in Genesis that " the Canaanite was then in the 
 land," 2 was evidently written long after the conquest. 
 
 The Mosaic athorship makes the Pentateuch a very old 
 book. According to the usual chronology, it dates from 
 about 1450 B.C. Written by a man "learned in all the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians," it reflects a high degree of 
 culture. There is not so much a creation of new laws as 
 an adaptation of old ones ; for seizing upon codes and 
 customs already prevailing in Egypt and Babylonia, Moses 
 
 1 Josh. 8 : 32; i Kings 2:3:2 Kings 23 : 25 ; Ezra 3 : 2; and elsewhere. 
 
 2 Gen. 12: 6; 13: 7. See also Gen. 36: 31. 
 
94 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 purified and exalted them, and thus made an addition to the 
 ever growing revelation of God to man. 1 
 
 Genesis. A noteworthy unity, as will presently be seen, 
 runs through the whole Pentateuch, which originally formed 
 a single book. Genesis a Greek word signifying genera- 
 tion makes an appropriate introduction to the following 
 books, and indeed to the entire Old Testament. Without 
 it the rest of the Pentateuch would in large measure be 
 obscure. 
 
 Genesis is arranged on a definite plan, a knowledge of 
 which is important for a clear understanding of the book. 
 It consists of two sharply marked but unequal divisions or 
 parts. ) The first part, which includes the first eleven 
 chapters, is devoted to a very brief sketch of the human 
 race as a wholej^ Its brevity leaves unfilled many gaps 
 that have given rise to difficult or captious questions. It 
 opens with the sublime statement, carrying us back un- 
 measured ages, that "in the beginning God created the 
 heaven and the earth." Then follows the order of creation, 
 the story of the fall, the growing wickedness of the world, 
 the narrative of the flood, and a list of the nations descend- 
 in gjfrom No v ah > ) 
 
 \The second part of Genesis extends from the beginning 
 of the twelfth chapter to the end of the book. It is con- 
 cerned not with the history of mankind at large, but_with 
 the beginnings of Hebrew history. It tells of Abraham, who 
 
 1 " The Pentateuch substantially belongs to the Mosaic age, and may therefore be 
 accepted as, in the bulk, the work of Moses himself. But it is a composite work, 
 embodying materials of various kinds. Some of these are written documents, 
 descriptive of contemporaneouse vents, or recording the cosmological beliefs of 
 ancient Babylonia ; others have been derived from the unwritten traditions of nomad 
 tribes. The work has passed through many editions ; it is full of interpolations, 
 lengthy and otherwise ; and it has probably received its final shape, a.t the hands of 
 Ezra." A. H. SAYCE, " Early History of the Hebrews," p. 134... 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 95 
 
 is selected to become the founder of the Hebrew race, and 
 of his immediate descendants, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. 
 It is filled with interesting pictures, sometimes romantic 
 and sometimes tragic, of those far-off patriarchal days, 
 ending with glimpses of the mighty kingdom of the Nile. 
 
 A Unique Book. It will be recognized that Genesis is 
 a unique book. It presents, in a connected narrative, the 
 beginnings of our race and the progenitors of the Hebrew 
 people. l It places back of all things a personal and right- 
 eous God. It brings before us in a childlike and concrete 
 form the eternal relations of the Supreme Being to the world, 
 out of which grows the fact that righteousness, whether in- 
 dividual or collective, is in some way attended with blessings, 
 and wickedness is followed by evils. 
 
 In the presence of this high truth, which is attested by 
 all history, we may well dismiss the mistaken criticism and 
 injudicious defence, of which Genesis has long been the 
 subject. It matters little whether or not its opening chap- 
 ters, as is sometimes claimed, contradict the results of 
 science or the researches of archaeology. Science and 
 absolute historic fact are apart from its general scope. In 
 its main purpose of revealing the being and providence of 
 God, in the expression of these great truths in delightful 
 incident and story, it remains impregnably true. It presents 
 in varied, concrete form what human experience and philo- 
 sophic insight recognize to-day as truth. 
 
 Exodus. The last chapters of Genesis, as we have 
 seen, end with the migration of Jacob and his family, 
 aggregating seventy souls, into Egypt, where they were 
 
 111 The Old Testament opens very impressively. In measured and dignified 
 language it introduces the story of Israel's origin and settlement upon the land of 
 Canaan by the story of creation, and thus suggests, at the very beginning, the far- 
 reaching purpose and the world-wide significance of the people and religion of 
 Israel." JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 3. 
 
g6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 assigned a home in the northeastern part of that fertile land. 
 This region, known as the land of Goshen, was nearest to 
 Canaan. Under the blessing of Jehovah, the Hebrew im- 
 migrants enjoyed a marvellous prosperity, and gradually 
 passed from their shepherd habits to the higher plane of 
 an agricultural and artisan life. " The children of Israel," 
 says the sacred record, " were fruitful, and increased abun- 
 dantly, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty ; 
 and the land was filled with them." 1 
 
 After several centuries the reign of the kindly Hyksos 
 kings was overthrown. " There arose up a new king over 
 Egypt, who knew not Joseph." 2 Ramses II., as we have 
 seen in a previous chapter, adopted cruel measures to 
 check the increase and power of the Hebrew aliens. He 
 ordered all the male children to be put to death. But the 
 purposes of God cannot be thwarted by the devices of 
 men ; and in the fiery trials of their bondage, the Hebrews 
 were forging the bands of national unity and strength. 
 
 The story of their bondage and subsequent deliverance 
 is the subject of Exodus, a Greek word meaning departure. 
 The hero of this great national movement was Moses, 
 whose rescue by Pharaoh's daughter, as told in the second 
 chapter, contains more than one beautiful touch of nature. 
 Though reared in the royal palace, Moses did not lose his 
 racial sympathy ; and when he one day found an Egyptian 
 smiting a Hebrew laborer, he wrathfully slew the cruel 
 taskmaster. This crime led to his flight ; and he spent 
 the following forty years in Midian as a shepherd. It was 
 among the wild, inspiring scenes of the mountains of 
 Horeb scenes that naturally beget a spirit of freedom 
 that the call of God came to him from the burning bush 
 to become the deliverer of his people. 
 
 i Ex. i : 7. 2 EX. i : 8. 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 97 
 
 Period of Preparation. The book of Exodus, though 
 consisting of a continuous narrative, may be divided, for 
 the sake of clearness, into three parts. The first part, ex- 
 tending from the first to the twelfth chapter, describes the 
 condition of the Hebrews and their preparation for re- 
 volt. It contains numerous glimpses of Egypt, which 
 have been illustrated or confirmed by recent discoveries. 1 
 
 When Moses, accompanied by his brother Aaron as 
 chief spokesman, appeared before Pharaoh, and demanded 
 that the Hebrews be permitted to retire to the wilderness 
 to " hold a feast unto the Lord," he was met with a 
 prompt refusal. The king no doubt fathomed and re- 
 sented the purpose of the two presumptuous or seditious 
 leaders. He felt that the labor of the Hebrew slaves, who 
 had already built great treasure-cities, was too valuable to 
 the state to be willingly surrendered. Then followed in 
 rapid succession nine plagues the Nile turned to blood, 
 frogs, lice, flies, murrain, boils and blains, hail, locusts, 
 and darkness which were intended to show the weak- 
 ness of the Egyptian deities and the vanity of Egyptian 
 worship. But in spite of all these sore visitations, the 
 heart of the king, notwithstanding his promises, remained 
 at the last moment obdurate. 
 
 Departure from Egypt. The second part of Exodus, 
 which extends from the twelfth to the nineteenth chapter, 
 describes the departure of the children of Israel from 
 Egypt. The passover had been solemnly celebrated in 
 the homes of the Hebrews. The death-angel had passed 
 over the land, and in every Egyptian household there was 
 mourning over the loss of the first-born. In some way 
 
 1 " The history of Joseph is marvellously true in all its details to what archae- 
 ology has informed us were the facts of Egyptian life." A. H. SAYCE, " Early 
 History of the Hebrews," p. 87. 
 
98 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 connecting their calamity with the Hebrew bondmen, the 
 Egyptians with one consent urged the departure of the 
 Israelites. 
 
 The vast multitude of Hebrews, not less than two mill- 
 ions in number, moved eastward with their flocks and 
 herds to Succoth, not far from the present line of the Suez 
 Canal. Instead of marching directly toward the land of 
 Canaan a route that would have brought them into con- 
 tact with the frontier fortresses of Egypt they turned to 
 the southeast, and encamped on the head waters of the 
 Gulf of Suez. A miraculous pillar of cloud led the He- 
 brew hosts by day, and by night it was transformed into a 
 pillar of fire. 
 
 Meanwhile, divining the purpose of the Hebrews to es- 
 cape from Egyptian tyranny, Pharaoh hastened in pursuit 
 with a formidable army. When the Hebrews saw them- 
 selves caught between the forces of Egypt and the waters 
 of the sea, they were filled with terror; nevertheless, at 
 the command of their brave and confident leader, they 
 moved forward. The waters were driven back by a strong 
 east wind ; and along the marvellous highway thus opened 
 to them, the Hebrew armies crossed to the other side. 
 When the heedless Egyptians followed, they were sud- 
 denly overwhelmed by the returning waters, and the deliv- 
 erance of the Hebrew people was accomplished. No 
 wonder that Moses burst forth in a song of martial tri- 
 umph ! 1 
 . The great throng now proceeded toward Sinai. Their 
 
 1 " What is the Roman arch of triumph, or the pillar crowded with sculpture 
 compared, as a memorial, to the Hebrew song of victory, which, having survived 
 so many ages, is still fresh and vivid as ever, and excites the same emotions of awe 
 and piety, in every breast susceptible of such feelings, which it did so many ages 
 past in those of the triumphant children of Israel ? " H. H. MlLMAN, " History of 
 the Jews," vol. i, p. 140. 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 99 
 
 long march was not without incident. The people suf- 
 fered for water; and when their supply of food was 
 exhausted, they were marvellously fed on quails and 
 manna. Through the prolonged intercession of Moses, 
 whose hands were upheld by Aaron and Hur, the 
 Hebrews, after a fierce battle, won a signal victory over 
 Amalek. At the suggestion of his father-in-law, Jethro, 
 who visited him in the wilderness, Moses gave the mul- 
 titude a thorough political organization by the appoint- 
 ment of " rulers of thousands, and rulers of hundreds, 
 rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens." l 
 
 At Sinai. The third part of Exodus, extending from 
 chapter nineteen to the end of the book, is devoted to the 
 significant events at Sinai. It narrates the imposing cir- 
 cumstances under which the Mosaic law was promulgated, 
 and the special covenant which Jehovah, in continuation 
 of His promise to Abraham, made with the Chosen People. 
 The Ten Commandments and the various civil laws, drawn 
 to a greater or less extent from the institutions of Egypt, 
 are full of interest. It is here that the strange apostasy 
 of the people in their worship of the golden calf a 
 reminiscence of Egyptian idolatry is narrated ; and 
 here we learn of the construction of the tabernacle or 
 sanctuary, of the munificent offerings of the people for 
 this work, and of the establishment of the Levitical 
 priesthood. 
 
 Thus it is evident that Exodus contributes an essential 
 part to the political and religious history of the Hebrew 
 people. From now on, for nearly a thousand years, they 
 are a separate and independent nation. 
 
 Leviticus. The book of Leviticus a word that sig- 
 nifies pertaining to the Levites is a natural continuation 
 
 1 Ex. 18: 21. 
 
100 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 of Exodus. At first glance, it might seem an obtrusion 
 that interrupts the historical narrative ; but after the 
 tabernacle had been set up, it was fitting to give the laws 
 of sacrifice and the ritual of worship. Leviticus contains 
 the ceremonial law, as contrasted with the moral law of the 
 Decalogue. It prescribes the various kinds of offerings, 
 the ceremonies relating to purity and impurity, and the 
 several religious festivals that were to be observed. 
 Throughout the book the prophetical or ethical side of 
 religion is entirely subordinate to the priestly or ritual 
 side ; hence, Leviticus is sometimes known as the law or 
 code of the priests. 1 
 
 Leviticus may be divided into two parts. The first part, 
 including chapters I to 16, is devoted to the funda- 
 mental laws of sacrifice, purification, and atonement. 
 The sacrifices were of two kinds, namely, animal and 
 vegetable, or bloody and unbloody. There were five prin- 
 cipal types of sacrifice the burnt-offering, the meat- 
 offering, the peace-offering, the sin-offering, and the 
 guilt-offering which are successively described in the 
 opening chapters. 
 
 In chapters 8 to 10, the consecration of the priests and 
 their solemn entry upon their office are narrated. Here 
 we have the tragedy of Nadab and Abihu, brothers of 
 Aaron, who for an act of sacrilege are miraculously con- 
 sumed by fire. The remaining chapters of part first 
 (n 1 6) are taken up with the laws of purification and 
 atonement. The distinction is made between clean and 
 unclean animals ; directions are given for the diagnosis 
 
 1 " It is the deliberate expression of the priestly mind of Israel at its best, and it 
 thus forms a welcome foil to the unattractive pictures of the priests, which confront 
 us in the pages of the prophets during the three centuries between Hosea and 
 Malachi." JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 3. 
 
SOME STUDIES IN T&M PENT^'EJUCfl ,1,91 
 
 of leprosy ; regulations relating to purity and impurity 
 are laid down ; and last of all, the solemn services of the 
 day of atonement are prescribed. 
 
 Law of Holiness. The latter half of Leviticus (chap- 
 ters 17-26) is devoted to what has been called "the law of 
 holiness." It prescribes that all animal sacrifices shall be 
 offered at the door of the tabernacle a regulation that 
 formed a stanch bulwark against idolatry. It prohibits 
 unlawful marriages, and the debasing lusts that were com- 
 mon among the surrounding nations. It condemns the 
 cruel worship of Molech. The twenty-third chapter con- 
 tains a list of the sacred seasons the Sabbath, the pass- 
 over, pentecost, the feast of trumpets or New Year, the 
 day of atonement, and the feast of tabernacles which 
 were to be observed. To these are added, in chapter 25, 
 the seventh or sabbatical year, and after " seven times 
 seven years " the feast of Jubilee, which are associated 
 with some noteworthy civil regulations. 
 
 In the next to the last chapter there is a remarkable 
 statement of the divine philosophy that underlies all He- 
 brew history. "If ye walk in My statutes," Jehovah is 
 represented as saying, " and keep My commandments, and 
 do them, then I will give you rain in due season, and the 
 land shall yield her increase, and the trees of the field 
 shall yield their fruit. And your threshing shall reach 
 unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach unto the sow- 
 ing time ; and ye shall eat your bread to the full, and 
 dwell in your land safely. And I will give you peace in 
 the land, and ye shall lie down, and none shall make you 
 afraid : and I will rid evil beasts out of the land, neither 
 shall the sword go through your land. And ye shall 
 chase your enemies, and they shall fall before you by the 
 sword." On the other hand, a violation of the laws of 
 
IS* AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Jehovah is to be attended with a corresponding train of 
 evils. 
 
 Numbers. The book of Numbers derives its name 
 from the enumeration of the people narrated in the first 
 chapter. It records the journeyings of the Hebrews from 
 Sinai to the eastern borders of Canaan. The first' ten 
 chapters, which relate chiefly to priestly duties and cere- 
 monies, form a kind of supplement to Leviticus. 
 
 The Israelites had now spent about a year at Sinai in 
 the great task of completing their religious and civil ad- 
 ministration. The time had come for an advance. Ac- 
 cordingly, " on the twentieth day of the second month in 
 the second year," the cloud rose from the tabernacle, and 
 the well-ordered march of the multitude began. When, 
 after a few days, the people murmured over their monoto- 
 nous fare, a wind " brought quails from the sea." The 
 sedition of Miriam and Aaron met with a severe rebuke. 
 From the wilderness of Paran spies were prudently de- 
 spatched into Canaan to ascertain the character of the 
 country. When the spies, except Joshua and Caleb, re- 
 ported that the land, on account 6f its walled cities and 
 stalwart population, was impregnable, the Hebrews broke 
 forth in loud complaints. For this exhibition of ingrati- 
 tude and cowardice, which showed that they had not yet 
 learned to trust Jehovah, they were condemned to perish 
 in the wilderness. 
 
 Subsequent Wanderings. Now followed a period of re- 
 newed and penitential wandering, which extended through 
 thirty-eight years, and witnessed the death of the mur- 
 muring multitude. But few events are narrated of this 
 sorrowful time. The rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and 
 Abiram brought a pitiless retribution; for "the earth 
 opened her mouth, and swallowed them up." l 
 
 1 Numb. 16: 32. 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 103 
 
 Finally, as the forty years of wandering drew near an 
 end, the Israelites came to the wilderness of Zin, south of 
 the Dead Sea. Important events followed in rapid suc- 
 cession. Moses and Aaron, by their impatience and dis- 
 obedience, forfeited the privilege of entering the Promised 
 Land. Aaron met a pathetic end on Mt. Hor. When 
 the king of Edom refused the Israelites passage through 
 his land, they were forced to make a wide circuit around 
 his territory. The difficulties and dangers of this long 
 march excited an outburst of discontent among the 
 people, whereupon "the Lord sent fiery serpents among 
 them." 1 
 
 After a series of victories over Sihon, King of the 
 Amorites, and Og, King of Bashan, the Hebrew host at 
 last arrived on the east side of Jordan, opposite Jericho. 
 Here the interesting events connected with Balaam took 
 place. The Israelites were betrayed into idolatry by " the 
 daughters of Moab," and were mercilessly punished. 
 With the great task of Moses nearly ended, Joshua was 
 formally installed as his successor. After the conquest of 
 the Midianites, the territory east of the Jordan was divided 
 among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of 
 Manasseh. 2 
 
 Deuteronomy. The last book of the Pentateuch is 
 called Deuteronomy, or, as the name indicates, a repetition 
 of the law. It is so called because it repeats and enforces 
 many of the laws previously given in Exodus, Leviticus, 
 and Numbers. It is made up chiefly of three discourses 
 
 1 Numb. 21 : 6. 
 
 2 The book of Numbers " contains the earliest theory or tradition of the Hebrews 
 as to the nomadic period of their history ; through it (and other biblical data) the 
 life and fortunes of the Hebrews under Moses before they settled in Canaan must 
 be read, if any attempt is made to read them at all. " GEO. B. GRAY, " Critical 
 and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers," p. xliii. 
 
104 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 which Moses, at the end of the forty years' wandering, 
 delivered to the Hebrew people. It contains a large 
 element of exhortation, and breathes a lofty religious 
 spirit, which is reechoed in the fervent words of the 
 great prophets. It is, therefore, one of the most inter- 
 esting and edifying books of the Old Testament. 
 
 The first four chapters rehearse in brief the history of 
 the people. The discourse ends with an exhortation to 
 obedience, based on the supremacy of God in all the 
 universe. " Know therefore this day," says the great 
 leader and lawgiver, "and consider it in thine heart, that 
 the Lord He is God in heaven above and upon the earth 
 below : there is none else. Thou shalt therefore keep His 
 statutes, and His commandments, which I command thee 
 this day, that it may go well with thee, and with thy 
 children after thee, and that thou mayest prolong thy 
 days upon the earth, which the Lord thy God giveth thee, 
 for ever." l 
 
 Second Discourse. The second discourse begins with a 
 repetition of the Ten Commandments, which is followed 
 by an exhortation of fervent piety and deep spiritual in- 
 sight. Its central thought is obedience to God springing 
 from supreme love to Him. " Thou shalt love the Lord 
 thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and 
 with all thy might." 2 In view of this love, the idolatry of 
 the surrounding nations is to be sternly avoided. The 
 idolatrous nations are to be exterminated ; for " they will 
 turn away thy sons from following me, that they may 
 serve other gods." 3 Various precepts of the law, some- 
 times with slight modifications, are repeated, among which 
 may be mentioned the release of the poor every seventh 
 year, the observance of the three great annual festivals 
 
 1 Deut. 4 : 39, 40. 2 Deut. 6:5. 8 Deut. 7:4. 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 105 
 
 the passover, pentecost, and tabernacles and the ap- 
 pointment of six cities of refuge. 
 
 Third Discourse. In the third division of Deuteronomy 
 we have the blessings and curses of the law impressively 
 set forth. Ready to depart, Moses once more affection- 
 ately and solemnly exhorts the people to obedience. This 
 is the burden of his farewell discourses. " See," he ex- 
 claims, " I have set before thee this day life and good, 
 and death and evil, in that I command thee this day to 
 love the Lord thy God, to walk in His ways, and to keep 
 His commandments, and His statutes, and His judgments." 1 
 
 The remainder of the book is occupied with words of 
 Encouragement to the people, and particularly to Joshua, 
 with two poems, and an account of the death and burial of 
 Moses on the lonely mountain of Nebo. 2 
 
 Conclusion. As Genesis forms a notable introduction 
 to the Pentateuch, so Deuteronomy forms a no less notable 
 conclusion. The children of Israel now stand upon the 
 verge of their conquest of Canaan. They constitute a 
 well-compacted nation, in which every citizen is a freeman. 
 Their worship of Jehovah, who is adored as God of 
 heaven and earth, distinguishes them from surrounding 
 peoples. 3 The laws by which they are governed include 
 -an elaborate ethical and civil code ; and under the severe 
 training of the wilderness, the Israelites have attained to 
 
 1 Dent. 30 : 15, 16. 
 
 2 " Deuteronomy is one of the epoch-making books of the world. It not only 
 profoundly affected much of the subsequent literature of the Hebrews, but it left a 
 deep and abiding mark upon Hebrew religion, and through it upon Christianity." 
 JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 51. 
 
 3 " The demand which Jehovah makes upon his people are moral demands. 
 They are continually repeated with the greatest emphasis and earnestness; the 
 transgression of these commandments by the large majority of Israel, especially by 
 the leaders and men of distinction, is the theme of most of the prophetic ad- 
 dresses." A. KUENEN, " The Religion of Israel," p. 58. 
 
106 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 an extraordinary religious development, a high sense of 
 their position as a divinely chosen people. As Moses 
 sang : 
 
 " The Lord's portion is His people ; 
 
 Jacob is the lot of His inheritance. 
 
 He found him in a desert land, 
 
 And in the waste howling wilderness ; 
 
 He compassed him about, He cared for him, 
 
 He kept him as the apple of His eye." l 
 
 But more than religious development had been attained. 
 The forty years' wandering in the wilderness had produced 
 a race of hardy, independent, and fearless men. Their 
 victories over Sihon and Og had kindled their courage. 
 As they stood on the eastern banks of the Jordan, we 
 may well believe that, while a well-founded fear seized 
 upon the tribes of Canaan, the Hebrews were confidently 
 eager for the conquest. 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 GENESIS 
 
 The account of creation, Gen. i, 2. 
 
 The story of the fall, Gen. 3. 
 
 The tragedy of Cain and Abel, Gen. 4: 1-18. 
 
 The cause and incidents of the flood, Gen. 6-9. 
 
 The call and journey of Abraham, Gen. 12. 
 
 The rescue of Lot, Gen. 14. 
 
 Renewal of the covenant with Abraham, Gen. 17. 
 
 The story of Sodom and Gomorrah, Gen. 18, 19. 
 
 Banishment of Hagar and Ishmael, Gen. 21. 
 
 The offering of Isaac, Gen. 22. 
 
 The death and burial of Sarah, Gen. 23. 
 
 Romantic story of Rebecca, Gen. 24. 
 
 A domestic conspiracy and deception, Gen. 27. 
 
 1 Deut. 32 : 9-10. 
 
SOME STUDIES IN THE PENTATEUCH 107 
 
 Flight and vision of Isaac. Gen. 28. 
 
 Seven years of loving service, Gen. 29. 
 
 The flight of Jacob, Gen. 31. 
 
 Meeting of Jacob and Esau, Gen. 32, 33. 
 
 Parental partiality and its consequences, Gen. 37. 
 
 Joseph cast into prison, Gen. 39. 
 
 An interpretation of two dreams, Gen. 40. 
 
 Joseph as prime minister of Egypt, Gen. 41. 
 
 Buying corn during a famine, Gen. 42-45. 
 
 Migration of Israel into Egypt, Gen. 46. 
 
 A cruel state policy, Gen. 47 : 13-26. 
 
 A paternal blessing, Gen. 49. 
 
 EXODUS 
 
 The oppression in Egypt, Ex. i. 
 
 The early life of Moses, Ex. 2. 
 
 The call of Moses, Ex. 3. 
 
 The appointment of Aaron as spokesman, Ex. 4. 
 
 Increased oppression of the Israelites, Ex. 5. 
 
 An interview with the king, Ex. 7. 
 
 The visitation of plagues, Ex. 8-10. 
 
 Institution of the passover, Ex. 12. 
 
 The escape of the Israelites, Ex. 13. 
 
 The passage of the Red Sea, Ex. 14. 
 
 Moses' song of deliverance, Ex. 15. 
 
 The murmuring multitude fed, Ex. 16. 
 
 The defeat of Amalek, Ex. 17. 
 
 The appointment of civil rulers, Ex. 18. 
 
 The giving of the law at Sinai, Ex. 19-24. 
 
 The plan of the tabernacle, Ex. 25-31, 35-40. 
 
 The worship of the golden calf, Ex. 32. 
 
 LEVITICUS 
 
 Various offerings, Lev. 1-7. 
 
 Consecration of Aaron and his sons, Lev. 8, 9. 
 
 The death of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. 10 : 1-7. 
 
 The distinction of clean and unclean animals, Lev. n. 
 
Io8 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Regulations relating to leprosy, Lev. 13, 14. 
 
 The high priest in the holy place, Lev. 16. 
 
 The centralization of sacrifices. Lev. 17. 
 
 Sundry regulations relating to holiness, Lev. 18-22. 
 
 Various religious festivals, Lev. 23. 
 
 The septennial Sabbath and year of Jubilee, Lev. 25. 
 
 A notable exhortation to obedience, Lev. 26. 
 
 NUMBERS 
 
 The numbering of the Israelites, Numb. I. 
 
 Various Levitical regulations, Numb. 2-9. 
 
 The multitude departs from Sinai, Numb. 10. 
 
 Renewed murmuring and its results, Numb. n. 
 
 The sedition of Miriam and Aaron, Numb. 12. 
 
 The mission of the spies, Numb. 13. 
 
 Murmuring and condemnation of the Israelites, Numb. 14. 
 
 Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, Numb. 16. 
 
 Anger and disobedience of Moses, Numb. 20. 
 
 Visitation of fiery serpents and the remedy, Numb. 21. 
 
 The story of Balaam, Numb. 22-24. 
 
 Joshua appointed Moses 1 successor, Numb. 27: 12-23. 
 
 Fierce war against the Midianites, Numb. 31. 
 
 The assignment of land east of the Jordan, Numb. 32. 
 
 Cities of the Levites and of refuge, Numb. 35. 
 
 DEUTERONOMY 
 
 Moses briefly rehearses Israel's history, Deut. 1-3. 
 A forcible exhortation to obedience, Deut. 4. 
 Repetition and enforcement of sundry laws, Deut. 5-26. 
 The tribes on Gerizim and Ebal, Deut. 27. 
 Blessings and curses of the law, Deut. 28. 
 Words of encouragement, Deut. 31. 
 A song of Moses, Deut. 32. 
 
 A poetical blessing of the twelve tribes, Deut. 33. 
 The death and burial of the great lawgiver, Deut. 34. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 
 
 Relation to the Pentateuch. As we have seen, the 
 Pentateuch records the origin and development of the 
 Hebrew people prior to the conquest of Canaan. It de- 
 scribes the patriarchal age, the protracted sojourn of the 
 Israelites in Egypt, their deliverance from tyrannical 
 oppression, and their weary wanderings on their march to 
 Canaan. It recounts the giving of the moral and cere- 
 monial law, and the gradual organization of the Hebrews 
 into a theocratic commonwealth. 
 
 The remaining historical books, which now come under 
 consideration, record a continuation of Hebrew history. 
 They complete the story of Jehovah's dealings with the 
 Chosen People. After the rapid conquest of Canaan, 
 there followed the period of the Judges. At length the 
 monarchy was established under Saul, reached its culmi- 
 nation under David and Solomon, was disrupted under 
 Rehoboam, and then passed into a period of decadence, 
 until at last the Hebrews were carried in captivity to 
 Assyria and Babylonia. After a captivity of seventy 
 years, a part of the people returned under patriotic leaders, 
 and rebuilt the temple and walls of Jerusalem. 
 
 In our studies of Hebrew history we must not forget 
 that it is the divine rather than the human element that is 
 made prominent. It sets forth the blessings of righteous- 
 ness and the evils of iniquity. Kings and courts and state 
 policies are viewed only from the religious side. This 
 
 109 
 
110 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 dominant religious purpose of the Hebrew historian makes 
 his records incomplete and fragmentary. His principal 
 aim is to exhibit the continual divine agency in human 
 affairs an omnipresent factor generally neglected in 
 other historical writings. 
 
 Book of Joshua. The book of Joshua, which is named 
 after the heroic leader of the Hebrews, describes the con- 
 quest of Canaan and its division by lot among the tribes 
 of Israel. 1 It falls naturally into two well-marked divisions. 
 The first part, including twelve chapters, briefly describes 
 the conquest of the territory west of the Jordan. The 
 second part, extending from the thirteenth to the twenty- 
 second chapter, describes the allotment of land among the 
 various tribes. The book concludes with a brief farewell 
 address by Joshua. It covers a period of about seven 
 years, and leaves many events untouched. 
 
 The author of the book is unknown. According to 
 Jewish tradition it was written by Joshua himself. But 
 this can hardly be true ; for the book contains references 
 and incidents referring to a later time. The conquest of 
 Hebron, for example, which is related in chapter 15, 
 did not occur till the time of the Judges. 2 On the other 
 hand, it contains materials furnished by a contemporary 
 writer, who had crossed the Jordan. 3 Moreover, it is stated 
 that Rahab, who had been saved in the destruction of 
 Jericho, " dwelleth in Israel even unto this day." 4 Who- 
 ever the author may have been, it is evident that he wrote 
 in the true prophetic spirit. 
 
 1 " The crossing of the Jordan and the entry into this territory [of Canaan] 
 were destined to become of the utmost importance to mankind. The land of which 
 the shepherd tribes possessed themselves became the arena of great events, so en- 
 during and important in their results, that the country in which they took place be- 
 came known as the Holy Land" H. GRAETZ, " History of the Jews," p. I. 
 2 Judges i : 12-15. 3 Josh. 5 : i. * Josh. 6: 25. 
 
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON in 
 
 The Conquest. After the death of Moses, Joshua had 
 assumed command of the invading host of Hebrews. After 
 the signal victories on the east of the Jordan, the Hebrew 
 armies were eager to conquer the fairer and more populous 
 districts lying to the west of that famous stream. Though 
 the west Jordanic territory was occupied by many kings 
 and filled with strongly fortified towns, a dread of the vic- 
 torious Hebrews preceded their invasion. 
 
 As a precautionary measure, Joshua despatched two 
 spies to survey the city of Jericho, whose strong position 
 made it the key to the land. The spies were concealed by 
 Rahab, who in return was promised protection in the 
 approaching siege. After the spies had made a favorable 
 report, Joshua prepared to advance. The waters of the 
 Jordan, which were swollen by the spring freshets, divided 
 before the approaching ark, and the Hebrew multitude 
 passed through on dry ground. Joshua established his 
 headquarters at Gilgal; and not unmindful of his dependence 
 on Jehovah, he renewed the rite of circumcision and cele- 
 brated the feast of the Passover. Both of these rites had 
 fallen into abeyance during the long period of wandering 
 in the wilderness. 
 
 In a short time Jericho was besieged, captured, and de- 
 stroyed. The trespass of Achan, who had appropriated "a 
 goodly Babylonish garment " and a large amount of silver 
 and gold, led to an unexpected and humiliating defeat. 
 At length Ai was taken by stratagem ; and afterwards 
 the blessings and curses of the Mosaic law were solemnly 
 proclaimed on Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Ebal. The Gibeon- 
 ites entrapped Joshua into a treaty of peace, and for this 
 act of deception were condemned to perpetual bondage. 
 The southern part of Canaan was conquered first; and 
 it was during a severe battle with the Amorites that, 
 
112 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 according to a poem in the book of Jasher, Joshua 
 exclaimed : 
 
 " Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon ; 
 And thou, Moon, in the valley of Aijalon. 
 And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, 
 Until the nation had avenged themselves of their enemies. 1 ' 
 
 Unfortunately this fine poetic passage has too often been 
 translated into sober prose. The conquest of northern 
 Canaan was practically completed with the defeat of a 
 formidable Canaanitish coalition " at the waters of Merom." 
 
 Allotment of Land. After a war lasting some seven 
 years and the overthrow of thirty-one kings, Joshua found 
 himself complete master of the fertile and populous land 
 of Canaan. The promise made to Abraham centuries be- 
 fore was at last fulfilled. It only remained to assign the 
 conquered territory to the various tribes. To prevent 
 jealousy and murmuring, the distribution was made by lot. 
 Judah occupied the territory between the Dead Sea and 
 the Mediterranean, including Jerusalem, the future capital 
 of the nation. The location of the other tribes is indicated 
 in the accompanying map. 
 
 When his work was ended, Joshua, like Moses, delivered 
 a farewell address, and renewed the covenant between the 
 people and God. The discourse has the fine prophetic 
 character of Deuteronomy. It recapitulates the blessings, 
 promises, and threatenings of Jehovah, and ends with a 
 fervent exhortation to obedience. " Now therefore fear 
 the Lord, and serve Him in sincerity and truth : and put 
 away the gods which your fathers served on the other side 
 of the flood, and in Egypt, and serve ye the Lord." 1 
 
 The deep religious spirit pervading the book of Joshua, 
 
 1 Josh. 24: 14, 
 
THE HOLY LAND 
 
 as divided among: 
 
 THE TWELVE TRIBES 
 
 HAN 
 
 Hay^th jair 
 
 H (A ' SL 3 . E HI 
 
 HA 
 
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 113 
 
 as well as the Hebrew view of the conquest, is well ex- 
 pressed in the 44th Psalm : 
 
 " We have heard with our ears, O God, our fathers have told us, 
 
 What work Thou didst in their days, in the days of old. 
 
 Thou didst drive out the nations with Thy hand, and planted them in ; 
 
 Thou didst afflict the peoples, and didst spread them abroad. 
 
 For they gat not the land in possession by their own sword, 
 
 Neither did their own arm save them : 
 
 But Thy right hand, and Thine arm, and the light of Thy countenance, 
 
 Because Thou hadst a favor unto them." 
 
 Judges. The book of Judges is named after the rulers 
 whose heroic achievements form its principal theme. 
 These judges were not so much ministers of justice as 
 warriors of heroic spirit, who arose from time to time to 
 deliver the Israelites from heathen oppression. To the 
 mind of the Hebrew historian, they were providential men. 
 " The Lord raised up judges," he says, " which delivered 
 them out of the hand of those that spoiled them." 1 
 
 Though tradition ascribes the authorship of the book to 
 Samuel, the writer is not positively known. From the 
 remark that "in those days there was no king in Israel," 2 
 it is evident that the book was not composed till after the 
 establishment of the monarchy. As many of the events 
 described occurred two or three centuries earlier, the 
 author must have made use of oral traditions and written 
 documents in arranging his narrative. The chronology is 
 attended with difficulties. Though the successive periods 
 of prosperity and oppression make a total of four hundred 
 and ten years, it is probable that some of the judges were 
 contemporary. In this way the period may be reduced to 
 harmonize with I Kings 6: I, where it is stated that four 
 
 1 Judges 2 : 16. 2 Judges 18 : i. 
 
114 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 hundred and eighty years elapsed between the exodus and 
 the building of Solomon's temple. 
 
