THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES, CALIF. ^ijt of Oil Companies of Southern Cali- fornia, Alumni and Faculty of Geology Depart- ment and University Library. 1940 (^ f^ G n f>r Ai *.4z. MJ . K S* 7.3 SI op « f o rf>7+. 0^,,4,XZ-^ 1 - ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING AND MAP READING BY Captain JOHN B. BARNES Fifth U. S. Infantry THIRD EDITION, REVISED FIFTEENTH THOUSAND NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 Park Place 1917 THIRD EDITION, SECOND PRINTING Copyright, 191 7 BY D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY Library H70 . PREFACE The publication of this book was under- taken with a view of providing a text-book suitable for beginners in the subject of Mili- tary Sketching. To the original book has been added chapters on Map Reading and Landscape Sketching. The diagrams in the first seven chapters were executed by Captain P. A. Earned, loth Infantry. J. B. B. ^May I, 1917. I 1 .i- 734000 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Sketches; Scales; Construction of Scales i 11. Conventional Signs; Abbreviations... io III. Sketching Implements 14 IV. Orientation; Resection; Intersection 23 V. Contours; Map Distances; Vertical Interval 34 VI. Road Sketching 48 VII. Position Sketching 58 VIII. Map Reading 65 IX. Landscape Sketching 74 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING CHAPTER I SCALES A PRACTICAL knowledge of sketching is an important part of the military education of officers and non- commissioned officers. When maps of the country are not available, commanders try to obtain sketches as guides in marching, and in the selection of combat or outpost positions, camp sites, etc. Such sketches must be made by members of the command. A topographical map is a graphical representation, or pen picture, of a portion of the earth's surface. It is made with survey instruments and is supposed to be accurate. A sketch is a crude map, made without accurate instruments for measuring distances, directions, or ele- 2 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING vations, usually made hastily, and often with little op- portunity for reconnoitering the ground. Sketches are of two general classes, viz. : Road sketches and Area sketches. Area sketches are of three kinds: (a) Position, (b) Outpost, (c) Place sketches. A RO.\D sketch is one of some particular route passed over by the sketcher, showing the direction, distance, elevations, description of the bridges, fords and all other important topographical features on the road and for a distance of three or four hundred yards on either side. (Fig. 29.) A POSiTiox sketch is one made by a sketcher who has access to all parts of the area sketched. It shows all the topographical details, as in a road sketch, of some military position or extended area, (Plates A and B, and Fig. 31.) An outpost sketch is one of the ground along a friendly outpost line, and as far towards the hostile position as practicable. The sketch is necessarily made from the rear or along the line of observation. Points are located by intersection, or by traversing, i. e., pass- ing over the ground. A place sketch is one of an area, made by a sketcher from one point of observation, as the proximity of the enemy prevents moving about. Distances are es- timated and directions taken by sighting along the ruler or pencil. To be able to make an acceptable sketch (frequently SCALES 3 under adverse conditions) requires a knowledge of the principles and a proficiency in execution that the average man acquires only by considerable practice. All military sketches are made to scale ; that is, one unit of length on the sketch represents a certain num- ber of like units on the ground represented by that sketch. For example, if the scale of a sketch is 3 inches to one mile, any distance of three inches on the sketch represents a corresponding ground distance of one mile, and one inch on the sketch would represent one-third of a mile on the ground, etc. When the sketch is completed the scale to which it is drawn should be indicated on it. It may be expressed in one of three ways: (a) In zvords and figures, as, 3 inches=i mile; meaning that 3 inches on the sketch or map represent I mile on the ground. {h) By what is known as ''representative fraction'' (abbreviated R.F.) — a fraction, the number above the line showing units of length on the map, while the number below the line shows the cor- responding distance on the ground represented by the map, thus : R.F. ■ means that I inch, or i unit of anv 21120 measure on the map, represents a distance of 21 120 inches, or units of that measure, on the ground. If the scale of a map were 4 inches to the mile, then 4 inches 4 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING would represent 63360 inches ( f mile) on the ground, or, P 4 (map distance) '63360 (ground distance) * as the R.F. is usually written with the numerator unity, we w^ould have: R.F. 63360 ■ * 15840' (r) The scale may be represented graphically. A graphical scale is a Hne of any length drawn on a map or sketch and divided into parts, each part being marked, not with its actual map length, but with the ground distance which it represents. For example, instead of writing 3 inches=i mile, we may draw a line 3 inches long on the map and mark it i mile. Subdivisions of this line represent shorter distances and are marked with their respective values. The scales on American (military) maps and sketches are : I inch (approximately) to the mile, or R.F. - — — (Geographical Survey IMaps). 3 inches to the mile, or R.F. (Scale used for road sketches). SCALES 6 inches to the mile, or R.F. 10560 (Scale generally used for area sketches). I 12 inches to the mile, R.F. 5280 (Scale used for fortification plans, war game maps, etc.). Less frequently used are the scales of 2 inches to the mile: (R.F. — ^ ), and 4 inches to the mile [R.F. — - — \ 31680/' ^ \ 15840 The scale reading yards, meters, miles, etc., usually found on a completed map is called "reading scale." In making a sketch, however, a ''working scale" is used. The distances on the ground may be measured by pacing, taking the time of a horse's trot or walk, count- ing telephone poles, and multiplying by their interval, counting the revolutions of a wheel, by speedometer, estimation, etc. In any case it will be necessary to have a ''working scale" — that is, a scale of units of length used in measuring the ground distances. The units of length of any reading scale are of a fixed and standard value such as yards, meters, miles, etc., while the value of the units of any working scale depends on the means used for measuring the distances. 6 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING The working scale does not appear on the completed sketch. Our regulations prescribe that road sketches be made to a scale of 3 inches to the mile, (contour intervals 20 feet), and area sketches 6 inches to the mile, (contour interval 10 feet). These two scales are the only ones you will probably ever use. The usual means of measuring ground distances is by pacing, or, when mounted, taking the time of a horse's trot or walk. You can determine the length of your pace in inches by stepping over a known distance two or three times, using your normal pace. To give the most accurate results, the course should be several hundred yards in length and over undulating ground. The average man steps from 30 to 36 inches. The average horse covers a mile in 8 minutes at a trot and in 16 minutes at a walk. In "gaiting" a horse a course of at least a mile should be gone over several times at a trot, and at a walk. In making a scale for pacing use a stride (a double step) as the unit of measure, count- ing each time your left (right) foot strikes the ground. Assume that it is desired to make a road sketch, scale 3 inches to the mile, distance to be measured by pacing. You must have a working scale of your paces, or strides. You find that your stride is 60 inches. You will take an average of 1056 strides in covering a mile (63360 inches divided by 60). You might draw a line 3 inches long and divide it into 1056 equal parts, SCALES 7 each part representing one stride, but as such number of divisions is not practicable to make or work with, a smaller number of divisions each representing a certain number of strides should be made. Also, in- stead of having a scale of a length to represent exactly 1056 strides, you will find it more convenient to have the line represent 1000 or other even number. Take 1000 for example. You can find the exact length of this scale by a simple proportion : 1056 : 1000 1:3: x=2.84. A line 2.84 inches long equals 1000 of your strides. In other words, when you have completed 2.84 inches of your sketch you will have covered a distance equal to 1000 of your strides. Because in making a sketch you will have to plot (draw in) the features at various distances, you must so divide your scale that you can plot from it any desired number of strides, as 25, 100, 500, etc. To actually construct the above scale, draw a line 2.84 inches long, taking the distance accurately from your ruler (A — B Fig. i) and divide it into a number of equal parts ; 5 parts would be a convenient number in this case, each part representing 200 strides. To accurately make this division, draw the line A — C an indefinite length and from your ruler lay off 5 spaces of an equal and convenient length on it, beginning at 8 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING A. Now draw a line from the 5th division on A — C to B. Draw lines parallel to this line through the other 4 points on A — C, cutting