'M: Lud^ ^^^^^^^^^^ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES GIFT OF MR. KOBH^RT HUMTER I' V LIFE AND LABOUE PEOPLE IN LONDON The preceding portion of this work, originally issued as tAvo volumes with an Appendix, was subsequently republished in a revised shape as four volumes, but the matter con- tained in the new edition is practically identical with that in the old. The earlier form of publication has now been abandoned, and consequently the present volume (V.) is a direct continuation of both the previous editions.] LIFE AND LABOUE OF THE PEOPLE IN LONDON EDITED BY CHAELES BOOTH VOLUME V POPULATION CLASSIFIED BY TRADES MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1895 LONDON O. NORMAN AND SON, PRINTKRS, FLORAL STREET COVENT GARDEN {Ernest Aves.) 31 „ 46 ,, 87 136 161 MV CONTENTS OF VOL. V PAOE Introduction •• ••• 1 Part T.— THE BUILDING TRADES. Chapter I. The ^YHOLE Group II. The Different Sections III. Conditions of Employment .. IV. Organization ,, y. Abusks— Social Condition .. Part II.— WOOD WORKERS. Preliminary Statement ■ ■■■ 175 ^ T ^ \G. E. Arkell and] ,,.„ Chapter I. Cabinet-makers |^ ^ Duckworth.] ^^^ „ II. Carriage Builders (Esine Hotoard.) 233 ,, III. Coopers (G. H. Dtickworth.) 251 IV. Shipwrights ,, 269 Part III— METAL WORKERS. Preliminary Statement ... ... 289 Chapter I. Engineering, Iron-ship Build- ing, and Boiler Making ... {Jesse Argylc.) 293 II. Blacksmiths ,, 327 ,, III. Other Workers in It?on and Steei „ 336 ,, IV. Workers in Other Metals {G. H. Dmha-orth.) 366 Appendices •• ••• 401 Index • •• ••• 411 245938 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION, Classification of the Population of London. In the introduction to my first volume it was pointed out that a double method of inquiry was needed^ in order that the condition of the people might be tested in two ways, and the facts be ascertained, first, as to how they live, and next, as to how they work. The first of these two methods, although carried out for the whole of London with sufiicient fulness in my first and second volumes, was felt to require the check afforded by statistics obtained in a different manner ; the second test was, save in a few exceptional cases, left on one side until I could make use of the more recent and comprehensive statistical basis to be afforded by the occupation returns of the Census of 1891. Thanks to the kindness of the Registrar-General my hopes in this respect have been fulfilled ; and I have been permitted to make a very complete use of the census figures in classifying the people of London."^ In the Census of 1891, each head of family or occupier living in less than five rooms was asked to state the number of rooms occupied; and, in London at least, this informa- tion was in most instances obtained by the enumerators. The result is embodied in the Report lately issued by the Registrar-General, showing that there were 630,569 occupied tenements of less than five rooms, and giving the * In thanking the Kegistrar-General for the great courtesy he has shown me in this matter, I perhaps ought to say that while supplying me with all the information I needed for my purpose, he has never placed in my hands any original documents, or supplied any of the facts, except in such form as to preclude all possibility of individual identification. VOL. V. 1 CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION. following particulars as to the numbers of persons compared to the number of rooms in each tenement : — Rooms ill Number of Tenements with less tlian Five Rooms. Number of Occupant s of each Tenement. Tt^nement. One. Two. Three. Four. Five. Six. 1 2 3 4 172,502 18i),707 153,189 115,171 60,114 16,106 5,522 1,864 55,766 46,075 27,246 12,049 29,005 40,168 29,151 16,645 16,111 32,486 26,796 18,896 7,409 24,013 22,657 18,175 2,871 15,526 17,293 16,294 Total ... 630,569 83,606 141,136 114,969 94,289 72,254 51,984 Nu nber of Occupants of each Tenement (continued). Rooms. Seven. Eight. Nine. Ten. Eleven. Twelve or more. 1 2 3 4 879 8,863 11,953 12,801 231 4195 7078 8952 72 1590 3446 5203 27 488 1377 2573 10 138 470 1150 7 59 200 569 Total ... 34,496 1 20,456 10,311 4465 1768 835 It must be noted that by "head of family" is meant any- one claiming to fill up an independent return or " house- holder's schedule." The " house " indirectly referred to may be but one room, and the household its single occupant; but boarders do not usually expect or obtain separate schedules, and thus as a rule it may be taken that tliose by whom or for whom the kitchen fire is used form one census family. The method which I have adopted in rc-stating the facts for the purposes of this classification is as follows : So far as the population are living in less than five rooms per family, the classification is based on the number of persons to each room ; so far as they are employers of domestic indoor servants, it rests on the number of persons served to each servant ; while those who live in five or more rooms, but keep no servants, form a central class. INTEODUCTION. On this plan tliose living in eacli district, or engaged in eacli trade, fall into three broad divisions, whicli again maj be sub-divided as below : — I. Lower Class— (1.) 4 or more persons to each room (2.) 3 and under 4 persons to each room (3.) 2 „ 3 (4.) 1 „ 2 II. Central Class — (5.) Less than 1 person to each room Families occupying 5 rooms or more without servants (a.) 4 or more persons to 1 servant III. Upper Class — f 3 or less with 1 servant 14 „ more with 2 servants Families occupying less than 5 rooms. (b.) (c.) id.) (e-) if-) io- less more 4 6 more 2 with 3 servants 4 „ 4 6 „ 5 more with 6 servants 2 with 4 servants 4 6 7 and other families where number of servants about equals that of members of the family and other families with 8 or more servants, where members of family equal the number of servants Families employing domestic indoor servants. (/,.) (1, 2, or 3 persons with 7 servants And all families with more than 8 servants, where the members of family are less in number than the servants ^ In the central class I have included on the one hand, those who, though occupying less than five rooms, are fewer in fainilj than the number of rooms occupied, and on the other hand have counted also those who, though keeping one servant, are not less than four in family. For the former are fully as well housed, and the latter are in very much the same social position, as those who without servants occupy a house of five or more rooms. VOL. V. 1 * 4 CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION. The above classification embraces tbe whole population in families as they live, leaving outside of it only the inmates of institutions, hotels, &c. It can be applied equally well to the whole population or to any district or trade, or if desired to any trade in any district. In it every individual inhabitant of London has his place. There are 127 registration sub-districts in London; some of these, being at once small, similar in character and contiguous, I have combined, making finally 114 local divisions suitable for my purpose. As to trades, the census enumerates nearly 350, but many of these apply hardly at all to London, and by combining such as do not demand separate treatment, I have reduced that number to about ninety trades or groups of trades. The population to be dealt with consists in all of nearly a million families, which, excluding servants, are of the following: sizes : — 159,282 3 „ = 477,846 140,715 4 „ =- 562,860 114,991 5 „ = 574,955 88,894 6 „ = 533,364 63,139 7 „ = 441,973 41,034 8 „ = 328,272 24,028 9 „ = 216,252 12,874 10 „ = 128,740 11,086 over 10 ,, =- 136,056 Total 926,766* 3,848,114 Institutions, A'c. (excluding servants) ... 157,771 Servants in families 186,701 Servants in institutions, &c 9,633 Servants in charge of houses (family absent) 9,524 4,211.743 * The " Census of 1891 " (Vol. II., p. 20) shows there were 937,606 occupied tenements in London, as against the 926,766 heads of families here returned. A small part of this discrepancy is due to error on our part in abstracting INTRODUCTION. 5 As to birthplaces of heads o£ families, there were : — Born in London 461,627 or 49-8 per cent. „ out of London 465,139 „ 50-2 or very nearly half and half. As to employers and employed (heads of families) we find : — Employers 89,608^ Employed 635,8831°^" ^ *° ^ Neither employer nor employed ...201,275 926,766 The proportion one to seven is for heads of families only; it would be considerably higher for the whole population, as most employers are heads of families, while the employed include many single men, besides a whole host of young persons and women. The comparison between those heads of families who are and those who are not employers is, however, good for many purposes. The average size of family is 4*13 persons, or counting servants 4'33, constituted as follows : — Heads of Families. other Jlembers. Total. Average Occupied. Unoccupied. Servants. Family, 926,766 1-0 860,687 0-93 2,060,661 2-20 186,701 0-20 4,034,815 167,404 9,524 4-33 Inmates of institutions and the Servants in charge of houses . Tntal nnnnla. ir servants — tion 4,211,743 the figures, but the difference is mainly caused by the fact that the census figures include institutions, hotels, common lodging-houses, and houses in charge of servants. Considering that these did not comprise " family life " in the ordinary sense, I have excluded from my statement of heads of families those who returned themselves as " heads " in such cases, and the whole class is separately grouped. It may also be noted that the total of persons counted by me as living in " four rooms or under " exceeds in each group that of the census. This is because it was possible, by careful editing, to assign to their proper i)lace a number of persons who it was evident from their surroundings occupied less than five rooms, although they failed to return themselves as so doing. 6 CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION. Of tliese heads of families 741,000 were males and 185,000 females. The family of which a man is the head is commonly more numerous by one person than that of which a woman is the head. If, following this rough rule, we adjust the figures we shall find that in place of 4" 13 all round average (excluding servants) we have for families with a male head about 4*45 and for those with a female head 3*45. Passing now to the social classification, I am able to sum it up in the following table : — Classification of the Whole Population of London hy Number of Rooms Occupied or of Servants Kept. I. Without Servants. Families of Over 10 persons living in 1 room* 10 persons living in 1 room 8 " 7 ,, « ,, 5 ,, 4 J, Over 10 „ 2 rooms 10 jj 'J ^, 8 ,, Over 11 „ 3 rooms 3 1 room.. 7 2 rooms 6 ,, 11 3 rooms 9 Over 11 „ 4 rooms Total Persons. 267^ 280 684 1,904 (5,363 17,218 37,625 65,052 2,567 5,030 14,373 34,040 2,518 J 88,134^ 63,126 94,758 5,335 I 14,270 31,685 7,141 J (Class 1.) 187,921, or 4*4 per cent. (Class 2.) 304,449, or 7"2 per cent. * I would warn my readers that there may be some error in the figures where ten or more persons are represented as living in one room. There are doubtless cases of very extreme crowding to be found in London, but there will also be instances of erroneous returns, and I have little doubt that in some cases eiTor in the return will be the true explanation. INTEODUCTIOK. Classification of the Whole Populaticn of London- continued. I. Without Servants — continued. 2 per sons living in 1 room 5 2 rooms 4 ,j 8 8 rooms 7 ,, (3 ,, 11 4' rooms 10 ,, 9 jj 8 ,, 1 pel son li\-ing in 1 room 3 per sons living in 2 room 2 ^^ 5 3 rooms 4 ,, 3 ,, 7 4 rooms G ,, 1 person living in 2 rooms. 2 persons living in 3 rooms. 1 person living in ,, 3 persons living in 4 rooms. 1 person living in ,, All families living in more than 4 rooms Total of families without servants. Total Persons. 112,620^ 121,980 132,(512 57,77(5 85,379 i 10G,734 13,123 27,130 48,861 75,400 J 58,670^ 123,738 93,900 116,285 110,804 I 88,704 I 93,814 102,234 94,835 79,796 J 15,725 1 54,838 5,299 ! 51,303 I' 24,520 I 1,786 J r I (Class 3.) 781,615, or 18-5 per cent. (Class 4.) 962,780, or 23-0 per cent. (Class 5.) 153,471, or 3-7 per cent. (Class G.) 981,553, or 23"3 per cent. - { 3,371,789, or 80-1 per cent. II. With Servants. Faiiiilio Total Persons. Over 10 persons with 1 servant 10 persons with 1 servant .... 9 8 7 6 5 4 14,261^ 10,990 I 16,875 24,952 ! 33,446 r 40,368 44,360 ! 42,-580 j (Class a.) 227,832, or 5-5 per cent. 8 CLASSIFICATION OF POPVLATIOX. Classification of the ^Vhole Populatioii of London- continued. II. With Servants — continued. Families of Total Persons. 3 persons with 1 servant 2 „ „ 1 person with ,, Over 10 persons with 2 servants 10 persons with 2 servants 9 „ „ 8 „ „ 7 „ „ 6 5 „ „ 4 „ „ 3 ;, „ 2 „ „ 1 person with ,, Over 10 persons with 3 servants 10 persons with 3 servants 9 „ „ 8 „ „ 7 „ „ 6 „ „ 5 Over 10 persons with 4 servants 10 persons with 4 servants 9 „ „ 8 „ „ 7 „ „ 4 ,,3 servants 3 „ „ 6 ,, 4 servants 5 „ 7 or more persons with 5 servants 1 ,, 2 persons with 3 servants 3 „ 4 „ 4 „ 5 „ 6 „ 5 „ 7 ,, more „ 6 ,, , 1 „ 2 „ 4 , 3 „ 4 „ 5 „ 5 „ 6 „ 6 „ 6 „ 7 „ 7 And other large families where the number "] of servants nearly equals the members of >• the familj' J 1 or 2 persons with 5 servants 4 „ 4 „ 6 „ 4 „ 5 „ 7 „ And other families ■with 8 or more servants") where the members of the family equal )■ the number of servants J 34,143^ 20,528 4,110 7,467 4,600 6,579 9,160 12,166 14,700 15,730 14,932 J 12,237^ 8,.S02 2,446 3,657 2.030 2,970 3,424 4,375 5,130 5,745 2,109 830 990 1.496 2,009 J 5,751^ 4,023 I 2,400 ;- 2,575 I 3,456 J 3,930^ 4,382 i 2,301 \ 2,745 J 1,497^ 2.164 1,411 503 1,520 J 741^ 1,220 I 836 j- 229; (Class h.) 144,115, or 3-4 per cent. (Class c.) 57,750, or 1-3 per cent. (Class d.) 18,805, or 0"4 per cent. (Class e.) 13,358, or 03 per cent. (Class/.) 7,095, or 02 per cent. (Class g.) 3,026, or 01 per cent. INTRODUCTION. Classification of the Whole Population of London — continued. II. With Servants — continued. Families of Total Persons. 1 or 2 persons with 6 servants ") 1, 2 or 3 „ 7 „ f (Class h.) And all families with more than 8 servants - where the members of the family are less in number than the servants J ~ 1 4,344, I or 01 per cent. Total of families with servants ( 476,325, 1 or 11-3 per cent. III. Othees. Servants in families — Where there is only 1 servant 'Where there are 2 servants 3 „ 4 Where there are more than 4 servants. Servants in institutions, hotels, &c Servants in charge of houses Inmates of hotels, &c , ,, common lodging-houses, &c. ,, large shops, &c ,, institutions Total of others 64,050^ 49,406 27,900 15,820 j- 29,525 9,633 I 9,524 J 25,726^ 20,087 [ 15,321 { 96,637 J 205,858, or 4-9 per cent. 157,771, or 3-7 per cent. J 363,629, ( or 8-6 per cent. Total Population 4,211,743 Summary. 8,371,789, 80'1 per cent., without servants. 476,325, 11-3 „ with servants. 205,858, 4-9 ,, servants. 157,771, 3-7 ,, inmates of institutions, A'c. 4,211,743, 100 per cent. 10 CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION. The foregoing figures may be re-stated shortly as follows :- - Without Servants. (1) (2) (3) (4) (.0) (r,) Servants. Living in Institu- tions, &c. 4 or more Persons per Room. 3 — 4 Persons per Rooni. 2—3 Persons per Room. 1 — 2 Persons per Room. Less than One Person per Room . Over Four Rooms. Total. 187,921 304,449 4-47„ 7-27„ 781,615 18-57„ 962,780 23-07, 153,471 3-77, 981,553 23-3 205,858 4-97o 132,045 317o 3,709,692 88-17o With Servants. («) (h) (0 (d) (e) (/) (£7) (li) Living in Hotels, &c. 1 Servant, 4 or more Persons. 2Servants, 4 or more, 1 — 3 or less Persons. 2Servants, 3 or less Persons, &c. Servants fewer than those served (other). Servants about equal in numbers to those Served. 4 Servants for 1 or 2 Persons, &c. 5 Servants for 1 or 2 Persons, &c. 6 Servants for 1 or 2 Persons, &c. , Total. 227,832 5-57„ 144,115 3-47o 57.750 1-37., 18,805 o-47„ 13,358 o-37o 7,095 0"27o 3,026 0-17= 4,344 o-i7o 25,726 0-67, 502,051 11 -970 Granrl tntal 4,211,743 It was with some trepidation that I undertook the com- parison of this classification with that obtained from previous investigations. The methods employed were entirely different,, and the results of the second inquiry might not be found to support those of the first. In Vol. II. of this work the population (over estimated at 4_,309^000) is divided and described as follows : — Per Cent. Classes A and B (the very poor) 354,444 or 8-4) „ C „ D(thepoor) 938,293 „ 22-3/ ,, E ,, F (comfortable work- -^ ing class, includ- [-2,166,503 ,, 51-5'' ing servants) J „ G (" lower middle ") ... 500,000 „ H ("middle," and) 249,930 " upper classes") J ' J 12-0 5-8 Per Cent. (In poverty) 30-7 (In comfort) 69-3 Inmates of institutions. 4,209,170 ,. 99,830 100 4,309,000 (estimated population— 1889) INTRODUCTION. 11 We now liave — (1.) (2.) 3 or more persons per room ... (3.) 2 and under 3 ,, Common lodging-houses, &e (4.) 1 and under 2 persons per room ... (5.) Less than 1 person per room (6.) Occupying more than 4 rooms ... (a.) 4 or more persons to 1 servant ... Servants Persons hving in large shops, &c {b.) to (/(.) 3 or less persons to 1 servant Inmates of hotels and boarding-houses \ where servants are kept j Per Cent. 492,370 or — 781,615 „ 19-0 20,087 962,780 153,471 981,553 227,832 205,858 15,321 248,493 25,726 0-5 J 23-4 3-7 23-9 5-5 ( 5-0 I 0-4 J 6-0 ■> Per Cent. 12-0 19-5 Per Cent. (Crowded) 31-5 0-6 61-9 6-6 J 4,115,106 Institutions (excluding inmates of hotels, lodging-houses, large shop^, and their servants) 96,637 (Not crowded) 68-5 100 4,211,743 In both classifications the servants have been added to the group to which they socially belong, and in both I have excluded altogether the inmates of hospitals, work- houses and prisons, while the inmates of common lodging- houses, of large business establishments, and of hotels are in the second classification, each placed where they socially belong. It will be seen that the total percentages "crowded" and '' not crowded " agree very nearly with the totals of the previous classification " in poverty " and " in comfort." The similarity is even startling, and I hasten to say that no such absolute comparison as these figures might suggest can be made. Living in close quarters is no certain test of poverty, and accordingly while some districts are more crowded than they are poor, others are plainly more poor than they are crowded. It is only when we take the large average j)rovided by the whole area of London, or in districts which represent this average, that we obtain such an ao-reement as is shown above. 12 CLASSIFICATION OF FOPULATIOX. The original classification has the advantage of being directly aimed at poverty, with which domestic crowding is not entirely coincident, but was based on opinion only — that is, on the impression made on the minds of the school- board visitors and others by what they had seen or heard as to the position in the scale of comfort of the people amongst whom they lived and worked, whereas the new classification is based on a direct enumeration of the facts. Some doubt, it is true, is thrown by the Registrar-General on the trustworthiness of the information given in the census as to the numbers of rooms occupied, the numbers of employers and employed, and as to the description by occupation. It is pointed out in the Report (1893) that in spite of the very exact instructions issued, defining the words "house" and ''tenement" — the former as the space between the external and party walls of a building, the latter as any house or part of a house separately occupied — confusion seems to have arisen. Further, that the columns used to indicate the status " employer," " employed/' or " neither," were frequently not filled in at all, and in other cases contained manifest errors; and finally, that insufficient or misleading returns are often made as to the occupation pursued. All this is perfectly true. At the same time it must be remembered that nothing can be said of the inaccuracy of the occupation returns that may not with equal or jDcrhaps greater force be urged against the returns of age, and nothing against the infoi'mation as to industrial status which does not apply equally to civil condition, nor as to rooms occupied which does not apply as much to birth- places. No one of these returns is immaculate. As to age, no doubt some figure is filled in, but in how many cases is this done by the enumerator ? Or, if filled in by the householder, what guarantee that the ages are known, or, if known, are truthfully recorded ? So far from the data being accurate, they bear on their face the stamp of IXTEODUCTIOX. 13 inaccuracy, as witness tlie concentration upon even figures, such as thirty-five, forty, &c., and tlie evident and natural error in the ages returned by young women, who wish only to be " as old as they look," or not quite that. As to civil condition, marriage and widowhood are terms very loosely used, and as to birthplaces, what reliance can be placed on detailed accuracy ? Yet these retui-ns are used without cavil for calculations and deductions of the most elaborate character, connected with vital problems and the movements of population. Prima facie, the statistics we are using have an advantage over those concerning age and civil condition, in that the information is common property. Age is known at best only to the individual, or, in the case of children, to the parents ; the neighbours do not know, the enumerator can only guess. But the number of rooms occupied is well known, and not to be hidden. In nine cases out of ten the enumerator would not need to ask the question if it were his business to fill in the schedule. jSTor is the occupation commonly any secret; while as to a man's status of employer or employed, it is decided for all practical purposes by the street in which he lives. It is therefore to be supposed that when the enumerator's work was carefully done, the errors on these points would not be either serious or widespread, and if omissions or blunders have been made, they would be due to the fact that some of the questions were novel. To meet the difficulty of novelty, and to make sure that the enumerator's work was carefully and intelligently performed, at any rate in London, I obtained the Eegistrar- General's permission to place myself in communication with the Registrars in each sub-district of the metropolis, and through them with the enumerators themselves. I personally saw all the Registrars more than once, and discussed the subject with them, pointing out the object to be attained, and the important uses that could be made of the material to be collected ; and my appeal was very heartily 14 CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATIOX. responded to both by them and by the enumerators. Amongst so many men (there were over three thousand enumerators in all) there could not be uniform excellence, and no doubt some may have performed the work in a perfunctory manner, but, on the whole, I was assured, and feel quite satisfied, that the work was well and conscientiously done. To some extent its quality could be seen when we came to edit the results ; and the process of editing served not only as a test, but enabled us also to make current corrections of evident errors or omissions. On the whole, therefore, I am confident that any errors which may have crept in could not materially affect the general merits of the classification, and that the numbers counted in the census as occupying each tenement, and the number of rooms in each tenement of less than five rooms, may, for all practical purposes, be taken as correct ; whilst the value of the return for comparative purposes is strengthened by the fact that the rooms occupied by the poor are usually similar in size. As to wealth, the new classification has every advantage ; indeed, the previous one made no attempt in this direction, but lumped together all the servant-keeping classes, and even some out of the lower middle classes, who, though keeping no servants, live in middle-class streets, and send their children to middle-class schools. The numbers of servants and the numbers in family as given by the census, are undoubtedly correct, and although the number of servants kept is no certain test of wealth, it is at any rate a very fair test of expenditure, and an almost absolute test of the style of life. The numbers of the " crotvded " are, as we have seen, very similar to those of the "poor" in London, but if all families with three or more persons per room are to be counted as very crowded, the number of these considerably exceeds that of the ''very 'poor" as previously estimated. In this there is nothing unreasonable. A man and his wife IXTIiODUCTION. 15 and one cliild, or a widow with two cliildren, may occupy only one room ; or a family of six or seven may have only two rooms; and yet not be "very poor" in the sense of suffering " chronic want/' But when four or more persons live in one room or eight or more in two rooms, there must be great discomfort, and want of sufficient food, clothing, and firing must be a frequent incident. I have, thei'efore, draAvn a line at this point, and find 188,000 people who are undoubtedly very poor. "^ Further, of the 300,000 who live three or from three to four in a room, it may be that half would be correctly placed in the same category. If so, we have about 340,000 in all of " yerj poor," amongst the * For the reader's convenience classifications side by side. I repeat here the figures of the two New ClassiJiccUion. Old Classific'-'ikm. Lower Classes, . 2/257,000 1000 2000 COOO 20,000 57,000 102,000 Central Classes, ' 1,584,000 Upper Classes, 274,000 Over 8 to a room 8 to a room V 6 to a room, &c. 5 ,, ,, i „ „ 2 Common lodging-houses 1 to a room, &c. Less than 1 to a room, d'c. More than 4 rooms Over 4 persons with 1 servant Persons living in large shops, &c. Servants in families and institutions 3 and under 4 persons per servant 2 and under 3 persons per servant. Sec. 1 „ 2 Less than 1 person per servant, etc. Inmates of Hotels, &c. Class (1) 188,000 ^ (A & B— 354,000) Class (2) 304,000 J {divided) Class (3) 782,000 | p.gas^ooO) 20,000 j ^ ' Class (4) 903,000 .^ Class (5) 153,000 | Class (G) 982,000 1^ (^ & F~2,167,000) Class («) 228,000 | (G-500,000) 15,000 206,000 J 97,000 >v 70,000 1 68,000 I (H -250,000) 23,000 j 26,000 J 4,115,000 Institutions (excluding hotels, large shops, &c.) 97,000 Total 4,212,000 4,209,000 100,000 4,309,000 {See also detailed figures on pages 6-9.) 16 CLA SSIFICA TION OF POP VLA TIOX. crowded, a number which compares closely with the 350,000 of the old classification. I have not used the expression " overcrowded/^ but the subject cannot be shirked, and will be fully considered later, when the position of each district as to poverty, housing-, rent, &c., is separately dealt with. Amongst those who live four or more to a room, there may be some instances in which the room is unusually large, or the family, as in the case of a widow, may consist of only one adult and three small children, but such excejDtions will be comparatively rare, and apart from them the whole 100,000 persons can only be described as overcrowded. Still more certainly must this be true of the 50,000 or G0,000 persons who are living five in one room or nine to ten in two rooms. And beyond these we have no less than 20,000 persons living six in one room or over ten together in two rooms. Into the cases of still greater crowding — the GOOO living seven in one room, or the 2000 living eight in one room — I will not go at present. They will be better considered locally. That such cases exist is known to every relieving officer, and it will be found that many of them are rather aggravated than explained by the character of the " room " occupied. Finally, we have 1000 persons returned as living nine, ten and over ten in a room. These cases, as already stated, are very probably erroneous or misleading in some way. There may be isolated cases of the kind, but the total cannot be regarded as correct. Of the third section of the lower class, those who live two in one room or four or five in two rooms — or any other combination which yields two and a fraction per room — some may be "very poor," just as, on the other hand, some of the very crowded would not be found to be so very poor, but, on the whole, they will be simply "poor,'' i.e. obtaining with difficulty the bare necessaries of life, but succeeding in obtaining them. Of these, we have in London 780,000, or if we add to them one-half of those who live three, &c.. INTRODUCTION. 17 to a room^ omitted above as not belonging' to the very poor, we have 930,000 or 940,000, comparing exactly with the 938,000 '''poor" of the old classification. As to section four of the lower classes it is not possible to make any direct comparison with the old arrangement. There are nearly a million of them (962,780) living one person in each room, or at most three people in two, five ia three, or seven in four rooms. They are part of the 2,200,000 " comfortable working classes " recognized in the old fio-ures, and to them must be added three-fourths of the new " central class," of which the remainder compares with the lower middle class (G) in the former classification. As regards this central class, there is little real difference in condition between the three sections of which it is composed. Families in which one servant (generally a young girl) waits upon, or helps to serve, four or more persons, are not on any different level socially from families who occupy a whole house and do all the domestic work themselves, with occasional aid from a charwoman or a girl who comes only in the day, going home to sleep. The difference is rather an accident in the constitution of the family, such as the presence of a baby or the absence of grown daughters, than any question of income or class. And amongst the classes who do not keep a servant, there is not much to choose between those who, living in four rooms or less, have fewer individuals in family than the number of rooms occupied, and those who with five rooms or more (i.e. a whole house) have an indefinite number of persons. But, on the whole, it is probable that the former will be more uniformly well off than the latter. These, with the families who keep one servant for not less than four persons, and some others, may be taken as representing the lower middle-class contingent, and comparing with the 500,000 of class G. Finally, we have the 275,000 of the upper classes^ of VOL. V. 2 18 CLASSIFICATION OF POPVLATION. Avliom 26,000 are visitors — inmates of hotels, &c. — compariug closely with the roughly estimated 250^000 of class H. Taking the whole number of these classes we cannot but be struck by its insignificance, being only 6 per cent, of the population, and if we analyse it further this becomes still more marked. Of the 250,000, more than 50,000 live in households with only one servant, fully another 50,000 in families where two servants wait upon six to ten or more persons, and, again, 50,000 in smaller families with only two servants ; thus leaving in all less than 100,000 who enjoy such an amount of luxury as is connected with the employment of three or more servants. Of these, again, 20,000 live in largish families with three servants, and 20,000 more in small families with three servants, leaving out of over 4,000,000 only 60^000 persons, all told — men, women and children — who enjoy the luxury of an establishmeut with at least four servants, and with less than half of these is the number of servants greater than that of those they serve. It must, hoAvever, be remembered that only indoor domestic servants are here included, and that coachmen, grooms, and gardeners, being mostly outdoor servants, are omitted, as Avell as the charwomen, Avasherwomen, &c. The plan of recording, in counectiou with census enumeration, some simple facts by which the position and manner of life of each family could be measured, seems to me to render possible comparisons of great social interest, and to open up a large field of inquiry into the actual structure of society. The facts used here to classify the inhabitants of London could be applied to any city — to Paris or Moscow, New York or Melbourne, Calcutta or Hong Kong; and for the matter of that Avould have served equally well in ancient Rome or Babylon. Whenever a census can be taken at all, the particulars of rooms occupied by poor families, or of servants employed in rich families. INTB OD UCTION. 19 could be obtained just as easih' as tlie particulars of numbers or sex, and, as we have said, far more easily and more correctly than those of age and conjugal condition. A ^''room^' is no doubt a vague term, but if not for the whole of the poorer classes in any city, at least for the poor of any selected district, some common type of house is to be found, and an average usual size of room prevails so generally that the accurate description of one or two specimens in any city will speak for all, and by providing a keynote, make trustworthy comparisons practicable. Similarly, there are servants and servants; many varieties exist in London, and the keeping of servants would provide a very different measure in the extreme examples of New York and Calcutta; but all this could be allowed for or taken into account. It might thus be possible to compare one country or one civilisation Avith another; as well as trade with trade, district with district, and town with town, in the same country. It must be said that it is rather to town than counti-y life that the number of rooms occupied can be applied as a test. Even in towns we require the help of a wide average to go safely, for in individual cases a great variety of condition would be found with an equal degree of crowding. But even with the aid of the widest average, country life would to a great extent evade this test, for amongst the poor in country places the condition of the cottage home goes for far more than its size. If, however, we cannot obtain for agricultural populations any social measure out of the census it is not of so much consequence. It is not in country, but in town, that '^ terra incognita^' needs to be written on our social maps. In the country the machinery of human life is plainly to be seen and easily recognized ; personal relations bind the whole together. The equipoise on which existing order rests, whether satisfactory or not, is palpable and evident. It is far otherwise with cities, where as to these questions VOL. V. 2 ^ 20 CLA SSIFICA TIOX OF POP ULA TIOX. we live in darkness, witli doubting hearts and ignorant unnecessary fears, or place our trust with rather dangei'ous confidence in the teachings of empiric economic law. In trying to find in the census a '' common measure " of social condition, my immediate object was the study of the terms on which life is lived in London in connection with various industries and their remuneration. The same classification which has been applied to the whole population, and which can be applied to each district, I now propose to use in order to compare trade with trade. As regards difi'erent districts the test of " rooms occupied " is unequal in its application, and rates of rental have to be considered. With trades which are carried on in the inner as well as outer rings of London this difficulty does not exist. But when one employment is concentrated in crowded, high rented neighbourhoods, while another is to be found entirely in the outskirts, some allowance will be necessary on the one hand for the crowded who are not poor, and on the other for those who are poor but not crowded. The method I shall pursue in dealing with each trade, and the whole population divided by trades, needs some explanation. In the figures used the whole population is counted twice. First by individuals, following the plan adopted in Volume III. of the census, where everyone is enumerated according to the trade or occupation claimed, and the total of the population completed by one large class consisting of those who have no recognized industrial or financial status, being for the most part dependent women and children ; Second, hy families enumerated according to the occupation or status of the head of each family, every member of the household being counted Avith its head. On the latter plan the inmates of institutions are distinguished, and Avith them are included all residents in hotels, lodging-houses, &c. — i.e. all those who have no place in the family life, from the IXTRODUCTIOX. 21 terms of wliicli^ as to rooms occupied or servants keptj our social classification is obtained. The trades and occupations of London are grouped and arranged as follows in eighty-nine sections. 1. Architects. 2. Builders. 3. Masons. 4. Bricklayers. 5. Carpenters. 6. Plasterers. 7. Painters. 8. Plumbers. 9. Gasfitters. Building trades. 10. Cabinet-makers. 11. Can-iage builders. 12. Coopers. 13. Shipwrights. Wood workers. 14. Engine and machine makers. 15. Blacksmiths. 16. Other workers in iron and steel. 17. Workers in other metals. Metal workers. 18. Gold and silver. 19. Watches and clocks. 20. Surgical and scientific instruments. 21. Musical instruments and toys. ^ 1- Precious metals, &c. 22. Glass and earthenware. 23. Chemicals. 24. Soap and candles. 25. Leather. 26. Saddlery. 27. Brushes. - Sundry manufactures. 22 CLASSIFICATION OF POrVLATIOX. 28. Printing. 29. Book-binding, 30. Paper. 31. Stationery. 32. Book-selling. Printing, itc. 33. Silk. 34. Woollen goods, etc. 35. Dyers and cleaners. 36. Hemp and Fibre. 37. Floorcloth and waterproof. Textiles, &c. 38. Tailors. 39. Bootmakers. 40. Hatters. 41. Dressmakers. 42. Shirtmakers. 43. Machinists. 44. Trimmings, artificial flowers, um- brellas, etc. 45. Drapers and silk mercers. . Clothing. 46. Millers. 47. Brewers. 48. Tobacconists. 49. Bakers, confectioners. 50. Dairymen. 51. Butchers. 52. Grocers. 53. Publicans. 54. Coffee-house keepers. 1- Food and drink, 55. Ironmongers. 56. Coal dealers. 57. General shopkeepers. 58. Costermongers. Other shopkeepers and dealers. 59. Merchants, brokers. 60. Commercial clerks. Commercial. INTEODUCTION. 23 61. Cabmen. 62. Carmen. 63. Railway service. 64. Railway labom-. 65. Gardeners. j" Locomotion, &c. 66. Country labour. 67. Seamen, fishermen. 68. Watermen. 69. Dock and wharf service. ") 70. Dock labour. 71. Coal porters. 72. Gas-works service. 73. General labourers. 74. Warehousemen, messengers. I 75. Factory labourers. 76. Engine drivers, artisans (trade not i specified). J Labour. 77. Civil service. 78. Water-works service. 79. Police. 80. Army and Navy. 81. Law. 82. Medicine 83. Art and amusement, 84. Literature and science. 85. Education. 86. Religion. 87. No occupation. 88. Household service. 89. Outdoor service. 1 ]- Public service. '- Professional. Pensioners and means. Domestic service. Under tliese eiglity-nine headings are included every employment recoo-nized by the census. Only the most important occupation in each section is named above^ but full details will be found in the various chapters. The population is completed by an enumeration of the inmates of institutions, &c., as follows : — (a.) Hospitals; (&.) Workhouses ; (c.) Prisons; (cZ.) Barracks ; (e.) Hotels ; (/.) Large lodging-houses; {(j.) Large shops; (h.) Ships; ((.) Servants in charge of houses (family absent). 24 CLASSIFICATION OF FOFULATIOX. The double enumeration by individuals and by families is as follows : — Ofcupati'iii. Xuinlier of Sections. A. B. Sections. Registrars' (Jeneral Enumeration. Special Enumeration. Individuals. Heads of Families Total Members of Families. 1-9 10-13 y 129,432 68,080 91,162 40,168 432,905 188,537 Wood- work 4 14-17 18-21 Metals 4 65,210 31,589 39,758 16,890 187,571 77,548 Precious Metals 4 22-27 Sundry Manu- factures 6 38,159 18,727 87,652 28-32 33-37 38-45 46-54 ,5 87,283 15,872 260,018 138,434 33 154 148 856 Textiles 5 6,546 82,647 75,949 28,815 323,006 376,697 Clothing g Food and Drink 9 55-58 Other Shopkpers. 4 42,829 22,046 100,442 59-60 Commercial 2 128,415 54,015 253,523 61-68 Locomotion, &c. 8 154,249 93,316 423,494 69-76 77-80 Labour 8 197,316 60,247 94,333 19,631 425 328 Public Service... 4 139,646 81-86 Professional G 105,977 52,655 187,149 87 Pensioners and Means 1 133,578 126,877 58,892 455,063 88-89 Domestic service 2 399,178 198,583 {a)to(h) (i) Institutions* Servants in — — — 167,404 charge of houses — — — 9,524 Unoccupied (10 yrs. and over), including stu- dents : — • Males Females 216,093 984,002 1 1,200,095 — — Children underlO Males 475,204 480,578 I 955,782 — Females — 4,211,743 926,766 4,211,743 The head of the family is common to both systems of enumeration, but this cannot be said with certainty of any other member. The father may be a cabinet-maker, his daughter, living at home, may work at an umbrella factory, and his son at a printer's, while his wife and youuger children are unoccupied. The family will then be divided * In the census, all inmates of institutions who claimed an occupation are, if less than sixty years of age, returned under that occupation ; those over sixty are included with the " unoccupied." INTRODUCTION. 25 according to system A amongst Sections 10, 44, 28, and " unoccupied," while, according to system B, all will appear under Section 10. When considering the conditions under which employment is obtained, we have to follow Enumeration A, but when dealing with the circumstances under which people live, it is rather B that we must go by. In some trades the proportion of heads of families is so great as to make it comparatively easy to bring the two methods into one focus. In other trades, where a large proportion of the workers are young, or of the female sex, this Avill hardly be possible at all. To help to bring the two together, we may perhaps assume that when any trade employs young people or women, it will draw first on its own children and relations. If these are more than sufficient, we may, without making any serious error, suppose that the occupation is not largely recruited from other sources ; we may also assume that, when their own people are less than sufficient, the trade will draw on them so far as they go. We then have a surplus of young people or females in certain quarters to supply those whom we find required by other trades, and to some extent we may be able to assort the one to the other, considering social or other probabilities. The Registrar-General's enumeration includes age and sex as well as occupation. In my own enumeration, these particulars are lost, but as I deal with complete families and large averages, it is not impossible to estimate with sufficient accuracy the respective proportions. On the other hand, my enumeration, besides the test of condition found in "rooms occupied" or "servants kept," states whether the heads of family are or are not natives of London, and by giving the district lived in localises each trade. I am also able to carry the division of employer and employed somewhat further than is attempted in the census. A short tabular statement at the beginning of each section gives, for the "persons represented" in it, the 26 CLASSIFICATION OF FOPVLATTOX. main numei'ical facts^ and more details are given in appendices. The geographical distribution of those included in each section is given by the census in four groups, and according to the enumeration by families, in six groups. The composition of these, and their separation into inner and outer London, by registration districts, is as follows : — Inner. Outer. East North . West ... r Shoreditch Bethnal Green I Whitechapel I St. George's East I Stepney l^Mile End f St. Mary -j Christchureh | I All Souls' I- I Rectory ( [ Cavendish Square J Tottenham Court \ Gray's Inn Lane [ Somers Town f (_ Camden Town J Sub-dis- tricts of Maryle- bone Sub- districts of St. Pancras ' St. George's, Hanover Square f Westminster I St. Giles' Central [ Strand I Hoi born I London City (St. Olave, Southwark South- I East "I [St. Saviour, Southwark ««;;^1;-^ Waterloo Eoad f ^;|^.di- ''"* (Lambeth Church] i-;^«4 Poplar. St. John, Marylebone. Hampstead. Regent's Park ) Sub-districts of Kentish Town >" St. Pancras. Islington. Hackney. Paddington | Kensington I Fulham 1 Chelsea | Taken together in I the census. Camberwell Greenwich Woolwich Lewisham Kennington 1 Brixton Norwood ) Wandsworth Sul)-difi- tricts of Lambeth. Taken to- . getber in the census. Total Popul-Mion. No. Per cent. Inner London . 1,58'J,110 38 Outer London . 2,622,683 62 In addition to these statistics I have collected information as to the conditions of employment in each section. The method adopted has been varied, according to the character IXTrxODUCTION. 27 of tlie employment, but eveiy where we have tried to obtain information from all sides. Employers, trades union officials, and individual workmen, have all been applied to, and I trust that the description of the working of each trade and of the wages earned will be found to be fairly accurate and sufficient for the purpose in view. As regards employers in each trade, the plan adopted has been to approach as many as possible by circular asking from each an exact account of those employed, whether men, -women, or boys, and the wages paid to each in an average, or, better still, in a maximum and minimum week. This appeal brought in every case a fair proportion of replies, and the tabulated results may be accepted as showing the eai:nings ordinai'ily made in the best class of firms. Those firms who were willing to give us further assistance were then personally waited upon and consulted as to other points of interest ; for instance, as to usual hours and overtime ; regularity and irregularity ; seasons ; methods of training, &c. Nothing could exceed the kindness with which our troublesome quest has in most cases been met. Factories have been opened to us, wages books have been shown, and particular and elaborate returns have been specially prepared for us setting forth in the most accurate way the hours worked as well as the pay received in busy and slack weeks, and the exact terms of piece and time employment. My gratitude for all this kindness may be best shown by making as good a use as possible of the mass of material thus placed at my disposal. Nor have the trades union officials been less ready in helping me to understand the relative positions of employer and employed in the trades with which they are connected. For each section of industry I have endeavoured to ascertain the extent to w^hich the workpeople are organized for trade purposes. Particulars of every Trade Union or Society of importance have been obtained. It is, however, possible that some small Society has, here and there, been 28 CLA SSIFICA TIOX OF POP ULA TIOX. omitted, owing- citlier to the difficiiltj of tracing it, or to information being refused. But such cases are exceptional, and the results obtained are quite sufficiently reliable for any general comparative purpose. The evidence of individual workers, I fear, falls short of what might be desired. It is not always easy to obtain : but when available adds much to the life of the picture. In addition to our own information — collected mostly in 1893 — I have been very kindly allowed to use the wages returns for many London trades collected by the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade in 1886-7, but not published, because it concerned trades w^iich were not of sufficient general importance. I have set my figures and those of the Board of Trade side by side for comparison. They are, however, not quite comparable; first, because wages have risen since 1886, and second, because the plan adopted by the Board of Trade differed somewhat from that which was adopted by me. The queries of the Board of Trade asked for the maximum and minimum numbers employed in any weeks in 1885, with the total amount paid for the same weeks, and also the numbers employed in the first week of October, 1886, with full pai'ticulars of character of employment, standard hours woi'ked, and wages for an ordinari/ full weeFs loorli.. We could not venture to ask so much, and contented ourselves with the actual wages earned in an ordinary week (or in a busy and slack week of Avhich we ourselves took the average). Our figures are therefore actual, and include overtime or short time, whereas the figures of the Board of Trade are for a full week's work, taking no account of time lost or extra time made. The comparison of the double returns is nevertheless valuable, as widening to a considerable extent the base on which our conclusions stand. The names of those who have assisted me [in describing the trades of London will be found in the table of contents for each volume. PART I.-THE BUILDING TEADES. THE BUILDIXG TRADES. CHAPTER I. THE WHOLE GEOUP. Of those engaged iiibuildiBg — arcliitects, builders, masons, bricklayers, carpenters, and tbe rest — the census counts 129,432, divided as to age and sex as under : — Persona rej) resented : [A) Census Enumeratioii. EXUMEEATED BY AgE AXD SeX. 10— 15— 20— 25 — 55— CD— Total. Males 766 13 8968 120 13,647 103 89,168 300 11,660 58 4597 32 128,806 626 Females Total 779 9088 18,750 89,468 11,718 4629 129,432 There are practicall}- no women employed in these trades, and the proportion of boys is not large. Of the whole 130,000, no less than 103,000 are men between 20 and 55 years of age, and 91,000 are counted as heads of families, an extraordinarily large proportion. The whole population included in these families is 432,905, or, excluding the 32 THE BUILDIXG Tn.iDES. servants, 4§ persons on the average to each family, as shown in the following table, which divides the trade into nine sections : — Persons represented : {B) Enumerated hij Families. Architects & Engineers... Builders* Masons Bricklayers Carpenters ct Joiners Plasterers* Paperhangers Painters & Glaziers Plumbers Locksmiths & Gasfitters 3,080 6,871 4,750 14,330 24,805 5,111 22,982 5,141 3,492 Total nuiiiber (cxcliuliuj; servants;. For fail lily (excluding ser\auts). 15,785 34,303 22,890 67,611 114,953 24,942 105,517 24,056 16,378 4-29 4-99 4-82 4-71 4-63 4-88 4-59 4-67 4-70 Servants. 3461 1510 106 85 568 46 439 142 113 Total. 91,162 Servants Total population 426,435 6,470 4-67 432,905 6470 The social condition of this large portion of the popula- tion is shown in the table which follows : — * This is a very ambiguous heading in the schedules of the census {vide page 49), including most of the employers, but also many labourers, handy men, and others. The ambiguity of this term, and the omission of many of the builders' labourers, must be borne in mind in the consideration of all these preliminary general tables. v//^^<. „ -^ \ WM A CO T-H C^l i-H C3 ;^ 'Jt" '^ c O 3 i 2 Q fl « O S S « 9 S *^ rH " s o 6 ^ .==; ■^ I-:! ^— -r ' ■• , o3 XT. C c3 o VOL, V. 34 THE BUILDIXG TnADES. Oat of the 432,005 persons coucovned 04-70 arc domestic servants. The number of those served is 21,865, while 40 l',570 employ no hired domestic service, unless it be that of a woman or girl who comes occasionally for the day. More than half of those who employ resident domestic servants at all, live in households where one general servant waits upon four or more persons, and this servant will usually be a young girl. One-fourth, again, are members of families of one to three persons with one servant, or four or more persons with two servants. So that, finally, out of the whole 426,435 individuals, only 3250 are enjoying that degree of luxury which may be indicated by the keep- ing of two servants for a small fauiily, or of more than that number for any size of family. Of the 404,570 who keep no servants, we find that 125,000 are the members of families occupying more than four rooms or (if occupying less than four rooms) members of small families whose numbers are less than the number of rooms they occupy. Next, there are 110,000 living one or up to two persons per room; then 103,000 living two or up to three persons per room ; 41,000 living three or up to four persons per room ; and, finally, 26,000 living four or more persons to a room. THE WHOLE GROUP. 35 Taken section by section we obtain the following table : — Social Condition [by Sections). P 5 £ 2 ■2 and under 3 persons to a room. a s •j: -' |3 X p 3 Loss tlian 1 to a room.l more, tlian 4 rooms, or 4 or more persons to 1 servant. S Total. Architects, Civil ) Engineers,(tc. | Per cent. ... 249 1 526 3 1453 7* 8092 42J 5405 28 3461 IS 19,246 100 Builders* 2955 8 3900 11 4718 13 20,621 58 2109 6 1510 4 35,813 Per cent. ... 100 Masons Per cent. ... 4130 18 6383 28 5847 25 6404 28 126 i 106 22,996 100 Bricklayers Per cent. ... 16,057 24 20,264 30 17,164 25 14.038 21 88 85 67,696 — 100 Carpenters and ) Joiners j Per cent. .. 11,202 10 25,151 21 35,308 42,698 30 37 594 1 568 1 115,521 100 Plasterers and ) -01 p Paperhangers J Per cent. ... 21 7367 30 6322 25 5891 24 46 46 24,988 — 100 Painters and ) Glaziers j Per cent. ... 22,044 21 29,672 28 27,360 26 25,934 24 507 439 i 105,956 100 Plumbers Per cent. ... 2895 12 5309 22 6852 29 8883 36 117 142 24,198 100 Locksmiths Per cent. ... 2152 4372 26^ 4655 28 5068 31 131 113 16,491 100 Vide note, page 32. VOL. V. 3 ^ 36 THE BUILDIXG TnADES. Or arranged in order of the degree of crowding : — Bricklayers . . Plasterers, iVe. Painters Masons Locksmiths ... Plumbers Carpenters . . Buildersf Architects Employ prs ami Einpioyed. Eiiiployed only.* Crowded. Crowded. 54 per cent. 55 per cent. 51 „ 58 49 „ 53 46 „ 4'i. {See diap-ain.) DiSTKIBCTION. E. X. W.&C. S. Total. 160 1598 1830 2344 5938 Det.vils of Occupations (from the Census Dictioxakt). (2) Architectui-al, consultinfr, hydi-aulic, sanitary, mining, and submarine engineer. (3) District surveyor, insurance surveyor, examiner of buildings, land measurer, quantity .surveyor, wood surveyor. (1) Riiilway stores contractor, railway signal, switch, and turntable maker ; point and crossing-fitter. Enumerated by Families. o„_ /Males... ^'^'^ L Females. ■.n^,r.i^ T>;,.ti..>ioo.i rin London H)',, ]4(>«) tt.,„ i „f -r.,„ r ^""'''^"^'^lOutofLondonOO <,0"„ 2214;- Heads of Families, Industrial ('Emplo.ver .. Status ..-; Employer! (See note.) i. Neither .... 3080 30'',-, 1088 1 49% isul 21",, 778 J (") The large proportion born out of Loudon is noticeable. ToT.VL Population concerned. Heads of Families. Average in! familv . . 3080 1-0 OtlliTS Occiipiod. 30*; 1 S3 Unoccupied. I Servants. 'Total. 3k;i 19,240 9041 2-16 ■94 Classification. Ntiiiibcrs living infi milies. "it 3 or more to a room 249 T3 2 & under 3 ,, 520 2 7 1 &. under 2 ,, 145;j 7"0 Less than I ,, \ More than 4 rooms ' 8092 l2-() 4 or more persons , to a servant . . ) Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to 2 servants 2910 15-2 All others with li or more servants . . 2549 13'2 Servants 3401 is-o Distribution. East ..{outer 228} '-" North /I""*"!" '^in ,i I -. / \ ^^/ ^\^ / \ / ^ ^ / \ / \ V n / > L \ \ 4 / \ ^^ \ ,' / \ ^ \ ! j r \ \ I 1 > \ \ 1 s, \ \ ' 1 \ \ , 1 \ I \ n ! 1 > V \ \ 1 \ \ \ 1 J \ \ \ • / \ \ \ ; / 1 I \ /V \ ^ , i \ \ \ ! \ \ \ 7 ^ V \ \ / \ i^ N / \ \, 1 1 \ \ \^ *v \ \ X ^, \ 11 \ \ V \ \ ^ V N )- Ages. 10 15 20 30 35 40 4-5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. BUILDEES. {Section 2.) 49 Persons Represenfed. Census Enumeration. Enumerated by Families. Fe- ! males (Jensiis Division, j IS'Jl. I All Ages. Builders and , Euilders' Labrs.* i 42 Males. 20— i-l 6713 1524! 88(5G Tlie hijrli average ap:e («'c diagram opposite) points to the presence of iiiun.v small masters and jobbers, " handy men " whose experienee, character, and connections hrhv^ them their living. * Vkic note, p. 32. DisiraBUTioN. E. i ■^'• W. & C. .s. Total. 735 j 2491 21(il 1 347U 8S6t; Details of Occupations (from the Census Dictionary) Dock, conservatory, or summer-house builder; public works, drainage, general repair, contractor ; furnace, oven, retort-maker ; stove-setter; pile-driver, house-breaker, ripper ; steeple-jack ; chimney repairer ; inortar-mill labourer ; clerk and in- spector of works ; builders' labourer. Sex /Males .. \ Females 68.51 ^ 20 1 Birthplace {I^'J^Loudon^,' U"n 3024 50% 3847 Heads of Families, 0871. Tndnstri'il H^mP'oy'''- «% 2994 St t,,l i Ki'iplf.ved .... 50 % 3458 I tstdtus .. (j^T^^if,^^,,. 70/;, 419; We may hereajrain, as with architects, note the large propor- tion born out of London. Journeymen come to London in the active years of life and stay on, becoming jobbing builders as they grow older. Total Population concerned. Total Heads of Families. Otliers Occupied. Classification. Nuiii.iic7-s living infu 3 or more to a room 2 & under 3 ,, 1 lV under 2 ,, Less than 1 ,, ) More than i rooms 4 or more persons to a servant . . , Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or moi'e servants . , Servants milics 2955 .3900 471 S % 8-2 10-9 13-2 Unoccupied Servants, 19,(!11 1510 •22 Total. 35,813 Distribution. East North I Inner 2010) t Outer 703/ I Inner 1917) "(Outer 7854/ '^ ; "West ( Inner 948 | t Outer fi3S5 / Central Inner 1440 South- East I Inner 619 ) \ Outer 5222 / 4.i2 1510 1-3 4-2 South- ("Inner 1815) West \ Outer 6900/ 2713 9771 7333 1440 58 11 8715 35,813 35,813 Inner. Outer. Together,! Crowded.. 35% 14% 19% i Xot ,. . . 65 % 8ii % 81 % ■ Inner 8749, or 24 % Outer 27,064, or 76 % Status as to Einployment [according to the Census Enumeratio n). Employers. Employed. Neither Employer nor Emiiloyed. Census Division (ISOl). Males. Females of Total. Males Females Under 20, Over 20. all ages. Males. iFeuiales Builder 3.349 28 .3377 4386 12 ' 502 2 8806 .504 Total 4985 This is the employers' section surprising to find so large a propo different sections should be considerc VOL. V. of the bui] ■tion of emp d together as ding tra( oyers. ] one iudu les gen n this, stry. erally, ai and son: id it is there e other resp 4 fore not 3cts, the 5J THE BVILDIXG IBADES. Bdildees. Builders are not the only employing class in the group, but they are by far the most important. They may be roughl}^ grouped as follows : 1. The "■ Jiigh-prlce " huilders, who do the best work, and the best work only, and who rarely, or in some cases never, submit tenders for open competition. The price at which they offer to do work is an estimate as distinguished from a tender, but will be subject to the same analysis as though several tenders had been sent in. Numerically this class is small. Its members are firms of old and high standing. Very little of their work is put out, and their stocks, especially of seasoned timber, are always large in proportion to the extent of their business. These latter characteristics will be true also of the best firms in the three following classes. 2. Bnilderft and contractors, who tender for new work, in open competition with each other, according to the custom of the trade. This class includes the great proportion of both large and medium-sized Loudon builders. It embraces firms of the highest reputation and also those whose unscrupulousness is notorious. The selection of the firms who are invited to tender, in the absence of special instructions from the client, is in the hands of the architect, 3. Jobbing huilders, whose main business is that of repairs, renewals, enlargements, and general decorative work, as opposed to first construction. AVith these the system of tender is often resorted to, and is the rule in expensive jobs. This class includes many firms of considerable size, and also a very large number who have neither the staff nor the capital, nor the experience, to enable them to undertake more than the ordinary small jobbing work of their own immediate neighbourhood, 4. Speculative huilders. — This again is a very composite class. The work done is chiefiy new work, and, as its name implies, is executed lai-gely in anticipation of THE DIFFERENT SEGTIOXS. 51 demand. The speculative builder is naturally most common in those parts of Londou "wliicli are noAV being laid out for l)nilding- for tlie first time^ or in wliicb^ as for instance in Chelsea in recent years, a large scheme of rebuilding is being- carried out. The speculative builder is associated in the public mind with the "jerry builder/^ but the association is often misleading. For ou the one hand many ordinary contractors are themselves ''jerry builders " of the worst type, and more would like to be^ while on the other hand many speculative builders do excellent work. Many of the best and most fashionable parts of London have been opened up by him^ and he is not infrequently a man who has the boldness to carry out great schemes and the integrity to do good work. Uniformity of style and a resulting architectural dulness is the charge to be laid at his door, rather than inferior workmanship or the use of bad materials. ]3ut it must be admitted that the worst work of all is done by members of this very mixed class. Speculative building in the outer circle of London, especially in most of the poorest districts, has become a byword and a reproach to the whole building fraternity. It probably sinks to its lowest level in many of the cottage estates intended for the homes of those who are now enabled by increased facilities of transport to live further than was possible in former times from the pressure and con- finement of the more central parts of London. But even of such work two points must be remembered. First : that bad work is soonest renewed. The i-apid mechanical extension of the area of a great city will inevitably be uninteresting ; and it is some compensation if houses wliicli are neither beautiful nor wdiolesome have a short life. It would be disastrous indeed were it not so. Within fifty years the curtain may rise on a change of scene and tlie transition be the easier because many of the houses are "jerry built.'" Secondly : responsibility must be put on the right shoulders ; many speculative builders who VOL. V. 4 * 52 THE BUILDING TllADES. do the worst work are simply meu of straw^ the puppets of the real capitalist ; wlio may be the ground landlord^ the building company, or, to quote the glossary of the Labour Commission, the " money-lending solicitor.'' The builder may be an unscrupulous tool, but blame, when blame is due, rests mostly on those who employ this tool to serve their own ends. Finally, even sucli accommodation as these houses give is usually an improvement upon the one or two close rooms nearer the heart of the City, which have been left. Better Walthamstow than Whitechapel, and better Willesden Green than Holborn. The function of the builder differs widely from that of the manufacturer or factor, whose first duty is to make a market for his wares. The builder waits on a demand that he has little or no power to create. Other trades and other interests determine the growth of London. He may to some extent exercise a directing influence, but his first task is to carry out instructions and to control labour. In the latter duty is found the distinguishing feature of the builder's economic position, and in it centres our main interest in the part he j^lays in the organization of this group of trades. The building contractor on a large scale has a staff com- ]3risingamanagerwithgeneral powers, estimating and "prime cost " clerks and draughtsmen, and various foremen of depart- ments ; besides, in some cases, a " walking foreman," and, invariably, a '^general" foreman for each job. The big contractor thus rules largely through lieutenants, entrusting them with certain powers and making them responsible for results. It is to the general foreman, for instance, that the contractor looks for the proper execution of the work, and not to the actual workmen. In large firms the " walking foreman " is often one of the chief subordinates. No single piece of work is entrusted to his care, but he holds a roving commission to visit the points where contracts are in THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. 53 course of execution for his firm. The extent and method of devolution varies, but the fact remains the same, and the secret of successful management lies largely in choosing the right men for tlie subordinate offices, and then in trusting them. No niatter with what variation in detail, the method of management adopted must in- clude — (1) careful clerical work, including the preparation of estimates ; (2) efficient support for the foremen from headquarters, so that, for instance, they are not kept waiting for materials needed in construction ; and (3) the selection of good general foremen. On these three points success greatl}' depends. The important part played by subordinates in this group of trades, though founded on a wide experience and seem- ingly quite inevitable, has its bad side. It secures more efficient control, but masters and men remain personally unknown to each other. One builder states that "the em- ployer never speaks to a man by way of instruction or complaint; he deals always w'ith the foreman"; and the consequence is that, " in many large businesses the men hardly know the members of the firm," and thus it is regretfully admitted that " generally in this trade the old friendly relations between masters and men have passed away." The shifting character of so much of the employ- ment, and the system of payment by the hour, tend to accentuate this state of things. Ignorance of one another is, doubtless, often the cause of misunderstanding and dispute. Employers are found in most of the minor sections of the group, but are of secondary importance. Master masons, master plasterers and master sawyers are usually employed by the builders. Then there are firms of painters and decorators, ])lumbers, smiths, and gasfittcrs, who work either for builders or direct for the general public. Master carpenters and master bricklayers are in most cases small jobbing men, Init the enumeration will include others who THE nriLDIXG TIIADES. work for bnildovs as sub-contractors. Tlic emplo^'cr, as sub-contractor, will demand fuller discussion later, when some attempt must be made to distinguisli the real signi- ficance in these trades of that much-abused class. Clerks of the Works. It may be doubtful under what heading in the census a clerk of the w orks would actually be returned. He is, as has been seen, the representative of the architect, acting in the interests of the client, and is stationed on the building during construction.* It is his business to w^atch the quality of the materials and the character of the workman- ship, and to see that in every respect the terms of the contract are complied with. He and the foreman, who represents the builder, usually settle matters between themselves, only referring to their employers if necessity arises. Such are the duties of the clerk of the works, and in fulfilling them men vary in degree of rectitude and punctiliousness, from the man who '^ ruins" sumo builders by his stern exactions — and who has to be reckoned with by all — to the weak or dishonest vessel, who lets the treating of the foreman, or the hachsheesh of the contractor, blind him to the demerits of soft stone and unseasoned timber, or to hasty and incompetent workmanship. They arc for the most pai-t ''practical" men, though it is not unusual for one whose training has been in builders' or architects' offices as draughtsman or estimating clerk to become a clerk of the works. Young architects, too, may take up these duties for the sake of exjDerience, and the presence of a clerk of the works who obtains his appoint- ment through personal influence, and not from the posses- sion of the requisite knowledge and training, is not unknown. * The name is used, also, to designate men appointed as permanent ofliceis in large finished and occupied buildings — banks, theatres, &c. — to supervise water, gas, heating, electric lighting, and general repairs. THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. 55 Those who have had an artisan's training have usually worked as carpenters and joiners, but openitive bricklayers and masons are also sometimes chosen. The salary paid varies from £3 or £4 up to £10 a week for xcvy exceptional men. The responsibilities are gi^eat, and the temptation to swerve is strongest when the need for vigilance is greatest. When employers are honourable, foremen conscientious, and workmen competent, the functions of the clerk of the works become consultative rather than detective in character. Builders' Fokkmen. As already indicated, there are various kinds of foremen — the "walking foreman," the shop foreman (mason, joiner, or machinist) and the general foreman of the job. The last mentioned is the most representative, and his duties are the most significant. These duties include the very important task of engaging the men required."^ The foreman has not only to find men, but to find the right men, and not only to find but to keep them. The best foreman is not only efficient himself, but also one for whom the best men are willino- to work. In dealing: with the men, the foreman takes the place of the employer. He keeps a list of men on whom he can rely, and from amongst whom he obtains the nucleus of his staff as he moves from job to job. In some cases he will write to those he needs, but as a rule this is unnecessary, the men knowing almost as well as he does himself what new work is offering. The rest of his men, the rank and file employed, are usually taken from those who " call round " in search of a job. No character is asked for or otfered, and the * Except in some special branches, which are attended to direct from headquarters by means of the more permanent staff, or in branches such as excavating, special tiling, stone-work or erecting iron-work, which may be executed by other employers, be they co- or sub-contractors. In some cases also, the leading hand of a department is allowed to take on. 5G THE BUILDIXG TnADES. stranger wlio is put on is judged solely by his merits or demerits as a master or bungler at his craft. Many of thorn may be known, if not to the foreman, to some of his leading hands, but the system of chance employment is widespread in the trade. It should be added that the foreman will also have his list (whether in writing or not) of those whom, from one cause or another, he is unwillinjr to employ. The '^setting out," i.e. measuring ^out the work according to the plans, is also part of the foreman's duty, and the apportionment of the labour to the work. It is always good management to see that men at the same branch work so far as possible together, with at least one known and stead}- hand amongst them. This practice, when carried to an extreme, means the introduction of the "bell horse," i.e. of the man who is paid an extra hi or Id per hour to set the pace. But when fairly followed it merely means that the chances open to the shirker of wasting his time are diminished, since he will soon be detected and if need be discharged. It is found by experi- ence that several men working together will, as a rule, do more than the same number working separately, and the task of supervision is greatly lessened. Other duties devolving on the foreman are (1) to requisition materials as required, (2) to keep an account of all materials used, and (3) to prepare the wages' sheet according to the time kept by the men. He has often a timekeeper, who assists him in this part of the work. In small jobs it may be his business to pa}' the men, but in larger contracts this would as a rule be done by a pay- clerk sent down from headquarters. The Avages' sheet is prepared and sent in on Friday, and the men are paid on the Saturday, money earned on Saturday being kept in hand. In case of discharge before the end of the week the foreman may, according to the custom of his firm, either pay the man direct, or give him an order on the I THK DIFFERENT SECriONF!. 57 office for his money, walking- time in this case being allowed. Out-of-pocket expenses are met by the foreman and collected by liitn from the firm. In large contracts the foreman of the job has leading hands, who act as sub-foremen in their own branches, with their own measure of responsibility. The great majority of these foremen have been trained, generally in the conntry, as carpenters and joiners. The only other branches that seem to produce general foremen are the bricklayers and masons, and these, though tending to increase in number, form as yet but a small minority — not one in five — of the class. Buii.DEEs' Labourers. In the census enumeration, many of these labourers are returned in this section with the builders, but they Avill also be to some extent scattered through the other branches of the building trades, as well as included in the wider term " general labourer." But the builders^ labourers none the less form a distinct and important class in the group. The popular idea of the builders' labourer is probably that of the man who serves the bricklayer, and keeps him supplied with l)rick3 and mortar. But this idea, while always misleading, is yearly becoming less and less adequate. The extended use of machinery, although it has displaced some of the labourers, has probably to a still larger extent changed the character of their work, and the extended use of iron and steel in construction is having the same effect. Scaffolding and strutting the sides of deep foundations are among the other branches of work that fall to the labourer, and often call for a degree of resourcefulness and energy and knack sufficient to place the man possessing them almost, if not quite, on the level of the skilled artisan. Many of the labourers, therefore, have their 58 THE BUILDING TEADES. own independent spheres of work, and the section is thns by no means composed exclusively of those who serve the artisans. Not a few of those who follow up the special Lranches of labourer's work — the scaffolding, hoisting, and timber-work — keep to them exclusively, and there is a considerable class of men who, if work in their own special branches be not obtainable, will neither seek for, nor accept, general labourer's work. There is also, it would seem, a certain attractiveness in the work of scaffolding and hoisting, that, apart from the slightly higher rate of pay it secures, draws many men to it who could, had they been so minded, have qualified as artisans. In one case the evidence tells of a man who " could have been an artisan, but preferred the labourer's work because of its greater variety." And, again, of a young mason who gave up stone-cutting because he did not take to it, and who is now, from choice, a scaffolder. Scaffolders, hoisters and timber-men, form for the most part a single class, but a completer sub- division is not unknown as regards the first branch, a considerable body of men adhering solely to it, and moving about from job to job undertakiDg nothing but scaffolding work. The knack of these men consists largely in having learnt the art of manipulating rope and of lyiug secure knots. Many of them have been to sea. The high scaffolding put up for the cranes, so conspicuous and now so common a feature in buildings in progress in London, is erected by scaffolders, often taken on especially for this work by a sub-contractor."