 Division of the Book. The book of Judges is divided 
 into three parts. The first part (chapters 1-3 : 6) con- 
 stitutes an introduction. It supplements the narrative in 
 Joshua, and shows that the conquest was neither so com- 
 plete nor so thorough as might have been supposed from 
 the statements of the preceding book. Many of the 
 native tribes had been spared ; as the sacred writer tells 
 us, "the children of Israel dwelt among Canaanites, 
 Hittites, and Amorites, and Perizzites, and Hivites, and 
 Jebusites : and they took their daughters to be their wives, 
 and gave their daughters to their sons, and served their 
 gods." 1 
 
 This failure relentlessly to exterminate the population 
 of Canaan was in direct contravention of the instruction 
 of Moses in Deuteronomy. The evils that the great law- 
 giver had foreseen were not slow in coming. After the 
 older generation had passed away, and the people had 
 settled down to a comfortable agricultural life, they relaxed 
 in their devotion to Jehovah. " They forsook the Lord 
 God of their fathers," says the narrator, " which brought 
 them out of the land of Egypt, and followed other gods, of 
 the gods of the people that were round about them, and 
 bowed themselves unto them, and provoked the Lord to 
 anger." 2 For this apostasy Jehovah withdrew his favor, 
 and " sold them into the hands of their enemies round 
 about them." But when the Hebrews recognized their 
 error and cried unto the Lord, He raised up a succession 
 of heroic deliverers. 
 
 Part Second. The second part of Judges (chapters 3 : 
 7-16) narrates the exploits of the dozen leaders who at 
 
 1 Judges 3:5,6. 2 Judges 2 : 12. 
 
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 115 
 
 various times became national heroes and liberators. The 
 history is written in the characteristic Hebrew spirit. Its 
 purpose is not secular knowledge but religious instruction ; 
 and hence each narrative of deliverance begins with the 
 statement that "the children of Israel did evil in the sight 
 of the Lord. . . . Therefore the anger of the Lord was 
 kindled against Israel ; and he sold them into the hand of 
 their enemies. And when the children of Israel cried 
 unto the Lord, the Lord raised up a deliverer to the chil- 
 dren of Israel who delivered them." 1 
 
 The first of the judges was Othniel, who delivered the 
 people from the tyranny of a king of Mesopotamia. 
 Ehud broke the oppression of the Moabites by the assas- 
 sination of their king. The victory of Deborah and Barak 
 was followed by a triumphal song of great exaltation of 
 spirit. Gideon by means of a stratagem overthrew the 
 power of Midian. Through conspiracy and murder 
 Abimelech for a time assumed regal authority. Jephthah 
 gained a decisive victory over the Amorites, and then, in 
 fulfilment of a foolish vow, put his daughter to death. 
 Last of all we have the well-known story of Samson with 
 its strange exhibition of weakness and strength. 
 
 Part Third. The third part of Judges (chapters 17-22) 
 is in the nature of an appendix. It relates, first, a bit of 
 private history belonging to the early period of the Judges, 
 and secondly, the story of the civil war that came near 
 
 1 " It is a work of edification. This form, however, is reached by a redactional 
 process, and we are able to distinguish between the material which the editor 
 found ready to hand, and the additions which he made. The substance of the 
 book is a series of stories about Israel's deliverance. They are fitted into a frame- 
 work which makes them teach the uniform lesson that backsliding from Yahveh is 
 followed by punishment, in the form of war and defeat, while repentance is re- 
 warded by deliverance and victory." H. P. SMITH, "Old Testament History," 
 p. 87. 
 
Il6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 exterminating the tribe of Benjamin. Both narratives are 
 valuable for the light they throw on religious and social 
 conditions. 1 It was a time of social degeneracy ; a spirit 
 of lawlessness prevailed so that, as the song of Deborah 
 informs us, " the highways were unoccupied and the 
 travellers walked through byways ; " in short, " in .those 
 days there was no king in Israel, and every man did that 
 which was right in his own eyes." 2 
 
 Book of Ruth. The book of Ruth is a charming 
 Hebrew idyll. It gives us delightful glimpses of domes- 
 tic and social life ; and unlike the lawless conditions de- 
 picted in parts of the book of Judges, it breathes a beautiful 
 spirit of courtesy, affection, and piety. 
 
 The scene of the narrative is laid " in the days when 
 the judges ruled." 3 This statement indicates that the 
 author, who is unknown, lived in the time of the monarchy. 
 The main purpose of the book is to supply the lineage of 
 David ; it could, therefore, hardly have been written before 
 that monarch's accession to the throne. 
 
 The main facts of the book, which possesses the interest 
 of a romance, are well known. Elimelech, a citizen of 
 Bethlehem, is led by a famine to remove, with his wife 
 Naomi and his two sons Mahlon and Chilion, to the land 
 of Moab. He dies there ; and his two sons marry Moabitish 
 wives named Orpah and Ruth. After a time Mahlon and 
 Chilion die, and Naomi is left alone with her two daugh- 
 ters-in-law. On learning that the famine is broken in 
 
 1 " It was a period of anarchy and perpetual war. Without a head, and with- 
 out cohesion, it seems strange that the Hebrews did not perish utterly or become 
 absorbed by the older population of the land. That the nation should have sur- 
 vived, admits of only one explanation. It possessed a common faith, a common 
 sanctuary, and a common code of sacred laws." A. H. SAYCE, " Early History of 
 the Hebrews," p. 272. 
 
 2 Judges 17 : 6. 3 Ruth i : i. 
 
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 117 
 
 Judah, Naomi resolves upon returning to Bethlehem, but 
 urges her daughters-in-law to remain in their own country. 
 Orpah follows her mother-in-law's advice; but Ruth ex- 
 presses her determination to accompany Naomi. " Whither 
 thou goest," she says affectionately, " I will go; and where 
 thou lodgest, I will lodge ; thy people shall be my people, 
 and thy God my God." 
 
 After the return of the two women to Bethlehem, Ruth 
 makes the acquaintance of her kinsman Boaz, " a mighty 
 man of wealth," and finally becomes his wife. The fruit 
 of this union was a son, tenderly cherished by Naomi and 
 destined to be the progenitor of the royal line of Judah. 
 " They called his name Obed ; he is the father of Jesse, 
 the father of David." 1 It is a significant fact that a 
 Moabite woman should be incorporated into the most dis- 
 tinguished genealogical line of Israel, a promise of the 
 day when the Gentile world was to share the faith of the 
 Hebrew people. 
 
 i and 2 Samuel. Among the ancient Jews i and 2 
 Samuel constituted a single book. The division was made 
 by the Greek translators of the Septuagint as a matter of 
 convenience ; accordingly, the first book closes with the 
 death of Saul, and the second book is devoted to David. 
 The work is not inappropriately named after Samuel, who 
 is the central figure in its earlier events. 
 
 The author of I and 2 Samuel is not known, nor can 
 the time when the books were written be definitely fixed. 
 They were evidently composed after the death of David, 
 for, in 2 Samuel 5 : 5, we find that the entire length of his 
 reign is given. They appear to have been written after 
 the division of the kingdom and before the capture of 
 Jerusalem; hence, according to the usual chronology, be- 
 
 1 Ruth 4 : 17. 
 
IlB AN INTRODUCTION- TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 tween 976 and 588 B.C. This is the natural conclusion 
 from i Samuel 27 : 6, in which the writer tells us that the 
 Philistine prince Achish gave Ziklag to David, and then 
 adds, "wherefore Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah 
 unto this day." But whatever the date, the sacred author 
 probably had access to the contemporary documents men- 
 tioned in i Chronicles 29 : 29, namely, " the book of 
 Samuel the seer, and the book of Nathan the prophet, and 
 the book of Gad the seer," which contained " the acts of 
 David the king." 
 
 Divisions of the Book. The books of Samuel, which 
 form a continuation of Judges, maybe conveniently divided 
 into three parts. The first part, including chapters i to 7, 
 narrates the history of Israel under its last two great judges, 
 Eli and Samuel. It describes the birth and education of 
 Samuel, the disorders arising from the wickedness of Eli's 
 ill-governed sons, the invasion of the land by the Philistines, 
 the capture of the ark of the Lord, the misfortunes it 
 brought upon the Philistine cities, the manner in which 
 after seven months it was returned to Israel, and finally 
 the overthrow of the Philistine army under the adminis- 
 tration of Samuel. All this is merely introductory to the 
 more important events that are narrated in the rest of the 
 books. 
 
 The second part, extending through the remainder of 
 the first book, describes the establishment of the monarchy 
 and the career of the first king. It is filled with stirring 
 events. The people had long felt the inadequacy of the 
 government of local judges; and when Samuel's sons 
 showed themselves unscrupulous and self-seeking men, the 
 people made a formal demand upon Samuel for the ap- 
 pointment of a king. Samuel reluctantly yielded assent. 
 Accordingly Saul was anointed as the first king of Israel ; 
 
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 119 
 
 and after the defeat of the Ammonites, the previous luke- 
 warm attitude of many of the people was transformed into 
 an enthusiastic support. 
 
 But Saul lacked the elements of a great ruler ; and after 
 repeated acts of transgression, he was rejected, and David 
 was anointed in his stead. After David had become a 
 popular hero by the slaying of the Philistine champion 
 Goliath, Saul became insanely jealous ; and a large part 
 of the remaining chapters of I Samuel are taken up with 
 the king's efforts to have his imaginary enemy captured 
 and slain. At length, desperate and forsaken of the Lord, 
 Saul was defeated in battle, and threw himself upon his 
 own sword. 
 
 The Second Book. The third part includes the whole of 
 2 Samuel. It gives the history of David's reign, during 
 which the Hebrew monarchy reached the culmination of 
 its power. His reign began with civil war ; but after the 
 death of Ishbosheth, whom Abner had set up as a rival 
 king, David became the acknowledged sovereign of all 
 Israel and established his capital at Jerusalem. In nar- 
 rating the important events of David's reign, the sacred 
 historian exhibits great impartiality of judgment ; and ac- 
 cordingly he tells of the king's outrageous crimes as well 
 as of his brilliant victories over the surrounding nations. 
 Notwithstanding the wide extent of his regal power, 
 David's life was saddened by domestic tragedies, among 
 which the most crushing was the rebellion and death of his 
 favorite son Absalom. His brilliant but troubled reign 
 covered a period of forty years. 
 
 Noteworthy Poems. The books of Samuel contain 
 several noteworthy poems, which are interesting both for 
 the occasion inspiring them and for the lofty Hebrew spirit 
 embodied in them. The first is the exultant song of 
 
120 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Hannah, the mother of Samuel, in which a strong, trium- 
 phant faith finds expression : 
 
 " They that strive with the Lord shall be broken to pieces ; 
 Against them shall He thunder in heaven : 
 The Lord shall judge the ends of the earth ; 
 And He shall give strength unto the king, . 
 
 And exalt the horn of His anointed." l 
 
 The second poem is called the Song of the Bow, which 
 the compiler of I and 2 Samuel extracted from the book 
 of Jasher. It is David's elegy over Saul and Jonathan, to 
 the latter of whom he pays a tender tribute : 
 
 " I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan ; 
 Very pleasant hast thou been unto me ; 
 Thy love to me was wonderful, 
 Passing the love of women." 2 
 
 The song of thanksgiving in the twenty-second chapter 
 of 2 Samuel abounds in sublime description. It is repeated 
 with some variations in the i8th Psalm. The poem at the 
 beginning of the twenty-third chapter is said to contain the 
 last words of David, in which " the sweet psalmist of 
 Israel " recognizes the divine presence in his life : 
 
 " The spirit of the Lord spake by me, 
 And His word was upon my tongue." 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 JOSHUA 
 
 The mission and report of the spies, Josh. 2. 
 The marvellous passage of the Jordan, Josh. 3. 
 The memorials of the crossing, Josh. 4. 
 The capture of Jericho, Josh. 6. 
 The defeat at Ai, and Achan's sin, Josh. 7. 
 
 1 Sam. 2:10. 2 2 Sam. 1:26. 
 
FROM THE CONQUEST TO SOLOMON 12 1 
 
 The capture of Ai, Josh. 8. 
 
 The craft and punishment of the Gibeonites, Josh. 9. 
 
 War with five kings, Josh. 10. 
 
 The location of the various tribes, Josh. 13-19. 
 
 The cities of refuge, Josh. 20. 
 
 Joshua's farewell addresses, Josh. 23, 24. 
 
 JUDGES 
 
 Further wars of conquest, Judges i. 
 
 Wickedness of the next generation, Judges 2. 
 
 The exploits of the first three judges, Judges 3. 
 
 The work of Deborah and Barak, Judges 4. 
 
 Their song of triumph, Judges 5. 
 
 The story of Gideon, Judges 6-8. 
 
 The conspiracy of Abimelech, Judges 9. 
 
 The story of Jephthah, Judges II, 12. 
 
 The career of Samson, Judges 13-16. 
 
 The introduction of idolatry, Judges 17, 18. 
 
 Crime and civil war, Judges 19-21. 
 
 RUTH 
 The story of Ruth in detail, Ruth 1-4. 
 
 i AND 2 SAMUEL 
 
 Hannah's song of thankfulness, i Sam. 2: i-io. 
 The story of Eli and his sons, I Sam. 2 : 12-4 : 18. 
 The ark among the Philistines, i Sam. 4-6. 
 Samuel as judge of Israel, i Sam. 7. 
 The Israelites ask for a king, i Sam. 8. 
 Saul anointed and established as king, i Sam. 9-11. 
 Various incidents in Saul's reign, i Sam. 13-16. 
 The duel of David and Goliath, i Sam. 17. 
 Friendship of David and Jonathan, i Sam. 18, 19. 
 The king's violent jealousy, i Sam. 18-22. 
 David spares Saul in a cave, i Sam. 24. 
 Incident with Nabal, i Sam. 25. 
 
122 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Saul and the witch of Endor, i Sam. 28. 
 
 Death of Saul, i Sam. 31. 
 
 David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam. i : 19-27. 
 
 Civil war between David and Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 2-4. 
 
 Jerusalem made the capital city, 2 Sam. 5. 
 
 The ark of the Lord brought to Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6. 
 
 David's purpose to build a temple, 2 Sam. 7. 
 
 War with the Ammonites, 2 Sam. 10. 
 
 Infamous conduct of David, 2 Sam. 11, 12. 
 
 Domestic crime and sorrow, 2 Sam. 13, 14. 
 
 The conspiracy of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15-18. 
 
 Amasa murdered by Joab, 2 Sam. 20 : 4-13. 
 
 A psalm of thanksgiving by David, 2 Sam. 22. 
 
 David's farewell poem, 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7. 
 
 The punitive visitation of the plague, 2 Sam. 24. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 
 
 1 and 2 Kings. Like i and 2 Samuel, the two books of 
 Kings originally formed a single volume. They contain a 
 sketch of the Hebrew monarchy from the accession of 
 Solomon to the overthrow of the kingdom of Judah by 
 Nebuchadnezzar. They extend over a period of 427 
 years ; or, if we include the mention of Jehoiachin's eleva- 
 tion by Evil-Merodach, we must add about twenty-six 
 years more. Hebrew history is thus brought down to 
 about 562 B.C. 
 
 The author of I and 2 Kings is not certainly known. 
 By tradition the authorship has been assigned to Jeremiah 
 or Ezra. But whoever the compiler may have been, he 
 adopted the prevailing Hebrew or Deuteronomic view of 
 history. Accordingly, he traced national well-being to 
 loyalty to Jehovah, and national disaster to the worship of 
 idols. The standpoint of the writer is clearly shown in 
 the divine words addressed to Solomon : " If thou wilt 
 walk before Me, in integrity of heart, and in uprightness, to 
 do according to all that I have commanded thee, and 
 wilt keep My statutes and My judgments : then will I estab- 
 lish the throne of thy kingdom upon Israel forever. But 
 if ye shall at all turn from following Me, ye or your chil- 
 dren, and will not keep My commandments, and My statutes 
 which I have set before you, but go and serve other gods, 
 and worship them : then will I cut off Israel out of the 
 land which I have given them." 1 
 
 1 1 Kings 9 : 4, 5. 
 123 
 
124 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Sources and Treatment. The author wrote during the 
 seventy years' captivity or later. Thus many of the events 
 he narrates occurred centuries before his time. Like other 
 writers, both sacred and profane, he made use of earlier 
 works and contemporary documents, which he nearly al- 
 ways names. For additional facts about the reign of Solo- 
 mon, he refers to the book of the Acts of Solomon. In 
 treating of the rulers of the northern kingdom, he fre- 
 quently mentions the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel as 
 his authority ; and in discussing the rulers of the southern 
 kingdom, he refers fifteen times to the Chronicles of the 
 Kings of Judah. These chronicles were the official rec- 
 ords, or works based on them, prepared by the royal 
 recorder or historian. 
 
 But the compiler makes only brief extracts from the 
 larger works, and arranges them in an order or scheme to 
 demonstrate his main contention true now as then 
 that righteousness exalts a nation, and iniquity debases it. 
 Whenever a king " did that which was right in the eyes of 
 Jehovah," he was prosperous in his reign ; and whenever 
 he did evil, he met with disaster. It is remarkable that all 
 the kings of Israel are pronounced evil ; and of the kings 
 of Judah only a few Asa, Jehoshaphat, Jehoash, Amaziah, 
 Uzziah, Jotham, Hezekiah, and Josiah command the ap- 
 proval of the pious historian. 1 
 
 Threefold Division. The books of Kings naturally fall 
 into a threefold division. The first eleven chapters are 
 devoted to the reign of Solomon, and present to us his 
 wisdom and power and final lapse into idolatry. There are 
 
 1 The writer's " aim is to apply to the past history of his race, from the time of 
 Solomon and onward to his own day, the Deuteronomic standard, and to exemplify 
 the view that prosperity is to be traced to a faithful regard for this standard, failure 
 and catastrophe to its deliberate repudiation." C. B. BARNEY in Hasting's 
 " Dictionary of the Bible." 
 
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 125 
 
 not a few interesting details. His choice of " an under- 
 standing heart " rather than happiness or power, displays 
 a royal soul. His decision in the case of the contending 
 women has become famous. His building of the temple 
 was a fine exhibition of wisdom and piety ; and the splendor 
 of his court and the extent of his commerce surrounded 
 him with a magnificence which no other Hebrew monarch 
 ever enjoyed. 
 
 The second part, extending from the twelfth chapter of 
 i Kings to the seventeenth chapter of 2 Kings, relates the 
 history of the divided kingdom. Rehoboam's insolence 
 and folly led to a revolt of ten tribes under Jeroboam, 
 who, as a matter of state policy, introduced an idolatrous 
 worship. The evil results were seen in all his successors. 
 The fearless words and deeds of Elijah and his successor, 
 Elisha, were not able to stay the flood of iniquity. The 
 climax of wickedness was reached under Ahab and Jezebel. 
 At length, after 387 years, the kingdom of Israel was 
 destroyed by the Assyrian monarch Sargon (722 B.C.), 
 who captured Samaria and replaced the deported popula- 
 tion by colonists from the east. During all this time the 
 history of the kingdom of Judah is carried along with that 
 of the kingdom of Israel, and the contemporaneous sov- 
 ereigns are always given. 
 
 The third part of the books of Kings includes the last 
 eight chapters. It is devoted to an outline history of the 
 kingdom of Judah after its rival of the north had been 
 destroyed. The most notable event is the discovery of 
 the book of the law in the temple during the reign of 
 Josiah, and the thorough-going religious reform which he 
 inaugurated. But in spite of his efforts and the piety 
 of his predecessor Hezekiah, whose life was miraculously 
 lengthened, the Hebrew people as a whole had broken 
 
126 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 the covenant of Jehovah. By their irreclaimable idolatry 
 and wickedness, they finally forfeited the favor of the 
 Lord, and in 588 B.C. one hundred and thirty-four years 
 after the destruction of Samaria Jerusalem fell a prey 
 to the conquering power of Nebuchadnezzar. The He- 
 brews were carried away into a long captivity ; the threatened 
 wrath of Jehovah had fallen upon His people. 
 
 1 and 2 Chronicles. The books of Chronicles, together 
 with Ezra and Nehemiah, originally formed a single book. 
 It is noteworthy that the last two verses of the Chronicles 
 are identical with the first two verses of Ezra. The present 
 division of this continuous historical record dates from the 
 Septuagint version, which was made two or three centuries 
 before our era. 
 
 The traditional view ascribes the authorship to Ezra; 
 but from the list of the descendants of Zerubbabel men- 
 tioned in I Chronicles 3: 19-22, the leader of the first 
 body of captives returning to Jerusalem from Babylon, 
 it seems probable that the writer belongs to a later time. 
 Some biblical scholars place the author as late as 330 B.C., 
 a date subsequent to the time when Alexander had started 
 on his conquering career in western Asia. At all events, 
 it is perfectly clear that the book was written after the 
 Babylonian exile ; for it contains the proclamation of 
 Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 
 
 Character and Sources. In the Chronicles, as in the 
 other historical writings of the ancient Hebrews, pros- 
 perity is represented as a reward of righteousness, and 
 adversity as a punishment of sin. Accordingly, David 
 admonishes Solomon to be faithful to Jehovah : " If thou 
 seek Him, He will be found of thee ; but if thou forsake 
 Him, He will cast thee off forever." l And when a king 
 
 1 i Chron, 28: 9. 
 
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 127 
 
 of Judah meets with disaster, it is ascribed to the fact 
 that he "forsook the law of the Lord." 
 
 The Chronicles briefly cover the period extending from 
 Adam to the restoration of the Jews in Jerusalem. The 
 author was therefore dependent on previous and, in many 
 cases, ancient records. 1 He drew freely from the earlier 
 historical books of the Old Testament, especially from 
 Samuel and Kings; but in addition to these works, he 
 makes mention of a small library of sources, which are 
 now unhappily lost. Among these new sources may be 
 mentioned the book of the Kings of Israel and Judah 
 (2 Chron. 16: 11), Commentary of the book of the Kings 
 (2 Chron. 24: 27), the book of Samuel the Seer, the book 
 of Nathan the Prophet, the book of Gad the Seer (i Chron. 
 29: 29), the Prophecy of Ahijah, and the Visions of Iddo 
 the Seer (2 Chron. 9 : 29). 
 
 Distinctive Features. The books of Chronicles have a 
 few distinctive features, which it is important to note. 
 First of all, there are nine chapters devoted to gene- 
 alogies. These were taken, as we are told, from the book 
 of the Kings of Israel, 2 and were no doubt useful, not only 
 in reminding the returning exiles of the antiquity of their 
 race, but also in assigning them a proper place in the land 
 of Canaan. 
 
 A second peculiarity is the prominence given to the 
 temple service. The writer, whoever he was, appears to 
 have been a priest or Levite, a fact that seems to have 
 given a priestly aim or bias to his work. The whole of 
 
 1 " His belief in God was intense, as one actively governing the world, punishing 
 the evil and rewarding the good, demanding obedience and worship, but long- 
 suffering and gracious to His people in spite of their sin. There is at times some- 
 thing mechanical in His conception, but it is strong and effective." FRANCIS 
 BROWN in Hastings' " Dictionary of the Bible." 
 
 2 I Chron. 9: i. 
 
128 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 chapter 6 is devoted to Levitical genealogy ; and many 
 chapters are given to the temple and its services. In 
 addition to this, the chronicler makes prominent the re- 
 formatory labors of Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah, 
 making mention of Passover services not elsewhere 
 referred to. 
 
 The third distinguishing feature of the books of Chroni- 
 cles is the prominence given to the kingdom of Judah. 
 The kingdom of Israel receives only occasional mention, 
 and then in connection with its rival kingdom. The reigns 
 of the good kings those who did " that which was right 
 in the sight of the Lord " are made especially prominent. 
 Saul is dismissed with brief notice ; and in the lengthy 
 sketch of David there is no mention of his adulterous 
 crimes. Solomon's idolatry is passed over in silence. 
 " The object of the writer," as Dillmann well says, " was 
 not so much to retell the story of Israel, as, from the rich 
 historical stores at his command, to select those portions 
 which related more particularly to the history of worship, 
 in order to demonstrate to his compatriots how precious 
 this legacy was, and how fundamental to the existence and 
 prosperity of the new state arising from the ashes of 
 the old." 
 
 Fourfold Division. The books of Chronicles may be 
 readily divided into four parts. The first part (chapters 
 1-9) contains the genealogical lists. The second part 
 (chapters 10-29) narrates the history of David, dwelling in 
 particular upon his preparation for the building of the 
 temple and his arrangements for maintaining its public 
 service. The third part (2 Chron. 1-9) tells the history of 
 Solomon, making prominent the building and dedication of 
 the temple. The fourth part, including the rest of the book, 
 is occupied with the history of Judah from the division of 
 
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 129 
 
 the kingdom under Rehoboam to the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem and Cyrus' permission for the rebuilding of the 
 temple. 
 
 Ezra. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which nar- 
 rate the most important events connected with the resto- 
 ration of the Jews to their native land, formerly constituted 
 one work. They are simply a continuation of the narra- 
 tive begun in Chronicles, to which they bear a striking 
 resemblance in style and spirit. There can be little doubt 
 that all four books are the work of a single historian or 
 compiler. Ezra and Nehemiah are our only sources for 
 an important period of Jewish history ; and without the 
 information they supply, the subsequent developments in 
 the life of the Hebrew people would be unintelligible. 
 
 The seventy years' captivity had accomplished one not- 
 able result. It permanently cured the Jews of their fatal 
 tendency to idolatry. We hear no more of the worship 
 of Baal or other heathen divinities ; henceforth they are 
 loyal in their outward observance of the Mosaic law. 
 
 Twofold Division. The book of Ezra is divided into 
 two parts. The first part, consisting of chapters I to 6, 
 describes the return of 42,360 Jews to Jerusalem. This 
 movement, led by Zerubbabel, followed a favorable procla- 
 mation by Cyrus (536 B.C.). The rebuilding of the temple, 
 which had been interrupted by a decree of Artaxerxes, 
 was completed a little later under Darius (516 B.C.), and 
 dedicated with magnificent ceremonies. 
 
 The second part, which begins with chapter 7, describes 
 the return and administration of Ezra, who is character- 
 ized as " a ready scribe in the law of Moses." It is sepa- 
 rated from the events of the preceding chapter by about 
 sixty years. As a Jew of zealous piety, Ezra lamented 
 the intermarriages of his people with surrounding nations ; 
 
130 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 and accordingly he started an agitation that led to the 
 putting away of " strange wives." 
 
 Nehemiah. The book of Nehemiah continues the 
 history of the restoration of the Jews and the rebuilding 
 of Jerusalem. It is named after the pious and patriotic 
 leader, who gave up his honorable post as cupbearer to 
 Artaxerxes L, King of Persia, to undertake the arduous 
 labor of rebuilding the walls of the sacred city. The 
 events narrated in this book took place some twelve or 
 fourteen years after the mission of Ezra. 
 
 Nehemiah rallied the rulers of the Jews at Jerusalem to 
 a cordial cooperation. Though he was opposed by en- 
 vious enemies, he heroically persisted in his work. For 
 fear of attack, his workmen wielded the trowel with their 
 swords girded at their sides. He persuaded the wealthy 
 citizens of Jerusalem to surrender their claims against their 
 poorer brethren, and thus deliver them from the oppression 
 of debt. In fifty-two days he accomplished the great work 
 of restoring the fallen walls of the city. 
 
 The next important event narrated in Nehemiah 
 (chapters 8-10) is the solemn reading of the law by Ezra. 
 The people recognized their sin ; and " entered into a curse, 
 and into an oath, to walk in God's law, and to observe and 
 do all the commandments of the Lord our Lord, and His 
 judgments and His statutes." l Afterwards Nehemiah 
 instituted various religious and social reforms, and gave 
 to revived Judaism the zealous and exclusive spirit which 
 it was long to retain. 
 
 Esther. The book of Esther possesses the interest of 
 a historical romance. The author is unknown ; but the 
 incidents, which are drawn in part at least from the 
 Chronicles of the Kings of Media and Persia, 2 are handled 
 
 1 Neh. 10 : 29. 2 Esther 10 : 2. 
 
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 131 
 
 with consummate art. When Racine came to fashion the 
 story into a masterful drama, he had no occasion to change 
 its essential features or arrangement. Esther is at once a 
 queenly and heroic character. 1 
 
 The facts narrated in Esther may be regarded as an 
 episode in Hebrew history. The evident purpose of the 
 book is to explain the origin of the Jewish feast of Purim. 
 The scene is at Susa, the capital of Persia. Esther, a 
 Jewish maiden of fascinating personality, was selected as 
 queen in place of Vashti, whom the wilful and despotic 
 Ahasuerus had deposed for disobeying the royal mandate. 
 In her exalted position, the new queen overthrew the 
 prime minister, Haman, whose wicked plottings had aimed 
 at the destruction of the Jews throughout the vast extent 
 of the Persian empire. It was in commemoration of the 
 escape of the Jews from this threatened destruction that 
 the feast of Purim was instituted. 
 
 Peculiar Features. In several respects Esther differs 
 from every other book in the Old Testament. We miss 
 that strong sense of the divine agency which is elsewhere 
 usually made so prominent. It is a remarkable fact that 
 the name of God is not once mentioned. Moreover, it 
 presents the Jewish character in an unfavorable light ; for 
 the decree of Mordecai, as well as the slaughter by the 
 Jews, breathes a spirit of national hate and revenge. Yet 
 a characteristic Hebrew faith underlies the work ; for, 
 without specifically stating the fact, the book undoubtedly 
 presents the deliverance of the Jews as the act of a favor- 
 ing Providence. 
 
 1 " One has, it seems to me, but to read this story to feel the life of a romance 
 in it. The contrasted characters the sensual monarch, the unscrupulous min- 
 ister, the proud Puritan, the brave woman, brave with true womanly courage are 
 drawn in few lines, but with marvellous skill." LYMAN ABBOTT, " Life and 
 Literature of the Ancient Hebrews," p. 191. 
 
132 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Historic Interest. The book is not without a general 
 historical interest. Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, is 
 usually identified with Xerxes (485-465 B.C.); and the 
 capricious and self-indulgent temper of the monarch, as 
 depicted in Esther, corresponds to his character as pre- 
 sented in Herodotus. The description of Persian customs 
 is regarded as accurate. The Jews who had been carried 
 away to the East by Assyrian and Babylonian conquerors 
 most of whom never returned to Canaan are repre- 
 sented as retaining their distinctive national customs and 
 exclusiveness. " There is a certain people," so Haman 
 tells Ahasuerus, " scattered abroad and dispersed among 
 the people in all the provinces of thy kingdom ; and their 
 laws are diverse from all people ; neither keep they the 
 king's law." 1 
 
 The book of Esther has given rise to much discussion. 
 There are some biblical scholars who question its right to 
 a place in the sacred canon. But the book has always 
 been held in high honor by the Jews ; and for its literary 
 art and general historic interest, as well as for its underly- 
 ing religious faith, we may well be thankful that it has 
 been retained in the Old Testament collection of writings. 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 i AND 2 KINGS 
 
 The circumstances of Solomon's appointment as king, I Kings i. 
 
 The final charge and death of David, i Kings 2:1-11. 
 
 The punishment of various evil-doers, i Kings 2 : 12-46. 
 
 The celebrated choice of Solomon, i Kings 3 : 5-15. 
 
 His famous judgment between two women, i Kings 3 : 16-28. 
 
 The magnificent court of Solomon, i Kings 4. 
 
 i Esther 3:8. 
 
FROM SOLOMON TO THE RESTORATION 133 
 
 His relations with Hiram of Tyre, i Kings 5. 
 
 The building of the temple, i Kings 6. 
 
 Other works of architecture, i Kings 7. 
 
 The formal dedication of the temple, i Kings 8. 
 
 The visit of the queen of Sheba, i Kings 10. 
 
 The closing years of Solomon's reign, i Kings n. 
 
 Revolt of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, i Kings 12. 
 
 Reign of Jeroboam, i Kings 13, 14. 
 
 The story of Elijah, I Kings 17-19; 2 Kings i. 
 
 The criminal seizure of Naboth's vineyard, i Kings 21. 
 
 The story of Elisha, 2 Kings 1-9. 
 
 The healing of Naaman, the leper, 2 Kings 5. 
 
 Destruction of Baal worshippers by Jehu, 2 Kings 10: 18-28. 
 
 The wicked reign of Athaliah, 2 Kings 1 1 . 
 
 Overthrow of the kingdom of Israel, 2 Kings 17. 
 
 Notable reign of Hezekiah, 2 Kings 18-20. 
 
 Finding the book of the law, 2 Kings 22. 
 
 Religious reform under Josiah, 2 Kings 23. 
 
 The overthrow of Jerusalem, 2 Kings 24, 25. 
 
 i AND 2 CHRONICLES 
 
 Various genealogies, i Chron. 1-9. 
 
 A brief account of Saul, i Chron. 10. 
 
 The career of David, i Chron. 11-22. 
 
 Elaborate provision for the temple services, i Chron. 23-26. 
 
 Solomon's choice of wisdom, 2 Chron. 2. 
 
 The construction of the temple, 2 Chron. 2, 3. 
 
 Solomon's prayer at the dedication, 2 Chron. 6 : 12-42. 
 
 Other religious ceremonies, 2 Chron. 7. 
 
 Visit of the queen of Sheba, 2 Chron. 9 : 1-12. 
 
 Revolt of the ten tribes, 2 Chron. 10. 
 
 Reign of Rehoboam, 2 Chron. n, 12. 
 
 Reign and reforms of Asa, 2 Chron. 15, 16. 
 
 Righteous reign of Jehoshaphat, 2 Chron. 17-20. 
 
 The cruelty and death of Athaliah, 2 Chron. 22, 23. 
 
 The religious reforms of Hezekiah, 2 Chron. 29-31. 
 
 His relations with Sennacherib, 2 Chron. 32. 
 
 The upright reign of Josiah, 2 Chron. 34, 35. 
 
 The fall of Jerusalem, 2 Chron. 36. 
 
134 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 EZRA 
 
 The proclamation of Cyrus and its results, Ezra I, 2. 
 
 The rebuilding of the temple, Ezra 3. 
 
 Opposition and delay, Ezra 4. 
 
 The completion of the temple, Ezra 5, 6. 
 
 Ezra's visit to Jerusalem, Ezra 7, 8. 
 
 Religious reforms inaugurated by Ezra, Ezra 9, 10. 
 
 NEHEMIAH 
 
 Nehemiah's removal to Jerusalem, Neh. i, 2. 
 
 The rebuilding of the walls, Neh. 3, 4. 
 
 A social reform relieving the poor, Neh. 5. 
 
 The plottings of enemies, Neh. 6. 
 
 A religious revival, Neh. 8, 9. 
 
 Distribution of the returning Jews, Neh. II. 
 
 Religious reforms, Neh. 13. 
 
 ESTHER 
 
 The feast of Ahasuerus or Xerxes, Esther i. 
 The Jewish maiden chosen queen, Esther 2. 
 The vengeful decree obtained by Haman, Esther 3. 
 The queen agrees to attempt a rescue, Esther 4. 
 The king and Haman at a banquet, Esther 5. 
 The reward of Mordecai, Esther 6. 
 Haman hanged on his own gallows, Esther 7. 
 The Jews defend themselves, Esther 8, 9. 
 Institution of the feast of Purim, Esther 9 : 20-32. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 STUDIES IN THE POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 
 
 Introduction. The principle of Hebrew poetry, which 
 is found in a varied parallelism, has been considered in a 
 previous chapter. We now enter upon a study of the dis- 
 tinctly poetical books, which include Job, Psalms, Prov- 
 erbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon. The ancient 
 Hebrew race did not produce a great epic. It did not 
 create a theatre for the representation of dramatic master- 
 pieces ; yet it produced a moral drama that deserves to be 
 compared with the greatest literary productions of antiq- 
 uity. Its didactic poetry embodies deep practical wis- 
 dom, while its lyrical verse is to-day a source of delight 
 and spiritual strength to multitudes in Europe and America. 
 
