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 711 
 
 RELIGIOUS THOUGHT 
 
 AND 
 
 LIFE IN INDIA. 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE 
 
 INDIAN PEOPLES, BASED ON A LIFE'S STUDY OF THEIR 
 
 LITERATURE AND ON PERSONAL INVESTIGATIONS 
 
 IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY. 
 
 BY 
 
 MONIER WILLIAMS, M.A,, CLE., 
 
 HON, D.C.L. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, 
 
 HON. LL.D. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, HON. MEMBER OF THE BOMBAY 
 
 ASIATIC SOCIETY, HON. MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY, 
 
 BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, 
 
 FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, ETC. 
 
 PART I. 
 VEDISM, BRAHMANISM, AND HINDUISM. 
 
 (/Champstead.7<-. 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 1883. 
 
 [All rights resei-jed ] 

 
 ©xforti 
 
 PBINTED BY E. PICKAED HALL, M.A., AND HORACE HAET 
 PEINTEES TO THE UNIVEESITY
 
 
 hi^^^ 
 
 h.- 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 My aim in the following pages has been partially 
 stated in the introductory observations. It has been 
 my earnest endeavour to give such an account of a 
 very dry and complex subject as shall not violate 
 scholarlike accuracy, and yet be sufficiently read- 
 able to attract general readers. 
 
 The part now published only deals with one half of 
 the whole programme, but it will be found to consti- 
 tute a separate and independent work, and to comprise 
 the three most important and difficult phases of Indian 
 religious thought — Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hin- 
 duism. 
 
 That the task, so far completed, has been no easy 
 one will be readily admitted, and I have given the 
 best proof of my sense of its difficulty by not ventur- 
 ing to undertake it without long preparation. 
 
 It is now exactly forty-three years since I began 
 the study of Sanskrit as an undergraduate at Balliol 
 College, Oxford ; my teacher, at that time, being my 
 illustrious predecessor in the Boden Chair, Horace 
 Hayman Wilson ; and it is exactly forty-two years 
 since I addressed myself to Arabic and Persian under 
 the tuition of the Mirza Muhammad Ibrahim, one of 
 the ablest of the Oriental Professors at the East India 
 
 a 2 
 
 3G7SliO
 
 IV 
 
 Preface. 
 
 College, Haileybury— then the only training-ground 
 for the Indian Civil Service probationers. 
 
 In 1875 I published the first edition of Indian Wis- 
 dom^;' and it may be well to point out that, as the 
 present volume deals with the principal phases of the 
 Hindu religion, so the object of the former work was 
 to give a trustworthy general idea of the character and 
 contents of the sacred literature on which that religion 
 is founded. Since the publication of ' Indian Wisdom ' 
 I have made two journeys to India, and travelled 
 through the length and breadth of the Queen's eastern 
 empire. I felt that for a writer to be competent to 
 give a trustworthy account of the complicated religious 
 systems prevalent among our Indian fellow-subjects, 
 two requisites were needed: — first, that he should 
 have made a life-long study of their literature, and, 
 secondly, that he should have made personal inves- 
 tigations into the creeds and practices of the natives 
 of India in their own country, and, as far as possible, 
 in their own homes. 
 
 Even the most profound Orientalists who have 
 never come in contact with the Indian mind, except 
 in books, commit themselves to mischievous and mis- 
 
 ' A very energetic and useful Missionary, the late Rev. James Vaughan, 
 in his work called ' The Trident, the Crescent, and the Cross,' copied 
 from ' Indian Wisdom ' a large number of my translations from Sanskrit 
 literature, and interspersed them everywhere throughout his account 
 of Hinduism without asking my leave, and without any marks of quo- 
 tation or references in his foot-notes. It is true he mentions my name 
 eulogistically in his Preface, but as many readers systematically slur 
 over prefatory remarks, and as some of my translations are reproduced 
 in the present volume, it becomes necessary to shelter myself from the 
 charge of literary larceny which might be brought against me by those 
 who know his book but have not read ' Indian Wisdom.'
 
 Preface. v 
 
 leading statements, when, leaving the region of their 
 book-learning, they venture to dogmatize in regard 
 to the present condition — religious, moral, and intel- 
 lectual — of the inhabitants of India; while, on the 
 other hand, the most meritorious missionaries and 
 others who have passed all their lives in some one 
 Indian province, without acquiring any scholarlike 
 acquaintance with either Sanskrit or Arabic, — the two 
 respective master-keys to the Hindu and Muhammadan 
 religions, — are liable to imbibe very false notions in 
 regard to the real scope and meaning of the religious 
 thought and life by which they have been surrounded, 
 and to do serious harm by propagating their mis- 
 apprehensions. 
 
 And, as bearing on the duty of studying Indian 
 religions, I trust I may be allowed to repeat here the 
 substance of what I said at a Meeting of the ' National 
 Indian Association,' held on December 12, 1877, under 
 the presidency of the Earl of Northbrook, late Viceroy 
 of India : — 
 
 ' I am deeply convinced that the more we learn about 
 the ideas, feelings, drift of thought, religious develop- 
 ment, eccentricities, and even errors and superstitions 
 of the natives of India, the less ready shall we be to 
 judge them by our own conventional European stand- 
 ards ; the less disposed to regard ourselves as the sole 
 depositaries of all the true knowledge, learning, virtue, 
 and refinement existing on the earth ; the less prone 
 to despise, as an inferior race, the men who compiled 
 the Laws of Manu, one of the most remarkable literary 
 productions of the world ; who thought out systems of
 
 vi , Preface. 
 
 ethics worthy of Christianity ; who composed the 
 Ramayana and Maha-bharata, poems in some respects 
 outrivalHng the IHad and the Odyssey ; who invented 
 for themselves the science of grammar, arithmetic, 
 astronomy, logic, and who elaborated independently 
 six most subtle systems of philosophy. Above all, 
 the less inclined shall we be to stigmatize as "be- 
 nighted heathen " the authors of two religions, which — 
 however lamentably antagonistic to Christianity — are 
 at this moment professed by about half the human 
 race. 
 
 ' We cannot, of course, sympathize with what is false 
 in the several creeds of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, 
 Parsis, and Muslims. But we can consent to examine 
 them from their own point of view, we can study their 
 sacred books in their own languages — Sanskrit, Pali, 
 Prakrit, Zand, and Arabic — rather than in imperfect 
 English translations. We can pay as much de- 
 ference to the interpretations of their own commen- 
 tators as we expect to be accorded to our own 
 interpretation of the difficulties of our own Sacred 
 Scriptures. We can avoid denouncing in strong 
 language what we have never thoroughly investigated, 
 and do not thoroughly understand. 
 
 ' Yes, I must speak out. It seems to me that the 
 general ignorance of our fellow-countrymen in regard 
 to the religions of India is often worse than a blank, 
 A man, learned in European lore, asked me the other 
 day whether the Hindus were not all Buddhists ? Of 
 course ignorance is associated with indifference. I 
 stayed in India with an eminent Indian civilian who
 
 Preface. vii 
 
 had lived for years quite unconsciously within a few- 
 hundred yards of a celebrated shrine, endeared to the 
 Hindus by the religious memories of centuries. An- 
 other had never heard of a perfectly unique temple 
 not two miles from the gate of his own compound. 
 Ignorance, too, is often associated with an attitude of 
 undisguised contempt. Another distinguished civilian, 
 who observed that I was diligent in prosecuting my 
 researches into the true nature of Hinduism, expressed 
 surprise that I could waste my time in "grubbing into 
 such dirt." The simple truth, however, is that we are 
 all more or less ignorant. We are none of us as yet 
 quite able to answer the question : — What are Brah- 
 manism and Hinduism, and what relation do they 
 bear to each other ? We have none of us yet suf- 
 ficiently studied them under all their Protean aspects, 
 in their own vast sacred literature, stretching over a 
 period of more than three thousand years. We 
 under-estimate their comprehensiveness, their super- 
 subtlety, their recuperative hydra-like vitality; and we 
 are too much given to include the whole system under 
 sweeping expressions such as "heathenism" or "idol- 
 atry," as if every idea it contains was to be eradicated 
 root and branch.' 
 
 To these words spoken by me (nearly in the form 
 given above) soon after my return from my second 
 Indian journey I adhere in every particular. 
 
 Let it not be supposed, however, that my sympathy 
 with the natives of our great Dependency has led me 
 to gloss over what is false, impure, and utterly deplor- 
 able in their religious systems. The most cursory
 
 viii Preface. 
 
 perusal of the following pages will show that what I 
 have written is not amenable to any such imputation. 
 
 Nor do I claim for the present work any unusual 
 immunity from error. Mistakes will, probably, be 
 found in it. The subject of which it treats is far too 
 intricate to admit of my pretending to a more than 
 human accuracy. Nor can any one scholar hope to 
 unravel with complete success the complicated texture 
 of Hindu religious thought and life. 
 
 As to the second part of my task I am happy to say 
 that it is already far advanced. But, as I am on the 
 eve of making a third journey to India, I prefer delay- 
 ing the publication of my account of other Indian 
 creeds till I have cleared up a few obscure points by 
 personal inquiries in situ. 
 
 It is possible, I fear, that some who read the chapters 
 of this volume consecutively, and are also acquainted 
 with my previous writings, may be inclined to accuse 
 me of occasionally repeating myself; but it must be 
 borne in mind that all I have hitherto written — 
 whether in books, newspapers, or Reviews — was, from 
 the first, intended to lead up to a more complete and 
 continuous work, and that the book now put forth 
 abounds with entirely new matter. 
 
 It remains to state that my friend Pandit Shyamaji 
 Krishnavarma, B.A,, of Balliol College, has aided me 
 in correcting typographical errors, but is in no way re- 
 sponsible for the statements and opinions expressed 
 in the following pages. 
 
 M. W. 
 
 Oxford, November 12, 1883.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism defined. Three principal 
 stages or phases of the Hindu religion. Origin and form of religion 
 among the primitive Aryans 1-6 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Vedism. 
 Four Vedas. Gods of the Veda. Ideas expressed by the term 
 sacrifice. Soma plant. Introduction of animal-sacrifice. Remark- 
 able hymns of the Veda. Social condition of the people . . 7-19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Brahmanism. 
 Four phases. Ritualistic Brahmanism. Development of the idea 
 of sacrifice. Philosophical Brahmanism, Upanishads. Sutras. 
 Subtle and gross bodies. Saiikhya philosophy. Vedanta philosophy. 
 Tri-unity of entities. Three corporeal envelopes. Vedanta and 
 Sahkhya systems compared. Nyaya philosophy. Mythological Brah- 
 manism. Buddhism. Tri-murti. Descents of Vishnu. Nomistic 
 Brahmanism. Three codes of law 20-53 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 HiNDtjiSM. General Observations. 
 Distinction between Brahmanism and HindQism. The philoso- 
 pher Sahkara. Inter-relationship and distinction between Saivism 
 and Vaishnavism. Six principal sects. Doctrine of incarnation. 
 Saiva and Vaishnava marks. Rosaries. Symbols and images . 54-72 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Saivism. 
 Definition of Saivism. Worship of Rudra-Siva. Description of 
 Siva. Saiva sects. Ceremonies performed at Walkesvar temple. 
 Ceremonies performed at Bhuvanesvara temple . . . 73-94
 
 X Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Vaishnavism. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chief characteristics of Vaishnavism. Tolerance. Religious credu- 
 lity. Incarnations of Vishnu. Vaishnava sects. Initiation. Sect 
 founded by Ramanuja. Two antagonistic parties. Privacy in eating. 
 Sect founded by Madhva. Common ground with Christianity. Sect 
 founded by Vallabha. Profligacy of Vallabha Maharajas. Sect 
 founded by Caitanya. Four leaders. Ceremonies at a Vaishnava 
 temple, Poona 95~I45 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Vaishnavism. Minor Sects and Reforming Theistic Movements. 
 
 Sects founded by Nimbarka ; by Ramananda; by Svami-Narayana. 
 Interview between Bishop Heber and Svami-Narayana. Temples 
 at Wartal and Ahmedabad. Precepts from the Directory. Theistic 
 sect founded by Kablr. Examples of his precepts. Sikh sect 
 founded by Nanak. Features of his teaching. Antagonism between 
 Sikhs and Muhammadans. Govind founder of Sikh nationality. 
 Deification of the Sikh bible. Examples of precepts. Metempsy- 
 chosis. Govind's shrine at Patna. Golden temple at Amritsar 146-179 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 
 Doctrine of the Tantras. Two systems of Saktism. Matris or 
 Mothers. Description of Kali. Initiation. Wine-drinking. Mantras, 
 Brjas, spells. Mystic diagrams. Amulets, gestures. Tantras . 180-208 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Tutelary and Village Deities. 
 Ganesa and Su-brahmanya. Ayenar, Hanuman. Mother- 
 worship. Brahmanism a kind of Pantheism. Specialities of the 
 Mothers of Gujarat 209-229 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Demon-v(7orship and Spirit-worship. 
 Seven upper and seven lower worlds. Nature and organization of 
 Hindu demons. Two grand divisions of demons. Triple classifica- 
 tion of devils. Methods of neutralizing evil influences of demons. 
 Structures and observances connected with devil-worship. Extract 
 from Bishop Caldwell's account of the religion of the Shanars. 
 Belief in demoniacal influences and their counteraction . . 230-256
 
 Contents. xi 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Hero-worship and Saint-worship. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 No limit to deification of great men. Examples of local deifica- 
 tions. Vithoba ; Tuka-rama ; Khando-ba ; Jnanesvara. Other ex- 
 amples. Parasu-rama, or Rama with the axe. Five Pandava 
 princes 257-273 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 Main object of a Hindu funeral. Funeral ceremonies in Vedic 
 times. Funeral rites as prescribed by Asvalayana. Other rules for 
 domestic rites. Bone-gathering ceremony. Sraddha ceremonies. 
 Modern practice of Sraddha and funeral ceremonies. Character 
 and functions of Yama, god of death. Description of the career and 
 history of a deceased mortal subject to Yama. Performance of 
 observances and ceremonies to secure immunity from future punish- 
 ment. Description of bone-gathering ceremony at Bombay. Sraddha 
 ceremonies. Sraddhas distinguished under twelve heads. Sraddha 
 performed for a recently deceased parent. Sraddhas performed at 
 Gaya 274-312 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 Worship of Animals, Trees, and Inanimate Objects. 
 
 Motives for worshipping animals. Metempsychosis. Worship of 
 cows ; of serpents. Race of Nagas. Snake superstitions. Worship 
 of various animals ; of trees and plants ; of the Tulasi ; of the 
 Pippala ; of the Bilva tree ; of material and natural objects ; of the 
 sun, moon, planets, water, mountains, rocks, and stones . . 313-350 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Hindu Religion in Ancient Family-life. 
 
 Twelve purificatory rites. Birth of a son. Subsequent ceremonies. 
 Initiation. Four stages of a Brahman's life. Ancient marriage- 
 ceremonial. Idea of fire. Periodical religious observances . 351-369 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Hindu Religion in Modern Family-life. 
 
 Name-giving ceremony. Horoscope translated. Shaving as a reli- 
 gious duty. Betrothal. Initiation. Marriage ceremonies. Wed- 
 ding of Sir Mahgaldas NathoobhaT's sons. Indian girls. Three 
 objects of human life. The model wife 370"389
 
 xii Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Religious Life of the Orthodox Hindu Householder. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Description of a modern Hindu house. Some Vedic rites main- 
 tained. A Brahman's daily duties. Dress. Sacredness of the 
 kitchen. Omens ; auspicious and inauspicious sights. Religious 
 status of women. Teeth-cleaning. Application of ashes. Morning 
 Sandhya ser\'ice. Brahma-yajiia service. Tarpana service. Paiica- 
 yatana ceremony. Vaisvadeva ceremony. Bali-harana ceremony. 
 Dining. Prayer before eating 390~42 5 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 
 Hindu powers of fasting. Special ^asts. Makara-sankranti. Va- 
 santa-pancamT. Siva-ratri. Holl. Rama-navami. Naga-pancaml. 
 Krishna-janmashtami. Ganesa-caturthT. Durga-puja. Kall-puja. 
 Rama-llla. Divall. Illuminations. Karttika-piarnima . . 426-433 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Temples, Shrines, and Sacred Places. 
 Benares described. Tanjore temple. Madura temple. Ramesvara. 
 Trichinopoly. Jambukesvara. Kanjlvaram. Tinnevelly temples. 
 SrI-rangam. Temple girls. Courtezans 434-451 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 
 Caste, trade, and industry part of religion. Poverty and potential 
 wealth of India. Village communities. Tillers of soil. Village 
 functionaries. Trades. Delicacy and beauty of Indian hand-work. 
 Advantages and disadvantages of caste 452-474 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohun Roy. 
 Theism no new doctrine in India. Life of Rammohun Roy. 
 His death at Bristol 475-490 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohun Roy's successors. 
 Dwarkanath Tagore. Debendra-nath Tagore. Adi Brahma- 
 Samaj. Keshab Chandar Sen. Brahma-Samaj of India. Sadha- 
 rana Brahma-Samaj. Other Samajes. Conclusion . . . 491-520
 
 RELIGIOUS THOUGHT 
 
 AND 
 
 LIFE IN INDIA. 
 
 Introductory Ob solvations. 
 
 The present work is intended to meet the wants of those 
 educated Enghshmen who may be desirous of gaining an 
 insight into the mental, moral, and religious condition of the 
 inhabitants of our Eastern empire, and yet are quite unable 
 to sift for themselves the confused mass of information^ — 
 accurate and inaccurate — spread out before them by innu- 
 merable writers on Indian subjects. Its aim will be to 
 present trustworthy outlines of every important phase of 
 religious thought and life in India, whether Hindu, Buddhist, 
 Jain, Zoroastrian, or Muhammadan. Even Indian Chris- 
 tianity will receive a share of attention ; for it must be borne 
 in mind that the existence of at least a million and a half 
 of native Christian converts — Roman Catholic and Protestant 
 — ^justify the inclusion of Christianity among the religious 
 systems permanently established on Indian soil. 
 
 Having been a student of Indian sacred literature for more 
 than forty years, and having twice travelled over every part 
 of India, from Bombay to Calcutta, from Cashmere to Ceylon, 
 I may possibly hope to make a dry subject fairly attractive 
 without any serious sacrifice of scientific accuracy, while at 
 the same time it will be my earnest endeavour to hold the 
 scales impartially between antagonistic religious systems and 
 
 B 
 
 /
 
 2 Ifitroductory Observations. 
 
 as far as possible to do justice to the amount of truth that 
 each may contain. 
 
 The Hindu religion may justly claim our first consideration, 
 not only for the reason that nearly two hundred millions of 
 the population of India are Hindus, but because of the in- 
 tricacy of its doctrines and the difficulty of making them 
 intelligible to European minds. 
 
 With a view, then, to greater perspicuity I propose making 
 use of the three words Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism 
 as convenient expressions for the three principal stages or 
 phases in the development of that complicated system. 
 
 I. Vedism was the earliest form of the religion of the 
 Indian branch of the great Aryan family— the form which 
 was represented in the songs, invocations, and prayers, col- 
 lectively called Veda, and attributed to the Rishis, or sup- 
 posed inspired leaders of religious thought and life in India. 
 It was the worship of the deified forces or phenomena of 
 Nature, such as Fire, Sun, Wind, and Rain, which were 
 sometimes individualized or thought of as separate divine 
 powers, sometimes gathered under one general conception 
 and personified as one God. 
 
 II. Brahmanism grew out of Vedism. It taught the 
 merging of all the forces of Nature in one universal spiri- 
 tual Being — the only real Entity — which, when unmanifested 
 and impersonal, was called Brahma (neuter); when manifested 
 as a personal creator, was called Brahma (masculine) ; and 
 when manifested in the highest order of men, was called 
 Brahmana ('the Brahmans '). Brahmanism was rather a 
 philosophy than a religion, and in its fundamental doctrine 
 was spiritual Pantheism. 
 
 III. Hinduism grew out of Brahmanism. It was Brah- 
 manism, so to speak, run to seed and spread out into a 
 confused tangle of divine personalities and incarnations. The 
 one system was the rank and luxuriant outcome of the other. 
 Yet Hinduism is distinct from Brahmanism, and chiefly in
 
 Introductory Observations, 3 
 
 this — that it takes little account of the primordial, impersonal 
 Being Brahma, and wholly neglects its personal manifestation 
 Brahma, substituting, in place of both Brahma and Brahma, 
 the two popular personal deities Siva and Vishnu. Be it 
 noted, however, that the employment of the term Hinduism 
 is wholly arbitrary and confessedly unsatisfactory. Unhappily 
 there is no other expression sufificiently comprehensive to 
 embrace that all-receptive system, which^ without any one 
 common Founder, was the product of Brahmanism multiplied 
 by contact with its own offspring Buddhism, and with various 
 pre-existing cults. Hinduism is Brahmanism modified by 
 the creeds and superstitions of Buddhists and Non-Aryan 
 races of all kinds, including Dravidians, Kolarians, and per- 
 haps pre-Kolarian aborigines. It has even been modified by 
 ideas imported from the religions of later conquering races, 
 such as Islam and Christianity. 
 
 I propose to trace briefly the gradual development of the 
 Hindu religion through these three principal phases which 
 really run into each other. In so doing I shall examine it, 
 as in fairness every religion ought to be examined, not only 
 from the point of view of its best as well as its worst side, 
 but in the light thrown upon it by its own interpreters, as 
 well as by European scholars. And for the sake of clearness, 
 it will be necessary to begin by repeating a few facts which to 
 many educated persons are now a thrice-told tale. 
 
 The original home of our progenitors as members of the 
 great Aryan or Indo-European family was probably in the 
 high land surrounding the sources of the Oxus, somewhere 
 to the north of the point connecting the Hindu Kush with the 
 Himalaya range. The highest part of this region is called the 
 Pamir plateau, and, like the table-land of Tibet, with which 
 it is connected by a lofty ridge, it well deserves the title of 
 'the roof of the world' {bdin-i-diinyd). The hardy inhabit- 
 ants of these high-lands were a pastoral and agricultural 
 race, and soon found themselves straitened for room within 
 
 B 3
 
 A Introdtidory Observahons. 
 
 the limits of their mountain tracts. With the increase of 
 population they easily spread themselves westwards through 
 the districts sloping towards Balkh, and southwards, through 
 the passes of Afghanistan on the one side and Cashmere 
 on the other, into Northern India. 
 
 They were a people gifted with high mental capacities and 
 strong moral feelings. They possessed great powers of ap- 
 preciating and admiring the magnificent phenomena of nature 
 with which they found themselves surrounded. They were 
 endowed with a deep religious sense — a profound conscious- 
 ness of their dependence on th? invisible forces which regu- 
 lated the order of the world in which they found themselves 
 placed. They were fitly called ' noble ^ {arya), and they 
 spoke a language fitly called 'pohshed' or 'carefully con- 
 structed ' [Samkrita). 
 
 To trace the origin of religion among such a people requires 
 no curious metaphysical hypotheses. We have only to ask 
 ourselves what would be the natural working of their devo- 
 tional instincts, unguided by direct revelation. Their material 
 welfare depended on the influences of sky, air, light, and sun 
 (sometimes fancifully imaged in the mind as emerging out of 
 an antecedent chaotic night) ; and to these they naturally 
 turned with awe and veneration. Soon all such phenomena 
 were believed to be animated by intelligent wills. At first 
 the relationship between spirit, mind, and matter was im- 
 perfectly apprehended. Whatever moved was believed to 
 possess life, and with life was associated power. Hence 
 the phenomena of nature were thought of as mysterious 
 forces, whose favour required propitiation. Next they re- 
 ceived homage under the general name of Devas, ' luminous 
 ones.' Then, just as men found themselves obliged to submit 
 to some earthly leader, so they naturally assigned supre- 
 macy to one celestial being called the 'light-father' (Dyu- 
 pitar, Zevs -naT-qp, Jupiter). Or, again, a kind of pre-eminence 
 was sometimes accorded to the all-investing sky or atmo-
 
 hityoductory Observations. 5 
 
 sphere (Varuna, Ovpavos), the representative of an eternal 
 celestial Presence watching men's actions, and listening to 
 their words by night as well as by day. Of course another 
 principal object of veneration was the orb of the Sun called 
 Mitra, often connected with another aspect of the Sun, 
 Aryaman, whose influences fertilized lands, enriched pastures, 
 and fructified crops. 
 
 Then other kindred natural phenomena, such as fire (Agni, 
 Latin Ignis), and the dawn (Ushas, 'Hws, Aurora), and Ida 
 or Ira (Iris), were by degrees regarded with varying degrees 
 of veneration. They all had names which still exist under 
 different modifications among different branches of the Aryan 
 stock, leading us to infer that they were among the most 
 ancient objects held sacred in the original abode of the Aryan 
 race, before the several members of the family separated. 
 
 There is even ground for conjecturing that triads of natural 
 objects, such as Sky, Atmosphere, and Sun, or three forms 
 of the Sun, called Aryaman, Varuna, and Mitra, were asso- 
 ciated together and worshipped by the primitive Aryans in 
 the earliest times. It is certain that the Aryan race, from 
 the first development of its religious sense on the soil of 
 India, has shown a tendency to attach a sacred significance 
 to the number three, and to group the objects of its adoration 
 in triple combinations. 
 
 Not that the nascent religious ideas of a people naturally 
 devout were regulated or circumscribed in ancient times by 
 any definite rules or precise limitations. The objects and 
 forces of nature received homage in different ways — some- 
 times singly, as if impelled by separate and independent 
 wills ; sometimes in groups, as if operating co-ordinately ; 
 sometimes collectively, as if animated and pervaded by one 
 dominating Spirit, the maintainer of law and order in the 
 Universe. 
 
 As to the form of worship, that, too, was a natural process 
 not yet burdened by tedious ceremonial observances. When
 
 6 Introdudory Observations. 
 
 men had personified and deified the forces with which they 
 were surrounded, they gave them characters like their own. 
 They attributed to them human tastes, likings, and predilec- 
 tions. They propitiated them by praise and flattery, accom- 
 panying their hymns and invocations with such presents and 
 offerings of food and drink as would be deemed acceptable 
 among themselves, and would be needed for the maintenance 
 of their own vigour and vitality. 
 
 Perhaps the earliest and commonest offerings were rice and 
 clarified butter. Then the exhilarating juice of the Soma 
 plant, afterwards an essential ingredient in both Aryan and 
 Iranian sacrifices, was used as a libation. But the form of 
 worship, like the creed of the worshipper, was unfettered by 
 precise rule or ritual. Each man satisfied his own religious 
 instincts, according to his own conception of the character of 
 the supernatural being or beings on whose favour his welfare 
 was thought to depend.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Vedism. 
 
 So much has been of late years written and spoken about 
 the Veda, that to go minutely into this subject would be, 
 according to a Hindu saying, ' to grind ground corn.' 
 
 When the Indian branch of the Aryan family settled down 
 in the land of the seven rivers (Sanskrit Sapta Sindhu^ Zend 
 Hapta Hendii), now the Panjab, about the fifteenth century 
 B. C, their religion was still nature-worship. It was still 
 adoration of the forces which were everywhere in operation 
 around them for production, destruction, and reproduction. 
 But it was physiolatry developing itself more distinctly into 
 forms of Theism, Polytheism, Anthropomorphism, and Pan- 
 theism. The phenomena of nature were thought of as some- 
 thing more than radiant beings, and something more than 
 powerful forces. To the generality of worshippers they were 
 more distinctly concrete personalities, and had more personal 
 attributes. They were addressed as kings, fathers^ guardians, 
 friends, benefactors, guests. They were invoked in formal 
 hymns and prayers {inantras), in set metres {thandas). 
 
 These hymns were composed in an early form of the 
 Sanskrit language, at different times — perhaps during several 
 centuries, from the fifteenth to the tenth B. c. — by men of light 
 and leading {Rishis) among the Indo-Aryan immigrants^ who 
 were afterwards held in the highest veneration as patriarchal 
 saints. Eventually the hymns were believed to have been 
 directly revealed to, rather than composed by, these Rishis, 
 and were then called divine knowledge ( Veda), or the eternal 
 word heard {sruH), and transmitted by them.
 
 g VedisM, 
 
 These Mantras or hymns were arranged in three principal 
 collections or continuous texts {Samhitds). The first and 
 earliest was called the Hymn-veda [Rig-veda). It was a 
 collection of 1017 hymns, arranged for mere reading or re- 
 citing. This was the first bible of the Hindu religion, and 
 the Special bible of Vedism. We might imagine it possible 
 to have collected the most ancient hymns and psalms of our 
 own Sacred Scriptures in the same manner. 
 
 The second, or Sacrificial veda [Yajtir), belongs to a later 
 phase of the Hindu system. It was a liturgical arrangement 
 of part of the same collection of hymns, with additions^ for 
 intoning in a peculiar low tone at sacrificial ceremonies. Be 
 it noted, however, that some of the hymns of the Rig-veda 
 (for example; the horse-sacrifice hymn, I. 162) presuppose a 
 ritual already definite and systematized. 
 
 The third, or Chant-veda {Sdma), was another liturgical 
 arrangement of some of the same hymns for chanting at par- 
 ticular sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant was the 
 principal offering. 
 
 A fourth collection — which might suitably be called the 
 Spell-veda— was added at a later period. It was a collection 
 of hymns — some of them similar to those of the Rig-veda, but 
 the greater part original — by a particular class of priests called 
 Atharvans'^. Many of the texts and formularies of this 
 Atharva-veda were ultimately used as charms and spells, and 
 are still so used in various parts of India. 
 
 By some of the earliest hymn-composers the gods continued 
 to be regarded as one family — children of the old pre-Vedic 
 heavenly father (Dyu or Dyaus), while Earth (Prithivl) was 
 fabled as a divine mother. To other sacred poets the pre- 
 
 ' Certain passages in prose were added, which were especially called 
 Yajiis. 
 
 ^ This was a generic name for a class of priests, descended from a man 
 named Atharvan, who appears to have been the first to institute the 
 worship of fire, before the Indians and Iranians separated. It is certain 
 that particular priests both in India and Persia were called Atharvans.
 
 Vedisni. g 
 
 Vedic deification of the Sky (Varuna, Oipavos) remained a 
 principal object of adoration. He was still occasionally- 
 exalted to the position of a Supreme Being. A well-known 
 hymn in the Atharva-veda (IV. 16) describes him as ruling the 
 world, as penetrating the secrets of all hearts, as detecting the 
 plots of wicked men, as sending down countless messengers 
 who for ever traverse the earth and scan its inmates, as num- 
 bering every wink of men's eyes, as wielding the whole 
 universe in the manner of a gamester handling dice. 
 
 But the true gods of the Veda constituted a trinity of 
 deities. They were the Fire-god (the earth-born Agni), the 
 Rain-god (the air-born Indra), and the Sun-god (the sky-born 
 Surya or Savitri) — one for each of the three worlds, earth, air, 
 and sky [bJiur, bJiiivah, svar). These three gods were the 
 special objects of worship of the early Indo-Aryan colonists. 
 All their other principal deities were either modifications of, 
 or associated with, one or other of the members of this Vedic 
 trinity. For example, the wind (Vayu) and the storm-gods 
 (Maruts), led by the destroying god (Rudra), were regarded 
 as intimate associates of the Rain-god Indra, and were really 
 only forms and modifications of that god. On the other hand, 
 the ancient Aryan deities, Varuna and Mitra, with Vishnu, 
 were all mere forms of the Sun (Surya or Savitri, also called 
 Pushan). Of course the Dawn (Ushas) was also connected 
 with the Sun, and two other deities — the Asvins, probably 
 personifications of two luminous points in the sky — were fabled 
 as his twin sons, ever young and handsome, travelling in a 
 golden car as precursors of the Dawn. 
 
 As to the Fire-god (Agni), he had various attributes sig- 
 nificant of his interest in the world of human beings. He was 
 God on the earth and therefore more accessible than other 
 deities. He was manifested by the friction of the two pieces 
 of the sacred fig-tree called Arani, and consequently always 
 to be found at hand. He was visibly present in every house- 
 hold. He was man's domestic friend, the father of the sacrifice,
 
 10 
 
 Vedism. 
 
 the mediator between men and gods, the bearer of hymns and 
 prayers from every family altar upwards towards heaven. 
 
 Fire, in fact, may be regarded as the next god to the Rain- 
 god in the estimation of Vedic worshippers ; and certainly he 
 takes precedence over every other god in connection with 
 sacrificial rites. Even the Sun-god, who is generally first in 
 all Pagan systems, is held to be a form of heavenly fire. Fire 
 has always been an object of veneration among all nations. 
 
 A conjecture may even be hazarded that the three letters, 
 A, U, M, which combine to form the sacred syllable Om — 
 afterwards typical of the Brahmanical trinity — were originally 
 the initial letters of the trinity of gods, Fire, Wind, and Sun 
 (Agni, Vayu or Varuna for Indra, and Mitra). It must not 
 be forgotten, however, that both Indra and Agni were, like 
 Varuna, often addressed as if each deity were supreme. 
 Moreover, the god of fire was sometimes held to possess a 
 kind of trinity or triple essence in himself, consisting of terres- 
 trial fire, celestial lightning, and solar heat. Sometimes he 
 represented a simple creative energy, which evolved all things 
 out of its own eternal essence. 
 
 It may be observed, too, that there are allusions in the Rig- 
 veda to thirty-three gods (I. 34. ii ; I. 45. 2), or three groups 
 of gods— the Rudras, the Vasus, and the Adityas. Their 
 names are given variously, but they are little more than modi- 
 fications of the three leading divine personifications. Only 
 two or three instances occur of Vedic deities who appear to 
 stand alone. One of the most remarkable is Yama, god of 
 departed spirits. It is noteworthy that the spirits of departed 
 ancestors (Pitris) who have attained to heavenly bliss, are 
 believed to occupy three difi*erent stages of blessedness,— the 
 highest inhabiting the upper sky, the middle the intermediate 
 air, and the lowest the atmospheric region near the earth. 
 Adoration is to be offered them, and they are presided over 
 by Yama, leader of the spirits of the dead, both good and bad. 
 
 The earliest legends represent him as the first of created
 
 Vedis77t. 1 1 
 
 men (his twin-sister being Yami) and the first of men who 
 died. Hence he is supposed to guide the spirits of other 
 men who die to the world of spirits. Sometimes Death is 
 said to be his messenger, he himself dwelling in celestial light, 
 to which the departed are brought, and where they enjoy his 
 society and that of the ancient patriarchs. In the later my- 
 thology he is God of death and punisher of the wicked. In 
 the Veda he has no such office, — but he has two terrific dogs, 
 with four eyes, which guard the way to his abode (see p. 16). 
 
 In brief, enough has been said to show that the early 
 religion of the Indo-Aryans was a development of a still 
 earlier belief in man's subjection to the powers of nature 
 and his need of conciliating them. It was an unsettled 
 system which at one time assigned all the phenomena of 
 the universe to one first Cause ; at another, attributed them 
 to several Causes operating independently; at another, sup- 
 posed the whole visible creation to be animated by one 
 universal all-pervading spirit. It was a belief which, ac- 
 cording to the character and inclination of the worshipper, 
 w^as now monotheism, now tritheism, now polytheism, now 
 pantheism. But it was not yet idolatry. Though the forces 
 of nature were thought of as controlled by divine persons, 
 such persons were not yet idolized. There is no evidence 
 from the Vedic hymns that images were actually worshipped, 
 though they appear to have been occasionally employed^. 
 
 The mode of divine worship continued to be determined 
 from a consideration of human likings and dislikings. Every 
 worshipper praised the gods because he liked to be praised 
 himself. He honoured them with offerings because he liked 
 to receive presents himself. He pretended to feed them be- 
 cause he required food himself. This appears to have been 
 the simple origin of the sacrificial system — a system which was 
 afterwards closely interwoven with the whole Hindu religion. 
 
 ^ For example, in Rig-veda II. 33. 9 an image of Rudra is alluded to ; 
 and in I, 25. 13, V. 52. 15, visible forms of some kind seem implied.
 
 12 
 
 Vedism. 
 
 What, then, were the various ideas expressed by the term 
 sacrifice? In its purest and simplest form it denoted a dedi- 
 cation of some simple gift as an expression of gratitude for 
 blessings received. Soon the act of 'making sacred' became 
 an act of propitiation for purely selfish ends. The favour of 
 celestial beings who were capable of conferring good or in- 
 flicting harm on crops, flocks, and herds, was conciliated by 
 offerings and oblations of all kinds, and especially of the 
 products of the soil. 
 
 With this idea the gods were invited to join the every-day 
 family meal. Then they were invoked at festive gatherings, 
 and off"ered a share of the food consumed. Their bodies 
 were believed to be composed of ethereal particles, dependent 
 for nourishment on the invisible elementary essence of the 
 substances presented to them, and to be furnished with 
 senses capable of being gratified by the aroma of butter 
 and grain offered in fire {JiomaY \ and especially by the 
 fumes arising from libations of the exhilarating juice ex- 
 tracted from the Soma plant. 
 
 This plant — botanically known as Sarcostema Vimittalis, or 
 Asdcpias Adda, a kind of creeper with a succulent leafless stem 
 —which was indigenous in the ancient home of the Aryans, as 
 well as in the soil of India and Persia, supplied an invigorating 
 beverage supposed to confer health and immortality, and held 
 to be the vital sap which vivified the world. Hence its juice 
 became an important ingredient at every sacrifice, and was the 
 subject of constant laudation in numerous Vedic hymns. It 
 was believed to be peculiarly grateful to the Rain-god (Indra), 
 while oblations of butter were specially presented to the god 
 of fire. Eventually the great esteem in which the Soma plant 
 was held led to its being itself personified and deified. The 
 god Soma was once the Bacchus of India. The whole ninth 
 Book of the Rig-veda is devoted to his praise. 
 
 ' Compare Gen. viii. 21.
 
 Vcdism, 1 3 
 
 And yet it is remarkable that this sacred plant has fallen 
 into complete neglect in modern times. When I asked the 
 Brahmans of Northern India to procure specimens of the true 
 Soma for me, I was told that, in consequence of the present 
 sinful condition of the world, the holy plant had ceased to 
 grow on terrestrial soil, and was only to be found in heaven^. 
 
 Nor were these the only offerings. In process of time, 
 animal sacrifice was introduced. At great solemnities goats 
 and other animals were killed by hundreds. Portions of the 
 flesh were consumed in the fire, and portions were eaten. 
 Gods, priests, and people feasted together. Of course all 
 offerings and libations were accompanied with hymns of 
 praise. A certain amount of ceremonial was gradually added. 
 The whole sacrificial service was called Yajna. 
 
 I close this sketch of Vedism by citing portions of transla- 
 tions of a few remarkable hymns in the Rig-veda, as given by 
 me in ' Indian Wisdom.' One hymn (Mandala X. 129) at- 
 tempts to describe the origin of creation thus : — 
 
 In the beginning there was neither nought nor aught ; 
 
 Then there was neither sky nor atmosphere above. 
 
 What then enshrouded all this teeming universe ? 
 
 In the receptacle of what was it contained? 
 
 Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water ? 
 
 Then was there neither death nor immortality ; 
 
 Then was there neither day, nor night, nor light, nor darkness, 
 
 Only the Existent One breathed calmly, self-contained. 
 
 Nought else but he there was — nought else above, beyond. 
 
 Then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom ; 
 
 Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete, 
 
 In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness, 
 
 Then turning inwards, he by self-developed force 
 
 Of inner fervour and intense abstraction, grew. 
 
 First in his mind was formed Desire, the primal germ 
 
 Productive, which the Wise, profoundly searching, say 
 
 Is the first subtle bond, connecting Entity 
 
 And Nullity. 
 
 ^ A creeper, said to be the true Soma, was pointed out to me by the 
 late Dr. Burnell in Southern India, and is still, I believe, used by those 
 orthodox Brahmans in the Maratha country who attempt to maintain 
 the old Vedic worship.
 
 J. Vedis7n. 
 
 In the foregoing hymn we detect the first dim outline of the 
 later philosophical theories, both Sankhyan and Vedantic. 
 
 The idea of the female principle as necessary to the act of 
 creation is also, it may be seen, vaguely implied— an idea 
 which gathered such strength subsequently that every princi- 
 pal deity in the later mythology has his feminine counterpart, 
 who shares the worship paid to the male god, and who some- 
 times receives the greater homage of the two. That this idea 
 is not fully developed in the Rig-veda is proved by the fact 
 that the wives of the chief gods, such as IndranI, Agnayl, etc., 
 are not associated with their husbands as objects of worship, 
 and even Lakshmi and SarasvatI, though named, are not 
 adored. 
 
 The next example from the I2ist hymn of the tenth 
 Mandala is often quoted to furnish an argument for main- 
 taining that the original faith of the Hindus Avas monotheistic. 
 The hymn is addressed to Hiranya-garbha, a form of the 
 Supreme Being, no doubt originally a personification of the 
 Sun. In the Vedanta philosophy, Hiranya-garbha represents 
 the third condition of the Supreme Spirit (see p. 34). In 
 the later system he must be regarded as related to the God 
 Vishnu. 
 
 What god shall we adore with sacrifice ? 
 
 Him let us praise, the golden child that rose 
 
 In the beginning, who was born the lord — 
 
 The one sole lord of all that is — who made 
 
 The earth, and formed the sky, who giveth life. 
 
 Who giveth strength, whose bidding gods revere, 
 
 Whose hiding-place is immortality. 
 
 Whose shadow, death ; who by his might is king 
 
 Of all the breathing, sleeping, waking world. 
 
 Where'er let loose in space, the mighty waters 
 
 Have gone, depositing a fruitful seed, 
 
 And generating fire, there he arose 
 
 Who is the breath and fife of all the gods, 
 
 Whose mighty glance looks round the vast expanse 
 
 Of watery vapour— source of energy, 
 
 Cause of the sacrifice— the only God 
 
 Above the gods.
 
 Vedism. 1 5 
 
 The following is a portion of a well-known hymn to the 
 Sky-god (Varuna) from the Atharva-veda (IV. 16) : — 
 
 The mighty Varuna, who rules above, looks down 
 
 Upon these worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand. 
 
 When men imagine they do aught by stealth, he knows it. 
 
 No one can stand, or walk, or softly glide along. 
 
 Or hide in dark recess, or lurk in secret cell, 
 
 But Varuna detects him, and his movements spies. 
 
 Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting, 
 
 And think themselves alone ; but he, the king, is there— 
 
 A third — and sees it all. His messengers descend 
 
 Countless from his abode, for ever traversing 
 
 This world, and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates. 
 
 Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky, 
 
 Yea, all that is beyond, king Varuna perceives. 
 
 The winkings of men's eyes are numbered all by him : 
 
 He wields the universe as gamesters handle dice. 
 
 Here follow portions of hymns addressed to the Vedic 
 triad. First, the Rain-god (Indra) : — 
 
 Indra, twin-brother of the god of fire, 
 
 When thou wast born, thy mother, Aditi, 
 
 Gave thee, her lusty child, the thrilling draught 
 
 Of mountain-growing Soma— source of life 
 
 And never-dying vigour to thy frame. 
 
 Thou art our guardian, advocate, and friend, 
 
 A brother, father, mother — all combined. 
 
 Most fatherly of fathers, we are thine. 
 
 And thou art ours. Oh ! let thy pitying soul 
 
 Turn to us in compassion when we praise thee. 
 
 And slay us not for one sin or for many. 
 
 Deliver us to-day, to-morrow, every day. 
 
 Vainly the demon ^ dares thy might, in vain 
 
 Strives to deprive us of thy watery treasures. 
 
 Earth quakes beneath the crashing of thy bolts. 
 
 Pierced, shattered lies the foe — his cities crushed. 
 
 His armies overthrown, his fortresses 
 
 Shivered to fragments ; then the pent-up waters, 
 
 Released from long imprisonment, descend 
 
 In torrents to the earth, and swollen rivers, 
 
 Foaming and rolling to their ocean-home. 
 
 Proclaim the triumph of the Thunderer. 
 
 ^ The demon Vritra, who is supposed to keep the waters imprisoned 
 in thick clouds.
 
 1 5 Vedism. 
 
 Secondly, the Fire-god (Agni) :— 
 
 Agni, thou art a sage, a priest, a king, 
 
 Protector, father of the sacrifice. 
 
 Commissioned by us men, thou dost ascend 
 
 A messenger, conveying to the sky 
 
 Our hymns and offerings. Though thy origin 
 
 Be threefold, now from air, and now from water, 
 
 Now from the mystic double Arani, 
 
 Thou art thyself a mighty god, a lord, 
 
 Giver of life and immortality. 
 
 One in thy essence, but to mortals three ; 
 
 Displaying thine eternal triple form, 
 
 As fire on earth, as lightning in the air. 
 
 As sun in heaven. Thou art the cherished guest 
 
 In every household— father, brother, son, 
 
 Friend, benefactor, guardian, all in one. 
 
 Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshippers. 
 
 Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die. 
 
 Deal mercifully with us on the pyre, 
 
 Burning our bodies with their load of guilt, 
 
 But bearing our eternal part on high 
 
 To luminous abodes and realms of bliss. 
 
 For ever there to dwell with righteous men. 
 
 Thirdly, the Sun-god (Surya) : — 
 
 Behold the rays of Dawn, like heralds, lead on high 
 
 The Sun, that men may see the great all-knowing God. 
 
 The stars slink off like thieves, in company with Night, 
 
 Before the all-seeing eye, whose beams reveal his presence, 
 
 Gleaming like brilliant flames, to nation after nation. 
 
 Surya, with flaming locks, clear-sighted god of day, 
 
 Thy seven ruddy mares bear on thy rushing car. 
 
 With these thy self-yoked steeds, seven daughters of thy chariot. 
 
 Onward thou dost advance. To thy refulgent orb 
 
 Beyond this lower gloom, and upward to the light 
 
 Would we ascend, O Sun, thou god among the gods. 
 
 The thoughts contained in various hymns addressed to the 
 'god of departed spirits' (Yama) are so remarkable that a few 
 are here given : — 
 
 To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid. 
 He was the first of men that died, the first to brave 
 Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road 
 To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. 
 No power can rob us of the home thus won by thee.
 
 Vedism. 1 7 
 
 O king, we come ; the born must die, must tread the path 
 That thou hast trod — the path by which each race of men, 
 In long succession, and our fathers, too, have passed. 
 Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road — 
 The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone ; 
 Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers. 
 Who dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards — 
 The four-eyed brindled dogs— that watch for the departed. 
 Return unto thy home, O soul ! Thy sin and shame 
 Leave thou behind on earth ; assume a shining form — 
 Thy ancient shape — refined and from all taint set free. 
 
 I add a few verses from the celebrated Purusha hymn (Rig- 
 veda, Mandala X. 90, translated by me in ' Indian Wisdom,' 
 p. 24). It illustrates the intertwining of polytheism, mono- 
 theism, and pantheism. It also foreshadows the idea of sacri- 
 fice, as well as the institution of caste \ which for so many 
 centuries has held India in bondage. The one Spirit is sup- 
 posed to take a body and then allow himself to be sacrificed. 
 
 The embodied spirit has a thousand heads, 
 
 A thousand eyes, a thousand feet, around 
 
 On every side enveloping the earth. 
 
 Yet filling space no larger than a span. 
 
 He is himself this veiy universe ; 
 
 He is whatever is, has been, and shall be ; 
 
 He is the lord of immortality. 
 
 All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths 
 
 Are that which is immortal in the sky. 
 
 From him, called Purusha, was born Viraj, 
 
 And from Viraj was Purusha produced, 
 
 Whom gods and holy men made their oblation. 
 
 With Purusha as victim, they performed 
 
 A sacrifice. When they divided him. 
 
 How did they cut him up ? What was his mouth 1 
 
 What were his arms ? and what his thighs and feet ? 
 
 The Brahman was his mouth, the kingly soldier 
 
 Was made his arms, the husbandman his thighs. 
 
 The servile Sudra issued from his feet. 
 
 For further examples and a fuller account of the Veda 
 I must refer the reader to the first part of 'Indian Wisdom' 
 
 ^ This hymn (generally admitted to be a comparatively modern pro- 
 duction) is the only hymn in the Rig-veda which alludes to the distinctions 
 of caste. 
 
 C
 
 1 8 Vedism. 
 
 (Lectures I and 11)^. Let me warn him, in conclusion, that 
 the above examples would, if taken alone, encourage a false 
 estimate of the merits of the Vedic hymns. Although the 
 majority of the Hindus believe that the four Vedas contain 
 all that is good, great, and divine, yet these compositions 
 will be found, when taken as a whole, to abound more in 
 puerile ideas than in lofty conceptions. At the same time 
 it is clear that they give no support to any of the present 
 objectionable usages and customs for which they were once, 
 through ignorance of their contents, supposed to be an au- 
 thority. The doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration 
 of souls, which became an essential characteristic of Brah- 
 manism and Hinduism in later times, has no place in the 
 religion of the Veda^. Nor do the hymns give any sanction 
 to the prohibition of widow-marriages, the general prevalence 
 of child-marriages, the tyrannical sway of caste, the interdic- 
 tion of foreign travel, and the practice of idolatry. 
 
 The social condition of the people was by no means 
 low. They had attained to considerable civilization. They 
 were rich in flocks and herds ; they well understood the 
 principles of agriculture ; they were able to build towns and 
 fortified places ; they had some knowledge of various arts 
 and of working in metals ; they engaged in philosophical 
 speculations ; they had rulers, and a political system ; they 
 were separated into classes, though they were not yet divided 
 off by iron barriers of caste ; polygamy existed, though mono- 
 gamy was the rule; they killed animals for sacrifice; they 
 were in the habit of eating animal food, and did not even 
 object to the flesh of cows; they were fond of gambling, and 
 indulged in intoxicating beverag-es. 
 
 ^ The last edition of this work (originally published by Messrs. W. H. 
 Allen and Co.) is nearly exhausted, but copies may still be had by applying 
 to Mr. Bernard Quaritch, of 15 Piccadilly. 
 
 ''' It is true that in Mandala I. 164. 32 bahu-prajah is explained by 
 baJm-janma-bhak, 'subject to many births;' but it really means 'having 
 abundant offspring.'
 
 Vedism, 19 
 
 And it is to be observed that, just as the children of 
 Israel found the land of Canaan pre-occupied by Hittites, 
 Perizzites, and Philistines, so the Aryan immigrants, when 
 they advanced into India, found the soil held by previous 
 races, variously called Dasyus, Anaryas, Nishadas, and Dra- 
 vidas, and even by more primitive aboriginal tribes, contact 
 and intercourse with whom very soon affected them socially, 
 morally, and religiously. 
 
 Monsieur A. Barth, whose work on the religions of India 
 is a most meritorious production^, comes to the conclusion 
 that the Vedic hymns give evidence of an exalted morality, 
 and draws attention to the fact that they acknowledge no 
 wicked divinities. Worship of the gods was performed by 
 sacrifice (yajna), invocation (avahana), prayer (prarthana), 
 praise (stuti), and meditation (upasana) ; and, as we shall see 
 in the next chapter, the name Brahman (nom. Brahma), which 
 was ultimately applied to the one Universal Spirit, was often 
 identified with Prayer. 
 
 Finally be it observed that the most sacred and the most 
 universally used — even in the present day — of all Vedic 
 prayers is that composed in the Gayatrl metre, and thence 
 called Gayatrl, or, as addressed to the Vivifying Sun-god, 
 Savitrl : — ' Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the 
 Divine Vivifier ; may he enlighten our understandings^' (see 
 pp. 403, 406 of this volume). Yet the author, or, as a Brah- 
 man would say, the Seer (Rishi), of this celebrated prayer 
 was Visvamitra — a man originally of the Kshatriya or mili- 
 tary caste, once opposed to the Brahmanical. 
 
 ^ Some of the opinions of this scholar are quite new. He sees no 
 'primitive natural simplicity' in the hymns, and denies that the Vedas 
 represent the general belief of a race. 
 
 ^ Tat Savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhlmahi, Dhiyo yo nah 
 pracodayat (Rig-veda III. 62. 10). In my opinion the Sandhya (p. 401) 
 derives its name from the root cihl for dhyai, 'to meditate/ in this prayer. 
 
 ca
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Brahmanism. 
 
 The second phase of the Hindu religion may be suitably 
 called Brahmanism. The Brahmans themselves would pro- 
 bably call both phases Arya-dharma, ' the system of the Aryas' 
 (or perhaps Vaidika-dharma, or, according to Patanjali I. i. i, 
 Rishi-sampradayo dharmah). 
 
 As Brahmanism was the outgrowth of Vedism, so it cannot 
 be separated from it by any hard line of demarcation. Its 
 development was gradual, and extended over many centuries 
 — perhaps from the eighth century before Christ to the 
 twelfth century after Christ. 
 
 The crystallization of its cardinal doctrine into definite 
 shape is clearly traceable. In Vedic times there was, as we 
 have seen, a perpetual feeling after one Supreme Being, if 
 haply He might be found in sky or air. The hymn-com- 
 posers constantly gave expression to man's craving for some 
 perception of the Infinite. For the satisfaction of this craving 
 they turned to personifications of the Sky, Sun, Fire, Air, 
 Water, Earth. 
 
 What the deepest thinkers, even at that early period, felt 
 with ever-increasing intensity was that a Spirit (Atman), 
 beyond the cognizance of sense, permeated and breathed 
 through all material things. They bethought them with 
 awe of this same Spirit vivifying their own bodies with 
 the breath of life — of this mysterious Presence enshrined in 
 their own consciences. Then they identified this same Spirit 
 with the divine afilatus thrilling through the imaginations 
 of their own hymn-composers — with the spiritual efficacy of 
 the hymns themselves, with the mystic power inherent in 
 divine knowledge and prayer. This mysterious, all-pervading,
 
 Ritualistic Brahmanism. 2 1 
 
 vague spiritual Power and Presence, which was wholly un- 
 bound by limitations of personality and individuality, became 
 at last a reality. This Breath of Life (Atman) received a 
 name. They called it Brahman (nominative neuter Brahma, 
 from the root brih^ ' to expand '), because it expanded itself 
 through all space. It was a pure essence which not only 
 diffused itself everywhere, but constituted their own being. 
 Men and gods were merely manifestations of that Spirit. 
 
 Such was the fundamental doctrine of Brahmanism. Such 
 was Brahmanism in its earliest origin. As a complex system 
 it may be regarded as possessing four sides, or, more properly 
 speaking, four phases which run into each other and are 
 nowhere separable by sharply defined lines. These four 
 phases may be called (i) Ritualistic, (3) Philosophical, (3) 
 Mythological, (4) Nomistic. 
 
 Ritualistic Brahmanism. 
 
 This phase of the Brahmanical system has for its special 
 bible the sacred treatises called Brahmanas, added to the 
 Mantra or Hymn portion of each Veda (for example, the 
 Aitareya, Satapatha, Tandya, and Gopatha Brahmanas 
 added to the Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas respect- 
 ively). They consist of a series of rambling prose compo- 
 sitions, the oldest of which may have been written seven 
 or eight centuries B. C. Their relationship to the Vedic 
 hymns resembles in some respects that of the book of 
 Leviticus to the Psalms in our own sacred Scriptures. They 
 are an integral portion of the Veda, and are supposed to 
 contain that portion of divine knowledge or revelation par- 
 ticularly adapted to serve as a directory for the Brahmans 
 in the conduct of the complicated sacrificial ceremonies. 
 For if it was deemed necessary in the early Vedic period 
 to propitiate and maintain the energies of nature by means 
 of invigorating offerings of food, it was not likely that such
 
 22 
 
 Ritualistic Brahmanism. 
 
 offerings would be dispensed with when these same energies 
 were personalized as divine manifestations of the one Spirit. 
 In fact the necessity for sacrificial acts {kannan) to secure 
 the favour of the gods became ingrained in the whole Brah- 
 manical system. Not even Jewish literature contains so 
 many words relating to sacrifice as the literature of the Brah- 
 mans. The due presentation of sacrificial offerings formed 
 the very kernel of all religious service. Hymn, praise, and 
 prayer, preaching, teaching, and repetition of the sacred 
 words of scripture were only subsidiary to this act. Every 
 man throughout his whole life rested his whole hopes on con- 
 tinually offering oblations of some kind to the gods in fire, 
 and the burning of his body at death was held to be the 
 last offering of himself in fire (antya ishti or antyeshti). 
 
 But the idea of the great efficacy of sacrifice was developed 
 gradually. In the Brahmanical, as in the earlier system, the 
 first aim of sacrifice was to present a simple thank-offering. 
 The second great aim was to nourish the gods with the 
 essence of the offered food, and so strengthen them for their 
 daily duty of maintaining the continuity of the universe. 
 The next idea was that of making these oblations of food 
 the means of wresting boons from the invigorated and grati- 
 fied deities, and so accomplishing some specific earthly object, 
 such, for example, as the birth of a son. A still more am- 
 bitious idea was that of employing sacrifice as an instrument 
 for the attainment of superhuman powers and even exaltation 
 to heaven. 
 
 All this involved the elaboration of a complicated ritual, 
 and the organization of a regularly constituted hierarchy. 
 To institute a sacrificial rite (such as the Asvamedha, Jyoti- 
 shtoma, Agnishtoma, Aptoryama, Vajapeya, 'strengthening 
 drink'), and to secure its being carefully conducted with the 
 proper repetition and intonation of innumerable hymns and 
 texts from the Veda, and the accurate observance of every 
 detail of an intricate ritual by a full complement of perhaps
 
 Rittialistic Brahmaiiism. 23 
 
 sixteen different classes of priests, every one of whom received 
 adequate gifts, was the great object of every pious Hindu's 
 highest ambition. The whole course of prayer, praise, ritual, 
 and oblation — sometimes lasting for weeks and even years — 
 though called, as in Vedic times, Yajna, 'sacrifice,' was very 
 inadequately expressed by that term. It was a protracted 
 religious service which could only be compared to an intricate 
 piece of mechanism. It was a chain of which every link 
 required to be complete and perfect in all its parts. It could 
 then effect anything in this world or the other. It was the 
 great preservative from all evil, the great maintainer of the 
 energies of the Universe, the great source of all benefits. It 
 could procure a whole line of sons and grandsons^, or secure 
 the attainment of the highest heaven, or even raise the sacri- 
 ficer to the level of the highest deities. It was even believed 
 that the gods themselves had attained their celestial position 
 by performing sacrifices. ' By sacrifices,^ says the T aittirlya- 
 brahmana, 'the gods obtained heaven.' 
 
 The most preposterous of all the ideas connected with the 
 sacrificial act was that of making it the first act of creation. 
 In^ the Purusha hymn of the Rig-veda (X. 90) the gods are 
 represented as cutting up and sacrificing Purusha, the pri- 
 meval Male, and then forming the whole Universe from his 
 head and limbs (see p. 17). The Tandya-brahmana makes 
 the lord of creatures offer himself up as a sacrifice. Even 
 Sacrifice (Yajna) itself was sometimes personified as a god. 
 
 Lastly, the shedding of blood was believed by some to 
 atone for sin. The limb of the victim consigned to the fire 
 was thought to be an expiation for sins committed by the 
 gods, by the fathers, and by men. The innocent was sup- 
 posed to be killed for the guilty ; but this belief never became 
 general. 
 
 ^ An uninterrupted line of sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons was 
 needed for the due performance of funeral rites, through which alone 
 the heavenly bliss of departed spirits could be secured.
 
 24 Ritualistic Brahmanism. 
 
 Indeed it is evident that human sacrifice was once part 
 of the Brahmanical system. The Aitareya-brahmana (VII. 
 13) has a well-known story— the story of Hariscandra and 
 Sunahsepa — which points to its prevalence. The same 
 Brahmana records the substitution of the sacrifice of four 
 kinds of animals— horses, oxen, sheep, and goats— for that 
 of men. Sometimes immense numbers of animals were tied 
 to sacrificial posts {yfipa), some being killed and some liber- 
 ated at the end of the ceremony. 
 
 One of the most noteworthy ideas to be found in the 
 Brahmanas is that the gods were merely mortal till they 
 conquered Death by sacrifices. Death is thereupon alarmed 
 lest men should also be victorious over him and deprive 
 him of all his rights ; but the gods promise that those who 
 perform sacrifices should not become immortal without first 
 offering him their bodies, and that all who omit to sacrifice 
 should be born again, and present him their bodies in innu- 
 merable successive births. This proves that the doctrine 
 of transmigration was beginning to be developed at this 
 period. 
 
 The following free translation of a passage of the Sata- 
 patha-brahmana is from ' Indian Wisdom,' p. 34 : — 
 
 The gods lived constantly in dread of Death — 
 
 The mighty Ender — so with toilsome rites 
 
 They worshipped and repeated sacrifices 
 
 Till they became immortal. Then the Ender 
 
 Said to the gods, 'As ye have made yourselves 
 
 Imperishable, so will men endeavour 
 
 To free themselves from me ; what portion then 
 
 Shall I possess in man?' The gods replied, 
 
 ' Henceforth no being shall become immortal 
 
 In his own body ; this his mortal frame 
 
 Shalt thou still seize ; this shall remain thy own, 
 
 This shall become perpetually thy food. 
 
 And even he who through religious acts 
 
 Henceforth attains to immortality 
 
 Shall first present his body. Death, to thee.' 
 
 It is certainly remarkable that the idea of sacrifice as an
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 25 
 
 atonement for sin seems never to have taken firm hold of the 
 Hindu mind. Goats were generally sacrificed by Vaidika 
 Brahmans at their Soma-yagas, but only in connexion with 
 the central offering of the Soma or liquor of immortality, and 
 only under the idea of nourishing the gods with strengthening 
 food. Fire was the chief god, not only because he was visibly 
 present, but because he carried up the essence of the oblation 
 to the other gods. In later times sacrifice changed its cha- 
 racter and its name. It was called Bali. Goats and buffaloes 
 are now immolated by Pauranikas and Tantrikas, but only with 
 the view of appeasing and satisfying their bloodthirsty goddess 
 Kali, and certainly not with any idea of effacing guilt or 
 making a vicarious offering for sin. For the ordinary Hindu 
 wholly rejects the notion of trusting to anything for salvation 
 but his own self-righteousness. 
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 
 
 The second phase of Brahmanism, called Philosophical 
 Brahmanism, cannot be marked off by any decided line from 
 the other phases of Hindu religious thought. Its rudimentary 
 ideas are found running through the earlier system, and even 
 had their germ in Vedism. It is the purely spiritual doc- 
 trine of a universally diffused essence (Brahma), divested of 
 all ritualistic incrustations, and carried into lofty regions of 
 transcendental speculation. 
 
 In fact, a reaction from an overdone ritual was inevitable. 
 People became wearied with sacrifices and sacrificers. The 
 minds of thinking men found no rest in external rites and 
 turned away with disgust from every form of sacerdotalism. 
 It only remained to take refuge in speculative inquiries and 
 metaphysical investigations. If every man was a part of 
 God, what necessity was there that God should propitiate 
 himself? If a portion of the one self-existent Spirit chose 
 for a time to ignore itself, to invest itself with a body, to
 
 26 Philosophical Brakinanism. 
 
 fetter itself with actions and their inevitable results, the 
 consequences could only be borne by itself in its passage 
 through numberless births. Nor could there be any final 
 emancipation from a continued succession of corporeal ex- 
 istences, till action ceased and the consciousness of identity 
 with the one universal Spirit returned. The result of this 
 introspective process was the excogitation of the Upanishads 
 or hidden spiritual doctrine of the Veda. 
 
 The Upanishads are the special bible of this phase of 
 Brahmanism. Many treatises so called were added to the 
 Mantra and Brahmana portion of the Veda (such as the Isa, 
 Chandogya, Katha, Mundaka, and Brihad-aranyaka Upani- 
 shads). The aphorisms (sutras) of the three systems of philo- 
 sophy with their three branches (that is, the Nyaya with 
 Vaiseshika ; Saiikhya with Yoga ; Vedanta with Mimansa) 
 were founded on these writings. 
 
 They were compositions which expressed the desire of the 
 personal soul or spirit {jiva or jivdtman) for deliverance from 
 a long series of separate existences and from liability to pass 
 through an infinite variety of bodies — gods, men, animals, 
 plants, stones — and its longing for final union with the Su- 
 preme Soul or Spirit of the Universe {Atman, afterwards called 
 Brahman). And here it maybe noted that Philosophical Brah- 
 manism was not philosophy in the European sense of the 
 word. It was no mere search for truth, for truth's sake. It 
 was rather a form of mystical religious speculation. Nor 
 was it an expression of the soul's desire to be released from 
 the burden of sin. It was rather an inquiry into the best 
 method of escape from the troubles of life, and of deliver- 
 ance from the necessity of transmigration ; the dread of 
 continued metempsychosis being the one haunting thought 
 which colours the whole texture of Indian philosophy. If 
 an Indian metaphysician sets himself to inquire into the 
 nature of spirit and matter, and their relation to each other, 
 his investigations are sure to be conducted with the sole
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 27 
 
 object of liberating the spirit of man from the bondage of 
 repeated bodily existence, and reuniting it with the Supreme 
 Spirit as a river is reunited with the ocean. This is called 
 the way of knowledge {jndua). This constitutes the right 
 measure {prama) of all difficulties. This is the summuni 
 bonum of Brahmanical philosophy. 
 
 What, then, are the articles of a Hindu philosopher's 
 creed? They are the doctrines which to this day underlie 
 the religious belief of the majority of thinking Hindus, to 
 whatever sect or system they may nominally belong. 
 
 Most Hindu thinkers agree that spirit or souP is eternal, 
 both retrospectively and prospectively. The Spirit of God 
 and the spirit of man must have existed and must continue 
 to exist from all eternity. The two spirits are not really 
 distinct; so says the Vedantist. The living spirit of man(jlva) 
 — the human Self (Atman) — is identical with God^s Spirit. 
 It is that Spirit limited and personalized by the power of 
 Illusion ; and the life of every living spirit is nothing but an 
 infinitesimal arc of the one endless circle of infinite existence. 
 
 Again, Hindu philosophers agree that mind (manas) is 
 distinct from spirit or soul. Mind is not eternal in the 
 same way. It is an internal organ, standing between the 
 five organs of perception and the five organs of action, 
 belonging to both, regulating the functions of both and re- 
 ceiving the impressions conveyed by both. These functions 
 are perception (buddhi) and volition (sankalpa, vikalpa) 
 respectively. Hence the spirit cannot exercise perception, 
 consciousness, thought, or will^ unless joined to mind and 
 invested with a bodily covering or vehicle. 
 
 And of actual bodily coverings there are two :— first, the 
 
 ^ It is generally better to translate the philosophical terms Atman, 
 Brahman, and Purusha by 'spirit' rather than by 'soul,' because the 
 expression 'soul' is liable to convey the idea of thinking and feeling, 
 whereas pure Atman, Brahman, and Purusha neither think, nor feel, 
 nor are conscious. The translation ' Self is sometimes more suitable.
 
 28 Philosophical Brahmanism. 
 
 subtle body^ {liiiga or sfikshma-sarira or dtivahika), which 
 incloses a portion of the universal spirit in a kind of subtle 
 or tenuous envelope 2, constituting it a living individual per- 
 sonal soul {jTvatinan\ and carrying it through all its corpo- 
 real migrations till its final reunion with its source ; secondly, 
 the gross body {sthTila-sarira), which surrounds the spirit's 
 subtle vehicle, and is of various forms in the various stages 
 and conditions of existence through animate or inanimate, 
 organic or inorganic life. 
 
 And mark that the gross body is of three kinds — divine, 
 earthly, and intermediate — the latter being that peculiar 
 frame with which the departed spirit, along with its subtle 
 frame, is invested after the burning of the earthly gross 
 body, and during the interval preceding the assumption of 
 another earthly gross body. This intermediate body (com- 
 monly called preta-sarira, the dead man's body) serves, as 
 it were, to support and, as it were, to clothe the departed 
 spirit during its several residences in the world of spirits 
 [pitri-loka) ; whence its philosophical name Adhishthana- 
 deha. It is of the same nature, though inferior to the divine 
 body of the gods ; and, though, like that divine body, really 
 composed of gross (sthula) particles, is of a more ethereal 
 substance than the earthly body. Without it the spirit would 
 be incapable of enjoying bliss or suffering misery in the inter- 
 mediate temporary paradise, or purgatory 2, through which all 
 spirits have to pass before assuming new terrestrial bodies. 
 
 And be it noted that the union of spirit with a succession 
 of bodily forms is dreaded as the worst form of bondage. 
 The spirit, so united, commences acting, and all actions, 
 
 ^ In the Vedanta system there are three bodily coverings, the Causal 
 body (Karana-sarira) coming first ; but this is merely another name for 
 Ajhana (see p. 35), and can scarcely be regarded as a material substance. 
 
 2 Its minuteness is denoted by its being described as ' of the size of 
 a thumb' {angushtha-matra), though some apply this expression to the 
 intermediate body. 
 
 The heaven and hell of orthodox Brahmanism are only temporary.
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 29 
 
 good or bad, lead to consequences, and these consequences 
 must have their adequate rewards or punishments. It is on 
 this account that the spirit must of necessity be removed 
 to temporary heavens or hells. Thence it must migrate into 
 higher, intermediate, and lower corporeal forms, according 
 to its various degrees of merit or demerit, till it attains the 
 great end — entire emancipation from the bondage of repeated 
 bodily existence, and reabsorption into the one Spirit of the 
 Universe. 
 
 With regard to the external world, it is a fixed dogma of 
 every Hindu philosopher that ex nihilo nihil fit — nothing 
 is produced out of nothing. Therefore, the external world is 
 eternal. But according to one view, the external world is 
 evolved out of an eternally existing productive germ united to 
 eternally existing individual Spirits. According to another, it 
 is evolved out of the Illusion which overspreads the one 
 eternal Spirit, and becomes one with it, though having no real 
 existence. These two theories in regard to the creation of the 
 world — the first represented in the Saiikhya system, the second 
 in the Vedanta system — are both of great antiquity. 
 
 The first shadowing forth of the mystery of the creation of 
 male and female, and of the living world through their union, 
 is traceable in some of the Vedic hymns. The well-known 
 hymn of the Rig-veda (X. 129, 4), already quoted, asserts that 
 first ' in that One Being arose Desire, which was the primal 
 germ of Mind, and which the wise, searching out in their 
 thoughts, discovered to be the subtle bond connecting Entity 
 with Non-entity.' 
 
 Again, the Satapatha-Brahmana (XIV. 4. 2. 4, etc.) and 
 Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad (I. 3) declare that ' the Supreme 
 Being was not happy, being alone. He wished for a second. 
 He caused his own self to fall in twain, and thus became 
 husband and wife. He approached her^ and thus were human 
 beings produced' (see p. 182). 
 
 In this latter passage is the first clear statement of a duality
 
 30 Philosophical Brahmanism. 
 
 in the divine unity— an idea ingrained in the Hindu mind 
 quite as strongly as the doctrine of a Trinity in Unity is in 
 the mind of Christian theologians— an idea, too, which had 
 been previously adumbrated in the supposed marriage of 
 Heaven and Earth for the production of gods, men, and all 
 creatures. 
 
 The idea was expanded in the mythical cosmogony of 
 Manu, Book I. 5, etc. There it is said that the universe first 
 existed only in darkness as if immersed in sleep. Then the 
 Self-existent (Svayam-bhuj still undeveloped (A-vyakta), 
 having willed to produce various beings from his own sub- 
 stance, first with a mere thought created the waters, and 
 placed on them a productive seed or &gg (bija). Then he 
 himself was born in that egg in the form of Brahma. Next 
 he caused the ^gg to divide itself, and out of its two divisions 
 framed the heaven above and the earth beneath. Afterwards, 
 having divided his own substance, he became half male, half 
 female (I. 32), and from that female produced Viraj, from 
 whom was created Manu, the secondary progenitor of all 
 beings. The order of the creation of the five elements is 
 I. Ether (Akasa) ; 1. Air (Vayu) ; 3. Fire (Tejas or Jyotis); 
 4. Water (Apah, pi.) ; 5. Earth (Prithivi or Bhumi) ; but these 
 resulted from a previous creation of five subtle elements 
 (tanmatra). The Nyaya-sutra reverses the order. 
 
 So again in the Sahkhya philosophy, there are two eternal 
 principles — the Producer and the Spirit. The former is an 
 eternal productive germ or Creative Force which is called 
 Prakriti (feminine), because it produces (prakaroti) twenty-four 
 products. It is also called Pradhana, because it is the fixed 
 material cause of everything except the Spirit — which is 
 twenty-fifth in the series. This infinitely subtle elementary 
 productive germ, though one, is supposed to be made up of a 
 trinity of co-eternal primordial qualities in perfect equipoise 
 (samya). These are called Gunas, not because they are 
 simply quaHties, but because they act like 'cords' to bind
 
 Philosophical Bi ah7nanism. 31 
 
 the spirit with triple bonds. They are, i. Sattva, 'purity' 
 or 'goodness;' 2. Rajas, 'passion' or 'activity;' and 3. 
 Tamas, ' darkness ' or ' indifference ; ' sometimes regarded as 
 equivalent to pleasure, pain, and indolence respectively. 
 
 The Spirit or second eternal principle called Parusha 
 (the Male or Self) is not, like Prakriti, one; nor does it 
 produce anything. It is multitudinous. Spirits are innume- 
 rable, each separate Spirit being co-eternal with Prakriti^ but 
 doing nothing and creating nothing. When human beings or 
 any other beings are created, the creation is always effected 
 through evolution out of Prakriti, which is nevertheless a 
 merely blind and dark force ; no creation at all being apparent 
 unless this force brings itself into union with some one eter- 
 nally existing separate spirit. Prakriti, in short, unites itself 
 with the Spirit or Self and binds it with the triple bond of 
 the three above-named Gunas^ in order that this Spirit may 
 reflect or illumine the evolved world as a clear river reflects 
 dark trees, or as a bright crystal vase illumines a flower, 
 while the flower itself colours the crystal. 
 
 The first step in the evolution out of Prakriti is the pro- 
 duction of Intellect or intelligent perception (Buddhi). Next 
 comes the faculty of Self-consciousness or personality, called 
 the I-maker (Aham-kara), and then the five subtle and five 
 gross elements, the latter being the product of the former. 
 Last in the series come the five organs of perception, the five 
 organs of action and the internal organ, mind (Manas), which 
 holds a position between the ten other organs, mediating 
 between them as the instrument of both perception and 
 volition-. These constitute the twenty-five principles of the 
 Sahkhya system. 
 
 ^ The Spirit before its association with these Gunas is called Nirguna ; 
 and when bound by them, Saguna. 
 
 '^ In this and in the Nyaya system Buddhi, ' intellect,' is anterior and 
 superior to Manas, 'mind,' which is merely the instrument of thought. 
 It governs the mind, and causes it to decide. Manu's theory is a 
 combination of Saiikhya and Vedanta. In Book 1. 14, etc. it is said that
 
 32 Philosophical Brdhmanism. 
 
 The noteworthy point is that consciousness, cognition, will, 
 and thought do not belong to the creative force Prakriti 
 and its creations. Intellect, the I-maker, and Mind (Buddhi, 
 Aham-kara, Manas) when existing separately, nor to the 
 spirit (Purusha) when existing separately, but only to the two 
 when united. In short, two factors— the active, creative but 
 blind force, and the inactive, passive but illuminating spirit — 
 must come together before there can be even any conscious- 
 ness or sense of personality. And yet the creation is not 
 supposed to take place for the sake of the two together, 
 but only that it may be illuminated and observed by each 
 separate individual spirit or soul, which nevertheless is a 
 wholly apathetic, isolated, and indifferent spectator of the act. 
 It is clear from this how easy it became to confuse Purusha 
 with Prakriti and to regard either the one or the other or the 
 union of both as the source of the external world ^. 
 
 Of course when any being is created the three primordial 
 qualities, Purity, Passion, and Darkness, are no longer equally 
 balanced as they are in the creative germ, Prakriti. Creation 
 is a result of the disturbance of this equilibrium. One or 
 other quality is then in excess, making a being unselfish and 
 good, selfish and energetic, bestial and ignorant, according as 
 either purity, passion, or darkness may happen to prepon- 
 derate. 
 
 I need not point out that this remarkable theory of innu- 
 
 Brahma, when born from the t.g%, deposited by the Self-existent, drew 
 out the external world from pure spirit (Atman). The first product was 
 the principle of thought (Manas = Buddhi or Mahat). Next came 
 Personahty (Aharn-kara), and then the seven subtle elements (Tan- 
 matras). From these seven active principles (called 'the seven Puru- 
 shas,' I. 19)— viz. Mahat or Buddhi (called Manas in I. 14, 74, 75), 
 Aham-kara, and the five subtle elements — were evolved the five gross 
 or material elements {jnaha-bhilta), the organs of sense, and the whole 
 world of sense. 
 
 ^ Professor A. E. Gough in the 'Calcutta Review' has thrown great 
 light on the Saiikhya and Vedanta systems and their close connexion 
 with each other.
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 33 
 
 merable personal creations by individual souls is not without 
 its counterpart in European systems ^ In India the idea of a 
 separate spiritual Self combining with a primordial force for 
 the creation of all things was, as we have seen, of great 
 antiquity. And notwithstanding the physical and metaphysical 
 subtleties with which it was connected, the notion of the 
 universe proceeding from a male principle regarded as a 
 generator, and a female principle regarded as an eternal 
 energy or capacity [sakii), commended itself to the popular 
 mind as harmonizing with the operations and phenomena 
 everywhere apparent in nature. To this day it is symbolized 
 all over India by temples dedicated to the male and female 
 organ (called Liriga and Yoni). It is clear that in such a 
 system there can be no need for the existence of a supreme 
 eternal Spirit as distinct from the personal spirit, even though 
 such a supreme Being, be theoretically admitted (as in the 
 Yoga branch of the Safikhya). 
 
 The so-called pantheistic theory of the Vedanta philosophy 
 is even more attractive to the majority of Hindu thinkers. It 
 is true that the Sahkhya and Vedanta together underlie 
 Brahmanism ; but the Vedanta is the more orthodox; It is 
 a belief in the non-duality and non-plurality of Spirit — that 
 is to say^ in one eternal Spirit called Atman^ (nom. Atma) or 
 Brahman (nom. Brahma, see p. 43) instead of in many, — a belief 
 in the identification of the human spirit and of all the pheno- 
 mena of nature with that one Spirit, when enveloped in 
 illusion. In other words, the separate existence of man's soul 
 and o^all natural phenomena is only illusory. 
 
 This doctrine is said to rest on another well-known hymn 
 of the Veda (X. 90) called the Purusha-sukta. There the 
 one embodied Spirit is called Purusha (see p. 17), and is 
 said to be ' everything, whatever is, has been, and shall 
 be.' The same doctrine is briefly formulated in three 
 
 ^ The Sankhya has much in common with the Idealism of Berkeley. 
 "^ One etymology given for Atman is a«, to breathe. Compare p. 20. 
 
 D
 
 '>4 Philosophical Brahmanism. 
 
 words (from the Chandogya Upanishad) used as a creed in 
 the present day by Indian Theistic as well as Pantheistic 
 stzts—Ekam eva advitiyam, 'there is but one Being, no 
 second.' Nothing really exists but the one impersonal Spirit, 
 called Atma or Brahma ( = Purusha). From him is everything 
 born; in him it breathes; in him it is dissolved (tajjalan). 
 He, in the illusion that overspreads him, is to the external 
 world what yarn is to cloth, what milk to curds, what clay to 
 a jar; but only in that illusion ^ As ether contained in 
 various vessels and as the sun reflected on various mirrors is 
 one but apparently many, so is the spirit one and many. As 
 the potter by the help of clay makes a pot, so the Spirit itself 
 causes its various births. As an actor paints his body with 
 colours and assumes various forms, so the Spirit assumes the 
 bodies caused by its deeds. This eternal impersonal Atma 
 or Brahma is absolutely One (unlike the Sankhyan Spirit or 
 Purusha, which is multitudinous) ; yet it is made up of a 
 trinity of co-eternal essences — to wit, pure unconscious Ex- 
 istence (Sat), pure Thought ((^it)^, and pure Bliss (Ananda). 
 
 And here let *me observe that more than one Christian 
 writer has pointed out how remarkably this tri-unity of 
 Entities corresponds with the Trinitarian doctrine of God 
 the Father, who is the Author of all Existence ; God the Son, 
 who is the Source of all Wisdom and Knowledge ; and God 
 the Holy Spirit, who is the Source of all Joy. But we must 
 bear in mind that, with the Vedantist, Brahma is only Exist- 
 ence in the negation of non-existence, only Thought in the 
 negation of non-thought, only Bliss in the negation of non- 
 bliss and of all the miseries of transmigration. 
 
 When this impersonal unconscious Spirit assumes con- 
 
 ^ He is not the actual material cause of the world as clay of a jar, but 
 the illusory material cause as a rope might be of a snake ; see p. 37, 1. 7. 
 
 ^ Cit, ' pure unconscious thought ' alone, or its equivalent Caitanya, is 
 often used for Brahma. Brahma is also described in the Upanishads as 
 Truth, Knowledge, Infinity.
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 35 
 
 sciousness and personality — that is, when it begins to exist 
 in any object, to think about anything or be joyful about any- 
 thing — it does so by associating itself with the power of Illusion 
 (Maya) and investing itself with three corporeal envelopes. 
 
 First, the causal body (karana-sarira) identified with Ajnana 
 or Ignorance^; secondly, the subtle body (liiiga-sarlra) ; and 
 thirdly, the gross material body (sthula-sarira). In this way the 
 impersonal Spirit is converted into a personal God who can 
 be worshipped, and so becomes the Supreme Lord (Isvara, 
 Paramesvara) and Ruler of the world. To be strictly accurate, 
 however, it should be stated that the Vedanta theory makes 
 the assumption of these three bodies involve the assumption of 
 three distinct divine personalities, each of which is supposed 
 to invest a particular condition of spirit. Thus, with the first 
 or causal body, the impersonal Spirit becomes the Supreme 
 Lord, Paramesvara, supposed to represent and embody the 
 mystical totality of dreamless spirits ; with the second or 
 subtle body the impersonal Spirit becomes Hiranya-garbha 
 (or Sutratman, or Prana), supposed to represent the aggregate 
 of dreaming spirits, connecting them like the Sutra or thread 
 of a necklace ; with the third or gross body it becomes Viraj 
 (or Vaisvanara, Prajapati, Purusha), supposed to represent 
 and embody the aggregate of waking spirits (compare p. 28). 
 
 This third condition of spirit or that of being wide awake, 
 though with us considered to be the highest state, is by Hindu 
 philosophers held to be the lowest, because farthest removed 
 from unconscious spirit. In fact, beyond and underlying all 
 three conditions of spirit is the fourth (turiya) or pure abstract 
 impersonal Spirit (Brahma) itself. 
 
 Of course these hyper-subtleties are beyond the scope of 
 
 ^ The Karana-?anra is not only identified with Ignorance (Ajnana or 
 Avidya), but also with Illusion (Maya). It is, therefore, no real body. 
 Both Ignorance and Illusion are the sole cause of the separation of the 
 personal God and the personal human soul from the universal Soul. In 
 the same way they are the cause of every existing thing. 
 
 D 2
 
 26 PJiilosophical Brahmanism. 
 
 ordinary philosophic thought; but they show how great is 
 the difference between the Pantheism of India and that of 
 Europe. A Vedantist beHeves in one impersonal Spirit, who, 
 by association with Illusion, becomes one Supreme personal 
 God (Paramesvara). And it is this personal God who, when 
 he engages in the creation, preservation, and dissolution of the 
 Universe, is held to be dominated by one or other of the three 
 Qualities (Gunas) which are the supposed constituents of his 
 causal body, identified, as it is, with Ignorance \ These three 
 Qualities or conditions are the same as those which in the San- 
 khyan system are the constituents of Prakriti — namely, 
 Activity, Goodness, and Indifference (Rajas, Sattva, Tamas)^. 
 They are those which in the later doctrine of the Puranas are 
 held to separate the one Supreme personal God into the 
 three divine personalities of Brahma (nom. case), Vishnu, and 
 Rudra-Siva, each accompanied by his own consort^. 
 
 Dominated by Activity (Rajas), the Supreme Being is 
 Brahma, the Creator ; by Goodness (Sattva), he is Vishnu, 
 the Preserver ; by Indifference (Tamas), he is Rudra, the 
 Dissolver. 
 
 Pure Vedantism, then, is not only a belief in one un- 
 conscious, impersonal Spirit made up of three essences. It 
 is a belief that a kind of threefold trinity — to wit, three 
 spiritual essences, three corporeal envelopes, and three do- 
 minating qualities — together constitute one personal God, as 
 well as every human personality. 
 
 ^ In other words, the Karana-sarlra — consisting of Ignorance, and 
 therefore made up of the three Gunas— is the illusor>' corporeal disguise 
 (upadhi) or investing envelope or triple bond of the impersonal Spirit 
 Brahma, by which it becomes the personal God Paramesvara, who is 
 thence called Saguna (associated with the Gunas). In its impersonal 
 state the Spirit is Nirguna. 
 
 - Sometimes regarded as equivalent to Passion or Pain, Purity or 
 Happiness, and Apathy or Ignorance. 
 
 In the later mythology the expression Sakti is substituted for Maya, 
 Prakriti, and Ajnana, as representing the wife of the personal God.
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism. 37 
 
 It is by reason, then, of association with Illusion or Ignor- 
 ance (made up of the three Qualities), that the Supreme Spirit 
 (Paramatman) enshrined in the personal God, and the living 
 spirit (jivatman) enshrined in the heart of man, believe in 
 their own individuality, mistaking it and the surrounding 
 world for realities, just as a rope in a dark night might be 
 mistaken for a snake. The moment that the personalized 
 spirit sets itself free from the power of Illusion or Ignorance, 
 its identity and that of the whole phenomenal universe with 
 the one impersonal Spirit, Atman ( = Paramatman, Brahma), 
 is re-established. Strange to say, this Illusion or Ignorance is 
 held to have an eternal existence equally with the one eternal 
 Brahma^, though, owing to the fact that such existence is 
 unreal, and the whole evolved world unreal too, it follows 
 that nothing really existent is left but Brahma. In other 
 words, all that really exists is identical with Brahma. 
 
 In fact, the more evidently physical and metaphysical 
 speculations are opposed to common sense, the more favour 
 do they find with some Hindu thinkers. Common sense 
 tells an Englishman that he really exists himself, and that 
 everything he sees around him really exists also. He cannot 
 abandon these two primary convictions. Not so the Hindu 
 Vedantist. Dualism is his bugbear, and common sense, 
 when it maintains any kind of real duality, either the separate 
 independent existence of a man's own Spirit and of God's 
 Spirit or of spirit and matter, is guilty of gross deception. 
 
 And yet, after all, when the Vedantist theory, as held at 
 present, is closely examined, it turns out to be virtually as 
 dualistic, in regard to spirit and matter, as the Sahkhya ; 
 the only difference being that the source of the material 
 world (Prakriti or Maya) in the Sankhya is held to have 
 a real eternal existence instead of a merely illusory eternal 
 
 ^ Maya-cid-yogo 'nadih, 'the union of Cid and Maya is from all 
 eternity.' See Professor Cough's articles on the Philosophy of the 
 Upanishads.
 
 -g Philosophical Brahmanism. 
 
 existence^ Brahma and Maya 'Illusion' in the Vedanta 
 system must be united in the act of creation. The external 
 world is the product of two eternal principles (virtually 
 comparable to Light and Darkness in the Sahkhya, and to 
 Knowledge and Ignorance in the Vedanta). The chief differ- 
 ence between the two systems lies in the plurality of Spirits 
 as distinguished from the unity of Spirit. Yet the Vedantist, 
 while asserting the latter, virtually believes in three conditions 
 of being, real, practical, and illusory. He affirms that the one 
 Spirit Brahma alone has a real (paramarthika) existence ; yet 
 he allows a practical (vyavaharika) separate existence to 
 human spirits, to the world, and to the personal God or gods, 
 as well as an illusory (pratibhasika) existence. 
 
 Hence every object is to be dealt with practically as if 
 it were really what it appears to be. A god is practically a 
 god ; a man, a man ; a beast, a beast ; so that when a man 
 feeds a horse he does not feed him as a portion of God, but 
 as an animal kept for riding. The Vedanta theory, like the 
 Sankhya, has taken deep root in the Indian mind. Both are 
 the real source of the popular religion and mythology of 
 the Hindus. Both permeate their literature and give a colour 
 to every thought and feeling of their daily lives. And hence 
 it is not difficult to understand how a people imbued with the 
 idea that the world is an illusion should be destitute of any 
 taste for historical investigations. No such thing as a genuine 
 history or biography exists in the whole of Sanskrit literature. 
 Historical researches are to a Hindu simple foolishness. 
 
 The third philosophical system, called Nyaya — or the act 
 of going into any subject analytically (opposed to Sahkhya 
 
 ^ Perhaps the only true monistic theory is that of the Buddhist, who 
 afifirms that nothing exists but the self-creative Universe, which, however, 
 he also calls Maya, ' Illusion.' A Vedantist is Brahma-vadi, 'one who 
 affirms that Brahma is the only reality;' a Buddhist is Sunya-vadi, 'one 
 who affirms a blank for God;' and a Sankhya is Pradhana-vadI, one who 
 affirms that all things proceed from Pradhana (Prakriti).
 
 Philosophical Brahmanism, 39 
 
 or synthetic enumeration) — is not so closely connected with 
 religion and religious speculation as the Saiikhya and Ve- 
 danta. Yet it offers more interesting parallels to European 
 philosophical and scientific ideas. It is much studied in 
 modern Sanskrit schools of learning, as an analytical inquiry 
 into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, in- 
 cluding, among others, the process of reasoning and logic. 
 
 In regard to the subject of reasoning, the Nyaya proper, as 
 I have shown in ' Indian Wisdom ' (p. 72), propounds in its 
 first Sutra sixteen topics, the first of which is Pramdna, that 
 is, the means or instrument by which knowledge or the right 
 measure (prama or pramiti) of a subject is to be obtained. 
 These means are four — perception by the senses (pratyaksha); 
 inference (anumana) ; comparison (upamana) ; verbal or trust- 
 worthy authority (sabda or aptopadesa), including revelation^. 
 
 Of these four processes, ' inference ' is divided into five 
 members (avayava). i. The pratijhd, or proposition (stated 
 hypothetically). 3. The hetii^ or reason. 3. The ndd- 
 harana, or example ( = major premiss). 4. The iipanaya, or 
 application of the reason (= minor premiss). 5. The niga- 
 mana, or conclusion, i. e. the proposition restated as proved. 
 Thus: I. The hill is fiery; 2. for it smokes; 3. whatever 
 smokes is fiery, as a kitchen-hearth ; 4. this hill smokes ; 
 5. therefore this hill is fiery. 
 
 Here we have a clumsy combination of enthymeme and 
 syllogism, which must be regarded not as a syllogism, but as 
 a full rhetorical statement of an argument. 
 
 The most noticeable peculiarity in the Indian method, 
 stamping it as an original analysis of the laws of thought, 
 is the employment of the terms ' invariable concomitance 
 or pervasion' [vydpti), 'invariable pervader' {vydpaka), and 
 
 ^ The Saiikhya rejects the third of the four Pramanas, and the Vedanta 
 adds two others to the four, viz. negative proof (an-upalabdhi, abhava) 
 and inference from circumstances (arthapatti).
 
 40 Philosophical Brdhmanism. 
 
 ' invariably pervaded ' {vydpya). Fire is the pervader, smoke 
 the pervaded. The argument is thus stated : ' The mountain 
 has invariably fire-pervaded smoke ; therefore it has fire.' 
 
 The Nyaya, like the Sahkhya, believes the individual souls 
 of men [jlvdtman) to be eternal, manifold, eternally separate 
 from each other, and distinct from the body, senses, and 
 mind, infinite, ubiquitous, and diffused everywhere throughout 
 space, so that a man's soul is as much in England as in 
 Calcutta, though it can only apprehend, and feel, and act, 
 where the body happens to be. 
 
 Its idea of the mind [manas), which it calls an internal 
 instrument or organ, is that it is like the spirit or soul, an 
 eternal substance {dravyd). Instead, however, of being dif- 
 fused everywhere like spirit, it is atomic, like earthy water, fire, 
 and air, and can only admit one perception or volition at a 
 time. 
 
 In its cosmogony the Nyaya is dualistic in assuming the 
 existence of eternal atoms, side by side with eternal souls. 
 Atoms are not like Prakriti one, but innumerable. 
 
 We know that the true Sahkhya (as distinct from the 
 Yoga) recognized no Supreme Spirit, and it is probable that 
 the true Nyaya was in this respect like the Sahkhya. In any 
 case neither of these systems admits the absolute unity of one 
 omnipresent all-pervading Spirit. If they acknowledge a 
 Supreme presiding Spirit at all, it can only be as forming 
 one of innumerable other spirits— though superior to them — 
 and as co-eternal and (in the case of the Nyaya) as co- 
 omnipresent with them. 
 
 The foregoing three systems, with their three sub-systems, 
 together constitute the philosophical phase of Brahmanism. 
 Clearly the one great aim of this branch of Indian religious 
 thought is to teach men to abstain from action of every kind, 
 good or bad— as much from liking as from disliking, as much 
 from loving as from hating, as much from earnest as from 
 listless effort.
 
 Mythological Brahmanism. 41 
 
 The whole external world is an illusion. Actions and 
 feelings of all kinds are a grand mistake. They are the 
 fetters of the soul which bind it as with bonds of iron to 
 a continual succession of bodies. 
 
 Transmigration or Metempsychosis is the great bugbear — 
 the terrible nightmare and daymare of Indian philosophers 
 and metaphysicians. All their efforts are directed to the 
 getting rid of this oppressive scare. ' As the embodied soul,' 
 says the Bhagavad-gita, 'moves swiftly on through boyhood, 
 youth, and age, so will it pass through other forms hereafter.' 
 
 The question is not. What is truth ? The one engrossing 
 problem is, How is a man to break this iron chain of repeated 
 existences? How is he to shake off all personality ? How is 
 he to return to complete absorption (sayujya) into pure un- 
 conscious Spirit? Or, if this highest object of ambition is 
 beyond his reach, how is he to work his way through 8,400,000 
 successive births to any of the three inferior conditions of 
 bliss — I. living in the same sphere with the personal God 
 (salokya) ; 2. close proximity to that God (samipya) ; 3. 
 assimilation to the likeness of that God (sarupya)? 
 
 Mythological Brdhmanism. 
 
 The Mythological phase of Brahmanism has for its bible the 
 two great legendary heroic poems (Itihasa) called Maha-bharata 
 and Ramayana. Its development was probably synchronous 
 with that of Buddhism. 
 
 Buddhism, like philosophical Brahmanism, was a disbelief 
 in the efficacy of ritual, and, like it, taught the uselessness 
 of sacrificial ceremonies and even of austerities for the attain- 
 ment of true knowledge. It taught that knowledge was only 
 to be obtained through self-suppression. It substituted a blank 
 for God ; it denied the existence of soul or spirit, whether per- 
 sonal or supreme, and of everything but body, mind, and 
 sensations, — of everything but earth, heavens, and hells, which,
 
 42 Mythological Brahmanism. 
 
 according to the Buddha, are always, through the force of 
 works, tending to disintegration and re-integration in perpetual 
 cycles. But while it repudiated priestcraft and sacrificing 
 priests, it supplied the people with an object of venera- 
 tion in its own founder Gautama— afterwards styled 'the 
 Enlightened ' (Buddha). Its success was in a great measure 
 due to the reverence the Buddha inspired by his own personal 
 character. He was the ideal man — the perfection of hu- 
 manity. He practised faithfully what he preached effectively. 
 Adherents gathered in crowds around his person, and Gautama 
 himself became the real god of his own popular faith. 
 Everywhere throughout India thousands were drawn towards 
 his teaching. His doctrines of universal charity, liberty, 
 equality, and fraternity were irresistibly attractive. The 
 only hope of arresting the progress of the Buddhistic move- 
 ment lay in inventing human gods and a system of mytho- 
 logy equally attractive, equally suited to the needs and 
 capacities of the mass of the people. 
 
 In all probability the Brahmans commenced popularizing 
 their pantheistic doctrines about the time of the rise of 
 Buddhism in the fifth century B. c. The Buddha died, and, 
 according to his own teaching, became personally annihilated, 
 but the remains of his body were enshrined as relics in 
 various parts of India, and his memory was worshipped 
 almost as earnestly as his person had been revered. The 
 Brahmans saw this. They knew that the religious cravings 
 of the mass of the Hindu people could not long be satisfied 
 either with propitiation of the elements or with their own 
 cold philosophy, or with homage paid to a being held, like 
 Buddha, to be nowhere existent. They therefore addressed 
 themselves to the task of supplying the people with personal 
 and human gods out of their own heroic poems, the Rama- 
 yana and Maha-bharata. They proceeded to Brahmanize 
 the popular songs of a people who, when they first spread 
 themselves over India, were warriors not priests. The prin-
 
 Mythological Brahmanism. 43 
 
 cipal heroes, whose achievements were the subject of epic 
 song and recitation, underwent a process of deification. The 
 great warrior dynasties were made to trace back their origin, 
 through Brahmanical sages, to the sun-god and the moon- 
 god. Myths and legends confirmatory of the divine origin 
 of every great hero were invented and foisted into the body 
 of the poems. In this manner a kind of anthropomorphic 
 mythology, well adapted to the popular mind, was devised. 
 Nor was any amount of polytheism, anthropomorphism, poly- 
 demonism, and even fetishism incompatible with their own 
 pantheistic doctrines. The Brahmans in their popular teach- 
 ing were simply carrying out their own doctrine of evolution. 
 The only problem they had to solve was : how could any 
 theory of evolution be made to comprehend existing super- 
 stitions and be best applied to the development of a popular 
 mythology ? 
 
 Nothing, then, was easier for them than to maintain that 
 the one sole, self-existing Supreme Self, the only real exist- 
 ing Essence, exercises itself, as if sportively (lllaya), in infinite 
 expansion, in infinite manifestations of itself, in infinite crea- 
 tion, dissolution, and re-creation, through infinite varieties 
 and diversities of operation. The very name ' Brahma ' (de- 
 rived from the root brih, ' to increase '), given to this one 
 eternal Essence, was expressive of this growth, this expansive 
 power, this universal development and diffusion. 
 
 Hence all visible forms on earth, said the Brahmans^ are 
 emanations from the one eternal Entity, like drops from an 
 ocean, like sparks from fire. Stones, mountains, rivers, plants, 
 trees, and animals — all these are traceable upwards as pro- 
 gressive steps in the infinite evolution of his being. The 
 highest earthly emanation is man, and the emanation of 
 men is in classes and also traceable upwards according to 
 a graduated scale, the highest class being that of the 
 Brahmans. 
 
 Fitly, too, are the highest human manifestations of the
 
 44 Mythological Brahmanism. 
 
 eternal Brahma called Brahmans : for they are the appointed 
 mediators between earth and God. None of these emana- 
 tions can alter their condition in each separate state. Ac- 
 cording to their acts, they sink into lower or rise into 
 higher grades of being on the dissolution of each bodily 
 frame. 
 
 Then be it observed that a series of higher forms of exist- 
 ence above the earth, such as demigods, supernatural beings, 
 inferior gods, superior gods, is traceable upwards from man 
 to the primeval male god Brahma — the first personal product 
 of the purely spiritual Brahma when overspread by Maya or 
 illusory creative force — this male god Brahma standing at the 
 head of creation as the first evolution and hence the apparent 
 Evolver of all the inferior forms. To draw any line of 
 separation between stocks, stones, plants, animals, men, 
 demigods, and gods is, according to the theory of Brahmanism, 
 impossible. They are all liable to run into each other \ 
 and the number of gods alone amounts to 330 millions. 
 
 But the act of creation necessarily involves the two other 
 acts of preservation and dissolution. Hence the god Brahma 
 is associated with two other personal deities, Vishnu, the 
 Preserver, and Rudra-Siva, the Dissolver and Reproducer. 
 These three gods, concerned in the threefold operation of 
 integration, maintenance, and disintegration of being {srishti- 
 stJdti-layd), are typified by the three letters composing the 
 mystic and profoundly significant syllable Om (AUM), — 
 three letters originally typical of the earlier Vedic trinity, 
 and, in the mysticism of the Upanishads, of three personaliza- 
 tions of the Universal Spirit (Paramesvara, Hiranya-garbha, 
 and Viraj^). Like the earlier Vedic gods, the three later 
 deities were not only personifications of the three forces of 
 
 The whole series of evolutions is sometimes spoken of as Brahmadi- 
 stamba-paryantam, extending from Brahma to a stump (or tuft of grass). 
 ^ See p. 35, and see Mandukya Upanishad, which makes the whole 
 monosyllable Om stand for the impersonal Brahma.
 
 Mythological Brahmanism. 45 
 
 integration, disintegration, and reintegration, but also of three 
 principal objects in nature, Earth, Water or Sun, and Fire; 
 or of the three worlds. Earth, Air, and Sky ; or of the three 
 forms of matter. Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous ^. They consti- 
 tute the well-known Tri-viurti, or triad of forms which 
 characterizes mythological Brahmanism, and their bodies, 
 like those of human beings, are composed of gross material 
 particles though of a divine and ethereal character (see p. 28). 
 
 These three deities, too, are often, as we have seen (p. '>,€)^ 
 connected with the Gunas of philosophy, the idea being that 
 when the one Universal Spirit is dominated by activity (Rajo- 
 guna) he is Brahma, the Creator ; when dominated by good- 
 ness (Sattva-guna) he is Vishnu, the Preserver; when dominated 
 by indifference (Tamo-guna) he is Siva, the Dissolver. 
 
 Properly, according to the true theory of Brahmanism, no 
 one of these three ought to take precedence over the other 
 two. They are equal, and their functions are sometimes inter- 
 changeable, so that each may represent the Supreme Lord 
 (Paramesvara), and each may take the place of the other, 
 according to the sentiment expressed by the greatest of Indian 
 poets, Kalidasa (Kumara-sambhava, Griffith, VIL 44): — 
 
 In those three Persons the one God was shown^ 
 Each first in place, each last — not one alone ; 
 Of Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, each may be 
 First, second, third, among the blessed Three. 
 
 There is a well-known Tri-murti sculptured out of the rock 
 in the caves of Elephanta, at Bombay. Three majestic heads 
 are represented springing out of one body. The triangle 
 {Trikona) is also used to symbolize this triune co-equality. 
 
 In the later mythology this co-equality was denied, the 
 
 difference in the characters of the three gods being well 
 
 illustrated by a story from Bhagavata-purana, X. 89 : — 
 
 A dispute once arose among the sages which of the three gods 
 was greatest. They applied to the greatest of all sages — Bhrigu — to 
 
 ^ Compare p. 10.
 
 46 Mythological Brahmanism. 
 
 determine the point. He undertook to put all three gods to a severe 
 test. He went first to Brahma, and omitted all obeisance. The god's 
 anger blazed forth, but he was at length pacified. Next he went to 
 the abode of Siva, and omitted to return the god's salutation. The 
 irascible god was enraged, his eyes flashed fire, and he raised his 
 Trident weapon to destroy the sage. But the god's wife, ParvatT, in- 
 terceded for him. Lastly, Bhrigu went to the heaven of Vishnu, whom 
 he found asleep. To try his forbearance, he gave the god a good kick 
 on his breast, which awoke him. Instead of showing anger, Vishnu 
 asked Bhrigu's pardon for not having greeted him on his first arrival. 
 Then he declared he was highly honoured by the sage's blow. It had 
 imprinted an indelible mark of good fortune on his breast. He trusted 
 the sage's foot was not hurt, and began to rub it gently. * This,' said 
 Bhrigu, ' is the mightiest god ; he overpowers his enemies by the most 
 potent of all weapons — gentleness and generosity.' 
 
 These three gods differ from, and are superior to, all other 
 divine and human organisms, in that they are not subject to 
 transmigrations. They are beings who have attained the 
 highest condition possible, short of absorption into Brahma. 
 
 And of these three, Vishnu, the Pervader and Preserver of 
 all nature, is the most human, as he is also the most humane, 
 in his character, attributes, and sympathies, and therefore the 
 most popular. He has four arms, symbolical of the power 
 he exerts in the deliverance of his worshippers. Portions of 
 his divine nature have descended in earthly incarnations to 
 deliver the earth in times of danger and emergency. They 
 are still continually descending in good men and living 
 teachers. 
 