^' The labourer, as '' bolster," has the task of lifting heavy material to the level at which it will be used by the artisan. When a crane is at Avork the crane-man in charge * In this case the task of construction is regarded as finished when tlie first load has been hoisted by the crane. This is taken as a test that all is secure, and the responsibility of the sub-contractor ends until the time comes for him to return and take down the temporary wooden structure. THE BIFFEBENT SECTIONS. 59 works largely under the dii-ection of the leading lioister, the chief exception being in the case of stone, when the mason uho is responsible for the fixing will superintend the movnug into position. Much of the heaviest material to be hoisted is composed of metal girders and joists^ and to move the largest of these^ even if they are to be used at ground levelj requires considerable judgment and care. By the help of the crane, often supplemented for final adjustment by the crowbar, it is the duty of the hoister to place the girders, joists and columns where they arc required. There his duty ends, the fixing being done by the rivetter or fitter, if there be rivetting to do, and by the bricklayer for the final building into the main fabric of these metal adjuncts to the modern structure. In the absence of a steam-crane or hoist, or wlien it is so placed that it cannot do the work, the hoister has often to arrange a temporary scaffolding-, and, by his o\v]] adjust- ment of pulleys, to do the work of lifting. As timber-men, the builders' labourers put in the vertical supports, and the horizontal beams Avedged in between, to keep up the sides of deep foundations. The Avork may involve some very rough carpentering, and is often attended by risk. Another class of labourers whose work is often specialized, is that of the " house-breakers," employed in the demo- lition of old buildings. They are largely interchange- able with the scaffolders, but rarely undertake general labourers' work. They command somewhat extra pay for the additional risks incurred. The foregoing classes of labourers as a rule specialize, when they do so at all, because of some particular preference or aptitude. The excavating labourers — those who dig foundations, and do general navv'ving Avork on buildings — often do that work only because they can do none better, and include as a class the less responsible men. The navvy of splendid physique, frequently seen on railway workings, is GO THE ItVlLDlSG TRADES. rarely found doing simple excavating work on buildings, and the fact that the latter is time-work, while the former is often piece-work, probably affords the chief reason for this. Great muscular force is worth little more to its owner than the strength of the average man in dio^o-ino^ and in the preparation for a London building, and this Avork is thus left almost entirely to the man of average or even less than average physical capacity. The same class of men break up and mix the concrete used for foundations, &c., and do the filling in. They also interchange to a considerable extent with ordinary labourers, acting as assistants or servers to the artisan. The builder's labourer can no longer be considered either the unrecognized outsider, or the recruit seeking to be admitted into the ranks of the skilled artisan. His position, being more exactly determined, is rapidly securing for him a well-defined sphere of work, a result largely due to the formation and activity of the labourers' trade unions and to their affiliation with the Building Trades' Federa- tion. He may thus be counted as a permanent auxiliary force in the group, but, apart from the spheres of work already enumerated, it is not easy to describe his duties. For almost every class of artisan needs his particular assistant, and the duties of the latter will nocessaril}^ vary with the functions of the former. Thus the principal work of the bricklayer's labourer will be that of mixing the mortar and of serving the bricklayer with it and with the bricks he requires; of the mason's labourer, to assist in the hauling, to rub the stone after it has been worked with the chisel, to clean the stone down after the fixing, and generally to wait on and assist the fixer; of the plasterer's labourer, to mix the greater part of the materials required, to run the lime through the sieve, to serve the plasterer with the material he requires, to help in fixing his scaffolding, and generally to wait upon him. In heavy carpentering work, where much lifting and moving THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. 61 of timber is required, tliere is room for labourer's work, and often, one labourer and two carpenters will be able to do as much work as three of the latter. In painting, the chief work of the labourer seems to be to clean the surfaces in the case of old work, to move ladders and generally to wait on the painter. He is sometimes allowed to execute the rougher part of the work.* There seems to be little specialization in the various branches of auxiliary work. That which exists is entirely voluntarj', so far as trades union I'ogulations are con- cerned. It often happens, it is true, that men do follow up some particular branch, especially as plasterers' or masons' labourers, but if their usual employment did not offer they Masons. Remainder of Building Trades. ■S\Tiole of occupied in London. opposite.) A. '^X A s. \ y \ s^ y /y <^^^ ^ / j \ "-. / / \ '' / \ \ / > k, \ '' \ ; \ >, \ ; \ \ \ , > '\ ' , / / S. \ \ , \ A / \ / A V 1 1 \ \\ * \ \ \ > A \ \\ 1 \ "\ \ \ > \ V . I \ \ \ \ ; « Vw ^' 1 ; \ \ \ \j, ,7 \. V ! \ j ^i 1 Ns jl 1 3 1 5 2 2 5 3 3 5 4 * 5 5 5 5 6 6 5 7 7 5 80 VOL. V THE DIFFER EXT SECTIONS. MASONS. {Section 3.) 63 Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. iMalcs. I Fe- males. siis Di\-isious, i IS'.M. All Awes. — 19 20— .WS.- j) Mason 25 ^Isiatfi- k Tiler! — 350 4805 I 41i 473 Enumerated by Families. 5014 578 TOTAI, Sex {ff^^ '^"•5^^ / In London 4G % 2208 emales 12 ■R;,.fl,nl..no J ^1 I-OHclon 4G% 2208 ^"^"'P^''°'^i Out of London.. 54% 2542 Tndnstri'il f^^^P'"-^"^'" "''" 2S5 "['."f. -: y-m ployed 8!) X 4249 Status., ^^-^j- Heads of families, 4750. 5% 21{K 78 ; 7i)5; U492 ToT.u:i Population coxcekned. 'I'liere is in these trades much less Ihau the inLic proportion of youuf? men ; the i|iaxiniuin number is reached lietween 35 and . Imt after this the decline is rapid. The leculiarities of the a^e line shown on the liagram probably indicate a marked influx 'from the provinces. DlSTEIBUTIOX. Total. (!492 Details of Occupations (from the Census Dictionary). Heads of Families. Others Occupied. Unoccupied. Servants. Total. Total .... 4750 4(i38 13,502 10,; 22,i)3('. Average in family.. 1 •9S 2-84 •02 4-84 Classification. Distribution. (1) Gravestone-maker. Curb-maker. Stone- carver, marble sawyer. W(>rker,engraver, polisher, mason's laboiu-er. (2) Blue slater, grey slater. K ambers liciiiij in Fainiliea. 3 or more to a room 4130 2 & under 3 ,, 1 &, under 2 ,, Less than 1 ,, ^ More than 4 rooms I 4 or more persons f to a servant . . J Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or more servants . . 35 Servants liKi 0383 5547 U404 91 17-9 27-8 25-4 ;,99G Inner. Outer. Together. Crowded.. 60% 39% 4(5% Not.. ..40% 01% rA% East . North West .. Central I Inner 2051 ) ■ t Outer 5m f /Inner 8371 (_Oater3381/ / Inner 920 1 (.Outer 4312/ Inner 7S5 Sonth- East I Inner 3471 I, Outer 2918 f South- /Inner 2347) West (.Outer 4533/ 2017 4208 4941 785 3263 7180 Inner 758(5, or 33 % Outer 15,410, or 67 % Status as to Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Census Divisions (1831). Emp 1 Employed. Neither Employer nor Employed. ! Males. Females of all ages. Total. JIalos. Females Under 20. Over 20. Males. Feiuales (1) Mason 2r.:) 28 5 350 5036 — : 4i 454 1 19 231 1 5914 578 (2) Slater, Tder Total 297 5 , 394 1 5490 19 28(5 1 1 6402 So-'. 1 m(\'A 0.^1 - 04 THE BUILDING TIUDES. Masons. The mason's duties are divisible into (1) working the stone, that is^ preparing it for use in actual construction, and (2) fixing it when worked. The working or shaping varies according to the draAvings, and includes many forms, from rectangular to circular ; many varieties of surface, smooth or rough, j^^'^i^^^ iluted, moulded, or panelled; and every degree of ornamentation. It is this preparation of the material that separates mason's work from that of the ])ricklayer, whose main business it is to set a finished product with the shaping of which he has had no concern. The tools of a mason are a hammer and chisel, with the addition of a saw and a drag for soft stone, and a small trowel for fixing. They are much the same all the world over, and so they have been time out of mind. The shaping of the stone may be done either in the stone- yard of the builder or master mason, or in silu, or at the (juarries. Machinery is now extensively used for planing, and, except in very h;ii-d stone, for moulding. In fixing heavy blocks of stone, the mason is responsible for the hoisting, in which his own labourer and the crane-men, or men specially engaged for hoisting, will assist. But the resj^onsibility for dealing with the stone and for setting it in exact position, rests solely on the mason iu charge, and by hira the actual cementing is done. There are certain divisions in the trade, or branches of work closely allied, connected with the special materials used, which may be enumerated. (1) Stone-carvers. — Although some masons do this work, they are best regarded as a separate class. As a rule, they THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. 65 are more liighly paid than the general masons, though there are some carvers who earn less than the regulation 9^2(1 per hour. Payment in this branch is according to merit, the figure carvers obtaining the highest rates. (2) Granite masons, who have special skill in working this hard and difficult stone, and who consequently are able to command somewhat higher wag-es than general masons. o o o Of these there are few in London. (3) Marhle masons. — Many of these are general stone- masons, who only happen to be working at marble. Marble is comparatively an easy material to manipulate. Those who are unable to work other stone are less skilled than the general mason, and often earn somewhat lower wages. They are, moreover, not eligible for admission to the Operative Masons' Society. (4) Marhle polishers require little skill, and are quite distinct from operative masons. (5) Slate masons work slate for mantle-pieces, tankS; cisterns, &c. Any trained mason can do such woi"k. (6) Slate cnamellers have even less to do with mason's work than marble polishers. A certain number of girls are employed at this work. (7) Hearthstone and grindstone makers and monumental masons. — These are truly masons, though Avorking in special branches differentiated by the product, and not by degree of skill or amount of remuneration. Grindstones are chiefly made at the quarries in Derbyshire and Yoi'kshire. All these appear in the census under the heading ''masons." Slaters and Tilers. The slaters must be distinguished from the slate masons, the work of the former being that of roof-slating and VOL. V. 5 G6 THE nVILDIXG TRADES. closely allied with that of the tilers. Slaters aud tilers are, in fact, often interchangeable, although there is a tendency toAvards specialization in one branch or the other. This specialization is, however, largely determined, not by special aplitude of the individual workman or by any inherent difference in the character of the work, but rather by the chances of employment, and since most roofing in London is of slate, a larger number of men keep exclusively to this branch than to the other. The degree of specialization that does exist is thus largely determined by the conditions of the market, but also to some extent, here as elsewhere, by the fact that there is scope in each branch for the acquirement of special skill. Since, how- ever, most employers undertake both branches of the work, it is the " double branch " man who has the better chance of continuous employment. The amount of tiling in London had been steadily increasing, until the last two or three years, but recently has been checked considerably by the claims of the bricklayers to do this work, and the consequent disputes. The work of the slater consists of cutting, or trimming, the slates, and of punching them — that is, of making the holes for the nails by which the slates are secured to the wooden battens. For this work, a small hand-machine is in use by some firms. It is also the business of the slaters, in addition to actually fixing the slates, to "set out " the battens, but not, as is generally the case in the country, to fix them. In London this is generally done by carpenters. In covering in, the slater begins from the eaves, and works up to the ridge. The ridge itself will also be finished by the slater unless it be of lead or zinc, neither tiler nor bricklayer being in any case called in, even if the finish be a line of ornamental tiling. The battens are generally used as a scaffolding, a " duck-ladder^' — that is, a board with battens nailed across, generally knocked up THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. G7 by a carpenter for temporary use on the job — being fixed for the top Avork. If, however, any separate scafFolding- be used, it is also the business of the slater to make and to remove such from the eaves upwards to the ridge, the scaffolder being only responsible for scaffolding up to the required vertical height. By this arrangement the risk of breaking the roofing, by the clambering over it of an independent body of scaffolders, is avoided. Koof-tiling, though differing from the slating in methods of fixing and in the bedding employed, is very similar to it in its general character. In the case of pattern work, cutting the tiles becomes an important additional part of the work. Much of it can be done by the trowel, but the rough edges have often to be clipped with a pair of pliers and the whole becomes frequently a lengthy and tedious process. Tiling is also claimed by the bricklayers. Inside tiling is a quite separate branch of work. It falls for the most part to the plasterers and to specialists, the propoi'tion of the work executed by the latter tending steadily to increase. vor,. V. 68 THE BUILDING TRADES. BRICKLAYEES. (Section 4.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Census Division, 1S91. Bricklayer Fe- males All AL'es. 16 Males. -Total 16,056 239019,427 The diagram shows maximum numbers at the most active time of life. London em- ployers have the pick of the trade. Distribution. E. X. Vi.&C. S. Total. 2562 4613 4193 8059 19,427 Details of Occupations (from the Census Dictionary). Scaffold builder, scaffolder, house pointer, hodman, bricklayer's labourer. [This enumeration well illustrates the uusatisfiietory character of the census classilication.] Enumerated by Families. Sex f JIales 14,32o^ \ Females 5 Birthplace {i",L°t-,-,V. {status.. ( Neither 49% 7129 51 % 7201 2% 279 95'!i,13,. ' .J 261 18,739 427 Nos. (Kor explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) 280- Ages. 10 u- (4) Bricklayers. Diagram showing ages of Bricklayers, as compared to the ages of others em- ployed in the Building Trades, and to those of the whole occupied population of London. a891— Males.) Bricklayers. Remainder of Building Trades. Whole of occupied in London. opposite.) /\ \ / > \ f \ 1 N / 1 } \. ~~- \ \ "■^ : \ 1 \ \ \ / // \ / ^ ^ '\ 1 \ \ ^ / il \ \ 1 ! \ \ if > \ i s. V \ \ / \ / \ / V * \ ; 1 \ I / > N ; / \ \ ; / \ \ \ \ \ k \ // \ ^ . / \ \ / \ \ / > V ^ * ' / \ \ ' S ^^ il \\ N C;, > <^ // ^ i )- i 1 — 15 20 25 30 35 40 1-5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V THE DIFFLnr.NT SECTIONS. GO Bricklayers. The bricklayer is tlie recognized '' stock hand " of the builder. His sphere of work is perhaps wider than that of any other section in the group, and it is consequently to the bricklayer that the most miscellaneous work can be giv^en. His industrial record in this country does not take us so far back as that of the carpenter, the mason and the tiler, but his position now, both numerically and by virtue of the offices performed, is, next to that of the carpenter, perhaps the most important in the whole trade. His main duty is naturally " to set bricks and to do work connected with brick- work. ^' In smaller towns and in the country he generally acts as mason, plasterer and tiler, and when trained in the country, as most London bricklayers have been, he has invariably some knoAvledge of all these branches of the trade. But it is almost needless to say that he does not follow them in London where the lines of demarcation between trade and trade are much too sharply drawn for this to be possible. As the man of the trowel and the fixer of bricks the bricklayer is a familiar figure, and the deft laying on of the mortar, the quick placing of the brick in position, sometimes cutting it to size before so doing, and the final ta^^ping to ensure a true level, have probably attracted the attention of most people and excited the envy of many. But, as already indicated, the sphere of work of the brick- layer, even in such a centre of highly specialized skill as London, includes much besides the actual laying of bricks. One branch — the laying of drain pipes — has come to him during recent years. This work had previously been done 70 THE BUILDIXG TBADES. by tlie labourers, but the imjDortance of securing good sanitary work and the complaints arising from the imper- fection of unskilled labour, has gradually led to the transfer of most of this work to the hands of the skilled artisan. The bricklayer also fixes the sills and heads of windows — except whei'e there is much stone-work in the building, when the mason would claim it — sets chimney pots, ranges, stoves and hearthstones, and ordinary terra-cotta work. Inside tiling, especially that which is fixed amidst brick-work, is also sometimes done by the bricklayer, and frequently the roof-tiling. His claim to the monopoly of the last branch of work gives rise to many interesting questions and will be discussed in the chapter dealing with ovei'lapping. The chief instances of specialization in this section are those of (1) ^'gauged work," that is, the shaping, rubbing, and setting the bricks in arches, cornices, &c. This work, for which the bricks have to be carefully measured, demands great skill, although the extending use of the modern moulded brick has diminished the demand for the special skill required in cutting the bricks to size. Many beautiful specimens of this art remain in old houses. (2) " Point- ing," which, for old work, consists in raking out the decayed mortar between the bricks and stopping the cavities with fresh mortar. It" is in this old work that specialization is most common. The work often includes washing and staining the brick face, and old houses thus renewed with a pointing of white or coloured mortar may frequently be seen. Pointing in much of the new suburban work is also done by the specialist, particularly in those houses and cottages in wdiich a showy face is often made to cover the inferior materials and workmanship behind it. (Kor explanation of methcxl adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) u- (5) Carpenters and Joiners. Diagram showing ages of Carpenters and Joiners, as compared to the ages of others employed in the Building Trades, and to those of the whole occupied popu- lation of London. (1891— Males.) ers. Carnenters and Joir Remainder of RiiildinffTradM. Whole of occupied in London. opposite.) Aj / > V \ \ \ '^^^ \ ,r\ ^ ~-.^ \ / 1 V ~^ 1 / f \ "~~~-> ^, 1 _, / \ \\ 1 > \v^ 1 4 1 V / / \ \, 1 / / \ w^ ' > \\ ; / V y / \ \ \ / / \ '\ \ ' > v \\ \ \ \ / 1 1 \ \ f/ \ 1 1 V 1 // \ 1 \ 1 ;V \ \ \ 1 V \ V 1 f \ \ \, 1 f \ \ \. \ \ \ j ^/\ \ ' \ .^\ / \ k. '^ \ / V V / \ \ / <^i / ^1 i Ages. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 *5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL V THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. (Section 5 71 Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Census Divisions, 1S91. (1) Carpenter aud Joiuer (2) House and Shop-fttter Total. Fe- males. All Astes. 1-23 149 272 —19 20—54 55 22(51 198 25,182 1G15 47G6 200 2459 26,797 4966 3i,494 Total 32,332 2162 Enumerated by Families. Sex /Males 24,749 ■ (^ Females 56 T!irHiiiinr>o f In London .. 41% Birthplace ^^Qut of London 59% i-SlS»'li3SS::- 5% S8% ( Neither 7 % 10,U7 14,658 1,133 22,030 1,642^ Heads of Families, 21,805. There is a rather larger proportion of boys *han in most of the other buildina; sections, but, on the whole, the numbers rise steadily till 30 or 35, indicating the establishment iii London of men trained in the provinces. After 50 the numbers fall off rapidly. (See diagram.) Many men trained as carpenters become caretakers, liandy men, or jobbing builders, as they grow old, and no longer call themse lves carpenters. Distribution. N. 8153 W. & C. S. Details of Occupations (from the Census Dictionary). (I) Skylight window-sash, wainscot-iiiuker, stool,' ladder, bench, seacliest, i):ickiiig- case-maker, floor dresser-planer, staircase builder, stage carpenter, carpenter's labourer, ijrinter's joiner. 2) Blind-maker, blind-fittings maker, shop front, sliow-case maker, bar-litter, win- dow-letter cutter, reflector maker, cornice, cornice-ring, door furniture maker, speaking tube, ventilator, heating apparatus, school apparatus maker. Note large i>roportion bom out of Loudon. Total Population concerned. Total .... Average in family.. Heads of Families. Others Occupied. 23,139 ■93 Classification. Numbers living in Families, 3 or more to a room 11,202 2 & under 3 „ 25,151 1 & under 2 „ 35,308 Less than 1 More than 4 rooms 4 or ir more jiersous j ' " to a servant ..J % 9-7 21-8 30-6 Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to2 servants All others with 2 or more servants . . Servants 70 508 100 Crowded. Not „ . Inner. Outer. Together. 44% 27% 31% 56% 73% 69% Unoccupied. Servants. Total. Distribution. East . . North West.. Inner 9894 \-, Outer 4503 ) Inner 4615 1 ..- Outer 22135 r' i K26,750 Inner 2495) .,, ,., Outerl8960/'^^'*''"' Central Inner 5368 South- / East (, South- / West I, Inner 2748 \.,, Outer 18693/'^^' Inner 7662) Outer 18148/ 53GS 441 26,111) 115,521 Inner 32,782, or 28 % Outer 82,739, or 72 % Status as to Employment [acconlivg to Census Enumeration). Employed. Neither Employer nor Employed. Census Divisions (1891). Males. Females of all ages. Total. Males. Females cinder 20. Over 20. Males.' Females (1) Carpenter and Joiner (2) House and Shop-fittings maker 940 238 12 12 2261 198 27,212 1375 103 129 1796 202 8 8 32,332 2162 1178 24 2159 28,587 232 1998 16 34,494 Total 1202 31,278 2014 72 THE BUILDING TRADES. Caepentees axd Joinees. " The carpenters and joiners are the top-hats of the building trade/' This statement was intended to express the fact that the above class, considered as a whole, is the best-conditioned in the group. This is roughly true. Pei'haps from the character of the work, from the qualities necessary for the complete master3' of the ci'aft, from the fact that all of joiners' and much of carpenters' work is done under cover, and that a somewhat less rough and robust type of man can pursue it; perhaps also from the traditions and associations of the calling and from the forethought involved in the necessity of acquiring valuable tools (at a cost varying from £10 to as much as £30), it has resulted that carpenters and joiners have been long recognized as embracing a large proportion of the elite among operative builders. An indication of the truth of this statement is found in the fact already mentioned that a great majority of foremen have had their training as practical carpenters."^ But representatives of several other branches ai'e also found, and in increasing numbers, in the ranks of the foremen, and the carpenter by no means monopolizes the symbolic " top-hat " o£ intelligence and respectability. It would be impossible, but it will fortunately be unneces- sary, to describe the various kinds of work that fall to the carpenter and joiner. Their main divisions may be generally indicated. With the co-operation of the sawyer and the wocd- w^orking machinist, all wood used iu building is manipulated * Carpenters, more than any other class of artisan, work right through a building. This is almost equally true of the bricklayers, and, to a less extent, of the masons. The practical experience of these three classes, therefore, best qualifies them for the post of foremen. THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. To either by the carpenter, or by the joiner, or by both. The full equipment of most buildings and of all dwelhnga will require the services of other workers in wood — such as the chairmaker, table-maker, and the cabinet-maker. But the products of these classes will, with very few exceptions, not be fixtures. The material as used by carpenters and joiners is, on the contrary, almost invariably worked into the permanent structure, and this quality of fixity largely differentiates their work from that of the various branches of the furniture trade. Much of the wood used in building operations, after it has been sawn and machined, mny be worked up either in the joiner's shop or on the building itself, and this leads to the main division of " carpenter " and " joiner." While the former woi-k on the building-^ the latter work in the shop. While the joiner prepares work for fixing, most of the carpenter's work consists in fixing the work thus prepared. But not all. In addition to putting in the wainscotting, flooring, skirting, partitions, &c., which often come straight to the carpenter from the machinist's shop ; and doors, window-frames, sashes, cupboards, panelling, &c., which must have had some, albeit often a small amount of joiner's work put into them, the carpenter will also have to fix the floor-joists, rafters, and the heavier timber used as supports in the structure. He will also fix the apparently solid beams that are so conspicuous a feature in modern timbered houses.* The heavier structural work is called "carcase work," or "first fixing," and some men who only do, and can only do, this rouglier work, are called " carcase hands." This is fi special branch, and there are two others, viz. the staircase hands, and the shop-fitting hands. Of these branches, the * Frequently, this showy timbering is purely ornamental, being composed of seven-eighth inch planks, with the surface exposed and coloured to repre- sent the old solid wood-work of an Elizabethan house. 74 THE BUILDING TRADES. former is distinguished by the special skill required, the latter rather by the special purpose of the product than by any special demand made on the skill of the artisan — a good workman being able to qualify as a shop-fitting hand very quickly. An increasing quantity of staircase work is now being executed by the general joiner. It should be noted tliat while, as a rule, men either work on the job or in the shop, there is a considerable amount of interchange. It is, however, rare to find that a first-rate joiner excels as a carpenter {i.e. fixer) and vice versa. The tendency, therefore, is for men to specialize, and to work habitually either in the shop or out of it. The explanations of the exceptions to this rule are various, and would generally be found in the conditions of employment and capacity of the employed. Sometimes, however, inclination may lead to change, as in the case of one man who went outside for a time to enjoy more fresh air, and at others a valued shop-hand might be sent out because in this way only could work be found for him. On the whole, employment is more continuous in the shops, and it is to them that the best men tend. " Carpenter " is the generic name of many handy men in the building trades, and this will partly explain the large total shown in the table on page 71, which exceeds by many thousands the number of really competent carpenters and joiners working in London. (For explanation of method adopteil in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) u- (6) Plasterers and Papebhanoers. Diagram showing agjs of Plasterers and Paperhangers, as compared to the ages of others employed in the Building Trades, and to those of tlie whole occupied popu- lation of London. ^ISOl Maloo t rtion.TOvc Remainder of Building Trades. Whole of occupied in London. opposite.) A. '^\ / > \ " ' \ -.„ \ \ \ \\ i \ \\ 1 ij \ k // \ \^ y \ \ fj \ \ > V V \ \ \ \ ^ , / ' > k y, \ \ 1 \ \ ♦ / \ \ 1 I ' I \i \ \ \ \ ! \ V ij V \ j \ > / \ \^ \ 1 1 s^ '^ • \ \ 1 s j \\ 1 \ ^. ! Si j ^ t - Ages. 10 15 20 25 30 35 *0 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 60 VOL. V THE DIFFEEEyi SECTIOXS. PLASTEEEES AND PAPEEHANGEES. (Section 0.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Census Di\ision, 1801. Plastei-er and Paperhanger Fe- males. All Afces. 2G Males. 453 Total 5331 875 I GS91 The age line of this section follows very closely that for the building trades generally. (See diagram.) DlSTEIBUTIOX. I E. X. 1791 W.&C. DeT.ULS of OCCUP.A.TIOXS (from the Census Dictioxaby). stucco pointer," lath-nailer, whitewasher, paper varnisher, paste boy. Enumerated by Families. Ses (Males 5106-^ (^ Females 5 Rirthnlice -' J? Loudon .... Oo % -ini Heads of Families isiunpiace ^Q^^jpf London.. 35% ln» ■ jm. T J i ■ , rEmplover 4% 211 Industrial \ Ei^pip^ed g,; .,„ 4405 Sstatus . . ^ Neither 10 •',. 495 Total Population concerned. Total .... Average in familv.. Heads of | Others Families. | Occupied. Unoocupied. 5111 4983 14,848 2-91 Servant.s. i Total. 46 : 24,988 Classification . Distribution. Xumhers living in. Fiimilus 3 or more to a room 2 » "1 More than 4 rooms I 4 or more persons | to a servant . . J Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or more servants . . Servants 5316 7.367 6322 21-3 I 29-5 25-3 5891 23-5 East .. North West .. Central South- East South- west /Inner 1685 "I i Outer 4:i9 f j Inner 11871 (Outer 4948/ rinner 449) \ Outer 635:^ J Inner 674 rinner 2.371 \ Outer .3668 ) /Inner 1.3521 /Outer 3997/ 24,988 100 Inner. Outer. Together. Crowded.. 62% 48% 51% Xot .. .. 38% .52% 49% I 2124 6135 6S01 674 .3905 5349 24,988 Ipner 5584, or 23 ?C Outer 19,404, or 77 % Status as to Employment [according to Census Ennmeration) Employed. Xeither Employer nor Employed. Census Division (1891). Males. Females of all ages. Total. Males.|Feraales| Under 20. Over 20. Males. Females Paperhanger, Plasterer, Whitewasher . . 236 3 459 5563 20 007 3 6891 Total 239 6012 t 10 70 THE BUILDING TRADES. Plasterees. The most important part of a plasterer's woik is that of covering the rough brick- work or other structure of walls and ceilings. For this^ in good work, there are three processes : (1) '^Pricking np " or "rendering," i.e. putting on the coarse stuff in order to make a rough surface to which the second coat will adhere. (2) The " Floating," that is, adding a coating of plaster and lime on which (3) a final coating of the same materials, washed and finely screened, is put. Keene's or Parian cement is used for angles. The quality of plasterer's work varies more, perhaps, than that of any other branch, owing lai'gely to the ease with which bad W'orkmanship can be concealed and adulterated materials employed. Much skill and experience are required in mixing materials, in setting out the work correctly, in securing a perfectly even surface, and in making a neat finish of angles, mitres, and the enrichment of cornices, but there is little, if any, specialization, men being graded almost solely according to their skill. A few plasterers are employed in the manufacture of the fibrous j^laster slabs and cornices, the use of which displaces much of the plasterer's labour. In the setting out of this work a skilled operative plasterer is required, but the actual fixing is effected with nails or screws, and does not demand the services of skilled men. A thin setting coat to cover joints is all that is required by way of finish. The '' lathing," i.e. fixing the laths (made by the lath- render) to the joists in ceiling work, so as to give the re([uired " key " for the first coating of rough plaster, is sometimes claimed by the plasterers, but in London is THE DIFFEIiEXT SECTIONS. 77 almost entirely executed by tlie "lathers/' who confine themselves to this work. The fibrous plaster work and the employment of wire and metal lathing are not unlikely to bring about a considerable dislocation of plasterers' work during the next few years. Another branch of work, to some extent executed by the plasterers, is that of fixing inside tiling. Much of this is done by the specialists employed by the firm whose tiles are being used, and some is claimed by the bricklayers, but much still remains in the hands of the plasterers. Outside plasterers' work, in the shape of stucco, is not very common at the present time. It has for the most part given way to fancy brick or tile-facing, and terra cotta. The change has been largely due, undoubtedly, to a genuine alteration in public taste, but is also to be partlv attributed to the adulteration in the past, wnth its in- evitable sequel of peeling and ugliness. Many of the frontages in Victoria Street are cited as instances of good solid work of this kind, but the street is not distinguished for its picturesque or bright appearance. " Compo " work, a facing of cement and rough gritty sand, is not infrequently inti'oduced in some styles of villa and cottao-e dwellings, and this is also plasterers' work. Paperhangers and whitcwashers, though included here in the census, are now more closely connected with the painters, and are considered in the next section. 78 THE BUILDING TBADES. PAINTEES AND GLAZIEES. (Section 7.) Persons Represented. Census Division, IS'Jl. Census Enumeration. Males. Fe- males. All Ages. Painters and Glaziers -nih20— 54 .■5700 Total ;32,(!(;(; The diagram shows, as with the other .sections of buildinfr, a frreat preponderance from .'30 to tiO years of asre, telling of inllux from the provinces, and witli regard to this section in pnrticnlar, of a trade fo which men often turn late in life. Every sailor is a painter. DisTKinurioN. E. N. W.&C. S. Total. 3791 S930 9119 10,826 32,666 Details of Occur.vnoNS (from the Census Dictionary). JIural artist, church decoi'ator, stenciller, grainer, glass writer, sign i)ainter, wood stainer, plale-glass litter, lead glazier, window cleaner. Enumerated by Families. Sex TMales 22,!)3l \ Females .. 48 / In London 6.) ",', 14,846 B-thplucej-^;— ^•,;:: -J-^»- Heads of ^milies Industrial 1 ImP]o.ver 7% 154!) Status . . J'^^^ \ Employed 84 % 19,427 • ( Neither 9 % 200(;- Total Population concerned. Total .... Average in family.. Heads of Families. 22,982 Others Occupied. 20,611 •90 Classification. numbers liriiig in Fnmilies 3 or more to a room 22.044 2 ct under 3 . , 29,672 1 & under 2 ,, 27,360 Less than 1 ,, "i More than 4 rooms I ,,,- (y^. 4 or more persons j -'''' to a servant . . J Less than 4 to 1 svr- vant, and 4 or moreto 2 servants 412 All others with 2 or more servants .. !'."> Servants 439 20-8 28-0 24-5 105,9."6 Crowded. Not .. . Inner. Outtr. Together, 59% 44% 49% 41% .';6% .51% Uuoccupied. (;i,!i2t 2-69 Servants. 439 Total Distribution . East -( ^^^^^' ^^^^^ North r Inner 74S3 "1 ?r 21635] \ Outer West Pnner 25801 "^^^■•\ Outer 20654/ Central Inner 4918 South- I Inner 2045") East ■( ()uleri:W07> South- (Inner (>5n!)\ West \ Outer 14142/ 12,583 29,118 2.3,231 4918 15,452 20,651 ]0o.9S(> Inner 32,530. or .31 % Outer 73,426, or 69 % Status OS to Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Cen.sus Uivisiuu (1891). Employed. Ne ther Males. Female.s of all ages. Employed. Total. Males. Females Under 20. Over 20. Males Females Painter and Glazier Total I(i25 22 1947 !(i.l31 120 2499 19 32,666 1647 28,501 2518 Nos. (For explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) 280- (7) PaINTEES and GLAZrEHS. Diagram showing ages of Painters and Glaziers, as compared to the ages of others employed in the Building Trades, and to those of tlie whole occupied population of London. (1891— Males.) Painters and Glaziers. Remainder of Building Trades. ^— — ^ Whole of occupied in London. (.See remarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) Ages. 10 15 20 25 30 35 *0 *5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. 79 Painters, DecoratoeS;, Glaziers, &c. The painters form perhaps the most disorganized and composite group in the building trade, not excepting the hxboui'ers. The chief explanation of this is found in the character of their "work, for the class includes many kinds of operatives, from the "brush-hand" who has picked up a certain knack, and Avho may be anj^thing (or nothing) from a sailor to a waiter or a scene-shifter; or from the mere hanger-on, supported by his wife's earnings when he has no painting job on hand, to the highly-skilled decorator, who, constant to the craft of which he is a master, would consider it an indignity to be ranked with the industrial gadabouts who call themselves his fellow-craftsmen. A thoroughl}^ competent painter is qualified to work as a decorator, gilder, glazier and jDaperhanger, but the scope afforded for division of labour in London has led naturally to some measure of specialization. Thus, while many are not able to decorate or gild, others of the more highly skilled do nothing else, and while some do no paper-hanging, others keep exclusively to this work. It is the same with glazing, the measure of specialization being roughly found in the scope for the division of labour offered by the operations of the individual employer. The all-round man of inferior skill is most fi'equently found in the emjjloyment of the small jobbing builder. Whitewashing, which was formerly considered part of the plasterer's work, is now almost exclusively done by painters or labourers. Much of the glazing of new work is executed by the specialist employer on his own premises. The sashes are 80 THE BUILDING TBADES. sent to Lim from the joiner's sliop, are glazed by liis own men, and sent to the building ready for lixiiig. Much good work is done in this way, but when the glaziers are allowed to do any of the painting, certain disadvantages tend to accompany the practice. There is increased difl&culty in detecting the use of inferior wood, for judicious " stopping " and painting may easily cover serious defects. ]\[oreover, unscrupulous firms are in the habit of "sheep-skinning/' that is, of giving a coat of red lead and size instead of oil-priming to the wood. The former dries quickly and is thus a very convenient sub- stance to use, but it does not give a surface, or body, to which the putty used in glazing will adhere. The main purposes served by painting are those of preservation and decoration, but it seems that a third purpose, of deception, must be also enumerated. Nos. (i "or explanation of method a dopteii in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1 ■ ) (8) PLTjMBERS. Diagram showing ages of PZwmbert, as compared to the ages of others employed in the Building Trades, and to those of the whole occupied population of London. (1891 Ma)*"! ^ fv \ \, Plumbers. \ Remainder of Building Trades. Whole of occupied in London. \ \ \ (See remarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) y \ \ \ \ ^\ \ / V 1 \ \ \ \ A \ ^ V \ ^~ ■~.^ / \\ ^ \ / \\ 1 \ \ \ ^ k 1 V X \ / \ \ / \\ \ / \> \ 1 \ V ' \ \ v\ \ 1 \ > V \ j \ \ \ \ \ \ 1 \ \ J v ^ I \ \ \ \ : \ \ \ ! \ \ \ \ V \ \, \ l^ I \, \ j \ \ \ ^ V ^ J \, \ \ / \ s 30- ; \ \ • / N \ \ 20- I \ ' s> 1 \ \ i \ Ages. I [) 1 5 2 2 5 3 3 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 s 5 7 7 5 8 VOL V THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. PLUMBERS. {Section 8.) 81 rersoiis Rpprescnted. Census Enumeration. Fe- >ensus Division, males- 1891. lumber All A;'es. 2t ;1963 liO— 54 6783 - Total 571 93iG The excess of boys shown in the diasi-am iposite is balanced by the lack of them in her building sections. Distribution. B. 1 X. iw. &C. S. Total. 915 1 2332 1 2403 3«30 931ti Details of Occupatioxs (from the Census Dictionary). I't-fitter, plumber's labourer. Enumerated by Families. / Males . . . \ Females. Rii-thn'-i"P ^ I" London .... (i2% 318:i Uiitnp.a.e (^ Out of Londou . 38% 1952 T 1 I ■ 1 r Employer . Industrial U,,jj^^l^ I '*t''t»« ••(Neither... 13% (!H 7.i"o 38<>-2 12% 635 Heads of Famihes, 5141. Total Population concerned. Total . . Average in family.. Heads of Others Families. | Occupied. Classification. Numbers living in Families. 3 or more to a room 2895 2 & under 3 „ 5309 1 & under 2 „ 6S52 Less than 1 " ] More than 4 rooms I 4 or more persons ■ to a servant . . ; Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or more servants. .. . 3 Servants 142 % 12-0 21-9 283 8883 307 114 •6 24,198 100 Inner. Outer. Together. r-rowded.. 46% 29% 36% Not ,, .. .54% 71% 64% Unoccupied, 14,794 2-87 Servants. 24,198. 4-69 Distribution. East f Inner \ Outer ( Inner 1 Outer j Inner I. Outer Central Inner North West 1768"! 75S/ 148 n 4715/ 615 \ 4272/ South - East South- West / Inner I. Outer / Inner 1, Outer 4531 3827 / 12.05 \ 3794/ 6199 4887 1217 4280 5089 24,198 Inner 6832, or 28 % Outer 17,366, or 72 % Status ns to Employment [according to Census Enumeration), Census Division (1S91). Employed. Neither Employer nor Employed. Males. Female of all ages. Total. Males Females Under 20. Over 20. Males. Females lumber Total 712 8 1963 5878 14 769 2 9346 720 7855 771 VOL. V. 82 THE BUILDING TRADES. Plumbers. The work of the plumber may be rouglily divided into the two main divisions of (1) Roofing, and (2) Sanitary work. In London he works chiefly in lead, differing in this respect from his provincial brother, by whom a much larger proportion of iron-work is also executed. Thus, in the country — except in the large industrial centres — the plumber generally does the hot-water work, while in London this is more frequently executed l)y the hot-water fitter. The actual division of plumbers' work on the one hand, and of the fitters on the other, is one of the numerous cases of overlapping found in the building trades ; and is at the present time under the consideration of a joint committee that has been appointed by the trades concerned. The scope of plumbers' work has been curtailed during recent years by the substitution of iron fittings for lead in much sanitary work ; by the extending use of zinc in roofs instead of lead, followed by the formation of a sepai-ate class of zinc-workers ; and by the wholesal? manufacture by machinery of many of the sanitary fittings that had been formerly made by the plumber himself. It is thus sometimes his complaint that he is becoming sim]>ly the fixer of products made by other people. But this is an exaggera- tion ; as, although it is true that he has more fixing to do than in previous years, the importance attached to all sanitary work is steadily increasing, and secures to the plumber, who is its chief executant, an increasing impor- tance and responsibility. There is a difficulty in enumerating, with even approxi- mate accuracy, the number of men in Loudon who are entitled by reason of their training either as apprentices or " mates " to be regarded as plumbers, many men of the class referred to under the head of *' fitters,'' and others, swelling the ranks of the nominal plumber. (For explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) (9) Locksmiths and GAarixTERs. Diagram showing ages of J^ksmitht and GasfitUrs, as compared to the ages of others employed in the Building Tradec, and to those of the whole occupied popu- lation of London. nSQl MaIps ^ fiffora Remainder of Building Trades. Whole of occupied in London. (See remarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) jk '^\ > V \^ ^ k\ \ ,f^ ^ i\^ ■. / / \\ ~"- / \ s^ \ I / \ \ \ I / ,' ^ \ \ If / V \ \ I f \ s \ \ \ \ / > L \. \ 11 / S, \ / \ ; > \ > ^ ^ 1 \ y \ \ \ \ i \ \ \ 1 / , \ \ \ I v\> '^> ', \\ ! \\ ^ k '\ sV^^ / ' \ \ ; > L ^v 1/ Vn I; x l! Si> •; > i Ages. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 *5 SO 55 60 65 70 75 60 VOL V THE DIFFEIiENT SECTIONS. LOCKSMITHS, etc. {Section 9.) Persons Represented. 83 Census Enumeration. Census Division, 1891. Fe- malps. All Asces. Locksmith, Bell- hanger,and Gas- fitter 48 ■ Total 638] 4081 545 5312 We have here a trade of middle-a^e. There are fewer young men and not more old men than in the whole occupied population. [See diagram.) Distribution'. E. 1 X. |W.&C. S. Total. 6.>6 1 1432 1 148y 1735 5312 Details of OccurATioxs (fboji the Census Dictionwey). ilakers of all kinds of locks and keys. Manufacturers of gas pipes, fittings and stoves. Gras engineer, lamp-post fixer. Enumerated by Familie; S„, /Mal-s... "-^^^ (.Females. 3475 ^ 17 T,i,.fi,„i„„p /In London .. . C2% 2169 ^'^''^1'''"^'' I Out of London.. 38% 1323 Industrial f Employer 8 % 2% Status i^mplo.ved 79% 27.^ hiatus . . ^ jjei^ijgj. 13 p ^^ Heads of Families, 3492. Total Population CONCEKNEI). Heads of Families. Others Occupied. Unoccupied. Servants. Total. Total .... 3i92 3214 9672 113 16,491 Average in : family.. | 1 •93 2-77 •03 4-73 Classification. DiSTF.IBUTION. 4.372 4655 y-amhcri livinq in Families. 3 or more to a room 2152 2 & under 3 ,, 1 A: under 2 ,, Less than 1 '> ^ More than i rooms l_ 4 er more persons j" to a servant . . J Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or more servants . % 130 26-6 28-2 1068 30-8 105 26 Servants 113 Crowded . Not „ . •6 •1 '7 100 Inner. Outer. Together 51% 33% 40% 49% 67% 60% East .. North West . . Central South- East South. West ( Inner 1541 \ \ Outer 442/ / Inner 955 "I 1 Outer 3273/ /Inner 567") I Outer 2695/ Inner 1-282 (Inner 296") \ Outer 2186/ / Inner 1213 1 \ Outer 2041/ 1983 4228 3262 1282 2482 .3251 16,491 Inner 5854, or 35 % Outtr 10,637, or 65 % Status as to Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Employers. Employed. Xeither Employer nor Employed. Census Division (1891). Males. Females of all ages. Total. Males IFemales Under 20. Over 20. Males. Females .318 5 638 1 3787 41 521 9. 5312 .323 4i:;;i 523 VOL. V. 6 * 84 THE BUILDING TRADES. Smiths and Fitters. These are metal workers, whose sphere of work is much wider than that covered by building operations. As a class thej will be dealt with more fully, therefore, in Chapter II. of Part III. The lock-making industry has no necessary connection with the building .trades, but stands in the same relation to this group as do those engaged in the production of all branches of builders' iroumonger3^ It is allied rather to the engineering trades, although the best lock-making is hand-work on which but little machinery is employed. The amount of lock-making, however, now carried on in London is very small, the trade being localised almost entirely in Wolverhampton and the neighbourhood. There is one important firm which manufactures locks in London ; but, with this exception, and the exception of the lock- smiths employed by other firms of lock and safe manufacturers, neither lockmakers nor locksmiths are found in London as a special class, the latter, excepting those employed by specialist firms, doing all kinds of smith and fitting work. As a builder's operative, the smith is the maker of the wrought-iron goods required, such as railings, &c. The fitter, in addition to completing the smith's work, also fixes much of the cast-iron used in the building. He is often not differentiated in practice from the smith, it being a common usage — especially'' in the smaller firms — for the same man both to make and fix the wrought-iron work. Fitters are not infrequently employed to make the necessary connections between the metal girders, joists, &c., that have been put in position by the bolsters, but in many cases rivetters are sent down for this purpose. The term " fitter," now in common use, includes in its meaning that of the nearlv obsolete " whitesmith."" THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS. 85 by wlaicli was understood the gas and liot-water fitter. Bell-hanging, the demand for which is heing seriously diminished by the use of the electric bell, is also part of the fitter's work. The separation of the plumber and titter is less complete in much of the building trade, than is indicated above. The field of the gas and hot-water fitter's work, for instance, may sometimes be covered by the plumber, and some Avho describe themselves as fitters claim to be " seven-branch men," able to execute with equal readiness gas fitting, bell-hanging, lock-smithing, electric fitting, hot-vrater fitting, black-smithing', and plumbing. Work- men of this class are, for the most part, employed in work of a "jobbing" kind, and much of the*'' scamped" plumbing which is so common may be traced to them. To a considerable extent tliey represent the " handy men" of the ''jerr}^ builder," and also Avork for the soiall tradesmen who cany on businesses as " ironmongers," " sanitary engineers," or "' builders," and undertake repairing work in poor neighbourhoods. Crane and Engine Drivers, Machinists, and Sawyers. The first two of these classes embrace the men who work the large Scotch derricks, " steam navvies," and the portable engines used for mixing and crushing mortar, &c. It is stated that two-thirds of the members of the Amalgamated Protection Union of Engine Drivers and Crane Drivers, formed in 1889, are employed in the building trades, but their work is of wider scope, and will be referred to in a later volume, in sections dealing with Labour generally. Wood-working machinists and sawyers fall also some- what outside the scope of this chapter, although the pro- portion working in connection with the building trades is 86 THE BUILDIXG TnADES. niucli greater than that of the engine drivers and crane drivers — the machinist's shop^ for planing, moulding, mortising, and tnrning, being now an annexe of every large joiner}'" works. There is a considerable amount of specialization, feAv machinists, it seems, qualifying themselves to work with equal ease the various kinds of machines in nse. On the other hand, the machinists and saw^-ers are not sharply divided, men moving frequently from one class of work to the other, A laro-e number of machinists have entered the trade as o joiners, taking subsequently to the machine work. The " trade mills," i.e. shops to which wood can be sent by the builder or joiner for machining, stand in somewhat the same relation to the building trade that the saw-mills do to the furniture trade. In each case they enable the man of small capital to secure some of the economies of machine work, but power is rarely, if ever, let off to separate occupiers as in the case of the saw-mill, nor (the require- ments of capital in other directions being necessarily much more considerable in the building trade) do these trade mills facilitate the multiplication of the small employer as do the saw-mills in the furniture trade. Miscellaneous Brakches. There are in the building trade many subsidiary special branches allied as a rule to one or another of the above main divisions. Most of them are indicated on the tabular page which precedes each section, and their enumeration and description are unnecessary here. CHAPTER TIL CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT The particulars given in some of the interviews with operatives are summarized on the sacceeding pageSj and the whole have, so far as practicable, been tabulated, 124 cases having been thus dealt with, comprising: — Bricklayers ... 23 Masons ... ... 5 Marble masons 2 ,, polishers ... 2 Slater.s and tilers ... 2 Carpenters and joiners ... 32 Plasterers ... 13 Fibrous plaster workers 2 Tesselated tile workers 2 Plumbers ... 6 Painters ... 13 Smiths and titters ... 5 Machinists 2 Labourers ... 15 Total ... 124 Some of the results of this tabulation will be used throughout the rest of this chapter, but the material would frequently afford a basis for a much fuller treatment of individual cases than has here been possible, and many of the particulars, especially those relating to personal as distinguished from industrial conditions, that have been willingly furnished to us, must necessarily remain unused in this volume. As regards most of the subjects dealt with, the information given would be quite insufficient to furnish a basis for general conclusions. The tables are useful, how- ever, as supplementing, in a certain number of actual cases, the information drawn from other sources, and they are very human in the tale they tell. 88 TIIl^ BVILDIXG ITiADES. PERSONAL. Ocou]i.iticm. Age. ,,. ., Time 1 Xiiiuber Xuiiibenil' i^l't;'; ill : ill K..0111S jiuice. London. Family. Occupied. He-t ^U-;- It Trades' Unionist. If moiiibcr of Frieiully Society. (1) General 3;i stone- mason Country 20 years Wife «nrt !."< i cliikli-en (s iilue) 7/- Yes ; Yes ; Openitive slate club Stone (formerly Masons' i Hearts of Union ; Oak, but 1 run out) (2) Stone, -^^ marble, and slate- mason London Wife and 4 children children i _ DiUo Loyal United Friends new (1) There is a ^ (2) Trade busy job." M (3) Has about work bel (4) Shifting ve piece-woi aria as ,'ood de; in sum asons' < three j( :ngs to rv frc(i k ; (/.) > to Scoanii il of shift mer and Mid brick lbs a yea bricklaye ucnt. 1 vith plun s, Shift ing ; iie slack i ayers' i r — " tsv rs, espe here is ibers, ^\ tui, Altenu has had i\ n winter, vork overla jlve month cially as m overlappi ho try to d tive Kmpli venty-six e Work verj ps ; there s is a Ion asons won ng (n) wit sanitary !/inent nploy r irreg s dis] ? job. d exp h tile slate-^ , Off flap ers durin ular — " t ute as to ' Consi ret 10^(1 rs, 'Jio vork. phifi. dc. ^ last five j wo months terra-cotta iers that i an hour fo lo marble 'ears, is a long work, erra-cotta r fixing it. floors at CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. INDUSTRIAL. 89 How trade was learned. Time in i le.iru- Where '^'"'^ '''l^' learned Pie«ent leaineii. employer. Son of mason's foreman, and therefore not apprenticed Apprenticed 5 years Apprenticed 5 years Worked with father and then served apprentice- ship in London As errand boy — London Country Just on 4 months 4 months Si years 2 years, short break.and then 10 years Origrinally a 3 years labourer, but was taught by a work- ing bricklayer Apprenticed 4 years London As fore- man for 8 months but now out of work 6 months and on and off for 7 years Descrip- tion of employer. Master mason Builders & church decora- tors Master mason ployiiient found. Ase limit. Uh-oO 9},d From union lodge A man is handi- j capped at .iO especially 1 if not I well-known 41i-50 Unem- ployed book and "goes roimd " Goes and asks ; also through unem- ployed book of trade society 44i-.)0 9hd. ilCif/when lixm, (Overtime (witli rates). i)hd Goes and asks : also through unem- ployed book of trade society General builder Jobber and con- tractor Goes round I I'nless well-known I a grey- haired man I is always I passed over I for a young- er man Goes round Only 7 hours in last 3 years None None None 4iJ-oO 9k/. ll'/as foreuian 9icl. Has been foreman bricklaver at U\h('l & general foreman at lid A great deal at last em- ployer's Union rates were paid Very little and gets overtime rates Remarks as to Seasons, Shifting, Alternative Employment, Overlapping, dr. (5) Much shifting. He is employed chiefly on church work. (6) Trade is busy in summer ; he reckons to lose six to eight weeks in the year. There is overlapping with tilers (7) Summer busy ; winter slack. Has lost one month in last five years. As a piece-master he has sometimes made as much as £15 in one week ou G. E. E. work. Now believes in giving others a chance. 90 THE BUILDING TRADES. PEE SON" AL. Occuiialion. | Age. Birth- place. i Time ill London. Xiimbor in Family. Number of Rooms Rent. Occupied. 1 If Teeto- ' If Trades' taller. Unionist. If member of Fricnilly Society. (8) Bricklayer •29 Country 8 years Wife and 2 children 4 5/6 No Operative Bricklayers' Society Yes (9) Bricklayer (Deputy Foreman) 39 Country 22 years Wife and 5 children C 7/- No Ditto 1 Yes (10) Carpenter and joiner (11) Joiner ;iti Country 14 years s (part let) Amalgama- ted Society of Carpen- ters and Joiners Country Ditto (12) Joiner 45 (about) London 8 (lets 4) Xo; but dislikes holding branch meetings in public- houses Ditto (13) Carpenter and joinei — Country 1 19 years Ditto (14) Joiner 53 Ditto Hearts of Oak Een (8) Busy in su of tilers. (9) Busy Easte (11) Has lost r %arks as aimer ; r to Ch 10 time to Seasoi slack in ristmas ; since the IS, Shif winter. slack a strike ting, Alien There is !terwards t Df 1891. ative Emp] a good de 11 Easter. oymei al of Does t, OverlOj shifting. not shif ppiiig, tCc. Work ov much hin. erlaps that iself. CONDITIONS OF EMPL0Y2IENT. INDUSTRIAL. 91 How trade was Ti.nejn learned. ^\^'^^ Where '["'Z^' Descrip- ! How em- . ^ tion of plojnneut ,vS? Hours, employer.' found. "'""- Rates. Overtime (with rates). Apprenticed 3 years 3 months General builder Searches for it. Gets friendly hints. Xever uses call- book — i Building trade hours dhd Does not work overtime Informal appren- ticeship with father C years 5 years Builders I Thi'ough and con- friendly tractors foreman - Building trade hours Wd Xone .Apprenticed (11-16). " Few apprentices now. Lads go as glue- boys " 5 years Country Builders. Small shop, which he prefers, as more friend, liness is shown & work bet- ter done Men get little mercy when they begin to look old Little since strike. L'sed often to work Hi hours a day for long periods Learnt with his father, who was a joiner Country Average man begins to fail at 50, but some last longer i44-50 'Jid Great deal before the 1891 strike but very little now Apprenticed at small shop at West End London 1 year Men begin to fail at 50, but knows a man of 75 who sets out work at a lirm J4i-50 Hhd Greatly reduced since 1S91 strike, and especially since agreement of 1892 Apprenticed. Paid a pi-emium of £'30 7 years Country 2 years Small firm, work mostly done by hand Walking about " 44A-50 ttirf Never had much overtime. Is now forbidden by the rules Apprenticed 03 years Country 25 years off and on Large Walks builders from job jto job and talks to unionmen J-li-50 dhd A'ery little because of extra pay licm (12) Had a bad (13) Has bad overlapp (14) Slack just which en arks as time ii ive or ng witl before iploys t to Scasoi 1 1891, bi six eiiipl L shipwrig and jus tiree hun s, SItiJ'tii it since t' jyers in hts. t after, C Ired men g, AUern le strike nineteen 'hristmas constant at ire Ein le has on years ; n . There oloyment, C ly lost five ever out oJ is not mi verhqipii days, work foi ich chan (J, (£c. ' long, ging at ] There is lis firm, 92 THE BUILDING T HADES. PERSOXAL. Occupation. Age. Birth. l)lace. Time in Lion.lon. XunilxT in P'ainily. Xuniber of Iloonis Occupied. Rent. If Teeto- taller. If Trades- Unionist. If nieuibei- of Frienilly Society. (15) Carpenter and joiner. Has been foreman inside and out, but now at the bench 37 London (but went to the country as a boy) 1 12 years Wife and 5 children ■l-roomed house - 1 11 ;« Xo Amalgama- ted Society of Carpen- ters and Joiners Hearts of Oak (16) Carpenter and joiner 4-3 Country 21 years Single ■il- Xot for 20 years Xot for 8 years (17) Machinist 2S London Single 1 7/0 Mill Saw- .vers' and iiachinists' Union A.O.F. (18) Plasterer 33 Country 2 years ; also some years in 2 pro- vincial towns other than birth- place Wife and 1 child 3 0/- Xo Xational .\ssociation of Operative Plasterers (full mem- ber) Xo (19) Plasterer (J2 London Wife and lu children (Sat home) 4-roomed house (1 let) 12/- l<.idgei l>av.s 4/- Ditto " Star in the East " (20) Fibrous plasterer and slab fixer 50 London Wife and 7 children (I at home) (J-roonied house 7/(> Xo Fibrous Plastei-ers' I'nion Xo Ben (15) Work is s not lost As to di^ week, ai has beei labourer (16) Has been twenty-s (17) He had a arhs as ack in a week pute be id his e 1 a tra s who k out of even, twelve to Seaso) winter, for tweh tween br xperience de as Ion eep the t work foi Time of 3 months' j s. Shift He shif e years cklayei is that g as he lers ou1 eleven 'ear doe ob bcfo iiif), Altern ts every fe^ In his t s and tilei bricklayer can reme of the Fee weeks, an s not niak( •e the iires( ative Eiiipl V weeks, bu rade there s ; he has i cannot la_ niber, and eration. d has only 3 much diff mt one. t lose is ov been )■ tiles it is 1 had erenc( ^ Overhq s no tira .;rlapping a genera as well he brick] seven we )ping, iCc. s between with cabin foreman as the tile ayers, plas eks' work obs. Has et-makers. at £3. 5s a rs. Tiling terers, and out of last CONDITIOXS OF EMPLOYMENT. INDUSTRIAL. 93 IIiiw tvaile was learned. Time in learn- ing. Wliere learne.l. Time with ])re.sent empl'0'»-'i'- Descrip- tion of employer. How em- ployment found. Age limit. Hours. Rates. Overtime (with rates). Apprenticed. 5 years Country. ." weeks .Jobbing (1) Unem- About 50, 44i-50 9J. lOrtas Not mvich " Regrets tliat so '• The builders ployed since one foreman since few are now country- books. dare not Nov., 1892 apprenticed " man is a (2) Clubs. wear glasses better and (:5) Pubs. harder "Any man worker ' in the than the know' can Cockney'' get a job" Apprenticed 65 years Country 5 years off and on Last em- ployment was in East Lon- don. Is now out of work Goes round 44*-50 V>U None Picked up London 14 years Contrac- tors «i.50 9|rf 2 hours a day since Octolii-r, but gets union overtime rates With father _ Countr.v. Few days Asub-con- Unem- Old men 1 44J-50 9id. Has None last Was get- tractor in ployed now stand a been fore- year ; a ing (!(•/ an l)laster book and better man at li'ttlesince hoxu'when work goes chance, lO^d Christmas only 15. round owing to the but union Journey- elimination! rates are man's of many paid rate was driving sub- only ~hd contractors then With father 5 or tl London 1 .") years Contrac- Goes 41i-50 WA Verylittle years oh' and on tor round Union rates are paid Hawk-boy, then 7 years London .3 years 56J (if not! WL IVo lathing. (Can only ofT and on on piecework do plain building) since P.P. plastering) Unionwas formed Eemarhs as to Seasons, Shifting, Alternative Employment, Overlapping, etc. (18) Seasons vary; sometimes the winter trade is as brisk as the summer. He had six jobs last year, and was out of work two months. Plasterers occasionally go into gasworks in winter, and may earn nearly £2 a week. (19) Summer busy; winter slack. He usually has ten or eleven months' work in the year. Last year he was ill for twelve weeks, and lost five months' work altogether. A few plasterers go into gasworks in winter. (20) Busiest in winter ; no special reason for this, except, perhaps, that architects specify for fibrous p aster w ork, kno\ ving it ca n be don€ in winte r. 1 u THE BUILDING TRADES. PERSONAL. Occupation. Birth- place. Time in .Loiulnn (21) Tesselated and mo- saic tile tixer (22) Painter (23) Painter Country 29 years (24) Painter (25) Painter (26) Painter (27) House decorator London London London Loudon Country 32 year London Number ill Family. AVife, no children Wife and 3 children at home No family Wife and 2 children Wife and 2 children Number of I Rooms j Rent. Occupied. 6-rooined house ; no lodirers -roomed house £13 (in- elud- ing taxes) 4-roomed 7/(i house 4 rooms ! ■md scullery Wife and 4 children, but only 1 at home but 2 are let Wife but no children 10/(!, but 2 rooms let for 5/- 5/- If Teeto- taller. No No ; dropped out last winter If Ti-ades' Unionist. If member of Friendly Society. Tesselated Tilers' Union London and Counties' Painters' and Decorators' Union No Ditto No No; but used to formerly to the London and Counties No Oddft-llo\\> No; dropped out last wmter No No No; run out of Loyal United Friends No Remarks as to Seasons, ShiJ'tiiiff, Alternative Employment, Overlapping, tOc. (21) Busy in summer. Lost no time last year, but usually loses six or seven weeks. There is overlapping ^vitll plasterers and bricklayers. (22) From beginning of March to end of June is busy, and also August and September. He sometimes goes into the country during July. He had twelve jobs last year and nine months' work. (23) Winter is slack. He loses five months out of the twelve. (24) Busy in spring and summer. Shifted very little until this year. In slack time he goes hawking, or works at a print shop, or gets jobs on the ice. Drink is the cause of a great deal of distress among painters. Present slackness is largely due to the excessive number of unskilled painters who creep in after a few months' training. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. INDUSTRIAL. 05 How trade was learned. Time in; ,,-,,„,,„ Time with lean:- , ^l i"^ ! present ing. leai'^ed. je,,,pioyer. Descrip- tion of employer. How eiu- ployiuent found. Age limit. Hours. Rates. Overtime (with rates). Picked up as boy 5 years London 5 years off and on Tile manufac- turers and fixers Call-book and goes round Age is no great dis- advantage. Damp and draughts cause rheumatism Some men working are 60 years of age, but age " goes against you " 41i-30 lOf^ Verylittle. Union rates are paid Picked up as a boy 7 years London 14 years off and on Jobber 441 -.50 occasion- ally 'dd Not much now, but gets over- time rates Picked up with a master man 7 years London 6 months Jobber Unem- ployed book and goes round 444-50 Sid. L. C. C. rate, extra id or Id for lead- ing hantl Great deal, but overtime rates are not usu- ally paid Picked up as a labourer ' Few weeks. 5 years with fewbreaks Relief works and general builder 61 SM at re- lief works, 7id at builders Usually gets time and half after 4 on Saturdays Picked it up as I labourer. Was ipprenticed as a 5la'iterer,butgave t up, owing to an accident 1 month Relief works (now), master painter (formerly) 55-60 Sd, but Sid if in a society shop Occasion- ally gets time and a quarter Apprenticed 7 years London 5 years off and on Jobber Sd in one firm, <.>d in another •"ather was in the trade 7 years London About IS months out of last 2 years House decorator Goes round 11 in summer. Sin winter l-hd-Sd Rem (25) Busy in sf weeks si employer for a uni (26) Busy from last five (27) A man m arks as ring, nee Wl in his onist to March months ay have to Season He usua' litsun. district t get work till June twelve « s, Shift in ly has pi Sometime lat pays and Aug mployers [1, Altern etty regu ;s works %^d an h( ust till S in a ye itive Emi ar work, as genei )ur, and eptember xr. He ] iloyment, C but owing al laboure ae therefor Has not cias been oi verlappi) to illnes r. Thei e found worked t] it of work g, d'x. s has lof e is not it was in: iree week for some A fifteen a single ipossible s during time. .»() THE BVILDIXG TPxADES. PERSONAL. „.., Time Xuiuber Xuinber of 1 If Trch,. If Tiadi's' If membor (_)ccuiiatii>ii. Age. place. m ni Rooms Rent. of Friendly London. Family. 1 Occupied. 1 1 Society. (28) number .•5.-, London 4 10/G Yes: Roval Unitetl Standard Operative Plumbers' Society. (29) number 'J.> London Single Lodger Pavs No No No and ziuc 12;-for worker board and lodg- ing (30) number 24 London 1 1 — j Single Lives No Hearts of with Oak his par- ents (31) Black- smith ■K» Country i7 years Wife ami 7 S 16'- No No Hearts of children (lets 3) (lodg. ers8/-) Oak (2-1 years) (makes and fits wrought iron-work^ ■ii (32) Gas, hot- London Wife and o C 8/- No No Oddfellows water fit- children and Loyal ter, and United Friends general engineer Piemarhs an to Seasons, Shifting, Alternative Emjdoijment, Overlapping, dc. (28) PUimbers are not much affected by bad weather. He has a permanent job ; but most jobs only last a short time. (29) He does not lose six weeks during the year. (30) In this trade there is not much difference between winter and summer. He loses about three months in the vear. COXDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. INDUSTRIAL. 97 Uow trailo was learneil. In™- i 1— •• Time with Descrip- } IInw em- 1 ,, present , tion of , ploymeiit; fjii'iit employer, employer, fouml. 1 Hours. OvLTtiiue Rates. (with rates). 1 Xot appi-enticed. Began as a boy of 1.3 ; then became a matf, and was a meclianic at '25 London 6 years - a) By as- Not 10 »„ are sociating 1 over 55 withother men. 1 (2) Unem-I ployed book 42-17 ma Very little Apprenticed 3 years London Onhisown account, and does jobs by the piece. Does roof ■and sanitary work, ice. Comes to him — About 9d an hour With father, who is u master phimber - London - Master plumber - 41-47 lOH Xone Apprenticed 4 years Country 24 years — 60 for aver- age strong men. Has known men of 70 at work 414-50 9d suiee Nov., 1892 Very little Picked up 1 G years Gas and hot-water engineer i 53J \n\d when be was on a kind of task work system - Rem arks as to Season s, S It if tin g, Alterm itive Em I loyment, l,o.- l.oc,,-. vcrlappi) (J, cC-c. gaswork, hot-water stoves, dc. {32) Had very regular work until present year, but is now unable to get employment. Has had only four months' work in twelve. Has worked as engineer and as watchman. Was apprenticed to the watch-making trade, but never followed it. VOL. V. 98 THE BUILDIXG TliADES. PERSONAL. \ ,^ Biith- (>icui>atioii. -^o"^' place. Time in London. Number Xuuilx'i- o{ , re t » in Rooms. Rent. " T^^'- Family. Occupied. *'*'''^'*- rf Tradps' Unionist. If member of Friendly Society. (33) Mason's labourer 2.") (about) London Wife, but no children 1 4,'0 No BenefitClub at Firm (34) Scaffolder and labourer's foreman -19 Country 3»> years Wife and 4 children at home 2 J/6 Yes : for 27 years No: but intends to join tlie General Builders' Labourers' Union Phoenix (35) riasterer'p laboui-er London Wife and 4 children 2 5,6 - Yes ; General Buildei's' Labourers' Union Slate Club (36) Scafifolder (mason's labourer for 15 years un- til 2 years ago) 3 ;;;• 1 i i 1 Ditto (37) Slater G8 Country 17 yeai-s Wife — no children 2 1 5/ i No Was in Slater and Tilers' Union, but left because out of work No Ben i33) Slack in w pretty re i35) He says " Has wor as a earn larks as inter, i gular w six moi ied alt( ian. to Seaso] I frosty ; ark. iths is a jrnately IS, Shift lost sij ong jol 'or gas ing, Alter n i weeks in ) " ; loses c and railw ative Empl 1891 from n an avera ay compan oymei this ge on ies, a ^ Overla cause. ( e month t the do( pping, dr. 3therwise 1 a year plm 3ks, for ves le has had holidays. ;tries, and COXDITIOXS OF EMPL0Y21EXT. TXDUSTRTAL. 99 - How trade was learned. Time in learii- iiig. Wheiv ^""'' "'*''' L)<"^<'rip- learne.1. | 1""^?™* '■ ^i-'n of ' employer, employer How em- ployment fouud. mnl H«"'--^- Rates. Overtiiii. (witli rates). Picked ui) London 3 years 1 If in want of work, he would apply to foreman whom he knows. He has his address, and writes about jobs 411-50 1 aid 1 Used to do a good deal, but very little now owe. mg to the overtime rates Picke , u ^ \ . , Paperuangers 9 Do. (granite- work 101 ^, , , Ti . , J 1 • .T, Plumbers mates bh Pamters and glaziers 8i Smiths, fitters, etc 8 J to 9 J j Painters' labourers 6^ Labourers and navvies "g J | French polishers 8 Plumbers lOJ ; Steam-sawyers 9^ Timber-men 7 to 7J | Machinists (Joiners) lOi The figures of the above schedule need little comment, as they represent on the whole the recognized practice of 122 THE BUILDING TRADES. the trade in London. A considerable number of men are undoubtedly paid at lower rates than the above^ the chief exceptions being the handy man working for small employers, the adult improver in many branches who offers himself for less than trade union rates, and the painter who is unable to secure them. It is improbable, too, that the majority of the machinists obtain lOld an hour ; but, on the other hand, many men secure higher rates than those scheduled. Variations from the normal rates are largely due to special skill or reliability. Thus joiners not infrequently earn lOcZ and 10?.r?, and while the "brush hand'^ among painters may be able to secure only 7|f?, the skilled, deco- rator will be earning lOld or lid an hour. Regarding the trade as a whole, however, it may be said that the wages question derives its importance, not so much from variation in the rates at which labour is remunerated, since these on the whole are fairly uniform, as from the conditions under which the work is done and. the regularity with which employment can be secured. The following tables will throw further light upon the question of remuneration in this group. They include returns from 39 firms employing 440(3 men and boy?, together with particulars as to lUlO more who were included in returns from other trades : — Engineers and contractors 9 ") Builders 21 Decorators 2 Tile and slate naerchants 2 Stone and marble niasonr. 3 | Window-blind and reflector makers 2 -* It will be observed from Table I. that the bulk of the labourers are able to earn for a full week's work from 25s to 30*', while the majority of the skilled men earn between obs and 406?, nearly CO per cent, falling witliiu one or another of these two limits. W^ith the exception cf a certain number of improvers and painters, only a 39 Firms. COXDITIOSS OF EMPLOYMENT. 123 small proportion of those for wlioui particulars have been given are earning less than the rates detailed in the L.C.C. schedule. The deviation from the full week^s rate is partly explained by the inclusion in the employers' returns of those working for a short week. The 20 per cent, who earn over 40s would be to a considerable extent due to the additional -},d or Id per hour that is paid to the leading hand. I. — Weekly earnings of men employed in Building Trades. (Sections 2 to 9.) Under "iOs 104, or '2^ per cent. , 20s to'25A' 418 „ 8 ,, Under 30s, 40 per cent. 25s „ 30s 1488 „ 2!)^ „ j 30s ,, 3os o7o ,, 11 ,, X 35s „40s 1454 „ 2'J „ Lf^ i r-n 4- 1 30s and over, 60 per cent. 40s „ 4os 807 „ 1<; " [ 45s and over 220 ,,4 ,, ■' yOGC. ,,100 II. — Weekly earnings of Masons. (Section 3.) Adult males. Under 20s 1, or ^ per cent. \ 20s to 25s 3 „ 1^ „ '-Under 30s, 27^ per cent. 25s „ 30s 54 „ 25^ „ j 30s „ 35x 1(5 „ ll „ . 