A — B. A — B is now divided into 200 stride lengths. As smaller divisions should be B /^C Fig. I. made, by the same method divide the first division on A — B to read 25 strides. Now erase all the lines except A — B, mark the subdivisions with their respective values as in Fig. 2 and you have the completed work- 00 200 400 600 800 Fig. 2. ing scale by which you may plot from 25 to 1000 strides. Distances smaller than 25 strides take from your scale by estimation. A scale is more convenient to work with if constructed to read even hundreds, or divisors of one hundred of the unit of measure. SCALES 9 By actual trials over a measured course a horse is found to trot a mile in an average of 7 mins. 40 sees. Then 7% minutes equals i mile, or 1760 yards. Select 10 minutes as a convenient value for your scale ; 7^ : 3 : 10: x=3.9=io mins. Using the method described above construct a working scale 3.9 inches long to read minutes of trotting and subdivide the first division to read 10 or 15 seconds. In figures 2B, 2C and 2D scales are accurately con- structed for sketches 3 inches to the mile for pacing, and by taking the time of a horse's walk or trot. The one desired can be taken off on a piece of cardboard and thus save actual construction. If a scale of strides is desired, divide the number showing the total length in paces by 2, changing the intermediate values 4, 8, 12, 16, etc., to read 2, 4, 6, 8, respectively. To use these scales in making a sketch 6 inches to the mile, it must be remembered that the subdivisions will have just half their original numerical value. CHAPTER II CONVENTIONAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS A MILITARY sketch to be of value, must not only be reasonably accurate as to distances and directions, but must also show the condition of the ground as to cul- tivation, natural features, and all other features of pos- sible military importance, as railroads, telegraph lines, bridges, streams, habitations, etc. ; also the form of the surface of the ground itself. In order to represent the different conditions it has been necessary to adopt standard graphic signs, called CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. The conventional signs given in Figs. 3 and 10 wiU answer all requirements for field maps and sketches. In addition to the conventional signs, the following abbreviations are authorized by our Field Service Regulations for use on field maps and sketches. When words are used they must be written in full, or abbre- viated as shown. These abbreviations must not be used for other words than those shown in the table. Words not in the table are not as a rule abbreviated. A. Arroyo. Ar. Arch, abut. Abutment. ^ b. Brick. 10 SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS II B.S. Blacksmith Shop. Long. Longitude. bot. Bottom. Mt. Mountain. Br. Branch. Mts. Mountains. br. Bridge. N. North. C. Cape. n.f. Not fordable. cem. Cemetery. P. Pier. con. Concrete. pk. Plank. cov. Covered. P.O. Post Office. Cr. Creek. Pt. Point. d. Deep. q.p. Queen-post cul. Culvert. R. River. D.S. Drug Store. R.H. Roundhouse. E. East. R.R. Railroad. Est. Estuary. S. South. f. . Fordable. s. Steel. Ft. Fort. S.H. Schoolhouse. G.S. General Store. S.M. Sawmill. gir. Girder. Sta. Station. G.M. Gristmill. St. Stone. i. Iron. str. Stream. I. Island. T.G. Tollgate. Tc. Junction. Tres. Trestle. k.p. King-post. tr. Truss. L. Lake. W.T. Water tank. Lat. Latitude. W.W. Water Works. Ldg. Landing. W. West. L.S.S . Life-saving Station. w. Wood. L.H. Lighthouse. wd. Wide. 12 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING AW^ o ffl_ ^ o E O ^ fl - u 1^ c i ! >< » I I o J- Q_ £ *c 0) •oo o 31 ^ ^ c E ■00 c c I i- X a. ■0 L •on ?- ^ c o «n a q:. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS 13 ih Indicate character and span by abbreviations. Example: 'H 40x20 10 MeaninI wooden kin4po3tbrid§e,40feetlon|.20f6ekwidew and 10 feet above the water Streams Indicate character by abbreviations. Example:'"^*^-'<2V^^ Meanin|astream 15 feet wide.8 feet deep, and not fbrdaWe. House • Church* School house «»SlH. Vlfoods {^^) Orchards irm Cultivated UndfCdi] if boundary lines are fences they are indicated as such; Brush, crops or |pass, important as coveror torage B^S^toT^I ^^^^'^y I ^■►''♦'*^*| Treevsolatod *.•♦ Cutandfill - , j ^ ; cut lOfeetdeep ...: *^ } raiiofeethiih Fig. 10. CHAPTER III SOME SKETCHING INSTRUMENTS The Cavalry Sketching Case is a small drav/ing- boarcl with a compass set in. The paper is tightly rolled over two metalic rollers on opposite ends of the board. An arm with a brass scale (3 inches to the mile) is fastened to it, freely moving around a pivot. This arm with the graduations on the bottom of the board is also used for measuring slopes in the manner described below, the movable ruler taking the place of the pendulum. The graduations are for slopes of 1° to 20^. There is a strap on the reverse side of the board for fastening it to the wrist. A good device for sketching is a simple plane-table (a smooth board about 16 inches square mounted on a tripod) with a compass set in. Slopes are measured with some form of hand level or slope board. The board is oriented by means of a compass or by ''back- sighting." The paper is held in place by thumb tacks. (Fig. 4.) A modification of this device, always available, is a smooth board or piece of stifif cardboard about i2''xT4'' and a loose box compass. A ruler, paper, thumb tacks, 14 SOME SKETCHING INSTRUMENTS 15 pencils, scales, soft rubber eraser and a pocketknife complete the equipment. Under service conditions, hasty sketching will usually be done with such impro- vised plane table. Any paper that will stand erasing is suitable. Tracing paper is the best. 2H to 4H pencils are generally used, except with tracing paper when B Fig. 4. or HB pencils are preferable. When sketching by pac- ing, a pace tally for registering paces or strides is con- venient. When sketching mounted a stop watch should be used. The board may be mounted on a tripod or not as desired. A slope board is a simple device for measuring de- grees of slope. It is constructed as follows (Figs. 5 and 6) : Suspend a small weight on a string, thus i6 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING forming a crude plumb-line and bob. Attach the free end of the string to the middle point of one edge of a rectangular board (the drawing board). If this edge of the board is kept uppermost and level the plumb- line, or pendulum, will hang perpendicularly bisecting the board. Mark a point, (O), on this bisecting line near the bottom. If the level of the upper edge of the board is disturbed by sighting the pendulum will appear to move forward or back of O. This apparent course of the pendulum (Fig. 6) is a sector that can be divided into degrees. In the diagrams, from C to line A — B is assumed to be 5.7 inches, and the divi- sions on A — B are i-io of an inch apart. Each divi- SOME SKETCHING INSTRUMENTS 17 sion on a slope board so constructed reads an angle of 1°. To use, sight at the object along the edge (top) of the board at an elevation on the object of about 5 feet (height of your eye) and read the degrees registered Q Fig. 6. by the pendulum (Figs. 7 and 8). Forward is a minus and backward is a plus elevation. It is usually more convenient to use both hands in sighting and to hold the plumb-line in place against the board with the left thumb when it is turned to be read. The slope board is constructed on the under side of the drawing board. It is difficult to get accurate results with a slope board ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING SOME SKETCHING INSTRUMENTS 19 in windy weather. The Service Clinometer is a simple and handy angle measuring instrument, and should be used when available. A 6-inch triangular ruler makes a good straightedge Fig. 8. for sighting or for drawing lines. The scales may be pasted on it. Box Compass (Fig. 9). — A simple box, or needle compass is preferable for the beginner. The gradua- tions may be clockwise from 0° to 360°, contra-clock- wise 360° to 0°, in quadrants or half circles. A com- pass graduated contra-clockwise (i.e., in the reverse 20 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING Fig. 9. SOME SKETCHING INSTRUMENTS 21 order of the graduations on the face of a clock) is the better as it reduces chances of error in reading. At- tention is invited to the arrangements of the cardinal points on the dial of the box compass (Fig. 9). Note that E is to the left of N. This reversion of E and W Fig. II. Fig. 12. has been purposely made to facilitate the reading. As for example, assume the first course of a road to be magnetic north. In this case the position of the compass needle when taking the bearing will be as in Fig. II. The road later turns NW (Fig. i^). At this point sight In the new direction along the sighting 22 ELE.MENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING line on the compass-box lid. The needle will leave j N and move toward W (on the dial). Take the read- \ ing from N to the needle — so many degrees XW. -' The index or north end of the needle has remained \ fixed, while the sighting line of the compass has moved towards the west (the new direction) and W on the i compass face has approached the needle. If a rever- \ sion of the cardinal points E and W had not been ] made, the reading would obviously be more difficult, and it is very probable that the sketcher, while working rapidly, would have read so many degrees NE if this reversion were not clearly shown by lettering. CHAPTER IV ORIENTATION— RESECTION— INTERSECTION Orientation is placing a map in its true relation to the ground