 The poetic literature of the ancient Hebrews reveals to 
 us a new aspect of their life and culture. For the most 
 part their poetry is of a deep religious tone; yet the re- 
 ligion embodied in it is chiefly spiritual. In place of 
 the external and ritual ceremonies of the tabernacle and 
 temple, we find the soul of the sacred poet standing in 
 close personal relations with his Maker. Without the in- 
 tervention of a mediating priesthood, he boldly says, as in 
 the 23d Psalm : " The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not 
 want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures ; He 
 leadeth me beside the still waters." 
 
 Furthermore, the literary culture and art exhibited in 
 the poetry of the Old Testament is surprising. Its sus- 
 tained excellence of thought and its admirable artistic 
 form must be regarded as the fruitage of a long period of 
 
136 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 intellectual development. It was no sudden growth ; it 
 sprang from a vigorous culture that was rooted for cen- 
 turies in Babylonian and Egyptian civilization. 
 
 The Book of Job. The book of Job, though not intended 
 for representation on the stage, is nevertheless a dramatic 
 poem. It has its dramatis per s once ; namely, the patriarch 
 hero after whom the work is named, his three well-meaning 
 but narrow-minded friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar ; 
 the young, gifted, and irrepressible Elihu ; and last of all 
 the Lord Himself, who sublimely speaks from the midst of 
 a whirlwind. In place of outward action, we have the move- 
 ment of thought, and the excitement and conflict of de- 
 bate. 
 
 The book is devoted to a discussion of the great prob- 
 lem of human suffering in its relation to God's government 
 of the world. We are constantly astonished at the sweep 
 of knowledge, particularly of natural phenomena, which 
 the speakers in turn display. The drama is recognized by 
 the ablest critics as a masterpiece of human genius. 1 Car- 
 lyle, in characteristic phrase, calls it " a noble book ; all 
 men's book! It is our first, oldest statement of the never 
 ending problem, man's destiny, and God's ways with him 
 here in this earth. And all in such free, flowing outlines ; 
 grand in its sincerity, in its simplicity ; in its epic melody, 
 and repose of reconcilement." 2 
 
 General Outline. Though there are minor points of dif- 
 ficulty in the arrangement of the book, its general plan is 
 very simple. It consists of five parts.as follows : 
 
 1 " Job, like Spenser, should be the poet of poets ; but though Goethe has imitated 
 him in royal fashion, and here and there other poets such as Dante may offer allu- 
 sions, yet Milton is the only poet who seems to have absorbed Job. " Paradise Re- 
 gained ",is in both form and contents a free imitation of the book of Job." T. K. 
 CHEYNE, "Job and Solomon ; or, the Wisdom of the Old Testament," p. 112. 
 
 2 Carlyle, " Heroes and Hero- Worship," Sect. 2. 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 137 
 
 1. The prologue in prose (chapters i, 2). 
 
 2. The debate of Job and his three friends in poetic 
 form (chapters 3-3 1 ) . This discussion is divided into three 
 rounds or cycles (chapters 3-14; 15-21 ; 22-31). 
 
 3. The interjected discourses of Elihu in poetic form 
 (chapters 32-3?). 
 
 4. The discourses of Jehovah in poetic form (chapters 
 38-42). 
 
 5. The epilogue in prose, recounting the subsequent 
 prosperity of Job. 
 
 In the prologue, the hero, Job, is presented as a man of 
 extraordinary piety, whose faithfulness is commended by 
 Jehovah Himself. When Satan, in a celestial council, sneer- 
 ingly suggests that Job's piety springs from a calculating 
 selfishness, he receives permission of the Lord to deprive 
 the patriarch of prosperity and happiness. The response 
 of the heroic saint to the swift succession of disasters that 
 rob him of his riches and his children is found in the sub- 
 lime words of resignation, " The Lord gave, and the Lord 
 hath taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord." 
 
 At the second celestial gathering, Satan receives per- 
 mission to tempt the steadfast patriarch further through 
 physical suffering. Accordingly, he " smote Job with sore 
 boils from the sole of his foot unto his crown." ' The saint 
 thus finds himself suddenly plunged into the depths of 
 misery. But when he is tempted by his sceptical wife to 
 renounce his religious faith, the strong-hearted hero again 
 replies, " What ? shall we receive good at the hand of God, 
 and shall we not receive evil ? " 
 
 Visit of his Friends. Though clinging to his faith in 
 God, Job is nevertheless overwhelmed with suffering. In 
 his deep wretchedness, he curses the day he was born. In 
 his despair he cries out, 
 
138 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 "Wherefore is light given to him that is in misery, 
 And life unto the bitter in soul ? " 
 
 Ch. 3 : 20. 
 
 To this cry of anguish, which touches the mystery of 
 human suffering and God's government of the world, Eli- 
 phaz, with a delicate Oriental courtesy, presents the 'com- 
 mon Hebrew view of retributive punishment. According 
 to this view, with which we are already familiar, suffering 
 is simply a punishment for sin. " Remember," says Eli- 
 phaz, - 
 
 " Remember, I pray thee, who ever perished being innocent ? 
 Or where were the upright cut off ? 
 According as I have seen, they that plough iniquity, 
 And sow trouble, reap the same. 
 By the breath of God they perish, 
 And by the blast of His anger are they consumed." 
 
 -Ch. 4:7-9. 
 
 The following discourses of Bildad and Zophar pursue 
 the same 'line of thought. This view of human suffering, 
 though it contains an element of truth, is by no means an 
 adequate explanation of the sorrow of the world, and in 
 the light of the prologue we see that it has no application 
 to Job. Accordingly the sufferer stoutly maintains his in- 
 nocence, and in his great perplexity of soul is ready boldly 
 to question God Himself : 
 
 " I will say unto God, Do not condemn me ; 
 Show me wherefore Thou contendest with me. 
 Is it good unto Thee that Thou shouldest oppress, 
 That Thou shouldest despise the work of Thine hands, 
 And shine upon the counsel of the wicked ? " 
 
 Ch. 10 : 2, 3. 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 139 
 
 It is not difficult for Job to point out the fallacy of his 
 friends. When the appeal is made to experience, it is seen 
 that the wicked, instead of being outwardly punished, fre- 
 quently continue in the enjoyment of prosperity to the end 
 of their days. Accordingly he asks, 
 
 " Wherefore do the wicked live, 
 Become old, yea, wax mighty in power? 
 Their seed is established with them in their sight, 
 And their offspring before their eyes. 
 Their houses are safe from fear, 
 Neither is the rod of God upon them." 
 
 Ch. 21 : 7-9. 
 
 But the friends of Job refused to be convinced; and ob- 
 stinately maintaining their position, they proceed to charge 
 him with various iniquities : 
 
 " Is not thy wickedness great ? 
 Neither is there any end to thine iniquities. 
 For thou hast taken pledges of thy brother for nought, 
 And stripped the naked of their clothing. 
 Thou hast not given water to the weary to drink, 
 And thou hast withholden bread from the hungry." 
 
 Ch. 22:5-7. 
 
 Elihu's Discourses. All this, as we know from the pro- 
 logue, is wide of the mark. In place of confession and 
 repentance, to which Job is urged by his friends, he re- 
 fuses to compromise, in any way, his conscious integrity of 
 soul: 
 
 " My righteousness I hold fast, and will not let it go : 
 My heart shall not reproach me so long as I live." 
 
 Ch. 27 : 6. 
 
 In chapters 29 and 30, he presents a beautiful and touch- 
 ing contrast between his former prosperity, when his chil- 
 
140 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 dren were about him, and his present misery, when he has 
 become a byword. In his heart there is no stubbornness 
 of pride. He expresses a willingness, if he has sinned, to 
 bear his punishment : 
 
 " If my land cry out against me, 
 And the furrows thereof weep together ; 
 If I have eaten the fruits thereof without money, 
 Or have caused the owners thereof to lose their life : 
 Let thistles grow instead of wheat, 
 And cockle instead of barley." 
 
 Ch. 31:38-40. 
 
 At this point, when Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar are 
 silenced, the young Elihu, who has listened to the debate 
 with passionate interest, takes up the discourse. Against 
 Job he reaffirms the retributive relation between sin and 
 suffering. This relation seems to him to follow necessarily 
 from the justice of God : 
 
 " Far be it from God, that He should do wickedness ; 
 And from the Almighty, that He should commit iniquity. 
 For the work of a man shall He render unto him, 
 And cause every man to find according to his ways." 
 
 Ch. 34: 10, ii. 
 
 But Elihu does not stop with this traditional view. He 
 emphasizes another aspect of human suffering, namely, its 
 disciplinary or redemptive character. Apart from its puni- 
 tive purpose, suffering is often mercifully intended, so he 
 rightly argues, to reclaim the wicked from their iniquity : 
 
 " Then He showeth them their work, 
 And their transgressions, that they have behaved themselves 
 
 proudly. 
 
 He openeth also their ear to instruction, 
 And commandeth that they return from iniquity. 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 141 
 
 If they hearken and serve Him, 
 
 They shall spend their days in prosperity, 
 
 And their years in pleasures. 
 
 But if they hearken not, they shall perish by the sword, 
 
 And they shall die without knowledge." 
 
 Ch. 36: 9-12. 
 
 Voice from the Whirlwind. The mystery of suffering 
 in human life, whatever light may have been thrown upon 
 it, is not yet solved. Then the Lord speaks out of the 
 whirlwind, and by a marvellous series of questions about 
 the universe exhibits the majesty of divine goodness and 
 power, and the insufficiency of human wisdom to fathom the 
 ways of Providence. In many particulars the ways of God 
 are shown to be inscrutable ; and in the presence of 
 mystery on every hand, it is vain for man to expect to 
 fathom, in all its extent, the government of the Almighty. 
 And where the short plummet of human penetration fails 
 to sound the mysteries of God, a supreme faith in His 
 goodness and mercy must come to our aid. 
 
 In the epilogue, the Lord condemns Eliphaz and his two 
 companions, and commends the uprightness of Job. The 
 trial of the faithful patriarch was followed by a double 
 measure of prosperity. " And after this Job lived an hun- 
 dred and forty years, and saw his sons, and his sons' sons, 
 even four generations." 
 
 Various Lessons. This brief analysis leaves many points 
 of interest untouched. In his sore trial Job does not fully 
 grasp the truth of a future life. For a time he surrenders 
 this belief entirely : 
 
 " As the waters fail from the sea, 
 And the river decayeth and drieth up ; 
 So man lieth down and riseth not : 
 Till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake, 
 Nor be roused out of their sleep." 
 
 Ch. 14: ii, 12, 
 
142 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 But the strong-souled patriarch cannot rest in this 
 gloomy view ; and later in the argument, there is a splendid 
 outburst of faith which lays hold for a moment on immor- 
 tality : 
 
 " But I know that my vindicator liveth, 
 And that He shall stand up at the last upon the earth : 
 And after my skin hath been thus destroyed, 
 Yet without my flesh shall I see God ; 
 Whom I shall see for myself, 
 And mine eyes shall behold, and not another." 
 
 Ch. 19: 25-27. 
 
 In the twenty-eighth chapter there is a splendid discus- 
 sion of wisdom. Though it is hid " from the eyes of all 
 living," 
 
 11 God understandeth the way thereof, 
 And He knoweth the place thereof. 
 For He looketh to the ends of the earth, 
 And seeth under the whole heaven ; 
 To make a weight for the wind ; 
 Yea, He meteth out the waters by measure. 
 And unto man He said, 
 Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; 
 And to depart from evil is understanding." 
 
 Apart from interesting incidental discussion and the main 
 problem of the poem, which is not clearly and fully solved, 
 the book of Job is rich in its spiritual instruction. It 
 teaches that the suffering of the righteous man has its 
 origin in the councils of Heaven, and that it may come, not 
 as a penal retribution, but as a beneficent test of character. 
 It shows us, in the face of Satanic cynicism, that there is 
 such a thing as disinterested piety ; for Job, notwithstand- 
 ing his overwhelming agony of body and soul, still remains 
 unshaken in his integrity and loyal devotion to God. It 
 
 X 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 143 
 
 sets forth an exalted conception of God, who, instead of a 
 petty dispenser of rewards and punishments, is presented 
 in the grandeur of a wise and beneficent ruler of a bound- 
 less' universe. It thus rises above the narrowness which 
 too often characterized the ancient Hebrew conception of 
 Jehovah. 
 
 Locality and Date. The land of Uz, which is named as 
 the home of Job, was probably in northern Arabia. The 
 hero was an Arabian emir or chieftain, who was distin- 
 guished in Hebrew tradition for his upright character. 
 Accordingly we find Ezekiel referring to " Noah, Daniel, 
 and Job " as preeminent in righteousness. 1 These facts 
 give the drama a historic foundation. 
 
 Neither the date nor the authorship of the poem can be 
 definitely fixed. It was once thought to be the oldest book in 
 the Bible ; and it is evident that the Arabian hero belongs 
 to the patriarchal period. This is shown by the extraordi- 
 nary age to which he is said to have attained. 
 
 But the patriarchal character of the central figure does 
 not prove the contemporary authorship of the drama. 
 Shakespeare wrote his Hamlet and Macbeth long after the 
 age of those well-known characters. A little reflection will 
 show that the book of Job belongs to the later period of 
 Jewish development. The central problem of the poem 
 could hardly have engaged such serious attention during 
 the troublous times of the conquest or the lawless period of 
 the Judges. Its finished literary character and its breadth 
 of thought place the poem in the post-exilic age. It prob- 
 ably dates from 400 B.C. 
 
 The Psalms. In the book of Psalms we have a large 
 collection of the lyric poetry of the ancient Hebrews. Its 
 one hundred and fifty psalms or hymns reach a height of 
 
 1 Ez. 14 : 14. 
 
144 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 lyrical attainment unsurpassed in antiquity. Lyric poetry 
 gives intense expression to thought and emotion; and in 
 the Psalms the hymn-book of the Hebrews there 
 is a marvellous utterance of all the varied religious 
 feelings. 
 
 The lyric poetry of Israel is unlike that of Greece 'and 
 Rome ; for, in place of martial verse and songs of love, it 
 is devoted to religion. In this great sphere of human 
 thought and feeling, the Psalms have never been sur- 
 passed or superseded ; and to-day, in all Christian lands, 
 they are employed to voice the praises, prayers, and 
 thanksgiving of reverent spirits. The Psalter is a spir- 
 itual treasury with which the world could ill afford to 
 dispense. 
 
 Growth. As the Psalms were composed at intervals 
 throughout Hebrew history, the present collection is the 
 result of an age-long growth. The QOth Psalm is as- 
 cribed to Moses, and the 13/th clearly belongs to the 
 period of the captivity ; thus the book of Psalms is seen to 
 represent the fruitage of Hebrew inspiration for nearly a 
 thousandjrears. 
 
 In the Revised Version the collection is divided into 
 five books, each of which, as will be found on examina- 
 tion, concludes with a doxology. The first book includes 
 Psalms 1-41 ; the second, Psalms 42-72; the third, Psalms 
 73-89; the fourth, Psalms 90-106; the fifth, Psalms 107- 
 150. These books were arranged at different times and 
 by different editors or compilers. This is proved by the 
 repetition of psalms, 1 and by the different words used to 
 designate the Supreme Being. In the first, fourth, and 
 fifth books God is called Jehovah in the Hebrew ; in the 
 second and third, Elohim. 
 
 i Compare Ps. 53 with Ps. 14, and Ps. 70 with Ps. 40 : 13-17. 
 
Y-i 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 145 
 
 Titles. It will be observed that most of the Psalms 
 are provided with titles, which contain various items of 
 information. For one thing, they usually indicate author- 
 ship. Accordingly, seventy-three psalms are assigned to 
 David, two to Solomon, twelve to Asaph, eleven to the 
 sons of Korah, one to Moses, one to Heman the Ezrahite, 
 and one to Ethan the Ezrahite. Thirty-four are without 
 any indication of authorship, and hence are known among 
 the Jews as "orphans." 
 
 But unfortunately the question of authorship is not so 
 easily settled. The titles do not form a part of the origi- 
 nal Psalms, but are a later and, as many believe, an un- 
 trustworthy addition. For this reason modern scholarship 
 has greatly reduced the number of Psalms to be ascribed 
 to David. However, the uncertain question of author- 
 ship does not affect the intrinsic excellence of the 
 Psalms. 
 
 Musical Directions. The titles frequently give direc- 
 tions for the musical rendering of the Psalms. In some 
 cases the Hebrew is obscure, and in the Revised Version 
 is left untranslated. Sometimes the title indicates the 
 nature of the instruments that are to accompany the vocal 
 rendition of the Psalm. The fourth Psalm, for example, 
 is to be accompanied by stringed instruments, and the 
 fifth by wind-instruments. In other cases, as in the ninth 
 Psalm, the title seems to indicate the melody or chant to 
 be used. 
 
 The musical rendering of the Psalms in connection with 
 the tabernacle and temple service must have been often 
 elaborate and impressive. From the record in I Chroni- 
 cles, we have already learned of the extensive arrange- 
 ments made by David for bringing the ark from the house 
 of Obed-edom to Jerusalem, and for the later services of the 
 
146 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 temple. The great choir was supported by a large orches- 
 tra of instruments, consisting of psalteries, and harps, and 
 cymbals, and trumpets. 
 
 A Processional Hymn. It has been supposed that the 
 24th Psalm was used as a kind of processional hymn 
 when the ark was brought to Jerusalem. Its liturgical char- 
 acter is sufficiently obvious. As the great procession, led 
 by King David in a robe of white linen, reached the city, 
 it seems to have paused outside the massive and ancient 
 gates. Suddenly the full choir and orchestra broke forth 
 in a united ascription of praise to the Almighty : 
 
 " The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof; 
 The world, and they that dwell therein. 
 For He hath founded it upon the seas, 
 And established it upon the floods." 
 
 After this splendid outburst in full symphony, a powerful 
 priestly voice continued as a solo : 
 
 "Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord? 
 And who shall stand in His holy place? " 
 
 To this solemn question another priestly voice replies : 
 
 " He that hath clean hands, and a pure heart ; 
 Who hath not lifted up his soul unto vanity, 
 And hath not sworn deceitfully. 
 He shall receive a blessing from the Lord, 
 And righteousness from the God of his salvation. 1 ' 
 
 This solo is followed by the full symphony of singers and 
 instruments, whose harmonies, like the voice of many 
 waters, fill the mountain and valley : - 
 
 " This is the generation of them that seek after Him, 
 That seek Thy face, O God of Jacob." 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 147 
 
 For a moment there is an impressive silence indicated by 
 the word Selah. Then the full choir, conscious of its 
 mighty mission in bringing the ark of the Lord to the 
 capital of the kingdom, turns to the closed and barred 
 gates of the city : 
 
 " Lift up your heads, O ye gates ; 
 And be ye lifted up, ye everlasting doors : 
 And the King of glory shall come in." 
 
 The warden stationed on the wall above the gates an- 
 swers in loud antiphony : 
 
 " Who is the King of glory? " 
 And the full chorus responds : 
 
 " The Lord strong and mighty, 
 The Lord mighty in battle." 
 
 But the watchword has not yet been given, and the gates 
 remain closed. Once more the full choir sings : 
 
 " Lift up your heads, O ye gates ; 
 Yea, lift them up, ye everlasting doors : 
 And the King of glory shall come in." 
 
 Again the warden demands : 
 
 " Who is this King of glory?" 
 And the full choir triumphantly replies : 
 
 "THE LORD OF HOSTS 
 He is the King of glory." 
 
 This is the mighty watchword of the day ; and instantly 
 the gates are flung open wide, and the long procession moves 
 with its sacred charge to the doors of the tabernacle. 
 
148 ,4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Historic Setting. It is always interesting to know the 
 occasion that called forth some admirable literary pro- 
 duction, and often this knowledge enables us to enter more 
 fully into its spirit. In a number of cases the titles of the 
 Psalms indicate the occasion of the poem, and by this his- 
 toric setting impart to them a new depth of meaning. If 
 we think of the QOth Psalm, for example, as written by 
 Moses near the close of the forty years' wandering in 
 the wilderness, we can better understand the gloomy view 
 of life it presents. After having seen an entire generation 
 pass away in the midst of the hopeless hardships of the 
 wilderness, it was but natural for the great leader, in an hour 
 of depression, to say : 
 
 " For all our days are passed away in Thy wrath : 
 We bring our years to an end as a tale that is told. 
 The days of our years are threescore years and ten, 
 Or if by reason of strength fourscore years ; 
 Yet is their pride but labor and sorrow ; 
 For it is soon gone, and we fly away." 
 
 We may take, again, the third Psalm, which was written, 
 as the title informs us, when David was fleeing from Ab- 
 salom. This fact enables us to read a deeper meaning into 
 the opening, burdened cry of the poem : 
 
 "Lord, how are mine adversaries increased! 
 Many are they that rise up against me. 
 Many there be which say of my soul, 
 There is no help for him in God." 
 
 At the same time, the later verses of the poem show us 
 the strength of David's faith in the Lord. 
 
 It is to be regretted that in some cases the titles are mis- 
 leading as to the circumstances of the Psalm, and fail, there- 
 fore;* to throw any light upon it. 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 149 
 
 Varied Themes. The wide range of themes found in the 
 Psalms cannot be otherwise than astonishing. There is 
 scarcely any phase of the religious or spiritual life that re- 
 mains untouched. These sacred lyrics deal with the funda- 
 mental truths and experiences of true religion ; and hence 
 they have little to say about ritual observances, and much 
 about the relation of the soul to God. They are prophetic 
 rather than priestly. Hence David, in his great penitential 
 Psalm, says : 
 
 " Thou delightest not in sacrifice ; else would I give it ; 
 Thou hast no pleasure in burnt offering. 
 The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit ; 
 A broken and a contrite heart, O God, Thou wilt not despise." 1 
 
 Perhaps no other fact is more characteristic or more 
 fundamental in the Psalms than their strong, pervading 
 consciousness of God. Nowhere else do we find a more 
 beautiful statement of His omnipresent and providential 
 care than in the i3Qth Psalm: 
 
 "Whither shall I go from Thy spirit? 
 Or whither shall I flee from Thy presence? 
 If I ascend up into heaven, Thou art there ; 
 If I make my bed in Sheol, behold, Thou art there. 
 If I take the wings of the morning, 
 And dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea; 
 Even there shall Thy hand lead me, 
 And Thy right hand shall hold me." 
 
 This strong sense of the divine presence and goodness 
 was attended with a corresponding trust, which imparted 
 to the psalmist at the same time force of character and 
 serenity of mind. This is shown in the opening verses of 
 the 46th Psalm : 
 
 l Ps. 51 : 16, 17. 
 
150 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 " God is our refuge and strength, 
 A very present help in trouble. 
 
 Therefore will not we fear though the earth do change, 
 And though the mountains be moved in the heart of the seas ; 
 Though the waters thereof roar and be troubled, 
 Though the mountains shake with the swelling thereof." 
 
 The first Psalm is a fitting introduction to the entire col- 
 lection. It teaches the blessedness of the righteous, and 
 the judgment of the wicked. Though the outward con- 
 trasts in this life are by no means so striking and invariable 
 as the Hebrew poet imagined, the truth he presents is 
 necessarily universal. When the ways of God are under- 
 stood in all their wide reach and results, there can never 
 be any ground to impeach His justice and goodness. It 
 will always remain true that, 
 
 " Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the wicked 
 Nor standeth in the way of sinners, 
 Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. 
 But his delight is in the law of the Lord ; 
 And in His law doth he meditate day and night." 
 
 The whole circuit of religious emotion joy and sorrow, 
 faith and doubt, confidence and repentance, righteousness 
 and sin, triumph and failure, love and hate finds full 
 and repeated expression in the Psalms. So varied are the 
 subjects treated that no effort at classification has been 
 entirely satisfactory. Often a single Psalm breathes forth 
 many phases of spiritual experience. 1 
 
 1 " To be sincere, simple, genuine, transparent with God, to dare to show Him 
 our worst as well as our best, to dare to ask Him to search us and see if there be 
 any evil way in us, to treat Him as we treat the physician, pointing out to Him every- 
 thing in us that He may teach us what is evil and what is good, and how to abhor 
 the evil and to cleave to the good, to treat Him as our best and most intimate 
 friend, from whom we wish to conceal nothing, this is one of the lessons which 
 the unreserved candor of these ancient lyrics teaches, and which the church still 
 has need to learn." LYMAN ABBOTT, " Life and Literature of the Ancient 
 Hebrews," p. 315. 
 
POETICAL BOOKS OF JOB AND PSALMS 151 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 JOB 
 
 The prologue, 1,2. 
 
 Job curses the day of his birth, 3. 
 
 The first speech of Eliphaz, 4, 5. 
 
 Job's desire of death, 7. 
 
 The first speech of Bildad, 8. 
 
 Job's complaint to God, 10. 
 
 The first speech of Zophar, 1 1 . 
 
 Job's defence against his friends, 12-14. 
 
 Prosperity of the wicked, 24. 
 
 A tribute to wisdom, 28. 
 
 Job's contrast of prosperity and adversity, 29, 30. 
 
 The discourses of Elihu, 32-37. 
 
 Jehovah's addresses from the whirlwind, 38-41. 
 
 The epilogue, 42. 
 
 PSALMS 
 
 A contrast of the righteous and the wicked, Ps. I. 
 
 David's Psalm when fleeing from Absalom, Ps. 4. 
 
 Insignificance and greatness of man, Ps. 8. 
 
 A citizen of Zion, Ps. 15. 
 
 A story of deliverance from enemies, Ps. 18. 
 
 Nature and the law of God, Ps. 19. 
 
 An expression of confidence, Ps. 23. 
 
 A processional song, Ps. 24. 
 
 A hymn of faith, Ps. 27. 
 
 God manifested in a thunderstorm, Ps. 29. 
 
 Blessedness of forgiveness, Ps. 32. 
 
 A hymn of praise, Ps. 33. 
 
 Admonition to patience and confidence, Ps. 37. 
 
 The brevity of life, Ps. 39. 
 
 A marriage hymn, Ps. 45. 
 
 A song of triumphant trust, Ps. 46. 
 
 David's penitence and prayer, Ps. 51. 
 
 David's prayer when fleeing from Saul, Ps. 57. 
 
 A song of exile, Ps. 63. 
 
152 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 A hymn of praise, Ps. 65. 
 
 A Psalm of Solomon, Ps. 72. 
 
 A historical contemplation, Ps. 78. 
 
 A prayer of Moses, Ps. 90. 
 
 A song for the Sabbath day, Ps. 92. 
 
 An exhortation to praise God, Ps. 103. 
 
 A meditation on the power of God, Ps. 104. 
 
 A national anthem, Ps. 105. 
 
 The blessing of righteousness, Ps. 112. 
 
 An alphabetic Psalm, Ps. 119. 
 
 Pilgrim songs, or songs of degrees, Ps. 120-134. 
 
 An elegy of the captivity, Ps. 137. 
 
 David's Psalm of praise, Ps. 145. 
 
 Exhortations to praise, Ps. 146-150. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 
 
 Wisdom Literature. In Job we have had a spiritual 
 drama ; in Psalms, a splendid collection of lyrics ; and 
 now, in the book of Proverbs we have an admirable body 
 of didactic poetry. The couplets and more elaborate 
 forms of verse that enter into Proverbs belong to what is 
 called the Wisdom literature of the Hebrews. This lit- 
 erature takes the place of philosophical writing among 
 other peoples. It is indeed a kind of philosophy, based 
 not on abstract speculation, but on practical observation. 
 It is utilitarian in spirit; but like nearly all the other writ- 
 ings of the ancient Jews, it rests on a religious foundation, 
 and is pervaded by a religious tone. As is stated in the 
 first chapter, 
 
 "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge." 
 
 But while the Wisdom literature is essentially religious, 
 it is not concerned, as are the Psalms, with spiritual emo- 
 tions and High theological truths. It deals with the every-day 
 affairs of life ; and accordingly we find practical directions 
 for individual conduct, social duties, and commercial trans- 
 actions. If fully exemplified in individual life, the teach- 
 ings of Proverbs would result in a noble type of manhood, 
 in which a profound piety would be joined to the virtues 
 of purity, sobriety, diligence, generosity, and prudence. 
 The book is therefore well worth a careful study. 
 
154 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Division and Authorship. A brief examination of the 
 book of Proverbs will show that it is not an organic or 
 connected unity. It is obviously a compilation, which is 
 readily divided into six parts as follows : 
 
 1. The praise of Wisdom (chapters 1-9). 
 
 2. Proverbs of Solomon (chapters 10-22 : 16). 
 
 3. Words of the Wise (chapter 22 : 17-24). 
 
 4. Additional proverbs of Solomon (chapters 25-29). 
 
 5. The words of Agur (chapter 30). 
 
 6. The words of King Lemuel, including the beautiful 
 description of a virtuous woman (chapter 31). 
 
 It is thus seen that the book of Proverbs is a composite 
 work. But the second part, which constitutes the body of 
 the book, is attributed to Solomon ; and there seems to be 
 no sufficient reason for discarding this ancient belief. We 
 know from I Kings 4:32 that Solomon "spake three 
 thousand proverbs " ; and in the work before us it is 
 highly probable that some of these wise sayings have 
 been preserved. 
 
 The introduction to the fourth part tells us that " these 
 also are proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, 
 King of Judah, copied out." Though many of the proverbs 
 are of different authorship and of much later date, tradi- 
 tion has probably made no mistake in associating the book 
 with the name of the wise king of Israel. 
 
 Part First. The purpose of the book of Proverbs is 
 clearly stated in the opening verses. Its aim is altogether 
 practical : 
 
 "To give subtilty to the simple, 
 To the young man knowledge and discretion : 
 That the wise man may hear and increase in learning ; 
 And that the man of understanding may attain to sound counsels." 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 155 
 
 The general theme of part first is the praise of wisdom, 
 the excellence of which is celebrated in elaborate verse : 
 
 " Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, 
 And the man that getteth understanding. 
 
 For the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of silver, 
 And the gain thereof than fine gold. 
 She is more precious than rubies ; 
 
 And none of the things thou canst desire are to be compared unto her. 
 Length of days is in her right hand ; 
 In her left hand riches and honor. 
 Her ways are ways of pleasantness, 
 And all her paths are peace. 
 She is a tree of life to them that lay hold of her ; 
 And happy is every one that retaineth her." 
 
 Ch. 3: 13-18. 
 
 While earnestly commending wisdom, the writer, speak- 
 ing in the character of a father, warns his imaginary son 
 or disciple against various evils to which he is likely to be 
 exposed. Crimes of violence are to be avoided ; the snares 
 of the " strange woman " are clearly pointed out ; the im- 
 prudence of becoming surety for another is dwelt upon ; 
 and several sins especially hated of the Lord are woven 
 together in an elaborate stanza. Here is what Professor 
 Moulton calls a " Sonnet on the Sluggard " : l 
 
 "Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; 
 
 Consider her ways, and be wise : 
 Which having no chief, 
 Overseer or ruler, 
 
 Provideth her meat in the summer, 
 And gathereth her food in the harvest. 
 
 How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard? 
 
 When wilt thou arise out of thy sleep? 
 ' Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, 
 A little folding of the hands to sleep : ' 
 
 l R. G. Moulton, " Literary Study of the Bible," p. 281. 
 
156 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 So shall thy poverty come as a robber, 
 And thy want as an armed man." 
 
 Ch. 6:6-11. 
 
 Part Second. The second part is made up, as the title 
 informs us, of "the proverbs of Solomon." These are 
 brief, sententious sayings in the form of couplets. The 
 antithetic form of parallelism is the prevailing type. The 
 proverbs treat of a great variety of subjects, and observe 
 no distinguishable order. Though a dominant religious 
 spirit underlies the collection, the proverbs deal almost 
 exclusively with the ordinary secular relations of life. 
 They are as applicable to life to-day as in the reign of the 
 great king of Israel. 
 
 Out of this store of practical wisdom only two or three 
 extracts, by way of illustration, can be taken. In the pres- 
 ent day, when wealth is so often acquired in unscrupulous 
 ways, it is well to remember that 
 
 " Better is a little with righteousness 
 Than great revenues with injustice." 
 
 Ch. 1:8. 
 
 Every thoughtful man is conscious of the fact that there 
 is a power over, him that, in large measure, controls his 
 destiny. This fact was recognized ages ago ; and so we 
 are told that 
 
 "A man's heart deviseth his way ; 
 But the Lord directeth his steps." 
 
 Ch. 16:9. 
 
 In sympathy with the prophetic spirit of Israel, the 
 Proverbs teach a religion, not of ritualistic ceremonies, but 
 of practical ethics. Thus they declare that 
 
 " To do justice and judgment 
 Is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice." 
 
 Ch. 21:3. 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 157 
 
 Part Third. The third part of Proverbs is composed 
 of "the words of the Wise." 1 Like the preceding parts, 
 it deals with the usual duties and ills of life. In place of 
 antithetic couplets, it uses various elaborated forms of 
 parallelism. It warns against the oppression of the poor ; 
 against friendship with a man given to anger; against 
 the removal of landmarks; and against gluttony, envy, 
 and sloth. 
 
 Drunkenness seems to have been a common vice in the 
 writer's day, and accordingly he utters repeated and vig- 
 orous warnings against it : 
 
 "Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? 
 Who hath complaining? who hath wounds without cause? 
 Who hath redness of eyes? 
 
 They that tarry long at the wine ; 
 
 They that go to seek out mixed wine. 
 Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, 
 When it giveth its color in the cup, 
 When it goeth down smoothly : 
 
 At the last it biteth like a serpent, 
 
 And stingeth like an adder." 
 
 Ch. 23 : 29-32. 
 
 Other Parts. Of the remaining parts there is not room 
 to speak at any length. " The words of Agur," as con- 
 tained in the thirtieth chapter, are embodied in a series 
 of lengthy verse forms, in which the number four is con- 
 spicuous. We find in them a warning against slander, 
 the marks of an evil generation, four insatiable things, 
 the fate of the disobedient son, four incomprehensible 
 things, four intolerable things, four wise animals, four 
 things stately in their going, and a warning against strife. 
 
 1 Ch. 22 : 17-24. 
 
158 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 The poet's prayer for the golden mean of fortune is as 
 follows : 
 
 " Two things have I asked of Thee ; 
 Deny me them not before I die : 
 
 Remove far from me vanity and lies : 
 
 Give me neither poverty nor riches ; 
 
 Feed me with the food that is needful for me : 
 Lest I be full, and deny Thee, and say, Who is the Lord? 
 Or lest I be poor, and steal, 
 And use profanely the name of my God." 
 
 The last chapter of Proverbs contains the praises of a 
 virtuous woman. Perhaps no greater tribute has ever 
 been paid to faithful, diligent, wise, and upright woman- 
 hood : 
 
 " She openeth her mouth with wisdom ; 
 And the law of kindness is on her tongue. 
 She looketh well to the ways of her household, 
 And eateth not the bread of idleness. 
 Her children rise up, and call her blessed ; 
 Her husband also, and he praiseth her, saying, 
 Many daughters have done virtuously, 
 But thou excellest them all." 
 
 Ecclesiastes. The book of Ecclesiastes sounds a strange 
 note in the harmonies of the Old Testament. Its view of 
 life, in spite of a fundamental trust in God, is depressing. 
 Its theme throughout is the emptiness of life. Wherever 
 the writer turns his eyes, he finds that " all is vanity." 
 " I have seen all the works," he declares, " that are done 
 under the sun ; and, behold, all is vanity and vexation of 
 spirit. That which is crooked cannot be made straight; 
 and that which is wanting cannot be numbered." 1 
 
 This morbid and depressing view of life has caused 
 devout scholars no end of perplexity. Many are the con- 
 
 1 Eccl. i : 14, 15. 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 159 
 
 tradictory views which have been entertained. Yet the 
 explanation seems near at hand. In Ecclesiastes we have 
 a matchless utterance of the sense of world-weariness 
 that is apt at times to come to us all. When our store 
 of vitality runs low, when our hopes have been repeatedly 
 shattered, and the course of the world seems all awry, 
 then with the ancient Preacher we are apt to feel that " all 
 is vanity." 
 