35s „ 40s 52 „ 24i „ i .^. , _, " -dOs and over, /2* per cent. 40s „ 45s 80 „ 38 „ I ' ^i 45s and over 5 ,, 2^ ,, •' 211 ,,100 III. — Weekly earnings of BricMayers, (Section 6.) Adult male?;. Under 20.? 8, or 3 percent.. 20s to 25s 25 „ 10 „ . Under 30s, 30^ per cent. 25s „ 30s 44 „ 17^ ,. j 30s „ 35s 20 „ 8 ^^^ " ^^' ''" " ^^ " ;- 30s and over, 6Ci per cent. 40s „ 45s OG „ 26J „ -21 45s and over 20 ,, 8 ,, ' 250 ,,100 124 THE BUILDING THADJ-S. IV. — Weekly earnings of Carpciif.ers. (Section 7.) Adult males. Under 20s 22, or 2J per cent, x 20s to 2:m 65 „ 8 „ lUnder :{0.-, 20* per cent. 2.5s „ 30s 81 „ 10 „ J .30.S- „ 35s 165 „ 20 „ n 35s „ 40s 293 „ 35* ,, L^ , ^o, , " - " '-30s and over, 79* per cent. 40s „ 45s 155 „ 19 „ j 45sandover ... 44 ,,5 ,, ' 825 „ 100 V. — AVeekly earnings of Palnferft and Gin-iprs. (Section IK) Adnlt males. Under 20s 7, or 2 per cent. \ 20s to 2.)s 57 „ 17 „ I Under 30.:, 44 per cent. 25s „ 30s 85 „ 25 „ j 30s „ 35s 87 „ 25J ., ,, 35s „ 40s 64 „ 19 ,, Ln i r,^ * " ' ;- 30s and over, 5lj per cent. 40s „ 45s 26 „ 7^ „ 45sandover 14 ,,4 ,, ' 340 ,,100 Average Earnings. — The interest of several of the pre- ceding sections — for instance, those relating to shifting, methods of finding employment, seasonal variation, &c. — turns largely upon their bearing on the yearly income of the individnal wage-earner; and the importance of securing exact information on this point cannot well be exaggerated. In few trades is the question of re- muneration answered when we are told what is the rate of earnings for a normal week. The important thing to know is, for how many normal weeks during the year is employment, on the average, secured. It may be noted that the corresponding question of " unemployment '^ is frequently discussed without refei*- ence to this point. Employment and iinemploj^ment alike tend to be discontinuous, and the classes of em})loyed and unemployed are therefore in no sense fixed quantities. By COSDITIOXS OF EMFL0Y2IENT. 125 regarding- them as anch wo are apt to exaggerate the earnings of the former and the character of the problem presented by the hitter. Local conditions have also to be considered when esti- mating the real value of remuneration. In London, for instance, it is necessary to remember that, although rates of pay ai'e higher than in provincial towns, it is in many cases doubtful Mhether their real value is so or not, and the opinion is held by many that the position of the build- ing operatives in London is, if not inferior, certainly not superior to that held by many of their fellow-craftsmen working in the country at a lower nominal wage. There are two chief explanations of this, (1) higher rents, and (2) heavy travelling exjjenses. On the latter point, one man reports, "For the last six years, '2s to 2s 6d a week;^^ another says, ''Now Is, and walk two miles each wa}'' besides;^' a third states, "Once livinar at Stratford and Avorkino' for a firm at Nottinrr Hill ; cost me Ss a week ; " and a fourth puts his expenses at " Is a week.^' Man}-, of course, especially of those employed in the shop or yard, work within easy walking distances of their homes, but London is so large and employment so discontinuous that the chance of having an appreciable sum to pay each week for travelling is con- sidei'able, and cannot be avoided by a large number of men. These arc matters which make London u more than ordinarily expensive place to live in. On the other hand may be mentioned the unequalled opportunities that it offers to the careful provider of securing at low rates every article consumed, worn, or used in the home. The force of competition among distributors of all classes tends to reduce prices to their lowest possible level, and although bad management, unwise use of credit, buying in small quantities, and such causes, may lead to the misuse of the facilities for cheap living provided, the fact romrdns 126 THE BUILDING TRADES. that London, ulthougli it may be the dearest, niay also be one of the cheapest places in the world to live in, apart: from the items of rent and travelling-. In practice these advantages are, however, balanced to a great extent by the unequalled opportunities which London offers to those who are inclined to be extravagant, or not so very careful. Remembering these points, we may proceed with our endeavour to answer the question: What are the average wages earned by operative builders ? For this part of the inquiry it is easy, as has been seen, to secure particulars as regards rates of pay and as regards the earnings for a single week, and it has also been possible to secure estimates more or less reliable of yearly averages. In this connection, how- ever, the actual records of individual cases for considerable pei'iods have an especial value, and of these it has been our good fortune to secure a considerable number. The following are among the most reliable and significant that have been collected. The figures given are the total annual earninsfs.* 1. A bricklayer— from 1877 to 18Sf) : £'J0, £83, £83, £91, £87, £84, £1)7, £101, £91, £90. From 1888 to 1891 : £80, £87, £89, £91 ; averagin;,' for the 14 years, £88. 17s, or per week, 34.i\ 2. A bricklayer— from 1879 to 1884: £71, £72, £70, £87, £95, £83; averaging for the G years, £80, or jier week, 31.-;. 3. A bricklayer— from 1882 to 1892 : £99, £103, £9(>, £90, £91, £80, £8.""», £98, £85, £95, £91 ; averaging for tlie 11 years, £92. 12s Od, or pc>- week, 35s 6rf. 4. A mason-from 1888 to 1892 : £78, £93, £102, £8G, £91 ; averaging for the 5 years, £90, or per week, 35s. 5. A joiner— from 1882 to 1890 at the rate of £92. In 1891 (strike year), £69. In 1892, £114 ; averaging for the 11 years, £91. 18s, or per week, 35s %d. * Amounts of less than 10s showing in the totals have been ignored ; 10.s- and upwards has been reckoned as £1. Thus £83. 9s M has been taken as £83, £83. 10s M as £84. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. 127 6. A joiner— from 1880 to 1892 : £87, £100, £92, £85, £91, £74 (strike year), £87 ; averaging for the 7 years, £88, or per week, 33s Gd. 7. A carpenter— from 1884 to 1892: £101, £119, £99, £103, £101, £103, £82, £92, £97 ; averaging for the 9 years, £99. 13s 6d, or per week, 38s G(/. 8. Carpenter and joiner— from 18S4 to 1802: £98, £83, £95, £100, £93, £97, £91, £99, £99 ; averaging for the 9 years, £95. 18s, or per week, 37s. 9. A painter— from 1884 to 1839 : £63, £74, £33, £90, £82, £75; averaging for the 6 years, £75, or per week, 29s. 10. A scaffolder— for 1891 and 1892, £83 and £74 ; averaging for the 2 years, £78. 10s, or per week, 30s. 11. A labourer — for 1891 and 1892, £33 and £35 ; averaging for tha 2 years, £G5. 10s, or per week, 25s. The above figures include only actual trade earnings, and omit any subsidiary incomings^ club benefits being tli3 most important of these for which particulars are given. Many of the returns would well repay the trouble of a closer analysis and a fuller presentment. In several cases a considerable amount of information is given as regards changes of employer, character of the work executed, and the vicissitudes from sickness, loss of work, &c., &c., of the individual man. Some of the chapters of the industrial biography of these unnamed men who, as statistical figures, flit vaguely before our imaginations might well be made the subjects of a monograph, which should bring out, not only the economic, but the human significance of the figures given. In addition to the annual variation, which is in some cases considerable, a seasonal fluctuation is also noticeable, the weekly averages for the second and third quarters of the years exceeding in the very great majority of cases those of the first and last quarters. The following may be takeu as samples. The case of a plumber, from whom particulars for one year only have been received, has been added: — 128 THE BUILDL\G T HADES. "VV^EEKLY Averages (to the Nearest Sixpence). Firs t Secoml Third Fdur Ml Year. Quarter. Quarter. Quart n-. Quarter. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ .». d. £ s. d Bricklaj'er 1 (1890) ... 1 2 (i 1 18 1 19 1 13 1 14 2 (1890) ... 1 7 G 1 16 6 1 18 1 9 1 13 Carpenter (1890) ... 15 (; 1 14 1 19 1 16 6 1 11 6 ,, (1887) ... 1 7 (J 2 6 2 9 6 2 5 () 2 10 Painter 1 (1887) ... 19 () 1 14 1 17 1 16 6 1 11 6 jj (1888) ... 17 1 1.5 6 1 8 6 1 15 19 ,1 2 (1886) ... 1 7 1 19 6 1 16 11 1 8 6 Plumber (1890) ... 1 19 1 15 2 7 2 1 2 6 Scaffoldcr (1891) ... 1 14 1 13 6 1 12 1 8 6 1 12 ,, (1892) ... 1 8 () 1 8 6 1 9 (5 1 8 18 Labourer (1892) ... 1 () 1 6 1 8 1 6 1 5 6 13 18 19 1 6 20 3 6 17 10 17 15 Average £1 5 4 1 14 6 1 16 6 1 12 1 12 3 Sucli are the figures shown by exact records of individual earnings. They give, doubtlessly, averages that are higher thau those earned by the rank and file of their various trades, for those who take the trouljlc and have the courage to keep accounts are generally those who are exceptionally steady, and perhaps exceptionally successful. An allowance, therefore, must be made when we consider them as indicative of general conditions. But they will be of considerable value when shown in relation to certain estimates which have been given us, and to the figures given on pages 123-4. The estimates that have been obtained which arc worth ([noting are as follows : — Sixteen cases of bricklayers, masons, and plasterers, varying from 2G,s' to 38,s' 9t?, show an average of ol.v Q>d. Thirteeu cases of carpenters, joiners, and machinists, varying from 21-.y to oO.v, show an average of 32.v 8(?. Three cases of painters (working at not less than 8.' 'i per liour), varying between 276' (jil and oO.v^ show an average of 296> 2d. Four cases of scaft'olders and labourers, varj'ing between 176- and 31^', show an average of 2os od. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. 129 The following table will summarize, as regards tlie more important branches of the trade, the result of the particulars given on the preceding pages ; columns Nos. 1 and 2 give particulars referring to single weeks, Nos. 3 and 4 to longer periods — never for less than one year : — For 4S hours' work. Normal wases. Masons Bricklayers Plasterers Carpenters Joiners Machinists Painters ] at 9^cl per hour. I £1. 18s. ] at 9^d per hour. J £1. 18^. at 8^(1 per hour. £1. Us. Scaffolders & \ ^t Id per hour. Labourers I £1. 8s. Including overtime (if any). Average shown by our returns for one week (v. p. 123). Averages ofspecitic cases (p. 126). £ s. d. Masons 1 16 4 Bricklayers 1 15 2 C. and J. 1 15 2 Painters 1 11 G & s. d. 1 1310 1 16 1 19 1 7 6 1 11 6 1 12 8 19 2 13 3 Putting on one side the exceptionally capable or excep- tionally trustworthy man on the one hand, and the more shiftless and incompetent on the other, we shall jDrobably be not far wrong if we consider the figures given in the fourth column of the above table as a fairly accurate state- ment of the actual average weekly earnings, under normal conditions, in the trades mentioned. The average for the masons should probably be put at a somewhat higher figure than that for the bricklayers, as, in spite of the amount of dressed stone sent up from the quarries, some two-thirds of the former probably work under shelter in London, and thus in greater independence of the weather, whilst those employed as fixers receive lQ\d instead of ^\d jjer hour. It is im- portant also to remember that the particulars as regards painters have reference to the average skilled man who * Scaffolders Id and labourers 6Jd. VOL, V. 9 130 THE nUILDIXG m.lDES. earns not less than 8\d an hour. As has been stated, there is much intermittent following up of this craft by the semi- skilled, and, if the average earnings of these could be in- cluded, a very considerably lower sum would doubtless be shown. But estimates of these cannot usefully be given. Plumbers do not earn more, on an average, than carpenters and joiners, in spite of their slightly higher rate of pay, while smiths and fitters, and slaters and tilers, on time-rate, may be safely put at from 5 to 10 per cent, lower than the rates given for bricklayers. There is no reason to suppose that the average for any other section, such as the fibrous plaster workers, marble polishers, tesselated tile workers, &c., would not correspond generally with the above rates, due allowance being made, when necessary, for any difference that there may be in the recognized rates of pay in the various sections. Alternative Employment. — In no bi'anch of the trnde is there any recognized form of alternative employment in the not infrequent out of work periods, except perhaps the movem.ent of a certain number of labourers to the g-asworks in the winter. " To nothing else except in cases of sheer necessity, and then to anything^' is the answer of one man to the question as to what he would turn his hand during slack times in his own trade, and the answer roughly illustrates the general practice. Thus, although the joiner out of work might possibly do some cabinet-making", and the machinist who had gone through his training as a carpenter and joiner some rough carpentering, and though the smith might tend to find his way to the fitting or engineering shop, such transitions in the slack time are the exception in the skilled trades. Even competent painters rarely take up other work, save in especiall}' bad seasons, and, speaking generally, movement from one branch to another is becoming more exceptional with the completer specialization of modern times. As previously stated, the COXDITIOXS OF E:\IPL0YMENT. 131 movement of the labourers to other occupations is much, more common, and, in addition to the gasworks already mentioned^ railway, vestry, or carmen's work, hawking, and jobs on the ice are mentioned as channels of absorption when building is slack. More important than the movement to another occupation either inside or outside the group, when out of employment, is the power of the members of many branches of the trade to obtain work on their own account. The mason and the plasterer are perhaps the worst off in this respect, but the bricklayer is always a handy man who can do a job for a neighbour, while the painter, if there were not so many of his craft, might hope to be constantly in request, since "^ painting is a thing all houses want, the f:-ame as a man wants trousers"; and the ^'carpenter's little bench in his back kitchen" is frequently found, and, put to other than domestic uses, it often becomes a source of income. But such supplementary forms of remuneration, although doubtless having a considerable effect on average earnings in individual cases, are not likely to have an important general influence. In any case it is difficult to get much detailed information upon them. Their existence can be assumed, but their effects can hardly be measui-ed. Displacement. — The economic conditions of the group are, in many respects, exceptional. There is little foreign com- petition; no female labour ; a very small proportion of boy labour, and, on the whole, it is a group in which machinery is able to displace hand-work to no considerable extent. The displacement of Londoners by foreign labour is insig- nificant, there being, except among marble masons, the makers of the central plaster enrichments of ceihngs, and those engaged on some of the patent floorings, prac- tically no aliens employed. The introduction of foreign jDroducts is somewhat more important, but it is confined for the most part to a certain amount of " dressed " stone from Italy and Belgium, and wood-work, especially joinery and laths, from the Scandinavian Peninsula. VOL. V. 9 ^ 132 THE BUILDING TRADES. Provincial competition is a more serious matter. As regards labour, we have seen that the immigration from the provinces is a marked feature in many of the important sections. This is a normal process, however, accepted as a natural consequence of the economic and social attractive- ness of London. If the new-comer can hold his own and secure employment at London rates, even though he may be making- it harder for someone already in the field to obtain work, the Londoner must not complain. There is reason to expect that, since metropolitan and provincial wage-rates are tending to become more equal, the force of provincial competition will diminish in intensity. Labour is now rarely introduced from the provinces to execute work in London at less than the recognized rates. The cheap provincial products which by their introduc- tion into the market here may lead to a displacement of London labour, are again (as in the case of the foreigner) dressed stone and joinery. The use of the former of these has been actively resisted at intervals by London masons, and a fresh effort has been made of late to enforce, for the metropolis, the practice that has been secured for some of the provincial towns, by which it would be provided that stone used in London should also be dressed there. In the interests of the consumer there are some argu- ments in favour of this practice. But they tend to resolve themselves into the question of the probit}^ of the mason contractor, and the attempt to exclude from use on London buildings stone that has been dressed in the provinces would seem to be economically unsound, and to savour somewhat unduly of metropolitan exclusiveness. The introduction of new processes and new products exercises a considerable efi^ect upon the conditions of the trade, and the existence of materials that can be used as alternatives in construction, weakens the competitive position of several sections of the group. Thus, composi- tion, or artificial stone, affects the mason as dresser. The extended use of terra cotta was, it mny bo noted, largely COXDITIOXS OF EMPLOYMEXT. 133 due to the mason's strike in 1878, and tlie power to use it is said to have had an important effect upon the masons' position during the strike at Cardiff in 1893. In London, where it is probable that as much stone, relatively, is used as ever, terra cotta is rather a substitute for plaster and brick, especially for the former, and its use is doubtlessly largely due to a genuine change in public taste. The use of concrete primainly affects bricklayers and carpenters. In walls it is a substitute for brick-work, and when used as flooring it tends to eliminate the carpenter. The employment of iron and steel in building construction is having, and seems destined to have, not only a marked effect on street architecture, but also a considerable influence on some classes of workers. The carpenters are again most widely affected ; but when vertical metal supports are used, the bricklayer tends to be, to a certain extent, displaced, less brick-work being needed. On the other hand, windows are often made largei', and more work is thus given to the joiner, glazier, and painter. Other instances may be mentioned. The fibrous or slab plaster-work dispenses with the labour of a certain number of operative plasterers; and the metal lathing displaces both lathers and lathrenders."^ The change of fashion, that has largely substituted ornamental brick-work, terra cotta or stone, for outside plaster- work, has already been mentioned. Plumbers have found their position weakened, as regards roof-work, by the use of zinc ; and in sanitary work by the substitution of manufactured fittings of various kinds, for the old leaden fittings that were hand-made. In the paint- ing trade the use of patent preparations has an appreciable effect on the amount of technical knowledge required by the operative painters. Specialist work and specialist products exist and multiply on every hand, and all tend to affect one section or another * Lathrenders, though more properly connected with the building trades (being included in their trade organization) are to be found in the census among the Wood Workers. See Part III. 134 THE BUILDING TRADES. of the various Lranclies of the trade. The patent wooden or mosaic floorings^ affecting the carpenter ; electric lighting the gasfitter; and electric bells the bellhanger, may be mentioned as instances. New processes in one forni or another are signs of activity and expansion. In the aggregate they exercise an important effect. They spi-ing into existence from many causes ; being due partly to changes in fashion, but chiefly to that inventiveness which is seeking on every hand to substitute, it may be the cheaper or the more durable, the more beautiful or the more convenient, for that which is inferior in one or another of those qualities, and thus to secure what may be summed up as economic gain. In the main, however, the lines of employment are continuous. Change is gradual and, although at times there may be periods of sudden transition involving considerable special hardship to one section or another of the group, as a rule power of adaptation is not outrun by rapidity of change in process or in product, and thus in the general character of the labour demanded. As regards machinery little need be said, for the building trade is not an industry that is being revolutionized hj the introduction of mechanical appliances, nor is it likely that this will ever be the case. But the following points may be noted. In masons' work the increasing use of machinery in the preparation of stone, especially the softer kinds ; in brick-work the use of brick-cutting machines for gauged work; and in joinery the steady increase in the variety of wood-working machinery used, not new in kind, but constantly changing and improving in foi'm. In masons' work the use of machinery is undoubtedly leading to a certain amount of displacement ; but in brick- work its effect is unimportant. In joinery it is more difficult to judge of the effects, as opinions in the trade differ widely. On the one hand, it is said that so much is now done by machinery that " finishers " are only COXDITIOXS OF EMPLOYMENT. 135 wanted in the large shops^ and that a distinct loss of interest iu the work is one of the harmful results. On the other hand, it is stated that a great benefit to the operative follows from the use of wood-v/orking machinery, since ic not only relieves him of much of the more laborious work, but, by diminishing prices, increases demand, and thus has little or no effect upon the volume of employ- ment. It is also stated that, as a direct consequence of the ease with which so much of the work can now be executed, specifications for wood-work tend often to become more elaborate, and thus to require a much larger amount of labour in the later stages than would have been demanded had use not been made of machinery in the earlier stages. On the whole it can hardly be doubted that, although employment of machinery may lead to cases of individual hardship in this section of the trade, its general effect is beneficial, certainly to the community at large, and, in the long run, probably, in most cases, to the operatives themselves. Marble polishing, hardly a skilled trade, is said to b© prejudicially affected by the increasing use of machinery, and it should be noted that labourers are somewhat more affected by mechanical appliances than any skilled section, the hoists and Scotch derricks being now extensively used, and undoubtedly leading to some displacement of the unskilled man. Hoisters are also somewhat affected by the substitution of the steam for the hand-winch. The use of steam-mortar pans for crushing and mixing has no important effect; and the "steam navvies" are not often used in ordinary building operations, even in the case of large contracts. Speaking generally, it may be said that, though to an increasing extent materials may be prepared for use by machinery, in the main, building must continue to be a structural operation needing constantly varied adaptations of muscle, and that for such work the machine can never take the place of the man. CHAPTER IV. OKGANIZATION, ETC. We began by regarding the building trade as forming an organic wliole, and making it our business to inquire concerning the functions of the component parts. During the later chapters we have considered the various sections separately in reference to different points of economic interest and importance. It remains, briefly, to regard the various sections in relation to the voluntary organizations formed by combinations amongst their members. We have seen that there is a considerable uniformity of condition prevailing as to wages, hours, &c., and this has been largely due, not simply to custom and tradition and to general determining economic forces, but to the presence within the group of organized bodies which, thi'ough their representatives, either as employers or employed, can negotiate, confer, differ and agree. The chief organizations in the group are, on the one hand, the Central Association of Master Builders, and, on the other, the London Building Trades' Federation. The exist- ence of the latter differentiates this group of trades from that of any other in London as regards trade union organiza- tion, the Federation being the most conspicuous instance in the metropolis of the successful combination of allied trades. Its existence is largely due to the impulse of the movement of 1892. The London Building Trades' Committee, unded in 1887, had paved the way, but the force o ORGANIZATION, ETC. 137 an industrial conflict — the carpenters' and joiners' strike in the summer of 1891 — led more directly to the formation of the more regularly constituted protective " Federation.'' This conflict, which lasted about six months, ended in a drawn battle ; but in the following summer the bricklayers handed in their notices, and the employers, realizing that it Avould be necessary sooner or later to deal with all branches in the group, proposed a postponement of settlement until the autumn, and a general agreement then with all the trades concerned. It was thought by the men, however, that such a postponement would find work slacker, and the operatives in a weaker position, and under this impulse the formation of the Federation was hastened and made easier. The celebrated agreement of 1892 came into force for the bricklayers in the summer of that year, and for the carpenters and joiners (who had really borne the brunt of the battle), and all the other sections, in November. The Federation has absorbed not only the Building Trades' Committee, but the London United Trade Committee of the carpenters and joiners, and there is now no other important federation within the group. The following trades unions, representing nearly 40,000 men, are now included in the Building Trades' Federation: — Operative Bricklayers' Society. Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners. General Union of C?.rjjenters and Joiners. Perseverance Society of Carpenters and Joiners, Associated Carpenters and Joiners. ^ National Association of Operative Plasterers. Metropolitan Society of Operative Plasterers. Amalgamated Society of House Decorators and Painters. London and Counties Painters and Decorators. Affiliated Societies of House Decorators and Painters. United Operative Plumbers' Association. Amalgamated Society of Mill-sawyers and Wood-cutting Machinists. General Smiths and Fitters. Engine and Crane Drivers. Lathrenders' Trade Union. 138 THE BUILD IXG TBADES. Window-sash Glaziers' Trade Union. Building Trade Section, Electrical Trade Union. United Builders' Labourers' Union. Navvies, Bricklayers' Labourers and General Labourers' Union. General Labourers' Amalgamated Union. Building Trade Section, Gas Workers and General Labourers' Union. United Order of General Labourers. Building Trade Section, Loudon and Counties Labour League. Amalgamated Plumbers' Mates. Federations also exist in thirty-one provincial centres, and with these the London Society is in comniuuicatioii. It will be noticed that the only large trade union still outside the London Federation is that of the Operative Masons. Only those inside the trade unioii movement can judge adequately of the amount of " give and take " necessary to form and develop a great federation representing, as this one does, men receiving different rates of pay and sometimes with interests in many respects conflictino-. Some of its members are saus^uine that the experience of the Building Trades' Federation justifies the hope that the way is being prepared for the formation of a great single trades union for operative builders, while others point to the short period during which the Federation has been in existence, and hold that there is nothing to justify the belief that it will weather the strain of difficult times, with the pressure of trade conditions adverse rather than favourable. The future only can solve this question ; but one grave source of weakness may be noted in the fact that a Federation is only a protective association. It exercises no friendly society functions, and therefore cannot rely upon the stability derivable from these forms of benefit. It will have to justify its existence by the part it plays as a central consultative body ; by the security it ensures for the federated societies through the existence of a strong executive representative of all; and by the self-restraint and foresight with which it can wield the force that it at ORGANIZATIOX, ETC. 139 present controls. Its hold upon tlie loyalty of its members must spring' from the benefits that a protective organization can secure,, and these in periods of continued quiescence are sometimes diflBcult to bring home to the imagination. The more ardent and short-sighted will sometimes call out of season for the demonstration of a power that may be weakened rather than strengthened by outward display. The large additions to the trades unions during recent years tend to accentuate this danger, and a period of prosperous numerical advance in any given group of societies, and thus in the Federation which they form, is also a period of trial, when a strong hand and cool judgment are especially needed to guide those who have great hopes, but little experience, and whose financial stake in their own societies is insignificant. Trade Societies. The following tables give particulars of the various trade societies in the group, excepting only those of the Labourers' Unions not exclusively connected with the building trades, and those of the mill-sawyers and wood- cutting machinists, engine and crane drivers, smiths and fitters, lathrenders, and some others. Particulars of all of these are given in other sections of this or succeeding volumes, in chapters dealing with trades under which, in accordance with the census enumeration, it has seemed appropriate to place them. The stated membership of each Society is usually that for 1893 or 1894, and in the case of some of the larger societies the numbers given include members of a few branches which, though belong- ing to the London district of the Union, are not strictly within the metropolitan census area. In both these respects, therefore, the figures do not quite correspond with the census totals of numbers employed, but the difl^er- ence is not material. This remark applies to the Trades Union statistics generally in this volume : — 140 THE BUILDING TBADES. Kumbers in the London Tiade (Census 1S9:). Of whom are Total. emiiloyed males over'JO 5914 578 503G 454 19,427 25,919 17,748 Xame of Trade Society. 23,238 Friendly Society of Operative Stone- masons of England, Ireland and Whales (1838). AmalgamatedOpera tive Masons and Slate Masons' Trade and Benevolent So ciety. Stone Carvers' Trade Association. Marble Polishers B e n e fi t Society (1878). London Slaters' and Tilers' Union and Accident BeneUt Society (1859). Operative Brick layers 'Society (1848). United Operative Bricklayers' Trade, Accident and Burial Society of Great Britain and Ireland i. (1833). {Carried foncard) Membership in London. In each Society. In each Division, 2441 82 128 42 140 7133 32 2693 140 Remarks. ^7165 Oilers Dispute. Accident and Death money. Travelling Benefit and Pension at no fixed ape, but according to need. Members becominK employers may re- main in the Society. Sick fund, optional. Enquires strictly into qualification of intending members. Out of work pay, Dealh levy, and Incidental Fund for distress. Members must work at shoj) price if not under d per hour. To assist members \^hen out of work, n cases of Acci- dent, and to pay a sum onDeath,andto maintain a uniform charge as may be agreed upon be- tween union and employers. Has 34 branches in the London Dis- trict. Ofl'ers dispute. Travelling, Sick and Death money. Superannuation after 55 years of age. Offers Tramp re- lief, Strike, Sick, Death, Accident and •• Victimised" pay. Legal assistance in accidents or dis- putes. 9998 ORGANIZATION, ETC. 141 Numbers in tlie London TradR (Census 1S91). Total. 25,919 34,494 60,413 Of whom are employed males over 20. Name of Trade Society. 23,238 28,587 (Brought forward) ( 'Amalgamated So- [Ciety of Carpenters land Joiners (1860). General Union of OiDerativeCarpenters and Joiners (1827). Associated Carjjen- ters and Joiners. Trade Union of Car- penters and Joiners of Loudon and District. PerseveranceSociety of Carpenters and Joiners. Cai-penters' and Joiners' Protection Society. London Wood and Tin Packing-case Makers' Trade So- ciety. Amalgamated Cor- nice Pole Workers (1893). 51,825 I [Carried forward) Membership in London. In each Society. 64G0 3007 372 m 172 53 388 In each Division. Remarks. 9998 10627 20,62c Offers out of work. Strike, Sick, Death, Accident and Superannn ation money. Compensa- tion for loss of tools. Forbids sub-con- tract.or piece-work. Has branches in America and the Colonies. Con- tingent fund for cases of extreme distress. Benefits as above. At least 1 month's notice to be given to employers in case of dispute. Joins with em- ployers in forming Boards ot Concilia- tion. No Benefits for football acci- dents. Benefits as above. Is a Scotch Society. Offers Death money only. One of its objects is to shorten hours of labour. Refused numbers. 142 THE BUILDING TR2DES. Ni' rubers in the London Trade (Census ISOl). Total. Of whom are employed males over 20. G0,413 51,825 32,666 26,434 - Name of Trade Society. 93,079 i 78,259 (Broufiht foncard) Amalgamated So ciety of House Decorator.? and Pain- ters (1873). City of London House Painters and Decorators. East London Pain- ters' Trade Union (1873). I Lond'nCentralAsso- ciat'n of House Deco- rators and Painters. Grosvenor Society of House Painters and Decorators. Islington Society and North London Union of House Painters and Decorators. UniversalFederation of House and Ship Painters, and Pain- ters' Lab'rers'Union. London andCounties Trade Society of House Painters and Decorators (1889) West End House Painters and Decor- ators' Trades Union. jNational Unity of Painters and Decor- ators' Trade Union. National Amalga- mated Society of Operative House and Ship Painters and Decorators (amalgamated 1886). Fret-lead Glaziers and Cutters' Union. Window-sash Gla- ziers' Union (1889). Window-glass Cut- ters' Trade and Benefit Society. {Carried foncard) Jlcnibership in London. In ftach Society. 2300 170 491 110- 89 159 40 700 200 G9 81 118 80 In each Division. 20,625 Has m Branches, of which .'57 are in London district. Strike, Sick, Death, & Accident money. Strike, Dealh.and 'Accident money. iMiniuuun wage, \Hd. Strike, Death, and Accident I money. I-4G07 Is a ti-ade society only, and oSers no friendly benefits. Offer Strike, -Death, and Acci- dent money. Offers Strike money only. Offei-soutofwork, Strike, Sick, Death anrt.Nii'idcnt money and Pensions. Is a ManclusterSociety. Death money only : minimum wage SJ per hour. 25,232 ORGANIZATION, ETC. 143 Numbers in the London Trade (Census 1S91). i)3,079 €891 9346 5312 8866 123494 Of whom are eniiiloyed males over 20 78,259 5563 3787 4386" 97,873 3878 -! Xanie of Trade Society. (Broufjlit forward) National Association of Operative Plas- terers (1860). i Metropolitan Trade Society of Operative Plasterers (1872). Fibrous Plasterers' Association (1893). United Operative Plumbers' Associa- tion of Great Britain and Ireland (1865). London Amalga- mated Plumbers' Mates'Society(1889). (Locksmith, bell- hanger, etc.) United Builders' Labourers' Union (1889). Membership in London. In eadi Society. 2G81 360 80 1100 500 1300 In each Division 25,232 !-3121 rl600 1300 Remarlv; Out of work, Strike, Sick, Acci- dent, Superannua- tion and Funeral Benefits. Current wa^es enforced except for aged, infirm or partially disabled. Strike, Accident and Funeral pay. .Vrbitration Com- mittee. Partially disabled, aged, or infirm may work under currentwage. Gives pay to men prevented from working by other Societies. Not ad- mitted to B.T.F. Offers Sick, F u n e r a 1, Inca- pacitation, Super- annuation, Trade I Disputes and Tra- , veiling Benefits. Strike and Death money. Minimum wage B.Jd per hour. Has 6 branches. I Partly included in iGeneral Smiths and j Fitters' Societv(See Part III. Metal Trades). To unite all labourers in the Ibuilding trades. [Olfers Dispute, Ac- Icident and Death imoney. Recovered I £905 for members ias compensation for accidents, without law suits. 31,253 Thus^ of a total of 97,873 adult males (the census total of the building trades), 29,953_, excluding the labourei's, * The total of builders' labourers over twenty employed is obviously misleading. Many labourers will be found in the chapter on " labour," and will be included in such societies as the Navvies', Gas Workers', and General Labourers' Amalgamated Unions. 144 THE BUILDING TRADES. are members of trades unions. The extent to wliicli tlie different sections are organized varies from 56 per cent, among plasterers, to 1 7 per cent, amongst painters. The stone-masons' societies include 53 per cent, of the total in this section, the carpenters' and joiners' unions have 37 per cent., bricklayers 40 per cent., and plumbers 27 per cent. It must, however, be remembered that in each of these cases the census totals include a certain number of labourers and odd men who would not be admitted to the unions of the skilled mechanics. It is stated that about 13,000 builders' labourers are represented on the Building Trades' Federation by the six affiliated societies, and wo thus have, with the 29,953 mechanics, a total of about 43,000 organized members of the building trades, nearly all of whom, with the exception of the Operative Stone-masons, are included in the Federation. The following federations and societies are also connected with the building trades : — ■ (1) The London Building Trades' Federation and the Master Builders' Association, already referred to. (2) The Affiliated Societies of London and Suburban Painters' and House Decorators' Trade Union, which is an affiliation of the City of London, West End, Islington, Grosvenor, and London Central Painters' and Decorators' Societies for trade purposes only. In this form they are represented on the Building Trades' Federation. (3) The Clerk of Works' Association of Great Britain, founded in 1882 to "advance the general knowledge and capabilities of the members, and to maintain their respectability and integrity " ; and also " to neutralize the disadvantages of enforced isolation under which many clerks of works now labour." They have 135 members, of whom about half are employed in the country. (4) The Provident Institution of Builders' Foremen and Clerks of Works, established in 1842. Grants pensions to members and widows of members ; pays funeral expenses ; and assists the orphan children of members. Any qualified builders' foreman or clerk of works, under 45, admitted. Member- ship (1894), 114 ; income, £787 (members' contributions, £203 ; honorary subscribers, £220 ; the balance from investments). Is a philanthropic institution, with patrons and directors. ORGANIZATION, ETC. 145 Co-operative building enterprise is weak in London, but the following societies may be mentioned here : — (1) The Co-operative Builders' Society. Originally formed on a profit- sharing basis ; has undertaken several considerable contracts, and flourished for some years as a co-operative society ; but, in spite of a considerable loan from its chief supporter, has failed to hold its own, and is now being re-constituted. (2) The General Builders' Co-operative Society. Shares, £1 ; entrance fee. Is. Has not yet begun active operations. Has branches in London and Provinces. Total membership (June, 1894), 456; increase during half-year, 120 ; London members, 300. (3) The London Central Association of House Painters and Decorators (N.W.) ; founded 1887. Membership, 28. (4) The Co-operative House Painters and Decorators (S.W.). Members, 28. (5) The Excelsior Co-operative Builders and Decorators (S.E.). Mem- bers, 28. (6) The Essex Builders' and Decorators' Co-operative Society, Limited ; founded in 1894. Five other small societies have been enumerated ; two of these are in liquidation. A few of the trade societies given in the table above preface their rules with an exhortation to members, in which the advantages of trade unionism are fully set forth. Then follow the name and meeting-place, the constitution and objects, and the rules relating to the general management of the society. The " objects " resemble one another very closely, and may be summed up as the offering of (a) Friendly and (6) Trade benefits ; the variety of benefits offered differing with the size and position of the individual union. Friendly benefits, in their fullest expression, consist in money payments when out of work; when " travelling" in search of employment; or when sick, at death, after an accident ("if not the result of football, &c."), or on superannuation ; on loss of tools, &c. Trade benefits in- clude allowances during strikes ; legal assistance in trade VOL. V. 10 1-16 THE BUILDING TEADEFi. matters ; the reg-ulatiou of the relations between '^ employers and employed/^ or ''workmen and vrorkmen" ; tlie general defence of trade privilegesy and offers of help to other trade societies in case of need. A few societies also admit members for trade purposes only Avith the object of including older men, and, at the same time, preventing their becoming an undue burthen upon the ''Friendly" section; and some have a contingent fund, which is set apart for the relief of any members who may find themselves in exceptionally distressed circumstances. Financial policy differs widely in the various societies, both as regards the separation of funds available for friendly and trade purposes, and in the limit fixed up to which funds must be kept, if need be, by special levy. The bricklayers fix the amount at 30s per member, and the amalgamated carpenters and joiners at £2; while the masons have a fixed total of £3000 as the minimum reserve, irrespective of membership. The subscription paid by members of the different societies varies considerably ; carpenters subscribe I*" a week, bricklayers and plumbers 9d a week, masons 7d, plasterers 6d, builders' labourers Sd, and painters from 8d to 3d a week. Out of work pay usuallj^ commences at 12s or 8s, and falls, after a certain period, to Qs or 4^' ; whilst strike money is lo.y a week for carpenters and plumbers, 126' for masons, and 10s for painters. Bricklayers', carpen- ters', and some of the plasterers' and painters' societies offer sick pay, in amounts starting at 12.S' and 10s, falling to 8s and 6s after as many weeks, and then to a smaller sum, at which it continues till health is regained. With masons, provision against sickness is optional. In case of the death of a member, from £10 to £7 is paid, or half these amounts on decease of wife, and lump sums of £100 or £50 are awarded in cases of total incapacitation through accident. Several societies give superannuation after twenty years' membership or sixty years of age is attained — amounts ORGANIZATION, ETC. 147 varying from 12s to 4.§ a week. In tlie masons' society there is no limit as regards age, each case being dealt with on its merits. Out of twenty societies, in which particulars of benefits oflFered are given in the above tables, only two offered trade protection benefits — i.e. dispute pay and legal protection — and nothing else. The friendly society benefits offered by the remaining eighteen societies are as follows : — Burial benefit offered by eighteen societies. Accident ,, ,, ,, twelve Sick ,, „ ,, nine Superannuation ,, ,, eight Out of work ,, ,, seven Travelling ,, ,, four Loss of tools ,, ,, three The permission given in many cases to older men to join only the trade section of their society, and, in some cases, the obligation, if they join at all, to do so, has been already mentioned ; but, with a very few exceptions, the dominant opinion in the trade unions of this group points to a fuller recognition of the value and steadying force of the "friendly" side of the trade union movement. In favour of the purely protective society, such arguments as the essential difference of functions of the trade union and the friendly society, the freer action of the former when separated from the latter, and the freedom secured to the trade society when thus separated from the evils of malingering, are urged. But such reasoning is overridden in the opinion of the great majority of trade unionists by the arguments, based on the severe teachings of experience, that permanent stability and loyalty to the society can at present only be assured by some enduring bond, in addition to the advantages secured by a purely protective organiza- tion. VOL. V. 10 ^ 148 THE BUILDING TRADES. Labour Disputes. The fundamental and universal principle of trade unionism is to secure, by combination, a greater equality in competi- tion than could be assured to the individual when acting alone ; and in connection with this aim, there are certain main objects, such as the maintenance of or rise in the rate of wages, or the shortening of the hours of labour, that all societies, at one period or another of their existence, place before themselves. Trades tend, however, to have their more special objects detei'mined, sometimes by the par- ticular conditions and character of the trades concerned, and sometimes by the strength of the organizations formed. Some of these will be illustrated by the following enumera- tion of the disputes mentioned in the reports of the London Building Trades' Committee and the Building Trades* Federation for 1889-1893 :— Trade. Causes of Dispute. 3i[ode of Settlement. Carpenters Stonemasons Bricklayers BuildingTrades' Committee Plasterers Plasterers Sub-letting of Carpenters' work at Post-office. Sub-letting of stone-work at the Imperial Institute Sub-letting of brick-work at Sewage works. Protest against two firms re- ceiving contracts as "they are unfair employers." Sub-letting of work at Police Offices, White hall Sub-letting of plastering 1889 The sub-contractor dis- charged by the Board of Works. 1889 Decided that this sub- contract could not be cancelled, but that no other should be allowed. 1889|L.C.C. lined the contractor £500. 1889 1889 Home Secretary refused to interfere at first, saying, that it was not a case of sub-contract. The ser- vices of the man com- plained of afterwards dis- pensed with. 1889 Promise by authorities that this builder should not again be employed. ORGAKIZATIOX, ETC. 149 Trade. Causes of Dispute. Year. llode of Settlement. Stonemasons Bricklayers BuildingTrades' Committee Plasterers BuildingTrades' Committee Plasterers Stonemasons Bricklayers Labourers Plasterers Carpenters Bricklayers Bricklayers Carpenters Plasterers Masons and Plasterers Bricklayers Slaters & Tilers Lathrenders Subletting of stone-work at Tower Bridge Sub-letting of brick-work at Tower Bridge Manifesto condemning a Profit-sharing scheme Sub-letting at new Bir- mingham Post-office Hours of work not in ac- cordance with Union rules Sub-letting Sub-letting at Clissold Park Paying less than 9d to bricklayers, on under- standing that profits were to be shared Struck for 6rf per hour Payment of 8d instead of M by London School Board Working overtime at or- dinary rate (1) Sub-letting of painting at a Board School (2) Employment of labour- ers to put on cross-joints Sub-letting at a new Work- house Sub-letting of flooring at a Workhouse Sub-letting of plaster-work at Imperial Institute (1) Sub-letting of plaster and stone-work (2) Working 10 hours a day Sub-letting at a London Hospital Non-union hours at a Post- office Employing a sub-con- tractor " who is not a fair employer ' ' /(a) On L.S.B. TT e • work laths ^^^'^^ (..^y , offices 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 Unsatisfactory reply from Board of Works. ! L.C.C. refused to in- I terfere. J L.C.C. forbade the sub- contract. L.C.C. interfered, and 9d was paid. Strike was successful. dd was paid. Overtime-rate promised by L.S.B. , but apparently not paid. L.S.B. ordered the con- [ tractor to stop both practices. Guardians dismissed the sub-contractor. No reply from the Guard- ians. 1890 No definite agreement made. Sub-contractor to be dispensed with in future. 9J hours agreed upon. 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 Promised to discontinue. Union hours agreed upon. 1890The sub - contractor threatened to bring a libel action, (a) Ceilings condemned. 1890 1890 1890 (&) Home Secretary re- refused to interfere. 150 THE BUILDING TRADES. Trade. Causes of Dispute. Year. Mode of Settlement. Window-sash Glaziers Bricklayers Plasterers Painters Stonemasons Bricklayers Carpenters Painters Carpenters Carpenters Glaziers Glaziers Painters Plasterers Lathrenders Joiners Sub-lettins Sub-letting a) Overtime without extra rate at People's Palace (b) Sub-letting at People's Palace Reduction of painters' money from S^d to 7hd on a contract for Board of Works Sub- letting at new Post- office 11890 Promise to discontinue. 1890 The contractor said to be a I fair employer, but B. T.C. I was not satisfied. 1890| 1890! Satisfactory settlement. 1891 :8rf paid. Sub-letting Barracks at 1891 Explanation that it was I due to pressure of work, I but that no further sub- I letting would occur. Aldershot' 1891 House of Commons' i^ledges i to be observed. Sub-letting of joinery at an 1891:L.C.C. ordered the firm to Asylum to a Liverpool firm who were paying low wages Sub-letting at an Asylum discontinue the practice. 1891iL.C.C. Committee at first refused to interfere, but afterwards ordered the sub-contract to be ter- minated within a fort- night. Wages at an Asylum below'189liL.C.C. granted the re- Union rate I j quest. Removal of manufacture 1891:L.C.C. did not interfere, of joinery from London to Cane Hill Glazing for S."\V.R sub-let twice Sub-letting on Government buildings at Clerkenwell Tyrannical foreman 1891 Chairman replied that all sweating should be pre- vented. 18910fhce of Works replied that the work was not sub-let. Scamping at a West End!1891j mansion | conduct of 1891 Refusal by authorities to I interfere. Plasterers then struck for eleven weeks, and the foreman was eventually dismissed. Using single lath instead 1891IChairman of Committee of lath and a half at j replied that only single Battersea Station | lath was specified. Working till 5.30 189115 o'clock granted. ORGANIZATION, ETC. 151 Trade. Causes of Dispute. Tear. Mode of Settlement. Carpenters Piece-work on severalil891|Contractor threatened a L.C.C. jobs libel action. Case with- 1 drawn by L.B.T.C. Carpenters Piece-work on L.S.B. con- 1891| Contractor threatened legal tracts proceedings. Case with- drawn by L.B.T.C. Carpenters Not paying union wages on 1891 L.S.B. replied that an L.S.B. jobs inspection of wages book did not bear out this assertion. Ericklaycrs Sub-letting of pointing andll891 L.S.B. replied that all brick-work at various sub-contracts had been schools forbidden. Painters Non-payment of union rate 1891 No reply. by Salvation Army Lath-renders Use of foreign and machine- 1892 At first refusal to inter- made laths at Aldershot fere, but grievance after- instead of proper split laths wards redi'essed. Bricklayers Sub-letting at Barracks 1892 Refusal to interfere and sixty-one bricklayers left work. Painters Paying painters lid only 1892 Refusal to interfere, but wages afterwards in- creased. Cai-penters (a) Unfair mode of employ- 1892 Postmaster - General re- ment at G.P.O. fused to interfere. [h) Piece-work Plasterers Sub-letting at a Police 1892 Commissioner of Works Court stated that he had given his consent to the sub- contract. Plasterers Sub-letting at Brixton Post- 1892 No definite promise ob- office tained. Plasterers Sub-letting on L.S.B. work 1892 L.S.B. repHed that the Architect had permitted it, as it was a special case. Carpenters Long hours on L. S.B. con- tracts 1892 No reply. BuildingTrades' Usage of workmen by con- 1892 No reply. Committee tractors employed by Salvation Ai-my Painters Painters getting l^d only 1892 Agreed to pay 8(i! and 8i(£. Glaziers Generally complain of piece- masters and middlemen 1892 Several Trades Non-union rate and hours 1893 Suh-contracting . — One at least of the special objects that help to bind trade unionists together in the building trades is brought into prominence by the above enumeration, viz. 152 THE BUILDING T HADES. tlie abolition of the '' sub-contractor/' * On analyzing tlie grievance it is found tbat it has been due^ not to excessive hours or the payment of lower rates of wages, but to certain conditions of employment that it is held tend to accompany the practice of sub-conti'actiug. On the unfortunate use of this word and on the absurdity of the view, that, as a form of employment, it is necessarily harmful, it is needless to enlarge, since in more or less disguised forms it is the necessary aecompaniraent of almost every considerable business undertakinsf. It is when the sub-contractor appears as the " piece-master " or " sweater '' that special exception is taken by the operative builder. The sub- contractor in this sense, owning no plant and supplying no material of his own, has been graphically described in one of our interviews as one " who gets his profits solely out of the blood and sinew of men." What, then, are the dis- advantages urged against this system, which is adopted, not only to save trouble to the main contractor and to enable him to make up his estimates with a more complete knowledge than would otherwise be possible of the expenditure involved, but also, and above all, to secure an effective control of the labour expended ? The following answers are given : that the system leads to undue pressure upon the men employed, tending to substitute a time-task system for a genuine time-wage ; that the consequent rushing of the work not only leads to the exclusion of other men who might otherwise reasonably hope to secure employment, but also to the scamping of the work, and, in some cases, to hasty preparation of the materials used, and to adulteration, when greater speed in working is thereby secured. The shifting of the main contractor's responsibility in case of accident is also a serious source of complaint, it being urged that the sub-contractors are often "men of straw,'* * In the plastering trade it is to be noted that this has been a particularly frequent source of complaint. ORGANIZATION^ ETC. 153 who •would be unable to meet the extra liabilities that a mishap might at any time tend to throw upon them. If the sub-contractor^ however^ is a man owning his own plant and supplying materials as well as employing labour, his participation in a contract does not become a source of complaint. It is the abuse of the system of sub-contracting to which objection is taken, an abuse by which the " piece- master " tends to convert labour into toil, and to prevent the execution of good work. Hostility to the system has often been undiscriminating, but the instinct of the men has been sound, and the general recognition of the justice of their position by most public authorities, as well as the disclosures of the House of Lords' Inquiry into the Sweating System, go far to justify the action they have taken. But the elimination of the sub- contractor, in the sense of the piece-master who employs labour only, while it removes the sweater, must also displace some whose position in the trade was open to no objection. The removal of such men means economic loss, and in their own interests, as well as those of the trade as a whole, it is important that the operatives should make it their business to see that, having freed themselves from the piece-master, and in some other ways from, the efi'ective direction of their labour, they do not unduly free them- selves from a control necessary for the general advantage. There are, in fact, certain dangers in the adoption of a general time-rate in connection with strongly organized bodies of men, and there are many complaints of the ineffectiveness of much of the labour in the London building trades of to-day. There is nothing that a good workman resents more than a nagging foreman or the pressing sweater. To a great extent the London operative builder has, by his own force of combination, freed himself from these evils, and has by so doing shifted the responsi- bility on to his own shoulders for the amount of work that 154 THE BUILDING TRADES. is put into the ciay; and there is mncli to sliow that the responsibility, resting "where it now does, is evaded by many. If this responsibility is not emphasized, and, if need be, met by the authority of the leaders, friction will inevitably result. The attempted re-introduction of some modified form of piece-work will follow, and mean- while the increased cost of building will tend to check demand and curtail the field of employment. The argu- ment also seems not without weight, that the increased expensiveness of good building, due to the aggravated cost of labour, often gives the jerry-builder his chance. The unscrupulous employer is thus enabled to secure a place in the building market of the metropolis that would be closed to him if building operations, carried out under fair and desirable conditions, were not made more than proportion- ately costly through the interpretation put by many opera- tives upon the meaning of the words — difficult to define and make exact in their application, but none the less with a real significance^ — " a fair day's work for a fair day's pay." Overlajyjnng and non-union labour. — The tables printed on pp. 148-51 illustrate, as we have seen, the prominence given to the question of sub-contracting during the period to which the particulars refer. A certain change in the points agitating the trade union world is noticeable in more recent times, as is indicated in the following short list of disputes mentioned in the Quarterly Circular of the London Building Trades' Federation, December, 1894 : — ORGANIZATIOX, ETC. 155 Trade. Xature of Dispute. Settlement. Plasterers. Bricklayers. Carpenters and Joiners. Bricklayers. Carpenters and Joiners. Carpenters and Joiners. Bricklayers. Bricklayers. Carpenters and Bricklayers. Introduction of free labour. jFree labourers removed. Ditto. Not settled. Departure from Agreement Agreement conformed to. of 1892. I Slaters and tilers employed Plasterer removed, and an to do bricklayers'work, and agreement (nature of which the introduction of a is not indicated) arrived at. "black" plasterer. I Introduction of piece-vrork. Piece-work discontinued. of free Free labourers removed. Introduction labourers. j Slater and tilers employed " Owing to cessation of work, to do roof-tihng. | pickets withdrawn." Introduction of piece-work " The completion of work pointers. I prevented satisfactory set- I tlement." Introduction of free labourers Although the free-labour car- and piece-work. penters "were speedily cleared, the firm subse- quently discharged union bricklayers and engaged piece-work pointers and tilers and free-labour brick- layers." The two sources of misunderstanding- emphasized here are — (1) Disputes arising from overlapping, i.e. from uncertainty as to the proper sphei'e of certain allied branches of the trade; and (2) The disputes arising from one aspect of the non-union labour question. The former question opens up an interesting and important subject^ and a full presentment of the points raised would require a history of the trades between which misunderstanding has arisen, and an attempt to discover by historical analysis the rights and wrongs of the claims advanced. The following are among the spheres of work of which the apportionment remains in some doubt, and which, therefore, are liable to lead to friction. The fixing of some terra-cotta work is apt to be claimed both by masons and bricklayers ; and there are also instances of dispute as to which class of men should fix such portions of work as the stone sills of windows when lo6 THE BUILDING TRADES. the total amount of masonry on the building is small. In some provincial towns there is a local agreement on these points. Among bricklayers we find doubt as to the propriety of the plasterers' claim to do some of the inside tiling, and a rough working arrangement has been arrived at by which bricklayers deal with those tiles which are fixed in con- nection with brick-work, and the work is otherwise left to the specialist tile- fixer or the plasterer. There is also an important dispute between the roof-tilers and the bricklayers, and on its merits many and divergent opinions are expressed. The dispute is doubtless ac- centuated by the fact that the tilers work for a longer day than that recognized by the Agreement ; undertake a good deal of piece-work; and allow labourers to do some of the easier parts of the work. But although the bricklayers resent and object to all these practices they advance their claim as a matter of right, and the ultimate settlement of the dispute will doubtless turn upon the extent to which roof-tiling offers a sufficient field, both as regards the process and the extent of the demand in London, for the acquirement of special technical skill, and thus for the increased economy secured by employing those who confine themselves to this particular kind of work."^ The objection of the bricklayer to the specialized '^pointer'' has been already mentioned. The carpenters and joiners have their long-standing dispute with the shipwrights. During the last few years, * There seems to be a general consensus of opinion that bricklayers as a rule cannot do tiling as quickly as tilers themselves, but that the work is easily learnt. For instance, one bricklayer tells us, that " not one in a hundred bricklayers can do tiling properly, but it is quickly learned ; " and another, holding the opinion that tiling " is the cream of our work, brick- laying being the heavier i^art," adds that 50 per cent, of the bricklayers can do it, " although their hand is not so well in as those who specialize on it." Slaters and tilers are generally employed by the slate and tile merchant, who sometimes supplies at so much per square foot for materials only, but more often at a price that includes the putting on. When the contract is of this nature, he sends his own men, and these would rarely, if ever, be bricklayers. ORGANIZATION, ETC. 167 while the iron-work ia sliip-building has tended steadily to increase^ shipwrights have been driven to cast about for a wider field of employment. They tend thus to encroach upon the domain of the carpenter, and collision has resulted; the latter resisting the demand put forward by the ship- wrights to work all above li-inch timber, and holding that the proper limit should be 2 inches. The issue of the dispute is doubtful, and some of the longest heads in the trades concerned look to amalgamation as the best method of solving the present differences. The same solution, it may be noted, is advocated by many as regards bricklayers and tilers, the admission of slaters and tilers to the Brick- layers' Union, and the amalgamation of the existing Slaters and Tilers' Union, being advocated by them. The joiners and the cabinet-makers also occasionally come into conflict. The trade union rates differ, that of the cabinet-makers being 8h,d an hour, or a penny less than that of the joiner. It is true that most West London firms, employing cabinet-makers, pay 9-J-(rZ,but these men are willing to work longer hours than those laid down by the Agreement of 1892, and thus, although rates of pay may correspond, the different length of the working day remains as a difficulty. In the fittings, also, of electric-lighting, the not infrequent employment of handy men or of specialists, is resented by the fully-skilled carpenter. The claim of the plasterers to the work of the lathers, a class of men who hold their own by the great knack that constant practice in a single branch secures them, and the ill-concealed objection of the same class to the fibrous, or slab-plaster workers, have already been mentioned. The plumbers and fitters have many knotty questions to settle ; and the complaint of the marble masons, that plumbers in some cases fix the slabs in sanitary jobs, is a further instance of the problem of overlapping. The points at issue between the plumber and fitter are emphasized by the fact that the latter receives a penny per hour less than the plumber, and that there is a constant 158 THE BUILDING TRADES. inducement therefore to employers to favour the fitter when there is any disputed piece of work to be alloted. The Avell-known difiiculty arising from the use of the tools of the skilled man by labourers must again be men- tioned here. Most of the trade unions of skilled men rule against the practice, and in their reports, especially as regards provincial work, the point is constantly arising, shops being put on the '^ black ^^ list because of the- employment of labourers to do skilled work. In London the practice is becoming much less common, the position of the various sections being far more sharply differentiated, and the position of the labourers being, largely through the instrumentality of their trade unions, more definitely recognized. It is also important to remember that, although the skilled man resents the employment of the labourer on skilled work, the fact that the latter is con- stantly qualifying for admission to the ranks of the skilled man is frankly recognized and accepted. The condition made, however, is that when working in the superior capacity he should earn the full rate of pay. It is also stated that the passage of the labourer to the ranks of the skilled trade is much less common now than of old, a feature which seems to be the natural sequel to the improved status of the former class. One safeguard against friction arising from overlapping will always be found when the trades concerned are carried on under conditions {e.g. as regards piecc-w^ork, sub-letting', &c.) that commend themselves generally to the opinion and to the practice of the whole group. But' even if there be this safeguard — invention, business initiative, and the pressure of competition will tend to change the scope of trades, and margins of doubtful territory will probably always exist. The possibility of change, therefore, must bo always recognized, and trades, as well as characters, arc liable to a continuous development or deterioration. The unintelligent demand, therefore, for the retention of privileges claimed at any given time will always be liable- ORGANIZATION, ETC. 159 to hasten^ or even to create^ a tendency towards tlie substitution of one product or process for another, and the result may be to weaken rather than strengthen the trade whose position it is sought to defend."^ In many trades, indeed, there is no great fixity of tenui'e, and no compensation for disturbance can be claimed, nor any resistance be successfully made for long, to displacement due to underlying economic forces. It is not within our province to decide on the rights and wrongs of the claims put forward on behalf of particular trades. Bat we may emphasize the need of constantly varying adaptations, and the wisdom and expediency of a trade policy that shall have far wider and more elastic aims than the retention of a sphere of work recognized at any given time. If it is to hold its own and command respect, a trade policy must be comprehensive, not selfish or exclusive; for Id must be remembered that in trades, as well as in the realms of Arthurian legend, "the old order chaugeth," and that, sometimes, it is necessary to give place with boldness and without delay to newer forms. The second source of dispute, to which the above table calls attention, is "the introduction of ' free labour,^ '' and it is necessary to understand the meaning of the phrase. That it is not simply non-unionist labour is made clear by the recollection that during the carpeutei's' and joiners' strike in 1891, non-unionists stood out with the union men ; that a special strike fund was organized on their behalf; and that they were subsequently represented in the negotia- tions with the employers. The " free labourer " is, it is true, a non-unionist, but is scarcely to be described by a mere negative when he places himself at the disposal of a society hostile to trades unionism; and strenuous resistance by the older organizations to this form of attack is inevitable. * Thus, in the case of one contractor, whose bricklayers struck against thn employment of tilers for roof-work, slates were used instead of tiles, and independence of the bricklayers was still further secured by the use of concrete instead of brick in party walls. IGO THE BUILDING TRADES. The formation of au association of free labourers may, however, prove beneficial. It may, for instance, remind trades unionists of their duties and responsibilities as participators in a great movement, and it should make all, rank and file as well as leaders, be careful to see that the charge of '^tyranny" has no foundation in fact. At the present time it is, undoubtedly, in many shops, practically impossible for a non-society man to obtain work, or, if he obtain it, to remain outside the union of his trade. But there is no general adoption of a policy which prohibits society men from working with those outside. The former are, indeed, not strong enough to take such a stand, and, even if they were, the best leaders recognize that compulsory membership is a source of danger leading to weakness rather than to strength. In a considerable number of cases it is doubtless true that members of some trades have raised difficulties about working with non-unionists as such, but although in many cases their action has been successful, owing to the worry and possible loss involved in resisting it, it is doubtful whether the executives of any society would call their men out simply because non-unionists were employed. We may hope that the " free " labour question may be settled by other means than conflict ; or that, if conflict be inevitable, the pi'inciple of trade unionism may be purified and strengthened, and not weakened in the struggle. One of the great services that the unions have still to render to society, in addition to forming a necessary part of future schemes for industrial arbitration and conciliation, is the clearer demarcation of that less competent class among whom the " unemployed " will, save in times of exceptional distress, nearly always be found. It is of the first importance that existing organiza- tions should grow, even on this ground alone. By their steady expansion and wise generalship, the service they can render in the future to the community at large may rival that which they already render to their own members. CHAPTER V. ABUSES— SOCIAL CONDITION. Abuses. Many of the foregoing pages have iUustrated the com- plexity of the conditions under which the building trades are carried on. A system of contracts involving, as it often does, the co-operation of many classes of men, the use of a hundred products, and the execution of a hundred tasks, is diflBcult to check in every detail, and, in one form or another, abuses tend to creep in. The following points may be more especially mentioned: — (1.) In the placing of specifications for tenders, builders may be asked to estimate for work which they are not anxious to secure, but for which they do not like to refuse to send in a price. In the case of a City hotel, for instance, a few years back, thirteen firms were asked to give estimates, and of these no fewer than eleven sent m a " compliment- ary " tender, two only being left in genuine competition. Frequently, however, there is an excessive stress of competition, and this again leads to tenders being made up on an unsatisfactory basis. The expense of materials can be calculated to within about 2\ per cent, of actual cost and, when competition is keen, the margin of profit on these can be safely reduced to a minimum. But the cost of labour is comparatively an unknown quantity, and thus VOL. V. 11 1G2 THE BUILDING TEADES. becomes the recognized field in ^yllicll good management may seek to find its profit. "^>' The difficulty of squeezing labour, and the need of squeezing something, thus tend to lead to those forms of abuse that are found in sub-letting under bad conditions, and the difiiculty of securing a fair profit on materials tempts to the substitution of inferior stuff. (2.) The use of "extras": A low-profit contract is not unfrequently taken, on the assumption that there are sure to be extras, and that these will be available to make up all deficiencies. They are, indeed, the last resource of the builder, difficult to check; and, from the client's point of * The pi-oportion of the cost of labour to the cost of materials will vary- somewhat according to the nature of the job, but roughly it stands at something over one-third of the total, excluding wages paid for superinten- dence. The proportional expense of labour, as already indicated, is tending to increase. The following table of approximate proportional costs is given in Laxton's " Builders' Price Book " : — Trade. Approximate Proportion of Material. Approximate Froportion of Labour. Drainage Work Bricklayer Mason Carpenter Joiner Plasterer Plumber Painter 66f per cent. 664 >. 33i „ 66 J „ SH n 50 „ 75 „ 40 „ 33^ per 3B\ „ 66g „ 33^ „ 66§ „ 50 „ 25 „ 60 „ cent. In estimates for the prime cost of a rod of brick-work for 1878 and 1893 the total was £12. 17s 6d in the former, and £12. 3s in the latter year. But, while the prices allowed for materials had diminished, the price allowed for the labour had increased from £2. 10s to £3. 