 Whether, in fact, Vishnu be connected with light, with heat, 
 with air, or with water, it is evident that his function is that of 
 a divine Pervader, infusing his essence for special purposes 
 into created things, animate and inanimate ; for example, into 
 stones, such as the black Salagrama ; into rivers, such as the 
 Ganges; into trees and plants, such as the TulasI ; into 
 animals, such as a fish, a tortoise, a boar ; and lastly, into 
 men. 
 
 And here be it noted that the idea of incarnation, like 
 every other idea in religion, morality, and science, when
 
 Mythological Brahmanism. 47 
 
 manipulated by the Brahmans, was by them subtilized 
 and exaggerated. Hence the incarnations of Vishnu are 
 really descents (avatara) on earth of portions of the essence 
 of a divine person already possessing a material form (see 
 p. 6t^). These descents were undertaken, reasonably enough, 
 for preserving the world when in pressing emergencies, espe- 
 cially when its safety was imperilled by the malice of evil 
 demons ; and they are of four kinds and degrees. 
 
 First, the full descent, as in Krishna^ one of the heroes 
 of the Epic poem called Maha-bharata ; secondly (though 
 chronologically anterior), the partial descent, consisting of 
 half the god's nature, as in Rama, hero of the other Epic 
 called Ramayana ; thirdly, the quarter descent, as in Rama's 
 brother Bharata ; fourthly, the eighth-part descent, as in 
 Rama's two other brothers, Lakshmana and SatnigJma. 
 Distinct from these is the constant infusion of the divine 
 essence into ordinary men, animals, and inanimate objects. 
 It is well known that men whose lives have been made 
 remarkable by any peculiar circumstances, have been held 
 by the Hindus to be partial incarnations of the divine nature, 
 and have been worshipped accordingly. 
 
 A description of Vishnu's other incarnations will be given 
 hereafter (see the chapter on Vaishnavism). It will be sufficient 
 to note here that Krishna and Rama are the only two in- 
 carnations universally worshipped at the present day. 
 
 The other two members of the Indian triad, Brahma and 
 Siva, have no such human incarnations as those of Vishnu, 
 though the god Brahma is, as it were, humanized in his 
 representatives the priests, called Brahmans. 
 
 It is true that certain incarnations of both Brahma and 
 Siva are sometimes mentioned (as, for example, the form 
 of Siva called Virabhadra), and there are local manifesta- 
 tions of these deities and local descents of Siva in human 
 form. Moreover, Brahma and Siva resemble Vishnu in 
 having wives (called respectively Sarasvati and Parvati), and
 
 48 Mythological Brahmanism. 
 
 it may be noted that Siva has two sons, Ganesa, lord of the 
 demon hosts, and Subrahmanya (also called Skanda and 
 Karttikeya), general of the celestial armies, whereas Vishnu 
 has no sons except in his human incarnations ^ 
 
 But it would be a great mistake to suppose that many 
 deities and divine manifestations are generally worshipped. 
 The gods of the Hindu Pantheon to whom temples are reared 
 and prayers offered are not numerous. Forms of Vishnu, 
 Siva, and their consorts, with the two sons of Siva (Ganesa 
 and Subrahmanya), and Hanuman are the chief temple- 
 deities of India. But there are an infinite number of divine 
 and semi-divine beings, good and evil demons, every one of 
 which is held in veneration or dread, and every one of which, 
 from the highest" to the lowest, is, like all the others, subject to 
 the universal law of re-absorption into the one divine universal 
 Essence (Brahma). Indeed, at the end of vast periods, called 
 days of Brahma, each lasting for 4,320,000,000 human years, 
 the whole universe is so re-absorbed, and after remaining 
 dormant for equally long periods, is again evolved. 
 
 Here, then, lies the motive for that self-knowledge and 
 self-discipline, which, on the theory of universal identity of 
 being, would at first view appear useless and absurd. Though 
 every man is really God (Brahma), yet God, as if for His own 
 diversion, ignores Himself and submits to the influence of 
 an illusory creative force. Under that influence He permits 
 the unity of his nature to be partitioned into an infinite 
 number of individual personal souls. And no such soul can 
 recover the condition of identity with the Supreme Soul 
 except by raising itself, through a process of self-knowledge 
 and self-discipline, to a state of complete apathy (vairagya) and 
 cessation from action. In fact, a condition of entire mental 
 vacuity (citta-vritti-nirodha) or trance (samadhi) is of all states 
 
 ^ Nor were Vishnu's incarnations prolific. The only one represented 
 as having children is the Rama of the Ramayana, whose twin sons were 
 Kusa and Lava, born when Sita had been banished to the hermitage.
 
 Mythological Brahmanism. 49 
 
 the most desirable as leading to complete identification with 
 the one universal Spirit or Self. Not that a man need aim 
 at immediate union with that Spirit. Such union may be 
 beyond his present powers. The work of liberation may be 
 the labour, of many successive lives of the personal soul in 
 body after body. Nor need a man's aspirations ever rise 
 as high as re-absorption into the one eternal absolute im- 
 personal Spirit. He may simply aim at achieving union 
 with Brahma, Vishnu, or Siva, and become, like them, only 
 one degree removed from such re-absorption, and incapable 
 of further transmigrations (compare p. 41, 11. 11-20). 
 
 And here, too, lies the motive for religious worship ad- 
 dressed to personal gods and visible forms. For one means 
 of attaining liberation is by paying homage to the Supreme 
 Spirit as manifested in persons and objects. And, indeed, it 
 is a cardinal feature of the Brahmanical system, that the 
 Universal Spirit can never itself be directly or spiritually 
 worshipped, except by turning the thoughts inwards. No 
 shrine or temple to Brahma is to be found throughout all 
 India. The one eternal Spirit can only become an object of 
 meditation or knowledge. The Spirit is to be known by the 
 spirit ; for he is enshrined in every man's heart ; and this 
 internal meditation is regarded as the highest religious act, 
 leading as it does to perfect spiritual knowledge. In short, 
 the supreme Brahma is properly only an object of internal 
 knowledge (jfieyam), never an object of external worship 
 (upasyam), except through secondary manifestations. 
 
 And here mark the vast difference between the Hindu and 
 Christian idea of a Trinity. Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva have only 
 derived or secondary existences, but the Supreme Being may 
 be worshipped through the worship of these three or of any 
 one of the three, supposed for a time to be superior to the 
 others. It is even possible for the members of this trinity to 
 worship the One Spirit through the worship of each other, 
 each being in turn regarded as inferior (see p. 45). 
 
 E
 
 CO Mythological Brahmanism. 
 
 Then, in the next place, homage may be paid to the 
 Universal Spirit by and through the worship of the inferior 
 gods, goddesses, departed ancestors, living Brahmans, heroes, 
 animals, and plants. Even stocks, stones, and images may 
 represent the divine presence, and so become media through 
 which the great Eternal Spirit may become an object of 
 adoration. Nay, the very demons and fiends may receive 
 worship both from gods and men, if by self-mortification and 
 abstract meditation they attain nearness to re-absorption into 
 the great Spirit of the Universe. 
 
 I once asked a Brahman, residing at Thana (Tanna) near 
 Bombay, to give me some explanation of the fact that even 
 Indians of cultivated intellect who assert the unity of God, 
 appear to us Europeans to be worshippers of many gods. 
 His answer was to the following effect : — 
 
 ' All orthodox Hindus believe in one Universal Spirit, who 
 becomes Supreme Lord over all (Paramesvara). At the same 
 time they believe that this one God has taken various forms, 
 all of which may be worshipped ; just as gold is one every- 
 where though it may take different forms and names in dif- 
 ferent places and countries. Every man chooses his favourite 
 god or divine object to which he pays especial homage. Thus 
 Agnihotri-Brahmans regard fire as their favourite form of the 
 deity. They call him Agni-narayana. Vedic Brahmans 
 make a god of the Veda, calling it Veda-narayana. Different 
 places have also their favourite presiding deities. Benares is 
 specially watched over by a form of Siva (called Visvesvara) ; 
 Pandharpur, by a form of Krishna (called Vithoba). Here in 
 Thana we have temples of Vishnu, Rama, Krishna, Viththal, 
 Hanuman, Siva, Ganesa, and Devi. The oldest and most 
 sacred of all is one of Siva, in the character of Kauplnesvara. 
 We may propitiate every one of these gods with ceremonies 
 and sacrifices, but the Supreme Being present in them is the 
 real object of all our offerings and religious services. At the 
 end of each we say: " By this act may the Supreme Lord be
 
 Nomistic Brakmanism. 5 1 
 
 gratified!" Hence, though to you we appear Polytheists, 
 we are really Monotheists. Nor are we Pantheists in your 
 sense of the term. Only our deepest thinkers look beyond 
 the personal God to the impersonal Spirit which underlies 
 everything. We educated Brahmans are practically Theists.' 
 Even the Rig-veda asserts that the gods are one Being under 
 different names (I. 164. 46; VIII. 58. 2). 
 
 Nomistic Brakmanism. 
 
 The fourth phase of Brahmanism, like the third, probably 
 had its origin in the need of organized resistance to the growth 
 of rationalistic thought and liberal opinions. It may be called 
 Nomistic Brahmanism, because it represents that period in 
 Indian religious history when the Brahmans composed codes 
 of law [smriti-sdstra, dharma-sdstrd) and laid down precise 
 rules for the constitution of the Hindu social fabric, for the 
 due co-ordination of its different orders, and for the regulation 
 of every-day domestic life. 
 
 Indeed, in proportion to the laxity and liberty allowed by 
 Brahmanism in regard to all forms of religious and philoso- 
 phical thought, is the unbending rigidity of the rules and 
 ordinances by which every act of a rnan's social and domestic 
 life is fettered and controlled. 
 
 These rules are contained in three principal codes — (1) the 
 code of Manu; (2) that of Yajnavalkya ; (3) that of Parasara. 
 The first is held to be the most sacred of the three, and is 
 certainly one of the most remarkable literary works that the 
 world has ever produced. It was originally a mere local 
 code, embodying rules and precepts — perhaps by different 
 authors, some of whom may have lived in the fifth century 
 B.C., or even earlier. It was current among a particular 
 tribe of Brahmans called Manavas, who probably occupied 
 part of the North-western region between the rivers SarasvatI 
 and Drishadvati. The name of the real author of this re- 
 markable work (the present form of which is now held to be 
 
 E 1
 
 C2 Nomistic Brahmanism. 
 
 Jess ancient than was once supposed) is concealed under the 
 title Manu'. The code of Yajfiavalkya is founded on that 
 of Manu, but introduces many additional rules, some of 
 which are probably as late as the first or second century of 
 our era. It is always associated with its commentary, the 
 Mitakshara. The code of Parasara is a still more modern 
 work. It enacts special laws adapted to the fourth or most 
 depraved age of the world (called Kali). The three codes 
 together constitute a kind of bible of Nomistic Brahmanism, 
 much in the same way as the Brahmanas of the three Vedas 
 are the exponent of Ritualistic Brahmanism. But the Brah- 
 manas are concerned with public Vedic ritual and sacrifice 
 {sruti-karmaii), the law-books with domestic ceremonies 
 {smriti'karnian). 
 
 In short, the three chief codes are mirrors of Indian domestic 
 manners, little affected as these have been by the lapse of 
 more than two thousand years. They illustrate very strikingly 
 the close intertwining of law, politics, and social life with re- 
 ligion and religious ordinances. ' The root of all law,' says 
 Manu, ' is the Veda and the traditions of those who know the 
 Veda.' Accordingly we find that in Manu's code the rules 
 of judicature and of caste are mixed up with the dogmas of 
 religion and philosophy and with high religious and moral 
 precepts — many of them worthy of Christianity — while the 
 punishment assigned to every kind of offence is carried 
 beyond the grave into future states of earthly existence, the 
 doctrine of transmigration of souls through celestial and ter- 
 restrial bodies from gods to stones being implied throughout. 
 
 The superiority of the Brahmans is the hinge on which 
 the whole social organization turns. They form the great 
 
 ^ Manu is supposed to speak as far as I. 60, and after that another 
 sage called Bhrigu. The entire code is fully analysed and described in 
 my 'Indian Wisdom,' pp. 211-294. The late Dr. A. Burnell's opinion 
 was that the date of the work as we now possess it must be placed in 
 the fourth century of our era.
 
 Nomistic Brahnanism. 53 
 
 central body around which all other classes and orders 
 of beings revolve like satellites. Not only are they in- 
 vested with divine dignity, but they are bound together 
 by the most stringent rules, while the other castes are 
 separated from them and from each other by insurmount- 
 able barriers. The doctrine of Manu was that the deity 
 created distinct kinds of men, as he created varieties of 
 animals and plants ; and that Brahmans, soldiers {KsJia- 
 triyas), agriculturists ( Vaisyas), and servants [Siidras) were 
 born and must remain from birth to death as distinct from 
 each other as elephants, lions, oxen, and dogs, wheat, barley, 
 rice, and beans. A Brahman, however, could have four wives, 
 and marry a woman belonging to any of the three lower 
 castes. Inter-marriage could also take place between mem- 
 bers of all the four classes, or, again, between the castes which 
 resulted from such intercourse. Hence arose an almost end- 
 less number of mixed castes, every one of which is theo- 
 retically restricted to its own occupation and bound by its 
 own rules. 
 
 So long, then, as a man holds to the rules laid down by 
 the ancient law-givers and assents to the great Vedanta doc- 
 trine that the one all-pervading impersonal Spirit Brahma 
 underlies everything in existence, and that the spirit of man 
 is identical with that Spirit, he is at liberty to hold any 
 other religious opinions he likes, and may even assent to 
 the truths of Christianity. Perfection is attained by him 
 alone who is a strict observer of the duties of his caste and 
 accepts the above doctrine. Those Brahmans who are sound 
 in the faith with regard to Brahma, and are obedient to 
 Brahmanical caste-law and tradition (smriti), especially as 
 handed down by the great Vedantist Saiikaracarya, are 
 called Smartas. Such is Brahmanism — such is the creed, 
 which, as it has no one special founder, is called ' the system 
 of law and religion prevalent among the Aryas' (Arya- 
 dharma).
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Hinduism. 
 General Observations. 
 
 We now pass on to the third ?nd by far the most complex 
 stage of Hindu rehgious thought. And at the very outset 
 we are called upon to take note of a fact illustrated by the 
 whole history of religious thought from the earliest times, 
 namely, that a merely spiritual and impersonal religion is 
 quite incapable of taking hold of the masses of mankind or 
 satisfying their religious requirements. Something more was 
 needed for vast populations naturally craving for personal 
 objects of faith and devotion, than the merely spiritual pan- 
 theistic creed of Brahmanism. 
 
 The chief point, then, which characterizes Hinduism and 
 distinguishes it from Brahmanism is that it subordinates the 
 purely spiritual Brahman (nom. Brahma) with its first mani- 
 festation Brahma, to the personal deities Siva and Vishnu 
 or to some form of these deities; while it admits of numerous 
 sects, each sect exalting its own god to the place of the 
 Supreme. Yet we must guard against the idea that Hinduism 
 has superseded Brahmanism, or that they are mutually an- 
 tagonistic. The latter system is pantheistic, whereas Hindiiism 
 is theistic ; but in India forms of pantheism, theism, and 
 polytheism are ever interwoven with each other. 
 
 At any rate it is certain that the worship of personal 
 gods was a part of pantheistic Brahmanism long before 
 Siva and Vishnu became the exclusive favourites of par- 
 ticular sects. This I have already pointed out in explaining 
 the principal doctrines of orthodox Brahmanism. Perhaps
 
 Hinduism. General Observations, 55 
 
 the most trustworthy exponent of the Arya-dharma or Brah- 
 manical system was the great teacher Sankara (commonly 
 called Sahkaracarya), who was a native of Kerala (Malabar), 
 and lived about the beginning of the eighth century of our era. 
 He was a Brahmacari, or unmarried Brahman under a vow 
 of perpetual celibacy; and it may be noted here as one of 
 the inconsistencies of the Hindu religion, that in no other 
 system is the duty of marriage so strictly enjoined, and in 
 no other system is the importance of abstaining from wedlock 
 as a means of gaining influence for the propagation of reli- 
 gious opinions so frankly admitted. Undoubtedly Sankara 
 is the chief representative, and, so to speak, the very incarna- 
 tion of strict Brahmanism ; and if it be possible to point to 
 any one real historical concrete personality around which 
 Brahmanical doctrines may be gathered, it is certain that 
 we must look to Sankara rather than to the legendary 
 Vyasa, even though the latter be the reputed author of the 
 Vedanta-Sutras. 
 
 Yet so utterly barren is India in both history and bio- 
 graphy, that very little is known of the life of perhaps one 
 of the greatest religious leaders she has ever produced. 
 
 It is nevertheless a well -ascertained fact that Sankara 
 founded the monastery (matha) of Srihgeri (Srihga-giri) in 
 the Mysore country, as well as three others in Northern, 
 Western, and Eastern India\ to the Headship over each 
 of which one of his chief disciples was appointed by him- 
 self. These establishments had a complete ecclesiastical 
 organization and a regular provision for self-perpetuation, so 
 that the spiritual powers of the first Head of the community 
 were transmitted by a kind of apostolical succession through 
 a line of succeeding Heads, regularly elected. 
 
 The most noted successor of Sankara at the Sriiigeri 
 
 ^ That in the North is at Badrinath in the Himalayas, that in the 
 West at Dvarika in Kathiavvar, that in the East at Jagannath-purl.
 
 56 Hindfdsm. General Observations. 
 
 monastery was Sayana-Madhavai, the well-known author 
 of the Rig-veda commentary, who lived in the fourteenth 
 century. Sahkara himself, though he managed to write a 
 vast number of treatises on the Vedanta philosophy, led an 
 erratic, restless, controversial life, and died early, probably 
 at Kedarnath in the Himalayas, at the age of thirty-two. 
 
 He is thought by some to have inculcated the preferential 
 worship of the god Siva 2, of whom some declare liim to have 
 been an incarnation. Others maintain that he himself had 
 a preference for Vishnu, the real fact being that he looked 
 on both these gods as equally manifestations of the one Uni- 
 versal Spirit. For, in truth, all orthodox Brahmans are in 
 a general way both Saivas and Vaishnavas, and any Brahman 
 may have a preference for the worship of either Siva or 
 Vishnu without any necessary exclusive devotion to either, 
 and without identifying either with the Supreme Spirit of 
 the Universe. It is well known, in fact, that most Smarta 
 Brahmans in the present day, who are followers of Sah- 
 karacarya, have a leaning towards the worship of the one 
 personal deity Siva^. 
 
 On the other hand, very few even of the most ignorant and 
 bigoted Hindus who are exclusive worshippers of the per- 
 sonal deities Siva, Vishnu, or their consorts, and whose highest 
 spiritual aim is to be a dweller in the heaven of one of those 
 
 ^ The identity of Sayana and Madhava is disputed, but the prepon- 
 derance of evidence seems to me in favour of the late Dr. A. Burnell's 
 view as expressed in his Vansa-Brahmana. 
 
 '^ His sanctity was in such repute that he was held to have worked 
 several miracles, amongst others, transferring his own soul for a time 
 into the dead body of a king Amaru, that he might become the husband 
 of the king's widow for a brief period, and so learn by experience how 
 to argue on amatory subjects with the wife of a Brahman named Man- 
 dana, who was the only person he had never conquered in argument. 
 This is described in a poem called Amaru-sataka, to which a mystical 
 interpretation is given. 
 
 ^ Two Smarta Brahmans accompanied me round the temple of Siva 
 at Tinnevelly. They both had three horizontal lines (tri-pundra) made 
 with Vibhuti on their foreheads, which proved their preference for Siva.
 
 Hindtiism. General Observations. 57 
 
 gods, are uninfluenced by an undercurrent of pantheistic ideas. 
 Nor would it be easy to find any thoughtful Hindu who, if 
 closely questioned, would repudiate as untenable the doc- 
 trine of an omnipresent, impersonal, bodiless and passionless 
 (nirguna) spiritual Essence, pervading and animating the 
 Universe. In short, the more closely the theistic phase of 
 the Hindu religion is examined, the more plainly will it be 
 found to rest on a substratum of Brahmanism. The one 
 system is to a great extent a development of the other, and 
 to draw a line of separation between the two, or to say where 
 one ends and the other begins, is impossible. 
 
 Nevertheless it must be borne in mind that Hindiiism is far 
 more than a mere form of theism resting on Brahmanism. 
 It presents for our investigation a complex congeries of 
 creeds and doctrines which in its gradual accumulation may 
 be compared to the gathering together of the mighty volume 
 of the Ganges, swollen by a continual influx of tributary 
 rivers and rivulets, spreading itself over an ever-increasing 
 area of country, and finally resolving itself into an intricate 
 Delta of tortuous streams and jungly marshes. 
 
 Nor is it difficult to account for this complexity. The 
 Hindu religion is a reflection of the composite character of 
 the Hindus, who are not one people but many. It is based 
 on the idea of universal receptivity. It has ever aimed at 
 accommodating itself to circumstances, and has carried on the 
 process of adaptation through more than three thousand years. 
 It has first borne with and then, so to speak, swallowed, 
 digested, and assimilated something from all creeds. Or, like 
 a vast hospitable mansion, it has opened its doors to all 
 comers ; it has not refused a welcome to applicants of every 
 grade from the highest to the lowest, if only willing to acknow- 
 ledge the spiritual Headship of the Brahmans and adopt caste- 
 rules. 
 
 In this manner it has held out the right hand of brotherhood 
 to the Fetish-worshipping aborigines of India ; it has stooped
 
 58 Hinduism, General Observations. 
 
 to the demonolatry of various savage tribes ; it has not scru- 
 pled to encourage the adoration of the fish, the boar\ the 
 serpent, trees, plants, stones, and devils ; it has permitted a 
 descent to the most degrading cults of the Dravidian races ; 
 while at the same time it has ventured to rise from the most 
 grovelling practices to the loftiest heights of philosophical 
 speculation ; it has not hesitated to drink in thoughts from the 
 very fountain of Truth, and owes not a little to Christianity 
 itself. Strangest of all, it has dissipated the formidable organ- 
 ization which for a long period confronted Brahmanism, and 
 introduced doctrines subversive of Sacerdotalism, It has art- 
 fully appropriated Buddhism, and gradually superseded that 
 competing system by drawing its adherents within the pale of 
 its own communion. Without doubt the most remarkable 
 fact in the history of the interaction between Brahmanism 
 and the mighty movement initiated by one of the greatest of 
 this earth's teachers was the resolution of his teaching into 
 Saivism and Vaishnavism. Whether both these systems in 
 their present form preceded Buddhism may be doubtful. At 
 any rate they co-existed with it for a time, and became 
 greatly amplified and modified by its absorption. 
 
 This interchangeableness between Buddhism, Saivism, 
 and Vaishnavism will be more fully explained in a future 
 chapter. It will be sufficient at present to note that the 
 Buddha had two distinct characters. In his first and earliest 
 character he was the typical ascetic (Sramana), the great 
 teacher of the power to be gained by self-suppression and 
 by conquest of the passions. In his second, he was the 
 great friend of the common people who advocated universal 
 brotherhood, universal equality, and universal compassion for 
 
 ^ A fish and a boar form two of the incarnations of Vishnu. The 
 former is also the emblem of the Pandya kingdom in the South, and 
 MlnacI, the goddess worshipped in the great temple of Madura, is said 
 to mean fish-ruler, though the Brahmans have converted it into ' fish- 
 eyed ' (Mlnakshl).
 
 Hinduism. General Observations. 59 
 
 all forms of animal life. In both these characters the personal 
 god Siva and the incarnated Vishnu were his counterparts, and 
 ultimately superseded him^. Siva was the Buddha in his as- 
 cetical character. Vishnu was the Buddha in his character of a 
 beneficent and unselfish lover and friend of the human race. 
 
 And as Saivism and Vaishnavism superseded Buddhism, 
 so they became the chief constituents of modern Hinduism. 
 All shades and subdivisions of Hindu sectarianism may be 
 included under one or other of these two heads. 
 
 Nevertheless it is customary to speak of Hinduism as 
 divided into five principal sects: i. Worshippers of Siva 
 (Saivas). 2. Worshippers of Vishnu (Vaishnavas). 3. Wor- 
 shippers of the female personifications of divine power, re- 
 garded as the wives of the deities (Saktas). 4. Worshippers 
 of Ganesa or Ganapati as god of luck and good fortune 
 (Ganapatyas). 5. Worshippers of the sun (Sauras). Besides 
 these five, a sixth called Pasupata (or, by Ananda-giri, 
 Kapalika), found in the South of India, is occasionally 
 added, though this is nothing but a subdivision of the 
 Saivas. All these six sects are said by South-Indian 
 Pandits to have been founded by Sankarac'arya, who is 
 therefore often called Shan-mata-sthapaka, 'the establisher 
 of six forms of doctrines.' In reality that great teacher 
 was, as we have seen, utterly opposed to all sectarian 
 ideas. In the Saiikara-vijaya of Ananda-giri (a work written 
 by one of his disciples in the ninth or tenth century) he 
 is described as having traversed India in every direction 
 for the purpose of combating and refuting an immense 
 number of sectarian systems which had taken root in the 
 country. There were at that time, besides the worshippers 
 of Siva and Vishnu, votaries of Brahma, of the Sun, Moon, 
 Kuvera, Yama, Varuna, Sesha, and others innumerable. 
 Many of these were extirpated through Sankara's instru- 
 
 ' There are clear traces that the great Vaishnava temple of Jagannath 
 in Orissa was originally dedicated to some Buddhist tooth-relic.
 
 6o Hiiidfdsm. General Observations. 
 
 mentality, and many have since disappeared ; but, curiously 
 enough, it is alleged that out of pity to the present de- 
 generate age (Kali-yuga), when men are incapable of 
 apprehending the pure unity of the Godhead, Sahkara al- 
 lowed six sects to remain. It was only by degrees that the 
 sectarian character of all but the first two disappeared. 
 
 The question then arises here : — What is the present idea 
 implied by a Hindu sect, and how are we to explain its 
 true relationship to the orthodox body from which it is 
 supposed to be severed? It is clear from what has been 
 already stated that every Hindu creed ought to be regarded 
 as unorthodox which exalts favourite personal deities to the 
 position of an eternal, supreme, self-existing God, in contra- 
 vention of the dogma that even the highest divine person- 
 alities are finite beings destined ultimately to be absorbed 
 into the one infinite Brahma. 
 
 Saivism and Vaishnavism are undoubtedly in this respect 
 the two principal offenders against orthodoxy ; and in so 
 offending they may justly be regarded as two vast sects. 
 Since, however, Saivism and Vaishnavism constitute, so to 
 speak, the very warp and woof of the later Hindu religion, 
 and since it is possible to be a worshipper of Siva or Vishnu 
 without being a sectarian, it will be better to apply the 
 term 'sect' to separate religious communities within the pale 
 of these two chief systems, organized and consolidated by 
 particular teachers with the object of inculcating entire 
 devotion towards, and exclusive dependence on either Siva 
 or Vishnu, and securing through the instrumentality of one 
 or other of these gods the welfare and salvation of every 
 individual member of the society. 
 
 At the same time, it must be carefully noted that Hindu 
 sectarianism is something more than the mere exclusive 
 worship of a personal god. It implies more or less direct 
 opposition to the orthodox philosophy of Brahmanism, and to 
 its essential doctrine of the non-duality of spirit. We have
 
 Hindfdsm. General Observations. 6i 
 
 already seen, indeed, that vague pantheistic ideas may always 
 be found lurking at the root of every variety of Hindu sec- 
 tarian doctrine. Such ideas are naturally inwoven into the 
 very texture of every Hindu mind. But Hinduism bristles 
 on all sides with contradictions, inconsistencies, and surprises ; 
 and it is remarkable that the generally prevalent Brahmanical 
 doctrine of the identification of the living personal soul of 
 man with the one universal Soul of the universe is the one 
 peculiar dogma which various sects of both Saivas and 
 Vaishnavas — especially the latter — theoretically repudiate, 
 dilute, or qualify. For indeed the soul of man if it strives 
 to give expression to its feeling of complete and exclusive 
 devotion to a personal deity as to a Creator and Saviour, 
 cannot at the same moment assent to doctrines which de- 
 stroy its own separate personality. 
 
 To mark this complete and exclusive devotion more clearly, 
 and to bind each sect together by some common bond of 
 union, a short form of words called a Mantra (for example, 
 Ovi Rdvidya naviah, reverence to Rama), expressive of ex- 
 clusive and absolute trust in the particular god worshipped 
 as representing the Supreme Ruler of the world, is taught 
 by each community and its repetition made a necessary 
 condition of salvation through him. 
 
 Moreover, the privilege of imparting this Mantra is by each 
 sect confined to a regular constituted order of men (Gurus). 
 The communication of it (usually in a whisper) is called ini- 
 tiation (diksha), and acquaintance with it is held to be essential 
 to admission within the pale of the society. When any such 
 system has been fully organized it is called a Sampradaya — 
 a word meaning a particular body of traditionary doctrines 
 handed down through a succession of teachers^. 
 
 ' It may also be designated by such terms as Darsana or Mata — that 
 is, particular views or opinions on religion or philosophy. The term 
 Darsana, however, is more usually restricted to the six regular philoso- 
 phical systems.
 
 62 Hinduism. General Observations. 
 
 As a matter of fact the Sampradayas or separate religious 
 denominations of the present day are nearly all mere sub- 
 divisions of Vaishnavism. Not that Siva has been dethroned 
 by Vishnu, or lost any of his importance as one of the two 
 chief deities of modern Hinduism. What is meant is that, 
 although all Hindus pay homage to Siva, to his Consort or 
 Sakti, and to his two sons Ganesa and Skanda, few attach 
 themselves to these deities as to personal benefactors— few 
 seek to be initiated into their Mantras, or pray to them ex- 
 clusively as to their personal creators and saviours. 
 
 Certainly no one, as far as I have been able to ascertain, 
 ever turns to any one of these gods, or invokes their in- 
 tervention and assistance in the hour of death ^. Similarly 
 all Hindus adore the Sun in their daily prayers, but very 
 few in the present day ever worship him exclusively or in 
 what may be called a spirit of sectarianism. Several sects 
 of Sun-worshippers are known to have once existed and to 
 have had many adherents, but they have all now died out. 
 
 In reality the principle of faith and devotion as displayed 
 towards personal gods could scarcely have taken deep root 
 in India except in connexion with the worship of a god 
 who descended upon earth as the child of earthly parents 
 for the promotion of man's welfare, and whose nature in his 
 incarnations became quite as human as it was divine. 
 
 And here mark that the doctrine of incarnation among 
 the Hindus is in many important respects different from the 
 Christian idea. The Sanskrit language, which is the only 
 language of the Hindu religion and the only source of theo- 
 logical terms, has no exact equivalent for incarnation 2. The 
 common word is Avatara, which means 'descent.' Further- 
 
 ^ The names invoked at death are generally those of Rama andNarayana. 
 The late Dr. Burnell told me that be once witnessed the execution of 
 thirteen criminals in India who were all Saivas, and yet all called on 
 the name of Rama before being hanged. 
 
 "^ Unless it be compounds formed with deha, ?njirti, and sakshat.
 
 Hinduism. General Observations. 63 
 
 more, it must be borne in mind that intervening between 
 the Supreme Being and these Avataras must be placed the 
 forms of personal deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — 
 each of whom possesses a body composed, like human bodies, 
 of gross, though divine and ethereal, particles ^ Strictly, 
 therefore, the so-called incarnations, represented by heroes 
 like Rama, ought to be regarded as incarnations of incarna- 
 tions ; for they are the descent of portions of the essence of 
 divine beings who already possess bodies composed of gross, 
 though divine, particles, and who condescend by being born 
 of earthly parents to assume bodies composed of human gross 
 particles. It is true that such descents are sometimes at- 
 tributed to the personal gods Siva and Brahma, and even to 
 other gods such as Indra, Vayu, Sesha (for example, Arjuna 
 and the heroes of the Maha-bharata are incarnations of various 
 deities) ; but we must bear in mind that the only universally 
 acknowledged and generally worshipped incarnations were 
 those of Vishnu, as Rama son of Dasaratha, and Krishna son 
 of Vasudeva. When once the feeling of affection for these 
 two gods had rooted itself in the religious sense of the 
 people, it rapidly gathered strength and dominated over 
 every other feeling. The way of love and faith (bhakti-marga) 
 as propounded in the Puranas and Tantras'^ superseded the 
 other two ways of salvation — knowledge and works (jnana- 
 marga and karma-marga). 
 
 It even triumphed over the power of caste ; for an en- 
 thusiastic love of Rama or Krishna was theoretically a bond 
 of union among human beings stronger than all social ties, 
 and was incompatible with differences of rank or antagonisms 
 of interest. 
 
 ^ See the account of the structure of the bodies of the gods at p. 28. 
 
 * Doubtless a form of the doctrine of faith may be traced back to early 
 times, but for its full development we must look to the Bhagavad-glta, 
 a comparatively modern episode of the Maha-bharata, to the Puranas 
 and Tantras, and to a scientific formulation of the doctrine in the 
 Bhakti-sutras of Sandilya probably about the twelfth century.
 
 64 Hinduism. G enteral Observations. 
 
 In fact the leaders of religious thought in India were all 
 disciples in the school of the great Buddha, to the extent, 
 at least, of imitating his wisdom by preaching religious 
 equality and fraternity. They saw that their popularity 
 as reformers depended on their attracting adherents from 
 all ranks, high and low. Hence, every great religious leader 
 proclaimed the complete social equality of all who enrolled 
 themselves under his leadership. Buddha was the son of 
 a petty prince, but addressed himself to the populace. In 
 the same way Vishnu, in his descent as Krishna, though 
 of the kingly caste, was brought up among the common 
 people. But just as Buddhism ultimately fell back into 
 Brahmanism, so has every movement in the direction of liberty, 
 equality, and fraternity ended by a return, more or less com- 
 plete, to the original condition of subjection to Brahmanical 
 authority and obedience to the law of social distinctions. 
 
 Practically, therefore, we must regard Vaishnavism as the 
 principal home of Hindu religious sectarianism. All the 
 chief modern sects have resulted more from differences of 
 opinion between various schools of Vaishnavas, than from an- 
 tagonism between Saivism and Vaishnavism. Nor are Saivism 
 and Vaishnavism in their essence antagonistic systems. They 
 represent different lines of religious thought ; such lines ex- 
 pressing a contrast rather than an opposition. So far indeed 
 from any necessary opposition between the systems, they are 
 a necessary complement of each other. P"or the worship of 
 the composite deity Rudra-Siva is nothing but the expression 
 of the awe felt by human beings in the presence of the two 
 mutually complementary forces of disintegration and reinte- 
 gration ; while the worship of the personal god Vishnu in his 
 descents upon earth in human form is nothing but the ex- 
 pression of the very natural interest felt by man in his own 
 preservation and in the working of the physical forces which 
 resist dissolution. 
 
 Certainly in the present day Saivas and Vaishnavas are
 
 Hinduism. General Observations. 65 
 
 tolerant of each other's creeds, both appeaHng to the Puranas 
 as their special Bible, and each acknowledging the gods of 
 the other as proper objects of worship. This is remarkably- 
 illustrated by the fact that in some parts of the country a god 
 called Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Siva) is worshipped, who represents 
 the union of the two divine personalities in one. There is a long 
 hymn in praise of this twofold deity in the Hari-vansa (181st 
 chapter), and images of him may be seen here and there in 
 Southern India. For example, in the great temple at Madura 
 a fine carving was pointed out to me which proved to be a 
 representation of Sankara-Narayana ( = Hari-Hara)^. One side 
 of the figure represents half the body of Vishnu with a hand 
 holding a Sahkha, while the other side is an image of Siva 
 surmounted by half a head-dress twisted into a matted coil 
 with the lunar crescent conspicuous on it. Then again, 
 wherever in any city a large temple has been erected to Siva, 
 a similar temple dedicated to Vishnu is sure to be conspi- 
 cuous near at hand. Indeed the shrines of the two gods are 
 not unfrequently found in close juxtaposition within the same 
 sacred enclosure. For instance, on the hill of ParvatI (wife 
 of Siva) near Poona, and in the enclosure of her temple, I 
 saw a shrine of Vishnu, another of his vehicle Garuda, and 
 images of nearly every deity of the Hindu Pantheon 2. 
 
 Nor can any student of the Maha-bharata and Puranas 
 doubt the interchangeableness of the functions of Siva and 
 Vishnu, or fail to perceive that each divine personality has 
 a tendency to blend or merge in the other. In the Lihga- 
 purana (I. i8ff.) both Brahma and Vishnu are said to spring 
 from Siva. On the other hand, in the Maha-bharata (Vana- 
 parvan 499 fi". and Anusasana-p. 6806 ff.) Brahma is described 
 
 ^ In the South of India a legend is current which makes Vishnu 
 assume the form of a fascinating woman (mohinl) and so connect 
 himself with Siva. By Saktas Vishnu is often held to be female. 
 
 ^ So also in the precincts of the temple of Hanuman at Kaira I saw 
 a shrine of Siva and nearly every other god ordinarily worshipped. 
 
 F
 
 66 Hinduism. General Observations. 
 
 as springing from the navel of Vishnu when he was lying 
 in placid repose on the serpent of infinity, and enjoying the 
 most perfect serenity of mind ^ ; whilst Siva or Rudra is said 
 to have been produced from Vishnu's forehead when his spirit 
 happened one day to be roused to anger. 
 
 Again, Vishnu, speaking of himself (Santi-parvan 13 140, 
 etc.), says : ' I am the soul of all the worlds. It was myself 
 whom I formerly worshipped as Rudra. If I were not to 
 worship the boon -bestowing Siva, no one would worship 
 myself. He who knows him knows me ; he who loves him 
 loves me.' ('Yas tarn vetti sa mam vetti yo 'nu tarn sa hi 
 mam anu.') This, in fact, is the true explanation of the 
 homage which each member of the Triad occasionally pays 
 to the other. 
 
 Still it must be admitted that Saivism and Vaishnavism are 
 quite distinct systems, and that each sect is inclined to lay 
 an exaggerated stress on its own particular doctrines. 
 
 In ancient times these differences not unfrequently led 
 to rancorous antagonism, and sometimes even to violent con- 
 flicts. This was especially the case in the South, where 
 Saivism generally triumphed over and displaced Vaishnavism ^. 
 Even in the present day, when universal toleration is the rule, 
 Saivas and Vaishnavas like to maintain their distinct cha- 
 racteristics, which they exhibit conspicuously to the eye by 
 distinct marks on their foreheads (called tilaka, pundra, and, 
 in the South of India, nama or gandha). 
 
 That of the Saivas consists of three horizontal strokes (tri- 
 pundra) made with the white ashes of burnt substances (vibhuti), 
 to represent the destroying character of their god Siva^ and 
 
 ^ One reason I often had given to me in India for the present merging 
 of Brahma in Vishnu was that Brahma sprang from the body of Vishnu. 
 
 =^.1 noticed many traces of the conflict in the South ; for example, 
 Vaishnava sculptures have been left on the Gopuras in the Saiva temple 
 of Tanjore. 
 
 * The ashes doubtless denote that the body must ultimately be re- 
 duced to ashes.
 
 Hindmsm. General Observations. 67 
 
 that of the Vaishnavas is an upright mark (urdhva-pundra) 
 made with bright red, yellow, and white colouring substances 
 (the white called Gopl-candana ^), to represent the foot-print 
 of their human and humane god Vishnu. 
 
 Again, it is important to note that both Saivas and Vaish- 
 navas differ in the mode of branding their breasts, arms, and 
 other parts of their bodies with the distinctive marks of their 
 sect. Such marks are burnt in with red-hot stamps, some- 
 times made of gold. In the case of Saivas they represent the 
 weapons and symbols of Siva, such as the trident and the 
 Hnga ; while the favourite brands of Vishnu are the discus, 
 the club, and the conch-shell. This practice was severely 
 denounced by Saiikara^ but apparently with little effect. 
 
 In regard to rosaries, the rosary (japa-mala) used by Saivas 
 is a simple string of 32 rough berries (or that number doubled) 
 of the Rudraksha tree (Elseocarpus Ganitrus), while that of the 
 Vaishnavas is made of the wood of the sacred Tulasi (Tulsl) 
 shrubj and generally consists of 108 beads. Such rosaries may 
 be worn as necklaces, though their chief use is to be employed 
 as an aid in the repetition of the names and epithets of the 
 deity or in the recitation of prayers. Occasional varieties in 
 the material and form of the rosaries may be noticed ^ ; for 
 example, Saiva ascetics sometimes carry rosaries formed of 
 the teeth of dead bodies (danta-mala), or sling serpents round 
 their necks for necklaces. On the other hand, Vaishnava 
 rosaries are occasionally but rarely made of lotus-seeds (ka- 
 malaksha). 
 
 But the most important difference to be noted between 
 Saivas and Vaishnavas is the use they make of idols, images, 
 and symbols. Siva, we must remember, is a less human 
 
 ^ This is said to be the soil of a pool near Dvarika in which the 
 GopTs drowned themselves on learning of the death of Krishna. 
 
 ^ The Sankara-vijaya shows how Sankara offered the most strenuous 
 opposition to this practice of branding, stigmatizing it as a heretical and 
 ridiculous practice. 
 
 ^ See especially my book ' Modern India and the Indians,' p. 108. 
 
 F 2
 
 68 Hinduism. General Observations. 
 
 and far more mystical deity than the incarnated Vishnu. The 
 character in which he is most frequently worshipped and 
 propitiated is that of an omnipotent, temble God, granting 
 new life to all created things, but only through death and 
 disintegration. Hence he is not represented by the image of a 
 man, but by a mystic symboP— perhaps the best symbol of 
 delegated creative power— which cannot be dressed, deco- 
 rated or fed with food or put to sleep like a human being, 
 but is supposed to be in a condition of perpetual heat and 
 excitement, and requires to be cooled and appeased by 
 constant showers of cold Ganges water, and cooling Bilva 
 (Bll or Bel) leaves applied throughout the day by a per- 
 petual succession of worshippers^. It is remarkable, too, 
 that in cases where food is offered to the god Siva, it is 
 not afterwards eaten by his votaries (except in certain special 
 localities), for the simple reason that inauspicious (amahgala) 
 ideas are supposed to be connected with his office of causing 
 death ^. 
 
 On the other hand, since Vishnu is god in his more 
 human and humane aspect, sympathizing with men's trials 
 and condescending to be born of human parents, he is usually 
 represented by the complete image of a well-formed human 
 being — generally that of Krishna or Rama — which is every 
 day roused from a supposed nocturnal slumber, dressed, 
 decorated with gold and jewels, bathed, fed with offerings 
 
 ' That is, by the linga or image of the distinctive organ of the male 
 sex (the phallus), never in the mind of a Saiva connected with indecent 
 ideas nor with sexual love, though impure practices have certainly been 
 introduced in connexion with the worship of Siva's wife. In fact, sexual 
 passion is chiefly associated with the worship of Vishnu, as Krishna. It 
 is curious that Vaishnavas dishke the Saiva linga and yet allow the 
 most impure and indecent representations on the walls of their temples. 
 
 '^ Another mode of worship is by pradakshina or circumambulation, 
 keeping the right side towards the object worshipped. In many Linga 
 shrines a space is left for this kind of homage. 
 
 ^ The precept is, ' Leaves, flowers, fruit, and water must not be taken 
 after being offered to Siva.' But at the great temple of Bhuvanesvara 
 and a few other places an exception is made.
 
 Hinduism, General Observations. 69 
 
 of cooked and uncooked grain, sweetmeats and fruits, un- 
 dressed and put to sleep again like an ordinary man, while 
 the remains of the food offered (prasada) are eagerly con- 
 sumed by the priests and attendants \ 
 
 And here I may point out that a great distinction is to 
 be made in regard to the comparative sanctity of different 
 kinds of symbols and images. Some are called svayambhu, 
 that is existing spontaneously, and are of their own nature 
 pervaded by the essence of the deity. These are either not 
 carved at all, or very slightly moulded into shape. They are 
 merely rough stones or rocks supposed to have descended 
 direct from heaven or to have appeared miraculously on the 
 soil. They are the most sacred of all material objects of 
 adoration, and when discovered, temples are built over them. 
 The most usual idols of this kind are stones supposed to 
 represent the Lihga of Siva, and when shrines are built 
 round them, a Yoni is usually (though not always) added. 
 
 Not less sacred than these rough stones are certain small 
 pebbles found in rivers and polished by the action of the 
 water 2. Of these the pebbles representing the Lihga of Siva, 
 called Bana-lihga or Vana-liriga, and apparently of white 
 quartz, are found in the bed of the Narbada river. The 
 black pebbles representing Vishnu or Krishna, called Sala- 
 grama (popularly sal-gram), and generally containing am- 
 monites imbedded in the stone, are chiefly found in the river 
 Gandakl. Both kinds of pebble are employed in the domestic 
 worship of Siva and Vishnu known as Paiicayatana-puja (to 
 be afterwards described) and performed by householders in 
 their own houses. Both are held to be of their own nature 
 pervaded by the special presence of the deity and need no 
 
 ^ This will account for the fact that few villagers can afford to keep 
 a temple dedicated to Krishna. The vestments, ornaments, decorations, 
 and paraphernalia needed are too expensive ; whereas all the requisites 
 for the worship of Siva are a stone linga, bilva leaves, and water. 
 
 ^ Some of them appear to be artificially rounded and polished.
 
 70 Hindfdsm. General Observations, 
 
 consecration. Ofiferings made to these pebbles— such for in- 
 stance as Bilva leaves laid on the white stone of Vishnu— are 
 believed to confer extraordinary merit. 
 
 A second form of idol is wholly artificial. This is carved 
 by masons or sculptors and not held sacred until the Brah- 
 mans have consecrated it by long ceremonies and the repe- 
 tition of Vedic texts. When such idols have been placed in 
 shrines they can be looked at by an unbeliever, even though 
 the consecration they have received is supposed to have filled 
 them with the essence of the god they represent. Artificial 
 idols and symbols of this kind are manufactured in large 
 numbers in holy cities, not so much for general worship as 
 for votive offerings to be set up with the customary form 
 of dedication (pratishtha) in the galleries or vestibules of 
 temples or under sacred trees, or to be kept as objects of 
 adoration in the private rooms of houses. 
 
 Pious persons reckon it a work of great religious merit to 
 cause such idols and symbols to be made, or to purchase them 
 for dedication. I noticed thousands for sale in the streets of 
 Benares. 
 
 Some of the Liiigas were carved out of stone, and some 
 made of glass. Serpents are occasionally carved round them, 
 just as the images of Siva in human form are often ornamented 
 with serpents. 
 
 One other difference between Saivism and Vaishnavism 
 remains to be noted. Each system has a heaven of its own, 
 that of Siva being called Kailasa ; that of Vishnu being 
 known as Vaikuntha, The former is supposed to be located 
 in the Himalaya mountains; the position of the latter is not so 
 distinctly fixed, but is believed by some to be in the mythical 
 northern peak of Mount Meru^. To these heavens the 
 
 ^ The temple of Srlrafigam at Trichinopoly is supposed to be a 
 counterpart of Vaikuntha, and the excavated temple at Ellora is a 
 counternart of K'ail^co 
 
 counterpart of Kailasa.
 
 Hinduism. General Observations, 71 
 
 faithful worshippers of Siva or Vishnu are respectively trans- 
 ported. There amid eternal snows and inaccessible crags 
 they are thought to be safe from future transmigration. 
 There, too, they may attain to the highest pinnacle of beati- 
 fication, not so much by absolute absorption (sayujya) into 
 the one supreme spirit according to the Vedanta doctrine 
 (see p. 41) — for such complete union would involve loss of per- 
 sonality — but rather by dwelling in the same abode with their 
 god (salokya), by nearness to him (samlpya), by assimilation 
 to his likeness (sarupya). 
 
 Before concluding these general observations it may be well 
 to note that a theory has gained acceptance in some quarters 
 that the cultus of the god Siva in its grosser forms, as for 
 example in the homage paid to the Liriga and to demons, 
 has been borrowed from pre-Aryan races and non-Aryan 
 aboriginal tribes. Even the cultus of various forms of Vishnu 
 is held by some to be traceable to the same source. But the 
 explanations I have given will I hope tend to show that Siva 
 and Vishnu are both Brahmanical gods, though they have 
 been often made to do duty for local deities, and have fre- 
 quently opened their arms to embrace objects of worship 
 outside the true circle of Brahmanism. 
 
 We now pass on to a more detailed account of the later 
 Hindu system, and for the sake of perspicuity I purpose 
 treating of the various phases of Hindu doctrine and worship 
 under ten principal topics : — i. Saivism, or devotion to the god 
 Siva as originally an impersonation of the destructive and 
 reconstructive forces of nature in male form. 2. Vaishnavism, 
 or devotion to the god Vishnu as originally an imperson- 
 ation of the conservative and preservative forces of nature 
 in male form. 3. Saktism, or devotion to the wives of Siva 
 and Vishnu as impersonations of the same forces of nature in 
 female form. 4. Worship of tutelary deities who protect from 
 misfortune and evil influences. 5. Demon-worship and spirit- 
 worship (Bhuta-puja). 6. Hero-worship and man- worship.
 
 72 JJindfdsm. General Observations. 
 
 7. Ancestor-worship. 8. Animal-worship. 9. Plant-worship 
 and Tree-worship. 10. Worship of natural objects, both 
 those which move, such as the sun, moon, rivers, etc., and 
 those which are fixed and immovable (jada), such as rocks, 
 stocks, stones, etc. 
 
 Six other topics will follow: — 1. The Hindu religion in 
 ancient family-life. 2. The Hindu religion in modern family- 
 life. 3. Hindu fasts, festivals, and holy days. 4. Hindu 
 temples, shrines, and sacred places. 5. Hindu caste in rela- 
 tion to industrial occupations. 6. Modern Hindu Theism. 
 
 It may be well to note here, for the benefit of those to 
 whom such expressions as Saiva, Vaishnava, etc. may appear 
 strange, that it is usual in Sanskrit to convert a substantive 
 into an adjective, by modifying or lengthening the vowel of 
 the first syllable. Hence Saiva and Vaishnava are merely the 
 adjective forms of Siva and Vishnu.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ^< 
 
 azvism. 
 
 SaivtsM; as we have already seen, may be defined as the 
 setting aside of the triune equality of Brahma, Vishnu, and 
 Siva, and the merging of the former two gods in the god Siya. 
 But it is also more than this. It is the exaltation of Siva 
 (whether regarded as one person or as associated with a 
 consort) to the position of a Supreme Being, infinite, eternal, 
 and exempt from subjection to the law of ultimate absorp- 
 tion into the Universal Spirit. It is his identification with 
 Brahma as well as with Brahma ; with the one impersonal 
 Spirit as well as with the one personal God ; with the Atmgin 
 and Maya of the Vedanta philosophy; with the Purusha and 
 Prakriti of the Sahkhya system ; with the male and female 
 generative energies operating in the Universe ; with every 
 conceivable force and form in nature. 
 
 Yet it ought to be clearly understood that the identifica- 
 tion of Siva with the one impersonal Spirit of the Universe 
 is rarely asserted categorically by Saiva sectarians ; for 
 it must always be borne in mind that the very meaning 
 of Saivism is exclusive devotion to a personal god Siva, 
 who, unlike the impersonal spiritual Being, possesses a bodily 
 form, and can think, feel, and act. In entering, therefore, on 
 the subject of Saivism we are passing from pantheistic to 
 theistic ideas. 
 
 The Saiva bible or supposed inspired authority for this 
 elevation of the god Siva to the highest position in the Hindu 
 system must be sought for among the eighteen Puranas. 
 These writings are more generally in favour of the supremacy
 
 74 
 
 Saivism. 
 
 of Vishnu, but a certain number, such as the Linga, Siva, 
 Kurma and Skanda Puranas, make Siva supreme ^ 
 
 We have already pointed out that the idea of a Tri-murti 
 or triple embodiment and personification of the phenomena 
 and powers of Nature was adumbrated in the Veda and fully 
 developed in the Maha-bharata. 
 
 In the Veda special homage is given to three gods who are 
 the representative deities of the three worlds and the ele- 
 ments they contain, (j) To the god of Fire (Agni), who is 
 the god on the earth. (2) To the god of Rain associated with 
 the gods of Storm (Indra-Rudra), who are the gods in the 
 atmosphere. (3) To the Sun-god (Surya), who is the god in 
 the heavens. In mythological Brahmanism — of which the 
 Maha-bharata is the chief exponent — these three Vedic gods 
 pass into Brahma the creator, Rudra-Siva the destroyer and 
 recreator, and Vishnu the preserver. But the act of the 
 Creator was a single act. Once completed, it was liable to 
 receive scant recognition at the hands of the beings created. 
 And, as a matter of fact, the worship of Brahma fell into 
 desuetude. 
 
 On the other hand, the acts of disintegration, reintegration, 
 and maintenance of being were continuous acts of the deepest 
 and most momentous interest to the whole human race, and 
 it was only to be expected that the homage paid to the 
 deities who presided over these operations should increase in 
 intensity and culminate in a mountain of superstition. For, 
 indeed, three remarkable phenomena could not fail to impress 
 themselves on the most superficial observers of the processes 
 of nature. First, that mysterious and awe-inspiring forces 
 are ever at work for the disintegration of every material 
 object in the universe ; secondly, that vivifying forces are 
 
 ^ The colossal sculpture of the Tri-murti in the caves of Elephanta, 
 excavated twelve or thirteen centuries ago, consisting of three grand 
 heads in high relief, represents Brahma in the centre, Vishnu on the 
 right, and Siva on the left.
 
 Satvzsm. 75 
 
 ever being exerted for the reintegration of material entities 
 through the disintegration of other entities ; thirdly, that 
 every existing material entity is maintained in existence by 
 the agency of sustaining forces which help it to resist the 
 action of the forces of dissolution. In short, it was clear that 
 the three processes of disintegration, reintegration, and main- 
 tenance of being are perpetually recurring in an eternal cycle 
 — that each follows on the other and that each is necessary 
 to the other. 
 
 Now, it might have been expected that the authors of 
 Hindu mythology would have placed these three distinct 
 processes under the control of three distinct deities. But so 
 close was believed to be the connexion between the work of 
 disintegration and that of reintegration that both were as- 
 signed to the presidency of one divine personification, who, 
 in this two-fold character of Destroyer and Re-constructor, 
 ought properly to be designated by the composite name 
 Rudra-Siva. For it is only as Rudra that he is the lord of 
 Death and the active agent in dissolution ; and it is only as 
 Siva, 'the auspicious,' that he reconstructs after destruction. 
 
 And here at the outset it is important to note that, in his 
 character of both Rudra and Siva, this god enjoys a cultus 
 which reaches much further back than that of Vishnu the 
 maintainer and preserver. Of the two deities Siva is un- 
 doubtedly the more ancient. He was the first to receive 
 special adoration ; and although in the present day he has 
 fewer exclusive adorers than the god Vishnu, his worship is 
 even now more generally extended (compare note, p. 78). 
 
 The name of Vishnu occurs, it is true, in the Rig-veda, but 
 only as a secondary designation of the Sun, that luminary 
 being better known by other more important names — such as 
 Surya, Savitri, Aditya. 
 
 On the other hand, Rudra appears quite early in the Veda 
 with a well-recognized and well-marked personality of his 
 own. He is an important deity, whose anger is to be dreaded
 
 76 
 
 ^aivism. 
 
 and whose favour is to be propitiated. Probably the first 
 office or function connected with him was that of directing 
 and controlling the rage of the howling storm s^. As god of 
 gale and tempest he is father of the destructive storm-winds, 
 who are also called Rudras, and generally identified v/ith the 
 Maruts. And in this character Rudra is closely connected 
 with the Vedic Rain-god (Indra), and with the still more 
 highly esteemed Vedic deity Fire (Agni), which, as a destroy- 
 ing agent, rages and crackles like the roaring tempest. He 
 is also nearly related to Time (Kala), the all-consumer, and 
 indeed afterwards identified with him^. But he has also a 
 more agreeable aspect even in the Veda. He is not merely 
 the awful and inauspicious god whose thousand shafts bring 
 death or disease on men and cattle ^ He is present in those 
 health-giving winds which chase away noxious vapours. He 
 is addressed as a healer, as a benefactor, as a benevolent and 
 auspicious being; the epithet Siva being applied to him in 
 the Veda euphemistically as a title rather than as a name. 
 
 Again, in the later Vedic period his personality becomes 
 still more intensified, and his name, attributes, and functions 
 infinitely amplified, varied, and extended. For example, in 
 the Vajasaneyi-samhita of the Yajur-veda (XVI. i, etc.) there 
 is a well-known hymn or litany called the Satarudriya ad- 
 dressed to Rudra in his hundred aspects and surrounded by 
 his countless host of attendants. In this hymn — a hymn which 
 is of the greatest interest, because constantly used in the pre- 
 sent day — he is described as possessing many contradictory, 
 incongruous, grotesque, and wholly ungodlike attributes ', for 
 example, he is a killer and destroyer ; he is terrible, fierce 
 (ugra), inauspicious ; he is a deliverer and saviour ; he causes 
 
 ^ The root rtid meaning to roar or howl. 
 
 ^ In the Kailasa cave at Ellora I noticed that Siva in his character of 
 Kala was represented as a skeleton. 
 
 ^ Death is always connected in the Hindu mind with something in- 
 auspicious (amangala) and impure.
 
 Saivism. 7 7 
 
 happiness, and prevents disease ; he has a heahng and aus- 
 picious body (siva tanuh) ; he is yellow- haired, brown- 
 coloured, copper-coloured, ruddy, tall, dwarfish ; he has braided 
 locks (kapardin), wears the sacred thread, and is clothed in a 
 skin; he is blue-necked and thousand-eyed; he dwells in 
 the mountains, and is the owner of troops (gana-pati) of 
 servants who traverse the earth obeying his orders ; he is 
 ruler and controller of a thousand Rudras who are described 
 as fierce and ill-formed (virupa) ; he has a hundred bows and 
 a thousand quivers ; he is the general of vast armies ; he is 
 lord of ghosts, goblins, and spirits ; of beasts, horses, and 
 dogs ; of trees, shrubs, and plants ; he causes the fall of 
 leaves ; he is lord of the Soma-juice ; he is patron of thieves 
 and robbers ^ and is himself a thief, robber, and deceiver ; he 
 presides over carpenters, chariot-makers, blacksmiths, archi- 
 tects, huntsmen ; he is present in towns and houses, in rivers 
 and lakes, in woods and roads, in clouds and rain, in sun- 
 shine and lightning, in wind and storm, in stones, dust, and 
 earth. 
 
 If then this great deity was distinguished even in the Vedic 
 period by so great a variety of attributes and was held 
 capable of so many functions, it was only to be expected 
 that the plasticity and all-comprehensiveness of his godhead 
 should have increased with the advance of time. It was only 
 natural, too, that the desire to propitiate him should have be- 
 come more generally diffused. His terrific and ungodlike 
 character was, therefore, kept well in the background, and his 
 epithet 'the blessed or auspicious one (Siva),' who brought 
 life out of death, who recreated after dissolution, passed into 
 his principal name. 
 
 ^ In the drama called Mricchakatika some burglars invoke Skanda 
 son of Siva as their patron deity. At present nearly all the degrading 
 characteristics of the god have been transferred to the form of his consort 
 called Kah. That goddess is to this day the patron and guardian 
 of thieves, robbers, Thugs, murderers, and every kind of infamous 
 rascal.
 
 7 8 ^aivism. 
 
 Hence also Siva became to his worshippers the great god 
 (Maha-deva) and lord of the universe (jagat-pitri, visva-natha), 
 who, although he has numerous forms, is generally worshipped 
 under one mystical shape— a plain upright stone, the sign or 
 symbol (linga) of generative and creative power— scattered in 
 millions of shrines over every part of India ^ And hence, 
 too, it came to pass that, in the end, this so-called great god 
 was often identified with the one universal, all-pervading, self- 
 existent Spirit of Brahmanical philosophy ^. 
 
 Yet it is remarkable that with the increasing tendency to 
 exalt the deity Siva to the highest pinnacle in the Hindu 
 system, the desire to intensify his more human character and 
 to multiply those inferior and degrading attributes which de- 
 prive him of all title to be called a god at all, increased also. 
 In the later Indian scriptures he has 1008 recognized names 
 (all enumerated in the Siva-purana LXIX, Anusasana-parvan 
 XVII), besides countless local appellations and a corporeal 
 existence almost as anthropomorphic as that of Vishnu. 
 
 It is true that the god Siva never passed through the pro- 
 cesses of birth, childhood, manhood, or any of the stages of 
 a recognized human existence in the way that Rama and 
 Krishna did\ yet he has his local incarnations, and, irre- 
 spectively of these, a distinct personality of his own, and a 
 biography capable of being written with more precision than 
 that of Vishnu, by putting together the allusions and descrip- 
 tions in the Epic poems and Puranas. 
 
 In the first place, with regard to his supposed residence, 
 we are informed in these writings that his abode is Kailasa in 
 the Himalaya, which is also that of his countless troops 
 
 ^ The number of Lifigas in India is estimated at three krores 
 ( = 30 milHons). 
 
 "^ Sayana, the great commentator on the Rig-veda, in the opening 
 prayer to Siva (identified with the Supreme) asserts that the Veda was 
 his breath (ucchvasitam). 
 
 ^ Only a few local South-Indian legends make him go through human 
 births.
 
 ^aivism. y9 
 
 (Ganas) of servants^, as well as of Kuvera, god of wealth, 
 who is in a similar manner surrounded by his attendants the 
 Yakshas. This mountain-residence is, as we have already- 
 seen, the special heaven of Siva, just as Vaikuntha is of Vishnu. 
 Thither his worshippers hope to be ultimately transported, 
 and there he lives with his wife ParvatI (also called Durga, 
 Kali, Uma, Bhavani, SatI, etc.), with the divine hero Vlra- 
 bhadra, who is a manifestation of his own energy, and with 
 his two sons Skanda and Ganesa. The latter control Siva's 
 troops, leading some to battle against evil demons, and re- 
 straining others who are themselves mischievous imps and 
 would turn the whole world into a scene of confusion unless 
 kept in check ^. It is probable that in surrounding the god 
 Rudra-Siva with armies of demons and impish attendants, 
 and making his sons lead and control them, Hindu mytholo- 
 gists merely gave expression to an idea inveterate in the 
 Indian mind, that all disease, destruction, and dissolution are 
 the result of demoniacal agency. 
 
 With regard to the bodily form, mode of life, and behaviour 
 attributed to Siva in his later character of lord of Kailasa, it 
 is not surprising that these should to some extent be bor- 
 rowed from the ancient description of him in the Satarudriya 
 hymn before quoted. But many new and supernatural fea- 
 tures symbolical of his later functions and actions are added. 
 
 In the first place, in regard to his corporeal aspect, he has 
 sometimes five faces (Pancanana)^ sometimes one face, and 
 
 ^ In the temple at Madura I saw a representation of Siva borne on one 
 of the Ganas. Some of his more personal attendants have special names, 
 such as Nandin (often confounded with his vehicle the bull, see p. 8i), 
 Bhringin, and Tandu, the latter being the original teacher of dancing. 
 
 2 It must be borne in mind that the troops of Siva are represented as 
 addicted to strong drink as well as to other excesses, and in this respect 
 their master Siva sets them an example ; see pp. 84, 85. 
 
 ' It is possible that the five faces symbolize the five schools of the 
 Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, Taittiriya, and Vajasaneyin), or perhaps the 
 five Pathas (Sarnhita, Pada, Krama, Jata, and Ghana), or rather perhaps 
 the five Gayatrls. No one in India could give me any good explanation
 
 So Saivism. 
 
 always three eyes, which are thought to denote his insight 
 into past, present, and future time. 
 
 The third eye is in his forehead, and a moon's crescent 
 above it marks the measuring of time by months, while a 
 serpent round his neck denotes the endless cycle of recurring 
 years, and a second necklace of skulls with numerous other 
 serpents about his person ^ symbolizes the eternal revolution 
 of ages, and the successive dissolution and regeneration of 
 the races of mankind. His body is generally covered with 
 ashes, and his hair thickly matted together, and gathered 
 above his forehead into a coil, i:o as to project like a horn. 
 On the top of it he bears the Ganges, the rush of which 
 he intercepted in its descent from Vishnu's foot, that the 
 earth might not be crushed by the weight of the falling 
 stream. His complexion is sometimes white^ from the re- 
 flection of the snows of Kailasa, sometimes dark, from his 
 identification with the dark destroyer Time (Kala). His 
 throat is blue, from the stain of the deadly poison which 
 would have destroyed the world had not Siva in compassion 
 
 of their meaning. I noticed that many images of Buddha in India and 
 Ceylon had five rays of light issuing from the head, or a five-headed 
 serpent expanded over it. 
 
 ^ Serpents, as we have seen, are associated with both Siva and 
 Vishnu. The latter, as is well known, sleeps on a serpent, and I have 
 often seen Lingas in the South with a canopy formed of a five-headed 
 serpent. Images of Krishna and of Buddha are also so represented. 
 The interchangeableness of Buddhism, Saivism, and Vaishnavism is 
 everywhere apparent. 
 
 ^ There is a legend that Siva appeared in the Kali age, for the good 
 of the Brahmans, as Sveta ' the white one,' and that he had four dis- 
 ciples, to all of whom the epithet Sveta is applied. Possibly the attribu- 
 tion of a white complexion to Siva may be due to the fact that the 
 Brahmans of Cashmere, who are almost as fair as Europeans, were the 
 first worshippers of Siva. Then as his cultus passed southwards the god 
 naturally received a complexion more in keeping with that of his wor- 
 shippers. Or it may be that white and black, like day and night, sym- 
 bolized the close connexion and succession of the destroying and 
 regenerative principles. Siva's wife ParvatI is also often called Gaurl, 
 the pale-coloured.
 
 Saivism. 8 1 
 
 for the human race undertaken to drink It up, on its pro- 
 duction at the churning of the ocean. He rides a white 
 bull (called Nandi), images of which are often placed outside 
 his shrines and probably typify generative energy. He is 
 sometimes represented clothed in a deer-skin, sometimes in 
 the skin of a tiger alleged to have been formerly killed by 
 him when created by the magical arts of some Rishis who 
 tried to destroy the god, because his beauty had attracted 
 the amorous glances of their wives. Sometimes, again, he 
 appears wearing an elephant's skin which had belonged to 
 a demon of immense power named Gaya, whom he con- 
 quered and slew. As Siva is constantly engaged in battle 
 with mighty demons (such as Pura, Tripura, Andhaka), all 
 of whom he fought and slew, he is armed with special 
 weapons, suited to his warlike needs ; for example, he carries 
 a trisula or three-pronged trident (also called Pinaka), thought 
 by some to denote his combining in his own person the three 
 attributes of Creator, Destroyer, and Regenerator ; a bow 
 called Ajagava, a thunderbolt (vajra), an axe, and a non- 
 descript weapon called Khatvafiga, consisting of a kind of 
 staff with transverse pieces surmounted by a skull. He also 
 holds in his hand a noose (pasa) for binding his enemies^ and 
 a kind of rattle or drum, shaped like an hour-glass, called 
 Damaru, which he uses as a musical instrument to keep time 
 while dancing. 
 
 It is clear from all this symbolism that the god Siva, as 
 depicted in the later Hindu scriptures, assumes a very be- 
 wildering and confusing variety of personalities at different 
 times. His functions, as indicated by his 1008 names (see 
 p. 106), are innumerable and his nature all-comprehensive. 
 Yet an attempt may be made to disentangle the confusion by 
 pointing out that there are really five chief characters of the 
 god which stand out prominently from his general portraiture 
 and are capable of being brought out into definite relief. 
 
 I. In the first place, he is, as we have seen, the impersonation 
 
 G
 
 82 Saivism. 
 
 of the dissolving and disintegrating powers and processes of 
 nature. These ought really to be regarded as set in action 
 by a beneficent being performing a necessary operation, but 
 in the later phases of Hinduism the idea of dissolution is 
 invested with terror. Siva himself is converted into a fierce 
 universal destroyer (Sarva-bhuta-hara), who annihilates at the 
 end of every great age (kalpa) not only men and all created 
 things, but good and evil demons, and even Brahma, Vishnu, 
 and all the inferior gods. He is then called Rudra, Mahakala, 
 Hara, Anala (Fire), &c. One legend makes him wear the 
 bones and skulls of the gods as ornaments and garlands. 
 
 Another legend describes how at the end of one of the 
 early ages of the universe he burnt up the gods by a flash 
 from his central eye, and afterwards rubbed their ashes upon 
 his body ; whence the use of ashes is considered of great 
 importance in his worship. Another legend accounts for the 
 use of Rudraksha berries in the rosaries of Siva by describing 
 how he once let fall some tears of rage which became con- 
 verted Into these seeds. Their connexion with Siva-worship 
 is probably due to their roughness and to their possessing five 
 divisions corresponding to the god^s five faces. 
 
 It Is easy to see how it came to pass that the god in this 
 later character Is believed to delight In destruction for Its 
 own sake. He is called Smasana-vasin, ^dweller in burial- 
 places.' Cemeteries and burning-grounds are his favourite 
 haunts ; Imps and demons (bhutas and pisacas) are his ready 
 servants ; ferocity and Irascibility on the slightest provocation 
 constitute his normal condition of mind. For example, on 
 one occasion, when the sage Daksha omitted to invite him 
 and his wife Sat! to a great sacrifice at which all the gods 
 were guests, he without the slightest hesitation decapitated 
 the unfortunate sage and replaced his head by that of a ram. 
 So again a sculpture in the caves of Elephanta represents him 
 with eight arms in the act of immolating a child. In this 
 character he Is often called Bhairava, the terrible one, Vira-
 
 Saivism. 83 
 
 bhadra being sometimes identified with him. But It should 
 be noted that in the present day all these terrible attributes 
 are generally transferred from the male deity to his feminine 
 counterpart in the forms of Durga and Kali. 
 
 II. In the second place, Siva is the impersonation of the 
 eternal reproductive power of Nature, perpetually reintegrating 
 after disintegration (whence his name Bhuta-bhavana). It is 
 especially in this personality that he is called * the eternally 
 blessed one,' 'the causer of blessings' (Siva, Sada-Siva^ San- 
 kara, and Sanibhu), and it is in this character that he is now 
 generally worshipped all over India under the well-known and 
 often misunderstood symbol of the Linga^ (see note to p. 68). 
 
 III. In the third place, Siva is the great typical ascetic and 
 self-mortifier (Yogi, Tapasvl), who has attained the highest 
 perfection in meditation and austerity (whence his names 
 Mahatapah, Mahayogl). In this character he appears quite 
 naked (Dig-ambara), with only one face, like an ordinary human 
 being, with ash-besmeared body and matted hair (whence 
 his name Dhurjati), sitting in profound meditation under an 
 Asvattha tree ( = Pippala or Pipal), and often, like the con- 
 templative Buddha, under a canopy formed by a serpent's 
 head^. There he is supposed to remain passionless, motion- 
 less, immovable, as the trunk of a tree (sthanu), and perhaps 
 rooted to the same spot for millions of years. 
 
 Another legend describes how on one occasion Siva, when 
 engaged in a long course of asceticism, scorched the god of 
 love (Kama-deva) to ashes by a flash of rage from his central 
 eye, because that deity attempted to inflame him with passion 
 for his consort Parvati. 
 
 ^ I have already pointed out that although the Linga is regarded as 
 highly objectionable in the eyes of Europeans and is denounced by 
 missionaries as ' an abominable symbol,' it is never by Saivas connected 
 with the passion of love. See note, p. 68. This passion belongs to 
 Vaishnavism rather than to Saivism. 
 
 ^ The serpent is often five-headed, which appears to have some con- 
 nection with Siva's five faces. Compare note 3, p. 79.
 
 84 Saivism. 
 
 It is in this character that he teaches men by his own 
 example the power to be acquired by mortification of the 
 body, suppression of the passions, and abstract contempla- 
 tion, as leading to the loftiest spiritual knowledge and ulti- 
 mately effecting union with himself in Kailasa. 
 
 IV. In the fourth place, the god Siva is a contemplative 
 philosopher and learned sage, the revealer of Grammar to the 
 greatest of Indian grammarians, Panini^ And in this cha- 
 racter he is represented as a Brahman wearing the Brahmani- 
 cal thread ^ well- skilled in the Veda, and especially conversant 
 with the Krama arrangement of the text. So much so that 
 a saying is current among the Pandits : ' No one, not as skilled 
 as Siva, can repeat the Krama' (nasivah Krama-pathakah). 
 Among his names, too, are Mantra-vid, Brahma-vid, Brahma- 
 cari, and Panditah. This, in fact, is one of many proofs that 
 at least one form of Saivism is as much the peculiar system 
 of Brahmans, learned men, and the higher classes of the 
 Hindu community, as Vaishnavism is of men of the world, 
 kings, heroes, and the lower orders ^ In fact, a verse from 
 the ancient version of Manu is often quoted : — ' Siva is the 
 god of the Brahmans, Krishna (Vishnu) of the Kshatriyas, 
 Brahma of the Vaisyas, and Ganesa of Sudras.' 
 
 V. In the fifth place, Siva is exactly the opposite of an 
 ascetic and philosopher. He is a wild and jovial moun- 
 taineer (Kirata), addicted to hunting and wine-drinking, fond 
 of dancing (Nritya-priyah, also called Natesvara, 'lord of 
 dancing'), often dancing with his wife the Tandava dance, 
 
 ^ The first fourteen sutras of Panini are called the Siva-sfitras, and 
 the whole grammar is believed to be a revelation from Siva, whence one 
 of Siva's names is Vyakaranottarah. The miracle is made more remark- 
 able by representing the reputed author Panini as naturally stupid. 
 
 "^ I noticed that a carving of Siva in the caves of EUora represents 
 him with the Brahmanical thread. His son Ganesa also Avears this 
 thread. 
 
 ^ There is another common saying, Navishnuh prithivl-patih, * No one 
 except he resemble Vishnu ought to be a king.'
 
 Saivism. 85 
 
 and surrounded by dwarfish, buffoon-like troops (gana) of 
 attendants, who, like their master, are fond of good living 
 and occasionally inebriated by intoxicating liquors. The 
 worshippers of Siva in this character generally belong to the 
 sect called Saktas, who are devoted to the wife of the god, 
 and are given to self-indulgence and sensual gratification. 
 Their religious books are called Tantras, and their peculiar 
 tenets will be explained under the head of Saktism. 
 
 A still more remarkable aspect of the god is as a being 
 half-male, half-female (Ardha-nari)^. This really belongs 
 to the second of the characters just described. It sym- 
 bolizes both the duality and unity of the generative act and 
 the production of the universe from the union of two eternal 
 principles (Prakriti and Purusha, Maya and Atman), accord- 
 ing to the Saiikhya and Vedanta systems of philosophy. 
 
 Further, it should be noted that, according to some Puranas, 
 there are eight principal personal manifestations of Siva, called 
 Rudra, Bhairava (or Bhima), Ugra, Isvara (or Isana or Isa), 
 Mahadeva (or Mahesvara), Pasupati, Sarva, and Bhava. 
 
 Again, he is specially manifested in eight material forms 
 (Tanus) — Fire, Water, Earth, Air, Ether (which are the five 
 elements, represented by his five faces), the Sun, Moon, and 
 the sacrificing Brahman. By these he upholds the world. 
 
 In Southern India Siva is celebrated as the worker of 64 
 special miracles. He raised the dead, healed the blind, deaf, 
 lame, etc., and gave similar powers to 63 of his saints. 
 
 It might have been expected that so great a variety of the 
 god Siva's characters and aspects would have led to a cor- 
 responding variety in the sects which are addicted to his 
 exclusive worship. We find, however, that Saivism has not, 
 
 ^ In the caves of Elephanta I saw a fine carving of Siva and Parvat! 
 thus united in one body. The female side forms the left side of the god, 
 and is represented holding a looking-glass. It is noticeable that the 
 wife is always on the left side, except as a bride at the nuptial ceremony, 
 when she is placed on the right.
 
 S6 Saivisni. Saiva Sects. 
 
 like Vaishnavism, resolved itself into many separate organized 
 societies under great religious leaders. It would in truth be 
 difficult to name any conspicuous apostle and teacher of pure 
 Saivism (certainly not Basaba, p. 88), like the celebrated Vaish- 
 nava teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, Caitanya, and Vallabha. 
 For we have already seen that the great Sankara, though 
 held by some to have Saiva proclivities, abstained from incul- 
 cating devotion to any one god more than to another. 
 
 Unquestionably all Hindus, even the strictest Vaishnavas, 
 are ready to pay homage to Siva in his first and second 
 characters of Dissolver and Regenerator. It is clear, too, 
 that In the days of Sankara several sects of Saivas existed 
 and became the object of his controversial onslaughts. In 
 the Sankara-vijaya six are named : to wit, i. the Saivas, par 
 excellence, who had the Lihga branded on both arms ; 2. the 
 Raudras, who had the trident branded on the forehead ; 
 3. the Ugras, who had the Damaru (see p. 81) branded on 
 the two arms ; 4. the Bhattas, who had the Lihga on the 
 forehead ; 5. the JafigamaS; who bore the trident on the head 
 and carried a Lihga made of stone on their persons; 6. the 
 Pasupatas, who had the latter symbol branded on the fore- 
 head, arms, breast, and navel. 
 
 These sects are described in the Sankara-vijaya as hostile 
 to the doctrine of Non-duality (Advaita-drohinah). Their 
 practice of branding is denounced by Sankara on the ground 
 that various gods are present in the limbs of the human body\ 
 who are driven away by the burning (tapana) of the skin. 
 
 Of the six sects named only the two last remain to the 
 present day, and both these have altered not a few of their 
 tenets and practices. In modern times Saiva sectarians are 
 generally followers of Siva in his third character of an 
 ascetic. They profess to practise, like their god, severe aus- 
 terities and bodil y mortifications. Numbers of them may be 
 
 ' May we not compare the Christian idea of the sanctity of the body 
 as the temple of the Holy Ghost ?
 
 Saivism, Saiva Sects. ^-^ 
 
 seen at sacred places of pilgrimage, where they appear as 
 religious mendicants. 
 
 Those who claim to be Sannyasis are the most orthodox 
 sect. Indeed all Brahmans towards the close of their lives 
 ought to abandon worldly ties and become Sannyasis. But 
 the ordinary Saiva Sannyasis are by no means of so respect- 
 able a type. They are often confounded with other orders of 
 mendicant ascetics and devotees called Vairagis (usually held 
 to be Vaishnavas), Gosains and Yogis ^ (corrupted into Jogi) ; 
 the latter being a general name for all who seek by their 
 austerities to achieve complete union with the deity. 
 
 The theory is that a Hindu who aims at perfection ought to 
 go through six successive courses of penance and austerity of 
 twelve years each, rising by degrees up to the highest order of 
 all — the Parama-hansa, who is supposed to be wholly absorbed 
 in meditating on Brahman, and to do nothing else whatever. 
 
 Then there is an order of Saiva ascetics called Dandin, 
 or staff-bearers, ten divisions of whom — called Dasa-nami 
 Dandins, said to carry ten different forms of staff — are alleged 
 to have been founded by Safikaracarya. 
 
 There are also the Aghora-panthls (panthi = Sanskrit 
 pathin), who propitiate Siva by their revolting diet (seep. 94); 
 the Urdhva-bahus, who extend one or both arms over the head 
 and hold them in that position for years ^; the Akasa-mukhins, 
 
 ^ They are sometimes called Sadhus, and often improperly termed 
 Fakirs, a name which ought to be restricted to Muhammadan mendicants. 
 Bhagat (probably for Bhakta) is sometimes used for Vaishnava devotees. 
 Mahant is applied to a leader of one of these sects, or to the head of 
 a monastery. 
 
 ^ This kind of devotee is not so commonly seen as in former days. 
 During the whole course of my travels I only saw two examples, one at 
 Gaya and the other at Benares. The arm of the former was quite 
 withered, and his fist was so tightly clenched that the nails were growing 
 through the back of his hand. The latter looked like a piece of sculp- 
 ture, sitting in a niche of the Anna-purna temple, perfectly motionless 
 and impassive, with naked body smeared all over with white ashes, 
 matted hair, and the forefinger of the upraised hand pointing to the
 
 88 Saivism. Saiva Sects. 
 
 who keep their necks bent back looking up at the sky; the 
 KapaHkas, who use a dead man's skull for a drinking-cupi. 
 
 Most of these Saiva ascetics are disreputable in character 
 and decidedly dirty in their habits. With Christians, clean- 
 liness is said to be next to godliness, but with Hindus, who 
 in their general habits are quite as cleanly as Europeans, filth 
 appears to be regarded as a necessary accompaniment and 
 evidence of particular forms of sanctity 2. 
 
 We may also note that a sect of Saivas exists in the South 
 of India— mostly in the Mysore and Kanarese country— who 
 were formed into a religious community about the eleventh 
 or twelfth century by a leader named Basaba (for Sanskrit 
 Vrishabha), and are called Lingavats (popularly Lingaits)j„- 
 because they wear the Lihga in a silver or metallic casket . 
 suspended round their necks with a cord like a necklace. 
 They are usually identified with the Jangamas of Sankara's 
 day, described as utterly unorthodox and despicable. 
 
 In fact, this sect is opposed to all the orthodox practices and 
 religious usages of the Hindus, such as caste-distinctions ^, 
 the authority of the Brahmans, the inspiration of the Veda, 
 and Brahmanical sacrifices ; and they bury instead of burning 
 their dead. 
 
 With regard to Saiva philosophical doctrines it should be 
 observed that, like those of the Vaishnava sects, they deviate 
 more or less from the orthodox Vedanta doctrine of the 
 identity of the Supreme and human spirit, the amount of 
 
 heaven to which in imagination he seemed to be already transporting 
 himself. 
 
 ^ This order is said to have been founded by Sankara ; compare p. 59. 
 
 ^ But only in the case of ascetics. As a general rule Hinduism incul- 
 cates a strict regard for cleanliness. The late Lord Beaconsfield was 
 right when he said that Moses, Muhammad, and Manu all make clean- 
 liness a religious duty. 
 
 ^ The Lingaits of the present day are said to be returning to caste- 
 rules, and only to disregard caste on certain days of the week. I have 
 heard some declare that they belong to a fifth caste (pandama), which is 
 superior to the four castes of the Brahmanical system.
 
 Saivism. Saiva Sects, 89 
 
 deviation depending of course on the intensity of the person- 
 ality attributed to Siva. 
 
 A particular system, which may be called the Saiva-darsana 
 par excellence^ came into vogue in India about the tenth or 
 eleventh century. It was handed down in twenty-eight books, 
 called Agamas, almost all of which are lost. This philosophy 
 is followed by a sect in the South of India, and is wholly 
 opposed to the non-duality of the Vedanta. Its founder, like 
 theVaishnava teacher Ramanuja (seep. 1 19), taught that three 
 entities have a separate existence, i. The Lord (Siva) called 
 Pasupati, ' lord of the soul ' (Pasu). 2. The Soul called Pasu, 
 'an animal.' 3. Matter called Pasa, 'a fetter.' The soul 
 ■".hich belongs to the Lord as to a master, is bound by matter 
 as a beast (pasu) is by a fetter ; and of course the great aim 
 of the Saiva philosophy is to set it free and restore it to its 
 rightful owner. These doctrines have evidently much in com- 
 mon with the theistic Sahkhya. 
 
 Another Saiva sect, called Pasupatas, already noticed (p. 59), 
 seem to be connected with the preceding much as the Madhva 
 is with the Ramanuja sect ; for instead of affirming the sepa- 
 rate existence of three entities they are content to distinguish 
 between two — Pati and Pasu. The former (Pati) is the Lord 
 (Isvara), the cause and creator (karta) of all things, the latter 
 is the effect (karya) or that which is created and wholly 
 dependent on the cause. The Pasupatas try to induce ecstatic 
 union with their lord by singing, dancing, and gesticulations. 
 
 I propose deferring to a subsequent chapter a description 
 of the principal Saiva temples visited by me. Perhaps, how- 
 ever, a brief account of the ceremonies I saw performed at 
 a Linga shrine near Bombay may fitly be introduced here. 
 
 It has been already stated that on ordinary occasions the 
 form of worship consists in simply pouring water over the 
 Linga and offering Bilva leaves (see p. 68). On great festi- 
 vals a more complicated ceremonial is observed. In the year 
 1877 I visited the temple dedicated to Siva at Walkesvar,
 
 90 Saivism. Saiva Ceremonies. 
 
 near Bombay, on the morning after the Siva-rat (rat = ratri) or 
 fast kept in honour of the god. The Linga shrine there is 
 not large, and the symbol is not too sacred to be exposed 
 to observation. I was permitted, in fact, to stand close to 
 the entrance of the small sanctuary and to note down all I 
 witnessed. In the centre of the shrine was the Linga, a plain 
 upright stone, which on the occasion of the Siva-rat cere- 
 mony was covered with a pile of Bilva (Bll^) leaves. Near 
 it there were several high candlesticks with lights kept con- 
 tinually burning. Behind, in a niche, was the image of Siva's 
 wife ParvatI, which on the occasion of my visit was loaded 
 with sacred flowers resembling marigolds. In front, looking 
 into the sanctuary, was the image of a bull made of brass ; 
 fhe bull being Siva's vehicle, and, like the Liriga, symbolical 
 of reproductive energy. Above the upright stone was hang- 
 ing a large vase full of water. It had a perforation in its 
 lowest part through which the liquid trickled out, drop by 
 drop, falling at regular intervals on the symbol under- 
 neath. When I asked a bystander the meaning of this con- 
 stant dripping, he replied with much naivete, ' Holy water 
 from the Ganges is falling on the head of God.' No further 
 explanation appeared to him to be needed. In front of the 
 porch before the door of the sanctuary were three long rows 
 of bells, and above them a line of svastikas or sacred crosses- 
 interspersed with trees and figures of elephants, and over all 
 the hood of a cobra snake. Above the door itself was the 
 image of Siva's son Ganesa. 
 
 Outside the shrine, on the morning of my visit, stood a row 
 of male worshippers (three or four women standing near), and 
 in front of them a priest, holding a tray of Bilva leaves, sup- 
 
 ^ The Bilva, corrupted into Bll, is the ^gle Marmelos, a very astrin- 
 gent plant. 
 
 The Svastika mark is an auspicious symbol with four arms in the 
 form of a Greek cross, the termination of each arm being bent round in 
 the direction of the sun. See note i, p. 104.
 
 Saivism. Saiva Ceremonies, 9 1 
 
 posed to possess cooling properties grateful to the god Siva. 
 Some of these the priest placed in the hands of each wor- 
 shipper, at the same time muttering prayers and texts. Next 
 he dipped his finger in a vase of holy water and touched the 
 two eyes and breasts of each. To me, a spectator, it seemed 
 exactly as if he were making the sign of a cross on their 
 bodies. Then each of the worshippers heaped the leaves 
 received from the priest on the head of the bull. I noticed 
 that some also besprinkled it with saffron (kurikuma) powder, 
 which they purchased from a man standing near. 
 
 This preliminary ceremony ended, all entered the shrine, 
 and after ringing the bells at the entrance, prostrated them- 
 selves before the central symbol, touching the ground with 
 their foreheads. Their next act was to pile more Bilva 
 leaves on the stone symbol. Then taking small lotas of holy 
 water, they poured abundance of the sacred liquid over both 
 leaves and symbol. All the worshippers then seated them- 
 selves in a circle round the central stone while the priest 
 lighted lamps and waved them before it. Every now and 
 then a fresh worshipper entered the shrine, ringing one of the 
 bells at the door before entering. Moreover, in the shrine 
 there was a constant ringing of small portable bells and clap- 
 ping of hands, as if to draw the attention of the deity wor- 
 shipped to the prayers muttered by his worshippers, while a 
 number of priests in another part of the sanctuary intoned 
 texts and chanted hymns in chants very like Gregorian. 
 
 Outside the shrine, on one side, sat a nearly naked ascetic, 
 with long matted hair coiled round and round into a high 
 peak, his face and body covered with white ashes. On the 
 other side sat a Brahman with a little wooden table before 
 him, on which was a lota of holy water, several implements 
 of worship, and a copy of one of the Puranas or ancient 
 sacred scriptures. He had three white streaks on his fore- 
 head and the same on his shoulders to denote his devotion 
 to Siva. Hanging over his left shoulder and under his right
 
 92 Saivism. Saiva Ceremonies. 
 
 arm was the sacred cord of three coils of cotton — the mark 
 of his second birth— and his right hand was inserted in a 
 Gomukhl or bag. I asked what he was doing. ' He is 
 counting the beads of his rosary,' said a bystander, ' and each 
 time he tells a bead he repeats one of the 1008 names of the 
 god Siva, but this operation must on no account be seen, and 
 so the hand and rosary are concealed in the bag.' 
 
 No doubt he was muttering to himself, but in so low a tone 
 that no sound was audible ; and his eyes were intently fixed, as 
 if in profound meditation, which neither my presence nor any- 
 thing passing around appeared to distract for a single instant. 
 
 Another devotee was also seated cross-legged outside the 
 entrance to the shrine, whose intoning of one of the Siva- 
 puranas and muttering of prayers ( japa) was audible to every 
 one. He had before him a low wooden table, on which was 
 a Rudraksha rosary (see p. 82), a Lihga-purana, a little 
 metal saucer of rice, a small lota of holy water on a three- 
 legged stand, a little spoon, a heap of Bilva leaves, a sacred 
 conch-shell (sankha) — sometimes blown like a horn or used as 
 a Saiva symbol, though usually appropriated to Vishnu — 
 three green mangoes, a small bell, a leaf full of dates, and a 
 little bag containing the Vibhuti or white ashes for marking 
 his forehead with the three Saiva streaks. While I was 
 taking this catalogue he took no notice of my proceedings, 
 but continued muttering his prayers with intense earnestness 
 as if quite abstracted from the world around him. 
 
 Though greatly interested in all I was allowed to witness, 
 I came away sick at heart. No one could be present at such 
 a scene without feeling depressed by the thought that, not- 
 withstanding all our efforts for the extension of education 
 and the diffusion of knowledge, we have as yet done little to 
 loosen the iron grip of idolatry and superstition on the masses 
 of the people. Indeed it would be easy to show that other 
 forms of Siva-worship are characterized by superstitious ob- 
 servances of a still lower type. Turn we, for example, to the
 
 Saivism. Saiva Cei^emonies. 93 
 
 ceremonies performed at the great Saiva temple of Bhu- 
 vanesvara in Orissa. These are so unique that I may be 
 pardoned for giving some idea of them before concluding 
 this chapter. My authority is Dr. Rajendralala Mitra, who 
 has described the ceremonial in the second volume of his 
 work on Orissa. Siva is worshipped at that particular locality 
 under the form of a large uncarved block or slab of granite, 
 about eight feet long, partly buried in the ground, partly 
 apparent above the soil to the height of about eight inches. 
 The block is believed to be a Lifiga of the Svayambhu class 
 (see p. 69), and is surrounded by a rim, supposed, of course, 
 to represent the female organ (Yoni). The daily worship con- 
 sists of no less than twenty-two ceremonial acts. 
 
 (i) At the first appearance of dawn bells are rung to rouse 
 the deity from his slumbers ; (2) a lamp with many wicks is 
 waved in front of the stone ; (3) the god's teeth are cleaned 
 by pouring water and rubbing a stick about a foot long 
 on the stone ; (4) the deity is washed and bathed by empty- 
 ing several pitchers of water on the stone ; (5) the god is 
 dressed by putting clothes on the stone ; (6) the first break- 
 fast is offered, consisting of grain, sweetmeats, curd, and 
 cocoanuts ; (7) the god has his principal breakfast, when 
 cakes and more substantial viands are served ; (8) a kind of 
 little lunch is offered ; (9) the god has his regular lunch ; 
 (10) the mid-day dinner is served, consisting of curry, rice, 
 pastry, cakes, cream, etc., while a priest waves a many- 
 flamed lamp and burns incense before the stone ; (11) strains 
 of noisy discordant music rouse the deity from his afternoon 
 sleep at 4 P.M., the sanctuary having been closed for the pre- 
 ceding four hours; (12) sweetmeats are offered; (13) the 
 afternoon bath is administered ; (14) the god is dressed as 
 in the morning; (15) another meal is served; (16) another 
 bath is administered ; (17) the full-dress ceremony takes 
 place, when fine costly vestments, yellow flowers, and per- 
 fumery are placed on the stone; (18) another offering of
 
 94 Saivism. Saiva Ceremonies. 
 
 food follows; (19) after an hour's interval the regular supper 
 is served ; (20) five masks ^ and a Damaru are brought in and 
 oblations made to them ; (21) waving of lights (arti ; Sanskrit, 
 arati) is performed before bedtime ; (22) a bedstead is brought 
 into the sanctuary and the god composed to sleep. 
 
 Of course the offerings are ultimately eaten by the priests 
 and attendants, the superfluity being sold. 
 
 This brief summary of a tedious series of ceremonies must 
 conclude our account of Saivism. The Bhuvanesvara cere- 
 monial seems to be an imitation of the forms of worship 
 offered to the images of Krishna. The usual Saiva services, 
 though certainly marked by degrading superstitious observ- 
 ances, have the merit of being exceedingly simple. 
 
 It is satisfactory to find that many enlightened Brahmans 
 in the present day are striving by their writings to expose 
 the absurdities of idol-offerings. In a Gujarat! work called 
 Agama-prakasa (p. 162^) the following sentiment occurs: 
 ' When one remembers the greatness of the perfect God who 
 is Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss, how can any idea be 
 formed of offering food and oblations to such a Being ? ' 
 
 The author of the same work in expressing his disgust at 
 the practices of the Aghora-panthls (mentioned at p. 87 of 
 this chapter) states that their number is happily decreasing^. 
 Yet many are still to be found who believe they are pro- 
 pitiating Siva not by worship, but by feeding on filth and 
 animal excreta of all kinds. He asserts that occasional 
 instances occur of fanatical members of the sect eating corpses 
 stolen from Muhammadan burial-grounds ; and that the head 
 of the Aghorls near Siddhapur subsists on scorpions, lizards, and 
 loathsome insects left to putrefy in a dead-man's skull (p. 7). 
 
 ^ Intended, I presume, to represent Siva's five faces (p. 79), which may 
 possibly be connected with the five elements ; as to the Damaru, see p. 81. 
 
 "^ Given to me by Rao Bahadur Gopal Hari Deshmukh at Ahmedabad 
 and written by himself. 
 
 In the whole course of my travels I only met with one Aghorl— a 
 disgusting creature who accosted me at Benares.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. Four Sects. 
 
 The preceding chapters of this work will, I trusty have 
 made it clear that, in respect of religious belief, the Hindus 
 of the present day may be broadly divided into three principal 
 classes'', namely, (i) Smartas, (3) Saivas, (3) Vaishnavas. 
 
 The first class believe that man's spirit is identical with 
 the one infinite Spirit (Atma, Brahma 2) which is the sub- 
 stratum of the Universe and only cognizable through internal 
 meditation and self-communion. They regard that Spirit as 
 the highest object of all religious knowledge and aspiration. 
 They are also believers in the Tri-murti ; that is, in the three 
 personal gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — with their train of 
 
 ^ These, of course, are capable of subdivision. 
 
 ^ It is worthy of note that Atman (which is the earlier word for the 
 one Spirit of the Universe) is masculine, while Brahman, the later word, 
 is neuter. The etymology of Atman is doubtful. Some derive it from 
 at, to move ; others from ah, connected with aham, I ; others from vd, 
 to blow as the wind ; and others (as we have seen) from an, to breathe 
 (compare p. 20). No doubt atman was originally the breath of life — the 
 breath that animates the Universe and man's living soul — the power in 
 which and by which man lives, and moves, and has his being. In the 
 well-known hymn Rig-veda I. 115. i, the Sun (Suryah) — interpreted by 
 advanced Pandits to mean the Supreme Being— is called the Soul (Atman) 
 of the Universe (that is, of all that moves and is immovable) ; and in the 
 TaittirlyaAraiiyaka, VIII. i, the ethereal element called Akasa (supposed 
 to fill and pervade the Universe and to be the vehicle of life) is said to 
 be produced from Atman. The name Brahman, which is the most usual 
 name for the one Spirit of the Universe in later writings, was at first 
 connected with the spiritual power inherent in the Vedic hymns and 
 prayers. The Veda itself is often called Brahma, and described as the 
 breath (uddhvasita) of the Supreme.
 
 96 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 
 
 subordinate deities— but only as coequal manifestations of 
 the one eternal impersonal Spirit, and as destined ultimately 
 to be reabsorbed into that Spirit and so disappear. This, I 
 repeat, is the only orthodox form of Brahmanical religious 
 thought, and those who follow it claim Safikara (see p. S^) 
 as their chief leader and authoritative guide. It is a form of 
 Pantheism, but differs widely from that of European philoso- 
 phical systems. 
 
 The second great religious class of the Hindus consists 
 of the Saivas, who, as we have seen, are believers in one god 
 Siva, not only as the Dissolver and Regenerator, but as the 
 one supreme personal God, the one self-existent Being, iden- 
 tified with the one Spirit of the Universe, and therefore not 
 liable to lose his personality by reabsorption into that Spirit. 
 
 The third class consists of the Vaishnavas, who are believers 
 in the one personal god Vishnu, not only as the Preseiver, but 
 as above every other god, including Siva. It should be noted, 
 too, that both Saivas and Vaishnavas agree in attributing an 
 essential form and qualities to the Supreme Being. Their one 
 God, in fact, exists in an eternal body, which is antecedent to 
 his earthly incarnations and survives all such incarnations. 
 
 Vaishnavism then is, like Saivism, a form of Monotheism. 
 It is the setting aside of the triune equality of Brahma, Siva, 
 and Vishnu in favour of one god Vishnu (often called Hari), 
 especially as manifested in his two human incarnations Rama 
 and Krishna. ' Brahma and Siva,' said the great Vaishnava 
 teacher Madhva, ' decay with their decaying bodies ; greater 
 than these is the undecaying Hari.' And here, at the outset 
 of an important part of our subject, I must declare my belief 
 that Vaishnavism, notwithstanding the gross polytheistic 
 superstitions and hideous idolatry to which it gives rise, is 
 the only real religion of the Hindu peoples, and has more 
 common ground with Christianity than any other form of 
 non-Christian faith. Vedism was little more than reveren- 
 tial awe of the forces of Nature and a desire to propitiate
 
 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 97 
 
 them. Brahmanism was simply an Indian variety of panthe- 
 istic philosophy. Buddhism, which was a product of Brah- 
 manism, and in many points very similar to Brahmanism, 
 gained many followers by its disregard of caste- distinctions 
 and its offers of deliverance from the fires of passion and 
 miseries of life ; but, in its negations and denials of the 
 existence of both a Supreme and human spirit, was no 
 religion at all ; and in this respect never commended itself 
 generally to the Indian mind. Saivism, though, like Vaish- 
 navism, it recognized the eternal personality of one Supreme 
 Being, was too severe and cold a system to exert exclusive 
 influence over the great majority of the Hindu populations. ^ 
 Vaishnavism alone possesses the essential elements of a 
 genuine religion. For there can be no true religion without 
 personal devotion to a personal God — without trusting Him, 
 without loving Him, without praying to Him, and indeed 
 without obeying Him. 
 
 Who can doubt that a God of such a character was needed 
 for India, — a God who could satisfy the yearnings of the 
 heart for a religion of faith, love and prayer rather than of 
 knowledge and works ? Such a God was believed to be 
 represented by Vishnu — the God who evinced his sympathy 
 with mundane suffering, his interest in human affairs, and 
 his activity for the welfare of all created things by frequent 
 descents (avatara) on earth, not only in the form of men, 
 but of animals, and even of plants and stones. 
 
 Hence teachers arose (among whom was Sandilya the 
 author of the Bhakti-sutras) who insisted on the doctrine of 
 salvation by faith (Bhakti) — a doctrine dimly adumbrated in ^^ 
 portions of the Veda, and fully propounded in the Bhagavad- 
 glta and Bhagavata-purana. 
 
 Intense faith, then, in a personal god is the chief charac- 
 teristic of Vaishnavism. Of course it is merely the intensity 
 of this faith that distinguishes the worship of Vishnu from 
 that of Siva ; for both Vaishnavism and Saivism agree in dis- 
 
 H
 
 98 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 
 
 senting from the vague impersonal Pantheism of Brahmanical 
 philosophy, whose one God is the substratum of everything 
 and himself nothing. Nor can we wonder that devotion to 
 Vishnu in his two human incarnations, Rama and Krishna, 
 became the most popular religion of India. These two heroes 
 were of the kingly or Kshatriya caste, and greatly beloved as 
 popular leaders. It is usual to assert that the Brahmans are 
 the highest objects of worship and honour among the Hindfls. 
 This is not the case among the countless adherents of the 
 Vaishnava religion. The mass of the people of India exalt 
 the divine right of kings and the divine right of the govern- 
 ment of the day above all other forms of power, and worship 
 every great and heroic leader as an incarnation of the deity. 
 
 Yet, with all its popularity, Vaishnavism is not an example 
 of a house at peace within itself. It has split up into various 
 subdivisions, which display no little of the odium theolo- 
 gicum in their opposition to each other. Possibly antagonism 
 of some kind is a necessary condition of religious vitality. 
 At any rate in India all religious systems inevitably break 
 up into sects, and seem to gather strength and vigour from 
 the process. 
 
 It is not uncommon, indeed, to hear it asserted that 
 HindiJism is rapidly falling to pieces, and destined soon to 
 collapse altogether. One reason given for the doom sup- 
 posed to be impending over its future is, that it is not a 
 proselyting religion. And the truth certainly is that no 
 stranger can be admitted as a convert to Hinduism either by 
 making any particular confession of faith or by going through 
 any prescribed forms. The only acknowledged mode of 
 admission is by birth. To become a Hindu one must be 
 born a Hindu. Yet Hindiiism is continually growing within 
 itself. In its tenacity of life and power of expansion it may 
 be compared to the sacred banian-tree, whose thousand 
 ramifications, often issuing from apparently lifeless stems, 
 find their way into walls, undermine old buildings, or them-
 
 Vaisknavism. General Characteristics. 99 
 
 selves descend to the ground, take root in the soil, and form 
 fresh centres of growth and vitality. 
 
 And it cannot be doubted that one great conservative 
 element of Hinduism is the many-sidedness of Vaishnavism. 
 For Vaishnavism is, like Buddhism, the most tolerant of sys- 
 tems. It is always ready to accommodate itself to other 
 creeds, and delights in appropriating to itself the religious 
 ideas of all the nations of the world. It admits of every 
 form of internal development. It has no organized hier- 
 archy under one supreme head, but it may have any number 
 of separate associations under separate leaders, who are ever 
 banding themselves together for the extension of spiritual 
 supremacy over ever-increasing masses of the population. 
 It has no formal confession of faith, but it has an elastic 
 creed capable of adaptation to all varieties of opinion and 
 practice. It has no one bible — no one collection of writings 
 in one compact volume, like our own Holy Bible, with lines 
 of teaching converging towards one great central truth — but 
 it has a series of sacred books, called Puranas, each of which 
 professes to be a direct revelation from the Supreme Being, 
 and each of which may be used as an authority for the 
 establishment of almost any kind of doctrine. It can, like 
 Brahmanism, be pantheistic, monotheistic, dualistic, polythe- 
 istic. It can, like Saivism, enjoin asceticism, self-mortifi- 
 cation, and austerity. It can, like Saktism, give the reins to 
 self-indulgence, licentiousness, and carnality. It can, like 
 Buddhism, preach liberty, equality, fraternity; or inculcate 
 universal benevolence, and avoidance of injury to others. It 
 can proclaim Buddha or any other teacher or remarkable 
 man to be an incarnation of Vishnu. It can even set its 
 face against idolatry \ and can look with sympathizing con- 
 descension on Christianity itself, or hold it to be a develop- 
 
 ^ There can be no doubt that the anti-idolatrous sect founded by Kablr 
 (to be afterwards noticed) grew out of Vaishnavism. 
 
 H a
 
 100 
 
 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 
 
 ment of its own theory of religion suited to Europeans. It 
 is owing to this all-comprehensiveness of the Vaishnava 
 system that any new doctrine or any new view of old 
 doctrines may be promulgated by any man of originality 
 and ability, with an almost certain prospect of success. And 
 indeed the religious credulity of the inhabitants of India in- 
 creases in proportion to their unbehef in all political and social 
 innovations. Broken up as they are into a multitude of sepa- 
 rate peoples, few in that country have any desire for national 
 union or intellectual progress. Few wish to leave the path 
 trodden by their forefathers, or de.'iate from the old indurated 
 ruts. The masses of the various populations can neither read 
 nor write. They care nothing for science. History, biogra- 
 phy, and political economy are to them a terra incognita. 
 Their whole desire is to be left undisturbed in their time- 
 honoured customs, family traditions, and caste usages. 
 