 It is this full expression of a mood, felt at times by 
 most men, that invests Ecclesiastes with a peculiar interest. 
 It has been called the most modern book of the Old Tes- 
 tament. Certainly its mood is often felt in the midst of 
 modern competitive life, and sometimes embodied in mod- 
 ern literature. Thackeray understood its burden when 
 in his Vanitas Vanitatem, he wrote : 
 
 " Though thrice a thousand years have passed 
 
 Since David's son, the sad and splendid, 
 The weary king Ecclesiast, 
 
 Upon his awful tablets penned it, 
 
 " Methinks the text is never stale, 
 And life is every day renewing 
 Fresh comments on the old, old tale 
 Of fortune, folly, glory, ruin." 1 
 
 Authorship and Date. The traditional view ascribes 
 the authorship to Solomon. This view is based on the 
 opening statement, which assigns the authorship to "the 
 son of David, King of Jerusalem." Furthermore, the mag- 
 nificence, wealth, and power displayed in the experiments 
 
 1 " Ecclesiastes needs a certain preparation of the mind and character, a certain 
 ' elective affinity,' in order to be appreciated as it deserves. To enjoy it, we must 
 find our own difficulties and our own moods anticipated in it. We must be able 
 to sympathize with its author either in his world-weariness and scepticism, or in his 
 victorious struggle (if so be it was victorious) through darkness into light." T. K. 
 CHEYNE, "Job and Solomon," p. 242. 
 
160 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 of the second chapter are in keeping with the regal station 
 and historic achievements of David's illustrious son. 
 
 But the prevailing view among biblical scholars of the 
 present day makes Solomon the hero rather than the author 
 of the book. A later writer, in accordance with a common 
 custom, placed his reflections on life in the mouth of the 
 ancient king of Israel. This view is based chiefly on two 
 facts : first, the sentiments and political conditions reflected 
 in the poem are often out of keeping with the character 
 and reign of Solomon; and, second, the language of the 
 original, in its use of foreign words and idioms, betrays a 
 corruption of the older classic Hebrew. Accordingly, the 
 probable date is indicated as about 200 B.C., which makes 
 Ecclesiastes one of the latest books of the Old Testament. 
 
 Search for Happiness. The book of Ecclesiastes is not 
 a logically developed treatise. It seems to consist of a 
 succession of essays or observations, which are separated 
 by interludes of brief or proverbial comments on life. 
 The greater part of the book is in prose; but now and 
 then, as in portions of the seventh, tenth, eleventh, and 
 twelfth chapters, it rises into the region of poetic thought 
 and expression. We may, therefore, regard Ecclesiastes 
 as a prose poem. 
 
 The most clearly defined portion of the book is Solomon's 
 search for happiness, as related in the first two chapters. 
 After dwelling on the wearisome round of the world, which 
 entombs successive generations in the depths of oblivion, 
 the royal preacher recounts his fourfold experiment to as- 
 certain "what it was good for the sons of men that they 
 should do under the heaven all the days of their life." He 
 first tried wisdom ; but at last it seemed to him "a striving 
 after wind. For in much wisdom is much grief : and he 
 that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow." 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 161 
 
 The disappointed seeker then turns to pleasure. He 
 builds magnificent houses and lays out splendid parks. 
 He accumulates great treasures of gold and silver, and 
 surrounds himself with every form of artistic and sensual 
 delight. "Whatsoever mine eyes desired," he tells us, " I 
 kept not from them ; I withheld not my heart from any 
 joy." And what was the result? It might well stand as 
 a warning to all those who to-day are following in the foot- 
 steps of the voluptuous king : " Behold, all was vanity and 
 a striving after wind, and there was no profit under the 
 sun." 
 
 In his renewed and bitter disappointment, the king pro- 
 ceeds to study the wisdom and. folly of human nature, and 
 finds that "one event happeneth" alike to wise men and to 
 fools. The acquisition of riches likewise failed to bring 
 him peace of mind ; for, apart from the strenuous toil of 
 accumulation, which prevented his heart from taking rest, 
 he could not tell who would inherit his wealth. 
 
 As a result of his search after the supreme good of life, 
 the royal investigator reaches a conclusion. It is the con- 
 clusion of the faithful, prosaic man in every age, who, 
 through bitter disappointments, has still retained his hold 
 on God. It is the deep lesson of duty. "There is nothing 
 better for a man," says the royal preacher, " than that he 
 should eat and drink, and make his soul enjoy good in his 
 labor. This also I saw, that it is from the hand of God." 
 
 Contradictory Views. As in the case of most men 
 who take morbid views of life, we recognize in the author 
 of Ecclesiastes changing moods and contradictory sen- 
 timents. Sometimes a gleam of light breaks through the 
 gloom. At one time, with a triumphant pessimism, he 
 roundly declares that life is an evil. " I praised the dead 
 which are already dead," he says, "more than the living 
 
T 62 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 which are yet alive ; yea, better than them both did I 
 esteem him which hath not yet been, who hath not seen 
 the evil work that is done under the sun." l 
 
 At other times the royal ecclesiast takes a more cheerful 
 view of life. He declares " a living dog is better than a 
 dead lion " (9:4); and during a brief rift in the clouds he 
 finds that " truly the light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it 
 is for the eyes to behold the sun. Yea, if a man live many 
 years, let him rejoice in them all" (i i : 7, 8). 
 
 A Fixed Principle. Rarely has any man more clearly 
 perceived the various ills of life than the author of this in- 
 teresting book. He has discovered the insufficiency of 
 intellectual attainments, royal splendor, and boundless 
 wealth to still the imperious longings of the soul. He 
 has seen wrong usurping .the place of justice; he has 
 recognized the trials, disappointments, and sufferings of 
 life; he has keenly felt the limitations of human knowl- 
 edge and the impossibility of fully understanding the 
 ways of God ; he has discerned the frequent pros- 
 perity of the wicked and the ofttime adversity of the 
 righteous. 
 
 But through it all he has held fast to one anchor of the 
 soul. Righteousness is not in vain on the earth. "Though 
 a sinner do evil an hundred times," he says, " and prolong 
 his days, yet surely I know that it shall be well with them 
 that fear God, which fear before Him ; but it shall not be 
 well with the wicked." 2 In this truth we recognize the 
 
 1 Eccl. 4 : 2, 3. Compare this with a stanza in Byron's " Euthanasia " : 
 
 " Count o'er the joys thine hours have seen, 
 Count o'er thy days from anguish free : 
 And know, whatever thou hast been, 
 Tis something better not to be." 
 
 2 Eccl. 8 : 12, 13. 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 163 
 
 unconquerable Hebrew faith in the sovereignty and justice 
 of God. 1 
 
 The Epilogue. There is not space to dwell upon the 
 well-known " philosophy of times " as presented in the 
 third chapter, nor upon the beautiful symbolic poem on 
 life in the last chapter, beginning 
 
 " Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, 
 While the evil days come not, nor the years draw nigh, 
 When thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them ; 
 While the sun, or the light, or the moon, or the stars, be not 
 
 darkened, 
 Nor the clouds return after the rain." 
 
 It only remains to give the final conclusion to which the 
 author comes after all his contemplation of life. This con- 
 clusion reveals to us the deeply religious character of the 
 author, and, in spite of its gloom, the religious aim of the 
 book. Though its reception into the canon was late, there 
 was no mistake made in giving it a place in the Old Testa- 
 ment scriptures. Whatever errors of judgment may have 
 escaped the writer in his moments of deepest gloom, there 
 can be no doubt as to the truth of the final outcome: 
 " Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter ; fear 
 God, and keep His commandments; for this is. the whole 
 duty of man. For God shall bring every work into judg- 
 ment with every secret thing, whether it be good, or 
 whether it be evil." 
 
 Song of Solomon. Like the book of Ecclesiastes, the 
 Song of Solomon strikes a new and strange note in the 
 
 1 " Single passages, taken apart from their connection, might seem to express 
 a frank Epicureanism and the grossest materialism, a frivolous scepticism and deso- 
 late despair of every thing ideal ; but we should do the author bitter injustice, if we 
 saw therein his final word and his true meaning. No, he has not given up his 
 faith in God and a moral order of the world." CORNILL, " Einleitung in das Alte 
 Testament," p. 250. 
 
1 64 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Old Testament writings. It does not mention the name 
 of God; it is destitute of any clear ethical motive. As 
 Cornill remarks, " No unprejudiced reader can for a 
 moment doubt that love, the love of man for woman and 
 the love of woman for man, is the sole and uniform theme 
 of the Song." 1 
 
 But this unethical character of the book was not readily 
 accepted by the biblical scholars of the early and mediaeval 
 church. On the basis of its celebration of human love, 
 its place in the sacred Scriptures could not easily be justi- 
 fied. Accordingly, the Song of Songs was considered an 
 allegory, which represented the mutual love existing be- 
 tween Christ and the church. This allegorical view, which 
 lifts the poem into the realm of religion, is indicated in 
 the headings of the chapters in the King James version. 
 
 Literary Form. It has long been a difficult problem to 
 master the literary form of Solomon's Song. A cursory 
 reading shows that in part at least the poem is in the form 
 of dialogue. In the first chapter, for example, it is clear 
 that a man and a woman a bridegroom and a bride 
 are expressing to each other their mutual admiration and 
 love : 
 
 "Bridegroom. I have compared thee, O my love, 
 
 To a steed in Pharaoh's chariots. 
 
 Thy cheeks are comely with plaits of hair, 
 
 Thy neck with strings of jewels. 
 
 We will make thee plaits of gold 
 
 With studs of silver. 
 Bride. While the king sat at his table, 
 
 My spikenard sent forth its fragrance. 
 
 My beloved is unto me as a bundle of myrrh, 
 
 That lieth betwixt my breasts. 
 
 My beloved is unto me as a cluster of henna-flowers 
 
 In the vineyards of Engedi." 
 
 l Cornill, " Einleitung in das Alte Testament," p. 253. 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 165 
 
 But there are no stage directions; King Solomon and 
 a Shulammite maiden are only incidentally indicated as 
 dramatis persona ; and the divisions of the work are only 
 occasionally indicated by a refrain, as in the second and 
 third chapters : 
 
 " I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem, 
 By the roes, and by the hinds of the field, 
 That ye stir not; up, nor awaken love, 
 Until it please. 1 ' 
 
 A Lyrical Drama. In the presence of these obscurities 
 of structure, critical ingenuity has been severely taxed to 
 make out the precise form that was in the mind of the 
 original writer. As might be expected, there has been 
 great divergence of view. Fortunately, the solution of 
 the problem has been found in our recent acquaintance 
 with Oriental marriage customs, and we are amply justified 
 in pronouncing the Song of Songs a sort of lyrical drama. 
 
 In Syria the wedding festivities, known as " the king's 
 week," continue for seven days. The bridegroom and 
 bride, as king and queen, occupy improvised thrones in 
 the presence of many neighborhood guests ; and the oc- 
 casion is enlivened by songs, dances, and plays. In the 
 work before us we probably have a collection of songs 
 arranged for such a wedding festival. With this fact in 
 mind, the general plan and spirit of the piece become con- 
 vincingly clear. 
 
 Dramatic Analysis. Accordingly, the characters are 
 the king, his bride, and a chorus of the daughters of 
 Jerusalem. We may distinguish seven lyrical scenes 
 which collectively round out a beautiful work of art. 
 Only the general character of the successive scenes can 
 be indicated : 
 
1 66 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 1. The wedding day (i : 2-2 : 7). 
 
 2. The bride's reminiscences of the courtship (2 : 8- 
 
 3:5> 
 
 3. The day of betrothal (3 : 6-5 : i). 
 
 4. The bride's troubled dream (5 : 2-6 : 3). 
 
 5. The king's meditation on his bride (6 : 4-7 : 9). i 
 
 6. The bride's longing for her home in Lebanon (7 : 10- 
 
 8: 4 ). 
 
 7. The renewal of love in the vineyard of Lebanon 
 
 (8: 5 -i 4 y 
 
 In the first scene the bride is conducted, with an at- 
 tendant chorus of maidens, to the palace of her husband. 
 It closes with a refrain. In the second scene the bride 
 dwells upon the days of courtship, and recounts the happy 
 ending of a troubled dream : 
 
 " When I found him whom my soul loveth, 
 I held him and would not let him go. 1 ' 
 
 The third scene describes the stately coming of the king, 
 and repeats his words of ardent admiration : 
 
 " Behold, thou art fair, my love ; behold, thou art fair ; 
 Thine eyes are as doves behind thy veil ; 
 Thy hair is as a flock of goats, 
 That lie along the side of Mount Gilead." 
 
 In the fourth scene the bride relates a troubled dream, 
 in which she loses her lover and seeks for him in vain. 
 Scene fifth contains the king's meditation on the per- 
 fections of his bride, with a reminiscence of their first 
 meeting. In scene sixth the bride expresses a longing 
 for her home in Lebanon : 
 
 1 These titles are taken from Professor Moulton, whose arrangement of the Song 
 of Songs in his " Literary Study of the Bible " is admirably worked out. 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 167 
 
 " Come, my beloved, let us go forth into the field ; 
 Let us lodge in the villages. 
 Let us get up early to the vineyards ; 
 
 Let us see whether the vine hath budded and its blossom be open, 
 And the pomegranates be in flower : 
 There I will give thee my love." 
 
 In the last scene, there is. a renewal of the pledges of 
 mutual affection, and the bride pays an immortal tribute 
 to the might of love : 
 
 " Set me as a seal upon thine heart, 
 As a seal upon thine arm : 
 For love is strong as death ; 
 Jealousy is cruel as the grave : 
 The flashes thereof are flashes of fire, 
 A very flame of the Lord. 
 Many waters cannot quench love, 
 Neither can the floods drown it ; 
 
 If a man would give all the substance of his house for love, 
 It would utterly be contemned." 
 
 Love of Nature. In this brief analysis we have caught 
 a glimpse of the spirit of poetry and the intensity of pas- 
 sion which pervade the drama. There is a freedom of 
 description that is not in keeping with modern "taste ; yet 
 the poem breathes a blameless purity. Every part of it 
 rises far above the commonplace. The descriptions of na- 
 ture are especially beautiful. 1 Take, for example, a few 
 
 1 " It abounds in poetical gems of the purest ray. It breathes the bracing air of 
 the hill country, and the passionate love of man for woman and woman for man. 
 It is a revelation of the keen Hebrew delight in nature, in her vineyards and pas- 
 tures, flowers and fruit trees, in her doves and deer and sheep and goats. It is a 
 song tremulous from beginning to end with the passion of love; and this love it 
 depicts in terms never coarse, but often frankly sensuous so frankly sensuous 
 that in the first century its place in the canon was earnestly contested by Jewish 
 scholars." JOHN E. McFADYEN, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 282. 
 
1 68 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 lines from the bride's recollection of the days of court- 
 ship : 
 
 " My beloved spake, and said unto me, 
 Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come away. 
 For, lo, the winter is past, 
 The rain is over and gone ; 
 The flowers appear on the earth ; 
 The time of the singing of birds is come, 
 And the voice of the turtle is heard in the land ; 
 The fig tree ripeneth her green figs, 
 And the vines are in blossom, 
 They give forth their fragrance." 
 
 Meaning of the Poem. Though the date and author- 
 ship are unknown, the meaning of this admirable lyrical 
 drama can hardly be mistaken. It is a celebration of the 
 beauty and sacredness of wedded love. Marriage the 
 union of one man and one woman for life is a divine 
 institution. It was consecrated by the presence of Jesus 
 at Cana of Galilee. 1 In an age when marriage was too 
 often despised or degraded by lust and polygamy, it was 
 fitting that this poem, with its purity of spirit and charm 
 of womanhood, should be sent forth on its regenerating 
 mission. 
 
 Though an allegorical interpretation was obviously 
 never intended by the poet, yet the drama in a measure 
 lends itself to that treatment. The relation between God 
 and His people is often compared to the relation of hus- 
 band and wife. Throughout the Old Testament, the idola- 
 try of the Hebrews is frequently stigmatized as adultery. 
 In view of these facts, the ardent and faithful affection 
 between the bridegroom and bride may be easily trans- 
 ferred, as in the King James version, to Christ and His 
 church. 
 
 1 John 2: i-n. 
 
PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES, AND SONG OF SOLOMON 169 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 PROVERBS 
 
 Wisdom's words of warning, Prov. I : 20-33. 
 
 The blessings of wisdom, Prov. 2. 
 
 Various interesting exhortations of wisdom, Prov. 3. 
 
 Warnings against the strange woman, Prov. 5. 
 
 The snares of the adulterous woman, Prov. 7. 
 
 Proverbs of Solomon, Prov. 10-22. 
 
 The evils of wine-bibbing, Prov. 23 : 20-35. 
 
 Fools, sluggards, and meddlers, Prov. 26. 
 
 The proverbs of Agur, Prov. 30. 
 
 Praise of the virtuous housewife, Prov. 31 : 10-31. 
 
 ECCLESIASTES 
 
 Solomon's search for happiness, Eccl. I : 12-2. 
 Discussion of times and seasons, Eccl. 3-4: 8. 
 The vanity of desire, Eccl. 5 : 10-6: 12. 
 Symbolic poem on old age, Eccl. 12 : 1-7. 
 
 SONG OF SOLOMON 
 
 The wedding day, Song of Solomon, I : 2-2 : 7. 
 
 The bride's reminiscences of courtship, 2 : 8-3 : 5. 
 
 The day of bethrothal, 3:6-5:1. 
 
 The bride's troubled dream, 5 : 2-6: 3. 
 
 The king's meditation on his bride, 6 : 4-7 = 9. 
 
 The bride's longing for Lebanon, 7 : 10-8 : 4. 
 
 The renewal of love in the vineyard, 8 : 5-14. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS ISAIAH AND JEREMIAH 
 
 Introduction. About one-fourth of the Old Testament is 
 filled with the writings of the prophets. The first four 
 Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel are commonly 
 known as the greater or major prophets. They deserve 
 this distinction both for the quantity of their writings and 
 the importance of their message. In entering upon a 
 study of the prophets, it must be borne in mind that they 
 were not chiefly foretellers of events. They were earnest 
 preachers of righteousness in the presence of political 
 problems or religious decadence. They were the divinely 
 appointed agents to lead the Hebrew people in the paths 
 of righteousness. 
 
 They were gifted men who clearly grasped the funda- 
 mental truths of religion. They attached but little impor- 
 tance to its outward ceremonies; but they had a noble 
 conception of God, and eloquently enforced obedience to 
 truth and righteousness. To adopt the words of Duncker, 
 they declared that " the lips and the heart must be elevated to 
 His greatness ; His commands must be kept, and men must 
 make themselves holy as He is holy. The only service of 
 the Holy God is a holy and righteous life. Sacrifice is 
 not required, but recognition of God, simplicity, chastity, 
 and moderation." 1 The prophetical books are made up 
 ^ principally of popular addresses, which are frequently 
 characterized by poetic imagery and masterful eloquence. 
 
 1 Max Duncker, " History of Antiquity," Vol. III., p. 27. 
 170 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 171 
 
 Isaiah. The first of the prophetic books is Isaiah. 
 This great prophet was a citizen of Jerusalem, a man of 
 distinction, and a preacher of impressive power. His con- 
 temporaries in the prophetic office were Hosea and Micah, 
 whose work will come under review later. As the intro- 
 duction to his prophecies tells us, he lived "in the days 
 of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, Kings of 
 Judah." 1 
 
 This statement enables us to reproduce the political and 
 religious conditions under which Isaiah received his pro- 
 phetic call. It was the second half of the eighth century 
 before our era (758-690 B.C.). As we learn from 2 Kings 
 and 2 Chronicles, as well as from the historical part of the 
 prophecy itself (chapters 36-39), it was a period of great 
 commotion. The kings of Judah warred against the 
 Philistines and the Ammonites. Ahaz suffered a severe 
 defeat at the hands of Israel. Though the temple worship 
 was kept up, abominable idolatries at times prevailed. 
 
 Furthermore, it was a time of world movements, of 
 restless and insatiable activity among the great empires of 
 the Orient. Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt were continually 
 plotting or warring against one another. Assyrian con- 
 querors repeatedly swept over Syria; and in 722 B.C. 
 Sargon captured Samaria and forever put an- end to the 
 kingdom of Israel. Judah was henceforth left alone to 
 
 i CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
 
 B.C. 
 
 740. Call of Isaiah. 
 
 732. Damascus taken by Tiglath-pileser. 
 
 727. Shalmaneser IV. 
 
 722. Samaria captured by Sargon. 
 
 701. Sennacherib's campaign against Judah. 
 
 607. Destruction of Nineveh by the Medes. 
 
 586. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 538. Cyrus captures Babylon, and releases Jewish exiles. 
 
172 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 be the bearer of the religion of Jehovah. Subsequently 
 its territory was invaded by the conquering arms of Sen- 
 nacherib ; and Judah was saved only by a fatal pestilence 
 that in a single night swept away a large part of the 
 Assyrian army. 
 
 Occasion of Prophecies. As already indicated, the proph- 
 ecies of Isaiah extended through the reigns of three 
 Kings of Judah. From first to last, .they covered a period 
 of about fifty years. The several discourses, which com- 
 pose the book of Isaiah, were called forth by particular 
 religious or political conditions. They were intended to 
 guide the thought and action of the Hebrew people in 
 particular exigencies. It is perfectly clear, therefore, that 
 a knowledge of the occasion will throw light upon the 
 words of the prophet. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the numerous separate discourses 
 are not arranged in a chronological order. They are, in 
 the main, grouped by subjects. They maybe conveniently 
 divided into seven groups as follows : 
 
 1. Discourses relating to Judah and Israel (chapters 
 
 1-12). 
 
 2. Discourses dealing with foreign nations (chapters 
 
 13-23). 
 
 3. Picture of a world judgment (chapters 24-27). 
 
 4. Discourses relating to Judah and Assyria (chapters 
 
 28-33). 
 
 5. Future of Edom and Israel contrasted (chapters 
 
 34, 35)- 
 
 6. Historical section based on 2 Kings (chapters 
 
 36-39). 
 
 7. Israel's restoration from exile in Babylon (chapters 
 40-66). 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 173 
 
 Isaiah's Call. The various conditions and emergencies 
 in the history of his people Isaiah met with a broad, patri- 
 otic, and righteous spirit. Like the other prophets of 
 Judah and Israel, he regarded himself as a messenger of 
 the Lord. In the sixth chapter he gives us an account 
 of his call to the prophetic office. He had a vision of the 
 Lord. In antiphonal songs of praise, the seraphim cried : 
 "Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of Hosts; the whole earth 
 is full of His glory. And the foundations of the thresholds 
 were moved at the voice of him that cried, and the house 
 was filled with smoke. Then said I, Woe is me ! for I am 
 undone ; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell 
 in the midst of a people of unclean lips: for mine eyes 
 have seen the King, the Lord of hosts. 
 
 " Then flew one of the seraphim unto me, having a live 
 coal in his hand, which he had taken with the tongs from 
 off the altar : and he touched my mouth with it, and said, 
 Lo, this hath touched thy lips ; and thine iniquity is taken 
 away, and thy sin purged. And I heard the voice of the 
 Lord, saying, Whom shall I send, and who will go for us ? 
 Then I said, Here am I ; send me." The vision of the 
 King and the sound of his voice, that was the secret of 
 the prophet's preaching and power. 
 
 The Great Arraignment. It will not be practicable here 
 to follow each one of the discourses making up the book 
 of Isaiah. Such an undertaking belongs to a commentary 
 or a more extended work on the Old Testament. It will 
 be sufficient here to examine two or three typical discourses, 
 and to point out the spirit and manner of the prophet. 
 
 We begin with the first chapter, which has been called 
 the great arraignment of Judah. The time seems to be the 
 reign of Ahaz, who, as we learn from 2 Kings 16, " did not 
 that which was right in the eyes of the Lord his God, like 
 
174 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 David his father. But he walked in the way of the Kings 
 of Israel, yea, and made his sons pass through the fire, 
 according to the abominations of the heathen, whom the 
 Lord cast out before the children of Israel. And he sacri- 
 ficed and burnt incense in the high places, and on the hills, 
 and under every green tree." 
 
 It was in the presence of this official and public idolatry 
 that Isaiah addressed his great arraignment to the Hebrew 
 people. His eloquent words are surcharged with emotion. 
 " Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth, for the Lord 
 hath spoken : I have nourished and brought up children, 
 and they have rebelled against me. The ox knoweth his 
 owner, and the ass his master's crib : but Israel doth not 
 know, my people doth not consider. Ah sinful nation, a 
 people laden with iniquity, a seed of evil-doers, children 
 that deal corruptly : they have forsaken the Lord, they 
 have despised the Holy One of Israel, they are estranged 
 and gone backward." 
 
 This indictment, which is more extended than here given, 
 the rulers are supposed to have met by referring to the 
 regularity and splendor of the temple service. They 
 brought forward their assemblies and sacrifices as a proof 
 of their loyalty to Jehovah. To these statements the 
 prophet, who takes his stand on the ethical character of 
 religion, replies in the name of Jehovah : " To what pur- 
 pose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me ? saith the 
 Lord : I am full of the burnt offerings of rams, and the fat 
 of fed beasts ; and I delight not in the blood of bullocks, 
 or of lambs, or of he-goats. , . . Wash you, make you 
 clean ; put away the evil of your doings from before mine 
 eyes; cease to do evil; learn to do well; seek judgment, 
 relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the 
 widow." 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 175 
 
 After this indignant rejection of a splendid ceremonial 
 service that was not associated with holiness of heart and 
 life, the Lord is represented, in the next paragraph, as 
 tenderly pleading with the people. " Come now, and let 
 us reason together, saith the Lord : though your sins be 
 as scarlet, they shall be white as snow ; though they be 
 red like crimson, they shall be as wool. If ye be willing 
 and obedient, ye shall eat the good of the land ; but if ye 
 refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured with the sword : for 
 the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it." 
 
 When it quickly appears that this tender pleading is of 
 no avail, the prophet breaks forth in lamentation and re- 
 proach : " How is the faithful city become an harlot ! she 
 that was full of judgment! righteousness lodged in her, 
 but now murderers. Thy silver is become dross, thy wine 
 mixed with water. Thy princes are rebellious, and com- 
 panions of thieves ; every one loveth gifts, and followeth 
 after rewards ; they judge not the fatherless, neither doth 
 the cause of the widow come unto them." 
 
 This discourse, well ordered in all its parts, concludes 
 with a menace of judgment, by which the evil-doers of the 
 nation would be destroyed, and the people restored to 
 their former loyalty to Jehovah. This judgment probably 
 found its fulfilment, partly at least, in the war which the 
 allied kings of Syria and Israel waged against Ahaz. 
 
 Other interesting passages in part first will be found 
 indicated in the research work at the end of this chapter. 
 
 Discourses of Doom. The second division of the proph- 
 ecies of Isaiah is devoted, not to Judah and Israel, but 
 to neighboring nations. As we have already learned, the 
 Hebrew people belonged to a group of kingdoms which 
 extended from Ethiopia to Assyria. At one time or an- 
 other the children of Israel stood in close political or com- 
 
176 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 mercial relations with them all. As the great prophet 
 studies their character, and discerns their elements of 
 weakness, he announces the destiny that severally awaits 
 them. 
 
 The first of these doom discourses, as we may call them, 
 is directed against Babylon. For its iniquity it is to be 
 destroyed by the anger of the Lord. It is to be given 
 over to utter desolation a prediction that has been long 
 since fulfilled. " And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the 
 beauty of the Chaldeans' pride, shall be as when God over- 
 threw Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, 
 neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation : 
 neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall 
 shepherds make their flocks to lie down there. But wild 
 beasts of the desert shall lie there ; and their houses shall be 
 full of doleful creatures ; and ostriches shall dwell there, 
 and he-goats shall dance there. And wolves shall cry in 
 their castles, and jackals in the pleasant palaces : and her 
 time is near to come, and her days shall not be prolonged." 1 
 
 This is a type of the dooms pronounced in succession 
 against Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Egypt, Arabia, and 
 Tyre. 
 
 Return from Exile. The next four sections are passed 
 over with mere mention. Their general character has 
 already been pointed out. The historical section (chapters 
 36-39) differs but little from the corresponding narrative 
 in 2 Kings (chapters 18-20), from which it was evidently 
 taken. It deals with Sennacherib's demand for the surren- 
 der of Jerusalem, Hezekiah's illness and cure, and other 
 events in which Isaiah was concerned. 
 
 The final section (chapters 40-66) is one of great in- 
 terest It is a single sustained discourse relating to Israel's 
 
 1 Is. 13 : 19-22. 
 
TOWER OF BABEL 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 177 
 
 restoration from Babylonian captivity. The nature of the 
 prophecy, as well as its peculiarity of style, shows that it is 
 of later date than the preceding parts of the book. 
 Though formerly supposed to be the work of Isaiah, it is 
 now generally conceded by our ablest biblical scholars that 
 it comes from another and later hand. This later author, 
 whose extraordinary ability is recognized by all competent 
 students, is sometimes referred to as " the Great Unknown." 
 
 This lengthy discourse may be divided into three parts, 
 which together make one great forcible presentation of 
 truth. First of all the prophet emphasizes (chapters 40- 
 48) the certainty of the coming release from exile. This cer- 
 tainty is based on the power and promises of Jehovah. 
 Cyrus is named as the divine instrument of deliverance, 
 a fact showing that God has His agents, not alone among 
 the Chosen People, but also among the Gentile nations. 
 
 The second part (chapters 49-59) of this final discourse is 
 an exhortation to moral fitness for the restoration and future 
 glory of Israel. This exhortation is accompanied by glow- 
 ing passages of promise and encouragement. " Sing, O 
 Heavens," exclaims the prophet, " and be joyful, O earth ; 
 and break forth into singing, O mountains : for the Lord 
 hath comforted His people, and will have compassion upon 
 His afflicted." 1 
 
 The Servant of the Lord. Nowhere else in the prophet- 
 ical writings do we reach greater depths of spiritual insight 
 than in this part of Isaiah. For the first time we are 
 brought face to face with a marvellous divine law, which 
 has been operative in all ages of human history. That 
 law is the omnipresent fact of vicarious suffering, of 
 triumph through defeat, of blessings in the guise of sor- 
 rows, of the higher attained through the death of the 
 
 1 Is. 49 : 13- 
 
I y8 .4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 lower. In the famous fifty-third chapter of Isaiah, which 
 stands out with startling distinctness in the writings of the 
 Old Testament, this law is clearly presented. 
 
 In the closing verses of the fifty-second chapter and 
 throughout the fifty-third chapter, Israel is individualized- 
 as the servant of the Lord. With a sublime play of t the 
 prophet's imagination, the nations are made to inquire, as 
 they dwell on Israel's history, " Who hath believed that 
 which we have heard ? and to whom hath the arm of the 
 Lord been revealed? For he grew up before Him as a 
 tender plant, and as a root out of a dry ground : he hath 
 no form nor comeliness ; and when we see him, there is 
 no beauty that we should desire him. He was despised 
 and rejected of men ; a man of sorrows, and acquainted 
 with grief : and as one from whom men hide their face he 
 was despised, and we esteemed him not." 
 
 But what is it that the servant of the Lord has accom- 
 plished in all his lowliness, deformity, and suffering ? 
 The nations are again represented as discerning the world 
 significance of Israel's redemptive mission : " Surely he 
 hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows : yet we did 
 esteem him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted. But 
 he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for 
 our iniquities : the chastisement of our peace was upon 
 him; and with his stripes are we healed. All we like 
 sheep have gone astray ; we have turned every one to his 
 own way ; and the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of 
 us all." 
 
 And what is to be the ultimate outcome of all this 
 
 humiliation and suffering for Israel ? The Lord Himself 
 
 gives the answer, announcing the triumph of suffering : 
 
 " Behold, my servant shall prosper, he shall be exalted and 
 
 / lifted up, and shall be very high. Like as many were as- 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 179 
 
 tonished at thee (his visage was so marred more than any 
 man, and his form more than the sons of men), so shall he 
 sprinkle many nations ; kings shall shut their mouths at 
 him ; for that which had not been told them shall they 
 see ; and that which they had not heard shall they under- 
 stand." l 
 
 All this has found its highest fulfilment in the gospel of 
 Christ. His life is a perfect exemplification of the law of 
 vicarious suffering of salvation through death. And 
 hence Christian writers have made no mistake in trans- 
 ferring the language of the great unknown prophet to the 
 Saviour of mankind. The fifty-third chapter of Isaiah is 
 the most perfect statement of evangelical truth to be found 
 in the Old Testament. 
 
 Triumphant Faith. In one point Isaiah and " the 
 Great Unknown " are alike. Whatever may be their 
 menace of righteous judgment for sin, there is always a 
 word of hope for the final results. Their faith in God is 
 always triumphant. In the midst of words of judgment 
 against Israel and Judah, we find this picture of the uni- 
 versal prevalence of Israel's religion: "And it shall come 
 to pass in the latter days, that the mountain of the Lord's 
 house shall be established in the top of the mountains, 
 and shall be exalted above the hills ; and all nations shall 
 flow unto it. ... And they shall beat their swords into 
 ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks : nation 
 shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they 
 learn war any more." 2 
 
 In like manner the nameless prophet closes his discourse 
 with a picture of Israel's future glory. Beyond the ap- 
 proaching restoration through the magnanimity of Cyrus, 
 there lies a golden age for Zion : " The nations shall see 
 i is. 52: 13-15. 2 is. 2:2,4. 
 
180 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 thy righteousness, and all kings thy glory : and thou shalt 
 be called by a new name, which the mouth of the Lord 
 shall name. Thou shalt also be a crown of beauty in the 
 hand of the Lord, and a royal diadem in the hand of thy 
 God." 1 
 
 Poetic Gifts. The admirable intellectual gifts of Isaiah 
 have been shown in the passages quoted. No other writer 
 of the Old Testament surpasses him in mental vigor and 
 emotional power. His discourses often exhibit a rare elo- 
 quence, in which logical thought is enriched by poetic 
 imagery. In the words of Driver : " Isaiah's poetical gen- 
 ius is superb. His characteristics are grandeur and beauty 
 of conception, wealth of imagination, vividness of illustra- 
 tion, compressed energy and splendor of diction." 2 Al- 
 most any discourse of Isaiah may be cited in illustration. 
 
 Jeremiah. About seventy years after the death of 
 Isaiah, the prophetic call came to Jeremiah, the second of 
 the great prophets of Israel. As we are informed in the 
 opening statements of his prophecy, this call came to him 
 in the thirteenth year (626 B.C.) of King Josiah, and con- 
 tinued for nearly fifty years through the subsequent reigns 
 of Jehoiakim and Zedekiah. His heroic voice was not 
 silenced till the people whom he had tried to save were 
 carried away by Nebuchadnezzar. 3 
 
 1 IS. 62: 2, 3. 
 
 2 S. R. Driver, " Literature of the Old Testament," p. 227. 
 
 3 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 
 
 B.C. 
 
 626. Call of Jeremiah. 
 
 621. Discovery of Deuteronomy, and Josiah's reformation. 
 
 609. Jehoahaz. 
 
 608. Jehoiakim. 
 
 597. Jehoiachim, and first siege of Jerusalem. 
 
 596. Zedekiah. 
 
 586. Destruction of Jerusalem, and second deportation of Jewish exiles. 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 181 
 
 When the prophetic call came to him, his sensitive 
 nature recoiled from the heavy task laid upon him. " Ah, 
 Lord God ! behold," he exclaimed, " I cannot speak, for I 
 am a child." But divine preparation, as in every age, 
 came with the call. " Then the Lord put forth His hand, 
 and touched my mouth ; and the Lord said unto me, Be- 
 hold, I have put My words in thy mouth : see, I have this 
 day set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms, to 
 pluck up and to break down, and to destroy and to over- 
 throw; to build, and to plant." l 
 
 Heroic Character. Jeremiah was placed in an exceed- 
 ingly trying position ; but in the presence of difficulty and 
 danger he displayed a heroic spirit. It was his thankless 
 task to reprove the people of Judah for their sins, and to 
 announce to them, in the absence of repentance and refor- 
 mation, the impending destruction at the hands of their 
 enemies. This message he proclaimed with tireless faith- 
 fulness. 
 