it represents, so that if it were possible to compress this ground to the size of the map, each point on the map might be placed directly over the corresponding point on the ground. It is, in practice, bringing the direction line on the map to point north and south. As a rule maps have their true north (and south) indicated by -a line which is called the True Meridian. Sketches also have a direction or meridian line, located by means of the compass. It is called the mag- netic meridian. These lines will not usually coin- cide as there are few localities where the compass needle points true North. It points toward the mag- netic North, which is usually several degress East of West of true North, depending on the locality and the time. This deviation of the needle is called mag- netic variation or declination. In the United States it is from o° to 25°. Consequently there may be two direction-lines on a map, the ''true" north and the "magnetic" north 23 24 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING (Fig. 13). In the figure the dedination is 14° 30' East. The true meridian lies in the direction of the North Pole. Its location never changes, but the magnetic meridian as indicated by the compass needle, is vari- able because of magnetic influences. The magnetic ORIENTATION 25 meridian is usually represented by a spear, one side of the point or the feathers of which is missing, while the true meridian is represented by a spear completed. Sketches, being made by compass, necessarily have a magnetic direction line, while maps are usually made by true meridian. To orient a map or sketch which has the magnetic meridian indicated, it is only necessary to bring the magnetic north of the map to point in the same direc- tion as the north end of the compass needle. When one has only the true meridian indicated, to orient by the compass, construct a magnetic meridian if the declination be known. To do this, place the meridian of the map directly under the needle of the compass while it is pointing to zero ; then keeping the map fixed, rotate the compass in the direction of the inclination of the needle, until the needle has passed over degrees on the compass-ring equal to the amount of the declination. Now draw a line in continuation of the N-S line of your compass. This line will be the magnetic meridian. In Fig. 16, a road A — B is plotted on the map ; the magnetic N and S line is indicated. You are standing on the road and desire to orient the map. Lay the compass on the map so that the N-S line on the dial is parallel to the N-S on the map. Turn the map (without disturbing the position of the compass on it) until the north end of the needle points towards N 26 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING ORIENTATION 27 on the compass face. The map is now oriented, and A — B has the same direction as the road on the ground. When there is no meridian hne on the map (or when you have no compass or other means of orient- ing by using a meridian Hne), if you can locate on the (5Un)<- Fig. 14. map your position and some other point that you can identify on the ground, draw a Hne connecting these two points on the map. Now hold the map so that this line points from you towards the object, and your map is oriented. Or, if two points visible on the ground can be identified on the map, turn the map so 28 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING that a line passing through them hes in the same direc- tion as the hne joining the points on the ground. When you have no compass for orienting your map or sketch you may find the approximate true North by the fohowing method, when the sun is shining: Point the hour hand of your watch toward the sun. A Hne drawn from the pivotal center of the dial mid- way between the hour hand and XII will point South and a prolongation of this line in the opposite direc- By 2d Lieut John sSmifh,40th Inf. ^CALE'^3 JNCHES = / MJLB. 100 v./. =20 100 O SOO lOOO Lu-l 1 1 1 I I I I I I I Fig. 32. With sketches that are not intended to serve as the basis for blue prints, different colored pencils may be used to indicate the different features. For example, contours in red, woods in green, water courses in blue and roads in yellow. This may be done during or after finishing the field work, as an aid to readily reading the sketch. A canvas pencil holder with five or six compart- ments in which pencils and erasers fit in snugly can ROAD SKETCHING 55 be readily made, and pinned to the shirt, or the pencils, etc., should be tied to your buttonholes with strings. Otherwise you will be constantly losing them. Other points to be observed in sketching are : (a) Be sure intersection and resection points are well marked to avoid sighting back on the wrong point. (b) Keep in view the scale of the sketch and the fact that you cannot show minute details. Put in only controlling features. (c) Be sure to keep orientation during sightings. It is sometimes convenient to lay .the board on the ground, fence, etc., while sighting. Check your orien- tation by back-sighting on your last station. (J) Do not leave a station until all the details up to that point are put in. Finish the sketch as you go. (e) Avoid excessive care In plotting minor details. (/) In sketching a broken course, such as a zig-zag or crooked road, do not take a sight at every change of direction. Take a sight as far ahead as you can see, and put In intermediate bends by estimation. The fewer the sights, the greater will be the final accuracy. All officers and non-commlssloned officers should be capable of readily making a hasty reconnaissance or place sketch, as such sketch accompanied by a written report will generally give more complete and clear In- ROAD SKETCHING 57 formation than can be conveyed by any written report alone. As the proximity of the enemy will prevent moving about, it will usually be necessary to make the sketch from one station and sometimes with only a notebook and pencil. The report to accompany the sketch shown in Fig. 33 might be as follows : "Boxford and Watertown are joined by an improved road ; hos- tile sentries can be seen along the edge of the wood on the north side of the river near the bridge. From the woods west of Boxford our troops could easily win the fire-protection of the houses, which are generally of brick. The cultivated ground east of Boxford affords no cover. Natives state that the creek is easily fordable 200 yards east of the bridge." CHAPTER VII POSITION SKETCHING The ordinary military map is an example of a posi- tion or area map made with accurate instruments, and involving considerable time in its preparation, but a position sketch must usually be expeditiously made, and may range in accuracy from the crudest outpost or place sketch to a correct map, depending on the time and means available for its preparation. Posi- tion sketches are for the purpose of showing pros- pective battlefields, camp sites, etc., when no maps of the area are available (Plates A and B and Fig. 31). Position sketches are made with a plane table and tripod (Fig. 4). In making the sketch, the first effort should be to plot on the paper the location of prominent features, such as railroads, roads, fences, streams and water courses, woods, houses, prominent hilltops or water sheds, and sometimes even single trees. These plotted points will later help to locate and "fill in" the other features and important ground forms near them. All of these features are located by the base line methods (intersection, resection and 58 POSITION SKETCHING 59 traversing). A base line is a traverse (or meas- ured course within the area to be sketched, as from A to D (Plate B), on which are two or more points and from which intersections can be made to locate other prominent features. Base Hnes and other traverses are measured by pacing and are plotted as carefully as possible. The base line should be one- fourth to two miles long depending on the area. As a general rule its length should not be less than one- third as long as the greatest dimension of the area. Its ends should be marked by some well-defined point, as telegraph poles, trees, or some improvised object. A base line need not be one continuous straight Hne, but with an irregular base line more care is required than when working from a single straight line. It will usually not have the same elevation throughout, though a level base line is desirable. In the sketch (Plate B) the forks of the road, the houses, the bridge, etc., are located by intersec- tions from the base line A — D. The line A — D was selected because points A and D are on prominent ground and visible from each other, the distance-^ — D can be measured by pacing, other prominent features can be sighted on from A and D, or from points on the line A — D. The points and lines referred to above, when plotted on the paper, give a network called "control'* over the area. After this control is obtained, the remaining i ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING Ti Wayne wr Z mi. sTco/e^x 6 "= /mi y./. « /O' ■75 Hallio*/n To ■facfary 6^2, mi ^mi. Plate A. POSITION SKETCHING 6i '"-. f^ Horizontal frameworK ■for Position yffKetch. Plate B. v./. * /O' ' 62 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING details including contours, cultivation, etc., can be readily filled in, as any feature will be near some point or line already located on the paper. As an example, set up and orient the board at one end of the base line, as at A. Draw a meridian near the edge of your paper. From this first station sight on D and draw your direction line towards it; then sight on other easily distinguishable