 One only subject has power to rouse them from their 
 normal condition of mental torpor. That subject is religion. 
 Religion (in close connexion with caste) is ever present to 
 a Hindu's mind. It colours all his ideas. It runs through 
 every fibre of his being. It is the very Alpha and Omega 
 of his whole earthly career. He is born religious, and dies 
 religious. He is religious in his eating and drinking, in 
 his sleeping and waking, in his dressing and undressing, in 
 his rising up and sitting down, in his work and amusement. 
 Nay, religion attends him in antenatal ceremonies long before 
 his birth, and follows him in endless offerings for the good of 
 his soul long after death. Let any one appear as an earnest 
 preacher of religion in any assemblage of ordinary Hindus — 
 let him announce that he has come as a messenger from 
 heaven, or even that he is prepared to work miracles in attes- 
 tation of the truth of his mission, and he is sure of being 
 believed. And if to his other qualifications he adds a 
 character for self-denial and asceticism, he cannot fail to 
 attract disciples; for nowhere in the world are family ties
 
 Vaishiavism. General Characteristics. loi 
 
 so binding as in India, and yet nowhere is such homage 
 paid to their abandonment. The influence of any new reli- 
 gious leader (acarya) who is known to live a life of absti- 
 nence, bodily mortification, and suppression of the passions, 
 is sure to become unbounded, either for good or evil. 
 
 Probably, during the leader's lifetime, he is able to restrain 
 the enthusiasm of his converts within reasonable limits. It 
 is only when he dies that they are apt to push his opinions 
 to extremes never intended by himself. Eventually they 
 develop his teaching into an overgrown unhealthy system, 
 the internal rottenness of which disgusts all sensible men, 
 even among its own adherents. Then some new teacher 
 arises to re-establish purity of doctrine. He is, of course, 
 in his turn a man of earnestness and energy, with a strong 
 will, and great powers of persuasion. He collects around 
 him with equal facility a number of followers, and those in 
 their turn carry his teaching to preposterous lengths. 
 
 Hence the condition of Vaishnavism, which depends far 
 more than Saivism on personal leadership and influence, is 
 one of perpetual decay and revival, collapse and recovery. 
 Its fluctuations resemble those of a vast ocean heaving this 
 way and that in continual flux and reflux. 
 
 It is doubtless true that all human systems are liable to 
 similar alternations. But in India every tendency of humanity 
 seems intensified and exaggerated. No country in the world 
 is so conservative in its traditions, yet no country has under- 
 gone so many religious changes and vicissitudes. To follow 
 out in detail the whole drama of Vaishnavism would require 
 volumes. Even the first act presents us with a succession 
 of shifting scenes. 
 
 In all likelihood the primary idea of a god Vishnu (a name 
 derived from root vish, ' to pervade '), permeating and infusing 
 his essence into material objects, was originally connected with 
 the personification of the infinite heavenly space. We know 
 that in the Rig-veda Vishnu is a form of the ever-moving
 
 102 
 
 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics, 
 
 solar orb, and in a well-known hymn (I. 22, 16, 17), still 
 commonly used by the Brahmans, he is described as striding 
 through the seven worlds^ in three steps, and enveloping the 
 universe with the dust of his beams. A later work, the Aitareya- 
 brahmana of the Rig-veda, opens with the following remark- 
 able statement : ' Fire (Agni) has the lowest place among the 
 gods, Vishnu the highest ; between them stand all the other 
 deities.' (Haug's edition, i.) 
 
 Elsewhere the god Vishnu is connected with water. In 
 Manu's Law-book (I. 10) the Supreme Spirit is called Nara- 
 yana, as moving on the waters ; in harmony with which idea 
 Vishnu is often represented in sculptures, images, and pictures 
 as Narayana in human form, reposing on the thousand- 
 headed serpent and floating on the ocean. 
 
 In the later mythology of Brahmanism, when the doctrine 
 of the triad of personal gods (Tri-murti) had been fully deve- 
 loped and Vishnu had taken his place as the second person of 
 that triad, he has a less distinctly marked human personality, 
 antecedent to his incarnations, than the god Siva. 
 
 To write a biographical account of the god Vishnu's life 
 in his own heavenly abode, like the life of his rival Siva 
 (p. 78), would be difficult. The truth is that the development 
 of his human personality, which is really greater than that of 
 any other god in the Hindu pantheon, must be looked for on 
 earth in the forms of Rama and Krishna. 
 
 Nevertheless in his antecedent condition as Vishnu, this 
 deity has a material character and individuality of his own 
 quite irrespective of his incarnations. He is described as 
 living in Vaikuntha — a locality, as we have seen, more inac- 
 
 ' There are seven lower regions, viz. Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala, 
 Talatala, Mahatala, and Patala ; above which are the seven Lokas or 
 worlds, called Bhur (the earth), Bhuvar, Svar, Mahah, Janali, Tapah, and 
 Brahma or Satya. Sometimes the first three of these, the earth (Bhu), 
 atmosphere (Bhuvar), and heavens (Svar), are supposed to comprehend 
 all the worlds.
 
 Vaisknavism. General Characteidstics, 103 
 
 cessible and less easy to identify with any definite spot on 
 earth than Siva's abode Kailasa (p. 79). He has a wife 
 Lakshml or Sri, the goddess of fortune and beauty, who 
 is fabled to have sprung, with other precious things, from the 
 froth of the ocean when churned by the gods and demons 
 (see p. 108). And as Vishnu in his non-Avatara condition 
 lives a life which has fewer features in common with humanity 
 than that of Siva, so is his wife Lakshml less human than 
 Siva's wife Parvatl. In fact the more human side of both 
 the god and goddess is reserved for their descents in human 
 form — Vishnu as Rama and Krishna, Lakshml as Sita and 
 Radha. Nevertheless some details of Vishnu's separate per- 
 sonality as distinct from his Avataras may be gathered from 
 the Puranas. For example, we are told that he has a pecu- 
 liar auspicious mark (SrI-vatsa) on his breast^. He has 
 four arms, and holds a symbol in each of his four hands ; 
 namely, a wheel or circular weapon (cakra) called Sudarsana, 
 a conch-shell''^ (sahkha) called Pancajanya, a club (gada) 
 called Kaumodaki, and a lotus-flower (padma). Of these the 
 circular symbol may possibly have been borrowed from 
 Buddhism, If so, it was originally significant of the wheel 
 of the Buddhistic law, or of the cosmical cycles peculiar to 
 
 ' Described as a peculiar twist or curl of the hair. In one form of 
 Krishna (as Vithoba in the Maratha country) his breast has a foot-mark, 
 beUeved to be the indelible impress of the blow from, the sage Bhvigu's 
 foot (see the story at p. 45). 
 
 ^ One account describes the sacred conch-shell as thrown up by the 
 sea when churned by the gods and demons (see p. 108). Another account 
 makes Vishnu's shell consist of the bones of the demon Pancajana. 
 According to the Vishnu-purana (V. 21), 'this demon lived in the form 
 of a conch-shell under the ocean. Krishna (Vishnu) plunged into the 
 waters, killed him, took the shell which constituted his bones, and ever 
 afterwards used it for a horn. When sounded it fills the demon-hosts 
 with dismay, animates the gods, and annihilates unrighteousness.' 
 Vishnu is believed to take such delight in this shell, that a small shell 
 of the same species is used in pouring holy water over his idols and 
 symbols in the performance of his worship. It is also frequently branded 
 on the arms of his worshippers.
 
 I04 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 
 
 that system. Or, bearing in mind Vishnu's connection with 
 the Sun, we may reasonably regard it as emblematical of 
 the Sun's circular course in the heavens i. In the later my- 
 thology it is supposed to represent a missile weapon hurled 
 by Vishnu, like a quoit, at the demons who are ever plotting 
 evil against gods and men, and with whom he is always at 
 war 2. Similarly the conch-shell is blown by him like a 
 trumpet in his battles ; its miraculous sound filling his ene- 
 mies with terror and helping him to secure victory. The 
 club is also used in Vishnu's conflicts with his demon-foes. 
 Moreover he is armed with a wonderful bow called Sarnga 
 and a sword Nandaka. He has a jewel on his wrist named 
 Syamantaka, and another on his breast called Kaustubha. 
 When he has occasion to move through space he is borne 
 on the mythical bird Garuda^, closely related to the Sun and 
 compared to an eagle, but represented as semi-human in 
 form and character, with a bird-like face. Possibly this 
 Garuda may be a personification of the sky or ethereal ele- 
 ment which supports Vishnu — identified with the Sun — one 
 
 ^ The Svastika mark is a kind of curtailed form of this wheel, and 
 may be supposed to consist of four spokes and a portion of the circum- 
 ference, left to denote the direction in which it must turn to symbolize 
 the Sun's course in the heavens. This conjecture, which I formed long 
 ago, is confirmed by Mr. Edw. Thomas's article in the Numismatic 
 Chronicle. 
 
 - The names of some of the chief demons thus destroyed by Vishnu 
 (or Krishna identified with Vishnu) are Madhu, Kansa, Bana, Bali, 
 Mura, etc. 
 
 ^ In some parts of Southern India Garuda is an object of worship. 
 I frequently came across images of him in the galleries of Vaishnava 
 temples. He is the son of Kasyapa and Vinata, and hence Aruna the 
 Dawn, regarded as charioteer of the Sun, is his younger brother. Most 
 of the Hindu deities are described as associated with or attended by 
 their own favourite animals, which they sometimes use as vehicles 
 (vahana). Brahma is attended by a goose or swan (hansa) ; Siva by 
 a bull (see p. 8i) ; Karttikeya or Skanda by a peacock ; Indra by an 
 elephant ; Yama by a buffalo (mahisha) ; Kama, ' god of love,' by a 
 parrot ; Ganesa by a rat ; Agni by a ram ; Varuna by a fish ; Durga by 
 a tiger. Serpents are associated with both Siva and Vishnu.
 
 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 105 
 
 of whose names is "^ Air-borne' (Vayu-vahana). It is note- 
 worthy that Garuda, h'ke the Krishna form of Vishnu, is 
 the destroyer of serpents which typify sin and evil (compare 
 p. 113). Yet serpents have also their contrary character, and 
 even divine attributes ; for at the dissolution of the Universe 
 and between the intervals of creation, Vishnu, as the Su- 
 preme Being (see p. T02), reclines in profound repose on the 
 thousand-headed serpent Sesha — typical of infinity — while his 
 wife Lakshml chafes his feet, and out of his navel grows the 
 lotus which supports Brahma, the active agent in repro- 
 ducing the world. Finally, Vishnu has the river Ganges 
 issuing from one of his feet, whence it flows through the sky 
 before it falls on the head of the god Siva (see p. 80). 
 
 And here it may be noted that the devotional enthusiasm 
 of Vishnu's worshippers has endowed him with a thousand 
 names and epithets ^ This is exactly eight less than the 
 Saivas have lavished on Siva, and, considering the rivalry 
 between the followers of the two deities, must be regarded as 
 a modest allowance. The repetition of any or all of these 
 names (nama-sariklrtana), either with or without the help of 
 a rosary, constitutes an important part of daily worship, and 
 is effective of vast stores of religious merit. They are all 
 enumerated with those of Siva in the Anusasana-parva of 
 the Maha-bharata (1144-1266, 6950-7056)2. 
 
 In comparing the two catalogues it is interesting to observe 
 
 ^ Of course the greater number of the names are simply epithets. 
 The Muhammadans reckon ninety-nine names and epithets of God, and 
 make the repetition (zikr) of them a work of enormous religious merit. 
 In the same way the Jews attach great efficacy to the repetition of the 
 Divine epithets. Christianity reckons, I believe, about ninety epithets 
 of Christ, but no Christian thinks of repeating them as a meritorious 
 exercise. Aristotle, I think, enumerates more than a hundred names 
 and epithets applicable to Zeus ; but the Greeks and Romans do not 
 appear to have believed in any religious advantage attending their 
 mechanical recital. 
 
 - I notice several repetitions of the same name in the catalogue ; for 
 instance, Aditya, Sthanu, Srashtri.
 
 io6 Vaishnavism. General Characteristics. 
 
 how many names are common to both deities. Vishnu, 
 especially, has a large number of names which he shares 
 with the rival god, and is even called Siva 'the Auspicious;' 
 while Siva is called Vishnu, the Pervader, each in fact usurp- 
 ing the functions of the other. Moreover, to both deities is 
 allotted an ample assortment of the usual titles expressive 
 of almighty power— such as all-creating, all-seeing, all-know- 
 ing, infinite^ self-existent, all-pervading — mixed up with many 
 which are unworthy of beings claiming divine homage. Vishnu 
 has certainly fewer objectionable epithets than Siva. 
 
 Many names of both gods are simply taken from those of 
 the Sun, Fire, and Wind ; and many are expressive of lofty 
 divine attributes — once believed to be the peculiar property 
 of Christian theology. For example, Vishnu is called ' the 
 holy Being' (Pavitram, also applied to Siva), ' the True' 
 (Satyah), ' the Pure Spirit' (or ' having a pure spirit,' Putatma), 
 'the Way' (Margah), 'the Truth' (Tattvam), 'the Life' (Pra- 
 nah), 'the Physician' (Vaidyah), 'the World's Medicine' 
 ( Aushadham or Bheshajam Jagatah), ' the Father' (Pita), and 
 even ' the Holy of the Holy' (Pavitram Pavitranam)^ — an 
 epithet which it is difficult to reconcile with some of the 
 actions of his Krishna manifestation. 
 
 On the other hand, Siva is called by the following names 
 in addition to those already mentioned at pp. 81-85: — the 
 Mother (Mata, as well as Pita, the Father), Extinction 
 (Nirvanam), the Year-causer (Samvatsara-karah), the great 
 Illusionist (Mahamayah), the Night-walker (Nisac'arah), the 
 Hidden Fire (Badava-mukhah, ' Mare-faced ' ), the White One 
 
 ^ Other remarkable names and epithets of Vishnu are the following: — 
 'the Bridge' (Setuh), 'the Guide' (Neta), 'the Air'(Sarvali), 'the Refuge' 
 (Saranam), 'the Friend' (Suhrid), 'the Affectionate' (Vatsalah), 'the 
 Benefactor' (Priya-krit), 'the Witness' (Sakshl), 'the Patient' (Sahish- 
 nuh), 'the Peace-giver' (Santi-dah), 'the Authority' (Pramanam), 'the 
 Mysterious one' (Guhyah), 'the Undying-bodied one' (Amri'ta-vapuh), 
 'the Holy' (Brahmanyah), 'the Winkless' (Animishah), 'the Desired 
 one ' (Ishtah), ' the Who?' (Kah), 'the What' (Kim).
 
 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 107 
 
 (Suklah), the Enraged (Mahakrodhah), the Root (Midam), the 
 Ill-formed (Virupah), the Mule (Haya-gardabhih, mixture of 
 the qualities of horse and ass ?) 
 
 Again, some of Vishnu's designations as Krishna, such as 
 Partha-sarathi, 'Charioteer of Arjuna' (under which title he 
 is worshipped at Madras), and Venkatesa, ' Lord of the hill 
 Veiikata,' are, like those of Siva, merely local epithets ; and 
 some (as for example Vithoba, worshipped at Pandharpur) 
 are the result of his identification with particular local heroes. 
 
 I need scarcely repeat that the chief distinguishing cha- 
 racteristic of the god Vishnu is his condescending to infuse 
 his essence into animals and men with the object of deliver- 
 ing his worshippers from certain special dangers or otherwise 
 benefiting mankind. The peculiar nature of these so-called 
 incarnations or descents (Avatara), and the vast difference 
 between the Hindu and Christian idea of incarnation, have 
 been already described (see p. 6'^). In some of the Puranas 
 Vishnu's incarnations are multiplied to the number of twenty- 
 two, twenty-four, or even twenty-eight. But the ten which 
 follow are those most generally known and believed in 
 throughout India : — 
 
 I. The Fish (Matsya). Vishnu is believed to have infused 
 a portion of his essence into the body of a fish to save 
 Manu\ the primeval man and progenitor of the human race, 
 from the universal deluge. This Manu, like Noah, concili- 
 ated the Deity's favour by his piety and austerities in an 
 age of universal depravity. Hence he was miraculously 
 warned of the approaching deluge, and was commanded to 
 build a ship and go on board with the seven Rishis, or 
 patriarchs, and the seeds of all existing things. Manu did 
 so. The flood came, and Vishnu took the form of a vast 
 fish with a horn on its head, to which the ship's cable was 
 
 ^ That is, the Manu of the present period— not to be confounded with 
 Brahma's grandson, the supposed author of the well-known Law-book. 
 The name Manu is from the root man, ' to think.'
 
 io8 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 
 
 fastened. The ship was thus supernaturally drawn along 
 and secured to a high crag till the flood had passed. 
 
 2. The Tortoise (Kurma). Vishnu infused a portion of 
 his essence into the body of an immense tortoise to aid in 
 producing or recovering certain valuable articles, some of 
 which had been lost in the deluge. For this purpose he 
 stationed himself at the bottom of the sea of milk — one of 
 the seven concentric circular seas surrounding the seven 
 concentric circular continents of the earth — that his back 
 might serve as a pivot for the mountain Mandara, around 
 which the gods and demons twisted the great serpent 
 Vasuki. They then stood opposite to each other, and using 
 the snake as a rope and the mountain as a churning-rod, 
 churned the milky ocean violently till, one by one, fourteen 
 inestimably valuable or typical objects emerged \ i. The 
 nectar conferring immortality (Amrita). 2. The physician 
 of the gods and holder of the nectar (Dhanvantari). 3. The 
 goddess of good fortune and beauty, wife of Vishnu (Lakshml 
 or Sri). 4. The goddess of wine (Sura)^. 5. The moon 
 (Candra). 6. The nymph Rambha, celebrated as a kind 
 of prototype of lovely women. 7. A fabulous high-eared 
 horse (Uccaih-sravas), the supposed prototype of the equine 
 race. 8. The miraculous jewel Kaustubha, afterwards appro- 
 priated by Krishna. 9. A celestial tree (Parijata) yielding 
 all desired objects. 10. The cow of plenty (Kama-dhenu 
 or Surabhi), granting all boons. 11. A mythical elephant 
 
 * When I asked any Indian Pandit how it was possible to believe in 
 what to us appears an extravagant fable, I was always told that it was 
 simply allegorical, and only intended to typify the truth that nothing 
 valuable can be produced without extraordinary exertion. 
 
 "^ This is one proof out of many that the drinking of wine and spirits 
 was once not only common in India, but also sanctioned by religion. 
 In Vedic times wine appears to have been preserved in leathern bottles, 
 see Rig-veda I. 191. 10 (Rajendralala Mitra's Essays, VII). Unhappily 
 the sect of Saktas (see the chapter on Saktism) may claim scriptural 
 authority for their orgies, and appeal to the example of their gods Siva 
 and Balarama.
 
 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 109 
 
 (Airavata) — afterwards appropriated by the god Indra — 
 prototype of the elephantine race. 12. A sacred conch-shell 
 (Sankha), afterwards the property of Vishnu (or Krishna), 
 and supposed, when blown as a horn, to insure victory over 
 his enemies (see note, p. 103). 13. A miraculous unerring bow 
 (Dhanus)^. 14. A deadly poison (Visha). 
 
 3. The Boar (Varaha). Vishnu infused a portion of his 
 essence into the body of a huge boar — symbolical of strength 
 — to deliver the world from the power of the demon Hira- 
 nyaksha, who had seized the earth and carried it down into 
 the depths of the ocean. The divine boar dived down into 
 the abyss, and after a contest of a thousand years, slew the 
 monster and brought back the earth to the surface. Another 
 legend represents the earth as completely submerged by the 
 deluge and likely to remain for ever lost in the waters, had 
 not the boar descended into the flood and with his mighty 
 tusks upheaved it from its watery grave and made it fit to be 
 reinhabited. 
 
 4. The Man-lion (Nara-sinha). Vishnu assumed the shape 
 of a creature, half man, half lion, to deliver the world from 
 the tyrant Hiranya-kasipu, who had obtained a boon from 
 Brahma that he should not be slain by either god or man or 
 animal. Hence he became powerful enough to usurp the 
 dominion of the three worlds. He even appropriated the 
 sacrifices intended for the gods and necessary for their sup- 
 port. When his pious son Prahlada praised Vishnu, the 
 tyrant tried to destroy the boy ; but Vishnu appeared sud- 
 denly out of the centre of a pillar in a shape neither god, 
 man, nor animal, and tore Hiranya-kasipu to pieces. 
 
 These first four incarnations are said to have taken place 
 in the first and best (satya) of the four ages of the world. 
 
 ^ Two such bows are mentioned in Hindu mythology, one the property 
 of Siva and the other of Vishnu. It was by bending Siva's bow — which 
 no other merely human suitor was able to do — that Rama won Janaka's 
 daughter Sita (see Ramayana I. 57).
 
 110 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 
 
 5. The Dwarf (Vamana). In the second (Treta) age of 
 the world \ Vishnu infused a portion of his essence into the 
 body of a dwarf to wrest from the tyrant-demon Bali (the 
 analogue of Ravana and Kansa, the two opponents of the 
 Rama and Krishna incarnations respectively) the dominion of 
 the three worlds. The apparently contemptible little dwarf 
 presented himself one day before the Tyrant, and solicited as 
 much land as he could step in three paces. No sooner was 
 his request granted than his form expanded,-and he strode in 
 two steps over heaven and earth, but out of compassion left 
 the lower world in the demon's possession. 
 
 6. Rama with the axe (Parasu-rama). Vishnu infused a 
 portion of his essence into the axe-armed Rama, son of the 
 Brahman Jamadagni and descendant of Bhrigu, in the second 
 age, to prevent the military caste, or Kshatriyas, from tyran- 
 nizing over the Brahmanical. Parasu-rama is said to have 
 cleared the earth twenty-one times of the whole Kshatriya race. 
 
 7. In the seventh descent Vishnu infused half of his essence 
 into the great hero Rama, commonly called Rama-candra, 
 ' the beautiful or moon-like Rama^.' This celebrated hero, 
 who afterwards became an object of worship throughout a 
 great part of India, was believed to have been manifested 
 as an incarnation of Vishnu at the close of the second or 
 Treta age to destroy the tyrant-demon Ravana who reigned 
 in Ceylon. India was never under one monarch, and va. 
 ancient times its kings were simply petty princes and chief- 
 tains, who ruled over districts of more or less extended area, 
 and Oudh (Ayodhya) was probably one of the more powerful 
 principalities. As a historical fact Rama was no doubt one 
 of the four sons of a king of Oudh, named Dasa-ratha, of the 
 so-called Solar race, and therefore a Kshatriya. The real 
 
 ^ This would be the third age reckoning backwards, and is therefore 
 called Treta. 
 
 In paintings he is often represented with a pecuHar greenish com- 
 plexion. The exact significance of c'andra is not clear.
 
 Vaisknavism. Ten Incarnations. 1 1 1 
 
 date of Rama's birth, in the absence of all trustworthy histo- 
 rical records, can only be a matter of the most uncertain 
 conjecture. He is celebrated throughout India as the model 
 son, brother, and husband, who was banished by his father to 
 the Southern forests. There his pattern-wife Sita was carried 
 off by Ravana, the tyrant-king of Ceylon, and recovered by 
 Rama after making a bridge of rocks to the island. He was 
 aided by Hanuman — a powerful chief of one of the aboriginal 
 tribes, poetically compared to monkeys. This story forms 
 the subject of one of the two great Indian Epics — the Rama- 
 yana — and no story in the world has obtained a wider circu- 
 lation and celebrity. Every man, woman, and child in India 
 is familiar with Rama's exploits for the recovery of his wife, 
 insomuch that a common phrase for an ignorant person is 
 ' one who does not know that Sita was Rama's wife.' From 
 Kasmir to Cape Comorin the name of Rama is on every 
 one's lips. All sects revere it, and show their reverence by 
 employing it on all occasions. For example, when friends 
 meet it is common for them to salute each other by utter- 
 ing Ramans name twice. Then no name is more commonly 
 given to children, and no name is more commonly invoked 
 in the hour of death. It is a link of union for all classes, 
 castes, and creeds. And yet it is highly probable that during 
 his lifetime Rama received little more than the usual homage 
 offered to every great, good, and brave man. His apotheosis 
 did not take place till after his death, when he was con- 
 verted into one of the most popular incarnations of Vishnu ; 
 his ally Hanuman also receiving divine honours. 
 
 8. The eighth descent was as Krishna, the dark hero-god; 
 the most popular of all the later deities of India. This 
 descent of Vishnu at the end of the Dvapara or third age 
 of the world, as the eighth son of Vasudeva and DevakI, 
 of the Lunar race of chiefs, was for the destruction of the 
 tyrant Kansa, the representative of the principle of evil— 
 the analogue of Ravana in the previous incarnation.
 
 112 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 
 
 According to some Krishna ought not to be reckoned as 
 one of the ten Avataras or descents of portions of Vishnu's 
 essence ; for he was nothing short of Vishnu's whole essence. 
 Those who hold this doctrine substitute Bala-rama, ' the 
 strong Rama,' an elder son of Vasudeva and DevakI, and 
 therefore elder brother of Krishna, as the eighth incarnation 
 of Vishnu. This Bala-rama is more usually regarded as an 
 incarnation of the great serpent Sesha. He is sometimes 
 called the Indian Hercules, but without any good reason. 
 No wonderful feats of strength are recorded of him, though 
 he wields a formidable weapon in the shape of a plough- 
 share, as well as a pestle-shaped club (musala). He is 
 chiefly remarkable for his love of wine and strong drink, in 
 which, along with his wife RevatI, he frequently indulges 
 to the verge of inebriation. Compare note 2, p. io8, and my 
 Indian Wisdom, p. '^'i,^. 
 
 The details of the later life of Krishna are interwoven with 
 the later portions of the Maha-bharata, but do not belong to 
 the plot, and might be omitted without impairing its unity. 
 He is certainly not the hero of the great epic. He merely 
 appears as a powerful chiefs who takes the side of the real 
 heroes — the Pandavas — and his claims to divine rank are 
 often disputed during the progress of the story. Even since 
 his apotheosis Krishna has always been peculiarly the god 
 of the lower orders, for although of the kingly caste he 
 was brought up among cowherds, cowherdesses, and the 
 families of peasants. His juvenile biography is given with 
 much minuteness of detail in the Bhagavata-purana, from 
 which we learn that Vasudeva of the so-called Lunar race 
 of princes — who probably occupied the part of India now 
 
 ^ Krishna was no doubt a powerful chief of the Yadava tribe, who were 
 probably Rajputs occupying a district of Central India south of Muttra 
 (Mathura) and east of the Jumna. The real date of his birth, though 
 kept as a holy day and holiday throughout a great part of India, cannot 
 be fixed with any more certainty than that of Rama ; but in all proba- 
 bility he lived in more recent times than Rama.
 
 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 113 
 
 called Rajputana^ — had two wives, RohinI and Devakl. The 
 latter had eight sons, of whom the eighth was Krishna. It 
 was predicted that one of the eight would kill Kaosa, chief 
 of Mathura (Muttra), and cousin of Devakl. Kansa therefore 
 imprisoned Vasudeva and his wife, and slew their first six 
 children. Bala-rama, the seventh, was abstracted from De- 
 vaki's womb, transferred to that of Rohini, and so saved. 
 The eighth was Krishna, born with a black skin, and the mark 
 SrI-vatsa on his breast "". His father Vasudeva escaped 
 from Mathura with the child, and, favoured by the gods, 
 found a certain herdsman named Nanda, whose wife had 
 lately had a child. To his care he consigned the infant 
 Krishna. Nanda settled first in Gokula or Vraja, and after- 
 wards in Vrindavana, v/here Krishna and Bala-rama grew up 
 together, roaming in the woods, and joining in the sports of 
 the herdsman's sons and daughters. While still a boy, 
 Krishna gave proof of his divine origin by working a few 
 startling miracles. Thus he destroyed the serpent Kaliya 
 — regarded as a type of sin and evil — by trampling and 
 dancing on his head. He lifted up the mountain-range Go- 
 vardhana on his finger to shelter the herdsmen's wives from 
 the wrath of Indra. Yet in spite of these and other evidences 
 of his supramundane nature and powers, Krishna is described 
 as addicted to very mundane practices. He constantly sported 
 with the Gopis or wives and daughters of the cowherds, of 
 whom eight were his favourites, especially Radha. On attain- 
 ing mature age Krishna migrated to Gujarat, built Dvarika 
 on the coast of that country, and thither transported the in- 
 habitants of Mathura after killing Kansa. Krishna is said to 
 
 ^ The two most powerful lines of Indian princes, those of Oudh and 
 Rajputana, were careful to trace back their pedigree to superhuman 
 origins, the former claiming the Sun-god and the latter the Moon-god as 
 their primeval progenitors. 
 
 ^ Compare note i, p. 103, The day of his birth is called Janmashtami. 
 It is kept on the eighth day of the dark half of the month Bhadra in some 
 places, and of Sravana in others. 
 
 I
 
 114 
 
 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 
 
 have had countless wives, and at least 108,000 sons, but they 
 are purely mythical. Not one of them receives worship, unless 
 it be Pradyumna, the reputed son of Krishna by Rukminl, 
 and usually held to be an incarnation of Kama-deva, god 
 
 of love. 
 
 9. Buddha. The adoption of Buddha as one of the ten 
 incarnations of Vishnu appears to have been the result of a 
 wise compromise with Buddhism ; the Brahmans asserting 
 that Vishnu in his compassion for animals descended as the 
 sceptical Buddha that he might bring discredit on Vedic 
 sacrifices (see Gita-govinda, I. 13); or, according to another 
 theory, that wicked men might bring destruction on them- 
 selves by accepting Buddhism and denying the existence of 
 the gods. The fact was that the Brahmans appropriated 
 Buddha much as some of them are now appropriating Christ, 
 and making Him out to be an incarnation of Vishnu. 
 
 10. Kalki or Kalkin. The descent of Vishnu in this cha- 
 racter has not yet taken place. Nor is he to appear till the 
 close- of the fourth or Kali age, when the world has become 
 wholly depraved. He is then to be revealed in the sky, 
 seated on a white horse, with a drawn sword blazing like a 
 comet, for the final destruction of the wicked, for the re- 
 demption of the good, for the renovation of all creation, and 
 the restoration of the age of purity (Satya-yuga). From the 
 fact of the horse playing an important role in this incar- 
 nation, it is sometimes called Asvavatara. Some of the 
 degraded classes of India comfort themselves in their pre- 
 sent depressed condition by expecting Kalki to appear as 
 their future deliverer and the restorer of their social posi- 
 tion. Indeed it is a remarkable fact that a belief in a 
 coming Redeemer seems to exist in all religions, not ex- 
 cepting Buddhism and Muhammadanism^. 
 
 Looking more closely at these ten special incarnations, 
 
 ' In Buddhism there is the future Buddha ; in Islam the Mahdi. The 
 succession of Buddhas maybe compared to that of Vishnu's descents.
 
 Vaishnavism. Ten Incarnations. 1 1 5 
 
 we may observe that the god Vishnu, in conformity with 
 his character of a universal ' Pervader,' discharges his func- 
 tions in his first three descents by pervading the bodies 
 of animals. It is remarkable, too, that these three zoomor- 
 phic incarnations all have reference to the tradition of a 
 general deluge. In his fourth descent Vishnu takes the 
 form of a being half animal, half man. Possibly this com- 
 bination may be intended as a kind of intermediate link, to 
 connect the deity with higher forms. From half a man, 
 the transition is to a complete man, but the divine essence 
 on passing into human forms commences with a dwarf — 
 the smallest type of humanity. Thence it advances to mighty 
 heroes, sent into the world to deliver mankind from the op- 
 pression of tyrants — represented as evil demons — whose 
 power increases with the increase of corruption and depravity 
 during the four ages. The eighth is the highest and so to 
 speak culminating incarnation ; for in this Krishna is believed 
 to be, not a part of Vishnu's essence^ but a complete mani- 
 festation of Vishnu himself. The ninth may be passed over 
 as a mere device on the part of the Brahmans to account for 
 the existence of Buddhism. The tenth and final incarnation, 
 which remains to be revealed, will surpass all the others in 
 importance. In it evil and wickedness are to be entirely 
 rooted out, and the age of purity restored. We may see 
 in this connected series of what to us appear exceedingly 
 absurd fancies the working of the Hindu idea of metem- 
 psychosis. Just as the souls of men, regarded as emanations 
 from the Deity, pass into stones, plants, and animals, or rise 
 to the bodies of higher beings, so portions of the essence of 
 Vishnu pass through regular stages of embodied existence for 
 the maintenance of the order of the universe. 
 
 As we have already seen, Vishnu's essence divided itself 
 into male and female, but he had no children in his Non- 
 avatara condition, as Siva had, unless Kama-deva, god of love, 
 said to have been his mind-born son (afterwards incarnate in 
 
 I a
 
 1 1 6 Vaisknavism. Division into Sects. 
 
 Pradyumna), be so regarded. When the male essence de- 
 scended as Rama, the female was born as Rama's faithful 
 wife Sita; and when the male descended as Krishna, the 
 female became Krishna's favourite wife Radha. 
 
 We now proceed to give a description of the more im- 
 portant Vaishnava sects,— beginning with those founded by 
 Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Caitanya ; and first we 
 may direct attention to some points in which they all agree. 
 
 In the first place, it must be understood that all the sects 
 agree in maintaining, at least theoretically, that devotion to 
 Vishnu supersedes all distinctiops of caste (compare p. 64). 
 As a matter of fact, however, it is not to be supposed that 
 a Vaishnava Brahman ever really gives up his claim to 
 superiority over the inferior classes. 
 
 Next, it must be borne in mind that all the Vaishnava sects 
 are more or less opposed to the pure non-duality (advaita) of 
 Sankaracarya (see p. 55) which makes the spirit of man iden- 
 tical with the one Spirit of the Universe (Atma, Brahma). 
 
 Further, we may take note of the fact that the bible of 
 all worshippers of Vishnu in his most popular manifesta- 
 tion — that of the hero Krishna, with his favourite wife 
 Radha — consists of two chief books, the Bhagavata-purana 
 and the Bhagavad-glta ; and that those who pay exclusive 
 adoration to the other popular manifestation of Vishnu — 
 the hero Rama — also acknowledge two special bibles in 
 Valmlki's Ramayana, and in the Ramayana of Tulsi-das. 
 Undoubtedly these four books ought to find a prominent 
 place among the 'Sacred Books' of our Indian Empire. 
 
 Then it must not be forgotten that all agree in the wor- 
 ship of existing religious teachers who are supposed to be 
 embodiments, not only of divine wisdom, but of the very 
 essence of divinity. In the foremost rank must always come 
 the original founder of each particular sect, whose title is 
 Acarya. He is regarded as little inferior to Krishna him- 
 self, and may even be identified with him. As to the living
 
 Vaishnavism. Division into Sects, 1 1 7 
 
 teacher of the day, if not elevated to equal rank, he is a 
 greater reality. He receives homage as a visible and tangible 
 mediator between earth and heaven. He is to the mass of 
 Vaishnavas even more than a mediator between themselves 
 and God. He is the living embodiment of the entire essence 
 of the deity (saiva-deva-mayah). Nay, he is still more. He 
 is the present God whose anger is to be deprecated and favour 
 conciliated, because they make themselves instantly felt. 
 
 Next, all the Vaishnava sects agree, as we have seen 
 (p. 61), in requiring a special ceremony of initiation (diksha) 
 into their communion, accompanied by the repetition of. a 
 formula of words, significant of reverence for either Krishna 
 or Rama^ such as, ' Reverence to great Krishna' (Sr! Krish- 
 naya namah), 'Reverence to great Rama' (Sri Ramaya na- 
 mah), or the eight-syllabled formula, 'Great Krishna is my 
 refuge' (Sri Krishnah Saranam mama). 
 
 Children are admitted to the religion of Vishnu at the 
 age of three or four years. A rosary or necklace (kanthi) 
 of one hundred and eight beads ^, usually made of tulsi 
 wood (see p. 67), is passed round their necks by the offici- 
 ating priest (Guru), and they are taught the use of one of 
 the foregoing formulas, which is repeated by the Guru, very 
 much as the sacred words ' In nomine Patris,' etc. are re- 
 peated by the priest at the Christian rite of baptism. 
 
 Then, at the age of twelve or thirteen, another rite is 
 performed, corresponding to our confirmation. With the 
 Vallabha sect it is called the 'Dedication rite' (Samarpana); 
 that is, the consecration of body, soul, and substance (tan, 
 man, dhan) to Krishna ; the formula taught being to the 
 following effect : — ' I here dedicate to the holy Krishna my 
 bodily organs, my life, my inmost soul, and its faculties, 
 with my wife, my house, my children, with all the wealth 
 
 * This is because there are one hundred and eight chief names of 
 Krishna as the Supreme Being.
 
 ii8 Vaishnavism. Division info Sects. 
 
 I may acquire here or hereafter, and my own self. O 
 Krishna, I am thy servant.' These ceremonies may, in the 
 case of all but Brahmans, take the place of the initiatory rite 
 of orthodox Brahmanism, performed by investiture with the 
 sacred thread (to be afterwards described). 
 
 Another general characteristic of all the Vaishnava sects 
 is tenderness towards animal life. In this respect Vaish- 
 navism contrasts favourably with Saivism. No life must be 
 taken by a worshipper of Vishnu, not even that of a minute 
 insect, and not even for sacrifice to a deity (as, for example, 
 to Kail), and least of all must one's own life be taken. 
 It is usual for missionaries to speak with horror of the self- 
 immolation alleged to take place under the Car of Jagan- 
 nath (Krishna). But if deaths occur, they must be acci- 
 dental, as self-destruction is wholly opposed both to the 
 letter and spirit of the Vaishnava religion. 
 
 Then, of course, the several sects agree in enjoining the 
 use of the perpendicular coloured marks on the forehead, 
 called tJrdhva-pundra, described at p. 67, They are sup- 
 posed to denote the impress of either one or both the feet 
 of Vishnu, and to possess great efficacy in shielding from 
 evil influences and delivering from sin. In addition to these 
 frontal marks, most of the sects brand the breast and arms 
 with the circular symbol and conch-shell of Vishnu. 
 
 Finally, all the sects believe that every faithful and vir- 
 tuous worshipper of Vishnu is transported to his heaven, 
 called Vaikuntha, or to that of Krishna, called Goloka (in- 
 stead of to the temporary Svarga or paradise of orthodox 
 Brahmanism), and that when once admitted there, he is not 
 liable to be born again on earth. There, according to the 
 merit of his works, he may enjoy any of the three conditions 
 of bliss, Salokya, Samlpya, or Sarupya, already described at 
 p. 41. Whether a Vaishnava may be supposed capable of 
 achieving the highest condition of beatification — conscious 
 absorption into the divine essence (Sayujya) — depends of
 
 Vaishnavism. The Ramanuja Sect. 119 
 
 course on the philosophical views of the sect to which he 
 belongs (see p. 95). One point requires to be well under- 
 stood in comparing the Vaishnava religion with Christianity — 
 namely, that God, with Hindu Theists, can only be propi- 
 tiated by works. He may be called merciful, but He only 
 shows mercy to those who deserve it by their actions, and 
 if He accepts faith it is only because this also is a meritorious 
 act. Every man's hope of heaven depends on his own self- 
 righteousness and on the amount of merit he has been able to 
 accumulate during life. We must also bear in mind that 
 although Vishnu is supposed to be a Creator as well as a 
 Saviour, yet he is not so in the Christian sense of the word ; 
 for all the sects believe in some material cause (upadana) — 
 some eternal substance out of which the Universe is formed. 
 
 Let us now advert to the principal points of difference 
 between the more conspicuous Vaishnava sects, beginning 
 with that founded by the celebrated reformer, Ramanuja. 
 
 Sect founded by Ramanuja. 
 
 Ramanuja, or as he is often called Ramanujacarya, was 
 born about the twelfth century at Strl (Sri) Parambattur, 
 a town about twenty-six miles west of Madras. He is 
 known to have studied and taught at Kaiicl-puram (Conji- 
 varam), and to have resided towards the end of his life at 
 SrI-Rangam, on the river Kaverl, near Trichinopoly, where 
 for many years he worshipped Vishnu in his character of 
 Sriranga-nath. The distinctive point of his teaching, accord- 
 ing to the Sarva-darsana-sangraha (translated by Professors 
 Cowell and Gough), was his assertion of the existence of 
 a triad of principles (padartha-tritayam), — namely, i. the 
 Supreme Being (Isvara) ; 2. soul (c'it) ; and 3. non-soul (a-cit). 
 Vishnu is the Supreme Being ; individual spirits are souls ; 
 the visible world (drisyam) is non-soul. All three principles 
 have an eternal existence distinct from each other.
 
 120 
 
 Vaishnavism. The Ramanuja Sect. 
 
 This doctrine was clearly antagonistic to that of the great 
 Brahmanical revivalist Sankara, who lived three or four cen- 
 turies before (see p. ^^. According to Sankara, as we have 
 seen, the separate existence of the spirit of man, as distinct 
 from the one Universal Spirit, was only illusory. Illusion 
 (Maya), too— existing from all eternity— was the only mate- 
 rial or substantial cause (upadana-karana) of the external 
 world, though this eternally creative Illusion was powerless 
 to create the world except in union with the one Spirit. 
 Ramanuja, on the other hand, contended that the souls or 
 spirits of men are truly, essentially, and eternally distinct and 
 different from the one Universal Spirit. With regard to the 
 external world his views appear to have been less dualistic 
 than those of the Sankhya, and even than those of the 
 Vedanta, for in the former we have Prakriti and in the latter 
 Maya, as the material cause (upadana) out of which the 
 Universe was created ; whereas Ramanuja held that God is 
 himself both the creator (Karta) of the world and the 
 substantial cause or material out of which it is formed. He 
 appears, too, to have asserted that the world and God stand 
 towards each other in the relation of body and soul, and 
 that body and soul are virtually one. It will be found, in 
 fact, that the doctrine 'ex nihilo nihil fit' in some form or 
 other holds good in every religious system which India has 
 produced independently of Christian influences. 
 
 In support of the doctrine that the spirits of men are 
 really and eternally distinct from the one Universal Spirit 
 he appealed to a passage in the Mundaka Upanishad, which 
 rests on a well-known text of the Rig-veda (I. 164-20): 
 'Two birds — the Supreme and Individual Souls — always 
 united, of the same name, occupy the same tree (abide in 
 the same body). One of them (the Individual Soul) enjoys 
 the fruit of the fig (or consequence of acts), the other looks 
 on as a witness.' 
 
 Nevertheless Ramanuja admitted the dependence of the
 
 Vaishnavism. The Ramanuja Sect, 121 
 
 human soul on the divine, and urged the duty of striving 
 after complete, though conscious, union with the Supreme — 
 identified with Vishnu : — ' Cut is the knot of man's heart, 
 solved are all his doubts, ended are all his works, when he 
 has beheld the Supreme Being ^.' 
 
 A good account of Ramanuja's opinions is given by Dr. K. 
 M. Banerjea in his Dialogues on Hindu Philosophy. The 
 account is founded on extracts taken from the writings of 
 one of Ramanuja's disciples, and from Ramanuja's own work 
 on the Vedanta-sutras (called Sariraka-bhashya). 
 
 We may suppose Ramanuja himself to be speaking, as 
 follows : — 
 
 ' All the Sastras tell us of two principles — knowledge and 
 ignorance, virtue and vice, truth and falsehood. Thus we 
 see pairs everywhere, and God and the human soul are also 
 so. How can they be one ? I am sometimes happy, some- 
 times miserable. He, the Spirit, is always happy. Such is 
 the discrimination. How then can two distinct substances 
 be identical } He is an eternal Light, without anything to 
 obscure it — pure, the one superintendent of the world. But 
 the human soul is not so. Thus a thunder-bolt falls on 
 the tree of no-distinction. How canst thou, oh slow of 
 thought, say, I am He, who has established this immense 
 sphere of the universe in its fulness ? Consider thine own 
 capacities with a candid mind. By the mercy of the Most 
 High a little understanding has been committed to thee. 
 It is not for thee, therefore, O perverse one, to say, I am 
 God. All the qualities of sovereignty and activity are eter- 
 nally God's. He is therefore a Being endowed with qualities 
 (saguna). How can He be devoid of qualities (nirguna) ? 
 Why, again, should this useless illusion be exercised.? If 
 
 ^ This is given in the Sarva-darsana-sangraha as one of Ramanuja's 
 precepts. Compare a similar precept at the end of the Kathopanishad. 
 I heard an excellent sermon on this text delivered by Professor Bhan- 
 darkar in the house of prayer of the Prarthana-Samaj in Bombay.
 
 122 Vaishnavism. The Ramamija Sect. 
 
 you say, as a sport — why should a being of unbounded joy 
 engage in sport? To say that God has projected an illusion 
 for deluding His creatures, or that, being essentially devoid 
 of qualities (nirguna). He becomes possessed of qualities 
 and active under the influence of illusion (maya), is equally 
 opposed to godliness. You cannot, if you believe Him to 
 be all truth, allow the possibility of His projecting a 
 deceptive spectacle. Nor can you, if you believe Him to 
 be all knowledge and all power, assent to the theory of 
 His creating anything under the influence of avidya, or 
 ignorance.' 
 
 Yet, notwithstanding the manifestly dualistic teaching of 
 Ramanuja in regard to the Supreme and human soul, he 
 is usually credited with a qualified acquiescence in the Ad- 
 vaita doctrine of Sahkara. According to some, in fact, he 
 merely propounded a new view of the Vedanta non-duality 
 (a-dvaita) doctrine, giving it that peculiar interpretation 
 which is usually called 'qualified non-duality' (visishtadvaita). 
 I found that no adherent of the Ramanuja system in India 
 was able to explain this peculiar view satisfactorily. It 
 is, however, supported by a passage in the Sarva-darsana- 
 sangraha, where it is stated that Ramanuja's teaching, re- 
 garded from different points of view, was open to the charge 
 of admitting the three ideas of unity, duality, and plurality. 
 Unity, it alleges, was admitted by him in saying that all 
 individual spirits and visible forms constitute the body of 
 the one Supreme Spirit. Duality was admitted in saying 
 that the spirit of God and man are distinct. Plurality was 
 admitted in saying that the Spirit of God, the spirit of man 
 which is multitudinous, and the visible world are distinct. 
 (Cowell and Gough's translation, pp. 73, 75.) The first of 
 these admissions is said to amount to qualified unity, and is 
 therefore styled Visishtadvaita. 
 
 Ramanuja also held that at great periodical dissolutions 
 of the Universe human souls and the world are re-absorbed
 
 Vaishnavis7n. The Ramamija Sect. 123 
 
 into God, but without losing their own separate identity. 
 In the Tattva-muktavali (translated in Dr. Banerjea's 9th 
 Dialogue) we find Ramanuja represented as saying, ' Many 
 flavours of trees there are in honey, and they are separable 
 from it. How otherwise could it remove the three-fold 
 disorders ? Souls, in like manner, are absorbed in the Lord 
 at the dissolution of all things, but are not unified with 
 Him, for they are again separated at the creation. As 
 there is a difference between rivers and the sea, between 
 sweet and salt waters, so is there a difference between God 
 and souls, because of their characteristic distinctions. Rivers^ 
 when joined with the sea, are not altogether unified with it, 
 though they appear inseparable. There is a real difference 
 between salt and sweet waters. Even milk, when mixed 
 with milk, and water with water, do not obtain unification, 
 merely because they are supposed to be unified. Neither 
 do souls, when absorbed in the Supreme Being, obtain iden- 
 tity with HimV 
 
 With regard to the various manifestations of the Supreme 
 Being and the duty of worshipping Him, Ramanuja held 
 that God is present among His votaries on earth in five 
 ways: i. in images; 3. in divine embodiments (such as 
 Rama) ; 3. in full manifestations (such as Krishna) ; 4. in 
 the subtle (sukshma) all-pervading spirit ; 5. in the internal 
 Spirit controlling the human soul (antaryamin). The 
 worshipper may be incapable of rising at once to any high 
 act of adoration ; in which case he must begin by adoring 
 Vishnu as manifested in the first of these five ways — that 
 is to say, in images and idols. He may afterwards ascend 
 by regular steps through the other four modes of worship 
 till he reaches the fifth. If he ever succeeds in attaining 
 to this highest stage and so becomes capable of worshipping 
 
 ^ The twenty-ninth Sutra of Sandilya (translated by Prof. E. B. Cowell) 
 mentions a sage Kasyapa who appears to have held doctrines coinciding 
 to a certain extent with those of Ramanuja.
 
 124 Vaisknavism. The Ramdnuja Sect. 
 
 the internal Spirit enshrined in his own heart, Vishnu 
 identified with that Spirit raises him to his own heaven 
 Vaikuntha, whence there is no return to human existence, 
 and where he enjoys the exquisite bliss of conscious assimi- 
 lation to the God whom he has adored on earth, and even 
 of conscious absorption into that God^ Possibly this theory 
 of conscious absorption may constitute another reason for 
 attributing the doctrine called ' qualified non-duality' (visishta- 
 dvaita) to Ramanuja. Nevertheless the impression left on 
 the mind by the account of his system in the Sarva-darsana- 
 sangraha is that Ramanuja was even more opposed to the 
 doctrine of unity in regard to the divine and human souls 
 than his brother sectarian Madhva. This impression is borne 
 out by the fact that his system is treated of before that of 
 Madhva, and so placed lower down in that ascending scale 
 which is supposed to culminate in the orthodox Advaita. 
 Probably the real reason for its being so placed is that he 
 asserts three principles — the Spirit of God, the spirit of man, 
 and the visible world — as his first axiom, whereas Madhva 
 only asserts two (see p. 131). 
 
 After Ramanuja's death, his numerous followers corrupted 
 his teaching in the usual manner, introducing doctrines 
 and practices which the founder of the sect had not en- 
 joined and would not have sanctioned. Then, about six 
 hundred years ago, a learned Brahman of Kanjivaram, 
 named Vedantacarya, put himself forward as a reformer, 
 giving out that he was commissioned by the god Vishnu 
 himself to purify the faith — to sweep away corrupt incrusta- 
 tions, and restore the doctrines of the original founder. These 
 doctrines, he affirmed, had been more carefully preserved 
 by the Northern Brahmans than by those in the South. 
 Hence arose irreconcilable differences of opinion, which 
 resulted in two great antagonistic parties of Ramanujas — 
 
 ' See Sarva-darsana-sangraha (Prof. A, E. Cough's translation of the 
 Ramanuja system), p. 79.
 
 Vaishnavism. The Ramamija Sect. 125 
 
 one called the northern school, Vada-galai (for Vada-kalai, 
 Sanskrit kala), the other the southern school, Ten-galai (for 
 Ten-kalai^). They are far more opposed to each other than 
 both parties are to Saivas. The northern school accept the 
 Sanskrit Veda. The southern have compiled a Veda of 
 their own, called 'the four thousand verses' (Nalayira), writ- 
 ten in Tamil, and held to be older than the Sanskrit Veda, 
 but really based on its Upanishad portion. In all their 
 worship they repeat selections from these Tamil verses. 
 
 An important difference of doctrine, caused by different 
 views of the nature of the soul's dependence on Vishnu, 
 separates the two parties. The view taken by the Vada-galais 
 corresponds, in a manner, to the Arminian doctrine of ' free- 
 will.' The soul, say they, lays hold of the Supreme Being 
 by its own will, act, and effort, just as the young monkey 
 clings to its mother. This is called the monkey-theory 
 (markata-nyaya). The view of the Ten-galais is a counter- 
 part of that of the Calvinists. It is technically styled 
 'the cat-hold theory^ (marjara-nyaya). The human soul, 
 they argue, remains passive and helpless until acted on by 
 the Supreme Spirit, just as the kitten remains passive and 
 helpless until seized and transported, nolens volens, from 
 place to place by the mother-cat. 
 
 Again, the Ten-galais maintain that the Saktl or wife of 
 Vishnu is a created and finite being, though divine, and 
 that she acts as a mediator or minister (purusha-kara), not 
 as an equal channel of salvation ; whereas the Vada-galais 
 regard her as, like her consort, infinite, and uncreated, and 
 equally to be worshipped as a channel or means (upaya) by 
 which salvation may be attained. I heard it remarked by 
 
 ^ The Satani branch of the Ramanujas is not a separate school. It 
 consists of a body of Sudras who are opposed to Brahmanical usages. 
 It represents, in fact, the low-caste or out-caste converts to Vaishnavism, 
 It is among the Ramanuja Vaishnavas what the Lingait sect is among 
 Saivas (see p. 88).
 
 126 Vaishnavism. The Ramamija Sect. 
 
 a learned Ten-galai Brahman that no educated men believe 
 Vishnu to be really married. ' What most Ten-galais hold,' 
 he said, ' is that Lakshml is an ideal personification of the 
 deity's more feminine attributes, such as those of mercy, 
 love, and compassion ; while some philosophers contend 
 that the Hindu gods are only represented with wives to 
 typify the mystical union of the two eternal principles, 
 spirit and matter for the production of the Universe. The 
 central red mark, therefore, is, in the one case, the mere ex- 
 pression of trust in God's mercy; in the other, of belief in 
 the great mystery of creation and re-creatfon.' 
 
 No Arminians and Calvinists have ever fought more ran- 
 corously over their attempts to solve insoluble difficulties 
 than have Vada-galais and Ten-galais over their struggles 
 to secure the ascendency of their own theological opinions. 
 The fight has ended in a drawn battle. The two opposite 
 parties, exhausted with their profitless logomachy and use- 
 less strivings after an impossible unity of opinion, have 
 agreed to differ in abstruse points of doctrine. 
 
 Their disputes are now chiefly confined to externals of 
 the most trivial kind. It is the old story repeated. The 
 Sibboleths are intolerant of the Shibboleths. The Vada- 
 galais contend that the frontal mark of the sect ought to 
 represent the impress of the right foot of Vishnu (the sup- 
 posed source of the divine Ganges), while the Ten-galais 
 maintain that equal reverence is due to both the god's feet. 
 It is certainly convenient from a social point of view that a 
 man's religious idiosyncrasies should be stamped upon his 
 forehead. Accordingly, the two religious parties are most 
 particular about their frontal emblems, the Vada-galais 
 making a simple white line between the eyes, curved to 
 represent the sole of one foot, with a central red mark em- 
 blematical of Lakshml terminating at the bridge ; while the 
 Ten-galais employ a more complicated device symbolical of 
 both feet, which are supposed to rest on a lotus throne,
 
 Vaishnavism. The Ramanuja Sect. 127 
 
 denoted by a white line drawn half down the nose. The 
 complete Ten-galai symbol has the appearance of a trident, 
 the two outer prongs (painted with white earth) standing 
 for Vishnu's two feet, the middle (painted red or yellow) for 
 his consort, Lakshml, and the handle (or white line down 
 the nose) representing the lotus throne. The worst quarrels 
 between the two divisions of the sect arise from disputes 
 as to which mark is to be impressed on the images wor- 
 shipped in the Vaishnava temples, to which all Ramanujas 
 resort indifferently. Tedious and expensive law-suits are 
 often the result. 
 
 Both sects, however, agree in stamping or branding the 
 same emblems of Vishnu — the discus, the conch-shell, the 
 club, and the lotus, generally the former two — on their 
 breasts and arms. 
 
 Another point which distinguishes the Ten-galais is that 
 they prohibit their widows from shaving their heads. Every 
 married woman in India rejoices in long, fine hair, which 
 she is careful to preserve intact. In the case of men, regular 
 shaving is not only a universal custom, it is a religious duty. 
 But for women to be deprived of any portion of their hair 
 is a shame. A shorn female head is throughout India the 
 chief mark of widowhood. Every widow, though a mere 
 child, is compelled to submit her growing locks periodically 
 to the family barber. It is, therefore, a singular circum- 
 stance — quite unique in India — that the Ten-galai widows 
 are exempted from all obligation to dishonour their heads 
 in this manner^ (compare I Cor. xi. 5). 
 
 Again, a peculiarity common to both Ramanuja sects is 
 the strict privacy with which they eat and even prepare their 
 meals. No Indians like to be looked at while eating. They 
 
 ^ The Ten-galais quote a verse of Vriddha-Manu, which declares that 
 if any woman, whether unmarried or widowed, shave her head, she will 
 be condemned to dwell in the hell called Raurava for one thousand times 
 ten million ages.
 
 128 Vaishnavism. The Ramanuja Sect. 
 
 are firm believers in the evil influence of the human eye 
 (drishti-dosha). The preparation of food is with high-caste 
 natives an affair of equal secrecy. We Europeans can scarcely 
 understand the extent to which culinary operations may 
 be associated with religion. The kitchen in every Indian 
 household is a kind of sanctuary or holy ground ; almost 
 as hallowed as the room dedicated to the family gods. No 
 unprivileged person must dare to intrude within this sacred 
 enclosure. The mere glance of a man of inferior caste makes 
 the greatest delicacies uneatable, and if such a glance hap- 
 pens to fall on the family supplies during the cooking opera- 
 tions, when the ceremonial purity of the water used^ is a 
 matter of almost life or death to every member of the 
 household, the whole repast has to be thrown away as if 
 poisoned. The family is for that day dinnerless. Food 
 thus contaminated would, if eaten, communicate a taint to 
 the souls as well as bodies of the eaters — a taint which 
 could only be removed by long and painful expiation. In 
 travelling over every part of India, and diligently striving 
 to note the habits of the natives in every circumstance of 
 their daily life, I never once saw a single Hindu, except of 
 the lowest caste, either preparing or eating cooked food of 
 any kind. The Ramanujas carry these ideas to an extra- 
 vagant extreme. They carefully lock the doors of their 
 kitchens and protect their culinary and prandial operations 
 from the gaze of even high-caste Brahmans of tribes and 
 sects different from their own. 
 
 Each of the present chiefs (ac'aryas) of the two Rama- 
 nuja sects lays claim to be the true descendant of the 
 founder himself in regular, unbroken succession. The Vada- 
 
 Caste-rules are now an essential part of religion, but there is reason 
 to believe that they were once merely matters of social convenience. 
 Many of them probably originated in the need of sanitary precautions. 
 Nothmg is so necessary for the preservation of health in India as atten- 
 tion to the purity of water.
 
 Vaishnavism. The Ramanuja Sect. 129 
 
 galai successor (named Ahobala) lives at a monastery (Matha) 
 in the Kurnool district. The Ten-galai successor (named 
 Vanamamala) Hves in the Tinnevelly district. Though they 
 preside over monasteries, they are both married ; whereas 
 the successors of the orthodox Brahman Saiikara, who Hve 
 at Srihgeri in Mysore, are always celibates. The two Rama- 
 nuja Acaryas, however, are strict Ayengar Brahmans, and 
 will probably in their old age become SannyasTs, according 
 to the teaching of the ancient lawgiver Manu, who ordained 
 that the attainment of great nearness to the Supreme Being 
 is incompatible with the discharge of household duties, and 
 that every Brahman as he advances in life is bound to give 
 up all family ties. 
 
 Each Acarya makes a periodical visitation of his diocese, 
 and holds a kind of confirmation in every large town. That 
 is to say, every child or young person who has been initiated 
 is brought before him to be branded or stamped as a true 
 follower of Vishnu. Boys may be branded at the age of 
 seven or upwards ; girls only after their marriage. A sacred 
 fire is kindled, two golden instruments are heated, and the 
 symbols of the wheel-shaped discus and conch-shell of Vishnu 
 are impressed on the breast, arms, or other parts of the 
 body. I was informed by an intelligent Brahman at Ma- 
 dura that the Acarya or chief of the sect from the Aho- 
 bala Matha visits that town once every eight or ten years, 
 when as many young persons as possible take the oppor- 
 tunity of being branded. Even those who have been in- 
 vested with the Brahmanical thread require the addition of 
 the Vaishnava brand. The Acarya is put to no expense. 
 He is the guest of some well-to-do Brahman in the town, 
 and reaps a rich harvest of fees. 
 
 We pass on to the second great Vaishnava sect — that 
 founded by Madhva — whose adherents are called Madhvas. 
 They are chiefly found in Southern India. 
 
 K
 
 i^o 
 
 Vaishnavism. Madhva Sect. 
 
 Sect founded by MadJiva. 
 
 The next most important of the Vaishnava sects is that of 
 the Madhvas. They were founded by a Kanarese Brahman 
 named Madhva — otherwise called Ananda-tlrtha — said to 
 have been born about the year 1200 of our era, at a place 
 called Udupi, on the western coast (sixty miles north of 
 Mangalore), and to have been educated in a convent at 
 Anantesvar. His doctrine is commonly called Duality 
 (Dvaita), and is well known for the intensity of its opposition 
 to the Non-duality (Advaita) doctrine of the great Vedantist 
 Sankaracarya. The school he founded is sometimes called 
 Purna-prajna — a name also applied to its founder. 
 
 In fact the teaching of Madhva is by some thought to owe 
 no little of its distinctive character to the influence of Chris- 
 tianity, which had made itself felt in the South of India before 
 the thirteenth century. No evidence whatever is forthcoming 
 on this subject. Nor has his system really much common 
 ground with Christianity. Nor would it be easy to give a 
 thoroughly exhaustive account of his doctrines \ Still their 
 general drift may be correctly gathered from the Sarva-dar- 
 sana-sangraha, though the points in which he differs from 
 Ramanuja are rather obscurely stated in that work. 
 
 Of course Madhva, like Ramanuja, taught that there was 
 only one God, whose principal name was Vishnu (or Hari), 
 and who was the one eternal Supreme Being, all other gods 
 being subject to the law of universal periodical dissolution. 
 
 ' Brahma, Siva, and the greatest of the gods decay with the 
 decay of their bodies ; greater than these is the undecaying 
 Hari.' (Professor Gough's translation.) 
 
 Perhaps the chief distinctive feature of Madhva's teaching 
 
 ^ I repeatedly questioned some of the more intelligent followers of 
 Madhva I met in the South of India as to the exact distinction between 
 his views and those of Ramanuja, but no one was able to give me 
 any very satisfactory reply.
 
 Vaishnavism, Madhva Sect, 131 
 
 was that his first axiom asserted categorically that there 
 are two separate eternal principles (instead of three, as 
 asserted by Ramanuja, p. 119), and that these two are related 
 as independent and dependent, as master and servant, as king 
 and subject. The one is the independent principle, God 
 (identified with Vishnu), the other is the dependent principle 
 consisting of the human soul, or rather souls, for they are 
 innumerable. 
 
 It was Madhva's unqualified denial of the unity of the 
 Supreme and human spirits which made him the opponent 
 of the followers of Sankara. 
 
 The Vedantists maintained, as we have seen, that the dif- 
 ference between one thing and another and between one soul 
 and another was wholly illusory and unreal. Madhva afiirmed 
 that a real and inextinguishable duality was to be proved both 
 by perception and by inference ^. 
 
 ' The Supreme Lord,' said Madhva, ' differs from the in- 
 dividual soul because he is the object of its obedience. A 
 subject who obeys a king differs from that king. In their 
 eager desire to be one with the Supreme Being, the followers 
 of Sankara lay claim to the glory of his excellence. This is a 
 mere mirage. A man with his tongue cut off might as well 
 attempt to enjoy a large plantain.' 
 
 Again, according to Madhva the Vedic text, ' This is Self — 
 That art thou,' points to similarity, not identity. 
 
 ' Like a bird and the string ; like the juices of various trees ; 
 like rivers and the sea ; like fresh and salt water ; like a 
 robber and the robbed; like a man and his energy; so are 
 soul and the Lord diverse and for ever different.' (Translation.) 
 
 Nor have these two principles a qualified unity comparable 
 to the union of soul and body, as affirmed by Ramanuja. 
 They are absolutely distinct. With regard to the visible 
 world, he taught that its elements existed eternally in the 
 
 ^ See pp. 88, 90 of Cowell and Cough's ' Sarva-darsana-sangraha.' 
 
 K a
 
 132 Vaishnavism. Madhva Sect. 
 
 Supreme Being, and were only created by Him in the sense 
 of being shaped, ordered, and arranged by His power and will. 
 Practically he seems to have asserted three principles quite as 
 plainly as Ramanuja did ; for his doctrine was that when once 
 the world had emanated from the Supreme essence it remained 
 a distinct entity to all eternity. ' There is a difference,' he 
 affirmed, ' between human souls and God, and a difference be- 
 tween the insentient world (jada) and God.' Probably, like 
 Bishop Berkeley, he saw the difficulty of proving the existence 
 of matter externally to the mind, and therefore contented 
 himself with asserting two distinct principles, God and the 
 human soul. In short, his dogma was that as the visible 
 world emanated from God it was not to be distinguished, 
 as an original principle, from God, and was not even as distinct 
 as soul and body, though when once produced it remained as 
 distinct from its Producer as an effect from its cause ^. 
 
 According to Madhva the Supreme being is to be honoured 
 in three ways — by naming, by worship, and by branding. 
 
 The act of naming (nama-karana) is performed by giving a 
 child one of the thousand names of Vishnu — such asKesava — 
 as a memorial of his dedication to the service of the god. 
 
 The act of worship is threefold: — (1) with the voice — by 
 veracity, right conversation, kind words, and repetition of the 
 Veda ; (2) with the body — by giving alms to the poor, by 
 defending and protecting them ; (3) with the heart — by mercy, 
 love, and faith. This is a mere repetition of the old triple 
 division of duties, according to thought, word, and deed. 
 
 With regard to the rite of branding (called ankana), the Ma- 
 dhva sect, like the Ramanujas and other Vaishnavas, lay great 
 stress on marking the body indelibly with the circular discus 
 and shell of Vishnu. They firmly believe that it is the duty 
 of Vaishnavas to carry throughout life a memorial of their god 
 
 ^ This was very much the doctrine of the Kabbalists, who equally 
 held that nothing could be produced from nothing. It resembles also the 
 theory of the Stoics.
 
 Vaishnavism. Madhva Sect. 133 
 
 on their persons, and that such a lasting outward and visible 
 sign of his presence will help them to obtain salvation through 
 him. 
 
 ' On his right arm let the Brahman wear the discus, on his 
 left the conch-shell !' 
 
 When I was at Tanjore I found that one of the successors 
 of Madhva had recently arrived on his branding-visitation. 
 He was engaged throughout the entire day in stamping his 
 disciples and receiving fees from all according to their means. 
 
 Texts are recited at the time of branding, and in Sayana- 
 Madhava's time the following prayer was said : — ' O Discus 
 (Sudarsana), brightly blazing, effulgent as ten million suns, 
 show unto me, blind with ignorance, the everlasting way of 
 Vishnu. Thouj O Conch-shell, aforetime sprangest from the 
 sea, held in the hand of Vishnu, adored by all the gods, 
 to thee be adoration.' (Sarva-darsana-sahgraha, Cowell and 
 Gough, p. 92.) 
 
 I learnt, too, that no less than eight Acaryas, each of whom 
 is established with his disciples in different monasteries with 
 temples attached, claim to be successors of Madhva. There 
 are, however, only two principal religious parties among the 
 Madhvas. No doubt these quarrel over their Shibboleths, 
 but not, I believe, with as much bitterness as the two divisions 
 of Ramanujas. 
 
 The frontal mark of all the Madhvas is the same, consisting 
 of two thin vertical lines meeting below in a curve, like that of 
 the Vada-galai Ramanujas. But a central black line is gener- 
 ally made with charcoal taken from incense burnt before the 
 idols of Vishnu. 
 
 So much for the doctrines of two sects which, from their 
 having much common ground with Christianity, are worthy of 
 especial attention. Perhaps Madhva's system is the more 
 interesting in its relation to European thought, but his Theism, 
 like that of Ramanuja and of every other Hindu Theistic 
 system, differed widely in many important points from the
 
 134 Vaishnavism. Vallabha Sect. 
 
 Theism of Christianity, especially in making God the sub- 
 stantial as well as efficient cause of the visible world. 
 
 Sect founded by Vallabha. 
 
 The third great Vaishnava sect is that founded by Vallabha, 
 or as he is commonly called Vallabhacarya, said to have been 
 born in the forest of Camparanya about the year 1479. He 
 was believed to have been an embodiment of a portion of 
 Krishna's essence, and various miraculous stories are fabled 
 about him. For instance, his intelligence is alleged to have 
 been so great that when he commenced learning at seven 
 years of age, he mastered the four Vedas, the six systems of 
 Philosophy, and the eighteen Puranas in four months. 
 
 After precocity so prodigious he was able at the age of 
 twelve to formulate a new view of the Vaishnava creed, but 
 one which was to a certain extent derived from a previous 
 teacher named Vishnu-svamT. Soon he commenced travelling 
 to propagate his doctrines. When he reached the court of 
 Krishnadeva, King of Vijaya-nagar, he was invited to engage 
 in a public disputation with a number of Smarta Brahmans. 
 In this he succeeded so well that he was elected chief Acarya 
 of the Vaishnavas. He then travelled for nine years through 
 different parts of India, and finally settled in Benares, where 
 he composed seventeen works^ among which was a commen- 
 tary on the Bhagavata-purana. This last work, especially its 
 tenth book — descriptive of the early life of Krishna — is the 
 chief authoritative source of the doctrines of the sect. Val- 
 labhacarya's view of the Vaishnava creed has been called 
 Pushti-marga, the way of eating, drinking, and enjoying one- 
 self. But in real fact he simply discountenanced asceticism as 
 a mode of commending man to God. He maintained that 
 worship of the Deity need not be accompanied with fasting, 
 self-mortification, and suppression of the passions, but that
 
 Vaishnavism. Vallabha Sect. 135 
 
 the natural appetites were intended to be gratified, and the 
 good things of this world to be enjoyed. 
 
 In philosophy Vallabha's opinions appear to have resembled 
 those of Ramanuja, though he is said to have had a greater 
 leaning towards pure Vedantism '. He is known to have died 
 at Benares; but, according to his followers, was transported to 
 heaven while performing his ablutions in the Ganges. 
 
 His followers are numerous in Bombay, Gujarat, and Central 
 India, particularly among the merchants and traders called 
 Baniyas and Bhatiyas. He left behind him eighty-four princi- 
 pal disciples, who disseminated his doctrines in various direc- 
 tions. But the real successor to his GadI (gadd!) or chair was 
 his second son, Vitthalnath, sometimes called GosainjI from 
 his having settled at Gokul^ Krishna's abode near Muttra. 
 This Vitthalnath had seven sons, each of whom established 
 a Gad! in different districts, especially in Bombay, Kutch, 
 Kathiawar, and Malwa. The influence of Vallabhac'arya's 
 successors became so great that they received the title Maha- 
 raja, 'great king,' the name Gosain (for Gosvamin — lord of 
 cows — an epithet of Krishna) being sometimes added. 
 
 As was naturally to be expected, his followers exaggerated 
 his teaching, especially in regard to his non-ascetical view of 
 religion. They have been called ' the Epicureans of India.' 
 Their spiritual leaders, the Maharajas, dress in the costliest 
 raiment, feed on the daintiest viands, and abandon themselves 
 to every form of sensuality and luxury. 
 
 The children of the Vallabhac'aryans are admitted to mem- 
 bership at the age of two, three, or four years. A rosary, or 
 necklace (kanthi) of one hundred and eight beads-, made of 
 tulsi wood, is passed round their necks by the Maharaja, and 
 
 ^ The Suddhadvaita or ' pure Non-duality' doctrine — which he is said 
 to have held in contradistinction to the Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja — is 
 not very clearly explained in the books of the sect. 
 
 ^ These represent the io8 chief names of Krishna as the Supreme 
 Being, to match which a similar number of epithets are applied to the 
 successors of Vallabha.
 
 1 -6 Vaishnavism. Vallabha Sect. 
 
 they are taught the use of the eight-syllabled prayer, ' Great 
 Krishna is my soul's refuge' (Sri-Krishnah saranam mama). 
 
 The god worshipped is the Krishna form of Vishnu, as he 
 appeared in his boyhood, when, as a mere child, he gave him- 
 self up to childish mirth, and condescended to sport with the 
 Gopis or cowherdesses of Mathura (Muttra). 
 
 I was once present at a kind of revivalist camp-meeting 
 near Allahabad, where a celebrated Hindu preacher ad- 
 dressed a large assemblage of people and magnified this 
 condescension as a proof of Krishna's superiority to all other 
 
 gods. 
 
 Then, again, images used in the temples of the sect represent 
 Krishna in the boyish period of his life (in the form called 
 Bala-Krishna), supposed to extend to his twelfth year. Ac- 
 cording to the higher Vaishnava creed, Krishna's love for 
 the Gopis— themselves the wives of the cowherds— and the 
 love of the Gopis for Krishna are to be explained allego- 
 rically, and symbolize the longing of the human soul for union 
 with the Supreme (Brahma-sambandha). When I have asked 
 strict Vaishnavas for an explanation of Krishna's alleged 
 adulteries, I have always been told that his attachment to the 
 Gopis was purely spiritual, and that, in fact, he was only a 
 child at the time of his association with them. 
 
 Yet it is certain that the followers of Vallabha interpreted 
 that attachment in a gross and material sense. Hence their 
 devotion to Krishna has degenerated into the most corrupt 
 practices, and their whole system has become rotten to the 
 core. It will scarcely be believed that the male members of 
 the sect often seek to win the favour of their god by wearing 
 long hair and assimilating themselves to females ; and even 
 their spiritual chiefs, the Maharajas, the successors of Vallabh- 
 acarya, sometimes simulate the appearance of women (that is, 
 of Gopis) when they lead the worship of their followers. 
 
 But the real blot, or rather foul stain, which defaces and 
 defiles the system, remains to be described. These Maharajas
 
 Vaishnavism. Vallabha Sect. 137 
 
 have come to be regarded as representatives of Krishna upon 
 earth, or even as actual incarnations or impersonations of the 
 god. So that in the temples where the Maharajas do homage 
 to the idols, men and women do homage to the Maharajas, 
 prostrating themselves at their feet, offering them incense, 
 fruits and flowers, and waving lights before them, as the 
 Maharajas themselves do before the images of the gods. 
 One mode of worshipping the boyish Krishna is by swinging 
 his images in swings. Hence, in every district presided over 
 by a Maharaja, the women are accustomed to worship not 
 Krishna but the Maharaja by swinging him in pendent seats. 
 The Pan-suparl ejected from his mouth, the leavings of his 
 food, and the very dust on which he has walked, are eagerly 
 devoured by his devotees, while they also drink the water 
 rinsed from his garments, and that used in the washing of his 
 feet, which they call Caranamrita, 'feet nectar.' Others, 
 again, worship his wooden shoes, or prostrate themselves 
 before his seat (gadi) and his painted portraits. Nay, infinitely 
 worse than all this: it is believed that the best mode of 
 propitiating the god Krishna in heaven is by ministering to 
 the sensual appetites of his successors and vicars upon earth. 
 Body, soul, and property (in popular language tan, man, dhan) 
 are to be wholly made over to them in a peculiar rite called 
 Self-devotion (samarpana), and women are taught to believe 
 that highest bliss will be secured to themselves and their 
 families by the caresses of Krishna's representatives. 
 
 The profligacy of the Maharajas was exposed in the cele- 
 brated trial of the Maharaja libel case, which came before 
 the Supreme Court of Bombay on the 26th of January, 1862. 
 The evidence given, and the judgment of the judges, have 
 acted as some check on the licentious practices of the sect, 
 but it is still held to represent the worst and most corrupt 
 phase of the Vaishnava religion. 
 
 The reformation of the Vallabhacarya system effected by 
 Svami-Narayana will be described in Chapter VI, p. 148.
 
 138 Vaishfiavism. C ait any a Sect. 
 
 Sect founded by Caitanya. 
 
 The fourth principal sect of Vaishnavas is found in Bengal. 
 They are the followers of a celebrated teacher named Caitanya, 
 and their precepts and practices have a close community with 
 those of the Vallabhacaryans already described. The bio- 
 graphy of Caitanya, as given by native writers, is, as usual, 
 chiefly legendary. Only scattered elements of truth are 
 discoverable amidst a confused farrago of facts, fiction, and 
 romance. What respect, indeed, for chronological or historical 
 accuracy can be expected in a people who are firmly con- 
 vinced that their own existence and that of every one else 
 is an illusion ? 
 
 I believe it is pretty certain that Caitanya was born at 
 Nadlya ( = NavadvIpa) in Bengal in the year 1485 of our 
 era, two years after Luther in Europe. His father was an 
 orthodox Brahman named Jagannath Misra. His mother 
 was the daughter of Nllambar Cakravartl. Since Caitanya 
 is held to have been an incarnation of Krishna various pro- 
 digies are described as having marked his first appearance 
 in the world. He was thirteen months in the womb. Then 
 soon after his birth, at the end of an eclipse, a number of 
 holy men (among whom was his future disciple Advaita) 
 arrived at the house of his parents to do homage to the 
 new-born child, and to present him with offerings of rice, 
 fruits, gold and silver. In his childhood he resembled the 
 young Krishna in condescending to boyish sports (lila). Yet 
 his intellect was so acute that he rapidly acquired a complete 
 knowledge of Sanskrit grammar and literature. His favourite 
 subject of study was the Vaishnava bible, consisting of the 
 Bhagavata-purana, and Bhagavad-gita. 
 
 Yet Caitanya, notwithstanding his devotion to religious 
 study, did not shrink from what every Hindu believes to 
 be a sacred obligation— the duty of marrying a wife, and 
 becoming a householder (grihastha). He even married again
 
 Vaishnavism. Caitanya Sect. 139 
 
 when his first wife died from a snake-bite. At the age of 
 twenty-five (a.D. 1509) he resolved to abandon all worldly 
 connexions, and give himself up to a religious life. Accord- 
 ingly, like Vallabhacarya and at about the same period, he 
 commenced a series of pilgrimages. His travels occupied 
 six years, and he is known to have visited some of the most 
 celebrated shrines of India, especially those of Benares, Gaya, 
 Mathura, Srlraiigam, and ultimately the temple of Jagan-nath 
 at Purl in Orissa. 
 
 Having thus prepared himself for his mission, he addressed 
 himself to the real work of preaching and propagating his 
 own view of the Vaishnava creed. It is noteworthy that just 
 about the time when Luther was agitating the minds of men 
 in Europe, Caitanya was stirring the hearts of the people of 
 Bengal. After making many converts he seems to have 
 appointed his two most eminent followers, Advaita and 
 Nityananda, to preside over his disciples in that part of 
 India. He himself settled for twelve years at Katak in 
 Orissa. There he lived for the rest of his life in close 
 proximity to the great temple of Jagan-nath, and contributed 
 to the reputation of the shrine by his presence at the annual 
 festivals. 
 
 His success as a preacher was remarkable. Even his 
 enemies were attracted by the persuasiveness of his manner 
 and the magnetic power of his eloquence. The lower classes 
 flocked to him by thousands. Nor was their admiration of 
 him surprising. The first principle he inculcated was that all 
 the faithful worshippers of Krishna ( = Vishnu) were to be 
 treated as equals. Caste was to be subordinated to faith in 
 Krishna \ 'The mercy of God,' said Caitanya, 'regards 
 neither tribe nor family.' 
 
 ^ This was his theory, but among his numerous followers of the 
 present day the doctrine of equality does not overcome caste-feeling 
 and caste-observances except during religious services. The food pre- 
 sented to the idol of Jagan-nath is distributed to all castes alike, and 
 eaten by all indiscriminately at the annual festival.
 
 I40 Vaishnavism. Caitanya Sect. 
 
 By thus proclaiming social equality he secured popularity. 
 In this respect he wisely imitated the method of Buddhists and 
 Saktas. The doctrine of the latter, who abounded everywhere 
 in Bengal, was that magical powers might be acquired by the 
 worship of the female principle or generative faculty (sakti) 
 in nature, personified as Siva's wife. They believed that the 
 male principle, personified as the male god Siva, the great 
 Reproducer, was helpless in the work of Reproduction with- 
 out the energizing action of the female principle. Hence the 
 union of the sexes was thought by some to be typical of a 
 great cosmical mystery. This will be more fully explained 
 in the chapter on Saktism. 
 
 (Caitanya professed to oppose these Sakta doctrines, both as 
 tending to licentious practices, and as ignoring the supremacy 
 of the god Vishnu over Siva. Yet his system, like that of 
 Vallabha, had a tendency in the same direction. He taught 
 that the devotion of the soul to Vishnu was to be symbolized 
 under the figure of human love. '"Thou art dear to my 
 heart, thou art part of my soul," said a young man to his 
 loved one ; " I love thee, but why, I know not." So ought 
 the worshipper to love Krishna, and worship him for his 
 sake only. Let him offer all to God, and expect no 
 remuneration. He acts like a trader who asks for a return.' 
 Such are the words of a modern exponent of the Vaishnava 
 system. 
 
 I have already pointed out that the idea of faith (bhakti) as 
 a means of salvation, which was formally taught by the 
 authors of the Bhagavad-glta, Bhagavata-purana and Sandilya- 
 sutra, was scarcely known in early times. The leading doc- 
 trine of the Vedic hymns and Brahmanas is that works 
 (karma), especially as represented by the performance of 
 sacrifices (yajila), constitute the shortest pathway to beati- 
 tude, while the Upanishads insist mainly on abstract medita- 
 tion and divine knowledge (jnana) as the true method. 
 Caitanya affirmed that faith and devotion— displayed by
 
 Vaishnavism. Caiianya Sect. 141 
 
 complete submission of the soul to Krishna — was the only- 
 road to heaven. Faith, in fact, superseded all other duties. 
 ' Whatever is accomplished by works, by penance, by divine 
 knowledge, by suppression of the passions, by abstract me- 
 ditation, by charity, by virtue, by other excellences, — all 
 this is effected by faith in me. Paradise, Heaven, supreme 
 beatitude, union with the godhead, — every wish of the heart 
 is obtainable by faith in me.' Such are Krishna's own words, 
 according to the belief of Caitanya and other Vaishnava 
 teachers. (Bhagavata-purana XI.) 
 
 But the devotional feelings of Krishna's votaries are sup- 
 posed to be susceptible of five phases, or rather, perhaps, 
 to be exhibited in five different ways, which are thus enu- 
 merated : — I. Calm contemplation of the godhead (santi) ; 
 2. Active servitude (dasya) ; 3. A feeling of personal friend- 
 ship (sakhya) ; 4. A feeling of filial attachment like that of 
 a child for its parent (vatsalya) ; 5- A feeling of tender affec- 
 tion like that of a girl for her lover (madhurya). 
 
 The last of these is held to be the highest feeling. Indeed, 
 Caitanya taught that the great aim of every worshipper of 1 1 j\j^ 
 Krishna ought, to be to lose all individuality and self-con- // x 
 sciousness in ecstatic union with his god. To bring about ^' ' ,a^ 
 this condition of intense religious fervour various practices 7:^4-, 
 
 were enjoined — for example, incessant repetition of the deity's 
 name (nama-klrtana), singing (saiiklrtana), music, dancing, or 
 movements of the body allied to dancing, such as were also 
 practised by certain Saiva devotees ^. Caitanya was himself 
 in the constant habit of swooning away in paroxysms of ecstatic 
 
 ^ These correspond to the Zikr and religious dancing of the Muham- 
 madan dervishes. For even cold Islam has its devotees who aim at 
 religious ecstasy, resorting to expedients very similar to those of the 
 (faitanyas. I have been twice present at the weekly services of the 
 Cairo dervishes. One sect repeat the name of God with violent ejacu- 
 lations and contortions of the body, while another fraternity whirl 
 themselves round till they swoon away in the intensity of their religious 
 fervour. 

 
 142 Vaishiavism. Caitanya Sect, 
 
 emotion, which at last affected his reason. His biographers 
 assert that in one of these fits he was translated directly to 
 Vishnu's heaven (Vaikuntha). According to some accounts 
 he ended his life by walking into the sea near Purl in Orissa, 
 fancying he saw a beatific vision of Krishna sporting on the 
 waves with his favourite GopTs. Certain it is that he dis- 
 appeared in a mysterious manner about A.D. 1527, at the age 
 of forty-two. 
 
 Then happened what has constantly taken place in the 
 religious history of India. Men of high aspirations^ who have 
 laboured for the revival or reformation of religion, and re- 
 ceived homage as inspired teachers from crowds of disciples 
 during life, have been worshipped as actual deities at death. 
 The only question in the minds of (Jaitanya's devoted fol- 
 lowers was as to whether he was a full manifestation of the 
 Supreme Being (Krishna) or only a descent of a portion (ansa) 
 of his essence. The difficulty seems to have been settled by 
 deciding that Caitanya was none other than very Krishna 
 incarnate, and that his two principal disciples, Advaita and 
 Nityananda, were manifestations of portions of the same 
 deity. These three leaders of the sect are therefore called 
 the three great lords (Prabhus). They constitute the sacred 
 triad of this phase of Vaishnavism. 
 
 But a fourth leader, named Hari-das, who during his life- 
 time was a companion of Caitanya, is worshipped as a sepa- 
 rate divinity in Bengal. Indeed, all the living successors and 
 the present leaders of the sect, called Gosains ( = Gosvamins), 
 are venerated as little less than deities by the Vaishnavas of 
 this school. For the worship of living religious leaders and 
 teachers (usually called by the general name Guru) is a 
 marked feature of this as of all forms of Vaishnavism. The 
 Guru with Vaishnavas is far more than a teacher, and even 
 more than a mediator between God and men. He is the 
 present god— the visible living incarnation of the deity. His 
 anger and favour make themselves instantly felt. He is on
 
 Vaishnavism. Caitanya Sect. 143 
 
 that account even more feared and honoured than the very 
 god of whom he is the representative and embodiment. 
 
 Another marked feature of the system is the extraordinary 
 value attached to the repetition of Krishna's names, especially 
 of his name Hari. The mere mechanical process of con- 
 stantly repeating this name Hari — though the mind be per- 
 fectly vacant or fixed on some other object — secures admission 
 to Vishnu's heaven. Nothing else is needed. All religious 
 ceremonies are comparatively useless. Hari-das is said to 
 have retired to a secluded place in a wood for the purpose of 
 repeating the word Hari 300,000 times daily. Even a blas- 
 phemous repetition of Krishna's name is believed by his 
 followers to be quite sufficient to secure final beatitude. 
 Indeed the Pandits of the Maratha country affirm that there 
 is a form of devotion called Virodha-bhakti, which consists in 
 a man's cursing the deity with the sole object of achieving the 
 supreme bliss of being utterly annihilated by him, and so 
 reabsorbed into the god's essence. 
 
 It is related of a certain wicked godless man that he had 
 a son named Narayana (one of the principal names of 
 Vishnu). On his death-bed, and just before breathing his 
 last, the father called out his son's name without the most 
 remote intention of invoking the god. The effect was that 
 Yama's messengers, who stood ready to convey the repro- 
 bate's soul to a place of punishment, were obliged to make 
 way for the emissaries of Vishnu, who carried the spirit off in 
 triumph to the god's paradise. 
 
 The repetition of particular Vedic texts is by some regarded 
 as equally efficacious. A story is told of a certain converted 
 Hindu who took occasion to recount his experiences before 
 becoming a Christian. It appears that he had been troubled 
 with a constant longing for a vision of Vishnu, and in his 
 distress consulted a Brahman, who informed him that to 
 obtain the desired vision he would have to repeat a particular 
 text (Mantra) 800,000 times. This he accomplished by dint
 
 144 Vaishnavism. Caitanya Sect. 
 
 of hard work night and day in three months, and, on com- 
 plaining to his friend the Brahman that no result followed, 
 was told that he must have made some slight verbal mistake 
 in the repetition of some one text, and that any such slip 
 necessitated his going through the whole process again. 
 
 A great many treatises (such as the Caitanya-caritamrita 
 written by Krishna-das in 1590) have been composed by the 
 disciples of Caitanya in support of his tenets. These works 
 are in high repute in Bengal. 
 
 At the end of the chapter on Saivism I described the 
 ceremonial acts practised in worshipping the Linga of Siva, 
 as well as the exceptional rites performed at Bhuvanesvara 
 (pp. 90-94). The process of worshipping the images of 
 Krishna has many points of resemblance, but I had few oppor- 
 tunities of witnessing the detail of the ceremonies employed. 
 
 On one occasion, however, I was allowed to look through an 
 accidental crevice into the shrine of a Vaishnava temple at 
 Poona while the early morning service (puja) was performed. 
 The idol of the god Krishna first underwent a process of being 
 roused from its supposed nocturnal slumbers by the attendant 
 priest, who invoked the deity by name. Then a respectful 
 offering of water in a boat-shaped vessel was made to it. 
 Next the whole idol was bathed and holy water poured over 
 it from a small perforated metal lota. Then the attendant 
 priest standing near applied sandal-paste (candana) with his 
 finger to the idol's forehead and limbs, and, taking a brush, 
 painted the face with a bright colouring substance, probably 
 saffron. Next, the idol was dressed and decorated with costly 
 clothes and ornaments. Then the priest burnt camphor and 
 incense and waved lights before the image, at the same time 
 ringing a small bell (ghanta). Then flowers (pushpa) and the 
 leaves of the sacred tulsl plant were offered, followed by an 
 oblation of food (naivedya), consisting of cooked rice with 
 sugar. Next water was taken out of a small metal vessel 
 with a spoon and was presented for sipping (acamana). The
 
 Vaishnavism. Caitanya Sect. 145 
 
 god was of course supposed to consume the food or feast on 
 its aroma, receiving at the end of the meal an offering of betel 
 for the supposed cleansing of the mouth after eating, and 
 a spoonful more water for a second sipping. Finally the 
 priest prostrated himself before the idol, and terminated the 
 whole ceremony by putting the god comfortably to sleep for 
 the day. 
 
 While he was going through these ceremonial acts he 
 appeared to be muttering texts, and I observed that during 
 the whole service a Brahman was seated on the ground not 
 far off, who intoned portions of the tenth book of the Bhaga- 
 vata-purana, descriptive of the life of Krishna, reading from 
 a copy of the work placed before him. At the same time a 
 band of musicians outside the temple over the entrance to 
 the compound played a discordant accompaniment with tom- 
 toms, fifes, and drums. 
 
 In the evening the process of waking, undressing, and re- 
 dressing the image was repeated, but without bathing. 
 Flowers and food were again offered, prayers and texts were 
 intoned, a musical service was performed, and the idol put to 
 sleep once more. 
 
 The cooked food offered to the idol is ultimately eaten by 
 the priests. In large temples it is also distributed to the 
 worshippers, who receive it eagerly as divine nutriment, and 
 at some places (for example at a particular temple in 
 Benares) considerable portions are sold at high prices to 
 outside applicants. The water in which the idol is washed 
 is called tirtha, and is drunk as holy water.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Vaishnavism. Minor Sects and Reforming 
 Theistic Movements. 
 
 We cannot quit the subject of Vaishnavism without giving 
 some account of its more important minor sects, as well as 
 of certain reforming theistic movements which may be said 
 to have grown out of it. We may begin with the 
 
 Sect founded by Nimbarka or Nimbaditya. 
 
 This is perhaps one of the oldest of the known minor sects. 
 Its founder Nimbarka or Nimbaditya, whose followers are 
 sometimes called Nimanandis, sometimes Nimavats, is held 
 to have been identical with the astronomer Bhaskarac'arya, 
 who flourished about the twelfth century. The poet Jaya- 
 deva, who is also supposed to have lived in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, may have been his disciple. If so, it is certain that the 
 disciple did more than his master to promote the doctrine of 
 devotion to Krishna. In Jaya-deva's mystical poem, called 
 the Gita-govinda (compared by some to our Song of Solo- 
 mon), are described the loves of Krishna and the Gopis 
 (wives and daughters of the Cowherds), and especially of 
 Krishna and Radha, as typical of the longing of the human 
 soul for union with the divine. 
 
 Others again believe Nimbarka to have been an actual 
 incarnation of the Sun-god, and maintain that he derived his 
 name of ' Nimb-tree-Sun' from having one day stopped the 
 course of the sun's disk, dislodged it from the heavens, and
 
 Vaishnavism. Rdmananda Sect. 147 
 
 confined it for a brief season in a Nimb (Nim) tree. Accord- 
 ing to Hindu ideas, this remarkable miracle was worked for 
 no unworthy or insufficient purpose. It enabled Nimbarka 
 to offer food just before sunset to a holy guest whose reli- 
 gious vows prevented his eating after dark. 
 
 No noteworthy doctrines distinguish Nimbarka's creed, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, that his followers, who are not very numerous, 
 are particular to worship the goddess Radha in conjunction 
 with Krishna. 
 
 Sect foimded by Rdmananda. 
 
 Ramananda is said to have been born in the thirteenth 
 century. The sect founded by him in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury has many adherents in Gangetic India, especially around 
 Agra. They are often called Ramanandls or Ramavats, 
 and are sometimes confounded with the Ramanujas, the fact 
 being that Ramananda was probably one of Ramanujas 
 disciples. The Ramananda Vaishnavas, however, have dis- 
 tinctive doctrines of their own. They worship Vishnu under 
 the form of Rama (the hero of the Ramayana) either singly 
 or conjointly with his wife Sita, and they are not, like the 
 Ramanujas, hyper-scrupulous about the privacy of their meals. 
 Their favourite book is the Bhakta-mala of Nabhajl — a work 
 interesting for its biographies of certain Vaishnavas and ad- 
 herents of the sect, among whom are included two well- 
 known poets, Sur-das and Tulasl-das (commonly Tulsi-das). 
 The former was blind. He wrote a vast number of stanzas 
 in praise of Vishnu, and is regarded as a kind of patron of 
 blind men, especially if they roam about as wandering 
 musicians. 
 
 Tulsi-das, whose verses are to this day household words in 
 every town and rural district where the Hindi language is 
 spoken, ranks as a poet of higher order. He was born near 
 Citra-kuta about A.D. 1544, and settled at Benares, where he 
 
 La
 
 148 Vaishnavism. Svami-Narayana Sect. 
 
 became an enthusiastic worshipper of Rama and Sita. His 
 Hind! poem, the Ramayana, or history of Rama, is no mere 
 translation of Valmlki's great work. It has all the freshness 
 of an independent and original composition. He died about 
 1624. 
 
 But Ramananda is chiefly noted for his twelve immediate 
 disciples, the most celebrated of whom were Kablr, Pipa, and 
 Ravi-das. Of these again by far the most remarkable was 
 Kabir. He was an enthusiastic reformer, who founded a 
 distinct theistic sect; to be presently noticed. Let us first, 
 however, conclude our description of strictly Vaishnava secta- 
 rianism by giving some account of the comparatively modern 
 Vaishnava sect founded by Svami-Narayana. This sect is 
 worthy of a full notice, both because it affords a good ex- 
 ample of the best aspect of modern Vaishnavism, and because 
 the efforts of its founder to deliver the system of Vallabh- 
 acarya from the corrupting influences of the profligate Maha- 
 rajas (see pp. 136, 137) is worthy of all praise. 
 
 Sect founded by Svami-Narayana. 
 
 Svami-Narayana, whose proper name was Sahajananda, 
 was a high-caste Brahman. He was born at Chapal, a village 
 one hundred and twenty miles to the north-west of Lucknow, 
 about the year 1780. He was a Vaishnava, but disgusted 
 with the manner of life of the so-called followers of Vallabh- 
 acarya, whose precepts and practice were utterly at variance, 
 and especially with the licentious habits of the Bombay Ma- 
 harajas (see p. 137), he determined to denounce their irregu- 
 larities and expose their vices. He himself was a celibate, 
 virtuous, self-controlled, austere, ascetical, yet withal large- 
 hearted and philanthropic, and with a great aptitude for 
 learning. He left his home about the year 1800, and took 
 up his abode at a village within the jurisdiction of the 
 Junagarh Nawab. There he placed himself under the pro-
 
 Vaishnavism. Svami-N dray ana Sect. 149 
 
 tection of the chief Guru, named Ramananda-Svaml. When 
 that holy man removed to Ahmedabad, in 1804, Sahajananda 
 followed him. 
 
 In a large and populous city a man of evident ability and 
 professed sanctity could not fail to attract attention. Soon 
 Sahajananda collected about his own person a little band of 
 disciples, which rapidly multiplied into an army of devoted 
 adherents. Some attribute his influence to a power of mes- 
 merizing his followers, but he probably owed his success to a 
 remarkable fascination of manner combined with consistency 
 of moral character, and other qualities which singled him 
 out for a leader. His disciples increased so rapidly that the 
 Brahmans and magnates of Ahmedabad began to be jealous 
 of his popularity. He was obliged to fly, and sought refuge 
 at Jetalpur, twelve miles south of Ahmedabad. There he 
 invited all the Brahmans of the neighbourhood to the per- 
 formance of a great sacrifice. The native officials no sooner 
 heard of the proposed assemblage than, fearing a collision 
 between his followers and other religious parties, they had 
 him arrested on some frivolous pretext and thrown into 
 prison. Such an act of tyranny defeated its own object. It 
 excited universal sympathy, and increased his influence. He 
 was soon released. Hymns were composed in which his 
 merits were extolled. Verses were written descriptive of 
 his sufferings. Curses were launched against the heads of 
 his persecutors. 
 
 Jetalpur then became the focus of a great religious gather- 
 ing. Thousands flocked to the town and enrolled themselves 
 as the followers of Sahajananda, who took the name of 
 Svami-Narayana. 
 
 Bishop Heber, in his Indian Journal, gives the following 
 interesting account of an interview with him at this period of 
 his career: — 
 
 About eleven o'clock I had the expected visit from Svami-Narayana. 
 The holy man was a middle-sized, thin, plain-looking person, about my
 
 150 Vaishnavism. Svdmi-Nardyana, Sect. 
 
 own age, with a mild and diffident expression of countenance, but 
 nothing about him indicative of any extraordinary talent. He came 
 in somewhat different style from all I had expected, having with him 
 nearly two hundred horsemen. When I considered that I had myself 
 an escort of more than fifty horse I could not help smiling, though my 
 sensations were in some degree painful and humiliating at the idea of 
 two religious teachers meeting at the head of little armies, and filling 
 the city which was the scene of their interview with the rattling of 
 quivers, the clash of shields, and the tramp of the war-horse. Had our 
 troops been opposed to each other, mine, though less numerous, would 
 have been doubtless far more effective, from the superiority of arms and 
 discipline. But in moral grandeur what a difference was there between 
 his troop and mine ! Mine neither knew me nor cared for me, though 
 they escorted me faithfully. The guards of Svami-Narayana were his 
 own disciples and enthusiastic admirers, men who had voluntarily 
 repaired to hear his lessons, who now took a pride in doing him honour, 
 and who would cheerfully fight to the last drop of blood rather than 
 suffer a fringe of his garment to be handled roughly. In my own parish 
 of Hodnet there were once, perhaps, a few honest countrymen who felt 
 something like this for me, but how long a time must elapse before 
 a Christian minister in India can hope to be thus loved and honoured ! — 
 Chap. XXV. 
 
 It soon became clear to Sahajananda that the success of 
 his future operations would depend on the consolidation of 
 his party. He therefore retired with his followers to the 
 secluded village of Wartal, where he erected a temple to 
 Narayana (otherwise Krishna, or Vishnu, as the Supreme 
 Being) associated with the goddess Lakshmi. It was from 
 this central locality that his crusade against the licentious 
 habits of the Vallabhac'aryans was principally carried on. 
 His watchword seems to have been ' devotion to Krishna 
 (as the Supreme Being) with observance of duty and purity 
 of life.' 
 
 He was in the habit of making periodical tours in Gujarat, 
 like a bishop visiting his diocese. It was in one of these that 
 Svami-Narayana was struck down by fever at Gadada in 
 Kathiawar, where he died. 
 
 His disciples now number more than 300,000 persons. 
 They are broadly divided into two classes— Sadhus, 'holy men,' 
 and Grihasthas, ' householders.' These correspond to clergy
 
 Vaishnavism, Sv ami- N dray ana Sect. 151 
 
 and laity, the former, who are all celibates, being supported 
 by the latter. Those Sadhus who are Brahmans are called 
 Brahma-carls. Of these there are about 300 at Wartal, the 
 whole body of Sadhus, or holy men, numbering about 1,000. 
 A still lower order is called Pala. Of these there are about 
 500. 
 
 The two principal temples of the sect are at Wartal (for 
 Sanskrit Vrittalaya or better Vratalaya, 'abode of religious 
 observances '), about four miles to the west of the Baroda 
 railway, and Ahmedabad. The former is the most important 
 and best endowed, but both are presided over by Maharajas, 
 neither of whom is willing to yield the precedence to the 
 other. Jealousies are already springing up between them. 
 Probably, in process of time, a schism will take place, and 
 perhaps two antagonistic parties be formed, as in the other 
 Vaishnava sects. 
 
 In company with the Collector of Kaira I visited the Wartal 
 temple on the day of the Purnima, or full moon of the month 
 Karttik — the most popular festival of the whole year. The 
 Maharaja greeted us at the Boravi station of the Baroda 
 railway with a choice of conveyances — an elephant, a bullock- 
 carriage, a palanquin and four horses, with a mounted guard. 
 I chose the palanquin and found myself moving comfortably 
 forward, while my companion's vehicle oscillated violently in 
 response to the inequalities of the road. The Svami-Narayana 
 sect are a wealthy community, but clearly object to spend 
 their money on improving their access to their chief temple. 
 One reason for this may be that a shrine's inaccessibility en- 
 hances the merit of pilgrimage. 
 
 We were met at the entrance to the court of the temple 
 (mandir) by the Maharaja himself, attended by his minister — 
 an old Brahmacarl, or unmarried Brahman. The temple 
 dedicated to Lakshml-Narayana, erected about sixty years 
 ago, is a handsome structure. It has the usual lofty cupolas, 
 and stands in the centre of a courtyard, formed by the
 
 1=^2 
 
 Vaishnavism. Svdmi-Nardyana Sect. 
 
 residences of the Maharaja and his attendants, the great hall 
 of assembly, and other buildings. 
 
 We were conducted by the Maharaja through a crowd of at 
 least ten thousand persons, who thronged the quadrangle and 
 all the approaches to the temple. They were waiting to 
 be admitted to the ceremony of the day — the one object 
 that had drawn so many people to the spot — the privilege of 
 Darsana ; that is, of seeing and adoring the idol. It was a 
 moment of intense excitement. Let a man but bow down 
 before the jewelled image on this anniversary of its mani- 
 festation to the multitude, and the blessing of the god attends 
 him for the whole year. The vast concourse swayed to and 
 fro like the waves of a troubled sea, each man vociferating to 
 his neighbours in a manner quite appalling. I could not help 
 thinking of our apparent helplessness in the surging crowd, 
 and asking myself how two solitary Europeans would be likely 
 to fare, if, from some accidental circumstance, the religious 
 fanaticism of a myriad of excited Hindus were to break loose 
 and vent itself upon us. 
 
 But the ten thousand people were docile as children. At a 
 signal from the Maharaja they made a lane for us to pass, and 
 we entered the temple by a handsome flight of steps. The 
 interior is surrounded by idol shrines. On the occasion of the 
 present festival the principal images were almost concealed 
 from view by rich vestments and jewelry. 
 
 The two principal shrines have three figures. One of them 
 has an idol of Krishna in his character of Ran-chor, ' deliverer 
 from evil,' — a form of Krishna specially worshipped at Dvarika 
 and throughout Gujarat ^ — on the left of the spectator. An 
 image of Narayana (Vishnu as the Supreme Being) is in the 
 middle ; and Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, is on the right. A 
 
 ^ So the name was interpreted to me, but I suspect it properly means 
 'fight-quitter,' and rather refers to Krishna's declining to take part in 
 the great war of the Mahabharata, between the sons of Pandu and 
 Dhrita-rashtra.
 
 Vaishnavism, Svaini-N dray ana Sect. 153 
 
 gong to be struck in the performance of worship (puja) hangs 
 suspended before the shrine. The other principal sanctuary has 
 Krishna in the middle, his favourite Radha on the right, and 
 Svami-Narayana, the founder of the sect, on the left. The 
 latter is here worshipped, like other great religious leaders, as 
 an incarnation of a portion of Vishnu — that is, he is held to 
 be one of the numerous Naravataras or descents of parts of 
 the god's essence in the bodies of men. In an adjacent shrine 
 are his bed and clothes, the print of his foot, and his wooden 
 slippers. 
 