 In the twenty-sixth chapter we have a graphic portrayal 
 of Jeremiah's preaching and its dangerous results. He 
 took his stand in the court of the temple ; and to the 
 crowds gathering there from all parts of Judah, he de- 
 clared, " Thus saith the Lord : if ye will not hearken 
 to Me, to walk in My law, which I have set before 
 you, . . . then will I make this house like Shiloh, 2 and 
 will make this city a curse to all the nations of the 
 earth." 
 
 1 Jer. i : 9, 10. 
 
 2 " Shiloh lay about thirty miles straight north of Jerusalem; and though once 
 the national sanctuary, famous from the memories of Eli and the great prophet 
 Samuel, had bgen in ruins for five hundred years. To predict a similar fate for 
 the magnificent building in whose courts they stood, was more than the priests and 
 prophets, or the crowd, could endure." GEIKIE, "Hours with the Bible," Vol. 
 V., p. 326. 
 
182 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 This denunciation of the unfaithfulness of the people, and 
 this prediction of coming disaster, greatly enraged the 
 priests. They laid violent hands on the bold prophet, 
 dragged him before a court of the princes, and declared 
 him worthy of death. When Jeremiah was permitted to 
 speak a word in his own defence, the fearless heroism of 
 the prophet asserted itself. There was no shirking of re- 
 sponsibility, and no softening of his message. " The Lord 
 sent me," he said, " to prophesy against this house and 
 against this city all the words that ye have heard. There- 
 fore now amend your ways and your doings, and obey the 
 voice of the Lord your God ; and the Lord will repent Him 
 of the evil that He hath pronounced against you. But as 
 for me, behold, I am in your hand : do with me as is good 
 and right in your eyes." It is to the honor of the princes 
 that, closing their ^ears to priestly clamors, they pronounced 
 the prophet guiltless. 
 
 Human Weakness. Yet with all his heroism in the 
 presence of death, Jeremiah was only human. He was re- 
 peatedly persecuted, put in stocks, and cast into prison. 
 His message was unheeded, and he himself was made a 
 laughing-stock ; and if, under these discouraging circum- 
 stances, he attempted to keep silent, his conscience became 
 a torture. " And if I say," he complains, " that I will not 
 speak any more in His name, then there is in my heart as 
 it were a burning fire shut up in my bones." 1 
 
 In his sore tribulations within and without, he fell into 
 the gloom of Job. Life became a grievous burden ; and 
 like the Arabian chieftain, Jeremiah lamented his birth. 
 " Cursed be the day wherein I was born : let not the day 
 wherein my mother bare me be blessed." 2 Yet this de- 
 spair was only a passing mood ; and throughout his long 
 
 1 Jer. 20 : 9. 2 Jer. 20 : 14. 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 183 
 
 career as a public preacher, he never proved faithless to 
 his calling. 
 
 Prophecies Written. In the thirty-sixth chapter we 
 have an interesting account of the original writing of 
 Jeremiah's prophecies. There are few prophetical writ- 
 ings in regard to which this information is so definite. In 
 the fourth year of Jehoiakim (604 B.C.), after the prophet 
 had been preaching for nearly a quarter of a century, he 
 was moved to commit his discourses to writing. Their oral 
 delivery had not been attended with the reformation desired 
 and hoped for ; accordingly he conceived the idea that 
 they might be more effective in written form. " It may 
 be," the Lord is made to say, " that the house of Judah will 
 hear all the evil which 1 purpose to do unto them ; that 
 they may turn every man from his evil way." 
 
 Calling Baruch, his friend and disciple, to act as scribe, 
 Jeremiah dictated to him the substance of his long series 
 of discourses. The prophet then directed Baruch to read 
 " the words of the Lord " in the temple. When the matter 
 was reported to the princes, they summoned the scribe to 
 read the roll in their presence. The princes were touched 
 by the eloquent denunciations and affectionate pleadings 
 of the prophet, " and they told all the words in the ears of 
 the king." 
 
 The king ordered the roll to be brought ; but when it 
 was read in his presence, his proud heart was stirred with 
 anger, and seizing the roll, he slashed it with his knife and 
 cast it into the fire. He gave orders for the seizure of the 
 daring prophet and scribe ; but foreseeing danger, they had 
 prudently concealed themselves. But the prophet's tongue 
 could not be silenced ; and in spite of the king's anger, he 
 dictated his prophecies a second time ; " and there were 
 added besides unto them many like words." 
 
1 84 47V INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 It is this second roll or book that no doubt forms the 
 basis of the present prophecies of Jeremiah. The arrange- 
 ment has been changed, and many other subsequent dis- 
 courses have been added. It is to be regretted that the 
 discourses are not arranged in chronological order ; but in 
 most cases, through direct statement or incidental historical 
 reference, we are able to determine the time and occasion 
 of the prophet's words. 
 
 Prophetic Message. Jeremiah is a fine embodiment of 
 the Hebrew prophetic spirit. His mission was definite and 
 limited ; but within the scope of his work he was faithful, 
 indefatigable, and courageous. Sin and judgment these 
 were the two principal themes of his discourses, which 
 were repeated, illustrated, and enforced in a great variety 
 of forms. 
 
 He was filled with the spirit of the book of Deuteronomy. 
 Indeed, after the discovery of the law in the temple and 
 the inauguration of reforms under Josiah, Jeremiah was 
 sent on a preaching tour throughout the cities of Judah. 
 In the eleventh chapter we have the burden of his preach- 
 ing, in which the spirit of the Deuteronomist will be readily 
 recognized : " And the Lord said unto me, A conspiracy 
 is found among the men of Judah, and among the inhabit- 
 ants of Jerusalem. They are turned back to the iniquities 
 of their forefathers ; and they are gone after other gods to 
 serve them ; the house of Israel and the house of Judah 
 have broken My covenant which I made with their fathers. 
 Therefore thus saith the Lord, Behold, I will bring evil 
 upon them, which they shall not be able to escape ; and 
 they shall cry unto Me, but I will not hearken unto them." 
 This is the substance of the message repeated again and 
 again. 
 
 Conditional Prophecy. Yet Jeremiah's denunciation of 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 185 
 
 woes upon Judah was never unconditional. Through re- 
 pentance and reformation there was always a way of escape. 
 This is made perfectly plain in the eighteenth chapter, in 
 which the relation of Jehovah to His people is compared to 
 that of a potter and his work. " At what instant," the 
 Lord is made to say, " I shall speak concerning a nation, 
 and concerning a kingdom, to pluck up and to break down 
 and to destroy it ; if that nation, concerning which I have 
 spoken, turn from their evil, I will repent of the evil that I 
 thought to do unto them." 
 
 Of course the reverse of this divine attitude is true. 
 " And at what instant I shall speak concerning a nation, 
 and concerning a kingdom, to build and to plant it ; if it 
 do evil in My sight, that it obey not My voice, then will I 
 repent of the good, wherewith I said I would benefit them." 
 It will be observed that this double principle is operative 
 to-day through the processes of natural law. 
 
 Captivity Predicted. For many years the evils predicted 
 for Judah remained somewhat indefinite. The prophet 
 went no farther than to name a foe from the north. But 
 after the great battle of Carchemish in 604 B.C., at which 
 Nebuchadnezzar won a decisive victory over Pharaoh-Necho 
 of Egypt, the clear-visioned prophet discerned the pre- 
 eminence which Babylon was to achieve. He' recognized 
 the sources from which the downfall of Judah was to come. 
 
 Accordingly, in the twenty-fifth chapter, Jeremiah 
 specifically predicts the coming overthrow of Judah. "Be- 
 cause ye have not heard My words," he represents the 
 Lord as saying, " I will send unto Nebuchadnezzar the 
 King of Babylon, My servant, and will bring them against 
 this land, and against the inhabitants thereof, and against 
 all these nations round about ; and I will utterly destroy 
 them, and make them an astonishment, and an hissing, and 
 
1 86 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 perpetual desolations. Moreover I will take from them the 
 voice of mirth and the voice of gladness, the voice of the 
 bridegroom and the voice of the bride, the sound of 
 the millstones, and the light of the candle." 
 
 Restoration. But the gaze of the prophet extended 
 beyond the captivity. He predicted the length of its, con- 
 tinuance. " These nations," he declared, "shall serve the 
 King of Babylon seventy years. And it shall come to 
 pass, when seventy years are accomplished, that I will 
 punish the King of Babylon and that nation for their 
 iniquity." 1 
 
 So confident was Jeremiah of the future restoration of 
 his people that even during the siege of Jerusalem he 
 bought a piece of land in his native town of Anathoth, and 
 took extraordinary precautions to preserve the title-deed 
 till the evil days might be passed. The whole transaction 
 is detailed in the thirty-second chapter, and affords a 
 pleasing glimpse of the business methods of that age. 
 After the terms of purchase had been agreed on with his 
 uncle, the prophet "subscribed the deed, and sealed it, 
 and called witnesses, and weighed him the money in the 
 balances." Afterwards the deed was placed in an earthen 
 vessel, that it might " continue many days." 
 
 The New Covenant What is still more remarkable, the 
 prophet discerned the spiritual regeneration that was to 
 follow the captivity. Through the fiery trials of defeat 
 and captivity, the people of Israel were to be purified and 
 lifted to a nobler spiritual life. The outward covenant of 
 the law was to be replaced by a new covenant of the 
 heart Of this new spiritual covenant, which consisted in 
 a love of truth and righteousness, there was to be no 
 end. 
 
 1 Jer. 25 : 12. 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 187 
 
 The new covenant is one of the mountain tops of pro- 
 phetic insight and inspiration. " Behold, the days come, 
 saith the Lord, that I will make a new covenant with the 
 house of Israel, and with the house of Judah : not accord- 
 ing to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the 
 day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the 
 land of Egypt ; which My covenant they broke, although 
 I was an husband unto them, saith the Lord. 
 
 " But this is the covenant that I will make with the 
 house of Israel after those days, saith the Lord : I will 
 put My law in their inward parts, and in their heart will I 
 write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My 
 people ; and they shall teach no more every man his 
 neighbor, and every man his brother, saying, Know the 
 Lord : for they shall all know Me, from the least of them 
 unto the greatest of them." l 
 
 Prophecies of Doom. Like the book of Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah contains a number of prophecies of doom (chapters 
 46-51). These prophecies are directed against the vari- 
 ous nations that were in some way related to the people of 
 Israel. Among these are Egypt, Philistia, Moab, Ammon, 
 and Babylon. 
 
 The prophecy against Babylon is particularly impas- 
 sioned. It is characterized by an implacable Hebrew 
 resentment. " And Babylon shall become heaps, a dwell- 
 ing-place for jackals, an astonishment and an hissing, with- 
 out inhabitant. . . . Her cities are become a desolation, a 
 dry land, and a desert, a land wherein no man dwelleth, 
 neither doth any son of man pass thereby." 2 
 
 Last Years. When, in 586 B.C., Jerusalem was cap- 
 tured by Nebuchadnezzar, the prophet Jeremiah was 
 treated with distinction. His prophecies were not un- 
 
 . l Jer. 31 : 31-34. 2 j er . 51 : 37, 43. 
 
1 88 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 known to the Babylonian conqueror. He was granted his 
 freedom, and given permission to choose his place of 
 abode. 
 
 A little later he was forced by the leaders of the people, 
 who feared vengeance for the assassination of the Babylon- 
 ian governor Gedaliah, to accompany them to Egypt. 
 The prophet had opposed the expedition. During his so- 
 journ at Tahpanhes, he foretold the doom of Egypt. 
 Here he disappears from the sacred writings ; but an old 
 tradition relates that he was stoned to death. 
 
 The fate of Jeremiah was that of many other heroic 
 men since his day. His brave, unselfish life was met with 
 indifference, persecution, and suffering. It is probable, as 
 we have just seen, that he died a martyr's death. Yet he 
 had scarcely passed away, when the fulfilment of his proph- 
 ecies established the inspired greatness of the man, and 
 by a quick popular reaction he was exalted to a position of 
 high honor. His prophecies were diligently studied by 
 the exiles in Babylon ; and ever since he has been es- 
 teemed as one of the greatest of Hebrew seers. 
 
 Lamentations. The brief book of Lamentations is 
 commonly accredited to Jeremiah. Though his author- 
 ship of the book has been seriously questioned by some 
 recent scholars, it rests on a very old tradition. In 2 
 Chronicles (35 : 25) Jeremiah is referred to as the author 
 of an elegy or lamentation on Josiah, a fact showing 
 that this style of composition was not foreign to him. 
 The book dates from his age ; and in the absence of posi- 
 tive proof to the contrary, we may accept the ancient tra- 
 dition as probably true. 
 
 The general theme of Lamentations is the evil that be- 
 fell Jerusalem and Judah after their overthrow by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. The contents of the book show that it was 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 189 
 
 written not long after that event. It is made up of five 
 separate poems, which are all notably artificial in structure. 
 The successive stanzas begin with the letters of the He- 
 brew alphabet in regular order, thus making acrostic or ab- 
 ecedarian poems. As the Hebrew alphabet consists of 
 twenty-two letters, each chapter, except the third, consists 
 of twenty-two verses. In the third chapter, three succes- 
 sive stanzas begin with each Hebrew letter in order, thus 
 making sixty-six in all. 
 
 The Separate Poems. Though constructed in this arti- 
 ficial manner, the successive elegies or lamentations 
 exhibit unusual literary excellence. We feel that the grief, 
 in spite of its artificial expression, is deep and genuine. 
 The poet has carefully wrought out, in artistic form and 
 pathetic metaphor, his overwhelming sorrow for the mis- 
 fortunes of Zion. 
 
 The first poem is a lament over the downfall and deso- 
 lation of Jerusalem. Listen to the piteous outcry of its 
 beginning r 
 
 " How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people! 
 
 How is she become as a widow! she that was great among the 
 
 nations, 
 And princess among the provinces, how is she become tributary. 
 
 " She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheeks : 
 Among all her lovers she hath none to comfort her ; 
 All her friends have dealt treacherously with her, they are become 
 her enemies. 
 
 u The ways of Zion do mourn, because none come to the solemn feasts ; 
 All her gates are desolate : her priests sigh, 
 Her virgins are afflicted, and she is in bitterness." 
 
 With the usual spiritual insight of the ancient Hebrew, the 
 poet traces the calamities of Zion to the sins of the people. 
 
190 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 " Jerusalem hath grievously sinned," he declares, " there- 
 fore she is removed." l 
 
 The main theme of the second elegy is the anger of the 
 Lord. There is a graphic picture of the desolation of 
 Jerusalem, as if written by an eye-witness : 
 
 " The young and the old lie on the ground in the streets : 
 
 The virgins and my young men are fallen by the sword ; 
 Thou hast slain them in the day of thine anger ; thou hast killed, 
 and not pitied. 1 ' 
 
 The third elegy laments the desolate condition of 
 Jerusalem, but finds a ground of consolation in the good- 
 ness and mercy of Jehovah. The poet speaks in the name 
 of the people : 
 
 " It is of the Lord's mercies that we are not consumed, because His 
 
 compassions fail not. 
 
 They are new every morning; great is thy faithfulness. 
 The Lord is my portion, saith my soul ; therefore will I hope in 
 Him. 
 
 "The Lord is good unto them that wait for Him, to the soul that 
 
 seeketh Him. 
 It is good that a man should both hope and quietly wait for the 
 
 salvation of the Lord. 
 It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth." 
 
 The remaining elegies are in the same mournful key. 
 The present sad condition of Zion is heightened by a 
 contrast with its former glory. The series of poems closes 
 with a prayer that Jehovah should return to His people, 
 and renew their former glory. 
 
 1 Lam. i ; 8. 
 
STUDIES IN THE MAJOR PROPHETS 191 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 ISAIAH 
 
 The great arraignment, Is. i. 
 
 The future preeminence of Jerusalem, Is. 2 : 2-4. 
 
 The parable of the vineyard, Is. 5 : 1-7. 
 
 Denunciation of woes and judgment, Is. 5 : 8-30. 
 
 The prophet's call, Is. 6. 
 
 Strophic denunciation of Israel, with refrain, Is. 9 : 8-10 : 4. 
 
 The ideal prince of David's line, Is. n : i-io. 
 
 The doom of Babylon, Is. 13, 14. 
 
 "The burden of Moab," Is. 15, 16. 
 
 The doom of Egypt, Is. 19, 20. 
 
 The overthrow of the city of Tyre, Is. 23. 
 
 Picture of a world judgment, Is. 24-27. 
 
 Various relations of Judah to Assyria, Is. 28-33. 
 
 An address to women at ease, Is. 32 : 9-20. 
 
 Eloquent contrast of Edom and Zion, Is. 34, 35. 
 
 Historical section from 2 Kings, Is. 36-39. 
 
 Israel's restoration from exile, Is. 40-66. 
 
 1. Its certainty, Is. 40-48. 
 
 2. Moral preparation for it, Is. 49-59. 
 Vicarious suffering, Is. 52 : 13-53. 
 
 3. Future felicity of Zion, Is. 60-66. 
 
 JEREMIAH 
 
 The call of Jeremiah, Jer. i. 
 
 The sins of Judah, and coming judgment, Jer. 2-6. 
 
 Eloquent sermon in the temple, Jer. 7-9. 
 
 Contrast between idols and Jehovah, Jer. 10. 
 
 Discourse after the finding of the law, Jer. n, 12. 
 
 A symbolical prophecy, Jer. 13. 
 
 Prophecy on the occasion of a drought, Jer. 14-17. 
 
 Lessons from the potter, Jer. 18-19. 
 
 Persecution and gloom, Jer. 20. 
 
 The prophet consulted by the king, Jer. 21. 
 
 Judgment of successive rulers, Jer. 22, 23. 
 
 Good and bad figs, Jer. 24. 
 
 The seventy years' captivity predicted, Jer. 25. 
 
.4 TV INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Preaching and persecution, Jer. 26. 
 
 Yokes employed in emblem prophecies, Jer. 27, 28. 
 
 The prophet's letter to the captives in Babylon, Jer. 29. 
 
 Israel's restoration from Babylon, Jer. 30-33. 
 
 Prophecy and imprisonment, Jer. 37, 38. 
 
 Jerusalem taken, and Jeremiah released, Jer. 39, 40. 
 
 Murder of Gedaliah, Jer. 41 . 
 
 Enforced flight into Egypt, Jer. 42, 43. 
 
 Idolatry and judgment in Egypt, Jer. 44. 
 
 Various doom prophecies, Jer. 46-51. 
 
 Historical supplement describing the capture of Jerusalem, Jer. 52. 
 
 LAMENTATIONS 
 
 Desolation and misery of Jerusalem, Lam. i. 
 The Lord's anger against His people, Lam. 2. 
 The nation's complaint and comfort, Lam. 3. 
 The past and present of Zion, Lam. 4. 
 A prayer for Jehovah's mercy, Lam. 5. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 
 
 Peculiar Circumstances. The circumstances under 
 which the prophecies of Ezekiel were written are 
 peculiar. The prophet was a captive in a strange land ; 
 for he had been deported with Jehoiachim in 597 B.C. He 
 resided at Tel-abib, on the river Chebar, in the midst of 
 a considerable community of Hebrew exiles. He was 
 married, as we learn incidentally, and resided in his own 
 house. 
 
 Ezekiel was a priest, and therefore belonged to the 
 aristocracy of his people. His office involved an extensive 
 and accurate knowledge of Hebrew history and Hebrew 
 law. He shared the deepest aspirations of the Chosen 
 People. With profound and anxious sadness he must 
 have dwelt on the former splendor of his nation, its 
 present humiliation and suffering, and its future destiny. 
 
 Prophetic Call. The prophetic call of Ezekiel came 
 in a sublime vision. As narrated in the first chapter, he 
 beheld the form of Jehovah enthroned on a firmament 
 upheld by flaming cherubim. When, at the sight of the 
 overpowering spectacle, he fell on his face, he heard a 
 divine voice, which said : " Son of man, I send thee to the 
 children of Israel, to a rebellious nation that hath rebelled 
 against Me ; they and their fathers have transgressed 
 against Me, even unto this very day. For they are impu- 
 dent children, and stiff-hearted." l 
 
 The date of this vision and call is fixed definitely in the 
 i 2.2:3,4. 
 
IQ4 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 fourth month of the fifth year of Jehoiachim's captivity ; 
 hence in July, 592 B.C. It is the interval between the first 
 and second capture of Jerusalem. Jeremiah is still living 
 and preaching; and the course of political events is 
 uncertain and alarming both to the exiles and to the 
 residents of Judah. From this time, for twenty-two years, 
 Ezekiel, speaking in the name of the Lord, continues to 
 warn, instruct, and comfort his people. 
 
 Threefold Division. The book of Ezekiel naturally falls 
 into a threefold division. For a time the most significant 
 event for the Hebrew people, whether at home or in cap- 
 tivity, is the impending destruction of Jerusalem. The 
 first twenty-four chapters deal with this event in varied 
 and impressive forms. 
 
 The second division (chapters 25-32) is concerned with 
 other nations more or less closely associated with Israel. 
 The fall of Jerusalem filled the Hebrews for a time with a 
 paralyzing dejection. The fall of the capital and the 
 captivity of the people seemed like a triumph of heathen- 
 ism. But in the presence of this discouragement the 
 prophet shows them that the triumph is only temporary, 
 and that the proud nations about them are destined to fall 
 under the mighty hand of Jehovah. 
 
 In the third division (chapters 33-48) the future resto- 
 ration and glory of Israel are predicted with impressive 
 imagery and deep spiritual insight. The chastening re- 
 sults of sorrow are recognized, and the richer spiritual life 
 of the Hebrew people after the restoration is foretold in 
 poetic language. The closing chapters are devoted to an 
 imaginary reconstruction of the temple and to directions 
 for its services. 
 
 It is thus seen that the book of Ezekiel is arranged in 
 a systematic manner. Its authorship has never been 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 195 
 
 seriously questioned ; and though its frequent symbolism 
 is sometimes obscure, the book has had great influence in 
 the subsequent development of the religious life and 
 worship of the Jews. 
 
 Sense of Responsibility. Ezekiel entered upon his task 
 with a high sense of his responsibility. It is the responsi- 
 bility of every great religious leader. Though for a time 
 his dispiriting message was unwelcome to his fellow-exiles, 
 he did not allow himself to sink into a selfish or cowardly 
 silence. 
 
 It was a week after his call that he was made to under- 
 stand the responsibility of his position. " The word of the 
 Lord," he says, " came unto me, saying, Son of man, I have 
 made thee a watchman unto the house of Israel: therefore 
 hear the word at my mouth, and give them warning from 
 Me. When I say unto the wicked, Thou shalt surely die, 
 and thou givest him not warning, nor speakest to warn the 
 wicked from his wicked way, to save his life ; the same 
 wicked man shall die in his iniquity ; but his blood will I 
 require at thine hand. Yet if thou warn the wicked, and 
 he turn not from his wickedness, nor from his wicked way, 
 he shall die in his iniquity ; but thou hast delivered thy 
 soul." ! 
 
 Judgment for Sin. Ezekiel clearly foresees the im- 
 pending doom of Jerusalem. He foretells it in plain 
 language ; he portrays it in symbolical acts. In the fourth 
 chapter he lays a mimic siege to Jerusalem ; and in the 
 fifth chapter, through the symbolism of his shaven hair, 
 he sets forth the destruction of the people. 
 
 Like the other Hebrew prophets, he traces the disasters 
 of Judah to the sins of the people. The past history of 
 Jerusalem is portrayed in very dark colors : 
 
 1 Ez. 3 : 16-19. 
 
196 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 " I have set her in the midst of the nations 
 And countries are round about her. 
 And she hath changed my judgments into wickedness more than the 
 
 nations, 
 
 And my statutes more than the countries that are round about her ; 
 For they have refused my judgments and my statutes, 
 They have not walked in them." 
 
 And what is to be the result of this wickedness ? Here 
 is the declaration of judgment : 
 
 " Therefore thus saith the Lord God : Behold, I, even I, am against 
 
 thee, 
 
 And will execute judgments in the midst of thee 
 In the sight of the nations. 
 
 And I will do in thee that which I have not done, 
 And whereunto I will not do any more the like, 
 Because of all thine abominations. 
 
 Therefore the fathers shall eat the sons in the midst of thee. 
 And the sons shall eat the fathers ; and I will execute judgments in 
 
 thee, 
 And the whole remnant of thee will I scatter into all the winds." 1 
 
 Sometimes, as in chapter six, the coming destruction 
 of Israel is portrayed in language of poetic eloquence. 
 
 Heredity and Righteousness. The Jews of the cap- 
 tivity, it appears, were inclined to attribute their misfor- 
 tunes to the sins of their fathers. They were accustomed 
 to quote the proverb, " The fathers have eaten sour grapes, 
 and the children's teeth are set on edge." This was a self- 
 complacent assertion of their own righteousness ; for by 
 "the children" they meant themselves. The same 
 proverb had been used in connection with the preaching 
 of Jeremiah. 2 
 
 This proverb contains an important truth ; namely, that 
 children often suffer for the sins of their parents. This is 
 
 i Ez. 5 : 5-10. 2 See Jer. 31 : 29. 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 197 
 
 frequently seen in the transmitted taints of heredity. But 
 this law is not inevitable in its consequences, and cannot 
 be adduced as an impeachment of the justice of Jehovah. 
 It is only when children continue in the iniquity of their 
 parents that retribution follows in all its force. The evil 
 results of heredity may be counteracted by righteousness, 
 and every man, in spite of inherited evil, sustains a relation 
 of individual responsibility before God. 
 
 This truth Ezekiel announces very clearly and forcibly 
 to his self-complacent countryman : 
 
 " Ye say, why ? doth not the son bear the iniquity of the father ? 
 When the son hath done that which is lawful and right, 
 And hath kept all My statutes, and hath done them, he shall surely 
 
 live. 
 
 The soul that sinneth, it shall die. 
 The son shall not bear the iniquity of the father, 
 Neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son : 
 The righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him, 
 And the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him. 
 But if the wicked will turn from all his sins that he hath committed, 
 And keep all My statutes, and do that which is lawful and right, 
 He shall surely live, he shall not die. 
 All his transgressions that he hath committed, 
 They shall not be mentioned unto him : 
 In his righteousness that he hath done he shall live. 
 Have I any pleasure at all that the wicked should die ? " x 
 
 A Picture of War. Among the doom prophecies those 
 against Tyre and Egypt are elaborate and striking. A 
 wealth of detail is made splendid by poetic imagination. 
 In the twenty-sixth chapter there is an instructive portrayal 
 of Oriental warfare: we behold its varied implements and 
 its unsparing cruelties. Nebuchadnezzar is to be sent 
 against the proud city of Tyre, 
 
 1 Ez. 18 : 19-23. See also 33 : 18-20. 
 
198 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 "With horses, and with chariots, 
 
 And with horsemen, and companies, and much people. 
 And he shall slay with the sword thy daughters in the field ; 
 And he shall make a fort against thee, and cast a mount against thee, 
 And lift up the buckler against thee. 
 And he shall set engines of war against thy walls, 
 And with his axes he shall break down thy towers. 
 By reason of the abundance of his horses their dust shall cover thee : 
 Thy walls shall shake at the noise of the horsemen, 
 And of the wheels, and of the chariots, 
 When he shall enter into thy gates, 
 As men enter into a city wherein is made a breach. 
 With the hoofs of his horses shall he tread down all thy streets : 
 He shall slay thy people by the sword, 
 And thy strong garrisons shall go down to the ground. 
 And they shall make a spoil of thy riches, 
 And make a prey of thy merchandise ; 
 
 And they shall break down thy walls, and destroy thy pleasant houses : 
 And they shall lay thy stones and thy timber and thy dust 
 In the midst of the water." 
 
 It is a noteworthy fact that the destruction of Tyre, as 
 here predicted, did not take place a fact acknowledged 
 by Ezekiel in a later prophecy. 1 It was indeed besieged 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, as the prophet had foreseen, for thir- 
 teen years, and its inland trade was destroyed ; but having 
 no navy, the Babylonian monarch was not able to cut off 
 its supplies by sea. Tyre continued to be a great com- 
 mercial city till after its capture by Alexander the Great 
 in 331 B.C. 
 
 Restoration from Exile. The prophet's confidence in 
 Jehovah forbade him to think of the exile as a permanent 
 removal from the sacred soil of Judah. Even in the midst 
 of his proclamation of judgment and destruction, he has a 
 word of comfort for the people. He foresees a return of 
 
 l Ez. 29 : 18. 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 199 
 
 the exiles to the city of David. He quotes the Lord as say- 
 ing, 
 
 " I will even gather you from the people, 
 
 And assemble you out of the countries, where ye have been scattered. 
 And I will give you the land of Israel." l 
 
 In the third division of the prophecy the restoration is 
 treated at considerable length. The purifying effect of the 
 captivity is clearly announced ; and when the people of 
 Israel are thus healed of their idolatry, then they will be 
 restored to their native land, which will flourish again like 
 the garden of the Lord. 
 
 "Thus saith the Lord: 
 
 In the day that I shall have cleansed you of all your iniquities, 
 I will also cause you to dwell in the cities, 
 And the waste shall be builded. 
 And the desolate land shall be tilled, 
 Whereas it lay desolate in the sight of all that passed by. 
 And they shall say, 
 This land that was desolate and ruined is become like the garden of 
 
 Eden; 
 
 And the waste and desolate and ruined cities are become fenced, 
 And are inhabited. 1 ' 2 
 
 The prophet describes the regenerated Israel of the res- 
 toration. The religious life of the people will be some- 
 thing more than outward formalism ; it will be a religion 
 of the heart and life. Though, as a priest, Ezekiel 
 naturally attached importance to the ritualistic services of 
 the temple, he discerned, as a prophet, the essential need 
 of spiritual worship. 
 
 " A new heart also will I give you, 
 And a new spirit will I put within you ; 
 And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh. 
 
 lEz. 11:17. 2 Ez. 36 : 33-35, 
 
200 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 And I will put My Spirit within you, 
 
 And cause you to walk in My statutes, 
 
 And ye shall keep My judgments, and do them. 
 
 And ye shall dwell in the land that I gave to your fathers ; 
 
 And ye shall be My people, and I will be your God." 1 
 
 A Remarkable Vision. More than any other of the 
 greater prophets, Ezekiel makes use of symbol and parable. 
 Perhaps the most striking of all the symbols he uses is 
 the vision of the valley of dry bones, 2 by which he seeks 
 to infuse hope and courage into the hearts of the dejected 
 exiles. With their kingdom destroyed and the people scat- 
 tered among the nations, it was difficult for them to believe 
 the glorious things predicted of their return to Jerusalem. 
 
 The prophet was carried in spirit to a valley which was 
 filled with bleaching bones, the relics of some fierce day of 
 slaughter. It seemed impossible that these ghastly relics 
 of mortality should live again. Yet, when the prophet 
 spoke in obedience to the divine command, there was a 
 mighty stir of life throughout the plain, and at length the 
 skeleton host stood clothed in all the attributes of life. 
 
 Then came the interpretation of the startling vision : "Son 
 of man, these bones are the whole house of Israel : behold, 
 they say, Our bones are dried, and our hope is lost : we are 
 cut off for our parts. Therefore prophesy and say unto 
 them, 
 
 " Thus saith the Lord God : 
 Behold, O My people, I will open your graves, 
 And cause you to come out of your graves, 
 And bring you into the land of Israel." 
 
 Gog and Magog. The prophet's gaze, sweeping beyond 
 the approaching restoration, penetrates far into the future. 
 Under the mighty imagery of war (chapters 38, 39) he fore- 
 
 1 Ez. 36 : 28. See also n : 18-20. 2 Ez. 37. 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 20 1 
 
 tells the triumph of Jehovah over the assembled nations of the 
 earth. His graphic descriptions seem to be based on an 
 earlier Scythian invasion, the terrors of which still lingered 
 as a tradition in western Asia. 
 
 Under the leadership of Gog, a haughty prince, a mighty 
 host is represented as invading the peaceful and unprotected 
 land of Israel. In their greed for booty they come on 
 "like a storm," and cover the land "like a cloud." But 
 the Lord's people are not to be destroyed. In wrath 
 Jehovah rises against the enemy. 
 
 " And I will call for a sword against him 
 Throughout all My mountains, saith the Lord God ; 
 Every man's sword shall be against his brother. 
 And I will plead against him with pestilence and blood : 
 And I will rain upon him, and upon his bands, . 
 
 And upon the many people that are with him, 
 An overflowing rain, and great hailstones, fire, and brimstone. 
 Thus will I magnify Myself, and sanctify Myself; 
 And I will be known in the eyes of many nations, 
 And they shall know that I am the Lord." l 
 
 Characteristics. Some of the leading features of Eze- 
 kiel's genius have already been brought out. He was 
 not a great public preacher like Isaiah and Jeremiah ; his 
 prophecies were delivered chiefly to small groups of exiles 
 who assembled at his house at Tel-abib. His vigorous im- 
 agination made extensive use of symbol and parable and 
 vision ; yet he often lacked the poetic sensibility that im- 
 parts warmth and beauty to discourse. He was a patient 
 writer rather than fiery orator; and no other prophet 
 shows so great a familiarity with the earlier Hebrew writ- 
 ings. He borrows not only from various books of the 
 Pentateuch, but also from the writings of Isaiah, Hosea, 
 and Jeremiah. 
 
202 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 He was not to be a part of the restoration, with hopes of 
 which he had comforted his fellow-captives. He was 
 destined to end his days in a strange land. He must have 
 lived much in memories of the past. In the words of 
 Geikie: " He could only betake himself to the regions of fancy 
 and memory, and call up a vision of the temple, and its 
 services he loved so well, now lost to him forever. Nor 
 did a general picture before his imagination content him. 
 With a passionate devotion to exactness in ritual that marks 
 the character of his mind, he almost anticipates Ezra in 
 the importance he attaches to the minutest ecclesiastical 
 details." l 
 
 Daniel. The book of Daniel, when viewed in a proper 
 light, is one of the grandest and most impressive in the 
 Old Testament. In its largeness of view, it comprehends 
 the rise and fall of empires, and clearly recognizes the 
 divine agency that reaches forth from the invisible world 
 to direct the destiny of nations. When Daniel, through 
 "a night vision," understands Nebuchadnezzar's dream of 
 the colossal image, he breaks forth in a psalm of praise : 
 
 u Blessed be the name of God forever and ever : 
 For wisdom and might are His : 
 And He changeth the times and seasons ; 
 He removeth kings, and setteth up kings." 2 
 
 This is his fundamental belief ; and on that foundation 
 he builds up his great message of encouragement to his 
 people. His faith is simply repeated by the American 
 poet who declares that, 
 
 " Behind the dim unknown 
 Standeth God within the shadow, keeping watch above His own." 8 
 
 1 Geikie, " Hours with the Bible," Vol. V., p. 428. 2 Dan. 2 : 20, 21. 
 
 8 Lowell, " The Present Crisis." 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 203 
 
 Authorship. In order to a right understanding of the 
 book of Daniel, it is important to know when and by whom 
 it was written. The prevailing view of modern biblical 
 scholarship places the author in the time of Antiochus 
 Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.). The prophet was a devout and 
 faithful Jew of Palestine, who brought in this book a 
 mighty message of encouragement to his downtrodden and 
 suffering people. He placed his message in the mouth of 
 Daniel, an honored name in Hebrew tradition, 1 and ex- 
 pressed in the form of visions and historic incidents, as in 
 parables, the weighty spiritual truths, which it might have 
 been dangerous, under the dominion of a pagan tyrant, to 
 utter in an open manner. 
 