5s, or 30 per cent. For carpentering and joinery the increase in the cost of labour is estimated at 20 per cent. ; for masons' work at 28 per cent. ; plastering, 33 per cent. , and for internal plumbing nearly 30 per cent, in the same period. The prices for most materials, including bricks, are too fluctuating to bo usefully compared. ABUSES— SOCIAL CONDITION. 1G3 vieWj a dangerously elastic item^ needing the careful re- vision of a responsible architect. The practice of passing exorbitant charges for extras is not unknown. (3.) The abuse of the certificate system : The general practice of granting certificates enables a class of contractors to enter into competition who have little capital and less responsibility. The presence of these men — often not practical builders at all^ though generally capable men of bitsiness — tends to intensify all the es^ils arising from sub- letting and the pressure of cutting down due to excessive competition. As a class^ these contractors are most often found in the suburban speculative trade. It is stated that second-rate architects sometimes grant certificates before work has been executed. (4.) The responsible and difficult position of the clerk of the works has been already mentioned. Failure to fill it properly may be due either to neglect or collusion, but it is clear that strong temptations will sometimes be offered to induce the representatives of the client to pass inferior qualities, or to alloAV the use of materials other than those specified. (5.) The deceitfulness of a showy outside ; Many of the showy specialities of to-day in the building, as well as ia other trades, conceal commodities that are ''cheap and nasty ;" and electric bells, a bath-room, an ornate frontage, or a gaily-tiled entrance, often mask a multitude of defects in the essentials of a substantial and sanitary dwelling. (6.) As regards the use of bad materials, instances are to be found in the mixing of bad mortar that will neither harden nor hold fast, and of rubbish in filling up the foundations ; in the use of unseasoned and defective timber, concealed, perhaps, by paint ; and in the adulteration of paint by, for instance, the use of parafiin or Russian mineral turpentine, in place of the proper commodity, or of boiled oil and turpentine for pure varnish ; or, again, in the use of thinner glass than had been specified. VOL. V. 11 "^ 164 THE BUILDIXG TRADES. (7.) As regards workmansbip, we liave the bricklayer leaving joints improperly filled in, the painter putting on two coats when three have been ordered and will be paid for ; and the general temptation to hurry over and badly execute work that is least open to inspection, or that is perhaps entirely concealed. Many a small suburban workman's cottage, with perhaps a charming exterior, contains not a few of the evils con- sequent on the employment of bad workmanship and the use of bad material, with drainage defective, the plaster '^ faked," timber half-seasoned, and the mortar half mould. One of the worst features revealed by this inquiry has, indeed, been the assumption made by so many that although it was dijBScult in any case to be sure of the execution of good work, much of the cottage building of the suburbs must necessarily be carried on under the worst of all conditions : that there, if anywhere, work was sure to be scamped and materials sure to be inferior. The re-action, not only upon the skill, but upon the morale of the trade, of wdrk executed under such conditions as the foregoing, needs no emphasis. Such evils as have been cited need for their cure, on the one hand, the utmost caution of the public, and, on the other, the resistance of all the responsible members of the trade, both professional men, employers, and operatives, who are concerned for its corporate character. It has been necessary to refer to these matters because no picture of the trade would be complete that did not indicate the presence of such blots upon the face of a great industry. But the enumeration of particular defects must not lead our readers to a hasty generalization. It would be as unwise and unfair to indict a trade as it is foolish " to indict a nation." ABUSES— SOCIAL CONDITIONS. 165 Health. The employment cannot be regarded as an unhealthy or a dangerous one^ though plumbers and painters run some risk of lead-poisoningj and all who work on the buildings are liable, from exposure to the weather, to those chills and ills to which rheumatic flesh is heir. As regards dangerous- ness, the steeple jack is the only member whose calling is really hazardous. The scaffolder, the hoisfcer, and the roof worker need steady heads, but, given these, their risks are not great. Social Condition. A comparison may now be made between the wages earned as shown by the statistics given in Chapter III., and the style of life as indicated by the number of rooms occupied. Taking the building trades as a whole, the figures are as follows : — "^ Gomparison between Earnings and Style of Life {Building Trades). Earnings ab returned. Classification of Population. Under 20s.. 104, 20s to 2os.. 418 25s „ 30S..1488 30s „ 35s.. 575 35s „ 40S..1454 40s „ 45s.. 807 45s and over 220 Dr 2i per cent. . 8 „ , 29^ „ , 11 „ , 29 „ , 16 „ > 4 ,, 100 „ 3 or more in each roon 2 to 3 1 „ 2 Less than 1 „ ^ More than 4 rooms 1 4 or more persons ] to 1 servant j Employers' families and servants 1,66,750, or 18percent. 102,400 „ 27 „ 108,250 „ 29 „ 98,000 „ 26 „ 5066 375,400 ,,100 „ 38,259 413,659 * In this comparison, and in the similar comparisons made for each section, and in every trade in turn, a deduction has been made for the 1G6 THE UUILDIXG TRADES. Tlic 10 per cent, earning less than 25.s compare with. 18 per cent, living in crowded conditions. The 29 ^ per cent, earning from 25,9 to 30s compare with 27 per cent, living with not less than two nor more than three persons in each room; and in this category must be inchided the 11 per cent, earning less than 356', as irregularity of work may be supposed to drag down a proportion from each division. ThuSj in total, we have 51 per cent, whose earnings are given as less than 356', as compared to 45 per cent, who live not less thnn two persons in each room. These include all the labourers, and the less well paid among the artisans. The great mass of artisan labour in these trades, however, receives at least 35s. The table shows 29 per cent, earning 35s to 40s, comparing exactly with those families who have one to two persons to each room, and above that level there are 20 per cent, as compared to the 20 per cent, of the population concerned who occupy more than four rooms to each family, that is, have a house to themselves, or, if living in fewer rooms, occupy more rooms than there are persons in the family, or, finally, are included in those who employ a single servant for not less than four persons. Similar comparisons mny be made for each section, and the materials for doing so are provided in the appendix, but the divided numbers are too small to make the results of any great value. Even w^hen all are added together the total numbers as to whom our wages statistics speak are too few, compared to the w^hole number engaged in the trade, to provide more than an indication of or approxima- tion to the truth. families of employers based on the assumption that they will live in better style than those they employ. In trades which include any large proportion of female heads of families a similar deduction has been made, but with the opposite assumption, viz. that these will on the whole live in a poorer way than the families which have a male head. The families of men returned as neither employer nor employed are, unless otherwise mentioned, treated as being on the same level as the employed. ABUSES— SOCIAL CONDITION. 1G7 With reference to customs there is little that need be written. Meals are much more often than formerly taken on the job or in the shop, as, since the Agreement of 1892 (see Rule 8), better provision, both for warming and cooking food, has been made for the convenience of the operatives. Food is rarely eaten before leaving home in the morning, although some may take a cup of cocoa or other warm drink before starting. A commoner practice is to have something on the road, the something often being a cup of coffee, or a glass of rum and milk. Food and tea, or the means of making it, are nearly always taken from the home, to be eaten in some corner of the workshop or of the building upon which they are engaged — for breakfast, bread and butter, with, perhaps, bacon ; for dinner, bread again and cold meat, and some- times pudding and vegetables. Beer, if wanted, would be sent for, and many, probably about half for dinner, and a smaller proportion for breakfast, would take their meals at a coffee-shop or public-house, if one is to be found in the neighbourhood of their work.* Breakfast and dinner are the only meals taken in the shop or on the job, and if cooking of any kind has to be done, either boys or a labourer would be told off to assist in making the necessary preparations. Tea or supper are home meals. As regards character, there is testimony to improvement on almost every hand. Among some sections there is still much drinking, but there is a consensus of opinion that temperance, especially among the younger men, is making rapid strides. The scattering of the men to their homes, instead of an adjournment to a neighbouring public-house after pay-time, is mentioned as illustrating this, and the way in which the carpenters and joiners managed to keep their heads above water during the six months^ strike in 1891 is cited as a further proof. But though, on the whole (for two * In a book of accounts kept for us by a plasterer's labourer, 7d is a daily entry, from Monday to Friday, for " husband's dinner." 1C8 THE BUILDING TBADES. or three trades arc mentioned as exceptions), the fore- thought, intelligence, and temperance of the members of this group are steadily increasing, it is said that betting and gambling are becoming in this, as in other trades, more common practices. It is to be hoped that the more subtle virus of this pleasure will not so spread as to counteract the advances made in other directions. Otherwise the future makes for improvement. Better education, greater facilities for rational enjoyment, increas- ing political power, and the responsibility for the manage- ment of their own organizations, must all exercise a beneficial influence. The day of simple industrial forms has passed, and great firms_, highly specialized skill, and sharply differentiated groups, are the dominant characteristics of the trade to-day. But though forms have changed since the days when the craftsmen, with patient persistence, worked at one long task for years, the great responsibilities of the trade are the same. It still gives us our homes, our public buildings, our churches, and our schools, and a justifiable pride will perhaps, some day, in spite of the friction and misunderstandng and sharp practices of the moment, again fill the hearts of those who have made, and still must make for us our cities. [Mr. Aves desires to acknowledge the assistance rendered to him by Mr. Percival B. Allen in collecting informa- tion concerning the Building Trades.] ADDEXDUM. 169 WoEKixG Rules for the Building Trades of London. Wor.KixG Rules for all Trades except Pluhbers. 1. That tlie working hours in summer shall be fifty per week. 2. That during fourteen weeks of winter, commencing on the first Monday in November, the time shall be worked for the first three weeks eight and a half hours per day ; during the eight middle weeks eight hours per day ; and the three following weeks eight and a half hours per day. 3. That the present rate of wages for skilled mechanics and labourers shall be advanced one halfpenny per hour. 4. That overtime when worked at the request of employers, but not otherwise, shall be paid at the following rates, namely : — From leaving off time until 8 p.m., time and a quarter ; from 8 p.m. to 10 p.m., time and a half ; after 10 p.m., double time. No overtime shall be reckoned until each full day has been made, except where time is lost by stress of weather. On Saturdays the pay for overtime, from noon to 4 p.m., shall be time and a half; and after 4 p.m., and on Sundays, double time. Christmas Day and Good Friday shall be paid for the same as Sundays. 5. That employers shall give one hour's notice or pay one hour's time, on determining an engagement. All wages due shall be paid at the expiration of such notice, or walking time if sent to yard. (5. That men who ai-e sent from the shop or job, including those engaged in London, and sent to the country, shall be allowed as expenses Gd per day for any distance over six miles from the shop or job ; exclusive of travelling expenses, time occupied in travelling, and lodging money. 7. That payment of wages shall commence at noon, or as soon there- after as practicable, on Saturdays, and be paid on the job. But if otherwise arranged, walking time at the rate of three miles per hour shall be allowed to get to the pay-table at 12 noon. 8. That employers shall provide, where practicable and reasonable, a suitable place for the workmen to have their meals on the works, with a labourer to assist in preparing them. 9. That wages earned after leaving-off time on Fridays and Saturdays only shall be kept in hand as back time. 10. That the term "London district" shall mean twelve miles radius from Charing Cross. 11. That six months' notice, on either side, shall terminate the fore- 170 THE BUILDING TRADES. going rules, to expire on the 1st of May. The foregoing rules shall come into force on the first Monday in November, 1892, but the increase of pay to bricklayers shall commence from the first week in July. Working Houes fok all Trades except Plt-jibers. For Fourteen Winter Weehn. For three weeks commencing the first Monday in November. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon, 12.30 P.M. to 4.30 P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to forty-seven hours per week. For the next eight weeks. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon, 12.30 P.M. to 4 P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to forty-four hours and a half per week. For the following three weeks. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon, 12.30 P.M. to 4.30 P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a. jr., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to forty-seven hours per week. For Thirty -eight Sunnner Weeks. First five days of each week, G.30 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon, 1 p.m. to 5 P.M. Saturdays, 6.30 a.m. to 8 a.m. ; 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to fifty hours per week. Masons and joiners in shops to have one hour for dinner all the year round, and work half an hour later than the time specified for the winter months, thus making the same number of hours as worked outside on jobs, namely as laid down in Rule 2. arpenters and joiners who are in receipt of full wages, and who have been employed for two hours less than the hours mentioned above, shall on discharge receive one hour's notice, to be occupied, so far as practicable, in grinding tools, with one hour's pay in addition. Working Eules for Plumbers. 1. That the working hour.s in summer shall be forty-seven hours per week. 2. That during fourteen weeks of winter, commencing on the first Monday in November, the time shall be, for the first and last three weeks, forty-four ADDENDUM. 171 and a half hours, during the eight middle weeks forty-two hours per weelc ia all cases where the other trades cease work at 4 p.m. 3. That the present rate of wages for skilled plumbers shall be advanced one halfpenny per hour from the first Monday in November 1892. 4. Payment for overtime and all other rules to remain in force as at present. WoRxixG Hours, &e., for Pluiibers. For Fottrteen IVinter Weels. For three weeks commencing the first Monday in November. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon, 1 p.m. to 4.30 P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to fovty-four and a half hours per week. For the next eight weeks. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.80 a.m. to 12 noon, 1 p.m. to 4 P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to forty-two hours per week. For the following three weeks. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon, 1 p.m. to 4.30 P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to forty-four and a half hours per week. For Thirty-eight Summer Weeks. First five days of each week, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m to 12 noon, 1 p.m. to O P.M. Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon. Equal to forty-seven hours per week. Overtime. — Plumbers being required to work overtime shall receive, from 8 P.M. to 11 P.M. time and a half; from 11 p.m. to 7 a.m. double time. Saturdays, from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. time and a half ; from 5 p.m. to 7 a.m. (Monday) double time. Sundays double time. Any plumber being discharged shall receive one hour's notice. District and Expenses. — For plumbers the term " London District " shall mean six miles radius from Charing Cross ; and any skilled plumber sent to work over four miles from his employer's workshop shall receive all travelling expenses. If sent over eight miles from his employer's workshop he shall be entitled to one shilling per day extra, with the usual allowance for 172 THE BUILDING TFiADES. lodgings, and all travelling expenses. Should there be no accommodation for him to reach his work at 7 a.m., he shall be entitled to one shilling per day, unless he travel in the employer's time and be paid from 7 a.m. All other rules to remain as at present in force. ADDITION TO RULE 5 AGEEED 3kd MAECH, 1893. 5a. Any workman desiring to leave work during the week shall be entitled to receive his money at 5 p.m. as provided for by Eules 5 and 7, subject to his having given the foreman notice before 12 noon. Notwithstanding the above arrangement in the event of more than 10 per cent, of the workmen of each trade employed at the shop or job giving notice to leave during the week they shall not be entitled to receive their money until the usual time on the following Saturday. PAET II-WOOD WOEKEES. WOOD WORKERS. PRELIMINARY STATEMENT. Of workers iu wood — cabinet-makers^ carriage builders, coopers and shipwrights — the census counts 68,075 in all, divided as to age and sex in the following manner : — Persons represented : (A) Census Enumeration. Enumerated by Age and Sex. 10— 10— ■20— 2.-.- 55- 65— Total. Males 1212 254 7867 1666 7755 1186 36,847 3,143 4973 497 2424 245 61,084 6,991 Females Total 1466 9533 8941 39,990 5476 2669 68,075 Of these, 40,168 figures as heads of families, and the whole population included in these families adds up to 176 WOOD WOnKEIiS. 188^537, the average numbers in each family, excluding the servants, being 4*65, as is shown in the following table : — Persons re'presented : [B) Enumeration hy Families. No. Sections. Heads. Total number (pxclucliiig Servants). Per family (excluding Servants. Servants). 10 11 12 13 Cabinet-makers Carriage Builders Coopers and Lath-) renders ) Shipwrights 29,017 0,270 2,571 1,701 137,273 28,845 12,301 8,235 4-04 4-59 4-82 4-83 1420 257 54 62 Total 40,168 180,744 1,793 4-05 1793 Servants Total populatio n 188,537 The 1793 servants attend 7400 persons, and the remain- ing 180,000 persons wait upon themselves or each other. Of the 7400 of the servant-keeping class, 50C0 have only one servant to four or more of those served, 18O0 have one servant with less than four in family, or two servants with more than four, and GOO live in other families with two or more servants. Of the 180,000 without servants, 50,000 occupy more than four rooms per family, or if less than four rooms, have less than one person per room ; 49,000 more live with one and up to two persons in each room. A further almost equal proportion (48,000) live two and under three in each room, about 20,000 three and up to four, and 12,000 four or more per room. ^/ cc Ci w S rs C S ,H -* rH S O^ ^ '^ :-^ h:i a -^ o C Qi 0) uu o ■* S ^ ^ r^ o •^ m a «3 a VOL. V. ^' F^ 12 WOOD WORK Ens. Social condition (by Sections). Sections. i 2i c - B rt CO o 11 c ea 5 5 _. I; O I'll B~k5 5 5^'' iir Less tlitin 4 persons to a servant. Servants. Total. Cabinet-makers Per cent 26,071 19 36,715 26tV 34,519 25 38,122 27J 1846 ! 1420 i 138,693 1 j 1 ! 100 Carriage builders Per cent 3786 13 6913 24 3065 25 8225 28 9558 33 363 ; 257 1 1 29,102 100 Coopers Per cent 1413 11 3722 30 4130 33 61 1 54 1 12,445 J i 100 Shipwrights 1 378 Per cent ! 4i^ 1 " 1457 17^ 2832 34 3500 42 68 ! 62 i 8297 111 100 1 Changes since 1861 in Numbers EMrLOYEi). Cabinet-makers . Carriage builders Coopers Shipwrights ISOl. 45,200 8,100 5,400 8,300 51,400 8,600 5.400 6,200 4(;,200 9,100 5,100 5,300 .-.2,600 9,600 3,600 2,300 Total , 67,000 71,600 I 65,700 68,100 It Avill be seen tliat on tlie wliole the nunibors have remained nearly stationary. A small growth in the cabinet- making and carriage building trades is balanced by a decrease in the two other sections. This decrease, con- siderable enough among the coopers, assumes still more serious proportions amongst the shipwrights, of whom the number counted in 1891 are not much more than one- fourth of those counted in 18G1. (For explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) u- .(10) Cabinet-makers. Diagram showingages of Cabine/-maiter». and of the whole occupied population of ^lu.*^ iiiaii..),^ Whole of occupied in London. ' (See ppiiiarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) A. '^N V \ \ \. \ X^ X i V \, \ > s 1 V. 1 V. \ 1 \ \ \\ 1 \\ 1 \ V 1 ^ 0^. I \\ 1 V 1 \ \, 1 ^\. 1 \\ / V. 1 N s. J 1 ^. J Nn N \ V. \ V sS V )- 15 20 25 30 35 *0 *5 50 60 65 75 80 Vol. V CHAPTER I. CABINET-MAKEES, etc. {Section 10.) Persons Represenfed. Census Enumeration. Fe- ("eiisiis Divisions, "'ales. ISOl. \-^ lAges. (1) Ciibinet-mkr. 40.58 411.5 (2) AVood-earver 901 998 (3) Carver and! Gilder 154 (4) Basket worker 567 -- (5) Cork,Bark,&c.| 1103 1021 (6) Sawyer (7) Funeral fur- nisher ' Males. —19,20—54.55— 20,742 3595 2695 1125 2080 2124 109 742 29.52 540 474 201 320 377 31,867 6,031 .3,918 2,1.38 4,524 3,045 1,086 Total....! 68.33 )7627 33.11)3, .504-9 .52,6ri The number of ffirls and yoiins: women employed is noticeable. Nearly half are nnder 25. The a.ses of the males employed esc -(^ Outer 10,409 ( Central Inner 9,.315 South- (Inner 2,0-t8"| East \ Outer 9,830/ South-/ Inner 8. .586) West (.Outer 7,899/ 49.711 '.1.31.5 n.s7N 1:{8.6!I3 Inner 77,983, or .56 % Outer 60,710, or 44 % Statufi as fo Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Employer. E in ployed Neither. Census Divi.sions (1891). Males. Females of all ages. Total. Male. Female. Under 20. Over 20. Male. Female. (1) Cabinet-maker, upholsterer, &c ^.,-, / Wood-turner and wood-box maker . . 2536 271 120 412 121 55 154 77 288 109 7 14 22 13 25 4115 739 259 .595 245 228 793 544 109 18445 2075 1088 2324 914 513 1270 2375 511 3611 854 18 119 392 204 826 21 2714 345 236 432 291 45 363 49 128 3.38 20 2 21 153 11 47 4 31,867 4311 1723 .3918 (4) Willow, cane, rush, basket worker . . ,.-,/ Cork, bark-cutter, worker '\ Others in wood, cork, bark, &c (6) Sawver 213S 10.58 3«!6 304.5 (7) Funeral furniture maker, undertaker 1086 4034 j 192 7627 29,515 6045 4603 5 596 ..^^ ' 199 52,612 Total 4226 10 (being SJ ma les and 1% f 43,187 emalesor 1 average.) Proportion of Employers to Employed : 1 to VOL. V. 12 ^ 180 WOOD WORKERS. Cabinet-makixg Trades. The trades iucluded in this section find employment for 52^612 persons^ and those of them connected with cabinet- making (including the sawyers) account for no less than 40,946 persons. About 40 per cent, of the cabinet- makers, chairmakers, wood-carvers, and turners live in East London, and the rest are to be found mostly in North London. As regards East London (where so much of this trade is carried on) a full description of these industries has been given in Volume IV. That description applied to 1887, and it will not be necessary now to do more than note some changes which have taken place since that time, to make a comparison between the furniture trade in East London and that of other parts of London, and to add an account of some subsidiary trades which in East London called for no particular mention — such as carvers and gilders, funeral furnishers, basket-makers, cork and bark workers, and box-makers. The furniture ti-ade of East London was, and still is, largely concentrated near Curtain Road, and spreads thence northward and eastward into Hoxton, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green, with a gradually decreasing density as the distance from the centre increases. This trade (readers may remember) was characterized by specialization in the kind and quality of the articles produced, coupled with great complexity in the methods of work, making classification difficult. The establishments varied from the large ware- houses of the dealers and the workshops of the few large employers, through all grades down to the '^garret" of the small man working alone or with only a boy to assist him; and there was no less, though not a strictly parallel, variety in the quality of the article produced. Two general features stood out prominently and were per- ceived to be inter-connccted : (1) the prevalence of the CABINET-:UAKER<^, ETC. 181 small system of manufacture* : (2) a tendency towards concentration of tlie wholesale trade in the hands of a few large firms. The existence of a market in which any finished article can be sold at some price — even late on Saturday to provide Sunday^s dinner, or early on Monday to furnish money for more wood — the competition amongst themselves of small employers, whose numbers are for ever recruited by the ease with which under such conditions a " man " becomes a ''master"; and the necessity, pressing on such men, of finding some sort of a livelihood from week to week ; all these causes taken together have led to highly specialized work, both masters and men employing such skill as they possess, in making as rapidly as possible those articles for which there is a sure sale, even though at prices leaving continually a smaller margin for profit, rather than those from which a larger but less immediate return might be anticipated. The work done on these terms is not only specialized but tends also to be speculative ; made, that is, in anticipation of the demand of the wholesale houses, and thus always at a disadvantage in selling. This state of things we found to be characteristic of the trade. These conditions still exist in East London with little difference. Wages since 1887 have undergone some slight changes which will be noted later. The position of the dealers in Curtain Eoad is stronger rather than weaker. For though an increasing number of buyers attempt to evade the "middle man" by going direct to the makers, still the small makers (at all events those of them who cannot polish their work, or supply marble and glass, and undertake the packing and dispatch of the goods) are necessarily dependent on the dealer. * Even in saw-mills, where the trade is apparently on a large scale, the floors of the work-room will often be sub-divided and occupied by small masters working on their own account, employing a few men, and paying rent for bench room and the use of power. 182 WOOD WOEKEnS. In tlie West End trade the employers have a staff of men capable of producing the best articles in whatever form Avill suit the tastes of their customers, and the bulk of the work is done to order. Midway between the East End and "West End systems^, and combining some features of each, are what are termed trade or piece masters' shops. The district adjoining Tottenham Court Road is the chief seat of this class of establishment. In such shops the materials and workmanship may be as good as any, but as they find their market with the dealers and in the provinces, cheap production is essential. The furniture is made in quantities with sub-division of labour — skilled men being employed for the more difficult parts only, learners and improvers doing the rest. Each of these three systems has its own method of remuneration. In the East End piece-work prevails^ while in the piece masters' shops the men are paid by the hour. In the West End we find payment by the piece usual for the work done in the shop, but if men are sent out they are always paid by time. Some firms pay for everything by the hour. It must not be supposed that the localization of any variety of a trade is strictly defined, or that all in any district conform to the prevailing* type — or, indeed, that the types do not shade off from one extreme to another. There is, however, a general gradation from East to West ; so that travelling westward an observer can trace a continual rise in the character of the finished article and, jiarallel with this, in the well-being of the workman. As an exception to this rule, however, some of the large furniture factories in Finsbury might be instanced, where the men are as highly skilled and as well paid as in any of the West End houses. The importance of the West End shops in the ti-adc has been declining for some years, and there are few, if any, employing more than fifty men even when busy. The men working in these shops are the pick of the trade. The work CABINET-MAKERS, ETC. 18? is SO varied that two articles are seldom made alike, and cacli workman must be able to carry a job right through, working to a pattern or drawing", and, it may be, at the same time introducing some modification that is required. The work is always supposed to be entirely done by hand, but the influence of the more rapid methods of machinery begins to make itself felt. The piece masters^ shops are mostly of medium size, and one where more than twenty men are employed is reckoned large. This number of men would include carvers, fret- cutters and polishers. The employer is always himself a practical workman, and more often than not has learnt his trade out of London, in Scotland or in the Provinces. Most shops have some special article which they manufac- ture in considerable quantities ; one will make overmantels and cabinets; another, some particular kind of table; whilst a third maj'- specialize in clock cases. As soon as any new style is copied and becomes common some alteration must be made. It is only by specialization and the frequent production of novelties (or their prompt imitation), that a place can be maintained in the competition. It is said that the extension of the trade of these shops has diminished the power of the dealer. They become widely known in connection with their speciality, and increasingly receive direct orders. In the larger shops of this type there is a great deal of machinery ; circular, band and fret saws are extensively used, as well as other forms of machinery enabling the workman to cut and repeat patterns of the highest degree of intricacy. Wages in West Eud shops are 9d to l.s- per houi', most of the men receiving the lower figure. Piece jarices are agreed upon between masters and men. At one time prices were fixed for each part of an article and a copy of a price book on this system, dated 1788, is still in existence; but probably the work became too complicated for this method, and now the price is fixed for each complete article 184 WOOD WORKERS. and a fresh bargain continually made. In many firms there is a shop committee to act for the men in this matter. In the piece masters' shops, good workmen may receive 9d, and a few get lOd, but the larger number are paid 8d an hour. No definite task is fixed, but a man's work is watched closely, and if the output be not up to the employer's standard, dismissal will follow. On first engage- ment a man would state what rate of pa}^ he wanted, and a test job would decide whether he was worth the price he asked. In some of the shops of all grades what is called the '' lump work "* system prevails. Under this plan the earn- ings in particular weeks would be greater than that of time workers, but the average, one week with another, would be no higher, if so high. The earnings of first-class cabinet- makers in these shops, whether paid by time or not, may be reckoned at from 40^' to 47s a week in full work, and those of ordinary men average from 30s to 36s. There are also under each ]uece master a number of apprentices and improvers, apprentices earning from 5s to 12s 6d a week, and improvers from 18s to 20s. The proportion of such young men is often large. In one shop employing seven journeymen there were two apprentices and one improver ; in another with only five men there were three apprentices and two improvers. Earnings in the West End and Tottenham Court Road districts are more regular than in the East, and, with the exception of the improvers in the piece masters' shops, higher also. The hours of work vary from fifty- two to fifty-six per week, fifty-two and half or fifty-four hours being the most usual. Work commences at 8 or 9 o'clock, ten minutes is allowed for lunch at about 10,30,- one hour for dinner and * Originally the term " lump work " was applied to large jobs, such as wardrobes, which were given to a number of men at a fixed price ; these men working together and sharing the proceeds. Now it is often used more loosely for all iiiecc-work in which the price is fixed for the finished article. CABINET-:\IAKERS, ETC. 185 half-an-liour for tea^ work ceasing at 7 or 8 p.m.;, and on Saturdays at 1 o'clock. Some sliops start earlier (7 a.m.) and stop lialf-an-hour for breakfast, but employers are finding it better not to begin till after breakfast. Mucli work is not done before tbe morning meal, and, on the wliole, as mncb is done in less time by starting at the later hour, with the result of a saving in incidental expenses. Methods of learning. — Excepting in the piece masters' shops there are few apprentices. These shops are the chief training ground for London, as, in addition to apprentices and improvers, they find work for many men who, coming from the provinces or Scotland, need to gain a few years' experience of London ways before they are fit to take up responsible work. These men become the best workmen in the trade. Boys also assist relatives employed on piece- work, and thus acquire a knowledge of the trade. French Polishers. Largely as a result of their own efforts, the position of these men has been considerably improved since 1887. Their trade organization has been strengthened by an amalgamation of local unions, and the percentage of unionists is now greater in this than in any other branch of the cabinet-making trade. In nearly all the West End shops the men employed at this work are unionists, and it is difficult for a non-unionist to obtain work in them. The minimum wage has been raised from 7d to 8d per hour, and overtime rates have been increased : for the first two hours, time and a quarter is charged; for the next two hours, time and a half; and for any time over four hours double rates are obtained. The working hours are usually fifty-five and a half, but are reduced to fifty-two and a half, in harmony with Building Federation rules, if the work is done for building firms — as ia shop and office fittings. Very few men are paid above the minimum rate (8(?), and outside of the union 7d per hour is more 186 IVOOD WORKERS. usual. From this rate tlierc is a descending scale to the low wages of improvers and boys. Thus in one small shop there Avere two men at 7\d per hour^ one at 5^'?, and two improvers earning respectively ll.s- and 9s a week. Good workmen when fully employed will make from 32.*? to 37s a week, Lut much time is lost in some instances through seasonal variations in the amount of work offering. The best hands have as usual the most regular work. One man working for a well-known firm stated that he had not lost any time during two years, and in all twelve men had perfectly steady work. The irregularity falls to the lot of the extra men employed at busy times, when double the regular working staff is not unfrequently needed. Other men seen had lost two months, and another as much as five months out of the year, and six or seven weeks out of work would not be unusual. In a cabinet-maker's shop where the polishing was done by contract, the man who under- took the work would when busy employ two or three assistants, but when slack would work single-handed. Thus he might perhaps work longest and hardest in the oft' season, with the result that the entire disadvantage of irregularity would fall on those he employed. The unions do not object to this system of contract, and two of them admit employers as members, thus providing for men under- taking work in this way, Avho must be considered as employers rather than employed. It is said that higher wages are to be had from these workmen-masters than from employers avIio do not contract. It is probable that in return rather harder work is done. Glass Bevelling. Mirror-making is a portion of the cabinet-maker's trade, and glass-bevelling is one of the operations involved. Besides '^ bevelling" (a term which is pretty well under- stood as the taking of an edge or upper corner off the face CABINET-3IAKERS, ETC. 187 of tlie glass) the work consists of '*■ cutting," '^siding/' "silvering," and "'fitting" ; all distinct brandies of work, but so generally carried on in tlie same factory that the men employed in these various ways have been definitely included in one uuion. Bevelling itself is not the most agreeable work, being cold as well as wet. A beveller holds the glass and presses its edge first against an iron grinding mill or wheel, upon which a mixture of sand and water constantly plays, and then against a revolving stone upon which water trickles. This removes the roughness left by the first process. The final polish is given by another wheel of Avood, covered with polishing material. The difficulty lies in grinding ihe edge exactly even from end to end of the sheet of glass. The broader the bevel, the greater the skill required. There are two classes of bevellers : — Ist, Shape workers, being those who follow curves and other elaborate shapes with their bevelling. They are the most highly skilled, and working on time make lOd to l^-, or even more, per hour, and average from 425 to 456- per Aveek throughout the year. 2nd, Straight workers, whose task is much simpler, being confined, as the name implies, to plain edges. Payment is by the foot, at prices agreed upon between the union and employers, ranging from l^d to Is 10|r?per foot, according to the depth and breadth of the bevel, for a " ten foot run," i.e. for up to ten feet of bevel measured on the sides of one piece of glass. When the length of bevel measured in this way exceeds ten feet, the charge is increased hd per foot. The wages of straight workers average about 366' per week. Before the glass comes to be bevelled it goes through the hands of the cutter, who makes it of the required size and shape, and after it has been bevelled it passes to the " sider,^' who cleans up the plates and prepares them for silvering. It used also to be the duty of the " sider," as the name implies, to look out for flaws in the glass, and decide 188 WOOD WOrxKEIiS. ■whicli surface is to be front and which back. This work, by whomsoever done, precedes bevelling. Cutting requires a certain skill, and those who undertake large mirrors can command 40.s- or 425 a week. Siders earn about 30s on the average. After the plate-glass has been bevelled and cleaned up, it is passed on to the silverers, who convert it into a mirror by the application of silver, reduced by admixture with diiferent chemicals. Quicksilver itself is no longer used. This is somewhat delicate work, as any flaw or speck upon the silver will become visible in the course of a short time on the face of the mirror, and the glass may then be returned to the maker for re-silvering at his charge. Silverers work by time, and their wages vary according to skill from 30* to 40s. They are generally assisted by a "wetter off," who ranks as an unskilled labourer, and is not admitted into the union. Silverers, and indeed all the time workers in this line, are said to obtain more constant employment than bevellers, and to be also more regular in their woi-k and in their habits. The best "fitting" is done by cabinet-makers. The fitters employed by looking-glass manufacturers arc usually engaged upon common toilet mirrors. Fitters can generally do some cutting if required, and the two branches are to some extent interchangeable. Minimum union rate of Avages for best hands, 35s, with a second grade at 32s. " Toilet " hands or improvers, 2ns. The hours of work usual in the trade, and acquiesced in by the union, are fifty-four per week. When overtime is worked it is sometimes paid at time and a quarter, but there is no rule. For busy and slack seasons the bevellers and their mates depend upon the ups and downs of the cabinet-makers' trade; but the iactories do not leave off working, and men are rarely discharged. In small shops men will shift from branch to branch, and undertake siding or silvering, cutting or linishing, as required. This elas- CABIKET-MAKING, ETC. 189 ticity, however, is not in accordance with union rules, and apprentices are not supposed to learn more than one branch. The bevellers shift from shop to shop more frequeutly than men in other departments. With the first cheapening of plate glass, and the con- sequent more common use of mirrors in farniture of all sorts, the whole trade increased enormously, but during the last two years, although the price of glass has fallen faster than ever, the London trade has remained stationary."^ No complaint is made as to unhealthiness in this trade. Silvering, when mercury was iised, was an injurious process, but is now as little dangerous as any other branch. The usual age for loss or diminution of wage-earning: capacity is set down at fifty-five for silverers, cutters, and fitters, and rather earlier for bevellers, because the cold, wet process, inter-connected with drinking habits, induces rheumatism. Wood Turners. The greater part of these men work in the saw-mills and cabinet workshops in the East End, and an account of them may be found in an earlier volume. The only change requiring notice is a decision in 1893 under the Truck Act, by which a deduction from men's earnings for use of steam- power was declared illegal, and to this extent the men have benefited, as wages have for the most part been maintained at the previous rates. Wood Carvers. There are 1723 persons returned under this heading in the census, of whom half live in the East End, and more than half of the remainder in North London. The work • There is competition between English glass and that made in France and Belgium. The foreign glass is not only cheaper to produce, wages being lower where it is made than in Lancashire and Yorkshire, but is said to be purer and whiter in colour, because of some sui^eriority in the material available. 190 WOOD WOEKEES. throughout is perfovmed "both on time and piece, the men preferring the former. The minimum wage recogaizcd by the union is lO^Z an hour, or Id jnore than for cabinet- makers. Well-skilled men usually earn Is an hour, or even more, according to the ability of the worker. In the West End shops the miuimum is maintained, but this is not so in the East, where lower — and sometimes much lower — prices are accepted for work of a rougher description. A good deal of the commoner work consists only of " finishing " and completing the patterns after the operations of the band and fret-saw. The best shops work forty-eight hours ; in others, the carvers conform to cabinet-maker's time. Lads are still a]iprenticed, but not to the same extent as formerly ; technical education is, however, doing something to raise the standard of excellence in work. A class was organized by the Institute of British Wood Carvers (an association for the advancement of the trade generally), and this class is now carried on by the Carpenters' ComjDany. Wood-carving, also, is usually on the curriculum of Poly- technic and other institutions in which manual instraction is given. Men cannot continue carving to any great age, or at least when in years must confine themselves to coarse work, at low pay, as eye and hand fail early. Caevers and Gilders. We have already dealt with wood-carvers, and shall shortly deal with gilders. The combined name has a special significance as applying to pict are- frame malcers. This title is still to be seen on the name boards, and on the billheads of all shops where picture frames are made or sold, and formerly carving and gilding was the most important part of picture-frame making. The workman in those days did actually carve and gild. He often made the frame, carved the ornament, and laid on the gold leaf. But this is all chaufjed. A man who is both a carver and CABINET-MAKING, ETC. 101 gilder is rare. Some of the older men were apprenticed as such, but even in these cases the man usually works at one branch now. The change is not duo solely to division of labour in the shops, but more lai-gely to the introduction of machine- made mouldings, which, for ordinary frames, have super- seded the old hand-work. Of these large quantities are imported ; the cheap mouldings from Belgium and Germany, and tliose for the best work, which are well designed and finished, from France. The men who now make picture frames are known in the trade as joiners, fitters up, preparers, moulders, and mounters. In shops doing best work, the joiner prepares the wood, gluing together two or more pieces to make the desired moulding, then cuts it up and mitres the corners, so forming the frame. For ordinar}^ work, he has merely to cut up the imported moulding and fasten the pieces together, the skill required for this operation being small. Accordingly, two classes of men are found doing- the work : the skilled joiners (a limited number), who are paid 8ld or 9d per hour, working fifty-two and a half to fifty-three and a half hours a week, and whoso average wage may be taken at 06.9 ; and the men wlio put tosrether the common frames, who are not nearly so well off, working fifty-four to sixty hours a week for a good deal less money, piece prices being paid. These vary with the width of the moulding. For joining an half-inch moulding the man would get 4^ per gross of frames, while for a 3-inch moulding the price would be 2s 6d per dozen. The fitter up cuts the glass, puts in the picture and the back, and completes the frame for sale. • The '^composition workers," as the preparers, moulders, and mounters are termed, are only found in shops of the best class, and often one person does all this work. The preparer covers the moulding with a layer of paste, in which whiting and size are the chief ingi'edionts ; the 192 WOOD WORKERS. moulder prepares, and the mounter affixes tlie ornaments to tlie frame. These ornaments moulded out of a mixture of glue and resin, -with sufficient whiting to form a stiff paste, are, wliile still flexible, affixed to the frame, adapting themselves to the curves of the moulding, and solidify into a brittle yellowish substance. Moulders earn 8hd or 9d an hour, and some as much as 10(7. Employment is uncertain, for the use of foreign mould- ings has caused a shrinkage in the amount of work offering, with the result that men have taken up kindred branches of industry; and we find men, who in early hfe were exclusively engaged in the picture-frame trade, turning to other branches of work. Thus composition moulders and mounters also seek work with house-decorating firms, moulded ornaments being used for overmantels, dados, and ceilings, Avherever panels may be attached, whilst the joiners or fixers^ as they then call themselves, supplement their work by affixing these ornaments in the houses. At the present time these composition workers and fixers have a grievance against the fibrous plasterers, who also claim to prepare and affix such ornaments. Mount cutting has also become a special branch, the picture-frame maker finding that he can buy mounts cheaper than he can cut them. GiLDEKS. If it wore not for their connection with picture frames, and hence witli carvers, it is probable that these men would be classed with painters and decorators. Their work includes three principal groups : (1) Gilding picture frames, or the frames of mirrors, &c. (2) Furniture gilding, chairs, fancy cabinets, &c. ; and (3) Decorative gilding, which consists in the adornment of ceilings and panels in the interior of buildings, or the production of patterns and lines on the ornamental stone or iron-work of the exterior. CABINET-MAKEnS, ETC. 193 For tliis purpose gold is much used iu Lotels and restaurants, theatres, and places of public resort generally. It is not possible to say positively how the men who do decorative gilding will have returned themselves for the census. If as " gilders " only, they will be found with the carvers in this section; if as ''^ decorators " or decorative gilders, they would be placed with " painters and decora- tors.^' While the caiwers and gilders claim, and still execute, a proportion of decorative work, fclie greater part has been lost to them, having passed gradually into the hands of painters and decorators. Men who used to be known amongst the painters as " pencil hands " now do the work. The transfer has come about very naturally, employers preferring to have the finishing touches added by men who had done the work from the beginning, and who, moreover, were already competent, or could very quickly learn, to perform it. Gilding may be done either with oil or water, according to the material upon which the gold is laid. In either case a coating of size is the basis ; to this, when moistened with water, the gold leaf will adhere. For oil gilding the size is covered with a coating of ochre and linseed oil, and this on drying provides a sticky surface for the gold, and when quite dry becomes perfectly hard. The gold may then be burnished, or else a flat or " matt " finish is given by another coat of size. The method of finishing is applicable to both oil and water gilding. Decorative work is usually done in oil. For furniture, water gilding is used, sometimes burnished and sometimes not. For picture frames both methods are employed. Hours of work for gilders vary from fifty-two to fifty-eight a Aveek. As they form usually only a small proportion of the men employed, their time is accommodated to that of the shops at which they happen to be working. In picture-frame shops fifty-six and a half hours are usual, i.e. 8 a.m. to 7.30 P.M., with an hour for dinner and half an hour, or sometimes VOL. V. 13 194 WOOD WOIiKFRS. fifteen minutes, for tea. The large decorating- firms work shorter hours, adopting those of the Building Trades' Federation. Most of the men earn 8hd an hour. This was formerly the trade society minimum, but the restriction was abolished to enable men working at lower rates to join the organization. There are a few men receiving as little as 6hd per hour, but 7d to 9d would include nearly all. Men in regular per- manent employ are comfortably ofP, but few are so fortunate. As a rule they seldom remain long in one shop, but pass elsewhere in pursuit of work every few months, or even days, losing time at nearly ever}'- change. The record of the time worked by two men from January- to November, 1894, shows this. These examples, taken at random from the unemployed book of the Amalgamated Society of Gilders, are two out of many, and not the worst cases. The men are described as "fairly good men/' and may at any rate be accepted as representing an average, and not as selected in any way ; except so far as selection is implied by their names being on the unemployed book at all. Thus out of a possible 250 days A only worked 153, losing 97 days or 39 per cent; while B worked only 129 out of 241, losing 112 days or 47 per cent. Assuming that CABINET-MAKEBS, ETC. 195 they "worked full time when employed, setting* short time against overtime, an assumption which is probably strained, their average weekly earnings could not exceed 25s. Another gilder, experienced in all parts of the trade, has kept an account of the time he has worked for a series of years, as follows : — Year. Days Worked (out of a possible 308.) Year. Days Worked "(out of a possible 308.) 1869 •252 1882 46 1870 243 1883 139 1871 265 1884 35 1872 245 1885 24 1873 237 1886 186 1874 192 1887 151 1875 249 1888 72 1876 256 1889 232 1877 151 1890 181 1878 221 1891 106 1879* 10 1892 212 1880 85 1893 174 1881 46 1894 89 (up to Dec. 1) As the man is now advanced in years, some of the lost time may be due to the disadvantages of age, but he does not think it is so, and sa3*s he is not worse off than others. There seems little doubt that most of the men would be better off, and many of them very much so, with 25.s a week regularly, than with the earnings they make at 8hd an hour; and this may explain why some men are willing to work at 7c?, or even less, with a prospect of regularity of employment to compensate for the reduced rate. There are some perquisites called " skewings," consisting of waste gold leaf wiped oflf from the gilding of irregular or ornamental surfaces. This is carefully swept up and preserved, and twice a year, usually at Christmas and at the time of the beanfeast, is taken to a refiner and sold. The amount received is trifling, but the men cling tenaciously * In 1879 and the following year.? this man was boycotted for taking an active part in the re- organization of the trade societie,s. During these years he occasionally worked on his own account, VOL. V. 13 -^ 19G WOOD WOBKER^. to the custom. A number of women are employed on piece-work. Tliey are paid ].s' Sd per book of leaf; and can earn about 4^? per hour. The busiest time is from January to June. During July and August trade is very slack, after which there is an increased demand until November, when it again falls ofi. There is very little overtime to compensate for loss of wages in slack time, and the men themselves are opposed to it. July and August are busy months with decorators, and some of the men we are describing may find work in this way — a kind of retaliation for the gilding work which has passed into the decorators' hands. There are few boys entering the trade now. Apprenticeship has practically died out. Upholsterers. The divisions noted as to cabinet-makers are applicable to upholsterers also; East and West representing the extremes, while the shops of the piece masters occupy a middle place. The conditions under which the East End work is done have not changed materially since the time of our former inquiry. The commonest work consists mostly of what is known as " show wood," but the piece masters do a large proportion of " stuff over," or articles of which the wooden frame is quite or almost entirely covered. This work from the upholsterer's point of view is never quite so common as the "show wood" may be. The best work is mostly done to order, and is, as a rule, paid for by the piece. Expensive materials are frequently used in the work, and payment for labour becomes a small proportion of the total cost. The upholsterer is responsible for cutting as well as making, and must work intelligently or he would soon spoil material far in excess of the value of his labour. Consequently the price for good work is readily maintained. For this or other reasons the upholsterers have always kept their wages at a higher level than the men CABINET-MAKERS, ETC. 197 engaged iu otlier branclies of the furniture trade. In the piece master or '^ trade" shops the rate of pay varies from 7d to 10 hd an hour, according to the ability and rapidity of the workman, by far the greater number earning 8d to 9d. The best men, losing little or no time, would maintain an average of 40*" a week. Ordinary earnings may be taken as 36s when in full work, or about 32.v allowing for lost time. West End piece workers when busy earn high wages. Almost all take over 406*, and many exceed bOs. Even £3. lOs would not be uncommon. It may be doubted whether these men are, on the whole, better off than those in the piece masters' shops, where, although the conditions are more stringent and the stress greater, work is more certain and more regular; but those of them who are recognized as regular hands, no doubt, have the best position in the trade, averaging 40*^, 50.^, and even GO*- a week. An upholsterer of this class, Avorking for a well- known firm, kept an account of his earnings with this firm for fifteen years, and in that time they reached the sum of £2022. In three of these years he worked some months with other firms, and for that time kept no record. Omitting these periods entirely, there remain twelve years, during ^vhich he earned £1735, or an average of £144. 126- per annum, or £2. 15s 7d per week. The average for different years varied from £3. 3s 9d to £2. 10s bd per week, and the weekly earnings themselves from £5. 5s to (on one occasion) 2s 6d. He worked no less than six hundred weeks out of a possible total of 624 (52 x 12). Of these twelve years' earnings, £1410 was earned by piece and £325 by time. These men are often sent to work at a distance (in country houses, &c.), and are then paid by the liour at lOd or Is an hour. Travelling expenses are paid and an allowance for board and lodging. These extras, in the case of the man we have instanced, amounted in the twelve years to £134. West End upholsteresses earn from lbs to 17s a week. 198 WOOD WORKERS. and good hands can usually obtain emploj-ment. Of those less skilled the supply exceeds the demand. Hours worked are practically the same as those of the cabinet-makers, and so are the methods of learning the trade. The men complain bitterly of the piece masters' shops for employing an excessive proportion of boys, and one of the unions has amongst its objects the reduction of the number. Mattress and Palliasse Makees. The manufacture of bedding, formerly a branch of upholstery, is now a distinct trade, the work being done in separate workshops by a different set of men. A number of firms have made this trade their sole study, supplying- beds and bedding to the furniture dealers and ujjholsterers. But the boundary between mattress-makiug and upholstery is not always sharply defined. In some shops spring mattresses are made by the upholsterers, in others the work is given to mattress makers who count it a privilege to do it, and in others, again, it is considered to be part of their regular work. The making of cushions and chair seats is common to both sets of men, the better work done to order falling to the upholsterers, while the mattress-maker and his bo3"s will manufacture the goods that are to be sold cheap by drapers and furniture dealers. Old Street may be regarded as the centre of the trade in London, but there are several large shops near Tottenham Court Eoad, and others are scattered in the "West and South. The establishments in "West and South London do a larger proportion of cleaning and re-making than those more centrally situated. Mattress-making is the more skilled part of the trade, the manufacture of spring mattresses of various kinds being the most difficult and most highly paid ; hair mattresses come next, and lower in the scale those stuffed with shoddy. The work includes filling, buttoning or CABIXET-:\IAKERS, ETC. im tuftinof and fiuisliiiio-. The cases or covers to contain the hair, flock, straw, or other material used, are made by women known as " machinists " or " case-makers," and the same women sew up the cases after the men have stuffed them. Palliasse-making is heavier work. The men use a rammer to pack the straw or shavings tightly into the case. The palliasse-maker has seldom the ability to make a mattress, and the mattress-maker, even if he have the physical strength needed, will not readily accept Avork for which the pay is less than he is accustomed to receive. Piece-work is the rule of the trade. In some shops, how- ever, a system of task-w'ork prevails; the wages in these cases are nominally 8d per hour, but a certain minimum amount of work iJiust be done. This plan is adopted by firms who hold large contracts or are accustomed to make very large quantities of one class of goods. In these houses a quick workman who has finished his quantity will help his slower companion. In default of such assistance the man w^hose Avork falls short will occasionally make it right by booking his time proportionately short, e.g. if he really began work at 8 he would put himself down as having come at 8.30 or 9 o'clock. The normal week consists of fifty-two and a half hours, work lasting from 8 a.m. to 7 p.m., with an hour for dinner, half an hour for tea, and a short interval for lunch at 10.30. But with the exception of the time workers, fcAV of the men keep these hours regularly. AYhen work is slack piece-hands will not come till 9 or 10, and then might find nothing to do. On the other hand, when trade is brisk, the factory will be opened for them at 7 a.m. The women work the same hours as the men (safeguarded ahvays by the provisions of the Factory Acts) . A mattress-maker in full Avork may count on earning 45s a AA^eek, or more if a quick hand. The palliasse-maker would take about lO.y less. Not many men can hope to 200 WOOD WOrxKEES. earn full rates except for a few weeks in the year^ and a mattress-maker who averages 30^ is considered fortunate. One firm doing a steady trade, and dividing the work amongst their workers when slack, shows a yearly average of o4.s' dd for all their men, and of 12.'? '2d for their Avomen (machinists). The distribution of the earnings throughout the year is shown in the following statement of average weekly payments in each mouth : — Mattrpss aiifl Palliasse j Machinists and Case Makers (Men). Makers (Women). £ .«. rf. ! £ s. il. January 19 3 I 10 10 February 1 13 8 I 12 6 March 1 12 2 12 April 2 2 12 10 May ; 1 17 7 | 11 8 June ' 1 16 I 12 2 July 2 2 6 12 8 August 2 16 13 1 September 19 6 12 1 October 1 13 1 11 2 November 1 12 10 12 7 December 1 4 10 I 11 7 While the range of earnings indicated here is wide, that of the ordinary worker is still Avider. Although he may make full money in the season, he must expect to lose at least two or three days a week in the slack period ; more- over he may be out of employment for several Aveeks together, and very glad to take any other Avork that ofEers. The irregularity of work has increased in recent years owing to the introduction of the wire-woven spring mattress which has affected both branches of the trade. It has almost superseded the ordinary spring mattress and renders the use of the palliasse unnecessary. Home li'orhers. — In this, as in other branches of the furnish- ing trades, there are a number of journeymen Avorking on their OAAni account. Usually they manufactui-e the common kind of palliasse, filled Avith shavings or packing straw, e.g. straw which has been used for packing crates, &c. They CABINET-MAKEES, ETC. 201 find tlieir market at the clieap furniture shop, or less frequently witli the wholesale houses. Metliocl of learning. — There is uo regular apprenticeship. Lads commonly follow their father, but owing to the uncertainty of employment an increasing proportion of fathers now turn their lads in other directions, and as some employers will not be troubled to teach boys there are not many learning the trade at present. Nevertheless, the men complain bitterly of a few firms wdio employ a large pro- portion of lads ; asserting that when the slack time arrives men are dismissed, and that in the following season the lads step into their places. This is possible, as, though three or four years are necessary to obtain a, thorough knowledge of the trade, a smart lad can learn the ordinary work in six months. The busy season for the whole group we have considered, from cabinet-making to mattress-making — extends from Easter to July or August. From August to Easter trade is quiet, except for a slight revival in October, and again, in some departments, at or before Christmas. Things are usually at their worst in January. In March and April orders, con- sequent on cleaning and refurnishing, come in, and in May the demand from the country holiday resorts makes itself felt. Sawyers. The majority of these men live in South and East London. In the South, the timber-yards and saw-mills are found on the banks of the Surrey Canal and near the Surrey Com- mercial Docks, no doubt on account of the facilities for obtaining the timber from the docks. Li the East End many of the men work on the hard woods used in cabinet-making, and a number of small employers, hiring shop-room and power, have located themselves in these establishments, so that five or six small industries are often found under the same roof. In the South the men work almost entirely on the soft woods, and although other 202 WOOD WOEKERS. industries, sucli as box and packing-case making, and firewood chopping, are carried on, tlie men are all directlj employed by the owner of the mill. The wages are lower than in 1889, owing to an unsuccessful strike in 1891, which brought outsiders into the trade. Previously a good sawyer could get 505 ; now 42s is considered a high wage, while the average earnings would be between 24s and 30s a week. All are time workers. The men^s union was destroyed in the struggle of 1891, and reorganized in the following year, but is still very weak. BOX-MAKEES. Woode)i boxes are of all sorts and sizes, from the match- box to the packing-case, or from the roughest box in which " turkish delight " is packed to the carefully dovetailed and polished cases which are fitted up for scientific instruments. The chief customers of the manufacturers of ordinary wooden boxes are the large wholesale confectionery, blacklead and blacking, soap or baking-powder firms. Soap-makers usually make the greater part of their own boxes, and only employ outside manufacturers when the demand for soap is brisk and their own resources are over- taxed. Those Avho deal in wooden boxes are, almost without exception, themselves manufacturers. Their factories are to be found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the London canals, along which the immense loads of Swedish deal which they use can be brought up to them in barges, so as to save the greater expense of land transport. Outside the factories the woodis stacked in winter to a great height, as sufficient stock must be bought to last for six months without any possibility of renewal in the interval. The last barge from the ship which has been lucky enough to make a third or it may be a fourth voyage during the months CABINET-MAKEBS, ETC. 203 in wliicli the Northern harbours are free from ice, is unloaded during- December, and after this no more can be imported until June or July come round again. The wood is not left any length of time to season, and the supply of one year is seldom more than sufficient to meet the demand of the next. On the ground jfloor of the factory are the sawing- and planing mills, and generally one or two " berths " for Avood choppers, who act as scavengers and use up all the odd ends for firewood bundles. The planks of deal are cut to size by the cruel circular saw (cruel inasmuch as hardly a man will be found in any shop where it is used who has his full complement of fingers) and then planed and cross-cut according- to the size of box required. The men are paid by time. In the saw-mills the noise is deafening. Even for the most talkative, conversation is impossible, and each man must pay such unflagging attention to save his hands from injury, that there would be but little gain to be derived from the extra effort usually resulting from piece- work. Upstairs the boards are taken in hand by men and boys (Avho are all piece workers) to be there marked with the customers' name and then nailed together in box form. Sometimes the nailing is done by machines worked by women, who simply have to place the boards in position and then press on a lever with the right foot."^ Wood box-makers when busy, i.e. from October to Christmas, can make from 30s to 355, but their earnings are very irregular and drop to 15s or nothing when slack. One employer who in 1892 averaged out the earnings of his men, found that in spite of fair rates the weekly amount did not come to a higher sum than 21s. Many * The presence of women and machines is said to be the result of an attempt of the box-makers in 1891 to obtain a rise in wages. They were out for six weeks, but were not successful. 204 WOOD WOIiKEIlS. of the men iu tlie trade Avould probably earn less than this, lis they are said to belong to a somewhat unsteady class, who generally keep Monday as a holiday and some- times Tuesday also. In fact, this same employer was so ill-satisfied with their irregularity on piece-wurk that he offered regular weekly wages for fifty-six and a half hours' work to his box-makers, and found that the results paid him better than before. His saw-mills could be kept going regularly, and the men supplied steadily, whereas under the former system the supply of sawn boards had been either excessive or inadequate. The females employed receive the usual women's wages, varying between 10s and 18s, according to capacit}'. Hours are usually from 7 till 7 for five days, and from 7 till 2 on Saturdays, out of which two hours are allowed per day for meals. There is no regular training, and the boys who are engaged pick up the work as best they can. The makers of wooden boxes are sometimes packing-case makers as well, that is, the makers of rough cases for inland carriage. The exact point at which a box becomes a packing-case, or a packing-case ceases to be a box is not easy to determine, and the only division that can be safely made is that of size. As in other industries, a man accustomed to large is seldom willing or able to undertake small work. Export packing-case mahers, on the other hand, are a totally distinct class of men, and stand out in sharp contrast to both wooden box and rough packing-case makers. They are to be found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Wood Street in the City. All their work is on time, with 9d an hour as the recognized rate of pay, and the regular City hours are from 6 A.M. till 5.30 P.M., of which one and a half hours are for meals ; and from G a.m. until 1 r.M. on Saturdays. CALIXET-MAKEnS. ETC. 205 A careful system of training in this trade is also custom- ary. Boys are regularly indentured for an apprenticeship of five or seven years, and are in some places first put to box-making to acquire quickness. After a year at tliis they are moved up to regular packing-case making. City makers generally buy their oAvn wood from the timber merchant, and then send it out to be sawn into planks of a given thickness. These are brought to the shop, where they are " cross-cut " into the sizes for which orders have been received, and then grooved and glued, nailed together, and finished and bound with hoop iron by the skilled packing-case makers. The cases are often lined with tin; and "canister makers" to do the tin work are sometimes employed on the same premises with the case makers, but the two are quite distinct industries, and the same man never works on both wood and tin. The men, however, meet together and have a joint society known as the Wood and Tin Packing-case Makers' Society. Matcli-hox maTierf< were described in the volume on East London industries. Funeral Furnishers and Undertakers. Under this heading and its sub-divisions, coffin and coffin furniture makers, funeral furniture and plume makers, the census includes 1086 persons, nearly all of whom are males over twenty j^ears of age. A goodly proportion of them grow old, since out of the total, ninety-one persons are of sixty-five years and upwards. An employer may be either an undertaker or funeral furnisher, or both. The undertaker measures the dead body (though there are some who like to be measured while still alive), makes the coffin, or has it made, arranges with the cemetery authorities, provides the carriages and men, and accom- panies the funeral to the grave. In all cases it is he who is the director of the funeral. 206 WOOD WORKEIi!