 We were next conducted to the Sabha-mandapa, or great 
 hall of assembly, on one side of the quadrangle. Here about 
 three thousand of the chief members of the sect, including a 
 number of the Sadhus or clergy, were waiting to receive us. 
 Chairs were placed for us in the centre of the hall, and before 
 us, seated on the ground, with their legs folded under them 
 in the usual Indian attitude, were two rows of about thirty of 
 the oldest Sadhus, three or four of whom had been actually 
 contemporaries of Svami-Narayana. These old men were 
 delighted when we questioned them as to their personal 
 knowledge of their founder. The only inconvenience was 
 that they all wanted to talk together. I felt indisposed to 
 check their garrulity, but the Maharaja interposed and invited 
 us to another spacious hall in the story above, where a select 
 number of their best Pandits and officials were assembled to 
 greet us. The regular Darbar or formal reception took place 
 in this room. Here we were garlanded with flowers, be- 
 sprinked with rosewater, and presented with fruits, sweet- 
 meats, and pan-suparl, in the usual manner. I found the Pandits 
 well versed in Sanskrit. One or two astonished me by the 
 fluency with which they spoke it, and by their readiness in 
 answering the difficult questions with which I tested their 
 knowledge. 
 
 The Maharaja's last act was to conduct us to an adjacent 
 building, used as a lodging-house or asylum (dharma-sala)
 
 154 Vaishnavism. Svami-Nardyana Sect. 
 
 for the clergy. On the present anniversary at least six hun- 
 dred of these good men were collected in long spacious 
 galleries called Asramas (places of retreat). They were all 
 dressed alike in plain salmon-coloured clothes, each man being 
 located in a small separated space not more than seven feet 
 long, by three or four broad. Above his head, neatly arranged 
 in racks, were his spare clothes, water-jar, &c. When we were 
 introduced to the six hundred Sadhus they were all standing 
 upright, motionless, and silent. At night they lie down on the 
 hard ground in the same narrow space. These holy men are 
 all celibates. They have abandoned all worldly ties, that 
 they may go forth unencumbered to disseminate the doctrines 
 of their founder. They itinerate in pairs, to cheer, support, 
 and keep watch on each other. They travel on foot, under- 
 going many privations and hardships, and taking with them 
 nothing but a staff, the clothes on their back, their daily food, 
 their water-jar, and their book of instructions. They may be 
 seen here and there in the ordinary coarse salmon-coloured 
 dress of ascetics, striving to win disciples by personal ex- 
 ample and persuasion, rather than by controversy. Surely 
 other proselyting societies might gain some useful hints by 
 a study of their method. 
 
 What I saw of their whole system convinced me that the 
 Svami-Narayanas are an energetic body of men, and their 
 sect an advancing one. Notwithstanding the asceticism of 
 their clergy, the leading members of the community have a 
 keen eye to worldly wealth and the acquisition of land, and are 
 perhaps not over-scrupulous in carrying out their plans of ag- 
 grandisement. Without doubt the tendency of their doctrines 
 is towards purity of life, which is supposed to be effected by 
 suppression of the passions (udasa), and complete devotion to 
 the Supreme Being in his names of Narayana, Vishnu, and 
 Krishna. In an honest desire to purify the Vaishnava faith 
 the sect has done and is doing much good ; but there can be 
 no question that its doctrines, like its gods, its idols, and its
 
 Vaishnavism. Svami-Narayana Sect. 155 
 
 sectarian marks, are part and parcel of genuine Vaishnavism. 
 At any rate the system lacks the true vivifying regenerating 
 force which can alone maintain it in vigour, and, like other 
 Indian reformations and religious revivals, is, I fear, destined 
 in the end to be drawn back into the all-absorbing vortex of 
 corrupt Hinduism. 
 
 After my discussion with the Pandits I was presented with 
 their Siksha-patrl, or manual of instructions, written in San- 
 skrit (with a long commentary), and constituting the religious 
 directory of the sect. It was compiled by their founder, with 
 the aid of a learned Brahman named Dinanath, and is a col- 
 lection of two hundred and twelve precepts — some original, 
 some extracted from Manu and other sacred Sastras, and 
 many of them containing high moral sentiments worthy of 
 Christianity itself. Every educated member of the sect ap- 
 peared to know the whole collection by heart ^. 
 
 Some of the verses were recited to me by the Pandits in the 
 original Sanskrit, and as they are calculated to give a fair idea 
 of the purer side of modern Vaishnavism, I here append a 
 literal translation of a few selected specimens. The figures 
 at the end of each precept refer to the number of the verses in 
 the Siksha-patrl. 
 
 No disciples of mine must ever intentionally kill any living thing 
 whatever, not even a flea or the most minute insect (ii). 
 
 The killing of any animal for the purpose of sacrifice to the gods 
 is forbidden by me. Abstaining from injury is the highest of all 
 duties (12). 
 
 Suicide at a sacred place of pilgrimage, from religious motives or from 
 passion, is prohibited (14). 
 
 No flesh meat must ever be eaten, no spirituous or vinous liquor must 
 ever be drunk, not even as medicine (15). 
 
 All theft is prohibited, even under pretence of contributing to reli- 
 gious objects (17). 
 
 No male or female followers of mine must ever commit adultery (18). 
 
 No false accusation must be laid against any one from motives of 
 self-interest (20). 
 
 ^ The text has been edited by me with a translation, and is published 
 in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for October 1882.
 
 156 Vaishnavisin. Svdmi-N dray ana Sect. 
 
 Profane language against the gods, sacred places, Brahmans, holy 
 men and women, and the Vedas, must never be used (21) 
 
 A truth which causes serious injury to one's self or others need not be 
 told. Wicked men, ungrateful people, and persons in love are to be 
 avoided. A bribe must never be accepted (26). 
 
 A trust must never be betrayed. Confidence must never be violated. 
 Praise of one's self with one's own lips is prohibited {y])' 
 
 Holy men should patiently bear abusive language, or even beating, 
 from evil-minded persons, and wish good to them (201). 
 
 They should not play at any games of chance, nor act as informers or 
 spies ; they should never show love of self, or undue partiality for their 
 relations (202). 
 
 Wives should honour their husbands as if they were gods, and never 
 offend them with improper language, though they be diseased, indigent, 
 or imbecile (159). 
 
 Widows should serve the god Krishna, regarding him as their only 
 husband (163). 
 
 They should only eat one meal a day, and should sleep on the 
 ground (168). 
 
 Every day let a man awake before sunrise, and, after calling on the 
 name of Krishna, proceed to perform the rites of bodily purifica- 
 tion (49). 
 
 Having seated himself in some place apart, let him cleanse his teeth, 
 and then, having bathed with pure water, put on two well-washed 
 garments, one an under garment and the other an upper (50), 
 
 My male followers should then make the vertical mark (emblematical 
 of the footprint of Vishnu or Krishna) with the round spot inside it 
 (symbolical of Lakshml) on their foreheads. Their wives should only 
 make the circular mark with red powder of saffron (52). 
 
 Those who are initiated into the proper worship of Krishna should 
 always wear on their necks two rosaries made of Tulsl wood, one for 
 Krishna and the other for Radha (4). 
 
 After engaging in mental worship, let them reverently bow down 
 before the pictures of Radha and Krishna ^ and repeat the eight- 
 syllabled prayer to Krishna {Sri-Krishnah saranam mama, 'Great 
 Krishna is my soul's refuge ') as many times as possible. Then let them 
 apply themselves to secular affairs (54). 
 
 Devotion to Krishna unattended by the performance of duties must 
 on no account be practised (39). 
 
 The duties of one's own class and order must never be abandoned, 
 nor the duties of others meddled with (24). 
 
 Nowhere, except in Jagan-nath-purT, must cooked food or water be 
 accepted from a person of low caste, though it be the remains of an 
 offering to Krishna (19). 
 
 It is a characteristic of the Svami-Narayana sect that pictures, 
 instead of images, are used in some of their temples.
 
 Vaisknavism. Sv ami- N dray ana Sect. 157 
 
 Duty_ (dharma) is that good practice which is enjoined both by the 
 Veda (Sruti) and by the law (Smriti) founded on the Veda. Devotion 
 (bhakti) is intense love for Krishna accompanied with a due sense of 
 his glory (103). 
 
 An act promising good reward, but involving departure from proper 
 duties, must never be committed {t^. 
 
 If by the great men of former days anything unbecoming has been 
 done, their faults must not be imitated, but only their good deeds (74). 
 
 If knowingly or unintentionally any sin, great or small, be committed, 
 the proper penance must be performed according to ability (92). 
 
 Every day all my followers should go to the Temple of God, and there 
 repeat the names of Krishna (63). 
 
 The story of his life should be listened to with the greatest reverence, 
 and hymns in his praise should be sung on festive days (64). 
 
 All males and females who go to Krishna's temple should keep 
 separate and not touch each other (40). 
 
 Vishnu, Siva, Gana-pati (or Ganesa), Parvati, and the Sun ; these 
 five deities should be honoured with worship (84). 
 
 Narayana and Siva should be equally regarded as part of one and the 
 same Supreme Spirit, since both have been declared in the Vedas to be 
 forms of Brahma (47). 
 
 On no account let it be supposed that difference in forms (or names) 
 makes any difference in the identity of the deity (112). 
 
 That which abides within the living human spirit in the character of 
 its internal regulator {antarydmitaya) should be regarded as the self- 
 existent Supreme Being who assigns a recompense to every act (107). 
 
 That Being, known by various names — such as the glorious Krishna, 
 Param Brahma, Bhagavan, Purushottama — the cause of all manifesta- 
 tions, is to be adored by us as our one chosen deity (108). 
 
 Having perceived, by abstract meditation, that the spirit is distinct 
 from its three bodies (viz. the gross, subtle, and causal bodies) and that 
 it is a portion of the one Spirit of the Universe (Brahma), every man 
 ought to worship Krishna by means of that soul at all times (116). 
 
 Towards him alone ought all worship to be directed by every human 
 being on the earth in every possible manner. Nothing else except faith 
 (bhakti) in him can procure salvation (113). 
 
 The philosophical doctrine approved by me is the Visishtadvaita (of 
 Ramanuja), and the desired heavenly abode is Goloka. There to worship 
 Krishna and be united with him as the Supreme Soul is to be considered 
 salvation (121). 
 
 The twice-born should perform at the proper seasons, and according 
 to their means, the twelve purificatory rites * (sanskara), the (six) daily 
 
 ^ Of these only six are now generally performed, viz.: — (i) the birth- 
 ceremony, or touching the tongue of a new-born infant with clarified 
 butter, etc. ; (2) the name-giving ceremony on the tenth day ; (3) ton- 
 sure ; (4) induction into the privileges of the twice-born, by investiture
 
 158 Vaishnavism. Theistic Sect of Kabir. 
 
 duties S and the Sraddha offerings to the spirits of departed ances- 
 tors (91). 
 
 The eleventh day of the waxing and waning moon should be observed 
 as fasts, also the birthday of Krishna ; also the night of ^'wd^iSiva-ratri) 
 with rejoicings during the day (79). 
 
 A pilgrimage to the Tirthas, or holy places, of which Dvarika 
 (Krishna's city in Gujarat) is the chief, should be performed according 
 to rule. Almsgiving and kind acts towards the poor should always be 
 performed by all (83). 
 
 A tithe of one's income should be assigned to Krishna ; the poor 
 should give a twentieth part (i47)- 
 
 Those males and females of my followers who will act according to 
 these directions shall certainly obtain the four great objects of all human 
 desires — religious merit, wealth, pleasure, and beatitude (206). 
 
 We now pass on to the reformed theistic sects founded by 
 
 Kablr and Nanak. 
 
 Theistic Sect founded by Kablr. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the teaching of Kabir exer- 
 cised a most important influence throughout Upper India in 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. That it formed the 
 basis of the Sikh movement in the Panjab is clear from the 
 fact that Kabir's sayings are constantly quoted by the Guru 
 Nanak and his successors^ the authors of the sacred writings 
 which constitute the bible (Grantha) of the Sikh religion. 
 
 Kablr was a weaver, and in all probability a Musalman by 
 birth. He is believed to have lived partly at Benares and 
 partly at Magar, near Gorakhpur, in the reign of Sikandar 
 Shah Lodi, between 1488 and 1512. According to a legend 
 he was miraculously conceived by the virgin widow of a 
 Brahman. His name Kabir— an Arabic word meaning 
 ' Great ' — gives support to the now generally accepted opinion 
 
 with the sacred thread" ; (5) solemn return home from the house of a 
 preceptor after completing the prescribed course of study ; (6) marriage. 
 They will be described in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 ^ The six daily duties (called Nitya-karman) according to Parasara 
 are:— (i) bathing ; (2) morning and evening prayer (sandhya) ; (3) offer- 
 ings to fire (homa) ; (4) repetition of the Veda ; (5) worship of ancestors; 
 (6) worship of the gods.
 
 Vaishnavism. Theistic Sect of Kablr. 159 
 
 that he was originally a Musalman. But he never had any 
 sympathy with Muhammadan intolerance and exclusiveness. 
 It is certain that in the end he became a pupil of Ramananda 
 (see p. 147), and for a time a true Hindu, and, what is im- 
 portant to bear in mind, a true Vaishnava, who, like other 
 Vaishnava leaders, had much of the democratic, tolerant, and 
 liberal spirit of Buddhism. No wonder, then, that he laboured 
 to free the Vaishnava creed from the useless and senseless in- 
 crustations v/ith which it had become overlaid. But he did 
 more than other Vaishnava reformers. He denounced all 
 idol-worship and taught Vaishnavism as a form of strict 
 monotheism. True religion, according to Kabir, meant really 
 nothing but devotion to one God, who is called by the name 
 Vishnu, or by synonyms of Vishnu such as Rama and Hari, 
 or even by the names current among Muhammadans. For 
 Kabir, in his tolerance, had no objection to regard Muham- 
 madans as worshipping the same God under a different name. 
 In this way he was the first to attempt a partial bridging 
 of the gulf between Hinduism and Islam. Nor did he reject 
 all the pantheistic ideas of Brahmanism. 
 
 We have already noted how in India all phases of religious 
 belief are constantly meeting and partially fusing into each 
 other. Polytheism is continually sliding into Monotheism, 
 Monotheism into Pantheism, and then again into Polytheism. 
 Vaishnavism and Saivism in their universal receptivity are 
 open to impressions from Islam ; Islam, notwithstanding its 
 exclusiveness, is adulterated with Vaishnavism and Saivism. 
 Hence it happens that Vaishnavism and Saivism, however 
 decidedly they may insist on the separate personality of the 
 Godhead, are perpetually slipping back, like a broad wheel, 
 into the old Pantheistic rut. And Islam, however uncom- 
 promising its view of the Unity of the Deity, has its school 
 of Sufi philosophers, who hold opinions almost identical with 
 those of the Vedanta Pantheists. It is no matter of wonder, 
 therefore, that Kabir — while asserting the Unity of God, the
 
 1 60 Vaishnavism. Theistic Sect of Kabir. 
 
 Creator of the world, who is admitted to have attributes and 
 quahties and to assume any shape at will— also maintained 
 that God and man are parts of one essence, and that ' both 
 are in the same manner everything that lives and moves and 
 has its being.' 
 
 Kabir's adherents— still very numerous in Northern India — 
 are generally called Kablr-panthls. His doctrines and pre- 
 cepts are embodied in the Sukh-nidhan and other Hindi 
 works, as well as in the Sikh Grantha. His successors have 
 added precepts of their own, many of which are attributed 
 to Kablr. His alleged sayings at-e innumerable. 
 
 I here subjoin a few specimens^ : — 
 
 Hear my word ; go not astray. 
 
 My word is from the first. Meditate on it every moment. 
 
 Without hearing the word, all is utter darkness. Without finding the 
 gateway of the word, man will ever go astray. 
 
 There are many words. Take the pith of them. 
 
 Lay in provender sufficient for the road while time yet serves. Evening 
 comes on, the day is flown and nothing will be provided. 
 
 With the five elements is the abode of a great mystery. When the 
 body is decomposed has any one found it ? ■ The word of the teacher 
 is the guide. 
 
 That a drop falls into the ocean all can perceive ; but that the drop 
 and the ocean are one, few can comprehend. 
 
 The dwelling of Kablr is on the peak of a mountain, and a narrow 
 path leads to it. 
 
 No act of devotion can equal truth ; no crime is so heinous as false- 
 hood ; in the heart where truth abides, there is my abode. 
 
 Put a check upon the tongue ; speak not much. Associate with the 
 wise. Investigate the words of the teacher. 
 
 When the master is blind, what is to become of the scholar ? When 
 the blind leads the blind both will fall into the well. 
 
 It is evident from these examples that the key-note of 
 Kabir's teaching was the duty of obeying spiritual teachers. 
 He maintained, in fact, that every man was bound to search 
 for a true and trustworthy spiritual pastor (Guru), and, having 
 found one, to make him his master — to submit mind, con- 
 science, and even body to his will and guidance. Yet he 
 
 ^ Selected from H. H. Wilson's ' Hindu Religious Sects.'
 
 The Sikh Sect, i6i 
 
 never claimed infallibility for his own utterances. He con- 
 stantly warned his own disciples to investigate for themselves 
 the truth of every word he uttered. 
 
 And this leads us to the religious system founded in the 
 Panjab by Kablr's most celebrated follower Nanak, about the 
 time of the Emperor Babar. 
 
 The Sikh Theistic Sect, founded by Ndnak. 
 
 It is well known that certain sects of Christians call them- 
 selves 'brethren,' to denote their relationship to each other 
 and to their Head as members of a religious society typified 
 by a family. Much in the same way the sect founded by 
 Nanak styled themselves Sikhs or ' disciples ' to express their 
 close dependence on their teachers or Gurus. For if the 
 ' diapason ' of Kablr's doctrine, and, indeed, of all Vaishnava 
 teaching, was, ' Hear the word of the Guru, the word of the 
 Guru is the guide,' much more did Nanak insist on a similar 
 submission. Literally interpreted, the Sanskrit terms Guru 
 (derived from the Sanskrit root gri, 'to utter words'), and 
 Sishya — corrupted into Sikh, — meaning in Sanskrit ' One who 
 is to be instructed,' are merely correlatives like teacher 
 and taught. Hence, the system might as suitably be called 
 Guruism as Sikhism. 
 
 Great light has recently been thrown on its religious aspect 
 by the labours of Professor Trumpp, of Munich. He was 
 commissioned by our Government to translate what is called 
 the Adi-Granth, or first Sikh bible, and his work has recently 
 appeared with valuable introductory essays. It is not too 
 much to say that we are now for the first time able to form 
 an accurate idea of the true nature of one of the most in- 
 teresting and important religious and political movements in 
 the history of India. 
 
 In the light, therefore, of Professor Trumpp's investigations, 
 and my own inquiries at Lahore, I proceed to give a brief 
 
 M
 
 1 52 The Sikh Sect. 
 
 account of Nanak and the characteristic features of Nanak's 
 teaching. 
 
 It appears to be a well-ascertained fact that this great 
 teacher was born, not in Lahore itself, but in a neighbour- 
 ing village, called Talvandi, on the river Ravi, not far from 
 Lahore, in the year 1469, a few years before Caitanya in 
 Bengal and Martin Luther in Europe. Of course the various 
 biographies of Nanak — called Janam-sakhls, and written in 
 the Panjabi dialect — are filled with myths and stories of 
 miraculous events, invented to justify the semi-deification of 
 the founder of the sect soon after his death. That all the 
 Hindu gods appeared in the sky and announced the birth 
 of a great saint (Bhagat) to save the world, is not quite 
 capable of proof. Nor can we quite accept as a fact another 
 statement of his chroniclers, that one day angels seized him 
 while bathing, and carried him bodily into the presence of 
 the Deity, who presented him with a cup of nectar and 
 charged him to proclaim the one God, under the name of 
 Hari, upon earth. But we need not disbelieve the statement 
 that at an early age he became a diligent student of Vaish- 
 nava religious books, and that in his youth he imitated the 
 example of other incipient reformers, wandering to various 
 shrines in search of some clue to the labyrinth of Hinduism. 
 It is even afiirmed that his travels included the performance 
 of a hajj to Mecca, and that on being reproved by the Kazi 
 for lying down with his feet towards the Ka'bah, he replied, 
 ' Put my feet in that direction where the house of God is not.' 
 
 Nanak, however, laid no claim to be the originator of a new 
 religion. His teaching was mainly founded on that of his 
 predecessors, especially on that of Kabir, whom he constantly 
 quoted. He was simply a Guru, or teacher, and his followers 
 were simply Sikhs or disciples. But he was also a reformer 
 who aimed, as other reformers had done before him, at deli- 
 vering Hinduism, and especially the Vaishnavism of Northern 
 India, from its incubus of caste, superstition, and idolatry.
 
 The Sikh Sect. 163 
 
 Yet it does not appear that Nanak directly attacked caste 
 or denounced it in violent language. He simply welcomed 
 persons of all ranks as his followers, and taught that the 
 Supreme Being was no ' respecter of persons.' 
 
 The plain fact was that Nanak found himself in a part 
 of India where Muhammadans formed a majority of the 
 population. Though himself originally a Hindu, he became 
 partially Islamized, to the extent at least of denouncing 
 idolatry. His idea was to bring about a union between 
 Hindus and Muhammadans on the common ground of a 
 belief in one God. Yet the creed of Nanak was really more 
 pantheistic than monotheistic. God, he said, is Supreme Lord 
 over all (Paramesvara). He may be called Brahma, or by 
 other names, such as Govinda, etc., but his especial name is 
 Hari ( = Vishnu). This Supreme Being does not create the 
 Universe out of nothing, but evolves it out of himself. It is 
 a kind of expansion of his own essence which takes place 
 for his own amusement (khela) — such expansion being made 
 up of the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas, in perfect 
 equilibrium (see p. 31). It is Illusion or Maya which dis- 
 turbs this equilibrium and causes the apparent separation 
 between God, the world, and the human soul. All this is 
 pure Brahmanism. We find also that, except in denouncing 
 idolatry, Nanak differed very little from a pure Vaishnava, 
 for he taught that in the present age of the world (the Kali- 
 yuga) the repetition of the name of Hari is the only means of 
 salvation — notwithstanding the merit to be gained by bene- 
 volent works and religious ceremonies — and that the know- 
 ledge of this name is only to be acquired through a properly 
 ordained teacher (Guru). It is curious, too, that a religious 
 movement which commenced in an effort to draw the ad- 
 herents of Sikhism and Muhammadanism together, should 
 have ended in exciting the bitterest animosity between them, 
 
 Nanak's death is known to have occurred on the loth of 
 October, 1538. One of his sons expected to succeed him, 
 
 M 3
 
 164 The Sikh Sect. 
 
 but to the surprise of those who were present at his death, he 
 passed over his own son and nominated as second Guru his 
 disciple Lahana, whose name had been changed to Angada 
 because of his devotion. He had, so to speak, given up his 
 person (anga) to the service of his master. This appears to 
 have been his chief merit. He was quite illiterate, though 
 tradition makes him the inventor of the peculiar alphabet 
 called Guru-mukhl (a modification of the Devanagari) in 
 which the Sikh bible was written. Angada nominated Amar- 
 das to succeed him as third Guru. Seven others were ap- 
 pointed to the succession in a similar manner. These make 
 up the ten chief Gurus of the Sikh religion. They were, 
 4. Ram-das ; 5. Arjun ; 6. Har-Govind ; 7. Har-Rai ; 8. Har- 
 Kisan (for Har-Krishna) ; 9. Teg-Bahadur; and 10. Govind- 
 Sinh. 
 
 Professor Trumpp has given an interesting account of each, 
 though he does not vouch for the truth of the native biogra- 
 phies from which his details are taken. One thing is certain, 
 that notwithstanding the agreement of Sikhs and Muhamma- 
 dans in regard to the great doctrine of the Unity of the God- 
 head, a violent political antagonism soon sprang up between 
 them. The truth was, that when the Sikhs began to combine 
 together for the promotion of their worldly as well as spiritual 
 interests, they rapidly developed military tastes and abilities. 
 This was the signal for an entire change of attitude between 
 Sikhs and Muhammadans. So long as the former were a 
 mere religious sect they were left unmolested ; but when they 
 began to band themselves together for purposes of political 
 aggrandizement, they encountered opposition and persecution. 
 The Muhammadan Government naturally took alarm. It 
 could not permit the growth of an impermm in imperio. 
 Internecine struggles followed. Both parties treated each 
 other as deadly enemies ; but the hardy and energetic Sikhs, 
 though occasionally vanquished and dispersed, were not to be 
 driven off the field. Nor is it surprising that they gradually
 
 The Sikh Sect. 165 
 
 developed a taste for rapine and spoliation. The decaying 
 Mogul Empire was quite unable to hold its own against their 
 aggressiveness. Ultimately, they combined into powerful asso- 
 ciations (misals) under independent marauding chiefs, seized 
 large tracts of land, and took possession of the whole Panjab. 
 
 The first to inspire the Sikhs with a desire for political 
 union was the fourth Guru, Ram-das. He was himself a 
 quiet unassuming man, but he understood the value of money 
 and the advantage of organization. His affable manners 
 attracted crowds of adherents, who daily flocked to his house 
 and voluntarily presented him with offerings. With the con- 
 tributions thus received he was able to purchase the tank 
 called Amrita-sar (Sanskrit Amrita-saras, 'lake of nectar'), 
 and build the well-known lake-temple which afterwards 
 became a rallying-point and centre of union for the whole 
 Sikh community. 
 
 Ram-das conveyed his precepts to his followers in the form 
 of verses. Many of his stanzas, together with the sayings of 
 the previous Gurus, and especially of the first Guru, Nanak, 
 were for the first time collected by his son, the fifth Guru, 
 Arjun, who was appointed by his father to the Guruship just 
 before his death in 1581. From that time forward the suc- 
 cession was made hereditary, and the remaining five Gurus 
 were regarded as rulers rather than as teachers. 
 
 With regard to the fifth Guru, Arjun, it may be observed 
 that he was a worthy successor of his father. He perceived 
 that to keep his Sikhs or disciples together, it would be 
 necessary to give them a written standard of authority, and 
 some sort of machinery of government. It is to him, there- 
 fore, that the Sikhs owe the compilation of their first bible — 
 called the Granth, or book (Sanskrit Grantha) — and to him is 
 due the establishment of an organized system of collecting 
 a regular tax from all adherents of the sect in different 
 localities. Moreover, under him the sacred tank and temple 
 founded by Ram-das became the nucleus of the sacred town
 
 1 56 The Sikh Sect, 
 
 Amritsar, which is still the metropolis of the Sikh religion. 
 He was the first Sikh Pope who aimed at temporal as well 
 as spiritual power. It is not surprising, then, that his death is 
 said to have been brought about by the Emperor Jahanglr. 
 
 The lives of the sixth, seventh, and eighth Gurus may be 
 passed over as unimportant. The ninth Guru, Teg-Bahadur, 
 attracted the attention of the Emperor Aurangzlb. This 
 fanatical monarch, who was bent on forcing the whole world 
 to embrace Islam, did not long leave the Sikhs undisturbed. 
 He imprisoned Teg-Bahadur, and tortured him so cruelly 
 that the Guru, despairing of life induced a fellow-prisoner to 
 put an end to his sufferings, But Aurangzlb's tyranny was 
 quite powerless to suppress the Sikh movement. It was rather 
 the chief factor in Sikh progress. The murder of the ninth 
 Guru was the great turning-point in the history of the sect. 
 Thenceforward the Sikhs became a nation of fighting men. 
 
 Teg-Bahadur's son, Govind-Sinh, succeeded as tenth Guru. 
 Burning to revenge his father^s death, he formed the am- 
 bitious design of establishing an independent dominion on the 
 ruins of the Muhammadan Empire. He was a man of 
 extraordinary energy and strength of will, but, born and 
 brought up at Patna, was deeply imbued with Hindu super- 
 stitious feelings. The better to prepare himself for what he 
 felt was too gigantic a task to be accomplished without 
 supernatural assistance, he went through a course of severe 
 religious austerity. He even so far abjured the principles of 
 his predecessors as to propitiate the goddess Durga. Nay, it 
 is even affirmed that, instigated by the Brahmans to offer one 
 of his own sons as a sacrifice, and unable to obtain the 
 mother's consent, he allowed one of his disciples to be be- 
 headed as a substitute at the altar of the bloody goddess. 
 The story is noteworthy as pointing to the probable preva- 
 lence of human sacrifice at that time in Upper India. 
 
 In fact, it was the tenth Guru, Govind, who converted the 
 Sikhs into a nation of fighting men. His character was a
 
 The Sikh Sect. 167 
 
 curious compound of pugnacity, courage, superstition, and 
 fanaticism. If Nanak, the first Guru, was the founder of the 
 Sikh reHgion, Govind, the tenth Guru, was the founder of the 
 Sikh nationaHty. Many other reformers had attempted to 
 abohsh caste as a religious institution, but Govind regarded 
 the evils of caste from a purely political standpoint. He 
 perceived that the power exercised over the Hindus by the 
 Muhammadans and other conquerors was mainly due to the 
 disunion caused by caste. He, therefore, at the risk of 
 offending the most inveterate Hindu prejudices, proclaimed 
 social equality among all the members of the Sikh com- 
 munity. 
 
 Nor was this all. He devised other plans for uniting his fol- 
 lowers into a distinct people. They were to add the name Sinh 
 (' lion ') to their other names. They were to be distinguished 
 by long hair, they were always to carry a sword — in token 
 of engaging in perpetual warfare with the Musalmans — to 
 refrain from smoking tobacco, and to wear short trowsers, 
 instead of the ordinary Dhoti. They were to be called 
 Khalsa, or the peculiar property of the Guru, and were to be 
 admitted to discipleship by a kind of baptismal rite called 
 Pahul — that is to say, sugar was dissolved in water, conse- 
 crated by the repetition of certain texts taken from the 
 Granthj and stirred with a two-edged sword. Then part of 
 this decoction — euphemistically styled nectar — was ad- 
 ministered to each new disciple, and the rest sprinkled on the 
 head, mouth, eyes, and other parts of his body, while he 
 was made to take an oath not to mix with certain ex- 
 communicated persons, not to worship idols, not to bow to 
 any person whatever, except a Sikh Guru, and never to turn 
 his back on a foe. 
 
 Govind even composed a second bible (Granth), which was 
 added as a supplement to the first, and called the book of 
 the tenth Guru. The precepts of Nanak and his successors^ 
 which had been compiled by Arjun, were too full of passages
 
 1 68 The Sikh Sect. 
 
 suggestive of meekness and pacific feelings. In his own sup- 
 plement Govind adhered to the religious teaching of the Adi- 
 Granth, but he introduced precepts the direct object of which 
 was to rouse the martial ardour of his followers ; he deliberately 
 substituted war for peace as a religious duty, — exactly re- 
 versing the order followed in our own Holy Bible, which 
 advances from the sanction of war in the Old Testament to 
 the inculcation of universal peace in the New. Thenceforward 
 they were to imitate the Muhammadans — they were to 
 spread their religion, not by persuasion, but by fire and 
 sword. Nay, more, they were to live by the sword, and even 
 to worship the sword. 
 
 Govind was himself more of a military than a religious 
 leader. He was not only a brave soldier, but a daring and 
 resolute commander, and his fighting propensities were in- 
 tensified by his innate superstition and fanaticism. 
 
 It need not, therefore, be matter of astonishment that the 
 greater part of Govind's own life was passed in strife and 
 warfare. But he was no match for the Emperor Aurangzlb, 
 who was his equal in fanatical intolerance, and greatly his 
 superior in ability and military resources. Forced to with- 
 draw from a hopeless contest, he retired to Central India and 
 built himself a large residence in Malwa (called Damdama). 
 This place is still a central point of resort for the Sikh 
 community. On the death of Aurangzlb, Govind is said to 
 have gained the goodwill of his successor, Bahadur Shah, and 
 even to have accepted a military command in the Dekhan. 
 There a certain Pathan, who owed him a grudge, attempted 
 his assassination and wounded him severely. He is said to 
 have lingered some time, but eventually died of his injuries 
 at a town called Nader, in the valley of the Godavarl (a. d. 
 1708). 
 
 Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the later Sikh 
 system was the quasi-deification of the sacred book, or 
 Granth. Govind refused to appoint a successor to the Guru-
 
 The Sikh Sect. 169 
 
 ship, but he well knew that to maintain the Sikh religion as a 
 distinctive creed some visible representative and standard of 
 authority was needed. He therefore constituted the Granth 
 a kind of permanent religious Guru, gifting it with personality, 
 and even endowing it ,vith the personal title Sahib (Lord). 
 'After me,' he said, 'you shall everywhere mind the book of 
 the Granth-Sahib as your Guru ; whatever you shall ask it 
 will show you.' 
 
 It may be worth while, therefore, to inquire a little more 
 closely into the nature of the book thus exalted to the 
 position of an infallible guide, and made to do duty as a kind 
 of visible vicegerent of God upon earth. 
 
 It consists, as we have seen, of two parts, the Adi- Granth 
 or first book, which is the portion most generally revered, and 
 the book of the tenth Guru, Govind, which finds greater 
 favour with the more fanatical section of the community. We 
 can only here glance at the form and contents of the Adi- 
 Granth. The translator (Professor Trumpp) considers it to 
 be ' an extremely incoherent and wearisome book, the few 
 thoughts and ideas it contains being repeated in endless 
 variations.' Nor will this estimate of its merits be matter of 
 wonder when it is found that the Adi-Granth is, in fact, a 
 jumbling together of metrical precepts and apophthegms sup- 
 posed to have been composed by at least thirty-five different 
 authors, among whom were six of the ten chief Gurus (Nanak, 
 Angada, Amar-das, Ram-das, Arjun, and Teg-Bahadur), four- 
 teen Bhagats or saints (Ramanand, Kabir, Pipa, Ravi-das, 
 Dhanna, Namdev, Sur-das, etc.), and fifteen Bhatts or pro- 
 fessional panegyrists, whose names are not worth recording. 
 These latter were employed to write eulogies on the Gurus, 
 and their panegyrics, introduced into the Granth, are curious 
 as specimens of abject adulation, though absolutely worthless 
 in themselves. It is noticeable that one verse by Govind- 
 Sinh has been appended to the Adi-Granth, and is regarded 
 as an integral portion of the volume.
 
 lyo The Sikh Sect. 
 
 The language in which the whole work is written is not 
 so much the old PanjabI dialect as the old Hindi. This 
 ancient dialect was probably used by the Sikh Gurus, though 
 natives of the Panjab, that they might be better able to com- 
 mend their utterances to the whole Hindu community. It 
 may be conveniently called Hindu-I to distinguish it from the 
 modern Hindis The graphic system used by the writers 
 was a modification of the Devanagarl alphabet, called Guru- 
 mukhl, the chief peculiarity of which is that it preserves the 
 forms of most of the Sanskrit letters, but changes their pho- 
 netic power. 
 
 Perhaps it is as unjust to disparage the Granth as to exalt 
 its merits unduly. To say that it contains many noble 
 thoughts is as true as to say that it abounds in much silly 
 twaddle and inane repetition. Nor can it be fairly accused 
 of absence of arrangement. The verses, though unconnected, 
 are arranged in six divisions: — (i) we have the Japu (com- 
 monly called Jap-jl), which consists of introductory verses by 
 Nanak ; (2) then follows the So-daru ; (3) the So-purkhu ; 
 (4) the Sohila, three short sections, consisting chiefly of 
 verses adapted for evening devotion ; lastly come (5) the 
 Rags, verses sung in particular Rags or musical keys, thirty- 
 one in number, which constitute the great body of the 
 Granth, especially the first four, called Sir! Rag, Rag Majh, 
 Rag Gauri, and Rag Asa ; and (6) the Bhog, consisting of 
 verses by Nanak, Arjun, and the earlier Gurus, besides others 
 by Kablr, whose sayings are also scattered everywhere through 
 every section of the Granth. 
 
 I select a few examples from different parts of the book, 
 slightly abridged and altered from Professor Trumpp's ver- 
 sion : — 
 
 ^ Professor Trumpp designates it by this name. I believe I was one 
 of the first to recommend its being so distinguished, in the Preface to 
 the first edition of my Sanskrit-Enghsh Dictionary, published by the 
 University of Oxford in 1872.
 
 The Sikh Sect. 171 
 
 At the beginning is the True One. 
 
 The True One is, O Nanak ! and the True One also will be. 
 
 Know, that there are two ways (that of Hindus and that of Musal- 
 mans), but only one Lord. 
 
 By thyself all the creation is produced ; by thyself, having created, 
 the whole is caused to disappear. 
 
 Thou, O Hari, alone art inside and outside ; thou knowest the secrets 
 (of the heart). 
 
 Mutter the name of Hari, Hari, O my heart, by which comfort is 
 brought about ; by which all sins and vices disappear ; by which poverty 
 and pain cease. 
 
 Thou art I, I am thou, of what kind is the difference ? Like gold and 
 the bracelet, like water and a wave. 
 
 In the seven insular continents, the seven oceans, the nine regions, 
 the four Vedas, the eighteen Puranas : in all, thou, O Hari, art abiding ; 
 in all thy decree, O Hari, is working. 
 
 By the perfect Guru the name of Hari is made firm in me. Hari is 
 my beloved, my king. If some one bring and unite (him with me), my 
 life is revived. 
 
 Thou art my father, my mother, my cousin, my brother, my protector 
 in all places. Then what fear and grief can there be to me ? By thy 
 mercy I have known thee. Thou art my support, my trust. Without 
 thee there is none other ; all is thy play and thy arena, O Lord ! 
 
 The Lord is my dear friend. He is sweeter to me than mother and 
 father, sister, brother, and all friends ; like thee there is none other, 
 O Lord ! 
 
 Be united with the Lord of the Universe. After a long time this 
 (human) body was obtained. In some births thou wast made a rock 
 and mountain. In some births thou wast produced as a pot-herb. In 
 the eighty-four lakhs (of forms of existence) thou wast caused to wander 
 about. 
 
 No hot wind touches those who are protected by the true Guru. The 
 Guru is the true creator. 
 
 Protected by the Guru he is admitted to the true house and palace (of 
 Hari). Death cannot eat him. 
 
 I am continually a sacrifice to my own Guru. 
 
 I am become a sacrifice to my own Lord. From the Veda, from the 
 book (the Kuran), from the whole world he is conspicuous. The King 
 of Nanak is openly seen. 
 
 Having forgotten all things meditate on the One ! Drop false conceit, 
 offer up (thy) mind and body ! 
 
 The following are examples of Kablr's sayings quoted in 
 
 the Granth : — 
 
 Kablr says : I am the worst of all, every one is good except me. 
 Death, of which the world is afraid, is joy to my mind.
 
 1^2 The Sikh Sect. 
 
 The gate of salvation is narrow, not wider than the tenth part of 
 a mustard- seed. 
 
 If I make the seven oceans ink, if I make the trees my pen, if I make 
 the earth my paper, the glory of God (Hari) cannot be written. 
 
 Hope should be placed on God (Ram), hope in others is useless. 
 
 What thou art doing to-morrow do now ; what thou art doing now do 
 at once. Afterwards nothing will be done when death descends on 
 thy head. 
 
 It will be sufficiently evident from these passages that 
 Sikhism was a great religious reform, and yet in its essence 
 very little better than either Vaishnavism or Brahmanism. 
 The Granth declares the Oneness of the Deity, but when we 
 sound the depths of its inner doctrines we find that this unity 
 is based on a substratum of pantheistic ideas. There is but 
 One God, but He manifests Himself everywhere and is every- 
 thing. From various passages of the Granth it is clear that 
 the Vaishnava names Hari, Krishna, Rama, and Govinda are 
 accepted by the Sikhs as names of the Supreme. They are 
 even willing to regard the different divine personalities repre- 
 sented by these names as manifestations of the one Supreme 
 Being. The point on which they pride themselves is the 
 prohibition of image-worship. Yet they make an idol of 
 their own sacred book, worshipping it as truly as the Hindus 
 do their idols, dressing it, decorating it, fanning it, putting it 
 to bed at night, and treating it much in the same manner as 
 the idols of Krishna are treated. 
 
 We have seen that one great distinguishing feature of their 
 system is that war is made an essential part of religion. To 
 indicate their belief in this doctrine they worship the military 
 weapons of their Gurus. In other respects they conform to 
 the customs of the Hindus. They even surpass the ordinary 
 Hindij in some of his most inveterate superstitions ; as, for 
 example, in ascribing divine sanctity to the cow. The killing 
 of a cow is, with Sikhs, the most heinous of crimes^, meriting 
 
 ^ At one time in the Panjab it was infinitely more criminal to kill 
 a cow than to kill a daughter.
 
 The Sikh Sect. 173 
 
 nothing less than capital punishment — not, however, from 
 any injunction to that effect in the Granth, but from simple 
 opposition to the Musalmans, who, whenever they conquered 
 any district peopled by Hindus, invariably slaughtered cows, 
 both to ratify their victories and to show their contempt for 
 Hindu superstitions. 
 
 Then again they accept in all its fulness the Hindu doc- 
 trine of metempsychosis, believing that there are eighty-four 
 lakhs (or eight million four hundred thousand) of forms of 
 existence through which all souls — represented as flames 
 emanating from the great fountain of life — are liable to pass 
 before returning to their source. These forms of life are 
 supposed to consist of 2,300,000 quadrupeds ; 900,000 aquatic 
 animials ; 1,000,000 feathered animals ; 1,100,000 creeping 
 animals ; 1,700,000 immovable creatures (such as trees and 
 stones) ; 1,400,000 forms of human beings. Final emanci- 
 pation can only be achieved in this last form of existence. 
 
 But, after all, the chief distinctive feature of Sikhism is 
 that, accepting the Vaishnava doctrine of complete submis- 
 sion to the Guru or ordained religious teacher, the Sikh Guru 
 is made, so to speak, to out-Guru all other Gurus. His word 
 is to be law in every single matter, human and divine. First, 
 he baptizes the novice with a decoction of sugar and water, 
 which he has previously consecrated and stirred with a two- 
 edged dagger. Then he imparts the name of Hari to his 
 disciple in a particular sacred text, which loses all its efficacy 
 unless orally communicated. He tells him to mutter it per- 
 petually, enjoins him to fix his mind on Hari's excellences, 
 and neyer to rest until he has merged his own existence in 
 that of Hari. In return for the instruction thus imparted, the 
 disciple, even in the earliest period of Sikhism, had to render 
 a certain amount of personal and even menial service to his 
 Guru. Then as Sikhism advanced and the Guru gained 
 temporal as well as spiritual authority, he became to his 
 disciples exactly what Muhammad became to his followers
 
 174 
 
 The Sikh Sect. 
 
 in Arabia — not only teacher and spiritual pastor, but master, 
 military leader, and king. Finally, when he had ceased to 
 act as a military leader, he was regarded as an all-powerful 
 mediator between God and man, and even as an actual god to 
 whom prayers were to be addressed as to the Supreme Being 
 Himself. 
 
 Before concluding this sketch of one of the most interest- 
 ing religious movements that has ever taken place in India, 
 I ought to state that I visited the tombs of Ranjit Sinh and 
 Guru Arjun at Lahore, the birth-place of Govind at Patna, 
 and the sacred metropolis or Jerusalem of Sikhism at 
 Amritsar. 
 
 I noticed that the mausoleum which contains the ashes of 
 Ranjit Sinh at Lahore had idols of the Hindu gods Ganesa 
 and Brahma over the entrance. Inside, resting on a small 
 elevated platform, was the sacred Granth, and all around 
 were eleven small tombs, mere mounds of earth, under which 
 are preserved the ashes of Ranjit's eleven wives, who became 
 Satis at his death. 
 
 It may be worth while here to mention that it is against 
 the practice of the Hindus to preserve the remains of their 
 deceased relatives in tombs. The body is burnt, and, how- 
 ever illustrious the man may have been, the ashes are scat- 
 tered on sacred rivers. The Sikh leaders were, like the 
 Muhammadans, ambitious of perpetuating their own memo- 
 ries after death. They continued the Hindu practice of 
 burning their dead, but, like the Muslims, spent larger sums 
 in erecting magnificent tombs for the reception of their own 
 ashes than in building palaces for their own ease and self- 
 indulgence during life. 
 
 The temple dedicated to the tenth Guru Govind, at Patna, 
 was rebuilt by Ranjit Sinh about forty years ago. I found it, 
 after some trouble, in a side street, hidden from view and 
 approached by a gateway, over which were the images of the 
 first nine Gurus, with Nanak in the centre. The shrine is
 
 The Sikh Sect. 175 
 
 open on one side. Its guardian had a high-peaked turban 
 encircled by steel rings (cakra), used as weapons. He was 
 evidently an Akall — or 'worshipper of the timeless God' — 
 a term applied to a particular class of Sikh zealots who be- 
 lieve themselves justified in putting every opponent of their 
 religion to the sword. As I entered the court of the temple, 
 accompanied by a Musalman friend, this Akali displayed 
 great excitement, and I began to fear an outburst of fana- 
 ticism which might have been dangerous to us both. Happily 
 my companion knew the man we had to deal with, and, under 
 a process of judicious handling, the fiery zealot cooled down, 
 and even allowed us to inspect the interior of the tenth 
 Guru's shrine. 
 
 On one side, in a small recess — supposed to be the actual 
 room in which Govind was born more than two centuries 
 before — were some of his garments and weapons, and what 
 was once his bed, with other relics, all in a state of decay. 
 On the other side was a kind of low altar, on which were 
 lying under a canopy a beautifully embroidered copy of the 
 Adi-Granth and of the Granth of Govind. In the centre, on 
 a raised platform, were a number of sacred swords, which 
 appeared to be as much objects of worship as the sacred 
 books. 
 
 As to the golden temple at Amritsar, called Hari-mandira, 
 ' the temple of Hari,' or sometimes Durbar Sahib, it may be 
 said to rank next to the Taj at Agra as one of the most 
 striking sights of India. To form an idea of the unique 
 spectacle presented by this sacred locality, one must picture 
 to oneself a large square sheet of water, bordered by a 
 marble pavement, in the centre of a picturesque Indian town. 
 Around the margin of this artificial lake are clustered nu- 
 merous fine mansions, most of them once the property of 
 Sikh chiefs who assembled here every year, and spent vast 
 sums on the endowment of the central shrine. One of the 
 houses is occupied by Sirdar Maiigal Sinh Ramgharia, a well-
 
 176 The Sikh Sect, 
 
 known and much esteemed member of the Sikh community. 
 It has two lofty towers, from one of which I enjoyed a grand 
 panoramic view of the lake and its vicinity — one of those 
 rare sights seen at intervals during life, which fix themselves 
 indelibly on the memory. In the centre of the water rises 
 the beautiful temple with its gilded dome and cupolas, ap- 
 proached by a marble causeway. It is quite unlike any other 
 place of worship to be seen throughout India, and in structure 
 and appearance may be regarded as a kind of compromise 
 between a Hindu temple and a Muhammadan mosque, re- 
 minding one of the attempted compromise between Hinduism 
 and Islam, which was once a favourite idea with both Kablr 
 and Nanak. 
 
 In point of mere size the shrine is not imposing, but its 
 proportions strike one as nearly perfect. All the lower part 
 is of marble, inlaid, like the Taj, with precious stones, and 
 here and there overlaid with gold and silver. The principal 
 entrance facing the causeway looks towards the north. The 
 interior is even more gorgeous than the exterior. On the 
 ground-floor is a well-.proportioned vaulted h^ll — its richly 
 gilded ceiling ornamented with an infinite number of small 
 mirrors, and "Its walls decorated with inlaid work of various 
 designs, flowers, birds^ and elephants. Four short passages, 
 entered by carved silver doors, one on each of its four sides, 
 lead to this vaulted chamber, giving it a shape not unlike 
 that of a Greek cross. All around on the outside is a narrow 
 corridor. In the interior, opposite the principal entrance, sits 
 the presiding Guru — his legs folded under him on the bare 
 ground — with the open Granth before him. He is attended 
 by other officials of the temple, who assist him in chanting 
 the sacred texts. The Brahmans maintain that God may 
 infuse his essence into images, but they never make an idol of 
 the written Veda, which, according to their theory, is divine 
 knowledge communicated orally to inspired sages, and by 
 them orally transmitted — not written down. Sikhism, on the
 
 The Sikh Sect, 177 
 
 contrary, denies that God associates himself with images, but 
 believes that he is manifested in a written book (Granth). 
 
 Hence, although the temple is free from images, and is 
 dedicated to the one God under his name Hari (applied 
 also to Krishna or Vishnu), a visible representation of the 
 invisible God is believed to be present in the sacred book. 
 The Granth is, in fact, the real divinity of the shrine, and 
 is treated as if it had a veritable personal existence. Every 
 morning it is dressed out in costly brocade, and reverently 
 placed on a low throne under a jewelled canopy, said to have 
 been constructed by Raujit Sinh at a cost of 50,000 rupees. 
 All day long chowries are waved over the sacred volume, 
 and every evening it is transported to the second temple on 
 the edge of the lake opposite the causeway, where it is made 
 to repose for the night in a golden bed within a consecrated 
 chamber, railed off and protected from all profane intrusion 
 by bolts and bars. 
 
 On the occasion of my first visit to the Golden Temple 
 two or three rows of temple officials and others were seated 
 in a circle round the vaulted chamber, to the number of about 
 a hundred, listening to the Granth which was being chanted 
 by the presiding Guru and his assistants in a lou(<i tone, with 
 an accompaniment of musical instruments. The space in the 
 centre was left vacant for offerings, and was strewn with 
 flowers, grain, and small coin. A constant line of wor- 
 shippers, male and female, entered one after the other, cast 
 down their offerings, bowed their heads to the ground before 
 the Granth and before the presiding Guru, and reverently 
 circumambulated the corridor of the temple. I noticed that 
 one poor old woman threw in two small coins, and then, 
 bending low, touched the marble floor with her forehead. 
 
 On leaving the temple I talked for a time with an in- 
 telligent Sikh who had received an English education. 
 Pointing to an idol of Krishna which had been set up on 
 the margin of the lake, I asked whether the Sikhs were 
 
 N
 
 178 The Dadu-panthis. 
 
 returning to the worship of Vaishnava images. 'Yes,' he 
 said, 'we are gradually lapsing back into our old habits. 
 Our first Guru abolished caste and forbad the worship of 
 idols. Our tenth Guru was a thorough Hindu at heart, and 
 by his own example encouraged the return to Hindu practices ; 
 so that of the Sikhs now found in the Panjab a large number 
 adopt caste, wear the Brahmanical thread, keep Hindu fes- 
 tivals, observe Hindu ceremonies (such as the Sraddha), and 
 even present ofiferings to idols in Hindu temples/ 
 
 In short, a careful observation of the present condition of 
 Sikhism must lead to the conclusion that the Sikh reforming 
 movement, like others which preceded it, is gradually being 
 drawn back into the all-absorbing current of ordinary Vaish- 
 navism. Yet the possession of a distinct rule of faith and 
 standard of doctrine in the Granth must have a prophylactic 
 effect. It must keep the crumbling elements of Sikhism 
 together for a time. Nor need the process of reabsorption 
 involve the obliteration of all distinctive marks. For just 
 as the strength of Hinduism is Vaishnavism, so the strength 
 of Vaishnavism is its tolerance of an almost infinite diversity 
 within its own pale. Probably, in the end, the Granth itself 
 will be accepted by the whole body of Vaishnavas as a 
 recognized portion of their sacred literature. 
 
 I may here mention that the last census makes the number 
 of Sikhs now in India amount to 1,853,426, of whom only 
 806,9:8 are females. 
 
 But Sikhism was not the only offshoot of the school founded 
 by the great reformer Kablr. He is said to have had twelve 
 disciples, like his predecessor Ramananda ; and each disciple 
 is supposed to have taken a distinct line fpanthah) of his own, 
 and to have originated a distinct school of religious thought. 
 
 Two of these may be singled out for special notice — the 
 Dadu-panthls and the Satnamls. 
 
 The Dadu-panthls, as their name implies, were founded by 
 Dadu, a cotton-cleaner of Ahmedabad, who flourished about
 
 The Satnajms. 179 
 
 A.D. 1600. They are really Vaishnava Theists like the Sikhs ; 
 that is, worshippers of the one God under some of the names 
 of Vishnu, according to the doctrine of Kabir, on whose 
 precepts the religious works of the sect are all founded. 
 
 In the same way the Satnamis are only Vaishnava Theists, 
 who call the one God by a peculiar name of their own 
 (Satnam), and base their doctrines like the Sikhs on Kabir's 
 school of theology. 
 
 According to Professor H. H. Wilson, the founder of the 
 Satnamis was Jag-jlvan-das, a native of Oudh, whose samadh 
 or tomb is shown at Katwa, a place between Lucknow and 
 Ajudhya. He is said to have flourished about the year 1750, 
 and to have written certain tracts in Hindi, called Jnana- 
 prakasa, Maha-pralaya, and Prathama-grantha. When I was 
 last in India I heard of a branch of the Satnamis at Chatlsgarh, 
 in the Central Provinces. They are the followers of a low- 
 caste Chamar named Ghasl-das and his son Balak-das, who 
 flourished about the beginning of this century. I was able 
 to obtain some account of their tenets and practices from the 
 missionaries of the Church Missionary Society at Madras. 
 They are also described in one or two numbers of the Madras 
 Missionary Record for 1872. 
 
 Like other varieties of Hindu Unitarians, all of whom mix 
 up pantheistic ideas with monotheistic doctrines, they submit 
 implicitly to their Gurus, regarding them as vicegerents of 
 God upon earth, and occasionally as actual incarnations of 
 the Deity. 
 
 The following are a few of their precepts and rules : — 
 
 God pervades the universe. He is present in every single thing. The 
 title Lord (Sahib) should be added to every object in which God is 
 present. God is the spring and source of everything good and evil. 
 Idols must not be worshipped. The ordained religious teacher (Guru) 
 is holy. Even the water in which his feet are washed is holy, and 
 should be drunk by his disciples. Distinctions of caste are not to be 
 observed. Fasts need not be kept. Feed the poor. Wound no one's 
 feelings. When the dead are burned let no one cry or weep ; let them 
 only exclaim, 'The Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away !' 
 
 N 2
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Sdktism, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 Saktism in the simplest acceptation of the term is the 
 worship of power or force (Sanskrit Sakti) personified as a 
 goddess, with a view to the acquisition of magical and 
 supernatural faculties through her help, or to the destruc- 
 tion of enemies through her co-operation. 
 
 Of course it is alleged by all Saiva and Vaishnava secta- 
 rians that the gods Siva and Vishnu, as identified with the 
 Supreme Being, are themselves the source and spring as 
 well as the controllers of all the forces and potentialities 
 of nature. Yet we must bear in mind that it is a rooted 
 idea with all Hindu theologians, of whatever denomination, 
 that the highest condition of the Self-existent Being is a 
 condition of complete quiescence and inactivity, as well as 
 of complete oneness, solitariness, and impersonality. 
 
 In fact the theory of Brahmanism, as we have seen, is 
 that the one Self-existent Being is abstract Spirit, and that 
 that Spirit is Life without anything to live for, Thought 
 without anything to think about, Joy without anything to 
 be joyful about. But the moment this one Self-existent pure 
 Spirit begins to be conscious of existence — to exercise 
 thought and feel joy — it assumes personality and material 
 organization. It becomes, in fact, a personal God ; and 
 when this personal God wills to put forth energy for the 
 creation of a world external to himself his nature becomes 
 duplex. Of course the absolute unity and strictly masculine 
 character of that nature might have been preserved in his
 
 Saktism^ or Goddess-worship. i8i 
 
 personal development, but the idea of a kind of duality in 
 unity very soon suggested itself to the Hindu mind. He 
 was held to possess a double nature, partly male and partly 
 female, the female constituting his left side. 
 
 Then, again, this duality might have been evenly balanced, 
 or the preponderance o-f active faculties might have been 
 assigned, in accordance with European ideas, to the male 
 side. We find, however, that the Hindus, in dividing the 
 divine nature into two halves, formed no idea of any due 
 co-ordination of working power between them as between 
 man and woman. On the contrary, the male side of the 
 god was believed to relegate all his more onerous and 
 troublesome executive functions to his female counterpart. 
 And hence it has come to pass that the female side of 
 the personal god is often rfiore honoured and propitiated 
 than the male. Hence it is that the worshipper is inclined 
 to turn with greater devotion to the goddess than to the 
 god when he supplicates any powerful intervention on his 
 own behalf in circumstances of unusual exigency or peril. 
 
 This I believe to be the true theory of Saktism in its 
 simplest and most general aspect. It is a theory which is 
 certainly more closely connected with Saivism than with any 
 other system. Like Saivism, too, it traces back its origin to 
 philosophical Brahmanism, and through Brahmanism to the 
 earliest conceptions foreshadowed in the Veda. 
 
 Perhaps the first dawn of the idea of duality in unity is to 
 be found in the well-known 29th hymn of the 10th Mandala 
 of the Rig-veda, already quoted (p. 13). In that hymn we 
 find it stated that in the beginning when there was neither 
 entity nor nonentity — when in fact the universe was about 
 to be developed — there arose in the One Being Desire which 
 produced Mind and all existing things. 
 
 But the idea of a universe proceeding from a female prin- 
 ciple brought into union with a male is more fully developed 
 in other Vedic texts.
 
 I82 
 
 Saktism, or Goddess-ivorship. 
 
 Probably Heaven (Dyaus) and Earth (Prithivi) are the 
 most ancient of all Vedic gods, and from their fancied union 
 as husband and wife the other deities and the whole Uni- 
 verse were at first supposed to spring. They are often de- 
 scribed as parents (janitrl, Rig-veda X. no. 9; pitara, III. 
 3. II ; matara, I. 155. 3). Or Heaven alone is called father 
 (pita) and Earth mother (mata). On the other hand, else- 
 where in the Veda the female deity Aditi — probably a 
 personification of the sky or of universal nature — seems to 
 stand alone, taking the place of both Heaven and Earth 
 as parent of the deities, her counterpart being Diti the 
 mother of the demons. Another important goddess in the 
 Rig-veda is the Dawn (Ushas, 'Hwy^), the Sky's daughter, 
 who is of course closely connected with the Sun-god ; but 
 is not described as married to him, though followed by him 
 as a lover is pursued by his mistress. 
 
 And here it may be noted as remarkable that the wives 
 of two chief Vedic gods, Indra and Agni (Indrani and 
 Agnayi), are not associated with their husbands or exalted 
 to equal rank as objects of worship. Nor is the popular 
 goddess Lakshmi, afterwards wife of Vishnu, mentioned at 
 all in the Rig-veda^. Nor is Sarasvati held to be the con- 
 sort of Brahma. She is rather a river-goddess, though often 
 invoked in other characters, and once associated with a 
 river-god Sarasvat (VH. 96. 4, 6). It is only when we come 
 to the Brahmanas and Upanishads that we find the duality 
 of the divine nature clearly enunciated. For example, in the 
 Satapatha-Brahmana (XIV. 4. 2. 1), before noticed, and 
 Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad (III. 1} we read to the following 
 
 ■^ Sometimes spoken of as plural. 
 
 ^ Dr. Muir shows this (Sanskrit Texts, V. 337), and points out that 
 Lakshmi is once used for good-fortune in Rig-veda X. 71, 2, and that in 
 Atharva-veda VII. 115. i a plurality of Lakshmis is spoken of. At 
 Madura I noticed carvings of eight different Lakshmis who preside over 
 different kinds of good-luck. They are often found over the doors of 
 houses.
 
 Sdktism, or Goddess-worship. 185 
 
 effect : ' The One Being did not enjoy happiness when 
 alone. He was desirous of a second. He divided himself 
 into two. Hence were husband and wife produced. There- 
 fore was this (second) only a half of himself as the half of 
 a split pea is.' It is then related how all beings were pro- 
 duced by the union of the divine male and divine female. 
 Saiikara, in his comment on the Upanishad, observes, in 
 relation to the above passage, ' Because this male half is 
 void as wanting the female half, therefore after taking a 
 wife it is completed by the female half as a split pea is by 
 being joined with its other half (see Roar's translation). . 
 
 If we pass on to Manu, we find that the Self-existent is 
 described as dividing his own substance and becoming half 
 male and half female (I. $, etc.). 
 
 Turning next to the Vedanta and Sahkhya philosophical 
 systems, we know that they teach the separate existence of 
 eternal Spirit called 'the Self or 'Male' on the one side 
 and of an eternal productive force or prolific germ (Maya 
 or Prakriti fern.) on the other. The union of the two was 
 believed to be indispensable before any creation could result. 
 
 Of course ordinary thinkers gave a concrete reality to all 
 such metaphysical speculations. The Spirit — which was 
 called 'the Self (Atman) in one system and ' the Male' 
 (Purusha) in the other — became in the popular creed a sepa- 
 rate male god, while the productive prolific force became a 
 separate female god. The union of the two was expressed in 
 the later mythology by the Ardha-nari or androgynous form 
 of Siva — in which one half or the right side of the god's 
 person is represented as male and the other half or left side 
 as female (see p. 85) — or more commonly by the male and 
 female symbols (the Liiiga and Yoni) set up in innumerable 
 shrines throughout every part of India. 
 
 The same doctrine is constantly repeated in the Puranas ; 
 but even in those writings, or at least in those of them which 
 are considered orthodox, it is to be noted that although they
 
 1 84 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 often countenance and even promote Sakta views by making 
 the active power of the goddess a subject of special lauda- 
 tion, and by according greater honour to the female deity 
 (as for example in placing the goddess first in such com- 
 pounds as Lakshml-Narayanau, Sita-Ramau, Radha-Krish- 
 nau^), yet no exclusive or extravagant worship of the goddess 
 is inculcated. 
 
 It was reserved for the latest sacred writings called Tantras 
 to identify all Force with the female principle in nature, and 
 to teach an undue adoration of the wives of Siva and Vishnu 
 to the neglect of their male counterparts. 
 
 Practically, as we shall see, the Saktism of the present day 
 is a mere offshoot of Saivism. It inculcates an exclusive 
 adoration of Siva's wife as the source of every kind of super- 
 natural faculty and mystic craft. This, in fact, is the central 
 doctrine and leading idea of all Tantrik writings. For the 
 Tantras, believed as they are to be a direct revelation from 
 Siva to his wife Parvati, are the bible of Saktism just as 
 the Puranas are the bible of ordinary Saivism and Vaish- 
 navism'^. That they are regarded by some as of equal divine 
 authority with the Puranas, and even as a kind of secondary 
 revelation, is evident from a passage in Kulluka's commen- 
 tary on Manu II. i. There he asserts that divine truth is of 
 two kinds ; namely, ' that revealed in the Vedas and that found 
 in the Tantras.' It is certain that a vast proportion of the 
 inhabitants of India, especially in Bengal, are guided in their 
 daily life by Tantrik teaching, and are in bondage to the 
 gross superstitions inculcated in these writings. 
 
 And indeed it can scarcely be doubted that Saktism is 
 Hinduism arrived at its worst and most corrupt stage of 
 
 ^ According to Panini II. 2. 34 (Kasika Vritti) the more honourable 
 should stand first in a compound, as in Mata-pitarau, Sraddha-medhe, 
 Brahmana-Kshatriya-Vit-Sudrali. 
 
 ^ They are more fully described at the end of this chapter ; see 
 p, 205.
 
 Saktism, or Goddcss-zvorship. 185 
 
 development. To follow out the whole process of ev^olution 
 would not be easy. Suffice it to say that just as Hinduism 
 resolved itself into two great systems — Saivism and Vaish- 
 navism — so the adherents of those two systems respectively 
 separated into two great classes. The first are now called 
 ' followers of the right-hand path ' (Dakshina-margis). These 
 make the Puranas their real Veda (nigama), and are devoted 
 to either Siva or Vishnu in their double nature as male and 
 female. But they do not display undue preference for the 
 female or left-hand side of the deity; nor are they addicted 
 to mystic or secret rites. The second class are called 'fol- 
 lowers of the left-hand path ' (Vama-margis) : these make the 
 Tantras their own peculiar Veda (agama), tracing back their 
 doctrines to the Kaula Upanishad, which is held to be the 
 original authority for their opinions ; whence their system is 
 sometimes called Kaula, as well as Sakta, and they them- 
 selves Kaulikas. 
 
 And it is these left-hand worshippers who, I repeat, devote 
 themselves to the exclusive worship of the female side of Siva 
 and Vishnu^; that is, to the goddess Durga or Kali( = Amba, 
 Devi) rather than to Siva; to Radha rather than to Krishna; 
 to Sita rather than to Rama; but above all to Amba or 
 Devi, the mother-goddess, identified with Siva's consort, but 
 regarded in her most comprehensive character as the great 
 Power (Sakti) of Nature^ the one Mother of the Universe 
 (Jagan-mata, Jagad-amba) — the mighty mysterious Force, 
 whose function is to direct and control two quite distinct 
 operations ; namely, first, the working of the natural appetites 
 and passions, whether for the support of the body by eating 
 and drinking, or for the propagation of living organisms 
 through sexual cohabitation ; secondly, the acquisition of 
 
 ^ The wives of all the deities are placed on their left whenever they 
 are represented in juxtaposition. The only exception is in representations 
 of the marriage ceremony. On that occasion the bride takes her station 
 on the right of the bridegroom.
 
 1 86 Sakiism, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 supernatural faculties and magical powers (siddhi), whether 
 for a man's own individual exaltation or for the annihilation 
 of his opponents. 
 
 And here it is necessary to observe that the Sakta form of 
 Hinduism is equipped with a vast mythological Personnel of 
 its own — an immense array of female personalities, consti- 
 tuting a distinct division of the Hindu Pantheon. 
 
 Yet the whole array, spreading out as it does into count- 
 less ramifications, has its root in the wife of Siva. By 
 common consent she is held to be the source or first point 
 of departure of the entire female mythological system. She 
 also stands at its head ; and it is remarkable that in every 
 one of the male god Siva's characteristics, his consort is not 
 only his counterpart, but a representation of all his attributes 
 intensified. We have already pointed out (pp. 76—78) how 
 it came to pass that the male god gradually gathered under 
 his own personality the attributes and functions of all other 
 divinities, and thus became to his own special worshippers 
 the great god (Maha-devah) of Hinduism. Similarly and in 
 a much greater degree did his female counterpart become the 
 one great goddess (Maha-devi) of the Sakta hierarchy ; re- 
 presenting in her own person all other female manifestations 
 of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, and absorbing all their func- 
 tions. For this reason even the wives of Brahma and Vishnu 
 were said to be her daughters. As to the opposite and 
 contradictory qualities attributed to her, these are no source 
 of difficulty to a Hindu mind. She is simply in all respects 
 a duplicate of her husband, but a duplicate painted in deeper 
 or more vivid colours. 
 
 And just as Siva (see p. 80) is at one time white (Sveta, sukla) 
 both in complexion and character, at another black (Kala) ; 
 so his female nature also became one half white (whence one 
 of her names Gauri) and the other half black (whence her 
 name Kali). 
 
 Then, again, each of these opposite characters became
 
 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 187 
 
 variously modified and endlessly multiplied. The white or 
 mild nature ramified into the Saktis called Uma, Gaurl, 
 Lakshml, Sarasvati, etc. ; the black or fierce nature into 
 those called Kali, Durga, Candi, Camunda, etc. And just 
 as Siva has 1008 names or epithets, so his wife possesses a 
 feminine duplicate of nearly every one of his designations. 
 At least one thousand distinct appellations are assigned to 
 her, some expressive of her benignant, some of her ferocious 
 character. Notably it is declared in the Tantras that if any 
 one repeats eight of her names containing the letter ;//, kings 
 will become his servants, all men will love him, and all his 
 difficulties come to a happy termination. 
 
 In short, all the other Saktis came to be included by the 
 Saktas under the Sakti or female energy of Siva, which 
 eventually developed into innumerable separate manifestations 
 and personifications. 
 
 These personifications, following the analogy of some of 
 Vishnu's incarnations, are sometimes grouped according to a 
 supposed difi'erence of participation in the divine energy, such 
 for example as the full energy (purna sakti), the partial (ansa- 
 rupini), the still more partial (kala-rupini), and the partial of 
 the partial (kalansa-rupini), this last including mortal women 
 in various degrees, from Brahman women downwards, who are 
 all worshipped as forms of the divine mother manifesting 
 herself upon earth ; for it must not be forgotten that in the 
 Sakta creed every female is a present divinity. 
 
 The more usual classification, however, begins with the 
 Maha-vidyas. These are held to be ten in number, that 
 number being probably selected to match the ten chief in- 
 carnations of Vishnu. They are called Maha-vidyas as sources 
 of the goddess's highest knowledge ; that is to say, of the 
 knowledge which confers preternatural powers. They have 
 all different attributes, and are thus designated: — i. Kali 
 (sometimes called Syama), black in colour, fierce and irascible 
 in character. 2. Tara, a more benign manifestation, worshipped
 
 1 88 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 especially in Kasmlr. 3. ShodasI, a beautiful girl of sixteen 
 (also called Tripura, worshipped in Malabar), 4. Bhuvanesvarl. 
 5. Bhairavl. 6. dhinna-mastaka, a naked goddess holding in 
 one hand a blood-stained scimitar and in the other her own 
 severed head, which drinks the warm blood gushing from her 
 headless trunk. 7. DhumavatI, 'in the form of smoke.' 
 8. Vagala or Bagala, 'having the face of a crane.' 9. Mataiigl, 
 'a woman of the Bhang! caste.' 10. Kamalatmika. Of these 
 the first two are especially Maha-vidyas, the next five Vidyas, 
 and the last three Siddha-vidyas. 
 
 The next class of personifications or manifestations of the 
 goddess are the Matris or Matrikas (or Maha-matris), the great 
 mothers of the Universe. These are more important than the 
 Maha-vidyas in their connexion with the prevalence of Mother- 
 worship, a form of religion which, among the peasantry of 
 India, often takes the place of every other creed. This will be 
 more fully explained in the chapter on tutelary deities (p. 209). 
 
 The Matris or Mothers are — i. Vaishnavl. 3. Brahmi or 
 Brahmanr, often represented with four faces or heads like the 
 god Brahma. 3. Karttikeyl, sometimes called Mayurl. 4. 
 Indranl. 5. Yaml. 6. Varahi, connected with the boar in- 
 carnation of Vishnu. 7. Devi or IsanI, represented with a 
 trident in one hand as wife of Siva. 8. Lakshml^. Each of 
 these divine Mothers is represented with a child in her lap. 
 
 Closely related to the Mothers is a class of female personi- 
 fications called the eight Nayikas or mistresses. These, of 
 course, are not necessarily mothers. In fact no other idea is 
 connected with them than that of illegitimate sexual love. 
 They are called BalinI, Kamesvarl, Vimala, Aruna, Medinl, 
 JayinTj Sarvesvarl, and Kaulesl. 
 
 Another class of manifestations is that of the Yoginis. 
 
 ^ Some lists give nine Matrikas (viz. i. Narasinhi ; 2. Camunda ; 3. 
 Varahi ; 4. Varum ; 5. Lakshml ; 6. Kali ; 7. Kapall ; 8. Kuruku'lya ; 9. 
 Indranl), some sixteen, and some fifty-two, among whom are enumerated 
 NarayanI, Kaumari, Aparajita, Durga, Mahesvarl, etc.
 
 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 189 
 
 These are sometimes represented as eight fairies or sorceresses 
 created by and attendant on Durga, sometimes as mere forms 
 of that goddess, sixty or sixty-five in number, and capable of 
 being multiplied to the number of ten millions. 
 
 Other classes not worth enumerating are the Dakinis and 
 Sakinis. These are simply female fiends or ogresses of most 
 repulsive habits, and are not so much manifestations of the 
 goddess as impish servants always attendant on her. 
 
 But it is in the form Kali — the form under which the 
 goddess is worshipped at Calcutta — that she is most terrible. 
 
 The following is a free translation of two passages in the 
 Tantras descriptive of Kali's appearance^ : — 
 
 ' One should adore with liquors and oblations that Kali 
 who has a terrible gaping mouth and uncombed hair ; who 
 has four hands and a splendid garland formed of the heads 
 of the giants she has slain and whose blood she has drunk ; 
 who holds a sword in her lotus-like hands ; who is fearless 
 and awards blessings ; who is as black as the large clouds 
 and has the whole sky for her clothes ; who has a string 
 of skulls round her neck and a throat besmeared with blood ; 
 who wears ear-rings (consisting of two dead bodies) ; who 
 carries two dead bodies in her hands ; who has terrible teeth 
 and a smiling face ; whose form is awful and who dwells in 
 burning-grounds (for consuming corpses); who stands on the 
 breast of her husband Maha-deva^.^ 
 
 'A Kaulika (i.e. a Sakta) should worship Kali, who lives 
 amongst dead bodies ; who is terrible and has fearful jaws ; 
 who has uncombed hair and a glowing tongue ; who constantly 
 drinks blood; who stands over her husband Maha-kala^ and 
 
 ' All my extracts from the Tantras are taken from the Hon. Rao Bahadur 
 Gopal Hari Deshmukh's work called Agama-prakasa, where the original 
 Sanskrit of all the passages quoted in this chapter will be found. 
 
 ^ The images of Kali at Calcutta represent her trampling on her 
 husband. The explanation of this is that she had a contest with Ravana 
 for ten years, and, having conquered him, became so elated and danced 
 so energetically that the Universe would have collapsed under her
 
 igo Saktism, or Goddess-wo7'ship. 
 
 wears a garland of skulls on her blood-besmeared throat ; who 
 has prominent breasts ; who is waited on by all the Siddhas 
 as well as by the Siddhls.' 
 
 It is this goddess who thirsts for blood, and especially for 
 human blood ; and if the blood of animals is not offered to her, 
 she takes that of men. In one of the Tantras kings are 
 directed to appease her by the sacrifice of human beings 
 (nara-bali). The blood of a tiger is said to satisfy her for 
 IGO years, and that of a man for looo years. 
 
 It might have been expected that a creed like this, which 
 admits of an infinite multiplication of female deities and 
 makes every woman an object of worship, would be likely to 
 deo-enerate into various forms of licentiousness on the one 
 hand and of witchcraft on the other. But if such consequences 
 might have been anticipated, the actual fact has been worse 
 than the most gloomy pessimist could possibly have foretold. 
 In Saktism we are confronted with the worst results of the 
 worst superstitious ideas that have ever disgraced and degraded 
 the human race. It is by offering to women the so-called 
 homage of sensual love and carnal passion \ and by yielding 
 free course to all the grosser appetites, wholly regardless of 
 social rules and restrictions, that the worshippers of the female 
 power (Sakti) in Nature seek to gratify the goddess represent- 
 ing that power, and through her aid to acquire supernatural 
 faculties, and even ultimately to obtain union with the Supreme 
 Being. Incredible as it may appear, these so-called worship- 
 pers actually affect to pride themselves on their debasing 
 doctrines, while they maintain that their creed is the grandest 
 
 movements had not Siva mercifully interposed his body. When the 
 goddess found that she was treading on her husband's sacred person, 
 she suddenly ceased dancing, and, as is not unusual with Hindu women 
 when struck with horror or shame, protruded her red tongue in 
 a manner not altogether consonant with European ideas of womanly 
 dignity. 
 
 ^ The Tantras make no secret of the fact that the virile retas itself is 
 regarded as the offering most pleasing to the goddess.
 
 Saktism, or Goddess-worsJiip. 191 
 
 of all religions, because to indulge the grosser appetites and 
 passions with the mind fixed on union with the Supreme 
 Being is believed to be the highest of all pious achievements. 
 Indeed, according to the distorted ideas and perverted phrase- 
 ology of the sect, all who are uninitiated into this system are 
 styled 'beasts' (pasu ^), the initiated being called Siddha, 'the 
 perfect ones.' 
 
 The rite of initiation (Diksha) must be performed by a proper 
 Guru or teacher, who does little more than impart a know- 
 ledge (upadesa) of certain mystic texts and syllables to the 
 candidate, but the rite ought never to take place unless moon, 
 planets, and stars are favourable. If a pupil can be initiated 
 during the occurrence of a solar eclipse wonderful advantages 
 may be expected to accrue to both teacher and taught. 
 
 Of course, the principal rites, or rather orgies, of Sakta wor- 
 .shippers take place in secret and with closed doors. This secrecy 
 is strictly in accordance with Tantrik precept. Thus, we read : — 
 
 ' One should not practise the Kaula system in the presence 
 of the uninitiated (Pasus or beasts), any more than one should 
 recite the Veda in the presence of a Sudra. 
 
 'One should guard the Kaula system from the Pasus just as 
 one guards money and grain and clothes from thieves. 
 
 ' One should conceal the Kaula system like the water in the 
 cocoa-nut ; one should be a Kaula internally, a Saiva ex- 
 ternally, and a Vaishnava when talking at public meetings. 
 
 'The Vedas, the Sastras, and the Puranas are clearly like a 
 common woman (open to all), but this mystical Saiva science 
 is like a high-born woman (kept secluded).' 
 
 Hence no one who has been initiated into the practices of 
 the sect can be persuaded to speak of them to the uninitiated. 
 Probably the spread of education and the influence exercised 
 by Christian men and women throughout India is gradually 
 operating to abolish all the grosser forms of Saktism, as they 
 
 ^ Another name for an uninitiated person is Kantaka, * a thorn.'
 
 192 ^dklisin, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 have already helped to do away with Sati, female infanticide, 
 human sacrifices, and other monstrous evils. Still it is well 
 known that even in the present day, on particular occasions, 
 the adherents of the sect go through the whole ceremonial in 
 all its revolting entirety. When such occasions occur, a circle 
 is formed composed of men and women seated side by side 
 without respect of caste or relationship ^. Males and females 
 are held for the particular occasion to be forms of Siva and 
 his wife respectively, in conformity with the doctrine pro- 
 pounded in one of the Tantras, where Siva addressing his wife 
 says, ' All men have my form and all women thy form ; 
 any one who recognizes any distinction of caste in the mystic 
 circle (Cakra) has a foolish soul.' 
 
 The actual performance of the ceremonial then follows. It 
 consists of five separate actions : — i. The drinking of wine and 
 liquors of various kinds (madya) ; 2. the eating of meat 
 (mansa) ; 3, the eating of fish (matsya) ; 4. the eating of 
 parched or fried grain (mudra) ; 5. sexual union (maithuna) ^. 
 
 With regard to the first four of these acts the Tantras 
 prescribe twelve sorts of liquors, three sorts of wine, and three 
 sorts of meat. Pulastya, one of the ancient sages who are the 
 supposed authors of certain law-books, also enumerates twelve 
 kinds of liquors, as follow: — i. liquor extracted from the 
 bread-fruit (panasa), called Jack-liquor ; 2. from grapes 
 (draksha) ; 3. from date-palm (kharjuri) ; 4. from common 
 palm (tall), or toddy ; 5. from cocoa-nut (narikela) ; 6. from 
 
 ^ The verse cited as the authority for the temporary suppression of 
 caste at these meetings is as follows : — Prapte hi Bhairave dakre sarve 
 varna dvijatayah Nivritte Bhairave cakre sarve varnah prithak prithak. 
 ' On entering the circle of Bhairava, all castes are on an equality with 
 the best of the twice-born ; on leaving it, they are again separated 
 into castes.' 
 
 ^ The five acts are called the five Ma-karas, because the letter M 
 begins each Sanskrit word. ' The assemblage of five things beginning 
 with the letter M,' says one of the Tantras, ' satisfies the gods.' 
 
 The term Mudra, which here means fried grain, is also used to denote 
 mystical intertwinings of the fingers.
 
 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 193 
 
 sugar-cane (ikshu) ; 7. from the Madhvika plant ; 8. long- 
 pepper liquor (saira) ; 9. soap-berry liquor (arishta) ; 10. honey 
 liquor (madhuka) ; n , a kind of rum or liquor prepared from 
 molasses, etc. (called GaudI, or sometimes Maireya) ; 12. arrack, 
 or liquor prepared from rice and other grain (sura, or varum, 
 or paishtl). 
 
 Besides the above twelve kinds of spirituous drink others 
 are frequently mentioned ; for example, Tahka, made from 
 wood-apple ; Koli, made from the jujube ; and Kadambarl ; the 
 last being the favourite beverage of Bala-rama. 
 
 The meat may be that of birds, beasts, or fish. The 
 parched grain is eaten, like dry biscuit, as a relish with the 
 wine and spirituous liquors. The drinking of each kind of 
 drink is supposed to be attended with its own peculiar merit 
 and advantage. Thus one liquor gives salvation, another 
 learning, another power, another wealth, another destroys 
 enemies, another cures diseases, another removes sin, another 
 purifies the soul. 
 
 The Matrika-bheda Tantra (quoted by Dr. Rajendralala 
 Mitra) makes Siva address his own wife thus : — ' O sweet- 
 speaking goddess, the salvation of Brahmans depends on 
 drinking wine. I impart to you a great truth, O mountain- 
 born, when I say that the Brahman who devotes himself to 
 drinking and its accompaniments, forthwith becomes a Siva. 
 Even as water mixes with water, and metal blends with 
 . metal ; even as the confined space in a pitcher merges into 
 the great body of surrounding space on the destruction of the 
 confining vessel, and air mingles with air, so does a Brahman 
 melt into Brahma, the universal soul. 
 
 ' There is not the least doubt about this. Likeness to the 
 divinity and other forms of beatitude are designed for 
 Kshatriyas and others ; but true knowledge can never be 
 acquired without drinking spirituous liquor ; therefore should 
 Brahmans always drink. No one becomes a Brahman by 
 repeating the Gayatrl, the mother of the Vedas ; he is called 
 
 O
 
 194 Sctktism, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 a Brahman only when he has knowledge of Brahma. The 
 ambrosia of the gods is their Brahma, and on earth it is 
 arrack (or liquor distilled from rice) ; and because one attains 
 through it the condition of a god (suratva), therefore is that 
 liquor called sura.' 
 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that in Bengal some respect- 
 able mothers of families, who believe the above passage 
 to be a direct revelation from Siva and who would not dream 
 of drinking spirits for their own gratification, never say their 
 prayers without touching their tongues with a pointed instru- 
 ment dipped in arrack, and never offer flowers to their god 
 without sprinkling them with a few drops of that liquor. 
 
 In short, the drinking of spirituous liquor is as much an 
 essential part of the Sakta ceremonial as the drinking of Soma 
 juice was of the Vedic sacrifices, and the drinking of arrack 
 (sura) was of the Sautramani and Vajapeya and other 
 sacrificial rites. Indeed these ancient rites are appealed to in 
 the Tantras as a justification for the Sakta practice. 
 
 Nor can there be any doubt that at one time the drinking 
 of wine and spirituous liquors was universal all over India '. 
 
 ^ This is well shown by Rajendralala Mitra in one of his Essays on 
 the Indo-Aryans. The reason given for the cessation of the custom 
 of wine-drinking among the Hindus is that wine and spirituous liquors 
 were on two particular occasions cursed by the gods Sukra and Krishna, 
 The cause of Sukra's curse is related in the First Book of the Maha- 
 bharata (ch. 76). It appears that Kaca, son of Vrihaspati, had become 
 a pupil of Sukra Acarya with a view to learn from him the charm 
 (mantra) for restoring dead men to life, which none else knew. The 
 Asuras came to know of this, and, dreading lest the pupil should obtain, 
 and afterwards impart, the great secret to the Devas, assassinated him, 
 and mixed his ashes with the wine drunk by his tutor, thus transferring 
 him to the bowels of Sukra Acarya. It happened, however, that during 
 his pupilage Kaca had won the affection of Devayani, the youthful and 
 charming daughter of Sukra Acarya, and that lady insisted upon her 
 father's restoring the youth to her, threatening to commit suicide if the 
 request was not granted. Sukra, unable to deny any favour to his 
 daughter, repeated the charm, and forthwith, to his surprise, found the 
 youth speaking from his own stomach. The difficulty now was to bring 
 the youth out, for this could not be accomplished without ripping open
 
 Saktism, or Goddess-worship, 195 
 
 Some of the gods were supposed to set the example — notably 
 Siva^ with his wife Durga, and Balarama elder brother of 
 Krishna with his wife Revati — and we find that one of the 
 products of the ocean when churned by the gods and demons 
 was Sura, or spirit distilled from rice, and that one of the 
 seven seas encircling the earth was believed to be composed 
 entirely of that liquor^. Drunkenness in fact became such an 
 evil that to remedy it a kind of temperance movement 
 appears to have been eventually organized, leading to a 
 complete reaction to the other extreme of total abstinence. 
 Hence we find that in Manu's time the penalty for drinking 
 spirits was to commit suicide by drinking them when in a 
 boiling state (XL 91). 
 
 In the same way the eating of meat was once universal in 
 India ; cows were sacrificed ^ and the flesh eaten, especially at 
 Sraddhas, where the aroma of beef was thought to be an 
 excellent aliment for the spirits of the dead. Manu allows 
 all sorts of animal food to be eaten, provided that small 
 portions are first offered to the gods and to the spirits of 
 
 his tutor's abdomen. Sukra Acarya thereupon taught the youth the 
 great charm, and then allowed himself to be ripped open, and Kaca, 
 in grateful acknowledgment for his own restoration to life, immediately 
 repeated the Mantra and resuscitated his tutor. But Sukra Acarya, 
 seeing that it was spirituous liquor which had made him swallow the 
 ashes of his pupil, and that pupil a Brahman, prohibited for ever 
 afterwards the use of any- kind of strong drink by Brahmans. ' From 
 this day forward,' said he, 'the Brahman, who, through infatuation, 
 drinks arrack (sura) shall lose all his religious merit. The wretch shall 
 be considered guilty of the sin of killing Brahmans, and be condemned 
 in this as well as in a future world.' 
 
 With regard to the curse pronounced by Krishna on all spirituous 
 liquor, the reason assigned for it is that his kinsmen the Yadavas had 
 brought great trouble on themselves by their potations. 
 
 ^ It is said that even in the present day it is not uncommon for the 
 adherents of the Sakta sect to sprinkle spirituous liquor instead of 
 water on the lihga of Siva. 
 
 "^ See Vishnu-purana. 
 
 ^ The Taittirlya-brahmana mentions various ceremonies at which 
 cattle had to be sacrificed. All this is well shown by Dr. Rajendralala 
 Mitra, 
 
 o a
 
 196 Saktism, or Goddess-worship. 
 
 departed ancestors (V. 32) ; and Valmiki, when he entertained 
 Vasishtha at' his hermitage (as described in the Uttara-Rama- 
 e'aritra), regaled him with the 'fatted calf.' The Saktas, 
 therefore, have good ground for asserting that in drinking 
 wine and eating meat they are merely reverting to the practice 
 of their ancestors. Yet it is curious that they think it 
 necessary to go through the form of neutralizing the curse 
 of the great Sukra Ac'arya (see note, p. 194) before beginning 
 their potations. This they do by repeating three particular 
 Mantras and certain magical formulae, after drawing a triangle 
 on the ground with the finger dipped in spirituous liquor. 
 
 The fifth act of the Sakta ceremonial— the union of the 
 actual man and woman — is held to be the most important of 
 all. In the minds of some it is supposed to symbolize a great 
 cosmical mystery — the production of the universe through 
 the union of Purusha and Prakriti (see pp. 30, 31) — a mystery 
 constantly kept before the mind by the worship of the two 
 stone symbols Linga and Yoni. 
 
 'The only salvation,' says a Tantra, 'is that which results 
 from spirituous liquors, meat, and cohabitation with women.' 
 
 The holy circle (sri-cakra) or meeting of the members of the 
 sect on solemn occasions (represented by a mystical diagram) 
 is said to be ' the door to the highest form of salvation — com- 
 plete union with the Supreme Being (sayujya-mukti).' 
 
 These circles are of different kinds according to the dif- 
 ference in the rank, character, and occupation of the women 
 (saktis) present at them. Thus there is the Vira-dakra, the 
 Maha-cakra, the Deva-cakra, the Raja-cakra, etc. 
 
 It is to be observed, however, that all the five acts we have 
 described do not necessarily take place at every meeting. 
 
 Moreover, besides the five so-called ceremonial acts per- 
 formed by Saktas at their secret meetings, there are six other 
 methods of propitiating the goddess with a view to acquire 
 superhuman powers (siddhi) — namely, by the use of Mantras, 
 Bijas (or Vijas), Yantras, Kavacas, Nyasas, and Mudras.
 
 Mantras and Btjas. 197 
 
 The subject of the employment of Mantras or sacred texts, 
 their use, misuse, and prostitution to the worst purposes, is one 
 of the greatest interest and importance in its bearing on the 
 past and present rehgious condition of the Hindus. 
 
 A Mantra, as most persons know, is properly a divinely 
 inspired Vedic text, but with the Saktas, and indeed with the 
 great mass of the Hindus in the present day, it loses this 
 character and becomes a mere spell or charm. Even though 
 the text be taken from the Rig, Yajur or Athai"va-veda (p. 8), 
 and be generally employed as a prayer or invocation with 
 a definite meaning and application attached to the words, 
 it becomes with the Saktas a mere collection of magical 
 letters and sounds, which, if properly uttered and repeated 
 according to prescribed formularies, possesses in itself a 
 mystical power capable of causing every conceivable good to 
 one's self or evil to one's enemies. 
 
 The Bijas, again, are mystical letters or syllables invented 
 for the sake of brevity to denote the root (mijla) or essential 
 part of such Mantras, or the name of the deity to whom it 
 may be addressed, or some part of the body over which that 
 deity presides. For example: — Am is said to denote Siva, 
 U Vishnu, Hrim the sun. Lain the earth. Nam the mind, 
 Dhani both the goddess Bhuvanesvari and the tongue, Nam 
 both the goddess Annapurna and the nose, Pam the ear, etc. 
 
 Perhaps the following abridgment of a passage from a little 
 work by Pratapa-candra Ghosha descriptive of the worship of 
 Durga (Durga-puja) in Bengal, and giving directions for the 
 performance of a preparatory rite called Bhuta-suddhi, ' removal 
 of evil demons,' will give the best idea of the uses to which the 
 Bijas are applied : — 
 
 Holding a scented flower, anointed with sandal, on the left temple, 
 repeat Om to the Gurus, Oin to Ganesa, Om to Durga. Then with 
 Oniphat rub the palms with flowers, and clasp the hands thrice over 
 the head, and by snapping the fingers towards ten different directions, 
 secure immunity from the evil spirits. Next utter the Mantra Ram, 
 sprinkle water all around, and imagine this water as a wall of fire.
 
 198 Mantras and Bijas, 
 
 Let the priest identify himself with the living spirit (jTvatman) abiding 
 in man's breast, in the form of the tapering flame of a lamp, and conduct 
 it by means of the Sushumna nerve through the six spheres within the 
 body upwards to the Divine Spirit. Then meditate on the twenty-four 
 essences in nature ; viz. the Producer, Intellect, Egoism, the five 
 subtle and five gross elements, the five external organs of sense, the 
 five organs of action, with mind. Conceive in the left nostril the Mantra 
 Yam, declared to be the Blja or root of wind ; repeat it sixteen times 
 while drawing air by the same nostril ; then close the nose and hold the 
 breath, and repeat the Mantra sixty-four times. 
 
 Then meditate on the Matrika, and say, ' Help me, goddess of speech:' 
 Am to the forehead. Am to the mouth, Im to the right eye, /;« to the 
 left eye. Urn to the right ear, Urn to the left ear, Im to the right cheek, 
 Im to the left cheek, Em to the upper lip. Aim to the lower lip, Om 
 to the upper teeth, Aum to the lower teeth, Tain, Tham, Dam, Dham, 
 and Nam to the several parts of the left leg, Pam to the right side, 
 Pham to the left, Bam to the back. Mam to the stomach, Yain to the 
 heart, Ram to the right shoulder. Lam to the neck-bone, Vam to the 
 left shoulder, Sam from the heart to the right leg. Ham from the heart 
 to the left leg, Ksham from the heart to the mouth. 
 
 To us it may seem extraordinary that intelligent persons 
 can give credence to such absurdities, or lend themselves to 
 the practice of superstitions so senseless ; but we must bear in 
 mind that with many Hindu thinkers the notion of the 
 eternity of sound — as propounded in Patanjali's Mahabhashya 
 (I. 1. i) and in the Purva-mlmansa of Jaimini — is by no 
 means an irrational doctrine. According to the well-known 
 Mimansa aphorisms (I. 1. 18-33), sound is held to have 
 existed from the beginning. Hence the letters of the alphabet, 
 being the ultimate instruments by which sounds are uttered 
 and thoughts expressed, are considered to possess supernatural 
 qualities and attributes and to contain within themselves an 
 occult magical efficacy. 
 
 Let a man only acquaint himself with the proper pronun- 
 ciation and application both of the Mantras and of their Bijas 
 or radical letters, and he may thereby propitiate the Saktis so 
 as to acquire through them superhuman power (siddhi)— nay, 
 he becomes, through their aid, competent to accomplish every 
 conceivable object.
 
 Mantras and Btjas. 199 
 
 At the same time it is to be observed that for any ordinary- 
 man to make himself conversant with the Mantras is no easy- 
 task ; if at least we are to believe a statement in the Tantras 
 that the primary Mantras are seventy millions^ in number, 
 while the secondary are innumerable. 
 
 This, no doubt, is an absurd exaggeration ; but it must be 
 borne in mind that only a certain number are regarded as 
 efficacious, and that in the present day there are Brahmans 
 called Mantra-sastris who make a knowledge of these Mantras 
 their peculiar business, learning them by heart with the sole 
 object of using them as spells and charms. Only a few, how- 
 ever, are believed to have acquired perfect mastery over the 
 most powerful Mantras, which must be pronounced according 
 to certain mystic forms and with absolute accuracy, or their 
 efficacy is destroyed. Indeed, this kind of craft, though 
 supposed to endow the possessor of it with very enviable 
 omnipotence, is not unattended with unpleasant risks and 
 drawbacks ; for if in the repetition of a Mantra the slightest 
 mistake is made, either by omission of a syllable or de- 
 fective pronunciation, the calamity which it was intended to 
 bring down on an enemy will inevitably recoil on the head of 
 the repeater. Then, again, there are various methods of con- 
 structing or neutralizing the effect of Mantras used by Mantra- 
 sastris for the destruction or humiliation of others. The 
 difficulty, of course, is to find out the exact Mantra which is 
 being employed for one's injury; but, having done so, every 
 such Mantra is rendered powerless by uttering it with ones 
 face bending over a vessel full of milk and then swallowing 
 the milk, or by writing it on the leaf of a banian tree and 
 throwing the leaf into a river 2. 
 
 It must be noted, too, that Mantras are not always repeated 
 without a knowledge of their meaning, though the meaning is 
 
 ^ The same number is given in the Saiva-darsana of Madhava's 
 Sarva-darsana-saiigraha. 
 "^ Full directions are given in the Tantra-sara.
 
 200 Mantras and Bijas. 
 
 of little importance compared with the magical force of the 
 letters and sound. Their efficacy also is greatly increased if 
 they are employed on lucky days or at particular times and 
 seasons. One Tantra teaches that Mantras should be repeated 
 in the month Caitra to give valour ; in Vaisakha to obtain 
 jewels; in Magha for intelligence; on Sundays for wealth; 
 on Mondays for tranquillity ; on Tuesdays for long life, and 
 so on. The intercalary month ought always to be avoided \ 
 A few translations of common Mantras ^ are here given : — 
 
 ' Cause stupefaction (stambhana) of the enemy, paralyze his 
 mouth and tongue ; confuse his senses, arrest his speech.' 
 
 « Om — reverence to the Lord — svaha. Let everything be 
 auspicious ; let everything opposed to me perish ; let every- 
 thing be favourable.' 
 
 'Let Brahman!, Mahesvarl, Kaumarl> IndranI, (jamunda, 
 Varahi, and Vaishnavl protect my head, mouth, neck, hands, 
 heart, waist and feet, together with my whole body; protect 
 me, O great goddess, Bhadra-Kali.' This Mantra is worn as 
 a kavaca or amulet ; see p. 204. 
 
 ' I invoke Bhavani, accompanied by her husband, attended 
 by her subordinates, by her retinue, by her power (sa-saktika), 
 by her vehicle, by her weapons, and by all defensive things.' 
 
 ' Salutation to the god of love (Kama-deva) with his five 
 arrows : — the arrow that puts to flight (dravana-bana) ; the 
 arrow that enchants (sammohana) ; the arrow that fascinates 
 (vaslkarana) ; the love-kindling arrow (sandlpana) ; the love- 
 inflaming arrow (santapana).' 
 
 The Gayatri or holiest text of the Rig-veda (see p. 1 9) is of 
 course the most potent of all Mantras. It is not surprising, 
 therefore, that many Mantras employed by the Saktas are 
 composed after the model of that text. The following are 
 translations of Gayatri Mantras : — 
 
 ^ The Tantra-sara gives full directions on this subject. 
 ^ The original Sanskrit text of these, as of all the extracts from the 
 Tantras, will be found in Gopal Hari Deshmukh's Agama-prakasa.
 
 Mantras and Bijas. 201 
 
 ' We meditate on that being who has ashes for weapons ; 
 we think of that being who possesses sharp teeth ; let 
 our fever (jvara) incite him.' This is called the fever- 
 gayatri. 
 
 'We meditate on the goddess of nectar; we think of the 
 goddess of love (Kamesvari) ; let our affection incite him.' 
 This is called the nectar-gayatrl. 
 
 ' We meditate on the lord of water (Jalesvara) ; we think 
 of the fish-net ; let the fish (mina) incite him.' This is called 
 the fish-gayatri. 
 
 'We meditate on that being who has a snare for snaring 
 animals ; we think of the act of cutting off the victim's head 
 (Siras-cheda) ; let our offering (ball) incite him.' This is called 
 the bali-gayatri. 
 
 No magician, wizard, sorcerer or witch whose feats are re- 
 corded in history, biography, or fable, has ever pretended to 
 be able to accomplish by incantation and enchantment half of 
 what the Mantra-sastri claims to have power to effect by help 
 of his Mantras. For example, he can prognosticate futu- 
 rity, work the most startling prodigies, infuse breath into 
 dead bodies, kill or humiliate enemies, afflict any one any- 
 where with disease or madness, inspire any one with love, 
 charm weapons and give them unerring efficacy^, enchant 
 armour and make it impenetrable, turn milk into wine, plants 
 into meat, or invert all such processes at will. He is even 
 superior to the gods, and can make gods, goddesses, imps and 
 demons carry out his most trifling behests. Hence it is not 
 surprising that the following saying is everywhere current 
 in India : — ' The whole universe is subject to the gods ; the 
 
 ' Warlike weapons when thus charmed were supposed to possess 
 supernatural powers and to assume a kind of divine personaHty like 
 the genii of the Arabian Nights. Certain spells had to be learnt for 
 their restraint as well as for their use. When once let loose, he only 
 who knew the secret Mantra for recalling them could bring them 
 back.
 
 202 Mantras and Bijas. 
 
 gods are subject to the Mantras ; the Mantras to the Brah- 
 mans; therefore the Brahmans are our gods^'' 
 
 Often these Mantra-sastris are mere professional fortune- 
 tellers. I may mention as an illustration that a Sakta Brah- 
 man of this type came to see me one day at Patna. He asked 
 to look at my hand, and, after examining it for a minute, pro- 
 phesied that my stay in India would be happy and prosperous, 
 except that on that day fortnight I should meet with a great 
 disappointment. I smiled at the absurdity of his attempting 
 to forecast my future biography, but it is certain that I only 
 met with one unexpected and most mortifying contretemps 
 from the day of my departure from England to the day of my 
 return, and that happened on the very day predicted. It 
 must at least be acknowledged that the coincidence was re- 
 markable. 
 
 I may also give an outline of a story told to me by a 
 Maratha Pandit, which well illustrates the sort of use these 
 Mantra-sastris are supposed to make of their magical powers. 
 A certain Sakta Brahman, named Bhaskaracarya, well-versed 
 in the Mantras, expected to be asked to a dinner-party given 
 by a wealthy friend, but received no invitation. This so irri- 
 tated the Brahman that he determined to revenge himself on 
 the householder who had ventured so imprudently to slight 
 him. Having waited till the moment when the assembled 
 guests, with appetites stimulated by the fragrance of an array 
 of choice dishes, were about to feast on the delicacies prepared 
 for their consumption, he quietly in his own house selected a 
 particular Mantra, and by simply repeating it turned all the 
 viands into foul and fetid excrementitious matter. The story 
 goes on to relate how the householder, suspecting the cause of 
 this disastrous metamorphose, sent a messenger in hot haste to 
 
 ^ The Sanskrit version of this saying is given incorrectly by Dubois 
 (P- ll)- I have heard it variously rendered. Perhaps the following is 
 the most usual : — Devadhlnarn Jagat-sarvam Mantradhlnas-ca Devatah 
 Mantras-ca Brahmanadhinah Brahmana mama Devatah.
 
 Yantras, or mystic diagrams. 203 
 
 implore the immediate presence of the offended Brahman, 
 who thereupon becoming mollified, obligingly consented to 
 repeat another Mantra which reconverted all the filth into the 
 most delicious ambrosial food. 
 
 We now pass on to the Yantras. These are mystical dia- 
 grams drawn on metallic tablets, often of copper — generally 
 combinations of triangular figures like the inverted triangles 
 of the Freemasons — supposed to possess occult powers. 
 
 Each of the goddesses worshipped by the Saktas has a 
 Yantra assigned to her, which is sometimes placed in the 
 centre of a lotus-diagram, the Bija belonging to the goddess 
 being also inscribed a certain number of times on each petal. 
 
 The Sri-cakra or holy circle is delineated in a diagram of 
 this kind and then worshipped. It is supposed to represent the 
 orb of the earth, nine triangles being drawn within the circle 
 to denote the nine continents. In the centre is the drawing 
 of a mouth, which is believed to typify the female energy 
 (Sakti) presiding over the circle. According to some authori- 
 ties, even the orthodox Sankaracarya must have been a Sakti- 
 worshipper ; for he is known to have placed a representation 
 of the SrI-cakra in each of the four monasteries founded by 
 him. 
 
 These Yantras or mystic diagrams are thought to be quite 
 as effective in their operation as the Mantras, and of course a 
 combination of the two is held to be absolutely irresistible. 
 An enemy may be killed or removed to some other place, 
 or a whole army destroyed, or salvation and supreme felicity 
 in a future state obtained by drawing a six-sided or eight- 
 sided diagram and writing a particular Mantra underneath. 
 If this be done with the blood of an animaP killed sacrificially 
 in a place where corpses are burned (Smasana), no power in 
 earth or heaven can resist the terrific potency of the charm. 
 
 ^ It may give an idea of the depths of superstition and degradation to 
 which Saktism can lead if we note here that the retas of either male or 
 female is believed to be still more efficacious.
 
 204 Kavacas, Nyasas, and Mud^^as. 
 
 Triangular, pentangular, and nine-triangled Yantras are 
 equally efficacious. 
 
 Let us pass to a brief explanation of the Kavacas. I need not 
 tell Sanskrit scholars that the word kavac'a properly means a 
 kind of cuirass, breast-plate, or similar armour worn as a de- 
 fence in battle. With the Saktas a kavac'a is an amulet or 
 talisman worn as a preservative against evil influences, or to 
 bring about the attainment of some desired object. It may 
 consist of a stone, piece of paper, metal, leaf or other material 
 on which Mantras, Yantras, mystical words and formulae of 
 various kinds are inscribed. It is then worn on the neck, 
 breast, arms, or loins, especially in times of pestilence and 
 sickness. Women often wear kavacas with the object of 
 propitiating the goddess, and so inducing a condition of body 
 favourable to the production of male offspring. 
 
 The term kavac'a is also applied to whole hymns when 
 they are used as charms. 
 
 As to the Nyasas, these consist in mentally assigning 
 various parts of the body to the protection of tutelary pre- 
 siding deities, with imposition of the hand or fingers, and 
 repetition of texts, mystical words, and syllables. 
 
 The Mudras, on the other hand, are intertwinings of the 
 fingers supposed to possess an occult meaning and to have 
 extraordinary efficacy. Their use as well as that of the 
 Nyasas will be more fully explained in treating of the morn- 
 ing and evening religious services called Sandhya. 
 
 It may be noted here that four days, or rather nights, are 
 kept as principal festivals by the left-hand worshippers : — 
 namely, (i) the night of the Krishna-janmashtamI (see note 2, 
 p. 113), called the Kala-ratri ; (2) the Moha-ratri or Kall- 
 caturdasl, kept on the fourteenth day of the second half of 
 Asvina ; (3) the Siva-ratri or Maha-ratri, kept on the four- 
 teenth of the dark half of Magha ; (4) the Daruni Ratrih, 
 kept on the day before the Holi festival, which is on the 
 fifteenth day of the first half of Phalguna. But besides these
 
 The Tantras. 205 
 
 four festivals, nine nights in each of the months Asvina, 
 Caitra, Pausha, and Ashadha are also observed as holy 
 nights. It is declared that ceremonies performed on any of 
 these nights must of necessity confer superhuman power 
 (siddhi). 
 