 When viewed in this light, the book of Daniel is found to 
 possess a new and deeper significance. It becomes one of 
 the most powerful prophetic appeals ever addressed to a 
 troubled and suffering age. " It is written," to use the 
 words of McFadyen, " at white heat amid the fires of per- 
 secution, and it is inspired by a passionate faith in God and 
 in the triumph of His kingdom over the cruel and powerful 
 kingdoms of the world. Its object was to sustain the tried 
 and tempted faith of the loyal Jews under the fierce assault 
 made upon it by Antiochus Epiphanes. Never before had 
 there been so awful a crisis in Jewish history. In 586 the 
 temple had been destroyed, but that was practically only an 
 incident in or a consequence of the destruction of the city ; 
 but Antiochus had made a deliberate attempt to extermi- 
 nate the Jewish religion. It was to console and strengthen 
 the faithful in this crisis that the book was written." 2 
 
 The Older View. The older view, which made Daniel 
 the author as well as the hero, and thus placed the date of 
 
 1 See Ez. 14 : 14. 
 
 2 McFadyen, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 329. 
 
204 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 the book in the sixth century before Christ, is attended 
 with many and serious difficulties, only a few of which can 
 be here mentioned. This view, in large measure, destroys 
 the value of the book as a prophetic message to the 
 author's contemporaries. It is written in the language of 
 western Syria, a fact inconsistent with its composition in 
 Babylon. It contains a large number of Persian words, 
 which indicate a period subsequent to the Babylonian 
 monarchy. It contains also several Greek words herald, 
 harp, psaltery, symphony which point to a time following 
 the conquests of Alexander the Great. 
 
 But more important than these linguistic considerations 
 are several historical inaccuracies that would have been im- 
 possible to a contemporary author. It is tolerably certain- 
 for instance, that Nebuchadnezzar, contrary to the opening 
 statement of Daniel, did not capture Jerusalem " in the 
 third year of the reign of Jehoiakim " (605 B.C.). As we 
 have already learned from other parts of the Old Testa- 
 ment, the Babylonian conqueror first captured Jerusalem 
 and deported a part of its inhabitants in 597 B.C. in the reign 
 of Jehoiachim. Again Belshazzar is represented as the son 
 of Nebuchadnezzar and last king of Babylon. As a matter of 
 fact, Nabonidus was the last king of Babylon, and his son Bel- 
 sharusur, or Belshazzar, was in no way related to Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. Furthermore, the conqueror of Babylon was Cyrus, 
 and not " Darius the Median," as stated in chapter 5 : 3I. 1 
 
 1 " All these reasons force us to recognize in Daniel the work of a pious and faith- 
 ful Jew of the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, who wished to encourage and 
 strengthen his persecuted and suffering people through the promise that the king- 
 dom of heaven was near at hand. These admonitions and prophecies he placed 
 in the mouth of an inspired prophet of the time of the Babylonian exile, so that his 
 work is apseudepigrapha; but this course was an absolute necessity, if he was to 
 be heard and if his message was to be heeded, since his age was thoroughly con- 
 vinced that prophecy had ceased." CORNILL, " Einleitung in das Alte Testa- 
 ment," p. 215. 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 205 
 
 The Hero. Adopting the view, then, that the book of 
 Daniel dates from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (about 
 165 B.C.), we turn to the more pleasing task of discovering 
 its separate messages ; for its purpose is not historical but 
 spiritual and practical. The career of its princely hero, 
 as narrated in the first chapter, is a lesson in loyalty to 
 Jehovah. 
 
 As a handsome and promising youth, Daniel was set 
 apart, with three of his companions, to be educated in the 
 language and learning of the Chaldeans. Though willing 
 to be trained for the public service of the Babylonian mon- 
 archy, he remained faithful to the religion of Jehovah, 
 and hence resolved "that he would not defile himself with 
 the portion of the king's meat, nor with the wine which he 
 drank." And what was the outcome of this faithfulness ? 
 It was an edifying example at a time when Antiochus 
 was employing the fulness of his power to draw or drive 
 the Jews into apostasy. When, at the end of three years, 
 Daniel was brought before Nebuchadnezzar, he was found 
 " ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers." 
 Fidelity to the religion of Judah did not go unrewarded. 
 
 The Colossal Image. The book of Daniel is made up 
 chiefly of narratives and visions, which in the form of im- 
 pressive types or symbols are fraught with weighty lessons. 
 These lessons, though suited to all ages and peoples, were 
 peculiarly adapted to comfort and strengthen the Jews un- 
 der the persecutions of Antiochus. 
 
 In the second chapter we have a dramatic account of 
 Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a colossal image. Its head 
 was of gold, the breast and arms of silver, the body of 
 brass, the legs of iron, the feet of mixed iron and clay. 
 As the king gazed upon the Titanic figure, a marvellous 
 stone moved upon it, crushed it to powder, and after- 
 
206 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 wards "became a great mountain, and filled the whole 
 earth." 
 
 This vision, which might have well troubled the mon- 
 arch's mind, the prophet interpreted before him. The 
 image symbolized four great monarchies the Babylonian, 
 Median, Persian, and Grecian which were to follow one 
 another in stately succession upon the great stage of Asia. 
 And the stone " cut out of the mountain without hands " ? 
 "In the days of these kings," explains the prophet, "shall 
 the God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be 
 destroyed ; and the kingdom shall not be left to other peo- 
 ple, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these king- 
 doms, and it shall stand forever." To a people, whose 
 religion was threatened by a furious monarch, this near 
 approach and conquering power of the kingdom of heaven 
 was a comforting and glorious truth. 
 
 The Fiery Furnace. The third chapter contains an ac- 
 count of the marvellous deliverance of three faithful He- 
 brews Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego from a 
 fiery furnace. Nebuchadnezzar had set up in the plain of 
 Dura a huge image of gold. At its dedication, to which 
 all the officials of the empire had been summoned, the peo- 
 ple were commanded, when the music crashed forth, to fall 
 down in idolatrous worship. 
 
 When the three faithful Hebrews refused obedience to 
 the king's command, they were hurled into a furiously 
 flaming furnace. But they were not consumed, for an 
 angel walked at their side. At length the astonished mon- 
 arch called them forth from the flames ; and the lesson of 
 the incident the message which the author meant for his 
 persecuted fellow-countrymen is found in Nebuchad- 
 nezzar's own words, " Blessed be the God of Shadrach, 
 Meshach, and Abed-nego, who hath sent His angel, and de- 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 207 
 
 livered His servants that trusted in Him, and have changed 
 the king's word, and yielded their bodies, that they might 
 not serve nor worship any god except their own God." 
 
 Regal Pride Humbled. The fourth chapter teaches a 
 lesson that the impious Antiochus would have done well 
 to heed. But the truth embodied in Nebuchadnezzar's 
 second vision is of universal application. It is thus stated 
 by the author of Proverbs : 
 
 " A man's pride shall bring him low ; 
 But he that is of a lowly spirit shall obtain honor." 1 
 
 In his dream the king of Babylon beheld a mighty tree 
 in the midst of the earth ; its top reached to heaven, and 
 the birds found shelter in its widespreading branches. As 
 the royal dreamer was wondering at the majestic tree, he 
 heard a heavenly voice commanding that 'it be cut down. 
 When the magicians and astrologers had tried in vain, the 
 faithful Daniel made known the meaning of the vision. 
 The tree symbolized Nebuchadnezzar himself in his pride 
 and power; but he was to be brought low and driven for 
 a time from human habitations till he had learned the great 
 lesson " that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, 
 and giveth it to whomsoever He will." 
 
 The fearful visitation of divine judgment came upon 
 Nebuchadnezzar at the supreme moment of his self-con- 
 scious and boastful pride. As he walked upon the roof 
 of his palace, and surveyed the grandeur of his capital, he 
 exclaimed, " Is not this great Babylon, that I have built 
 for the house of the kingdom by the might of my power, 
 and for the honor of my majesty ? " Scarcely had he 
 ceased speaking when his reason was taken from him. 
 For seven years his mania known as lycanthropy drove 
 
 1 Prov. 29 : 23. 
 
208 A N INTRODUCTION" TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 him among the beasts of the field. At length his reason 
 returned with a sense of his humble dependence on God. 
 "And at the end of the days I, Nebuchadnezzar, lifted up 
 mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned 
 unto me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and 
 honored Him that liveth forever, whose dominion is an ever- 
 lasting dominion, and His kingdom from generation to gen- 
 eration : and all the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as 
 nothing ; and He doeth according to His will in the army of 
 heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth ; and none 
 can stay His hand, or say unto Him, what doest Thou?" 
 
 Belshazzar's Feast. The story of Belshazzar's feast 
 brought a comforting message to the Jews of the second 
 century before Christ, who saw another impious monarch 
 desecrating the sanctity of their temple with idolatrous 
 worship. It assured them, in a narrative of tragic power, 
 that sacrilege is attended with divine judgment. They 
 were thus encouraged to look forward to the speedy hu- 
 miliation of a blasphemous king, who had forbidden the 
 worship of Jehovah and set up an altar to Zeus in the sa- 
 cred temple. 
 
 The incidents of the feast are known to all. While Bel- 
 shazzar, with a great company of courtiers, was drinking 
 wine out of the golden vessels taken from the temple at 
 Jerusalem, a mysterious hand reached forth from invisibil- 
 ity, and wrote strange words upon the wall of the palace. 
 No wonder that " the king's countenance was changed, and 
 his thoughts troubled him, so that the joints of his loins 
 were loosed, and his knees smote one against another." 
 
 Once more Daniel is the interpreter, and boldly rebukes 
 the king for his pride and sacrilege. After referring to 
 the judgment sent upon Nebuchadnezzar for his pride, the 
 prophet continues : " And thou his son, O Belshazzar, hast 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 209 
 
 not humbled thine heart, though thou knewest all this ; 
 but hast lifted up thyself against the Lord of heaven; and 
 they have brought the vessels of His house before thee, 
 and thou, and thy lords, thy wives and thy concubines, have 
 drunk wine in them; and thou hast praised the gods of 
 silver, and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see 
 not, nor hear, nor know : and the God in whose hand thy 
 breath is, and whose ar.e all thy ways, hast thou not glori- 
 fied: then was the part of the hand sent from Him; and 
 this writing was written. 
 
 " And this is the writing that was written, MENE, 
 MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN. This is the interpreta- 
 tion of the thing : MENE ; God hath numbered thy king- 
 dom, and finished it. TEKEL ; Thou art weighed in the 
 balances, and art found wanting. PERES ; Thy kingdom 
 is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians." And 
 that same night, as the narrative concludes, Belshazzar, the 
 king of the Chaldeans, was slain. 
 
 In the Lion's Den. In the sixth chapter we have 
 another striking narrative that admirably teaches an im- 
 pressive lesson. While Antiochus was seeking to establish 
 the Greek religion throughout his dominions, there were 
 many defections from the Jewish faith. Apostasy from 
 Judaism was a necessary step toward political or religious 
 preferment. Under these circumstances the devout author 
 of the book presents Daniel's splendid example of fidelity. 
 
 For the purpose of ensnaring Daniel, of whose pre- 
 eminence they had become jealous, the Persian princes 
 secured a decree from Darius " that whosoever shall ask 
 a petition of any god or man for thirty days, save of thee, 
 O king, he shall be cast into the den of lions." As the 
 evil-minded princes had foreseen, Daniel disregarded the 
 decree ; and, " his windows being open in his chamber 
 
210 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 toward Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees three times 
 a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he 
 did aforetime." According to the decree, which was un- 
 changeable, the king, with great reluctance, ordered Dan- 
 iel to be cast into the den of lions. 
 
 As is well known, the faithful hero was saved, for 
 " God sent His angel, and shut the lions' mouths." The 
 king was " exceeding glad" of his preservation; and he 
 forthwith published a decree that contains the impressive 
 moral of the story. " I make a decree," he wrote, " that 
 in every dominion of my kingdom men tremble and fear 
 before the God of Daniel; for He is the living God, and 
 steadfast forever, and His kingdom that which shall not 
 be destroyed, and His dominion shall be even unto the 
 end. He delivereth and rescueth, and He worketh signs 
 and wonders in heaven and in earth, who hath delivered 
 Daniel from the power of the lions." 
 
 Various Visions. The first seven chapters of Daniel, 
 as we have seen, are narrative in form ; the rest of the 
 book is occupied with the prophet's own visions, which 
 deal with great national changes and the ultimate 
 triumph of the kingdom of God. The vision of four 
 beasts in chapter 7, which are explained to signify four 
 kingdoms, is commonly understood to be parallel with 
 Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the colossal image. 
 
 In chapter 8 a ram with two horns is furiously at- 
 tacked by a goat " with a notable horn between his 
 eyes." The angel Gabriel explains to the prophet that 
 the ram symbolizes the Medo-Persian empire, and the 
 goat the Grecian empire, its " notable horn " being clearly 
 Alexander the Great. Afterwards follow the four king- 
 doms into which the empire of the Macedonian conqueror 
 was divided. " And in the latter time of their kingdom, 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 211 
 
 when the transgressors are come to the full, a king of 
 fierce countenance, and understanding dark sentences, 
 shall stand up. And his power shall be mighty, but not by 
 his own power ; and he shall destroy wonderfully, and 
 shall prosper and do his pleasure : and he shall destroy 
 the mighty ones and the holy people. And through his 
 policy he shall cause craft to prosper in his hand ; and he 
 shall magnify himself in his heart, and in their security 
 shall destroy many ; he shall also stand up against the 
 prince of princes; but he shall be broken without hand." 
 This impious king, as is generally recognized, can be no 
 other than Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 
 The times and events of chapter 9 have given rise to 
 different interpretations. The last two chapters deal with 
 four kings of Persia, with Alexander the Great, and the 
 fourfold division of his kingdom. In the eleventh chapter, 
 from the twenty-first to the forty-fifth verse, the career of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes is described with remarkable fulness 
 and particularity. Though he is not named, there can be 
 no mistaking his person. " He shall have regard unto 
 them that forsake the holy covenant. And arms shall 
 stand on his part, and they shall profane the sanctuary, 
 even the fortress, and shall take away the continual burnt 
 offering, and they shall set up the abomination that 
 maketh desolate. And such as do wickedly against the 
 covenant shall he pervert by flatteries : but the people that 
 know their God shall be strong, and do exploits." 
 
 General Character. The book of Daniel, in some re- 
 spects, stands apart from the other prophetical writings. 
 The author does not speak in the name of Jehovah ; we 
 look in vain for his " thus saith the Lord." Yet, in the 
 highest sense he has the inspired insight of the prophet 
 and delivers the weighty message of the prophet. He 
 
212 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 deals with great themes. From a lofty summit he sur- 
 veys the movement of great empires, as they fulfil their 
 age-long parts on the stage of history. " The prophets," 
 as Driver says, " do not merely foretell history ; they also 
 interpret it. And the book of Daniel does this on a more 
 comprehensive scale than any other prophetical book. It 
 outlines a religious philosophy of history. It deals, not 
 with a single empire, but with a succession of empires, 
 showing how all form parts of a whole, ordained for pre- 
 scribed terms by God, and issuing in results designed by 
 Him." i 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 EZEKIEL 
 
 Vision and call of the prophet, Ez. 1-3. 
 
 Mimic siege and other symbols, Ez. 4, 5. 
 
 Discourse against the land of Judah, Ez. 6, 7. 
 
 Guilt and judgment of Jerusalem, Ez. 8-n. 
 
 An emblem prophecy, Ez. 12 : 1-16. 
 
 A condemnation of false prophets, Ez. 13. 
 
 Parable of the vine, Ez. 15. 
 
 Parable of an adulterous woman, Ez. 16. 
 
 Parable of the eagle and the cedar, Ez. 17. 
 
 Heredity and responsibility, Ez. 18. 
 
 Emblem prophecy of the sword, Ez. 21. 
 
 The guilt of Jerusalem, Ez. 22. 
 
 Parable of Aholah and Aholibah, Ez. 23. 
 
 Parable of the caldron, Ez. 24 : 1-14. 
 
 Death of the prophet's wife, Ez. 24: 15-27. 
 
 The doom of Tyre, Ez. 26-28. 
 
 A group of prophecies against Egypt, Ez. 26-28. 
 
 The selfish shepherds of Israel, Ez. 34. 
 
 Vision of the valley of dry bones, Ez. 37. 
 
 Prophecy against Gog of Magog, Ez. 38-39. 
 
 Vision of Jerusalem restored, Ez. 40-48. 
 
 1 Driver, " Literature of the Old Testament," p. 512. 
 
STUDIES IN EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 213 
 
 DANIEL 
 
 Faithfulness blessed and rewarded, Dan. I. 
 Dream of a colossal image, Dan. 2. 
 Deliverance from a fiery furnace, Dan. 3. 
 Dream of a mighty tree, Dan. 4. 
 Belshazzar's feast, Dan. 5. 
 The prophet in the lions 1 den, Dan. 6. 
 Vision of the four beasts, Dan. 7. 
 Vision of the ram and goat, Dan. 8. 
 The time of the restoration, Dan. 9. 
 The time of the end, Dan. 10-12. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 
 
 Minor Prophets. The minor prophets Hosea, Joel, 
 Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zeph- 
 aniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi are twelve in 
 number. They are called minor prophets not because 
 their message is less weighty than that of the major 
 prophets, but because it is briefer. The combined writ- 
 ings of the minor prophets make a smaller volume than 
 the book of Isaiah. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the arrangement of the minor 
 prophets in our Bibles does not follow a chronological 
 order. Amos, whose career dates from the middle of the 
 eighth century before our era, is undoubtedly the oldest 
 of all the prophetical writers. He antedates Isaiah by 
 several years, yet he is placed third among the minor 
 prophets. Joel, though one of the latest of the minor 
 prophets, is placed second ; and Hosea, though prophesy- 
 ing after Amos, opens the list. There are, as we shall 
 discover later, still other departures from a chronological 
 arrangement. 
 
 Relation to the New Testament. The minor prophets, 
 with their varied messages, are frequently quoted in the 
 New Testament. In some cases there is no direct pre- 
 diction ; the New Testament writers merely adopt the 
 earlier statements as apt or interesting illustrations. 1 Our 
 
 1 " It is admitted that the sense put by the New Testament writers on much of 
 the Old Testament which they quote is not the true historical sense, i.e. not the 
 sense which the original writers, prophets, or wise men had in their mind." 
 DAVIDSON, " Old Testament Theology," p. 22. 
 
 214 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 215 
 
 Saviour sometimes used the spiritual truth announced by 
 the prophets, and by an apt quotation closed the mouths 
 of His antagonists. In other cases there is a claim of the 
 fulfilment of earlier predictions. 
 
 A few examples will make all this plain. In Hosea 
 (n : i) Jehovah, in recounting the early history of the 
 Hebrew people, is represented as saying, " When Israel 
 was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of 
 Egypt." It is not a prediction of a ftiture event, but a 
 statement of a past event. But the evangelist seizes 
 upon this statement of the prophet as furnishing an illus- 
 tration or parallel of the flight of Joseph into Egypt; and 
 accordingly he writes : " And he arose and took the young 
 child and his mother by night, and departed into Egypt ; 
 and was there until the death of Herod ; that it might 
 be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the 
 prophet, saying, Out of Egypt did I call My son." 1 
 
 In the sixth chapter of Hosea, the prophet rebukes 
 Israel for formalism and iniquity. With true spiritual in- 
 sight he declares in the name of Jehovah, " I desire mercy, 
 and not sacrifice ; and the knowledge of God more than 
 burnt offerings." This statement of truth Jesus employs 
 with irresistible effect against the carping Pharisees, who in 
 their excessive devotion to outward observances complained 
 of the violation of the Sabbath by the disciples. " If ye 
 had known," He answered, " what this meaneth, I desire 
 mercy, and not sacrifice, ye would not have condemned 
 the guiltless." 2 
 
 In foretelling the future glory of Israel, the prophet 
 Micah had said, 
 
 " But thou, Beth-lehem Ephratah, 
 Though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, 
 Yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel." 
 l Matt. 2 : 14, 15. 2 Matt. 12: 7. 
 
2l6 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 This prediction was understood among the Jews to refer 
 to the coming Messiah. Accordingly, when Herod in- 
 quired of the priests and scribes " where Christ should be 
 born," they answered without hesitation : " In Bethlehem 
 of Judaea : for thus it is written by the prophet, And thou 
 Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, art not the least among 
 the princes of Judah ; for out of thee shall come a Gov- 
 ernor, that shall rule My people Israel." l 
 
 Hosea. Hosea, of whom little is known further than 
 his father's name, was a prophet of Israel during the 
 period immediately preceding the fall of the northern 
 kingdom. He was married to a faithless wife ; and his 
 love and kindness to her he employed symbolically to set 
 forth the gracious attitude of Jehovah to Israel. From 
 the list of kings in the opening verse, we are able to fix 
 the date of his prophecies, which cover the long period of 
 about half a century. 
 
 As may be seen from the narratives in 2 Kings, par- 
 ticularly the fifteenth chapter, the prophet lived in a period 
 of anarchy. Murder repeatedly opened the way to the 
 throne. Shallum, who had obtained the kingdom by con- 
 spiracy and assassination, reigned but a month. He was 
 slain by Menahem, who maintained himself for ten years 
 through the support of Tiglathpilezer of Assyria. This 
 support was procured through the payment of a burden- 
 some tribute. 2 Under Hoshea, who ascended the throne 
 
 1 Matt. 2 : 6. 
 
 2 KINGS OF ISRAEL CONTEMPORARY WITH HOSEA 
 
 B.C. 786. Jeroboam II. 
 746. Zechariah. 
 745. Shallum. 
 745. Menahem. 
 737. Pekahiah. 
 735. Pekah. 
 733. Hoshea. 
 722, Fall of Samaria. 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 217 
 
 about the time Hosea's prophecies ceased, the northern 
 kingdom came to its end (722 B.C.). 
 
 Religious Conditions. As might be expected, this 
 anarchic period was characterized by great moral and 
 religious decadence. In the seventeenth chapter of 2 
 Kings, we have a full statement of the transgressions and 
 idolatries of the people. Hosea's arraignment of Israel is 
 a strong, comprehensive indictment: 
 
 " Hear the word of the Lord, ye children of Israel : 
 For the Lord hath a controversy with the inhabitants of the land, 
 Because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the 
 
 land. 
 
 By swearing, and lying, 
 
 And killing, and stealing, and committing adultery, 
 They break out, and blood toucheth blood." 
 
 The mission of Hosea was to call his people to repent- 
 ance and reformation. He urged upon them the good- 
 ness of Jehovah ; he reminded them of the gracious 
 providences of their previous history ; but, at the same 
 time, he announced the woes that would certainly follow 
 'impenitent sin : 
 
 " My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge : 
 
 Because thou hast rejected knowledge, 
 ' I will also reject thee, that thou shalt be no priest to Me : 
 
 Seeing thou hast forgotten the law of thy God, 
 
 I will also forget thy children. 
 
 As they were increased, so they sinned against Me : 
 
 Therefore will I change their glory into shame." 
 
 Two Parts. The book of Hosea naturally falls into two 
 parts. The first part (chapters 13) belongs to the reign of 
 Jeroboam ; the second part (chapters 4-14) contains a sum- 
 mary of Hosea's prophetic discourses under the reigns of 
 subsequent kings. The first part is devoted to a symboli- 
 
2l8 A N INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 cal act, or, as some think, a symbolical vision, by which 
 Israel's unfaithfulness is represented. The unfaithful 
 spouse of the prophet is emblematic of Israel. But the 
 Lord will not cast off His faithless people forever, but 
 cleanse them from their iniquity : 
 
 " Therefore, behold, I will allure her, 
 
 And bring her into the wilderness, and speak comfortably unto her, 
 And I will give her her vineyards from thence, 
 And the valley of Achor for a door of hope : 
 And she shall sing then, as in the days of her youth, 
 And as in the day when she came up out of the land of Egypt." 1 
 
 In the second part there are various statements of Is- 
 rael's guilt and coming punishment. In the eleventh 
 chapter the prophet, speaking in Jehovah's name, ten- 
 derly sets forth the divine love, but at the same time 
 clearly announces the coming disasters at the hand of 
 Assyria : 
 
 " When Israel was a child, then I loved him, 
 And called My son out of Egypt. 
 As they called them, so they went from them : 
 They sacrificed unto Baalim, and burnt incense to graven images. 
 I taught Ephraim also to go, taking them by their arms ; 
 But they knew not that I healed them. 
 
 " He shall not return into the land of Egypt, 
 
 But the Assyrian shall be his king, because they refused to return. 
 And the sword shall abide on his cities, 
 And shall consume his branches, and devour them. 1 ' 
 
 Message of Hope. Like the other prophets whom we 
 have studied, Hosea has a message of hope for his people. 
 The captivity is to bring a blessing ; for it will teach them 
 
 1 Hos. 2: 14, 15. 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 219 
 
 not to worship " the work of their hands." In the last 
 chapter Jehovah declares : 
 
 " I will heal their backsliding, I will love them freely : 
 For Mine anger is turned away from him. 
 I will be as the dew unto Israel : 
 
 He shall grow as the lily, and cast forth his roots as Lebanon. 
 His branches shall spread, 
 
 And his beauty shall be as the olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon. 
 They that dwell under his shadow shall return ; 
 They shall revive as the corn, and grow as the vine : 
 The scent thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon." 
 
 But alas ! for the prophet's hopes. Though his faith in 
 God was beautiful and true, his confidence in Israel was 
 misplaced. The Ten Tribes, who were carried into As- 
 syria, abandoned their religion, and became absorbed 
 among the peoples around them. Like raindrops swal- 
 lowed up in the ocean, they have disappeared from the 
 field of history forever. 
 
 Joel. The brief book of Joel gives no direct indication 
 of the time when it was written. Accordingly a diversity 
 of opinion has arisen, and we find the different dates as- 
 signed to the book sometimes disagreeing by nearly five 
 hundred years. One thing is certain, the date is either 
 very early or quite late ; and for the solution of the prob- 
 lem we are wholly dependent upon internal evidence. 
 
 Though the reasoning is not absolutely conclusive, it 
 will be found interesting, as an example of historical criti- 
 cism, to consider some of the arguments in favor of a late 
 or post-exilic date. In the third chapter of Joel, second 
 verse, Jehovah declares his purpose to judge the nations 
 " for My people and for My heritage Israel, whom they 
 have scattered among the nations and parted My land." 
 This seems to be a clear reference to the captivity . in 
 
220 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 586 B.C. The prophet appears to have had in mind the 
 capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar when he wrote 
 again, in the seventeenth verse, "there shall no strangers 
 pass through her any more." 
 
 Furthermore, there is no reference in the book to the 
 Ten Tribes, which seem to have disappeared entirely from 
 the prophet's range of knowledge. He speaks only of 
 Judah and Jerusalem ; and when he uses the designation 
 Israel, he gives it a restricted meaning. The Tyrians, 
 Zidonians, and Philistines are charged with selling " the 
 children of Judah and the children of Jerusalem unto the 
 sons of the Grecians." These facts are most readily ex- 
 plained on the theory of a post-exilic date. 
 
 Again, there is an absence of the prophetic denuncia- 
 tion characteristic of the early prophets. Joel makes no 
 reference to idolatry; the priests are held in honor; and 
 the services of the temple are conducted regularly. No 
 mention is made of king or princes ; on the contrary, the 
 elders are referred to as prominent in the public assembly. 
 All these conditions are apparently suited only to the 
 period after the restoration under Ezra and Nehemiah. 
 We are reasonably justified, therefore, in fixing the date 
 of Joel at approximately 410 B.C. 
 
 Plague of Locusts. The occasion of Joel's prophecy 
 was a plague of locusts. The visitation was exceedingly 
 destructive. Vineyards and harvest fields were left deso- 
 late ; and the ensuing destitution prevented the usual 
 meat and drink offerings in the temple. Here is a 
 part of the prophet's description of the work of 
 devastation : 
 
 " A nation is come up upon My land, strong and without number, 
 Whose teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the cheek teeth of 
 a great lion. 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 221 
 
 He hath laid My vine waste, and barked My fig tree ; 
 
 He hath made it clean bare, and cast it away ; 
 
 The branches thereof are made white. 
 
 Lament like a virgin girded with sackcloth for the husband of her 
 
 youth. 
 
 The meat offering and the drink offering 
 Is cut off from the house of the Lord ; 
 The priests, the Lord's ministers, mourn. 
 The field is wasted, the land mourneth ; 
 For the corn is wasted ; the new wine is dried up, 
 The oil languisheth." l 
 
 Day of the Lord. But the prophet does not stop at the 
 sore visitation of locusts. The destruction about him sug- 
 gests "the day of the Lord," when the land will be threat- 
 ened with a still more terrible enemy. The descriptions 
 in chapter 2 sometimes touch the sublime : 
 
 " Let all the inhabitants of the earth tremble : 
 For the day of the Lord cometh, for it is nigh at hand ; 
 A day of darkness and gloominess, 
 A day of clouds and thick darkness, 
 
 As a morning spread upon the mountains ; a great people and a strong ; 
 There hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any more after it, 
 Even to the years of many generations." 
 
 Deliverance. In view of the coming danger, the 
 prophet exhorts the people to fasting and prayer. The 
 exhortation contains a pleasing conception of the divine 
 character : 
 
 " Therefore also now, saith the Lord, 
 Turn ye even to Me with all your heart, 
 And with fasting, and with weeping, and with mourning ; 
 And rend your heart, and not your garments, 
 
 And turn unto the Lord your God ; for He is gracious and merciful, 
 Slow to anger, and of great kindness, and repenteth Him of the evil." 2 
 
 1 Joel i : 6-10. 2 Joel 2 : 12, 13. 
 
222 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 The people were obedient to the exhortation to repent- 
 ance ; and beginning with the eighteenth verse of the 
 second chapter, we have a statement of the blessings that 
 were to follow. " Then was the Lord jealous for His land 
 and had pity on His people." The threatening invasion 
 was to be driven away, and the land was to rejoice in 
 returning abundance. This bounteous outward prosperity 
 was to be attended also with spiritual blessings : 
 
 " And it shall come to pass afterward, 
 That I will pour out My Spirit upon all flesh ; 
 And your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, 
 Your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions : 
 And also upon the servants and upon the handmaids 
 In those days will I pour out My Spirit. 
 And I will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth, 
 Blood, fire, and pillars of smoke. 
 
 The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, 
 Before the great and terrible day of the Lord come. 
 And it shall come to pass, 
 
 That whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be deliv- 
 ered." J 
 
 At length the Gentile nations were to be destroyed " in 
 the valley of decision." " But Judah shall abide forever, 
 and Jerusalem from generation to generation." 
 
 Characteristics. As will have been observed, the style 
 of Joel is elevated and sustained. His prophecy is in 
 poetry, in which the parallelisms are well observed. His 
 descriptions are exceedingly graphic ; and his imagination 
 has a large movement. More than one passage reaches 
 the level of sublimity. 
 
 It can hardly be said that Joel has the breadth of view 
 belonging to Isaiah. With him the contrast between Ju- 
 dah and the Gentile nations is sharply drawn. Judah is 
 
 1 This notable passage is quoted in full in Acts 2 : 17-21. 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 223 
 
 to be saved ; the other nations are to be destroyed. This 
 narrow view, which mistook the world mission of the 
 Chosen People, was a weakness of post-exilic Judaism. 
 We meet with it in the gospels, and it was a disturbing 
 factor in the early church. 
 
 Amos. Though placed after the major prophets and 
 third among the minor prophets, Amos is the earliest of 
 them all. As we learn from the opening statement of the 
 book, he prophesied "in the days of Jeroboam, the son of 
 Joash, King of Israel." He preceded Hosea, who also 
 began his prophecies under Jeroboam, by several years. 
 The date of his prophetic labors may be safely placed in 
 the neighborhood of 750 B.C. 
 
 As the earliest prophetic book of the Old Testament, 
 Amos possesses a peculiar interest. Though called from 
 the humble occupation of a shepherd, he became a model 
 for a long line of inspired teachers, in whose writings 
 we find the same ardent condemnation of wickedness, 
 the same denunciations of divine judgment, and the same 
 promises of ultimate redemption. 1 Furthermore, the book 
 of Amos has great historic value. By means of its graphic 
 and definite touches of description, we are able to re- 
 produce a tolerably complete picture of the social and 
 moral conditions of the kingdom of Israel in the eighth 
 century before Christ. 
 
 The Prophet's Call. In 2 Kings (14: 23-29) we have 
 a brief account of the reign of Jeroboam II., under whom 
 the northern kingdom reached a high degree of political 
 power. His armies recovered the territory that had been 
 lost under previous rulers. But " he did that which was 
 
 1 " Amos is one of the most marvellous and incomprehensible figures in the 
 history of the human mind, the pioneer of a process of evolution from which a 
 new eooch of humanity dates." CORNILL, " The Prophets of Israel," p. n. 
 
224 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 evil in the sight of the Lord ; " and accordingly we see 
 idolatry flourishing at Bethel, and pride, luxury, injustice, 
 and oppression prevailing among the people. 
 
 It was these fatal conditions that led to the call of 
 Amos, as he tended his flocks and dressed sycamore trees 
 at Tekoa, a village of Judah some twelve miles south of 
 Jerusalem. Though he was no prophet, as he tells us, 1 
 nor the son of a prophet, the divine call came to the 
 gifted peasant, as he was faithfully pursuing his humble 
 duties. In his own words, "The Lord took me from 
 following the flock ; and the Lord said unto me, Go, 
 prophesy unto My people Israel." This unexpected and 
 extraordinary task the prophet performed, as we shall see, 
 with rare skill and fidelity. 
 
 ^Admirable Tact. It is no light galling to rebuke a 
 nation for sin in the name of the Lord. When Amos 
 appeared at Bethel, the centre of idolatrous worship in the 
 northern kingdom, he was hardly a welcome guest. He 
 did not at once reveal the burden of his message ; but 
 with admirable tact portrayed the judgments that were to 
 fall upon the surrounding nations, Syria, Philistia, Tyre, 
 Edom, and others. Even Judah did not escape. 
 
 It was not till the favor of the people had thus been 
 conciliated that the prophet ventured to announce his 
 message to Israel. His words have a manly directness 
 and force ; Israel will no more escape the consequences of 
 iniquity than the neighboring nations : 
 
 " Thus saith the Lord : for three transgressions of Israel, and for four, 
 I will not turn away the punishment thereof; 
 Because they sold the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of 
 
 shoes ; 
 That pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor, 
 
 1 Amos 7 : 14. 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 22$ 
 
 And turn aside the way of the meek ; 
 
 And they lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge 
 By every altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned 
 In the house of their god." * 
 
 These sins of bribery, oppression, and drunken idolatry 
 were aggravated by ingratitude ; for the people of Israel 
 had forgotten the destruction of the mighty Amorites and 
 their own marvellous deliverance from Egypt. Hence the 
 prophet announces, though somewhat darkly, the approach 
 of divine judgment : 
 
 " Behold", I will press you in your place, 
 As a cart presseth that is full of sheaves. 
 And flight shall perish from the swift, 
 And the strong shall not strengthen his force, 
 Neither shall the mighty deliver himself: 
 Neither shall he stand that handleth the bow ; 
 And he that is swift of foot shall not deliver himself; 
 Neither shall he that rideth a horse deliver himself; 
 And he that is courageous among the mighty 
 Shall flee away naked in that day, saith the Lord." 2 
 
 Morality and Ritual. In the second part of the book of 
 Amos (chapters 3-6), we have a series of three discourses, 
 in which the prophet's message is repeated in varied and 
 impressive form. Each discourse begins with the em- 
 phatic address, " Hear ye this word." In his strong 
 ethical sense we recognize the genuine prophetic spirit of 
 Amos. In place of the injustice, oppression, and iniquity 
 of Israel, he vigorously urges righteousness: 
 
 " Seek good, and not evil, that ye may live ; 
 And so the Lord, the God of hosts, shall be with you, as ye say. 
 Hate the evil, and love the good, 
 And establish judgment in the gate : 
 It may be that the Lord God of hosts will be gracious 
 Unto the remnant of Joseph." 3 
 
 1 Amos 2 : 6-8. 2 Amos 2 : 13-16. 3 Amos 5 : 14, 15. 
 
226 4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 When the prophet found that the people of Israel were 
 disposed to defend their piety by pointing to the splendor 
 and regularity of their assemblies and sacrifices, he breaks 
 forth with indignation in the name of Jehovah : 
 " I hate, I despise your feast days, 
 
 And I will take no delight in your solemn assemblies. 
 