points, such as hilltops, stream junctions, isolated trees, etc., drawing light lines from your position towards the objects sighted on; this is the first step in locating such objects by intersection. Indicate on each line you draw the de- gree of slope to the object sighted on ; traverse towards D, halting when necessary to sketch in details or sight on other objects, being careful to keep oriented during each sight. This orientation is usually done by backsighting on ^. At D, or favorable intermediate points, as B or C, complete the intersections begun as far as possible ; you will now have a number of objects and prominent points located on your paper; if necessary traverse to these points along the lines of sight, filling in as you go. Contouring of any section of the sketch is more readily and accu- rately done after the drainage system (watersheds and water courses) in that section have been plotted. The elevation of your starting point is known or assumed, and by taking the degree of slope to all points sighted on and applying your scale for POSITION SKETCHING 63 M.D. approximate contour points are located. The actual tracing of the contours to show local ground forms will be done by eye. Do not attempt to contour a section of ground until you have passed over it, and do not leave a station until all details up to that point have been drawn in. Plate A and Fig. 31 are examples of completed position sketches. A theoretical knowledge of sketching will not, with- out considerable practicable application, make one a proficient sketcher. Military sketches to be of much practical use, must usually be made rapidly. While reasonable accuracy is desirable', too great refinement retards the progress, and adds but little to the practical value of the sketch. As much care as is consistent with rapid work should be exercised in measuring courses and plotting. Data concerning bridges, streams, condition of the roads and other tactical features should be noted with care consistent with the object of the sketch. This should be done by mar- ginal notes as in Figs. 46 and 47. Distances to objects off the route must usually be determined by estimation or intersection, slopes estimated, and contours inter- polated. The ability to correctly estimate the degree of slope between two points is soon acquired by prac- tice. Most sketchers use the method of estimating the difference in contour intervjah between the sighting point and the object. For example, if one is at an 64 ELEAIEXTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING j elevation of 400 and sights on a point which he esti- \ mates to be 3 contours higher (or lower) he traces | the proper contour through that point, and draws in ! the intermediate ones by estimation. 1 Experience will show the sketcher the way to many 1 short cuts besides the ones above mentioned, such as j rapid orientation, skill in drawmg and an "eye for ground" in contouring. '. \ CHAPTER VIII MAP READING By map reading is meant the ability to grasp not only the general features of a map, but to form a clear mental picture of the appearance of the ground repre- sented. Map reading is very simple, and the average man can learn sufficient about it for all practical purposes in one or two lessons. The beginner will do well to omit all thoughts of sand tables, clay models, horizontal equivalents, de- termination of true meridians and all such technical terms that only serve to make map reading seem dif- ficult. It is not at all necessary to be able to make a map before learning to read one, though a practical knowl- edge of map making has taken you over the same ground and given you an understanding of the terms used in map reading. If you are teaching map reading, use a 12-inch map hung on the wall, or enough 3-inch maps to give one to each two men. If you are learning map reading without an instruc- tor, use any contoured map of 3-inch scale, or over. 65 66 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING There are but four elements to map reading : Direc- tion, Distance, Conventional Signs and Contours. Starting with direction, the arrow on the map points to the north. On modern maps the north is at the top. The south is then at the bottom, the east at the right and the west at the left. Pick out a number of points on the map and determine their direction from any given point, — this as a matter of practice. There is nothing else to learn about direction, ex- cept when you are using the map on the ground repre- sented. It will then be necessary to understand the difference between true north and magnetic north and the symbol for each (Fig. 13), as explained under ''Orientation" in Chapter IV of this text. Next take up distance. You have learned that the map distance between any two points shown on the map, has a fixed and definite relation to the real distance between the real points on the ground, as 3 inches (map distance) equals one mile on the ground, etc. Conversely, if you are on the ground, to measure the distance between any two points, take the map distance between the points and multiply it by the proper ratio number (R. F.). Or, apply the scale which appears on the map ' and read ofif the ground distance in yards or miles. Conventional signs and ahhreviations are given in Chapter II. Learn what they stand for. Conven- tional signs can not be drawn to scale, except for very MAP READING 67 large objects. If the exact dimensions are of impor- tance, these dimensions will usually be written on the map; the dimensions of a bridge, for example. Contours are but conventional signs to show the height, shape and slope of the ground. The principles of contouring have been explained in Chapter V. Learn to distinguish between contour lines and the signs for roads and streams. Usually a contour has its height labeled on it, which means the ground which it follows is that many feet above sea level (or other datum plane). Remember that all points on any contour are exactly the same height above sea level. If the height of a contour is not indicated on it, look for one that is numbered and count back. Knowing that on the same map all con- tours are the same vertical distance (V.I.) apart it is then a simple matter to determine the elevation of any particular contour. Usually every fifth contour is drawn in heavy lines, indicating even hundreds on a 3-inch map, and fifties on a 6-inch map. If there is a point through which no contour passes, this ground is not as low as the contour below, nor as high as the contour above. It is, obviously, the inter- mediate ground between two contours and its exact elevation can not be determined, though it is assumed that the ground between two contour lines slopes uni- formly. 68 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING - The highest point of a hill does not usually corre- spond with the highest contour, so that its exact eleva- tion is sometimes indicated by figures, as 427. In this case the crest is 7 feet higher than the last contour (420) but not high enough to be indicated by the next contour. Where contours lie closest the ground is steepest, and where they are further apart the ground is more nearly flat. You can find the degree of any slope by applying the slope scale (Fig. 2^) , or work it out for yourself by remembering that in a slope of i de- gree there is a rise of i foot in every 57.3 feet of horizontal distance. To find the difference in elevation (if the contours are not numbered) between two points, count the con- tour spaces and multiply by their distance apart (V.L). To find the average grade of a road, measure the ground distance in feet, and divide by the number of contour intervals. That will give you the average ground distance between contours. Then apply your table of slopes in Chapter V. While contours on an ordinary map may seem much involved, it is only on account of their number, their many turns, and because many of them run of¥ the map. Remember that a contour either closes on it- self or runs ofif the map. The water around an island in a lake is the same level. Suppose you mark around the water's edge with MAP READING 69 a piece of chalk. You will then have a line, all points of which are of equal elevation, i. e., a contour. If the water level is then raised 20 feet (vertical dis- tance), another mark around the water level would be somewhat less in circumference than the first mark, and its course would probably not have the same irregularities, but it would as surely close on itself and show the exact shape of the island at that par- ticular level, and would also be a contour. A closed contour indicates a hill (Fig. 34.) (A depression may be also represented by a closed contour, but this formation is seldom found unless the depres- sion slopes to a body of water, and then, of course, the formation is easily recognized.) An open contour indicates a ridge or a valley. If valleys contain stream lines they are easily recognized, but when there is no stream line indicated you will sometimes not be able to tell at a glance whether the formation is a ridge or a valley. Compare the appearance of the contours indicating valleys and ridges in Fig. 34. You will observe that the bends of the contours around the heads of the valleys are much sharper than the bends around a nose or ridge. In a typical formation the ridges are wider than the valleys. An exception to this rule is in the case of a "hogback"— a very sharp ridge. Rem.ember that in watersheds the contours bulge 70 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING towards the lower ground, and in water courses they bend sharply towards the higher ground. The drainage