=^. The funeral furnislier, on the other liand, where he is not also an undertaker, has no personal connection with the conduct of the burial. He may be a wholesale manu- facturer^ or a job master, providing the undertaker Avith coffins, carriages, and all the appurtenances of a funeral, or lie may be a funeral-carriage master only. In London the usual practice seems to be for those undertakers who have not enough business to keep a stable full}^ employed, to make or furnish the coffins and then to apply to the carriage master, known to the trade as a ''Black Master,'^ for the hearse, &c. Coffins are made by " coffin-makers," who belong to this industry only, and do not overlap with either carpenters or cabinet-makers. A carpenter might soon learn to make coffins, but a coffin-maker could not turn to general carpentry, though the best class of work is now more care- fully done and by better men than ever before. No great degree of skill is, however, required in the manu- facture of coffins, and the men when working for an under- taker are more often chosen for other qualities than an intimate knowledge of their craft. Thus it is more im- portant to have a strong, presentable man, with a good suit of black clothes of his own, than a highly skilled workman. And further, respectful and, if possible, sympa- thetic manners, are especially necessary ; for future orders depend much on the satisfaction of present customers and their consequent recommendation. Seasons. — It is a seasonal trade, and the busy time is, as would be expected, from November until April, though a sudden rush may come at any time on the advent of cold winds or fogs. What undertakers prefer is a good steady death-rate. Fluctuations annoy them, for any sharp rise in the rate is sui'C to be followed by a period of slackness. For instance, the influenza epidemic greatly over-worked the trade in the years 1891 to 1893. The weaker members of the community were swept away, and. CABINET-MAKERS, ETC. 207 as a consequence, there is now a reaction, and tliis year (1894) lias been one of the worst ever experienced in the annals of undertakers. This decrease in volume of business is also partly due to better sanitation, and the autumnal rise in the death-rate, which was known to the trade as the '' Plum Season," is now a thing of the past. Wages, Hours, 8fc. — Coffin-makers are paid from Qd to 9d per hour, depending on the class of work they can under- take. On poorer class work in the East End 2\s to 25.s' is the usual weekly drawing, but for fairly good men on regular West End work 30.y to 35.v per week would more nearly represent the yearly average. For urgent orders and in large firms piece-work is usual, and when fully employed the men can earn 356' to hQs, but since they are, as a rule, engaged for particular jobs only, the yearly average would be considerably lower. A normal week is one of six full days. No uniformity of hours is possible, for, after the day's work is finished, the coffin must be delivered, and there is a good deal of over- time for which no extra rate is paid unless the men are kept on Sunday or for an '^'^all night" job, when the plus given will usually depend on the generosity of individual employers. In spite of the fact that death is certain, and that coffins can be made up for stock without fear of ultimate loss, some overtime is perhaps inevitable. There are always the inside linings, the final polishing, and the outside furniture (nails, handles, &c.), which must be attended to after the arrival of an order; moreover, time is lost, as customers are naturally unwilling to allow the undertaker and his men to cast a further gloom over the streets in which they live by a visit to their houses before darkness has set in. There is no regular apprenticeship, and though but little skill is needed there is not much temptation for outsiders to enter the trade. Fathers generally bring up their sons 20S WOOD WOBKERS. to this business, wliich, when all is said, is one that habit can only partially rob of its unpleasantness ; and which at times is replete with horror. Coffin-makers often accompany the funeral to the grave as attendants, but in large establishments, where this branch is kept distinct, there is a special and permanent staff of men who, Avlien not so employed, are made useful as carriage-washers and grooms. They are paid so much per job (usually 4.s' 6d to 6.*, depending on the class of funeral), and in addition a small regular allowance (about 7.9 per week), which brings up their weekly earnings, counting one funeral a day, to 335 or 34.^, exclusive of tips. AVhen busy, two jobs may be managed, and the men's money is increased accordingly. Those who get the first choice of work are known as ^"^ first turn" men. Below them come " second turn " or yard men, who are paid regular weekly wages (275 or 28^) and go out only Avhen the " first turn " men are already fully employed. There is also a casual class of ''odd" men, employed when business is very brisk. They are paid entirely by the job, and both their earnings and habits are irregular. Sometimes first and second turn men change about, and in this case all are paid by the job, and both sets of men average about 30.v per week. The pi'overbial joviality of undertakers' men is not so marked now as formerly. They must be steady men, we are told — "the masters' reputation depends on it." Such jollity as still survives is no doubt due to the natural reaction from the sad, and sometimes dreadful, scenes with which they are brought in contact, or to the levity which, with all of us, creeps in upon or succeeds a sustained effort after gravity of demeanour, animated, perhaps, by the gifts of customers and a share of the funeral hospitalities. In this industry there is no organization either among the employers or employed. General Remarks. — Coffins are mostly made of oak or CABINET-MAKERS, ETC. 209 elm, and into them shells are sometimes fitted, which may be either of wood or lead, but the latter is very little used now. In other respects also funerals now involve less expense and pomp than formerly, and, as a rule, the poor pay proportionately rather more for show than do the rich. Plumed hearses are no longer used, except, it is said, by costermongers and chimney sweeps, and others upon whom ancient custom has a very strong hold. Crape and long silk scarves used formerly to be provided for all the mourners by the undertaker. This expense is never incurred now, and ''mutes" are very rarely seen. On the other hand, flowers, now so usual, were then not thought of. They would have been considered Popish. They, however, are not supplied by the undertaker. Again, burials on Sunday are now very rare, and this has prevented many men, altogether outside the business, from taking on this work as an extra. Many a young shop assistant was formerly not unwilling to take a Sunday outing in the suburbs, even though he had to get there on a hearse. There seems to be no importation of coffins ready made from abroad. Sometimes those who die in foreign lands are sent over to be buried in England, but the superstition of sailors prevents their being shipped in anything possessing the outward shape of a cofiin ; they come instead in cases as pianofortes, or as " specimens in natural history." Basket-makers. Wicker-weaving, the mother of all forms of weaving, unlike her children, has hitherto succeeded in baflling all attempts of makers to introduce machinery. The men employed are now, as always, handicraftsmen. In London, which is only one of the English Trade centres, shops are confined to no particular locality, VOL. V. 14) 210 WOOD WOUKEBS. ultliougli a good many of tlie smaller masters are to be found in Crispin Street, Spitaliields, and in and about Tabard Street in Soutliwark, wliicli is also tlie home of tlie brush-makers. Basket-work, by which is to be understood the manu- facture of anything with Avicker that is not fastened with nails, has no distinct branches for specially skilled men. In practice, the less skilled are kept on what is known as ''slewed white" or "brown" work, i.e. the making of hampers, round market sieves, and fish baskets from unpeeled osier rods; whereas more highly skilled men earn better money on " general " work "with peeled rods, which includes all fancy work in the making of chairs, wine flats, clothes' baskets and luncheon hampers, as well as laundry and dress baskets, grocers* bottle baskets, basinettes, &c., &c. Process of Work. — Basket-makers, known to their familiar friends as " twiggies," when at work usually sit on a stout wide plank placed on the floor, and slightly inclined upwards at one end. They start on the "bottoms" of the baskets, and when making "round" goods begin by standing over their Avork, using both hands and feet to keep the bottoms flat. As soon as these are ready they are " staked " up, !.e. the upright stakes on which the sides are woven arc fixed in position. This done, the man sits do"wn on his plank and places his work on a " lap-board " in front of him. As the basket grows the lap-board is discarded, and the work is put on the plank until finally it becomes so far advanced that the man himself has to sit on a box which is placed at the higher end of his plank. This box also holds the few tools that the men recjuire. The rods, or cane, of which baskets are made, are well dried before delivery to the manufacturer, but must be soaked in water, before use, to make them pliable. After this, they can be bent double or tw^isted without breaking, and do not regain their stiffness until perfectly dry. CABIXET-2IAKEES, ETC. 211 Basket-makers provide tlieir own tools, wliich are few in number and simple in use. They consist of one or two knives for " picking" oif the outside ends^.a " flogger " for driving the wicker close, one or two bodkins for making the holes to insert new rods, and a pair of shears for cutting off the very stout pieces of cane used in large work. Taken together these tools would not cost over 10,v. Seasons. — Trade is fairly regular thi'oughout the year for those on general work : May to December being the busiest months, and January to April the slackest. The less skilled, however, are never certain of employment, except in Summer (from April to August), when there is always a large demand for hampers and fruit baskets : and, although these can be made up for stock in slack times, not much of this is done. A stock requires too much valuable space. Thus employers prefer to give what little they do make at these times, to those of the better class workmen who may happen to be short of other work. V/cujex, c5*c. — All work is on piece, and prices are strictly regulated by the Trade Society, which is strong, and in all better-class shops able to enforce its " list." In the smaller shops work is also on piece, but prices for the commoner goods have been cut by provincial and foreign competition, and also to some extent by home Avorkers. Of these last there are not a great number in London, but there is always a tendency for those of the less skilled, when out of work, to earn a little during their enforced leisure by making up common stuff at home, which they afterwards dispose of for no very high price, to any grocer or basket retailer who will accept it. As it is a piece-work industry, earnings vary with capacity. One man will make 28,s' in a week on the very same class of work, and during the same hours in which his more dexterous neighbour will earn 36^. Fast workers will make 50^v when busy, but the usual average for those on general work seems to run from 30s to 356- per week, VOL. V. 14 * 212 WOOD WORKERS. wliile less skilled moiij employed on ^^bnjwn" work, earn 25.9 to 2>0s. Hours vary with tlio amount of Avork to be done and tlie fancy of the workman. Shops are open, as a rule, from 7 or 8 A.M. to 7 P.M., and close at 2 o'clock on Saturdays ; but the men seldom turn up before 9 in the morning. They take what time they like for food during the day, and spend perhaps rather longer over their meals at the beginning than at the end of the week. In fact, all through the trade, among both skilled and unskilled, there is a lingering fondness for the observance of " Saiut Monday," and time lost then has to be made up later on by what the men call " putting on the nosebag " on Fridays. A regular system of indentured apprenticeship for five years still survives, and the trade is mainly recruited from the sons of those who have themselves spent their lives in making- baskets. Not only among the employed, but also amongst employers, the industry seems to be hereditary to a remarkable extent. It is also interesting to note that wages have risen steadily during the century, and the type of workman in the trade has much improved. One master writes that " the old, rugged, hard-working, hard- swearing, hard-drinking ' twiggy ' is almost extinct," and connects this change with tlie existence of the union and the rise in wages mentioned above. For all conditions of basket-makers the work is hard, and makes the arms, wrists, and fingers ache ; but in the higher branches something beyond mere muscular dexterity is required of the workman. To be first-rate he must have a sense of shape and proportion, for it is on the possession of this quality that the grace and fitness of his chairs and baskets will depend. A good w^orkmau must not only be a skilled craftsman, but something of an artist as well. In London, where there is a special demand for new shapes and new ideas, this class of man is sure of employment and good CABINET-:\IAKEnS, ETC. 213 pay. Chairs and clotlies' baskets made to fit into corners, and such like odd shapes, find here a ready market ; and though there is always a demand for common work in the old forms, yet, as years go on, less of this class is made up in the Metropolis, and more and more is imported from the provinces or froDi abroad. Loudon manufacturers in this, as in so many other trades, can command success for themselves and high prices for their workpeople only by becoming specialists. Blind people, to whom basket-making is taught in the various institutions in London, confine themselves chiefly to the production of builders' and laundry baskets. Many of them work at home, and are employed b}^ the institutions in which they originally learnt their trade. They ai-e paid " list " prices, but their earnings are low. In one insti- tution the highest earnings in one year averaged 24s a week and the lowest 6s 6d, with working hours from 7 a.m. to 6 P.M. Bamboo and Cane Work. Bamboo and cane work grew out of basket work, and form the connecting links between this group of industries and the furniture trade. Bamboos are mainly imported from Japan^ and are used in the manufacture of tea-tables, chairs, flower-stands, and a host of other articles whose main characteristic is unsteadiness. The bulk of the trade was formerly in the West End, but in recent years has moved eastward, losing caste as it went. Its centre is now in Curtain Road and the neighbourhood. Many of the workmen are foreigners — mostly Germans and Jews from Poland and Lithuania — who assemble in their greatest numbers in the East End. The work in their bauds is subject to much sub-division. We find a few skilled 214 WOOD WORKERS. men employed on tlie jointing and finisliino" of bamboo goods, Avhicli are prepared for tliem in pieces by sub- workers, of whom the majority are raw hands, '^'^ greeners," men and boys who do all the less skilled parts, such as cutting the canes and filling in the hollow ends with wood, &c., operations easily learnt. The head men earn 40^' to 50^ on piece, while those under them make anything, from "i^ to 20.s, and have to work very hard for their money. A degree above these sub- workers come a number of piece workers— also foreigners — who when fully employed make from 15.s' to 30.'?, according to their abilit}', the yearly earnings of an average man among them being, perhaps, 15.s' to 20.s' per week. Very long hours are sometimes worked in order to make a living out of low prices. In the West End, where rather a better class of goods is produced, earnings average from 355 for a fair worker to 45s for a quick man on piece- work, and on time-work from Id to OJ per hour, the amount varying rather with the quality than with the speed at which a man can get his work done. Hours of a normal week in factories are from 7 a.m. to 7 ]'.m. for five days, out of which l-V hours will be given up to meals, and from 7 till 2 on Saturdays. Cane work, which is all done on piece, requires rather more skill than bamboo work, but as there is not so much demand for it, no higher rates are paid. Bamboo work is more of a novelty. In the busy season before Christmas there is a consider- able amount of overtime for wdiich nothing extra is given. After Christmas everything is very slack, until the time for spring cleaning comes round, when the shabbier corners are disclosed by the sunlight, and there is a demand among housewives for something cheap and new with which to brighten up their parlours. But at every season employ- ment in these trades is somewhat unsatisfactory, both as regards rate of payment and results in earnings. CABIXET-MAKERS, ETC. 215 There is no regulai* system of apprenticeship, and such boys as are being brought into the trade are generally the sous of those small masters who work at home. In the larger factories they have very little opportunity of learning. In any case very little skill is required, and the tools needed are cheap, costing' in all not more than £2. Witli some files and a saw which the men have to provide for themselves, andj a Bunsen bnimer over which to bend the bamboos, any workman may consider himself fully equipped. There are in this industry a great many small masters, who often set up independently on a very slender financial basis. Success depends upon their ability to hit the public taste with a new pattern, rather than on their skill as craftsmen. They make on speculation, and must sell at whatever price they can, and are a great source of weakness to the trade. With much irregularity of employment, it is not to be wondered that there is also some complaint of irregular habits among the men. Chair-caning. — Very little caning of new chairs is now done in London, and this industry, which used to afford employment to a great many women, has been transferred to High Wycombe, where labour can be had more cheaply. There is also less demand for cane seats for chairs of the commoner sorts; they have been ousted by perforated wooden seats which can at any time be renewed at the neighbouring " general " shop for a small sum. There is no need now to wait for the visit of tke chair-mender, who would sit and do her work before your doors, and the once familiar cry of '^ 'ny chairs or baskets to mend " is almost a thing of the past. Sucli chair-caning as is done is still given to women. They work at their own homes, and are paid so much per dozeii " bottoms." Seven shillings per dozen is tke price generally given for ordinary chairs, and out of this l.s to 2s must be paid for the cane. One woman said that with the help of a girl 216 WOOD WOnKEBS. slie could just manage two dozen in four days. She was a quick worker, and those less good only manage two to three dozen per week. AVork is not always to be had, and when obtained, it usually only serves to add to the earnings of a husband or father. Cork Manufacturers. Cork bark comes principally from Spain, Portugal, and the South of France. A little is also ioaported from Algiers. It is sent over either in its natural state as Virgin cork (which is the first stripping of young trees); or in bundles made up of flat slabs of the later growths; or ready for use as wine and medicine corks; or, finally, in the form of dust and shavings, in which condition it is used principally by the linoleum and kamptulicon makers in the manufacture of floor cloth. The Minories and neighbourhood form the cork-market of London and the clearing-house of the world as far as cork is concerned ; for the greater part of the manufactured cork is sent here, and then re-sorted or re-shipped untouched for the colonies and other foreign markets. As in other industries, a great many of the so-called manufacturers are merely dealers and re-sorters who, if they sell London-cut corks at all, buy them at trade prices from others who are in reality manufacturers, and who in addition may themselves be retailers in the same market as their trade customers. Character and Procei^s of WorJc. — Manufacturers employ from forty, at most, down to two or three men, boys and Avomen. The average cork cutter's shop would seem to find work for about twenty persons, of whom the men would be ''foremen," ''notchers,^' and "machinists,'' and the boys and women mostly sorters, though some of the boys are often put to the lighter cutting machines. The term " foreman " here means the cork " burner. '^ He is the CABIXFT-MAKERS, ETC. 217 most skilled o£ all the men, but not necessarily tlae overseer of others. The flat slabs of cork as they arrive are full of holes and cracks and bits of rough fibre, which can only be got rid of or sealed up by the process of burning. This is done at a large open fire of cork shavings, across which run iron bars in the shape of a "grid.'' Here the slabs of cork are placed, and crackle and burn, and are turned by their cook with a pair of tongs until they are properly done, as if they were great beef-steaks. Then they are tossed off on one side to a boy who quenches the burning embers with water, and stacks them away to dry for twenty-four hours, after which they are taken down and swept with stiff brooms to remove the loose black. Then they are cut into lengths of equal thickness, and passed to the notcher, who again cuts them into squares small enough to fit conveniently into the different cutting machines. Brewers' bungs or '' shives," corks for pickle jars, known as "dafies" in the trade, bath corks and medicine corks, and cork rings and discs used by wholesale chemists, are the sizes most usually made in London. Odd pieces are also used in the manufacture of cork fenders (for ships), and life-belts, and thin shavings are cut for helmets and to make cigarette tips. Wine-bottle corks come entirely from abroad. Wages, ^^c. — Work is both on time and piece. Under the old system, by which corks were entirely hand-cut, piece obtained to the exclusion of time-work, but since the introduction of machinery, time-work has become more usual. On time-work notchers and machinists will make 24s to 27s per week, year in and out, and a very good man 28.>^; whilst on piece, with hard work, some can earn as much as 30s to 35.*^. Foremen or burners, who are partly time and partly piece workers, make the highest money, and earn as much 218 WOOD wonKEns. as 2.S per liour when " burning/' but the hot fire is very tryino-to the constitution, and soon finds out the weak spots in those who are either not strong or in the least unsteady in their manner of life. They do not often work more than two or three days a week at the fire : on the odd days they cut and sort the burnt cork into lengths, and prepare ib for the notchers and machinists. Their takings seem to average about 4-5s per week. Yearly earnings are high for all, in spite of the fact that weekly wages for most men read somewhat low, for work is very regular, and there are never, so it is said, more than a dozen cork cutters out of work in any one month of the year. It is not a season trade, and should demand temporarily slacken, fresh stuff can always be safely cut for stock. Apprenticeship is a thing of the past, and lads are promoted to the machines from the position of errand boys. Machine work can be learned by men in three or four months, but there is not much movement either from or into this industry. Those w'ho are in the trade remain there because their wages are constant, whilst those who are outside are not attracted because of the comparatively small amount of the weekly wage. Other Workers — Wood Choppers. The last Division of this chapter which the census gives up to '' Other Workers in AVood, Cork, and Bark " (3466 persons) includes all sorts and conditions of men belonging to all grades of skill, from cai'penters to dockyard labourers. Bavin-makers (who make up the long bundles of rough wood used to light the fires in bakers' ovens), bonnet and hat-block makers, chip-breakers (employed in breaking up CABIXET-MAKEBS, ETC. 219 medicinal and dye woods), clothes ]ieg- and curriers' beam- board makers, cutters and tiers of firewood, makers of garden seats (who are practically second-class carpenters) and of railway sleepers, ribbon and wig-block makers, timber creosoters, and many others are placed pell-mell in this section, and serve to give some slight idea of the variety of occupations in which a " wood worker " may be engaged. Among these the branch in w^hich the greatest number of persons are employed is that of firewood chopping. This must be one of the oldest of all forms of employ- ment. In the earliest communities the less skilled, or the less brave, were told off with their families to be hewers of wood, and to this day they are the less skilled and the less physically capable who, with their wives and children, chop and tie into bundles wood which shall help to kindle the fires of rich and poor alike. On the south side of the river, Rotherhitho and Deptford, the Surrey Canal and the neighbourhood of the great wood basins at the Surre}^ and Commercial Docks are the centres of the firewood industry, whilst on the north side the work is to be found chiefly in Bethnal Green, Homerton, Hoxton, and Somers Town. Yery little is done in the West End. Character and Process of WorJc. — Some of the work is carried on in factories, but more, and an increasing propor- tion of the wood used, is chopped and made up into bundles in back-yards at home, and then hawked hj the choppers themselves. Whether in a factory or in the home, all members of a family can help. The husband saws the logs to size, the mother splits them with a chopper, one girl collects the sticks and places them ready for another to tie up into bundles. In shops this is known as the " family " or '^ berth '^ system, for the floor of the sheds (often railway arches), in which the work is done is marked out with 220 WOOD WORKEIiS. boards into '^bertlis/' wliicli arc allottpd to the different groups of workers. In some places men and boys are still employed, but of late years Avomen and girls have taken up the -srork in constantly increasing numbers, so that wood-chopping may almost be numbered among women's industries. Seasons. — Winter is of course the busy, and summer the slack season. Nothing is made up for stock in summer, for cut wood shrinks with keeping and would lose in value, and tied bundles become loose. In the Slimmer the women go fruit and hop picking, and the men find casual emjjloyment as best they can. As a rule they are not strong enough for heavy timber work, and if they do dock work at all only find odd jobs here and there, such as unloading the light yellow deals used for firewood which come from Sweden. Others seek work in the building trades. Wages, S,'c. — During the wood-chopping season, a fast worker (male) can make from 30s to Sos in a full week, starting at 7 a.m. and ending at 7, with two hours allowed for meals. Slow workers make no more than 15s to 20s in the same time — that is, during the fifty-six or fifty-seven hours which make up a full working week. A " berth,'' consisting of a man of ordinary energy and skill, a woman, and a child, can make about 30s when busy. For women working alone earnings run from 10s to 20s, according to their capacity. All work is piece-work. The men have a Trade Society which enforces a price list in a few shops, but is not very strong. Those men who buy wood in small quantities from the timber merchants to work up at home are known as " footies," because they buy a " foot " of wood at a time — a " foot " being about as much as a coster's barrow will conveniently carry. With respect to this home work, one man Avhom we saw would, working with his daughter, make from 25s in a busy CABINET-3IAKERS, ETC. 221 week down to lO.s or nothing when things were slack. In this case the man did both the cutting into lengths and the chopping, while the daughter only made up the sticks into bundles. As soon as a load was ready the man w'ould hawk them round the small oil shops and up and down the poorer streets in South-East London, until the happy moment arrived when the last bundle had found its buyer. He had been thirty years in the trade and was still strong enough to find a job now and again in summer at the timber wharves. But not many are capable of such heavy work late in life. The yearly average pay is lower perhaps for all than it need be, owing to the fact that the work is carried on by a class of people who are not very regular in their habits. In shops the hours, though nominally fixed, are in reality very elastic, and in families this is true to a still greater extent. Very little work is ever done on Mondays, and the system of paying wages every evening, or at least two or three times a week, is common to every shop in the trade. This is called '^subbing,^^ and the employers declare that if it was not allowed many of the men would starve — such are the improvident habits of the workpeople. Knack rather than skill is required of a worker. The eye must be true and the hand steady if chopping is to be well and quickly done by man or woman. That this is not always so, especially in cold weather or following on feast days, the bound-up wrist and fingers of the left hand which holds the log, often bear a silent witness. But, though practice is required to make a good worker, almost any man, woman, or child can, without training, succeed in chopping up a block of wood in some fashion into sticks with which a fire can be lighted. Only the grocer, who piles his wood before his shop counter, is particular in the matter of the neatness of the bundles supplied. Private customers do not care, and indeed often buy the loose sticks of the hawkers by the basketful. 222 WOOD irORKEnS Chanty Work. — The simplicity of tlie work lias led to its adoption by luany cliaritable institutions as affording an easy means of employment for idle liands. The Salvation and Church Armies^ Boys' Homes, and others, have made wood-chuppiug one of the tests of the earnestness of the desire on the part of those whom they receive, to work for their living if they but had the opportunity. And the business has this further advantage, that the stock when made is not difficult to sell. Everyone uses firewood, and many will buy out of sympathy Avho will not subscribe to the funds of the institution. In such places food and housing are provided, and some- times a small sum of money is added, but no regular wages are paid. The men employed are very seldom skilled at wood-chopping, and their work is uneconomical. Its results will not even cover the cost of board and lodo-ins:, and the use of tools. In disposing of the wood, managers of these institutions declare that they are careful not to undersell the purely commercial section of the trade. They profess to follow the market prices, not to lead them. It is, however, almost if not quite impossible to push into a trade and yet steer clear of competition ; for if restrained in one direction, it will break out in some other. For instance, it is couiplained that when prices are kept the same, bundles of more than the usual size are sometimes supplied; and, whether this be so or not, by whatever means a new comer secures a share of a limited trade, there must be less left for others to do, and the market price, by which the new comer, on our hypothesis, agrees to abide, will be dragged down by the struggle of these others amongst themselves. Consequently, I think it cannot be pretended that charitable institutions do not compete with commercial workers. They compete in c[uantity, and, if not directly in price, are at any rate the cause of competition in this direction also. And in addition they tend to lower such degree of dignity CABINET-MAKEPiS, ETC. 223 as may belong to the wood-choppers' calling. In the value of these institutions for helping the weak and destitute must be found the justification — possibly quite sufficient — of a cex'tain inevitable dislocation and degradation of trade.* The West End work has been mostly done in factories, but the tendency now is for the charitable institutions increasingly to supply the richer customers^ and in time this part of the trade may perhaps pass entirely into their hands. Factories and institutions are alike able to meet the wants of their customers with large supplies uniform in character. Firewood factories may thus disappear, but home workers, although unable to compete in the whole- sale trade, will probably always remain to supply the wants of their poorer neighbours. Trade Organization. The extent to which the workers in wood are organized is shown in the following table : — Xiimbers in the London Trade (Census 1S91). Name of Trade Society. Membership in London. Remarks. Total. Of whom avf employed males over 20. In each Union. In each Division. 3045 3466 6511 r 2376 - 1271 3647 London General Uni- on of Mill- sawyers and Wood-cutting Machinists (1890). London Society of Woodcutting Ma- chinists and Wood- sawyers (1893). The National Union of Wood-choppers (1884). {Carried for tea rd) 200 50 300 1 ; 250 j oOO 5.50 Out of work and Strike Benetits only. Offers Strike pay only. Had two thousand members in 18E»1 but men are leaving the Trade and the Society also. Union and non- union men work together. Much complaint of the competition of Charities. * Some of the workhouses which used to sell firewood now do so no longer, owing to the very strong feeling on the part of some of the ratepayers aroused by this practice. 224 WOOD WURKEIiS. Numbers in the London Trade (Census ISUI). Total. Of whom are employed males over 20 6511 3647 Nanifi of Trade Society. Menilvership in Loudon. In each Society. 31,867 18,440 - 38,378 22,087 {Brought forward) Alliance Cabinet- makers' Association (1865). Amalgamated Union of Cabinet-makers (1833). Perseverance Cabi-j net-makers' Associa- tion (1882). OlclWestEndLondon JourneymenCabinet- makers'Socy. (1799). Progressive Union of Cabinet-makers (1865). London West End Upholsterers' Trade Society (1894). Amalgamated Union of Upholsterers. Mattress and Palli- asse Makers' Society (1889). Amalgamat'dFrench Polishers' Society. Vauxhall Operative French Polishers' Society (1889). Pianoforte and Cabi- net Polishers'Society {Carried furwarwj 1731 180 50 100 362 2i5 220 115 984 Hc'iiiarks In each Divi.sion. 190 70 550 Gives out of work. Strike, Siek, Death, Travelliutt I Benefits and tool in- surance. 100 Bran- ches, 18 in London. Three scales of subscriptions and benetits. Oilers out of work. Strike, Sick, Death, Superannua- tian, and Travelling Benetits, also tool insurance. 52 Bran- ches, 2 in London. I These Societies 1 j offer out of \vork , Strike, Sick and I Death Benefits, 1 also tool insur- ance. Rules of Perseverance So- ciety like those of AllianceCabinet- J makers. Gives out of .work, Death and J- 4247 jSuper annua tic n Benefits. Exempt from contribu- tions during ill- ness. Formed by amalgamation of two older Societies. T w e n t y - n e Branches, two in London. Gives Dis- pute pay (18s a week and Is for ' each cliild under thirteen years old). Provides out of work, " Calling Out" or Dispute, and Death Benefits. Oilers out of work and Deatli Benelits. Is ab- sorbing the other Polishers' Societies. Out of work Benefit. Has two Branches. .Joining theA.malgamated in ,189.5. Out of work Benefit only. Rules similar to those of the Vauxhall So- ciety. Has a Juve- nile Branch. 4797 CABINET-MAKERS, ETC. 225 Numbers in the IjOiidon Trade (Census ) SOI). Total. Of whom are employed males over 20. Name of Trade Society. Membership in London. In each Society. In each Division. Remarks. 38,378 1723 4311 22,087 1087 2077 3918 2325 2138 913 50,468 28,489 (Broufjht foricard) Wood Carvers.) Cigar-box Makers and Paperers' Trade Union (1890). Amalgamated Gil- ders' Society. Amalgamated Pic- ture-frame Trade Union (1891). Amalgamated So- ciety of Carpenters' and OrnamentalDec- orators of the Com- positionTrade(1891). Amalgamated Plate GlassWorkers'Trade Union (1893). Fancy Cane, Wicker and Bamboo Wor- kers' Union (1891) The London Union of Journeymen Bas ket-makers (1816). (Carried foncard) 146 136 (about) 30 4797 146 45 550 761 65 380 315 6084 VOL. Y Offers out of work. Deatli, and TravellingBenetits. Had a minimum wage (S^fi per hour) but has given it up. Relations with em- ployers cordial. Only Death Bene- fit and relief in distress. To shorten hours of labour is its first object. OlTers out of work. Strike, and Death Benefits. .Maintains a mini- mum of 8c/ per hour, strict as to admis- sion. Financially weak, suspending out of -woi-k bene- fit for a year to increase funds. OHersDeath,Acei- dent, and Dispute Benefits ; exempts from subscription in sickness. Has a minimum list of prices for all grades of beveliers, silver- ers, siders, &c. Seeks to reduce the " hours of toil." Oilers out of work, Strike, and Death money. Special fund for sickness. Admits small masters em- ploying not more than two boys on special terms as ■PartialClearance" members. Union and noa-Union men work together. Out of work, Strike, Sick, Death, & Travelling Bene- fits. Union work with non - union men. No member may do work for or to sell to an em- ployer at home. 15 226 WOOD WOBKERS. Numbers in tlie London Tra / V k \ \, 1 / \ \ / > \, f / < \, 1 / \ \ \ 'y n / N \ V \ / \ \ 1 \ \ 1 > I 1 \ 1 \ 1 \ 1 V \ f \ ' I 1 1 \ \ 1 / \ \ 1 / 1 ^ ^ • / \ \ / s v\ / \\ \ \, 1 s> I % 1- — 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 55 75 60 VOL Y CHAPTER II. CAERIAGE BUILDING, &c. {Section 11.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Enumerated by Families. I Fe- Ceiisus Divisions, "lales. 1S91. ^,1 Atres (1) Coach & Car- ria^f-maker (2) Wheelwriglit (3) Perambulator maker, &c. . . Total. 118 —19 -20—54 55— 89; 4800 2293 6134 3U79 395 gg^ f Males 02(50^ X Females IG Birthplace I ?J\H"?°"^---- t^? !^^1 ' t. Out ol London.. 50% 3525 Industrial [Employer 9% 599 Status i J^mployed 84% 5245 fetatus ••[Neithj.j. 7„/^ 432. Heads of Families, 0270. 734;j 1250 9608 Total Population concerned. In these trades there is rather less than the normal number of young men and some excess at the middle period of life, 35 to 50. As with most industries the diafrram shows a sudden drop in the number employed after the 55th year of age. This tendency is more marked among coach and carriage makers than among wheelwrights. Total. .iverage in family . . Heads of Families. Others occupied. DiSTEIBUTION. Classification. 2762 S. 3484 Numbers living in Famiii Details of Occupations {feoji the Census Dictionary). (1) Draughtsman, body - maker, leather worker, smith, carver, fitter, painter, plater, polisher, lining-sewer, maker, shaft-bender, axle maker. (2) Spoke, axle box, felloe-cutter or bender, tyre smith. (3) Tram-car builder, repairer, barrow, cart, trolly, van, diay, anil waggon builder, cartwright, bath and wheelchair, wheel- barrow and truck-maker. 3 or more to a room 2 & under 3 ,, 1 & under 2 ,, Less than 1 >> \ Moi'e tlian 4 rooms [ 4 or more persons I to a servant . . ) Less than 4 to a ser- vant and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or more servants . . Servants 3786 6913 8225 % 13-0 23-8 28-3 5S 257 29,102 100 Inner. Outer. Together. Crowded . . 49 % 30 % 37 % Not „ ..51 % 70 % 63 % Unoccupied. Servants. Total 257 29,102 Distribution. J Inner 20511 I Outer 573 J f Inner 2463 \ < Outer 5769/ f Inner 899 ) I Outer 4886 j Central Inner 1640 /Inner 652 \ 1 Outer 3132 j (Inner 24171 I Outer 1620/ East . North West . South- East South- west 2024 8233 5785 1640 3784 7037 29,102 Inner 10,122, or 35 % Outer 18,980, or 65% Status as to Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Census Divisions (1S91). Employers. Males. Females (1) Coach, Carriage-maker (2) Wheelwright (3) Tium, Cart, and Perambulator maker Total .393 243 Employed. Under 20. Over 20. 514 333 4865 2286 Females of all ages. 708 Proportion of Employers to Employed-1 to 12 Neither Employer nor Employed. Males Females 304 211 37 552 6134 3079 395 9008 234 WOOD WORKERS. Yan axd Coach Building. Eegarded from a general point of view, the same rules of construction and tlie same divisions of work apply to all wheeled vehicles^, from the coster's barrow to a three-horse van, from a child's perambulator to a four-horse coacb. But the work of making these different vehicles is divided and specialized in various ways. First : there are the broad lines which separate carriages from vans, and heavy vans from light vans or those tradesmen's carts which till an intermediate place between vehicles intended to carry people, and those intended to carry merchandise; and there is a similar division between wheeled chairs or perambu- lators and hand-barrows or trucks. Next, there is the distinction between wheel makers and body-makers, but this partly overlaps the others we have mentioned, as there are establishments solely occupied in the making and repairing of wheels, though dealing with all kinds of wheels; and there are also body-makers who work for the trade in making the body of any kind of cab or carriage, but do not finish the work, though calling themselves carriage builders. Within these limits again the trade is still further specialized ; some manufacturers working for home and others for foreio'n demand — whether at carriages or at cabs. Omnibuses again are a speciality, and railway carriage building a distinct trade ; but railwaj'' carriages and omnibuses are very generally constructed by the companies in their own workshops. Van huilding — to take this first — is an important and growing industry in London, the heavy vans being made by large and old-established firms, while the lighter sort, for which there is a less regular demand, are left to a great extent to small employers. The large firms which under- take heavy work are to be found in east and south-east London, tlie districts of heavy cartage work. The light CARPdAGE BUILDING, ETC. 235 cart work is dispersed all over the metropolis, as are the tradesmen who require vehicles of that kind. The van trade, whether heavy or light, offers at present greater advantages to the workmen than carriage building. The demand is more steady, less affected by the seasons or by depression of trade, and, beyond this, it does not suffer from the system of 'labour contract" with piece masters, which, as will be shown, is the great evil of the coach build- ing business. The different branches of the work are : — (1) Iron workers — smiths and hammer-men or assist- ants. (2) Wood workers — body-makers and wheelers. (Some men learn both branches.) (3) Painters — brush-hands, pickers-out, and letter- writers. The wages range from 33s to 42s for the smiths and skilled wood workers, the hammer-men receive from 22s to 26s. Of the painters, the letter-writers are the most skilled, and are usually only called in when required, receiving lOd to Is an hour. '' Pickers-out " draw the decorative lines, and average from 30s to 3Gs, while the ordinary brush-hands are paid 20s to 26s. The usual hours are 54 per week, being from 6 to 5 or from 7 to 6. Half an hour is alloAved for breakfast, and 1 hour (from 1 to 2) for dinner. An hour or two extra are worked during the busy summer months. Long hours are far more common among small masters than with the large firms, who have standing contracts on which they can fall back in the slack season, or who can work for stock, and so make a full use of their plant, and keep employment fairly even. The small firms have no such chances, but must make hay while the sun shines. Both time and piece-work are found in this trade, the piece-work being carried out under a rather complicated system. A man may sometimes have several jobs in hand. 236 WOOD WORKERS. at once. Eacli of these will liave its own price, and for each a separate account is kept ; so that the week's wages consist of amounts paid according to the estimated value of the work done at each of these several jobs. It is not difficult to value roughly what is done in body making and wheeling, but smith's work is less easy to estimate, on account of the numberless small things of which it consists. Coach hiiilding. — The different branches of coach or carriage building are the same as those of van building, with some elaborations and extensions. Besides smiths and hammer-men, there are fitters or vice-men, who finish off the more delicate iron-work. Among the body-makers there are men whose special duty it is to build up the under part of the carriage upon which the body is sup- ported, and to hang the whole on its springs. These are called ''carriage-makers." Then there are ''trimmers" and "budget-trimmers," of whom the former do the cushions and upholstery, and the latter the leather fittings for hoods, splash-boards and aprons. All these, with wheelers and painters, are generally to be found working under one roof, and perhaps the only class of workmen engaged in carriage making who generally work apart are the tyre-smiths, whose emissaries may often be seen rolling the finished iron-bound wheels back to the shop from which they came. Blacksmiths and wheelers as a rule occupy the basement of a carriage building establishment; the ground floor and part of the first floor are used as showrooms, while the rest of the premises is given up to other branches. The combination, not easy to dispense with, of workshops and showrooms in one locality, and the great space needed for both, coupled with the need of keeping up so large a place of business either in or near the fashionable quarter of the town, make rent a very heavy item in this trade, and when we add to this the uncertainty attaching to the sale of an. CARRIAGE BUILDING, ETC. 237 article so costly, for which there is only a capricious demand, we cannot wonder that the prices charged are high. In London wheels are put together and finished, rather than made throughout. The wood used comes mostly from America, and is sent more and more completely prepared for use, while some wheels are imported ready made."^ The trade is thus a dwindling one. The introduction of rubber tyres for hansom cabs, and the laying down of smoother pavements, increase this tendency, for whereas eighteen months or two years used to be the life of a pair of cab wheels, the new pattern will run three times as long. This applies also relatively to the whole frame of the carriage. The making of a carriage demands great skill. All the wood-work has to be cunningly shaped and morticed on curved lines. Like a ship, it has hardly a straight place or flat surface. The drawings to which the body-makers work involve several sections^ as well as ground plan and devia- tion, all of which a good body-maker must be able to draw to scale and even then much is left to the knowledge or judgment of the handicraftsman. The workmanship must be perfect, and the materials good and well put together, or they could never survive the shocks and jars of which the life and adventui'es of a carriage, and still more of a cab, consist, or stand the daily washing needed. The coach wheeler must not be confounded with the van wheeler, any more than a carriage body-maker with a van body-maker. For carriage wheels, the utmost nicety of finish is demanded, and no little judgment in selecting the wood for each part. The best London-made wheel has its outer rim in six or seven pieces or " felloes '' (pronounced "fellies"). Each felloe is connected with the hub by two spokes ; every hole must be bored true, and every spoke fit exactly in its place, and the felloes, as set together, form an exact circle ready for the tyre. For the * Heavy van and coach wheels are still ahnost altogether made in England. America excels only in the manufacture of light wheels. -233 WOOD WORKERS. putting on of tlie tyre tlie wheel is bound down tiglitlj, the hot iron ring is dropped over it, and then the whole is slowly immersed, revolving as it dips into the cold water. The iron rim contracts as it cools, and, in contracting, binds the whole together. The painting of carriages is no less perfect than their construction. There may be five or six coats of paint and varnish on a van, but on a carriage there will be as many as nineteen or twenty, and the utmost care has to be taken to avoid injury by dust during the finishing processes. "When the body of paint is sufficient, and has been once or twice varnished, it is smoothed down with pummice powder till a perfect surface is obtained, and then the carriage and the men employed on it are shut up in a dust-proof com- partment — a sort of glass case — for the laying on of the last coats of colour and varnish. The ''picking out" with coloured lines is also fine work, and heraldic painting still more so. The individual piece-work system which obtains in -van building, according to which each man undertakes a series of jobs, being paid so much, week by week as the work progresses, and the balance of the agreed sum on completion, has developed in carriage building into a system of " piece masters " — some one leading man taking the contract, and makino- his own terms with those who work with him. All materials are provided by the employer, and all work is done on the employer's premises, and thus under his inspection, but he has no direct relation with the men employed by the piece master, has generally no knowledge of what they are paid, and sometimes keeps no record even of their numbers. He has merely to satisfy himself as to the quality of the work done, and to see that the total amount earned covers the sum drawn weekly on account. This system is doubtless efficient and saves trouble in superintendence and office Avork, but for various reasons is not altogether satisfactory to the employers, and is disliked CARRIAGE BUILDING, ETC. 239 by the men as leading oi' likely to involve " sweating " and "slave driving." It also intensifies the evils of irregularity of employment, as the piece master has no inducement, nor indeed any power, to " find work " for his men in seasons of slackness. Under a piece master the tenure by which men hold their work is practically limited to the job in hand, and an evident result of this insecurity of tenure is found in the extent to which men shift from shop to shop. Carriage builders of the highest class make all they sell and every part of it themselves, and the best carriages of all are made entirely in London in this way; but some leading firms have also factories in the country where rather cheaper work is done, especially in making pony carts. Other carriage builders, less particular, are accustomed to put out part of the work, as, for instance, the body-making, to firms who "work for the trade," and by employing improvers from the country, at low wages, are able to produce more cheaply. The vehicles are painted by the employing firms and sold as their own make. It is also said that country carriages, bought by the trade in London, are resold to the public as London made. In addition to coach and carriage builders proper, there are many small repairing establishments amongst the mews, where the building or putting together of a cab may be undertaken. In the aggregate, a considerable number of men are thus employed and get constant work, though at rather below the standard I'ates. These men are usually paid by time, as piece-work is not adapted to the business undertaken in these small shops. Thus we find a curious reversal of the almost general rule that small masters give the most irregular employment. The piece master system makes it difiicult to obtain an exact account of wages earned in carriage building. It may, however, be fairly assumed that the work is paid in proportion to the high skill required. Our best information comes from the trades unions, and will be given later. It 240 WOOD WORKERS. shows rates varying from 28s to 49s, the largest proportion earning from SOs to 36s a week. The smiths are paid the most, averaging nearly 40s; the average pay in other branches varies from 31s to 35s. These wages are for a full working week, and a deduction of at least 10 per cent, must be made to arrive at a correct average for the whole year, including short time and holidays. They also refer rather to the cream of the trade. Painters have more short time and more overtime than any other branch, for the work of smartening carriages up comes mostly in spring or summer. The hours throughout the trade are 54 or 55 i — usually from 7 to 7, and till 1 on Saturdays. Two hours are allowed for meals, viz. 8.30 to 9 breakfast, 1 to 2 dinner, 4.30 to 5 tea. The trade is a healthy one (except as regards some of the painting), and loss of capacity does not come early. Both van and carriage builders have their slack and busy season, the busy time for both being- from March to October, but, as has been said, in van building the large firms contrive as a rule to keep going all the year round by turning to standing contracts or working for stock, while in small establishments, especially, repair work gives a measure of constancy to the employment afforded. Some of the men in small establishments, especially the wheelwrights, work under very uncomfortable, if not insanitary conditions, in back-yard workshops. ''A dung hill will do for a wheelwright to work on" is an old country saying, and mutatis mutandis applies in London also. As far as London is concerned, there is neither in van building nor carriage building any regular system of apprenticeship, or the training of boys in any form. Not many boys are employed at present, though, wherever machinery is introduced, a change takes place in this respect. The London trade is fed from the provinces. Young men who have seen the general course of work in some pro- C ARE! AGE BUILDING, ETC. 241 vincial, or even quite small village, shop, where apprentice- sliip frequently obtains, find employment as improvers; taking low wages until they have picked up enough of London style to better themselves. Some of these are employed in all the shops and factories, but most, as we have hinted, find a place in establishments that " work for the trade,'' and cheaj)en their product by using much of this kind of labour. In shops of this style, at any rate, it does not by any means follow that the work will be bad. The master is probably himself a highly skilled man, and his superintendence of every part which, he does not himself do, is close and unremitting. But in the large shops, where improvers are employed to any extent, the work does suffer. Improvers, during their period of probation, have to acquire a complete kit of tools, which, for body-making especially, are very expensive, costing, it may be, £20, or even £30. The amount of capital sunk in tools, and the charges for renewals, are not always sufiiciently regarded in considering the position and remuneration of some kinds of skilled labour. There is little or no foreign competition, excepting in the importation of Avheels or parts of wheels from America. The product is too bulky, and thorough workmanship too essential, to encourage it. From Belgium alone is there any importation of cheap carriages. There is, however, sharp competition with some provincial firms, which at one time seriously threatened the London van trade, and have almost obtained a monopoly of the manufacture of light carts and pony traps. Railway Caeeiage Building. Although all the greatest railway carriage works are out of London, the majority of London shops being engaged on repairs rather than on actual building, a considerable VOL. V. IG 242 WOOD WORKERS. number of men are, nevertheless, employed liere on this work by the various Companies. Railway work approaches more nearly to regular machine- using factory industry than the rest of this section. One or two of the leading private carriage builders, and van builders in an increasiug degree, employ machinery to some extent for cutting their wood- work ; the building of private carriages is, however, too varied in character to be anything but a hand industry, and belongs to that (in London) large class of trades which stand by old ways and successfully defy the modern spirit. Railway work, how- ever, is different, being a constant repetition of the same processes, and therefore capable of greater use of machinery and more perfect organization. The system of payment adopted in London for railway work may be called "joint piece-work." The price for the work to be done is fixed for and with a group of men, without the intervention of any piece master, and the functions of superintendence are assumed by ''chargemen," — that is, men in charge of the job — under the general oversight of foremen, who do not share at all in the price but are paid wages. The foreman fixes the amount to be drawn weekly as the work proceeds by each individual worker, any surplus being paid over when the job is finished. This plan has worked successfully for some years. As to price paid for each job, it is usually adjusted so as to leave, under ordinary circumstances, 15 to 25 per cent, upon the total wages for division. The initial wages are rather below those in the outside trade, but the employment is very regular, and the men grow old in the service of the Company. Thus the service is liked, and the Companies can choose their men ; the result is that they give the preference to young men — taking on as boys sons of men already in their employ — and in some cases refuse altogether to take on men over thirty-five, as less profitable servants and less able to fit in with their schemes CARRIAGE BUILDING, ETC. 243 of superannuation ov sick benefit. It is complained, also, that some Companies employ and train more boys than they need as men, and so lielp to flood the labour market. One other advantage should be mentioned as connected witli the service of the Railway ComjDanies. It is tliat of special cheap fares over the line of the employing Company. This means greater freedom in the choice of a dwelling, and often a saving in rent. Two or three Companies have lately joined in granting reciprocity to each other's employees in this respect, and thus extended considerably the advantage mentioned. Peeambulatoe Making. The making of perambulators and children's mail-carts is the last trade in this section. It is carriage building in miniature. There are exactly the same sub-divisions in the work — body-makers, smiths, fitters, painters and trimmers — everything except wheelwrights, for the wheels (usually of iron) come from Birmingham. The men who fix the body on the springs are, however, more appropriately termed " hangers,^' instead of " carriage-makers," as in the large trade. The work throughout is of course lighter, and is far less skilled than that employed on carriages or vans. A very ordinary carpenter, for instance, is fully qualified to make a perambulator body, and would quickly learn to do it, and the painting and trimming are, comparatively speaking, very common work. The smith alone may be termed a highly skilled man, for, although not requiring the science of a carriage-smith, the light iron-work for the springs and frames of these diminutive vehicles calls for a certain delicacy of handling which an ordinary blacksmith could not supply. The system of work varies — in some houses we find piece masters, in others individual piece-work, and in some VOL. V. IG "^ 244 WOOD WORKEES. again day-work or a mixture of time and piece. There is no rule. Occasionally women do all the trimming; the finishing of curtains, aprons, &c.j is always left to them. The character of the work turned out varies immensely, and with it the wages, which in some cases may be as high as that of regular carriage builders, but more commonly is on a decidedly lower level. The great development of the business, the spread of the use of the "pram" downwards amongst all grades of society, has made cheapness so essential that highly paid work cannot be employed for this class of carriage. Not only is the pay less, but even more than in carriage building, the emplo3"ment is an affair of seasons. There is a rush of work in the spring, beginning in February or March, and lasting through the summer till August, after which the slack period gradually comes on, culminating in November, when one-third of the hands needed in busy times are out of woi*k. The young hands are thrown out, and are generally taken on again when the busy season returns. There is an export trade to the Colonies and India, and also, though to a decreasing extent, to the Continent. CARRIAGE BUILDING, ETC. 245 Trades Unions. The Trades Unions connected witli tliis section ai-e as follows : — Numbers in the London Trade (Ceusus 1891). Total. Of whom are employed males over 20. 6134 3079 395 9608 4885 2286 197 7348 Name of Trade Society. r The United Kingdom Society of Coach makers (1834). Jlember.ship in Loiuiou. In each Society. iThe London Coach- makers' TradeUnion j(1824). JThe Coach-makers' Federal Union 1(1894). MThe London United j Society of Wheel- wrights, Black- :Smiths, Painters,! and Hammer-men ,(1886). I Loyal Free Indus-! trious Society ofi Wheelwrights and Blacksmiths (1877). ! Coach Wheel Wrights' •Society (1835). I iSmithsandVieemen, ^{Perambulators, d'c] 437 In each Division Remarks. 220 100 400 62 50 62 757 >574 Out of work. Strike, and Death Benefits. Pension forafjed. Has four branches in Lon- don. Total mem- bership in United Kingdom, 5584. Union and non- union men work together. One branch consists of railway men. Out of work and Death Benefits and Pension. Union and non - union men work together. Admits all classes of Coach-makers. Out of work. Strike, and Acci- dent money. Com- pensation for loss f)f tools. Union and non - union men work together. Four branches in London. Head Society in Bolton, founded 1830. Has twenty. [three branches in United Kingdom. Out of work. Death, and Super- annuation Benefits. Out of work. Death, Accident Benefits. Compen- sation for loss of tools. Cannot en- force price list. Pension. 1331 246 WOOD WORKERS. Tlius out of a total number of 9608 in the section, there are 7348 employed males over 20^ of whom 1331 are organized, or 18 per cent. There is also an Association amongst employers which takes the form of a Benefit Society for widows and orphans of coach-builders left in distressed circumstances. It serves to bring the employers together and thus forms a trade organization for them. Subscriptions to the Men's Societies vary from Is per week (U. K. S.) to 6s 6d a quarter (United Society of Wheelwrights and Blacksmiths). The Coach-makers give out of work benefit for as much as a year : 18s for the first three months, lO^- for the second, 6s for the third, and 4s for a further three months if a man has been a member for three years; it devotes less to other forms of benefit. The Coach Wheelwrights only provide out-of-work pay for thirteen weeks at 2s a day, but give a pension of 4s after thirty years' membership, and allow their pensioners to earn up to 12s per week. The Societies, except the U. K. S., which has a voluntary fund, give no sick benefits beyond the negative one of exemption from contributions. Death money vai-ies from £2 to £10, in accordance with the length of membership, and half the sum is usually given at the death of a member's first wife. Pensions are rather a peculiar feature among these Societies — no fewer than four of them make provision for old members, varying from 2s 6d to 8s per week. Accidents leading to total incapacity are provided for by a lump sum varying from £5 to £50 : and money is given for loss of tools by fire, if not due to the member's own carelessness. The greater number of the Societies are in federation with the United Kmgdom Society, but the tie is a loose one, as the London men seem to fear being " bossed " by the Head society in Liverpool. Neither separately nor collectively are the Societies strong, and the employers are CARRIAGE BUILDINO, ETC. 247 Tiardlj conscious of their existence. This applies how- ever to London onlj^, for in the north of England the union appears to be large and powerful. Those that have a price list at all do not enforce it. No distinct methods of training are recognized by them, and union will always work with non-union men. Wages Statistics. In these trades 7348 adult men are employed, and we have information as to earnings for 685, employed by eighteen firms as under : — Coach and carriage builders G ^ =18 firms usually employing848 Eailway carriage builders 2 Coach ironmongers Van and cart builders 3 Van builders and wheelwrights ... 2 Perambulator makers 2 ^ ists, saddlers, lock-fitters, &c. The earnings of these men in an average week are as follows : — u persons, of whom 737 are adult males, but 52 of these belong to other sections, as sawyers, car- penters, joiners, wood-machin- Below 20s 56, or 8 per cent. 20s to 25s 180 „ 26 25s „ 30s 115 „ 17 30s „ 35s 148 „ 211 35s „ 40s 98 „ 141 40s „ 45s 54 „ 8 45s and upwards... 34 ,, 5 Below 30s, 51 per cent. 30s and upwards, 49 per cent. 685 ,,100 These figures may be compared with the returns made to the Board of Trade, in 1886, from twelve firms, employing 308 persons, of whom 254 count as male adults in this section. Under 20s. 20s to 25s. 25s to 30s. 30s to 35s. 35s to 40s. 40s to 45s. 4.5s and over. Our returns Board of Trade returns 8 7o H 7o 1 26 7o 51 7o 23^ 7o 17 7o 1 17 7o 21J7o 17 7o 144 7ol 8 7„ 49 7o 17 7o |17i7o 5 7o 42 7o 58 7o 218 WOOD WORKERS. The differences between the two returns are caused, partly, by the fact (already mentioned) that the Board of Trade return is for a ''full week's ordinary wages," whereas our figures show ''actual money earned" — hence H per cent, under 20.s as compared to 8 per cent. ; and partly by the railway carriage builders, from whom the Board of Trade had no return, and amongst whom (as we have seen) a large proportion earn less than 30.^. There has actually been a rise in wages since 188G. As regards the carriage builders, the returns are incom- plete, by reason of piece workers, whose money is paid over to the leading men, with the result, already referred to, that no record exists in the books of the exact numbers who share the total sum. As to regularity of employment, the difference between busy and slack weeks is returned as follows : — Busy. Percentage Reductions. Slack. In numbers. In earnings per head. Com- bined. 202 116 354 102 102 299 491 12^ 15i 4 10 21i 51 204 331 (The above figures include all employees — men, women or boys — whatever their work.) The Board of Trade returns place the busiest weeks in January, March, April, May, July, August, September and October ; particularly in July. The slackest weeks appear in November, December and January. These dates point very clearly to established seasons. Only ninety-four females are returned as employed in these trades, and they seem mainly to be connected with perambu- lator work. Carriage trimming is done by men. It appears probable, however, that here, as elsewhere, the census understates the amount of female labour, for our returns include forty women and girls. Their earnings vary from CAIiRIAGE BUILDING, ETC. 249 2s to 18s. The earnings of GO per cent, are not above 10.^, and 30 per cent, make not more than 5s. The 40 per cent, who earn lis or more include 10 per cent, with 15s or more. Of boys, the census counts 897, and our returns speak for seventy-one of them. Their pay ranges from 5s to 19s, no doubt according to age ; we find them workhig with wheelwrights, carriage-smiths, and painters. Social Condition. Of the 7348 adult males employed in carriage building, about 5240 are counted in the census as heads of families, and are the men whose earnings and social condition we are attempting to determine ; — Comparison of Earnings with Style of Life {Carriage Builders) . Earnings of sample tested* Classification of population. Below 20s... 56, or 8 per cent. 3 or more in each room , 3800, or 14^ per cent. 20s to 25s... 180 „ 26 „ 2 to 3 6900 „ 261 25s „ 30s.. .115 ,, 17 1 „ 3 8200 „ 32 30s „ 35s.. .148 „ 211 „ Less than 1 ,, ^ 35s „ 40s... 98 40s ,, 45s... 54 „ 14.J „ ,. 8 „ More than 4 rooms 4 or more persons to - 7100 ,, 27 45s and over 34 „ 5 1 servant , 685 „ 100 „ Famihes with females 26,000 „ 100 heads Employers' families . 3100 and servants 29,100 According to the sample tested, 34 per cent, earn in an ordinary week less than 25s, besides being out of work, more or less, in winter, and may be compared with the 41 per cent, who live more or less crowded in their homes. * It is to be remembered that the jDarticulars of earnings were in this case furnished by the Trades Union oflicials, and not by the employers. 250 WOOD IVOnKEES. Next, 38 per cent, earn from 25.9 to ob.^ «w r \ 1 \ 1 > ; 1 \ 1 \ 1 \ 1 > .^--^ [ 1 \^ -"^ \ 1 <^^ \ \ 1 ; \ \ 1 / \ \ ' / \ \ / \ \ / \ f^ / \ \ --v \ \ / \ \ 1 \ \ 1 > L \ 1 \ \ 1 \ 1 k 1 \ \, 1 ' ^ V \, 1 \ \ 1 1 \ \, 1 / \ \, / / 1 V \, / \ \ / V \, / \ ^ / \ / V ] N Agei^. 10 15 20 75 30 35 *0 45 50 55 60 G5 70 75 80 VOL. V CHAPTER III. COOPERS, etc. (Section 12.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. ('onsiis Divisions, isyi. (1) Cooper — (2) Lathrender Total.. . Fe- males. All Ages. Males. 19 20— 54 55— 2392 235 322 2(527 3300 295 638 359.1 From 45 to 55 is the leading aire for coopers, and tew young men are entering the trade. An excess of elderly men, siicli as tlie diagram .shows, is generally a sure sign of a declining nidustry, though iu this i-ise. it may result partly from the strict limit set by the trades unions as to number of boys allowed to be employed. Enumerated by Families. Se.'c f Males . . . •• ■■ \ Females f In London 3G. „. ,, , I in L/onaon 69% 1771 Birthplace j ^^^ ^^ London . . 31 % 80U T 1 -. • I ("Employer 6% 151 Industrial ) £,„pioyed 90 % 2321 btatus . . ^ ^^either 4% 99' Heads of Families, 2571. Total Population concerned. Total Heads of Families. Average in i family , . I Others Occupied. Cl-^ssification. Unoccupied. Servants. Total. 2-69 12,445 •02 4-84. Distribution. Distribution. 30(35 X. IW, & c. 1408 Total. Details of Occupations (from the Census Dictionary). (1) Hoop-maker, bender, stave-maker, dealer, wet-cooper, dry cooper, vat builder, bucket-maker, (2) Wooden fence and hurdle-maker. Nxtnibers living in Familie 3 or more to a room 1413 2 & under 3 ,, 1 «fc under 2 , , Less than 1 >< \ More than 4rooms I 4 or more persons f to a servant . . j Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant and 4 or more to 2 servants All others with 2 or more servants . . Servants % 11-4 24-5 29-9 4130 33-2 49 12 54 12,'t45 Crowded. Not „ . Inner 38% 62% Outer. Together. 33% 36% C7% 64% East .. North West , , Central South- East South- west f Inner 3367 \ 1 Outer 1367 / ( Inner 68 \ \ Outerl077 j f Inner 96 "I t Outer 441 J Inner 430 Hnner 17161 \ Outer 1862 J f Inner 1105 \ ■(.Outer 916/ 4731. 1145 5.^7 430 3578 2021 12,445 Inner 0782, or 54% Outer5663, or46% Status as to Employment {according to Census Emcmeration) . Census Divisions (1801). Employed. Xeither Employer nor Employed. Males. Females of Total. Male.s, Females Under 20.1 Over 20. all ages. Males.] Females (1) Cooper, hoop-maker, bender (2) Lath, wooden fence, hurdle-maker 139 17 1 303 19 2744 234 6 106 25 1 3300 295 Total 1.56 1 322 2978 6 131 1 3595 157 Proportion of ] 3.306 Employers to Employed-1 to 21 132 252 WOOD WORKERS. Introductory. Coopering is the industry concerned -svitli the manufacture and repair of casks and barrels. A barrel is a very ancient device, and one of peculiar perfection. Both from within and without its form gives it a great power of resistance to pressure and a maximum of capacity : and further, it can be rolled and moved easily from place to place, either when lying on its side, or if slightly tilted. Coopers live and work all over London, but are to be found in their greatest numbers in the east, south-east, and south-western districts. There are, roughly speaking, two kinds of casks — those which hold liquids and those which hold solids — and according as they manufacture the one or the other, coopers fall into two classes : (1) Wet coopers, employed on casks for wine, beer or spirits, &c., and (2) Dry coopers, who make those used for packing bottled ales, cement and other articles not liable to leak. AVet Coopers. Wet, or " tight " coopers as they are often called, are the most skilled workers in the ti'ade. They have to make a cask that is both water-tight and capable of resisting the searching forces of fermentation. Procefloyed males over 20. Xanie of Trade Society. Membership in London. In each Society. In each Division. The London Philan-I thropic Society of Coopers (1821).* i 700 2714 234 The Loudon Hand in-Hand Society of Coopers (1824). ' The London Amal-' gamated Society of Coopers (1889). The Hoo2)-benders Philanthro]>ic Trade Society (1806). I The Lath - renders'] Trade Society, 1892. 200 400 >1315 3595 2978 107 OtTer Benefits. Enforce price list and Apprentice- ship. Union will not woik with non- union men. Kela- tions with masters rather strained ow- ing to introduc- tion of machinery. Number of appren- tices limited. Olfer Benefits. In case of dispnt« arbitrate on regular system. Relations with masters good. Give Pension. Only Strike and Death money given. Equal number of masters and men settle disputes. Very friendly with masters. Out of work. Sick, Death, and Pension Benefits. Union and non- union men work together. Offers dispute pay 107 o'^^y- 1422 Thus out of a total of 3300 persons engaged in the coopering and hoop-bending industry, 2 744 are journeymen over 20 years of age, and of this number 1315, or 48 per cent., are members of a trade organization ; while of the lathrenders 107 out of 234 are organized. There is also a London Master Coopers' Association, * Since writing the above we understand that this Society was allowed to lapse on October loth, 1894. A new Union has, however, been organized in its place under the title of " The United Society of Coopers." 2G4 WOOD WORKERS. and an Association of the Foremen and Permanent Coopers employed at the Docks. Subscriptions to the Men's Societies range from 4cl to lOd weekly, and presumably benefits vary accordingly, but the Coopers' Societies were not willing to state exactly the amounts offered. The "Philanthropic" and the " Hand-in-Hand," or Molasses Coopers' Society, are the two oldest and most powerful of all those mentioned above. The first is composed entirely of tight coopers, and insists effectively that all their members shall have served a seven years' apprenticeship ; the second admits both tight and dry coopers, and is not so strict on the apprenticeship question. The " Amalgamated " was first started in 1889 to organize all the lower branches of coopers not admitted by the other two Societies. The rundlet coopers are the backbone of this Society, which has two branches in London and another in Rochester. Oil, lead, and cement coopers, and the extra men. at the Docks also belong to it. This Society was received with great coolness by the other two upon its formation, but has since been admitted to the Mutual Association. All three Societies have onb or more price lists of their own, aiid are strongly in favour of settling new prices and disputes by the mutual agreement of an equal number of masters and men. They meet every qviarter to discuss any question of interest to the trade, and it is the duty of each secretary in turn to call a meeting. The "M. A.," or Mutual Association, is a federation of nearly all the Coopers' Societies in the kingdom. It was instituted in 1878, and has a total membership of 5499 persons (November, 1893). Each branch is totally inde- pendent as to rules and customs, but members of any branch are received at once by other branches, provided they are willing to conform to the rules of the locality in which they settle. Each year a town is chosen as the head COOPERS. 