 Before concluding this part of our subject, it may be well 
 to note a few more particulars in regard to the works we have 
 so often quoted as the chief authority for the doctrines and 
 practices of the Saktas. 
 
 The Tantras, I repeat, are the bible of Saktism. Like the 
 Puranas, they are sometimes called a fifth Veda. Very com- 
 monly, too, the name Agama is given to them in contradis- 
 tinction to Nigama, which is a general name for the Vedas, 
 Dharmasastras, Puranas, and other Smriti works. Sometimes 
 the authorship of the Tantras is attributed to Dattatreya, who 
 is worshipped aS an incarnation of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, 
 but the more general opinion is that they were revealed by 
 Siva alone. None of them have as yet been printed or 
 translated in Europe. They are said to be sixty-four in 
 number, without counting a large collection of works of a 
 Tantrik character and Sakta tendency. As a general rule 
 they are written in the form of a dialogue between the god 
 Siva and his wife ; and every Tantra ought, like a Purana, 
 to treat of five subjects — the creation, the destruction of the 
 world, the worship of the gods, the attainment of superhuman 
 power, and the four modes of union with the Supreme Spirit 
 (see p. 41). In some of the Tantras it is stated that five 
 Amnayas or sacred systems of teaching have been handed 
 down from primeval times, one having issued from each of 
 Siva's five mouths. As a matter of fact very few conform to 
 any systematic arrangement. Those I have examined seem 
 to be mere hand-books for the practices I have attempted to 
 describe, which to Europeans appear so monstrous that the 
 possibility of any persons believing in their efficacy seems in 
 itself almost incredible.
 
 2o6 The Tantras. 
 
 Whole Tantras teach nothing but various methods of 
 making use of spells for acquiring magical power. 
 
 Some give collections of charms for making people enamoured, 
 for destroying enemies and rivals, for producing or prevent- 
 ing diseases, for curing blindness, for injuring crops. Others 
 simply describe the most effectual modes of worshipping the 
 Saktis, Maha-vidyas, Matris, Yoginis, Vatukas, or by whatever 
 name the innumerable manifestations of Siva and his wife 
 may be called. Others confine themselves to an explanation 
 of the Yantras, Bijas, and Mudras (intertwining of the fingers) 
 belonging to each manifestation, the places suited for the 
 worship of each, the names of trees and plants sacred to each, 
 or permeated by each, and the days of the year allotted to 
 each. Some few touch on nearly every conceivable topic of 
 human knowledge, and contain here and there really interest- 
 ing matter. 
 
 Even alchemy comes in for a share of attention ; but the 
 Sakta idea of this pretended science (Rasayana, Rasesvara- 
 vidya) is that its only use is to enable the devotee to trans- 
 mute the decaying particles of his body into an incorruptible 
 substance by means of elixirs compounded of mercury and 
 mica, supposed to consist of the essences of Siva and his wife 
 Gaurl respectively. After long persistence in the practice of 
 swallowing these elixirs the candidate for beatitude becomes 
 immortal, and not merely united with Siva but identified 
 with him. This kind of transubstantiation is called Jlvan- 
 mukti, ' salvation during life^/ 
 
 So little is known about the composition of the Tantras 
 that it is not possible to decide at present as to which are the 
 most ancient, and still less as to the date to be assigned to 
 
 ^ One of the systems described by Madhava in his Sarva-darsana- 
 saiigraha is called the Rasesvara-darsana, or the system which teaches 
 the use of mercury or quicksilver as a means of strengthening the body 
 and giving it divine stability capable of resisting death and preventing 
 further transmigration. Mercury is said to be named Para-da because it 
 gives para, or the farther shore of Metempsychosis.
 
 The Tantras. 207 
 
 any of them. They are all said to be founded on the Kaulo- 
 panishad. It may, however, be taken for granted that the 
 extant treaties are, like the extant Puranas, founded on older 
 works ; and if the oldest known Purana is not older than the 
 sixth or seventh century, an earlier date can scarcely be 
 attributed to the oldest known Tantra. Perhaps the Rudra- 
 yamala is one of the most deservedly esteemed and most 
 encyclopedic in its teaching^. Others are the Sakti-saiigama, 
 Visva-sara, Maha-nirvana, Vira, Kularnava (a text-book of 
 the Kaulas), Syama-rahasya, Sarada-tilaka, Uddlsa, Kama- 
 khya, Vishnu-yamala. 
 
 Full as the above works are of doubtful symbolism, they 
 are not all necessarily full of impure allusions, though the 
 teaching contained in the best of them unquestionably tends 
 towards licentiousness. When they are better known, their 
 connection with a distorted view of the Saiikhya philosophy, 
 and with some of the corrupt forms of Buddhism, will pro- 
 bably be made clearer Doubtless they have greatly in- 
 fluenced the later Buddhist literature of Nepal, and would 
 probably throw much light on the magical hymns and spells 
 of the Atharva-veda. 
 
 There are also works called Vaishnava Tantras, such as 
 the Gautamiya and the Sanat-kumara, but even in these 
 Siva is the narrator and his wife the supposed listener. 
 Moreover their teaching, which makes Radha, the wife of 
 Krishna, take the place of Durga as the chief object of 
 adoration, has the same tendency as that of the other Tantras, 
 and equally leads to licentiousness. 
 
 Happily the abominations of Saktism are gradually dying 
 out in British India ; and without doubt its true character 
 has long since forced itself on the convictions of the more 
 highly educated Hindus. 
 
 ^ It is said to consist of 100,000 verses. A section of it, called 
 Jati-mala, treating of caste, has been printed at Calcutta.
 
 2o8 * The Tantras. 
 
 Nor can the power of the Mantra-sastrls stand against the 
 moral and intellectual revolution which is slowly but surely 
 upheaving the whole fabric of superstition. That power is 
 already much weakened, and the field for its exercise among 
 a people steeped for centuries in debasing and degrading re- 
 ligious and social ideas is daily becoming narrower. Still in 
 most of the native States, where all the grosser forms of 
 Hinduism are still rampant, the whole system is as firmly 
 established as ever. Even those in high positions, who have 
 no faith in it themselves, find themselves unable to offend 
 the prejudices of their subordinates by venturing to engage 
 in any work or perform the most ordinary act without the 
 sanction of crafty Brahmans claiming divine authority and 
 professing to work miracles through their knowledge and 
 application of the Mantras. 
 
 Well may the enlightened Brahman so often before quoted 
 (see p. 189) give expression to his indignation thus : — 
 
 ' All sensible people ought to say to the Mantra-sastrls, 
 We have suffered much misery through your deceit, we have 
 been taxed very heavily by you, and you have involved us in 
 the results of all your wickedness. It is true your ancestors 
 had some knowledge of different sciences and imparted some 
 of that knowledge to us. In return for these benefits we have 
 fed you and supported you and promoted your interests. 
 When you found your power established over us you aban- 
 doned the duty of seeking after knowledge, and worked only 
 mischief. Your teaching is now a mere reflection of your 
 ignorance, wickedness, folly, and hypocrisy. You harass and 
 injure us in a thousand ways. If our knowledge increases, 
 you try to prevent it, thinking that, if inquiry is encouraged, 
 your customers will decrease. We begin to see through your 
 artifices. Begone, every one of you, and don't attempt to 
 deceive us any more.'
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Tutelary and Village Deities. 
 
 It may be said that all deities ought to be called tutelary, 
 and no doubt the idea of protecting from harm is essential to 
 the later idea of a god. But among rude, uncultivated races 
 the first conception of a god is never that of a protector or 
 saviour. Primitive man, just emerging from the depths of a 
 merely animal existence, finds himself face to face with 
 mighty mysterious natural forces. He sees, feels, and dreads 
 their operation. He personifies and deifies them, and gives 
 them names expressive of the awe with which their power has 
 impressed him, or of his desire to propitiate them. It is a 
 question whether any of the primary names for God in any 
 country are significant of his attributes as a Guardian, 
 Saviour, and Deliverer. In India tutelary functions were 
 no doubt ultimately associated with both Siva and Vishnu, 
 but in the case of Vishnu they were delegated, as we have 
 seen, to his incarnations or descents on earth, and in the case 
 of Siva to his sons Ganesa and Skanda and to his consort the 
 great goddess Devi, regarded as the mother of the world and 
 worshipped under a great variety of diff'erent names in 
 different localities. In the South of India another tutelary 
 god named Ayenar, the reputed son of Vishnu and Siva 
 (see p. 2 1 8), is very popular among the peasantry. 
 
 Whether the worship of these village deities (grama- 
 devata) is a mere offshoot or ramification of the religion 
 of Siva and Vishnu is very doubtful. It is much more 
 probable that the village gods represent far earlier and more 
 
 P
 
 2IO Tutelary and Village Deities. 
 
 primitive objects of worship. Possibly they may even be 
 developments of local fetishes once held in veneration by 
 uncivilized aboriginal tribes and afterwards grafted into the 
 Hindu system by the Brahmans, whose wise policy it has 
 ever been to appropriate and utilize all existing cults, cus- 
 toms, and superstitions. It is certain that even in the present 
 day scarcely a village, and indeed scarcely a household in 
 India, is without its tutelary divinity, usually represented by 
 some rudely carved image or symbol, located in homely 
 shrines or over doorways, or, it may be, denoted by simple 
 patches of red paint on rocks or under sacred trees or in 
 cross-ways, and always taking the place of the superior gods 
 in the religion of the lower orders. 
 
 The question however arises — In what sense are these 
 homely village deities tutelary.? From whom or what are 
 they believed to protect } 
 
 A Christian, when he prays for deliverance from evil, means 
 not only deliverance from a personal evil spirit, but from the 
 evil of sin and from the general evil existing in the world 
 around him. 
 
 A Hindu, on the other hand, has no idea of deliverance 
 from any evil except that inflicted by demons. To expect 
 any miraculous deliverance from sin or the effects of sin 
 either in himself or other men would be to him simple 
 foolishness. He is too firmly convinced that the conse- 
 quences of his own acts cling to him by an immutable and 
 inexorable law, the operation of which nothing can set aside. 
 The plain fact undoubtedly is that the great majority of the 
 inhabitants of India are, from the cradle to the burning- 
 ground, victims of a form of mental disease which is best 
 expressed by the term demonophobia. They are haunted 
 and oppressed by a perpetual dread of demons. They are 
 firmly convinced that evil spirits of all kinds, from malignant 
 fiends to merely mischievous imps and elves, are ever on the 
 watch to harm, harass and torment them, to cause plague,
 
 Worship of Ga7icsa and Su-braJimanya. 211 
 
 sickness, famine and disaster, to impede, injure and mar 
 every good work. 
 
 Hence a tutelary god among the Hindus is simply one 
 that delivers from the calamities, actual and potential, be- 
 lieved to be due to demons. 
 
 Worship of Gancsa {Gana-pati) and Su-brahmanya. 
 
 At the head of tutelary village deities I place the two 
 sons of Siva: — i. Ganesa — also called Gana-pati (commonly 
 Gan-pati, and in Southern India Puliyar, 'the son'); 2. Skanda 
 — often called Karttikeya, and still more commonly Su-brah- 
 manya. But in so placing these two gods I must explain 
 that my investigations in India have led me to take a view of 
 their character and functions somewhat different from that 
 hitherto propounded by European waiters on Hindu Mytho- 
 logy. It is usual for such writers to describe Ganesa as the 
 god of learning and patron of letters^; whereas the whole 
 province of speech, language, and literature is really placed 
 under the presidency of the goddess Sarasvati^. The only 
 possible ground I have been able to discover for connecting 
 Ganesa with the patronage of learning is the circumstance 
 that every Indian book opens with the formula Sri Ganesaya 
 namah. 
 
 But the real explanation of this is that the writing of a 
 book is among Hindus a very serious and solemn under- 
 taking, peculiarly liable to obstruction from spiteful and 
 jealous spirits of evil, and the favour of Ganesa is invoked 
 to counteract their malignity. It never occurs to any Hindu 
 writer to suppose for a moment that the failure of his literary 
 efforts is ever likely to be due to his own incapacity. In this, 
 
 ^ I find that even M. Earth, in his recent excellent work on the reli- 
 gions of India, falls into this mistake. 
 
 2 Thus we find the first verse of the Mahabharata addresses homage 
 to SarasvatI, not to Ganesa. 
 
 P 2
 
 212 Worship of Gane'sa and Su-brahmanya. 
 
 as in all other enterprises, want of success is attributed not 
 to want of skill, energy, or persistency, but to negligence 
 in taking proper precautions against demoniacal jealousy and 
 obstruction. 
 
 So far indeed is Ganesa from being the god of learning, he 
 is peculiarly the god of the lower orders and uneducated 
 classes. Hence in a verse said to be extracted from the old 
 version of Manu he is called the god of the Sudras^ 
 
 Again, it is usual to describe Skanda as the god of war, as 
 if he were a kind of Hindu Mars, whereas his martial quali- 
 ties are only displayed in leading the armies of the gods 
 against the countless host of their enemies the evil demons. 
 
 With a view then to a fuller explanation of the history and 
 character of two gods so generally honoured and propitiated 
 throughout India, I may begin by pointing out that the cultus 
 of both Ganesa and Su-brahmanya is a mere offshoot of 
 Saivism. The very name Ganesa (Gana-Isa) or Gana-pati, 
 meaning 'lord of hosts,' belonged originally to Siva (see 
 p. 77), for Siva is, as we have seen, surrounded by countless 
 troops or hosts (gana) of servants and officers, who are con- 
 stantly in readiness to traverse earth and air for the execu- 
 tion of his orders. 
 
 And just as Siva is ever engaged in two opposite duties — 
 on the one hand, as Rudra and Kala, directing and control- 
 ling dissolution and death, on the other hand, as Siva and 
 Sambhu, presiding over re-integration and new life — so by a 
 figment of mythology, those of his emissaries who are charged 
 with carrying out the former operation are converted into evil 
 demons, imps, and devils, while those who are agents in the 
 latter are held to be good angels, ministering spirits, and 
 beneficent genii. 
 
 And hence it is that two entirely opposite classes of de- 
 moniacal beings are believed to be continually roaming about 
 
 ^ The verse is — Vipranam daivatam Sambhuh Kshatriyanarn tu Madha- 
 vah Vaisyanam tu bhaved Brahma Sudranam Gana-nayaka^.
 
 Worship of Gane'sa and StL-bi'ahinanya. 213 
 
 earth, air and sky — the one ill-disposed towards all forms of 
 life, human and divine, the other well-disposed ; the one 
 destroyers, the other protectors ; the one instruments of 
 calamity and disaster, the other agents of good-fortune and 
 prosperity. 
 
 It is to be observed, too, that differences of rank, character, 
 and function are supposed to separate both good and bad 
 spirits ^ into various subdivisions. For example, the highest 
 order of evil demons, who may be called arch-fiends, disdain 
 any lower aim than the humiliation and subjugation of the 
 gods, and to effect this they will sometimes undergo long 
 courses of austerity and self-mortification in the hope of 
 making themselves omnipotent. The next in order vent 
 their rancour and hostility upon human beings. Of these, 
 again, some destroy life, some inflict diseases, some disturb 
 religious rites, and some are mere demons of mischief and 
 obstruction who delight in hindering good works or frighten- 
 ing women and children, like the ghosts, hobgoblins, elves, 
 and bogies of nursery tale and fable. 
 
 Similar differences are supposed to divide good demons 
 into various orders and degrees of rank and power. 
 
 It is over these countless hosts of good and evil demons 
 that the god Siva exercises sovereignty. They are all 
 primarily subject to his authority; but the actual command 
 over them is delegated to his two sons, Ganesa and Skanda. 
 
 As for Skanda, although the younger and less generally 
 worshipped, he holds the more ambitious office. He is 
 called the god of war, because he is commander-in-chief or 
 generalissimo (Sena-pati) of the good demon armies. These 
 he leads against the hosts of their enemies the evil demons, 
 notably against those rebellious and arrogant arch-fiends 
 who seek to overcome and enslave the gods. He is often 
 called Karttikeya, from his foster-mothers, the six Krittikas 
 
 ^ The use of the term 'spirit ' for demon is not intended to imply that 
 demons are incorporeal spiritual beings.
 
 214 Worship of Gane'sa and Su-brahmanya. 
 
 or Pleiades, and then has six heads ^ and twelve arms. These 
 are to enable him to hold weapons of different kinds sym- 
 bolical of martial skill and prowess. 
 
 But he is not seldom represented in other characters. For 
 example, in some places he appears as simply a beautiful 
 youth (Kumara) riding on a peacock, divested of all mar- 
 tial attributes. Again, in the South of India, where his cultus 
 prevails most extensively, he is not worshipped as presiding 
 over war, but under the name Su-brahmanya, 'very de- 
 votional ' (or ' very favourable to Brahmans '). I found in fact 
 that his temples are either frequented by those who seek 
 through his intervention to be delivered from evil spirits, or else 
 by women who hope by propitiating him to obtain handsome 
 sons 2. He is himself married, and has two wives popularly 
 called DevayanI and Valll-amman. These, like their hus- 
 band, are believed to grant children, to prevent the attacks 
 and thwart the malice of devils, and when evil spirits have 
 actually taken possession of any one, to be capable of casting 
 them out. At Tanjore and other places in the South of 
 India I found the temples of Skanda in his character of 
 Su-brahmanya side by side with those of his brother Ganesa, 
 and in some districts of the extreme South Su-brahmanya is 
 the more popular deity of the two. 
 
 As to Ganesa, it is certain that he has no pretensions 
 whatever to be regarded as a martial deity. On the con- 
 trary, he is essentially a homely village-god. Fighting and 
 activity of any kind are repugnant to his nature, which, 
 however, appears to be somewhat contradictory and full of 
 curious enigmas. His form resembles that of a bloated, 
 well-fed Brahman seated at his ease with legs folded under 
 him on a lotus-throne, the very beau-ideal of satiated appetite 
 and indolent self-complacency, but with the head of an 
 
 ^ The six heads were to enable him to be nursed by his six nurses. 
 "^ A celebrated and much-frequented temple dedicated to him is on 
 the Pulney hills.
 
 Worship of Ganesa and Sii-brahmanya. 215 
 
 elephant to denote shrewdness or wisdom, and with four 
 arms, holding an elephant-hook, a noose, a mace\ and a 
 cake, one in each of his hands. Not unfrequently he is 
 represented riding on a rat, and is always associated with 
 images of that animal, probably as emblematical of sagacity. 
 In Southern India I occasionally found his idols in company 
 with those of Nagas or snakes. Sometimes he has a garland 
 round his neck, sometimes the sacred Brahmanical cord. 
 Unlike Su-brahmanya or Skanda, he is not generally repre- 
 sented as married ; though according to some he has two 
 wives called Riddhi and Siddhi^, 'Prosperity' and 'Success.' 
 
 Contrasting Ganesa then with Su-brahmanya, we must 
 always bear in mind that Ganesa is not the commander 
 and leader, but rather the king and lord of the demon-host, 
 ruling over both good and bad alike, and controlling those 
 malignant spirits who are ever plotting evil and causing 
 hindrances and difficulties. But he controls them, not as 
 Skanda does, by the exercise of bravery and physical energy, 
 but by artifice and stratagem, very much after the manner of 
 some indolent, wily Brahman who,, skilled in the Mantras, sits 
 comfortably at home and by the simple repetition of a few 
 texts, spells and cabalistic words, compels good and evil 
 spirits to obey his behests. 
 
 Nor is it out of harmony with this theory of the true 
 character of the god that the Ganesa of modern mythology 
 is thought by some Pandits to be a development of the 
 Vedic Brahmanas-pati or Brihaspati, ' lord of prayer ' — once 
 the personification of religion and devotion — who by the 
 simple force of his supplications protects the pious from 
 the machinations of the impious. It is certain that the 
 
 ^ Instead of a mace he has sometimes a lotus, and sometimes a frag- 
 ment of one of his own tusks which he once broke off in a fit of uncon- 
 trollable passion. 
 
 2 Others make his two wives Buddhi and Siddhi, ' Intelligence ' and 
 'Success.'
 
 2i6 Worship of Ganesa and SiL-brahmanya. 
 
 modern popular Ganesa has no place in the Veda, the epi- 
 thet Gananam Gana-patih, which occurs in Rig-veda II. 
 23. I, having reference to Brahmanas-pati as lord of the 
 Ganas or troops of divinities \ 
 
 What the Ganesa or Gana-pati of the present day really 
 represents is a complex personification of sagacity, shrewd- 
 ness, patience, and self-reliance— of all those qualities, in short, 
 which overcome hindrances and difficulties, whether in per- 
 forming religious acts, writing books, building houses, making 
 journeys, or undertaking anything. He is before all things 
 the typical embodiment of success in life ; with its usual 
 accompaniments of good-living, plenteousness, prosperity, and 
 peace. This is the true secret of his popularity. This is why 
 his images and shrines smeared with red paint are seen every- 
 where throughout India. In all ceremonies, except funeral 
 rites, and in all undertakings Ganesa is first invoked. 
 
 It should be noted, however, that although his principal 
 office is to remove impediments, especially from religious 
 rites, he may also permit them ; and this in fact is implied 
 in his names Vighnesa and Vighna-raja, ' lord of obstacles.' 
 So also, although he is essentially a god who presides over 
 domestic happiness and rural prosperity, driving away evil 
 demons from houses, fields, crops, and herds, he may also, if 
 not propitiated, allow malicious imps to haunt houses, infest 
 roads, mar harvests, and cause a murrain among cattle. 
 
 When I was nearly dashed to pieces by restive horses, one 
 of which broke away from my carriage and was precipitated 
 over a precipice on the Ghat between Poona and Mahaba- 
 lesvar, I was told by a wise-looking native who witnessed the 
 accident that the road in that district was infested by demons 
 who often caused accidents, and that if I had taken care to 
 propitiate Ganesa before starting I should have escaped all 
 molestation and all risk of being upset. 
 
 ' The same expression Gananam Gana-patih occurs also in the Vaja- 
 saneyi-Samhita of the Yajur-veda, XXIII. 19.
 
 Worship of Gancsa and Su-biahinanya. 217 
 
 Altogether, the god Ganesa represents a being who is a 
 curious mixture of divine and demoniacal, benevolent and 
 malevolent, intellectual and animal propensities, all of which 
 are typified by the somewhat grotesque and bizarre assem- 
 blage of symbols noticeable in his image. 
 
 Notably, too, his worship is combined with that of every 
 other god. For all sects unite in claiming him as their own. 
 It is on this account that his shrines and images are generally 
 found in association with those of other deities, and are 
 usually to be seen in the approaches or vestibules of large 
 temples. Often, however, they stand alone, and are then to 
 be found outside villages, under trees, or in cross-ways, or 
 indeed in any kind of locality, but always smeared with red 
 paint in token of good-luck and auspiciousness. Solitary 
 temples of large size dedicated to Ganesa are rare. The 
 largest I saw anywhere in India was at Wa-i, between Poona 
 and Mahabalesvar. It contained a colossal image of the god, 
 and in this temple I noticed a singularly simple and easy 
 method of doing him honour. A man entered with a small 
 vessel of holy water from the neighbouring river. He re- 
 peated no prayers, but with a diminutive spoon poured a little 
 of the water two or three times on the lower extremities of 
 the huge image and then retired. Another large Ganesa 
 temple which I visited is on the summit of the rock of 
 Trichinopoly, Ganesa being there called Ujjhi Puliyar^. 
 
 In point of fact Ganesa has in the present day few ex- 
 clusive adorers ; that is to say, there are few sectarians who 
 trust to him alone for salvation, though all propitiate him 
 for success. In former times the Ganesa or Ganapatya sect, 
 as it was called (see p. 59), was divided into six sub-sects who 
 worshipped six different forms of the god, named respectively 
 (according to the Sankara-vijaya) Maha-Ganapati, Haridra- 
 
 ^ There is also a shrine to Su-brahmanya on this celebrated rock, and 
 I noticed as a peculiarity that the image of a peacock was represented 
 looking into Ganesa's shrine, not into that of his brother.
 
 2 1 8 Worship of Ayenclr. 
 
 GanapatI, Ucchishta-Ganapati (also called Heramba), Nava- 
 nita-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati, and Santana-Ganapati ^. 
 
 Worship of Ayenar. 
 
 Closely allied to the worship of Ganesa and Skanda (Su- 
 brahmanya), and generally to Saivism, is the worship of 
 Ayenar; a village-god very popular in the extreme Sjuth 
 of India, but little known in other parts. One distinction, 
 however, may be noticed between the worship of Ayenar 
 and that of Siva's two sons. He is never asked for any 
 positive good. He only protects from harm, and his wor- 
 ship consists solely in propitiation. His name Ayenar is 
 said to be a corruption of Hari-hara ( = Vishnu and Siva, 
 see p. ^^, and he is believed to be the son of both these 
 deities ; that is, he is the product of the marriage of Siva 
 and Vishnu when the latter took the form of a beautiful 
 woman. He is popularly called Ayenar-appan -, and some- 
 times has another name, Sasta, ' the ruler or governor.' 
 
 Like Ganesa and Skanda, the popular deity Ayenar is a 
 lord and leader of the demon-host, and his province is to 
 guard the fields, crops, and herds of the peasantry, and drive 
 away their enemies the devils and fiends, who are ever on the 
 watch to inflict disease, blight, and other calamities. Accord- 
 ingly, outside every village in Southern India, and generally 
 among a group of trees to the west of the village, may be 
 seen the shrines of Ayenar, surrounded with rude clay or 
 
 ' Dhundhi-raja, said to mean 'king of Siva's hosts,' is another popular 
 form of Ganesa at Benares. I noticed numerous worshippers at his 
 shrine, as well as at that of another shrine of the same god in his 
 character of Sakshin or witness. In this latter character he is usually 
 called Sakshi-Vinayaka (vulgarly Sakhi-Vinayaka). Every pilgrim who 
 has been the round of the shrines in the PahcakosI of Benares must 
 finish up by a visit to Ganesa, ' the witness,' who then bears testimony to 
 the completeness of the difficuU task he has accomplished. 
 
 ^ Appan is the Tamil for ' father,' as Amman is for ' mother.'
 
 Worship of Ayendr. 219 
 
 terra-cotta figures of horses and other animals — often of life- 
 size — on which he is supposed to ride when keeping guard. 
 His image is that of a human form painted a reddish colour 
 and very roughly carved, sometimes in a sitting posture, 
 sometimes on horseback. When properly represented, he 
 ought to have a crown on his head, the Saiva mark on his 
 forehead, a sceptre in his hand, and ornaments on his person. 
 Often images of Ganesa are placed near him. He has two 
 wives (known by the names PuranI and Pudkala), who 
 generally sit on each side of him, and take an active part 
 in driving away demons, especially at night, when like their 
 husband they ride about the fields on horses. It is on this 
 account that no villager in Southern India likes to be out in 
 the fields at night, and on no account will any one pass near 
 the shrines of Ayenar and his wives after dark. If any 
 venturesome person happens to cross their path when they 
 are careering about the fields, he is liable to be taken for an 
 evil spirit and slain. 
 
 After recovery from sickness, or to commemorate any piece 
 of good-fortune, the villagers place fresh clay horses round 
 the shrine of Ayenar, as thank-offerings or in fulfilment of 
 vows. He is also at such times propitiated by offerings of the 
 blood of swine, goats, sheep, cocks and other animals, or by 
 cooked food and libations of strong liquor. 
 
 If cholera or pestilence of any kind breaks out, the villagers 
 redouble their offerings to the priests of the shrine, who are 
 generally very poor and of the lowest caste, and are very glad 
 to receive any money or consume any eatables that may be 
 offered to the god. 
 
 I examined with great interest many shrines of Ayenar in 
 Southern India, and particularly one at Permagudy, on my 
 way from Madura to Ramesvaram. It was situated close to 
 a grove of small trees not far from the village. Under a 
 rough stone canopy was a rudely carved stone male idol. 
 The wives of the god were not represented, but about twenty-
 
 2 20 Worship of Hamiman. 
 
 five toy-like terra-cotta horses, some as large as life, were 
 ranged on each side of the shrine. Several of these fictile 
 animals had grotesque images upon them representing riders, 
 and some of them were so badly formed that it was difficult 
 to say whether they were intended for lions or horses. In 
 the front of the shrine was a rude stone altar for sacrifices 
 and oblations, but I saw no signs of any recent offerings, nor 
 was a single worshipper of the god to be seen anywhere. I 
 noticed indeed that all the shrines of Ayenar had a deserted 
 appearance, the fact being that he is never worshipped in our 
 sense of the word. He is only propitiated in emergencies. 
 Every year after harvest-time a festival is kept in his honour, 
 when numerous animals are sacrificed, and images of the god 
 are decorated with ornaments and drawn about through the 
 village streets on the rude clay horses I have described. 
 
 Worship of Hamiman. 
 
 In connexion with the subject of local tutelary deities it 
 ought to be mentioned that a very common village-god in the 
 Dekhan, Central and Upper India, is Hanuman (nom. case 
 of Hanumat, a name meaning 'possessing large jaws'). Th's 
 god derives his popularity from the part he took in assisting 
 Rama to recover his wife Slta after she had been carried 
 away to Ceylon by the demon Ravana. He is one of the 
 chiefs of a host of semi-divine monkey-like beings who, ac- 
 cording to the Ramayana (I. i6), were created to become 
 Ramacandra's allies. In point of fact, there can be little 
 doubt that Hanuman was originally a mere poetical deifi- 
 cation of some well-known leader of the wild aboriginal 
 tribes, whose appearance resembled that of apes, and who 
 really rendered effective assistance to Rama in his battles with 
 Ravana. There were several of these powerful aboriginal 
 chiefs, who, from their accomplishing apparently supernatural 
 feats of strength, were held to be the progeny of various
 
 Worship of Hanumdn. 221 
 
 gods. Thus the Simian king Sugriva was said to be a son of 
 the Sun, and another chief named Bah was a son of Indra. 
 
 Hanuman, on the other hand, was beHeved to be a son of 
 the wind (Pavana or Maruta). He could assume any form at 
 will, wield rocks, remove mountains, dart through the air, 
 seize clouds, and rival Vishnu's divine bird Garuda in swift- 
 ness of flight. His devotion to Rama's service was so great 
 that he is worshipped over a great part of India as the type 
 and model of a faithful devoted servant. Many believe that 
 when propitiated he can confer supernatural muscular strength 
 and bodily power. His images, which, to denote the reverence 
 in which they are held, are always smeared with vermilion 
 (sindura) and oil, are generally rudely formed, and often I 
 noticed that they were most common in the Dekhan, where 
 they are generally found outside villages. Not that there is 
 any lack of them in large towns. In the centre of Poona, 
 I came across a shrine containing a shapeless idol, which was 
 said to be an image of Hanuman several hundred years old. 
 It was set up under a Banian tree. A man was in the act of 
 painting it with bright red paint as I passed, and another 
 man was prostrating himself at full length on the ground 
 before it. 
 
 Again, I visited a large temple dedicated to Hanuman out- 
 side the town of Kaira. It is said to be well endowed. 
 Offerings of oil are constantly presented to Hanuman, and 
 eighty Maunds of oil had recently been offered to this idol. 
 Within the enclosure of his temple were shrines to Rama 
 and Krishna, both of which occupied subordinate positions. 
 Of course the worship of Hanuman is usually connected 
 with that of Vishnu, but here in this enclosure was also a 
 Liiiga shrine \ and another of the goddess of small-pox, 
 and all around was a cloister which served as a Dharma- 
 sala, or lodging for travellers. 
 
 ^ According to some legends, Hanuman was a son of Siva.
 
 222 
 
 Mother-worship. 
 
 The veneration in which apes and monkeys of every kind 
 are held throughout India cannot fail to strike a stranger as 
 remarkable. This is doubtless intensified by the homage paid 
 to Hanuman, It is certainly connected with that homage. 
 All monkeys are believed to be his near relations, though 
 they were probably objects of worship long before his time^ 
 Yet they are quite as ungodlike in their habits in the regions 
 where they are worshipped as the most mischievous monkeys 
 in any other part of the world. Often a troop will make its 
 appearance in a village, tear off the roof of a native house, or 
 do even worse damage out of sheer wantonness. Yet no 
 householder would ever dream of reprisals. The sacred 
 character of the monkey shields him from all harm. 
 
 Mother-worship. 
 
 Undoubtedly the most popular tutelary deities of India are 
 the divine Matris or Mothers. The propitiation of Ayenar 
 and his wives is confined to the South, but mother-worship is 
 extended everywhere throughout India. In the first place, 
 every living mother is venerated as a kind of deity by her 
 children. Then every village has its own special guardian 
 mother, called Mata or Amba. Generally there is also a 
 male deity, who protects like the female from all adverse and 
 demoniacal influences. But the mother is the favourite object 
 of adoration ; and no wonder ; for, as we have seen in the 
 preceding chapter, activity, power, and force (sakti) are sup- 
 posed to be her peculiar attributes. Perhaps however the real 
 reason for her attracting more homage than the god is that 
 she is held to have a thoroughly feminine nature. She is 
 more easily propitiated by prayer, flattery, and offerings, more 
 
 ^ It seems not unlikely that the Vrishakapi of Rig-veda X. 86 may 
 point to a very early veneration of apes, arising, perhaps, from their 
 mysterious resemblance to men.
 
 Mothei'-worship. 223 
 
 ready to defend from evil, more irritable, uncertain, and way- 
 ward in her temper and moods, more dangerously spiteful, 
 and prone to inflict diseases, if offended by neglect. 
 
 In point of fact, the worship of the divine Matris is, as 
 already pointed out, a mere branch of Saivism, and par- 
 ticularly of that form of Saivism called Saktism (see 
 p. 181). Indeed, one of the most remarkable features of 
 the multiform and many-sided Hindu religion is the efficacy 
 supposed to belong to this form of worship. Probably the 
 idea of Mother-worship had its origin in the patriarchal con- 
 stitution of ancient Aryan society. Among the early Aryans 
 the paternal and maternal tie, and, indeed, the whole family 
 bond, was intensely strong. If the father was regarded with 
 awe as the primary source of life, the mother was an object 
 of devotion to the children of the family as the more evident 
 author of their existence. And again, if the father was vene- 
 rated as the food-supplier and protector (pita), the mother 
 was beloved as the meter out (mata) of daily nourishment — the 
 arranger of the household, measuring and ordering its affairs 
 as the moon (also called mata) measured the time. To the 
 Aryan family the father and mother were present gods. 
 
 Can we wonder that with the growth of devotional ideas 
 and the increasing sense of a higher superintending pro- 
 vidence the earliest religious creed was constructed on what 
 may be called paternal and maternal lines? At first the sky 
 (Dyaus, Zeus), bending over all, was personified as a Heavenly 
 Father (Dyaus-pitar, Jupiter), and the Earth as the Mother 
 of all creatures. Then, in place of the Earth, Infinite Space 
 (A-diti) was thought of as an eternal Mother. Then Prakriti 
 was the germinal productive principle — the eternal Mother 
 capable of evolving all created things out of herself, but never 
 so creating unless united with the eternal spiritual principle 
 called the eternal Male (Purusha). 
 
 To the prevalence of such ideas must, I think, be attri- 
 buted the fact that everywhere throughout India are scattered
 
 224 Mother-worship. 
 
 shrines which on inspection are found to contain no images or 
 idols shaped like human beings, but simply stone symbols of 
 a double form, intended to typify the blending of the male 
 and female principles in creation. The casual tourist, whose 
 notions of propriety are cast in a European mould, is shocked 
 by what he considers an evidence of the utter degradation of 
 Indian thought. He turns away in disgust, and denounces 
 the Hindu religion as simple abomination. 
 
 My own researches into Indian religious thought have led 
 me to view in these symbols a proof of the hold which the 
 ancient dualistic philosophy has on the Hindu mind. It is 
 common to say that Brahmanism is Pantheism, and no doubt 
 it is, broadly speaking, true that Brahmanism is a kind of 
 Pantheism ; but to apply the term Pantheism to the religion 
 of the Hindus generally^ is a great mistake, and altogether 
 misleading. A small minority of strict Brahmans are Pan- 
 theists according to the peculiar Vedantic doctrine (see 
 p, 36), while a large majority of the Hindus are believers in 
 one personal God — that is to say, in either Siva or Vishnu or 
 their manifestations — and are therefore Theists. Yet it is 
 true that their Theism is no stern belief in the unity of God. 
 It constantly tends to pantheistic or polytheistic superstitions, 
 and especially to the mystical theory of a duality in unity 
 before explained (see p. 181). Such a theory rests, as we 
 have seen, on the philosophical doctrine of two distinct eter- 
 nally existing essences — Spirit regarded as a male principle, 
 and Matter or the germ of the external world regarded as a 
 female. Without the union of the two no creation takes place. 
 To any one imbued with these dualistic conceptions the Linga 
 and the Yoni are suggestive of no improper ideas. They are 
 either types of the two mysterious creative forces — the efficient 
 and material causes of the universe — or symbols of one divine 
 power delegating procreative energy to male and female organ- 
 isms. They are mystical representatives, and perhaps the best 
 
 ^ As I heard it so applied not long ago by an Indian bishop.
 
 Mother-worship. 225 
 
 possible impersonal representatives, of the abstract expres- 
 sions paternity and maternity. 
 
 Of course, such ideas are too mystical for the masses of the 
 people. Yet the ordinary Hindu finds no difficulty in ac- 
 cepting the theory of a universe proceeding from a divine 
 father and mother. Hence, as we have already seen, some 
 images of Siva (called Ardha-narlsa) represent him as female 
 on one side of his body and male on the other, to indicate 
 that he combines in his own person maternal as well as 
 paternal qualities and attributes, and that all the mothers of 
 India are simply manifestations of portions of his essence. I 
 need not repeat here that the god's energy is supposed to be 
 located more especially in the female half of his nature, and 
 that the divine mothers are variously classified according to 
 various degrees of participation in that energy, the highest 
 being identified with different forms of his supposed consort, 
 the lowest including human mothers downwards, who are all 
 worshipped as incarnations of the one divine productive 
 capacity of nature. 
 
 There are about one hundred and forty distinct Mothers 
 in Gujarat, besides numerous varieties of some of the more 
 popular forms. In all likelihood every one of these, though 
 declared by the Brahmans to be separate forms of Siva's 
 consort Kali, is really the representative of some local 
 deity (Grama-devata), worshipped by the inhabitants from 
 time immemorial. Some are represented by rudely carved 
 images, others by simple symbols, and others are remarkable 
 for preferring empty shrines and the absence of all visible 
 representation. 
 
 The first genuine country village I visited on reaching 
 Bombay in 1875 was in Gujarat. It had as usual two 
 shrines, one to Siva and his son Ganesa, the other to the 
 local Mata or Mother, believed to be a manifestation of 
 Siva's wife and called Khodiyar, or ' Mischief.^ The attitude 
 of mind and usual disposition of this Mother towards the 
 
 Q
 
 226 Mother-worship. 
 
 villagers appears to be anything but maternal. Her shrine 
 when I visited it was of a very rough and ready character, 
 little better than a mere mud shed, open to all the winds of 
 heaven and accessible to all comers — even to unbelievers like 
 myself, quite as much as to her faithful votaries. Her image 
 too was by no means attractive in its contour and accom- 
 paniments. It was carved in the rudest manner, and might 
 have done duty for an African fetish. I noticed that in some 
 villages the Mother is represented by a simple unworked 
 stone, but always recumbent, never erect, and occasionally a 
 wall or some markings on it are believed to symbolize the 
 presence of the goddess. It is a mistake to suppose that 
 every Hindu temple or shrine has an idol. I passed a shrine 
 near Allahabad dedicated to a local Mother euphemistically 
 called AlopI or 'Non-destroyer,' who here takes the place 
 of the goddess worshipped in the South under the name of 
 Marl-amman, the ' Destroying Mother,' or goddess of small- 
 pox (see p. 238). There was no image in Alopi's shrine, only 
 a flat stone slab, on which, in consequence of a late outbreak 
 of small-pox, an immense number of offerings of flowers, 
 cocoa-nuts, and grain were being laid by a succession of 
 worshippers, both Hindu and Muhammadan. 
 
 On the other hand, when I visited the village over which 
 Khodiyar presides. I found no offerings near her image ; or if 
 any had been placed there before my arrival they had dis- 
 appeared. Most probably the few that had been offered had 
 been already appropriated by the village priest, who was 
 nowhere to be seen. The name Khodiyar, ' Mischief,' is 
 very significant of this particular Mother's character, for 
 although her function is to shield from harm, she is more 
 inclined to turn mischievous and cause harm, and will cer- 
 tainly do so if her temper is ruffled by any remissness in the 
 daily process of coaxing and conciliating her. 
 
 Hence it is no matter of surprise that an outbreak of sick- 
 ness in the village was attributed entirely to a little temporary
 
 Mother -worship. 227 
 
 slackness in supplying her with her daily nutriment. Extra- 
 ordinary offerings, therefore — some of them accompanied by 
 the killing of animals and pouring out of blood— had to 
 be made till the disease had abated. When no sickness 
 remained it was believed that the Mother's anger was 
 appeased, no further trouble was taken, and everything 
 returned to the old routine. 
 
 Had any native of the district who happened to have been 
 educated at the Bombay Presidency College suggested a little 
 attention to sanitary rules as a more effective remedy against 
 cholera or small-pox^ he would have been laughed to scorn by 
 his fellow-villagers. 
 
 Each of the remaining 139 Mothers of Gujarat has some 
 speciality. One, named Becaraji, has numerous imageless 
 shrines. The shrine most frequented is at a place seventy-five 
 miles north of Ahmedabad. Sometimes she is represented by 
 a coloured square figure^ divided into six compartments. 
 
 Another, named Untai, causes and prevents whooping- 
 cough ; another, named Berai, prevents cholera ; another, called 
 Maraki (popularly Mark!), causes cholera ; another, Hadakal, 
 controls mad-dogs and prevents hydrophobia ; another, Asa- 
 pura, represented by two idols, satisfies the hopes of wives 
 by giving children. Others are Kalka and Hingraj. 
 
 Not a few are worshipped either as causing or protecting 
 from demoniacal possession as a form of bodily disease. The 
 offering of goats' blood to some of these Mothers is supposed 
 to be very effectual ; the animals are not always killed. 
 
 A story is told of a Hindu doctor who cured a whole 
 village of an outbreak of virulent influenza, attributed to the 
 malignant influences of an angry goddess, by simply assem- 
 bling the inhabitants, muttering some cabalistic texts, and 
 solemnly letting loose a pair of scape-goats into a neigh- 
 bouring wood as an offering to the offended deity. 
 
 The small-pox goddess is a form of divine mother universally 
 adored under different names through every part of India. 
 
 Q3
 
 228 Mother-worship. 
 
 In the upper provinces she is called Sitala Devi, or simply 
 Devi. In the South her name is Marl-amman, 'Mother of 
 Death.' This goddess may either avert small-pox — of which 
 there are three different kinds— cause small-pox, or be herself 
 small-pox. In some parts of the country persons who die of 
 small-pox are not burnt, lest the goddess herself should be 
 burnt too. She also presides over cholera and other diseases 
 causing death. Her shrines are generally found outside vil- 
 lages, under trees, or in groves, and are often associated with 
 the shrines of Ganesa. 
 
 Some of the most important local Mothers in the South are 
 deifications of celebrated women who were great benefac- 
 tresses and came to be regarded after death as manifestations 
 or forms of Siva's wife. Such are Mlnac! (for MinakshI, 
 worshipped at Madura), KamacI, Visalaci, and others. 
 
 In the South of India the Mothers are called Ammans. 
 
 Notably a Mother named Ella-amman presides over boun- 
 darieS; and is supposed to have great power over serpents and 
 to be particularly fond of fish. 
 
 Another, called Pidarr, is said to be 'a queen among the 
 devils,^ because all who hang or poison themselves, or die any 
 violent death, are turned into malignant demons who would 
 destroy the whole human race if not kept in check by Pidari. 
 
 Other Mothers dreaded for their fierce nature are them- 
 selves simply demons ; for example, Camunda, Marudayi, 
 and Kateri. The last is an evil spirit inhabiting the air, and 
 is thought to be too aerial in character to be represented by 
 an image. 
 
 All these Mothers are believed to delight in blood and to 
 drink it. Hence the blood of swine, goats, and cocks, besides 
 all kinds of cooked grain, are offered to them. One Mother 
 called Kulumandl-amman is said to have a special fancy for 
 black kids, and can only be appeased and prevented from 
 causing sickness and death if the blood of at least three or 
 four thousand such kids is presented to her every year.
 
 Mother-'worship. 229 
 
 Sometimes she is personated by a man who is carried on 
 the shoulders of two other men and sucks up some of the 
 blood of the slaughtered animals. 
 
 When a woman dies unpurified within fifteen days after 
 childbirth she becomes a demon called Cudel (Churel). She 
 is then always on the watch to attack other young mothers. 
 
 On the other hand, the power of at least one well-disposed 
 Mother in Gujarat is exerted in a remarkable way for the 
 benefit of women after childbirth. Among a very low-caste 
 set of basket-makers (called Pomla) it is the usual practice of 
 a wife to go about her work immediately after delivery, as if 
 nothing had happened. The presiding Mata of the tribe is 
 supposed to transfer her weakness to her husband, who takes 
 to his bed and has to be supported with good nourishing food. 
 
 The goddess Shashthl (Chathi) protects infants, and is 
 therefore worshipped on the sixth day after delivery. She is 
 represented by a simple stone -set up under some tree. 
 
 The eight Mothers worshipped by the Tantrikas of Bengal 
 are each represented with a child in her lap, and it is remark- 
 able that Uma, wife of Siva, when worshipped as a type of 
 beauty and motherly excellence, is always regarded as a 
 virgin^. 
 
 All the Mothers are believed to have control over magical 
 powers, and especially over the secret operations of nature 
 and all those mysterious occult agencies which are intensi- 
 fied by darkness and invisibility. These powers and preter- 
 natural faculties they can impart to their worshippers, if 
 properly propitiated. This is a proof of the intimate con- 
 nexion subsisting between Mother-worship and the doctrines 
 of Saktism as described in the preceding chapter. 
 
 ^ So in particular churches at Munich and elsewhere the shrines of 
 the black Virgin are frequented by vast numbers of pilgrims, who hang 
 up votive offerings, often consisting of waxen arms and legs, around her 
 altar, in the firm belief that they owe the restoration of broken limbs 
 and the recovery from various diseases to her intervention.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 This subject has already been to some extent anticipated 
 in the previous chapter. There I have endeavoured to point 
 out that the universal prevalence of the worship of tutelary- 
 deities among the great mass of the population in India is 
 the result of a perpetual dread of evil demons — a dread which 
 haunts Hindus of all ranks and stations, from the highest 
 to the lowest, with the exception of those fortunate persons 
 whom a European education has delivered from the dominion 
 of superstitious ideas. 
 
 My object in the present chapter will be to show that 
 the very demons and evil spirits are as much objects of wor- 
 ship as the gods who defend men from their malice ; just as 
 the tutelary deities may themselves under aggravating cir- 
 cumstances turn into angry demons who require to be 
 propitiated (see p. 245). 
 
 In fact, a belief in every kind of demoniacal influence has 
 always been from the earliest times an essential ingredient 
 in Hindu religious thought. The idea probably had its origin 
 in the supposed peopling of the air by spiritual beings — the 
 personifications or companions of storm and tempest. Cer- 
 tainly no one who has ever been brought into close contact 
 with the Hindus in their own country can doubt the fact 
 that the worship of at least ninety per cent, of the people 
 of India in the present day is a worship of fear. Not that 
 the existence of good deities presided over by one Supreme
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 231 
 
 Being is doubted ; but that these deities are believed to be 
 too absolutely good to need propitiation ; just as in ancient 
 histories of the Slav races, we are told that they believed 
 in a white and a black god, but paid adoration to the last 
 alone, having, as they supposed, nothing to apprehend from 
 the beneficence of the first or white divinity. 
 
 The simple truth is that evil of all kinds, difficulties, 
 dangers, and disasters, famines, diseases, pestilences, and 
 death, are thought by an ordinary Hindu to proceed from 
 demons, or, more properly speaking, from devils, and from 
 devils alone. These malignant beings are held, as we have 
 seen, to possess varying degrees of rank, power, and male- 
 volence. Some aim at destroying the entire world, and 
 threaten the sovereignty of the gods themselves. Some 
 delight in killing men, women, and children, out of a mere 
 thirst for human blood. Some take a mere mischievous plea- 
 sure in tormenting, or revel in the infliction of sickness, injury, 
 and misfortune. All make it their business to mar or impede 
 the progress of good works and useful undertakings. 
 
 And the remarkable thing is, that the power wielded by 
 certain arch-demons over men, and even gods, is supposed 
 to have been acquired by the practice of religious austerities. 
 It is said of the demon Ravana, that after undergoing severe 
 austerities in a forest for ten thousand years, standing in 
 the midst of five fires with his feet in the air, he obtained 
 from the god Brahma powers greater than those possessed 
 by the gods themselves. 
 
 We must, however, at the outset guard against the idea 
 that in Hindu mythology the expressions devil and demon — 
 any more than the Greek 8ta/3oAoy and baiixcav — are con- 
 vertible terms ; or that these two words at all adequately 
 express the immense variety of spiritual beings supposed to 
 hold communication with man or jiable to be brought into 
 relationship with him. 
 
 It is well known that Indian literature makes constant
 
 232 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 mention of numerous regions above and below the earth which 
 serve as the abode of such beings. Thus we learn from the 
 Epic poems and Puranas that there are seven upper and 
 seven lower worlds^ (see p. 102, note), and beneath the latter 
 are twenty-one hells. They are enumerated in Manu IV. 
 88-90, and others are added in Vishnu-purana II. 6 2. 
 
 The hells are for the infliction of various degrees of suf- 
 fering on sinful men. Yet they are not places of eternal 
 punishment. They are merely temporary purgatories in- 
 tended for the purification of those who have led wicked 
 lives. One is a place of terrific darkness ; another consists 
 of heated caldrons (tapta-kumbha) ; another of red-hot iron 
 (tapta-loha) ; another contains pits of red-hot charcoal ; 
 another of blood ; another is a dense forest whose leaves 
 are sharp swords ; another is a hell of pincers (Sandansa) ; 
 another is a sea of fetid mud ; another is a plain paved 
 with iron spikes^. 
 
 ^ All fourteen worlds are believed to rest on the thousand heads of the 
 great serpent Sesha ; or the earth which is the lowest of the seven upper 
 worlds is supposed to be supported at the quarters and intermediate 
 quarters of the sky by eight male and eight female mythical elephants. 
 Then, again, the earth is thought to be composed of seven great circular 
 islands (most of which are known by the name of some tree or plant, 
 such as Jambu, Kusa, Plaksha, Salmali), surrounded by seven circular 
 seas, all of which are described in Maha-bharata VI. 236, etc., and in 
 the Vishnu-purana II. 2, etc. See also my ' Indian Wisdom,' p. 419. 
 
 "^ This Purana and the Bhagavata make twenty-eight hells. 
 
 ^ In a recent number of a Chicago paper I find the following curiously 
 parallel ideas quoted from a Roman Catholic book for children, by the 
 Rev. J. Furniss: 'The fourth dungeon is the boiling kettle. Listen; 
 there is a sound like that of a kettle boiling. The blood is boiling in 
 the scalded brains of that boy ; the brain is boiling and bubbling in his 
 head ; the marrow is boiling in his bones. The fifth dungeon is the red- 
 hot oven, in which is a little child. Hear how it screams to come out ; 
 see how it turns and twists itself about in the fire ; it beats its head 
 against the roof of the oven ; it stamps its feet upon the floor of the 
 oven.' The idea of terrific torture lasting to all eternity seems a wholly 
 Western conception. The same Chicago paper goes on to quote from 
 another author : * The world will probably be converted into a great lake 
 or liquid globe of fire, in which the wicked shall be overwhelmed, which
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-zvorship. 233 
 
 On the other hand, the seven worlds immediately below 
 the earth are not places of punishment at all. According 
 to the Vishnu-purana (11. 5) they are regions adorned with 
 beautiful palaces, groves and streams, where the sun diffuses 
 light, not heat, and the moon shines for illumination, not 
 for cold ; where the air is resonant with the song of birds, and 
 where all kinds of delicious food and intoxicating beverages 
 are ready at hand for the benefit of those who wish to enjoy 
 them. All seven lower regions, and especially the one called 
 Patala, are inhabited by demoniacal creatures — such as the 
 Daityas and Danavas (see p. 238), of a nature not neces- 
 sarily wicked, and in some respects superior to that of men — 
 and notably by a race half men, half serpents, called Nagas. 
 These serpent-demons, who are described as having jewels 
 in their heads, are fabled to have sprung from Kadru wife 
 of Kasyapa, and some of the females among them (naga- 
 kanyas) are even said to have nrtarried human heroes^. 
 They are ruled over by three chief serpents called Sesha, 
 Vasuki, and Takshaka, who also exercise control over the 
 ordinary snakes which infest the earth. 
 
 Again, the seven upper worlds, including the world which is 
 
 shall always be in tempest, in which they shall be tossed to and fro, 
 having no rest day nor night .... their heads, their eyes, their tongues, 
 their hands, their feet, their loins and their vitals shall for ever be full of 
 a glowing, melting fire, fierce enough to melt the very rocks and elements ; 
 also they shall eternally be full of the most quick and lively sense to feel 
 the torments ; not for one minute, nor for one day, nor for one age, nor 
 two ages, nor for ten thousand millions of ages, one after another, but 
 for ever and ever.' 
 
 Mr. Spurgeon, the celebrated Baptist minister, contributes his quota, 
 thus : ' When thou diest thy soul will be tormented alone ; that will be 
 hell for it ; but at the Day of Judgment thy body will join thy soul and 
 thou wilt have twin hells ; thy soul sweaiitig drops of blood, and thy body 
 suffused with agony. In fierce fire, exactly like that we have on earth, 
 thy body will be, asbestos-like, for ever unconsumed ; all thy veins roads 
 for the feet of pain to travel on ; every nerve a string on which the devil 
 shall for ever play his diabolical tune of hell's unutterable lament.' 
 
 ^ In this way Ulupi became the wife of Arjuna, and, curiously 
 enough, a tribe of Rajputs, now existing, claims descent from the Nagas.
 
 234 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 the peculiar abode of man, are inhabited by countless hosts of 
 superhuman and semi-divine creatures of all kinds. Apparently- 
 some of the highest worlds are set apart for the exclusive occu- 
 pation of those beatified creatures who have attained a state 
 of absolute perfection ; for example, the Siddhas and others. 
 But the regions just above the earth— especially the region 
 corresponding to the atmosphere, called Bhuvar — are tenanted 
 by numerous and demonized spirits of dead men, superhuman 
 beings, who, like the inhabitants of the lower worlds, may 
 fitly be designated by the general name ' demons \' They 
 have been already alluded to in chapter VIII (p. 209). Like 
 men, they are generally gifted with free-will, and may have 
 good or evil proclivities, and even the best of them may fall 
 away from religion and virtue. They may be pious or im- 
 pious, benevolent or malevolent, merciful or cruel. They may 
 be obedient to the gods as their servants or followers, or may 
 be opposed to them as enemies. Similarly they may be 
 the friends or foes of man. Some of these beings are con- 
 stantly traversing the earth and the world immediately above 
 the earth. They are innumerable and constitute a vast 
 Pandemonium, for ever balancing, as it were, the equally vast 
 Pantheon with its 330 million gods. Moreover, this Pande- 
 monium is constantly replenished, as we shall see, with new 
 inhabitants from the world of human beings. 
 
 And here again we must guard against the notion that 
 the demons, whether good or bad, of Hindu mythology are 
 in their nature and organization wholly spiritual and im- 
 material. Though they are sometimes called by English 
 writers on Hindu mythology 'spirits,' and though they are 
 certainly endowed with frames of a finer and more ethereal 
 structure than the bodies of men, and not necessarily visible 
 to men, yet these frames have for their essential elements 
 gross (sthula) material particles. In point of fact, according 
 
 ^ The Sanskrit term Bhuta, though often restricted to evil demons 
 and devils, may be used generally in the same way. Compare p. 242.
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 235 
 
 to Hindu ideas, the corporeal organization of the generahty 
 of demons stands midway between that of men and gods. 
 For it is must be borne in mind that, in accordance with the 
 theory before explained, even the gods have forms, composed 
 of material atoms requiring the support of daily food (see 
 pp. 22, 28, Bhagavad-glta III. 11), that they are capable of 
 undergoing austerities (see Manu XI. 243, 244), that they are 
 liable to passions and afifections like men and animals, and 
 that all, not excepting the one Supreme Personal God, are 
 subject to the inexorable law of disintegration and ultimate 
 absorption into the universal and sole eternal Essence. In 
 short, gods, demons, and men are so closely connected and 
 inter-related that it is difficult to draw any line of demarcation 
 between them. All three are subject to distinctions of sex ; 
 all three have bodies made up of gross elementary (sthula) 
 particles — only these are ethereal in the case of gods, less 
 ethereal in the case of demons, and earthly in the case of 
 men. It is noticeable, too, that all men living on the earth 
 are said to fall under two categories, those who have divine 
 (daiva) natures, and those who have demoniacal (asura), and 
 that instances are recorded of demons allying themselves with 
 mortal women. These ideas are quite in keeping with the 
 theory of transmigration (pp. 26-29). 
 
 Moreover, it is to be observed that as it is common to find 
 the bodies of even secondary deities possessed of an extra 
 number of hands and arms, the same is true of the demons. 
 Again, as all the gods have the power of assuming any shape 
 they like and of moving through the air in all directions, so 
 also have the generality of demons. In epic poetry the bodies 
 of the gods are described as very similar to those of men. 
 They differ only in the power of walking above the surface of 
 the ground, in being shadowless, in being free from per- 
 spiration, in having eyes that never wink, and flowery orna- 
 ments that never wither (Nala V. 24). Whether these latter 
 attributes belong also to all demon-frames is not so clear.
 
 2j6 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 Some classes of demons have shapes peculiarly their own which 
 they cannot alter. In general they are dwarfish and shorter 
 than men\ but the majority enjoy the faculty of assuming any 
 shape suited to their needs, and even that of human beings. 
 
 It would be difficult in fact to enumerate all the varieties 
 of these beings, separable as they are, both good and bad, 
 into numberless classes according to differences of rank, 
 powers, and functions. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is important to note that they all fall 
 under two grand divisions. The first division embraces all 
 demons created by God at the creation of the world, or 
 brought into existence by the act of superior deities at other 
 times. 
 
 The second comprehends all demons whose creation or 
 production is due to men, that is to say, to the spirits of 
 men who have once lived upon the earth. 
 
 To begin with the first of these grand divisions, although it 
 is said to comprise seven principal classes of beings cor- 
 responding to the seven worlds — seven demon-kings, with 
 frames in stature equal to a palm-tree, being mentioned in 
 the Sahkara-vijaya (chap. LI) — yet it would be easy to show 
 by extracts from both the earlier and later sacred literature 
 that no clearly definite classification or arrangement of 
 demoniacal creatures in any regular series or gradation is 
 possible. 
 
 Probably the earliest Sanskrit expression for a 'demon' is 
 Asura; and we know that although this word is used in the 
 later literature as a general term for evil demons of malignant 
 disposition, it was originally restricted to beings of a god-like 
 nature, and even applied to the gods themselves. 
 
 Thus in the Rig-veda the word Asura is used as the epithet 
 of Indra, the Maruts, Rudra, and other deities, and is espe- 
 cially an attribute of the ancient deity Varuna, who is first 
 
 ^ I noticed that all Siva's troops of demons are represented as dwarfish 
 in the sculptures of the caves of Elephanta.
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 237 
 
 an impersonation of the vault of heaven, and then identified 
 with the Supreme Being. 
 
 Furthermore, in the Taittirlya-Samhita (VI. 4. to. 1) it is 
 said that there was an original equality in goodness and 
 power between the gods and Asuras^. 
 
 In the Taittirlya-Brahmana, Praja-pati, or 'the Lord of 
 Creation,' creates the Asuras with his breath (asu). In the 
 Satapatha-Brahmana the seventh Manu (or Manu of the 
 present period) is made to produce gods, Asuras, and men. 
 In other passages of the Brahmanas they are said to have 
 their own priests and sacrificial rites. 
 
 On the other hand, in the Veda various orders of evil 
 beings are spoken of under the name of Dasyus, Rakshasas, 
 Yatudhanas, Kimidins, and are described as without religious 
 rites, godless, haters of prayer (brahma-dvish), eaters of 
 flesh (kravyad), monstrous in form, and possessors of magical 
 powers^. 
 
 Then, again, in Manu's law-book (I. 37) we find it stated 
 that the ten Praja-patis or secondary creators, after creating 
 the gods and great sages, afterwards created various orders of 
 beings, such as the Yakshas, Rakshasas, Pisac'as, Gandharvas, 
 Apsarases, Asuras, Nagas, etc. It is not affirmed that any 
 of these beings were aboriginally evil-minded or malignant, 
 though they were certainly capable of becoming so. In 
 the Ramayana constant mention is made of beings hostile 
 to gods and men called Rakshasas. They are the haters and 
 disturbers of religious rites, they change their shapes at will, 
 harass holy men and devotees, and utter frightful sounds 
 in the ears of the faithful. 
 
 Most Rakshasas are men-eaters, and one, called Viradha, is 
 described as resembling a mountain-peak, with long legs, a 
 crooked nose^ hideous eyes, pendant belly, and an open 
 mouth like that of death. At the head of them is the Demon 
 
 ^ Muir's Sanskrit Texts, v. 230. ^ Ibid. ii. 418.
 
 238 Demon-worship and Spi7'it-worship. 
 
 Ravana, who is an impersonation of selfish ambition. It does 
 not appear, however, that in other respects he was innately 
 wicked. On the contrary, it was only by severe religious 
 austerities carried on for ten thousand years that he acquired 
 unbounded power over gods and men. Others, too, of these 
 same Rakshasas are described as virtuous and pious, and 
 among them especially Vibhishana, who is the brother of 
 Ravana, and exactly his opposite in character and conduct. 
 In the Maha-bharata, again, Kansa, Kali, and numerous other 
 demons are, like Ravana in the Ramayana, impersonations 
 of evil. Kansa is the implacable enemy of Krishna, and 
 Kali is for ever instilling evil thoughts into menu's hearts 
 in an age of universal degeneration. 
 
 We may note, too, that in epic poetry frequent mention is 
 made of another class of beings who are more especially 
 hostile to the gods, and for ever engaged in warfare with 
 them. They are called Daityas, as the supposed children 
 of the goddess Diti by Kasyapa (the gods being children of 
 Aditi). Others, too, are often alluded to under the name 
 of Danavas, as daughters of Danu. Both of these classes 
 of beings are said in the Vishnu-purana to occupy some of 
 the seven regions below the earth of which Patala is one 
 (II. 5), and appear to belong to a higher order of creation 
 than the Rakshasas, whose nature is of a type inclined to 
 baser forms of wickedness, and whose malignity is more 
 particularly directed against men. 
 
 Then there are troops (ganas) of beings called Pramathas, 
 who constitute the armies of the god Siva. There are also the 
 Yakshas, who wait on Kubera (Kuvera), and the Gandharvas 
 (Atharva-veda XI. 5. 2) or heavenly choristers, and their 
 wives the Apsarases, who attend on Indra. To these may 
 be added the Kinnaras (with human figure and equine head), 
 the Kimpurushas, the Vidya-dharas, Pannagas, &c. 
 
 Most of these creatures are good and benign in character ; 
 but all were created free agents, and are therefore hable to
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 239 
 
 fall away, and after committing acts of sin or disobedience 
 may become malignant beings animated with a spirit of 
 bitter hostility towards gods and men. 
 
 It is in consonance with the theory of a continual conflict 
 between the powers of good and the powers of evil that we 
 find the chief gods of the Hindu Pantheon constantly repre- 
 sented in the act of crushing their demon foes. Thus Krishna 
 is seen bruising the head of the great demon serpent Kaliya, 
 while Siva tramples on the arch-fiend Tripura, and holds 
 venomous serpents in his hands in token of his supremacy 
 over all malignant influences. 
 
 Hence, too, a great number of the 1,000 names of both 
 Vishnu and Siva will be found to be simple epithets — like 
 Murari 'enemy of Mura,' Purari ' enemy of Pura' — significant 
 of their victory over certain typical demon antagonists. 
 Furthermore, the symbols held in the hands of both deities, 
 the discus and club of Vishnu, and the trident and bow of 
 Siva, are merely weapons of supposed irresistible efficacy in 
 their conflicts with the spirits of evil. 
 
 We pass on now to the second great division of the demon 
 world — that which is said to owe its creation to man. This 
 is by far the more important of the two great divisions in its 
 bearing on the subject of the present chapter, for it is chiefly 
 to those demons whose existence is derived from the departed 
 spirits of human beings that adoration and propitiation are 
 commonly ofl'ered. 
 
 And, indeed, it is a noteworthy point in the religious creed 
 of all ordinary Hindus that the majority of malignant devils 
 are believed to have been originally human beings. 
 
 If any man is killed by a tiger or the bite of a snake, or 
 has died a sudden violent death of any kind, away from his 
 relations and out of reach of proper funeral ceremonies, he 
 forthwith becomes an unquiet spirit, roaming about with 
 malevolent proclivities. In one place I found people wor- 
 shipping the ghost of a milkman who was killed by a tiger
 
 240 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 and became a devil. In another place the ghost of a potter 
 became a devil and a terror to the neighbourhood. The priests 
 of these demons were milkmen and potters respectively. 
 
 And a curious notion prevails in some parts of India that, 
 the better the man, the more mischievous will his ghost turn 
 out to be, if his body has not received proper cremation, 
 or if from any accident the succeeding rites have not been 
 carefully performed or partially omitted. 
 
 Again, a still more remarkable doctrine is rife in India, 
 especially in the South. There it is a fixed article of belief 
 that when a man notorious for any particular vices dies, the 
 man himself may become extinct, but his evil nature never 
 dies, for every one of his vices then assumes personality and 
 lives after him as a demon. 
 
 And this applies equally to women, so that the resulting 
 demons may be of either sex, and the female is not unfre- 
 quently more spiteful and malignant than the male. It also 
 applies to persons of all castes, high or low, so that the 
 demons created may be of all ranks, and may have either 
 refined or low tastes. 
 
 It is thus that legion after legion of foul fiends and un- 
 clean spirits bearing names corresponding to such expressions 
 as deceit-devils, lying-devils, gambling-devils, pride-devils, 
 cruelty-devils, lust-devils, gluttony-devils, strife- devils, drunk- 
 enness-devils, are supposed to have originated. 
 
 The same applies to a man who has been guilty of great 
 crimes or sins. His crimes and sins live after him in the 
 shape of malignant demons. 
 
 Hence have arisen any number of murder-devils, theft- 
 devils,, perjury-devils, adultery-devils, blasphemy-devils, who 
 are always on the look-out for weak-minded victims, and ever 
 instigating them to the commission of similar crimes. 
 
 Nay, a man may sometimes become a demon without 
 dying ; for example, we read in the Maha-bharata and Vishnu- 
 purana that Nahusha son of Ayus was changed into a serpent-
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. i\i 
 
 demon in consequence of a curse pronounced on him by the 
 sage Agastya for his excessive pride in having gained by 
 penance the rank of Indra and then insulted some of the 
 Rishis (Maha-bh.V.343 ; Vishnu-purana, p. 413 ; Manu VII. 41). 
 
 Furthermore, all the diseases that either human or bestial 
 flesh is heir to are personified and converted into demons — 
 such as the demons of small-pox, of cholera, and of various 
 forms of typhus and jungle fever, and of cattle-disease. And 
 this idea of personifying and demonizing diseases is extended 
 to unseasonable calamities and disasters, such as hail-storms, 
 drought and blight, which all do duty in the devil army. 
 Indeed, I found to my surprise that some villages in India 
 possess a professional exorciser or charmer, called Garpagarl 
 (probably for Gar-apakarl, gar in Marathi meaning 'hail'), 
 whose sole business consists in repeating incantations to 
 charm away the hail-storm-demon from the growing crops. 
 
 It is important, however, to bear in mind that there is in 
 Hinduism a per-contra side to the vastness of the demon-host. 
 For if it is an awful thought that year after year, and even day 
 by day, men and women are themselves through their sinful 
 habits causing fresh accessions to the demon-armies, it is, on 
 the other hand, a comforting reflection that the ranks of good 
 demons and benevolent spirits are continually recruited by 
 the deaths of righteous men, saints and sages, who are ranged 
 with the gods on the opposite side of the battle-field, and 
 are ever contending with their fiendish antagonists. 
 
 It is, then, these lower forms of evil demons— once the 
 occupants of human bodies — that are most dreaded by the 
 generality of Hindus, and therefore most worshipped. Such 
 demons fitly take rank with devils. 
 
 According to some authorities they may be grouped under 
 the three classes of Bhuta, Preta, and Pisaca, each class 
 having a distinct origin. 
 
 A Bhuta, they say, is a spirit emanating from a man 
 who has died a violent death either by accident, suicide, or 
 
 R
 
 242 Demon-iuorship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 capital punishment, and has not had proper funeral cere- 
 monies performed afterwards. 
 
 A Preta is the spirit of a deformed or crippled person, 
 or of one defective In some limb or organ, or of a child that 
 dies prematurely, owing to the omission of ceremonies during 
 the formation of the embryo. It is not necessarily wicked or 
 malicious or evil-disposed towards living men. 
 
 A Pisaca is a demon created by a man's vices. It is the 
 ghost of a liar, drunkard, adulterer, or criminal of any kind, 
 or of one who has died insane. 
 
 In real truth, however, this kind of triple classification is 
 nowhere universally accepted, and is never consistently main- 
 tained. My own inquiries led me to the conclusion that the 
 terms Bhuta and Preta are as a general rule applied to all 
 demons and ghosts indifferently, and the term Pisaca to 
 malicious and mischievous imps and fiends. Such demons 
 and malicious beings haunt cemeteries or take up their abode 
 in trees, and are addicted to roaming about between the 
 hours of 12 and 3 in the morning. They may take either 
 hideous or beautiful shapes, and even the form of men. 
 They require, as we have seen, the support of food ; and 
 what satiates their appetites more than any other kind of 
 nutriment Is the blood of living animals. But according to 
 popular belief they may also feed on corpses, ordure and 
 carrion, and may even occupy and vivify dead bodies. Nay, 
 they may enter living bodies through the open mouth if 
 it happen to be opened Imprudently wide. Thus, if a man 
 In an unguarded moment yawns or gapes without holding his 
 hand or snapping his fingers before his face, they may 
 promptly dart in and take up their abode in his interior, 
 feeding on the refuse of the food as It passes through the 
 intestines. 
 
 When malignant demons thus take possession of the 
 bodies of living men, they may cause diseases and un- 
 pleasant affections of all kinds, or they may agitate the
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 243 
 
 limbs of the person possessed, and impel him to frantic 
 movements, in which all devils take particular delight. 
 
 Occasionally they may take the shape or character of a 
 dog, cat, serpent, or other animal. It is fully believed that 
 if a person happens to be possessed by a dog-demon he will 
 take to barking like a dog. 
 
 With regard to so-called worship I need scarcely repeat that 
 there is no real worship. Nor has any demon — not even one 
 of the highest class — any imposing temple-like structure 
 erected to him. Often a mere heap of earth piled up in 
 pyramidal shape near some tree, or a similar erection formed 
 with bricks and painted with streaks of white, constitutes the 
 only shrine, while another heap in front with a flat surface 
 does duty for the altar. Sometimes the whole is covered 
 with a wooden roof supported on rough columns. There is 
 rarely any idol ; though sometimes, if the demon's origin be 
 traceable to the ghost of some high personage, whose elevation 
 of rank or office made him during lifetime formidable to his 
 followers, he may be represented by a rude image of some of 
 the terrible forms of Siva. No real prayers are said at such 
 shrines^ though incantations may be recited. The propitia- 
 tion consists in offerings of food, as mentioned in the preceding 
 chapter (p. 221), and in various ceremonies which differ in 
 different localities. 
 
 A spirit of one of these classes highly reverenced and very 
 commonly propitiated by villagers in some parts of India 
 is one popularly called Bhumya, or the ' earth-spirit.' He is 
 supposed to be the spirit of the founder of the village. If 
 a village is deserted by its inhabitants, no new colony of 
 people will dare to settle there without going through a 
 careful process of propitiating the earth-spirit, who never, 
 under any circumstances, quits his old haunts. 
 
 Another class consists of the spirits of young men who 
 have died without becoming fathers. These wander about 
 in a restless miserable manner, like people burdened with 
 
 R %
 
 244 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 an enormous debt which they are quite unable to discharge. 
 They are euphemistically called Pitas, ' fathers,'— that is, 
 by the name to which they are least entitled, — and are 
 propitiated by offerings presented at small shrines of a very 
 simple construction erected near rivers or pools of water. 
 Often these shrines are formed by merely setting up two 
 bricks with a little interval between them covered by another 
 brick. 
 
 And here it should be noted that although nearly every 
 village has its own special demon, whose cultus may not 
 only have existed from time immemorial, but may have an 
 origin antecedent to the introduction of Hinduism, yet it is 
 always possible to connect every form and variety of such 
 worship with that of the god Siva, his consort Durga (or 
 Devi), and his two sons Ganesa and Su-brahmanya (see 
 page 212). 
 
 It is important, too, to bear in mind that as the South of 
 India is the region in which Saivism is particularly prevalent, 
 so also it is among the inhabitants of the South that devil- 
 worship is most systematically practised. No one who has 
 travelled in that region can doubt that demonophobia is a 
 disease with which the whole Southern population is almost 
 hopelessly and incurably afflicted. Possibly one reason of 
 this may be that when the Dravidians invaded India they 
 found the South inhabited by wild aboriginal savages, whose 
 whole aspect and demeanour appeared to them to resemble 
 those of devils. Again, the Aryans as they advanced towards 
 the South found it occupied by hostile Dravidian races, as 
 well as by apparently aboriginal tribes, and their excited 
 imaginations converted these powerful enemies into super- 
 natural giants, and the most formidable of them into veritable 
 demons (Rakshasas). 
 
 In due time Aryans, Dravidians, and aborigines blended 
 amicably together, but the dread of demon-foes remained, 
 and this dread still prevails not only in the South, but over
 
 Demon-ivorship and Spirit-worship. 245 
 
 every part of India. In fact, so deep-seated and ineradicable 
 is the fear of evil spirits in the minds of the lower orders, that 
 in many villages of India the doors of the houses are never 
 allowed to face the South, lest the entrance of some dreaded 
 demon should be facilitated. Perhaps, however, the true 
 devil-region is the extreme Southern peninsula, near the 
 Island of Ceylon. The nearer indeed we approach that 
 island, the more do we find the people (like the Shanars of 
 Tinnevelly) steeped in demonolatry and saturated with every 
 form of superstitious fear of evil spirits, ghosts, and goblins. 
 
 Every village has its own peculiar devil or devils, to the 
 attacks of which it is constantly in imagination exposed. 
 Happily every village has also, as we have already pointed out, 
 its own tutelary deities. Curiously, too, many good spirits 
 are believed to be equestrian in their tastes. Possibly the 
 villagers suppose that by turning them into a kind of cavalry 
 regiment they give them an advantage over their impish op- 
 ponents, who prowl about on foot, and sneak into the village 
 domain at unguarded corners. 
 
 Certain it is that to propitiate these tutelary divinities the 
 villagers set up horses of baked clay in their fields — often as large 
 as life, and generally ten or twenty in a row or in a semicircle 
 round a shrine — and present them as offerings to the good 
 divinity of the shrine, in token of gratitude for deliverances. 
 
 They are especially presented — though not without other 
 oblations — to the male guardian God Ayenar (see p. 219), 
 who is believed to be a daring horseman capable of clearing 
 hedges and ditches and riding down the most active demon- 
 antagonist. 
 
 As to the female tutelary deities called Mothers (see p. 223), 
 we have already seen that if not propitiated by constant 
 offerings, and especially with blood, they will themselves 
 assume the personality of the very demon dreaded by the 
 villagers, and inflict the very plague from which they usually 
 protect them.
 
 246 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 The most terrible and implacable of all demons are those 
 created by Europeans. Of course the propitiating process 
 must vary according to the character of the man whose 
 demonized spirit is to be coaxed into good-humour. His 
 tastes and idiosyncrasies during life must be carefully inquired 
 into and judiciously indulged. The story is told of a certain 
 choleric Englishman who was a terror to the inhabitants of a 
 district in the South of India, and whose ghost after his death 
 had to be constantly appeased by offerings of good cooked 
 meat, brandy, soda-water, and cigars placed daily on his 
 tomb. The same was done to secure the continued good-will 
 of a philanthropic sportsman, who when he was alive delivered 
 a large tract of country from the ravages of tigers. 
 
 And here we may note other methods of neutralizing the 
 evil influences of demons prevalent in Southern India. Male 
 and female devils are supposed to delight in dancing, particu- 
 larly when accompanied with wild cries, violent gesticulations, 
 ringing of bells, and noisy discordant music. Hence it happens 
 that, when pestilence is rife in any district, professional exor- 
 cisers, or certain persons selected for the purpose, paint their 
 faces, put on hideous masks, dress up in fantastic garments, 
 arm themselves with strange weapons, and commence dancing. 
 Their object is to personate particular devils, or rather per- 
 haps to induce such devils to leave the persons of their victims 
 and to occupy the persons of the dancers, who shriek, fling 
 themselves about, and work themselves up into a phrenzy of 
 excitement, amid beating of tom-tomsj blowing of horns, and 
 ringing of bells. When the dancers are thoroughly exhausted 
 by their gesticulations they sink down in a kind of trance, and 
 are then believed to be actually possessed by the spirit of the 
 demon and are turned for a time into demon-mediums, gifted 
 with clairvoyance and a power of delivering prophetic utter- 
 ances. The spectators ask them questions about missing 
 relatives or future events, and their deliverances are supposed 
 to be oracular.
 
 Demo7i-worship and Spirit-worship. 247 
 
 I witnessed such a dance on a dark night in a garden near 
 Columbo in Ceylon. The dancers represented the demons of 
 various forms of typhus fever, carried flaring torches, wore 
 hideous masks, and had jingling bells on their legs. Their 
 wild cries and horrible antics will remain indelibly impressed 
 on my recollection. 
 
 When I was at Tanjor the late learned Dr. Burnell, then 
 judge of that district, gave me some interesting information in 
 regard to the demon-festivals which recur periodically in the 
 district of Mangalor, where he held office for some time. 
 
 One of the most popular of these festivals^ called Illecchida 
 Nema, is celebrated every fifteen or twenty years. At 
 another called Kallyata, a wild dance is performed every 
 sixtieth year before a particular rock or stone, which is sup- 
 posed to tremble and shake periodically. 
 
 Sometimes the performance takes place in a large shed in 
 the middle of which burns a common lamp under a canopy. 
 Around are images of the Bhutas. At the distance of about 
 a foot in front of the lamp is placed a common wooden 
 tripod-stand, two or three feet high, on which is constructed 
 a square frame of cocoa-nut leaves. Inside this frame a 
 quantity of rice and turmeric is piled into a pyramid into 
 which a three-branched iron lamp is inserted. Around are 
 arranged offerings consisting of fruits and living victims, such 
 as fowls and goats. The latter are adorned with garlands, 
 and both fowls and goats are afterwards decapitated, the 
 warm blood being either poured out on the ground or on the 
 altar, or else drunk by the officiating priest. The idea is that 
 the demon thirsts for blood, and becomes irritated if his 
 cravings are not satisfied. The sole object of sacrificing 
 animals is to assuage his thirst and appease his anger. 
 
 All this is preliminary to the principal performance, which 
 takes place in an open space in front of the slaughtered 
 victims. The priest, or some other devotee who has under- 
 gone a long preparatory fasting, comes forward to personate
 
 248 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 a particular demon. He is dressed up In a fantastic costume, 
 often covered with grotesque dangling ornaments and jingling 
 bells. Sometimes he wears a hideous mask ; sometimes his 
 face is daubed with paint of different colours. In one hand 
 he holds a sword, trident, or other implement, and perhaps a 
 bell in the other. He then commences dancing or pacing up 
 and down in an excited manner, amid beating of tom-toms, 
 blowing of horns, and all kinds of noisy music, while an 
 attendant sings songs, or recites rude poems descriptive of 
 the deeds of the demons. Meanwhile spirituous liquor is 
 distributed, the performer becomes violently excited, and the 
 demon takes complete possession of him. Finally he suc- 
 cumbs in an hysterical fit, and gives out oracular responses to 
 any inquiries addressed to him. Most of the bystanders 
 consult him as to their several wants and destinies, or the 
 welfare of absent relatives, but are not allowed to do so with- 
 out first presenting offerings. 
 
 Of course, variations occur in different districts. 
 
 According to Mr. Walhouse, in his paper read before the 
 Anthropological Institute, the structures and observances con- 
 nected with devil-worship on the Western coast of India are 
 both domestic and public. In villages, and very generally in 
 towns, there is in every house a wooden cot or cradle, placed 
 on the ground or suspended by ropes or chains, and dedicated 
 to the Bhuta of the spot. On these are deposited a bell, a knife 
 or sword, and a pot filled with water, all which are collectively 
 called the Bhandara of the Bhuta, and kept either in a part 
 of the house itself, or in a small separate building. The 
 object seems to be to propitiate the spirit that haunts the spot 
 by making a sort of abode for it. 
 
 On the last day of every lunar month flowers are laid on 
 the cot, and perfume burnt before it ; and once a year, towards 
 the end of April, a ceremony called Tambila is performed. 
 A fire is lit on the spot where the cot and paraphernalia 
 stand, then fried rice, mixed with coarse sugar and grated
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 249 
 
 cocoa-nut kernel, is heaped on two plantain leaves, which are 
 placed on the cot, together with some young cocoa-nuts, 
 pierced ready to drink from. A ball is then formed of boiled 
 rice, coloured yellow with turmeric, and laid on a piece of 
 plantain-leaf on a small stool, which is placed before the cot, 
 with a lighted torch upon it. A fowl is held above the rice- 
 ball and torch, its throat cut, and the blood allowed to drop 
 upon the ball ; some perfume is burnt, and the ceremony ends. 
 Should a member of the family be stricken with any unusual 
 attack, a fowl is turned three times round before the patient's 
 face, its neck then twisted, and the blood let fall upon him ; 
 the meaning being to offer life for life — the fowl in lieu of the 
 man. The family priest is then consulted, who recommends 
 alms to be given to himself to satisfy the hostile stars, with 
 a promise to perform a special ceremony to the Bhuta. 
 
 Mr. Walhouse informs us that these demons have shrines 
 called Bhuta-sthans, sometimes of considerable size, but far 
 more commonly small plain structures, four or five yards deep 
 by two or three wide, with a door at one end, covered by a 
 portico supported on two pillars with a thatched roof, and 
 windowless. Inside the Bhuta-sthan a number of brass images 
 roughly made in human shape, or resembling animals 
 such as pigs, tigers, fowls, etc., are usually found. The 
 Bhutas themselves are commonly represented by mere rough 
 stones. These rustic fanes are thickly scattered over the face 
 of the country — under a green-tree, on hill-sides, down in hol- 
 lows, in jungles, on plains, by roadsides, in villages, amid rice- 
 fields, but always on a small plot of waste ground. 
 
 Once a year a festival called Kolla is held. The festival 
 always takes place at night, and about nine o'clock all the 
 villagers assemble in their best attire. Then the Pujari, or 
 priest, takes the Bhuta sword and bell in his hands, and whirls 
 round and round, imitating the supposed gestures of the demon. 
 A Dher (Dheda), or man of the lowest caste — at other times 
 regarded with contempt, but now advanced to the foremost
 
 250 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 post — comes forward naked, except round the loins, his 
 head and body being grotesquely and frightfully besmeared 
 with white, yellow, and red paint. Meanwhile a dozen or 
 more tom-toms are beaten with a continually increasing 
 din, and the Dher (Dheda) presently breaks into a maniac 
 dance, capering, bounding^ and spinning vehemently. At 
 length he stops ; he is full of the demon, and stands fixed and 
 rigid, with staring eyes. Presently he speaks, or rather the 
 demon speaks through him, in loud, hoarse, commanding tones, 
 wholly unlike his own, or indeed any natural voice. Various 
 disputes and litigated matters, especially when evidence and 
 ordinary means of adjustment fail, are then brought forward 
 and submitted to the decision of the Bhuta, and his award, 
 pronounced through the Dher, is generally, though not al- 
 ways, submitted to. After this the demon desires to have 
 food, and the Dher eats fried rice and drinks the milk of 
 young cocoa-nuts ; or, if the demon he represents be one of 
 low degree, he eats animal food and drinks arrack. 
 
 Among the demons most feared in Kanara are Kalkatti, 
 Kallurti, and Panjurli. 
 
 The story of the former two is as follows : — Kalkatti and 
 Kallurti were respectively the son and daughter of one 
 Kalkuda, a sculptor, who must have lived in the fifteenth 
 century of our era. Kalkatti was a mason, and one day found 
 fault with his father's work, which so distressed him that he 
 forthwith killed himself. The son then followed his father's 
 trade, and succeeded so well that he made the celebrated 
 Jain statue at Karakal. After completing this masterpiece 
 he wanted to go elsewhere, but the king of the country 
 forbad him, and to prevent his producing any similar statue 
 cut off his left hand and right leg. Notwithstanding this 
 mutilation he went to Yenur and made a still larger statue 
 there. His sister Kallurti determined to join him at Yenur. 
 There they lived together for some time, and then both 
 committed suicide. It was thus that they became formidable
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 251 
 
 demons, who revenged themselves on the king of Karakal by- 
 burning down his palace and town and annoying people 
 throughout the country in various ways. Their story is a 
 long one, and the books which recount it give directions for 
 appeasing their anger. 
 
 The story of Panjurli is also a long one. He is a terrible 
 pig-faced demon, created it is said through a curse of Siva 
 pronounced on some young pigs which had laid waste his 
 garden, and were thereupon collectively transformed into a 
 single mischievous demon. 
 
 In South Kanara, according to Mr. Walhouse, there ia a 
 noted temple, which is believed to be the residence of seven 
 most dreaded demons. Certain devil-stones are sold there in 
 which the powers of the Bhutas are held to be inherent. 
 These are taken home and used by the purchasers against 
 their enemies. 
 
 I add an extract from Bishop Caldwell's account of the 
 Religion of the Shanars, a tribe in the South of India^ whose 
 occupation consists in cultivating and climbing the palmyra 
 tree for the sake of its juice. They have been largely con- 
 verted to Christianity, and chiefly through the Bishop's 
 devoted labours among them. 
 
 In his description of their devil-worship he says : — ' Every 
 malady however trivial is supposed by the more superstitious 
 to be inflicted by a devil, and a sacrifice is necessary for 
 its removal ; but the unusual severity or continuance of any 
 disease, or the appearance of symptoms which are not re- 
 corded in the physician's Sastra, are proofs of possession of 
 which no Shanar can entertain any doubt. The medical 
 science of so rude a people not being very extensive, cases 
 of unquestionable possession are of frequent occurrence. 
 When a woman is heard to weep and laugh alternately, 
 without any adequate cause, or shriek and look wild when 
 no snake or wild beast can be perceived, what Shanar can 
 suppose anything but a devil to be the cause of the mischief.^
 
 252 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 The native doctor, himself a Shanar, is sent for to give his 
 advice. He brings his Hbrary with him (he cannot read, 
 but it is all in his memory), his complete science of medicine 
 in one hundred stanzas, as revealed by the sage Agastya to 
 his disciple Pulastya ; but in vain he recites his prescriptions, 
 in vain he coins hard words. As no description of hysterical 
 complaints is contained in his authorities, what can he do 
 but decide that a devil has taken possession of the woman, 
 and recommend that a sacrifice be offered to him forthwith, 
 with a cloth and a white fowl to the doctor r 
 
 'Sometimes the friends are not desirous of expelling the 
 evil spirit all at once, but send for music, get up a devil-dance, 
 and call upon the demon to prophesy. 
 
 'If they desire to expel the devil, there is no lack of 
 moving ceremonies and powerful incantations, each of which 
 has been tried and found successful innumerable times. If 
 the devil should prove an obstinate one and refuse to leave, 
 charm they never so wisely, his retreat may generally be 
 hastened by the vigorous application of a slipper or a broom 
 to the shoulders of the possessed person, the operator taking 
 care at the same time to use the most scurrilous language he 
 can think of. After a time the demoniac loses his downcast, 
 sullen look. He begins to get angry and writhe about under 
 the slippering, and at length cries, ' I go, I go.' Then they 
 ask him his name, and why he came there. He tells them 
 he is such and such a devil, whom they have neglected, 
 and he wants an offering ; or he calls himself by the name 
 of some deceased relative, who, as they now learn for the 
 first time, has become a demon. As soon as the demon 
 consents to leave, the beating ceases ; and not unfrequently 
 immediate preparations are made for a sacrifice, as a com- 
 pensation to his feelings for the ignominy of the exorcism. 
 The possessed person now awakes as from a sleep, and 
 appears to have no knowledge of anything that has hap- 
 pened.'
 
 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 253 
 
 I must not omit to note one or two other facts connected 
 with a belief in demoniacal influences and their counteraction. 
 
 Demons or evil spirits in India are supposed to be often 
 the cause of what in Europe is called ' an evil eye,' that is, 
 a mysterious power of fascinating, bewitching, or inflicting 
 some injury on others by a fixed look, gaze, or glance. 
 Indeed, a look of admiration from friend or foe is believed 
 to be fraught with great danger and possibly serious calamity 
 to any individual who is the object of it. 
 
 Europeans who are often unaware of the universal pre- 
 valence of this superstition are occasionally the innocent 
 cause of great distress to the parents of Indian children by 
 looking at them approvingly and uttering some exclamation 
 of praise. 
 
 A story was told me with the utmost gravity — as if 
 its truth was beyond all dispute — of a person who was born 
 a twin, but whose twin brother was a spirit who constantly 
 attended him and gifted him with various preternatural 
 faculties, and amongst others the power of an evil eye. 
 It was declared to be a fact, that whatever this person 
 looked at with admiration instantly faded away and perished. 
 Old women who are believed to have this power are par- 
 ticularly dreaded and shunned as dangerous witches. 
 
 Another story was told me of a man who fell in love with 
 his neighbour's wife. By calling in demoniacal aid he was 
 able to fix his gaze on her, and after successfully bewitching 
 her to cause her death. Then he managed to get possession 
 of a hair or two from her head. These he handed over to 
 a well-known sorcerer at Lahore, who, once possessed of a 
 portion of her person, had no difficulty in bringing her to 
 life again by his incantations, and in return for a good sum 
 of money delivered her to her lover, who married her. 
 
 Some sorcerers, if called upon to get rid of an enemy, 
 mould a human ^.^gy i" wax, pronouncing over it a few 
 mysterious cabalistic words. The waxen figure is then placed
 
 254 Deinon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 before a fire, and, as it melts, brings down deadly calamities 
 on the head of the person to be destroyed. Or, if a human 
 bone from a cemetery can be procured, and certain Mantras 
 recited over it, very fatal results will ensue (compare p. 201). 
 
 Many charms are used against the misfortunes which may 
 at any time be brought about by malicious spirits or by evil 
 influences connected with the human eye. In some parts 
 of India a tiger's claw or tooth is worn on the neck and held to 
 be very efficacious. In other places an image of the linga^ is 
 worn, or some bright ornament — such as a string of white 
 cowries — which is supposed to arrest evil glances, or divert 
 them from the person wearing such a necklace. A small 
 iron ring is also commonly carried about as an amulet. It is 
 particularly effective if inlaid with pearls. Frequently a lime 
 is carried in the turban, and great faith is reposed in its pro- 
 phylactic properties. Or again, any ornament with a figure 
 of Hanuman (p. 220) engraved on it makes an admirable 
 charm which few demons can withstand. 
 
 In some districts — especially in the South — I have often 
 remarked white pots with black marks or grotesque objects 
 covered with streaks of white paint placed here and there 
 in the fields, and intended to catch the eye so as to avert 
 envious glances or the malignant influences of demons 
 from the growing crops. In remote villages too was oc- 
 casionally to be observed an apparatus for curing cattle- 
 disease when caused (as universally believed in India) by 
 the machinations of evil demons. At the entrance to the 
 village were two upright posts with a cord stretched between 
 them, on which were hung rude models of ploughs etc., and 
 in the centre dangled a large pot-cover. On inquiry I found 
 that charms resembling physicians' prescriptions in rather 
 unreadable hieroglyphics were written on this cover, and all 
 the afflicted cattle driven under them. The power of such 
 
 ^ In Italy a coral ornament with a finger pointing downwards is to 
 this day sold as a charm against the evil eye.
 
 Demon-woj^ship and Spirit-worship. 255 
 
 charms is supposed to depend a good deal on the reputation 
 of the sorcerers employed to write them, and every village 
 does not possess such men. They are sometimes sent for 
 from great distances, and, in my opinion, centuries must 
 elapse before any filtering down of education from the upper 
 classes will avail to undermine the faith of the simple vil- 
 lagers in the efficacy of a pot-cover inscribed with the charms 
 of the more noted sorcerers^. 
 
 ^ The following abridgment of an article on Indian ' Haunted Bunga- 
 lows,' in a recent number of the 'Graphic' (June 9, 1883), will be inter- 
 esting in connexion with the subject of the chapter here concluded : — 
 
 * The notion of Indian houses being haunted is, on first thought, rather 
 ridiculous. Nevertheless, there is scarcely a station in Hindostan which 
 has not its haunted bungalow. The spirits appear to the appalled 
 beholders by sunlight as well as by night, and are apparently indifferent 
 to the time of day. A curious and very well authenticated instance of 
 this disregard of the hour is that of an afternoo7i ghost, which punctually 
 appears at sunset in a certain house at Madras. 
 
 * But there are evil and beneficent spirits in India, There is a well- 
 known haunted house in one of the stations of the North of India, 
 where the "house-ghost," if we may so call him, evinces malicious and 
 malignant idiosyncracies. It is this wretched spirit's mundane amuse- 
 ment to try and upset the charpoy, or bed, on which the bewildered 
 tenant seeks repose ; and so persistent are his efforts in this direction, 
 that they have been compared to shocks of earthquake, and to the 
 explosions of subterraneous mines. People laugh, but no one particu- 
 larly cares to sleep twice in that haunted bungalow. 
 
 'Another species of malignant spirit which becomes most intimately 
 associated with an Indian house is a disease. There are houses in 
 Indian towns and stations of which the citizens say it is as much as 
 any man's life is worth to enter them. C, who was superior to super- 
 stition, went into a house of this character, just to show the absurdity of 
 believing " in such rot," and speedily lost his wife and three children. 
 It cannot be denied that the mortality in some Indian bungalows of an 
 unlucky reputation is unaccountable. 
 
 * It is a relief to turn from the vagaries of evil spirits to the beneficence 
 of the good. 
 
 ' In England one seldom hears of a good ghost, or of a ghost who 
 puts himself out of his way to oblige any one ; but, in India, ghosts of 
 this cheerful temperament are quite common. Sometimes they assume 
 the appearance of Europeans; sometimes that of natives. These ghosts 
 have done the living no end of good. The warnings and other infor- 
 mation they have imparted have been endless.'
 
 256 Demon-worship and Spirit-worship. 
 
 I also add a statement of one part of the creed of American Spiritual- 
 ists in the present day (written by the Rev. C. Ware, and quoted in the 
 * Religio-Philosophical Journal'), as offering many curious analogies to 
 ideas current in India for centuries before ' Spiritualism' was ever heard 
 of in either Europe or America : — 
 
 * It is a fact that myriads of disembodied human beings are Hving in a 
 world that is merely the duplicate or counterpart of the earth, a realm 
 as closely connected with the earth's atmosphere as the atmosphere is 
 with the earth itself; all above it and below it being links of one endless 
 chain. This is what we mean by earth-bound spirits ; they are so earthly, 
 their nature is so unrefined, so material in its tendencies, that they can- 
 not rise above their surroundings. They cannot rise to those spheres of 
 light, and love, and blessedness ; because the external surroundings of 
 a spirit always correspond with its inward condition ; they must remain 
 in that first sphere, which is only a step higher than the earth, until they 
 become spiritually developed. 
 
 * Religious professors talk about going on the wings of faith to the 
 home beyond the skies, but, unfortunately for them, everything in the 
 infinite universe is determined by immutable laws, laws which cannot 
 be set aside, laws which are self-operating ; and by these laws is the 
 relative position of every individual spirit determined. You will pass 
 into the spirit-world with your spiritual body, but your position there 
 will be determined by the degree of refinement which characterizes that 
 same spiritual body. The tippler, the smoker, the glutton and the 
 sensualist, are, whether they recognize it or not, constantly defiling 
 themselves with the elements which will keep them down to earth. 
 It is such habits and tendencies that make spirits "earth-bound." If 
 these habits are not conquered and overcome here, they will have to 
 be there, before the spirit can rise to association with the pure and 
 the holy. 
 
 'This immense realm, then, which is earth's counterpart, surrounds 
 this earth, and its myriads of inhabitants constantly exert an influence 
 upon this world ; and this is a solemn thought, when you remember 
 that here dwell millions of ignorant, debased, degraded souls, where 
 they remain exerting their baneful influence, until they are enlightened, 
 purified and reformed. 
 
 'More particularly we mean by earth-bound spirits, not only those 
 who, through ignorance, sensual habits, and material tendencies are 
 kept down by their own specific gravity, but also those who are fettered 
 to the earth by wrong-doing, crime and injustice committed. Thousands 
 of such are here wandering, full of remorse ; they have to repent, to do 
 their best to repair the wrong and to make atonement, before they can 
 rise.'
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Hero-iuorsJup and Saint-worship. 
 
 The worship of great men, saints and sages, who have 
 been remarkable for the possession of unusual powers or 
 striking qualities of any kind, is a phase of religious deve- 
 lopment which perhaps more than any other is the natural 
 outcome of man's devotional instincts and proclivities. In 
 India a tendency to this kind of worship has always pre- 
 vailed from the earliest period. Nascent in Vedic times^ it 
 speedily grew with the growth of a belief in the doctrine 
 of divine incarnation and embodiment. For although it is 
 true that Indian philosophers disparage the body and invent 
 elaborate schemes for getting rid of all corporeal encum- 
 brances, yet it is equally true that nowhere in the world has 
 the conception of God^s union with man, and of His enno- 
 bling the bodily frame, not only of men but of animals and 
 plants, by taking it upon Himself, struck root so deeply in 
 the popular mind as in India. 
 
 We know indeed that, according to the pantheistic creed 
 of Brahmanism, God and the Universe are One. His pre- 
 sence pervades inanimate as well as animate objects, and 
 every human being is a manifestation of His energy; but 
 He is believed to be specially present in all great, good, and 
 holy men. All such men are held to be entitled to worship 
 at the hands of their fellow-creatures, in virtue of their being 
 embodiments in various degrees of portions of His essence. 
 The homage they receive may not always amount to actual 
 
 S
 
 258 Hero-worship and Saint-worship. 
 
 worship during life, but after their decease their claim to 
 a position in the celestial hierarchy is pretty sure to be 
 fully recognized ; and if their lives have been marked by 
 any extraordinary or miraculous occurrences, they soon be- 
 come objects of general adoration. It is not merely that a 
 niche is allotted to them among the countless gods of the 
 Hindu Pantheon (popularly 330,000,000 in number). A 
 shrine is set up and dedicated to their deified spirits upon 
 earthj and generally in the locality where they were best 
 known. There they are supposed to be objectively present — 
 not indeed visibly to men, and not always represented by 
 visible images or symbols — but as ethereal beings possessed 
 of ethereal frames which need the aroma or essence of food 
 for their support (see p. 12). The idea seems to be that 
 the localizing of a deified or canonized spirit involves the 
 duty of its maintenance. Hence oblations are daily offered, 
 and if by a happy accident some miraculous event, such as 
 the unexpected recovery of a sick man, occurs in the neigh- 
 bourhood, the celebrity of the new god rapidly rises, till he 
 takes rank as a first-class divinity, and his sanctuary be- 
 comes a focus to which tens of thousands of enthusiastic 
 devotees annually converge. 
 
 There seems indeed to be no limit to this kind of deifi- 
 cation in India. 
 
 Volumes might be written in describing instances that 
 have occurred and are constantly occurring in all parts of 
 the country. And it is remarkable that the rank or import- 
 ance to which a canonized or deified human being may 
 attain in the world of spirits does not always depend, as a 
 matter of course, on the estimation in which he was held, 
 or even on the measure of divinity attributed to him while 
 on the earth. Any man of the lowest rank, whose influence 
 during life was perhaps quite insignificant, may be elevated 
 to the highest pinnacle of honour when severed from ter- 
 restrial ties, if his relatives can show that his career
 
 Hero-worship and Saint-zvorship. 259 
 
 was marked by any extraordinary act of self-sacrifice or 
 heroism, or so-called miracle. Nevertheless, it is important 
 to note that the idea of divinity seems to be specially asso- 
 ciated with five classes of living persons — kings, warriors, 
 Brahmans, saints, and sages — and that these enjoy a kind 
 of a-priori claim to subsequent apotheosis. 
 
 And first in regard to kings — every king is regarded 
 as little short of a present god. In Manu's law-book a king 
 is said to be created by drawing eternal particles from the 
 essence of the eight guardian deities (VII. 4). Again, he says, 
 'A king, even though a mere child, must not be treated 
 with contempt, as if he were a mortal ; he is a great divinity 
 in human shape ' (VII. 8). In proof of the hold which these 
 ideas still have on the people of India, I may mention that, 
 according to a statement in a recent number of a native 
 newspaper^ there is now a sect of persons in Ori^a who 
 worship the Queen of England as their chief divinity. 
 
 The transition from the worship of kings to that of mili- 
 tary heroes and conquerors is of course easy. Great war- 
 riors have always in India commanded a large share of 
 popular homage, though their full apotheosis has generally 
 been deferred until after death and until their human origin 
 has become obscured in the mists of tradition. The most 
 noteworthy instances of such deification have been Rama 
 and Krishna, both of whom, notwithstanding their human 
 parentage and human career, were ultimately \ as we have 
 seen (pp. 110-114), exalted by their worshippers to the first 
 rank among Vishnu's incarnations. 
 
 And, to this day, all living persons remarkable for great per- 
 sonal valour and strength, or for supposed miraculous powers, 
 run the risk — like Paul and Barnabas at Lystra — of being 
 converted into gods. Even any unusual deformity or strange 
 eccentricity may be an evidence of divinity. 
 
 ^ In the Maha-bharata the divinity of Krishna is occasionally disputed, 
 as by Sisu-pala and others. 
 
 S %
 
 26o Hero-ivorship and Saint-worship. 
 
 The story has often been told of a number of Hindus in 
 the Panjab who formed themselves into a sect of Nikkal 
 Sen worshippers. The explanation of this was, that General 
 Nicholson was a soldier of such unexampled bravery and hero- 
 ism, that neither argument nor force could prevent his native 
 admirers from worshipping him. 'This man,' they said, 'is 
 the great power of God.' He endeavoured by punishing 
 them to put a stop to the absurdity, but this only filled them 
 with greater awe, and made them persist in their puja with 
 more obstinate determination. 
 
 Nor is the object of such adoration always really worthy 
 of honour, or even decently respectable. It is well known 
 that a certain tribe in India worship a notorious robber, 
 whose deeds merit nothing but general execration. Perhaps, 
 however, a sufficient explanation of this circumstance may 
 be found in the fact that the tribe in question is itself 
 addicted to occasional plundering on its own account. 
 
 It was on a similar principle that the Thugs worshipped 
 Kali as goddess of destruction, and strangled their victims 
 in her honour. 
 
 Another robber, who was hung at Trichinopoly, became 
 so popular as a demon that children were constantly named 
 after him. 
 
 Turning next to Brahmans, we find it affirmed by Manu 
 that a ' Brahman is a mighty god, a supreme divinity, 
 whether he be learned or unlearned, and even if employed 
 in inferior occupations' (IX. 317, 319). 'From his birth 
 alone a Brahman is regarded as a divinity even by the gods' 
 (XI. 84). 
 