 Yea, though ye offer me burnt offerings and your meat offerings 
 
 I will not accept them ; 
 
 Neither will I regard the peace offerings of your fat beasts. 
 
 Take thou away from Me the noise of thy songs ; 
 
 For I will not hear the melody of thy viols. 
 
 But let judgment roll down as waters, 
 
 And righteousness as a mighty stream." 1 
 
 A Picture of Luxury. In the pride of their wealth and 
 power, the people of the northern kingdom felt a sense of 
 security. They fancied that " the evil day " was far off ; 
 and in their self-complacent confidence, they gave them- 
 selves up to all the intoxication of Oriental luxury. In 
 denouncing their voluptuous self-indulgence, the prophet 
 gives us an illuminating picture of the social customs of 
 his day : 
 
 " Woe to them that are at ease in Zion, 
 
 And trust in the mountain of Samaria. 
 
 ****** 
 " Ye that put far away the evil day, 
 
 And cause the seat of violence to come near; 
 
 That lie upon beds of ivory, 
 
 And stretch themselves upon their couches, 
 
 And eat the lambs out of the flock, 
 
 And the calves out of the midst of the stall ; 
 
 That chant to the sound of the viol, 
 
 And invent to themselves instruments of music, like David ; 
 
 That drink wine in bowls 
 
 And anoint themselves with the chief ointments ; 
 
 But they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph." 2 
 
 1 Amos 5 : 21-24. 2 Amos 6: i, 3-6. 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 227 
 
 The consequences of this life of idleness, oppression, 
 and luxury were not difficult to foresee. No nation can 
 long survive under those conditions. Amos discerned the 
 ambition and might of Assyria ; and without naming the 
 conqueror, he plainly declares to Israel, " I will cause you 
 to go into captivity beyond Damascus, saith the Lord, 
 whose name is the God of hosts." 1 
 
 Part Third. The last three chapters of Amos, which 
 constitute a distinct section, consist of a series of visions, 
 with a historical interlude, and an epilogue of hope. In 
 the eighth and ninth chapters, the denunciation of woes 
 becomes more definite and more terrible : 
 
 " And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord God, 
 That I will cause the sun to go down at noon, 
 And I will darken the earth in the clear day: 
 And I will turn your feasts into mourning, 
 And all your songs into lamentation ; 
 And I will bring up sackcloth upon all loins, 
 And baldness upon every head ; 
 And I will make it as the mourning for an only son 
 And the end thereof as a bitter day." 2 
 
 But " the house of Jacob " is not to be utterly destroyed. 
 With an immovable confidence in the goodness and favor 
 of God, the prophet foresees, beyond the days of evil, an 
 age of renewed prosperity and blessing. The Assyrian 
 captivity, as he believed, would not be perpetual; and 
 hence, speaking in the name of Jehovah, he declares : 
 
 " I will bring again the captivity of My people Israel, 
 And they shall build the waste cities, and inhabit them ; 
 And they shall plant vineyards, and drink the wine thereof; 
 They shall also make gardens, and eat the fruit of them, 
 And I will plant them upon their land, 
 And they shall no more be pulled up out of their land which I have 
 
 given them, 
 Saith the Lord thy God." 8 
 
 1 Amos 5:27; 6:7. 2 Amos 8 : 9, 10. 3 Amos 9: 14, 15. 
 
228 .4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Literary Style. In view of the rural antecedents of 
 Amos, it has been customary to ascribe to his writings a 
 degree of homely rusticity. As we read over his prophecies, 
 we discover reminiscences of his earlier life. He speaks of 
 threshing instruments, of harvest carts loaded with sheaves, 
 of shepherds fighting with wild beasts, of the labors pf the 
 ploughman, and of other rural pursuits and objects as he had 
 observed them on the hills and in the vales of Tekoa. 
 
 But, as will have been observed from the extracts given, 
 the style of Amos shows no rustic uncouthness. His dis- 
 courses are skilfully put together ; his thought moves on a 
 high plane ; and his sentences exhibit a satisfying artistic 
 finish. Though he falls below Isaiah in grandeur of thought 
 and intensity of expression, he shows himself a vigorous 
 thinker and writer. It is evident that his earlier years were 
 not wholly taken up with tending sheep ; there must have 
 been days and nights given to studying the literature of his 
 people and to pondering the deep things of God. 
 
 Obadiah. The prophecy of Obadiah consists of a single 
 chapter, and has the distinction of being the shortest book 
 in the Old Testament. Its date has been a matter of dispute 
 among biblical scholars ; but the statements of the tenth 
 verse, which speaks of the capture of Jerusalem as a past 
 fact, seem to refer to the destruction of the city by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar in 586 B.C. The prophet may, therefore, be re- 
 garded as post-exilic. 
 
 Nothing whatever is known of the prophet ; the introduc- 
 tion merely announces " the vision of Obadiah." He voices 
 the age-long hostility of his people against Edom, whose 
 doom or judgment he declares in brief but striking terms : 
 
 " Though thou exalt thyself as the eagle, 
 And though thou set thy nest among the stars, 
 Thence will I bring thee down, saith the Lord." 
 
STUDIES IN THE EARLIER MINOR PROPHETS 2 29 
 
 The Occasion. The occasion that evoked the prophecy 
 is clearly stated. Edom had taken part with the Chaldeans 
 in the invasion of Judah, and had rejoiced at the downfall 
 of Jerusalem. This alien alliance of the children of Esau 
 seemed to the prophet to call for condemnation and judg- 
 ment : 
 
 " For thy violence against thy brother Jacob 
 Shame shall cover thee, and thou shalt be cut off forever. 
 In the day that thou stoodest on the other side, 
 In the day that the strangers carried away his forces, 
 And foreigners entered into his gates, and cast lots upon Jerusalem, 
 Even thou wast as one of them. 
 
 But thou shouldest not have looked on the day of thy brother 
 In the day that he became a stranger ; 
 
 Neither shouldest thou have rejoiced over the children of Judah 
 In the day of their destruction ; 
 Neither shouldest thou have spoken proudly in the day of distress." 
 
 Future of Zion. The prophet concludes his brief dis- 
 course in a triumphant tone. Though Edom and " all the 
 heathen " be destroyed, the glory of Israel shall be re- 
 vived : 
 
 " Upon mount Zion shall be deliverance, 
 And there shall be holiness ; 
 
 And the house of Jacob shall possess their possessions. 
 And the house of Jacob shall be a fire, 
 And the house of Joseph a flame, and the house of Esau for stubble." 
 
 The numerous parallels between Obadiah and the doom 
 prophecy against Edom in the forty-ninth chapter of Jere- 
 miah make it perfectly evident that one borrowed from the 
 other, unless both drew upon an earlier document. The 
 question has given rise to much critical discussion, which, 
 however, does not affect the truth of the message of 
 either prophet. 
 
230 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 HOSEA 
 
 The unfaithfulness of Israel in symbol, Hos. 1-3. 
 
 A reproof of people and priests, Hos. 4. 
 
 An announcement of divine judgments, Hos. 5. 
 
 An exhortation to repentance, Hos. 6. 
 
 A reproof of Israel, Hos. 7. 
 
 Assyrian invasion foretold, Hos. 8. 
 
 Sin and judgment, Hos. 10. 
 
 Ingratitude and punishment, Hos. n. 
 
 Reproof of Ephraim and Judah, Hos. 12, 13. 
 
 Promises of blessing, Hos. 14. 
 
 JOEL 
 
 A plague of locusts, Joel i . 
 The coming day of the Lord, Joel 2 : 1-17. 
 Repentance and blessing, Joel 2 : 18-32. 
 The heathen destroyed, Judah saved, Joel 3. 
 
 AMOS 
 
 Judgments against various nations, Amos I, 
 
 The punishment of Israel, Amos 2 : 6-16. 
 
 Oppression and ruin, Amos 3, 4. 
 
 An elegy over Israel, Amos 5. 
 
 Luxury punished with captivity, Amos 6. 
 
 Visions and their explanations, Amos 7-9. 
 
 OBADIAH 
 The doom of Edom, Obad. I. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 STUDIES IN JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 
 
 Book of Jonah. The book of Jonah, though often made 
 a stumbling-block, is one of the most remarkable productions 
 in the Old Testament. As an artistic composition, it is 
 worthy of high praise ; but its .literary excellence falls into 
 insignificance in comparison with its spiritual message. 
 Unlike the other prophetical books, it is wholly narrative 
 in form ; but the framers of the Old Testament canon made 
 no mistake in placing Jonah, not among the historical writ- 
 ings, but among the prophets. 
 
 The hero of the book is " Jonah the son of Amittai, the 
 prophet, of Gath-hepher." 1 He lived in the early days of 
 Jeroboam II., and predicted the military successes of that 
 sovereign. He lived at a time when Nineveh was the cap- 
 ital of the world empire of Assyria. But it is safe to say 
 that Jonah was not the author of the book that bears his 
 name. The language of the narrative belongs to a later 
 period ; and, as we shall presently see, its message is 
 adapted to post-exilic times. It was probably written some 
 time in the fourth century before Christ. 
 
 The Story. The story of Jonah is well known. The 
 prophet was divinely commissioned to rebuke the great 
 city of Nineveh for its wickedness. The task was an un- 
 welcome one ; and to escape its responsibilities, the narrow- 
 minded prophet embarked at Joppa for the distant West. 
 But he was not permitted to escape the divine call ; and 
 
 1 2 Kings 14 : 25. 
 231 
 
232 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 when a severe storm arose, of which he acknowledged him- 
 self the cause, he was hurled into the sea. He was swal- 
 lowed by a great fish, which after " three days and three 
 nights " cast him upon dry land. 
 
 Humbled by this extraordinary experience, Jonah now 
 proceeded, in obedience to a second divine call, to' fulfil 
 his prophetic mission. He entered the mighty capital of 
 Assyria, and began to proclaim aloud in its streets, " Yet 
 forty days, and Nineveh shall be destroyed." The city 
 was deeply moved, and promptly repented in sackcloth 
 and ashes. " And God saw their works, that they turned 
 from their evil way ; and God repented of the evil, which 
 He said He would do unto them ; and He did it not." 
 
 This act of mercy toward a heathen city displeased the 
 surly prophet. In his anger he made himself a shelter 
 east of the city, and took up his abode there to await re- 
 sults. A gourd sprang up in a night to afford him a 
 grateful protection from the heat. He rejoiced in its shade ; 
 but it withered as quickly as it came. The prophet was 
 vexed beyond measure, and thus gave an opportunity 
 to present the great lesson of the book. " And God 
 said to Jonah, Doest thou well to be angry for the gourd ? 
 And he said, I do well to be angry even unto death. 
 And the Lord said, Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for 
 the which thou hast not labored, neither madest it grow ; 
 which came up in a night, and perished in a night ; and 
 should not I have pity on Nineveh, that great city ; 
 wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that can- 
 not discern between their right hand and their left hand ; 
 and also much cattle ? " 
 
 Lesson of Tolerance. The book of Jonah is full of 
 moral lessons, which devout scholars have often pointed 
 out. It teaches, for example, that it is vain for a prophet 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 233 
 
 to try to escape from a duty which has been divinely laid 
 upon him. It illustrates, as Jeremiah had pointed out, 
 that all prophecy is conditional. It shows that the way 
 of salvation is through repentance and reformation. 
 
 But all these spiritual truths are to be viewed merely as 
 incidental. The great purpose of the book is revealed in 
 the closing verses, as quoted above. That purpose is to 
 show, in opposition to Jewish narrowness and intolerance 
 after the exile, that God's mercy and love include all 
 nations. The book has the breadth of the New Testa- 
 ment, and plainly teaches that all men, regardless of 
 nationality, may be saved through repentance and faith. 
 It is the clear perception of this truth, in the midst of 
 Jewish hostility and exclusiveness, that makes the great- 
 ness of the book of Jonah. 1 
 
 A Type of Israel. As already intimated, the book of 
 Jonah is to be regarded, like the story of the Prodigal Son 
 or the Good Samaritan, as a parable rather than as history. 
 It probably embodies traditional historic elements ; but 
 these have been freely fashioned by the inspired writer to 
 convey a great message to his people. The story of the 
 great fish, the sudden conversion of an imperial capital, 
 and the marvellous growth of the gourd are all happily 
 imagined incidents to carry forward the narrative to its 
 magnificent conclusion. 
 
 Jonah is a type of the narrow-minded Jews of the 
 author's day. He is unwilling to preach to heathen at all ; 
 and when they turn to Jehovah in repentance, a result at 
 
 1 " The real design of the narrative is to teach, in opposition to the narrow, ex- 
 clusive view, which was too apt to be popular with the Jews, that God's puiposes 
 of grace are not limited to Israel alone, but that they are open to the heathen as 
 well, if only they abandon their sinful courses, and turn to Him in true penitence. 
 . . . Jonah appears as the representative of the popular Israelitish creed." 
 DRIVER, " Literature of the Old Testament," p. 323. 
 
234 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 which he should have heartily rejoiced, he is profoundly 
 grieved. This narrow and selfish spirit is portrayed as in 
 direct opposition to the all-embracing compassion and love 
 of God. Viewed in this light, the book of Jonah is seen 
 to possess the character of a satire upon post-exilic Juda- 
 ism. 
 
 An Allegory. The book of Jonah has sometimes been 
 regarded as an allegory, in which is portrayed the history 
 of Israel. According to this view, Jonah symbolizes the 
 Hebrew nation. Like the prophet, the people of Israel 
 were intrusted with a divine mission to the world. They 
 proved unfaithful to the divine call, and were consequently 
 "swallowed up," like the prophet in the great fish, by the 
 mighty empire of Babylonia. 
 
 -"~Tn exile the Hebrew people turned unto the Lord, and 
 were restored, like the prophet, to their native land. But 
 they were not healed of their narrow and unsympathetic 
 spirit ; and, like Jonah, they were grieved that the divine 
 judgments, foretold by the prophets, were not at once ex- 
 ecuted upon the gentile nations. This allegorical interpre- 
 tation has the merit of ingenuity ; but it is difficult to 
 believe that the gifted author, in shaping his artistic nar- 
 rative, ever had it in mind. 
 
 Jonah in the Gospels. There is an interesting reference 
 to the narrative of Jonah in Matthew and Luke. The 
 Pharisees on one occasion requested a sign from Jesus. 
 He refused the miracle they desired ; and accordingly He 
 replied : " This generation is an evil generation : it seeketh 
 after a sign ; and there shall no sign be given to it but the 
 sign of Jonah. For even as Jonah became a sign unto the 
 Ninevites, so shall also the Son of man be to this generation. 
 The men of Nineveh shall stand up in the judgment with 
 this generation ; and shall condemn it ; for they repented 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 235 
 
 at the preaching of Jonah : and behold, a greater than 
 Jonah is here." 1 
 
 This incident shows our Saviour's familiarity with the 
 book of Jonah. He shared its broad views of God's love; 
 and in His own ministry of mercy He not only included 
 Gentiles, but also looked upon Himself as the Saviour 
 of the world. His final charge to His disciples was 
 to go " into all the world, and preach the gospel to 
 every creature." 2 
 
 Micah. As we learn from the introduction to the book 
 of Micah, the prophet lived in " the days of Jotham, Ahaz, 
 and Hezekiah, Kings of Judah." He was a younger con- 
 temporary of Isaiah ; and if he prophesied in the days of 
 Jotham and Ahaz, about which there is some doubt, he 
 was likewise a contemporary of Hosea. There is a notice 
 of his work in Jeremiah (26,: 18), which tells us that 
 " Micah the Morasthite prophesied in the days of Hezekiah, 
 King of Judah." As indicated in the sixth verse of the 
 first chapter, the destruction of Samaria belongs to the 
 future ; hence the date of the earlier prophecies at least 
 must be fixed before the year 722 B.C. 
 
 Like Amos, the prophet Micah was of rural origin. He 
 came from the village of Moresheth, which was situated in 
 the maritime plain not far from Gath. He was a man of 
 penetrating judgment and strong moral sense ; and he 
 pointed out, with masculine vigor, the various iniquities of 
 Judah and Israel. Though there are critical difficulties in 
 
 1 Luke ii : 29, 30, 32. In the parallel passage in Matthew there is this additional 
 statement : " For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the whale : 
 so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth." 
 This statement seems to be an interpolation the effort of some copyist or scribe 
 to throw light on the Master's meaning. This view is confirmed by the incorrect- 
 ness of the statement; for Jesus was not in the tomb for three nights. He was 
 crucified on Friday and rose on Sunday. 
 
 2 Mark 16 : 15. 
 
236 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 parts of the book, the prophet's message is, in the main, 
 clear and strong. 
 
 Reproof and Judgment. The first three chapters, which 
 make a distinct section of the book, are chiefly concerned 
 with reproof and judgment. In Micah's denunciation of 
 the sins of Samaria and Jerusalem, we recognize the 
 genuine spirit of the Hebrew prophet. His prophecy 
 opens with a fine description of the coming of Jehovah in 
 judgment: 
 
 " Hear, all ye people ; hearken, O earth, and all that therein is : 
 And let the Lord God be witness against you, 
 The Lord from His holy temple. 
 For behold the Lord cometh forth out of His place, 
 And will come down, and tread upon the high places of the earth. 
 And the mountains shall be molten under Him, 
 And the valleys shall be cleft, as wax before the fire, 
 And as the waters that are poured down a steep place." 
 
 In the first three chapters the reproofs of iniquity 
 and the menace of judgment are repeated, always in 
 stronger and more definite terms. 1 In the third chapter 
 the ruling classes are particularly denounced for their 
 injustice, oppression of the poor, love of evil, and greed of 
 gain : - 
 
 " Hear this, I pray you, ye heads of the house of Jacob, 
 And princes of the house of Israel, 
 That abhor judgment, and pervert all equity. 
 They build up Zion with blood, and Jerusalem with iniquity. 
 The heads thereof judge for reward, 
 And the priests thereof teach for hire, 
 
 1 "A moral indignation, truly awe-inspiring, overpowers him at all he sees and 
 experiences. Especially the sins of the nobility of Jerusalem, those unscrupulous 
 bloodsuckers and despoilers of the people, who stopped at naught if they but had 
 the power, are so atrocious that they can only be atoned for by the destruction of 
 Jerusalem. CORNILL, " The Prophets of Israel," p. 69. 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 237 
 
 And the prophets thereof divine for money: 
 
 Yet will they lean upon the Lord, and say, 
 
 Is not the Lord among us ? none evil can come to us." * 
 
 . The result of this moral degeneracy, as the prophets 
 always and truly felt, could be only destruction. Hence 
 Micah, speaking in the name of Jehovah, declares : 
 
 " I will make Samaria as an heap of the field, 
 And as plantings of a vineyard : 
 
 And I will pour down the stones thereof into the valley, 
 And I will discover the foundations thereof. 
 Therefore shall Zion be ploughed as a field, 
 And Jerusalem shall become heaps, 
 And the mountain of the house as the high places of the forest." 2 
 
 A Vision of Glory. In chapters 4 and 5, which 
 make the second division of the book of Micah, we have 
 a picture of the future glory of Zion. Jerusalem is to 
 become the centre of true religion ; and as its beneficent 
 principles take possession of the nations, the implements 
 of war will be transformed to serve the arts of peace : 
 
 " But in the last days it shall come to pass, 
 That the mountain of the house of the Lord 
 Shall be established in the top of the mountains, 
 And it shall be exalted above the hills ; and people shall flow unto it. 
 And many nations shall come, and say, 
 Come, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, 
 And to the house of the God of Jacob ; 
 
 And He will teach us of His ways, and we will walk in His paths : 
 For the law shall go forth of Zion, 
 And the word of the Lord from Jerusalem. 
 And He shall judge among many people, 
 And rebuke strong nations afar off; 
 And they shall beat their swords into ploughshares, 
 And their spears into pruning-hooks : 
 Nation shall not lift up a sword against nation, 
 Neither shall they learn war any more." 8 
 
 1 Mic. 3 : 9-11. 2 Mic. i : 6 ; 3 : 12. 8 Mic. 4 : 1-3. 
 
238 ,4 AT INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 The town from which the future ruler of Israel was to 
 come is definitely indicated : it is not the proud metropolis, 
 but the humble village of Bethlehem. As we have already 
 seen, this statement of the prophet was understood by the 
 Jews, at the beginning of our era, to refer to the Messiah 
 or King of Israel: 
 
 " But thou, Beth-lehem Ephratah, 
 Though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, 
 Yet out of thee shall he come forth unto Me that is to be ruler in Israel ; 
 Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting." l 
 
 Dramatic Prophecy. The last two chapters of Micah, 
 which form the third division of the book, have a distinc- 
 tive character. They are in the form of a dramatic dia- 
 logue, in which the speakers are Jehovah and Israel. The 
 setting of the drama is magnificent, for the controversy 
 takes place in the presence of the mountains. Jehovah 
 speaks first, and recounts the mercies of the past : 
 
 "O My people, what have I done unto thee? 
 And wherein have I wearied thee? testify against Me. 
 For I brought thee up out of the land of Egypt, 
 And redeemed thee out of the house of servants ; 
 And I sent before thee Moses, Aaron, and Miriam. 
 O My people, remember now what Balak, King of Moab, consulted, 
 And what Balaam the son of Beor answered him." 
 
 In reply to this appeal of Jehovah, the people virtually 
 admit their ingratitude and sin, and ask what they shall 
 do to make atonement : - 
 "Wherewith shall I come before the Lord, 
 
 And bow myself before the high God? 
 
 Shall I come before Him with burnt offerings, with calves of a year old ? 
 
 Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, 
 
 Or with ten thousands of rivers of oil ? 
 
 Shall I give my first-born for my transgression, 
 
 The fruit of my body for the sin of my soul ? " 
 l Mic. 5 : 2. See Matt. 2 : 3-6, 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 239 
 
 At this point the mountains, who are imagined to be sit- 
 ting in judgment, make known their decision, which is the 
 message of the prophet : 
 
 " He hath showed thee, O man, what is good ; 
 And what doth the Lord require of thee, 
 But to do justly, and to love .mercy, and to walk humbly with God? " 
 
 Beginning with the ninth verse of the sixjh chapter, and 
 extending to the sixth verse of the seventh chapter, we 
 have another dramatic prophecy, in which Jehovah and the 
 prophet are the speakers. The picture of the social con- 
 dition of the Hebrews presented in this dialogue could not 
 well be in darker colors. At the close of the book we have 
 one of the noblest portrayals of the divine character to be 
 found in the Old Testament : 
 
 " Who is a God like unto Thee, that pardoneth iniquity. 
 And passeth by the transgression of the remnant of His heritage? 
 He retaineth not His anger forever, because He delighteth in mercy. 
 He will turn again, He will have compassion upon us ; 
 He will subdue our iniquities ; 
 
 And Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths of the sea. 
 Thou wilt perform the truth to Jacob, and the mercy to Abraham, 
 Which Thou hast sworn unto our fathers from the days of old." 
 
 Nahum. The book of Nahum is a doom prophecy 
 directed against the city of Nineveh. Nothing further 
 is known of the author than his title, "the Elkoshite." 
 This designation is derived from the village of Elkosh in 
 Galilee, which was probably the prophet's 'native place. 
 If this supposition is correct, Nahum is the last prophet 
 of northern Israel. 
 
 There is no direct statement of the time when the proph- 
 ecy was written ; but the date may be approximately 
 determined by two events to which the prophecy refers. 
 
240 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 In the third chapter there is a description of the destruc- 
 tion of No, or Thebes, in Egypt. Addressing the confident 
 city of Nineveh, whose destruction he has threatened, the 
 poet asks : - 
 
 " Art thou better than populous No, 
 
 That was situate among the rivers, t 
 
 That had waters round about it, 
 
 Whose rampart was the sea, and her wall was from the sea? 
 
 Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite ; 
 
 Put and Lubim were thy helpers. 
 
 Yet was she carried away, she went into captivity ; 
 
 Her young children also were dashed in pieces 
 
 At the top of all the streets ; 
 
 And they cast lots for her honorable men, 
 
 And all her great men were bound in chains." 
 
 The capture of Thebes, as thus described, took place 
 during the invasion of Egypt by Asshurbanipal about 660 
 B.C. The destruction of Nineveh, which is the subject of 
 Nahum's prophecy, took place in 606 B.C. Hence it is 
 evident that the prophet wrote between these two dates. 
 
 Purpose. The prophet probably had a twofold purpose 
 in declaring the approaching doom of Nineveh. In the 
 first place, he meant to comfort his people by the assur- 
 ance that the destroyer of Israel was himself to be de- 
 stroyed. In the second place, he wished to declare the 
 great truth that iniquity, even in the mightiest nation, 
 inevitably leads to divine judgment. He denounces Nin- 
 eveh as a " bloody city, full of lies and robbery." 1 For 
 this reason, speaking in the name of Jehovah, the prophet 
 declares : 
 
 '? Behold I am against thee, saith the Lord of hosts ; 
 And I will discover thy skirts upon thy face, 
 And I will show the nations thy nakedness, 
 And the kingdoms thy shame." 2 
 1 Nahum 3:1. 2 Nahum 3 : 5. 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 241 
 
 In Nahum we miss the fine spiritual quality belonging 
 to Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah ; yet, as Farrar remarks, the 
 prophet "forcibly brings before us God's moral govern- 
 ment of the world, and the duty of trust in Him as the 
 avenger of wrong-doers, the sole source of security and 
 peace to those who love Him." 
 
 Poetic Quality. The poetic quality of Nahum's proph- 
 ecy is unusually fine. Though sudden transitions of 
 thought, as in the first chapter, sometimes make his mean- 
 ing obscure, his descriptions are vivid and admirable. The 
 prophecy opens with a noble passage descriptive of the 
 Lord's coming in judgment : 
 
 "God is jealous, and the Lord revengeth ; 
 The Lord revengeth, and is furious ; 
 The Lord will take vengeance on His adversaries, 
 And He reserveth wrath for His enemies. 
 The Lord is slow to anger, and great in power, 
 And will not at all acquit the wicked : 
 
 The Lord hath His way in the whirlwind and in the storm, 
 And the clouds are the dust of His feet. 
 
 He rebuketh the sea, and maketh it dry, and drieth up all the rivers : 
 Bashan languisheth, and Carmel, and the flower of Lebanon lan- 
 
 guisheth. 
 
 The mountains quake at Him, and the hills melt, 
 And the earth is burned at his presence, 
 Yea, the world, and all that dwell therein." 
 
 The second chapter contains a description of the capture 
 of Nineveh by the allied Medes and Babylonians under 
 Cyaxares : 
 
 " The shield of his mighty men is made red, the valiant men are in 
 
 scarlet : 
 The chariots flash with steel in the day of his preparation." 
 
 The same subject is further elaborated in the third 
 chapter. As the enemy enter the fated city, we hear, 
 
242 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 " The noise of the whip, and the noise of the rattling of wheels ; 
 And prancing horses, and jumping chariots ; 
 The horsemen mounting, and the flashing sword, and the glittering 
 
 spear ; 
 
 And a multitude of slain, and a great heap of carcases ; 
 And there is none end of the corpses ; 
 They stumble upon their corpses." 
 
 We may close this brief study of the prophet with the 
 appreciative words of McFadyen : " Poetically the little 
 book of Nahum is one of the finest in the Old Testament. 
 Its descriptions are vivid and impetuous : they set us be- 
 fore the walls of the beleaguered Nineveh, and show us 
 the war chariots of her enemies darting to and fro like 
 lightning, the prancing steeds, the flashing swords, the 
 glittering spears. The poetry glows with passionate joy 
 as it contemplates the ruin of cruel and victorious Assyria." 1 
 
 Habakkuk. Nothing is known of the personal history 
 of Habakkuk. The contents of his prophecy show that 
 he lived at the time when the Chaldean power was loom- 
 ing into prominence. Jerusalem had not yet been de- 
 stroyed, but its approaching doom was discernible. We 
 are safe, therefore, in fixing the date of Habakkuk's proph- 
 ecy in the neighborhood of 610 B.C. 
 
 The prophecy of Habakkuk is in the form of a dramatic 
 dialogue. The prophet complains of the corrupt state 
 of society in Judah (i : 2-4). He is answered by Jehovah, 
 who announces, as a divine judgment, the coming in- 
 vasion of the Chaldeans (i : 5-11). The prophet is not 
 satisfied with this answer, for he cannot understand how 
 it is possible for Jehovah to use a proud, idolatrous nation 
 to punish His people (i : 12-17). Once more Jehovah 
 speaks and assures the prophet that the Chaldeans, on 
 
 1 McFadyen, " Introduction to the Old Testament," p. 206. 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 243 
 
 account of their iniquity, will in their turn be destroyed. 
 The prophecy concludes with a magnificent ode, which is 
 called " a prayer of Habakkuk." 
 
 The Prophet Perplexed. After this brief analysis, it 
 will be found interesting to examine the several parts of 
 the prophecy more closely. The prophet beholds the wick- 
 edness prevalent in Judah, and is perplexed, as many have 
 been since his day, to see iniquity prosper and righteousness 
 trampled under foot. In the opening of the dialogue, the 
 prophet makes known his perplexity to Jehovah : 
 
 " O Lord, how long shall I cry, and Thou wilt not hear ! 
 Even cry out unto Thee of violence, and Thou wilt not save ! 
 Why dost Thou show me iniquity, and cause me to behold grievance ? 
 For spoiling and violence are before me : 
 And there are that raise up strife and contention. 
 Therefore the law is slacked, and judgment doth never go forth : 
 For the wicked doth compass about the righteous ; 
 Therefore wrong judgment proceedeth." l 
 
 In reply to tha prophet's complaint of unpunished 
 wickedness, Jehovah declares that judgment is coming : 
 
 " For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, 
 Which shall march through the breadth of the land, 
 To possess the dwelling-places that -are not theirs. 
 They are terrible and dreadful : 
 
 Their judgment and their dignity proceed from themselves. 
 Their horses also are swifter than the leopards, 
 And are more fierce than the evening wolves: 
 And their horsemen shall spread themselves, 
 And their horsemen shall come from far ; 
 They shall fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat." 2 
 
 A Second Inquiry. The prophet, who recognizes the 
 holiness and eternal power of God, is troubled by another 
 doubt, which he lays before Jehovah. How can the proud, 
 
 l Hab. i : 2-4. 2 Hab. i : 6-8. 
 
244 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 idolatrous Chaldeans be permitted to punish Judah, a 
 nation standing far higher in righteousness ? 
 
 " Thou art of purer eyes than to behold evil, 
 And canst not look on iniquity: 
 
 Wherefore lookest Thou upon them that deal treacherously, 
 And holdest Thy tongue when the wicked devoureth 
 The man that is -more righteous than he? " l 
 
 Then the prophet, in imagination, takes his stand upon 
 a watch-tower to await the answer of Jehovah. It is not 
 long delayed ; and the prophet learns that Babylon, too, 
 shall perish for its wickedness : 
 
 " Woe, to him that getteth an evil gain for his house, 
 That he may set his nest on high, 
 That he may be delivered from the hand of evil ! 
 Thou hast consulted shame to thy house by cutting off many peoples, 
 And hast sinned against thy soul. 
 For the stone shall cry out of the wall, 
 And the beam out of the timber shall answer it." 2 
 
 A Notable Ode. The closing ode is commonly regarded 
 as one of the noblest poems in the Old Testament. After 
 praying that the Lord's work may be revived in Judah, the 
 prophet describes Jehovah's coming to punish the nations 
 and redeem His people : 
 
 " His glory covered the heavens, 
 And the earth was full of His praise. 
 And His brightness was as the light ; 
 He had rays coming forth from His hand : 
 And there was the hiding of His power. 
 Before Him went the pestilence, 
 And fiery bolts went forth at His feet. 
 He stood and measured the earth ; 
 He beheld, and drove asunder the nations : 
 And the eternal mountains were scattered, 
 The everlasting hills did bow." 3 
 
 1 Hab. 1 : 13. 2 Hab. 2 : 19-11. 3 Hab. 3 : 3-6. 
 
JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, AND HABAKKUK 245 
 
 Though the sublime manifestations of Jehovah's power 
 filled the prophet with trembling fear, he retained his 
 exultant faith : 
 
 " Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, 
 I will joy in the God of my salvation. 
 Jehovah, the Lord, is my strength, 
 And He maketh my feet like hinds 1 feet, 
 And will make me to walk upon mine high places." 1 
 
 It is well for us when, like the prophet, we can come 
 forth from our religious perplexities with this triumphant 
 faith. 
 
 RESEARCH WORK . 
 JONAH 
 
 The prophet's flight and punishment, Jon. I. 
 Jonah's prayer of faith, Jon. 2. 
 The repentance of Nineveh, Jon. 3. 
 A lesson of divine compassion, Jon. 4. 
 
 MICAH 
 
 Reproof and judgment, Mic. 13. 
 Future glory of Zion, Mic. 4. 
 Dramatic prophecy, Mic. 6, 7. 
 
 NAHUM 
 The burden of Nineveh, Nah. 1-3. 
 
 HABAKKUK 
 
 A prophet's perplexities, Hab. I, 2. 
 A prayer of Habakkuk, Hab. 3. 
 
 l Hab. 3 : 18, 19. 
 
., 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 STUDIES IN ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND 
 MALACHI 
 
 Zephaniah. All that is known of the prophet Zephaniah 
 is given in the introduction to his prophecy. There his 
 descent is recorded for four generations. In his genealogi- 
 cal line he mentions Hezekiah, who is supposed by some 
 scholars to be the king of that name ; in that case, 
 Zephaniah was a prince as well as prophet. He prophe- 
 sies "in the days of Josiah, King of Judah " ; and the 
 moral conditions he describes, evidently existed before the 
 reformation effected in the eighteenth year of that sovereign 1 
 (621 B.C.). The date of Zephaniah's prophecy may there- 
 fore be approximately fixed at 630 B.C. 
 
 This brief book of prophecy may be divided into three 
 parts: (i) the menace of judgment (chapter i); (2) the 
 admonition to reformation (chapters 2-3 : 7) ; and (3) the 
 promise of future glory (chapter 3 : 8-20). In this ar- 
 rangement we recognize the characteristic spirit of Hebrew 
 prophecy. Contemporary with Jeremiah, Zephaniah points 
 out substantially the same corrupt condition of individual 
 and social life. He charges Judah with idolatry, injustice, 
 oppression, hardened impiety, and pagan customs, 2 which 
 
 1 See 2 Kings 23. 
 
 2 " The prophets, being public teachers, occupy themselves with the life of the 
 people. And the standard which they apply is just, as a rule, the covenant relation, 
 i.e. the Decalogue. Hence Israel's sin is usually of two kinds : either forsaking of 
 Jehovah, God of Israel, or social wrong-doing of the members of the covenant 
 people to one another. But what gives its meaning to all they say is their vivid re- 
 ligious conception of Jehovah as a person in immediate relation to the people." 
 DAVIDSON, " Theology of the Old Testament," p. 213. 
 