265 centre for the M. A., and the brancli in this town appoints the general secretary for the year^ and its executive acts as the executive of the Federation. At irregular intervals a congress is held, to which delegates are sent, and every quarter reports, forwarded from the different branches, are collated and printed in a summary issued by the general secretary for the year. The small Hoop-benders' Society is now purely philan- thropic in its aims. It is the third Society of its kind; the first apparently began in 1800, but it has not been found possible to verify this date. The lathrenders used (1890) to form part of the Gas- workers' Union, but decided in 1892 to set up for them- selves. Their members are mostly those employed on better class work in the West End. In the East End of London they have not been able to make any way. At the Docks, pensions are given to those coopers who are superannuated. Wages Statistics. Of the 2978 adult males employed, wo have information as to earnings for 367 employed by sixteen firms as under : — General Coopers 9^ =16 firms usuallj- employing 411 Brewers and Wine Coopers 4 I persons, of whom 384 are adult White Coopers 2 [males, but 17 of these belong to Oil Coopers Ij other sections, as carmen, &c. The earnings of these men in an average week are as follows : — Below 205 13, or 4 percent. 20s to 255 16 „ 4 25s „ 30s 75 „ 20J 30s „ 35s 77 „ 21 35s „ 40s 108 „ 29J 40s „ 45s 39 „ 10^ 45s and upwards... 39 ,, 10^ 367 ,,100 } Below 30s, 28i per cent. J [-30s and upwards, 71i^ per cent. I J 266 WOOD WOBKERS. Five finns^ employing an average of 174 persons^ made separate returns for busy and slack weeks. These show a slight difference in earnings — 33s average in slack as compared to 34s in busy weeks ; the numbers employed falling off nearly 15 per cent. The lads employed earn from 5s to 1 7s per week, the largest proportion being paid about lOs. Social Condition. 2320 of the adult men employed in these trades are counted as heads of families^ and are the men whose earnings and social condition we are attempting to determine. According to the sample tested only 8 per cent, of the employees earn in an ordinary way less than 25s a week, but 38 percent, of the population with which we are dealing live under more or less crowded conditions. On the other hand, we find 41 per cent, earning from 25s to 35s, as compared to 32 per cent, of the upper working class living with one or two persons in each room, and 50 per cent, earning 25s or more as compared to 30 per cent, of the central class as follows : — Comparison of Earnings with Style of Life {Coopers). Earnings of samjile tested. Classification of population. Below 20s... 13, or 4 per cent. 20s to 25s... 16 ,, 4 25s „ 30s... 75 „ 20J „ 30s „ 35s... 77 „ 2l" „ 35s „ 40s... 108 „ 29J „ 40s „ 45.V... 39 „ loj „ 45s and over 39 ,, lOJ „ 3 or more in each rooi 2 to 3 1 „ 2 Less than 1 ,, j More than 4 rooms 1 4 or more persons f to 1 servant j Employers' families and servants ii, 1400, or 12 per cent 3000 ,, 26 „ 3750 „ 32 „ 3550 „ 30 „ 367 „100 „ 11,700 ,,100 „ 700,, 12,400 The great discrepancy between these figures points to COOPERS. 267 the existence of a large class of casually employed men not represented, and perhaps impossible to represent, in such returns as ours. Men who call themselves coopers, but whose skill does not go beyond the rough patching of a broken tea-chest; or men broken down by age or ill- health who have not energy enough to leave a decaying* trade; or skilled men of irregular life irregularly employed, of whose high wages a large part never reaches their home. If indeed, as seems probable, many of the tea coopers have yielded to the temptation of ranking themselves socially somewhat higher than they have a right to, and have returned themselves as " coopers " pure and simple, then we have at once to deal with a considerable number of men who are in receipt of dockers' wages only, and who, when not actually coopering, are employed as wharf labourers. Their work, which consists in unfastening and nailing up the boxes in which tea is imported, requires but little skill, and can be learnt in seven or eight days. Regular men so employed can be certain of 24s per week throughout the year. In winter they may expect to make rather more than 'lis owing to the prevalence of overtime, but this again is balanced by short time in summer. Below the regular men there are a good many who cannot find work at all, except in winter, and in summer must seek it elsewhere, and take their chance of finding employment in the building or other summer industries. Coopers proper, are, as we have seen, apt to change from situation to situation, therefore they do not often live near where they work, unless indeed they belong to the few who may happen to have a practically permanent berth in a brewery. As to meals, they either bring their dinner with them or buy something in the immediate neighbour- hood of the cooperage, which they then warm or cook over a fire of wood shavings in the spacious " chimney corner,'^ where, during work hours, the barrels are trussed 2G8 WOOD WORKERS. up. So^ too^ they make their own tea or cotluc in the afternooD, and generally use a publican's quart can for the purpose. As they are mostly piece workers they are at liberty to go out during the day and probably not infrequently obtain further refreshment at the neighbour- ing "bar.'' In some cases the presence of a good ''public" or " coffee-house " will induce them to feed out altoarether : for, as a rule, men are willing to pay rather more for their dinner in return for the increased comfort, change of scene, or chance of reading a newspaper which is thus afforded. This mode of life undoubtedly involves extra expense, and less money finds its way to the home. Thus many converging reasons explain the discrepancy between the average wages of the men for whom we have the information and the general social condition of those who call themselves coopers. There is nothing unusual or expensive in a cooper's dress. Aprons of moleskin or leather are general, and in breweries, or in the docks, overalls of the same material are worn. Nearly all the men employed in shops are members of their trade society, and a good number of those outside also, while most men, whether unionists or non-unionists, belong to some other clubs (shop clubs, nlate clubs, benefit societies, &c.) which will absorb from l** Gd to 2s of their weekly earnings. Wives of skilled men need not earn mone}", but out of the body of coopers there would seem to be a large number (calculated by a practical cooper as over 30 per cent.) whose wives do actually contribute more or less towards the expenses of housekeeping by their needle or by washing, or the keeping of a shop, or in other ways. (For explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) Ages. 10 u- (13) Shipwrights (Wood). Diagram showing ages of Shipwrights (Wood), and of the whole occupied popu- — ^ "■/ Whole of occupied in London. (See remarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) 1 n jk /\ Sv \ \ ^ V \ \ \ / y > / \ V / v \ / \ \ / \ A \ 1 ^ y ^ \ 1 1\ \ \ ' V V ^ \ \ \> X \ \ V \ \ \ \ \ \ > L \, \ \, \ \, \ \ ^ V \ \ \ \ \ \ \ 1 s. \ \ \ \ ; \ \ V N )- 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V CHAPTER lY. SHIPWEIGHTS, BAEGE AND BOAT BUILDEES. (Section 13.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Census Divisions. ISOl. 1 ) Shipwright (Wood)...... 2) Shiprigger, Sail-maker . . Fe- males. All Ages. Males. Enumerated by Families. Total 180i 1023 53 506 271 1481 195 779 Sex /Males 1G9G. ■ '( Females D- *i 1 fin London 60% lOii. Bn-thplaee-^Q^^^^j London.. 40% 688 T , J. • 1 /Employer 7% 116 Industrial f j,,^l^l^>g^ 89% 1523 htatus . . ^ >;gither 4 % 65 ■ Heads of Families, 1704. TOTIX 32 2.33 1529 466] 2360 Total Population conceened. Here we have the sure .signs of a decaying ■ade. There are oonsiderahly more men at 4.5 ) 55 years of age than at any other period of fe, and as many over 6.'5 as between 20 and 25. his is true of each division. (.^Vc diagram.) Total Average in family.. Heads of Families. 1704 1 Others Unoccupie L 1 V 1 \ \ 1 > ^ V V \ \ : \ 1 <\ 1 \\ 1 \\ 1 \ \. v\ \\ 1 \ 1 > : 1 V « X > k X \ i V N )- 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V CHAPTER I. ENGINEEKING, lEON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. (Section 14.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Census Divisions, 1S91. Fe- males All Ages. (1) Engine and Alachine-niaker (■2)Fitter& Turner (3) Weighing 51a- chines. Bicycles, &c (4) Boiler-maker. (5) Shipwright, Iron Total.. 19 20—54 55— 1656 1078 5563 7431 1750 2088 199 3945 18403 2447 24994 634' 7988 7611 9270 273 2574 281 2856 The proportions at each age-period are those of a normally healthy and perma- nent trade. The average agrees closely with t hat of occup ied London. {See diagram.) DiSTEIBUTION. E. 1 N. W.&C. S. Total. 6048 3190 2767 12,989 24,994 Details of Occupations (from the Census Diction.^ry). (1) Fire, gas, hydraiihc, locomotive, marine, and stationary engine-maker; paper, printing and other machinery ; machinist, planer, slotter, screwer, shaper, borer, di'iller.finisher ; machine-tool maker ; ord- nance, gun carnage, and torpedo-maker. (2) Erector, litter-up. (3) Millwright, measuring machine, gas-meter, and domestic machinery makers. (4 and 5) Gas-retort maker ; pattern-maker, shipsmith, plater, rivetter, angle-iron- smith, caulker, driller, helper, holder- up, boiler tuber, chipper, finisher. Enumerated by Families. Sex f Males 15,449. iFemales 35* T.i,,i,,„i„„„ f In London 49 % Bu thplace | Q^^ ^^ London . . 51 % ' Employer 5 % . E mployed 92 % ■ ■ i Neither 3 % 7531 7953 1 Industrial Status 777 14,197 I 510/ Heads of Families, 15,481. Total Population concerned. Total Average in family.. Heads of Families. Others Occupied. 13,662 Classification. N^i.mhcrs living in Families. 3 or more to a room 5792 2 & under 3 ,. 14,141 1 & under 2 „ 20,982 Less than 1 ,, "j More than 4 rooms I ,^n ..^, 4 or more persons f '' ' to a servant . . I Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant, and 4 or more to 2 servts. 834 AU others with 2 or more servants . . 314 Servants 882 72,401 8-0 19-5 28-9 40-9 1-2 100 Crowded Not „ Inner. Outer. Together. . 43% 22% 27% . 57% 78% 73% Unoccupied, 42,373 Servants. •06 Total. Distribution. East.. I North I West I Central South- f Eastl South-/ West! Inner 68741 Outer 11048 J Inner 1155 \ Outer 7450 i Inner 789 1 Outer 3633 j Inner 2428 Inner 29661 Outer 21307 j Inner 62071 Outer 8544 J 17,922 8605 4-122 2428 24,273 14,751 72,401 Inner 20,419, or 28 % Outer 51,982, or 72 % Status as to Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Employed. Neither Employer nor Employed. Census Divisions (1S91). Males. Females of all ages. Total. Males. Females' Under 20. Over 20. Males. Females 432 22 48 77 142 36 24 66 4 2 2 1 1656 17 1078 123 310 47 487 227 5513 298 8054 632 383 181 2319 1964 125 6 5 30 9 252 14 90 64 81 93 26 39 6 2 1 6 7988 (2) Fitter, turner (engine and machine) . . / Millwright Weighing and measuring apparatus (3) ■ Bicycle, tricycle-makers Spinning, agricultural and domestic V machine-makers (41 Boiler-maker (5) Shipwright, ship, barge builder (iron) .351 927(t 906 922 395 2856 2.306 847 9 3945 19,344 175 659 15 24,994 Total 856 Proportion of E 23,464 niployers to Employed-1 to 27 674 i 291 METAL WORKERS. Review of the Trades. For some years past the tendency tlarougliout tlie en- gineering and metal trades has been for London to become more and more exclusively a repairing shop. Each year the quantity of new work turned out becomes smaller, and the reason for this is not far to seek. Circumscribed for space, with heavier rent, rates and taxes, greater cost of labour, and in most cases more to pay for carriage of raw material, the London manufacturer finds himself severely handicapped in competing for work with his provincial rivals of the North and Midlands, and as, despite some slight reaction, it is still the fashion to buy in the cheapest market, the proportion of general contract work which falls to the Londoner is very small. Indeed, it may be asserted roundh' that even for work which is to be used in London it is only under some special condition that a hond fide metropolitan manufacturer can secure the order. Either the work is required in a great hurry, or for some other reason must be made on the spot, or else the firm holds a particular patent, or commands, by reason of its long standing and superior work, a practical monopoly in some exceptional class of goods. Thus two large London houses report that they have, in the midst of a general depression, been work- ing at high speed. One of these has a speciality in the manufacture of torpedo boats for British and Foreign Governments ; and the other makes a class of printing- machines for which there is a great demand at high prices and for Avhich it retains the patents. The work to be done on the spot is of a very varied character, comprising a little of everything and not much of anything-. It consists mostly of orders of a limited (often very limited) character — quantities so small that it is not worth while to send elsewhere, or designs which the inventor re- ({uires executed under his own supervision. Anything not specially protected, and for which there is any sort of a wide ENGINEEUING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AXD BOILER MAKING. 295 demand, is almost sure to be Diade in tlie provinces or abroad, and this applies equally to large and small work — to engines^ macliinery, and iron sliips^ as well as to domestic implements, utensils and cutlery. In tlae iron-sliip building trade the Thames, formerly so noted for its work, now does next to nothing, and elaborate profit-sharing schemes have proved abortive because there have been no profits to share. Indeed, so serious has the state of things become, that special pressure has been put on the Government to suspend the ordinary practice of accepting the lowest satisfactory' tender, in order that London may share in the building of new vessels required for tlie strengthening of the Navy. Up to the present (July, 1894) these efibrts have not been attended with much success. In all the disadvantages above referred to, employer and workman have suffered alike, but there is another direction in which the master's gain has been the mechanic's loss, and this has been in the great development of machinery. A large modern engineering shop is a machinery exhibition in itself — machines which cut and slot, and groove, and bore, and plane, and roll, and haminer — which, with a whirr and a swish, shave and round oif the hardest metal to any required shape as easily as though it were so much cheese-rind, and do it almost in the time which it would have taken the old- fashioned mechanic to prepare his tools. True, the making o£ the machinery is the engineer's work, but our London workman has fared badly at both ends, because, for reasons already explained, he has had little part in the construction of the machiner}', whilst, when it is set up in his workshop, he finds his employment considerably curtailed, and a class of semi-skilled men introduced who, though knowing scarcely anything of mechanics, can, with the aid of these machines, which they quickly learn to feed and regulate, turn out work which he, with all his years of training and skill, could scarcely accomplish by hand in tenfold the amount of time. 296 METAL WORKERS. From all this it might be reasonably assumed tliat the life of the London fitter and turner* has not of \iite been altogether an easy one. And in truth he has had a somewhat bad time, but in his case the dark cloud has had a more than usually silvery lining. Thanks to the joint efforts of science and invention, a new world of industry has opened before him, and the words "electric'' and "automatic" should be to him amongst the best in our language. Electrical e^igineering has made enormous strides ; automatic machinery, I'rom a gas-meter to a money-box, has become a craze; cycles are a requisite of youth; and no household is complete Avithout its sewing machine. Acting with commendable promptitude, and backed up by a large trade union, whose officials were shrewd enough to recognize and prejDare for the changing conditions, the mechanical engineer adapted himself to, and to a large extent appropriated, the new industries. The London workman probably got and still retains his fair share of the electric and automatic work, and although he has had little to do with the initial stages of tlie other branches — the number of completely London-made bicycles or sewing machines being quite small — it is nevertheless a fact that these articles, even those of the best make, will get out of order at times, and that the requirements of some eight or nine hundred thousand metropolitan families in respect of these repairs offer no inconsiderable field of work. Of course such changes as those here sketched, though fairly rapid in their operation, have not been brought about all at once, nor without some friction. In the various stages of transition there has been, as usual, a certain amount of " falling by the way," some hardship, some • Under the old-fashioned system of industry, fitting and turning were both done by the same person, and it is still the case in smaller shops, but in the larger workshops the two branches are kept quite distinct. E^^GI2JEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 297 weary struggling against the inevitable^ and some failure. A few old firmSj famous in their day, have gone under ; and others have found it necessary or desirable to transfer their factories to the provinces, and this is still likely to continue. In either case the effectis detrimental to the Loudon mechanic. For it is naturally not without much anxious thought that an employer at length decides to break up his old establishment and seek new ground, therefore when he has made up his mind to this course he intends to avail himself of the full benefits which such a change may bring. Not only nmst establishment charges be much reduced, but the cost of labour has to come down to the provincial level. And this is just the point at which the " adaptability " of the metropolitan workman finds its positive limit. Willing to learn he maybe, willing to ''fructify^' his ideas in accordance with the teachings of the most modern of sciences, and so to fit himself possibly for avocations at one time undreamt of, but willing to transplant himself to a strange place and submit to a reduction of 8s or lO.s a week in his wages, he is not. Here he dons his bullet-proof coat, and the weapon which pierces it must be charged with direst need and privation. And so the worh goes, and with the exception of a few foremen or leading hands, retained at old rates because practically indispensable, the workmen do not follow. The firm advertises for, and has no great difficulty iu obtaining provincial hands at 28s or uOs a week ; while their former employees throw themselves anew into the struggle for work at their SSs standard. If men of resource or particular skill, they as a rule soon find a regular job somewhere: if not, their future employment, especially if they are getting on iu years, is likely to be irregular in its nature. Allowing for all these drawbacks, however, the London fitter and turner (of whom, as forming the main army of those connected with the metal trades, we must speak in this general statement, leaving exceptions to be dealt with 298 3IETAL WORKERS. later, under tlicir separate headings) occupies a very fair position in comparison with the bulk of our workpeople. He is largely a country product, coming to London at twenty-two or thereabouts to see a little life, and bringing with him a certain steadiness and ballast, as well as physical strength, which is said to be deficient in the London-bred workman. Once having obtained a footing, he prepares to settle down, goes back usually to his native place for a wife, and then finds a home in one of the out- lying working-class suburbs, where a bit of garden, and a breath of fresh air are obtainable, coming in to his daily task by the workmen's trains. Thoroughly well organized, with a due sense of the importance of his work to the community, and a consequent pride in his calling, he usually dresses well and looks well, and there is indeed just a suspicion of superiority in the manner in which he regards his fellows in other trades. "With a general knowledge of mechanics, which enables him to fit himself, without much difficulty, for the continual development of engineering science, he neither seeks nor requires outside help or commiseration. Given fair oppor- tunity for acquiring scientific knowledge and technical training, and encouraged to make the fullest use of his mental faculties, he may be relied upon to give a good account of himself in the future. Having said so much by wa}' of general introduction, it will now be most convenient to separately consider each main division of the trades. General Engineering. Under this heading are immediately included millwrights, fitters, turners, erectors, planers, borers, slotters, and other machine men, die-sinkers, press-tool makers, stampers, &c., and under sub-headings in the group it will be convenient, following the example of the census, to treat of such ENGIXEEPdNG, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 299 brauclies as ordnance manuf acture^ artesian-well engineering, weighing and measuring machine-makers, gas-stove and meter-makers, and bicycle-makers, as well as to give some distinctive account of railway engineering work, whicli has of course its own peculiar features. To begin with the method of training. A lad is no longer '' bound ^prentice." Both employer and workman seem to have joined hands in scouting the old system, and some- thing much less systematic has taken its place, though, with the aid of certain checks and safeguards which the meu^s organizations have imposed, it seems to work fairly well. Boys are taken on (usually the sons or relatives of men in the workshop), and commence by sweeping up, running- errands, or doing other odd jobs, and sometimes are allowed to start in the draughtsmen's office. After a time the lad is set to work at a machine, or vice, or lathe, and it then depends on his own industry and aptitude as to whether he becomes a proficient mechanic or a "waster" (a term applied to an indifferent or lazy workman). His period of nominal apprenticeship is supposed to end when he is twenty-one, but must not have been of less than five years' duration, and after that he is usually expected to serve a further period as " improver." As to the length of this improver period and the rate of remuneration for it, no very definite rule prevails. It varies generally from one to three years, and the wages range from half to three-quarters of the full men's rate, 38s a week, the employers using their discretion quite without let or hindrance in this respect. The Amalgamated Society of Engineers allows young- fellows, under certain conditions, to join as probationary members at eighteen, and gives them five years from that time in which to obtain full wages, but this limit is not infrequently exceeded. In many cases a young man moves to another shop when or before he is twenty-one, in order to serve his improver period and gain fresh experience, and then takes up his full wage in a third shop. 300 METAL WOr.KERS. Wages and Ouffit. — The probationary term once fairly done with, and the young mechanic in a position to start as a full-fledged journeyman, his '''outfit^' is not likely to trouble him much, and may in fact be carried in his pocket ; a pair of calippers, square, and rule are all that are necessary, other things being found by the employer, though of course some men have a more elaborate kit. If he obtains work he is usually sure of his 38.9, the standard being generally recognized. A minority of the employers it is true, resenting all trades union rules as dictatorial, and professing to pay every workman according to his individual merits, do vary the wages, going as low as SGs or 346' for men of the full age, and giving a little more than 38s to their best hands, but it may be fairly surmised that as a rule they are more or less guided by the standard wages, for their rates of pay all round are found to closely approximate to it. Taking skilled mechanics in the engineering trade right through (and thus including such highly skilled work as press-tool making and die sinking), the average wage is pro- bably nearly £2 a week for those regularly employed. A limited amount of jpiece and task work is done, though not usually in the best class of shops. As a rule where this system prevails, the men work to a fixed scale of prices, but occasionally they give in a price at which they will do a certain job, and a bargain is struck with the foreman. Part of the Avork thus given out may take some weeks to complete, and in such cases the method of payment varies. Some firms are content to pay the regular weekly wage of the shops as the work proceeds, the men drawing the surplus at the completion of the work, and any deficiency on one job being set against a surplus on a future one. Others take a rough estimate of the amount of work done each week, and pay on account rather less than the full sum earned, thus always retaining some portion of the price until the job is finished. But in regard to the former method it may be said that it rarely happens that there is ENGINEERING, IRON-SniP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 301 a deficit ; generally the man has a '^ plus " to draw equal to a fifth, fourth, or third of his weekly wages. An examination of the books of several firms shows considerable variation in wages actually paid. In an ordinary week of 54 hours millwrights earned from £2. 5s to £1. 18s; fitters and tui'ners on time work from £2. 10s to £1. 12s, the more usual amounts being £2, £1. 18s, and £1. 16s; on piece-work £2. 16s is the highest and £1. 12s the lowest, Avith £2. 2s as the medium. Including overtime, wages occasionally reach £4 for millwrights, and £3 for fitters. Machinists range from bd or 6d to, in exceptional cases, 8hd per hour, the amounts generally earned being between 24s and 30s. Taking slack times, wages in rare instances ran as low as 17s 2d (24^ hours) for millwrights, and lis dd (16 hours) for fitters, but more usual figures are 24s 6d, 28s, and 31s, representing from two-thirds to four-fifths of full time. The normal hours of worh are invariably 54 per week, divided as follows : — Monday to Friday, from 6 a.m. till 5 P.M., with lt\ hours interval for meals; Saturday, 6 till 1, with \ hour for breakfast. Overtime is usually paid for at the rate of time and a quarter for the first two hours, and time and a half afterwards, with double pay for Sundays and Christmas Day, and time and a quarter for other public holidays. Owing to badness of trade, there has of late been little extra time worked outside the two or three special firms already alluded to, but formerly, when trade was brisk, overtime was largely resorted to and probably would be again under similar conditions. Both employers and workmen profess to be anxious to do away with the practice, and the trade societies have made well-meaniug efforts to limit its application, but not apparently with any great success, for it is a little doubtful whether they have the genuine sympathy of the majority of their members in this direction. There is, in fact, just a suspicion of insincerity all round 302 METAL WORKERS. oa this point. Whatever the men may say in their collective capacity, as individuals the extra money that overtime brings is grateful to many of them, and the greatly enhanced rate of pay acts as an additional inducement^ whilst the employer, although he doubtless finds the practice expensive, yet for several reasons deems it not to his interest to do away with it, and this applies with particular force to our London firms. Either the work is required in a great hurry (often this is the reason why it is not sent to the provinces), or it is of a special character, or it is limited in quantity, or the employer is cramped for plant and space — one or all of these reasons may apply, and they are all inducements to keep the regular men on for extra hours rather than take on additional hands. And more particularly is this the case with orders of a special character, dread being* expressed lest the new hand should, by some very easily committed blundei', spoil a delicate and valuable piece of work. Possibly these obstacles to the universal abolition of over- time may ultimately be overcome, but they are undoubtedly real difficulties. On the other hand, they apply to a some- what exceptional condition of things. Another factor in determining the amount of overtime worked — though not perhaps an important one here — is the quantity of machinery used. Man may insist on time and a half or double time rates being paid, but machinery asserts no such claim, and consequently where much machinery is controlled by few hands, the master finds more temptation to keep his factory going for extra hours than where the more exacting manual labour is in the ascendant. Seasons. — The trade is not one which is much affected by seasons, and this applies to almost all branches of metal work. It is dependent rather on those cycles of inflation or contraction which affect the industries of the country generally. From such a period of depression the en- gineering trade right through the country has been ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 303 suffering for tlie past two or three years, aggravated by- previous overproduction and by greatly increased capabilities. One firm (not a London house, though doing a large trade here), demonstrated that their output now, though slack, is greater than it was three or four years ago, when very busy, and other reports confirm this — all as a result of the growth of machine power. Age Capacity. — The trade is a healthy one, with no particular liability to accidents, and men keep at it to a good age. Instances are not rare of men working till seventy or later, though in some cases at reduced wages, the trade society allowing this in specially approved cases of men over fifty-five. It is, however, universally admitted to be a most difficult thing for a stranger to obtain employment if he is, or looks to be, fifty years of age. If a man is known to a firm, other things being satisfactory, age will not be a bar, but if he be unknown, bis chance is indeed poor. The lot of the out-of-work mechanic, if past middle life, is not likely to be a happy one ; a few firms may give him a job as occasion offers, having employed him in his prime, but to the generality he is simply an old man and a stranger, and thus to be carefully avoided. Whilst even when he does get taken on, he will be amongst the first to go when work falls off. Irregularity. — The ease with which an engagement may be terminated on either side is worth noting. Neither by law nor custom is any notice required, and a man may legally be discharged at a moment's warning, though, of course, he usually knows when work is failing, and if wise, looks out for something else. Consequently, it is quite the exception for a firm to work short hours ; the superfluous hands are dispensed with, and the shop is kept open for its usual time. The advantage of this plan to the fortunate regular man is evident, and it also tends to keep up the standard of Avages, which have remained at their present level for a long time. 304 METAL WORKEHS. Givon the possibility of regulating the work effectually, and regarding the present condition of trade as exceptional, rather than normal, the position of those engaged in general engineering (excluding, be it remembered, iron- ship building, which is dealt with later on) compares rather favourably with that of those in other branches of industry. There is certainly a fringe (and perhaps a rather heavy fringe) of irregular workers, and moving from shop to shop is not infrequent, but owing to the adaptability on which stress has already been laid, and the wide range of the trade, the mechanic is generally not long before he finds something to which he can turn his hand. If the worst comes to the worst, he has usually his trade society to fall back upon (or a friendly society in case of illness), and with such chance jobs as the mending of a neighbour's mangle, sewing machine, bicycle, or even a refractory clock or musical box, will eke out a living until something better is available. Up to this point it will be observed that very little indeed has been said about processes of work, and this for the reason that in general engineering they are so many and varied, and the machinery used of so complicated a nature, that nothing short of a large and profusely illustrated technical liand-book could hope to convey an intelligent idea of them to the uninitiated reader. Such description as may be usefully given I have thought may be best treated of in a sketch of a locomotive engineering Avorks, which covers a wide area of the work without being complicated and variable in its details. Before proceeding to this, however, it may be convenient to give some explanation of the terms ''press- tool making,^' and "die sinking," already referred to. Press-tool making consists in making the special tools which are required for cutting out by machinery various designs in sheet metal. Thus the different parts of the ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 305 lock of a rifle, or the delicate meclianism of a sewing or automatic macliine, are all cut out in metal from a specially prepared pattern or '' tool." This work is sometimes of a very intricate nature, requiring to be gauged to the thousandth part of an inch, and accordingly is more highly paid for, wages rising to 1*^ an hour. Once the tools are made, the articles can be produced by semi-skilled labour, and sometimes women or girls are employed for this purpose. Die sinhing is a closely allied branch. A piece of steel is prepared, and the die-sinker, with suitable tools — gravers, chisels, &c. — cuts out any required design on the face of the steel, to be afterwards reproduced in any quantity on softer metals under the pressure of steam hammers. This work is very tedious and requires great skill. Wages vary according to class of work, but would range from Is to Is Qd an hour. In both these branches the men are all on day-work, and find pretty constant employment. A Locomotive Engineering Works. A few of our large railway companies have locomotive works within or upon the confines of the metropolitan area — some used only or chiefly for repairing purposes, whilst others do their new work here as well. Visiting an establishment of the latter kind, the first thing that strikes one on entering the gates is the vastness of the concern, and the amount of ground covered. An array of huge distinct buildings extend on either side, each of them lofty, light, and well- ventilated, and each presenting an animated scene of industry. In giving some particulars of these inter- connected workshops it may be convenient to take them in their natural sequence, bearing in mind that the work- men employed throughout the whole establishment are all labouring to one common end, viz. : the construction of a locomotive engine, and though in so doing we may VOL. V. 20 30G METAL WORKERS. enci'oacli ou some trades wliicli cannot properly be calleil engineering, yet under tlie circumstances tliis will not bo deemed inexcusable. First^ then, let us enter the Patterii-inalcers' 8hoj). All is clean, quiet^ and comfortable here. Each man works at a bench some 10 ft. long by 5 ft., which is fitted with a wooden vice, and on which are ranged his kit of tools, of which he is not a little proud and careful, they being his own pi'operty and often of considerable value. His duty is to cut out in wood (usually pine or mahogany) the patterns, drawings of which have been supplied to him from the drauo'htsman's office, and his work involves a good deal of skill and judgment. He has the assistance of a feAv labourers and apprentices. The patterns completed, they are next sent to the iron or brass foundries. The mechanics in the Iron Foundry are technically termed moulders, and their work is principally done on their hands and knees in the sandy mould which forms the floor of the workshop. By the aid of this sand or loam the workman makes a mould corresponding to the pattern. This mould is usually in two parts, and each is fitted into a sort of iron box or frame. The box containing the under part is placed on the ground, and the upper half is then very carefully lowered on to it. Every crevice is stopped up with sand, leaving only a small opening through which the molten metal is poured from a large ladle into the hollow within. It is then left to set and cool ; subsequently it is handed over to the trimmers, who chip off the rough edges and make the casting look " ship-shape." It is then ready to be passed on for manipulation in the other departments. The scene in an iron foundry towards dusk of a winter's day is a weirdly picturesque one : the men flitting to and fro in front of the large furnaces, whilst lurid gases are emitted from the liquid metal as it pours hissing and seething from the spout of the huge cupola in which it is melted. Besides moulders and trimmers, there are firemen^ ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 307 labourers^ and appreutices employed liere. The sliop is purely an iron foundry, cast steel coming from the North of England. We must next turn to the Smiths' Department, where the wrought iron is being manipulated direct from the drawings, usually without the aid of wooden patterns, but sometimes with the help of models. This again is an interesting and picturesque shop. Down the centre a row of steam hammers, varying in weight, are being worked by boys, whilst on either side is a row of fires, at which the smiths work, Avith the assistance of one, two, or three men known as "'strikers,'^ the number varying according to the nature of the work. Under the direction of the smith, who holds the red-hot metal on the anvil with a pair of tongs, these assistants *'^ strike" with heavy hammers until the required shape has been produced. The smith has the help likewise of unskilled labourers and apprentices. At one end of this shop are the bolt-makers, a small gang of men and boys, whose work is not dissimilar from that of the smith, except that there are no strikers required, the work being done with " clivers," which are in effect mechanical anvils to which hammers of varying size and weight are attached. There are usually three hammers to each oliver, and the bolt- maker works each as required with his foot by means of a treadle. The men work in common and share their earnings. From the iron-founder and smith, the partsfor our engine come either to the turners', machinists', or fitters' shops. In the Turning SJtop are a large number of more or less complicated lathes, driven by steam-power, and worked by skilled artisans, single-handed. Here are finished off the parts which require to be accurately rounded, or which have to be screwed. There are also several simple lathes to Avhich boys are put, this usually being the first step in the promotion of the fitters and turners' apprentice, after he has served his probationary period as shop or office boy. VOL. V. 20 * . 308 METAL WORKERS. Hard Ly is tlie MacJune Shop, well filled with machinery for shaping*, planing, drilling, milling, and slotting. Each machine is in charge of a semi-skilled man, whose work in feeding and tending is fairly simple and straightforward, and whose scale of pay is accordingly but little above that of the ordinary labourer. In fact, the men often are labourers who have been " promoted " to a machine. As we cross over into the Fitters' Shop, the change is marked. Here is no machinery of any kind, unless a grind- stone can be reckoned as such, and consequently no noise. As the name "fitters' shop" implies, the work done here is the fitting together of the parts of the machinery as they have come from the other shops, and is performed at the vice. The system also is' different. Instead of working single- handed, the men are divided into parties of four, five or six, under charge of a " leading hand," who is responsible for the work done by his gang. Each party includes one or two, and sometimes three apprentices. So far we have been dealing only with the iron- and steal portions of the locomotive. Let us now see something of the production of the necessary brass fittings. The work in the Brass Foundry is similar to that performed in the sister shop, the iron foundry. But it is naturally a smaller department, corresponding with the more diminutive character of the work turned out. It is unnecessary to say anytliing here of the particular process of casting, as this is described later under the heading of " other metals." The men are in charge of a working foreman^ who acts as father to a happy family. The castings pass direct to the Brass Finishers' Shop — a nice little place; practically a combination of the fitters' and turners' shop, operations being carried on at lathe, vice, and bench. This is a highly interesting department ; one might watch and admire for a long time the ingenious iind skilfully-performed processes by which rough castings ai'o gradually changed into beautifully-finished brass ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 309 fittings. Very imjDortant work it is too, for the cocks, valves, &c., must be capable of resisting a tremendous steam pressure. At the lathes each man works by himself ; at the bench the mechanic is generally assisted by an apprentice, or occasionally two mechanics and an apprentice are together. Closely allied to the above is the Coppersmiths' Shop — another small department, with practically no machinery, all being bench and vice-work. Htre are made, amongst other things, the pipes which convey the steam to and from the different parts of the engine. When the locomotive is in a sufficiently advanced stage of construction the coppersmith will fit and bend the pipes as circumstances require. Having now, we will assume, seen all the general fittings completed, we cross the yard to the all-important Boiler Shop, and surely never was greater contrast from the departments we have just left. At first all seems chaos and " confusion worse confounded ! ^' Boilers upside down, scattered about in various positions and directions, a deafening noise, and sturdy fellows banging away at plates with no apparent object, save it be to contribute to the din. Some knowledge of the process of boiler construction, how- ever, soon reveals a method in it all, and this process we may now briefly describe. The first thing to be done, after receiving the working drawings, is to obtain the necessary plates. These are sheets of mild steel, varying in thick- ness from half to nine-sixteenths of an inch, and they have, as is usually the case with London firms, been purchased in the North of England. The larger plates, which are of several kinds — as back-plates, saddle-plates, tube-plates, and valve- seatings — are then passed through the rolling mills, to remove any twists or lumps, whilst smaller plates of a particular description are passed, on to the angle ironsmith, who shapes them to the different angles required for binding the other plates together. The plates are next marked ott' for drilling or cutting, and the holes for the rivets punched out ,•310 METAL WORKEBS. Avith a presSj following wliicli the pl;ining macliinc comes into operation, trimming off tlie cdg-es of tlie plates clean and smooth, and dispensing with the services of the " chipper," w-ho formerly did this work with hammer and chisel, taking very much longer in the process. Indeed, it is said that these machines save at least two days in the preparation of the plates for one boiler. In order that they may not crack in the process of bending, the plates are next annealed in a fnruace, and then, under one hent, are bent to their required shapes by an hydraulic press, these operations being performed by a competent smith, Avith the assistance of a gang of labourers. The plates are then placed in their proper position by the plater — who has been meanwhile exercising a general supervision of the previous operations — and are then rivetted together, this again being chiefly done in this case by machinery, thereby effecting a great saving of time.* The framework of the boiler thus completed, is turned upside down, in order that the firebox may be placed in position. This firebox, which is also constructed by the boiler-makers, iinder the charge of the platers, is made of copper, so that it may better resist the flames, and has round it a water-space some three and a half inches wide. When this is finished, the boiler is ready to be tubed. The tubes, of which there are about 220 to a large locomotive boiler, are some thirteen feet long, and are made of steel ; they come, as do all the tubes used in London, from the provinces. They are fitted and placed in position by a small body of men called tubers, who occupy a corner of the boiler shop. The necessary fittings — such as the clack box, expansion brackets, whistles, gauge cocks, and other apparatus which it would be too tedious to mention — are then attached to the boiler, which is afterwards tested, and if found capable of withstanding a pressure of 250 lbs. to the square inch • without * In most London firms the rivetting is still done by liand. This will be referred to in the notes on the boiler-making trade further on. ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 311 sliowiug any sigus of leakage it is pronounced perfect, and transferred to tlie erecting shop by men termed ^' heavy lifters" — a gang of labourers selected for tlieir strength and physique to move the heavy work from one depart- ment to another as required. Passing by the Wheel Shop, where the turners are busy at their lathes, rounding off the " leading," '' trailing," and ''driving" wheels of the engines to the standard size as by law required, we come to the Erecting Shop, a spacious building where the various parts of the engine are put together by a body of men called erectors, who are in effect first-class fitters, the term erector being almost obsolete out- side locomotive works. Railway lines traverse this shop, enclosing a hollow space or " pit," over which, on a stout framework, the body of the engine is built up, so that it can afterwards be lifted with steam-cranes, and the wheels affixed. The men work in gangs of from five to ten in number (including one or two apprentices usually), and are under the direction of a "^ chargeman." By them the construction of the engine is completed, and the painter having done his work of " beautifying," it issues forth a finished " monarch of the road." In this general review we have so far omitted the Jilillwrights' Shop,^ because the men — who although called millwrights are in reality first-class fitters and turners — are not directly concerned in engine building. Their principal duty is to keep in repair the machinery and stationary engines in use throughout the works, but they also make the gauges to which the different parts of the engine ai-e constructed, serving them out to the workmen as required, and taking them back when the work is finished. They are all on day-work, and have the assistance of a number of apprentices. The conditions of work in a railway shop are sufficiently * In a private engineering firm this would be known as the tool department. 312 METAL WORKERS. distinct from those prevailing in a private firm to merit some remark. Tlie number of hours worked is the same (viz. fifty-four per week), but they are divided somewhat different!}'. On the first five days of the week the men start at a.m. and finish at 5.30 p.m., having three-quarters of an hour (8.15 till 9) for breakfast and an hour (1 till 2) for dinner. On Saturday work goes on from 6 till 12, with three-quarters of an hour's interval for breakfast. Wages on the average are a trifle lower, but, on the other hand, work is much more regular. Men who have once obtained a footing are seldom discharged, except it be for some fault. In the rare periods of slackness the men are put on short time, which is entirely opposite to the practice prevailing elsewhere. Overtime is but seldom resorted to — just a little pressure in the excursion season perhaps — and there are certain fixed holidays at Christmas, Easter, Whit- sun, &c., amounting in all to about three weeks in the year. Like private firms, the companies make no allowance for holidays, or for time lost from whatever cause. They are, however, not unmindful of the interests of their employees either in or out of the workshop. In at least one case a dining hall is attached to the works, at which meals can be obtained at a very moderate price ; and there is a large recreative institute, with science and art classes attached, which is undoubtedly beneficial to those who avail themselves of it. The advantage of cheap railway fares — ^d per mile — ■ is also granted to the men, and reciprocity amongst the different companies on this head is being attempted. The apprenticeship system is more fully recognized than elsewhere. Starting at 5s a week, and rising 25 a week each year, the boy serves his regular seven years, and then usually two or three years as ''improver." If intended for a mechanical engineer, he begins in the turning shop, where he stays about two years, and then remains for a stated period in the machine, fitting, and erecting shops respectively; but should he wish to become an iron-moulder, smith or ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 313 boiler-maker, &c., he is kept to tlie one shop in which tlie particular trade is carried on. Usually the boys taken on are the sons and relatives of men in the company's employ. In the mind of an ordinary trade unionist a railway works is not regarded as an ideal shop. For although, as in the case of private firms, wages are undoubtedly largely regulated by the trade standard, the companies reserve considerable discretion in the matter. There is also, as intimated in a previous chapter, complaint as to the large proportion of boys employed ; whilst the readiness with which advantage is taken of any machinery which wall dispense with labour can. hardly be accepted with com- placencj' by the men. But these corporate concerns are too large, and their resources too vast, to permit of their being lightly interfered with, even were the trade unions disposed to interfere, whilst they afford to those employed in them the undoubted advantages which a steady and constant supply of work always brings. Ordnance Manvfacturc. — Machine guns, ordnance, gun carriages, &c., are manufactured mainly by means of machinery, and the work, which is greatly sub-divided, is in London, practically confined to Woolwich Arsenal, where about 11,000 persons in all are employed. Of these some 2000 men are fully-trained mechanics, such as fitters, turners, smiths, rivetters, moulders, pattern makers and leading hands, Avhose rates of w^ages range from 35s to 45s, wdth an average of 37.s 6fZ; 3200 are '^ skilled labourers" (machine hands) at wages ranging from as high as 35^^ to as low as 18s, with an average of 23s; 1500 are unskilled labourers, at about 21s a week ; 3200 are improvers, trade lads and boys; and about 1000 are engine or crane- drivers, stokers, firemen, carpenters, painters, and others who, as well as the unskilled labourers, would probably be returned by the census in other sections of employ- ment. For the great bulk of the men work is constant, and a fair proportion of the mechanics are members of trades unions. The eight-hour day has recently been 314 3IETAL WORKERS. introduced into the Arsenal, but there is some com- plaint of its evasion, though with what truth we knoAv not. An agitation is also being' carried on to obtain increased wages, particularly for the workmen in the lower ranks. Artesian-weU Engineering. — The amount of well-boring done in London is not large. Occasionally a brewery or factory requires a well sunk, but more generally the work is for some country establishment, or is connected with the construction of new watei'works for some growing provincial town. But as a few metropolitan firms make a specialty of this business, some account of it is desirable. The old- fashioned well-borei*, who took little jobs on his own account and filled up time by working for an employer, has been for the most part superseded, and he ajid his order are becom- ing extinct. His leisui-ely, unmethodical, and not always reliable ways did not commend themselves to go-a-head modern firms, who, gradually dispensing with his services, trained their own regular men to do the work instead. I am indebted to one firm, which I understood is typical of others, for a description of the method now adopted. A contract having been obtained for a well to be sunk, probably in some country place, an experienced foreman and assistant are ordered down to take charge of the work, and at the same time the necessary plant and machinery, which has all been prepared in the London workshop, is sent on. Labour is usually engaged on the spot, but sometimes labourers are also sent from London. Three or four men are requii'ed for each job, according to the depth of the boring. For shallow boring manual labour only is used, but steam-power is required for deeji wells. On the foreman devolves considerable responsibility, and he must be a man of skill and resource, in order to deal with the difficulties of boring or mishaps to machinery which may occur. One of his duties is to send up daily a full report of the progress of the work. The hours of work are the usual fifty-four per week, and the wages of foremen range from about 42.s to ohs a week, with 10s GcZ lodging- money ; assistant foremen get ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 315 from o3.s to 30s, witli 2s ]odging--mouey. Labourers, i£ sent from London, are paid As a day witli 3.s a week for lodgings ; if hired on the spot, they i-cceiye rather more than the current wages of the district. The method of trainiug adopted by the firm under notice is unique. They haye no apprentices or boys of any kind, and men are taken on quite irrespective of their previous knowledge. The necessary qualifications are reliability and aptitude. Provided a man possesses these, the firm will train him for their work, and indeed they make no secret of the fact that some of their best men were not acquainted with the rudiments of the trade when they engaged them. Trustworthiness is of the utmost import- ance, as the men are often away from headquarters for weeks and months together. Work is quite constant for the mechanics, as the employers, Avhen once they have proved a man's calibre and trained him to their work, cannot afford to lose him. If contracts fall short, something is found for the man to do in the workshop. The trade is a healthy one, and men keep at it till a good age. There is of course a certain liability to accident, and in some cases a firm makes provision against this by insuring its men at its own expense. Weighing -viacJiine MaJcei's. — This is another small and fairly prosperous industry in the metropolis, and exhibits the common characteristics of the engineering trades — great variety on a limited scale. Every kind of apparatus for weigliing purposes is made here, save perhaps weigh- bridges and spring-balances, which are a product of Birmingham and West Bromwich. The iron castings needed are purchased by the London makers, who do all the rest of the work, including the forgings, the scales manufactured being of the best character and commanding the highest prices. There is no wholesale trade here. A few years back there seemed a prospect of London ceasing to be a centre of manufacture for weighing machines, but following a combination of the men and an agreement between them 316 2IETAL WOr.KERS. and tlie masters, some revival lias taken place. Orders "whicli formerly were sent to Birmingham are now executed here, the apprenticeship system has been partially resusci- tated, and a practice which was growing up of employing labourers and semi-skilled men has been cliecked. The men are now fairly well organized^ their union (The London Society of Scale Makers) claiming to include nearly eighty out of about a hundred competent mechanics in the trade here. The system of work is both time andpiece^ probably rather more of the latter than the former. Time wag-es run at about dGs a week for those employed in factories and workshops, and 34*^ for those outside. The outside work consists in the cleaning and adjusting of scales at trades- men's shops, and consequently is not considered such skilled work as the other. Piece workers, who reckon to earn about 20 per cent, more than time Avorkers, but of coui-se are not quite so f uU}^ occupied, are iu the habit of giving- in a price for each job, the work varying too greatly in character to allow of definitely specified rates. The standard hours are fifty-four per week, and overtime is scarcely ever worked, so it has never been necessary to fix an overtime rate. The work is ver}^ constant, there being never more than 2 or 3 per cent, unemployed. This is largely due to the fact that tradespeople commonly have an agreement with a scale-maker to keep their scales in order, and the latter accordingly has them tested at regular intervals. More than half the work is of this character. The ti'ade is not affected by seasons, and the only time of extra pressure is Avhen some new law or Government regulation is passed, such, for instance, as the introduction of the Parcel Post, Avhich made business very brisk for a time. Relations with employers are quite amicable. There is an agreement between representatives of masters and men to appoint an arbitration board to deal with cases of dispute, but it has never been necessarj^ to put this provision into operation. IVeiglifs are made by iron or brass workers. Scale-makers only do the adjusting. ENGINEERING: IROy-SHIP BUILDING AND BJILEll MAKING. 317 Gas-meter Making is generally considered to be allied to tlie tin-plate workers' trade, but as the census combines the men so employed with the weighing-machine makers, it is necessary to refer to them at this point. It is a small skilled trade, with jDrobably not more than 350 mechanics all told, and nearly all of them members of the Tin-plate Workers and Gas-meter Makers' Society. The work is confined to eight or ten firms (two of which employ about eighty hands each, and another sixty), and is of course mainly executed for gas companies, several provincial companies having their meters made here. The meters are of two kinds — wet and dry, but the wet meters, although said to be the more accurate, are but little used now, owing probably to the trouble of renewing the water in them from time to time. The system of work is entirely piece, there being a fixed scale of prices both for making and repairing every part of the meter. In some small shops a man will make a meter right through (except the index), but in large shops the work is usually separated into three divisions. The making of lai'ge meters pays best. These are all made by hand, and are sometimes highly skilled and finished specimens of work. For the smaller meters the parts are stamped out of sheet metal by means of dies. Earnings range from about Sbs to 50*- a week, and although little overtime is worked, a full week can gienerally be made, the ordinary trade being nicely regu- lated, and there being of late, in addition, a pressure of orders caused by the introduction of the popular "penny in the slot meters. ^^ The indexes and the automatic apparatus aro made by brass workers. Gas Stoves. — This is a comparatively modern and not a large trade, employing a certain number of competent fitters to do the more important part of the work, whilst the bulk of it is done by semi-skilled men with the aid of machinery. Stoves are of two kinds — for heating and for 318 METAL WORKERS. cooking- purposes, the former being demanded in winter and tlie latter in summer. Consequently firms "whicH manufacture botli descriptions liave two seasons, Avith a slack period of about a month's duration between, when the men work short time. Sub-division of labour and piece-work are the features of this business; everything which can be apportioned off has its fixed price; and even the boy put on to a machine for the first time is set to drilling holes at so much per score or per hundred as the case may be, and soon earns his 6s or 8^ a week. The fitters undertake to put so man}- stoves together for a specified sum, which varies according to the size of the stove. The larger stoves pay best, and it is usual to give these to the older and more experienced hands, leaving the smaller ones to the younger men and lads, of Avhom there are a large proportion employed. Labourers are generally provided to carry the work to and from the different departments, and these are paid a weekly wage by the firm, as are also the testers, a small special class of men at high wages who examine the stoves to see that they are properly made and give the finishing touches. Hours rule as in other firms, and the wages of skilled mechanics range from 35s to 28s on the average; young men, "improvers," earn lis or 18^^, labourers 21.s', and boys Qs to 10.s\ One or two firms, which make patent stoves for heating purposes only, do little trade in the summer, and the men discharged by them are said to find employment in building operations, such as paint- ing and whitewashing, coming back to the stove work in winter. Certain parts of this trade do not seem at all desirable ones to work at. The burnishing and polishing, which are done by machinery, cause a cloud of fine metal dust to fly about, which cannot, one would think, be other than dele- terious, as are also, in spite of precautions more or less strictly observed, the enamelling processes. Altogether, this business can hardly be classed amongst the best of ENGINEERING, IROX-SIIIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 31'.) the metal trades^ wlietlier healtbiaess or system of work be considered. Bicycle JlaJcimj. — As eveiyone knows, the centre of tlio cycle industry is in the Midlands, and those who follow the trade in Loudon mainly confine themselves to retailing and repairing. Apart from the showrooms of the large country manufacturers, the trade is mostly in the hands of men who have been fitters. Saving a little money, they open a shop, obtain a few machines " on sale " from some provincial firm, stock their window with wheels, tyres, lamps, whistles and other accessories, and commence business. As a rule the work of these men is limited to doing general repairs and dealing in new or secondhand machines, but occasionally there comes a windfall in the shape of an order to make a bicycle of some given pattern. There are stores in London which sell the parts of a bicycle in all sizes, shapes and conditions, and all of provincial make. To one of these the small " maker " betakes himself, buys the parts he requires, either in the rough or finished as suits him, builds up and. finishes his machine either for order or stock as the case may be, and turns out a ''genuine London-made bicycle.'* Of the earnings of these men I have no record, but as they are skilled fitters of a thrifty class, they probably do very fairly. When busy they may employ two or three hands, semi-skilled men, at 6d or so per hour. A poor and precarious living these latter make, with just once in a way a luck}' turn, when on some special order for a machine they are put on piece-work, and may earn In to L^ 6d per hour. BoiLEE Making and Iron-ship Building. Besides the several trades already described. Section 1 1 of our industrial enumeration includes those engaged in the above trades, and returns rather more than five thousand men as so occupied in London. It must not be supposed, bowever, that these cover the whole ground, for the ubiquitous fitter, in the guise of the marine engineer, figures here as elsewhere, and several firms combine 320 METAL WORKERS. general engineering and sliip-work with boiler making. The trades are, however, sufficiently distinct to permit of separate treatment. Of Ship BuUdinr/ proper it is hardly necessary to say much. To speak of it is to describe the past rather than the present — to bring before the wistful eyes of the Londoner a picture of the time when the banks of Father Thames, below London Bridge, formed the great ship- building yard of the Avorld, and to recall to his mind a gallant but painful struggle against fate. Now it is nearly all gone, and so far as we can see through no fault of our own. To the last the work retains its reputation as being of the very best — to the last a London-built ship can weather a gale with the stoutest.'^ Possibly there may liave been some difficulty in launching large vessels, but it is, here as elsewhere, mainly the race for cheapness that has caused our downfall — our provincial rivals have had every facility for producing work at less cost than ourselves — they have availed themselves most fully of their advantage — and so we have been beaten out of the market. What may be the outcome of efforts now being made to revive the industry we cannot say, but meanwhile our artisans fall back upon shij) repairing, and here, fortunately, there is still a wide though precarious field of work. For the exigencies of modern trade make it practically essential that a ship should be repaired (unless the repairs are on a very large scale) at the port at which it discharges its cargo. It is indeed a repetition of the old story as to why work is executed in London. Time is the all-potent factor. Every hour that a ship remains idle means, under ordinary circumstances, considerable monetary loss to the owners. so the repairing must be performed at the highest possible speed. No sooner is the vessel clear than she is boarded by as many workmen as can well be employed on her, and * A reason suggested for the superiority of London-built ships, at any rate, for Government purposes, is that, being on the spot, the officials gave more continuous supervision than is possible in the case of work performed elsewhere. ENGINEERING, IRON- SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 321 the work is continued, night and day, Avithout intermission, until completed. Under such conditions both employers and men in combination are able to ask and receive prices for their work which could not in any other circumstances be thought of. Not only does a man get double pay (about Is 6d per hour) for night-work, commencing from 5 p.m., and quite irrespective of whether he has done any day-work previously, but he is also paid for meal times, and has certain allowances under the name of " dirty money,^' amounting, in the case of work on oil-boats, to 3s a day. Some restriction has been put upon the length of time which a man may work continuously, but even under strict trade union rules he may always keep on for twenty-four hours, and in certain events for about thirty hours at a stretch. As in dock work, to which it is closely akin, this system of uncertainty and rush has had a demoralizing effect. The men are liable to be called on at all times — even though it be a Saturday night — and so the intervals of waiting are often spent in loafing at street corners on the chance of being wanted. The consequence has been the growth of a class of casual mechanics, corresponding to the casual labourer of the docks, some of whom prefer the long hours and intermittent spells of work at high wages to the regular and more moderately remunerated employment of the workshop. It must, however, in justice be said that these form but a small minority of the whole trade, and that even amongst those who do ship-repairing, there are many who would prefer a constant job if they could obtain it. Some employers incline to the belief that these irregu- larly employed men, changing about from firm to firm, earn on the average as much as the constantly employed mechanic, but I cannot make out that this is so. They probably get rather more work in winter than summer, accidents to ships being more frequent owing to stress of weather. Boiler MaJcing. — To the men who are mainly employed in ship-work are linked, both by name and organization, VOL. V. 21 322 METAL WORKERS. tliose more regularly occupied in boiler-sliops and yards in tlie manufacture and repair of boilers of various kinds (but principally for marine purposes), as well as those on bridge, girder, gasometer, and other constructional iron-work. They are all known in general terms as boiler-makers, but are technically divided into angle - ironsmiths, platers, rivetters, caulkers, holder s-up, and helpers. A general account of the process of boiler making has already been given, but it may here be added that angle-iron workers sometimes have helpers to assist them, and platers invariably — one assistant for light work and two for heavy. Rivetters work in gangs, consisting of two rivetters, one holder-up (who presses a heavy hammer against the rivets whilst the others strike them), and one or two boys to carry the rivet- fire and blow the bellows. If on piece-work the helpers and holders-up take their proportion of the piece-price arranged, in accordance with their respective wages when on time. The caulker generally works alone, following up the rivet- ters, closing up and smoothing off the rivets, chipping away the rough edges and finishing the work. Working the customary fifty-four hours a week, the recognized standard of wages is, on new work : platers and angle- ironsmiths, 45s, or 7s 6d per day; rivetters and caulkers, 6s 6d per day ; holders-up, 5s 6d per day. On repair work the rate all round is Qd per day higher. But there is the usual diversity in amounts actually earned, varying to some extent with the firm, but mainly depending on the number of hours put in and the quickness of the individual worker, a good deal of the new work (but not repairs) being done by the piece. An examination of the returns of a number of firms shows that in a busy week on time-work, a plater earned £4. lis for 91 hours, another £4. 7s for 87 hours, a third £3. lbs for 92 hours, and a fourth £3. 10s for 90 hours; a rivetter earned £4. 2s, putting in 102 hours, another £3. 12s for 88 hours, and a third £3. 10s for 85 hours; caulkers made £4. 4s (95 hours), £3. 8s 5(7 (88 hours), and £2. lis 9d [66 ENGINEERING, IRON-SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 323 hours), &c., whilst holders-up figure for £3. 9s 4c? (99 hours), and £2. 8s Qd (93 hours) as top amounts * Angle-iron- smiths are much fewer in number than the others, but even so, the quantity of work to be performed by them seems to be proportionately less. Their work is the most skilled, and generally commands the highest rate of pay, but the hours worked are apparently not so long, and the sums earned therefore not so large, as in other branches. Thus £2. 14s is the highest amount we have recorded for time-work. Helpers are paid about 6d per hour, and the returns show an ordinary range of 27s to 30s, but in an exceptional week one man made 90 hours and took £2. 5s. Ou piece-work we find platers earning £3. 7s, £3, £2. 12s; a double rivet gang (six men and two boys) draw £14. 16s 8d, a single gang (three men and one boy) £4. 14s 2d, and a third gang (three men and two boys) £5. 7s 6d; two caulkers working together earn £6. Is, and holders-up from 30s to 26s, but in none of these cases probably was more than the ordinary number of hours worked, sometimes less. Where a gang of men work together the job is taken by one man, who shares with the rest. In slack times the piece worker's earnings may fall very low, or he may be discharged; time workers, if kept on, will usually receive about the normal wage; in some cases short time is worked, but more generally the number of men is reduced. Irregularity, as already intimated, is the necessary feature of the ship-repairing business, but, although not nearly so marked, it also prevails to an undesirable extent in the other branches of the trade. Eeturns of several large firms show that about one-thii^d of their workmen are not fully employed by them, and it may be safely reckoned that the bulk of these do not get more than half the year's work with one firm. It does not, however, by any means follow that this is all they get. The trade not being a season one, and * It should be explained that the hours stated are more than the number actually worked, because overtime is counted as time and a half, &c. Thus the man recorded as making 102 hours may only have been at work 80 or less. VOL. V. 21 * 324 METAL WORKERS. depending mainly on contracts, one firm will be busy while another is slack; consequently there is a good deal of changing from one employer to another, and a man may be employed by several firms in the course of a year. This makes it most difficult to ascertain the true measure of the unemployed, but it may be roughly estimated at 5 to 10 per cent. The men very rarely do work outside their trade, and even within it they are greatly restricted. The United Society of Boiler Makers and Iron-ship Builders, a power- ful organization, claiming to have more than 90 per cent, of the mechanics in the London trade in its ranks, is very stringent in confining a man to one branch of the trade, thereby differing entirely in policy from the Engineers* Societies. " Once a rivetter always a rivetter,'* or " once a plater always a plater,*' seems to be in effect its motto. It is true that a man ma}'' " progress," as it is termed, from one section of the trade to another, provided he obtains the sanction of the branch of the Society to which he belongs, but then, apart from the natural indisposition of men to voluntarily allow fresh rivals to come in to compete for their particular kind of work, such permission can onl}^ be given if there is no unemployed member in the section to which he wishes to change. So that the chance of obtain- ing such sanction, save in the busiest time, is very slight, and woe betide the member who encroaches on another branch without it. On the other hand, there is a compen- sating advantage : the recognized order of ''progression" is upwards (holder-up, caulker, rivetter, plater, angle-iron- smith) ; holders-up very rarely progress as a matter of fact ; the real point of change is from rivetter to plater, and here it happens that in slack times a rivetter may often prefer not to " progress/' because there being much more rivetting than plating to do, he stands a better chance of work. Training. — The remarks made on this subject under general engineering largely apply to this trade also. There is little regular apprenticeship, and, for the most part, the extent of a lad's knowledge of the work is a matter of ENGINEERING, IRON- SHIP BUILDING AND BOILER MAKING. 