 With regard to a Brahman who is also a Guru or teacher, 
 his person is still more sacred, and he is everywhere the 
 object of divine honours (see p. 117). 'The teacher (Guru) 
 is God, and the teacher is a refuge (gati). If Siva be angry 
 the teacher becomes a protector, but there is no other refuge 
 if the teacher be ofifended. Any one who worships another
 
 He7^o-itwrship and Saiiit-iuorship. 261 
 
 god or goddess when his preceptor is at hand incurs terrible 
 perdition. The preceptor alone is the divine power, whether 
 he be learned or unlearned. His ways may be good or 
 bad, but he is the only safe guide' (Tantra-sara, p. i). 
 
 In illustration of this I may mention^ that I was admitted 
 as a great favour to a sort of religious camp-meeting which 
 took place at one of the most sacred places in all India — 
 the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna. There I found 
 that a celebrated preacher was addressing a congregation of 
 about one hundred persons, who hung upon his lips in rapt 
 attention. The subject of the sermon, which was delivered 
 with great eloquence, was the condescension of Krishna in 
 becoming first a child and then a man for the benefit of the 
 human race. No sooner was the sermon over than certain 
 persons in the audience took lighted lamps, and standing up 
 before the preacher, waved them before him in homage as 
 before the chief deity of the placed 
 
 Perhaps the most readily conceded of all claims to apo- 
 theosis is that of the saint or hol}^ sage who has become 
 a SannyasI — that is to say, has renounced all family ties, 
 and lives a life of asceticism, self-denial, and austerity. 
 When such a man dies in India, his body is not burnt but 
 buried, because in fact he is not supposed to die at all. 
 He is believed to lie in a kind of trance, called Samadhi ; 
 sanctity exhales from his body, and his tomb— popularly 
 called a Samadh — often becomes a noted place of pilgrimage, 
 resorted to by myriads from all parts of India. 
 
 Very similar is the adoration paid to the faithful wife, 
 commonly called Suttee ( = Sanskrit Sati), who in former 
 days burnt herself on her husband's funeral pile. Monu- 
 ments are erected over her ashes, and within the shrine is 
 
 ^ I witnessed a very similar proceeding at Cologne Cathedral the 
 other day. During the mass, and after waving the censer full of incense 
 before the altar, one of the officiating attendants waved it before two 
 chief-priests who were present, in token I presume of homage.
 
 262 Hero-worship and Saint-worship. 
 
 often a representation of her foot-prints, which are wor- 
 shipped with the greatest veneration. 
 
 Of course jealousies and rivalries occasionally spring up 
 between the adherents and admirers of various departed 
 saints or heroes, especially if much expense has been in- 
 curred in erecting shrines and monuments in the hope of 
 attracting pilgrims to particular localities. Nor is there any 
 dominant ecclesiastical authority in India capable of arbi- 
 trating between competing claims or fixing the relative rank 
 of fresh accessions to the celestial sphere. 
 
 It seems that such things are managed better in China. 
 In that country, according to Sir A. Lyall, * The Emperor 
 — himself a sacred and semi-divine personage — seems to 
 have gradually acquired something like a monopoly of dei- 
 fication, which he uses as a constitutional prerogative, like 
 the right of creating peers.' In fact, ' The government not 
 only bestows on deceased persons its marks of posthumous 
 approbation and rank in the State Heaven ; it also deco- 
 rates them with titles.' The Gazette of May, 1878, contains 
 a decree conferring a great title upon the dragon spirit 
 of Han Tan Hien, in whose temple is the well in which 
 the iron tablet is deposited. ' This spirit has from time to 
 time manifested itself in answer to prayer, and has been 
 repeatedly invested with titles of honour. In consequence 
 of this year's drought prayers were again offered up, and 
 the provinces (mentioned) have been visited with sufficient 
 rain. Our gratitude is indeed profound, and we ordain that 
 the Dragon Spirit shall be invested with the additional title 
 of the Dragon Spirit of the Sacred Well.' Another spirit 
 had already obtained the title of ' Moisture-diffusing, bene- 
 ficial-aid-afifording, universal-support-vouchsafing-Prince,' and 
 received additional titles in a Gazette of 1877 1. 
 
 It might have been conjectured that in India a crafty 
 
 ^ 'Asiatic Studies,' by Sir A. Lyall (John Murray), pp. 138, 139.
 
 HerO'ivorship and Saint-worship. 263 
 
 priesthood would have taken care to lay its hands on a 
 prerogative so valuable and far-reaching in its effects as that 
 thus exercised by the Chinese government. But we do not 
 find that the Brahmans have ever claimed the exclusive 
 privilege of converting men into gods, or even of conferring 
 honorary degrees and titles of distinction on departed 
 spirits. The origin of the popularity of many celebrated 
 shrines is lost in remote antiquity, and without doubt it has 
 often been due to a happy hit on the part of the relatives 
 of some well-known character, who have erected a tomb 
 over his ashes or a monument to his memory on simple 
 speculation, and then sent agents everywhere to advertise 
 its virtues or spread reports of great miracles worked in the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Such shrines may often bring in a large revenue to their 
 proprietors, and may even be more frequented than those 
 of Vishnu's two most celebrated incarnations, Krishna and 
 Rama ; but it must be borne in mind that in almost every 
 case where a local hero or remarkable person of any kind 
 has attained to deification, he ends by being worshipped 
 as a form of either Vishnu or Siva. 
 
 To give a few instances of local deifications which fell 
 under my own observation in India : — It is well known that 
 at Pandharpur in the Deccan (on the Bhima, about 112 miles 
 south-east of Poona) and in the surrounding districts the 
 favourite god is Vithoba (also called Viththal). Very little is 
 known of his origin, but he is said to have been a Brahman 
 named Pundarika (sometimes corrupted into Pundalika), who 
 gained a great reputation for filial piety, and so pleased 
 Vishnu that the god, in recognition of his merits, infused into 
 him a large portion of his own essence. Vithoba is now every- 
 where regarded as a form of Krishna. Idols of him are com- 
 mon, and have this peculiarity, that he is represented standing 
 on a brick (vlt for It) with his arms akimbo, the hands resting 
 on the hips. A legend has been framed to account for this
 
 264 Hero-worship and Sai7it-ivorship. 
 
 position. Probably it was a favourite attitude of the man 
 before his deification ^ Some of his images have the impres- 
 sion of a kick given by the sage Bhrigu's foot clearly marked 
 on the breast (see p. 45). 
 
 Pandharpur is one of the most sacred places in the Maratha 
 country, and vast numbers of pilgrims flock to the shrine of 
 Vithoba twice a year — once in the month Ashadha, and 
 once again in Karttika. The place was probably at one 
 time a stronghold of the Buddhists. Indeed it was stated 
 to me, as one reason for the great popularity of Vithoba, 
 that his principal idol took the place of an image of the 
 Buddha, and so became acceptable to all castes. Others 
 believe it to have been a Jaina idol. There is no doubt that 
 caste is still to a great extent ignored by the worshippers 
 of Vithoba at times of pilgrimage. It is remarkable, too, 
 that worshippers make him no offerings, nor ask the god for 
 special benefits. He is supposed to love all mankind, and 
 require nothing but love in return ; so people simply praise 
 him, and sometimes even embrace his image. The idol, 
 Avhich is said to be svayambhu (p. 69), is dressed every day 
 in jewelled dresses, and hymns are sung before it. It is 
 supposed to change its appearance and look like a child in 
 the morning, a man at noon, and an old man in the evening. 
 Doubtless Vithoba owes much of his celebrity to the songs 
 of the Maratha national poet Tuka-rama. A common de- 
 votional service among the pilgrims is a Kirtana or ' song 
 of praise' extracted from his poems.. Hundreds of men and 
 women sit in a circle on the ground, while behind the sitters 
 are many standing. The principal singers form a kind of 
 inner semicircle. The leader thereupon gives out a verse, 
 such as the following : ' All earthly things are vanity ; there- 
 fore draw thy heart away and elevate it to Vithoba.' These 
 
 ' One of Tuka's Abhangas begins, ' Beautiful is that object, upright on 
 the brick, resting his hands on his loins.' I cannot agree in thinking it 
 possible that the name Vithoba may be derived from vlt ' a brick,' and 
 ttbha ■ upright.'
 
 Hero-tvorship and Saint-zvorship. 265 
 
 words are caught up by the other performers, and then 
 chanted enthusiastically by all with a vigorous accompani- 
 ment of lutes (vlnas), cymbals^ and drums. Sometimes a 
 discourse on the vanity of human life follows the singing. 
 
 Even a woman may be the preacher. "When Dr. Murray 
 Mitchell visited Pandharpur a widow named Salu-bal ad- 
 dressed a large audience, commencing her discourse by utter- 
 ing the names Rama, Krishna, Hari, which were caught up by 
 her hearers in a prolonged shout (Indian Antiquary, June 1882}. 
 
 A ceremony is also performed which consists in breaking 
 a large black clay-vessel fastened on a tree. The contents, 
 consisting of curdled milk and grain, fall on the ground and 
 are eagerly snatched up by the struggling crowd. 
 
 The celebrated national poet of the Marathas, Tuka-rama, 
 was a Sudra of the trading caste who lived in the days of 
 Siva-ji, about 250 years ago, at Dehu near Poona, and wrote 
 about 5,000 hymns. Though he devoted his genius to the 
 extolling of Vithoba as a form of God, he is himself also an 
 object of adoration, and is believed to have worked many 
 miracles — amongst others ascending in bodily shape to heaven 
 in Vishnu's car. Dehu is now a much-frequented place of 
 pilgrimage, especially at an annual festival when the poet's 
 ascension is commemorated. People of all castes who worship 
 at this place and at Pandharpur are called Varkarl. The follow- 
 ing is a specimen of the religious sentiments in Tuka-rama's 
 songs translated by Sir A. Grant : — 
 
 Sing the song with earnestness, making pure the heart ; 
 If you would attain God, then this is an easy way: — 
 Make your heart lowly, touch the feet of Saints, 
 Of others do not hear the good or bad qualities. 
 Tuka says : Be it much or little, do good to others \ 
 
 ^ A musician performed before me on the Sitar at Poona, and sang a 
 song from Tuka-rama, which may be thus translated : ' O God, grant this 
 boon that I may never forget Thee, and that I may sing Thy praise 
 with zest. This is all the wealth I ask. I desire not extinction, nor 
 riches. I want not emancipation from existence. I pray that I may 
 live to praise Thee, and enjoy the company of the good.'
 
 266 Hero-worship and Saint-worship. 
 
 Another deification, Khando-ba (also called Khande-Rao), 
 was a personage who lived in the neighbourhood of the hill 
 Jejuri ( = Sanskrit Jayddri), thirty miles from Poona. He 
 is probably a deification of some powerful Raja or aboriginal 
 chieftain who made himself useful to the Brahmans. He is 
 now regarded as an incarnation of Siva in his form Mallari. 
 The legend is that the god Siva descended in this form to 
 destroy a powerful demon named Mallasura, who lived on the 
 hill and was a terror to the neighbourhood. Parvati descended 
 at the same time to become Khando-ba's wife. His worship is 
 very popular among the Kolis and people of low caste in the 
 Maratha country. I was informed that he is the family god 
 of Holkar, who is of the shepherd caste. Sheep are sacrificed 
 at the principal temple on the Jejuri hill, where there is an 
 image of the Liiiga ; and a bad custom prevails of dedicating 
 young girls to the god^s sei-vice. They are called Muralis 
 (or Murlls), and although nominally wives of the god, are 
 simply prostitutes. Khando-ba is sometimes represented 
 with his wife on horseback attended by a dog ^. 
 
 As to another local deification called Jnanesvara (pro- 
 nounced in Marathi DSyanesvara and popularly Dnyano-ba), 
 he was a learned Brahman^ living at a place called Alandi, 
 twelve miles from Poona, who wrote a commentary in verse 
 on the Bhagavad-gita called Jiianesvarl. Towards the end of 
 his life he became a Sannyasi, and on dying, or appearing 
 to die, his body was, as usual, not burnt, but buried, and a 
 tomb (Samadh) erected over it. The belief, of course, is 
 that he merely lies in a trance, and that he occasionally 
 shows himself alive to his worshippers. He is held to have 
 been an incarnation of Vishnu, and is said to have given 
 evidence of his divinity while he lived as a Brahman on the 
 earth by one or two notable miracles. For example, he one 
 day caused a buffalo to speak and recite a hymn from the 
 
 A sect existed in Safikara's time who worshipped Mallari as 'lord of 
 dogs' (see Sahkara-vijaya, chap. 29). So Rudra is lord of dogs (see p. 77).
 
 Hero-worsJiip and Saint-worsJiip. 267 
 
 Veda. On another occasion, he commanded a wall on which 
 he was sitting to transport him for a mile into the presence 
 of a holy person who wished to see him. The wall obeyed, 
 and remains to this day at some distance from the town, but 
 the old mouldering erection seemed likely to disappear under 
 the plundering hands of relic-seekers, and the piety of the 
 inhabitants has therefore recently cased it with stone. It is 
 still, however, greatly venerated, and a hole has been made in 
 the stone-casing to enable pilgrims to express their faith by 
 touching the original structure. Indeed, in the belief of the 
 generality of Hindus, such miracles are of common occur- 
 rence all over India. No one is troubled by any misgivings 
 as to their improbability, or supposes for a moment that a 
 saint of any pretensions could be incapable of working them. 
 
 Again, I found that in certain localities in the Maratha 
 country a holy Brahman, named Dattatreya (vulgarly 
 Dattatre), who lived about the tenth century of our era, is 
 worshipped as an incarnation of all three gods, Brahma, 
 Vishnu, and Siva^. During his lifetime he was greatly re- 
 vered for his wisdom, self-mortification, and asceticism, and 
 before his death became a Sannyasi. His shrines are scat- 
 tered here and there in the districts surrounding Poona. 
 I visited a remarkable one at Wai — a sacred town on the 
 Krishna (Kistna) near Sattara — where the image of Datta- 
 treya has three heads, to represent the Hindu triad. Two 
 or three worshippers of the male sex appeared to be en- 
 gaged in earnest devotion before this idol. 
 
 Another deification is that of Vyankatesa (Venkatesa) or 
 Tri-pati (for Sanskrit Sri-pati), a name given to Vishnu or 
 Krishna when he became incarnate in a man popularly 
 called Bala-ji. Little is known about this man, except 
 that he was a person remarkable for many extraordinary 
 
 ^ There is a strange legend connected with Dattatreya current in some 
 parts of India. Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are said to have visited the 
 wife of a holy man and tried to seduce her, but without success.
 
 268 Heyo-iuo7'ship and Saint-zuorskip. 
 
 qualities, and that he hved in the neighbourhood • of a 
 hill called Seshadri in the Madras presidency. It is cer- 
 tain that a celebrated temple dedicated to him has been 
 erected at that place — usually called the Hill of Tri-pati or 
 Vyankata (Verikata) — and that pilgrimages are made to it 
 from every part of the country. It is especially resorted to 
 for religious shaving. 
 
 Of more recent deifications and canonizations a few ex- 
 amples may be given. I have already described how the 
 followers of a Brahman named Sahajananda or Svami- 
 Narayana, who flourished about the beginning of the present 
 century, regard him as a portion of Vishnu (see p. 153)- 
 
 The same may be said of the followers of the cotton- 
 bleacher Dadu, who lived in less recent times (see p. 17H). 
 
 Then Mira-bai, a princess who lived in the time of Akbar, 
 and married the Rana of Udayapur (Udaipur), is worshipped 
 by a sect, who believe that she disappeared one day into her 
 tutelary idol — an image of Krishna — which opened to receive 
 her and protect her from persecution. She is the authoress 
 of some religious odes. 
 
 Again, Ram-singh, the son of a carpenter, was a man who 
 founded a small sect of Sikhs called Kiikas, which had to be 
 repressed not long since with an iron hand, because in their 
 fanaticism they took to murdering the butchers who killed oxen 
 for food. His followers scarcely worshipped him as a god, yet 
 they fully believed in his power of working miracles. (Com- 
 pare the last paragraph at p. 172 of this volume.) 
 
 Another founder of a sect — Ram-das — was the Guru of 
 Siva-ji. His followers, who are numerous in the Maratha 
 country, adore him in connexion with the worship of the 
 great Rama, and therefore also worship Hanuman. His 
 tomb or Samadh is at Parali, near Sattara. 
 
 I may add, that in a village of Gujarat called Sarsa there 
 lives (or did live in 1878) a man named Kubera. This man 
 is of the KoH caste. He has been a teacher of religion
 
 Hero-zuorship and Saint-worship. 269 
 
 for more than thirty-five years^ and gives himself out to be 
 a portion of the god Krishna. He has gathered around 
 him at least 20,000 disciples, and formed them into a re- 
 ligious society who call themselves Hari-jana. They are 
 also called Kuber-bhaktas. They worship or worshipped 
 Kubera their founder, as a living incarnation, in his own 
 dwelling, but they have temples or meeting-houses in many 
 villages, and send missionaries to all parts of Gujarat. Like 
 the Svami-Narayana sect, they are divided into Sadhus and 
 Grihasthas, or Clergy and Laity (see p. 150). At one of 
 their temples (Mandirs) in the town of Nariad, two of 
 their clergy minister daily. Several members of the sect 
 attend and listen to expositions of their sacred books, but 
 worship no idols. 
 
 Another considerable temple which I saw at Nariad is 
 dedicated to a holy man named Santa-Ram (probably =Santa- 
 rama, or perhaps Santosha-rama). His body is buried in the 
 precincts of the temple, and I observed that the courtyard 
 around was kept scrupulously clean. He has no very large 
 number of disciples, but they appeared to be very devoted in 
 their homage. 
 
 I heard of another man in Gujarat, named Hari-Krishna, 
 who not very long ago proclaimed himself to be a mani- 
 festation of the Supreme Being, and attracted a few disciples ; 
 but he is now dead, and the sect has also I believe died out. 
 
 Again, when I was at Kaira I visited a small shrine, dedi- 
 cated to a Sadhu or holy man whose name I understood to 
 be Parinama. There was no image, but only the empty seat 
 which he had once occupied as a religious teacher, with some 
 of the vestments which he wore at the time of his decease. 
 Yet the place was regarded as so sacred that I was not 
 allowed to enter without taking off my shoes. 
 
 I believe the followers of this man are gradually decreasing, 
 and will ultimately disappear. In fact, it ought to be noted 
 that the most astounding exploits of great heroes and the
 
 270 Hero-worship and Saint-worship. 
 
 most startling miracles of eminent saints are liable to be 
 eclipsed by still greater wonders wrought by still greater 
 heroes and saints who are always appearing on the scene and 
 engrossing the attention of an ignorant and superstitious 
 multitude. 
 
 In no other way can we account for the little honour now 
 paid to such an eminent hero as Bala-rama, 'the strong 
 Rama,' who was an elder brother of Krishna and brought up 
 with him (see p. 112)^ 
 
 Again, as to the well-known Parasu-rama, or Rama with the 
 axe — he was a Brahman who achieved so great a reputation 
 in conflicts with the Kshatriyas that his admirers converted 
 him into one of Vishnu's ten principal incarnations (see 
 p. 1 10), Yet he is little worshipped except in some parts of 
 the western coast of India. The story of his clearing the 
 earth twenty-one times of the Kshatriya race and of his ulti- 
 mate defeat by his rival the great Rama-c'andra, who was the 
 Kshatriya incarnation of Vishnu and also one of the god's ten 
 principal descents, proves that the axe-Rama was at one time 
 a man of pre-eminent valour and renown (see p. no, and 
 Maha-bharata Vana-p. 11071; Santi-p. 1707; Bhagavata- 
 purana, book IX). Tradition ascribes the colonizing of the 
 Kohkan — called Parasu-rama-kshetra — and the creation of 
 the whole country of Malabar (Kerala) to Parasu-rama. 
 
 He must have been a very extraordinary personage, for he 
 is beheved to have compelled the ocean to retire for the 
 formation of the Malabar coast, and to have caused vast 
 fissures in the Western Ghats and other mountains by blows 
 of his axe^. At the same time he is said to have reared 
 great stone cairns on the Travahkor mountains, and to have 
 scattered small spangle-like gold coins everywhere on the soil. 
 
 ^ Both Bala-rama and Krishna refused to take any part as warriors in 
 the great war between the Pandava and Kaurava princes. 
 
 ^ Unusual formations in hills and other curious physical phenomena 
 are often attributed to Parasu-rama, and sometimes to Bhima.
 
 Hero-worsJiip and Saint-woi'-ship. 271 
 
 It is certain that earthen vessels containing coins are often 
 dug up on the hills. No wonder that he has many followers 
 in Malabar and the Konkan \ but I met with no actual 
 worshippers in other places who adore him as a god. 
 
 Similarly the five Pandava princes, Yudhi-shthira, Bhima, 
 Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are all great heroes of 
 the Maha-bharata, receive little actual worship at the present 
 day, though Krishna, another great hero of the same poem, is 
 universally adored. The five brothers were the reputed 
 children of Pandu and his wife KuntI (or Pritha), but are 
 believed to have really derived their origin from the gods 
 Yama ( = Dharma-raja), Vayu, Indra, and the two Asvins 
 respectively. These deities infused portions of their essences 
 into Kuntf s children, and great prodigies occurred at their 
 birth. When grown up they had one wife in common, called 
 Draupadl^. I have seen several shrines of Draupadi (called 
 in Southern India Draupadi-Amman), but her five husbands 
 receive little actual adoration. 
 
 Nevertheless, any marvel or prodigy, any rock of fantastic 
 shape, or any wonderful work the performance of which 
 appears to be beyond human power, is often ascribed to 
 the Pandavas. I visited some remarkable Buddhistic caves 
 
 ^ A tribe of Brahmans in the Konkan called dit-pavans is said to 
 have been created by Parasu-rama thus : — After his contest with the 
 Kshatriyas he took up his abode in the mountains of that part of India. 
 There he had a quarrel with some Brahmans who resided with him 
 in the same region. Then to spite them he went to the sea-shore, and 
 finding fourteen funeral piles (citas = caityas) with the remains of a 
 number of persons who had been burnt, resuscitated them and converted 
 them into Brahmans. 
 
 ^ Certain hill-tribes in the Himalaya mountains are still given to 
 Polyandry. It is practised also among the Todas and the Nayars in 
 Malabar, and among certain tribes in New Zealand, the Pacific islands, 
 the Aleutian islands, Africa, Australia, as well as among the Kalmucks, 
 Iroquois, and in Bhotan and other barren regions where a large popula- 
 tion is not easily supported. The ancient Britons, according to Cjesar, 
 were addicted to the same practice. See De Bello Gallico, v. 14. Com- 
 pare Lubbock's ' Origin of Civilization,' p. 139.
 
 272 Hero-zvo7-ship and Saint-worship. 
 
 excavated at a considerable height from the ground in the hills 
 near Nasik. The people of the country fully believe them to 
 have been the work of the Pandavas, and call them Pandu-lene. 
 It is therefore surprising that so few shrines dedicated to these 
 heroes are found in any part of India. 
 
 In one of the galleries of the temple at Tinnevelly I 
 observed well-carved images of all the five brothers, Arjuna 
 being especially conspicuous with his bow Gandlva, and 
 Bhima with his club. It is worthy of note, too, that five 
 rough stones smeared with red paint may occasionally be 
 seen set up in fields. These are probably intended to repre- 
 sent the five Pandava princes who are supposed to guard 
 the crops. Such stones abound in various parts of India, 
 but are not always five in number, sometimes as many as 
 twenty being ranged together in a kind of circle. 
 
 Again, I saw images to the honour of the Pandavas at 
 Madura, and at Bodh-gaya, but no worshippers were near 
 them^. Yet the characters of these heroes are quite as much 
 venerated now as they ever were in ancient times, and their 
 virtues, as narrated in the Maha-bharata, are to this day pro- 
 verbial throughout India. Arjuna, who is the most renowned, 
 is a pattern of bravery and generosity; Yudhi-shthira of 
 justice, passionless self-command, and cold heroism ; Nakula 
 and Sahadeva of wisdom, temperance, and beauty; while 
 Bhima is a type of brute courage and physical strength. 
 
 Representations of his gigantic form are not uncommon, 
 but are rather curiosities to excite wonder, than objects to 
 attract worship. I saw a huge image of him on one of the 
 Ghats at Benares, and another near the Agra fort, and another 
 in a corridor of the Lihga temple at Tinnevelly. This last is 
 about 20 feet high and holds a huge club. It is painted 
 bright red and made for moving about in processions. 
 
 Bhima's great strength is illustrated by a curious story. 
 
 ^ In the Maratha country a single rudely-carved figure, especially if 
 mounted, is called a Vir {ylra^ hero), or sometimes a Dev [deva^ god).
 
 Hei^o-ivorsJiip and Saint-ioorship. 273 
 
 Soon after his birth his mother, who was carrying him in her 
 arms up a mountain, accidentally let him fall over a precipice, 
 and on descending in great agony of mind, expecting to 
 find her baby dashed to pieces on the rock beneath, she 
 found to her amazement and delight that the boy was 
 unhurt, and the rock shivered to atoms by contact with his 
 body. 
 
 Karna, too, another of the Maha-bharata heroes (also son 
 of KuntI by the Sun-god), is greatly revered, and often cited 
 in proverbial expressions, as a model of liberality, chivalrous 
 honour, and self-sacrificing generosity. I saw one or two 
 images of him in Southern India, but met with no shrines 
 dedicated to his worship. 
 
 Clearly the hero-worship of India is subject to constant 
 changes and fluctuations. Worshippers are capricious ; great 
 warriors, great saints, and great sages have their day and find 
 themselves gradually pushed into the background, while their 
 places are taken by rival warriors, saints, and sages who claim 
 to be still greater ^ 
 
 ' That man-worship is not confined to India may be proved by 
 numerous examples drawn from all countries. In Africa the King of 
 Loango is honoured as a god. His person is so sacred that no one is 
 allowed to see him eat. In Peru a particular Inca was adored as a god 
 during his lifetime. In New Zealand the warrior chief, Hongi, was called 
 a god by his followers. At the Society Islands, King Tamatoa was 
 worshipped, and in the Marquesas there are several men named attia 
 believed to possess the power of gods. At Tahiti the king and queen 
 were once held so sacred that the sounds forming their names could 
 not be used for ordinary words. See ' Origin of Civilization,' by Sir J. 
 Lubbock, p. 355.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 Death, Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 In the two preceding chapters we have had occasion to 
 state incidentally the Hindu doctrine in regard to the spirits 
 of the dead. We have seen that they are supposed to pass 
 into one or other of two very different conditions. They may 
 be degraded to the state of evil demons or elevated to the 
 position of divinities ^ In the former case they are rather 
 feared and propitiated than worshipped ; in the latter they 
 are rather reverenced and worshipped than propitiated. In 
 the present chapter I have to point out how far this varying 
 condition of deceased persons depends on the performance of 
 funeral and ancestral rites by living relatives and descendants. 
 
 Of all forms of religious devotion homage to dead relations 
 is the most widely extended ^. It forms a part of nearly all 
 religions, and is an element in the creed of nearly every race ^ 
 Perhaps the one exception is Protestant Christianity. The 
 Roman Catholic Church, as is well known, teaches that suppli- 
 cations and prayers may avail to improve the condition of 
 departed spirits in purgatory. Not only therefore does it 
 
 ^ In the same way among the Romans some souls of the dead were 
 good, pure, and bright, and therefore called Manes ; while others, called 
 Larvae and Lemures, wandered about as unquiet ghosts, and were often 
 regarded as evil spirits. Compare also the Roman ideas respecting the 
 Penates. With regard to the ideas prevalent among the Greeks, the 
 following passages bear on the existence of the ^^rvxr] after death as an 
 eiSwXoj/ in Hades : II. xxiii. 72, 104 ; Od. xi. 213, 476 ; xx. 355 ; xxiv. 14. 
 
 ^ I refer any one who doubts this fact to Mr. E. B. Tylor's ' Primitive 
 Culture,' vol. ii. chap, xviii. 
 
 The Bishop of Madagascar stated not long ago, that when he had to 
 descend a dangerous stream in that island, the boatmen made offerings 
 to the spirits of their ancestors before attempting to shoot the rapids.
 
 Death, Fwieral Rites, and A^icestor-wor ship. 275 
 
 permit special masses to be offered for the souls of deceased 
 relations, it introduces a prayer for the dead into the regular 
 daily mass ^. 
 
 According to the Protestant creed, on the other hand, the 
 condition of the dead is irrevocably fixed. To think of ame- 
 liorating it by human intercession is nothing short of heresy. 
 Nor is it customary to perpetuate by any kind of act, peri- 
 odically repeated, the memory of one's nearest and dearest 
 relatives. It is no doubt true that tombs are occasionally 
 visitedj and perhaps in the case of royal personages me- 
 morial services may be performed ; and we have lately been 
 informed, on the authority of an eminent Bishop^, that the 
 Church of England does not condemn special services for the 
 spirits of the dead ^. 
 
 It is also true that every respectable man who has had a 
 respectable father or mother will be careful to reverence their 
 memory^, but I question whether the same man ever feels it 
 his duty to bestow a single reverential thought on either of 
 
 ^ Our prayer for the Church militant has, I beHeve, taken the place of 
 this. In some Roman Catholic countries it is customary to exhume 
 skeletons at intervals of several years, and to place their skulls in a 
 small chapel adjoining the parish-church. This chapel is in German 
 Switzerland called the Schadel-haus, ' Skull-house,' and is used as an 
 oratory where people pray for their dead relations and friends. 
 
 ^ According to the Bishop of Peterborough, the belief was undoubtedly 
 general in the early Church that the souls of the faithful, though free 
 from all suffering, were capable, while awaiting their final consummation 
 and bliss, of a progress in holiness and happiness ; and that prayers for 
 such progress might lawfully be made in their behalf. Accordingly, 
 prayers for 'the rest and refreshment of the departed' abound in the 
 early Hturgies of the Church. See the Bishop's letter to the Rev. J. 
 Mason's parishioners who complained of Mr. Mason's having given 
 notice that he intended celebrating the Holy Communion for the repose 
 of Dr. Pusey's soul. 
 
 ^ All Saints' Day is observed in the Church of England as well as in 
 the Church of Rome. In some Roman Catholic countries great feasting 
 takes place on this day, and the souls of the dead are supposed to join in 
 the festivities and consume the essence of the food before it is eaten. 
 
 * The feeling seems to find vent in putting periodical advertisements 
 * in loving memory ' in the obituary of the newspapers. 
 
 T a
 
 2 76 Death, Ftincral Rites, and A ncestor-worship. 
 
 his departed grandfathers and grandmothers, and whether he 
 would believe in the sanity of any one who was in the habit of 
 offering periodical homage to his two great-grandfathers and 
 great-grandmothers. 
 
 This neglect of one's ancestors, which seems to spring not 
 so much from any want of sympathy with the departed as 
 from an utter disbelief in any interconnexion between this 
 world and the world of spirits, is by some regarded as a 
 defect in our religious character and practice. 
 
 In Eastern countries, especially India and China, the oppo- 
 site extreme generally prevails. We know that in India, 
 every religious duty is magnified and intensified. There, to 
 speak of mere reverence for the dead is a very inadequate 
 expression. The constant periodical performance of com- 
 memorative obsequies is regarded in the light of a positive 
 and peremptory obligation. It is the simple discharge of a 
 solemn debt due to one's forefathers — a debt consisting not 
 only in reverential homage, but in the performance of acts 
 necessary to their support, happiness, and progress onward in 
 the spirit- world. A man's deceased relatives, for at least 
 three generations, are among his cherished divinities, and must 
 be honoured by daily offerings and adoration, or a Nemesis of 
 some kind is certain to overtake his living family. 
 
 Nothing, in fact, interested me more in what I saw of the 
 religious practices of the Hindus, and nothing seemed to me 
 more worthy of note in comparing Hinduism with other re- 
 ligions, than the elaborate nature of its funeral rites and the 
 extraordinary importance attached to these and to the sub- 
 sequent ceremonies called Sraddha. 
 
 And here at the outset it may be well to point out that the 
 main object of a Hindu funeral is very different from that 
 of European obsequial rites. 
 
 It is nothing less than the investiture of the departed 
 spirit with an intermediate gross body — a peculiar frame 
 interposed, as it were parenthetically, between the terres-
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-ivorship. 277 
 
 trial gross body which has just been destroyed by fire, and 
 the new terrestrial body which it is compelled ultimately to 
 assume. The creation of such an intervenient frame — com- 
 posed of gross elements^ though less gross than those of 
 earth — becomes necessary, because the individualized spirit 
 of man, after cremation of the terrestrial body, has nothing 
 left to withhold it from re-absorption into the universal soul, 
 except its incombustible subtle body, which, as composed 
 of the subtle elements, is not only proof against the fire 
 of the funeral pile, but is incapable of any sensations in 
 the temporary heaven or temporary hell, through one or 
 other of which every separate human spirit is forced to pass 
 before returning to earth and becoming reinvested with a 
 terrestrial gross body. 
 
 Were it not for this intermediate frame — believed to be 
 created by the offerings made during the funeral ceremonies 
 — the spirit would remain with its subtle body in the con- 
 dition of an impure and unquiet ghost (preta) wandering 
 about on the earth or in the air among demons and evil 
 spirits, and condemned itself to become an evil spirit \ Its 
 reception of the intervenient body converts it from a Preta 
 or ghost into a Pitri or ancestor ; but this does not satisfy 
 all its needs. The new body it has received, though not 
 so gross as that of earth, must be developed and sup- 
 ported. It must, if possible, be rescued from the fire of 
 purgatory. It must be assisted onwards in its course 
 from lower to higher worlds and back again to earth. 
 And these results can only be accomplished by the cere- 
 monies called Sraddha — ceremonies w^hich may in some 
 
 ^ It is curious that the Hindu notion of the restless state of the soul 
 until the Sraddha is performed agrees with the ancient classical super- 
 stition that the ghosts of the dead wandered about as long as their 
 bodies remained unburied, and were not suffered to mingle with those 
 of the other dead. See Od. xi. 54 ; II. xxiii. 72 ; and cf. ^n. vi. 325 ; 
 Lucan, i, ii ; Eur. Hec. 30.
 
 278 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-ivoi'ship. 
 
 respects be compared to the Roman Catholic masses for 
 the dead. The first Sraddha — to be afterwards described — 
 is performed very soon after the funeral rites, and is always 
 a costly affair. 
 
 In England, the religious services at a funeral occupy 
 about half an hour, and the entire ceremony, with all its 
 attendant circumstances, is performed in the present day at 
 little cost. 
 
 In India, the funeral ceremonies of the older members of a 
 family^ occupy ten days, and with the succeeding Sraddha 
 rites — carried on with the help of Brahmans and including 
 the feasting of numberless guests and the distribution of 
 presents — may involve an enormous expenditure. I found 
 that the cost to even the poorest respectable person was 
 forty rupees, and that any one well-to-do in the world 
 would incur the everlasting obloquy of his family and friends 
 and be almost excommunicated from society if he spent 
 less than six thousand or seven thousand rupees on the 
 funeral of a father and in the carrying out of all the other 
 necessary ceremonies consequent on his death. It is well 
 known that the expenditure incurred on such occasions by 
 rich Bengal Rajas and Zamlndars of high family has often 
 impoverished them for the remainder of their lives. In- 
 stances are on record of a single funeral and Sraddha costing 
 a sum equivalent to ;^i 20,000, the greater part of that amount 
 being squandered on worthless Brahmans, indolent Pandits, 
 hypocritical devotees, and vagabond religious mendicants. 
 
 In truth, the expenditure of time, money, and energy 
 needed to satisfy public opinion before a man is held to 
 have discharged the debt due to a deceased father, and 
 before he is relieved from the long course of fasting and 
 mourning he is expected to undergo, constitutes an evil 
 which has gradually grown till it has become a veritable 
 curse to the country, and one of the principal bars to any 
 
 ^ The funeral rites of children are much simpler and shorter.
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Aneestor-worship. 279 
 
 advance in its social condition. Nor is there any warrant 
 for the system in the more ancient books held sacred in 
 India as authoritative guides. 
 
 Let us try to ascertain the ancient practice by a reference 
 to the Veda and Sutras. 
 
 The ceremonies in Vedic times must have been very 
 simple. We gather from the i8th hymn of the loth Man- 
 dala of the Rig-veda that the dead body was, in all proba- 
 bility, not burnt but buried. It was deposited near a grave 
 dug ready for its reception, while the widow lay down or 
 seated herself by its side, and the relatives — female as well 
 as male — ranged themselves in a circle all around. Their 
 first concern seems to have been to propitiate Death, sup- 
 posed to be personally present and to be naturally eager 
 to take the opportunity of laying his hands on some other 
 member of the family brought by the necessity of attending 
 the funeral within easy and somewhat tempting reach of 
 his clutches. Hence the person appointed to perform the 
 ceremony addressed Death, calling upon him to keep clear 
 of the path of the living, and deprecating any attack on 
 the sunavors, who were assembled to perform pious rites 
 for their dead relative, but had no idea of yielding them- 
 selves up into his power, or renouncing the expectation of 
 a long life themselves. The leader of the funeral next 
 placed a boundary of stones between the dead body and 
 the living relations, to mark off the limits of Death's au- 
 thority. Then followed a prayer that none of those present 
 might be removed to another world before attaining to the 
 full period of a life lasting for a hundred years. This 
 prayer was no doubt accompanied with oblations in fire, 
 after which the widow's married female relatives were di- 
 rected by the performer of the ceremony to prepare for the 
 return home. They were to lead the way without weeping 
 or any signs of grief, and without taking off their jewelry ^ 
 
 ^ The words of the hymn are, Anas7'avo ''namivah sii-ratna a roJiant7i
 
 28o Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 Then the widow herself was told to leave the corpse of her 
 dead husband in the inner circle assigned to Death, and 
 join her surviving relations outside the boundary line. She 
 was addressed in words to the following effect : ' Rise up, 
 O woman (udirshva nari), come back to the world of the 
 living ; thou art lying by a dead man ; come back. Thou 
 hast sufficiently fulfilled the duty of a wife to the husband 
 who formerly wooed thee and took thee by the hand' 
 (Rig-veda X. i8. 8). Next, the performer of the ceremony 
 took a bow, previously placed ir the hand of the deceased, 
 and gave it to his relatives in token that the manly courage 
 he had displayed during life was not to perish with him, 
 but to remain with his family. Addressing the dead man 
 he said, ' I take the bow out of thy hand for our own pro- 
 tection, for our glory, and for our strength ; remain thou 
 here, we will remain here as heroes, so that in all battles 
 we rtiay conquer our foes' (X. i8. 9). The body was then 
 tenderly committed to its 'house of clay' (mrin-mayarn gri- 
 ham, Rig-veda VII. 89, i), with the words, ' Return to thy 
 mother Earth, may she be kind to thee and lie lightly on 
 thee, and not oppress thee;' and with other similar words, 
 which may be thus freely translated : — 
 
 Open thy arms, O earth, receive the dead 
 With gentle pressure and with loving welcome. 
 Enshroud him tenderly, e'en as a mother 
 Folds her soft vestment round the child she loves. 
 
 (X. 18. II.) 
 
 Finally, a mound or column (sthuna) of earth was reared 
 over the grave, and the Pitris or deified ancestors and the 
 god Yama were entreated to preserve it. 
 
 janayo yonim agre,'- wxiY^owi tears, without sorrow, bedecked with jewels, 
 let the wives go to the house first.' It is said that the Brahmans 
 fraudulently substituted agneh, ' of fire,' for agre, ' first,' and that this 
 verse was then quoted as the Vedic authority for the burning of widows ; 
 whereas neither the Veda nor Manu directed or even hinted at the con- 
 cremation of the living wife with her dead husband.
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, aiid Ancestor-worship. 281 
 
 It is remarkable that in some passages of the hymns (X. 
 58. 7 ; 16. 3) there are dim hints of a belief in the possible 
 migration of the spirits of the deceased into plants, trees, and 
 streams. 
 
 It is to be noted, however, that no very distinct account 
 of the condition of the virtuous dead is to be found in the 
 oldest hymns of the Rig-veda, although a future life is fully 
 recognized, and although the Pitris or departed ancestors 
 are addressed with the utmost reverence (VI. 52, 4 ; VII. 
 35.13; X. 14, 7, 8j etc.). Nor do we find any clear mention 
 of hells or places of torment for the wicked, although we 
 read of dark and deep abysses into which bad men are 
 thrown along with the evil demons \ 
 
 Passing from Vedic times to the period when the Asva- 
 layana and other collections of domestic rules (Grihya-sutras) 
 were composed, probably about five or six centuries before 
 Christ, we find that funeral rites, though still conducted with 
 much simplicity, were beginning to be more elaborate and 
 more in unison with present custom. If the practice of cre- 
 mation was doubtful in Vedic times it was now invariable, 
 except in the case of infants and of great saints. As far 
 as can be gathered from a study of the rules laid down, 
 the ceremonial must have been much as follows : — 
 
 When a man died, his immediate family, headed by the 
 eldest son or other near relative, formed a procession to a 
 properly prepared place in the Smasana or ' burning ground,' 
 carrying the sacred fires and sacrificial implements. The 
 younger walked first, the elder behind — the men separated 
 from the women^ — bearing the corpse, the hair and nails of 
 which had been clipped, and leading the sacrificial animal, 
 
 ^ ' Indra and Soma plunge the wicked in inextricable darkness, so that 
 not one of them may again issue from it.' See Rig-veda VII. 104. 3, 
 and compare IV. 5. 5 ; IX. 7Z- 8. 
 
 2 In the present day the only part women take in funeral ceremonies 
 is that of weeping and wailing and uttering loud cries of grief at home.
 
 282 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-zuorship. 
 
 either a cow^ or a black she-goat. The remaining relatives 
 followed with their garments hanging down and their hair 
 dishevelled— the elder in front, the younger behind. When 
 they reached the funeral ground, the son or brother or other 
 near relative appointed to perform the ceremony, taking a 
 branch of the Sami-tree, sprinkled holy water on the spot 
 excavated and prepared for the pile, repeating Rig-veda 
 X. 14. 9 : ' Depart (ye evil spirits), slink away from here ; 
 the Fathers (his departed ancestors) have made for him this 
 place of rest.' 
 
 Then the sacred fires were deposited around the margin 
 of the excavated place, and a heap of fire-wood was piled 
 up inside the sacrificial ground (antar-vedi). Next, a layer 
 of Kusa grass was spread over the pile along with the black 
 skin of the goat. Then the clipped hair and the dead body 
 was placed upon it, with the feet towards one of the fires 
 and the head towards the other. Next, the widow was 
 made to lie down on the funeral pile north of the body, 
 along with the bow of her deceased husband, but was not 
 allowed to remain there long. Soon the leader of the 
 funeral called upon her to rise, repeating Rig-veda X. 18. 8, 
 already quoted (see p. 280). 
 
 Next, he took back the bow, repeating Rig-veda X. 18.9 
 (quoted at p, 280). 
 
 Then he placed the various sacrificial implements and 
 portions of the sacrificial animal in the two hands and on 
 different parts of the body of the corpse. This being 
 done, he kindled the three sacred fires. While the body 
 was burning, portions of hymns of the Rig-veda (such as 
 
 ^ The sacrifice of a cow (called Anustaranl) at ancient funeral cere- 
 monies proves, according to Dr. Rajendra-lala Mitra, that in early times 
 there was no law against the eating of flesh, and even of beef. A cow 
 was killed, that the dead might have a supply of the essence of beef for 
 their journey ; and when the spirits of the departed had feasted on the 
 aroma of the immolated animal, the actual flesh was left for the living.
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-zvorship. 283 
 
 X. 14. 7, 8, 10, 11; 16. 1-4; 17.3-6; 18. II; 154. 1-5) were 
 repeated. 
 
 The following are free translations of some of the verses : — 
 
 Soul of the dead ! depart ; take thou the path — 
 The ancient path — by which our ancestors 
 Have gone before thee ; thou shah look upon 
 The two kings, mighty Varuna and Yama, 
 Delighting in oblations ; thou shalt meet 
 The Fathers and receive the recompense 
 Of all thy stored-up offerings above. 
 Leave thou thy sin and imperfection here ; 
 Return unto thy home once more ; assume 
 A glorious form. By an auspicious path 
 Hasten to pass the four-eyed brindled dogs — 
 The two road-guarding sons of Sarama ; 
 Advance to meet the Fathers who, with hearts 
 Kindly disposed towards thee, dwell in bliss 
 With Yama ; and do thou, O mighty god, 
 Intrust him to thy guards^ to bring him to thee, 
 And grant him health and happiness eternal. 
 
 (X. 14. 7-1 1.) 
 
 When a dead body was thus burnt the spirit — invested 
 with its incombustible subtle frame — was supposed to rise 
 along with the smoke to heaven. 
 
 Then the performer of the ceremony repeated the verse 
 (Rig-veda X. 18.3):— 
 
 We living men, survivors, now return 
 And leave the dead ; may our oblations please 
 The gods and bring us blessings ! now we go 
 To dance and jest and hope for longer life. 
 
 After this they proceeded homewards, the younger walking 
 in front, the elder behind. But before re-entering the house 
 they purified themselves by chewing leaves of the Nimba- 
 tree^ and by touching fire, grains of barley, oil, and water. 
 During one night they cooked no food, and for three nights 
 ate nothing containing saft. 
 
 After the tenth day the bones and ashes of the deceased 
 
 ^ These are the two four-eyed watch-dogs_mentioned at p. 289. 
 ^ This, however, is not mentioned in the Asvalayana Sutras.
 
 284 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-zvor ship. 
 
 were gathered together and placed in a plain undecorated 
 funeral vase. This particular act, which in modern times is 
 generally performed on the fourth day, was called Asthi- 
 saSicaya, ' bone-collection/ A hole was excavated and the 
 vessel placed in it, while Rig-veda X. 18. 10 was repeated: 
 'Return to thy mother Earth, the Widely-extended, the 
 Broad, the Auspicious ; may she be to thee like a young 
 maiden, soft as wool (urna-mrada) ! may she protect thee 
 from the embrace of the goddess of corruption!' 
 
 Then earth was scattered over the excavation, with re- 
 petition of the twelfth verse of the same hymn. Lastly, a 
 cover was placed over the vase and the hole was filled up 
 with earth, while the thirteenth verse was repeated : ' I raise 
 up the earth around thee for a support, placing this cover 
 on thee without causing injury. May the Fathers guard this 
 funeral monument for thee ! May Yama establish a habitation 
 for thee there ! ' 
 
 The principal rite being thus brought to a close, the re- 
 lations returned home, and after performing an ablution 
 offered the first Sraddha to the deceased person. 
 
 I may mention here that, being one day on the Bombay 
 burning-ground, I was a spectator of a modern bone-gather- 
 ing ceremony, which had many features in common with 
 the ancient rite. A Brahman and five women were seated 
 in a semicircle round the ashes and bones of a young mar- 
 ried girl of low castCj whose body had recently been burnt. 
 Before them was an earthenware vase, and around it were 
 flowers, fruits, and betel-leaves. The Brahman had a metal 
 vase shaped something like a tumbler in his hand containing 
 consecrated or holy water, with a small round spoon or ladle 
 he took out a small portion of the water and poured it into 
 the hands of the woman, at the same time muttering texts 
 and prayers. Then he poured water into the vase, and on 
 the top of the water placed the fruit, flowers, and leaves. 
 Next, he collected the half-calcined bones, and having put
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 285 
 
 them carefully and reverentially into the vase, he made a 
 hole in the ground a few yards off and buried it. I was 
 told that the vase would be left there for ten days, when a 
 Sraddha would be performed in the same place. 
 
 Turning next to the law-books (see p. 51), which follow 
 on the Sutras and are based on them, we find, as might be 
 expected, that the practice they inculcated differed little 
 from that enjoined in the Sutras. Funeral rites are called 
 'the last sacrifice' (antyeshti), that is to say, the sacrifice 
 of the body in fire. They are regarded as inauspicious 
 (amangala), because impurity is thought to result from con- 
 tact with a dead body and from connexion with the departed 
 spirit, which, though released by the burning of the body, 
 is still regarded as impure until the Sraddha ceremonies are 
 performed. Manu even declares that some implication of 
 impurity attaches to the sound of the Sama-veda because 
 it is chanted at funeral services. 
 
 The Sraddha, on the other hand, is held to be auspicious 
 (mahgala), because it is performed for the benefit of a de- 
 ceased person after he has received an intermediate body 
 and become a Pitri or beatified father. It is true that 
 both funeral and Sraddha ceremonies consist in the offering 
 of balls (pinda) of rice or flour and libations of water, with 
 texts and prayers ; but in the funeral rites the ball of rice 
 is for the nourishment of the ghost and for the formation 
 of a body as its vehicle, whereas in the Sraddha the Pinda 
 is said to represent the body so formed, and is offered as 
 an act of homage. Nevertheless it is plainly declared in 
 Manu (III. 237) and elsewhere that the embodied Pitris 
 require the periodical offering of these Pindas and water for 
 their continual nourishment and refreshment. 
 
 A large number of relatives are supposed to partake in the 
 benefits of the Sraddha. They are as follow: — (1) Father, 
 father's father, father's grandfather; (2) Mother, mother's father, 
 mother's grandfather ; (3) Stepmother, if any ; (4) Father's
 
 286 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 mother, his grandmother, and his great-grandmother; (5) 
 Father's brothers; (6) Mother's brothers; (7) Father's 
 sisters; (8) Mother's sisters; (9) Sisters and brothers; (10) 
 Fathers-in-law. We know, in fact, that the Hindu family 
 (gotra) is held to be a corporate society, bound together 
 by a right of participation in the Sraddha offerings. This 
 right furnishes the principal evidence of kinship, on which 
 the title to share in the patrimony is founded, no power of 
 making wills being recognized in Manu or any other autho- 
 ritative code of Hindu jurisprudence. All who unite in 
 presenting to their deceased ancestors the balls (pinda) of 
 rice or flour and libations of water (udaka) are called Sa- 
 pindas^ and Samanodakas to each other, and a kind of 
 intercommunion and interdependence is thus continually 
 maintained between the dead and living members of a family 
 — between past, present, and future generations. Practically, 
 however, the closeness of the interconnexion extends only 
 to three generations on each side. In this way a kind of 
 family chain, consisting of seven Hnks, is formed. The 
 householder represents the central link, and is himself linked 
 to father, grandfather, and great-grandfather on one side, 
 and to son, grandson, and great-grandson on the other 
 (Manu V. 60). The first three are supposed to be de- 
 pendent on the living paterfamilias for their happiness and 
 support, through the constant offering of the ball- like cakes 
 and water ; and he himself, the moment he dies, becomes 
 similarly dependent on the three succeeding generations. 
 
 The connexion which is kept up by the common offering 
 of water lasts longer, and ends only when the family names 
 are no longer known (V. 60). Manu's law-book, however, 
 which stands at the head of all the others and is the earliest 
 in date, makes no positive statement as to the precise dis- 
 
 ^ According to the Mitakshara school, Pinda may also signify body, and 
 some interpret sapinda to mean persons united by bodily relationship. 
 The other school is that of the Daya-bhaga, which prevails in Bengal.
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, a7id Ancestor-worship. 287 
 
 tinction between the funeral or Sraddha ceremonies. Nor 
 does it discriminate clearly between the subtle, the terres- 
 trial, and the intermediate bodies. It merely affirms that a 
 Sraddha means an oblation of grain^ water, or other sub- 
 stances offered with faith (sraddha), and that the perform- 
 ance of Sraddhas by a son is necessary to deliver a father 
 from the hell called Put (IX. 138); whence a son is called 
 Put-tra, 'the rescuer from Put^.' This, of course, sufficiently 
 explains the desire of every Hindu for the birth of a son 
 rather than a daughter. 
 
 The law-book of Yajnavalkya is later in date. The pre- 
 cepts it lays down (Book III) prove that in the early centuries 
 of our era funerals were conducted in a simple manner. Still, 
 much of the practice was in harmony with modern usage, 
 as well as with that of the Grihya-sutras (p. 281). 
 
 For example, a child under two years of age was not burnt 
 but buried, and no offering of water was made to it. (See 
 also Manu V. 68.) The corpse of any other deceased per- 
 son, except that of a great saint or ascetic, was accom- 
 panied by a procession of relations to the burning-place, 
 and there burnt with common fire (laukikagnina), while a 
 hymn to Yama was repeated. Next, the relatives poured 
 out a single libation of water to the deceased, uttering his 
 name and family. Then, instead of shedding tears or giving 
 way to grief, the relatives, after performing their ablutions, 
 seated themselves on a spot covered with soft grass, while 
 the elder repeated to the younger some verses from the 
 ancient Itihasas, such as the following (freely translated) : — 
 
 Does it not argue folly to expect 
 
 Stability in man, who is as transient 
 
 As a mere bubble and fragile as a stalk.? 
 
 ^ It is wholly inconsistent with the true theory of Hinduism that the 
 Sraddha should deliver a man from the consequence of his own deeds. 
 Manu says, ' Iniquity once practised, like a seed, fails not to yield its 
 fruit to him that wrought it' (IV. 173) ; but Hinduism bristles with such 
 inconsistencies.
 
 2 88 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 Why should we utter wailings if a frame, 
 
 Composed of five material elements, 
 
 Is decomposed by force of its own acts, 
 
 And once again resolved into its parts ? 
 
 The earth, the ocean, and the gods themselves 
 
 Must perish, how should not the world 
 
 Of mortals, light as froth, obey the law 
 
 Of universal death and perish too ? 
 
 After hearing verses of this kind they set out homewards, 
 
 the younger ones leading the way. On reaching the house 
 
 they made a solemn pause outside the door. Then they 
 
 all chewed leaves of the Nimba-tree (popularly, Nlm), rinsed 
 
 their mouths with water, touched fire, water, cow-dung, and 
 
 white mustard-seed, and placed their feet on a stone ; then 
 
 they slowly re-entered the house. Impurity caused by the 
 
 ceremonies connected with touching the corpse (savam 
 
 asaucam) lasted for either three nights or ten nights. In 
 
 later times the season of mourning and impurity lasted 
 
 longer (see p. 306, note 3). 
 
 Turn we now to the more modern practice. 
 
 Perhaps the best authority for the present creed of the 
 Hindus in regard to the future state of the soul, and the 
 best guide to the right performance of funeral and Sraddha 
 ceremonies, is the Garuda-purana. This is a comparatively 
 modern work — probably not older than the seventh or eighth 
 century, and possibly still more modern. It is written, like 
 other Puranas, in the form of a dialogue ; and is the more in- 
 teresting, as portions of it are recited at funerals and Sraddhas 
 in the present day. The dialogue is between Vishnu and 
 Garuda — the divine bird represented as always attendant on 
 the god and serving as his vehicle (see p. 104). Questioned 
 by Garuda, Vishnu reveals the secrets of the future world and 
 the nature of the punishment in store for the wicked. He also 
 . prescribes the proper ceremonies. As a matter of fact, how- 
 ever, the forms now observed do not always agree with the 
 directions in the Garuda-purana, or in any other guide. They 
 vary according to different localities and different castes.
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 289 
 
 To describe all the variations within the limit of a single 
 chapter would be impossible. I can only advert to some 
 principal usages in the case of the death of persons of 
 higher caste. And to make the Hindu theory of a future 
 state clearer — comphcated as it is by numerous contra- 
 dictory statements and inconsistencies — it will be necessary 
 to trace the development of the prevalent ideas concerning 
 the character and functions of the god of death, Yama. 
 
 Probably the name Yama in the Veda is to be connected 
 with an obsolete verb yam, meaning ' to double ' (Lat. gemino). 
 At any rate, the Vedic meaning of the word seems to have 
 been ' twin,' and Yama himself, with his twin sister YamI, 
 were held to be the first pair of mortals born into the 
 world, being both children of Vivasvat the Sun (see p. 1 1 of 
 this volume, and compare Rig-veda X. 10). As he was sup- 
 posed to be the first of men who died, it was only natural 
 that the earliest myths should invest him with the office 
 of conducting the spirits of other men who die to the spirit- 
 world — a world which, according to some later authorities, 
 is to be regarded as divided into three regions, the upper 
 sky, middle air, and the atmosphere just above the earth ; 
 the ancient patriarchs occupying the highest region, and the 
 more recently deceased the lowest. 
 
 The next of the ancient ideas concerning Yama was that 
 he reigned as a kind of president of the dead (Pitri-pati) 
 in the upper sky. There the spirits of the just, invested 
 with celestial lustre, wafted by gentle breezes or borne in 
 heavenly cars, continually arrived, and became themselves 
 gods to be worshipped under the title of Pitris. There 
 they enjoyed the society not only of Yama, but of the god 
 Varuna, also supposed to dwell there. The road to this abode 
 was guarded by two four-eyed watch-dogs, called Syama, 
 'dark,' and Sabala (or sometimes Karbura), 'spotted' (see 
 Rig-veda X. 14. 10-12, and compare p. 283). Death, and 
 sometimes Agni (fire), were regarded as Yama's messengers 
 
 U
 
 290 Death, Fwieral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 charged with the duty of conducting the spirits of the dead 
 heavenward, while Yama himself was not so much the god 
 as the friend of departed spirits. He was looked up to with 
 veneration^ but not by any means with terror, as if he were 
 the god of punishment. (Compare p. 16 of this volume.) 
 
 Turning now to the period of the Epic poems and Pura- 
 nas, we find Yama developed into a much more terrific 
 being. He is now the Judge and punisher of the dead, who 
 sits in judgment upon them, and, so to speak, holds the 
 keys of heaven and hell. Hence he is called ' the Restrainer 
 or Punisher' (Yama, from yam, to restrain), or 'the King of 
 Justice' (Dharma-raja), or simply 'Justice' (Dharma), or 
 'the Rod-bearer' (Danda-dhara), or 'Noose-bearer' (Pasin). 
 Sometimes he is represented as acting in these characters 
 on behalf of Rudra-Siva, w^ho is the real god of the dead. 
 Many descriptions of his appearance may be found in the 
 Epic poems and Puranas. There he is usually depicted as 
 grim and awe-imposing in aspect, green in colour, clothed 
 in red, riding on a buffalo, and holding a club in one hand 
 and a noose in the other. He is also one of the eight 
 guardians of the quarters of the sky, his own quarter being 
 the South, in which direction in some region of the lower 
 world and somewhere on the confines of the places of tor- 
 ment which are called the 'terrific provinces' of his kingdom 
 (Vishnu-purana H. 6) are his city and palace called Yama- 
 pura and Yama-sadana. Between the earth and this abode 
 flows the terrible river Vc.itarani^j which all departed spirits 
 must cross. In the later Puranas — and especially in the Garuda 
 — Yama is generally regarded as a stern and terrible god 
 of punishment only. He is a kind of Hindu Pluto or Minos, 
 and nothing more. But there is this noteworthy inconsis- 
 tency in his position, that although he is the Judge ap- 
 pointed to punish every man according to his works, he has 
 
 ^ Baitaram (or Vaitarani) is the name of a river in Orissa 45 miles N.E. 
 of Kuttack. On its bank is a shrine called ' Yama's abode.'
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 291 
 
 no power over those devoted worshippers of Siva, Vishnu, 
 and Krishna who have lived virtuous lives, and who when 
 they die are taken out of his hands and transported to 
 the heavens Kailasa, Vaikuntha, and Go-loka respectively^. 
 Nor has he any power over those whose death-beds are 
 protected by the due performance of all the requisite cere- 
 monies — provided only that sufificient fees have been paid 
 to the Brahmans who superintend such ceremonies. 
 
 In attempting, therefore, to give some idea of the present 
 creed of the Hindus in regard to death and a future state, 
 it will be necessary to begin by describing the career and 
 history of a deceased mortal who, from his evil deeds during 
 life or from some defect in the proper ceremonies at his 
 decease, becomes subject to Yama's penalties. 
 
 We are told in the Garuda-purana that when such a man 
 dies his spirit takes a downward course through the intes- 
 tines and emerges in the same manner as the excreta ; 
 whereas — as we shall see in the sequel — the spirit of a good 
 man finds its way through the tenth aperture of the body, 
 which is a suture at the top of the skull, called the Brahma- 
 randhram, 'Brahma's crevice.' 
 
 No sooner has death occurred and cremation of the ter- 
 restrial body taken place, than Yama's two messengers 
 (Yama-dutau), who are waiting near at hand, make them- 
 selves visible to the released spirit, which retains its subtle 
 body composed of the subtle elements, and is said to be 
 of the size of a thumb (angushtha-matra). Their aspect is 
 terrific ; for they have glaring eyes, hair standing erect, 
 gnashing teeth, crow-black skin, and claw-like nails, and 
 they hold in their hands the awful rod and noose of Yama. 
 Then, as if their appearance in this form were not suffici- 
 ently alarming, they proceed to terrify their victim by terrible 
 visions of the torments (yatana) in store for him. 
 
 ^ * The servants and ministers of Yama and his tortures are unavaiUng 
 against one who places his reliance in Vishnu.' Vishnu-purana III. 7. 
 
 U 3
 
 292 Death, Funeral Rites, a7id Ancestor-worship. 
 
 In a story told in the Vana-parva of the Maha-bharata 
 (16,754), Yama himself appears before a dying man. He is 
 clothed in blood-red garments with a glittering crown upon 
 his head, and, like Varuna, holds a noose in his hand, with 
 which he binds the spirit and its subtle frame after drawing 
 it from the sick man's body. 
 
 The usual theory, however, is that his two messengers 
 perform this office. They then convey the bound spirit 
 along the road to Yama's abode. There being led before 
 Yama's judgment-seat it is confronted with his Registrar or 
 Recorder named Citra-gupta ^. This officer stands by Yama's 
 side with an open book before him. It is his business to 
 note down all the good and evil deeds of every human being 
 born into the world, with the resulting merit (punya) and 
 demerit (papa), and to produce a debtor and creditor account 
 properly made up and balanced on the day when that being 
 is brought before Yama ^. According to the balance on the 
 side of merit or demerit is judgment pronounced. 
 
 Truly the prospect of so terrible an ordeal to a man con- 
 scious of his sins might appear absolutely unbearable, were 
 it not for his belief in the doctrine that the ceremonies per- 
 formed on his behalf by his relations after his death have 
 power, if properly carried out, to turn the scale and perhaps 
 place a considerable balance to his credit. 
 
 As however a disembodied spirit can neither enjoy heaven 
 nor suffer the pains of hell until reinvested with a physical 
 frame, composed — as already pointed out — of gross though 
 ethereal particles, it is instantly after its sentence hurried 
 back to the place of cremation ; where it acquires a frame of 
 the necessary sensibility by feeding on the oblations of rice 
 
 ^ It is remarkable that the enterprising and intelligent Writer caste 
 (Kayastha) of Bengal claim to be descended from a Brahman, named 
 Citra-gupta ; and secretaries are sometimes called by that name. 
 
 ^ Compare Rev. xx. 12, 'And the dead were judged out of those things 
 which were written in the books, according to their works.'
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 293 
 
 and libations of water offered for ten consecutive days after 
 the burning of the terrestrial body \ 
 
 On the first day the ball (Pinda) of rice offered by the 
 eldest son or other near relative nourishes the spirit of the 
 deceased in such a way as to furnish it with a head ; on 
 the second day the offered Pinda gives a neck and shoulders ; 
 on the third, a heart ; on the fourth, a back ; on the fifth, 
 a navel ; on the sixth, a groin, and the parts usually con- 
 cealed ; on the seventh, thighs ; on the eighth and ninth, 
 knees and feet. On the tenth day the intermediate body 
 is sufficiently formed to produce the sensation of hunger and 
 thirst. Other Pindas are therefore put before it, and on the 
 eleventh and twelfth day^ the embodied spirit feeds vora- 
 ciously on the offerings thus supplied, and so gains strength 
 for its journey to its future abode (Garuda-purana I. 51, &c.). 
 Then on the thirteenth day after death it is conducted either 
 to heaven or hell. If to the latter, it has need of the most 
 nourishing food to enable it to bear up against the terrible 
 ordeal which awaits it. 
 
 The road by which Yama's two officers force a wicked man 
 to descend to the regions of torment is described in the first 
 two chapters of the Garuda-purana. The length of the way 
 is said to be 86,000 leagues (yojanas). The condemned 
 soul, invested with its sensitive body and made to travel 
 at the rate of 200 leagues a day, finds no shady trees, no 
 resting-place, no food, no water. At one time it is scorched 
 by a burning heat, equal to that of twelve meridian suns, at 
 another it is pierced by icy cold winds ; now its tender frame 
 is rent by thorns ; now it is attacked by lions, tigers, savage 
 dogs, venomous serpents, and scorpions. In one place it has 
 
 ^ This frame is sometimes called 'the upward-going body' (urdhva- 
 deha), whence the obsequial ceremonies that produce it are sometimes 
 called Aurdhva-dehikam. Another name for this body is Adhishthana- 
 deha (see p. 28). 
 
 2 In some parts of India these are also the days on which the relations 
 who are performing the funeral rites have their festive dinners.
 
 294 Death, Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 to traverse a dense forest whose leaves are swords; in another 
 it falls into deep pits; in another it is precipitated from 
 precipices; in another it has to walk on the edge of razors; 
 in another on iron spikes ; here it stumbles about helplessly 
 in profound darkness; there it struggles through loathsome 
 mud swarming with leeches; here it toils through burning 
 sand; there its progress is arrested by heaps of red-hot 
 charcoal and stifling smoke. Compelled to pass through 
 every obstacle, however formidable, it next encounters a 
 succession of terrific showers, not of rain, but of live coals, 
 stones, blood, boiling water and filth. Then it has to descend 
 into appalling fissures, or ascend to sickening heights, or lose 
 itself in vast caves, or wade through lakes seething with fetid 
 ordure. Then midway it has to pass the awful river Vaitaranl, 
 one hundred leagues in breadth, of unfathomable depth ; 
 flowing with irresistible impetuosity, filled with blood, matter, 
 hair, and bones ; infested with huge sharks, crocodiles, and 
 sea-monsters ; darkened by clouds of hideous vultures and 
 obscene birds of prey. Thousands of condemned spirits 
 stand trembling on the banks, horrified by the prospect 
 before them. Consumed by a raging thirst, they drink the 
 blood which flows at their feet, then tumbling headlong into 
 the torrent they are overwhelmed by the rushing waves. 
 Finally, they are hurried down to the lowest depths of hell, 
 and yet not destroyed. Pursued by Yama's ofiicers they are 
 dragged away and made to undergo inconceivable tortures, 
 the detail of which is given with the utmost minuteness in 
 the succeeding chapters of the Garuda-purana. 
 
 A description so monstrous would be scarcely worth repro- 
 ducing in any form did it not profess to represent an im- 
 portant article of the creed of a vast majority of our 
 fellow-subjects in regard to a future state. It might indeed 
 be thought that a belief in such horrors and in the possibility 
 of undergoing a fate so awful would be calculated to produce 
 a salutary deterrent effect on wicked persons, did we not
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-ivor ship, 295 
 
 find that, however intense is a Hindu's beHef in the reality 
 of hell's most excruciating torments as described in the 
 Garuda and other Puranas, he is equally ready to accept 
 the doctrine laid down in the same works, that by performing 
 certain religious rites and giving gifts to the Brahmans all 
 the terrific penalties of sin may be avoided and the god of 
 hell disappointed of his victims (compare p. 291, first line). 
 
 What, then, is the nature of the various observances and 
 ceremonies which secure this immunity from future punish- 
 ment and make the course of the departed spirit — however 
 guilty — peaceful and pleasant? We can only give an outline 
 of some of those most usually practised in religious families 
 of the higher classes. 
 
 In the first place, when a man becomes seriously ill, it is 
 common for his relatives to assume rather prematurely that 
 his case is hopeless. They therefore make preparations for 
 performing the last offices of religion in anticipation of his 
 decease in a manner which to us Europeans would appear 
 not unlikely to hasten on the crisis. Perhaps his only chance 
 of warding off the approach of death may depend on perfect 
 repose of body and mind. Yet how can his kinsmen allow 
 him to run the risk of falling into the hands of the god of 
 punishment, when by a little exertion they may secure for 
 him the protection of the sacred river which flows perhaps 
 not more than ten miles from his abode? Hence, his eldest 
 son and other near relatives lose no time in placing him on 
 a litter and conveying him to the banks of the nearest holy 
 stream. If such a river as the Ganges or Narmada or Goda- 
 varl or Krishna (Kistna) happen to be within reach, the 
 relatives of the dying man are the more eager to bring him 
 into close proximity to the sacred waters. At Calcutta this 
 is often done two or three days before death supervenes. 
 According to Mr. S. C. Bose, 'Persons entrusted with the 
 care and nursing of a dying man at the burning-ghat [on 
 the Ganges] soon get tired of their charge, and rather than
 
 296 Death, Ftmeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 administer to his comfort, are known to resort to artificial 
 means, whereby death is accelerated. They unscrupulously 
 pour the unwholesome, muddy water of the river down his 
 already choked throat, and in some cases suffocate him to 
 death 1; 
 
 Of course the Ganges is of all rivers held to be the most 
 divine and the most potent in its efficacy. If simply looked 
 upon during the death-agony, the messengers of Yama, who 
 are eager to seize and bind the soul, are powerless to harm it. 
 
 But neither the Ganges nor any other sacred stream is 
 always to be reached. In such cases various other preventive 
 measures calculated to keep the officers of Yama at bay or 
 force them to retire may be resorted to, according to the 
 practice believed to be most efficacious in different localities. 
 
 For example, in many families it is thought enough to 
 scatter Sesamum seed and Kusa grass around the sick man's 
 couch or to encircle it with a kind of cordon of cow-dung ; or 
 a Salagrama stone (see p. 69) is brought and placed on a 
 stand close to the dying man's side, while at the same time 
 a TulasT plant is deposited near him. Or again, a sprig of 
 that sacred plant is wound round his head ; or its leaves are 
 placed in his mouth ^ ; or a piece of gold ^ is inserted between 
 the teeth ; or a little mud from a sacred stream may be 
 brought from a distance and plastered on his forehead ; or 
 Ganges water may be poured down his throat. Then not 
 unfrequently a cow duly decorated is brought close to the 
 moribund man's bed, and he is made to grasp its tail, under 
 
 ^ 'The Hindoos as they are,' p. 252. 
 
 "^ According to the Garuda-purana (IX. 7, 8), 'The house in which 
 there is a single sprig of the Tulasi is like a holy place of pilgrimage. 
 Yama's messengers cannot enter it. Yama cannot look upon the man 
 who dies with the Tulasi in contact with his body, even though he may 
 have committed hundreds of crimes.' In verse 1 1 the same efficacy is 
 ascribed to Kusa grass, which is said to be pervaded by Brahma, Vishnu, 
 and Siva. 
 
 ^ To secure the presence of gold in the mouth at death, a healthy man 
 will sometimes have it inserted in his teeth.
 
 Death, Ftinei^al Rites, and Ancestor-zvorship. 297 
 
 the notion that by the sacred animal's assistance he will be 
 safely transported over the terrible river of death, VaitaranT, 
 already described. This, however, is a precautionary measure 
 which will be quite ineffectual unless the cow is afterwards 
 handed over as a gift to the Brahmans. 
 
 Others again who believe that the passage of the Hindu 
 Styx is compulsory on all, and that it cannot be accomplished 
 without direct Brahmanical aid, take care to send for two or 
 three priests for the performance of the Vaitarani-rite. This 
 ceremony, which is very usual in Bengal, consists mainly in 
 paying money to the Brahmans, who in return mutter a few 
 texts and prayers, supposed to be efficacious in helping the 
 deceased man across the dreaded river. 
 
 Of course Mantras or texts from the Vedas and Upanishads 
 are repeated during all the ceremonies, and hymns to Vishnu 
 and Siva are occasionally recited. Then at the last moment 
 the dying man is made if possible to repeat the Taraka-mantra 
 or 'saving-text.' This formula may vary according to the 
 sect to which the family belongs. In most cases it consists 
 in merely uttering the name of Rama, or Narayana, or Hari, 
 or the eight-syllabled Mantra, ' Blessed Krishna is my refuge.' 
 
 When the moment of death arrives the spirit is supposed 
 to escape, invested only with its linga-sarira (see p. 28), 
 through one of the upper or lower apertures of the body\ 
 according to the character for good or evil it achieved during 
 life (see p. 291). 
 
 The corpse has now to be transported to a place where its 
 cremation may be accomplished in due form and according 
 to prescribed rules, but not until certain other rites have been 
 performed. And first the eldest son or his nearest repre- 
 sentative carefully shaves the body ^. This he does without 
 
 ^ The seven upper apertures are the mouth, the eyes, the nostrils, and 
 ears. 
 
 2 This is according to the directions in the Garuila-purana. At Benares 
 the shaving process generally takes place at the burning-ghat.
 
 298 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 removing the hair from under the arms and without clipping 
 the nails. Next he bathes it with water from a sacred 
 stream and decorates it with sandal-wood and garlands ; or 
 in place of decoration he may plaster it with mud from the 
 Ganges. Then it is covered with new vestments and placed 
 on the litter ; an oblation (Pinda) being offered to the guardian 
 deities of the soil, who protect the road to the burning- 
 ground from the attacks of evil spirits. At the same time 
 the name and family of the deceased man are pronounced 
 by his son, while his son's wife and the other women of the 
 household reverently circumambulate the corpse and utter 
 lamentations. The body is now ready to be borne to the 
 place of cremation, which ought, if possible, to be near a 
 river ^. And here a great difficulty has sometimes to be 
 overcome in finding proper persons to carry the dead body. 
 If the deceased happens to be a Brahman, four men of his 
 own caste — and, if possible, chosen from his own relations — 
 ought to perform this office, walking behind the son, who 
 leads the funeral procession, holding in his hand an earthen 
 vessel containing fire. Or, according to the Garuda-purana 
 (X. 12), the son himself should help to carry the corpse on 
 his shoulder, the other relatives with bare heads following 
 in the rear. 
 
 It may be noted here that the rule which prevents Brah- 
 mans from touching the bodies of persons of inferior caste is 
 often a cause of great trouble and difficulty. 
 
 Not long ago a very respectable man of the Kayastha caste 
 died in Khandesh at a place where no male members of his 
 own caste lived. The body had to be burnt immediately, 
 but no one of superior caste could be induced to touch it, and 
 had any one of a lower caste done so, the family would have 
 suffered irretrievable degradation. The difficulty was only 
 
 ^ If a place near a river is to be found anywhere within ten or fifteen 
 miles of the dead man's residence the corpse is generally carried there, 
 unless, as we have seen, this is done before the breath leaves the body.
 
 Death, Fwieral Rites, and Ancestor -zvor ship. 299 
 
 surmounted by the payment of an exorbitant sum to some 
 Brahmans who at length consented to bear the body to the 
 burning-ground. 
 
 This explains the unwillingness of the Hindus to leave 
 their own country and caste. 
 
 The burning of the corpse is the next act in the drama. 
 
 A proper spot for the erection of the funeral pile must be 
 chosen. It must be well purified by the sprinkling of holy 
 water. A kind of altar is then made with earth, and the 
 Homa ceremony is performed by casting grain into the sacred 
 fire with the due repetition of Mantras. Then the funeral 
 pile is constructed with Tulasi and Palasa and sandal-wood. 
 Five Pindas or balls of rice are placed on the deceased man's 
 body, which is made to face the north, and the eldest son 
 or his representative applies the fire to the wood, reciting 
 Rig-veda X. 17. 3 — 'May the guardian deity Pushan convey 
 thee hence on thy distant road ; may he deliver thee to the 
 Fathers etc' 
 
 Not very long ago, if the dead man had a faithful wife 
 (sati) she often gave proof of her devotion by allowing her 
 living body to be burnt with her husband's corpse ; and the 
 Garuda-purana is profuse in its eulogy of the devoted woman 
 who so sacrifices herself and thereby secures eternal bliss in 
 heaven for herself and her husband. Sometimes also a 
 widowed mother burnt herself with the body of an only son. 
 
 When the body is half-burnt the skull ought to be cracked 
 with a blow from a piece of sacred wood. The idea is that 
 the soul may not have been able to escape through the 
 aperture at the top of the head, and that the cracking of 
 the skull may open a crevice and facilitate its exit. 
 
 In the case of the death of a holy man whose body is 
 buried and not burnt, the necessary blow is given with a 
 cocoa-nut (sri-phala) or with a sacred conch-shell (sankha). 
 
 A story was told me with great seriousness of a sorcerer at 
 Lahore who made it the business of his life to make a collec-
 
 300 Death, Funeral Rites, and Ancestor-worship. 
 
 tion of the skulls of dead men which had not been properly- 
 cracked in this manner at death and so retained the spirits of 
 the deceased inside. The peasantry in the neighbourhood 
 fully believed that he was able to make use of these spirits 
 for magical purposes, and that he could force them to execute 
 his behests. 
 
 During the process of cremation an oblation of clarified 
 butter ought to be offered in the fire and a Mantra repeated 
 entreating the god of fire to convey the deceased man to 
 heaven. When the body has been consumed all present at 
 the funeral bathe or purify themselves with ablutions. Sesa- 
 mum and water are then offered while the name and family 
 of the deceased are again repeated. 
 
 Finally, a few leaves of the Nimba-tree (Nlm) are chewed 
 by all and the funeral procession returns home, the women 
 walking first and the men behind. Meanwhile the pyre and the 
 products of combustion are left undisturbed to a future day. 
 
 The Garuda-purana directs that if a man dies in a remote 
 place, or is killed by robbers in a forest and his body is not 
 found, his son should make an Q-^^y of the deceased with 
 Kusa grass and then burn it on a funeral pile with similar 
 ceremonies. 
 
 On the fourth day after cremation the relatives return to 
 the burying-ground, and assembling at the pyre perform the 
 * bone-gathering ' (asthi-sanc'aya) ceremony. Three circum- 
 ambulations are made around the ashes and a Mantra from 
 the Yajur-veda (beginning Yamaya tva, XXXVIII. 9) is re- 
 peated. The calcined bones are then placed in a kind of 
 urn or earthen vessel ; a cavity is dug in the ground and the 
 vessel deposited in it. Next a Pinda is offered over the ashes 
 for the removal of the suffering supposed to have been caused 
 by the act of cremation. Then after a few days the vessel 
 is removed from the cavity in order that the ashes and bones 
 may be carried away and thrown into some sacred river — if 
 possible the Ganges. 'Whatever sins,' says the Garuda-
 
 Death, Funeral Rites, ajid Ancestor-worship. 301 
 
 purana (X. 84), 'a man may have committed during life, if 
 his bones are cast into the Ganges he must certainly go 
 to heaven.' 
 
 In illustration of this a story is related in the same Purana 
 of a certain hunter, notorious for his crimes, who was killed 
 by a tiger in an inaccessible corner of a forest. There his 
 body lay for many years and his disembodied spirit became 
 a troublesome devil (compare p, 239), till fortunately the 
 bleached skeleton was spied by a crow, who picking up bone 
 after bone dropped it into the Ganges. Whereupon the 
 demon was suddenly converted into a saint, and transported 
 in a celestial chariot to the mansions of the blessed. This 
 story is narrated with all seriousness by the author of the 
 Purana as if he were recording an historical fact. 
 
 In connexion with the same subject I may repeat an 
 anecdote told me by a late member of the Indian Civil 
 Service — once a Magistrate and Collector in North-western 
 India. He was once on a tour of inspection through his 
 district when he overtook a poor old woman trudging along 
 the road with evident difficulty. He inquired in a kindly 
 voice where she was going. ' To the Ganges with my husband,' 
 was the prompt reply. Involuntarily the Magistrate looked 
 back, expecting to see some old man following her, when 
 she calmly opened a handkerchief which she had been carrying 
 slung over her shoulder and showed him all that remained 
 of her defunct lord and master in the shape of a few half- 
 calcined bones, an old tooth or two, and a little dust and 
 ashes. These she was transporting to the river with the pious 
 object of scattering them on the sacred waters, 
 
 I may also put on record how greatly struck I was with 
 the peaceful aspect of a spot of ground called the Asthi- 
 vilaya-tirtham, ' sacred place for the dissolution of bones,' 
 at Nasik — the Benares of Western India. There surrounded 
 by trees, temples, and lovely scenery is a consecrated pool, 
 formed by the waters of the Godavarl, which are here par-
 
 302 Death, Ftuicral Rites, and Ancestor-zuorship. 
 
 tially diverted from their course and made to flow into a 
 receptacle lined with stone in a secluded bend of the river. 
 This is the cemetery or ' sleeping-place ' of myriads of human 
 beings whose ashes are brought at particular holy seasons 
 and scattered on the tranquil waters. 
 
 I was also much impressed by the singularity of a ' bone- 
 gathering ceremony' I witnessed in the Hindu burning- 
 ground at Bombay. On the morning of one of my visits to 
 that place twenty-four men were gathered round the ashes of 
 a man whose body had been burnt two or three days before. 
 The ceremony commenced by one of their number examining 
 the ashes and carefully separating any portions of the bones 
 that had not been calcined by the flames on the previous 
 day. These he collected in his hands and carried outside the 
 burning-ground, with the intention, I was told, of throwing 
 them into the sea near at hand. This being done, the whole 
 party gathered round the ashes of the pyre in a semicircle, 
 and one of the twenty-four men sprinkled them with water. 
 Then some cow-dung was carefully spread in the centre of 
 the ashes so as to form a flat circular cake of rather more 
 than a foot in diameter, around which a stream of cow's urine 
 was poured from a metal vessel. Next, one of the men 
 brought a plantain-leaf, and laid it on the circle of cow-dung 
 so as to form a kind of dish or plate. Around the edge of 
 the leaf were placed five round balls (Pindas), probably of 
 rice-flower, rather smaller than cricket-balls, mixed with some 
 brown substance. Sprigs of the Tulsl plant and fresh leaves 
 of the betel, with a few flowers, were inserted in each ball, 
 and a coloured cotton cord loosely suspended between them. 
 Next, one of the relations covered the five Pindas with the 
 red powder called gulal. Then five flat wheaten cakes were 
 placed on the plantain-leaf inside the circle of the five Pindas, 
 and boiled rice was piled up on the cakes, surmounted by a 
 small piece of ghl mixed with brown sugar. 
 
 The ceremony being so far completed, the son or next
 
 Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 o^j 
 
 nearest relative took an empty earthenware vase, filled it with 
 water, and held it on his right shoulder. Starting from the 
 north side he commenced circumambulating the five Pindas 
 and the five wheaten cakes, keeping his left shoulder towards 
 them, while one of the relatives with a sharp stone made a 
 hole in the jar, whence the water spouted out in a stream as 
 he walked round. On completing the first circuit and coming 
 back to the north, a second incision was made with the same 
 stone, whence a second stream poured out simultaneously 
 with the first. At the end of the fifth round, when five 
 streams of water had been made to spout out from five holes 
 round the five Pindas, the earthenware vase was dashed to 
 the ground on the north side, and the remaining water spilt 
 over the ashes. Next, one of the relatives took a small 
 metal vessel containing milk, and, with a betel-leaf for a 
 ladle, sprinkled some drops over the rice piled on the 
 wheaten cakes. After which, taking some water from a small 
 lota — or rather making another relative pour it into his hand 
 — he first sprinkled it in a circle round the Pindas, and then 
 over the cakes. Finally, bending down and raising his hands 
 to his head, he performed a sort of puja to the Pindas, which 
 were supposed to represent the deceased man and four other 
 relations. This was repeated by all twenty-four men in turn. 
 After the completion of the ceremony, the balls and cakes 
 were left to be eaten by animals. This may be said to close 
 the funeral rites proper. 
 
 Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 The Sraddha ceremonies, as we have seen (p. 285), have 
 many points in common with the antecedent funeral ob- 
 sequies (antyeshti), especially in the nature of the oblations 
 offered and texts repeated, but the balls of rice, etc. (Pindas) 
 are said to represent the deified bodies of the Pitris. 
 
 According to the Nirnaya-sindhu a Sraddha is a gift given
 
 304 Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 to the Pitris, offered with faith (Sraddha) and with some 
 auspicious exclamation (such as svadhd^), and followed by 
 gifts to the Brahmans (compare p. 287). 
 
 In point of fact Sraddhas are intended both as acts of 
 homage and as means of ministering to the welfare of those 
 deceased relatives who through the efficacy of the previous 
 funeral rites have become invested with ethereal bodies 
 (divya-deha) and admitted to take their place among the 
 Pitris or divine Fathers in the abode of bliss. And the 
 Sraddhas do this, not so much by supplying them with nutri- 
 ment in the balls of rice, cakes of meal, and water offered ^, as 
 by accumulating merit (punya) for them and so accelerating 
 their progress through heaven to future births and final union 
 with the Supreme. And this accumulation of merit is mainly 
 accomplished by feasting and feeing the Brahmans, who are 
 held for the time to represent the Pitris, the idea being that 
 whatever nourishes and benefits the Brahmans, nourishes and 
 benefits the Pitris. 
 
 But a Sraddha is also performed on one's own account. 
 Propitiation and gratification of the Manes are acts fraught 
 with reflex benefits to any one who performs them properly, 
 and may become a means of storing up merit or procuring 
 some advantage for himself and his family. Probably this is 
 the main idea in the minds of those who go through some of 
 the ceremonies so earnestly. 
 
 Nor is a Sraddha by any means necessarily connected with 
 funerals. It may be performed every day, and especially on 
 various occasions of rejoicing. According to the Vishnu- 
 purana (III. 13), 'A householder should worship the Pitris at 
 
 ^ Requiring the dative case of the object to which the oblation is 
 offered. Other similar exclamations are svaha, sraushat, vaushat. 
 Svadha is also a name lor the oblation or for its personification. 
 
 ^ Yet it is true, as before seen, that Manu and others make the Pitris 
 actually feed on the essence of the offerings. In the same way it is said 
 that in Europe in ancient times asphodels were planted near groves 
 to supply the Manes of the dead with nourishment.
 
 Sraddha Ceremonies. 305 
 
 the marriage of a son or daughter, on entering a new 
 dwelling, on naming a child, on performing tonsure, on seeing 
 the face of a son/ 
 
 It is on this account that the Nirnaya-sindhu distinguishes 
 Sraddhas under twelve heads, as follows : — 
 
 I. Nitya, 'daily,' 'constant,' consisting of offerings of water 
 to ancestors generally at the daily morning and evening 
 prayers called Sandhya. This cannot be performed vica- 
 riously, but only by every man in his own person. 
 
 a. Naimittika, ' special,' performed on special occasions as 
 at funerals, and having reference to one person (ekoddish- 
 tam) recently deceased. An odd number of Brahmans (for 
 instance, one, three, five, etc.) are to be feasted at the close of 
 the rite. In contradistinction to Nitya, Naimittika cere- 
 monies admit of being performed through a deputy or repre- 
 sentative. 
 
 3. Kamya, 'voluntary,' performed for the accomplishment of 
 some desired object ; as, for instance, the obtaining of a son. 
 
 4. Vriddhi-Sraddha, 'for the increase of prosperity.' 
 
 5. Sapindana, 'for the benefit of all kinsmen who are 
 Sapindas,' that is, connected by the offering of the Pinda. 
 This may be performed by a woman. 
 
 6. Parvana, 'performed at the conjunction of sun and 
 moon,' that is, at new moon and at other periods of the 
 moon's changes. 
 
 7. Goshthl-Sraddha, ' performed at any large assembly or 
 family gathering.' 
 
 8. Suddhy-artha, 'for the sake of purification,' and con- 
 sisting mainly in the feeding of a certain number of Brahmans, 
 as representatives of the Pitris. 
 
 9. Karmanga, ' performed at certain Sanskara rites.' 
 
 10. Daivika, 'on behalf of the gods,' especially the Visve 
 devah, or ' deities collectively.' 
 
 II. Yatrartha, 'for success' on undertaking a journey. 
 12. Pushty-artha, 'for health and well-being of body.' 
 
 X
 
 3o6 Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 Other forms of Sraddha fell under my observation while 
 I was in India; for example, one called Hiranya- Sraddha, 
 'gold Sraddha,' is performed by giving money to a Brahman, 
 when no Brahman can be found who wishes to be fed with 
 cooked food. 
 
 Again, Darbha-Sraddha is where, in the absence of 
 Brahmans as representatives of the Pitris, an effigy of a 
 Brahman is made with Kusa grass and worship offered to it. 
 
 Of all these Sraddhas, that performed for a parent recently 
 deceased (and therefore falling under the class Naimittika 
 and called Ekoddishta, ' directed towards one person ') is the 
 most interesting, as it is the only one accompanied with 
 elaborate ceremonial, costly gifts, and festivities. It must 
 not be deferred too long after the termination of the funeral 
 proper, and must in all cases take place before the end of 
 the first month after death. It ought to be performed by a 
 son and repeated in a simple form every succeeding month 
 for a year ^, and again at every anniversary. 
 
 In Bengal, according to Mr. S. C. Bose^, a son from the 
 hour of his father's death to the conclusion of the funeral 
 ceremony is religiously forbidden to shave, wear shoes, shirts, 
 or any garment other than the piece of white cloth, his food 
 being confined to a single meal consisting of rice, pulse, milk, 
 ghee, sugar, and a few fruits. A Brahman must continue this 
 course of fasting for ten days ^. 
 
 Then fifteen or sixteen days after the demise of his father 
 the son makes preparation for the approaching Sraddha. 
 About the twentieth day he walks barefoot to the house of 
 each of his relations to announce that the Sraddha is to take 
 
 ^ So in Ireland a mass for the dead is celebrated one month after death. 
 
 ^ See 'The Hindoos as they are,' pp. 254-257. 
 
 ^ According to the Vishnu-purana, the time of mourning and impurity 
 is, for a Brahman, ten days ; for a Kshatriya, twelve ; for a Vaisya, 
 fourteen ; for a Sudra, a whole month or thirty-one days. The higher 
 the caste the less the inconvenience imposed.
 
 Srdddha Ceremomes. 307 
 
 place on the thirty-first day after death. On the thirtieth day, 
 the son and other near relatives shave, cut their nails, and put 
 on new clothes, giving the old to the barber. Invitations 
 are sent round to the Brahmans and Pandits requesting their 
 presence at the feast. On the thirty-first day, early in the 
 morning, the son, accompanied by the officiating priest, goes 
 to the river-side, bathes, and performs certain preliminary 
 rites. A quantity of silver and brass utensils, besides shawls, 
 cloth, and hard silver in cash are required for the ceremony 
 and to serve as gifts for the Brahmans, Pandits, and other 
 guests. From eight in the morning to two in the afternoon 
 the house is crammed to suffocation. The guests arrive early, 
 and are asked to take their seats according to their caste. 
 About ten o'clock the son begins the rite ; the officiating priest 
 reciting the formularies (which ought to include Pitri-suktas 
 from the Sama-veda), and he repeating them. Meanwhile 
 female singers of questionable character entertain the guests 
 with their songs, while garlands and sandal-paste are dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 About one in the afternoon the ceremony is brought to a 
 close by the Brahmans and Pandits receiving their customary 
 gifts. The first in the list gets, in ordinary cases, about five 
 rupees in cash, and one brass vessel valued at four or five 
 rupees ; the second, third, and others in proportion. The 
 Guru or religious teacher and the Purohita or officiating 
 priest carry off the lion's share. 
 
 On the following day, according to Mr. Bose, an entertain- 
 ment is given to the Brahmans, and until this is done no 
 Hindu can be released from the restrictions of mourning, nor 
 regain his former purity. About twelve, the guests begin to 
 assemble, and when the number reaches two or three 
 hundred, seats of Kusa grass in long rows are arranged for 
 them, and each man receives a plantain leaf on which are 
 placed fruits and sweetmeats, such as 'ghee-fried loochees' 
 and other delicacies, besides various kinds of confectionery in 
 
 X 2,
 
 3o8 Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 earthen plates. Every Brahman before leaving the house is 
 presented with a money gift (dakshina) of one or two annas. 
 
 The next day, a similar entertainment with similar gifts is 
 given to Kayasthas and members of inferior classes. 
 
 And here it may be noted that time and place are im- 
 portant factors in the due performance of Sraddhas. As to 
 time, the month Bhadra — from the middle of August to the 
 middle of September — and especially the Pitri-paksha (Pitri 
 fortnight) in that month or in the beginning of Asvina, are 
 believed to be the most auspicious seasons for Sraddhas. 
 
 As to locality, the banks of sacred streams or pools, and 
 places consecrated by the footsteps of Vishnu, are sought for 
 as the most favourable spots. Sraddhas are also performed 
 in cow-houses. No place can surpass in suitability the 
 neighbourhood of some of the holy tanks at Benares, except 
 it be the temple built over the footstep of Vishnu at Gaya, 
 which is more frequented than any other spot in India for 
 the performance of particular Sraddhas. 
 
 At Benares on the Ghat near the pool of Mani-karnika, on 
 the day I vi^ted it, a man was performing a Sraddha for his 
 mother. The officiating Brahman began by forming a 
 slightly elevated piece of ground with some sand lying near 
 at hand. This was supposed to constitute a small altar 
 (vedi). It was of an oblong form, but not more than ten 
 inches long by four or five broad. Across this raised sand he 
 laid three stalks of Kusa grass. Then taking a number of 
 little earthenware platters or saucers, he arranged them round 
 the sand; putting tila or sesamum seed in one, rice in another, 
 honey in a third, areca or betel-nut in a fourth, chandana or 
 sandal in a fifth. Next, he took flour of wheat or barley and 
 kneaded it into one large Pinda, rather smaller than a 
 cricket-ball, which he carefully deposited in the centre of the 
 sand-altar, scattering over it jasmine flowers, khaskhas grass, 
 and wool, and placing on one side of it a betel-leaf with 
 areca-nut and a single copper coin. Then having poured
 
 Sraddha Ceremonies. 309 
 
 water from a lota into his hand, he sprinkled it over all the 
 offerings, arranged in the manner described. Other similar 
 operations followed : — thus, for instance, an earthenware 
 platter, containing a lighted wick, was placed near the 
 offerings; ten other platters were filled with water, which 
 was all poured over the Pinda; another small platter with 
 a lighted wick was added to the first, then some milk was 
 placed in another platter and poured over the Pinda, and then 
 once more the Pinda was sprinkled with water. Finally, the 
 Brahman joined his hands together and did homage to the 
 Pinda. The whole rite did not last more than fifteen 
 minutes, and while it was proceeding, the man for whose 
 mother it was performed continued to repeat Mantras and 
 prayers under the direction of the officiating Brahman, quite 
 regardless of my presence and much loud talking and vocife- 
 ration going on around him. The ceremony was concluded 
 by the ' feeding of a Brahman,' who was sent for and made 
 to sit down near the oblations, and fed with flat cakes, ghee, 
 sweetmeats, vegetables, and curds placed in a plate of palasa- 
 leaves. 
 
 With regard to Gaya, which I visited in 1876, I may 
 mention that the city is most picturesquely situated on 
 the river Phalgu, about sixty miles south-west of Patna, 
 near some short ranges of hills rising abruptly out of the 
 plain. The Vishnu-pada temple, where the principal Sraddhas 
 are performed, is built of black stone, with a lofty dome and 
 golden pinnacle. It contains the alleged footprint of Vishnu 
 in a large silver basin, under a silver canopy, inside an 
 octagonal shrine. Pindas and various kinds of offerings are 
 placed by the pilgrims inside the basin round the footprint, 
 and near it are open colonnades for the performance of the 
 Sraddhas. 
 
 Let no one suppose that the process of performing 
 Sraddhas at Gaya is either simple or rapid. To secure the 
 complete efficacy of such rites, a whole round of them must
 
 3IO Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 be performed at about a hundred distinct places in and 
 around Gaya, as well as at the most holy spot of all — the 
 Vishnu-pada temple — the time occupied in the process being at 
 least eight days, and sometimes protracted to fifteen, while the 
 sums spent in fees to the officiating priests (who at Gaya are 
 called Gayawals, abbreviated into Gaywals = Gaya-palas, re- 
 garded as an inferior order of Brahmans) are often enormous. 
 
 The efficacy of Sraddhas performed at Gaya is this, that 
 wherever in their progress onwards departed relatives may 
 have arrived, the Sraddhas take them without further im- 
 pediment or delay to Vishnu's heaven (Vaikuntha). 
 
 One or two examples witnessed by me will suffice. A 
 party consisting of six men and one Gaywal entered one of 
 the colonnades of the temple and seated themselves on their 
 heels in a line, with the officiating priest at their head. 
 Twelve Pindas were formed of rice and milk, not much larger 
 than the large marbles used by boys (called ' alleys '). They 
 were placed with sprigs of the sacred TulasI plant in small 
 earthenware platters. Then on the top of the Pindas were 
 scattered Kusa grass and flowers. I was told that the 
 Pindas in the present case were typical of the bodies of the 
 twelve ancestors for whom the Sraddha was celebrated. The 
 men had Kusa grass twisted round their fingers, to purify 
 their hands for the due performance of the rite. Next, water 
 was poured into the palms, part of which they sprinkled on 
 the ground, and part on the Pindas. One or two of the men 
 then took threads ofif their clothes and laid them on the 
 Pindas. This act is alleged to be emblematical of presenting 
 the bodies of their departed ancestors with garments. 
 
 Meanwhile texts and prayers were repeated, under the 
 direction of the Gaywal, and the hands were sometimes ex- 
 tended over the Pindas as if to invoke blessings. The whole 
 rite was concluded by the men putting their heads to the 
 ground before the officiating Brahman and touching his feet. 
 The number of Pindas varies with the number of ancestors
 
 Sraddha Ceremonies. 311 
 
 for whom the Sraddhas are celebrated, and the size of the 
 balls and the materials of which they are composed differ 
 according to the caste and the country of those who perform 
 the rite. I saw one party in the act of forming fourteen 
 or fifteen Pindas with meal, which were of a much larger 
 size than large marbles. This party was said to have come 
 from the Dekhan. Sometimes the Pindas were placed on 
 betel-leaves with pieces of money, which were afterwards 
 appropriated by the priests ; and sometimes the water used 
 was taken out of little pots by dipping stalks of Kusa grass 
 into the fluid and sprinkling it over the balls. At the end of 
 all the ceremonies a prayer was said for pardon lest any 
 minute part of the ceremonial had been unintentionally 
 omitted. Then finally all the earthen platters employed 
 were carried to a particular stone in the precincts of the 
 temple and dashed to pieces there. No platter is allowed to 
 be used a second time. The Pindas are left to be eaten by 
 birds and other animals, or reverently deposited in the river. 
 
 It is remarkable that some of the ablest and most en- 
 lightened men of India are unable to resist the impulse which 
 takes every Hindu once in his life, if possible, to both 
 Benares and Gay a, though they are perfectly aware that from 
 the moment of their arrival within ten miles of these sacred 
 localities they are certain to become the prey of a well- 
 organized army of rapacious priests. Mr. Deshmukh ^ gave 
 me a brief account of his visit to Gaya in 1876. He went 
 there, like others of his fellow-countrymen, with the object of 
 performing some of the Sraddha ceremonies. 
 
 He is a Cit-pavan Brahman (see note, p. 270), and gene- 
 rally opposed to all superstitious practices, yet he thinks it 
 right to maintain his influence by conforming, as far as 
 practicable, to old customs. Starting from Patna he had to 
 
 ^ I mean the Hon. G. H. Deshmukh, who was then judge at Nasik, 
 and whom I have often quoted before. The Government, in recognition 
 of his services, has conferred on him the personal title of Rao Bahadur.
 
 312 Sraddha Ceremonies. 
 
 go through the ceremony of shaving (Kshaura) at a river 
 called Punah-punah, about ten miles distant on the road. 
 On reaching Gaya he was surrounded on all sides by thousands 
 of persons offering Pindas, some of whom were persons 
 of high rank— Rajas and Maharajas, on their way to the 
 great imperial assemblage at Delhi. Many went through the 
 entire round of ritual observances, necessitating the perform- 
 ance of at least a hundred Sraddhas at different shrines. 
 Mr. Deshmukh had to tell the Gaywal priests that he was 
 expected in a few days at Delhi, and had little time to spare 
 for Gaya. He was therefore allowed to dispense with all but 
 three ceremonies. These were — i. the Phalgu-Sraddha, per- 
 formed on the banks of the river ; 2. the Vishnu-pada-Sraddha, 
 at the temple containing Vishnu's footprint ; and 3. Vata- 
 Sraddha, performed under a Banian tree. Two whole days 
 were occupied in going through the necessary ritual of these 
 Sraddhas, which was most elaborate and tedious, and the 
 fees were of course proportionately large. The Maharaja of 
 Kashmir, who visited Gaya in the same year and stayed 
 rather longer than Mr. Deshmukh, is said to have expended 
 at least 15,000 rupees on the Gaywal priests before their 
 demands were satisfied. 
 
 I must confess that I myself came away from the Vishnu- 
 pada temple profoundly impressed by the solemnity and 
 earnestness of manner displayed by some of the worshippers, 
 their unfaltering faith in the efficacy of the acts in which they 
 were engaged, and their intense anxiety to carry out every 
 tittle and iota of the ceremonial in obedience to the directions 
 of their priestly guides.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Worship of Animals, Trees, and Inanimate Objects. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock in his work on the ' Origin of Civiliza- 
 tion ' has some interesting remarks on the subject of animal- 
 worship, and shows that zoolatry has always prevailed among 
 uncivilized and half-civilized races in every part of the globe. 
 Mr. E. B. Tylor in the second volume of his ' Primitive 
 Culture ' and Mr. Fergusson in his ' Tree and Serpent Wor- 
 ship ' go ably into the same subject. All three writers give 
 abundant instances. 
 
 It is found, for example, that serpents either have been 
 or still are objects of worship in Egypt \ Persia, Kashmir, 
 India, China, Thibet, Ceylon, Babylonia, Phoenicia, Greece, 
 Italy, Lithuania, and among the Kalmucks and many un- 
 cultured tribes of Africa and America. 
 
 My remarks in the present chapter must of course be 
 limited to India, but a difficult question meets us at the 
 very threshold : — Can any satisfactory account be given of 
 the origin of zoolatry in that country and its continued 
 prevalence there to this very day? 
 
 I need scarcely point out that because animal-worship 
 is common among numerous races in other parts of the 
 world, it does not follow that it may not have originated 
 
 ^ The Egyptians, who were the first educators of the world, adored, 
 as every one knows, the bull Apis, the bird Ibis, the hawk, the crocodile, 
 and many other animals. The mummified cat is a familiar object in 
 the British Museum.
 
 314 Worship of Animals. 
 
 independently in India. The human mind, like the body, goes 
 through similar phases everywhere, develops similar proclivi- 
 ties, and is liable to similar diseases. It is certain that 
 every form of Fetishism and Totemism, of stone-worship, 
 tree-worship, and animal-worship, as well as every variety 
 of polytheistic and pantheistic superstition, have sprung up 
 spontaneously and flourished vigorously on Indian soil. 
 
 The motives, too, which have prompted men to worship 
 animals in India, are probably similar to those which have 
 actuated them elsewhere. It is thought by some that an 
 animal may receive adoration for any one of three reasons. 
 I. Because, like an elephant or lion, it happens to possess 
 superhuman strength and courage ; 2. because it is believed 
 to be an incarnation of the deity; 3. because it is regarded 
 as a totem or representative of a tribe or family, the word 
 totem being derived from an American Indian word dodaim, 
 which signifies the patron or typical animal of a tribe. For 
 it is remarkable that in America every member of a tribe 
 or clan may be called by the name of some animal, as, for 
 example, a bear, or a tortoise ; pictures of these animals 
 standing for the whole clan, very much as animals are used 
 typically in the armorial bearings of some English families 
 in England, and just as in South Africa we hear of men of 
 the fish, men of the crocodile, &c. (Tylor's ' Primitive Cul- 
 ture,' ii. %^S.) 
 
 One writer is inclined to lay great stress on Totemism as 
 a motive for zoolatry. He thinks that an individual or 
 family called after a bear would be inclined to worship the 
 bear. I cannot believe that such a motive had much weight 
 in India. It is true that the word sijih (for Sanskrit sinha) 
 is often appended to the names of men (as in Amara-sinha, 
 Ran-jit-sinh) ; and in other parts of India the expressions 
 'man-lion,' 'man-tiger,' 'man-bull,' etc. denote a man re- 
 markable for courage or strength ; but as a matter of fact 
 the names of the animals most worshipped in India — with
 
 Worship of Animals. 315 
 
 the exception, perhaps, of Naga — are not generally applied to 
 human beings. It seems to me more probable that Indian 
 animal-worship is to be accounted for by the working of 
 one or other of the motives, gratitude, fear, or awe, operating 
 separately, in separate cases. 
 