system is the key to reading any map. First locate the streams. You will find that all other ground is higher and slopes towards the streams. The formation is always ridge, valley, (high, low) ridge, valley. There is never one without the other. If contours are numbered, you have only to look at the numbers to be able to tell which is low, and which is high ground, but to read a map readily, you should be quite independent of these numbers. Visibility The problem of visibility is a stumbling block to the beginner in map reading. To him the subject is not of great practical value and he will find that it will be quite easily mastered when he has first become pro- ficient in the other elements of map reading. Visibility simply means if you were standing at a certain point would you be able to see some other point, or area? If you were standing on a certain hill, could you see troops, etc., at some other indicated point of the ground represented ? Problems in visibility can be accurately worked out by a system of "profiles." This method is explained in more advanced books on map reading. The fol- lowing simple method gives results that are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. MAP READING 71 (a) Assume that you are standing on Hill 920, four hundred yards west of J. Todd (Fig. 31). Can you tell from the map whether you could see Patton? Draw a straight line from your position on the map to Patton to represent your line of sight. Following this line you go down the hill to the stream at an eleva- tion of 830. It is evident that to this point there is no ground to obstruct your view of Patton. Follow the line up the hill to Patton, which is at elevation 940. Patton is higher than your position, and as all the ground between the two points is lower it is ap- parent that there is no ground to obstruct your view, and that Patton is visible from Hill 920. (b) Standing at the same point, can you see Stofa? Following the line of sight, you find that Stofa has the same elevation as your position, and that all inter- mediate ground is lower, therefore Stofa is visible. (c) From the same point, can you see the — bridge at the S. E. corner of the map? 10 A straight line crosses the lower ground to the stream and then rises to an elevation of 940. The ground from 940 slopes to the bridge, which is at elevation 800. It is apparent that the ridge 940 ob- structs your view and that the bridge is not visible from 920. (d) Standing at Tomlin, can you see the R. R. bridge north of the Hill 920? 72 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING Tomlin is at Elevation 940, and as no ground as high or higher intervenes it is apparent that you can see to Hill 920. From Hill 920, the ground slopes down to the bridge, which is at elevation about 840. From Tomlin to the crest of 920 hill is 800 yards. As your line of sight can not be lower than 920 at this point, it has fallen a maximum of 20 feet in a distance of 800 yards, and it would be necessary for the line of sight to fall 80 feet in the remaining 400 yards to be able to see the bridge. As the line of sight falls 20 feet in a distance of 800 yards, or one foot elevation in 40 yards direction, it would, if continued the additional 400 yards, fall 10 feet more, — bring a straight line tangent to Hill 920. In order to be able to see the bridge it would have to be at an elevation of 10 feet less than 920, or 910 feet. As the bridge is at elevation 840, it is apparent that it can not be seen from Tomlin. (e) Where would this same line of sight from Tom- lin, just touching Hill 920, pierce the ground? From Tomlin a line of sight tangent to Hill 920 has fallen 20 feet in 2^1 inches, or 7.4 feet in each inch, map distance. As the line of sight is straight, this proportion will be continued. Continue the line towards the top of the map, and measure off i inch from the Hill 920. Your line of sight will have fur- ther fallen 7.4 feet in this distance, and you would be able to see a point with an elevation of 912.6 feet. MAP READING 73 As this point is over elevation 840 it is apparent that the Hne of sight continues. In one additional inch the fall will be to elevation 903.2. This point is over elevation about 840. An additional inch will bring the elevation down to 895.8 feet, and the end of the third inch is on Contour 910. Therefore the line of sight will pierce the ground before reaching the elevation 910, or between 840 and 910, i. e., within the last inch measured. Within this last inch there has been a" rise on the ground of 70 feet. A rise of only 55.8 feet (895- 840) was necessary. Assuming that the ground slopes equally we can find the exact distance by proportion. 55.8 : 70 : : X : 1= .8 inch. I inch + I ii^ch + -S inch = 2.8 inches. This dis- tance measured from Hill 920 brings the point to about Contour 900. If trees intervene, assume their height as 40 feet. Practice will show the way to short cuts in this method, but the principles remain the same. CHAPTER IX LANDSCAPE SKETCHING i Landscape sketching is an elaboration on place sketching in which the details are shown by perspec- tive, i. e., by actually drawing in the pictures of the objects so that they seem to lessen as they are more distant from the eye. It is the means, par excellence, for designation of targets in combat, and is of great military importance in illustrating a reconnaissance or in making outpost sketches. It also affords a ready means of identifying bridges, fords, road forks, and other landmarks, by small marginal drawings on road sketches. A landscape sketch shows the terrain graphically and reauires no knowledge of map reading to under- stand. The horizon is always of military importance. This is always shown, as well as intervening crests, woods, houses, fences, etc. Drawing teaches one to judge ground rapidly and develops an accuracy of observation which mechan- ically notes the form and appearance of things. There ^ Based on a study by the School of Musketry, Fort Sill, Oklahoma. By permission of Colonel R. M. Blatchford, Infantry, Commandant. 74 LANDSCAPE SKETCHING 75 is no surer way or quicker method of educating the eye to estimate distances and to see miUtary features of the terrain, than actual practice in sketching. While landscape sketching is done from the ter- rain in perspective, it requires no special artistic ability and, when attacked in earnest, it will be found to be no more difficult and, to many, far easier and more interesting than topographical sketching. The sketch is made while remaining in one spot, as in place sketching, and is usually executed while seated. The positions of objects on the sketch are located by the angular deflection, measured in mils from the Reference Point. A mil is an angle of 3 minutes, or one sixty-four- hundredth of a circle. These numbers are not abso- lutely accurate, but are used in mil measurements as a matter of convenience. In other words, the entire distance around the horizon is 6400 mils in terms of angular measurement. The Reference Point selected must be clearly defined (school house in Fig. 44). It will seldom be exactly in the hostile position, or position to be sketched. It may be a peak 20 miles beyond, or a house or a tree nearer or more distant than the lines of enemy troops. The paper used by a patrol leader will be his note- book or the back of a field message blank (Signal Corps, 207A). For practice a sheet of paper about 5 76 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING <« ' '"i 1 11 ft 1 s: ' 53 ' o cg/x-v:>7Y »v«-'-'r 32^i2£Z::^^ //^■^ WOODS BEHIND CRESTS. 'u^''lM^2r^ ^^ i^'^';r.' > ^^i^l^f/f/J}^^^ zyZ WOODS IN RELIEF. Fig. 36. 88 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHLXG SUCCESSIVE LINES OF WOODS. LONE TREES. i:1^'-^ ^K LANDSCAPE SKETCHING 89 The comparative size of objects near and distant may be noted by holding a pencil at arm's length be- fore the eye and defining the limits of the object between the thumb and the end of the pencil. Heavy lines are used for objects in the foreground, medium lines for objects in the middle distance, and the back- ground is sketched by fine lines with a hard pencil. First draw the sky line, then work towards the front, and gradually thicken the strokes. It may be advantageous for a beginner to use three pencils of varying hardness as an H for the fore- ground, 3H for middle distance and 5H for back- ground. Commercial pencils, Nos. 2 and 3, pointed and used with care, produce the same results and are always available. Several pencils should be carried, pointed and ready for use. To put in woods, sketch the outline of the tree tops with a succession of short curves, then draw a broken line to show the near edge of the woods, and fill the space between with diagonal shading. This is the only shading required in the entire landscape sketch, the result being that trees stand out prominently among the other details. A tree on a plain or slope, in full view, will show a portion of the trunk. Trees par- tially concealed by ridges, show only the rounded tops. Draw only the silhouette or outline of the tree — do not attempt detail of branches. All roads are shown by two unbroken lines repre- 90 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING POLE LINES railroad. Fig. 38. VILLAGES. ^SU I_J__^J3 n n 1 Lf l n . ■ buildings and village. Fig. 39. 