325 chance^ depending' partly on tlie boy's aptitude^ but more perhaps on the influence wbicb his father or some other friend in the shop is able to exercise on his behalf. Of two lads commencing work together, one may rise to the top whilst the other never gets to be anything more than a holder-up — maybe never has the chance to do anything better. Here, as elsewhere, there are better opportunities of learning the trade in a small shop than in a large one. In a big establishment a lad will be kept to one branch, whereas in a small one he may be put to two or three different sections of the work. Usually a boy is taken on at fifteen or sixteen, and starts by heating and carrying the rivets and tending the fires, getting 8s or 10s at first, and rising by yearly increments of 2s a week. At eighteen he may be promoted to a holder-up^s place, and then, if among the fortunate, pass through the successive stages of caulker, rivetter, and plater. There is the customary " improver " period, followed by full wages at twenty-two to twenty-five years of age, as the case may be. In repair- work the recognized number is two lads to seven journey- men, but in new work rather more are allowed. Drillers and Chipjjers. — The boiler-making trade has been characterized by a good deal of quarrelling, not so much between masters and men (though there has been a certain amount of that) as between different groups of the men themselves. Originally the boiler-makers^ trade society only admitted as members the angle-ironsmith, plater, and rivetter, who regarded themselves as the skilled men, and the rest as T-ather an inferior class of workmen, 'Ho be kept in their proper places." But, ultimately, finding this position unsatisfactory, they opened their ranks, first to the caulkers, and afterwards, on a separate and lower scale, to the holders-up. Having done this, they waged war on the men calling themselves drillers and chippers, claiming that drilling was the rivetters' work and chipping the inherent right of their friends the caulkers. 326 METAL WORKERS. although, at any rate in the former case, the claim had not been much exercised for some years. The drillers and chippers formed themselves into a society, and carried on the struggle for a long time, but gradually lost ground under pressure of the much sti'onger body, until, " judging the way of the wind," the drillers seceded, formed an organization of their own, and came to an amicable understanding with the boiler-makers. By the terms of this arrangement, certain parts of the drilling work are reserved to the boiler-makers, should they wish to do it, but it is understood that in actual practice they do not often claim it. The new organization, known as the United Society of Drillers, has, as far as feasible, adopted the rules and customs of the Boiler-makers' Union, and, in reality, works under its protection. The effect of this on the ostracised chippers may be imagined. Most of the shops are closed against them, and, as the sphere of their operations is now very limited, some are leaving the trade altogether, whilst others, it is said, are becoming drillers. At best, the work of the chipper was but rough and semi- skilled, and though he claimed a wage of 56- or 5s 6d a day, he apparently often had to work for less. Had the quarrel not been settled as it has been, machinery would most likely have been introduced to do the work. Drillers claim a wage of 5s per day on new work and 5s 6d on repair, but a good deal of their work is by the piece, a scale of prices having been arranged on the basis of allowing a man to earn up to time and a half of day wages. Work fluctuates as with boiler-makers, and other conditions are very similar in character. Trade Organization, &c. Information as to trade organization and statistics of wages are given at the end of Chapter III., pp. 353-65. The manner in which the Engineering and Iron Trades are inter-connected has rendered it necessary to combine these particulars into one statement. Nos. (Kor explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) 280- u- 1 (16) Blacksmiths. Diagram showing agea of Blacksmiths, and of the whole occupied population of Whole of occupied in London. (See remarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) A. '^ \ V \ \ PL T k / \ \ / N s\ \ > ,^ V ^ \ \, \ \ > ^ V \, / \ \, \ s . 1 > \ \ \ 1 \ \ 1 ' \ \ 1 > I ^ 1 \ \ 1 \ \ / \ \ 1 ^ V \ 1 \ 1 \ \ 1 \ \ i s. \ ' \ \ \ A \\, X > ^ i N )- Ages. 10 15 20 25 30 35 *0 1-5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V CHAPTER II. BLACKSMITHS. (Section 15.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Enumerated by Families. Census Division. Fe- males. Males. Total. 1891. AH Ages. —19 20—54 55— Blacksmith andl AATiitesmith | 41 14(57 9266 1493 12267 Except for the absence of boys this industry is not far from normal as to the ages of those employcil. After 45 there is a decided decrease, but It IS not until 55 is reached that the gi'eat falling off in numbers takes place. (See diasram.) Distribution. B. N. W. & C. S. Total. 2187 2345 2472 5263 12,267 Details of Occupations (from the Census Diction iKl). Olivcrman, hammer-man, anvil striker, welder, farrier, shoeing smith, fireman, doorman, horse-shoe maker, iron-hurdle maker. Sex I Males . . . (. Females . 8164. 9n Tji,.+v,.,i„„.i / In London 47 % 3838 Birthplace | q^^^ ^^ l^^j^^^^ -3 o,^ ^gg^ T„j„,,(.,.:„, .'Employer 7% 586 Industrial I Eij^j^^ioVed 88 % 7185 *^^"^* . . ( Neither 5 % 418' Heads of Families, 8189. Total Population concerned. Total .. Average in family.. Heads of Others Families. Occupied. 8189 7689 Classification. N'umhcrs living in Families. 3 or more to a room 6120 2 & under 3 „ 10,023 1 & under 2 „ 11,442 Less than 1 ,, More than 4 rooms 4 or more to 1 ser- vant Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant and 4 or more to 2 servts. All others with 2 or more servants . . Servants 119 15-8 25-8 29-5 10,981 28-3 13 130 38,828 •3 100 Crowded Not „ . Inner. Outer. Together. . 54% 35% 42% 46% 65% 58% Unoccupied. 22,820 Servants. 130 •02 Total. Distribution. East North /Inner 3739) • I. Outer 2894/ I Inner 2158) (Outer 5126/ West /Iiin^r 9381 West ■■|out€r4875/ Central Inner 1883 South- /Inner 1383]. East \ Outer 7616/ South- /Inner 36491 West \Outer4567/ 6633 7284 5813 1883 8999 8216 38,828 Inner 13,750, or 35 <;o Outer25,078, or65% Status as to Employment {according to Census Enumeration). Employers. Employed. Neither Employer nor Employed. Census Division (1891). Males. Females of all ages. Total. Males. Females Under 20. Over 20. Males. Females 614 19 1467 9592 22 553 - 12,267 Total. 633 11,081 Proportion of Employers to Employed-1 to 17 553 328 METAL WORKERS. Introductory. The blacksmith's calling has ever possessed for the public a certain romantic interest. There is something about the roar of the bellows, the bright glow of the fires, and the clear ring of the anvil, which seems peculiarly to associate itself in the mind with sturdy honest manhood, and to constitute the smith's avocation the beau ideal of honourable toil. Not all the prosy matter-of-fact developments of modern industry have served to efface this feeling, and grown men and women, as well as children, delight to look in at the '^open door" and watch the movements of the farrier as he deftly plies his trade. And there are as many as ever of these " open doors " in our midst. It is true that time has brought some changes. The rough and ready horse-doctor of old has been transformed into the accomplished veterinary surgeon of to-day, general smith's work has become divorced from that of the farrier, task work has taken the place of the more leisurely time labour, and the trade is no longer entirely in the hands of little masters, though they still retain the bulk of it. Large employers of labour have sprung up, but even these adhere to the ancient system, and keep a number of small shops in different localities, in preference to a large central establishment. The group which we have now to consider should properly be divided into two sections : (a) Farriers, who are engaged in the making and fitting on of horses' shoes; [b) Smiths (including builders' fitters and white- smiths), who forge and manipulate wrought iron- work generally. Farriers. Of these there are in all about 4000 in London, and they divide again into two grades, termed firemen and doormen. The former makes and fits the shoes, and the latter assists in BLACKSMITHS. 329 making them and puts them on. The men generally work in sets of threej consisting of two doormen and one fireman, and constituting what is termed a " double-handed fire." In private firms the work is, as a rule, done by the piece or task, arranged on a standard of Qs per day for firemen and bs for doormen, in non-union forges ; and 6s 4x1 and 5s 6d in forges which pay the trade union rate ; a day's work for the three men is to put on forty-eight shoes, or to make sixty light shoes, such as are worn by carriage horses, or forty- eight heavy ones, such as are required by cart horses. The time taken to do the work of shoeing varies according to the temper of the horse, nature of the hoof, &c., and in this the West End farriers have the advantage, as their work consists principally in shoeing young carriage horses, whose feet are in good condition ; as these grow old they are sold and go into the ^bus, cab and various other tirades, and so come to the farriers in other jDai-ts of London to be shod. In making the shoes, the quality of the coal and material used are factors in determining the amount of work done in a given time. Usually for shoeing or making shoes, the " task " represents nine to nine and a half hours' work, and is so paid, but under themostfavourable conditions may be accomplished in from six to seven hours. The hours actually kept in piece workshops are an uncertain quantity. Commencing about 6 a.m., the men go on till the smithy is clear of horses, be it until 6 or 7 o'clock at night, and even 9 or 10. Intervals in the day may be filled up by making shoes. In the West End, where the horses are brought in at more seasonable hours, it is usual to do shoeing in the morning, and to make shoes in the afternoon for next day, but even here a good deal of extra time is worked. In connection with the hours of labour, it is a remarkable fact that in almost every forge no regular stated meal times are laid down. The men often work five or six and even seven hours without food. Where the day-work system is in operation, as is the case with the ^bus and tram companies, the hours worked vary 330 METAL WOEKERS according to the employer^ from fifty-four to sixty-one per week, and wages of doormen from 35.s to 34*', with an average of 31s; and of firemen from 33s to 42s, average 37s. There is not much overtime under the day system, but a certain amount of Sunday work is quite usual. The men have to go round and examine the horses' feet, see how the shoes are, put in nails, &c. The large tram and 'bus companies pay Is or 2s extra for this, but the practice of Sunday work is not -confined to them, some of the master farriers sending round on this day to their customers' stables. To mention season work in connection with the shoeing of horses may seem strange, but it is nevertheless a fact that the trade varies somewhat according to the time of the year. Thus, in the West End, work is slack during August and September, owing to the number of carriage horses which are taken away by their owners or are resting, whilst, on the other hand, frosty weather may cause a busy time in "roughing" horses. Frost cogs are, however, coming into use now. In slack time men are discharged. The unemployed rarely turn to any other trade; firemen might take smiths' work, but hardly ever do. Shifting from one employer to another is frequent, partly, as one man put it, because there are so many people to please. " Anybody in charge of a horse thinks he knows better than the farrier how it should be shod." Apprentices are seldom taken in London, and the number of lads taught is insufficient to supply the trade, which depends largely on men coming in from the country. The trade is one requiring physical strength and nerve, as well as skill, and, though not in itself unhealthy, involves more than ordinary liability to accident. The work is hard^ hot and dusty, causing a tendency to drinking habits which are also encouraged by the fact that the men do not get their meals at reasonable intervals. Men are worn out at the comparatively early age of fifty, and after forty-five it is not easy to obtain a fresh job. BLACKSMITHS. 331 About a third of tlie men are members of the Permanent Amalgamated Farriers' Protection Society, which has been formed by the amalgamation of a number of small associations. Smiths. These men, with whom are counted their assistants, called hammer-men, may best be considered in three groups, according to the character of the work in which they are engaged. 1. General Engineering 8hoj)s employ the greater number of the men, and recognized wages are : for smiths at heavy fires (large and heavy work), £2. 2s; for hammer-men at ditto, 28s to 30s; smiths at light fires, 38s; hammer-men, 27s. These rates are not, however, by any means paid in all shops, and in some are about 5s lower all round. The returns of a number of firms show a range from 43s to 34s for smiths, and 29s to 23s for hammer-men, for an ordinary week of fifty-four hours. Overtime, of which there is not much now, is paid for at the rate of time and a quarter for the first two hours, and time and a half for any further extension of extra work. Piece-work prevails to a certain extent, private firms generally allowing men to earn up to 50 per cent, above time wages, and railway shops up to three- eighths extra. If more than this is earned prices are cut down, so the men's organizations take special measures to prevent it, and go so far as to fine the " greedy" member who attempts to earn too much. Specimens of piece earnings of smiths, working ordinary hours, are £2. 8s, £2. 6s, £2. 4s, £2. 2s (several cases), £2 and 38s, whilst hammer-men range from 30s to 20s. In a few places there is a system of task Avork, much objected to by the men ; the work is measured each day, and a man soon finds himself discharged if he has not done his allotted task. The work is fairly regular ; pro- 332 METAL WOBEERS. bably smitlis in engineering shops are better off in this respect tlian any other large section of the metal workers^ and the hammer-men do not fare badly. The work being heavy and dirty is not so generally resorted to as that of the more genteel fitter, and as there is only one smith to several of the others, the former stays on even when many of the fitters are discharged. The unemployed returns of the " men's " largest organization (The United Society of Smiths and Hammer-men) point to an average of 2 or 3 per cent, in summer and 5 per cent, in winter. Lads are taken on to learn the trade, but are not apprenticed. They are put to various jobs, and use light hammers. Whether they ultimately become smiths or hammer-men may depend to some extent on their aptitude, but is largely a matter of influence. If a lad finds favour with the foreman, or has influential friends in the shop, he will be put to a light fii'e over the heads of the hammer-men; if he has no such aid he is likely to remain a hammer-man for good and all, because, unless he gets some experience of smiths^ work in the shop in which he is brought up, he cannot take a smith's place elsewhere, and is rarely able to acquire the necessary knowledge afterwards. 2. Ship -rep airing Yards. — Roughly about a fifth of the smiths earn their livelihood mainly in these yards. Work is precarious, but the scale of remuneration leaves nothing to complain of, the smith, like his fellows in other trades, being able, owing to the nature of the work, to command almost his own terms. It is all time-work, and wages, which have lately been raised, are for smiths, £2. 2s to £2. 5s, and hammer-men, £1. 10s to £1. 13s. Overtime rates are on the same scale as those of boiler makers, &c. 3. Building Trades. — There is a considerable number of men engaged in this branch. They are usually known as " general smiths," and closely allied to them are the builders' fitters. They are a body of skilled "all round" men, and their work is of a varied character, including the making BLACKSMITHS. 333 and fixing of ranges^ and all kitclien work, hot-water fittings, constructional iron-work in houses, sucli as iron staircases and sashes, and iron pipes. They also do plate iron- work, as shovels, ovens, and cases for strong rooms. The work done in London is nearly all of a high-class character, and executed in small quantities. Cheap and quickly made stuff comes from the country. Londoners in this trade, as elsewhere, are noted for good work, and men are sometimes sent long distances into the country to carry out orders of a special kind. In the case of the larger and better class of builders, the smiths are in the direct employ of the firm, and work usually under trade union conditions, earning 38s per week for the customary hours of the building trades (an average of forty-eight per week) . But among the smaller class of employers there is a complicated system of giving out orders for smiths' work, involving a good deal of sub-contracting and piece-work. The builder having received the order passes it on to an agent, who sends it to a manufacturer ; the latter gives it to a piece master work- ing in his own shop, who takes it at a certain price and gives it out to his mechanics. The men are allowed to draw day-work rates while the job is in progress, with a promised bonus at the end if it works out well. Not infrequently it turns out otherwise — instead of a plus there is a minus — and the men have to work the next week " on a dead horse," in order to get straight again. Shops of this character only employ two or three good men, the rest being inferior or semi-skilled hands, mostly young men, at 4>ld or bcl an hour. They work much longer than the recognized hours of the trade, and it is said that in some cases the piece-master will provide bread and cheese and beer for his men to prevent their leaving for meals. The best workers, getting their full share of bonus, may take from £100 to £120 a year, but the general average would be below £80. The bonus is not always 334 METAL WORKERS. equally divided, and sometimes is kept entirely by the piece master. Winter is the busy season, beginning in November, when there is a demand for the fittings for new houses. In the spring, too, trade is brisk, more particularly in the West End and amongst the smaller building firms, in connection with the repair of houses for rich people coming to town — boilers, ranges, and other fittings require attention. Work of this" kind is almost invariably put oif till the last moment, and consequently much overtime is worked in March, April, and May, eighty or ninety hours being a not uncommon week's time. Part of June and all July are slack, but, taken altogether, fairly full work is obtained in this trade. Men change their employer very frequently, being taken on and discharged as required. There are no apprentices. Boys learn the trade best in a shop where general work is done, rising gradually, and earning full wages by the time they are about thirty. Much that is written in the above paragraphs, regarding conditions of work and wages, applies also to whitesmiths, a very small and decreasing body of men in London. Their special line was considered to be hot-water apparatus and fittings, but they do any kind of small particular work in iron for builders, and their work is in fact hardly distinguishable from that of the general smith on the one hand, and that of the locksmith and bellhanger on the other. The trade of the smith is decidedly healthy, and the men being naturally of strong physique, are able, notwith- standing the hardness of the work, to keep at it till an advanced age, loss of bodily strength often being counter- balanced by the skill and knowledge gained of experience, the work being of such a varied character as always to leave " something to learn." The customary complaint is BLACKSMITHS. 335 made that men past fifty are unable to get work at a new- shop, but old servants are too valuable to be lightly dispensed with, and are only discharged in the event of trade being so bad that a firm cannot in any way afford to keep them on. The fault of the men in the past has been a tendency to drink, but in this respect much improvement has taken place of late years. Organization is in a fairly advanced stage, the majority being members of a union, as will be seen by refer- ence to the particulars of trade organization given at the end of the next chapter (pp. 353-65), where also will be found statistics of wages paid. CHAPTER III. OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. (Section 16.) Persons Represented. Census Enumeration. Census Divisions, 1S91. (1) A'arious Iron& Steel nianufact (2) Gun & Sword maker (3) Tool & Cutlery- maker, &c (4) T.\T3e-founder, Di e& Coi n-mak er Fe- males. All Ages, 19 167 59 Males. -19,20—54 55 990' 4824 140 748 Total.... 314 1643 7616 112110,694 1142 902 Total. Enumerated by Families. Sex / Males 6494 \ Females 67 6488 1053 1777 1376 There is more than the averasre of younis; people in type-founding, &c., but taken together the trades show the ordinary age proportions. (See diagram.) Hirtlmliee -f I" 1'°"^°° •••■ ^'^ "''" '^^^ '^"^'^P''^^'' tout of London.. 43% 2816 Tndnstriil (Employer 7% 468 Stntuf I Employed 87% 5687/ htatus . . ( jjeitij^r 6 % 406 Heads of Families, 6561. Total Population concerned. Total .... Heads of Families. Others Occupied. 6059 Unoccupied. 18,228 Servants. 444 31,' »2 Distribution. 2640 W. &C. 1747 S. 4352 Average in family.. •92 2-78 •07 4^77 10,694 Classification. Distribution. Details of Occupations (from the Census Dictionary). (1) Bolt maker, oliverman, drum and keg maker, galvanized iron worker ; iron founder, caster, moulder, core-maker, pattern-maker, trimmer, fireman ; tank- maker, rivetter ; safe-maker. (2) Action-maker, barrel forger, filer, borer, grinder, prover, lock, muzzle, pin, nipple, stock, trigger - maker : blade forger, grinder, hardener, polisher, mounter, embosser, hilt and scabbard-maker, &c. (3) File, saw, and plane - makers ; table, pocket, pen, hunting-knife maker, forger, grinder, hardener. (4) Wood -type cutter, punch cutter, mould maker, caster, rubber, dresser, setter, iustifier, breaking-ofi boy, stereotyper, electrotyper ; medallist, stamper, seal engraver and forger, die sinker and engraver, heraldic engraver, embosser. Nuvibers living in Families. 3 or more to a room 4550 2 & under 3 ,, 7401 1 & under 2 „ 8490 Less than 1 ,, '\ iMore than 4 rooms [ 4 or more persons I to a servant . . j Less than 4 persons to 1 servant and 4 or more to 2 . . 411 All others with 2 or more servants . . 189 Servants 444 % 14^5 23^7 27-1 9807 31-4 East /Inner 4203) ,„, I0uter3;i5i; ^^^ TVorth /Inner 8811 „„„ IVorth I Outer 4495 J ^•^^'^ West J Inner 5601 I Outer 1776 j" 1-3 •6 1^4 Central Inner 2333 South. East South- west 2336 2333 31,292 /Inner 9831 ,-„, 1 Outer 6518/ '^"^ f Inner 3092]. ^^^ t Outer 3100 J '^'^^^ 31,292 Crowded . iVot „ . Inner. Outer. 52 % 30 % 48 % 70 % Together, 38% 62 % Inner 12,052, or 38 % Outer 19,240, or 62 % Status as to Employment (according to Census Enumeration). Census Divisions (1891). (1) Various iron and steel manufacturer y.y. f Gunsmith ^ -* ( Sword, bayonet-maker, cutler l' Tool maker, dealer ,o\ I Cutler and scissors-maker ^ •'iPin, needle, steel pen and pencil \ (wood) maker ' f.^ f Type cutter, founder ^ ' \ Die, seal, coin, medal maker Total Employers. Males. Females 192 54 3 113 59 12 22 48 Employed. Under 20. Over 20. 990 119 21 128 59 38 223 65 51.30 714 0 7766 280 529 9689 Proportion of Employers to Bmployed-1 to IS 476 10,694 Nos. (for explanation of melliod adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) 280- Ages. 10 u- (10) Other Workers in Iron and Steel. Diagram showing ages of Other Workers in Iron and Steel, and of the whole occupied Whole of occupied in London. (Sfp leniarks as to ages on tabular page opposite.) A /\ y ^\ V 1/ \^ w \\ [ \ ^ 1 ' 1 ^ \ / \ / \ ' A S V^ V. \ > .\ V V \ y 11 1 vN. 11 V. Ij V fl \ V 11 v\ 11 V If V Jl > s V 1 sN T V 1 s N ♦ Nn \ ^ >t 15 20 25 30 35 *0 *5 50 55 60 G5 7.5 80 VOL. V other workers in iron and steel. 337 Iron-founding. Under tlie general heading of "Other iron and steel Manufactures/' the census includes workers in a number of minor London industries, the only one of importance being iron-founding. This trade is carried on in a small way by many firms as a branch of their general engineering business, but a few confine themselves entirely to it, their work consisting mainly in the making of columns, girders, railings, posts, and other iron- work required in the construc- tion of buildings. In no case is the work done on a very large scale, it being, apart from engineering shops, almost entirely restricted to the fulfilment of the immediate requirements of London builders and architects, whose convenience it often suits to have their orders executed where they can exercise a general supervision. The skilled mechanics are divided into pattern- makers, moulders, and core-makers, and the unskilled or semi-skilled men into trimmers, firemen and labourers. The character of the work performed by each has been described (p. 306), except that of the core-makers, who are responsible for the moulds for the inside linings of the iron castings. Hours and Wages. — The hours of labour are fifty-four per week, divided as in the other metal trades. The standard wage is 38s for moulders, save that moulders in loam usually get 2s a week more than the rest. For pattern-makers the trade union rate is 9d an hour, or 40s 6d a week; in non-union houses wages fall to 38s and exceptionally to 36s. Wages generally have remained stationary for some years and although there has been a reduction of hours from a nominal sixty (really fifty-eight and a half) to fifty-four, the work is done at much greater pressure, it being a common practice for customers to delay giving their orders till the last moment, and then to require them to be performed in a great hurry, and this conduces also to a good deal of over- time, paid for at the customary extra rate. VOL. V. 22 338 METAL WORKERS. Appliances for assisting the workman liave been vastly improved of late years, but no method of sub-division has been introduced : the man who makes the mould does the casting also. The men are all paid by the day, but some complaint is made of a system of task-work by which, it is alleged, the time of a job is set by a picked hand with the aid of every appliance and a labourer to wait on him, and that then other men, without equal advantages, are expected to keep up to the standard thus obtained. Trimmers and firemen are promoted from the ranks of the labourers, and get from 26s to 28s against the labourer's 24s. Regularity. — Though this cannot be called a season trade it is, so far as dependent on building operations, busier at one time of the year than at another. Partly as a result of overtime and partly owing to appliances which have increased the power of production, the unemployed are rather more numerous proportionately than elsewhere in the metal trades, and probably average 7 to 8 per cent, exclusive of the sick and superannuated. There is a good deal of irregularity, a large number of the men being continually on the move. Training. — There is no apprenticeship system. Lads commence at fifteen or sixteen, and work their way up, starting with 5s a week ; often they change firms two or three times, improving a little at each place. The recognized limit is one boy to three men, but in London the proportion is not so large as this. Organization. — The men are well organized. The Friendly Society of L^on-founders has among its members from two-thirds to three-fourths of the London mechanics, and includes perhaps the pick of the men. The number of unionists would probably be larger but for the heavy scale of contributions, caused by the many benefits given. The Pattern-makers' Society includes about three-fourths of the London mechanics in their line of work, whilst others belong to the engineers' societies. The labourers also have their unions, but of a much less permanent character. OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 339 Tank-making. This small industry, although, combined with iron-founding in the census, is a kindred trade to boiler-making. It employs some 250 to 300 men in London. The men are divided into three grades, with nominal time wages, as follows : — Tank-makers or rivetters, 6s per day (nine hours) , holders-up, 5s; caulkers, paid in proportion to work done by rivetters. There is an extra allowance of Is a day for out- door work. With the exception of one firm, however, which is outside the pale of trade union influence, the work is all done on piece, and the actual hours put in are only about forty per week. The men work in gangs consisting of a rivetter, holder-up, and one or two boys. Taking the books of one of the best firms, an ordinary week showed the earnings of twelve gangs (one boy to each) to amount to £58. 13s, giving an average of £4. 17s 9d per week per gang, divided as follows: rivetters, £2. 8s lOd; holders-up, £1. 14s dd; boy, 14s 8d. The range from highest to lowest earnings was, in even fisnares : rivetters, £3. 3s to £1. 14s; holders-up, £2. 2s. to £1. 3s; boys, IBs 6d to 10s. The time worked by each set averaged about thirty-five hours. Of course there are differences in the quickness and skill of the men, and some classes of work pay better than others, but the variation in wages is principally caused by difference in the number of hours worked. One caulker is usually employed to three gangs of rivetters, and he is paid in the proportion of one-sixth of their combined earnings, or the same amount as the rivetters, viz. £2. 8s lOc^. Regularity. — In regard to the quantity and regularity of the work, too, the men are rather better off than the boiler- makers. There is a busy season in the autumn, when tanks are largely used for export purposes in lieu of pack- ing cases, and again in the spring, when the building trade is brisk, there is a good demand for tanks for private houses. VOL. V. 22 * 340 METAL WORKERS. Trade is slack in the winter. Nearly three-fourths of the men have practically regular work^ and of the rest most are employed from half to three-quarters of their time, the out of work margin being about 5 per cent. Training. — No apprentices and but few boys are employed, many of the so-called '^boys" being young men, and some of them married. This is partly due to the attitude of the men, who prefer to have the help of labourers with some knowledge of the work to the trouble of teaching boys. Metallic Casks.^ This is a London trade, which has been established about forty years, and employs some 350 persons, including one hundred youths and boys. It is an offspring of tin and iron-plate work^ and is carried on by half a dozen firms, one of which is a paint manufacturer's, making only such goods as it requires for its own purposes. Part of the work is done by hand, but most of it by steam machinery, the latter haviag been introduced, it is said, partly because the men, in the early days of the industry, earned such good wages that they were often unwilling to come in to work during the first part of the week, and so the employers had to find some substitute for their labour in order that urgent orders might be fulfilled. Process of worli. — The casks are of three kinds, termed respectively drums, kegs, and tapers. Drums are principally used for containing oils and acids, and are made in sizes to hold from one to ten gallons. The sheets of wrought iron of which they are constructed are obtained in the provinces, and vary in thickness from eighteen to twenty-three to the inch. They are first cut in a guillotine machine to the width required for the particular size of drum to be made, and then, after being dipped in an acid solution, are coated • As the employers in this trade declined to give information, we are indebted to, and have to rely mainly upon, the evidence of men employed. OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 341 witli a surface of lead or tin. The edges of tlio sheet of metal are next folded over by a machine, whilst another machine rolls the sheet into a cylinder, and the two edges being buckled and grooved tightly together, the body of the vessel is formed. An iron hoop is then slipped over it, and the bottom and top pieces, which have been previously stamped out by means of dies, are affixed, and the edges dipped in a pan of hot lead or tin to ensure their being firm and air-tight. A hole is next made in the top, and a neck or spout soldered on. The drum is then ready to be" tested. For this purpose it is filled with air to a considerable pressure with an air-pump, and is held under water ; the tell-tale bubbles caused by the escaping air at once reveal the least defect, which is remedied accordingly. If sound, the vessel receives an outside coat of oxide paint, and is then ready for use. For kegs, which are used for holding paints, varnish, &c., the general process of construction is the same, save that the iron is not coated and that the bottoms are rivetted on instead of being dipped in hot metal, whilst the tops are held with clips fastened to the sides of the kegs, no spout being required. • Tapers, so-called because they have a taj)ering neck — being in eS'ect iron bottles — are made similarly to the drums so far as the body is concerned. The neck is cut out by hand, rolled in a machine to the required shape, and soldered on. Steel Barrels. — Until quite recently steel barrels were made entirely in Germany, Belgium and France, but the work has now been started by a firm of metallic cask- makers. The barrels are made partly by machinery and partly by hand, to hold from 20 to 120 gallons, being intended to contain large quantities of oils and acids. They are coated with lead or tin, similarly to drums. Hours and Wages. — A week's work is nominally con- sidered to be one of sixty hours, but in reality, it being a 342 METAL WORKERS. piece-work trade, hours vary from about fifty-two to fifty-four. The shorter time (fifty-two hours) prevails iu one or two shops owing to a quarter of an hour being allowed for lunch in addition to the ordinary meal times. In the chief firms the system is almost entirely piece-work, prices being based on a scale which was originally agreed to between the firm which first introduced the industry, and its employees. But con- siderable modifications have since been made, a certain per- centage being deducted for use of machinery, &c. The work is divided into numerous branches, such as cutters, tinners, dippers, neckers, taper-makers or benchmen, painters, and testers ; the makers again are often sub-divided into those employed on kegs and those doing drums, the latter being the more skilled work. The most competent men are the taper-makers, whose wages run up to 40s or oOs per week in the leading firms. They work together and share their earnings equally, as do also the dippers and neckers, whose pay may average nearly 30s. The cutters have each a time rate of pay, fixed by the fore- man according to his judgment of the ability of each individual worker, and the total earnings of the department are shared in proportion to this time rating. Thus amounts taken vary greatly, ranging from perhaps 20s for the younger and less competent workmen, to 45s or 50s for the older and most skilled. Testers work independently, and so also do painters, and here again the variation in earnings is considerable. As an example, it is said that exceptional men will paint one hundred five-gallon drums in two hours, taking Is 8d for the work, whilst slow workers would only perform half this task. From 20s to 40s is about the extreme range, with an average rather below 30s. These are the wages of the chief houses ; rates are lower in the others, more particularly where the day- work system prevails. Other particulars. — The trade is not seasonal. It depends to a considerable extent on Government contracts; apart OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 343 from this the work is executed to the orders of oil and paint merchants, and is largely required for export purposes. In slack periods — which have been frequent of late — short time is worked. The men are rarely discharged and very seldom change their situation. There are no apprentices. Boys are taken on and pick up the trade pretty quickly, most parts of it being easily learnt. The dipping, tinning, and painting are said to be some- what injurious; otherwise the trade is healthy, and men work at it till a fairly advanced age. Organization. — The men have no organization. A trades union was started, and lasted nearly two years, but then failed. Corrugated Iron-work. The construction of corrugated-iron roofs, doors, sashes, &c., for workshops and outbuildings, though said to be largely encroached upon by carpenters and others, is considered to be a separate trade. Corrugated iron, which is manufactured mainly in the provinces, is largely used on account of its strength, durability and cheapness. Th§ position in the industrial category of the two hundred or so men, who confine themselves to this work, lies midway between the metal and building trades. Often they have started as boys in an iron-foundry or works, and their hours are those of the metal trades, but they resemble the builders in that their work is quite seasonal — busy in summer and slack in winter. Wages of mechanics range from 5* to 6s a day, and of labourers 4^ to 4s 6d. (All time-work and no sub- contracting.) Overtime is scarce and slack time frequent, there being much irregularity and shifting about from one employer to another. The men travel about the country a good deal, being paid extra if sent out to a job by a London firm. In this case married men leave their wives and families at home, and they, by previous arrangement, draw an allowance direct from the firm during the men's absence. 344 metal workers. Iron-safe Making. This is a small and quite distinct trade, and is carried on in London by about half a dozen manufacturers. With the exception of a few men, who are employed in fitting the safes and are paid 8d an hour, the work is entirely by the piece. This being a patent trade, and each firm having its special patterns, it is not practicable to have any general scale of prices, and consequently a bargain is struck between each employer and his workmen as to the price at which any job will be executed, with the result of giving the mechanic, on the average, something between 8d and lOd per hour for his work. In some instances there are labourers to assist the skilled workmen, and these are paid some- times by the employer and sometimes by the mechanic, according to the character of the work and the custom of the shop. In the making of small safes no assistance is required, whilst in constructing large ones a labourer may be needed all the time. The nominal week's work is fifty-four hours, but, as in most piece-work trades, the men rarely make a full week, and the average is probably below fifty hours. Overtime, except when fixing work at banks, &c., is almost unknown, and the season of the year makes but little difference, though there is rather more to do in winter than in summer. Trade was good for some time, but has been slack for the last two years. Possibly the building of the large safe deposits has had something to do with this falling off. It is true they are constructed by safe-makers, but when once made they are almost everlasting, and render unnecessary a multitude of private safes. In slack periods men sometimes get work in a smith's shop, doing plate-flattening, and general iron fitting. There are very few indentured apprentices ; usually boys are taken on at fifteen years of age and paid about 8s a week. They learn the trade under a mechanic, and serve in the customary way until twenty- one, being put on piece-work during the last two years of OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 345 their time. Capacity is lost at sixty years of age or sooner old men are kept on but they earn less. There are not many of them employed. The trade is well organized, and more than 90 per cent, of the mechanics in London engaged in it are said to be unionists. GuNj Sword, and Bayonet Making. In the manufacture and repair of small arms for sporting purposes a little work of superior character is done in the metropolis, mostly in connection with the retail establish- ments of West and Central London ; but the bulk of those returned by the census are engaged in distribution rather than manufacture. There has also been for many years a limited high-class trade done in the manufacture of swords and cutlasses, either for military or naval officers, or for presentation purposes, but it is only lately that, through the intervention of a German firm, who have opened a factory here in conjunction with an old-established sword-maker, a large Government order for the manufacture of sword-bayonets has been secured to London. Formerly this work was mainly done abroad, and it is suggested that the firm, in training the men and providing facilities for doing it here, has done the Govern- ment a service, as otherwise we might have found ourselves in a difficulty in case of becoming embroiled in a European war. Here, too, as in ordnance manufacture, machinery of the most modern character and constructed on an excellent plan to ensure the safety of the workers, is very largely used, and there is much sub-division of labour, the bayonet passing through some thirty different processes, each performed by a distinct set of workmen. The men, some of whom are Germans, are drawn from other branches of the metal trades — grinders, polishers, machine hands, filers, &c. The machinists are on piece-work based on a standard of 6d per hour, and probably average from 20s 346 METAL WORKERS. to 25.5 a week. The filing, which is done by hand, requires more skill and is rather better remunerated. There are a number of skilled fitters (all English, and trade unionists), paid by time at 8hd per hour, who keep the machinery in order, and prepare the tools required; and the finishing, testing, &c.,are of course done by thoroughly competent men. Judging by the severe tests to which the weapons are put before being passed as satisfactory, there is no doubt of the sound character of the work turned out. The working hours are fifty-two per week, and, save when it is necessary for some department to stay a little late in order to catch up with the rest, there is scarcely any overtime. Up to the present the work has been fairly regular ; what it will be in future must largely depend on the disposition of Govern- ment contracts. Tools and Cutleky. Of the making of tools there is very little indeed in London. Planes are made by two or three firms, but the trade as a whole is quite small and decaying, unable to stand against cheap provincial competition. The men employed are usually on piece, and earn fairly high wages when work is brisk, but the work fluctuates considerably. For the rest, the tool-makers returned in the census, are almost entirely engaged in repairing or dealing. A quiet old-fashioned and interesting little trade in London is that of cutlery. The manufacturing part is confined mainly to hunting-knives, boar-spears, table and pocket-knives, and butchers' cleavers, with just a little work in dressing-bag fittings (nail files, glove and button hooks, pallet-knives, &c.) and skate blades. The hunting- knives and spears are very finely made, as indeed is all the work ; some of the pocket-knives are quite a revelation, being fitted with scissors, tweezers, gimlet, corkscrew, button hook, needle, pen, pencil, and a dozen other more or less useful appendages, all most delicately finished and bearing OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 347 elaborate designs worked out with hand files. The amount of ingenuity and time which may be expended in thus adorning a single blade is remarkable^ the hardness of the steel (which is double shear, as against the single shear of Sheffield work), allowing of its being filed to the finest point of detail. There is about the London work a degree of finish and durability which are only possible where, as in this case, the articles are made in very small quantities by specially skilled men, and command high prices. The blades, which are usually fitted with African ivory handles, are distinguished by having the word " London " stamped upon them, there being an old statute which only allows of this mark being placed upon edged goods actually forged in London, though even in this the spirit of the law is said to be sometimes evaded by having* the blades forged here and then sent elsewhere to be mounted. Only about half a dozen firms supply the genuine London cutlery, which is manufactured by a few small master-men, employing from two or three to eight or nine assistants, and even these few are provincial men, who, acquiring their first knowledge of the trade in Sheffield or at a general cutlery shop in some other country town, have afterwards come up here and been initiated into the peculiarities of London work. Save for the fact that steam-power is now generally used in lieu of manual labour to turn the grindstone, the work is carried on in primitive style, the same man working alternately at bench and stone, and doing the grinding, filing, polishing, &c., of an article throughout. The forging, hardening and mounting are done by separate men. Harden- ing is a most important process, for upon it depends the suitability of the steel for the purpose required. For instance, the difference between the quality of the blade of a pocket-knife and that of a razor lies in the hardening, the harder the metal the sharper can it be made. The trade is to some extent declining, partly because of 348 METAL WORKERS. the improred quality of Sheffield work^ and also because wealthy people will not pay the fancy prices that they once did. Hours of work are fifty-two per week, and wages about 9d and 9itZ per hour. Work is fairly regular, with a little extra pressure for Christmas goods, and a corresponding slackness after. In addition to those employed on new work, there are a number of men Avho do grinding and repairing only. These, too, are '' provincials,^^ including several Sheffieldites, and work occasionally on the premises of a firm of cutlery dealers, but more usually are on their own account. Hiring a room at a workshop where steam-power is available, and paying an inclusive rent of about 10s per week, they form a connection amongst the shops, and take out such work as is left with the shopkeeper for repairs. Sometimes they work single-handed, sometimes two together, or occasionally one man may employ two or three others, but it is always in a small way. The competition for this work is keen, and prices low, with the result that earnings are not high, 25s to 30s perhaps, after paying* expenses. These men, who have largely superseded the itinerant knife-grinder, also repair various kinds of metal work, and may have some pressure of trade during the London season, or when a s^Dell of severe weather causes a brisk demand for skate- grinding. Type-founding. London is the original centre of the English type-founding trade, it having been introduced here some two hundred years ago. A small select industry of an almost stationary character now, owing to the common practice of stereotyping, it is carried on in the metropolis by about eight firms, and by a few others in the provinces. Process. — Type, which is usually made from an alloy of lead, antimony and tin in certain proportions, is cast by machinery from prepared moulds and matrixes, varying OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 349 according to the size and style of the "fount" to be produced (each different style of type is called a "fount''). The mould, in which the body of the type is made, is formed by the moulders in two parts, one attached to the machinery and the other movable, so that it may be adjusted to the proper width of the letters. The matrix in which the face or letter is cast is prepared by men termed justifiers, with the aid of a steel punch, on which the desired letter has been cut. The machines are driven either by steam or hand-power, and the men who have charge of this work are called casters. When the type leaves the machine it is taken by boys, who, seated at a table, break off a wedge-shaped bit of metal which has adhered to its lower surface, and it then passes to the rubbers who rub each side of it with a fine steel file or upon circular stones to remove any rough edge which has remained and make it perfectly rectangular. The setters then range the types in long lines ready for the dresser, who cuts a groove in the bottom of each type, thus enabling it to stand more firmly on its "feet"; gives the necessary polish and finish, producing the silvery appearance characteristic of new type ; and casts out any defective letters. The type is then packed, and goes to the warehouse. Remuneration. — Taking the men in the order of their work, the mould- makers, who come first, form a very small and highly skilled section of the trade; theirs is day-work, and wages range from 42s to 50s a week. Only the largest firms emj)loy their own mould-makers, the rest relying on two or three small firms, who do this work for the trade. The justifying is also a comparatively small and skilled branch. It is also day-work and well paid, wages being from 88s to 45s. Men who do steam-casting are paid both by the day and piece. Each man has to attend to two machines. Day wages range from 35s to 25s, but the most frequent rate for competent men is about 8fZ per hour. Piece workers, .350 METAL WORKERS. Avho are generally tlie younger men, average about 25s, as do also the hand-casters, though some of the men get more. The rubbers are practically all on piece-work, the scale of pay for ordinary types being 2^d per 1000, with extra for the exceptionally small sizes. Large type is paid for by weight. Rubbing is generally considered to be the worst paid branch ; a man cannot as a rule earn more than 6d to 6^d per hour, but on the big fancy types or the very small founts he does better. The men have a grievance in that, after the rubbing is done, the type goes to the dresser who casts out any bad type, for which no payment is made. This loss is estimated at from 5 to 6 per cent. The rubbers in one firm have a society into which they pay 3d or 4la- tions with masters very good. Strik(\ Death, Accident Benefits. Benevolent Pund. Strike, Death, Accident money. Oiit of work. Strike, Sick, Death, .Accident, and Pen- sion money. Total 1 ini < membership (1894) 1121412400. OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 355 Numbers in the London Trade (Census 1S91). Xame of Trade Society. Membership in London. |0f whom art. Rcniarks. Total. employed lu each In each males over 20 Society. Division. 24088 18712 {Brought fonvard) 11214 90G 632 The London Jour- neymen Scale- makers' Trade Pro- tection and Benefit Out of work, Strike, Sick, Death Benefits, Pension. Men's wap;e enfor- ced. Relations Society (1889). 77 77 with masters good. The Friendly Society of Iron Founders of England and Wales ^ Donation, Strike, Sick, Death, Pen- sion, Accident, Tra- vel Benefits. Re- (1809). 688 lations on the whole good. The Society of Iron- Sick and Death safe Engineers money. (1874). United Society of 150 Out of work and Death Benefits. Tank Kivetters, Relations with 9778 7136 - Holders - up and Caulkers (1886). Corrugated Iron- roofers, Door and Sash - makers, and General Iron-work- ers' Union (1891). United Trimmers, Firemen, and 190 40 - 1133 masters good. Sick and Death money. Out of work. Death, and Accident money. Relation.s I Labourers' Union. 65 J with masters fair. 916 630 The Amalgamated Type Founders' Trade Society Out of work, Strike and Travel money. Union and non-union men (1889). 230 230 work together. Usually friendly with masters. r The Permanent ^Am- algamated Farriers' Protection Society 1 Offers Out of work. Strike, Sick, Deatli and Pension money. Relations (1894). 1400 somewhat strained with 'Bus andTram Companies. The London Amal- Out of work. gamated Society of 1 Sick, and Death money. Hammer-men (1844 ) . 160 12,267 9592 - The United Society of Smiths and Ham- mermen (1889). Co-operative Smiths' 1240 '32.39 1 Out of work. Strike, Death and Accident money. Out of work. Strike, Sick, and Society. 49 1 Death Benefits. Superannuation ProvincialSociety. The Society of Gen- Strike and Death money. Union and eral Smiths, Fitters, non-union men ^ Bellhangers and J work together. Whitesmiths (1890). 390 47,955 36,702 15,893 VOL. V. 23 ^ 056 METAL WORKERS. Thus out of a total of 30^702 males employed over twenty years of age, 15,893 are organized^ or 43 per cent. In addition^ tbere is a Laud and Marine Engineers' Union, of wliicli we liave not been able to obtain any particulars, and a Marine Engineers' Union, Limited, founded in 1887, with educational rather than trade objects. This last has 10,630 members on its books in thirty-nine branches scattered in all parts of the world. The employers have an Association of Ship Builders and Boiler-makers, and there is also a London Society of Foremen Engineers. The latter, w'hich has 111 members, was started by a few foremen who felt somewhat keenly their isolated position. They maintain strict neutrality on trade questions, but meet to discuss mechanical and scientific subjects. They give out of work and death benefits and a pension, and also make grants to widows and orphans of deceased members. Members are admitted to most of the Men's Societies in the last years of their apprenticeship and up to forty years of age, but the Amalgamated Engineers, the Iron-founders, the Drillers, the Scale-makers, and the Smiths and Hammer-men admit older men to part benefits for a lower subscription, as '^ Trade" or "Ti'ade Protection" members. Contributions for full members vary from Is 6d (Amalgamated Engineers) to Sd (Amalgamated Type- founders) weekly. The Corrugated Iron-roofers and the Hammer-men and Labourers' Protection Union subscribe as little as 2d per week, but offer a sum of money at death or for strikes only. In the larger societies Is is the usual contribution, and in return for this out of work beibefit (generally called donation money) is offered for periods varying from 14 to 104 consecutive weeks. For strikes a special allowance is made, which is either added to the out of work pay or consists in 10s or 12s for a certain number of weeks, after which the members come on donation benefit. OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL- 357 £10 or £12 is given at death, and usually half the amount at the death of a member's wife, " Bed-money '' of 6d or 9d is given to those on tramp, and £5 to £10 is paid for loss of tools. Members of a certain standing are given £100 if totally incapacitated. Pensions are a special feature in the larger societies, and vary from 5s to lO.s per week according to the number of years the member has been in the society ; fifty-five is the minimum age qualification except among the scale-makers, who allow a ten years' member ds to 5s if the funds in hand are over £300 or £500. We have here to deal chiefly with a number of powerful and well-organized trade unions, the largest of which, and the one which, by reason of its numbers, policy and cosmopolitan character, probably exercises the greatest influence, is the Amalgamated Society of Engineers. It has branches not only throughout the United Kingdom, but also in Spain, India, America and Australia, and includes in its ranks smiths, millwrights, fitters, turners, pattern- makers, and in fact mechanics engaged in every branch of work which has to do with the construction of eno-ines, machinery and ships. Thus its influence is efiective not only on other organizations, but also in trades which have no organization of their own. The interests of such a union are national rather than local, and this is true also of the Iron-founders, the Boiler- makers, the Steam-engine makers and Pattern-makers. Their members are in a position to understand that the well- being of the whole trade and not of any one section of it is that which has first to be considered, and consequently the extravagances — so often the result of a momentary enthu- siasm — which are sometimes permitted by a small society, are here sternly repressed by a central Committee or Executive Council, a body whose only duty is to watch over the interests of the union as a whole. 358 METAL WORKERS. Monthly reports are issued by the general secretaries concerning the state of trade in every town in the United Kingdom in which a branch society exists, and members are thus given an opportunity of ascertaining in what place they are most likely to find employment. Accounts are published of each branch separately; and finally there is the consciousness in every branch that even the smallest of them will be effectively supported by the whole body in any question in which they may be held to be acting for the good of the trade. The strength of their position enables these societies to combine moderation with firmness, whilst their widespread responsibility usually induces them to do so, and not only the men, but sometimes the employers also, have reason to be grateful for their existence. The Amalgamated Engineers^ Society, as already indicated, has shown great liberality in admitting members of allied trades within its ranks, and its policy has been fully justified by the results. But even in some of the larger unions there is the same unwillingness to open their doors that is so noticeable in several smaller London societies. They fear to admit men whom they consider less skilled than themselves. It may be that this exclusiveness is due to a praiseworthy spii^it of independence among the working men concerned, but, on the other hand, the more certain way of ensuring the interests of a trade would seem to be in the admission of men working in as many branches as possible provided that they are sufficiently skilled in their own particular work. Besides this there is some feeling between men employed in these and other trades. For instance, the boiler- makers obtain some of the work which is also claimed by the shipwrights, and some which the drillers consider to be theirs. One of the stated objects of the steam-engine makers is to "regulate the relations between wurJcmen and ivorhnen " as well as between employers and employed. OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 359 Friction of some sort between societies whose members are employed on much the same kinds of work is almost inevitable. It is no doubt largely due to the feeling among working men that when a man has settled on one branch of work he should not poach on the preserves of others. The " handy '' man, much as he is sought after by employers, is not as a rule popular amongst his fellow working men. As a whole, there is a very strong feeling against piece- work, and the larger societies have special rules against its introduction in any new yard. The relations between employers and the various societies are friendly, and although the trades are highly organized, unionists and non-unionists often work together in the same firms. The farriers stand somewhat apart from the other societies in that they are an exclusively London body, and are not included in any of the unions already mentioned. Formerly there were several distinct societies connected with the trade in London, but a process of amalgamation has been gradually going on, and they are now all combined in one union under the title of the Permanent Amalgamated Farriers' Protection Society. This society has four branches — one each in North, South, East and West London. Their relations with the master farriers and professional " vets " are good, but there is some friction with the large omnibus and tramway companies. SCO METAL WORKERS. Wages Statistics. As with the trade unions^ we make no attempt to separate the eng-ineering', iron and steel trades in our wages statistics, because the work is mostly in the hands of large employers who have men belonging to each branch. According to the census, the number of adult men actually employed is : — Engine and machine-makers, &c., 19,344; blacksiniths, 9592; other workers in iron and steel, 7766; or 36,702 in all. Of these adult males we have information as to earnings for no less than 13,203, employed by sixty- one firms as under : — Engineers 30^ Iron-founders 2 Engine and machine-makers 4 Boiler and tank-makers 2 Iron-ship builders 3 Domestic-machine makers 3 Weighing-machine makers 2 Tool-makers and cutlers 5 Gun and rifle-makers 2 Gas ajiparatus makers 3 Type-founders 2 Nail-makers 1 = 01 firms usually employing 10,892 persons, of whom 18,325 are adult males, but of these 501 belong to other sections. Viceverno, other sections contri- bute 379 men, making up the total of 13,203 as above. Those employed belonging to other sections,include brass-moulders, coi^persmiths and other metal workers, engine drivers, car- penters, bricklayers, plumbers, Coin and seal-makers 1 i . , i i i .^ , , . 1 painters, carmen and labourers. EoyalMiut 1 -> ^ The earnings of these men in an average week are as follows : — Below 20.S 726, or 5J per cent. 20s to 25s 3507 „ 26^ 25s „ 30s 1840 „ 14 30s to 35s 1513 „ llj 35s ,, 40s 3424 ,, 26 40s „ 45s 1300 „ 10 45s and upwards... 893 ,, 6^ Under 30s, 40 per cent. ] J r 30s and upwards, 54 per cent 13,203 ,,100 These figures maybe compared with returns made to the Board of Trade in 1886 from thirty similar firms, employing OTHER WORKERS IN IRON AND STEEL. 261 3808 persons, exact details being given for 2774, of wliom 2024 were adult males belonging to the trades dealt with in this chapter : — —■20s 206-— 25s— 30s— 35.S— 40s— 45s. Our returns 5i7o 26J 7o 14 7o Hi 7o 26 7, 10 7„ er/o Board of Trade returns - 1 46 7, 21 7o 1 10 7o 54 7o 9 7o \m°L\ 127c 1 7r/o^ 31 7o G9 7„ Allowing for the difference between our actual and the " full week's ordinary wages " of the Board of Trade, and for the very probable chance that the men for whom detailed rates of wages were not obtained by the Board of Trade averaged rather less than the others, the two returns confirm each other. The principal group of skilled men earn from 35s to 40s a week^ but the unskilled men, or those who, though skilled, work short time and earn only 20s to 25s, are an equally large body. Similarly, those earning, from whatever cause, less than 20s, are nearly as numerous as those who earn 45s or more, but neither extreme is largely represented. As to the difference between busy and slack weeks, fourteen firms made special returns to us, from which and from the Board of Trade returns we obtain the following very similar results : — Busy. Slack. Percentage Reduction. In numbers. In earn- ings Iter head. Com- bined. Our returns Board of Trade returns 2478 3547 1835 2588 26 27 23 i 25 43 45 Our returns place the busiest weeks in January, February, 362 METAL WORKERS. April, Junej November and December, and the slackest in February, April, May, June, September, November and December, sliowing conclusively that being busy or slack is an affair of the particular work, and not of seasons. It may be assumed that men not wanted in one place find employment at another, and although there will be some loss of time it will be nothing like that which is represented by the percentages of reduction in numbers; but the percentage showing reduction in amount earned in slack weeks will hold good. We have returns showing proportion of time and piece- work in busy and slack weeks from twelve firms, employing from 1447 to 980 men belonging to these trades, of which the particulars are given below : — Busy kVeek. Slack Wpck. Men. Men. Wages. Hours. Rate. Men. Wages. Hours! Rate. s. d. s. d. ( Under 5d per hour 151 18 10 55i 4Jd. 107 17 8i 49^ Hd. Time- J 5d and M 225 28 6.^ 59.i 5ld. 169 23 4i 48i 5|t % 6486 ;;2"„ 3038 Tndiistrini f Employer Status ..^?.'"n'oy«l 84 9 "„ . 4"„ (. Neither 7 % 818 7993 713/ Heads of Familie; 9524. Total Population concerned. Heads of Families. Total .... 9524 Average in family.. I 1 OccupU'd. ifnoccupied. Servants. Total 26,458 Classification. XuMbcrs living in Families. 3 or more to a room 7655 2 & under 3 ., 11,578 1 & under 2 „ 12,026 Less than 1 <• ) More than 4 rooms [ ,p .^^ 4 or more persons I ^-''*"° to a servant . . / Less than 4 to 1 ser- vant & 4 or more to 2 servants . . 437 All others with 2 or more servants.. 306 Sei-vanls ..; 552 % 170 25-7 2(i-7 1-0 1-2 45,050 Inner. Outer. Together, Crowded.. 52% 34% 43% Not ., . . 48 % 66 % 57 % Distribution. P f /Inner 6615 \ on.)-, J-.ast ••|outer2307/ ^'^-- North /Inner 25141 ,„ „„ (Outer 7880 J ^"''^ West f Inner 693"! \ Outer 2411 J Central Inner 5362 South- East South- / Inner 5134 I "West \ Outer 3490/ / Inner 174S) 1 Outer 6876 J .3101 5.362 8024 S6U 45,050 Inner 22,086, or 49 ' Outer 22,964, or 51' (Status as to Employment (according to Census Enumeration). Employers. Employed. Neither Employer nor Employed. (1891). Males. Females of all ages. Total Males. Females Under 20. Over 20. Males. Females /|\f Copper, copper goods 39 170 175 76 17 75 85 93 74 112 3 5 1 3 1 3 136 1088 828 123 83 297 127 268 79 67 730 3831 2751 (;38 .331 1136 522 622 331 238 8 51 505 6 73 2,33 41 1.58 17 70 20 144 293 91 5 58 44 153 30 63 2 6 9 3 \ Brass, bronze goods, brazier ( Tin, tin plate, tin goods (2)-^ Zinc, zinc goods 933 5289 4562 ( Lead, leaden goods (.3)1 ^^''^''^ ''^''"•''■' burnisher, lacquerer M white metal, plated ware, pewterer f ^^'•'P-niaker, worker, weaver, drawer '\ Je'*"iP' lantern, candlestick-maker .. I Other workers and dealers 935 509 1811 827 1306 532 556 916 28 3096 11,1.30 1162 901 27 17,260 Total f),Ll "- „r. Proper tion of E mployers 1 Eraplo Ced-1 to IG a» Nos. (For explanation of method adopted in preparing this chart, see Note on Diagram 1.) £OU- (17) Workers in Other Metals. Diagram showing ages of Workers in Other Metals, and of the whole occupied . V Whole of occupied in London. (See remarks as to ages on tabular pagi- opposite.) T> \ \, \ >*.N. '^ \ / > v^ r \ 1 \ / \ I \ ' \ 1 \ > / / V \ \ V N \ ^\ \\ \> I \ \\ \\ V y^ N \ 50- \\ \\ \j s. x \v N \, ^\ ^ s. \ Ages. 10 15 20 25 30 35 4-0 45 50 60 65 70 75 80 VOL. V WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 367 Introductoey. Copper^ zinc, lead and tin are tlie principal metals here dealt with, and brass, bronze and pewter are the mixtures of these metals most commonly used. Copper and zinc combined make brass, copper and tin make bronze, and zinc and tin with a little lead constitute pewter, while special preparations yield the various kinds of bronze known as '* gun-metal," "bell-metal," '^manganese," and '^phosphor- bronze." Iron enters into this chapter only in the form of wire, or as the basis of so-called tin plates, which are actually thin sheets of iron coated with tin. Connected with these metals we find a complicated mass of trades of which we can only attempt to give a general idea. In some branches of the work London takes the lead, but on the whole Birmingham is the real centre. In the description which follows we shall begin with the workers in copper and its amalgams, passing then to pure zinc, to lead and to pewter, and finishing with the workers in tin plates and in wire. Brass and Bronze. The census counts 5289 persons in London as employed on these metals. There are small foundries and large, the small ones scattered all over London, the larger ones to be found chiefly in the eastern and southern districts. In a large factory, where the articles are manufactured throughout and finished completely, an order passes first to the draughtsman ; the drawings then go to the pattern shop and the patterns to the foundry, whence the castings are taken to the finishers to undergo work with lathe and file, and to be finally put together and polished up. Those engaged in the foundry and finishing shops form the most important branches of this industry. In a foundry there will generally be moulders, core- makers, firemen, trimmers, and some ordinary labourers, the numbers depending on the size of the shop, but there are 368 METAL WORKERS. also some fonudries so small as to be "worked bj one man alone, or one man and a boy. Moulders. — The moulder is tlie most skilled workman. He receives the pattern, which may be of metal or of Avood, and from it forms the mould into which the copper, brass or bronze is to be poured in a molten state. Every mould is in two parts or sides^ whicli are in effect a pair of iron frames prepai-ed to hold damp sand. When at work the moulder stands by a trough of sand, and placing one of these frames or sides before him, he fills it to the brim with sand, and at the same time imbeds the patterns in such a way as to allow them to project slightly above its upper sui'face. This done, the second frame is filled in the same way; and after the surfaces of the sand have been sprinkled with brick dust to prevent adhesion, the two sides are placed one on the top of the other and firmly closed together, so that the impression of the exposed surface of the pattern in the first frame may be received in the sand of the second, which has no pattern imbedded in it. The mould is then*re-oj)eued, the patterns removed, and a clear hollow left for the liquid metal. After this channels are cut in the sand — " runners " they are called — through which the metal can flow or displaced air escape, and then the two sides are clamped together, and set upon the floor ready for the pouring. The metal is melted in a crucible, and in this vessel is carried round by the fireman with the aid of the moulder and perhaps a labourer. This crucible is then tipped up by the moulder over each case, and a fiery stream flows leaping and hissing down the main runner into the cavities in the sand. The ideal of a moulder is to make a perfect impression with a smooth surface and no flaws, and with as few rouerh edges or " burrs'^ as possible. When cool, the castings are taken out and handed to the trimmer who roughly prepares tbem for the finisher by breaking off the various articles from the runners which have joined tlicm and bj" filing off the burrs, &.c. WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 369 Moulders are, as a rule, time workers, but with a task qualification. A man seeking work will be asked how many moulds he has been accustomed to do, and will be engaged with a tacit if not expressed agreement as to the amount of work to be done in a day. The wages are from S6s to 44.9 for a full working week of fifty-four hours, at 8il to d^d per hour. A few on piece will make as much as 545. Fire- men are paid 6hd, trimmers earn Gd or 6hd on time or piece, and core-makers make 4d to 6d per hour. These last are more often boys. They make sand cores round which the metal runs, leaving a hollow when the core is removed, as for pipes, water-cocks, &c. The higher rate {6d) is only made by the few who are particularly skilled. The old system of " sets," which was formerly general in London, still survives in some shops. These consist of one moulder, one fireman, one trimmer, and one, or sometimes two, core-makers, and a cleaning-out boy to scrape out the sand from the inside of hollow castings. In these sets the men work together and are paid so much per cwt. of metal poured, or so much per cast of four or five moulds, dividing the sum amongst themselves. The result in money is said to be much the same as ordinary time wages. Finishers. — However the work may be undertaken, the rough casting passes from the hands of the trimmer to those of the finisher. Some shops indeed do nothing but finish- ing (just as some establishments are only foundries), and large numbers of brass-turners, fitters and finishers are employed by railway companies, large factories, electrical and other engineering shops, or wherever the amount of machinery at work justifies the establishment of a private machine shop for repairs. Brass-finishers are thus to be found in every part of London. The trade society has issued a list of over two hundred firms in or quite near London in which men are employed as turners, fitters or finishers of brass. In the East End, near the docks, they are chiefly employed on ship^s work, while in the AVest they are engaged on fancy and electric and chandelier VOL. V. 24 370 METAL WORKERS. work. Large orders for hotels or public buildings are generally placed in Birmingham. The London specialty is for very fine work and for sanitary fittings. A fully competent finisher should be able to turn his work on the lathe^ file it up, and then buniish, polish or lacquer it, whatever the metal employed may be; but the tendency at present is for separate men to be employed for each operation, and lacquering is almost entirely a woman's industry. Brass-finishers are employed upon heavy hydraulic and sanitary fittings, and even upon steamship propellers, as well as upon the fine work needed in electrical shops- There seems indeed to be a complete scale from clock- makers to dial and index-makers, on to mathematical instrument-makers and the finishers of small brass work, and so by imperceptible degrees to the workers on the heavier class of goods, of which finally a single piece may weigh several tons. . The diflerence at the extremes is clearly marked, but between the various shades it is difficult to distinguish, and men will shift from shop to shop and call themselves finishers or instrument-makers according to the job they have in view. As a matter of fact, men accustomed to large work never like to be put on small and arc generally incapable of doing it, while a small brass- finisher, though he can and sometimes does undertake larger work, is generally too fine a worker to be able to make good money at it. It is a piece-work trade with a time rating, i.e. the men are rated at so much an hour and allowed to earn from one- fourth to one-half as much again on piece-work. During the job they may draw at their time rates, and sometimes rather more, and at the end they have a plus to their credit, or it may be a minus to make up. It is objected that masters do not dislike allowing their men to overdraw, as they thus obtain a hold on their services. Such an easy-going system is, without doubt, bad for the men, and it is hardly likely that the masters can reall}^ gain anything from it. WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 371 The trade union will not accept anyone earning less tlian 8d per hour, and very few men, whether in or outside the society, are said to earn less than this amount. A few make Is 2d per hour on time-work, but 8hd to dd would more nearly measure the average man. On piece-work 52s and 44s are given as the earnings of a good and an average man respectively, Avorking about fifty-two hours per week, and it is said that the men could earn more if the masters did not object to their making more than Is per hour. In every shop machines and methods of work differ, and there is besides a constant demand for new classes of work, the prices for which are settled by a conference between masters and men. So that there is no piece-Avork price list common to the trade, and the determination of new prices causes much waste of time and annoyance to both parties. Nevertheless, individually the men still prefer to be piece- workers, and there is no immediate prospect of relations between master and man being simplified by the introduc- tion of time-wages. One working man, a brass-finisher, connected Avitli ship- work in the East End, made the folloAving amounts in the four quarters of the year beginning March, 1893, and ending February, 1894. He was a time worker, and in addition to the usual rate was allowed something extra for work done at a distance from the factory : — First quarter ... 