 For instance, a Hindu worships a cow because he is pro- 
 foundly sensible of the services it renders him ; he worships 
 a serpent because he dreads its power of destroying him by 
 the slightest puncture ; and he worships a monkey because 
 he stands in awe of the marvellous instinct it displays. In 
 short, his zoolatry is simply the expression of an exaggerated 
 or intensified feeling of admiration for the three qualities, 
 utility, brute strength, and instinct, manifesting themselves in 
 animal nature. It must not be forgotten, too, that with a Hindu 
 all organic life is sacred. Even plant-life is to be respected, 
 and must not wantonly be destroyed. 
 
 Without doubt this feeling is strengthened by the intense 
 hold which the doctrine of metempsychosis has on the 
 Hindu mind. It is difficult, as we have already seen, for 
 any believer in Hinduism to draw a line of demarcation 
 between gods, men, and animals. If men depend on animals, 
 so also do the gods ; if men are associated with animals, so 
 also are the gods. Brahma is carried on a goose (hansa) ; 
 Vishnu on an eagle (Garuda), which is also half a man; 
 Siva on a bull (Nandi). 
 
 Other deities are associated with other animals 1. Nor 
 must we forget that Vishnu's first three incarnations are 
 zoomorphic. He infuses his essence into the fish, the tor- 
 toise, and the boar (see pp. 107-109), with the object of 
 delivering the world, or aiding it in certain special exigencies. 
 This seems absurd to our ideas, but not to a Hindu who 
 
 ^ The association of great heroes and saints with animals is not 
 confined to India, for we find three of the Evangelists (St. Mark, 
 St. Luke, and St. John) associated with a lion, ox, and eagle, respec- 
 tively.
 
 3i6 Worship of Animals. 
 
 firmly believes that the supreme soul of the universe^ like 
 the soul of man, may pass into any kind of animal form. 
 
 It is said of Dr. Duff — to whose labours at Calcutta India 
 is so deeply indebted — that he was once examining a school 
 of boys in India, and wishing to ridicule this idea of animal 
 incarnations, said to the boys, ' Can any boy tell me whether 
 it is likely that God's spirit would associate itself with a 
 snail?' No one answered for some time; at last an intel- 
 ligent lad said, ' I think He might condescend to do so, if 
 any useful purpose were to be served thereby for the good 
 of His creatures.' 'Then,' said Dr. Duff, 'you think as a 
 fool.' But did the boy really think foolishly.? and had he 
 the worst of the encounter in his little brush with the Scotch 
 giant .? 
 
 Again, it is owing to a belief in this same doctrine of 
 metempsychosis that a Hindu has no difificulty in believing 
 that a beast, bird, or reptile may at any moment develope 
 human faculties and functions. According to popular belief 
 there are eighty-four lakhs of different species of animals 
 through which a man is liable to pass. Even a noxious insect, 
 therefore, may enclose the soul of some person who was once 
 a sage, a saint, or an orator. It is on this account that the 
 excellent stories about talking animals and their sayings 
 and doings, everywhere current in India, are to the generality 
 of unthinking Hindus not mere fables, but true narratives. 
 A beast or bird may on special occasions speak with a human 
 voice, engage in long arguments, acquire profound learning, 
 and be troubled with a sense of right and wrong, without 
 violating any law of organized life, or outraging any of the 
 usual ideas of probability. 
 
 It is on this account, too, that no man, woman, or child 
 among the Hindus will venture to kill an animal of any kind. 
 Everywhere in India animals of every description appear to 
 live on terms of the greatest confidence and intimacy with 
 human beings. Everywhere they dispute possession of the
 
 Worship of the Cow. 3 1 7 
 
 earth with man. Birds build their nests and lay their eggs 
 in the fields, untroubled by fears or misgivings, before the 
 very eyes of every passer-by, and within the reach of every 
 village school-boy. Animals of all kinds rove over the soil 
 as if they were the landlords. Here and there a needy farmer 
 may drive them from his crops, but he dares not question 
 their claim to a portion of the food he eats and the house 
 he occupies ; while everywhere in the towns they are admitted, 
 so to speak, to the privileges of fellow-citizens. Bulls walk 
 about independently in the streets, and jostle you on the 
 pavements ; monkeys domesticate themselves jauntily on the 
 roof of your house ; parrots peer inquisitively from the eaves 
 of your bedroom into the mysteries of your toilet ; crows 
 make themselves at home on your window-sill, and carry off 
 impudently any portable article of jewelry that takes their 
 fancy on your dressing-table ; sparrows hop about imper- 
 tinently, and take the bread off your table-cloth ; a solitary 
 mongoose emerges every morning from a hole in your 
 verandah, and expects a share in your breakfast ; swarms of 
 insects claim a portion of your midday meal, and levy a tax 
 on the choioEst delicacies at your dinner table ; bats career 
 triumphantly about your head as you light yourself to your 
 bed-room ; and at certain seasons snakes domicile themselves 
 unpleasantly in the folds of your cast-off garments. 
 
 I need say no more to make it clear that, in the eyes of 
 the orthodox Hindu, every animal is more or less sacred 
 and inviolable. Let me rather proceed to note some of the 
 more interesting examples of actual animal-worship. And first 
 let us turn our attention to three classes of animals, the 
 adoration of which probably results from the operation of the 
 three motives I have already suggested. 
 
 In the forefront must be placed the worship of the cow, 
 the ox, and the bull. The utility of the cow as a source 
 of nourishment to a people who never kill animals for food, 
 and of the ox to agriculturalists who have no cart-horses for
 
 3 1 8 Worship of the Cow. 
 
 draught, is manifest. The cow is of all animals the most 
 sacred. Every part of its body is inhabited by some deity or 
 other. Every hair on its body is inviolable. All its excreta 
 are hallowed. Not a particle ought to be thrown away as 
 impure. On the contrary, the water it ejects ought to be pre- 
 served as the best of all holy waters — a sin-destroying liquid 
 which sanctifies everything it touches, while nothing purifies 
 like cow-dung. Any spot which a cow has condescended to 
 honour with the sacred deposit of her excrement is for ever 
 afterwards consecrated ground, and the filthiest place plastered 
 with it is at once cleansed and freed from pollution, while 
 the ashes produced by burning this hallowed substance are 
 of such a holy nature, that they not only make clean all 
 material things, however previously unclean, but have only 
 to be sprinkled over a sinner to convert him into a saint. 
 
 In an underground passage of the Agra fort there is an 
 image of a man named Mukunda. The Brahman who was 
 my guide when I visited this place gravely informed me 
 that it represented a celebrated saint who felt himself com- 
 pelled to commit suicide by jumping into the neighbouring 
 river as a penalty for having accidentally swallowed the 
 hair of a cow by drinking milk without straining it. But 
 even this, he continued, was not deemed sufficient punish- 
 ment, for he was condemned to become a Muhammadan in 
 his next birth, though the harshness of the sentence was 
 partially mitigated by the fact that he was born again as 
 the Emperor Akbar. 
 
 It is worthy of note that the Hindus believe in the exist- 
 ence of a typical divine cow called Surabhi or Kama-dhenu, 
 'the cow of plenty,' yielding all desired objects, representa- 
 tions of which are to be seen in temples, or are kept in 
 houses for purposes of domestic worship. This typical animal 
 was produced from the ocean when it was churned by the 
 gods and demons (see p. 108). Yet I nowhere saw any temple 
 dedicated exclusively to Surabhi or to any other cow. It
 
 Worship of Serpents. 319 
 
 is rather the Hving animal which is a perpetual object of 
 adoration. As to the bull, he is, as we have seen, dedicated 
 to Siva ; he is constantly associated with the god as typical 
 of generative power, and images of him are to be found near 
 all Linga shrines. The letting loose of a bull (vrishotsarga) 
 — stamped with the trident of Siva — in sacred cities like 
 Benares and Gaya is an act fraught with the highest merit 
 in this world and the next. 
 
 Passing on to the second class of animals, or those v;or- 
 shipped out of motives of fear^ we must, of course, place the 
 serpent at the head of the list. Much has been written on 
 ophiolatry, and on the vexed question of its origin. The 
 subject seems inexhaustible. Many, indeed, believe that 
 snake-worship was the earliest form of religion prevalent 
 among men in all parts of the globe, its general diffusion 
 being partially accounted for by the fact that serpents are 
 indigenous almost everywhere, and not, like monkeys and 
 elephants, in certain localities only. All writers, however, 
 are agreed that the chief factor in the universality of this 
 phase of superstition is the dread inspired by a mysterious 
 creeping creature, silent and stealthy in its movements, ap- 
 parently quite unprovided with the most ordinary means of 
 offence and defence, yet found to have at its command the 
 most deadly of all known destructive weapons, and able to 
 cause almost instantaneous death by merely pricking the 
 skin of its adversary. 
 
 In India; as is well known^ the habit of walking barefoot 
 exposes the half-clad natives to constant peril from this 
 source, so that, according to some authorities; at least 25,000 
 perish annually from snake-bites (many deaths being un- 
 registered). Nevertheless, the feeling of antipathy that leads 
 a man to recoil from contact with a snake of any kind does 
 not seem to depend entirely on its power of doing harm. 
 A large majority of these animals are quite innocuous. Yet 
 to many persons their sinuous movements, their habit of
 
 320 Woi^ship of Serpents. 
 
 shunning observation, their concealment of themselves in 
 holes, the cold fixity of their gaze, and the constant pro- 
 trusion of their forked tongues, are in themselves typical of 
 subtlety and malevolence ; while to others these operations 
 are not merely types of evil qualities, but evidences of actual 
 demoniacal possession. 
 
 On the other hand, it is certain that to some minds the 
 beautiful markings, spiral movements, and generally striking 
 aspect of many species of innocuous snakes, are suggestive 
 of only pleasant ideas. To such persons serpents are typical 
 of divine beauty and beneficence, while the coiling of their 
 bodies in rings and circles, and their annual rejuvenescence 
 by the renewal of their skins, symbolize immortality and 
 the never-ending cycles of eternal time. 
 
 It is remarkable that serpents are either worshipped or 
 propitiated in India under all these opposite characters even 
 to the present day. Nor does a Hindu appear to see any 
 inconsistency in regarding snakes as embodiments of the 
 contradictory ideas of destruction and regeneration, male- 
 volence and benevolence, demonism and divinity, death and 
 immortality. 
 
 No authority, however, for any such diversified concep- 
 tions of serpent-nature is to be found in the more ancient 
 sacred writings of India ; nor is there any proof that the 
 early Aryan immigrants were in any sense serpent-worship- 
 pers. On 'he contrary, their only feeling towards the serpent 
 was one of dread and dislike. Hence in the Rig-veda (see 
 
 VI. 30. 2) the demon of cloud and darkness, called Vritra, 
 is either identified or associated with the serpent Ahi ("Oc^i?) ; 
 and the god Soma is described as delivering over all evil 
 speakers and slanderers into the power of this serpent (see 
 
 VII. 104. 9, and compare Vajasaneyi-samhita VI. 12). We 
 know, too, that even to this day the sight of a snake in the 
 early morning is to a Brahman so bad an omen, that after 
 seeing it he will desist for the moment from the prosecution
 
 Worship of Serpents. 321 
 
 of any work in which he may be engaged ^. Yet so elastic 
 was the creed and practice of Brahmanism, that, finding 
 serpent-worship, like other aboriginal cults, established on 
 Indian soil, it had no difficulty in adopting it, and ended by 
 incorporating every superstitious idea connected with ophio- 
 latry into the complex fabric of Hinduism. 
 
 In fact the gradual intertwining of serpent-worship with 
 Saivism, Vaishnavism, and even Buddhism and Jainism, but 
 more especially with Saivism (see pp. 80, 105, and 113), is 
 one of the most interesting features of this complex subject. 
 Siva has five heads, and a great majority of serpent images 
 are five-headed also. Then I have often seen images of 
 serpents coiled round the Lihga, and five-headed snakes 
 forming a canopy over it. A similar canopy is also found 
 over idols of Krishna and Buddha ; Vishnu, too, is repre- 
 sented as sleeping on the thousand-headed Sesha, the symbol 
 of Infinity, which also forms a canopy over him. 
 
 On the other hand, Garuda, the mythical bird of Vishnu, 
 half eagle, half man, destroys serpents in their character of 
 representatives of evil. Krishna does the same ; and the 
 Maha-bharata — that greatest of all repositories of Hindu 
 belief — opens with a long account of Janamejaya's sacrifice for 
 the annihilation of the serpent or Naga race (I. 1547-2197). 
 Buddhism, no doubt, became connected with serpent-worship 
 not from any affinity with it, but because of its tolerant 
 habit of adapting itself to all pre-existing cults. The same 
 may be said of Jainism. 
 
 And here it must be observed that the worship of serpents 
 in India is closely connected with that of the Nagas ; or 
 rather, is generally mixed up and confounded with that 
 worship. Indeed the word Naga frequently denotes an 
 ordinary serpent, though it properly signifies a being half 
 
 * Yet a snake (as oviparous) is, like a Brahman, called Dvi-ja, 'twice- 
 born.' Birds for the same reason are 'twice-born.'
 
 322 Worship of Serpents. 
 
 human, half serpentine in form\ not necessarily evil^ but 
 often beautiful, wise, and good, and, although armed with 
 a deadly venom, possessing also the elixir of life and im- 
 mortality, and able to bestow it upon others (Maha-bh. I. 
 1500-1505, 5018-5035). 
 
 The race of Nagas is fabled to have sprung from Kadru, 
 one of the wives of the old patriarch Kasyapa (her sister 
 Vinata being also a wife of Kasyapa, and mother of Garuda). 
 Kadru gave birth to 1000 Nagas, who became the progenitors 
 of the whole serpent-race. Some of the females among them, 
 like Ulupi (p. I2>'i), are believed to have married human 
 heroes, and to this day there are tribes called Nagas ^, and 
 ancient families who claim to be of Naga descent (p. 333, 
 note). The whole race of mythical Nagas is sometimes 
 represented as dwelling at the bottom of the ocean, or in 
 the depths of rivers and lakes, but more frequently as in- 
 habiting the regions under the earth (see p. 2'^'^), and more 
 especially Patala, or a portion of it called Nagaloka, of which 
 the capital is Bhogavatl. In connexion with their supposed 
 watery abode, the following curious story is told in the Maha- 
 bharata (I. 5006) : — 
 
 The Pandu princes in their boyish sports excelled the sons 
 of Dhrita-rashtra. This excited much ill-feeling ; and Dur- 
 yodhana, spiteful even when a boy, tried to destroy Bhima 
 by mixing poison in his food, and then throwing him into 
 the water when stupefied by its effects. BhIma, however, 
 was not drowned, but descended to the abode of the Nagas, 
 who freed him from the poison (I. 5052), and gave him an 
 
 ^ Dr. K. M. Banerjea thinks that the theory of a race of Nagas, half 
 serpents, half men, confirms the Biblical account of the serpent, which 
 was originally perhaps a species corresponding to the Nagas, till the 
 sentence was pronounced by which it became a creeping reptile. It is 
 said that when serpents are accidentally killed in India, they are some- 
 times honoured with regular funeral ceremonies like human beings. 
 
 "^ For example, the Nagas of Manipur, but they are not found to be 
 snake-worshippers.
 
 Worship of Serpents. 323 
 
 elixir to drink which endued him with the strength of ten 
 thousand Nagas. From that moment he became a kind of 
 Hercules. 
 
 The kings of the Nagas are Sesha, Vasuki, and Takshaka. 
 Of these, the most conspicuous is the thousand-headed Sesha, 
 also called An-anta, ' the Infinite,' sometimes represented as 
 forming the couch and canopy of Vishnu, while sleeping 
 during the intervals of creation ; sometimes as bearing the 
 world on his thousand heads; sometimes as supporting Patala; 
 and sometimes as having become man in the form of Bala- 
 rama (p. 112). According to popular belief all earthquakes 
 are caused by his shaking one of his thousand heads. 
 
 A particular day called Naga-pancamI, about the end of 
 July (Sravana), is held sacred to the Nagas, and in the 
 districts of India where serpent-worship is especially rife, 
 numbers flock to Naga-shrines on that day. I should state, 
 however, that temples dedicated to serpents are by no means 
 common in Northern India. The only one I visited was that 
 sacred to Vasuki at Dara-ganj, near Allahabad. This is a 
 noted shrine, and pilgrims resort to it in large numbers on 
 the Naga-pancamI festival. I found that the priest of this 
 temple was not a Brahman, but a man of low caste ^ On 
 my expressing a wish for some memorial of the place, he 
 tore off a rude drawing of a many-headed serpent which was 
 fastened to the door of the shrine, and presented it to me. 
 
 Other shrines in the neighbourhood of Nagpur and cer- 
 tain districts of the central provinces (such as Chanda-pur, 
 Bhandhak, etc.) are much frequented at certain seasons. In 
 Southern India the whole of Kanara may be regarded as 
 steeped in serpent-worship. 
 
 Mr. Walhouse informs us that one of the highest mountains 
 of the South Kanara Ghats, named Su-brahmanya, has a 
 very celebrated serpent-temple. There great numbers of the 
 
 ^ This is, I believe, the case in all serpent-temples, and it is one 
 evidence that Brahmanism had originally no connexion with ophiolatry. 
 
 Y 2
 
 324 Worship of Serpents. 
 
 'coiling folk' reside in holes and crevices made for them. 
 To propitiate these creatures, persons who have made vows 
 roll and wriggle round the temple serpent-fashion, and some 
 will even roll their bodies up to it from the foot of the hill, 
 a mile distant. They also take home with them portions 
 of earth from the sacred serpent-holes. This earth is believed 
 to cleanse from leprosy, if rubbed on the parts affected ; it 
 will moreover cure barrenness in women, if a little be daily 
 put in the mouth. Serpentine body-wriggling is also prac- 
 tised further south, where small snake-temples {Ndga-kovil 
 in Tamil) are common. Near one of these, not far from 
 Madura on the bank of the Vaiga river, there are men who 
 for a few rupees will perform any number of wrigglings and 
 rollings round the shrine, as proxies for persons who have 
 vowed them^ 
 
 Indeed it seems to be a fixed article of belief throughout 
 Southern India, that all who have wilfully or accidentally 
 killed a snake, especially a cobra, will certainly be punished 
 either in this life or the next in one of three ways : — either 
 by childlessness, or by leprosy, or by ophthalmia. It behoves 
 all persons, therefore, who are afflicted with such diseases, 
 or feel that they may have to undergo the inevitable penalty 
 hereafter, to visit serpent-shrines and conciliate the serpent- 
 gods by the most abject homage. In connexion with these 
 ideas, I may mention that on the banks of the river Tamra- 
 parnl, near a bridge connecting Tinnevelly with Palamcottah, 
 I noticed two or three Pipal trees^ under which were depo- 
 sited hundreds of stone images, of Krishna and of the Lihga 
 of Siva, each image having a five-headed Naga so carved 
 as to form a canopy over it. It is the custom in the South 
 of India for any woman who is childless, and believes her 
 barrenness to be caused by having killed a cobra in a former 
 life, to perform the ceremony called Naga-pratishtha ; that 
 
 ^ See * Indian Antiquary,' for February 1878.
 
 Worship of Serpents. 325 
 
 is to say, she sets up a stone Naga under a tree, taking care 
 to have it duly consecrated by the repetition of texts and 
 prayers. On the occasion of my visit to the Tamra-parni, 
 several women were assembled in the neighbourhood of the 
 largest Pipal tree. Some performed reverential circumambu- 
 lation round the images, and some sprinkled them with water 
 from vessels which they held in their hands. 
 
 In the same way childless women are in the habit of going 
 to holes in the earth where snakes are supposed to dwell, and 
 depositing offerings of milk with invocations and prayers. 
 
 I may note here another curious superstition connected 
 with this subject. The heads of all Nagas and of all ser- 
 pents — especially cobras — are believed to contain precious 
 stones and gems of magical properties. These, if extracted 
 and carried about on the person, are capable of working as 
 astounding miracles for their owners, as the wonderful lamp 
 did for Aladdin. I met with no one who could show me a 
 specimen of these so-called miraculous snake-stones, but they 
 are described as dark and shining, and shaped like a horse- 
 bean. A similar superstition exists in some parts of England 
 in regard to supposed stones in the heads of toads. 
 
 As an example of other superstitious ideas about snakes, 
 it is related that a certain village in Northern India was not 
 long ago suddenly deserted by all its inhabitants. No per- 
 suasions would induce the people to return, and on inquiry 
 it was found that the panic among the villagers was caused 
 by an unexpected visitation of snakes, who had established 
 themselves comfortably in the precincts of the village, and 
 that these harmless immigrants were believed to be a colony 
 of malevolent demons. 
 
 Again, it is said that a man once bought a piece of ground 
 and sat down to contemplate his purchase under a tree in 
 the centre of his newly-acquired property. Suddenly he 
 heard the hissing of a snake coiled in the branches above 
 his head. Panic -struck, he ran off and escaped unharmed,
 
 326 Worship of Monkeys. 
 
 but never dared to show his face on the ground again, 
 being firmly convinced that the serpent was the indignant 
 spirit of the former proprietor, whom he had imprudently 
 neglected to propitiate before taking possession. 
 
 So much for the complex and difficult subject of serpent- 
 worship in India. 
 
 Probably the best representative of the third class of 
 animals whose worship originally arose from a deep rever- 
 ence for instinct is the monkey. And here a difficult question 
 presents itself as to the precise meaning of the term ' instinct.' 
 Is it possible to define its exact nature and to give any reason 
 for its claim to adoration? Without attempting to solve 
 insoluble metaphysical problems we may perhaps describe 
 instinct; in a general way, as the mysterious exercise of 
 certain powers and faculties of mind and body in obedience 
 to the laws of organized life without conscious will. The 
 working of these powers in the lower animals may well excite 
 amazement and admiration, if not worship. What can be 
 more wonderful than the sight of a feeble timid mother-bird 
 suddenly transformed by instinct into a very tigress, and 
 ready to fight hopelessly in defence of her young against an 
 opponent immeasurably her superior? 
 
 To a Hindu such a sight would be an intense confirmation 
 of his belief that the divine soul may occupy animals as well 
 as men. And if instinct in the lower animals fills him with 
 so deep an awe, how much more is he inclined to attach 
 sacredness to a class of animals in whom instinct almost 
 impinges upon the domain of reason ? 
 
 With regard to the actual worship of monkeys little need 
 be added to what has already been stated in relation to 
 Hanuman (see p. 23o). In Hindu mythology apes and 
 monkeys are as intimately connected with the worship of 
 Vishnu as the bull is with that of Siva ; though the reverence 
 for these animals probably preceded the full development of 
 both Vaishnavism and Saivism (see note, p. 222). Indeed
 
 Worship of various miimals, 327 
 
 the idea of a close interconnexion between gods, demons, 
 men, and animals dates from the earliest times ; and the hold 
 which such ideas have gained on the Hindu mind is often 
 illustrated in a remarkable manner by present customs. 
 
 In Ward's ' Hindoos ' an account is given of what to Euro- 
 peans would appear an incredible occurrence: — A certain 
 Bengal Raja spent 100,000 rupees in marrying a male and 
 female monkey, with all the paraphernalia, pageant, and 
 expense usual at the weddings of high-caste human beings. 
 The male monkey was borne along in a costly vehicle, had 
 a crown fastened on his head, and a whole array of servants 
 to wait on him. The festivities lasted for twelve days. Pro- 
 bably, after all, this extraordinary proceeding was merely a 
 mode of offering homage to Hanuman, whose worship, as 
 already explained at p. 320, is prevalent everywhere. 
 
 I may note here as a curious circumstance that there is at 
 Benares a well-known temple, commonly called the ' monkey- 
 temple,' which is not really dedicated to Hanuman, but to 
 Durga. I witnessed the sacrifice of a goat in honour of the 
 goddess outside the door of the shrine, while several intelli- 
 gent monkeys, with true simian and mock-human curiosity, 
 leaped from the neighbouring trees, took up a position on 
 the vantage-ground of the roof, and seemed to be quite as 
 interested in the ceremony as I was. These animals are 
 daily fed by pious persons who frequent the temple. To 
 feed one is a highly meritorious act ; to injure one would 
 be the most heinous of crimes. 
 
 I can only advert briefly to other animals usually held 
 sacred in India. A large number are, as we have seen (p. 104, 
 note 3), associated with gods, as their vehicles, servants, or 
 companions, and worshipped accordingly. 
 
 Vishnu's attendant, the divine Garuda (see p. 104), is re- 
 presented by a species of eagle or similar bird, common in 
 some parts of India, and held in great honour. 
 
 In some country districts, villagers are in the habit of
 
 328 Worship of various animals. 
 
 invoking Garuda's protection against snakes every night 
 before going to sleep. Again, in the North Konkan, I 
 heard of a tribe called Warali, who worship Vaghoba, the 
 ' tiger-lord ' (Sanskrit Vydghra, a tiger), from similar motives. 
 
 Then the goose (hansa) is, as we have seen, sacred to 
 Brahma, the elephant to Indra, the tiger to Durga, the buffalo 
 to Yama, the rat to Ganesa, the ram to Agni, the peacock 
 to Skanda, the parrot to Kama-deva (god of love). 
 
 With regard to the sacredness of the elephant, it is notable 
 that the earth is not only supported on Sesha (p. '>i'^'^, but 
 also on the vast heads and backs of eight male and eight 
 female elephants, who all have names and distinct person- 
 alities. They are called the elephants of the eight quarters. 
 When any one of these shakes its body the whole earth 
 quakes (see Ramayana I. 41). Sometimes they are described 
 as indulging locomotive propensities, and roaming about in 
 the neighbourhood of their stations. 
 
 The fish, the tortoise, and the boar are of course worshipped 
 as incarnations of Vishnu. Fish are often kept in tanks and 
 fed as a religious duty. At Mathura (Muttra) I noticed a 
 number of sacred tortoises and turtles in the neighbourhood 
 of the temples. They swarm in the river and are daily fed by 
 the pilgrims. The crocodile or alligator (makara) is some- 
 times held sacred to Kama-deva. It is well known that 
 children were at one time thrown into the Ganges as a 
 sacrifice to these animals, who eagerly devoured them. The 
 wag-tail (Khanjana) is regarded as a form of Vishnu, the 
 mark on its throat having some resemblance to a Sala-grama 
 stone. The cat is sacred to the goddess Shashthi (p. 229), 
 who is supposed to use it as her vehicle. The dog is con- 
 nected with Siva (see p. 266, note) in his character of a Kirata 
 or mountaineer (p. 64), or rather perhaps with Rudra, who also 
 presides over horses. Hence in the Satarudriya hymn of the 
 Yajur-veda (see p. 76) we have the expressions ' Reverence to 
 dogs and to the lords of dogs,' ' Reverence to horses and to
 
 Worship of various animals. 329 
 
 the lords of horses.' Hence, too, the name Krita-jna, 'the 
 grateful one/ is applied equally to Siva and to dogs. In 
 Western India it is customary to feed dogs as a sacred duty 
 on a certain day in each month. In the Bali-harana (some- 
 times called Kaka-bali) ceremony, performed every day by 
 religious Hindus before dinner, a prayer is said to Yama's 
 two watch-dogs (see p. 289), and offerings of food are placed 
 on the ground for all dogs, crows, etc. Again, crows are fed 
 at the end of the Sraddha ceremonies during the Pitri-paksha 
 (see p. 311). On the other hand, in some passages of the 
 Epic poems, dogs are described as unclean animals, and crows 
 are held to be birds of ill-omen. So also Sva-paca, ' dog- 
 cooker,' and Tirtha-kaka, ' a crow at a place of pilgrimage,' 
 are terms of reproach (see Panini II. 1. 42). 
 
 Another term of reproach applied to a man of limited ideas 
 is Kupa-manduka, ' a frog in a well,' or Kupa-kacchapa, ' a 
 tortoise in a well.' 
 
 With reference to the sacredness of horses, I found that in 
 -some parts of India, at the Dasa-hara (Dasara) festival, horses 
 are decorated with garlands. The mythical horse, Uccaih- 
 sravas, 'high-eared,' produced at the churning of the ocean 
 (p. 108), and supposed to be the prototype of the whole 
 race of horses, is generally assigned to the Vedic god Indra. 
 We know that the Asva-medha, or 'horse-sacrifice,' was a 
 very ancient ceremony, hymns 162 and 163 in Mandala I. of 
 the Rig-veda being used at this rite. It was held to be the 
 chief of all animal sacrifices, and in later times its efficacy was 
 so exaggerated that a hundred horse-sacrifices entitled the 
 sacrificer to displace Indra from the dominion of heaven. 
 Indra, therefore, always endeavoured to capture the horse 
 before its immolation (see Ramayana I. 13). 
 
 I may add that the commentator on Panini (II. 4. 9) notices 
 the natural enmity between the cat and the mouse, the dog 
 and the jackal, the serpent and the mongoose, the crow and 
 the owl.
 
 330 Worship of Trees and Plants. 
 
 Worship of Trees and Plants. 
 
 We learn from the numerous examples adduced by Sir 
 John Lubbock, Mr. Tylor, and Mr. Fergusson, that the 
 adoration of trees, shrubs and plants^ in virtue of the 
 supernatural qualities or divine essence supposed to be in- 
 herent in them, is almost as universally diffused over the 
 globe as the worship of animals, and that both forms of 
 religion are of the greatest antiquity. Every one is familiar 
 with such instances as the prophetic oak of Dodona, the 
 myrtle of Venus, the poplar sacred to Hercules, the oaks 
 of the British Druids, and the sacred groves of Germany 
 mentioned by Tacitus^; but every one does not know that 
 there existed quite recently a particular oak-copse in the 
 island of Skye which the inhabitants held inviolably sacred, 
 and that here and there in remote parts of Europe simple- 
 minded peasants are to be found who still pay homage to 
 certain trees, still hang offerings on their branches, and still 
 believe in willows that bleed, and in trees that speak when 
 about to be cut down. 
 
 Tree-worship, we are told, was once common in Greece, 
 France, Poland, Assyria, and many other countries. It has 
 continually prevailed among uncultivated tribes in Africa, 
 America, and Polynesia. In Persia travellers occasionally 
 come across trees hung with offerings of rags and garments, 
 and throughout the greater part of Asia a belief in a kind 
 of divinity inherent in certain trees has always been a re- 
 cognized element of the popular creed. 
 
 In India, as already observed, all life is sacred. It might 
 even be afifirmed that the Hindus were the first believers in 
 the law of continuity; for in their creed the life of gods 
 is connected with that of demons, the life of demons with 
 
 ^ Pliny asserts that the earliest form of temple or church was a tree, 
 and some think that the word kirk is cognate with quercus.
 
 W 07' ship of Trees and Plants. 331 
 
 that of men, the Hfe of men with that of animals, the Hfe 
 of animals with that of plants, the life of plants with a sup- 
 posed life in rocks and stones, and the divine soul is thought 
 to permeate all. In obedience to this law there is no break 
 of any kind anywhere, and plant-worship follows, as a neces- 
 sary consequence, on animal-worship. In fact, according to 
 the Hindu theory of metempsychosis all trees and plants are 
 conscious beings^ having as distinct personalities and souls of 
 their own as gods, demons, men, and animals (see Manu 1. 49). 
 But it must be borne in mind that although trees may in 
 their turn become the receptacle of the spirits of gods, men, 
 and animals \ they are peculiarly liable to be occupied by 
 demons. That is to say, these beings may not only occupy 
 a tree as its spirit or soul ; they may often resort to it as 
 guests, or take up their abode in it as tenants, when it is 
 already furnished with a soul of its own. The idea seems to be 
 that demons require protection from the weather like human 
 beings, and occasionally betake themselves to trees as con- 
 venient and agreeable places of shelter. 
 
 This explains the close connexion between tree-worship, 
 serpent- worship^, demon-worship, and Siva- worship. Demons 
 are believed to be fond of occupying both serpents and 
 trees, and Siva is lord of demons, of serpents, and of plants 
 (see p. 77). 
 
 In relation to this subject, it may be noted that in India 
 a tree is sometimes planted and then confided to the 
 guardianship of a demon, who from that moment considers 
 himself responsible for the safe-keeping of the tree, and if 
 any one is rash enough to steal its fruit, punishes him by 
 afflicting him with sickness^. 
 
 ^ The great Buddha is said to have occupied trees forty-three times 
 in the course of his transmigrations. 
 
 ^ The connexion of serpent-worship with tree-worship may have 
 originally arisen from the fact that many snakes like to establish them- 
 selves in the roots of trees, especially in those of the sandal-wood tree. 
 
 ' This is mentioned by Colonel Sleeman.
 
 332 Worship of the Tulasl. 
 
 In Birbhum the entire population does homage once a year 
 to a cluster of three trees in the jungle, which are supposed to 
 be the abodes of as many demons ^ In the Madura district 
 there is a solitary Mimosa tree, growing near a tank. This 
 tree always has numerous pieces of rag and cloth tied to its 
 branches. The explanation given by the peasantry is that a 
 traveller was once found dead near the tank and that his spirit 
 has become a malignant demon which resides in the tree and 
 requires to be propitiated by offerings ^. 
 
 Of course, however, adoration paid to the demons in such 
 trees must not be confounded with the worship of plants and 
 trees which are themselves deities, or are in themselves per- 
 meated by the essence of certain deities. 
 
 For instance, I need scarcely here repeat that early in the 
 Vedic period the Soma plant was personified, and made an 
 object of general adoration (see p. 12). It was not merely 
 the abode of divinity, but itself a god. 
 
 Then just as the divine cow Surabhi, granting all desires, 
 and the typical horse Uccaih-sravas arose out of the ocean 
 when churned for the production of certain valuable objects, 
 so arose also a divine tree called Parijata (see p. 168), which 
 afterwards became the property of the god Indra, and was 
 transferred to his heaven. This tree was called Kalpa- 
 druma, as granting all desire to those who did homage to its 
 divinity. So in the Sakuntala the trees of the sacred grove 
 are described as yielding beautiful robes and costly ornaments 
 for the adornment of the heroine (see my translation, p. 99). 
 
 Moreover, just as a portion of the godhead or essence of 
 Vishnu descended in the fish, the tortoise, and the boar, so 
 certain plants are embodiments of portions of the essence 
 of particular deities. 
 
 ^ See Hunter's 'Annals of Rural Bengal,' p. 131. 
 
 ^ Mr. Walhouse states that he saw this tree. So also the tombs of 
 Musalman saints are often encircled by upright poles, to which are 
 fastened streamers of many-coloured rags.
 
 Worship of the Tzdasi. 'TiZ'h 
 
 For example, the TulasI, or holy Basil (popularly TulsT, 
 botanically Ocymum Sanctiivi), is not merely sacred to Vishnu 
 or to his wife Lakshml; it is pervaded by the essence of 
 these deities, and itself worshipped as a deity and prayed to 
 accordingly. Many regard the TulasI as a metamorphosis of 
 Sita, wife of Vishnu's incarnation Rama-candra ; others 
 identify this plant with Rukminl, wife of Krishna S while 
 others hold it to be an embodiment of all the deities together. 
 It is certain that in whatever light regarded, the TulasI is the 
 object of more adoration than any other plant at present 
 worshipped in India, and the following prayer is often ad- 
 dressed to it : — ' I adore that TulasI in whose roots are all the 
 sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose centre are all the deities, 
 and in whose upper branches are all the Vedas^.' 
 
 Possibly its sanitary properties may have been the original 
 cause of the homage it receives. Its leaves are believed to 
 heal the sick, and to be a remedy against the poison of 
 serpents ^. 
 
 But the great estimation in which the TulasI is held is best 
 indicated by the fact that it is to be found in almost every 
 respectable Hindu household throughout India. It is a small 
 shrub, not too big to be cultivated in a good-sized flower-pot, 
 and often placed in rooms. Generally,, however, it is planted in 
 the court-yard of a well-to-do man's house, with a space round 
 it for reverential circumambulation. In real fact the TulasI is 
 par excellence a domestic divinity, or rather, perhaps, a woman's 
 divinity. The women of India are, unhappily, still shut out 
 from most of the avenues that lead to enlightenment. The 
 
 ^ In Kalidasa's celebrated drama VikramorvasT, the nymph UrvasI 
 is metamorphosed into a creeping plant, just as Daphne was into a 
 laurel and the sisters of Phaethon into poplars. 
 
 ^ Yan-mule sarva-tirthani yan-madhye sarva-devatah [ yad-agre sarva- 
 vedas-ca Tulasim tam namamy aham. 
 
 ^ Colonel Yule informs me that the Basil is also venerated in Sicily 
 for its sanitary properties. The inhabitants keep it in the windows 
 of their houses.
 
 334 Worship of the Titlasi. 
 
 great majority are unable to read and write their own mother- 
 tongue ; yet, like the women in other countries, they are far 
 more religious than the men. How can it be matter of 
 wonder, therefore, if their religion takes the form of un- 
 mitigated superstition ? The ancient law-giver Manu affirms 
 that women were created to be mothers and men to be 
 fathers, and that religious rites ought to be performed by 
 husbands with their wives (IX. 96). But in the present day 
 women perform their religious services apart from their hus- 
 bands. Nor is this surprising, for as a rule all their religion 
 consists in walking round the TulasI plant — considered as a 
 form of either Vishnu's wife Lakshml or of Rama's faithful 
 wife Sita, or of Krishna's wife Rukmini — in saying prayers to 
 it, or placing offerings of flowers and rice before it. 
 
 In a central space in most of the villages I visited in India, 
 I noticed a small raised platform of rough masonry on which 
 grew a Pipal tree and a TulasI shrub, and on particular 
 occasions I observed poor women, who were probably not 
 rich enough to possess the TulasI plant in their own houses, 
 performing circumambulation round the village shrub. In 
 one village, especially, I watched a woman who was in the 
 act of walking 108 times round the sacred plant with her 
 right shoulder always turned towards it^ Her simple object, 
 no doubt, was to propitiate the goddess with a view to 
 securing long life for her husband and a large family of 
 sons for herself. 
 
 I should note that as animals are made to go through 
 the ceremonial of marriage (see p. 327), so also are plants. 
 The ceremony of marrying the TulasI shrub to the idol of 
 the youthful Krishna takes place annually in every Hindu 
 family in the month Karttika. In Western India an idol of 
 the young Krishna is often brought in procession from the 
 
 ^ Hence this reverential circumambulation is called pradakshina. It 
 must follow the course of the sun, or all its efficacy is destroyed.
 
 Worship of the Pippala or Asvattha. 335 
 
 house of one of the Vallabhacarya Maharajas (see p. 136), 
 to some rich man's residence where the TulasI is kept. 
 The idol is placed in a gorgeous palanquin and followed 
 by a long train of attendants. Then the marriage festivities 
 are celebrated with great pomp and pageantry at the cost 
 of, perhaps, several thousand rupees. 
 
 Similarly in other parts of India the Tulasi is married to 
 the black Sala-grama pebble (see p. 69), which even more 
 than the idol represents the god Krishna, for the god is 
 present in the stone, even without consecration. 
 
 Colonel Sleeman describes a marriage of this kind. There 
 was a great procession of eight elephants, 200 camels, and 
 400 horses. The pebble-bridegroom was placed on the 
 leading elephant sumptuously decorated, and about 100,000 
 persons were present at the nuptials. In harmony with 
 this practice it is usual to maintain the supposed matrimonial 
 union between the TulasI and Krishna by keeping a leaf 
 of the plant always resting on the Sala-grama stone. 
 
 The marriage of other trees — as of a mango with a 
 tamarind, or of a mango with a jasmine (compare my 
 translation of Sakuntala, p. 17) — is not unfrequently celebrated 
 in India with similar rejoicings. 
 
 The next most noteworthy example of sacred plant-life 
 in India is certainly the Pippala or Asvattha tree (popularly 
 Pipal, botanically the Fiats Religiosa, or holy fig-tree). This 
 also is held to be a most holy tree. It has a divine personality 
 of its own. It is occupied by the essence of the god 
 Brahma^, and is sometimes invested with the sacred thread, 
 as if it were a Brahman, all the ceremonies of investiture 
 (Upanayana) being performed over it. The mysterious 
 
 ^ Others say that the Pipal is pervaded by the three gods Brahma, 
 Vishnu, and Siva, but especially by the latter in his Krishna manifesta- 
 tion. In the Bhagavad-gita Krishna says — ' I am Asvattha among the 
 trees.' It is believed that spirits delight to sit in the branches of this 
 tree and listen to the rustling of the leaves.
 
 336 Worship of the Bilva and other trees. 
 
 rustling of its tremulous leaves, which resemble those of 
 the poplar, is no doubt one cause of the superstitious awe 
 with which this tree is regarded. Its roots also display a 
 kind of miraculous power of undermining thick walls, and 
 houses built of the strongest masonry, causing in this way 
 the most serious damage to property. Yet no native of 
 India would venture to cut down or in any way injure or 
 interfere with the growth of this tree. It is remarkable, 
 too, that no native would venture to tell an untruth or deviate 
 from the strictest rectitude of conduct while standing under a 
 Pipal tree. The following amusing circumstance illustrative of 
 this point came to my knowledge when I was in India : — 
 
 A certain magistrate, well known for his energy and good 
 nature, knowing that all Hindus regard it as a work of 
 immense religious merit to plant these trees, hit upon the 
 clever idea of trying to conciliate the good-will of the inhabitants 
 of his district by planting some Pipal trees in the market- 
 place of a large town where a number of traders were in 
 the habit of transacting their business. This he accordingly 
 proceeded to do, fully expecting to entitle himself to their 
 gratitude, but imagine his surprise when a deputation of 
 these traders made its appearance one day and entreated 
 him to desist, urging with the most naive candour that their 
 business could not be carried on without a certain amount 
 of deception, and that the neighbourhood of the Pipal trees 
 would paralyze all their negotiations \ 
 
 The third most sacred tree in India is the Bilva or Vilva 
 (popularly called Bel, botanically ^gle Marmelos, or wood- 
 apple). Its leaf is of a triple form — with three leaflets — and 
 probably on that account consecrated to Siva with his triple 
 
 ' In the same way, although the telling of untruths for the good of 
 one's caste or village is justifiable under certain circumstances — as, for 
 example, the saving of hfe— no native would venture to tell a falsehood 
 with a piece of gold in his mouth. (Compare Manu VIII. 103, 104.) In 
 all countries a loose code of morality prevails in regard to shielding caste- 
 fellows and companions by untruthful statements.
 
 Woi'ship of tJie Bilva and other trees. 2)^1 
 
 functions. Offerings of these leaves are constantly placed 
 on the Liiiga and on the Bull (see last line of p. 90). 
 
 Of other holy trees and plants, the Vata or Banyan 
 (popularly Var for Vad, botanically Ficus Indicd) is sacred to 
 Kala or Time. This and the Pipal tree already described are 
 supposed to enjoy a kind of immortality. When a man 
 plants either of these trees he repeats a prayer to the 
 following effect : — ' May I abide in heaven as many years 
 as this tree continues growing on the earth.' The method 
 by which the Banyan tree propagates itself is too well 
 known to require description. A tree of this kind called 
 the Kablr-Var, on the banks of the Narbada near Broach, 
 continued multiplying itself every year by sending down roots 
 from its branches till it became a forest capable of sheltering 
 an army of 7000 men. This tree, though gradually decaying^, 
 is still at particular seasons a great resort of pilgrims. 
 
 Again, in the underground passage of the Allahabad fort 
 there is the stump of a tree called the Akshaya-vata, or 
 ^ undecaying Banyan/ which once overhung the river and 
 is said to be the same as that mentioned by the Chinese 
 traveller Hiouen Tschang. Whether this be the real tree 
 or not, it is still an attractive rendezvous for pilgrims, and 
 was formerly a favourite place for committing suicide. Hun- 
 dreds have at different times thrown themselves from that 
 overhanging stem into the river. When I visited the place 
 I could detect no life in what appeared to me a mere decaying 
 stump. I was gravely informed by the priest who accompanied 
 me that a further underground passage conducts from the tree 
 to Laksha-grlha (Lacha-gir), the ' lac-house,' twenty miles 
 distant on the Ganges, and again another thence to Benares. 
 
 ^ At any rate it had lost its forest character when I visited Broach 
 in 1876. It was not the pilgrimage season, and only one solitary 
 devotee then occupied a hut under one of the branches. The tree is 
 believed to have grown from a twig which the sage Kablr used as a 
 tooth-brush and then threw away as impure. 
 
 Z
 
 7,2>^ Worship of the Bilva and other trees. 
 
 With reference to the long hfe of the Pipal tree, I may 
 mention that when I visited Bodh-Gaya, six miles distant 
 from the city of Gaya, I saw growing there on a terrace 
 behind the celebrated tower-like Buddhist monument said 
 to be more than 2,oco years old, a very old Pipal which 
 is alleged to be the identical Bo-tree (Bodhi-druma) under 
 which the great Buddha attained supreme knowledge five 
 centuries B.C. No doubt it is many hundred years old, but a 
 succession of trees is secured by planting new shoots inside 
 the old decaying stem. An off-shoot from the tree was 
 conveyed in the time of Asoka (nearly three hundred years 
 B. c.) to Aniruddha-pura in Ceylon, and its descendant is 
 said to be still growing there. 
 
 Of the other trees, the Asoka (botanically jfonesia Asoka) 
 is sacred to Siva, the Arka or sun-plant to the Sun (Surya), 
 while the Sam! or Acacia is a goddess on her own account 
 and is supposed to contain fire^. 
 
 The Durva grass (popularly Panic grass, botanically 
 Panicum Dactylon) is sacred to Ganesa. 
 
 But of all the grasses the Kusa or Darbha [Poa Cyno- 
 sii7'oides) is the holiest. It is used at all religious ceremonies 
 and strewn on the ground before all sacrificial rites ; it sanctifies 
 the soil, forms the most sacred of all seats, cleanses everything 
 it touches^ purifies the impure, and when wound around the 
 fingers makes them fit to engage in the most solemn rites. 
 
 The lotus (padma) on the other hand — which is constantly 
 alluded to in Indian poetry^ — is not so directly worshipped, 
 but has perhaps more sacred associations connected with it 
 than any other flower. The Creator — Brahma himself — was 
 
 ^ The following prayer is addressed to the Sami tree : — SamI sama- 
 yate papam SamI satru-vinasini, ' the Sami removes guilt, the Sami is 
 the destroyer of enemies.' 
 
 ■^ It is curious that the rose is scarcely ever mentioned in Indian 
 literature, though it is the favourite flower of Persia. In point of fact 
 the rose is not indigenous in India, though found in the Himalaya 
 mountains.
 
 Worship of Material and Nahiral Objects. 339 
 
 born in the lotus which sprang from the navel of Vishnu, 
 and the goddess Lakshml arose out of the ocean holding 
 a lotus in her hand. She is moreover connected with the 
 lotus in other ways, and, according to another legend, 
 appeared at the creation floating over the water on the 
 expanded petals of a lotus-flower. 
 
 The Amra or Mango, the Nimba or Nim, the Bakula 
 {Mimitsops Elengi), and the AmalakI [Emblic Myrobalaii) 
 are also sacred trees. Some Pandits assert that the Amra 
 is an incarnation of the god of love. 
 
 Of all fruits the cocoa-nut (narikela) is perhaps the most 
 sacred. It is called the fruit of the goddess of prosperity 
 (Sri-phala). The custard apple is the fruit of Sita (Sita-phala). 
 
 Worship of Material and Natural Objects. 
 
 The worship of inanimate natural objects opens out a wide 
 field of inquiry. I can only direct attention to some of the 
 most interesting and important phases of the subject. 
 
 We must bear in mind that objects which are inanimate to 
 us are animate to the Hindus. According to their belief every 
 material or natural object may have a soul. In fact the same 
 doctrine of metempsychosis which has forced itself upon us 
 throughout our investigations into Hindu religious thought, 
 meets us again here. The soul of a man in whom the dark 
 quality (tamas, see p. 36) dominates is liable to pass into 
 inert (jada) motionless matter (see Manu XII. 9, 42}, and to 
 occupy a rock^ a stone, a post, or any similar material form. 
 Even the divine Soul may infuse itself into images and objects 
 of stone, metal, and wood, into idols such as those of Krishna, 
 Rama and Durga, into symbols like the Liiiga and Yoni, or 
 into pebbles like the Sala-grama (sometimes written Sali- 
 grama) and Bana-liiiga (see p. 69). And it does this not 
 merely in its character of a universal Soul pervading all matter. 
 It is present in a special manner in all such material forms. 
 But it is to be observed that material objects which are thus, 
 
 z 3
 
 340 Worship of Material and Nahiral Objects. 
 
 as it were, animated and endowed with personal souls, do not 
 necessarily, when worshipped, become mere fetishes. Fetishism 
 is the religion of the childhood of the human race. A child 
 makes a fetish of a doll, or a ball, or any plaything when it 
 endows it with personality and addresses it as if it were alive. 
 A savage makes a fetish of a lucifer match when, firmly be- 
 lieving it to be occupied by a spirit, he tries to bring that 
 spirit under his own control. In the same way he may make 
 fetishes of his tools or weapons — of his axe, his knife, or his 
 bow — or of idols of wood or stone. 
 
 But a fetish, as Sir John Lubbock has pointed out, is not 
 necessarily an object of worship. It is only worshipped if it 
 answers prayers or confers benefits. If it appears to neglect 
 the interests of its possessor, it is itself neglected, and if 
 misfortunes occur it is abused or ill-treated. In short, it is 
 essential to the idea of a fetish that, consisting in the first 
 instance of some peculiar form of material object with a 
 distinct individuality and special character of its own, it 
 should be occupied by a spirit devoted to the interests of the 
 person possessing it and pledged, like the genius of Aladdin's 
 lamp, to execute his behests. Hence, any stone idol which, 
 in common with a number of other idols, represents a deity 
 invariably held in honour is not a fetish in the proper sense 
 of the term. 
 
 It is difficult, however, to draw any hard and fast line, and 
 to say where fetishism ends and a higher form of religion 
 begins ; and it is certain that much true fetishism and much 
 of a kind of half-fetishism co-exist with higher religious ideas 
 in most of the religions of the world. 
 
 I certainly believe it to be a fact that in India some 
 images (such as those of Khandoba) are exposed to actual 
 ill-treatment, when any great calamity occurs which is attri- 
 buted to the neglect of the gods they represent. 
 
 And it must be admitted that what may be called Fetish 
 ideas are found running through the whole of Hinduism.
 
 Worship of the Sun. 341 
 
 For instance, in Atharva-veda (XVIII. 4. 5) the sacrificial 
 ladles, the oblation, the sacrificial grass (IV. '>^^. '^-6 ; XIX, 
 32. 9), and even the remains of the sacrifice are described as 
 possessing divine powers. We know, too, that on particular 
 holy days and festive occasions, the merchant worships his 
 books, the writer his inkstand, the husbandman his plough, 
 the weaver his loom, the carpenter his axe, chisel, and tools, 
 and the fisherman his net. Every object that benefits its 
 possessor and helps to provide him with a livelihood becomes 
 for the time-being his fetish. Nevertheless, I doubt whether 
 the religion of the Aryan Hindus has ever shown any great 
 tendency to lapse into the worst forms of fetish-worship, such 
 as those which undoubtedly prevailed among the aboriginal 
 inhabitants, and are common everywhere among uncultivated 
 races. Placed in the midst of striking physical phenomena 
 and feeling themselves surrounded by mighty material forces, 
 the Aryans on their arrival in India were simple nature- 
 worshippers, and those natural objects and natural forces 
 which had motion appeared to them more especially instinct 
 with divinity. Hence the Sun, the Moon, Fire, Wind and 
 the Waters were the chief deities in Vedic times (see p. 16). 
 
 Worship of the Sun. 
 
 Without doubt the great luminary to which the world owes 
 light, heat, and vegetation has always been one of the earliest 
 objects of the world's adoration. In the Rig-veda (X. 88. 11) 
 the Sun is said to be a son of Aditi, and has two chief 
 names — Surya ("HAtos) and Savitri (p. 16) — both significant 
 of his generative power. Probably his more ancient title 
 was Praja-pati, 'lord of creatures.' He is represented as a 
 golden deity borne along in a chariot drawn by seven ruddy 
 horses or mares, and his charioteer is the Dawn. By his 
 wife Samjna he had twin children, the Asvins (p. 9), who are 
 called heavenly physicians. The Sun himself is also described
 
 342 Wo7'ship of the Sim. 
 
 as a healer of diseases. In the Epic poems he is 'the eye of 
 the world ' and ' the soul of all.' 
 
 Passing on to medieval times, it is clear that in the days of 
 Sankara there were distinct sects of Sun-worshippers; that is 
 to say, a large number of persons existed who adored the 
 Sun as their exclusive divinity. They were divided, as we 
 learn from the Sarikara-vijaya (chap. 13), into six sub-sects as 
 follow: — 1. Worshippers of the rising Sun as identified with 
 Brahma. 2. Worshippers of the meridian Sun as identified 
 with Siva. 3. Worshippers of the setting Sun as identified 
 with Vishnu. 4. Worshippers of the Sun in all three of the 
 above phases as identified with the Tri-murti (p. 45). 5. Wor- 
 shippers of the Sun regarded as a material being in the form 
 of a man with a golden beard and golden hair^ Zealous 
 members of this sect refused to eat anything in the morning 
 till they had seen the Sun rise. 6. Worshippers of an image 
 of the Sun formed in the mind. These spent all their time in 
 meditating on the Sun. They were in the habit of branding 
 circular representations of his disk on their foreheads, arms, 
 and breasts. 
 
 Coming now to modern times, we find that, although the 
 sect of Sun-worshippers has apparently died out and although 
 the Sun-god has few temples and images like those of Siva 
 or Vishnu, he still continues to be the object of universal 
 adoration. Every Hindu — be he a Saiva or Vaishnava, or to 
 whatever sect he may belong — does homage to the rising 
 luminary every morning of his life by repeating the Gayatrl 
 or holiest text of the Veda (Rig-veda III. 62. 10), a prayer 
 really addressed not so much to the orb of the Sun as to its 
 vivifying essence (see p. 19). 
 
 It certainly surprised me that I saw so few temples or 
 
 ^ It is remarkable that the Hindus talk of the god in the Sun (called 
 by them Siirya-Narayana) rather than of the man in the Moon. The 
 spots in the Sun are supposed to give the idea of a man's face, while 
 those in the Moon are compared to the markings on a rabbit.
 
 Worship of the Moon. 343 
 
 shrines dedicated to the Sun in any part of India. His most 
 celebrated temple was at Konarak (for Konarka, ' corner-sun ') 
 in Orissa. It is said that a sum equal to twelve years' 
 revenues of Orissa was spent on this temple. Yet it is now 
 deserted and in ruins. I visited a well-known sacred temple 
 of the Sun at Gaya near to a tank consecrated to the same 
 luminary. No one appeared to be worshipping in the shrine, 
 but I observed rude images of the circular disk of the Sun 
 made of red cotton affixed to the walls above the door-way. 
 I was informed that women are in the habit of placing these 
 symbols there as offerings. 
 
 Worship of the Moon. 
 
 Passing from the Sun to the Moon, we find that the latter 
 seems never to have had any exclusive adorers in India. Yet 
 like the Sun the Moon is often regarded as one of the nine 
 planets, and is treated as a male deity. In the Puranas he is 
 said to be borne along in a chariot with three wheels drawn 
 by ten horses. Poets are never tired of alluding to the 
 Moon's beauty, its brilliancy being far greater in India than 
 in Europe ; but the only worship it receives in the present 
 day is in conjunction with the Sun and the other planets. 
 
 The sphere of the Moon is sometimes regarded as the 
 abode of the spirits of deceased ancestors (Pitris) ; and its 
 orb is usually held to consist of sixteen digits (Kalas), which 
 are composed of nectar (amrita) supplied to it from the sun 
 for the support of the gods. In Rig-veda X. 85. 5 there is an 
 allusion to the gods drinking up the nectar and so causing the 
 Moon to wane. 
 
 The name Soma, which first belonged to the plant only, 
 came to be applied to the Moon in post-vedic mythology, 
 traces of this application being also observable in Rig-vcda 
 X. 85, in Atharva-veda XI. 6, 7, and in several passages of 
 the Satapatha-Brahmana. In the later mythology (see
 
 344 Worship of the Planets. 
 
 Vishnu-purana I. 22) Brahma is said to have appointed Soma 
 or the Moon to be the 'monarch of planets, of plants, of 
 sacrifices, and penances,' and one of the names of the Moon 
 is Oshadhi-pati or Oshadhisa, ' lord of plants and herbs,' which 
 he is supposed to nourish with his light. Again, at the 
 churning of the ocean, as described in the Puranas, after all 
 sorts of medicinal plants and healing herbs had been thrown 
 into the waters, three of the precious things produced were 
 the Moon (Soma), nectar (amrita), and spirituous liquor (sura), 
 though in other legends this nectar is said to be preserved in 
 the body of the Moon, or even to constitute its substance. 
 In Manu V. 96 Soma is called one of the eight Loka-palas or 
 guardians of the world. 
 
 Worship of the Planets. 
 
 The Sun and Moon, Mercury (Budha), Venus (Sukva), 
 Mars (Mahgala or Angaraka), Jupiter (Vrihaspati), Saturn 
 (Sani), Rahu and Ketu ^ — the former being fabled as a planet 
 with a head and no body, the latter as a planet with a body 
 and no head — together form the group of what is called the 
 Nava-graha, nine planets, the first seven giving names to the 
 days of the week ^. In the Puranas they are all represented 
 as deities borne in cars. Thus the car of Mars is of gold 
 drawn by eight red horses, that of Jupiter is drawn by eight 
 pale horses, that of Saturn is a slow-going car drawn by pie- 
 bald horses, those of Rahu and Ketu are drawn by eight dark 
 horses. Rahu is thought to have a spite against the sun and 
 moon, and occasionally displays his enmity by swallowing 
 them for a time and so causing eclipses, while Ketu gives 
 birth to an awful progeny of comets and fiery meteors. 
 
 ^ These are sometimes identified with the Moon's ascending and 
 descending nodes. 
 
 ^ The planets, however, are variously mentioned as five, seven, and 
 nine in number.
 
 Worship of the Planets. 345 
 
 The whole array of nine luminaries constitutes in the eyes 
 of every Hindu a most formidable group of deities, whose 
 power over every living person's career from the first moment 
 of his coming into the world, and over the whole course of 
 mundane events, no one for an instant thinks of doubting. 
 The influences of Saturn, Rahu and Ketu are all supposed to 
 be sinister, and these planets are therefore most propitiated. 
 If they are in the ascendant when a man is born they are sure 
 to shorten his life or cause him trouble of some kind. Their 
 anger, therefore, must by all means be deprecated, and counter- 
 acting influences must be sought for by astrologers in drawing 
 up horoscopes. On the other hand, Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, 
 Mars, and the Sun exert favourable influences only, and the 
 first three are thought to be special sources of knowledge 
 and wisdom. The favour of all must be conciliated before 
 marriages and other auspicious events can be successfully 
 accomplished. 
 
 I saw a celebrated temple dedicated to the nine planets at 
 Benares, and another sacred to Saturn and to the bodiless 
 Rahu. Numbers of people as they passed these temples cast 
 flowers and offerings before the images, but did not stop to 
 worship. 
 
 The Nakshatras, or twenty-seven constellations through 
 which the Moon passes^, and which separate his path into 
 twenty-seven divisions, as the signs of the Zodiac do that 
 of the Sun into twelve, are like the planets regarded in the 
 present day as deities who exert a vast influence on the 
 destiny of men, not only at the moment of their entrance 
 into the world, but during their whole passage through it. 
 These formidable constellations are consulted at births, mar- 
 riages, and on all occasions of family rejoicing, distress, or 
 
 ^ In the Rig-veda the word Nakshatra has the general sense of a 
 constellation. In the Yajur and Atharva-veda the Nakshatras are dis- 
 tinctly connected with the path of the Moon, and in the latter (XIX. 8. i ) 
 their number is given as twenty-eight.
 
 346 Worship of Fire and Water. 
 
 calamity. No one undertakes a journey or any important 
 matter except on days which the aspect of the Nakshatras 
 renders lucky and auspicious. If any constellation is un- 
 favourable, its anger must by all means be appeased by a 
 ceremony called Santi, ' propitiation.' 
 
 Worship of Fire and Water. 
 
 The worship of Fire, like that of the Sun, was, as we have 
 already seen, one of the earliest cults of India (see p. 9), and 
 Fire is still a general object of homage^. Further allusions 
 to this homage will be made subsequently. I will only here 
 draw attention to the remarkable idea prevalent in India that 
 fire is produced from water. In the Veda fire is called 
 Apam-napat, * son of the waters,' and this name is also once 
 applied to the Sun (I. 22. 6) 2. Doubtless the idea arose 
 from the apparent production of lightning from rain-clouds. 
 
 Passing on to the worship of Water ^, especially running 
 water, it is to be observed that river-water is everywhere 
 throughout India held to be instinct with divinity. It is not 
 merely holy, it is specially pervaded by the divine essence. 
 We must, however, be careful to distinguish between the 
 mere sacredness of either fire or water and their worship as 
 personal deities. 
 
 In Rig-veda X. 30, X. 9, VII. 47, and other passages of 
 the Veda, the Waters are personified, deified, and honoured 
 as goddesseS; and called the Mothers of the earth. In 
 
 ^ As the medium of bearing the sacrifice to heaven it is always sacred, 
 even when not worshipped as a personal god. The adoration of fire 
 in Assyria, Phoenicia, Persia, and other countries is well known. No 
 doubt the difficulty of generating fire, till a knowledge of chemistry 
 introduced lucifer matches, led to its adoration among uncivilized tribes. 
 
 '^ Some German scholars see a connexion between Apam-napat and 
 Neptunus. 
 
 ^ The worship of water is by no means confined to India, as the 
 number of holy wells in our own country proves.
 
 Worship of Fire and Water. 347 
 
 X. 17. 10 their purifying power, and in VI. 50. 7 their healing 
 power, is celebrated. They cleanse their worshippers from 
 sin and untruthfulness (I. 23. 22) ; and, as noted above, they 
 give birth to Fire (X. 2. 7, X. 91. 6). 
 
 Of course some rivers are more sacred than others, and as 
 the Ganges, which, according to later mythology, issues from 
 the foot of Vishnu, is the most majestic, so it is the holiest and 
 most revered of all rivers. No sin too heinous to be removed, 
 no character too black to be washed clean by its waters. 
 Hence the countless temples with flights of steps lining its 
 banks ; hence the array of priests, called ' Sons of the Ganges,' 
 sitting on the edge of its streams, ready to aid the ablutions 
 of conscience-stricken bathers, and stamp them as white- 
 washed when they emerge from its waters. Hence also the 
 constant traffic carried on in transporting Ganges water in 
 small bottles to all parts of the country. The river SarasvatI 
 — called the purifier in Rig-veda I. 3. 10 — was to the earlier 
 Hindus what the Ganges was to the later : she was instinct 
 with divinity, and her influence permeated the writers of the 
 Vedic hymns. Sometimes she is identified with the Vedic 
 goddess Vacj speech, and invoked as the patroness of science. 
 
 The river Indus (Sindhu) is also celebrated very early in 
 the Veda (see X. 'j^, 4). 
 
 But the confluence of the Ganges with the Jumna (Yamuna) 
 and SarasvatI (supposed to flow underground) at Allahabad 
 (Prayaga) is perhaps one of the most hallowed spots in all 
 India. These three sacred streams form a sort of Tri-murti, 
 or trinity of rivers, often personified as goddesses, and called 
 Mothers. Then other celebrated rivers— such as the Godavari 
 (also called Goda and Vriddha-gahga, ' the ancient Ganges'), 
 Narbada (properly Narma-da, ' bliss-giver,' also called Reva), 
 Tapti (properly TapatI, also called Tapl), SabarmatI (possibly 
 for Subhramati), Gandaki, Kistna (properly Krishna), Vena, 
 Sarayu, Tunga-bhadra (called the Ganges of the South), and 
 Kaverl — became rivals of this original sacred triad.
 
 348 Worship of Fire and Water. 
 
 The Narbada has its special admirers, who exalt it even 
 above the Ganges. It is said to have sprung from the per- 
 spiration of the god Rudra (p. 75). ' One day's ablution,' 
 they say, ' in the Ganges frees from sin, but the mere sight 
 of the Narbada purifies from guilt.' The sanctity of the 
 Ganges will, they say, cease in 1895, whereas that of the 
 Narbada will continue for ever. Moreover, the sanctity of 
 the Narbada affects all water thirty miles from the bank 
 northward and eighteen miles southward. Furthermore, either 
 bank of the Narbada may be used for burning the dead, 
 whereas only the northern bank of the Ganges is effectual 
 for that purpose. 
 
 Chapters called Mahatmyas, assigning special sacredness 
 to particular rivers, and extolling the virtue of their waters, 
 or describing their consecration by gods and sages, have been 
 at various times introduced into the Puranas. On the other 
 hand, a river called Karma-nasa, ' destroyer of good works,' 
 which falls into the Ganges not very far from Benares, is held 
 to be the reverse of sacred. It is an unholy and accursed 
 stream, and if a man touches its water he loses all the 
 store of religious merit he has accumulated for years. 
 
 And here we may note that the whole length of the banks 
 of all the chief rivers of India, from their source to the sea, 
 is regarded as holy ground. To follow their course on foot 
 is considered a highly meritorious act. A pilgrim, for ex- 
 ample, sets out from the source of the Ganges, at Gangotrl, 
 and walks by the left bank of the river to its mouth at 
 Gariga-sagara ; then, turning round, he proceeds by the right 
 side back to Gangotrl, whence he departed. This is called 
 Pradakshina, or Parikrama of the river, and takes six years 
 to accomplish. In the same way a pilgrim starts from the 
 source of the Narbada, at Amara-kantaka, — a peak of the 
 Vindhya chain in Gondwana, — and walks to the mouth, near 
 Broach, and back. This takes nearly three years. The rivers 
 Godavarl and Krishna require only two years for the same
 
 Worship of Moicntains, Rocks, and Slones. 349 
 
 process. As these rivers often pass through wild country, 
 the pilgrims who perform such tasks are exposed to many- 
 hardships. Of course, the merit accumulated is in proportion 
 to the time occupied in the pilgrimage and the difficulty of 
 the ground traversed. 
 
 The sea is also held sacred, and on special occasions pro- 
 pitiated. When any one is compelled to take a voyage, it 
 is not uncommon for his nearest relatives to throw milk into 
 the sea as an offering to the waves. 
 
 Worship of Mountains, Rocks, and Stones. 
 
 With regard to the worship of immovable objects, many 
 mountains and hills are holy ground. Of course the Hima- 
 laya takes the lead. It is personified and extolled as 
 a god. (See, in reference to this point, the first verses of 
 Kalidasa's poem, the Kumara-sambhava.) Among other 
 hills regarded as consecrated ground are Citra-kuta (com- 
 monly called Chateerkot), in the Banda district. Mount Abu, 
 and Girnar in Kathiawar ^. 
 
 There are some sand-hills in the Satpura range dedicated 
 to Mahadeva, supposed, as Mahakala, to preside over destruc- 
 tion. From a rock on these hills many youths have pre- 
 cipitated themselves, because their mothers, when childless, 
 dedicated their first-born sons to the god. This mode of 
 suicide is called Bhrigu-pata, ' throwing one's self from a 
 precipice.' It was once equally common at the rock of 
 Girnar, and has only recently been prohibited. 
 
 Particular rocks all over India are treated as divine. They 
 are not only pervaded by the divine soul of the Universe 
 which permeates all nature, God is specially present in them, 
 just as he is in the Sala-grama pebble found in the Gandaki 
 
 ^ Citra-kuta was the first residence of Rama-dandra after his banish- 
 ment. Abu (corrupted from Sanskrit arbiidd) and Girnar are hills more 
 particularly celebrated for their Jaina temples.
 
 350 Worship of Mountains, Rocks, and Stones. 
 
 river, and in the Bana-liiiga found in the Narbada (see p. 69). 
 A great deal of fraud is practised in selling these stones. If 
 they come from other rivers they enjoy no special presence of 
 the deity. A simple Bilva-leaf offered on a true Bana-liriga 
 brought from the Narbada is an act of enormous merit 
 (punya), but if offered on a spurious pebble is inefficacious. 
 
 I might continue the enumeration of sacred objects almost 
 indefinitely, but enough has been said to make it clear that 
 there is not an object in heaven or earth which a Hindu is 
 not prepared to worship — sun, moon, and stars ; rocks, stocks, 
 and stones ; trees, shrubs, and grass ; sea, pools, and rivers ; 
 his own implements of trade ; the animals he finds most 
 useful, the noxious reptiles he fears ; men remarkable for any 
 extraordinary qualities — for great valour^ sanctity, virtue, or 
 even vice ; good and evil demons, ghosts and goblins, the 
 spirits of departed ancestors ; an infinite number of semi- 
 human and semi- divine existences; inhabitants of the seven 
 upper and the seven lower worlds— each and all come in 
 for a share of divine honour or a tribute of more or less 
 adoration.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Hhulii Religion in Ancient Family -life. 
 
 The title of a deservedly popular sermon by a well-known 
 Scotch divine reminds us that common life is the proper field 
 for the exercise of Christianity, or, in other words, that the 
 religion of a Christian is not to be made a separate duty, but 
 a part of all his actions at all times. 
 
 Turning to India we might expect to find a different doc- 
 trine taught. But this is far from being the case. 
 
 Without doubt it must be admitted that the actual religious 
 life of a large number of Hindus is a complete falling away 
 from the standard set up in their sacred works ; but it is not 
 the less true that many pious and earnest-minded men are 
 still careful to impress a religious character on every act and 
 circumstance of their domestic life. For, whatever estimate 
 may be formed of the nature of Indian religious life, it is cer- 
 tain that a genuine Hindu of the old school does not lead two 
 lives. His religion, such as it is, may truly be described as 
 bound up in the bundle of his every-day existence. It is not, 
 so to speak, put away in a cabinet during working days, and 
 taken out to be exhibited publicly on solemn occasions. The 
 religion of a Hindu is his constant companion. Nor does 
 he think it necessary, as a Christian does, to satisfy the claims 
 of a corporate as well as of a personal and domestic religion. 
 'Any idea of congregational religious duties has no place in 
 his mind. A Hindu never enters a place of worship with the 
 object of offering up common prayer in company with his
 
 352 The Hindu Religion in Ancient Family-life. 
 
 fellow-men. He has no conception of performing the kind 
 of religious act which a Christian performs when he ' goes to 
 church.' Occasionally, it is true, and on stated days, he visits 
 idol shrines. But he does so with no idea of praying with 
 others, or, indeed, of praying for himself in the Christian sense 
 of the word. He goes to the temple to perform what is called 
 Darsana ; that is, to look at the idol, the sight of which, when 
 duly dressed and decorated by the priest, is supposed to confer 
 merit. After viewing the image he may endeavour to pro- 
 pitiate the favour or avert the anger of the god it represents 
 by prostrations of the body, repetitions of its name, or pre- 
 sentation of offerings. But this is not an essential duty. His 
 real religion is an affair of family usage, domestic ritual, and 
 private observance. Not that his domestic worship is free 
 from priestly interference. Sacerdotalism exerts as strong a 
 power over family religion in India as it does in other coun- 
 tries over congregational religion. Every incident, every cir- 
 cumstance, every operation in Indian home life is subject to 
 ecclesiastical law. Each man finds himself cribbed and con- 
 fined in all his movements, bound and fettered in all he does 
 by the most minute regulations. He sleeps and wakes, dresses 
 and undresses, sits down and stands up, goes out and comes 
 in, eats and drinks, speaks and is silent, acts and refrains from 
 acting, according to precise rule. And the action of the priestly 
 caste commences with the first instant of his unconscious ex- 
 istence as a living organism. From that moment to death, 
 and even long after death, every Hindu is held to be the law- 
 ful property of the priests, who exact fees for innumerable 
 offices performed on his behalf. 
 
 It is on this account that nearly every village has first 
 its religious teacher (Guru), who teaches the Vedic Gayatrl or 
 the initiatory prayer (p. 6i) to those whose, caste or sect re- 
 quires them to repeat it, and secondly its ceremonial priest, who 
 serves as a domestic chaplain (Purohita) to all the families of 
 the village. Not a single religious rite can be performed
 
 Twelve Purificatory Rites. 353 
 
 without this latter functionary, and though other priests may- 
 be asked to be present and assist at some of the ceremonies 
 (such as marriage and initiation), the regular village priest 
 must always take the lead and have his appointed duties and 
 customary fees. In fact in no country of the world are 
 domestic religion and sacerdotalism so curiously associated 
 together and carried to such extremes as in India. There a 
 complicated religious code has always been as necessary to 
 the priest as an intricate civil code to the lawyer. It has sup- 
 plied him with his meat, drink, and whole means of livelihood. 
 
 We must, however, be careful not to speak of Brahmanism 
 and Sacerdotalism in India as if these expressions were con- 
 vertible terms. Every Brahman is not a priest, though every 
 priest is a Brahman. The Brahmans are simply a race or order 
 of men divided, like many other societies, into clergy and laity, 
 and in ancient times a layman did many religious acts which 
 in the present day are only performed by the aid of priests. 
 
 To begin, then, with the religious life of the family in ancient 
 times. 
 
 Twelve purificatory rites, called Sanskaras, were prescribed 
 in the ancient collections of domestic rules (Grihya-sutras) and 
 in the code of Manu ; for the purification of a man's whole, 
 nature — body, soul, and spirit — from the taint transmitted 
 through the womb of an earthly mother. They were, i. Im- 
 pregnation (Garbhadhana or Garbha-lambhana) ; 2. Male-pro- 
 duction (Purnsavana) ; 3. Hair-parting (Simantonnayana) ; 
 4. Birth-ceremony (Jata-karman); 5. Name-giving (Nama- 
 karana) ; 6. Carrying out (Nishkramana) ; 7. Food-giving 
 (Anna-prasana) ; 8 and 9. Tonsure or shaving and cutting off 
 the hair (Caula or Kshaura and Kesanta)^; 10. Initiation 
 (Upanayana); 11. Return from the house of the preceptor 
 (Samavartana) ; 12. Marriage (Vivaha). 
 
 ^ Manu places (^aula 8th and Kesanta loth, with Upanayana between, 
 but the first two may be taken together as kindred ceremonies. 
 
 A a
 
 354 Impregnation-rite. 
 
 Some account of these twelve ceremonies ought to precede 
 a description of the Hindu householder's daily observances ; 
 for no one whose corporeal frame has not first been purified 
 by these rites is held qualified to perform the ordinary religious 
 duties of domestic life. 
 
 Turning then to one of the most important of the San- 
 skaras, marriage, we find that it stands last in the order of 
 enumeration. It will be necessary, however, to begin by 
 supposing the recent union of a young couple in wedlock, 
 so that every one of the Sanskaras — beginning with that 
 which is believed to be essential to the purification of the 
 human embryo from its earliest origin in the womb — may 
 be successively described. It must also be taken for granted 
 that the newly-married pair in ancient times were of good 
 family, that they were bent on acting up to the precepts of 
 their religion, and that they brought with them to their own 
 home a portion of the sacred fire which witnessed their union, 
 and which, when once kindled on their own family hearth, 
 had to be maintained ever afterwards for use in all domestic 
 ceremonies and sacrifices, including the last sacrifice of all, 
 the final burning of their own bodies at death. 
 
 The first Sanskara, which as a matter of course followed 
 immediately on every matrimonial union, was called the ' Im- 
 pregnation-rite' (Garbhadhana). In ancient times no bride- 
 groom approached the bride till the fourth night after the 
 completion of the marriage ceremony^. Hence this first rite 
 was sometimes called Caturthi-karma. During the previous 
 day the young married woman was made to look towards the 
 sun, or in some way exposed to its rays. In the evening she 
 was required to bathe. Her husband also performed his 
 ablutions and went through other prescribed forms. Before 
 
 ^ This interval is prescribed by Gobhila, but not by others. The 
 present interval of two, three, or four years is quite unsupported by the 
 authority of ancient Sutra-writers and lawgivers.
 
 Male-production Ceremony. 355 
 
 approaching his wife he was careful to secure the solemn im- 
 primatur of religion on an act which might lead to the intro- 
 duction of another human being into the world. He therefore 
 repeated two Mantras or texts of Rig-veda X. 186, the first of 
 which may be thus translated : — ' Let (all-pervading) Vishnu 
 prepare her womb ; let the Creator shape its forms ; let Praja- 
 pati be the Impregnator ; let the Creator give the embryo.' 
 
 The Impregnation-rite was followed after an interval of 
 three months by that called 'Male-production' (Pumsavana). 
 This is not unusual even in the present day. We Euro- 
 peans can scarcely understand the craving of Asiatic parents 
 for the birth of a male child. The very word for a son 
 (put-tra) is fancifully said to mean one who delivers a parent 
 from a hell called Put. Whether all Hindu married men in 
 the present day seriously look forward to punishment in a 
 place of torment hereafter as the penalty for not having sons 
 or for having only daughters admits of question. We have 
 seen, however, that the well-being of the parent's soul after 
 death is believed to depend on the proper performance of the 
 Sraddha ceremonies by a son, and that the partition of the 
 family inheritance is by law made dependent on the due 
 celebration of such rites. Hence the craving for sons rather 
 than daughters. 
 
 In short, a son is to every pious Hindu the first and last of 
 all necessary things. Through a son he pays his own father 
 the debt he owes him for his own life, and secures similar 
 payment for the gift of life bestowed by himself. 
 
 What says the Aitareya-Brahmana of the Rig-veda (VII. 
 3. 13)? 'When a father sees the face of a living son he pays 
 a debt in him, and gains imm.ortality. The pleasure which a 
 father has in his son exceeds all other enjoyments. His 
 wife is a friend, his daughter an object of compassion, his 
 son shines as his light in the highest world.' What says 
 Manu ? ' A man is perfect when he consists of three — himself, 
 his wife, and his son' (VII. 3). What says Yajnavalkya? 
 
 A a a
 
 356 Male-p7'odttction Ceremony, 
 
 ' Immortality in future worlds and heavenly bliss are obtained 
 by means of sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons.' 
 
 A story is told in some Brahmana of a certain pious man of 
 ascetical temperament who determined to shirk the religious 
 duty of taking a wife. Quietly skipping over the second pre- 
 scribed period of life, during which he ought to have become 
 a householder (grihastha), he entered at once upon the third 
 period — that is to say, he became an ascetic, abjured all 
 female society, and retired to the woods. Wandering about 
 one day, absorbed in meditation, he was startled by an 
 extraordinary spectacle. He saw before him a deep and 
 apparently bottomless pit. Around its edge some unhappy 
 men were hanging suspended by ropes of grass, at which here 
 and there a rat was nibbling. On asking their history, he 
 discovered to his horror that they were his own ancestors 
 compelled to hang in this unpleasant manner, and doomed 
 eventually to fall into the abyss, unless he went back into the 
 world, did his duty like a man, married a suitable wife, and 
 had a son, who would be able to release them from their 
 critical predicament. 
 
 It is not, therefore, difficult to understand the object of the 
 ' Male-production' ceremony (Purnsavana). It was performed 
 in the third month of gestation and before the period of 
 quickening. According to Asvalayana the wife was to keep 
 a solemn fast. She was then fed by her husband with two 
 beans and a grain of barley^ mixed with a handful of curds, 
 and made to pray three times for the production of male- 
 offspring. 
 
 A further supplementary rite for the prevention of mis- 
 carriage was customary in some localities. It was performed 
 by sprinkling the juice of a stalk of fresh Durba grass in the 
 wife's right nostril, with the repetition of certain Mantras. 
 This ceremony was called Anavalopana (or Anavalobhana). 
 
 ^ Symbolical of the Liriga.
 
 Hair-pai^ting. Birth-ceremony. 357 
 
 The next purificatory rite was called ' Hair-parting ^ (Slman- 
 tonnayana). 
 
 First an oblation was made in fire, with repetition of the 
 Vedic texts from Atharva-veda VII. 17. i, Rig-veda III. 
 59. I, V. 25. 2, II. 32. 4-5. Then the woman performed her 
 ablutions in pure water ; fragrant oil was poured on her head, 
 and a line or parting (simanta) was drawn three times through 
 her hair from the forehead upwards with three stalks of Kusa 
 grass bound together — the three sacred words called Vya- 
 hritis (Bhur, Bhuvar, Svar) and the hallowed syllable Om 
 (a, u, m) being uttered during each operation. Certain 
 medicinal substances supposed to have a purifying efficacy 
 were also given, and a particular regimen prescribed for 
 the remaining period of gestation. Musical performances 
 also took place during the ceremony, the promotion of cheer- 
 fulness in the mind of the mother being thought essential to 
 the proper development of the unborn child. 
 
 This rite was only performed at a woman^s first pregnancy, 
 and though, like the preceding, it purified the whole person of 
 the wife, it also had reference to the well-being of the unborn 
 child. The idea was that the body of the mother should be 
 consecrated and protected from evil influences at the most 
 critical period of gestation, the proper time for the ceremony 
 being the fourth month, though it might be deferred until the 
 sixth or eighth. 
 
 Immediately after the birth of the infant and before 
 the severing of the umbilical cord the father performed the 
 next Sanskara, called the 'Birth-ceremony' (Jata-karman). 
 Honey and clarified butter were mixed together and stirred — 
 if possible^ with a golden rod or spoon — to symbolize good- 
 fortune. Then a small portion of the mixture was introduced 
 into the mouth of the new-born infant and certain texts were 
 repeated (Rig-veda II. 21. 6, III. 36. 10, Kaus.-Up. II. 11), 
 with the following prayer : ' O long-lived one, mayst thou Hve 
 a hundred years in this world, protected by the gods ! ' Both
 
 358 Name-giving. Carrying out. Food-giving. 
 
 the ears of the infant were then touched with the golden rod, 
 and another prayer repeated : ' May Savitri, may SarasvatI, 
 may the Asvins grant thee wisdom.' Lastly, the shoulders 
 were rubbed and these words uttered : ' Become firm as 
 a rock, sharp as an axe, pure as gold ; thou art the Veda 
 called a son, live thou a hundred years. May Indra bestow 
 on thee his best treasures.' 
 
 The next Sanskara, called ' Name-giving ' (Nama-karana), 
 took place on the tenth day after the birth of the child. 
 
 The Hindus regard the giving of a name as a solemn 
 religious act fraught with important consequences in its 
 bearing on the future prospects of the child. The sound and 
 meaning of the name must be auspicious. Asvalayana laid 
 down the rule that a boy's name should either consist of two 
 or of four syllables, not of an odd number, and have a soft 
 consonant for its first letter and a semi-vowel in the middle 
 (for example, Bhadra, Deva, Bhava, Naga-deva, Bhadra-datta, 
 Deva-datta, Yajna-datta). Lawgivers prescribed that the word 
 Sarman, ' prosperity,'' should form part of a Brahman's name ; 
 Varman, ' armour,' of a Kshatriya's ; Gupta, ' protected,' of 
 a Vaisya's ; and Dasa, 'slave,' of a Sudra's (compare Manu 
 IL 32). The names of women were required to be agreeable, 
 soft, clear, captivating, auspicious, and ending in long vowels. 
 
 The next ceremony, called ' Carrying out ' (Nishkramana), 
 was of less importance. In the fourth month after birth the 
 child was carried out into the open air to look at the rising 
 sun, while the following prayers were said : ' That eye-like 
 luminary, the cause of blessings to the gods (or placed in 
 the sky by the gods), rises in the east ; may we behold it 
 for a hundred years.' ' May we hear, may we speak, may we 
 be free from poverty for a hundred years and more' (Rig- 
 veda Vir. 66. 16; Vaj.-Samhita XXXVL 24). 
 
 The sixth Sanskara, called ' Food-giving ' (Anna-prasana), 
 performed in the sixth month after birth, was of more im- 
 portance. The child was carried in the arms of its father and
 
 Tonstire and Shaving. 359 
 
 placed in the midst of a party of friends, including the family- 
 priest, who offered prayers for its welfare and presented it 
 with gifts. A little solid food (generally rice) was then for the 
 first time put into its mouth, and various qualities were sup- 
 posed to be imparted, according to the nature of the food given, 
 whether rice, butter, honey, milk, or the flesh of partridges or 
 goats (see Asvalayana Grihya-s, I, 17). At the same time a 
 verse from the White Yajur-veda (II. 83) was recited. 
 
 After this sixth ceremony there was a pause, and the child 
 was allowed to develope in peace for two or three years. 
 
 The next important Sanskaras were those of 'Tonsure,' 
 ' Shaving/ and 'Cutting off the hair' (Caula, Cuda-karma, Ke- 
 santa, Kshaura). These were kindred operations, and may be 
 explained together ^. When performed for the first time they 
 were held to have a purificatory effect on the whole character. 
 In the case of a Brahman the ceremony of tonsure was per- 
 formed in the third year, but was often delayed, and sometimes 
 did not take place till the seventh or eighth year. According 
 to Asvalayana the child was to be placed on the lap of its 
 mother to the west of the sacred fire. The father was to 
 take up his station to the south of the mother, holding in his 
 hand twenty-one stalks of Kusa grass. He was to sprinkle the 
 head of the child three times with a mixture of warm water, 
 butter and curds. He was to insert three stalks of Kusa 
 grass seven times into the child's hair on the right side, 
 saying : 'O divine grass, protect him !' Then he was to cut off 
 a portion of the hair and give it to the mother, with recitation 
 of various texts, leaving one lock {sikhd or cuda) on the top of 
 the head, or occasionally three or five locks, according to the 
 custom of the family. The operation of shaving was some- 
 
 ^ Manu makes Kesanta, ' cutting off the hair,' a later Sanskara than 
 Caula or Kshaura, 'shaving ;' see note, p. 353. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church the ceremony of tonsure is the first ceremony for devoting a 
 young man to the service of God. In England this is done by cutting 
 off a single lock ; actual shaving is dispensed with.
 
 360 Ear-borhtg. hiitiation. 
 
 times regarded as a different ceremony from that of cutting. 
 It had to be continued after the age of puberty at regular 
 intervals throughout life. 
 
 Another ceremony followed, called Ear-boring (Karna- 
 vedha). This was treated by some as a distinct religious rite, 
 and had to take place after tonsure at three or five years of 
 age. Paraskara made it a Saaskara, but not so Asvalayana 
 or Gobhila. The boy was fed with honey or something sweet, 
 and made to sit down with his face towards the east. Then 
 two perforations were made in his right ear, and a particular 
 Mantra from the last hymn of the Sama-veda was recited. 
 Its first words may be thus translated : ' Let us hear what is 
 good with the ears, let us see what is good with the eyes.' 
 A similar operation was performed on the left ear, except that 
 three perforations were made and a different Mantra from the 
 Rig-veda (VI. 75. 3) recited. The text may be thus translated : 
 ' This bowstring drawn tight upon the bow and leading to suc- 
 cess in battle, repeatedly approaches the ear, as if embracing 
 its friend, and wishing to say something agreeable, just as a 
 woman makes a murmuring sound (in her husband^s ear ^).' 
 
 The next Sanskara was that of ' Initiation ' (Upanayana), 
 which in the case of high-caste boys took place at eight years 
 of age, though it might be deferred to the age of sixteen. 
 This and marriage were perhaps the most important of all 
 the Sanskaras. The nature and significance of initiation 
 could scarcely be inferred from its name, Upanayana, which 
 simply means 'leading or bringing a boy to his Guru or 
 spiritual preceptor.' But in real fact, until the boy was so 
 brought, he could not be invested with the sacred thread, and 
 until he was so invested he could not be reckoned among the 
 ' twice-born,' and until he was spiritually regenerated by the 
 act of investiture he could not be permitted to use a single 
 
 The only apparent reason for reciting this Mantra at the Karna- 
 vedha Sanskara is that the word Karna occurs in it.
 
 The Sac7^ed Thread or Cord. 361 
 
 prayer, or repeat the Veda, or engage in any single religious 
 service or sacrificial rite. Nor was any ceremonial observance 
 effectual unless the thread was worn. Indeed even in the 
 present day a Brahman before initiation has no right to any 
 other name than Vipra. It is only when he has been invested 
 with the sacred thread that he has a right to the title Dvi-ja, 
 ' twice-born.' Nor ought the name Brahman to be applied to 
 him until the assumption of the thread has qualified him to 
 learn the Veda (Brahma) by heart. 
 
 If we inquire a little closely into the nature of the sacred 
 symbol supposed to be capable of effecting so vast a trans- 
 formation in a human being's condition, we find that now, as 
 formerly, it consists of three slender cotton threads — white in 
 colour to typify purity, and tied together in one spot by a 
 sacred knot of peculiar construction (called brahma-granthi), 
 each of the three threads also consisting of three finer threads 
 tightly twisted into one. The construction of this cord is no 
 doubt simple, but it must be borne in mind that the thread when 
 formed is of no use unless blessed by Brahmans and consecrated 
 by the recitation of Vedic texts. The texts usually repeated 
 during the process of arranging the threads are the Gayatrl 
 and certain other texts from the Black Yajur-veda. At the 
 same time holy water is repeatedly sprinkled on the cord 
 by means of Kusa grass. So soon as the Hindu boy had 
 been made regenerate by the solemn putting on of this mystic 
 symbol his religious education and spiritual life really began. 
 And now for the first time he was taught to repeat that 
 remarkable Vedic prayer for illumination called Savitrl, or 
 Gayatrl (from Rig-vgda III. 62. 10), thus translatable : ' Let 
 us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Vivifier, may 
 he illumine our understandings,' — that most ancient of all 
 Aryan prayers, which was first uttered more than three 
 thousand years ago, and which still rises day by day 
 towards heaven, incessantly ejaculated by millions of our 
 Indian fellow-subjects. Then, again, every initiated boy was
 
 362 Fo2ir Stages of a Brahman s Life. 
 
 admitted to the privilege of reading and reciting other por- 
 tions of the Veda. He was taught to pronounce the sacred 
 syllable Om, the names of the seven worlds (Bhur, Bhuvar, 
 Svar, etc.), and other Vedic texts. He was furthermore re- 
 quired to learn by heart certain moral precepts taken from 
 Manu or other Sanskrit law-books, enjoining abstinence 
 from injury to others, unselfishness, the practice of truth, 
 honesty, chastity, and self-control. The whole process of 
 teaching him these various formularies was by some re- 
 garded as a separate Sanskara called Vedarambha-sanskara, 
 or sometimes Vaidika upadesa or Gayatrl upadesa. When 
 he had been thus initiated he was for the first time permitted 
 to perform other religious acts, such as the worship of 
 gods, saints, spirits and ancestors, but these, as we shall see, 
 were generally deferred until as a married man he had a 
 house of his own and was able to undertake a householder's 
 duties. 
 
 According to Manu a Brahman's life in ancient times was 
 to be divided into the four states or stages (called Asramas) 
 of religious student (brahma-carl), householder (grihastha), 
 anchorite (vanaprastha), and religious mendicant (bhikshu) or 
 abandoner of all worldly concerns (sannyasi). Hence im- 
 mediately after his initiation and investiture with the sacred 
 thread he had to leave his father's house and reside with a 
 religious preceptor for several years as an unmarried student, 
 till he had acquired a knowledge of the Veda. He was then 
 to perform the next Sanskara called ' Return ' (Samavartana). 
 This was formerly a solemn religious observance in which 
 prayers were recited, ablutions performed, and gifts given 
 to the spiritual teacher. After its celebration the youthful 
 Brahman was required to return to his father's house, and not 
 till then was he supposed to take a wife and commence life as 
 a householder. This proves that early marriages were not 
 the rule in ancient times. In real fact the next Sanskara, or 
 Marriage (Vivaha), was not performed till a man and woman
 
 Ancient Form of Marriage Ceremony. 363 
 
 were able to live in a house of their own. The whole detail of the 
 ancient marriage rite is given in the domestic rules (Grihya- 
 sutras) of Asvalayana, Gobhila, Paraskara, and others. A wife 
 was to be selected after proper inquiry as to family and con- 
 dition. Before the marriage ceremony an oblation of clarified 
 butter was to be offered in fire, with repetition of a Vedic text 
 (Rig-veda V. 3. 3). The following are some particulars of the 
 wedding ceremonial taken from Asvalayana (I. 7). 
 
 West of the sacred fire was placed a stone (for grinding 
 corn and condiments such as is used by women in all house- 
 holds), and north-east a water-jar. The bridegroom offered 
 an oblation, standing towards the west, and taking hold of 
 the bride's hands, while she sat down and looked towards the 
 east. If he wished only for sons he clasped her thumbs, and 
 if for daughters the fingers alone. Then, whilst he led her 
 towards the right three times round the fire and round the 
 water-jar, he said in a low tone, ' I am male, thou art female ; 
 come; let us marry, let us possess offspring; united in 
 affection, illustrious, well-disposed towards each other, let us 
 live for a hundred years.'' Every time he led her round he 
 made her ascend the mill-stone, and said, ' Ascend thou this 
 stone, be thou firm as a rock.' Then the bride's brother, 
 after spreading melted butter on the joined palms of her 
 hands, scattered parched grains of rice on them twice. Then, 
 after pouring the oblation of butter on the fire, Vedic texts 
 were recited (especially from Rig-veda X. 85 1). Then the 
 bridegroom unloosed the two braided tresses of hair, one on 
 each side of the top of the bride's head, repeating the Vedic 
 
 ^ This is the Surya-sukta, or well-known Marriage-hymn of the Rig- 
 veda, translated by Prof. A, Weber in Ind. Studien, v. 177, etc., and 
 discussed in full by Dr. Haas. In that hymn we have a description 
 of the marriage of Surya daughter of the Sun to Soma (here probably 
 personified as the Moon), whereas in Rig-veda IV. 43. 6 the two Asvins 
 are said to be Surya's husbands (compare p. 271). The Atharva-veda 
 has also many marriage-hymns and texts (see I. 14, and many in 
 Book XIV).
 
 364 Ancient Fii^e-worship. 
 
 text, ' I loose thee from the fetters of Varuna with which the 
 very auspicious Savitri has bound thee ' (Rig-veda X. 85. 24). 
 Then he caused her to step seven steps towards the north- 
 east quarter, saying to her : ' Take thou one step for the 
 acquirement of force ; take thou two steps for strength ; take 
 thou three steps for the increase of wealth ; take thou four 
 steps for well-being ; take thou five steps for offspring ; take 
 thou six steps for the seasons ; take thou seven steps as a 
 friend ; be faithfully devoted to me ; may we obtain many 
 sons ; may they attain to a good old age.' Then bringing both 
 their heads into close juxtaposition, some one sprinkled them 
 with water from the jar. 
 
 The fire used in the ceremonial was kindled by the friction 
 of two pieces of sacred wood called Aran! (Rig-veda VII. i. i), 
 and this same fire which witnessed the union of the young 
 couple was brought by them to their own home. There a 
 room on the ground-floor was consecrated as a sanctuary for 
 its reception and perpetual maintenance. Great reverence 
 was shown to the fire so kindled. It was never blown upon 
 with the mouth. Nothing impure was ever thrown into it, 
 nor was it ever used for warming the feet (Manu IV. ^'^. 
 
 For what was the pious Brahman's idea of fire ? Two 
 texts of the Rig-veda assert that the Supreme Being deve- 
 loped the whole order of existing entities {i/itam-ca satyavi- 
 cd) through the operation of heat. Another verse of the 
 Rig-veda says, 'All gods are comprehended in fire' (V. 3. i) ; 
 ' He surrounds them all as the circumference of a wheel does 
 the spokes' (V. 13. 6). In fact, fire was to a Hindu a visible 
 embodiment not only of heat but of all the other forces of 
 nature. It had three forms, as fire on earth, as lightning — 
 associated with rain and water — in the air, as the sun in the 
 heavens. And yet these three forms were often regarded 
 as comprehended in the one form of earthly fire (see p. 16). 
 Hence fire was not merely a symbol of the Supreme Being's 
 presence among men. It was an emblem of His creative,
 
 Ancient Fire-worship. 365 
 
 fostering, and disintegrating energies, a type of His three 
 eternal attributes. Life, Light, and Joy. 
 
 The Sun, too^ as fire in the Heaven, had a triune aspect. 
 It was called the 'three-stepped' (tri-vikrama). It differed in 
 its attributes and qualities as the morning, the mid-day, and 
 the evening sun (see p. 342). It was adored every day in the 
 oft-repeated Gayatrl prayer, which was in three measures, 
 though all three measures were connected in sense. And 
 yet there were not three Suns worshipped, but only three 
 forms of one Sun. 
 
 The Sun, however, was inaccessible and not always visible. 
 Fire could always be maintained, or, if extinguished, could be 
 rekindled whenever religious rites were performed. As a 
 general rule the householder was contented with kindling the 
 sacred fire in a single hearth or circular clay receptacle. This 
 was called the Grihyagni, ' household fire,' and was sufficient 
 for all domestic ceremonies (smarta-karman). Those how- 
 ever who were more pious, or who wished to engage in Vedic 
 sacrificial rites (srauta-karman) which were of a more com- 
 plicated character, took care to construct a more elaborate 
 Homa-sala, or room for fire-sacrifices, on the ground-floor. 
 In that sanctuary fire was kindled in three differently-shaped 
 receptacles, the fire in each having a different name {Aha- 
 vaniya, Gdrhapatya, and Dakshina). When the sacred fire 
 was thus lighted it was regarded as a symbol of God present 
 in the house, — as the 'brilliant guest' who lived in the midst 
 of the family (Rig-veda X. 91. 2), the divine mediator who 
 bore the savour of daily offerings towards heaven, the golden 
 link of union between men on earth and the celestial denizens 
 of air and sky. 
 
 Every morning and evening the head of the family, with 
 his wife and children, went together into the room dedicated 
 to worship'. There they seated themselves around the sacred 
 
 ^ In Manu IX. 96 we read that religious rites are ordained in the 
 Veda to be performed by the husband together with the wife.
 
 366 Ancient Fii^e-worship. 
 
 hearth, saying, ' We approach thee, O fire, daily both morning 
 
 and evening, with reverential adoration in our thoughts.' 
 
 Then they fed the sacred fire^ with pieces of consecrated 
 
 wood (samidh), generally taken from the Palasa tree, and 
 
 with offerings of rice and butter, eating portions of this 
 
 offering themselves. The oblation thus cast into the flame 
 
 was supposed to ascend to the Sun. ' From the Sun,' says 
 
 Manu, ' it falls again in rain, from rain comes food, and from 
 
 food animals subsist' (III. 76). Then while they fed the 
 
 fire they chanted hymns ; they sang the glories of their 
 
 divine guest, calling him Father, King, Protector, Illuminator 
 
 of truth. They spoke of his subtle ^sence, of his universal 
 
 presence in all nature, in water, in plants, in the bodies of 
 
 men and animals. They prayed for forgiveness, saying : — 
 
 Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshippers, 
 Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die, 
 Deal mercifully with us on the pyre, 
 Burning our bodies with their load of guilt. 
 But bearing our eternal part on high 
 To luminous abodes and realms of bliss, 
 For ever there to dwell with righteous men. 
 
 They prayed also for prosperity in their worldly affairs, and, 
 if they were soldiers, for warlike sons and success in battle, 
 saying, ' Be ever present with us, O God of fire, for our good ^.' 
 
 And here observe that as every religious idea was exag- 
 gerated by Brahmanism, so it was not enough for a pious 
 Hindu to be born twice during his earthly career. Even 
 when regenerated by the sacred thread, he was held to be 
 again regenerated by his performance of the Homa or daily 
 sacrifice to fire. Manu says : ' The first birth is from the 
 
 '^ This was called the Homa Sacrifice. In the intervals of feeding 
 the flame the fire was allowed to smoulder. 
 
 ^ Mr. M. M. Kunte has given a good account of ancient family fire- 
 worship in his Shad-darsana-c'intanika, and many of my statements in 
 this chapter are based on his authority. For the Vedic texts used in the 
 worship of Fire and here paraphrased, see Muir's Texts, v. 197-220, 
 303-305, and my Indian Wisdom, p. 18.
 
 Ancient Sacrificial Rites. 367 
 
 natural mother, the second from the sacred thread, the third 
 from due performance of the sacrifice' (II. 169). 
 
 Of course, it was most important to keep the smouldering 
 embers of the sacred element perpetually burning. If through 
 any accident the flame was extinguished the whole household 
 fell into confusion. Everything went wrong until an ex- 
 piatory ceremony (prayascitta) — sometimes consisting of a 
 solemn fast observed by both husband and wife — had been 
 performed, and the fire was rekindled. 
 
 And this daily service was not all. Every fourteenth day 
 was to every pious and orthodox Hindu a high and holy 
 day. It was set apart for special religious observances. 
 Every new -moon day (darsa) and every full -moon day 
 (paurnamasa) the head of the family — whatever his rank 
 or occupation — laid them both aside. Clad in humble attire 
 and accompanied by his wife, he went into the woods. There 
 he collected fuel (samidh) and sacred sacrificial grass, placed 
 them on his head, carried them home, and made preparation 
 for the solemn fortnightly ceremonial. First he consecrated 
 the fuel, constructed seats and a kind of broom out of the 
 grass, spread deer-skins, and arranged the sacrificial instru- 
 ments, made of a particular kind of wood {khadira or saini\ 
 on the domestic altar. Then, with the assistance of his wife, 
 he prepared the sacrificial cake. Having consecrated a cer- 
 tain quantity of rice — called nirvdpa — and pounded it in a 
 mortar with a proper pestle, he kneaded the flour with his 
 own hands into a ball. This was laid on eight fragments 
 of brick {kapdla\ taken up in a particular order, and placed 
 in a circle on the fire. The ball of flour was then shaped 
 into a rounded sacrificial cake [piiro-ddsa) resembling the 
 back of a tortoise, and, when baked, taken off the fire. 
 Clarified butter was next poured by means of wooden ladles 
 five times into the fire — such oblations being called the 
 panca-praydga — and other oblations of butter — called Ajya — 
 were made to various gods. The consecrated cake was then
 
 368 Ancient Soma-sacrifices. 
 
 cut up, and the pieces [avaddna) were sprinkled with butter 
 and thrown into the flames in the . name of various deities, 
 including the god of fire himself. Other portions were also 
 reverently eaten by the assembled family, hymns were 
 chanted, the sins of the past fortnight confessed, repent- 
 ance expressed, and forgiveness asked. The whole cere- 
 monial was not always performed by husband and wife alone. 
 If they were rich they sent for regularly ordained priests — 
 generally four in number — who kindled fire from two pieces 
 of sacred wood (arani) by friction, and carried out the detail of 
 the ritual with great elaboration and with all the sacrificial im- 
 plements — including a sacred sword for keeping off demons — ■ 
 and, of course, with greater merit to the householder. 
 
 Then every four months another ceremony, called the Ca- 
 turmasya sacrifice, was performed at the beginning of the 
 three seasons. Probably this was solemnized, like a harvest- 
 thanksgiving, in gratitude for the fruits of the earth, gathered 
 in at the end of the three seasons of summer, autumn^ and 
 winter. It was conducted with as much solemnity as the 
 fortnightly rite, and in much the same manner. Another 
 special sacrificial ceremony on a grander scale, with the 
 addition of animal sacrifice (Manu IV. 26, VI. 10), was usually 
 performed half-yearly at the summer and winter solstice 
 (tittardyana^ dakshindyanci). 
 
 Finally, every rich householder endeavoured once a year 
 to institute what was called a Soma-sacrifice. This was a 
 grand public ceremony conducted on some open space of 
 ground, and requiring the presence of at least sixteen dif- 
 ferent priests, who were well paid for its effective celebration. 
 The simplest annual Soma-sacrifice, called Agnishtoma, lasted 
 for five days. Others were protracted for weeks and months, 
 and there were even sacrificial sessions {sattra) which lasted 
 for years. And in these pubhc rites — usually called Srauta- 
 karmajt, to distinguish them from Smdrta-karman, or do- 
 mestic rites — two entirely new elements were introduced ;
 
 Soma-sacrifices. 369 
 
 first the flesh of slaughtered animals, and secondly the juice 
 of the Soma plant {Asclepias Acida) often mentioned before. 
 At one time all kinds of animals were sacrificed, as, for ex- 
 ample, horses (see p. 329), but in the end a goat was usually 
 selected. Parts of the flesh were burned in the fire as 
 offerings to the gods, and parts were eaten by the priests. 
 
 But the great central act of the whole ceremony was the 
 presentation of the exhilarating Soma-juice to the gods, some 
 of it being poured out for the deities and some being drunk 
 by the performers and institutors of the sacrifice. This was 
 done on the fifth day at the morning, midday, and evening 
 libations [savana). In fact the animal sacrifice, though it 
 preceded the Soma-libation, was really subordinate to it. 
 The idea seems to have been that the sacrificer killed the 
 animal instead of sacrificing himself; and as the body of the 
 animal when sacrificed in the fire was borne upwards to 
 the gods, so did the sacrificer — represented by the animal — 
 ascend to the skies. It was only after he had been thus 
 admitted to the society of the gods in heaven that he be- 
 came fit to quaff the divine beverage and to become one 
 with the heavenly king Soma himself. 
 