92 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING senting the edges, which get closer together as the road recedes, until they unite, forming one line. (Fig. 37)' Do not attempt to show unimproved roads and trails by dotted lines, as on contoured sketches — use solid lines and place any explanatory data in the T-section at the top of the paper. Draw only the outline or silhouette of buildings. (Fig- 39). Practice in Landscape Sketching (a) A beginner in landscape sketching should first copy some typical sketches. He will thus learn how to handle his pencils, the relative weights of the lines in foreground and distance, and the extreme small size of the few conventional signs used to represent troops. He will also appreciate the importance of a sharp point to his pencils, and keep several always ready for use. (b) The next step should be the drawing of imagi- nary landscapes. This is excellent practice. Skylines and intermediate crests can be drawn, and troops of all arms placed in position. (c) Select a convenient section and sketch the same landscape at least once a day until the result is satisfac- tory. (d) Select other landscapes for practice. LANDSCAPE SKETCHING " 93 (e) Allow ten minutes for the completion of a sketch. 1 Making the Sketch i 1. Hold the sketching pad in front of the eyes, fac- i ing the ground to be sketched, upper edge of paper horizontal, the cord knot in the teeth. i 2. Close one eye, and move the paper laterally until the sector desired is included between the two orienta- : tion marks. The paper is now oriented. i 3. With the paper thus oriented, the points or ob- i jects in the sector are visible along the upper edge, j appearing in their proper relative positions, horizontal i and vertical. 4. With a pencil, place a mark near the upper edge \ of the paper opposite the most prominent points or ! objects in the sector. Prominent features on the 1 skyline should be located first, as they aid materially | in placing other points in the drawing. i 5. The lateral location of points on the skyline be- ing thus determined, place the paper on the knee or \ other convenient support and transfer the marks from | the upper edge to the ''sketch section" of the paper. j Commence with the mark opposite the highest point, ' which is placed on the first blue line. This determines j the highest part of the sketch. The marks locating other features are transposed in their relative verti- ! cal and horizontal positions. | 94 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING 6. Draw the skyline, lightly, by connecting the transposed marks. This will give the horizon in profile. 7. Other points, crests, targets, etc., are now en- tered in the same manner, reorienting the paper when necessary. With practice, the other features of the landscape may be drawn in without reorientation, once the skyline has been located on the sketch. 8. The immediate foreground is indicated by a very heavy line above the circle. This may be made by using the side of the pencil point. By this method, the lateral proportions of the sketch will be fairly accurate. The vertical should be slightly exaggerated. Xo effort need be made to ef- fect this, since most sketchers wnll do so unconsciously. In addition to the skyline, important crest lines and other features should be sketched in. The position of fences, roads, walls, and woods of possible militar}^ value must be included. Features of the foreground are omitted unless of military importance. No effort should be made to obtain purely artistic effect. Avoid detail. Show buildins^s, woods, trees, and other features only in the outline of the silhouette. The only shading is used in showing woods. LANDSCAPE SKETCHING 95 Military Data The Reference Point selected must be an object easily recognized by another person using the sketch. It is indicated on the sketch by a vertical line drawn from near the top of the paper, stopping just above the point or object. (Fig. 43.) An arrowhead is drawn at the lower end of this line and a zero (o), is bisected in the deflection (DF) section. A reference point is ahifays designated. 2. In the T-section at the top of the sketch, is en- tered the name or description of the Reference Point and all other objects identified, including the letter denoting the nature of the target (Enemy). (I., infantry; C, cavalry; A., artillery; M.G., ma- chine guns). 3. Targets are accurately indicated on the sheet by the use of conventional signs. None but the author- ized conventional signs should be used. In addition to these conventional signs, the location is emphasized by a perpendicular dropped from the T line. At the top of this perpendicular, the abbrev- iation I., C, A., or M.G., further indicates the nature of the target. In case the target or position shown has considerable linear dimensions, as infantry deployed, a perpendicu- lar is dropped to each end of the line occupied. (Fig. 41.) 96 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING 4. Information concerning the target (and nothing else) is written vertically upon the sketch along the perpendiculars in the broad space between the sketch and the DF line. For example on perpendiculars headed I. • 4 Plat. col. advancing. Entrenched. Column, moving east. C. Led horses. Moving north. A. 4 gans in positions. Limbered. M.G. 4 guns in positions. Moving west. 5. The range, estimated or measured, is entered in the RN space, across the perpendicular, indicating the target or object. The method of determining the range is written after RN — ''Estimated" or ''Meas- ured." LANDSCAPE SKETCHING 97 When the terrain is so extensive that more than one sketch is required to cover it, sketches are numbered serially within the circle at the bottom of the pad. The location and direction illustrated on each sketch are identified by the corresponding number in a circle with an arrow pointing towards it. 7. The compass bearing is shown by an arrow with one barb, drawn beside the circle. To determine its direction, orient the sketch in a horizontal position with the "vertical" line marking the Reference Point pointing tozvard the Reference Point. Then draw the arrow parallel to the compass needle, barb toward the north. 8. The time, date and signature entered in the right- hand lower corner completes the sketch. Joining Sketches Several sketches will often be made from one posi- tion for the purpose of showing more terrain than can be included on one sketch. Whenever two sketches are to be joined, the same terrain feature must appear on each — near the left edge of one and the right edge of the other. When giyen a terrain too wide to be included in one sketch, the procedure is as follows: Make a complete sketch, including the terrain from the left, for example, as far as the paper 98 ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING will permit toward the right, noting an object approxi- mately beneath the right orientation mark and prefer- ably on the skyline. The next sketch will commence with its left orientation mark over the feature noted on the right of the preceding sketch — this feature appearing on both sketches. This repeating of a fea- on two adjacent sketches is continued until the re- quired sector of terrain is covered — up to a complete panorama of 360°. (Fig. 45.) A series of seven sketches may be made, for ex- ample, from one position, giving a panorama of 180°. If this panorama extends from the east through the north to the west, the arrow on the first sketch indi- cating the magnetic bearing will lie parallel to the bottom of the paper pointing to the observer's right, the arrow on the fourth sketch (looking north) will lie at right angles to the lower edge of the paper pointing toward the top, and the arrow on the last sketch (looking west) will lie parallel to the lower edge of the paper, pointing to the observer's left. The arrows of the second and third sketches will occupy intermediate positions with reference to the lower edge of the paper between those of the first and fourth sketches, and the arrows of the fifth and sixth sketches intermediate positions between the fourth and sev- enth. In assembling to form a panorama, the sketches are placed in order on a flat surface with all the arrows LANDSCAPE SKETCHING 99 parallel. In the above example, a panorama extend- ing through 180°, the sketches form a semicircle. (Fig. 450 In "joining" two adjacent sketches, the corner of the right sketch, for example, is folded under and in a line through the center of the common feature. (The fold usually strikes the lower edge of the paper about an inch from the corner, and the right edge about Yi inch from the top.) Place the' folded sketch over the other, so that half the common feature will be visible on each sketch, and with this common feature as a pivot, turn the right sketch until the arrows of both sketches are parallel. The crests and other features of the two sketches should meet approxi- mately along the edge of the fold. The position of the right sketch folded under will depict the identical terrain it covers on the left sketch. As landscape sketches are made rapidly and with a free hand, some adjustment of data will usually be necessarv to secure unbroken lines where the sketches m.eet. The joining sho'ild be checked on the ground and corrections made without n^ Nation. When several joined sketches are necessary, each sketch should be complete in itself with reference points, deflection'^ etc. The sj<:etches will be joined as chords of a circle, and not arcs. This is because the successive sketches are drawn on flat surfaces, and between straight hori- lOO ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING zontal lines. A panorama will therefore consist of a series of sketches joined by slight angles. This will be found to interfere little with the accurate repre- sentation of the terrain. k v///////^yy/^^//y////y/y/y^^^^^ MILITARY BOOKS A Short Title List of Standard Books on Military Science of All Publishers D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY Headquarters for MILITARY BOOKS SINCE 1848 25 PARK PLACE NEW YORK I >//////////// //////////////////////'////y>// ////////////////////////////////////^^^ STANDARD MILITARY BOOKS Detailed descriptions on request. AERONAUTICS BURLS, G. A, Aero Engines $3 . 