642^ hours. Earnings... Second quarter. . . CSSi ,, Third quarter ... 659 j ,, ,, Fourth quarter... 645 ,, ,, 2630 which gives an average of 50| hours per week, at very nearly 9d per hour. In the first quarter the full Aveek's work varied from 27 to 60j hours, from 33 to 64j in the second, from 181 (Christmas week) to GO in the third, and VOL. V. 24 * £23 17 8 26 1 11 23 15 3 23 18 8 £97 13 6 372 METAL WORKERS. from 42 to 53 in tlie fourtli, showing liow wide the varia- tions between different weeks may be even tliougli the total number of hours worked and wages earned in a quarter are very similar. In the casting and finishing o£ brass, Avork is fairly regular the year round, and depends more on the general trade of the country than on any marked seasons. There is no longer any system of apprenticeship. The general rule is for a boy to come in to learn core-making, and then to leave and seek a place as an improver in some other shop, where he will work on at the core bench until he can get a place as a moulder at the trough, or as fireman. Firemen never become moulders, and if a boy elect to be a fireman ho can never hope to arrive at the more skilled and more lucrative position of a moulder. The United Brass Founders' Society, which admits firemen, trimmers and core-makers as well as moulders, try to enforce 38^ a week, or fully 8d an hour for moulders, but are ready to admit Gd an hour for the other grades. The brass-finishers have their own society. Brass WorJcers. — In addition to brass-finishers, there are brass worke rs, who give the required form to sheet or drawn metal, whereas finishers' work is put upon objects to which the form has already been given in casting. They are mainly engaged upon the lighter branches of the trade, such as mediajval and art metal work, by which is meant the manufacture of church altar ornaments and crosses, and artistic electroliers, &c., for which the demand is still increasing. The better workers in this section approach closely to the workers in gold and silver, but the texture of the baser metals is so different that it is not often that a brass worker will be given work on the precious metals. Some brass workers are paid by time, others by piece, and the plan of piece-work based on a rate per hour is also in force in some places. In other shops there are piece masters who take the orders over at a given price, and WOBKERS IN OTHER METALS. 37.1 employ time workers to carry them out. Leading hands and exceptionally good workmen earn as much as IQd and Is, and even more, per hour. Fairly skilled men will make dd, but the majority perhaps not more than Sd to 8hd. The trade society, again, recognizes the rate of 8d as a minimum. The hours of the full working week vary between fifty and fifty-four hours, and work generally begins at 8 a.m. The union recognizes fifty-four hours as a maximum. With these men may be mentioned the saw piercers, who cut patterns and scrolls from the sheet brass which are after- wards hammered into shape by the brass worker. It is light work, done with a fret saw, and is being taken over by women, who at present can earn at it more than the usual women's wages, making from 20^ to 24.5 per week. The winter months are the busiest for gas, electric and chandelier work, while the medigeval workers have rather more to do before the great Church festivals. Summer time is slack, and then a great many men are to be found out of work ; one man said that work was so very uncertain for the six summer months that though a skilled man himself he could not be sure of three days' full work in any one week. Polishers, Burnishers and Lacquerers. — A higher polish, or a permanent gloss, or a different colour, is generally given to all work leaving the hands of the brass woi-ker or brass- finisher, and for this purpose it is handed over to the polishers, burnishers, or lacquerers. The polishers are without organization, and form perhaps the poorest section of the trade. The lime and sand used on the revolving wheels and leather " bubs " (for small corners) fly off and fill the throat and eyes, and make this work somewhat unhealthy. It is also dirty work, and disliked by the men. The very best brass polishers make as much as Qd per hour, but the ordinary men only 6cZ. Burnishers give a close grain to the surface of brass work with a smooth steel tool ; they are also expected to be able 374 21ETAL WOEKERS. to dip and bronze tlieir Avork, i.e. to soak it in different chemicals, so as to give it a darker colour. They earn from 8d to lOd per hour, depending on the class of work which they are capable of doing. Lacquerers in the brass trade are nearly always women ; they have a light touch, which men cannot rival. It is hot work, but not very fatiguing. The women sit at heated irou tables, on which their work is laid ; they paint polished brass goods with a solution, and then hold them over a Bunsen burner, which further liquifies the lacquer and allows it to How more evenly. On day-work they earn from 15s to 2os per week. Coppersmiths and Braziers. Apart from the casting and finishing, cutting and hammering, polishing and lacquering of brass or bronze, there is the regular work of the coppersmith and brazier, of whom the census recognizes 933 individuals. These men are employed chiefly upon marine repair work, or distillery work, or in railway shops, or by general engineer- ing firms. Marine work absorbs the greater number, and the work is naturally to be found in the neighbourhood of the docks. Here, as in all work in which ships' repairs form the staple industry, great irregularity is noticeable. The men shift freely from firm to firm, and anyone will leave a job which he thinks may only last a fortnight for one which will last a month. Vcr}' often no notice is given or required, and all that a man need do is to ask for his money at the end of a day and then go. Little is, or seemingly can be, made for stock, so that there is no means of bridging over the gulf between one job and another. But perhaps work for the men may not be quite so irregular as might be thought, for one firm is often busy while another is slack. It is rather the uncertainty WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 375 of work wliich is trying, and is no doubt the chief cause of the complaints as to the habits of men employed in this branch. Brewers and distillers^ work is also irregular, that is, it comes in bursts ; but notice can always be given before- hand, so that both men and masters are prepared. Brewers generally have their repairs done in the winter, when they can best afford to suspend brewing operations. In the railway shops work is very regular. Coppersmiths are nearly all time workers, though in breweries and distilleries some work on coppers, stills and hop-backs is by force of custom done on piece ; in railway works, engineering, and marine shops, all men are on time. The full week consists of fifty-four hours ; 6s per day is stated as the average money made by coppersmiths. Below are given the earnings of three men, with the number of weeks they found employment with one firm — a marine repair shop — in the year 1893-94. It should, perhaps, be noted that very few men in this branch expect to find work in one house throughout the year, and one of these is an exception in this respect. The other two were probably employed elsewhere as well, and these totals do not therefore represent their yearly income. The full working hours of these men were 9i for 5 days, and 64 on Saturdays, making a week of 54 hours. They were expected to begin at 6 in the morning ; H hours were allowed for meal-times, and overtime at the union rate — time and a quarter the first 2 hours, and time and a half afterwards — -did not begin until 9i hours had been worked. Of the three, A was said to be the best workman, but all three were steady men. {first quarter (April to June) second ,, (July to Sept.) third ,, (Oct. to Dec.) fourth ,, (Jan. to March) 644f hours .. 754| „ ., 598J „ ., 734 „ . ..Ei irnings £25 7 30 23 10 28 9 6 1 7 5 2732 107 7 7 376 METAL WORKERS. 'first quarter, 11 weeks . second ,, .8 ,, . . ol9 hours .. Earnings £19 5 10 .. 380^ „ 14 1 9 third „ nil. .. nil. nil. ^fourth ,, 4 ,, .. 215 7 19 2 1114i 41 6 9 r first quarter, 13 weeks second ,, 5 ,, 1 third „ 2 „ [fourth „ 12 „ , nOO hours . .. Earnings £20 11 215^ „ 7 16 7 C7i „ 2 7 4 582i „ 20 10 1425 50 5 8 A worked for 52 weeks and averaged 52^ hrs. per week at dd per hour. B „ ,, 23 „ „ 48^ ,. „ ,, dd C „ „ 32 „ ,, 44^ „ „ „ 8^d A's hours varied from 19^ in the first quarter (being in Easter week) to 74. In the second and fourth quarters work was more continually heavy, and in 13 weeks out of the 26 overtime was found necessary, AVith the other two men short time is more usual than overtime. Braziers do a lighter and finer class of work than coppersmiths, and make such things as tea-kettles and kitchen ware, also the long chaldrons used for feather- dying, and the copper bowls for sugar melters. All articles which are made in more than one piece have the different parts brazed together. Brazing is a system of soldering and then hammering, which requires some skill. Unlike that of the cojDpersmith, braziery is almost entirely a piece work trade. A few are time workers and earn from 9d to 9\d per hour. They are busy both before and after Christmas, and slack in the summer until the fruit season comes round, when the jam-makers require new coppers and send old ones to be repaired. Both coppersmiths and braziers are apprenticed for seven years to learn their trades, though five years is often considered sufficient, and legal indentures are seldom used. WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 377 Zinc Workers. The 935 zinc workers in London consider tlie " Road," as the Euston Eoad is called, to be their trade centre. These men are employed both out of doors and indoors. Outside Avork consists in laying zinc and copper " flats " or roofs, and shop work in the manufacture of cowls, flues, dormers, ventilating work, &c. Zinc, which is found chiefly in Belgium and Austria, is a metal that can be easily worked and, as it is cheaper to buy than copper or lead, and will not rust, it is much used for roofings and gutters, and any surfaces exposed to the damp. In the trade, there are five or six largo shops employing twelve to seventy men regularly throughout the year, and below them come a host of small masters who to-day may have one and to-morrow twelve in their employ. Besides the permanent staff in the large shops, there are always a number of casuals Avho form the shifting portion of the trade. Work on time and piece obtains in about equal pro- portions. Large employers who take big orders often have their work done on piece, while in the smaller shops time- work is the rule. When work is on piece, the master sets a price and offers it to the men, who, if they accept it, draw about day-work wages from the firm during the job, and at the end share the plus or divide the loss as the case may be. The money is paid over in a lump sum to one man and by him divided, and it is difficult therefore to estimate the difference between time and piece-work rates : but men on piece naturally expect to earn rather more than if they were on time. If there is a difficulty, or no men in a shop will accept the proffered price, then the work has to be done at day-work rates. Wages are paid to the men at the rate of 5^ Gd to 6s 6d per day, and they calculate to earn 36s to 405 a week throughout the year. Some houses pay by the hour at 8d, 9d, and lOdiov special shop work, but day-work is the most 378 METAL WORKERS. usual form of employment. In the outskirts of Lomlon the rate is generally Id per hour less than in London itself. The demand for zinc workers is fairly regular. In the winter, roofs leak and chimneys smoke, and repairs must be made and chimney cowls are in request. In the late summer, there is a great deal of work for new houses, and gutters, dormer-windows, and baths are wanted. As much of the work is done at a distance from the factory, the men are general!}^ paid for the time they take in going to a job, unless the foreman knows that they live near the work, when nothing is allowed. If they are sent to the country, travelling expenses and ordinary day-work rates are given, and Is per day for lodging-money. There is no regular system of training. A few lads and boys are apprenticed for various terms (always ending when they are twenty-one). This is usually in the smaller shops, where they can learn every branch of the work. But the more general rule is for boys to go with the men to their work, carrying the tools and helping where they can. In this way they pick up their duties by degrees, and finally demand full wages. The trade society has recognized that this want of method is unsatisfactory, and with great spirit has started a class for zinc workers, which is open not only to members of the union, but to those outside also. Lead Workers. By these is meant workers in "blue," as contrasted with those engaged in the manufacture of " white " lead. Lead-pipe, sheet-lead, lead-capsules, shot and bullets are the principal forms into which blue-lead is manufactured in London. Lead comes chiefly from the Broken Hill mines in Australia, and from Spain, and is brought over as ship's ballast, a great deal being carried by the vessels whose apparent cargo consists of oranges. Lead-pipe is formed by running molten lead into hydraulic presses and then forcing it out round a central core which WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 379 corresponds to the internal diameter of the pipe. Sheet- lead is first cast in a flat mould and then passed through rollers ; shot-lead is mixed with arsenic and run into ingots^ and^ then taken to the top of a shot-tower and there re- melted and allowed to fall through the air into a tub at the bottom^ and then is sifted and coloured. Bullets are generally cast in moulds. In lead-capsule making there are a great many (certainly more than five hundred) women and girls who are not counted under this trade in the census. They are piece workers, and are principally engaged in rolling, stamping and colouring the capsules made to put over the corks of wine and spirit bottles. Girls at this work earn from 7s to 12s, and forewomen 16s. Lead-Avorking cannot be called skilled work ; the men are nearly all piece workers and earn little over labourers' wages. Leading hands can earn as much as 35s, and ordinary men between 24s and 28s. Some, too, are second- class labourers and make under 20s. There is nothing very unhealthy in blue-lead working, provided that a man is not predisposed to lead jDoisoning ; but most men in lead factories have very white faces* Tall men are said to be more readily influenced than short, but the chief cause of trouble is insufiicient care in washing before food. In London a great deal of old pipe lead is remelted, and the fumes which escape are noxious. There is no trade organization in this industry. White Metal, &c. Metal Refiners and Burnishers (1811 persons) should perhaps more properly be numbered with the first section dealing with brass and bronze. They include the art metal workers, polishers, bronzers and saw piercers, who have been mentioned above. White-metal and Plated-ware WorJcers (827 persons) include the Pewterers, a small but prosperous body of London mechanics. There are three main branches of work in 380 2IETAL WORKERS. metal known as pewter^ wliicli is an amalgam of tin and lead hardened with copper or zinc, and to all three a pewterer should be able to turn his hand. These are — 1. Sad-ware making. 2. Bar-fitting. 3. Pewter-pot making. Birmingham and Sheffield supply the greater part of the " sad Avare " in use, which consists of teapots, ice-moulds, hot-water dishes, &c., but for bar-fitting and pewter-pot making London is the trade centre. The two latter branches are generally carried on under the same roof, and a large shop will also employ a brass-finisher and a carpenter in addition, and even in small shops there is generally a brass- finisher. As a rule, pewter pots are made on piece, while bar-fitting, without exception, is day-work. The moulds in which the casts are made are of gun-metal, and must be properl}- heated before the molten pewter can be poured so as to produce a successful result. As soon as the castings are cool they are taken to the lathe, and after this the pieces are " garnished," i.e. very finely soldered together. Bar-fittings and beer-engines are all made out of sheet- metal which has been machine-rolled, and is then worked up to shape by hand. Most of this is out-door work, as the fittings have to be fixed in the public-houses themselves. In the trade some houses consider that fifty-four and others that fifty-eight hours constitnte a full week^s work. Full pay for good men is 42s, and an average man would make from 385 to 40s ; very few earn less than this. On piece-work, which implies rather a greater exertion on the part of the man, 1 s per hour would be the minimum earned. The trade society has a price list, and all men work to it. The largest house in the trade employs under twenty men, and there are besides several very small employers with one or two journeymen under them, but in both the smaller and the larger shops the same rates of pay obtain. Trade is busiest before all the public holidays, and WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 381 especially before Christmas, when publicans are anxious to have all in order for their own busy time, and slackest in January and February, when the men are generally put upon short time, and the work shared between them. There is very little shifting either from branch to branch or to outside trades, and although a man is supposed when out of his time to be able to turn to any part, he is generally rather better at one branch, and therefore kept to it by his master. Apprenticeship for seven years, with legal indentures, is still enforced, and it is said that not two men can be found in London who have not served their time. Tin Plate, &c. The census gives 4562 persons Avho find employment in tin and iron-plate and tin-canister making. Tin and Iron-pJate Workers are those v/ho deal with sheet-iron or tin-plate which, as has been said, is merely sheet-iron coated with tin. A great deal of tin-plate is worked up in London, though Birmingham and Wol- verhampton are the real centres of the trade. Tin-plate comes from Wales, packed in flat wooden boxes ready for immediate use by the workman. In London the trade has two divisions, the West End trade and the East End trade. The names have no refer- ence to the localities in which the chief shops are to be found, for there are " West " End shops in the far East, and vice versa; and the distinction is solely due to the class of work undertaken. The "West" End shop does heavier and more costly work than his '' East " End neighbour. The West End trade may bo further sub-divided into (!) shipping, (2) general branches. Those who work on ships live naturally near the docks ; they are expected to be able to do any tin or iron-plate work, e.g. ships' lamps and ventilators, which may be required on board a vessel. They are generally day workers, at from Sd to 382 METAL WORKERS. 9ld per hour. They work from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. on all days except Saturdays, when they leave work at 12, and their full week is one of fifty-four hours. ''Shipping" is the most irregular branch of the trade as regards continuity of employment. Two or three days hard work maybefollowed by two or three weeks enforced idleness, or vice versa, and overtime is a necessity, for repairs are generally made at high pressure. Some, indeed, like the alternating extremes, and the constant change from one job to another ; they take up this branch while they are young and unmarried, but, as a rule, relapse into the general trade as they become older and more settled. The general trade — which comprises the manufacture of such things as baths, coal-scuttles, dust-pans, Scarborough trunks, churns, all kinds of kitchen utensils, milk-cans, water- pots, &c., affords more regular work. Here nearly all is piece-work^ and the price list of the trade society is closely followed. Each man takes out his own work and is himself paid for it; this is the rule of the trade, and there are very few instances of jobs being given out to two or more men working together for a lump sum. There is but little shifting from shop to shop, and in slack times the work is usually shared. Tools in different sbops arc often slightly different, so that a man who can earn very good money in one will find himself a slow worker in another, and there is besides an unwillingness to change caused by the system of giving to those Avho have been in one place a long time rather better paid work than to new comers. The society price list has as yet taken no notice of the new fashions and new methods introduced in the last twenty years, the consequence being that on some work a man can hardly make 20^, whereas on more highly-priced woi*k he will "shell peas,^' as he says, and earn 48s and 50.s' easily. Thus a young man once in a shop has a strong inducement to stay there, but, on the other hand, there is also great temptation to seek good work elseAvhero at something under WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 383 the society's price list. This difficulty has now been realized, and will probably lead to a complete revision of the price list. In small shops day-work is sometimes in force, but there is no regular rate, and anything from 7d upwards per hour is paid. Good men will get as much as lOcl, and some Is, per hour, but this is exceptional. The usual rate is 8d. On the fairly paid work a man is expected to earn at least 30.S' in a Aveek, or few masters will keep him. Some employers calculate the rent of a bench at 6s per week, and it does not pay them to have men who cannot make good money, for good money to the man means good money to the master also. There is no regular rule as to the hour at which men should come to work; shops vary and men vary even more : 8 A.M. to 6.30 P.M., and until 1 o'clock on Saturdays, seems to be the more general rule ; but, as there is no compulsion, it depends on the men's own feelings whether they turn up at 8, 9, or at 10 in the morning. At one time they would overdrive themselves when they did come to work and take no time for meals during the day, but now the majority of masters insist on a dinner-hour from 12 to 1 o'clock. There are no marked seasons, and work is pretty regular throughout the year. Overtime is exceptional, but short time is proverbial in the trade, especially just before and after Chi-istmas and in the autumn. There cannot be said to be any recognized system of apprenticeship. Employers used to be willing to let fathers teach their sons and pay them in full for all they did ; in this way they would get extinguishers, oil-cans, and small sauce^Dans made, which men are as a rule very loth to undertake. In some places, boys are still taught in this way ; in others, there is a verbal agreement between masters and parents, by which the boy is bound for seven years; and again, in others, a boy is allowed to come into a shop at fifteen or sixteen and pick up what experience he can; 384 METAL WORKERS. he is given work, and it depends on tlio kindness of the other men about, and on his own intelligence, whether he is able to make anything or not : in any case, a certain percentage, often one-third or half of his earnings, is stopped until he is twenty-one years of age. In the East End trade, a lighter and commoner class of goods is manufactured. All work is piece-work, and there is a trade society, but hitherto they have had no price list, and different prices prevail in different shops. " Hods " and " scoops,^^ the two more usual forms of coal-scuttles, are in demand in winter, and water-pots in summer, and these are the staple manufactures in this branch. A fair man on full time all the year round will make an average of 28^' per week. But it is surprising how much capabilities differ, and the average of some men is con- siderably higher. Of two men working the same number of hours and on the same class of work, one was shown to have earned 30s while the other (an exceptional man be it said) had made 60s. A large number of the trade were said only to average 206- per week the year round, and many fair workmen do not make as much as ordinary labourers in regular work. Below are given the actual earnings of three men over periods of 91, 155, and 182 weeks respectively in the years 1886 to 1893. A was a quick worker, B medium, a slow worker ; they all worked on an average 53 hours in the week. Starting in June, 1890, up to December, 1891, A drew money 91 times in 91 weeks, and earned altogether £156. 13s Id, or an average of 34s bd per week. B, the medium worker, starting in June, 1890, until December, 1892, drew his money 149 times in 155 weeks, earning altogether £165. 19s 5c7,. or an average of 21s bd; one week of his time he was ill. C started in June, 1886, and until September, 1889, he drew 179 times in 182 weeks, and earned altogether £143. 17s 5c7, or a weekly average of 15s 9Jt?. WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. .385 All three men often take out more work than they actually finish in the week. They are given a certain quantity to be done for a certain price at the beginning of the week, and this is noted in their wage-books. On pay- day they bring- what they have done^ and its value is subtracted from the price of the whole job, leaving some- thing still to be paid to them when their work is complete. The next week they start on this old job which they finish, and then ask for more. Perhaps they cannot get as much as they want, and borrow from the firm to supplement their earning-s. If this is allowed (and it usually is) they start the following week in debt, and have to work off "dead horse '^ before getting anything fresh to their credit. A good deal of this " horse '' is to be found in the three wage-books, and is generally more noticeable about Bank- holiday time. To show all this more clearly, the earnings of A for a quarter are given below, week by week : — Value of new Value of work 1S90. work taken ■ left Money earned. Debt to firm. Money drawn. out. vintluisheil. & s. ,;. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s (' April 5 2 3 7i 8 1 15 7 Eepaifl 6s 1 9 n „ 12 1 8 3 ' — 1 16 3 Borrowed 3s 1 19 3^ „ 21 1 14 6 1 14 6 Borrowed 3s 1 17 6 „ 2G 2 4 6 — 2 4 6 Eepaid 6s 1 18 6 May 3 2 3 5 1 15 3 — 1 15 3 „ 12 1 9 5 — 1 14 5 Borrowed 3s 1 17 5 „ 19 2 2 7 3 1 19 7 Eepaid 3s 1 16 7 „ 27 1 12 6 10 1 5 6 — 15 6 June 2 1 9 3 1 16 — 1 16 „ 9 2 7 13 1 17 — 1 17 „ 16 1 2 10 3 1 12 10 — 1 12 10 „ 24 2 3 2 — . 2 „ 30 1 19 9 4 , 1 18 9 — 1 18 9 Unlike the rest of the trade, the legal apprenticeship for five, six, or seven years has survived, bu.t there is some complaint that boys are not really taught the general work but are given, and themselves prefer to do, small work at which their immediate earnings ai^e somewhat higher, but owing to which they still have to learn general work when they are out of their time. These it is of whom it is VOL. V. 2-J 386 2IETAL WORKERS. said, "You can see them still eating bread and cheese for dinner (instead of meat) after they have served a full seven years' apprenticeship. '* There are also, in this branch, a number of small garret masters, who engage two or three men and boys to help them. They are regularly employed by the larger firms, who in this way can get very light and common articles, such as oil-cans, beer-cans, dust-pans, &c., made for them more cheaply than they can make it themselves ; and hence the large factories are merely retailers of the commoner classes of these goods. In Whitechapel, several Jews are entering the trade. There are a few men, too, who work at home with their families, and then hawk their goods in the " Lane,'' or about the small oil-shops in the east. Tin-canister Makers differ from the other tin-plate workers in that in this branch a great many women are employed — probably more than are credited by the census to this section — and a great deal of machinery is used. These goods are only required in large quantities, and are, as a rule, made only in large factories and by machinery ; the small home worker finds here no opening for his patient industry. The best class of work is required in the manufacture of provision tins — mainly an export trade. The larger pro- vision merchants make their own tins. Work is said to be increasing in London, and with the constant intro- duction of new machines every i^rocess has been greatly simplified, so that each year fewer skilled men and more women and boys are demanded for it. The majority of the workers are on piece, and only a few of the better men are on time, (ihd to 9M per hour are the rates for day, workers; 8d is the recognized rate in good preserving shops, though a few get more than this, and in some a system of " task day-work " is in force, when payment is made by the hour on the understanding that the output shall be up to a given amount. WORKERS liV OTHER METALS. 387 Women can make lbs or 16s on piece for a full week, varying between fifty-one and fifty-sis hours, and young girls about half that amount. In a busy time the few men in good shops will get as much as 50;?, but in slack times they are turned off at once, the work being very seldom shared. Tinned goods are required in so many trades that the demands in different seasons balance one another. December and January are dull in trade generally, and so are dull for tin-canisters also. In the preserving trade men are busy making tins for potted meats, tongues and brawns towards the latter end of February — sausages are tinned in March and through Easter until it gets too hot. Fruit (which affects women especially) and fish follow in the autumn, and a little of everything for the general trade in winter. There is a good deal of shifting from shop to shop ; and also from London to the provinces during the fishing season. It is a common thing for a man to travel off to Lowestoft and even as far as Aberdeen, Frazerburgh and Stornoway, where he is sure of employment in soldering down fish- tins during the season ; some men make a habit of going, and a single man can make it pay well, besides getting a thorough change of air. Thei*e is not much overtime now, and the marked decrease in the last two years is said to be due to the general feeling against it rather than to any direct agitation on the part of those employed. Besides women and men there are a great many lads under eighteen years of age. Nimbleness of fingers is required more than experience, and therefore boys and girls are preferred to older persons. In the factories they can get 10s or 12s soon after leaving school, and this is so great a temptation that many do not look beyond. Consequently lads reach manhood without any useful knowledge, and are then compelled to leave and seek other work as unskilled men. Sometimes they may get a job in another tin-plate VOL. V. 25 ■^ 388 3IETAL WORKEES. factory^ but they are not fitted for the work^ and, as a rule, must leave the trade altogether. There is some complaint, that the machinery is insuffici- ently guarded, and that accidents occur more often than they should. Wire, Lamps, &c. The last group of persons represented in this section includes wire-weavers and drawers (1306 persons), lamp, lantern and candlestick-makers (532 persons), " other workers" (pencil-case, theatrical jewellery, dog-collar, ferule, teapot knob, &c., makers, and dirt refiners) 288 persons, and dealers (268 persons). Of these wire workers are the most important, for there are not many lamps and candle- sticks now made in London, except by a few carriage lamp makers and art metal workers, and the " other wci'kers" may be taken as belonging to those already considered in dealing with brass and bronze. Wire-WorJiers Avere originally one and the same Avith the tin-plate workers, and the old name of the guild is that of the " Worshipful Company of Tin-plate workers alias Wire- workers." They are mentioned together probably because wire in old times was made by hammering out iron- plates and then cutting them into strips, at a time when the system of wire-drawing was not knoAvn in England ; or it is possible that the connection may go back to the days of plate and chain armour. Now, wire workers are quite a distinct body. They make sieves, screens, lattices to protect Avindows, flower-stands and baskets, and a great many other small articles whose shapes and uses vary from day to day. In large factories sieve-making is almost a distinct branch, and one or tAvo men Avill be kept on this work exclusively. Wire Weavers, Avho weave wire-gauze at handlooms — verA" much in the same way as the Spitalfields' silkAveaver, only with Avire instead of silk — are also distinct, Avith a society WOBKEES IN OTHER METALS. 389 of their own ; and so also are wire-rope and netting-makers. The majority are piece workers, working according to the price lists established by agreement between masters and men in the various shops. No two shops are exactly alike, either in the amount they pay or in the methods they employ for the manufacture of a given article, though for common goods in constant demand there is no great dissimilarity. Hours vary in the same way, and as a rule fifty-five to sixty hours make up a full week's work, beginning in nearly every case at 8 a.m. As to earnings, an average piece worker can expect to make between 30s and 35. OHers out of work and Death Benefits. ^ ILondon Society of ^ Out of work. Wire- workers (1871). 100 Death and tramp London Society of money. 1306 622 - Wire-weavers. London United As- sociation of Wire- rope Makers and Fitters. (Lamp, Lantern, dr..) 48 100 1- 248 The Society still exists, but the num- bers here given are those for 1891. 532 331 — J — 288 137 [Other Workers.) — — 268 101 [{Other Dealers.) — 17,260 11,130 1 3186 * Two hundred and fifty of these are gas-meter makers. 392 :\IETAL WOBKEES. Tlius out of a total of 17^200 persons connected with the trades which have been dealt with above, 11,130 are "employed" males over 20 j^ears of age, and of these 318G, or 29 j)er cent., are members of a trade society. Subscriptions vary from 4(? jDor w^eek (the Wire Workers) to Is (the Brass-finishers), but 6d is the more general rate for all the societies mentioned. The members of the Brass societies ai-e allowed 10.5 out of work pay for thirteen weeks, and up to as much as an average of 8s per week for thirty-nine weeks in a year. Nearly twice as much is offered for strike mone}', and from £2 to £10, depending on length of membership, at death; with half the amount at the death of a member's wife. Distress money is generally given for special cases, but no pensions are pro- vided except by the Brass-finishers, who offer from 4s to 8s per week after a membership of twenty to forty j^ears. ^ick money is rarely given. Among the Tin-plate Workers rather less is paid for out of work benefit, and sick members are only exempt from contributions. When on strike, married are allowed moi-e than unmarried members by two societies, and in addition one society offers Is per week for each child. Death money is about the same as among Brass Woi'kers. They do more, however, as to pensions, and there is an amalgamated Tin aud Iron-plate Workers' Pension Society, founded in 1828, with 718 members, consisting of both emjDloyers and employed. In return for an annual os members are granted os per week when incapacitated by old age or infirmity, aud 2s 6d for their wives. As a whole, the industries considered above are well organized, and in addition to their strength in London, several are federated with National Societies, and when in need can be sure of outside help. Thus, there is the " United Journeyman Brass-founders' Association of Great Britain and Ireland," founded in 1866, " to raise a fund for mutual protection in the event of disputes arising between employer WORKERS IN OTHER 2IETALS. 393 and employed." This society lias thirteen branches with 2293 members, and admits all members of existing brass societies. The London Brass Workers are also federated among- themselves, and embrace the Mathematical and Scientific Instrument Makers' Societies among their numbers. Then there is the National Society, which has a large membership (6458), but is almost entirely a Birming- ham Association. The Tin-plate Workers' Societies have also an outside connection, and belong to the National Amalgamated Tin- plate Workers of Great Britain, which is a purely fighting body, and only gives strike money. None of the societies in the section attempt to enforce any regular system of apprenticeship, with the exception of the Coppersmiths, Braziers and Pewterers. The Zinc Workers, a small but progressive society, have started a technical class for themselves, open to all members of the trade, which is successful, and shows what can be done by trade societies themselves in this direction. In addition to this they have opened a benevolent fund, to which all may subscribe, to assist those in distress. The relations of all the societies with the employers are generally friendly. Wages Statistics. Employed in the trades grouped in this section are 11,130 adult males. Our wages returns are from forty-three firms, and include 1402 adult males, as under : — Brass-founders and finishers 12 1 =43 firms usually employing Copper-smiths, &c 7 Lead and Lead-pipe makers 2 Tin-plate workers and Tinsmiths... 2 Wire workers and weavers 4 Wire-rope and cord-makers 2 Zinc workers, &c 8 Metal and art-metal workers 3 Lamp-makers 2 1881 persons, of whom 1390 are adult males, but 183 of these belong to other sections. On the other hand, other sections con- tribute particulars for 195 men. Making up the total of 1402 as above. Those employed in other sections include iron-moulders and trimmers, engine drivers, carpenters, bricklayers, painters, -r-,1 . -11 T, T , , carmen, warehousemen and Llectro gilders and brass-polishers. 1 j jai^ourers 394 METAL WORKERS. The earninofs of these men in an averagfe week are as follows : — Below 20s 65, or 4J percent. 20s to 2os 279 „ 20 25s „ 30s 264 „ 19 30s „ 35s 283 „ 20 35s „ 40s 270 „ 19 40s „ 45s 119 „ 8i 45s and upwards... 122 ,, 9 Under 30s, 43i per cent. 30s and over, 56J per cent. 1402 „ 100 These figures may be compared with, returns made to the Board of Trade in 1886 from twenty-four similar firms, em- ploying 765 persons, exact details being given for 653 persons, of wliom 506 are adult males belonging to this section. 20s. 20s— 25s— 30s— 35s— 40s— 45s. Our returns 4i7o i7ol 20°/o 43*7. 21 7o 19 7o 64 7o 20 7o 19 7o 84 7o 9 7o Board of Trade returns 19 7o 564 7o 27r/ol 19 7o 1 6 7o m 7o 714 7o Beyond the difference between actual and nominal earn- ings, it would seem that the Board of Trade returns are short of the men from 25s to 30s. These are probably the labourers and may be those for whom detailed parti- culars were omitted in the Board of Trade returns. As to irregularity of work, our returns from 3 firms, employing about 500 men, show a decrease of 13 per cent, in the numbers employed, comparing a slack with a busy week, but no reduction in the average earned per head. The Board of Trade figures for 22 firms employing about 800 men (in 1886) show 19 per cent, reduction in numbers, and no less than 26 per cent, in the average amount actually earned, or, combined, a reduction of 40 per cent. It is probable that our returns are too favourable in this respect. Three firms engaged in brass and copper-founding and WORKERS IN OTHER 3IETALS. 395 finishing' gave full details respecting* time and piece-work earnings in busy and slack weeks, and we are able to give the average concerning 402 men, representative of those working in these metals. Men. Busy Week. Slack Week. Men. Wages. Hours. 1 Rates. Men. (Wages. Hours. Rates. / Under od per hour Time- 5d and 6d 62 103 101 105 S. (1. 19 2 23 6 32 38 2 19 23 26 8 34 9 48 52 524 50 Is. (1. 35 17 8 89 23 5 102 129 10 82 39 10 1 52 51i 514 51 d. 4 5* work 1 Over M to 8d Over 8d 7 8* 371 308 16 5 21 8 9.7 4 /Under 20s 1 5 6 15 17 t 6 _ -a- I „ 25.< P^e'^r^ 30. ^""'^ :: 40. .:..:.:.. 18 132 8 15 48 8 ^40s and upwards... - 44 51 When trade slackens, the men earning the highest rates in all grades are apparently the first to go, while the hours of work of those who stay are but slightly affected. There appears to be some tendency to put the men on piece-work during the slack season. The wages of apprentices and boys range from 4s to 25.S, 60 per cent, earning 10s or less, and 40 per cent, more than 10s. A few of the lads are on piece-work, and these are among the more highly paid. The number of women and girls belonging to the section is comparatively small ; those returned work almost exclu- sively in the light trades; nearly half are engaged in the manufacture of tin goods, and of the remainder most are polishers, burnishers, or wire weavers. Earnings vary from 5s to over 20s, the majority getting more than 10s. A considerable number of females are employed in making lead capsules, but do not appear in the census. 396 METAL WORKEBS. Social Condition. Of the 11,130 adiilt males employed in these trades, about 7900 are counted as heads of families, and so come under social classification. If we might assume them to be represented by those as to whom we have particulars, we find 25 per cent, earning ordinarily less than 25.s- a week ; but about 50 per cent, are found living in a more or less crowded condition, and all comparison between the scale of earnings indicated and the scale of social condition appears to break down. Gom'parison of Earnings with Style of Life {Sundry Metal WorJcers) . Earnings as returned. Glassiji mtion of Population. Under 20s. . 65, or 4J per cent. 3 or more in each room, 7300, or 19J per cent. 20s to 25s. .279 „ 20 2 to 3 11,050 „ 30 25s ,, 30s. .264 M 19 1 „ 2 11,500 „ 31 30s „ 35s. .283 „ 20 Less than 1 >. ^ 35s „ 40s. 40s ,, 45s. .270 .119 „ 19 „ 8^ „ More than 4 rooms \ 4 or more iDersons to j '" " ^ " 45s and " tip-wards J 122 1402 „ 9 , 100 a servant . . . ...} 37,150 ,,100 Families of em- ^ ployers 4500 Families of . 7900 men work- mg on own account 3400 J 45,050 The financial position of those earning the lower rates of pay has already been sufiiciently indicated in the reports on the various branches of the trades given above, and it must be remembered that the yearly earnings of even those returned at higher rates are in many cases affected by the prevailing irregularity. Following close on the heels of uncertainty of employ- WOBKEES IN OTHER METALS. 397 ment comes the curse of drink and the general complaints to which it gives rise. The character of the work tends to increase the natural thirstiness of the men. Brass-founders, especially in small or ill-ventilated shops, of which there are a number in London, perspire freely owing to the extreme heat of the furnaces, and, in addition, must inhale the heavy fumes which rise from the molten metal. Female lacquerers (of whom there is also complaint) suffer likewise from the heat. Polishers and finishers have to put up with throat irritation caused by the fine particles that fly ofi" in the course of their work. With lead, again, there are noxious fumes, and pewterers would be more than human if they could always resist the ofi'ers of free refreshment while they are fitting up the bars in public houses. In nearly every case is there some excuse for quenching thirst, and the tradition of a thirst which must be quenched is common to the metal trades. Of late years, however, there has been a strongly marked improvement in this respect : some of the men are now teetotalers and declare that tea is more effective than beer. The difficulties attendant on the profession of total abstinence have been removed by the spread of education, and men are no longer subjected to the ridicule and even social ostracism which were the natural consequence of such views in former days. So many industries are comprised in this chapter that the habits of men as to living near their work vary con- siderably. Nearly two-thirds of the total number reside and probably w^ork in South or East London, but even so not necessarily near the factory. (Joppersmiths employed in railway shops as a rule are found living near by and are able to go home to dinner, but of the rest a large number live from two to eight miles away and must either walk or come in by train or omnibus in the morning. A cup of tea or coffee is always taken before leaving home, and 398 METAL WORKEnS. of late some employers have encouraged men to have a regular meal before starting and, to allow of this, have opened their shops half an hour later in the morning. There is, indeed, a tendency in all these trades to begin the day's work after instead of before breakfast, to the advantage of all concerned. Afternoon tea is generally taken in the factory, but, except among the tin-plate workers, who seem frequently to bring their dinner with them, or send out for it and eat it in the shop itself, the practice of feeding in the workshop is unusual. The midday dinner is generally taken in a coffee-shop or public-house. In the matter of dress, aprons of linen, of sailcloth or of leather, are worn by all except founders, who find the furnace fire too dangerous to admit of anything in the shape of loose clothing. In all the larger shops there are sick clubs, to which the men subscribe about Sd per week, and in return are allowed lO-s- for six weeks, followed by 5s for another six weeks while ill. It is the general custom that all fines exacted for unpunctuality, breach of rules, &c., should be placed to the club's credit, and the employers also con- tribute to the funds. At the end of a year the balance in hand is divided equally after deducting a small sum, perhaps Is per member, with which to start the New Year. In other shops, provision for sickness is made by subscriptions for hospital tickets, by which not only the men but their families also are allowed to profit. Throughout these industries there are more men who are members of friendly than of trade societies, while members of the latter generally belong to some benefit club as well, the favourites being the Oddfellows, Foresters, and Hearts of Oak. In this way sums varying from 6d to 2s 6d per week are invested by the provident who have the means to do so, while those less prudent or less fortunately situated, rely on the kind offices of friends and the proceeds of a WORKERS IN OTHER METALS. 399 smoking concert instituted in their favour to tide them over any periods of peculiar trouble or want. In no case is it recognized as the usual habit of wives to work for money. " We find that where the wife works, the husband usually gets careless/' is the verdict of one trade society. But, notwithstanding, there are a fair number of instances where the wives of men employed do assist by washing, ironing-, machine work, or charing-, and this is especially noticeable in those branches of the trade in which there is the least certainty of regular employment for the husband. There is but little home work in which the women or children of the family can help, except among the small tin-plate and wire workers. APPENDIX. VOL. V. ?6 402 PART I.— BUILDING TRADES. Table A. — Distribution of whole Population. Registration Districts. 0.) Arcliiteots, Engineers, &c. (2.) Builders. (3.) Masons. (4.) Bricklayers. (5.) Carpenters and Joiners. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Poplar 228 100 37 15 55 1-!^ •2 •1 •3 703 777 322 437 474 1-9 2-1 ■8 1-2 1-4 566 481 101 616 853 2-4 2-1 •5 2-7 3-7 2433 2098 904 1875 1663 3-6 3-1 1-3 2-8 2-4 4503 3462 1089 2256 3087 3-9 3-0 ■9 20 Mile End Old Town and ] Stepney j St. George's-in-the-East \ and Whitechapel j Bethnal Green Slioreditch 2-7 Total of East London 435 2-3 2713 7-4 2617 11-4 8973 13-2 i4>397 12-5 Hackney .. Islington St. Pancras Marylebone and Hampstead 889 1222 1088 1741 4-6 6-3 5-8 9-0 2314 3060 1911 2486 6-5 8:5 5-3 6-9 1011 1303 1258 636 4-4 5-6 5-5 2-8 3443 5716 3500 3109 5-1 8-4 5-2 4-6 6142 9707 6553 4348 5-3 8-4 5-7 3-7 Total of North London ... 4940 257 9771 27-2 4208 i8-3 15-768 23-3 26,750 23-1 639 607 1671 288 1427 3-3 3-1 8-8 1-5 7-4: 1230 948 1434 1038 2683 3-4 2-6 3-9 2-9 7-4 380 929 792 938 1902 1-7 4-1 3-4 4-1 8-3 918 1028 2417 1926 4868 1-3 1-5 3-6 2-8 7-2 8347 2495 3377 3849 8387 2-9 2-2 3-0 3-3 7-3 St. George's, Hanover Square Clhelsea Total of West London 4632 ■z^-i 7333 20"2 4941 21-6 II. 157 i6"4 21.455 187 fity 36 206 407 649 •2 1-1 2-1 120 862 458 2-4 1-3 11 619 155 _ 2-7 '7 149 1967 586 ■2 2-9 •8 436 3501 1431 ■4 3-0 1-2 Strand, Westminster, and \ St. Giles j Total of Central London... 3H 1440 4-0 785 3 '4 2702 3 '9 5368 4-6 Woolwich 290 840 122 1266 1031 1-5 4-4 ■6 6-S 5-4 744 1159 619 2266 1053 2-1 3-2 1-7 6-3 2-9 195 760 347 1644 319 • 87 ' -J 162 i W 526 2-: 12C)9 .7 -J 1686 4-7 3900 10 -i) 1478 2652 6383 6-4 11-5 27-8 6845 9212 20,264 10-1 13-6 30-0 02 . 775 4-0 6S55 ! 19-3 10.513 457 36,321 537 3 o 1453 7-6 471S: 13-2 5847 25"4 17,164 25-4 ^ 583 4145 3364 3-0 21-5 17:5 844 2-4 15,704 ' 43-8 4073' 11-4 682 5415 307 3-0 23-5 1-4 1742 12,054 242 2-6 17-7 ■4 8092 42-0 1 20.621 1 57-6 6404 27-9 14,038 207 •I m 03 2916 15-2 1657 4-6 91 •4 79 1469 587 7-6 3-0 362 1 -0 52 -2 31 4 •1 3 — 2056 IO-6 414 1-2 35 •I 3 — 322 117 21 33 1-7 ■7 •1 ■1 19 -1 12 1 — 5 1 — 2 1 1 — — 4 2 — 493 2-6 3^' -I — — 6 — Servants 3461 18-0 1510 4-2 1 106 ; -5 85 •1 Gr.^nd Tot.u. 19,246 100 35,813 100 22,996 1 100 67.696 100 k ^ * The subjohied table shotvs in full detail the manner in Families with A B C D E F G H 1 Servant. 4 or more persons 1, 2, or 3 persons 4 or more persons 1, 2, or 3 persons 3 Servants. 5 or more persons 3 or 4 persons 1 or 2 persons (and all other cases in which there are (and all other cases in which there are I BUILDING TRADES. 405 of Whole Popu lation. (5.) Carpenters and Joiners. (6.) Plasterers and Paperhangers. Painters and Glaziers. (8.) Plumbers. (9.) Locksmiths and Gastitters. Total of Building Trades. Xo. -;„ No. % Xo. I % No. % No. % 4-3 8-7 26-6 No. % 3606 7596 25,151 3-1 6-6 SIS 1937 3379 7367 7-6 13-7 29-5 8824 8.3 13,220 12-5 29,672 j 28-0 999 1896 5309 4-5 7-5 21-9 718 1434 4372 25,763 i 41,237 102,944 5-9 9-5 23 S Without Servants 36,353 31-5 12,683 50-8 51,716 48-8 8204 33 '9 6524 39 '6 169,944 39-2 404,570, or 86,885 " Families = 4-65 per- 35-308 30 '6 6322 253 27.360 25-8 6852 28-3 4655 28-2 109,679 25-4 4872 35,742 2084 4-6 30-6 IS 608 5114 169 2-4 20-4 ■7 2984 21,506 1444 2S 20-1 1-6 911 7312 660 3-8 30-2 2-7 567 4162 339 3-3 25-4 2-1 13,793 111.154 12,682 3-2 25-7 2-9 sons per Family. J 42,698 37"o 5891 23 '5 25,934 24'5 8883 367 5068 30-8 137,629 31-8 524 "4 35 •2 412 ■4 114 '5 105 •6 5933 1-4 ■5 With Servants 61 4 — 11 — 80 13 •I 3 — 25 •1 ! 2045 660 21,865, or 4277 Families = 65 — II — 93 •I 3 — 25 •I 2705 ■6 511 per- sons per 1 4 — — — 2 — — — 1 — 349 133 28 35 ■I Family. 5 — — — 2 — — I — 545 •I 426,435 568 ■<5 46 ■2 439 ■4 142 •6 113 •7 6470 1-5 6,470 115,521 100 24,988 JOG 105,956 100 24,198 100 16,491 100 432,905 100 432,905 "—— 1 ichich all servant-keeping families have been classified: FaniDiet with 4 Servants. 5 Servants. 6 Servants. 7 Servants. 7 or more persons — — — 5 or 6 persons 7 or more persons — — 3 or 4 persons 5 or 6 persons 8 or more persons — 1 or 2 persons | 3 or 4 persons fewer servants, than numbers of family) 5 or 6 persons 6 or 7 persons 1 or 2 persons 3 or 4 persons 4 or 5 persons — — 1 or 2 persons — more servants, than members of family) 1 1 PART I I. ^ Jistri 406 WOOD ■ WORKERS. whole Population. Table A.— J but ion of Registration Districts. (10.) Cabinet- makers, &c. (U.) Carriage- builders. Coopers, &c. (13.) Shipwrights (Wood). Total Wood Workers. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % ' Poplar Mile End Old Town and j Stepney j St. George's-in-the-East \ and Whitechapel / Bethnal Green Shoreditch 3773 4978 3644 20,729 16,617 2-7 3-6 2-7 U-9 120 573 655 199 575 622 2-0 2-2 ■6 1-9 21 1367 1901 494 642 330 110 15-3 40 5-2 2-6 2758 1543 138 70 13 33-3 18-6 1-7 ■8 ■2 8471 9077 4475 22,016 17,582 4-5 4-8 2-4 11-7 9-3 Total of East London 49>74i 10,419 10,149 13,230 5129 35-9 2624 8-8 4734 38-1 4522 54-6 61,621 327 Hackney Islington St. Pancras 7-5 7-4 9-5 3-7 1289 2631 2520 1742 4-5 9-2 87 60 568 331 141 105 4-6 2-6 10 ■9 96 39 19 12 10 ■4 ■2 ■2 12,372 13200 15.910 6988 6-5 70 8-5 3-7 Marylebone and Hampstead Total of North London 38,927 28'I 8232 2S-4 1145 9-1 166 1-8 48,470 ^51 St.George's,HanoverSquare Kensington Chelsea Fulham 2191 1938 2478 2151 3589 1-6 1-4 1-8 1-5 2-6 1436 899 1003 902 1545 4-9 31 3-5 3-1 5-3 17 96 105 56 263 •J ■8 ■9 ■4 21 13 19 13 16 78 '2 ■2 ■2 ■2 ■9 3657 2952 3599 3125 5475 1-9 1-6 1-9 1-7 2-9 Total of West London 12,347 8-9 5785 19-9 537 4"3 139 17 18,808 100 City Holborn Strand, Westminster and ) St. Giles J 381 6596 2338 •2 4-8 1-8 20 894 726 3-1 2-5 14 280 130 ■1 2-3 11 2 4 7 ■1 ■1 417 7780 3201 ■2 41 1-7 Total of Central London 9315 6-8 1640 5-6 430 35 13 •2 11.398 60 Woohvich Greenwich St. Clave, Southwark Camberwell Lewisham 1331 2203 2048 5348 948 ■9 1-6 1-5 3-8 ■6 853 714 652 1187 378 2-9 2-5 2-3 41 1-3 209 828 1716 716 109 1-6 6-8 13-8 5-7 ■9 481 1020 1018 54 41 5-8 12-3 12-3 ■6 ■5 2874 4765 5434 7305 1476 1-5 2-6 2-9 3-9 ■7 Total of S.-East London 11,878 8-4 3784 131 3578 28-8 2614 31-5 21,854 II-6 St. Saviour, Southwark ... Lambeth 6215 5334 4936 4-5 38 3-6 1544 2491 3002 0-3 8-6 10-3 842 588 591 6-8 4-7 4-7 117 199 527 1-4 2-4 6-4 8718 8612 9056 4-6 4-6 4-8 Wandsworth Total of S.-West London 16,485 irg 7037 24-2 2021 i6-2 843 IO'2 26,386 14-0 Grand Total of London 138,693 100 29.102 100 12,445 100 8297 100 188.537 100 1 WOOD WORKERS. Table B. — Classification of whole Popula.tion. 407 Classification. (10.) Cabine*-.- makers, &c. (11.) Carnage- builders. (12.) Coopers, &c. (13.) Shipwrights (Wood). Total Wood Workers. 'amilies averaging — 4 or more persons No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.i L a' B C D E F G H 10,313 15,758 36,715 7-i Hi 36-4 1252 2534 6913 4:-3 8-7 23-8 472 941 3065 3-8 7-6 24-5 134 244 1457 1-6 2-9 17& 12.171 19,477 48,150 6-5 3 & under 4 persons 10-4 1 2 & under 3 persons to a room 1 & under 2 persons 23-5 02 o 62,786 45'2 10,699 368 4478 359 1835 22-1 79,798 42-4 34^519 24-9 8225 28-3 3722 299 2832 34'2 49,298 26-1 .|-t Less than 1 person t? 3642 30,452 4028 2-7 21-9 2-9 1022 7852 684 3-5 27-0 2-3 453 3533 144 3-6 28-4 1-2 371 2912 217 4-5 35-1 2-6 5488 44,749 5073 2-9 ^11 families occupying more than 4 rooms (mainly house - 23-7 families averaging — 4 or more persons to a servant 1 to 3 persons to a servant, &c 1 to 3 persons to 2 servants, &c 3 or 4 persons to 3 servants, &c 1 or 2 persons to 3 servants, &c. ... 1 or 2 persons to 4 servants, &c. ... 1 or 2 persons to o servants, &c. .. 1 or 2 persons to 6 servants, &c. .. 2-7 38,122 -2-75 9558 32-8 4130 33-2 3500 42-2 55,310 293 1407 n 305 II 49 ■4 61 7 1822 10 "S O) - 02 352 67 ■3 36 13 •I 9 3 ■1 7 1 404 83 •5 s 419 ■3 49 •I 12 •I 7 •I 487 ■3 11 9 — 6 3 — — — — — 17 3 9 — 20 — 9 — — — — — 29 — 1420 10 257 29.102 •9 54 ■5 62 ■7 1793 ■9 Grand Total.. 138,693 100 100 12,445 100 8297 100 188,537 100 " ■ I ^^1 1 1 1 Without servants ... 179,333, or 39,061 families ^ 4-59 ) . f^^^j^ With servants 7,411, or 1,426 „ =5-20/^ ^ "' 408 PART III.— METAL TRADES. Table A. — Distribution of whole Pop illation. Registration Districts. (14.) Engine and Machine-makers. (15.) Blacksmiths. (16.) Other workers in Iron and Steel. (17.) Workers in other Metals. Total Metal Wurkers. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Poplar Mile End Old Town and 1 Stepney J St. George's-in-the-East j and Whitechapel j Bethnal Green Shoredi tela 11,048 3360 677 1065 1772 15-3 4-7 ■9 1-4 2-4 2894 1759 519 772 689 7-5 4-5 1-3 2-0 1-7 3351 1567 406 1074 1156 10-7 50 1-3 3-4 3-7 2307 2159 759 1617 2080 51 4-8 1-7 3-6 4-6 19,600 8845 2361 4528 5697 10-4 4-8 1-3 2-4 30 Total of East London 17,922 247 6633 17-0 7554 24-1 8922 19-8 41,031 21-9 Hackney Islington 2327 3565 1943 770 3-3 4-9 2-7 11 1068 2424 2129 1603 2-7 6-2 5-5 4-3 1272 2442 1016 646 41 7-8 3-2 2-0 1904 4304 2919 1267 4-2 9-5 6-5 2-8 6571 12,735 8007 4346 3-5 6 8 St. Pancras 43 Marylebone end Hampstead 2-3 Total of North London 8605 ii-g 7284 187 5376 17-1 10,394 230 31,659 169 St.George's,HanoverSquare Kensington ... ... . 575 789 537 682 1839 ■8 11 ■7 •9 2-5 1195 938 1067 943 1670 31 2-4 2-8 2-4 4-3 307 560 459 359 651 10 'l-8 1-5 11 21 451 693 609 400 951 10 1-6 1-3 ■9 21 2528 2980 2672 2384 5111 1-4 1-6 1-4 Chelsea 1-3 2-7 Total of West London 4422 60 5813 150 2336 75 3104 6-9 15,675 8-4 City Holborn Strand, Westminster, and 1 St. Giles J 151 1928 349 ■1 2-7 ■6 186 1202 495 •5 31 1-3 126 1707 500 ■4 5-5 1-6 221 3906 1235 ■5 8-7 2-7 684 8743 2579 4 46 14 Total of Central London 2428 34 1883 4-9 2333 75 5362 11-9 12,006 6-4 Woolwich Greenwich St. Olave, Southwark Camberwell Lewisham 8253 8507 2966 3605 942 11-4 11-8 41 5-0 1-3 2779 2567 1383 1747 523 7-2 6-6 3-6 4-5 1-3 2759 1982 983 1560 217 8-8 6-3 3-2 50 ■7 1909 2146 1748 2513 308 4-2 4-8 3-9 56 ■7 15,700 15,202 7080 9425 1990 8-3 81 3-8 50 11 Total of S.-East London 24,273 33-6 8999 232 7501 24-0 8624 19-2 49,397 263 St. Saviour's, Southwark... Wandsworth 3996 5409 5346 5-5 7-5 7-4 2347 2686 3183 61 6-9 8-2 2151 1861 2180 6-9 59 7-0 3773 2871 2000 8-4 6-4 4-4 12,267 12,827 12,709 6-5 6-8 6-8 Total of S.-West London 14,751 20-4 8216 21-2 6192 198 8644 19-2 37.803 201 Grand Total of London 72,401 100 38,828 100 31,292 100 45,050 100 187,571 100 METAL TRADES. Table B. — GlassificaUon of whole Population. 409 Classification. (14.) Engine and Machine-makers. (15.) Blacksmiths. (16.) Other workers in Iron and Steel. (17.) Workers m other Metals. Total Metal Workers. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. 1 % Families averaging— 1. 4 or more persons to a room 1931 38G1 14,141 3-7 5-3 19-5 2079 4041 10,023 5-4 10-4 25-8 1689 2861 7401 5-3 9-2 23-7 2815 4840 11,578 6-2 10-8 25-7 8514 15,603 43,143 4-6 2. 3 & under 4 persons to a I'oom 8-3 3. 2& under 3 persons 230 s? 4. 1 & under 2 persons to a room VI o 19-933 20,982 27-5 16,143 41-6 11,951 38-2 19,233 427 67,260 359 28-9 11,442 29'5 8490 27-1 12,026 267 52,940 28-2 5. Less than 1 person to a I'oom ^ 3377 24,060 2019 4-7 33-4 2-8 1343 9143 495 3-5 23-5 13 1018 7870 919 3-3 251 30 1285 10,118 1093 2-8 22-5 2-4 7023 51,191 4526 3-8 6. All families occupying more than 4 rooms (mainly house- holders) 27-3 ^ Families averaging — A 4 or more persons to a servant B 1 to 3 persons to 1 servant 2-4 29,456 40-9 10,981 28-3 9807 31-4 12,496 277 62,740 335 834 i-i 119 ■3 411 1-3 ■2 ■ 437 i-o 1801 ■9 C 1 to 3 persons to 2 servants 210 68 278 ■3 ■1 8 — 109 40 185 65 ■4 ■2 512 173 ■3 03 ] D 3 or 4 persons to 3 servants ■1 .£5 E 1 or 2 persons to 3 servants, &c. ... F 1 or 2 persons to 4 servants, &c. ... G 1 or 2 persons to 5 servants, &c. ... H 1 or 2 persons to 6 i^ servants, &c. ... ^ ■4 8 — 149 "4 250 ■6 685 ■4 9 14 10 3 — 5 25 6 4 5 ■2 38 18 ■1 77 38 14 8 — 36 — 5 — 40 •2 56 •1 137 — Servant 882 1-2 130 ■3 444 1-4 552 15.050 1-2 2008 11 Grand Total... 72,401 100 38,828 100 31,292 100 100 187,571 100 ' Without servants... 178,414, or 38,616 families = 4-62 "I , ., With servants 7,149, or 1,391 „ = 5-14 j P^'^^"^* P^^' ^^'^'^^- INDEX. INDEX TO VOL. V. AoES — building trades, 31 ; wood- workers, 175 ; metal workers, 289 ; of occupied in each section (see tables of persons represented). Age capacity — in furniture trades, 189, 190; carriage building, 240; coopers, 255; shipwrights, &c., 275 ; engineering trades, 303, 315 ; blacksmiths, 330, 334 ; other iron and steel trades, 343, 345, 351. Apprenticeship and methods of training — in building trades, 100 ; furniture trades, 185, 190, 19(3, 201, 205, 207, 212, 215, 218 ; carriage building, 240 ; coopers, &c., 255, 262; shipwrights, Ac, 273, 281 ; engineering trades, 299, 312, 315, 316, 324; blacksmiths, 330, 332, 334 ; other iron and steel trades, 338, 340, 343, 344, 350, 353 ; workers in other metals, 372, 376, 378, 381, 383, 385, 389. Birthplaces of heads of families — in whole population, 5 ; in each sec- tion (see tables of persons repre- sented). Building trades (Chapter I.) — census enumeration by age and sex, 31 ; enumeration by families, 32 ; divi- sion by sections (see tables of persons represented) ; social condi- tion of families, 33 ; changes since 1861, 36. Building trades (Chapter II.) — architects, &c., 46 ; builders, 49 ; builders' foremen, 55 ; builders' labourers, 57 ; masons, 63 ; slaters and tilers, 65 ; bricklayers, 68 ; carpenters, 71 ; plasterers and paperhangers, 75 ; painters and glaziers, 78 ; plumbers, 81 ; lock- smiths, gasfitters, &c., 83 ; crane and engine-drivers and sawyers, 85; miscellaneous, 86. Building trades (Chapter III.)— summary of interviews, 87 ; apprenticeship and methods of training, 100 ; hours of work, 106 ; piece-work, 109 ; shifting, 110 ; how employment is found, 113 ; seasons, 115 ; rates of wages and actual earnings, 120 ; alternative employment, 130 ; displacement, 131. Building trades (Chapter IV.) — organization, 136 ; labour dis- putes, 148 ; overlapping and non- union labour, 154 ; trade abuses, 161 ; healthiness of the work, 165 ; social condition and habits of the employed, 165. Building trades (Addendum) — working rules for the London trade, 169. Blacksmiths — persons represented, 327 ; farriers, 328 ; smiths, 331. Cakruge building — persons repre- sented, 233 ; vans, 234 ; coaches and carriages, 236 ; railway car- riages, 241 ; perambulators, 243 ; trade unions, 245 ; wages, 247 ; social condition, 249. Changes in numbers employed since 1861— building trades, 36 ; wood workers, 178, metal workers, 292. Charity work — in basket-making, 213 ; wood-chopping, 222. Classification by rooms occupied or servants kept — whole population, 6 ; in each Part (see appendix) ; in each group and section (see social condition). Common lodging-houses — inmates of, 9. Comparison of earnings with style of life — building trades, 165 ; furniture trades, 231 ; carriage builders, 249 ; coopers, 266 ; ship- wrights, 284 ; iron and steel trades, 364, other metal workers, 396 Coopers, &c. — persons represented, 251 ; wet coopers, 252 ; dry coopers, 256 ; dock coopers, 257 ; white coopers, 258 ; hoop benders, 259 ; lathrenders, 261 ; trades unions, 263 ; wages statistics, 265 ; social condition, 266. 414 INDEX TO VOL. V. Crowding — in whole population, 11 ; in each group (see social con- dition) ; in each section (see tables of persons represented). Drinking habits (see usually under " social condition "), also 212 (basket-makers), 258 (coopers), 335 (blacksmiths). Engineering and allied trades — per- sons represented, 293 ; review of the trades, 294 ; general engineer- ing, 298 ; a locomotive engineering works, 305 ; Ordnance manufac- ture, 313 ; artesian well engineer- ing, 314 ; weighing - machine makers, 315 ; gas-meters and stoves, 317 ; bicycles, 319 ; boiler making and iron-ship building, 319. Families, respective sizes of — in whole population, 4 ; average size of, in whole iDopulation, 5 ; in each section (see tables of persons represented). Foreign competition — in building trades, 131 ; glass bevelling, 189 ; picture-frame mouldings, 191 ; bamboo work, 213 ; carriage build- ing, 237, 241 ; lathrending, 261. Furniture trades — persons repre- sented, 179 ; cabinet-makers, 180 ; French polishers, 185 ; glass bevellers, 186 ; wood turners and carvers, 189 ; carvers and gilders, 190 ; sawyers, 201 ; box-makers 202 ; funeral furniture makers, 205 ; basket-makers, 209 ; bamboo and cane work, 213 ; cork cutting, 216 ; wood chopping, 218 ; trade organization, 223 ; wages statis- tics, 229 ; social condition, 230. OEOGRAPniCAL distribution — compo- sition of groups, and division into inner and outer London, 26 ; in each Part (see appendix). Heads of families — definition of, 2 ; birthplaces of, in whole popu- lation, 5 ; status as to employment of, in whole population, 5. Home-work in furniture trades, 180, 200, 215, 219. Hotels, residents in, 9. Hours of work — in building trades. 106 ; furniture trades, 184, 185, 188, 191, 193, 198, 199, 204, 207, 212, 214, 220; carriage building, 235, 240 ; coopers, 254, 256, 257 ; lathrenders, 262 ; shipwrights, 271, 273, 276, 277; engineering trades, 301, 312, 314, 322 ; black- smiths, 329 ; other iron and steel trades, 337, 339, 341, 343, 344, 348, 351, 352; workers in other metals, 369, 373, 375, 380, 882, 383, 389. Healthiness of the work — Building trades, 165 ; glass bevelling, 189 ; cork burning, 218 ; carriage build- ing, 240 ; coopers, 255 ; engineer- ing, 303 ; smiths' work, 334 ; metallic cask making, 343 ; type- founding, 351 ; coin manufacture, 353 ; lead work, 379. Industrial status — of heads of families in whole population, 5 ; of heads of families and all occupied in each section (see tables of persons represented). Inner London, composition of popu- lation of, 26. Institutions, inmates of, 9. Interviews, tabular summary of, in building trades, 88. Iron and steel trades (other than general engineering, boiler making and blacksmiths) — persons repre sented, 336 ; iron-founding, 337 tank making, 339 ; metallic casks 340 ; corrugated iron-work, 343 iron-safe making, 344 ; sword and bayonet making, 345 ; tools and cutlery, 346 ; type-founding, 348 ; coins, etc., 352 ; trade organiza- tion, wages statistics, and social condition, for all iron and steel trades, 353, 360, 363. Irregularity of employment — see usually under seasons ; also iip. 110 (building), 186, 192, 194 (furniture trades), 239 (carriages), 271, 275, 278 (shipwrights), 303, 323 (engineering), 382 (tin ijlate). Large shops, residents in, 9. Locomotive engineering works (de- scription of), 305. Machinery (effect of) — in building trades, 134 ; cabinet-making trades, 183 ; cork manufacture, 217 ; INDEX TO VOL. V. 415 coopers, 259 ; engineering trades, 295 ; gas-stove making, 318 ; bayonet making, 3-45 ; type-found- ing, 351 ; tin-canister work, 386 ; wire work, 389. "Metal workers (the whole group) — census enumeration by age and sex, 289 ; enumeration by families, 290 ; social condition of families, 291 ; changes since 1861, 292. Metal workers (other than iron and steel) — persons represented, 366 ; brass and bronze, 367 ; copper- smiths and braziers, 374 ; zinc- workers, 377 ; lead workers, 378 ; white metal, &c., 379; tin plate, 381 ; wire, 388 ; trade unions, 390 ; wages statistics, 393 ; social condition, 396. Method adopted— general explana- tion of, 1 ; adaptability, 18. ■Occupations described — Architects and civil engineers, 46. Bamboo and cane-work, 213. Barge builders, 272. Basket-makers, 209. Bicycle-makers, 319. Boat builders, 274. Boiler-makers, 321. Box-makers, 202. Brass workers, 367. Braziers, 376. Bricklayers, 68. Builders, 49. Builders' foremen, 55. Builders' labourers, 57. Carpenters, 71. Carvers and gilders, 190. Caulkers, 275. Civil engineers, 47. Clerks of works, 54. Coin-makers (royal mint), 352. Coppersmiths, 375. Cork manufacture, 216. Corrugated-iron workers, 343. Crane and engine drivers, 85. Cutlers, 346. Drillers and chippers, 325. Engineers (titters and turners, &c.), 298. Farriers, 328. French i^olishers, 185. Gas-meter makers, 317. Gas-stove makers, 317. Gilders, 192. Glass bevellers, 186. Hoop benders, 259. Occupations desceibed — continued. Ironfounders, 337. Iron- safe makers, 344. Lathrenders, 261. Lead workers, 378. Locksmiths and titters, 83. Machinists and sawyers, 85, 201. Masons, 63. Mast and block-makers, 277. Mattress-makers, 198. Metallic-cask makers, 340. Oar-makers, 277. Ordnance manufacture, 313. Painters and glaziers, 78. Perambulator makers, 243. Plasterers and paperhangers, 75. Plumbers, 81. Riggers, 276. Sail-makers, 278. Ship repairers, 320. Slaters and tilers, 65. Smiths, 331. Surveyors, 47. Sword and bayonet-makers, 345. Tank-makers, 339. Tin-plate workers, 381, Too] -makers, 346, Typefounders, 348, Undertakers, 205. Upholsterers, 196. Van builders, 234. Weighing-machine makers, 315. White metal and plated ware, 379. Wire workers, 388. Wood carvers, 189. Woodchoppers, 218. Wood turners and carvers, 189. Zinc workers, 377. Organization — in the building trades, i36; furniture trades, 223 ; carriage building, 245 ; coopers, &c., 263 ; shipwrights, &c., 281 ; engineering, iron and steel trades, 353 ; other metal trades, 390. Outer London, composition and population of, 26. Overtime — in building trades, 117 ; coffin-makers, 207 ; bamboo work, 214 ; coopers, 254 ; shipwrights, 273 ; engineering trades, 301 ; ship repairing, 321 ; boiler making, 322 ; farriers, 329 ; smiths, 331 ; iron-founding, 337 ; coppersmiths, 375 ; tin-plate workers, 387. Piece-work — in building trades, 109 ; f aruiture trades, 182, 197, 207, 211. 214, 220; carriage building, 235, 416 INDEX TO VOL. V. 238, 242 ; coopers, 254, 256, 260 ; lathrenders, 262; shipwrights, Ac, 271, 275, 276, 278; engineering trades, 300, 316, 317, 318, 322, 326; blacksmiths, 329, 331, 333; other iron and steel trades, 339, 342, 344, 346, 350, 352, 362; workers in other metals, 369, 370, 376, 377, 384, 386, 389, 395. Population, classification of — by rooms occupied or servants kept, 6; comparison of present classi- fication with that obtained from previous investigations, 10, 15. Poverty, proportion of, 10. Seasons of busy and slack trade — in building trades, 115 ; furniture trades, 196, 201, 203, 206, 211, 214, 220 ; carriage building, 240, 244; coopers, Arc, 254, 260; lath- renders, 262 ; shipwrights, &c., 271, 275, 277; farriers, 330; smiths, 334 ; tank-makers, 339 ; corrugated-iron work, 343 ; brass workers, 373 ; braziers, 376 ; pew- terers, 381 ; tin-plate workers, 387. Servant-keeping class — insignificant numbers of, 18. Servants, statistics of, 4, 9. Shipwrights, &c. — persons repre- sented, 269 ; shipwrights, 270 ; barge builders, 272 ; boat builders, 274 ; caulkers, 275 ; riggers, 276 ; mast and block-makers, 277 ; oar- makers, 277 ; sail-makers, 278 ; trades unions, 281 ; wages, 283 ; social condition, 284. Social condition of families — build- ing trades, 33, 165 ; wood workers (whole group), 177; furniture trades, 230 ; carriage builders, 249 ; coopers, 266 ; shipwi-ights, 284 ; metalworkers (whole group), 291 ; iron and steel workers, 363 ; other metal workers, 396. Tables of persons represented (in- cluding census enumeration of occupied by age and sex, geo- graphical distribution and status as to employment ; family enumer- ation by sex, birthplace, and industrial status of head of family, average size of family, classification of population accord- ing to rooms occupied or servants kept, geographical distribution and proportion crowded or not crowded in inner and outer London) — for architects, d'C, 46 ; builders, 49 ; masons, 63 ; bricklayers, 68 ; car- penters, 71 ; plasterers and paper- hangers, 75 ; painters and glaziers, 78 ; plumbers, 81 ; lock- smiths and gasfitters, etc., 83 ; cabinet-makers, dc, 179 ; carriage builders, 233 ; coopers, 251 ; ship- wrights, boat and barge builders 269 ; engineers and boiler-makers, 293; blacksmiths, 327; other workers in iron and steel, 336 ; workers in other metals, 366. Tenements of less than 5 rooms, number of occupants of, 2. Trades of London — arrangement of, in sections and industrial groups, 21 ; described (see occupations). Trades unions (see organization). Trustworthiness of information used, 12. Wages statistics — building trades, 120 ; furniture trades, 229 ; car- riage builders, 247 ; coopers, 265 ; shipwrights, 283 ; iron and steel trades, 360 ; other metal workers, 393. Wood workers (whole group) — cen- sus enumeration by age and sex, 175; enumeration by families, 176 ; social condition of families, 177 ; changes since 1861, 178. G. KORMAN .\ND SON', PRINTER.S, FLORAL STRKET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 0£C09 "11989 1988 Form L-9-15m-2,'36 UNIYRRRTTY of CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES LIBRARY 4088 Booth - L8B6 LTfe^and" — lr^9^ — labour of v»5 the p eople in London. y. ■• ■,■■'!. W 'i> '■■':-■ f-^''M ■■^^ir