 246 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 247 
 
 he foresees will end in judgment and disaster. As a whole 
 the prophecy of Zephaniah presents a picture of judgment 
 and desolation, which is lighted up only by the triumphant 
 paean at its close. " No hotter book," says George Adam 
 Smith, " lies in all the Old Testament. Neither dew nor 
 grass nor tree nor any blossom lives in it, but it is every- 
 where fire, smoke, darkness, drifting chaff, ruins, nettles, 
 saltpits, and owls and ravens looking down from the win- 
 dows of desolate palaces." l 
 
 A Picture of Judgment. The prophecy opens abruptly 
 with dire threatenings. The day of the Lord, which is 
 presented as an occasion of inexorable judgment, is pro- 
 nounced near at hand. The scenes of desolation, which 
 the prophet describes, seem to be drawn from the wide- 
 spread destruction wrought by the Scythians, who about 
 this time, as Herodotus tells us, " became masters of all 
 Asia." 2 Here is a part of the prophet's gloomy picture : 
 
 " The great day of the Lord is near, it is near, and hasteth greatly, 
 Even the voice of the day of the Lord : 
 The mighty man shall cry there bitterly. 
 That day is a day of wrath, a day of trouble and distress, 
 A day of wasteness and desolation, a day of darkness and gloominess, 
 A day of clouds and thick darkness, 
 A day of the trumpet and alarm 
 
 Against the fenced cities, and against the high towers. 
 And I will bring distress upon men, that they shall walk like blind men, 
 Because they have sinned against the Lord.' 13 
 
 Admonition to Repentance. The whole of chapter 2 
 and the opening of chapter 3 contain an earnest admoni- 
 tion to repentance and reformation. The conditional 
 character of prophecy is recognized ; and it is yet possi- 
 
 1 George Adam Smith, " Book of the Twelve Prophets," Vol. IT., p. 48. 
 2 *Herodotus, Bk. I., ch. 104. 
 8 Zeph. i: 14-17. 
 
248 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 ble, the prophet declares, to escape the threatened de- 
 struction by a humble and righteous spirit : 
 
 " Seek ye the Lord, all ye meek of the earth, 
 
 Which have wrought His judgment ; seek righteousness, seek meek- 
 ness : 
 It may be ye shall be hid in the day of the Lord's anger. 11 1( 
 
 The destruction of the Philistines, of Moab, Ammon, 
 Ethiopia, and even Nineveh, is in succession foretold. 
 Their destruction is represented as a vain warning to 
 Judah: - 
 
 " I have cut off the nations : their towns are desolate ; 
 I made their streets waste, that nonepasseth by: 
 Their cities are destroyed, so that there is no man, 
 That there is none inhabitant. 
 
 I said, Surely thou wilt fear Me, thou wilt receive instruction ; 
 So their dwelling should not be cut off, however I punished them : 
 But they rose early and corrupted all their doings. 112 
 
 At the beginning of the third chapter we find an enu- 
 meration of the iniquities of which Jerusalem was guilty, 
 and from which the city was admonished to turn : 
 
 " She trusted not in the Lord ; she drew not near to her God. 
 Her princes within her are roaring lions ; 
 Her judges are evening wolves ; 
 They leave nothing till the morrow. 
 Her prophets are light and treacherous persons : 
 Her priests have polluted the sanctuary, 
 They have done violence to the law." 3 
 
 Future Glory. But the prophet does not let his address 
 end in the desolations of divine judgment. A pious rem- 
 nant of Judah, who " shall not do iniquity, nor speak lies," 
 is to be saved. " They shall feed and lie down, and none 
 shall make them afraid." Therefore, 
 
 1 Zeph. 2:3. 2 Zeph. 3:6,7. 8 Zeph. 3 : 2-4. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 249 
 
 " Sing, O daughter of Zion ; shout, O Israel ; 
 Be glad and rejoice with all the heart, O daughter of Jerusalem. 
 The Lord hath taken away thy judgments, 
 He hath cast out thine enemy : 
 
 The King of Israel, even the Lord, is in the midst of thee : 
 Thou shalt not see evil any more. 
 
 In that day it shall be said to Jerusalem, Fear thou not ; 
 And to Zion, Let not thine hands be slack. 
 The Lord thy God in the midst of thee is mighty, He will save, 
 He will rejoice over thee with joy ; 
 He will rest in His love ; He will joy over thee with singing." 1 
 
 Post-exilic Prophecy. The three remaining prophets 
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi all belong to the post- 
 exilic period. The destruction of the Hebrew monarchy 
 and the long sojourn of the Jews in captivity had profoundly 
 altered their thought and life. With the disappearance of 
 their political state, the Jews thought more of an ecclesi- 
 astical state. Their thoughts turned from present humil- 
 iation to future glory. The priesthood acquired a new 
 prominence in Jewish life, and the outward ceremonies of 
 worship received a new emphasis. 2 
 
 This revolution in the social and religious life of the 
 Jews is reflected, to a greater or less degree, in the writ- 
 ings of the post-exilic prophets. There is no longer the 
 deep ethical spirit that belonged to Amos, Hosea, and 
 Isaiah, and that made these men heroic in the service of 
 righteousness. In place of an irrepressible indignation 
 over individual and social wrongs, there is anxious concern 
 
 : 14-17. 
 
 2 " In the place of the monarchy rose the hierarchy. The old military and 
 royal aristocracy also vanished, and instead appeared a priestly nobility, with the high 
 priest at its head. Israel became literally ' a kingdom of priests and a holy 
 nation.' The radical change in the external organization of the Jewish race was 
 but an index of the deeper fact that its energies had been turned into entirely dif- 
 ferent channels. Ritual and religion, not politics, commanded the attention of its 
 leaders." KENT, " History of the Jewish People," Vol. III., p. 94. 
 
250 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 for the outward forms of religion. In this post-exilic 
 period was laid the foundation of the Pharisaic formalism 
 that aroused the moral indignation of Christ. 
 
 Haggai. The short prophecy of Haggai deals with the 
 rebuilding of the temple under Zerubbabel. It consists of 
 a summary of four discourses which the prophet delivered 
 at brief intervals. It is partly in prose and partly in 
 poetry ; but nowhere does it reach a very high literary ex- 
 cellence. Still it is possible to undervalue it; and, as 
 Cornill remarks, " in its very simplicity and modesty, as 
 the utterance of a heart deeply moved by a striking situa- 
 tion, it has something uncommonly attractive, and even 
 pathetic." l As we are able to determine from the definite 
 statements of time in the prophecy, the several discourses 
 were delivered between September and December in the 
 year 520 B.C. 
 
 The occasion of the first discourse shows us the pious 
 spirit of the prophet, who appears to have been an old 
 man. It was now sixteen years since the Jewish exiles 
 had returned from Babylon ; and though many of them 
 possessed wealth, and lived in luxurious houses, the temple 
 remained unbuilt. The prophet reproaches the people for 
 their neglect, and at the same time interprets a failure of 
 crops as a mark of Jehovah's displeasure : 
 
 " Is it time for you, O ye, to dwell in ceiled houses, 
 And this house lie waste? 
 
 Now therefore thus saith the Lord of hosts : Consider your ways. 
 Ye have sown much and bring in little ; 
 Ye eat, but ye have not enough ; 
 Ye drink, but ye are not filled with drink; 
 Ye clothe you, but there is none warm ; 
 
 And he that earneth wages, earneth wages to put into a bag with 
 holes." 
 
 1 Cornill, " Einleitur.g in das Alte Testament," p. 198. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAL ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 251 
 
 This appeal of the prophet was not fruitless. The 
 governor and the high priest, supported by all the people, 
 diligently set about the work of completing the temple. 
 
 A Word of Encouragement. A few weeks later the 
 prophet found it necessary to speak a word of encourage- 
 ment to the people. There seems to have been a lack of 
 materials ; and the aged few, who remembered the splen- 
 dor of the former temple, were depressed by the sickening 
 contrast. But the prophet assures them of Jehovah's 
 favor, and declares that the munificence of the nations, 
 whom God will move, will give a surpassing glory to the 
 new structure : 
 
 "Who is left among you that saw this house in her first glory? 
 And how do ye see it now? 
 
 Is it not in your eyes in comparison with it as nothing? 
 Yet now be strong, O Zerubbabel, saith the Lord ; 
 And be strong, O Joshua, son of Josedech, the high priest ; 
 And be strong, all ye people of the land, saith the Lord, and work. 
 And I will shake all nations, and the desirable things of all nations shall 
 
 come, 
 
 And I will fill this house with glory, saith the Lord of hosts. 
 The silver is Mine, and the gold is Mine, saith the Lord of hosts. 
 The glory of the latter house shall be greater than of the former, 
 And in this place will I give peace, saith the Lord of hosts." 
 
 Last Discourses. Some two months later, the' prophet 
 again encourages the people with the promise of God's 
 blessing. On the same day Zerubbabel is assured that in 
 the impending catastrophe of the nations, he wilt be favored 
 and exalted of the Lord : 
 
 " I will shake the heavens and the earth ; 
 And I will overthrow the throne of kingdoms, 
 And I will destroy the strength of the kingdoms of the heathen ; 
 And I will overthrow the chariots, and those that ride in them ; 
 And the horses and their riders shall come down, 
 Every one by the sword of his brother. 
 
252 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 In that day, saith the Lord of hosts, 
 
 Will I take thee, O Zerubbabel, My servant, 
 
 And will make thee as a signet ; for I have chosen thee, 
 
 Saith the Lord of hosts." 
 
 Zechariah. The prophet Zechariah was a contemporary 
 of Haggai, and united with him in exhorting the governor 
 and the high priest of Jerusalem to proceed with the re- 
 building of the temple. As we read in Ezra, " The proph- 
 ets, Haggai the prophet, and Zechariah the son of Iddo, 
 prophesied unto the Jews that were in Judah and Jerusa- 
 lem." l It was in consequence of their united labors that 
 Zerubbabel and Jos'hua " began to build the house of God 
 which is at Jerusalem." 
 
 As we learn from the introduction, the first discourse of 
 Zechariah was delivered just two months after Haggai had 
 entered upon his prophetical mission. It was "in the 
 eighth month, in the second year of Darius" ; that is, in 
 November, 5 20 B.C. The immediate occasion was probably 
 the discouragement which, as we know from Haggai, early 
 beset the people in their work. 2 In his first discourse the 
 prophet warns the people against imitating the sins of their 
 fathers, and exhorts them to turn in loyalty to Jehovah : 
 
 " Turn ye unto Me, saith the Lord of hosts, 
 And I will turn unto you, saith the Lord of hosts." 
 
 Twofold Division. The prophecy of Zechariah is 
 clearly divided into two parts. The first part, including 
 the first eight chapters, has to do with the people of Judah. 
 It is unquestionably the work of Zechariah, and arose out 
 of the circumstances of the restoration. 
 
 The second part, including the last six chapters, is of a 
 totally different character. There are new superscriptions ; 
 
 1 Ezra 5:1. 2 . See Hag. 2 : 1-9. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 253 
 
 there is no reference to Zerubbabel and Joshua ; and the 
 whole historic background is unlike that of the restoration 
 period. For these reasons, the second part has been as- 
 cribed to another and unknown author, 1 who is supposed 
 to have written at a much later period. 
 
 A Series of Visions. The first six chapters (chapters i : 
 7-6: 8) comprise a series of noteworthy visions, which are 
 evidently designed for the encouragement of the people at 
 Jerusalem. In the first vision the divine messengers, who 
 go to and fro through the earth, report a state of peace 
 among the nations. There are no signs of the crisis that 
 is to usher in the Messianic kingdom. Nevertheless, Jeho- 
 vah reassures the people of His favor : 
 
 " I am returned to Jerusalem with mercies : 
 My house shall be built in it, saith the Lord of hosts, 
 And a line shall be stretched forth upon Jerusalem." 2 
 
 In a second vision four horns, representing the world 
 powers hostile to Israel, are broken by four smiths. In 
 chapter 2 there is a vision of a man with a measuring 
 rod, who goes forth to lay out the boundaries of the 
 new Jerusalem. It is to be without walls ; for its popula- 
 tion will be unlimited, and its defence will be Jehovah : 
 
 " Jerusalem shall be inhabited as towns without walls 
 For the multitude of men and cattle therein : 
 For I, saith the Lord, will be unto her a wall of fire round about, 
 And will be the glory in the midst of her." 3 
 
 The fourth and fifth visions are intended for the special 
 encouragement respectively of the high priest Joshua and 
 the civil governor Zerubbabel : 
 
 1 Matthew quotes Zech. u : 12 as the words of Jeremiah. See Matt. 27 : 9. 
 
 2 Zech. i : 16. a z e ch. 2 : 4, 5. 
 
254 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 "Not by might, nor by power, 
 But by My Spirit, saith the Lord of hosts. 
 Who art thou, O great mountain ? 
 Before Zerubbabel thou shalt become a plain ; 
 And he shall bring forth the head-stone thereof 
 With shoutings, crying, Grace, grace unto it." l 
 
 In the fifth and sixth chapters there are three other 
 visions, the flying roll, the ephah measure, and the four 
 chariots. These are followed by an appendix, in which 
 the prophet is commanded to make a crown for Zerubbabel 
 and Joshua. 2 The ceremony of coronation brings forth a 
 beautiful Messianic promise: 
 
 " Behold the man whose name is the Branch ; 
 And he shall grow up out of his place, 
 And he shall build the temple of the Lord : 
 Even he shall build the temple of the Lord *, 
 And he shall bear the glory, 
 And shall sit and rule upon his throne ; 
 And he shall be a priest upon his throne : 
 And the counsel of peace shall be between them both. 1 ' 3 
 
 Fasting and Righteousness. Some two years after this 
 series of visions, Zechariah delivered another discourse 
 which is recorded in the seventh and eighth chapters. The 
 occasion was an interesting one. A deputation from 
 Bethel came to Jerusalem to inquire whether the custom 
 of fasting, as it had been practised in captivity, was still to 
 be observed. Zechariah, in his answer, exhibits the spirit 
 
 1 Zech. 4 : 6, 7. 
 
 2 This appears, from the plural crowns and from verse 13, to be the meaning. 
 If this emendation be correct, the following beautiful passage is addressed 
 primarily to Zerubbabel and Joshua, the former the civil and the latter the ecclesias- 
 tical head of Jerusalem. But some biblical scholars, like Wellhausen, think that the 
 name of Joshua in the text has been substituted for that of Zerubbabel, a view 
 that does not seem to harmonize with what follows. 
 
 3 Zech. 6 : 12, 13. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 25$ 
 
 of the older prophets, and places righteousness far above 
 fasting : 
 
 " Execute true judgment, 
 
 And show mercy and compassions every man to his brother ; 
 And oppress not the widow, nor the fatherless, 
 The stranger, nor the poor ; 
 And let none of you imagine evil against his brother in your heart." 1 
 
 Continuing the same discourse in the eighth chapter, the 
 prophet gives assurances of the lasting favor of God and 
 of the future prosperity of Zion. Even nations from afar 
 will come to worship at Jerusalem : 
 
 " Thus saith the Lord of hosts : 
 
 It shall yet come to pass, that there shall come people, 
 And the inhabitants of many cities : 
 
 And the inhabitants of one city shall go to another, saying, 
 Let us go speedily to pray before the Lord, 
 And to seek the Lord of hosts ; and I will go also. 
 Yea, many peoples and strong nations shall come 
 To seek the Lord of hosts, in Jerusalem, and to pray before the Lord." 2 
 
 Zion's King. In passing to the second part of Zechariah 
 we encounter difficulties. The prophet often veils his 
 meaning in symbolism. " The latter chapters," as Well- 
 hausen truly says, " soar far above the field of reality ; the 
 historical situation from which they start can hardly be 
 recognized ; and the future hope has very little connection 
 with the present. The fundamental difference between 
 the two parts of the book lies not in the subject but in the 
 nature of the prophecy, in the first part realistic and 
 almost prosaic, in the second vague and fantastic." 3 
 
 In chapter 9 there is apparently a description of 
 Alexander's conquests, which include the destruction of 
 
 1 Zech. 7 : 8-10. 2 Zech. 8 : 20-22. 
 
 8 Wellhausen, " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Zechariah. 
 
256 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 Damascus, Tyre, and the cities of the Philistines. Then, 
 by the law of association, the prophet suddenly passes to 
 the victories of the Messiah : 
 
 " Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion ; 
 Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem; 
 Behold, thy King cometh unto thee : 
 He is just, and having salvation ; 
 
 Lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass. 
 And I will cut off the chariot from Ephraim, 
 
 And the horse from Jerusalem, and the battle-bow shall be cut off: 
 And he shall speak peace unto the heathen ; 
 And His dominion shall be from sea even to sea, 
 And from the river even to the ends of the earth." 
 
 The prophecy closes with a bright picture of the day 
 when all the nations shall acknowledge Jehovah : 
 
 " And it shall come to pass, 
 That every one that is left of all the nations which came against 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 Shall even go up from year to year 
 To worship the King, the Lord of hosts, 
 And to keep the feast of tabernacles." * 
 
 Malachi. The book of Malachi, though not the latest 
 of the Old Testament writings, makes a fitting conclusion. 
 Its closing words speak of a messenger who is to prepare 
 the way for "the great and dreadful day of the Lord " : 
 
 " Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet 
 Before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord : 
 And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, 
 And the heart of the children to their fathers, 
 Lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." 
 
 With these words of promise and hope, the book of 
 Malachi forms a natural transition from the Old to the 
 New Testament. 
 
 1 Zech. 14 : 16. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 257 
 
 As to the author, nothing is known. His very name is 
 a matter of doubt; for the word Malachi, which means 
 messenger, may designate an office rather than a person. 
 It was so understood by the translators of the Septuagint 
 version. There is no reference to the time when the 
 prophecy was uttered ; yet the subject-matter of the book 
 enables us to fix approximately its date. Its mention of a 
 governor 1 shows that Judah was a Persian province; the 
 temple has been rebuilt, and public worship is formally 
 celebrated. 2 These facts clearly place Malachi in the 
 post-exilic period. 
 
 But we are able to determine its date still more defi- 
 nitely. The prophecy particularly attacks the faithlessness 
 of the priesthood, the. intermarriage of the Jews with alien 
 women, and remissness in the payment of the temple dues. 
 These are precisely the evils that we meet with in the 
 days of Ezra and Nehemiah. It is evident therefore that 
 Malachi belongs to the period of these two distinguished 
 leaders ; but whether he preceded them or lived contem- 
 porary with them is a disputed question among biblical 
 scholars. A probable opinion is that he wrote during 
 Nehemiah's absence at the Persian court ; 3 and in that case 
 his prophecy is to be dated about 432 B.C. 
 
 Assurance of Divine Favor. The prophecy itself reveals 
 to us the social and religious condition that called it forth. 
 The brilliant expectations of the returning exiles had not 
 been realized ; a spirit of worldliness had seized upon the 
 ruling classes ; doubt and unbelief troubled the whole com- 
 munity. In the opening words of his prophecy, Malachi 
 assures them of the divine favor by dwelling on the con- 
 trasted destinies of Israel and Edom : 
 
 1 See Mai. i : 8. 2 Mai. 1:7,8. 3 See Neh. 13 : 6. 
 
258 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 " I have loved you, saith the Lord : 
 Yet ye say, Wherein hast Thou loved us? 
 Was not Esau Jacob's brother? saith the Lord; 
 Yet I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau, 
 And laid his mountains and his heritage waste 
 For the dragons of the wilderness." 
 
 This passage shows us a peculiarity of Malachi's style. 
 It contains a large dialogue element. The prophet regu- 
 larly states a proposition ; then he repeats the objection or 
 inquiry that is supposed to be made ; and lastly he expands 
 or demonstrates his first proposition. 
 
 Sins of the Priests. Having established the fact of 
 Jehovah's love, which many of the people had come to 
 doubt, the prophet proceeds to his indictment of the 
 priesthood ; and because of their profanation of the altar 
 through unworthy offerings, he threatens them with divine 
 judgment : 
 
 "A son honoreth his father, and a servant his master; 
 If then I be a father, where is Mine honor? 
 And if I be a master, where is My fear? 
 
 Saith the Lord of hosts unto you, O priests, that despise My name. 
 And ye say, Wherein have we despised Thy name? 
 Ye offer polluted bread upon My altar ; 
 And ye say, Wherein have we polluted Thee? 
 In that ye say, The table of the Lord is contemptible." 1 
 
 In expressing the indignation of Jehovah at the polluted 
 service of the priests, the prophet for a moment casts his 
 eyes beyond the borders of Israel. He catches a glimpse 
 of that broader day when God will be honored among all 
 nations. Nowhere else in the Old Testament do we find 
 a more generous contemplation of the Gentile world. This 
 fact is all the more remarkable, because Malachi, like the 
 
 1 Mai. i : 6, 7. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 259 
 
 other post-exilic prophets, places great emphasis on Jewish 
 ritual. Listen to the words addressed to a sceptical and 
 careless priesthood : 
 
 " I have no pleasure in you, saith the Lord of hosts, 
 Neither will I accept an offering at your hand. 
 For from the rising of the sun, even unto the going down of the 
 
 same, 
 
 My name shall be great among the Gentiles ; 
 And in every place incense shall be offered unto My name, 
 And a pure offering : 
 
 For My name shall be great among the heathen, saith the Lord of 
 hosts." i 
 
 Alien Wives. The prophecy of Malachi is closely 
 wrought together. After reproving the unworthy priests, 
 the prophet arraigns the people for divorcing their Jewish 
 wives, and marrying heathen women. This was a violation 
 of the solemn covenant previously made under the influence 
 of Ezra, 2 and accordingly invited the utmost severity of 
 Jehovah's punishment : 
 
 " Judah has dealt treacherously, 
 
 And an abomination is committed in Israel and in Jerusalem ; 
 For Judah hath profaned the holiness of the Lord, which He loved, 
 And hath married the daughter of a strange god. 
 The Lord will cut off the man that doeth this, 
 The master and the scholar, out of the tabernacles of Jacob, 
 And him that offereth an offering unto the Lord of hosts." 8 
 
 In this connection the prophet gives a pathetic picture of 
 the wronged women of Judah. They cover the altar with 
 tears ; and in sympathy with their suffering, the Lord 
 turns away from the priestly offerings : 
 
 " And this have ye done again, 
 Covering the altar of the Lord with tears, 
 
 1 Mai. i : 10, ii. 2 See Ezra 10. 8 Mai. 2: n, 12. 
 
260 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 With weeping and with crying out, 
 
 Insomuch that He regardeth not the offering any more, 
 
 Or receiveth it with good will at your hand." 
 
 A Day of Judgment. The prophet turns next to the 
 coming day of the Lord. In their moral decadence the 
 people lost their consciousness of a distinction between 
 good and evil. Though the older prophets had repeatedly 
 spoken of a day of judgment, the sensual and worldly 
 minded contemporaries of Malachi were outspoken in their 
 scepticism about its coming : 
 
 " Ye have wearied the Lord with your words : 
 Yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied Him? 
 When ye say, Every one that doeth evil 
 Is good in the sight of the Lord, and He delighteth in them ; 
 Or, Where is the God of Judgment?" l 
 
 In reply to this moral confusion and open scepticism, the 
 prophet declares that the Lord will suddenly come in 
 judgment. But the day of the Lord is not to be a great 
 day of battle ; it is to be a day of purifying, in which the 
 righteous will be winnowed from the wicked : 
 
 " And I will come near to you in judgment ; 
 And I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers, 
 And against the adulterers, and against false swearers, 
 And against those that oppress the hireling in his wages, 
 The widow, and the fatherless, 
 And that turneth aside the stranger from his right, 
 And fear not Me, saith the Lord of hosts." 2 
 
 In all this there is a momentary return of the fine ethi- 
 cal sense of the older prophets who exalt righteousness 
 above ritual. 
 
 Promise of Blessing. The prophet next charges the 
 people with robbing God by withholding their tithes and 
 
 1 Mai. 2 : 17. 2 Mai. 3 : 5. 
 
ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, AND MALACHI 261 
 
 offerings. For this reason the land had been visited by 
 drought and locust. The prophet exhorts the people to 
 reformation, and promises them illimitable blessings : 
 
 " Ye are cursed with a curse ; 
 For ye have robbed Me, even this whole nation. 
 Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse. 
 That there may be meat in Mine house, 
 And prove Me now herewith, saith the Lord of hosts, 
 If I will not open the windows of heaven, 
 And pour you out a blessing, 
 That there shall not be room enough to receive it." 1 
 
 Triumph of the Righteous. Once more, before he ends 
 his work, the prophet silences the voice of unbelief. The 
 people complained that "it is vain to serve God." They 
 asserted that the proud were happy and the wicked pros- 
 perous. In reply to this ever recurring complaint of un- 
 belief, the prophet declares that in due time God will 
 recognize His own, and that in the fires of that day " all the 
 proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be stubble" : 
 
 " And a book of remembrance was written before Him, 
 For them that feared the Lord, and that thought upon His name. 
 And they shall be Mine, saith the Lord of hosts, 
 In that day when I make up My jewels. 1 ' 2 
 
 Conclusion. We close our studies in the Old Testament 
 with the beautiful words of Kuenen : " As we watch the 
 weaving of the web of Hebrew life, we endeavor to trace 
 through it the more conspicuous threads. Long time the 
 eye follows the crimson; it disappears at length; but the 
 golden thread of sacred prophecy continues to the end. 
 The prophets teach us to live and to struggle ; to believe 
 with immovable firmness ; to hope even when all is dark 
 
 1 Mai. 3 : 9, 10. 2 Mai. 3 : 16, 17. 
 
262 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIBLE STUDY 
 
 around us ; to trust the voice of God in our inmost con- 
 sciousness; and to speak with boldness and with power." 1 
 
 RESEARCH WORK 
 
 ZEPHANIAH 
 
 A severe judgment of God, Zeph. i : 1-18. 
 
 An exhortation to repentance, Zeph. 2 : 1-15 ; 3 : 1-7. 
 
 Future glory of Israel, Zeph. 3 : 8-20. 
 
 HAGGAI . 
 
 A prophetic appeal and its result, Hag. I : 2-15. 
 A word of encouragement, Hag. 2 : 1-9. 
 Unacceptable offerings, Hag. 2 : 10-19. 
 A civil governor encouraged, Hag. 2 : 20-23. 
 
 ZECHARIAH 
 
 An exhortation to repentance, Zech. i : 1-6. 
 
 A series of visions, Zech. i : 6-6. 
 
 A vision of red horses, Zech. i : 8-17. 
 
 An angel with a measuring line, Zech. 2. 
 
 The crowns of Joshua (and Zerubbabel), Zech. 6: 9-15. 
 
 Righteousness better than fasting, Zech. 7. 
 
 A picture of future glory for Zion, Zech. 8. 
 
 A Grecian and a Messianic conquest, Zech. 9. 
 
 Prayer and promise, Zech. 10 : 1-12. 
 
 The destruction of Jerusalem, Zech. n. 
 
 Jerusalem an instrument of judgment, Zech. 12. 
 
 Final struggle with hostile world powers, Zech. 14. 
 
 MALACHI 
 
 The love of Jehovah, Mai. i : 2-5. 
 
 Sins of the priests, Mai. i : 6-2 : 9. 
 
 Marriage with alien women denounced, Mai. 2 : 10-16. 
 
 Approach of a day of judgment, Mai. 2 : 17-3 : 6. 
 
 Tithe-paying and outward prosperity, Mai. 3: 7-12. 
 
 God makes up His jewels, Mai. 3 : 13-4: 6. 
 
 1 Quoted in Farrar's " The Bible : its Meaning and Supremacy," p. 273. 
 
INDEX 
 
 (Numbers refer to pages.) 
 
 Abbott, Lyman, quoted, 131, 150 (foot- 
 note). 
 
 Amos, 223-228; research work, 230. 
 
 Architecture, and the Bible, 17; in 
 Hebrew history, 35. 
 
 Assyrian monarchy, 29-32; biblical 
 references, 71-72. 
 
 Authorship, Daniel, 203; Ecclesiastes, 
 159; Proverbs, 154. 
 
 Babylon, 33-38; biblical references, 72. 
 
 Babylonian exile, 65. 
 
 Barney, C. B., quoted, 124 (footnote). 
 
 Behistun inscription, 25. 
 
 Belshazzar, 34 ; his feast, 208. 
 
 Bethlehem, 238. 
 
 Bible, The, 1-22. 
 
 "Book of the Dead," 48. 
 
 Brown, Francis, quoted, 127 (footnote). 
 
 Browning, Robert, quoted, 15. 
 
 Bryon, quoted, 13. 
 
 Canaan, land of, 52; conquest of, 56; 
 research work, 70. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, value of Bible, 2 ; on 
 Job, 136. 
 
 Chaldea, 27. 
 
 Cheyne, T. K., quoted, 136; 159 (foot- 
 note). 
 
 Christianity, source of, 3. 
 
 Chronicles, I. and II., 126-128; re- 
 search work, 133. 
 
 Church, organizations of, 4. 
 
 Civilization, modern, i. 
 
 Coleridge, quoted, 14. 
 
 Cortiill, C. H., quoted, 87; 163; 223; 
 236 (footnotes). 
 
 Creation, traditions of, at Babylon, 38. 
 
 Daniel, 202-211; research work, 213. 
 Dante's "Divina Commedia," 12. 
 David, 59. 
 
 Davidson, A. B., quoted, 246 (footnote). 
 Deluge, Babylonian account of, 38. 
 Democracy, modern, and the Bible, 5. 
 Deuteronomy, 103-105; research work, 
 
 108. 
 
 Driver, S. R., quoted, 233 (footnote). 
 Duncker, Max, quoted, 63 (footnote). 
 
 Ecclesiastes, 158-163 ; research work, 169 
 Economics, and the Bible, 10. 
 Education, relation to the Bible, 5. 
 Egypt, 39-49- 
 
 Esther, 130-132 ; research work, 134. 
 Ethical ideals, and the Bible, 19. 
 Exodus, 95-99 ; research work, 107. 
 Explorers and excavators, 24. 
 Ezekiel, 193-201 ; research work, 212. 
 Ezra, 129; research work, 134. 
 
 Flood, traditions of, at Babylon, 38. 
 
 Geikie, C., quoted, 181 (footnote). 
 Genesis, 94-95 ; research work, 106. 
 Goethe's "Faust," 12. 
 Graetz, H., quoted, no (footnote). 
 Gray, George B., quoted, 103 (footnote). 
 Green, W. H., quoted, 74 (footnote). 
 
 Habakkuk, 242-245 ; research work, 245. 
 Haggai, 250-251 ; research work, 262. 
 Hammurabi, 28. 
 Hebrew history, background of, 24-47 ;. 
 
 research work, 69. 
 Hebrew literature, 74-90; research 
 
 work, 90-91, 
 
 263 
 
264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Hebrew monarchy, 58-64; research 
 
 work, 70, 71. 
 
 Hosea, 216-218; research work, 230. 
 Hosmer, J. K., quoted, 52 (footnote). 
 
 Isaiah, 171-186; research work, 191. 
 Israel, conquest of, 31; relation with 
 
 Hebrew history, 46; people of, 51-68; 
 
 research work, 68-72; Jonah, type 
 
 of, 233. 
 
 Jeremiah, 180-187; research work, 191. 
 Job, 136-143; research work, 151. 
 Joel, 219-222; research work, 230. 
 Jonah, 231-234; research work, 245. 
 Josephus, quoted, 43, 78. 
 Joshua, 110-112; research work, 120. 
 Judah, 64. 
 
 Judges, period of, 57; book of, 113-115; 
 research work, 121. 
 
 Kent, Charles F., quoted, 249 (footnote) . 
 Kings, I., II., 123-124; research work, 
 
 132. 
 Kuenen, A., quoted, 105 (footnote). 
 
 Lamentations, 188-189; research work, 
 192, 
 
 Leviticus, 99-101 ; research work, 107. 
 
 Literature, and the Bible, n ; in Egypt, 
 47 ; nature of, 73 ; influence of en- 
 vironment, 74; influence of race and 
 epoch, 75 ; classification, 78 ; wisdom, 
 i53- 
 
 McFadyen, John E., quoted, 95 ; 100 ; 
 
 105; 167 (footnotes) ; 242 (text). 
 Malachi, 256-261 ; research work, 262. 
 Manufactures, at Babylon, 37. 
 Marriage, and the Bible, 8. 
 Memphis, Old, 42. 
 Mesopotamia, 26-39. 
 Micah, 235-238; research work, 245. 
 Milman, H. H., quoted, 98 (footnote). 
 Milton, quoted, 12. 
 Moore, Thomas, quoted, 13. 
 Moulton, R. S., quoted, 55 (footnote). 
 
 b 
 
 Nabonidus, 34. 
 
 Nahum, 239241 ; research work, 245. 
 
 Nehemiah, 130; research work, 134. 
 
 Nicol, Thomas, quoted, 28 (footnote). 
 Nile, 40; influence upon Egypt, 41. 
 Numbers, 102 ; research work, 108. 
 
 Obadiah, 228-229; research work, 230. 
 Old Testament as literature, 73-90; 
 
 research work, 90-91. 
 Orr, James, quoted, 67 (footnote). 
 
 Painting, and the Bible, 17. 
 Parallelism, in Hebrew Poetry, 83-85. 
 Pentateuch, 92-106; research work, 
 
 106-108. 
 
 Philanthropy, and the Bible, 20. 
 Poetry, Hebrew, 83 ; lyrical, in Bible, 12. 
 Poets of truth and righteousness, 13. 
 Post-exilic prophecy, 249. 
 Preachers of righteousness, 86-89. 
 Prisse papyrus, the oldest book, 47. 
 Prophets, studies in the major, 170-212; 
 
 studies in the minor, 214-262; re- 
 
 search work, 191; 212; 230; 245; 
 
 262. 
 
 Proverbs, 153-158; research work, 169. 
 Psalms, The, 143-149; research work, 
 
 Ramses II., 45. 
 
 Religion, of Babylonia and Assyria, 37 ; 
 in Egypt, 48. 
 
 Religious conditions, 217. 
 
 Research work, Amos, 230; Babylon, 
 72 ; the Bible, its relation to modern 
 life, 22; Chronicles, 133; conquest 
 of Canaan, 70; Daniel, 213; Deuter- 
 onomy, 108; Ecclesiastes, 169; Esther, 
 134; Exodus, 107; Ezekiel, 212; 
 Ezra, 134; Genesis, 106; Habakkuk, 
 245 ; Haggai, 262 ; Hebrew history, 
 69; Hebrew monarchy, 70; 71; 
 Hosea, 230; Isaiah, 191; Israel, 
 conquest of, 68-72 ; Jeremiah, 191 ; 
 Job, 151; Joel, 230; Jonah, 245; 
 Joshua, 120; Judges, 121 ; Kings, 132; 
 Lamentations, 192; Leviticus, 107; 
 Malachi, 262; Micah, 245; Nahum, 
 245 ; Nehemiah, 134 ; Numbers, 108 ; 
 Obadiah, 230; Old Testament as 
 literature, 90; 91; Pentateuch, 106- 
 108; Prophets, 191; 212; 230; 245; 
 262; Proverbs, 169; Psalms, 151; 
 
INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 Ruth, 121 ; Samuel I. and II., 121; 
 
 Song of Solomon, 169; Zechariah, 262; 
 
 Zephaniah, 262. 
 Rosetta stone, 26. 
 Ruskin, quoted, 2. 
 
 Ruth, book of, 116; research work, 121. 
 Ryle, H. E., quoted, 38; 39 (footnotes). 
 
 Samuel, I. and II., 117119; research 
 work, 121. 
 
 Saul, 59. 
 
 Sayce, A. H., quoted, 24 ; 81 ; 94 ; 97 ; 
 116 (footnotes). 
 
 Science, at Babylon, 35. 
 
 Sculpture, at Babylon, 36. 
 
 Sennacherib, 31. 
 
 Slavery, and the Bible, 9. 
 
 Smith, George Adam, quoted, 54 (foot- 
 note). 
 
 Smith, H. P., quoted, 115 (footnote). 
 Smith, W. R., quoted, 57 (footnote). 
 Solomon, 61. 
 
 Song of Solomon, 163-168; research 
 work, 169. 
 
 Tennyson, quoted, 16; 21. 
 Theban Empire, the new, 44. 
 Tiglathpilezer, 30. 
 
 Wellhausen, quoted, 255. 
 Whittier, quoted, 15. 
 Wisdom literature, 153. 
 Woman, position of, 7. 
 Wordsworth, quoted, 14. 
 World, fundamental view of, 3. 
 
 Zechariah, 252-255 ; research work, 262. 
 Zephaniah, 246-248; research work, 262. 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 ' 6Jun'58JP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70cf6lTDE 
 
 
 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 
 SEP 2 5 1961 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21A-50m-8,'57 
 (C8481slO)476B 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of Californij 
 
 Berkeley 
 
21613 
 
 m 
 
 ?5288