50 DIXIE, A. E. Air Navigation for Flight Officers ..... 4.00 DOMMETT, W. E. Aeroplanes and Airships 80 DUCHENE, COMMANDANT night Without Formulae 2.50 DUCHENE, COMMANDANT The Mechanics of the Aeroplane 2 . 50 EIFFEL, G. {translated by J. C. HUNSACKER) Resistance of Air and Aviation ..... . 10 . 00 FACE, A. The Aeroplane 2 . 50 GRAHAM-WHITE, C, and HARPER, II. Learning to Fly 75 GREENHILL, G. Dynamics of Mechanical Flight 2 . 50 HAY WARD, CHAS. B. Building and Flying an Aeroplane 1 . 00 JUDGE, A. W. Design cf Aeroplanes 4.50 KENNEDY, R. Fljring Machines • Practice and Design . . . $2.00 KENNEDY, R. Aeroplane Construction . 1.50 LANCHESTER, F. W. Flying Machines from an Engineering Standpoint 3 . 00 LANCHESTER, F. W. Aerial Flight, 2 vols. Vol. I — Aerodynamics 6.00 Vol. II— Aerodonetics 6.00 LANCHESTER, F. W. Aircraft in War 4.00 LOENING, G. C. Military Aeroplanes 4.75 MATTHEWS, R. B. Aviation Pocket Book for 1917 1 . 50 PAGE, VICTOR W. Aviation Chart ; Power Plant Troubles Made Easy . 50 Aviation Engines ; Design, Construction, Repair . 3.00 Glossary of Aviation Terms; English-French. Franc ais- Anglais 1.00 PIERCE, R. M. Dictionary of Aviation 1 . 60 ROBSON, WILLIAM A. Aircraft in War and Peace . . . . . 1 . 00 SPAIGHT, J. M. Aircraft in War 2.00 TALBOT, F. A. Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War 1 . 25 WIDMER, E. J. Military Observation Balloons 3 . 00 WOODHOUSE, H. Textbook of Military Aeronautics 6.00 ARTILLERY, COAST AND FIELD Gunnery and Explosives for Field Artillery Officers . 40 HAMMOND, J. S. and OLMSTEAD D. Gunner's Handbook for Field Artillery ... .60 Manufacture of Artillery Ammunition , . . 6.00 Shrapnel and Other War Material $1 . 50 Coast Artillery Drill Regulations 1 . 00 Provisional Drill and Service Regulations for Field Artillery (Horse and Light) 1 . 25 Provisional Drill and Service Regulations for Field Artillery (6 Inch Hov^ritzer), 1917 .... 1.25 BETHELL, H. A. Modern Guns and Gunnery 6 . 00 BISHOP, H. G, Elements of Modern Field Artillery . . . 1 . 50 BISHOP, H. G. Operation Orders, Field Artillery 1.00 CLOKE, H. E. Gunner's Examiner 1.50 DYER, A. B. Handbook of Light Artillery 3 . 00 EISSLER, M. Modern High Explosives 4 . 00 GRUBER, E. L. Notes on 3-inch Gun Material 50 GUTTMAN, OSCAR The Manufacture of Explosives. 2 vols. . 11 . 00 INGALLS, J. M, Interior Ballistics 3 . 00 LISSAK, O. M. Ordnance and Gunnery G . 00 MacALISTER, D. A. Field Gunnery 1.00 MARSHALL, A. Explosives. 2 vols 16.00 MORETTI, O. and DANFORD, R. M. Notes on Training Field Artillery Details . 2 . 00 OMMUNDSEN, H., and ROBINSON, E. H. Rifles and Ammunition ........ 6.00 RUGGLES, C. L. Stresses in Wire Wrapped Guns and in Gun Carriages 3.00 SANFORD, P. G. Nitro-Explosives 4.00 SPAULDING, CAPT. OLIVER L. Notes on Field Artillery ........ 1.25 WEAVER, E. M. Notes on Military Explosives ....... $3 . 00 WISE, T. C. Gunnery; an Elementary Treatise 3.00 WORDEN, E. C. Nitro-cellulose Industry. 2 vols 10.00 FIELD ENGINEERING Engineer's Field Manual 1.26 ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS Notes on Field Fortifications 50 BEACH, CAPT. WM. D. Manual of Military Field Engineering. 9th Ed. Revised. Cloth 1.76 BOND, P. S. Engineer in War 1.60 FIEBEGER, G. J. Textbook of Field Fortifications 2.00 KENYON, R. E. Land and Coast Fortification 2.00 ROBINSON, ERNEST F. Military Preparedness and the Engineer . . . 1.50 SOLANO, E. J. Field Entrenchments ; Spadework for Riflemen . 1 . 00 VICKERS, L. Training for the Trenches 1 . 00 WALDRON, W. H. Elements of Trench Warfare 76 HYGIENE AND SANITATION Drill Regulations and Service Manual for Sanitary Troops 75 Manual for the Medical Department, U. S. Army 1.10 ASH BURN, P. M. Elements of Military Hygiene . o . . . . 1.50 HASTINGS, S. First Aid for the Trenches 1.00 HAVARD, V. Military Hygiene $5 . 00 KEEPER, F. R. Military Hygiene 1 . 50 LELEAN, P. S. Sanitation in War 2.00 MUNSON, LIEUT. COL. EDW. L. The Principles of Sanitary Tactics 2 . 00 MUNSON, E. L. Soldier's Foot and Military Shoe 1.36 STRAUB, PAUL F., Medical Service in Campaign 1 . 50 WOOD, R. C. The Soldier's First Aid 50 WOODHULL, A. A. Military Hygiene for officers of the Line . . . 1 . 50 LANGUAGES Rapid-fire English-French- German for Soldiers . .25 COLEMAN and LA MESLEE Le Soldat Americain en France 50 CROSS, H. Soldier's Spoken French €0 GULLICHAN, W. M. Soldiers' English- French Conversation Book . . 30 MORTON, MAJOR C. G. English- Spanish Pocket Manual. Cloth . . . 1.00 MOSS, MAJOR JAS. A. Spanish for Soldiers 1 . 00 Oxford English and French Conversation Book for Army and Navy Men 26 PICARD, J. Cortina French-English Military Manual . . . 2.00 PLUM ON, E. Vade Mecum for the Use of Officers and Inter- preters in the Present Campaign (French and English Technical and Military Terms) ... .75 WILKINS, COLEMAN and HUSE First Lessons in Spoken French for Men in Mil- itary Service $ . 50 WILKINS, COLEMAN and PRESTON First Lessons in Spoken French for Doctors and Nurses , 50 MACHINE GUNS AJNSLIE, G, M. Handbook on Rifle and Hand Grenades 1.25 Combined Infantry and Cavalry Drill Regulations for Machine Gun Companies for Automatic Ma- chine Rifle, Caliber .30 (Model 1909) 30 HATCHER, J. S., and others. Machine Guns 2 50 Operation and Tactical Use of the Lewis Automatic Machine Rifle 60 LONGSTAFF AND ATTERIDGE The Book of the Machine Gun 3.50 McKEDLAR, K. B. Machine Gun Practice and Tactics 90 MERKATZ, F. v. New Methods of Machine Gun Fire 25 SOLANO, E. J. Machine Gun Training 1 . 00 MANUALS UNITED STATES ARMY Cavalry Drill Regulations 75 Field Service Regulations 75 Infantry Drill Regulations 50 Manual for Non-Commissioned Officers and Privates 50 Manual of Military Courts Martial 1 . 10 Manual of Interior Guard Duty 50 Small Arms Firing Manual . , ^ 7g Rules of Land Warfare 75 Complete U. S. Infantry Guide (25 Government Manuals) 6.00 ANDREWS, L. C, and others Fundamentals of Military Service $1 . 50 Bayonet Training Manual, Used by the British Forces 30 BOLLES, F. C. and others What a Soldier Should Know 1.00 FITSCHEN, H. Spade (Trench) Warfare. Trans, from German. .50 KILNER, W. G. and MACELROY, A. J. The Cantonment Manual 1 . 00 DONOVAN, T. F. Home Guard Manual 50 GUILD AND TEST Militia Field Manual 1 . 00 HOLE ROOK, L. R. Mess Officers' Assistant 1.00 HOLBROOK, L. R. Mess Sergeant's Handbook 1.00 LAWTON, MAJOR F. H. Extracts from U. S. Army Regulations .... 1.00 Mc ARTHUR, J. C. What a Company Officer Must Know . 2 . 00 MOSS, J. A. Army Paperwork 2 . 00 MOSS, MAJOR JAS. A. Infantry Drill Regulations (with annotations) .75 MOSS, MAJOR JAS. A. Non-commissioned Officers' Manual . . 1.50 MOSS, MAJOR JAS A. Officers' Manual 2.50 MOSS, MAJOR JAS. A. Privates' Manual 1.00 ROB BINS, E. J. Universal Drill Manual 1 . 00 SELKIRK, W. O. Catechism of Manual of Guard Duty 50 SOLANO, E. J. Musketry 1.00 SPINELLI, MAJOR H. B. A Catechism of Court-Martial Duty 75 TURNER, F. H. Infantry Drill Regulations, Annotated . . . . $ .75 TUPES, H., and POOLE, S. Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing 50 WILLIAMS, A, E. Manual for Quartermasters 1 . 10 WILLIAMS, A. E. Company Supply Manual — Infantry 40 MILITARY TRAINING BROCKINGTON, W. A. Elements of Military Education ...... 1 . 50 BADEN-POWELL, R. Quick Training for War 50 CAMPBELL, M. V. Rapid Training of Recruits 1 . 00 ELLIS, E. O., and GARY, E. B. The Plattsburg Manual. A Textbook for Military Training Camp 2 . 00 GAREY E. B. and ELLIS, O. O. The Junior Plattsburg Manual 1 . 50 MAKING, BRIG. GEN. Company Training 1 . 50 LAFF ARGUE, ANDRE The Attack in Trench Warfare 50 MORRISON, JOHN F. Training Infantry .60 MOSS, JAS. A. Manual of Military Training 2.25 MOSS, JAS. A. Questions on Manual of Military Training .50 MOSS, JAS. A. Self-Helps for the Citizen- Soldier 2.25 PARKER, JOHN H, Trained Citizen-Soldiery 1.25 SOLANO, E. J. Drill and Field Training- Scouting 1.00 ST ACE Y, C. Company Training 1 . 00 SUTHERLAND, S. J. The Reserve Officers Handbook. Cloth . . . $1 . 25 Limp Leather 1 . 75 TURNER, G. S. and FULMER, J. J. Battle Fire Training 1.00 WALDRON, W. H. Company Administration 1 . 75 WELSHIMER, R. R. Primer for the Officer's Reserve Corps and Officers of Volunteers and the National Guard . . . . 1 . 00 PHYSICAL TRAINING Handbook of Physical Training. 2 vols. (Eng- lish) Vol. I 50 VoLII 50 BUTTS, E. L. Manual of Physical Drill 1 . 25 GAREY, E. B. Manual of Physical Drill 1 . 00 Manual of Physical Training, U. S. Army ... .75 SCIENCE OF WAR ALTHAM, E. A. Principles of War. 2 vols 4.50 AZAN P. War of Positions 1.25 FLETCHER-VANE, FRANCIS The Principles of Military Art 1.25 HENDERSON, COL. G. F, R, The Science of War 4.00 SARGENT, COL. H. H. Campaign of Santiago de Cuba. 3 vols. . . . 5.00 SARGENT, COL. H. H. Campaign of Marengo 1 . 50 SARGENT, COL. H. H. Napoleon Bonaparte's First Campaign . . . 1 . 50 VON CAEMMERER Development of Strategical Science durino^ 19th Century $3.00 VON CLAUSE WITZ, GEN. CARL. On War. 3 vols 7.50 VON DER GOLTZ, LIEUT.-GEN. The Conduct of War ......... 2 . 00 SIGNALLING Manual of Electric Instruments and Telephone for the Signal Corps 1 CO Drill Regulations for Field Company of the Signal Corps 75 JOLY, J. Synchronous Signalling in Navigation 75 PALEN, M. A. Lessons in Visual Signalling 60 Signal Book, U. S. Army 35 STEVENS. E. J. Field Telephones for Army Use 1 . 00 ZEN NECK, 7. Wireless Telegraphy 4 . 00 TACTICS Tactics of Coast Defence 2 . 00 ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS Studies in Minor Tactics 75 BALCK (COL.) Translated by Walter Kreuger Tactics Vol. I — Introduction and Formal Tactics of In- fantry 3.00 Vol. II — Cavalry, Field and Heavy Artillery in Field Warfare 3.00 BOND, P. s., and Mcdonough, m. j. The Technique of Modern Tactics 2 . 65 BJORNSTAD, A. W. Small Problems for Infantry 75 GRAY, ALONZO Cavalry Tactics $1 . 00 GRIEPENKERL, MAJOR GENERAL Letters on Applied Tactics 2 . 00 HANNA, M. E. Tactical Principles and Problems 2 . 50 HOENIG, FRITZ Inquiries into the Tactics of the Future . . , 2 . 00 IN GALL, J. M. Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire . . , 4 . 00 LAFF ARGUE, A. Attack in Trench Warfare 50 MAGUIRE, E. Attack and Defense of Coast Fortifications 2 . 50 MERCUR, JAMES Attack of Fortified Places 2 . 00 MOSS, JAS. A. Applied Minor Tactics 1 . 00 MOSS, J. A. Trench Warfare 1 . 25 NICHOLSON, W. A. Artillery Fire 1 . 50 SMITH, J. S. Trench Warfare 1 . 50 SWINTON, E. D, Defense of Duffer's Drift 25 THUILLIER, CAPT. H. F. The Principles of Land Defence 5 . 00 VON ALTEN Studies in Applied Tactics 2 . 00 WAGNER, A, L, Strategy 75 WISSER, JOHN P. Practical Field Exercises in Tactics and Strategy. Cloth 2.00 waldron, W. H. Tactical Walks 1.50 TOPOGRAPHY BARNES, CAPT. JOHN B. Elements of Military Sketching and Map Reading $ . 75 CARLOCK, F. D. Military Topography and Photography 2 . 50 COLE, E. F. Individual and Combined Sketching .... 1 . 00 GRIEVES, L. C. Military Sketching and Map Reading .... 1.00 GRIEVES, L. C. Military Sketching and Map Reading for Non- commissioned Officers 1.25 LAFF ARGUE, ANDRE The Attack in Trench Warfare 50 MERTENS, translated by W. KRUGER Tactics and Technique of River Crossings 2 . 50 REED, H. A. Topographical Drawing and Sketching . . . 4 . 00 REINHARDT, C. W. Lettering for Draughtsmen, Engineers, and Stu- dents 1.00 SHERRILL, C. O. Military Map Reading 90 SHERRILL, C. O. Military Topography 2 . 50 SHERRILL, C. O. Rapid Reconnaissance Sketching 1 . 25 SMITH, R. S. and McMILLAN, C. Manual of Topographical Drawing ..... 2 . 25 SWEENEY, W. C. Sketching Methods 1 . 00 WILSON, H. M. Topographic Surveying 3 . 50 TRANSPORTATION AND RATIONING Army Horse in Accident and Disease (1909) Mounted Service School .85 Army Transport Service Regulations 60 Manual for Army Bakers $ . 50 Manual for Army Cooks 75 BAKER, C. B. Transportation of Troops and Materiel 1 . 50 BAKER, C. B. Handbook of Transportation by Rail and Com- mercial Vessels 1.00 BAKER, I. O. Roads and Pavements 4 . 50 ESP A NET, OCTAVE Notes on the Supply of an Army 1 . 50 HOLBROOK, L. R. Handling the Straight Army Ration 1 . 50 LAWTON, F. H. and others Field Quartermaster's Handbook . . . . , 2.00 LAYRIZ, O. Mechanical Traction in War for Road Transport . 2 . 00 WEBB, W. L. Railroad Construction 4.00 WIMPERIS, H. E. Principles of the Application of Power to Road Transport 1.50 MISCELLANEOUS Army and Navy Diary 50 BAKER, I. O Masonry Construction 4 . 50 BAKER, M. N. Potable Water and Methods of Detecting Im- purities .50 BARNES, J. B. Letters of a Plattsburg Patriot (humorous) 1 . 00 BUNKLEY, J. W. Military and Naval Recognition Book . 1 . 00 CAMERON, L. C. J. R. Infantry Scouting 1 . 00 CARTER Horses, Saddles and Bridles . . . . ' . . . 2 . 75 CLOKE, H. E. The Enlisted Specialist's Examiner 2.00 DAVIS, G. B. The Elements of Law $2 . 50 DAVIS, G. B. A Treatise on the Military Law of the United States 7.00 DION, s. A. Tanks, Gas, Bombing, Liquid Fire 1 25 DUDLEY, E. S. Military Law and the Procedure of Courts Martial 2 . 50 FALLS, D. W. C. Army and Navy Information 1 . 00 FIEBEGER, G. J. Civil Engineering 5 . 00 FOSTER, H. A. Electrical Engineer's Pocket-book 5 00 FRYE, A. I. Civil Engineer's Pocket-book 5.00 GRUBER, E. L. Notes on 3-inch Gun Material 50 HENDERSON, D. Art of Reconnaissance . 1 . 50 HOWE, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man 1 . 25 KENT, W. Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book .... 5 . 00 LALLIER, E. V. Elementary Manual of the Steam Engine 2 00 LAWTON, F. W., and DEMPSEY, W. A. Quartermaster Administration 2 . 00 LODGE, O. J. Elementary Mechanics 1 . 50 MACQUARRIE, HECTOR How to Live at the Front 1 . 25 McKENNEY, H. J. Exercises for Systematic Scout Instruction . . 1.25 MARSHALL Elements of Hippology .' 1 . 50 MERRIMAN, M. Treatise on Hydraulics 4 . 00 MOSS, MAJOR JAS. A. Peace and War Duties of the Enlisted Man $ . 50 MOSS, MAJOR JAS. A. and WALDRON, MAJOR W. H. What Sammy's Doing 75 PARKER, P. A. M. Control of Water 5.00 PARKER, RALPH M. An Officer's Notes 2 . 00 REY, JEAN (Trans, by J. H. JOHNSON) Range of Electric Searchlight Projectors . 4 . 50 ROBINSON, LIEUT. COL. W. Electricity 2.50 SOLANO, E. J. Camps, Billets and Cooking 1 . 00 The Soldiers' Diary and Note Bool: 1.00 STEWART, M. B. Military Character, Habit, Deportment, Courtesy and Discipline 1 . 00 SWOOPE, C. W. Lessons in Practical Electricity 2 . 00 TURNER G. S. and FULMER J. J. Battle Fire Training 1 . 00 WALDRON, W. H. Scouting and Patrolling .25 WALSH, H. P. Taking Bearings 1 . 00 WIMPERIS, H. E. Primer of the Internal Combustion Engine 1.00 ZU HOHENLOHE INGELFINGEN, PRINCE KRAFT Letters on Infantry 2 . 00 ZU HOHENLOHE INGELFINGEN, PRINCE KRAFT Letters on Cavalry 1 . 75 ZU HOHENLOHE INGELFINGEN, PRINCE KRAFT Letters on Artillery 2 . 50 THE WALDRON BOOKS By Major WILLIAM H. WALDRON, 29th U. S. Infantry SCOUTING AND PATROLLING Cloth Bound -;- Fits the Pocket WHAT TO DO— HOW TO DO IT Covers the duties of the individual scout and the opera- tions of the Patrol in "J\'o Man's Land.'' Postpaid - - - SOc. Elements of TRENCH WARFARE Cloth Bound -:• Fits the Pocket Compiled from the latest information of how they are going about it on the Western front. Profusely illustrated. Postpaid - - - 75c. COMPANY ADMINISTRATION A reference book that no Company Commander, First Sergeant or Com.pany Clerk can afford to be without. The most complete and practical treatment of the subject that has been produced. Postpaid - - - $1.25 TACTICAL WALKS A system of instruction for Officers and non-commis- sioned Officers for the duties that will devolve upon them in actual service. No glittering generalities — a book of detail — just what to do. Written so you can understand it. Postpaid - - - $1.50 The Infantry SOLDIER'S HAND-BOOK An illustrated text-book covering the training of the infantry soldier for war. Every soldier in the Army should have a copy. Postpaid - - - $1.00 VAN NOSTRAND'S MILITARY MANUALS 72 Pages Illustrated 3^X5H Postpaid 30c. Bayonet Training Manual Used by the BRITISH FORCES The material in this book is from the latest British Training ]\Ianual (19 16), which is based on their experience, and their forces as well as ours are now being trained in accordance therewith. The methods described have been adopted for use in training the United States forces. ISO Pages Illustrated 3 Folding Plates iVs^SH Postpaid 60c. Operation and Tactical Use of the Lewis Automatic Machine Rifle Based on the Experience of the European War Col. I. N. LEWIS, U.S.A. The descriptive text is full and accurate in detail, while the system of preliminary and practical field instruction as outlined follows closely that now employed at the various machine gun schools and special instruction camps in England, France and the United States. With an Introduction by the Inventor 90 Pages Illustrated 5 Folding Plates 3% x sVs Postpaid 50c. The Attack in Trench Warfare By Capt. ANDRE LAFFARGUE 153rd Infantry, French Army Translated by an Officer of Infantry A careful study on the general and detailed aspects of the tac- tics of the attack in trench warfare, one of the important features of which is a study of the methods of training infantry units for this class of military operations. General Joffre was so impressed with the value of this book that he had it published to the French Army before giving it out for general publication. VAN NOSTRAND'S MILITARY BOOKS THIRD EDITION 125 Pages Illustrated aH^SH Cloth Postpaid 75c. 5 Folding Plates ELEMENTS OF MILITARY SKETCHING and MAP READING BY Major JOHN B BARNES The most practical test published on map making and map reading. Any one can, without an instructor, understand and apply it. 275 Pages 105 Illustrations 4 Folding Plates 6x9 Postpaid $2.50 TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF RIVER CROSSINGS BY COLONEL MERTENS TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY WALTER KRUEGER Major U. S. Army Presents a carefully thought out scheme of a way in which river crossings may be effected and of how the attacker, once across, may be met. VAN NOSTRAND'S MILITARY BOOKS 231 Pages SI Plates— Many in Colors Pocket Size Price $1, MILITARY and NAVAL RECOGNITION BOOK A handbook on the organization, insignia of rank, and customs of the service of the World*s Important Armies and Navies, BY Lieut. J. W. BUNKLEY U. S. Navy A complete, correct and fully illustrated guide to the insignia of our army and navy as well as of those of the nations engaged in the war, compiled from official sources and useful alike to civilians as well as to the Army and Navy. You will need this book to help you recognize our boys at home and to distinguish the other boys ''over there." D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY HEADQUARTERS SINCE 1860 for MILITARY AND NAVAL BOOKS 25 Park Place NEW YORK This book is DUE on the last date stamped below The RALPH D. REED LIBRARY DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY UNIVLRSITY of CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES, CALIF. 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