 Indeed this purifying and invigorating juice, supposed 
 to confer physical strength and to make the heart of men 
 and gods glad, came to be regarded as the water of life — 
 the nectar which purified soul and body and conferred 
 immortality. It was then itself personified and deified. The 
 god Soma was the Bacchus of India, and the fermented 
 juice of the Soma plant was in ancient times to the Indian 
 community very much what the juice of the grape was to 
 the Greeks and Romans (compare p. 12). Happily for 
 Indian households, the drinking of stimulating liquor has 
 never been permitted except at special religious ceremonials. 
 
 So much for the religious life of the Brahman householder 
 in ancient times. 
 
 Bb
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Hindu Religion in Modern Family-life. 
 
 Turn we now to the daily life of the modern householder. 
 And here I must make it clear that what I shall have to say 
 will have reference only to those persons of the higher castes 
 who have the right to the title ' twice-born,' and have gone 
 through the chief Sanskaras or ceremonies supposed to purify 
 the child from the taint contracted in the womb of an earthly 
 parent. 
 
 Of the twelve Sanskaras described in the last chapter only 
 a few remain still in force. Passing over the first four, which 
 are rarely if ever performed in the present day, we come to 
 the fifth, or Name-giving ceremony (Nama-karana), which 
 takes place about the tenth or twelfth day after birth. 
 
 It is worth while to take note here of a superstitious idea 
 which prevails very generally throughout India, that on the 
 sixth day after birth the Creator writes the child's future 
 destiny on its forehead. Yet I know of no special ceremony 
 instituted to mark this particular day, or to propitiate the 
 deity on so momentous an occasion. 
 
 With regard to the present custom of Name-giving, the 
 ceremony is performed in some parts of India on the day 
 when the child is first fed with a little rice^ Then it is 
 thought essential to secure good fortune that a boy should 
 be called after some god^ for example Krishna, Gopala 
 
 ^ This appears to be the custom in Bengal. 
 
 "^ In former days people were not so superstitious. Witness such 
 names as Panini, Pataiijali, Saunaka, Asvalayana, etc.
 
 Modern Name-giving. 371 
 
 (Gopal), Rama, Rama-candra, Narayana, Siva, Sankara^ Ga- 
 nesa ; or the name may indicate that he is to be the god's 
 servant, as, for instance, Rama-dasa (Ram-das), Krishna-dasa, 
 Narayana-dasa (Narayan-das), Lakshmi-dasa. Often the ho- 
 norific afifix Ji (probably thought to be auspicious as derived 
 from either the root jTv, 'to Hve/ or ji, 'to conquer') is added 
 to the name, as in Rama-jl (Ram-jl), Siva-jl, Deva-jl. Candra, 
 the moon — corrupted into Candar and Cand — is beheved to 
 bring good luck when forming part of an appellation, as in 
 Motl-cand, etc. 
 
 Again, in the present day as in ancient times, the names of 
 girls, like those of boys, are often taken from those of god- 
 desses, such as Lakshml, Durga, Sita, Radha ; or from cele- 
 brated women, such as Savitrl, Yasoda, Subhadra, Sumangala ; 
 or from rivers, such as Gariga, Yamuna, BhagirathI, Godavarl, 
 Narmada, Krishna ; or from jewels, such as Manak (for San- 
 skrit Manikya), a ruby; MotI (Sanskrit Mukta), a pearl; 
 Rattan (Sanskrit ratna), a precious stone ; Mani, a gem ; or 
 from flowers, such as Padma, a lily; Phulli, a blossom; or 
 from words like Sundarl, beautiful ; Prema, love, etc. 
 
 It is often considered unlucky, and not unlikely to bring 
 down a judgment on a child, if the name it receives is in- 
 dicative of any good quality it may happen to possess at 
 birth. Therefore it is not uncommon for a fair child to be 
 called ' Black ' (Krishna). Moreover, a parent will sometimes 
 give an infant an ugly or inauspicious name from a super- 
 stitious fear that the child's beauty may excite the envious 
 glances or ' evil eye ' of malicious persons ; for it is remarkable 
 that when a family has suffered early bereavements by death 
 these are attributed to evil influences exerted through the in- 
 strumentality of the human eye (see p. 253). 
 
 As a general rule, the name given on the tenth day is only 
 that by which the child is commonly known and addressed in 
 
 ^ Narmada-sankar is the name of a celebrated living Gujarat! poet. 
 
 B b a
 
 372 Birth-record and Horoscope. 
 
 conversation. But the infant often receives a second or pri- 
 vate name, which is considered to be its real name, and is 
 whispered inaudibly by its parent or the family preceptor 
 (guru), and not revealed to others. The idea is that a man's 
 name is in some mysterious manner connected with his per- 
 sonality, and the object of concealing it is to protect him from 
 the power of sorcerers, who are unable to injure him by their 
 enchantments unless they know and can pronounce his real 
 name^ 
 
 I ought to mention, too, that besides the common name 
 and the secret name, another is generally added which may 
 be called the astrological name, because it contains a letter 
 from the name of the constellation (nakshatra) under which 
 the child was born. It is well known that nothing of im- 
 portance is ever done by a Hindu without consulting the 
 stars. Therefore soon after the Name-giving ceremony has 
 been performed the family Astrologer (Jyotisha, corrupted 
 into Jyoshi or Joshi) is sent for and commissioned to draw 
 up a horoscope of the exact time of the child's nativity, the 
 constellation under which it was born, with a pi:ophecy of 
 the duration of its life, and the circumstances, good or evil, 
 of its probable career. This is called the birth-record (Janma- 
 patra). It is always written in Sanskrit, and, if the parents 
 are rich, sometimes on a roll sixty yards long, takes three or 
 four months to prepare, and costs a large sum of money. 
 The name given in the horoscope is the Nakshatra name, and 
 not the one given at the Name-giving ceremony. For ex- 
 ample, if the child's common name is Yadava Candra 
 Ghosh, this name is not mentioned in the horoscope^ but a 
 different name is given, such, for example, as Raghu-natha, 
 
 ^ It is well known that no wife in India likes to utter her husband's 
 name. According to Sir J. Lubbock a Sumatran scrupulously abstains 
 from pronouncing his own name, and a similar superstition prevails 
 among the Negroes, Abyssinians, and Australians.
 
 Translation of Horoscope. '^']'y^ 
 
 or Hari-hara^. I subjoin a translation of part of a genuine 
 horoscope ^ : — 
 
 Adoration to the Sun. May the Sun and all other planets and stars 
 and constellations prolong the life of him for whom this horoscope is 
 prepared. Let that series of characters which is written by the Dis- 
 poser of all things on the forehead of the child, and which is another 
 name for Astrology, be seen clearly by eyes purified by the same science. 
 May good fortune smile on the instant which came to pass after 1784 
 years, 7 months, 26 days, 22 dandas, and 27 palas of the era styled 
 the Sakabda had passed away, or after 1269 years, 7 months, 26 days, 
 22 dandas, and 27 palas of the era styled the Sana had passed away. 
 
 First, the measure of the day of birth is 26 dandas, 35 palas, o vipala, 
 and of the night is 33 dandas, 25 palas, o vipala ; of half the day, 13 
 dandas, 17 palas, 30 vipalas, and of half the night 16 dandas, 42 palas, 
 30 vipalas ; of a fourth part of the day, 6 dandas, 38 palas, 45 vipalas ; 
 and of a fourth part of the night 8 dandas, 12 palas, 15 vipalas ; of an 
 eighth part of the day, 3 dandas, 19 palas, 22 vipalas ; and of an eighth 
 part of the night 4 dandas, 10 palas, yj vipalas. 
 
 The moment of his birth being next after the 27th pala, after the 
 22nd danda of the day, the child was born in that eighth part of the 
 day which was presided over by the planet Sukra (Venus), and in that 
 danda of the day which was presided over by Rahu, and consequently 
 the aspect of Rahu was then not such that it could have had its position 
 in the same degree with the constellation of the child's birth or with any 
 of the co-ordinate constellations (compare p. 345). 
 
 At the instant following the 27th pala, after 22 dandas of the 27th day 
 of the solar month of Agrahayana, being a Thursday and the 5th day 
 of the fortnight succeeding the full moon, in that lagna or period during 
 which the constellation Aries was visible in the sky, and which was ruled 
 over by Mars, in that half of the lagna which was guarded by the Moon, 
 and in that 3rd part of the lagna which was governed by Jupiter, &c., 
 the second son of * * * * * was born under the star Aslesha, and when 
 the moon had revolved to the constellation Cancer. 
 
 The child, who will live a long life and be capable of attaining to 
 great prosperity, belongs to the Devari-gana or demon class, and to 
 the Vipra-varna or Brahman caste, and his astrological name is Hari- 
 hara Devasarma. To him doth this horoscope of happy results belong. 
 
 As the deity presiding over his birth-lagna is propitious, the child will 
 
 ^ The Rev. Nehemiah Goreh (a converted Brahman) told me that 
 each Nakshatra or constellation has four divisions, and that he was 
 born under the third, in which the letter r occurs. Hence his Nakshatra 
 name was Raghu-natha. It might just as well have been Rama or any 
 name in which the letter R occurs. 
 
 ^ The late Mr. Woodrow, Inspector of Schools, is my authority here.
 
 374 Modern Shaving. 
 
 turn out to be a person of a good disposition and a favourite of fortune, 
 he shall beget many sons, and have ample dwelling-places, enjoy plea- 
 sures, and possess gems of various descriptions. 
 
 Now are to be described the planetary periods according to the birth- 
 star of the child. He was born under the star of Aslesha, and hence 
 2 years 4 months and 18 days of the lunar period were passed, and 
 I year 4 months and 12 days of the same remained, at the date of 
 the child's birth. The result of this shall be the gain of clothes by 
 the boy. The age of the boy will be i year 4 months 12 days at the 
 expiration of the period of the Moon ; 9 years 4 months 12 days at 
 the expiration of the period of Mars, which is 8 years ; 26 years 4 months 
 12 days at the expiration of the period of Mercury, which is 17 years ; 
 36 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Saturn, 
 which is 10 years ; 55 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of 
 the period of Jupiter, which is 19 years ; 67 years 4 months 12 days at 
 the expiration of the period of the Earth's shadow, which is I2 years; 
 88 years 4 months 12 days at the expiration of the period of Venus, 
 which is 21 years. 
 
 With regard to the right of tonsure or shaving described at 
 P- 359j it is to be observed that in modern times rich people 
 are shaved every day, ordinary people once a week, poor people 
 once a fortnight. No one, as a general rule, shaves himself, 
 or even cuts his own nails. Both these necessary acts are 
 performed by a caste of barbers (napita), and ought not to be 
 carried on in a room, for the simple reason that fragments 
 of hair and nail-parings are supposed to cause pollution. 
 The operation is usually conducted under a shed or tree, or 
 in an open verandah or street. Numbers of barbers may be 
 seen plying their occupation every morning outside the houses 
 of a native town. 
 
 In former days, as we have seen, a Brahman had to part 
 with all his hair except a tuft at the top (sikha) of his head, 
 this top-knot and the sacred thread being the two chief 
 badges of Brahmanhood. Only when he became a SannyasI 
 (see p. 362) was he allowed to dispense with these two badges. 
 
 In the present day few persons, except Brahmans of the 
 strictest orthodoxy, allow themselves to be reduced to a 
 single lock on the top of their heads ; but every respectable 
 Hindia who has reached puberty gets rid of the hair on his
 
 Modern Tonsure. 375 
 
 face^ (except his mustaches), unless he is an ascetic''', or has 
 taken some other religious vow, or belongs to the very lowest 
 castes. It should also be noted that special religious shavings 
 are performed at sacred places of pilgrimage on the banks of 
 rivers, and are held to be very efficacious in purifying soul 
 and body from pollution. Persons who have committed great 
 crimes or are troubled by uneasy consciences, travel hun- 
 dreds of miles to Prayaga (Allahabad), Mathura (Muttra), or 
 other holy places for the sole purpose of submitting them- 
 selves to the tonsorial skill of the professional barbers who 
 frequent such localities. There they may be released from 
 every sin by first being relieved of every hair and then plung- 
 ing into the sacred stream. Forthwith they emerge new crea- 
 tures, with all the accumulated guilt of a long life effaced. 
 
 Women, on the other hand, are most careful to preserve 
 their hair intact. They pride themselves on its length and 
 weight. For a woman to have to part with her hair is one 
 of the greatest of degradations, and the most terrible of all 
 trials. It is the mark of widowhood. Yet in some sacred 
 places, especially at the confluence of rivers, the cutting off 
 and offering of a few locks of hair (Veni-danam) by a vir- 
 tuous wife is considered a highly meritorious act. 
 
 A Brahman gentleman of high rank in India once described 
 to me how he had taken his wife for the performance of this 
 ceremonial to Prayaga, which, as the point of meeting of the 
 Ganges and Jumna, is regarded as one of the holiest places of 
 pilgrimage in India. She was escorted to the banks of the 
 river by a troop of priests — there called Prayagwal — carrying 
 cocoa-nuts, areca-nuts, flowers, kuiikuma, etc. At the conflu- 
 ence she was made to sit down and offer worship (puja) to the 
 
 ^ This, in most parts of India, is one point of distinction between 
 Hindus and Muhammadans, whose former hatred of each other made 
 them adopt opposite practices out of mere antagonism. 
 ■ ^ Some Sannyasis allow all their hair to grow, some shave it all off, 
 including the Sikha. These latter are the most orthodox.
 
 376 Teeth-cleaning. Ear-boring. 
 
 Ganges. Then one of the priests recited certain texts and 
 prayers from the Veda, and holding a pair of golden scissors 
 in his hand cut off about two inches of her long hair. The 
 locks thus severed were deposited as a precious offering in 
 a costly metal vessel, but not without the addition of five 
 rupees to make the gift more acceptable. Then the husband, 
 in ratification of the ceremony, poured water into the hand 
 of the priest, who thereupon took the money for himself and 
 cast the locks of hair into the river. The shorn woman re- 
 garded this presentation of her precious locks to the river- 
 goddess as a great privilege, for it can only be performed by 
 a devoted wife who is living virtuously with her husband, and 
 only in his presence. 
 
 I may observe here that if a really orthodox Hindu woman 
 ever loses her hair or becomes partially bald from sickness 
 or any other cause she never resorts to the artifice of using 
 false hair. She would consider herself eternally defiled and 
 condemned to prolonged suffering in a future state of existence 
 by such an act. 
 
 It may be mentioned in connection with the religious duty 
 of shaving that daily teeth-cleaning is also regarded as a re- 
 ligious act partaking of the nature of a ceremonial observance. 
 It is performed, like shaving, in the open air. Any one who 
 passes through a native village in the early morning may see 
 a large proportion of its population engaged in the serious 
 duty of cleansing their teeth. The instrument used is a twig 
 or small stick. After its application to the teeth the twig 
 serves the purpose of cleaning the tongue — another important 
 duty. It is never used a second time, but always thrown 
 away. No words can express the abhorrence with which a 
 strict Hindu regards the European practice of using a tooth- 
 brush a second time. Saliva is of all things the most utterly 
 polluting. 
 
 Ear-boring is also a religious ceremony. Girls have their 
 ears bored about the same age as boys (see p. 360), but often
 
 Betrothal. Initiation. 377 
 
 have three perforations made in each ear, besides one in the 
 left nostril. Nose-rings are universal among women in all 
 parts of India. Even boys in some places have one nostril 
 bored, but this is an exceptional circumstance. 
 
 The ceremony of betrothal (vag-dana) generally succeeds 
 tonsure and ear-boring, but is not reckoned among the 
 Sanskaras. In India a parent's first thought for its child 
 is not for its health — not for its wealth — not for its physical, 
 moral or mental well-being — but for its betrothal and mar- 
 riage. To look out for a child's future wife, to lay by money 
 for the cost of the nuptial festivities, to fee and conciliate the 
 priests who promote the match — these are far more important 
 duties than to make arrangements for a boy's proper educa- 
 tion. When a boy attains the age of five his father deputes a 
 professional match-maker (Ghataka) to negotiate a promise of 
 marriage with the daughter of a man of at least equal caste. 
 It must be admitted that caste-equality in India is regarded 
 as a more important requisite than riches. Money is quite a 
 secondary consideration. Nor is character so important. In 
 some parts of Northern India the match-maker for some 
 castes is the family barber ; but for the higher castes he is 
 more generally a Brahman, who goes about from one house 
 to another till he discovers a baby-girl of suitable rank. 
 Forthwith he reports to one of the parents that the young 
 lady has all her members complete — the full number of eyes, 
 teeth, fingers and toes — and to the other that the young 
 gentleman is equally perfect in every particular. Next, he 
 brings the two parents together. Genealogies are investi- 
 gated, and pedigrees certified. Then the boy and girl are 
 solemnly betrothed. This is called in Sanskrit vdg-ddna, 
 and in Hindustani nisbat. 
 
 The important Sanskara ceremony of initiation (upana- 
 yana) into the Brahmanical religion by investiture with the 
 sacred thread (yajnopavlta) has been described at p. 360. 
 Once invested with the mystical cord — the hallowed symbol
 
 378 Initiation. 
 
 of second birth — the twice-born man never parts with it. In 
 this respect he has an advantage over his Christian brother. 
 For the latter is admitted into the Church by a single sacred 
 ceremony performed in his infancy, and brought to his recol- 
 lection by one other ceremony only; whereas the Indian 
 twice-born man has a sacred symbol always in contact with 
 his person, which must always be worn and its position 
 changed during the performance of his daily religious services, 
 constantly reminding him of his regenerate condition, and 
 with its three white threads, united by a sacred knot, per- 
 petually setting before him a typical representation of what 
 may be called the triads of the Hindu religion. For ex- 
 ample, it is probable that the triple form of the sacred thread 
 symbolizes that the Supreme Being is Existence, Wisdom, 
 and Joy; that He has been manifested in three forms as 
 Creator, Preserver, and Disintegrator of all material things ; 
 that He pervades the three worlds, Earth, Air, and Heaven ; 
 that He has revealed His will in three principal books called 
 the Rig, Yajur, and Sama Vedas, with other similar dogmas of 
 the Hindu system in which the sacred number three con- 
 stantly recurs. I have heard a Brahman described as the 
 greatest of all ritualists. This is true in regard to the multi- 
 plicity of rites he is called upon to perform. But his ritualism 
 in the present day is confined to private worship and domestic 
 ceremonies, and his ritualistic vestments are restricted to this 
 coil of cotton thread, the name of which (yajiiopavita) denotes 
 that it is put on (upavita) during the performance of de- 
 votional rites (yajna). And just as a Roman Catholic priest 
 changes his ecclesiastical vestments according to variations in 
 his own ceremonial, so the Brahman alters the position of his 
 thread. For example, when he worships the gods he puts it 
 over his left shoulder and under his right, being then called 
 Upavltl; when he worships his departed ancestors he sus- 
 pends it over his right shoulder and under his left, being then 
 called pracinaviti ; and when he worships the saints he hangs
 
 Marriage Ceremonies, 379 
 
 it round his neck like a long necklace, being then called 
 Nivltl. It would be premature to pursue the subject of 
 domestic worship further until we have given some account 
 of the marriage ceremony. 
 
 Marriage Ceremonies, 
 
 We have seen (p. 362) that in ancient times the young 
 Brahman after his initiation left his father's house and resided 
 for several years as an unmarried student with a religious 
 preceptor. In the present day a boy's initiation is followed 
 immediately afterwards by a mere formal performance of the 
 rite called ' Return ' (Samavartana), and generally after a day 
 or two's interval by the ceremony of marriage. That is, he 
 is made, while still a boy at the age of about nine or ten and 
 before he is really marriageable, to go through the second 
 matrimonial act, his previous betrothal having constituted the 
 first, and cohabitation at the age of fifteen or sixteen consti- 
 tuting the third. In fact, a Hindu marriage is a kind of drama 
 in three acts. But the second is the religious and legal cere- 
 mony, and is a most tedious process, involving considerable fees 
 to the priests and expensive festivities prolonged for many days, 
 at a cost, in the case of rich people, of perhaps 100,000 rupees. 
 Often the savings of a whole lifetime are so spent. This is 
 one of the greatest evils of Indian society. Every well-to-do 
 parent is compelled to squander large sums on mere idlers 
 and pleasure-seekers, instead of giving the money as a grant 
 in aid to the newly-married pair on first starting in life. He 
 knows, in fact, that if he were to allow the wedding to be 
 conducted with an eye to economy he would sink irretrievably 
 in the estimation of his friends and caste-fellows. He would 
 never be able to hold up his head again in his own social 
 circle. Nor must it be supposed that he spends his money 
 unwillingly. On the contrary, the more lavishly he spends 
 the more pride and satisfaction he afterwards feels in looking
 
 380 Marriage Ceremonies. 
 
 back on what he regards as the most meritorious act of his 
 lifei. 
 
 As to the two persons chiefly concerned in a wedding their 
 wishes are never consulted about any of the arrangements. 
 Yet it is thought highly important to consult the stars. A 
 wedding ought never to take place except in a fortunate 
 month and during fortunate days. The most favourable time 
 is believed to be in spring — that is in the three or four months 
 from February to April and May. The months generally chosen 
 are Magha, Phalguna, and Vaisakha ^. It is out of the power 
 of any European, to whom the inner apartments of Indian 
 households are forbidden ground, to give a complete descrip- 
 tion of the entire marriage ceremonial. The more ancient 
 form has already been described at p. '>fi'^. The modern 
 ceremonies — which last for many days — are marked by many 
 similar acts, and especially by the following essential features : 
 the night procession of the bridegroom to the house of the 
 bride, tying the vestments of bride and bridegroom together 
 with a piece of consecrated cloth under which their hands are 
 joined, winding a cord round their necks, marking their faces 
 with paint, making them walk three times round the sacred fire, 
 each time in seven steps ^, with repetition of prayers and texts. 
 Noisy music during some part of the ceremony is held to be 
 essential. In fact no one in India would believe in the validity 
 of a marriage ceremony conducted without loud and often up- 
 roarious festivities. For it is a common idea^ which no contact 
 with European habits of thought has yet eradicated, that the 
 efficacy of religious services is greatly enhanced by noise. 
 
 Every sort of deafening musical instrument is brought into 
 
 * In one way the expense of marriages acts beneficially ; for although 
 it is lawful for a Hindu to have more than one wife, scarcely any one 
 can afford to do so, 
 
 ^ In some parts of India (faitra is avoided. 
 
 ^ This part of the ceremony is called the Sapta-padI, and generally 
 comes last.
 
 Marriage Ceremonies. 381 
 
 requisition. Players on trumpets, horns, pipes, and drums 
 are eagerly sought for. and every performer seems intent on 
 overpowering the sounds produced by his fellow-performers, 
 as if his musical reputation depended on his being heard 
 above the general din. 
 
 In the higher circles of Indian society the wedding enter- 
 tainments, often repeated for several days, are on a magnificent 
 scale, and when Europeans are invited every kind of expensive 
 luxury is provided for them. 
 
 Soon after my arrival at Bombay in 1875 I was invited to 
 be present at the wedding of Sir Marigaldas Nathoobhai's 
 two sons. The festivities and religious ceremonies lasted for 
 eight days, and were on a scale of unusual magnificence. 
 Such a wedding is rarely witnessed even in India. The 
 residence of Sir Marigaldas — called Girgaum House — is a 
 magnificent mansion in the middle of a large garden. When 
 we arrived at eight o'clock in the evening of the first day of 
 the ceremonies, both house and garden were brilliantly illu- 
 minated — all the trees festooned with Chinese lanterns, all 
 the lines of the architecture sparkling with light, and every 
 bed and fountain in the garden encircled with thousands of 
 coloured lamps. A splendid drawing-room blazing with light 
 was thronged with native gentlemen and Rajas, most of whom 
 sat round in a double row, intently gazing at the movements 
 and listening to the songs of two jewel -bedecked Nach 
 girls. These girls wore bright-coloured silk trousers and 
 were decorously enveloped in voluminous folds of drapery. 
 They did not really dance, but merely sang in a mono- 
 tonous minor key with continuous trills and turns of the 
 voice, while they waved their arms gracefully to and fro, 
 occasionally lifting one hand to the ear, and frequently ad- 
 vancing a few steps up the room and then retiring again, 
 closely followed from behind by two or three musicians who 
 played accompaniments on instruments called Sarahgi and 
 Tabla (tom-toms). The loves, quarrels, and reconciliations
 
 382 Marriage Ceremonies. 
 
 of Krishna and his wives, especially his wife Radha, formed 
 the subject of their songs, which were kept up incessantly for 
 hours, no native spectators appearing to find them tedious. 
 I was told that a fee of 1000 rupees is sometimes paid to a 
 first-rate Nach girl for one night's performance. 
 
 The European guests congregated in the balcony. From 
 that vantage-ground we looked down on a sea of turbaned 
 heads and coloured dresses, brilliantly lighted up and set off 
 by a glorious background of cocoa-nut palms, tropical plants, 
 and trees in full foliage. It was like a fairy scene on enchanted 
 ground, and our host, with his high hat and spotless white 
 dress, might have been taken for the magician by whose art 
 the marvellous spectacle had been conjured up before us. 
 
 A more human exhibition of his power followed, when, 
 after garlanding us himself with jasmine wreaths, he beckoned 
 to his servants, who feasted us with iced champagne, and pre- 
 sented every European visitor with bouquets of roses sprinkled 
 with rose-water. Then we were all formally introduced to the 
 two bridegrooms, whose ages were about twenty and eighteen 
 — for our host was too enlightened a man to allow his sons to 
 marry when mere children — the brides, respectively aged 
 fourteen and twelve, being carefully kept out of sight. 
 
 On the fourth evening, when we were again invited, there 
 was a still greater assemblage of people. On our arrival 
 a vast throng was preparing to accompany the night-pro- 
 cession to the houses of the brides. Again the whole garden 
 was illuminated. Again it was thronged with visitors, or 
 rather on this occasion literally alive and resonant with an 
 excited throng of about 5000 people, who surged like a 
 roaring ocean, while four bands of music struck up different 
 tunes in different parts of the grounds, and the same Nach 
 girls entertained the guests in the drawing-room. 
 
 Then the procession gradually formed to conduct the bride- 
 grooms to the houses of the brides. The two bridegrooms in 
 superb dresses of gold tissue, with high jewelled hats — each of
 
 Marriage Ceremonies. 383 
 
 which was said to be worth two or three thousand pounds — 
 and necklaces of emeralds and diamonds, were placed on richly 
 caparisoned horses covered with white flowers. Crimson um- 
 brellas were held over their heads, and silver fans waved 
 near them. About 3000 native gentlemen and loco ladies — 
 Hindu and Pars! — in brilliant coloured dresses, closely packed 
 and all talking and singing together, formed themselves into a 
 procession, while the bands led the way. The men went first; 
 then came the mounted bridegrooms, then two ladies carrying 
 lanterns, and then the whole crowd of ladies followed. 
 
 We European guests wound up the procession in car- 
 riages. At length we alighted and threaded our way through 
 a lane made for us into a large tent, where we found all the 
 ladies, gorgeously arrayed, and squatting in what to us ap- 
 peared rather unladylike positions on the ground around the 
 youngest of the bridegrooms, who was also squatting in their 
 midst. The thronging, jostling, and heat were intense, and 
 the talking, joking, and excitement quite bewildering. Mean- 
 while one of the brides was brought in and made to sit down 
 on the ground in front of the bridegroom. She was carried 
 in the arms of her uncle, her head and face closely veiled, 
 and covered with a deep red and yellow silk shawl of great 
 value. 
 
 Leaving this curious scene before it was concluded, we were 
 taken through the crush of people to the top of a gallery, 
 whence we viewed another stage of the marriage ceremony. 
 This took place under another canopy equally thronged with 
 people. The crowd here was in a fever of excitement waiting 
 for the appearance of the elder bridegroom, who ought to 
 have been received by his mother-in-law. This however was 
 impossible, as she was a widow. Another lady, therefore, 
 came forward on his entrance and made a red mark on his 
 forehead. Next a number of Brahmans, after placing the 
 bridegroom on a stool, proceeded to worship the god Ganesa 
 —the god who, as we have seen (p. 216), defends every under-
 
 384 Marriage Ceremonies. 
 
 taking from the lets and hindrances caused by evil demons. 
 Sacred texts were also repeated, or rather muttered in an 
 inaudible tone. Then preparations were made for receiving 
 the bride, who was brought in by her maternal uncle and 
 placed on a stool opposite the bridegroom. Her face was 
 of course completely veiled, and her body kept bent, in token, 
 I presume, of maidenly modesty and feminine humihty. 
 
 At the same time two officiating priests squatted down on 
 one side of the pair, and the acting mother and father-in-law 
 on the other side. 
 
 The principal religious ceremony now began. First of all, 
 one of the Brahmans took a piece of consecrated cloth and 
 fastened one end of it to the bridegroom's dress and the other 
 to that of the bride. Next the hands of the bridegroom and 
 bride were joined together and crossed under this cloth, and 
 two ladies made marks with red paint on their faces and threw 
 garlands of flowers round their shoulders. After this, one of 
 the priests took a sacred cord and wound it round the necks 
 of bride and bridegroom, joining them thus together while 
 muttering prayers and texts. Then the bridegroom's hands 
 were placed in milk. Sundry sprinklings of red powder, rice 
 grains, cocoa-nut milk, and water followed. 
 
 The remainder of the ceremony was very complicated and 
 tedious, and we were not allowed to witness it all. 
 
 The bridegroom and bride were, I believe, taken to another 
 room, where more red marks were applied and money pre- 
 sented by the bridegroom. Then they were brought back to 
 the tent, where earthen pots were placed at the four corners 
 and a consecrated fire lighted. Afterwards the bride and 
 bridegroom walked four times round the tent hand in hand. 
 Then the bridegroom put his arm round the bride's neck, and 
 threw barley, betel-nuts, and oil-seeds into the consecrated 
 fire, the Brahmans at the same time throwing in ghee, while 
 the pair walked three times round the sacred flames, each 
 time in seven steps (see p. 364).
 
 Marriage Ceremonies. 385 
 
 It is easy from all this to see that some portions of the 
 ceremonial are little changed since the time of Asvalayana 
 (see p. 363), whose collection of rules (sutras) was probably 
 composed more than 2500 years ago. 
 
 About midnight, when the whole day's ritual was brought 
 to a close, the bride and bridegroom played together at a 
 kind of game like that known among schoolboys as odd and 
 even, money being used instead of marbles. More cere- 
 monies followed on the succeeding days, till on the eighth 
 day the bride and bridegroom went together to the temple of 
 Prosperity (Maha-lakshml), near Bombay^ and worshipped 
 the goddess there. This was the grand finale. The two 
 brides then followed their husbands, and took up their abode 
 in the house of their father-in-law. The sums spent on the 
 festivities must have been enormous. 
 
 This remarkable marriage of two young men of high rank 
 at the respective ages of 18 and 20 was quite an exceptional 
 occurrence. The legal ceremony is generally performed 
 eight or ten years earlier. It must not, however, be sup- 
 posed that, when a boy is thus married in childhood, he 
 therefore- begins life early as a householder on his own ac- 
 count. His first lessons in reading and writing probably 
 commenced at the time of his betrothal. When he has 
 been made at the age of 9 or 10, or a little later, to undergo 
 the ceremony of marriage, he is old enough to understand 
 that he must commence learning in earnest. His boyish 
 education is therefore carried on till he and his wife have 
 attained puberty (generally at the age of 15 or 16 in the case 
 of the boy and 11 or 12 in the case of the girl). Then comes 
 the third and concluding matrimonial act, when he lives with 
 his wife as her actual husband. 
 
 Even then his education is by no means ended. He is still 
 a mere schoolboy or collegian residing at home with his 
 parents, and continuing to do so long after he has children 
 of his own. I have not unfrequently examined the senior 
 
 C c
 
 386 Choice of a Profession. 
 
 classes at Indian High Schools and Colleges in which some 
 of the boys have been fathers. 
 
 And here it should be mentioned that in Brahman families 
 of the present day a boy's parents may choose for him either 
 a religious or secular career. Brahmans, we know, are not 
 necessarily priests, but simply a class of men divided, like our- 
 selves, into two great divisions of clergy (sometimes designated 
 by the general term Bhikshukas) and laity (Grihasthas ^). 
 The clergy may be family priests (purohita) who perform the 
 Sanskara ceremonies, but are often very ignorant, or they 
 may be spiritual teachers (Gurus) who teach the mantras 
 and prayers, or they may be men trained in sacred learning. 
 These become either Vaidik priests and are sent to special 
 schools where they are trained in Vedic lore and ritual by 
 Vaidik and Yajiiika priests, or they may be sent to native 
 schools of another sort, where they learn either grammar 
 (vyakarana) or philosophy, and become Sastrls or Pandits. 
 Those who are taught grammar also read the poems (kavyas). 
 Those who are trained in philosophy usually confine them- 
 selves to the Nyaya and Vedanta systems. These and the 
 Vaidik Brahmans^ generally become bigoted members of the 
 clerical order. 
 
 As to the laity, or Grihasthas, they either go to native 
 institutions for secular education, or to some of the numerous 
 schools, high schools, and colleges established by us. Here 
 they learn English, which they often speak as well as we do. 
 Here, too, they are apt to neglect their own languages and 
 literature. They study Shakspeare, Milton, Tennyson, and 
 
 ^ The term Grihastha ought properly to be restricted to ' a married 
 man and householder,' but is now applied generally to those Brahmans 
 who do not live by priestly work, but by some worldly business, such as 
 that of a clerk, etc. 
 
 '^ With regard to the Vaidik Brahmans, it should be noted that they 
 have really little to do with Vedic sacrificial rites (yajiia, srauta-karman), 
 which are now out of fashion. Their chief work is connected with 
 smarta-karma or domestic ritual. 

 
 Status of Women. 387 
 
 all our standard authors, and aspire to become English writers 
 themselves. Here, too, they learn to ignore, if not to despise, 
 their own religions without becoming Christians. 
 
 In regard to the girls of the present period, the general feel- 
 ing is that women are mere machines for producing children 
 (compare Manu IX. 96). This is the true explanation of 
 their present position. They are betrothed at three or four 
 years of age, and married at eight or nine to boys of whom 
 they know nothing. They are taken to their boy-husbands' 
 homes at the age of 11 or 12. From that moment they lose 
 their freedom and even their personality ; and though they do 
 not adopt their husband's name as European wives do, they 
 merge their whole individuality in the persons of their hus- 
 bands. They may be loved^ and they are rarely ill-used, as 
 they too frequently are in Christian countries, but they are 
 ignored as separate units in society. For example, they never 
 desecrate a husband's name by pronouncing it ; they call 
 him simply 'lord,' or 'master,' or 'the chosen' (vara): and 
 they themselves are never directly alluded to by their hus- 
 bands in conversation. For another person to mention their 
 names or enquire after their health would be a breach of 
 etiquette. They often become mothers at 12 or 13. Their life 
 is then spent in petty household duties^ in superintending 
 the family cuisine, in a wearisome round of trivial religious 
 acts. Yet in religion they are generally treated as Sudras, 
 or people of the unprivileged caste. They are allowed no 
 formal initiation into the Hindu faith, no investiture with the 
 sacred thread, no spiritual second birth. Marriage is to them 
 the substitute for regeneration. No other purificatory rite is 
 permitted to them. They never read, repeat, nor listen to the 
 Veda ; and if they belong to the upper classes are liable to be 
 cooped up behind Pardahs or immured in gloomy apartments, 
 where they are condemned to vegetate in profound ignorance of 
 the world around them^ and in an atmosphere of dull monotony 
 only enlivened by foolish chatter and old wives' gossip. 
 
 C c 2
 
 388 Status of Women. Householder s duties. 
 
 Yet it must be carefully noted that the seclusion and 
 ignorance of women, which are in reality mainly due to 
 Muhammadan influences, do not exist to the same degree 
 in provinces and districts unaffected by these influences ; as, 
 for instance, in the Maratha country, Western India, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 And as bearing on this point I may here direct attention 
 to some of the rules laid down by the ancient Hindu sage 
 Vatsyayana (author of the Kama-sutra ^) in regard to Indian 
 domestic life, proving that women enjoyed greater liberty 
 and a higher status in former times. 
 
 In the first place he recommends parents to allow their 
 children complete freedom and indulgence till they are five 
 years of age. Then from five to sixteen they are to learn 
 some of the fourteen sciences and the sixty-four arts. Among 
 the sciences are comprised the Vedas, Puranas, Upapuranas, 
 law, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic, grammar, etc. The 
 enumeration of sixty-four arts proves the existence of con- 
 siderable civilization at a time when the greater part of 
 Europe was immersed in ignorance. Among them are sing- 
 ing, instrumental music, dancing, painting, composing poems, 
 chemistry, mineralogy, gardening, the military art, carpentry, 
 architecture, gymnastics, etc. 
 
 After education a man is to become a householder and to 
 strive after the three great objects of human life — religious 
 merit (dharma), wealth (artha), and enjoyment (kama)-. He is 
 to win a suitable wife for himself by his own efforts, and not to 
 allow others to choose for him. The sage then expatiates on 
 the most approved methods of making love, and declares that 
 no fair maiden can ever be won without a good deal of talking. 
 
 ^ An ancient work quite as old as the first century of our era. I ought 
 to mention that a book called 'Early Ideas,' by Anaryan, gives a sum- 
 mary of Vatsyayana's rules, which I have found very well done and very 
 useful here. 
 
 ^ These are constantly alluded to in Indian writings. A fourth object, 
 viz. final beatitude (moksha), is generally added.
 
 The Model Wife. 389 
 
 The house in which the husband and wife are to take up 
 their abode should be in the neighbourhood of good men, 
 with a garden surrounding it, and with at least two rooms, 
 an outer and an inner. Many details then follow in re- 
 gard to the proper conduct of the married couple. The 
 husband is to perform all his necessary duties, and, as to the 
 wife, she is to be a pattern of perfection. She is to keep 
 all her husband's secrets, never to reveal the amount of his 
 wealth, to excel all other women in attractiveness of appear- 
 ance, in attention to her husband, in knowledge of cookery, 
 in general cleverness, in ruling her servants wisely, in hos- 
 pitality, in thrift, in adapting expenditure to income, and in 
 superintending every minute circumstance of her family's 
 daily life. Finally, she is to co-operate with her husband 
 in pursuing the three great objects of life — religious merit, 
 wealth, and enjoyment ; and it is remarkable that to neglect 
 the third is as sinful as to be careless about the other two. 
 This kind of perfect woman is called a PadminI, or lotus-like 
 woman. Three other kinds are specified : the CitrinI, or 
 woman of varied accomplishments; the Sankhinl, or conch- 
 like woman ; and the HastinI, or elephant-like woman. 
 
 In ancient and medieval times women were not unfre- 
 quently Sanskrit scholars, and lady Pandits are not wanting 
 even in the present day. 
 
 It is interesting to compare the definition of a wife given in 
 Maha-bharata I. 3028, etc., of which the following is a nearly 
 literal version : — 
 
 A wife is half the man, his truest friend ; 
 
 A loving wife is a perpetual spring 
 
 Of virtue, pleasure, wealth ; a faithful wife 
 
 Is his best aid in seeking heavenly bliss ; 
 
 A sweetly-speaking wife is a companion 
 
 In solitude, a father in advice, 
 
 A mother in all seasons of distress, 
 
 A rest in passing through life's wilderness.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Religious Life of the Orthodox Hindu Householder. 
 
 Let me next direct attention to the religious life of the 
 strictly orthodox Brahman who has attained to the position 
 of possessing a separate house of his own. 
 
 I pass over the home-life of the anglicized Brahman of 
 advanced Ideas, who has been educated under the auspices 
 of the British Government, but has not on that account been 
 able to avert the calamity of marriage with an uneducated 
 and bigoted wife of his own rank, or rid himself of all the 
 troublesome fetters of custom and caste. Such a life com- 
 bines social conditions which are incompatible. The result 
 is unpleasing. A combination is produced which is not 
 unHke the unwholesome product of a forced chemical union 
 between elements which naturally repel each other. What 
 I desire rather to describe in this chapter is the religious life 
 of the husband and wife who strive to perform their daily 
 duties according to the orthodox Brahmanical usage of 
 more modern times. 
 
 And here it may be well to introduce the subject of the 
 householder's life by glancing at the arrangements of the 
 material house which forms his abode. 
 
 Of course the houses of the poor in villages or in the 
 native quarters of even large cities need no description. 
 They are mere mud erections with bamboo roofs and thatch. 
 Those of the grade next above the poorest are little better.
 
 Arrangement of a Modern House. 391 
 
 They may be occasionally built of brick and may be one 
 story high, but have seldom more than two or three rooms. 
 Those of the richer classes, on the other hand, are always 
 constructed of brick or some durable material, and, like the 
 houses of Pompeii, usually have an interior court or quad- 
 rangle. A door from the street, and sometimes a handsome 
 archway, opens into this quadrangle, which is surrounded on 
 all sides by high walls. Over the archway or entrance is 
 a large room, which serves as a meeting-place for the men 
 of the family and their male visitors. A similar large and 
 airy apartment occupies the whole front of the house in 
 every story. 
 
 It is a melancholy fact that, as a general rule, all the 
 well - lighted rooms with windows and verandahs looking 
 into the street are appropriated by the male members of 
 the household. On each floor a gallery running round the 
 entire court-yard leads to small chambers scarcely worthy 
 of the name of rooms, where the female members of the 
 family are to be found by those who have the right of 
 entree. When there is no court-yard the women occupy 
 the upper floor, to reach which there is usually in one corner 
 a steep wooden staircase. The women's apartments either 
 look into the quadrangle below — where the family cows 
 or goats are often the chief objects of interest — or on a 
 dead wall, never on a street. There is little or no furniture 
 anywhere in the house, but in one room is a strong box con- 
 taining the family jewelry. The ground floor has a kitchen, 
 which is usually also the dining-room. There are also the 
 store-rooms for grain and fuel, and even stalls for cattle. In 
 one of the lower apartments, or in an adjacent enclosure, 
 there is usually a well or reservoir for water. Here there are 
 numerous shelves with a store of well-burnished brass water- 
 vessels in constant readiness. 
 
 Another room on the ground floor is dedicated to daily 
 worship.
 
 392 Religious Services. 
 
 Here there is a small wooden temple (Mandira) or some 
 sacred receptacle for the household gods, the Indian Lares 
 and Penates, which in orthodox Brahman families — more 
 especially among the Maratha people — are generally five 
 consecrated symbols representing the five principal Hindu 
 gods ; to wit, the two stones (Sala-grama and Bana-linga), 
 described at p. 69 ; a metallic stone representing the female 
 principle in nature (Sakti) ; a crystal representing the Sun 
 (Surya) ; and a red stone representing Ganesa, the remover 
 of obstacles (p. 211). Here domestic worship is commonly 
 performed every day by each member of every respectable 
 Hindu family. Here, too, or in an adjacent court, there is 
 generally a sacred TulasI plant (see p. 'i'^'^), to which the 
 women of the family offer adoration. 
 
 Finally, in this part of the house the few remaining orthodox 
 (Smarta) Brahmans in different parts of India sometimes 
 maintain a sacred fire. For it must be noted here that, 
 altlvJugh the ancient fire-worship and sacrificial ritual have 
 almost disappeared, yet at Benares and other strongholds of 
 Brahmanism a certain number of Brahmans of the old school 
 still offer daily oblations in a sacred fire which they main- 
 tain in their own houses, while they conform also to the more 
 recent practices enjoined in the Puranas. Even the old Vedic 
 Soma-sacrifices are sometimes performed by such men on 
 great public occasions. 
 
 For example, a Soma-sacrifice was instituted not long ago 
 at Poona, and at Wai near Mahabalesvar. Again, four or 
 five years ago a rich man, named Dhundiraj Vinayak Sudas, 
 had three Agnishtomas, one Vajapeya, and one Aptoryama 
 sacrifice (all of them parts of the Jyotishtoma Soma-sacrifice) 
 performed at Alibag in the Kofikan. He employed a vast 
 number of Pandits, Yajnikas, Srotriyas, and Agnihotris, and 
 spent at least 30,000 rupees. In the course of the cere- 
 monies forty-two goats were killed. They were cooked on 
 the fire called Samitragni, and partly eaten by the priests,
 
 Religious Services. 393 
 
 partly offered in the sacrificial fire. At the end of each cere- 
 mony a supplementary sacrifice (called Avabhrita) was insti- 
 tuted with the sole object of atoning for mistakes, defects, 
 or omissions in carrying out the detail of the preceding 
 ritual. The supposed aim of all these elaborate and ex- 
 pensive ceremonies was to secure the sacrificers' admission 
 into heaven (svarga) after death. 
 
 But such Vedic sacrifices are everywhere either obsolete 
 or obsolescent, and animals are now seldom killed in India, 
 except as offerings to the bloody goddess Kali — a goddess 
 unknown in Vedic times — who is supposed, as we have 
 already seen (p. 190), to delight in drinking blood, and, if 
 if not satiated with the blood of animals, will take that of 
 men ; this kind of sacrifice (bali) being quite distinct from 
 the old Vedic Yajna, Homa, and Soma sacrificial rites. 
 
 But although the daily ritual acts of a modern Brahman 
 are founded on the teaching of the later sacred works, called 
 Puranas and Tantras, yet it is remarkable that the repetition 
 of Vedic texts (mantras) is still retained and is still essential 
 to the due performance of every modern religious service. 
 
 And let no one suppose that a pious Brahman's daily 
 services in the present day are less irksome or tedious 
 than they were in olden times. If he was then fettered, he 
 is now enchained. A modern Brahman of the orthodox 
 school will sometimes devote four or five hours a day to a 
 laborious routine of religious forms ^. Every faculty and 
 function of his nature is bound by an iron chain of traditional 
 observance. For example, his daily duties now comprise — 
 T. Religious bathing; 2. Worship of the Supreme Being 
 by meditation and repetition of prayers etc. at two out of the 
 three Sandhyas, or morning, midday, and evening services ; 
 3. Brahma-yajfia, or worship of the Supreme Being by a 
 formal repetition of the first words of every sacred book 
 
 ^ The amount of time still wasted on superstitious observances, 
 even since the spread of education, is lamentable.
 
 394 Religious Services. 
 
 (regarded also as an act of homage to all those saints and 
 sages to whom the Veda was revealed) ; 4. Tarpana, or the 
 threefold daily oblation of water to the secondary gods, to the 
 sages, and to the Pitris ; 5. Homa, or sacrifice to fire by fuel, 
 rice, clarified butter, etc., already described; 6. Deva-puja, or 
 the daily worship of the gods in the domestic sanctuary. 
 
 There is, moreover, the Vaisvadeva ^ service before the mid- 
 day meal, with offerings of food (called bali-harana) to all 
 beings (bhuta), including animals. There is the daily homage 
 to men by the offering of food, etc. to guests and beggars. 
 There is the daily visit to the neighbouring temple, not 
 necessarily for prayer or praise, but simply for bowing before 
 the idol or for merely looking at it (darsana) after its decora- 
 tion by the idol-priest. There is the observance of solemn 
 fasts twice a month, and on other special days. There is the 
 reading of passages from some of the Puranas^, held to be 
 a highly meritorious act. There is the performance, if circum- 
 stances permit, of a pilgrimage to some holy shrine. Finally, 
 there is the last great Sanskara performed at death, called the 
 last sacrifice (antyeshti), when the body ought to be burnt by 
 the same sacred fire which was originally kindled by husband 
 and wife on the domestic hearth. This is an outline of an 
 orthodox Brahman householder's life in modern times. 
 
 I now proceed to fill in the details of some parts of the 
 picture more fully. 
 
 In the first place, then, the orthodox Brahman must rise from 
 his bed before sunrise. And be it observed that his wife must 
 be up and stirring long before him. She may have to light a 
 
 ' Parasara does not include the Vaisvadeva in his account of the daily 
 duties. According to him there are only ' shat karmani,' six acts which 
 are nitya or ahnika acts, to be performed every day. These are — i. Snana, 
 2. Sandhya-japa, 3. Svadhyaya, 4. Pitri-tarpana, 5. Homa, 6. Devata- 
 pujana. A Brahman's six duties as enjoined by Manu (X. 75) are 
 different. They are — i. repeating the Veda, 2. teaching it, 3. sacrificing, 
 4. conducting sacrifices for others, 5. giving, 6. receiving gifts. 
 
 ^ Especially the Durga-mahatmya of the Markandeya-purana.
 
 Ordinary Dress. 395 
 
 lamp, give the children a few sweetmeats, sweep out the rooms, 
 sprinkle them with water, and occasionally smear the floor 
 with a mixture of moist earth and the supposed purifying 
 excreta of a cow. If she lives in a village and is poor — and a 
 high-caste family may often be poor — she will probably stick 
 cakes of this last substance on the outer walls of the house to 
 dry for fuel. Then perhaps her next act may be to spin a 
 little cotton, or to examine the state of the family garments. 
 
 And here a few particulars about the dress of the house- 
 hold may be suitably introduced. 
 
 The poorer classes in India are never oppressed by a super- 
 fluity of clothing. A shred of cloth round the loins satisfies a 
 poor working man's ideas of propriety. Great ascetics and 
 pretenders to extraordinary sanctity were once in the habit of 
 going about perfectly nude, until British law interposed to 
 prevent the continuance of the nuisance. Even respectable 
 Hindus are satisfied with two garments made of white cotton 
 cloth, one called the Dhoti, or waist-cloth, tucked round the 
 waist and reaching to the feet ; the other, called the Uttariya, 
 a shawl-like upper garment without seam from top to bottom, 
 which IS thrown gracefully round the shoulders like a Roman 
 toga. Often, however, an under-jacket, or close coat, cut into 
 form and called an Ahgaraksha or Ahgarakha (body-protector), 
 is worn under this upper garment. Sometimes also a piece 
 of cloth is carried over the arm to be used as a scarf in cold 
 weather. 
 
 It has been said by some writer of homely truths in England 
 that a good wife ought never to have ' a soul above buttons.' 
 Happily for a Hindu wife's peace of mind her husband's two 
 garments are gloriously independent of all fastenings. Nor 
 need she trouble herself to learn needle-work. Yet in some 
 parts of India she considers it a high honour to be permitted 
 to wash any article of clothing which has covered the sacred 
 person of her lord and master. 
 
 In regard to head-coverings, the greater number of people,
 
 396 Dress and Jeivelry. 
 
 including the poorer Brahmans, in Bengal, the Dekhan, and 
 Southern India never wear anything, though in cold weather 
 they like to muffle up their heads and faces in their upper 
 garments. In other places the better classes wear turbans 
 (Sanskrit Ushnlsha ^}, which in Western and Northern India 
 are often made of a piece of fine cloth from twenty to fifty 
 yards long, folded according to the caste, and called Phenta 2, 
 
 As to shoes, at least three-fourths of the inhabitants of 
 India never use them at all, and even the rich — except those 
 who are thoroughly Europeanized — dispense with stockings. 
 Those who wear leather shoes like to get rid of them when- 
 ever they can, not from any idea of the inconvenience of 
 leather, but from its supposed impurity. It is common for the 
 most dignified and refined gentlemen to come into one's pre- 
 sence with naked feet, leaving their shoes outside the room. 
 
 A woman's dress, like a man's, also consists of two pieces, 
 namely, a kind of bodice, and a long garment called a sari (sati) 
 — sometimes ten or even fifteen yards long — which is first 
 tucked round the waist with many folds in front, and then 
 brought gracefully over the shoulder, and frequently over 
 the head. A third garment is now occasionally worn'under- 
 neath, and some adopt the Muhammadan fashion of wearing 
 a kind of drawers. Happily for economical husbands, no 
 such thing as fashion in women's dress exists in the East. 
 Indeed it may be safely affirmed that there has been little 
 change in the character of woman's apparel for 3000 years. 
 
 But what the householder gains by his wife's moderation 
 in dress he loses by her taste for expensive jewelry and 
 ornaments. No woman would dare to hold up her head 
 among her female companions unless well provided with 
 a sufficient assortment of ornaments of eight principal kinds 
 — nose-rings, ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets (commonly called 
 
 ^ In Bombay the Baniyahs wear high hats slanting backwards, and 
 the Parsis do the same. 
 ^ When made up into a head-dress it is called Pagii.
 
 Omens. 
 
 597 
 
 bangles), armlets, finger-rings, anklets and toe-rings, and some 
 of these, notably the nose-rings, often contain costly gems. 
 
 As to children's attire, the children of the rich are for the 
 most part innocent of all clothing till about the third year, 
 while those of the poor run about as they came into the world 
 up to six or seven years of age, without a single encumbrance, 
 except possibly a waistband and a few wrist-ornaments. 
 
 To return to the duties of the householder's wife (grihini). 
 One of her earliest acts, if she is poor, will be to bruise the 
 rice, cleanse it from husk, or grind some kind of grain. Then, 
 whether rich or poor, she must above all things attend to her 
 kitchen ; and make it a model of absolute cleanliness — nay 
 more, a sacred inviolable spot which nothing impure must 
 ever enter (see p. 128). 
 
 With regard to the actual culinary operations, the whole 
 comfort of the family depends of course on the wife's super- 
 intendence and skill. In this respect very few mothers of 
 families in India ever fall short of the highest standard. 
 
 Omens. 
 
 Then one of a wife's duties should be to keep all bad 
 omens out of her husband's way, or manage to make him 
 look at something lucky in the early morning. I may here 
 point out that a knowledge of omens (nimitta-juana) is in- 
 cluded among the sixty-four arts enumerated by Vatsyayana, 
 and is not the least important of them. Different lists of in- 
 auspicious objects are given which, if looked upon in the early 
 morning, might cause disaster. Thus some believe that if a 
 householder's first act should be to cast his eyes on a crow on 
 his left hand, a kite on his right, a snake, cat, jackal, or hare, 
 an empty vessel, smoky fire, a bundle of sticks, a widow, a 
 man with one eye, or even with a big nose, confusion might 
 be introduced into the household for the rest of the day. Nay, 
 grievous calamities might befall the family; and if the good-
 
 398 Omens. Daily Religious Ceremojties. 
 
 man of the house had any intention of undertaking a journey, 
 he must, after any such sights, by all means desist from the 
 project. On the other hand, should the householder's first 
 glance rest on a cow, horse, elephant, parrot, a lizard on 
 an east wall, a clear fire, a virgin, or two Brahmans, all will 
 go right. Again, if he should happen to sneeze once, it 
 would be a sure forerunner of good luck for the day; but 
 if twice, it would portend some serious mishap. Finally, 
 if he should unfortunately yawn, it might lead to no less a 
 catastrophe than the entrance of an evil demon into his body. 
 
 The Adbhuta-Brahmana (forming the sixth chapter of the 
 Shadvinsa-Brahmana) treats of portents and omens ^. It is 
 to be noted, too, that both the Rig-veda and Atharva-veda 
 contain texts which prove that in Vedic times birds of ill-omen 
 were greatly dreaded and their evil influences deprecated^. 
 
 Let us imagine then all risks arising from inauspicious 
 sights well avoided, and the householder started on his 
 tedious round of daily religious duties. And here be it ob- 
 served that one change has passed over every Indian house- 
 hold. Manu, we know, asserts that, according to a Vedic 
 ordinance, the husband and wife ought to perform religious 
 rites together (IX. 96), but the wife has now no religious 
 life in common with her husband. 
 
 I once asked a well-educated Brahman why he acquiesced 
 in a different rule of religion for himself and his wife. ' Oh,' 
 he replied, 'we are now in the Kali-yuga, or age of universal 
 degeneracy. Our lawgivers have promulgated quite a new 
 code for these times ; oxen cannot be killed for sacrifices, 
 and women in all religious matters are practically degraded 
 to the position of Sudras. They are not allowed to repeat 
 the Veda, or to go through the morning and evening 
 Sandhya services. They never accompany their husbands to 
 
 ^ This has been published with translation and notes, together with 
 another text on the same subject, by Professor A. Weber of Berlin. 
 ^ See Rig-veda II. 42, 43, X. 165 ; Atharva-veda VI. 29, VII. 64.
 
 Teeth-cleaning. Bathing. 399 
 
 any places of worship, and if they wish to visit the temples 
 they must go alone. They cannot be regenerated by in- 
 vestiture with the sacred thread. Their only sacrament is 
 marriage.' Such was his explanation of an Indian wife's 
 inferior religious status. Had he attributed her degradation 
 and seclusion to Muhammadan influences he would probably 
 have been more correct. Alone then, and unassisted by his 
 wife, must the Brahman commence his diurnal course of 
 ceremonial observances. His first important act after rising 
 is to clean his teeth. A Brahman ought to do this according 
 to strict rule, on pain of forfeiting the whole merit of the day's 
 religious acts. He ought properly to use a twig of the sacred 
 fig-tree (Vata), but other kinds of wood are also allowed^. 
 Teeth-cleaning, however, is only preliminary to the next im- 
 portant religious act of the day — bathing (snana). This should 
 be performed in some sacred stream, but in default of a river, 
 the householder may use a pool or tank, or even, in case 
 of dire necessity, a bath in his own house. Before entering 
 the water the bather ought to say : ' I am about to perform 
 morning ablution in this sacred stream (the Ganges or any 
 other as the case may be) in the presence of the gods and 
 Brahmans with a view to the removal of guilt resulting from 
 act, speech, thought— from what has been touched and un- 
 touched, known and unknown, eaten and not eaten, drunk and 
 not drunk.' During the process of bathing, a hymn to the per- 
 sonified Ganges, consisting of eight verses (called Gaiigashtaka), 
 is often recited. Its opening words may be thus translated: — 
 
 Daughter of Vishnu, thou didst issue forth 
 From Vishnu's foot, by him thou art beloved. 
 Therefore remove from us the stain of sin — 
 From birth to death protecting us thy servants. 
 
 After bathing comes the ceremony of Bhasma-dharana, or 
 
 ^ The most common wood employed in some parts of India is that 
 of a thorny tree called Baval (commonly Babul). Sometimes the Nimba 
 (Nim) is used.
 
 400 Daily Religious Ceremonies. 
 
 application of ashes. This is done by rubbing ashes taken from 
 the sacred domestic hearth on the head and other parts of the 
 body, with the repetition of a prayer to Siva (from Taittirlya 
 Aranyaka X. 43): — 'I offer homage to Siva (Sadyo-jata). 
 May he preserve me in every birth. Homage to the source 
 of all birth.' 
 
 At this time, also, every pious Hindu marks his forehead 
 with the sacred mark (called pundra or tilaka) of his own 
 peculiar faith or religious views. When a man is a Siva- 
 worshipper, he does this with ashes, in which case it is merely 
 a part of the Bhasma-dharana rite just described ^ Some- 
 times a perpendicular mark, sometimes a circular one, some- 
 times three horizontal lines (tri-pundra) are made with white 
 earth or pigment-. Of these religious markings the vertical 
 denotes the impress of the god Vishnu's feet ^ and the hori- 
 zontal the three characters or functions of Siva (p. 80). 
 
 I once said to a Brahman who seemed proud of his perpen- 
 dicular mark, ' What's the difference between you and your 
 friend there with a horizontal mark ? ' ' Oh/ he replied, ' we 
 are as different in opinions as the horizon from the zenith. 
 He does his religion horizontally, I do mine perpendicularly. 
 But we are very good friends notwithstanding.' 
 
 The next act is called Sikha-bandhana, or the tying up in 
 a knot of all the locks on the crown of the head, lest any loose 
 particles of hair thought to convey impurity should fall on the 
 ground or in the water. 
 
 ^ I am told that on Ash-Wednesday in the Roman Catholic Church 
 every member of the congregation goes up to the altar and is marked 
 with the sign of the cross. This, I believe, is done with the ashes of 
 the palms used on Palm-Sunday. The priest as he marks each person 
 says, ' Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return.' 
 
 ^ The worshippers of Vishnu generally use Goplcandana, a kind of 
 white earth brought from Dvarlka. 
 
 ^ It usually consists of two upright lines joined by a curve at the 
 bottom. The Ramanuja Vaishnavas, as we have seen, dispute over 
 the form of this mark (see p. I26j.
 
 The Morning Sandhya Service. 401 
 
 All preliminary acts and purifications being now completed, 
 the pious Hindu proceeds to the regular Morning Service, 
 called Pratah-Sandhya, performed at the junction^ of night 
 and day. Every one chooses, if possible, the side of a sacred 
 river or tank for this purpose, and every one conducts the 
 entire service by himself. Often in the early mornings or 
 late in the evenings I have watched numerous worshippers 
 seated at the water's edge and going through the Sandhya 
 ceremonial with mechanical precision. Each one does this 
 separately, and each one with slight variations, omissions, 
 or additions according to the practice of particular localities 
 or to the particular branch of the Veda to which he belongs. 
 No apology is needed for inviting attention to the detail of 
 these morning and evening ceremonies, practised as they still 
 are to this very day by millions and millions of the people 
 who acknowledge our rule, and therefore fraught with the 
 deepest interest to every Englishman ^. 
 
 The first act of the Morning Sandhya Service, and, as stated 
 before, the usual preliminary to all Hindu religious rites, is 
 sipping water (acamana) ; two or three mouthfuls being 
 
 ^ Some derive Sandhya from San-dha, *to join together' (see my 
 Sanskrit-English Dictionary) ; others, with more reason, from San-dhyai, 
 'to meditate in prayer.' Compare the Gayatrl prayer, p. 403. 
 
 ^ My description of the Sandhya is abridged from a paper I read 
 before the fifth Congress of Orientalists at Berlin in September 1881. 
 In that paper, which is published in the Transactions of the Congress, 
 I followed a manual called Brahma-karma-pustaka, printed at AlTbag 
 in the Konkan, and given to me, as the best authority for the ceremonies 
 of the Rig-vedi-Brahmans of the Maratha country, by Mr. Deshmukh. 
 It must be borne in mind that although variations occur in different 
 parts of India, and that although abbreviated forms are used by persons 
 engaged in secular pursuits, there are many strict Rig-vedi-Brahmans 
 who go through the whole Sandhya, Brahma-yajiia, and Tarpana ser- 
 vices, and in no part of India is the detail of the Brahmanical ceremonial 
 so carefully carried out as in the Maratha country. I ought to state that 
 Mrs. Belnos' book of drawings and illustrations was a meritorious work 
 relatively to the time of its publication ; but she was no Sanskrit scholar, 
 and her descriptions, while full of the most obvious inaccuracies, make 
 no pretension to completeness. 
 
 D d
 
 402 The Morning Sandhya Service. 
 
 swallowed for internal ablution. The water is taken up in 
 the hallowed palm of the right hand or poured from a spoon 
 into the palm, and is supposed to cleanse body and soul in 
 its downward course. This is done two or three times at 
 the commencement of the Morning Sandhya ^. During the 
 process of sipping, the twenty-four principal names of the god 
 Vishnu are invoked, thus : ' Glory to Kesava, to Narayana, to 
 Madhava, to Govinda, to Vishnu,' etc. 
 
 The second act is called the Pranayama, ' exercise or 
 regulation of the breath.' This includes three distinct 
 operations : — 
 
 I. Recaka ; which consists in first pressing in the right 
 nostril with the thumb and expelling the breath through the 
 left, and then pressing in the left nostril and expelling the 
 breath through the right. 2 Puraka ; which consists in first 
 pressing in the right nostril with the fore-finger and drawing 
 in the breath through the left, and then pressing in the left 
 nostril and drawing in the breath through the right. 
 3. Kumbhaka ; which consists in pressing in both nostrils 
 with the finger and thumb, and holding in the breath for 
 as long an interval as possible. 
 
 These preliminary acts, which ought to be concluded before 
 the rising of the sun, are thought to be useful in fixing the 
 mind, concentrating the thoughts, and bringing the worshipper 
 into a proper attitude of attention. He is now in a position 
 to begin the recitation of his prayers. They must be intro- 
 duced by the solemn utterance of the monosyllable Om 
 (called Pranava), the sound being prolated to the length of 
 three vowels. 
 
 This most sacred of all Hindu utterances, made up of the 
 three letters A, U, M, and symbolical of the threefold mani- 
 festation of the one Supreme Being in the gods Brahma, 
 
 ^ The direction in one manual is d%nr dca7iiya, but generally there are 
 three sippings, as directed by Manu II. 60.
 
 The Morning Sandhya Service. 403 
 
 Vishnu, and Siva, is constantly repeated during the Sandhya 
 service. 
 
 Manu describes it as a monosyllable, imperishable and 
 eternal as the Supreme Being himself. After Om comes the 
 utterance of the names of the three worlds, Earth (Bhur), 
 Atmosphere (Bhuvar), Heaven (Svar), to which are often 
 added the four higher heavens, Mahar, Janar, Tapar, and 
 Satyah. 
 
 The utterance of these seven names — called the seven 
 Vyahritis — preceded in each case by the syllable Om is an act 
 of homage to all the beings inhabiting the seven worlds. . It 
 is supposed to induce purity of thought and to prepare the 
 worshipper for offering up his first prayer. Turning towards 
 the Eastern sky he repeats the Gayatrl or Savitrl (from 
 Rig-veda III. 62. 10): 'Let us meditate on that excellent 
 glory of the divine Vivifier, may he enlighten our under- 
 standings.' 
 
 This prayer is, as we have seen, the most sacred of all 
 Vedic utterances, and like the Lord's Prayer among Christians, 
 or like the Fatihah or opening chapter of the Kuran among 
 Muhammadans, must always among Hindus take precedence 
 of all other forms of supplication. 
 
 The next division of the ceremonial is called Marjana, 
 ' sprinkling.' It is a kind of self-baptism performed by the 
 worshipper himself by sprinkling water on the head while the 
 first three verses of Rig-veda X. 9 are recited. These may 
 be thus paraphrased : — 
 
 O Waters, give us health, bestow on us 
 Vigour and strength, so shall I see enjoyment. 
 Rain down your dewy treasures o'er our path. 
 Like loving mothers, pour on us your blessing, 
 Make us partakers of your sacred essence. 
 We come to you for cleansing from all guilt, 
 Cause us to be productive, make us prosper. 
 
 This is followed by another remarkable prayer from the 
 Taittirlya Aranyaka (X. 25) : — 
 
 D d 2
 
 404 The Morning Sandhya Service. 
 
 May Sun and Anger ^, may the lords of anger 
 Preserve me from my sins of pride and passion. 
 Whate'er the nightly sins of thought, word, deed, 
 Wrought by my mind, my speech, my hands, my feet, 
 Wrought through my appetite and sensual organs, 
 May the departing Night remove them all ! 
 In thy immortal light, O radiant Sun, 
 I offer up myself and this my guilt. 
 
 Then follows a second performance of Marjana, or ' sprinkling,' 
 and a repetition of all the nine verses of the Rig-veda hymn of 
 which the first three verses had been previously recited. 
 
 The next act is the repetition of a well-known hymn of the 
 Rig-veda (X. 190) called Agha-marshana, 'sin-annihilating,' 
 supposed to have an all-powerful effect in removing sin. 
 This hymn contains a curious summary of the supposed 
 process of creation, which may be thus paraphrased : — 
 
 From glowing heat sprang all existing things, 
 Yea, all the order of this universe (Rita). 
 Thence also Night and heaving Ocean sprang ; 
 And next to heaving Ocean rose the Year, 
 Dividing day from night. All mortal men 
 Who close the eyelid are his subjects, he 
 The great Disposer made in due succession 
 Sun, moon, and sky, earth, middle air, and heaven. 
 
 Manu (XI. 259) affirms that this short hymn repeated 
 thrice releases from the most heinous sins. 
 
 All the ceremonial up to this point is supposed to precede 
 the actual appearance of the Sun above the horizon. The 
 worshipper now prepares to render homage to the rising 
 luminary by what is called Arghya or Arghya-dana, At 
 other times this is the general name for a respectful offering 
 of water in a boat-shaped vessel, called Argha, to a Brahman 
 or guest of any kind. In the Sandhya it is an act of homage 
 to the Sun, by offering water, or throwing it into the air, 
 sometimes from a hollow vessel, but oftener from the two 
 
 ^ Anger personified = Manyu (Say. = KrodhabhimanI devah) ; the god 
 or gods who help a man to restrain his anger.
 
 The Morning Sandhya Service. 405 
 
 open hands hollowed and joined together^. The offerer, 
 standing in the water, throws a handful of it upwards towards 
 the Sun three times, each tinie reciting the Gayatrl prayer. 
 The more he scatters the water in throwing it the better. 
 
 The next division of the service is called Kara-nyasa, or 
 ' imposition of fingers.' Its peculiar ritual is taught in the 
 more modern religious works called Tantras. 
 
 Some orthodox Brahmans omit every kind of Tantrik 
 ceremonial as not sanctioned by the Veda, but with the 
 majority of Hindus it is all important. To understand the 
 Kara-nyasa we must bear in mind that the five fingers and 
 the palm of the hand are consecrated to various forms of 
 Vishnu, and that different gods are supposed to reside in 
 different parts of the body, the Supreme Being occupying 
 the top of the head ^. Hence the act of placing the fingers 
 or hand reverentially on the several organs is supposed 
 to gratify and do honour to the deities whose essences 
 pervade these organs, and to be completely efficacious in 
 removing sin. 
 
 The tip of the thumb is held to be occupied by Govinda, 
 the forefinger by Mahidhara, the middle finger by Hrishlkesa, 
 the next finger (called the nameless finger) by Trivikrama, the 
 little finger by Vishnu, the palm of the hand by Madhava — 
 all being different forms of the same god Vishnu. 
 
 The worshipper then commences the Nyasa ceremonial 
 by saying : ' Homage to the two thumbs, to the two fore- 
 fingers, to the two middle fingers, to the two nameless fingers 
 (i.e. the ring-fingers), to the two little fingers, to the two palms 
 and the two backs of the hands.' 
 
 ^ The sacred thread (yajnopavlta), always worn as a type of regener- 
 ation, and necessary to the vaHdity of every religious act (p. 361), is often 
 at the same time put round the two thumbs. 
 
 "^ The right ear is a peculiarly sacred spot with Tantrikas. Fire, 
 water, sun, and moon all reside in the right ear. Some think it is for this 
 reason that the sacred thread, which is supposed to be polluted by the 
 functions of nature, is hung, when they are performed, over the right ear.
 
 4o6 The Morning Sandhya Service. 
 
 Then follows another division of the Nyasa ceremonial 
 called Indriya-sparsa, or the act of touching different parts 
 of the body, such as the breast, eyes, ears, navel, throat, and 
 head, with the fingers. (Compare Manu II. 60.) 
 
 Next comes the regular GayatrT-japa, or repeated muttering 
 of the Gayatri-prayer. 
 
 Before beginning this repetition, those who follow the 
 Tantrik system go through the process of making various 
 mystical figures called Mudras, twenty-four in number, by 
 twisting, interlacing, or intertwining the fingers and hands 
 together. Each of these figures, according to its name, 
 bears some fanciful resemblance to animals or objects of 
 various kinds, as, for example, to a fish, tortoise, boar, lion 
 (these being forms in which the god Vishnu became in- 
 carnate), or to a cart, noose, knot, garland ; the efficacy 
 attributed to these peculiar intertwinings and twistings of 
 the hands and fingers being enormous. 
 
 The correct number of repetitions is 108, and to insure 
 accuracy of enumeration a rosary of 108 beads made of TulasI 
 wood is generally used, the hand being carefully concealed in 
 a red bag (called Go-mukhl) or under a cloth. 
 
 The next division of the service is called Upasthana (or 
 Mitropasthana), because the worshipper abandons his sitting 
 posture, stands erect with his face towards the rising Sun, and 
 invokes that luminary under the name of Mitra. The prayer 
 he now repeats is Rig-veda III. 59, of which the first verse is 
 to the following effect : — 
 
 Mitra, raising his voice, calls men to activity. 
 Mitra sustains the earth and the sky. 
 Mitra with unwinking eye beholds all creatures. 
 Offer to Mitra the oblation of butter. 
 
 The use of this hymn in the morning service of every 
 Hindu is an interesting fact in its connection with the iden- 
 tification of the Indian Mitra with the Zoroastrian god 
 Mithra, mentioned by Herodotus, and with the same Mithra
 
 The Morning Sandhya Service. 407 
 
 of the Avesta. At the end the worshipper invokes the 
 personified Dawns in the words of Rig-veda IV. 51. 11: 
 ' Hail brilhant Dawns, daughters of Heaven, I invoke you, 
 bearing (or having) the oblation as a sign (of my devotion). 
 May we be honoured among men, may heaven and the divine 
 earth effect that (for us).' 
 
 The service now draws to a close. The last act but one is 
 a recitation of the family pedigree (gotroccara) ; for every 
 high-caste man is supposed to be under the religious obli- 
 gation of preserving the memory of his ancestors, and main- 
 taining the line of his family descent unbroken. Not only, 
 therefore, does he worship his departed forefathers with 
 offerings and prayers at the Sraddha services, but the reci- 
 tation of his own genealogy forms an important part of the 
 daily Sandhya ceremonial. For example, the worshipper 
 says : — 
 
 ' I belong to a particular Gotra (or tribe of Brahmans) ; I 
 have three ancestors —Aiigirasa, Sainya, and Gargya ; I am 
 a student of the Asvalayana Sutra, and follow the Sakala- 
 sakha of the Rig-veda.' 
 
 The ceremonial concludes with a general hymn of praise, 
 and an acknowledgment that the one Supreme Being is the 
 real object of adoration throughout the whole service : ' Glory 
 to the world of Brahma, to the world of Rudra, to the world 
 of Vishnu. May the One Supreme Lord of the Universe be 
 pleased with this my morning service.' 
 
 The last act, like the first, is an internal purification of the 
 body by acamana, or sipping of water. 
 
 I pass over the midday Sandhya (madhyahna-sandhya), as 
 now very rarely performed. 
 
 The evening Sandhya service (Sayam-sandhya) is like the 
 morning, except that the Upasthana prayer consists of ten 
 verses of Rig-veda I. 25, which may be freely rendered 
 thus : — 
 
 I. As often as, O Varuna, we infringe thy law, like other men, every
 
 4o8 Brahma-yajna Service. 
 
 day, 2. So often deliver us not over to death, nor to the blows of the 
 angry, nor to the wrath of the enraged. 3. As a charioteer his tethered 
 steed, so do we set free thy thoughts by our hymns, O Varuna, to turn 
 towards us graciously. 4. My wishes fly forth towards thee, as birds 
 to their nfest, that I may receive thy blessing (vasyas may mean ' excel- 
 lent wealth '). 5. When shall we induce the far-seeing ruler (or leader) 
 Varuna, glorious in his sovereignty, to be propitious to us. 6. Partake 
 together (O Mitra and Varuna) of the very same oblation, being both 
 of you propitious to us ; depart not from those who present offerings 
 and remain true to their vows. 7. He (Varuna) who knows the path 
 of the birds flying through the air, he abiding in the ocean knows also 
 the ships. 8. He the maintainer of law (and order) knows the twelve 
 months with their offspring ; he knows also the month which is born 
 afterwards (i.e. the thirteenth or additional month of the Hindu year). 
 9. He knows the path of the wind, the far-reaching, lofty, mighty (wind), 
 and those (Maruts) who are enthroned above it. 10. Varuna, the 
 maintainer of law (and order), sits in his palace to exercise universal 
 sovereignty, doing good acts, the almighty one. 
 
 We must now advert to the supplementary ceremonial 
 observances which are necessary to the completion of the 
 morning Sandhya. 
 
 The first act is Brahma-yajna, or worship of the Supreme 
 Being as represented in the sacred canon of inspired books. 
 And here mark that the Sandhya service is itself regarded 
 as a part of Brahma-yajna. Every portion of it is held to 
 be for the sake of pleasing the Supreme Being (Brahma), 
 but the use of the term Brahma-yajna is more usually re- 
 stricted to the Brahma-yajna par excellence; that is, to the 
 special worship of Brahma as identified with the Veda. 
 
 How then is this special Brahma-yajna to be performed? 
 We must remember that in Hinduism every religious idea, 
 including that of revelation, is exaggerated. 
 
 Instead of sixty-six Books to which our own Sacred Scrip- 
 tures extend, the Hindu scriptures consist of a far larger 
 number of works, all of which are accepted as either directly 
 revealed or founded on revelation. Even works on pronun- 
 ciation, etymology, and grammar are included in the list as 
 part and parcel of the sacred canon. 
 
 How, then, is this mass of sacred literature to be dealt
 
 Tarpaiia Ceremony. 409 
 
 with by those religious Brahmans who wish to fulfil the duty 
 of repeating portions of it daily ? 
 
 It cannot of course be affirmed of any Hindu, however 
 pious, that he reads his own Bible, as a Christian does his, 
 much less studies it. We have seen how portions of the first 
 three Vedas are repeated at the daily Sandhya prayers. Por- 
 tions also of the Maha-bharata (such as the Bhagavad-gita) and 
 of the Puranas (for example the Bhagavata and Markandeya 
 Purana) are occasionally read and recited at other times. But 
 the duty of paying homage to Brahma by repeating the words 
 of divine revelation is held to be sufficiently fulfilled by the 
 daily exercise of repeating the first few words of all the prin- 
 cipal books, except the first hymn of the Rig-veda, which is 
 recited throughout. Then comes the first verse of the second 
 hymn. These Vedic texts may be recited according to any 
 one or more of the five different Pathas, or modes of recitation, 
 called Sanihita, Pada, Krama, Jata, and Ghana — wonderful 
 devices for securing the accuracy of the Vedic text. Then 
 come the first words of the Aitareya Brahmana (Agnir vai 
 devanam avamo) and of each of the five books of the Aita- 
 reya Aranyaka. Then the first words of the Yajur-veda ; of 
 the Sama-veda ; of the Athai-va-veda ; of the Nirukta ; of the 
 Chandas (Prosody); of the Nighantu ; of the Jyotisha ; of the 
 Siksha ; of Panini's grammar. Then certain passages from the 
 Atharva-veda ; then the first words of Yajnavalkya's law-book, 
 of the Maha-bharata, and of the philosophical Sutras, etc. 
 
 The Brahma-yajna service is followed by the Tarpana cere- 
 mony, which is properly a triple act, consisting in offerings of 
 water for refreshment (tarpana) to the gods, sages, and fathers. 
 It is accordingly divided into three parts. 
 
 In the first part, called Deva-tarpana, ' refreshing of the gods,' 
 the sacred thread is worn over the left shoulder and under the 
 right arm, the worshipper being then called UpavitT. 
 
 Water is taken up in the right hand and poured out over 
 the straightened fingers.
 
 4IO Pancayatana Ceremony. 
 
 In the second part of the Tarpana service, called Rishi- 
 tarpana, ' refreshing of the sages/ the sacred thread is worn 
 round the neck like a necklace, the worshipper being then 
 called Nivltl. 
 
 The water is then offered so as to flow over the side of the 
 palm between the root of the thumb and fore-finger, the finger 
 being bent inwards^. 
 
 The worshipper now changes the position of his sacred 
 thread, and placing it over his right shoulder and under his 
 left arm (being then called Praclnavltl) makes offerings of, 
 water to the Acaryas, or inspired religious teachers. This 
 is called Acarya-tarpana, and is regarded as supplementary 
 to the Rishi-tarpana and not as a distinct division of the 
 service. 
 
 The third division of the Tarpana ceremony is called Pitri- 
 tarpana, ' refreshing of the fathers or departed progenitors.' 
 
 The thread is worn over the right shoulder as in Ac'arya- 
 tarpana, but the water is poured out over the side of the palm 
 opposite to the root of the thumb. The words uttered are, 
 ' Let the fathers be refreshed ; let this water containing tila 
 (sesamum seeds) be intended for all who inhabit the seven 
 worlds as far as the abode of Brahma (the seventh world), 
 though they exceed many millions of families. Let the water 
 consecrated by my sacred thread be accepted by those mem- 
 bers of our family who have died without any sons.' 
 
 This concludes the series of Sandhya, Brahma-yajna, and 
 Tarpana services. 
 
 Pancayatana Ceremony, 
 
 At the conclusion of the Tarpana ceremony the worshipper 
 ought to re-enter his house and perform the Homa, or offering 
 
 ^ The part of the hand between the thumb and the fore-finger is called 
 pitrya, and is sacred to the Pitris. (Compare Manu II. 51.)
 
 Pancayatana Ceremony. 411 
 
 of oblations to the gods through fire, described in a previous 
 chapter (p. '^^^). 
 
 In Manu's time the worship of the gods (deva or devata) 
 through the Homa was regarded as one of the five Maha- 
 yajnas, or chief devotional acts, the other four being (i) 
 homage to the Supreme Spirit and to that Spirit present in 
 the Veda, performed by the Brahma-yajua service ; (2) homage 
 to the Pitris, or deceased progenitors, performed by the 
 Tarpana and Sraddha ceremonies ; (3) homage to all beings 
 (bhuta), including animals, performed by offerings of food 
 called ball ; (4) homage to men, performed by hospitality to 
 guests and almsgiving to beggars. Of these five acts the wor- 
 ship of the gods — deva-yajfia or deva-puja — was formerly the 
 simplest. It was generally sufficiently performed by putting 
 oblations of rice or clarified butter in fire. In the present 
 day, as already stated, no one, except the most orthodox 
 Brahmans, thinks it necessary to maintain a sacred fire, and 
 the old fire ritual is gradually dying out. 
 
 Other forms of worshipping the gods are, however, sub- 
 stituted. In nearly every modern house there is a room 
 containing a sanctuary, called Mandira. Here the religious 
 service called Deva-puja is generally performed by pious 
 householders, or by some member of the family deputed to 
 represent the others every morning. 
 
 It is, we know, an essential part of the theory of Brahman- 
 ism (p. 50} that all gods like Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, who 
 are manifestations of the invisible and formless Brahma, should 
 be worshipped through visible forms. In the Deva-puja, 
 therefore, homage is paid to these deities through images, or 
 more commonly, in Central and Southern India and the 
 Maratha country, through the worship of five stones or 
 symbols which are believed to be permeated by the essences 
 of the five chief deities. 
 
 The room dedicated to their worship need not be on the 
 ground-floor, like the Homa-sala. The five stones (as already
 
 412 Pancayatana Ceremony. 
 
 pointed out, pp. 69, 392) are — i. the black stone ^, represent- 
 ing Vishnu ; 3. the white stone ^, representing Siva's essence ; 
 
 3. the red stone, representing Ganesa ; 4. the small piece of 
 metallic ore, representing the wife of Siva ; 5. the piece of 
 crystal, representing the Sun. The first two stones — Sala- 
 grama and Bana-linga — are regarded as far more sacred than 
 manufactured idols, for such idols must be consecrated, 
 whereas these stones are occupied by Vishnu and Siva 
 without any consecration whatever. 
 
 All five symbols are placed on a round open metal dish, 
 called Paiicayatana, and are arranged in five different methods, 
 according to the preference given to any one of the five 
 deities at the time of worship. These five methods are : — • 
 
 I. Vishnu in the middle ; Siva N. E. (i. e. towards the north-east 
 quarter); Ganesa S.E.; Surya S.W. ; Devi N.W. 2. Siva in the mid- 
 dle; Vishnu N.W.; Surya S.E. ; Ganesa S.W. ; Devi N.W. 3. Surya 
 in the middle ; Siva N. E. ; Ganesa S. E. ; Vishnu S.W. ; Devi N.W. 
 
 4. Devi in the middle ; Vishnu N. E. ; Siva S. E. ; Ganesa S.W. ; Surya 
 N.W. 5. Ganesa in the middle ; Vishnu N. E. ; Siva S. E. ; Surya S.W. ; 
 Devi N.W. 
 
 Then, again, on one side of the Paiicayatana is a small bell, 
 and on the other side a conch -shell ^, and near at hand is a 
 water-vessel called Kalasa or Abhisheka-patra, with a small 
 hole in the bottom of it, through which the water used for 
 sprinkling the stones passes. These three objects are also 
 held sacred and receive their share of worship. 
 
 I should state that near the metal receptacle containing the 
 five sacred stones is placed another metal plate on which are 
 
 ^ Near the black Sala-grama stone there is often placed a kind of fossil 
 with circular markings, also sacred to Vishnu and symbolizing his cakra. 
 The Muhammadans also worship a kind of black stone fixed in the Ka'ba. 
 This stone-worship is doubtless a remnant of fetishism which has pre- 
 vailed in all countries. 
 
 ^ It is curious that Vishnu should be represented as of a black colour 
 and Siva as white, when the former is held to be connected with the 
 Sattva-guna and the latter with the Tamo-guna (see p. 45). 
 
 ^ The conch-shell is specially sacred to Vishnu (see p. 103).
 
 Pancayafana Ceremony. 413 
 
 arranged the TulasT leaves for Vishnu and the Bilva leaves for 
 Siva, besides offerings of flowers, perfumes, etc. 
 
 The worship of the five deities thus represented is per- 
 formed by sixteen acts of homage (upacara), one for each of 
 the sixteen verses of the Purusha-sukta, or ninetieth hymn of 
 the tenth Mandala of the Rig-veda, and the ceremony is some- 
 times called Pancayatana-puja, from the receptacle (ayatana) 
 in which the five symbols are placed. 
 
 Before commencing the service the worshipper goes through 
 the usual sippings of water (acamana) and suppressions of the 
 breath before described (p. 402). Then after repeating certain 
 preliminary prayers he invokes the god Ganesa, employing a 
 well-known text from the Rig-veda (II. 23) : ' Om. We 
 invoke thee who art lord of the hosts of hosts (Ganapatim 
 gananam), the sage of sages, of most exalted fame, the most 
 excellent king of Vedic mantras, O Lord of prayer ^, hear us 
 with favour, and enter our dwelling to aid us (against the 
 demons of obstruction).' 
 
 This invocation is followed by Nyasa, or the reverential 
 touching of various parts of the body, in connection with 
 the recitation of a few words at the beginning and middle 
 of each of the last six verses of the Purusha-sukta (X. 90) 
 of the Rig-veda. 
 
 The next act is adoration of the water-vessel (kalasa), 
 thus : — 
 
 ' In the mouth of the water-vessel abideth Vishnu, in its 
 neck is Rudra, in its lower part is Brahma, while the whole 
 company of the Mothers (matris) are congregated in its 
 middle part. O Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Nar- 
 mada, Sindhu, and Kaveri, be present in this water.' 
 
 Next succeeds the worship of the conch-shell, thus : — 
 
 ^ Brahman is here used for the hymns, or rather mantras, of the Veda 
 which in later times were used as spells to counteract the malice of 
 demons. Ganesa in his power over the troops of demons is thus identified 
 with the Vedic Brahmanas-pati, or lord of prayer.
 
 414 Pancayatana Ceremony, 
 
 ' O conch-sbell (Pancajanya, see p. 103), thou wast produced 
 in the sea, and art held by Vishnu in his hand ; thou art 
 worshipped by all the gods. Receive my homage.' 
 
 Then follows adoration of the bell, thus : — 
 
 ' O bell, make a sound for the approach of the gods, and 
 for the departure of the demons. Homage to the goddess 
 Ghanta (bell). I offer perfumes, grains of rice, and flowers, 
 in token of rendering all due homage to the bell.' 
 
 Then after intertwining his fingers so as to make the 
 mystical figure called Ghanta-mudra, the worshipper must 
 ring the bell. Next, after fixing his thoughts, he says a 
 prayer to Vishnu, Siva, the son of Siva (Ganapati), the 
 Supreme Being (Narayana) in the centre of the Sun's orb, 
 and the goddess Devi. The worshipper now commences 
 the sixteen acts of homage or offerings (upacara), each ac- 
 companied with the uttering of one of the sixteen verses of 
 the Purusha hymn of the Rig-veda (X. 90), a translation of 
 which I here subjoin : — 
 
 I. Purusha has thousands of heads (thousands of arms, A.V.), thousands 
 of eyes, and thousands of feet. On every side enveloping the earth, he 
 transcended this mere space of ten fingers \ 2. Purusha himself is this 
 whole (universe), whatever has been, and whatever shall be. He is also 
 the lord of immortality, since through food he expands. 3. Such is his 
 greatness ; and Purusha is superior to this. All existing things are a 
 quarter of him, and that which is immortal in the sky is three quarters of 
 him. 4. With three quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of 
 him again was produced here below. He then became diffused every- 
 where among things animate and inanimate. 5. From him Viraj was 
 born, and from Viraj, Purusha. As soon as born he extended beyond 
 the earth, both behind and before. 6. When the gods offered up Purusha 
 as a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified butter, summer its fuel, and 
 autumn the (accompanying) oblation. 7. This victim, Purusha born in 
 the beginning, they consecrated on the sacrificial grass ; with him as 
 their offering, the gods, Sadhyas, and Rishis sacrificed. 8. From that 
 universal oblation were produced curds and clarified butter. He (Purusha) 
 formed the animals which are subject to the power of the air (vayavya), 
 
 ^ The world is called Dasangula, a mere span of ten fingers compared 
 with his infinite essence. I have chiefly followed Dr. John Muir's transla- 
 tion, but not throughout (see Texts, p. 368). A.V. is for Atharva-veda.
 
 Pahcayatana Ceremony. 415 
 
 both wild and tame. 9. From that universal sacrifice sprang the hymns 
 called Ric' and Saman, the metres, and the Yajush. 10. From it were 
 produced horses, and all animals with two rows of teeth, cows, goats, and 
 sheep. II. When they divided Purusha, into how many parts did they 
 distribute him ? What was his mouth ? What were his arms ? What 
 were called his thighs and feet ? 1 2. The Brahman was his mouth ; the 
 Rajanya became his arms ; the Vaisya was his thighs ; the Sudra sprang 
 from his feet. 13. The moon was produced from his soul ; the sun from 
 his eye ; Indra and Agni from his mouth ; the Vayu from his breath. 
 14. From his navel came the atmosphere ; from his head arose the sky; 
 from his feet came the earth ; from his ear the four quarters ; so they 
 formed the worlds. 15. When the gods, in performing their sacrifice, 
 bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven pieces of wood laid for him 
 round the fire, and thrice seven pieces of fuel employed. 16. With sacri- 
 fice the gods worshipped the Sacrifice. These were the primeval rites. 
 These great beings attained to the heaven where the gods, the ancient 
 Sadhyas, reside. 
 
 The sixteen acts of homage or ofiferings are — 
 
 I. Invocation (avahana) ; 2. a seat for sitting down (asana) formed of 
 TulasT leaves ; 3. foot water fpadya) ; 4. respectful oblation (arghya) of 
 rice, etc. ; 5. water for sipping (acamaniya) ; 6. ablution or lustration 
 (snana) with milk and clarified butter, honey and sugar ; 7. clothing 
 (vastra) formed of TulasI leaves ; 8. upper clothing or ornaments (upa- 
 vastra) formed of more TulasI leaves ; 9. perfumes and sandal (gandha, 
 dandana) ; 10. flowers (pushpa) ; li. incense (dhupa) ; 12. illumination 
 (dlpa) ; 13. oblation of food (naivedya) ; 14. reverential circumambula- 
 tion (pradakshina) ; 15. flowers with recitation of texts (mantra-pushpa) ; 
 16. final act of adoration (namaskara). 
 
 With each act of homage one of the sixteen verses of the 
 Purusha hymn above translated is recited. The final act 
 of adoration is as follows : — 
 
 Veneration to the infinite and eternal Male (Purusha), who has thou- 
 sands of names, thousands of forms, thousands of feet, thousands of eyes, 
 thousands of heads, thousands of thighs, thousands of arms, and who lives 
 for ten millions of ages. 
 
 O great god, pardon my want of knowledge of the right way of wor- 
 shipping thee. Sin, misery, and poverty are removed ; happiness and 
 purity are obtained by thy presence. O great god, I commit thousands 
 of faults every day and night ; forgive me, as I am thy servant. There is 
 no other protection but from thee ; thou only art my refuge ; guard me, 
 therefore, and defend me by thy mercy ; pardon my mistakes and defects 
 
 ^ According to Sayana's introduction to the Rig-veda, this mention of 
 the Ric first proves the priority of the Rig-veda.
 
 4t6 Vaisvadcva Ceremony. 
 
 in syllables, words, and measure ; O mighty lord, be propitiated. I offer 
 flowers with prayers. Let the five gods, of whom great Vishnu is the 
 first, be pleased with the worship I have made. Let all this be offered to 
 the Supreme Being. I offer thee with my mouth, O Vishnu, the sacred 
 salutation Vashat. Be pleased, O Sipivishta\ with my oblation ; let my 
 songs of praise exalt thee ; protect us ever with thy blessings (Rig-veda 
 VIL 99. 7, 100. 7). 
 
 Then sipping water the worshipper says : — 
 
 ' I take into my body the holy water which comes from 
 the feet of Vishnu, preventing untimely death and destroying 
 all diseases.' 
 
 This concludes the Pahcayatana ceremony as performed by 
 Brahmans in the Maratha country. Doubtless here and there 
 local variations may occur, and it should be observed that 
 in some districts where Siva is especially worshipped a form 
 of religious service called Siva-pijja is substituted for the 
 Pancayatana-puja, and certain hymns called the Rudra 
 hymns, from the Yajur-veda, are in that case recited. More- 
 over, abbreviations and omissions^ are usual in all the forms 
 of ritual among persons engaged in secular pursuits. But 
 a really strict Brahman omits nothing. 
 
 Vaisvadcva Ceremony. 
 
 An orthodox Brahman's craving for religious ceremonial 
 is not by any means satiated by the tedious round of forms 
 he has gone through in the early morning. A pause of an 
 hour or two brings him to the time when preparations for 
 another solemn rite have to be made. This is the ceremony 
 which ought to precede the midday meal. 
 
 It should be stated that an Indian household is satisfied 
 with two principal daily meals — one about midday, another 
 in the evening — but no pious householder of high caste will 
 sit down to the former without first performing what is 
 
 ^ This epithet of Vishnu is only applicable to him as a form of the Sun 
 displaying his rays in all directions. 
 ^ The utterance of the name of Vishnu will atone for all omissions.
 
 Vaisvadeva Ceremony. 417 
 
 called the Vaisvadeva ceremony, or offering to all the gods 
 (visve devah) ^. Nor is this held to be completed without the 
 addition of another rite, called Bali-harana, which is practically 
 nothing more than the concluding act of the Vaisvadeva-. 
 
 The gods worshipped in the Vaisvadeva are Vedic, and 
 the ceremony is therefore from its antiquity far more inter- 
 esting than the Pandayatana-puja, or any other modern form 
 of the Deva-puja. It is described in its most ancient form 
 in Manu III. 84-93. The idea involved in the entire service 
 seems to be, that before a man begins eating he ought 
 to consecrate and purify his food by making offerings of 
 small portions of cooked rice and other food to all the 
 deities through whose favour he is himself fed, and more 
 especially to Fire, who is the bearer of the offering to heaven. 
 In point of fact the whole ceremony resolves itself into a 
 form of homage offered to the gods who give the food, and 
 to the god of fire without whose aid this food could not be 
 prepared for eating. There is also a notion that, in preparing 
 the food by cooking, animals may have been accidentally 
 destroyed, for which expiation should be made before the 
 dinner is consumed. 
 
 It should be observed that the Vaisvadeva is not, like the 
 Sandhya, incumbent on every individual separately. It may 
 be performed vicariously, like the Deva-puja, through one 
 member of the family (generally a junior member) acting 
 for the others. In performing it a small portable fire- 
 receptacle, called a Kunda, is brought into the room where 
 
 ^ In reality only certain classes of deities are intended. It is curious 
 that the number of the gods is sometimes asserted in the Rig-veda to be 
 '})■}), while elsewhere (X. 6. 3) the number 3306 is given, and elsewhere 
 (III. 9. 9) 3339. They are now commonly said to amount to 330 millions, 
 but no authority is quoted for this number. 
 
 ^ Some manuals speak of the two in the dual, as Vaisvadeva-balikar- 
 manl. They are described by Colebrooke in his second essay on ' The 
 Religious Ceremonies of the Hindus,' but in a confused and imperfect 
 manner. 
 
 E e
 
 4i8 Vai'svadeva Ceremony. 
 
 the eatables are collected. Consecrated fire — fed with con- 
 secrated fuel — is placed in it, sacred grass is spread around, 
 and offerings of rice, etc. are cast into the flames for all the 
 deities, with repetition of Vedic texts. 
 
 The Bali-harana which follows requires for its proper per- 
 formance an elaborate arrangement of portions of food in 
 a circle^, each portion being allotted to a particular deity, 
 or class of superhuman beings, with the utterance of prescribed 
 formularies. 
 
 The detail of both Vaisvadeva and Bali-harana as given in 
 the most trustworthy manuals is as follows : — 
 
 The worshipper begins by the usual sippings of water 
 (acamana) and breath exercises (p. 402), and by declaring his 
 intention (sarikalpa) of performing the ceremony, thus : — 
 
 ' I will to-day perform the morning and evening ^ Vaisva- 
 deva with the cooked food (siddhanna) cast into the fire, 
 for the purification of that food and for my own purification, 
 and to make expiation for the five destructive domestic im- 
 plements^ (Paiicasuna), and to obtain the reward prescribed 
 by the Sruti, Smriti, and Puranas.' 
 
 Then after bringing in a small movable fire-receptacle, the 
 service commences with an invocation (avahana) of the god 
 of fire from the Rig-veda (V. 4. 5 ; I. 73. 6), which may be 
 thus translated : — 
 
 * O all-wise god Agni, come to this our sacrifice as a loved domestic 
 friend and household guest. Destroy all our enemies, and procure for us, 
 O Agni, the food (and other possessions) of those who bear us enmity.' 
 
 * Come, Agni, hither and sit down here as our priest, and be to us a 
 
 ^ A diagram of the circle is given in most of the Directories, with the 
 order in which the portions of food are to be arranged. 
 
 ^ The evening Vaisvadeva is never, so far as I was able to ascertain, 
 performed in the present day. 
 
 ^ The five, places, or domestic implements, through the use of which 
 animals may be accidentally destroyed in the process of preparing food, 
 are — i. the fire-place ; 2. the slab for grinding grain and condiments ; 
 3. the pots and pans ; 4. the pestle and mortar ; and 5. the water-pot. 
 See Manu III. 68.
 
 Vaisvadeva Ceremony. 419 
 
 trustworthy guide. May all-pervading heaven and earth defend thee ! 
 Bear our oblations to the gods for their complete satisfaction.' 
 
 After these invocations a covered dish of uncooked rice is 
 brought in and the cover removed. Then sacred fire is placed 
 in the receptacle, with these words : Om Bhur bhuvah svah, 
 ' I deposit the fire called Rukmaka ^ (bright as gold).' Con- 
 secrated fuel is next put on and the fire fanned, while the 
 following well-known and. remarkable text from Rig-veda IV. 
 58. 3 is recited : ' Four are his horns, three are his feet, two 
 are his heads, seven are his hands. He the triply-bound 
 bull roars. The mighty deity enters mortals 2.' 
 
 Next comes a text from the Svetasvatara Upanishad II. 16 : 
 ' This god (of fire) pervades all the quarters of the sky ; he 
 was the first-born of all things ; he is within the womb ; he 
 was born and is to be born ; he dwells in all men, and has 
 his countenance in all directions.' 
 
 The collecting together and spreading of the consecrated 
 fuel and sacred Kusa grass employed in the ceremony are 
 then made ; and water is sprinkled round in a circle. 
 
 Next, the rice about to be eaten is consecrated by the 
 sprinkling of water and placed on the fire. It is then taken 
 
 off and deposited between the worshipper and the fire. 
 
 t> 
 
 ^ Fire is of various kinds and has various names, and it is requisite to 
 name the particular fire intended to be prepared. 
 
 ''■ Professor H. H. Wilson gives a long note here, showing that Sayana 
 identifies Agni in this text with either Sacrifice or the Sun. The four 
 horns are the Veda or the Cardinal points, the three feet are the three 
 daily Sandhyas, or morning, noon, and evening ; the heads are either two 
 particular ceremonies, or day and night ; the seven hands are the seven 
 metres or seven solar rays. The bull is sacrifice, or the Sun as the pourer 
 down of benefits ; the triple bond is Mantra, Kalpa, and Brahmana, and 
 the roaring sound is the recitation of the Veda. Patanjali in the Maha- 
 bhashya (1. I. i) explains the four horns to mean the four kinds of 
 words, nouns, verbs, prepositions and particles ; the three feet the three 
 tenses, past, present and future ; the two heads the eternal and tem- 
 porary (produced) words ; the seven hands the seven case affixes ; the 
 triple bond is composed of the chest, the throat, and the head. The 
 mighty deity is speech. (Compare St. John's Gospel, i. I.) 
 
 E e 2
 
 420 Vai'svadeva Cej^emony. 
 
 The next act is called Upasthana. A prayer from the 
 Rig-veda (V. 4. 9) is addressed to the god of fire under his 
 name Jatavedas \ thus : — 
 
 ' Carry us, O omniscient god (Jatavedas), through all our 
 troubles and difficulties, as if thou wert conveying us over 
 a river by means of a boat. O Fire, thou art glorified by us 
 with as great honour (as was once offered thee) by Atri, be 
 thou willing (be thou awake or active) to become the pro- 
 tector of our persons.' 
 
 After this prayer offerings are made with the usual reve- 
 rential ejaculations, thus : ' Homage to Fire (Agni). I offer 
 fragrant sandal for unguent (vilepana), I offer flowers for 
 worship. I off"er uncooked grains of rice (akshatah) for every 
 kind of offering 2.' 
 
 Next^ the worshipper, after purifying his person and wash- 
 ing his hands, makes offerings to all the gods, throwing 
 portions of cooked rice — each portion about equal to a 
 mouthful — into the fire, with the following words: — 
 
 ' Om. Homage to the Sun (Suryaya-svaha). This is offered for the Sun, 
 and not for my own use ; homage to Prajapati, to Agni, to Soma Vanas- 
 pati, to Agni and Soma together, to Indra and Agni together, to Heaven 
 and Earth, to Dhanvantari, to Indra alone, to all the gods (Visvebhyo 
 devebhyah), to Brahma, to Bhur and Agni, to Bhuvar and Vayu, to Svar 
 and Surya^,' etc. 
 
 The next act is the taking up of ashes (vibhuti-grahana) 
 
 from the fire in a deep-bowled spoon called Darvi, and the 
 
 application of a small quantity with the finger to different 
 
 parts of the body, with the following prayer to Rudra (Siva): 
 
 ' O Rudra, inflict not harm on our sons and grandsons, on 
 
 ^ Jatavedas probably means 'knower of all beings.' The loth and nth 
 verses of this hymn are also recited after the 9th. 
 
 "^ That is as a substitute for all other oblations. Practically neither 
 sandal, perfumes, nor flowers are offered on ordinary occasions, but only 
 cooked rice is put into the fire in place of other offerings. 
 
 ^ The manuals give a diagram of the circle, and the names of all the 
 gods to whom portions of food are offered on theground in the conclud- 
 ing Bali-harana ceremony. The cooked food appears to be offered in fire 
 to these same gods in the same order.
 
 The Bali-harana Service. 421 
 
 our living men, on our cows and horses ; destroy not our 
 brave men in thy anger ; we invoke thee continually, bringing 
 thee oblations.' (Rig-veda I. 114. 8.) 
 
 Then, with the prayer, ' May I enjoy the triple life (try- 
 ayusham) of Jamadagni^, of Kasyapa, of Agastya, of the 
 gods ; may I altogether live for a hundred years,' ashes are 
 applied to the forehead, the neck, the navel, the right shoulder, 
 the left shoulder, and the head respectively. 
 
 Another prayer to the god of fire concludes the Vaisvadeva 
 portion of the service, thus : — 
 
 * O bearer of the oblations, give me happiness, faith, understanding, 
 fame, wisdom, learning, intellect, wealth, strength, long life, dignity, and 
 health. I salute him whose name, when remembered and mentioned, 
 makes incomplete religious services complete ^. Let the deity who par- 
 takes of the sacrifice and has the form of Agni-narayana be pleased with 
 this ceremony. Let it be regarded as offered to the true essence of 
 the Supreme Being (Brahma).' 
 
 The Bali-harana Service. 
 
 But the Vaisvadeva ceremony is not complete without the 
 Bali-harana, or offering of food to all gods and all creatures, 
 including all kinds of animals and spirits. This act is identical 
 with Manu's Bhuta-yajna, or homage to all creatures (Manu 
 III. 70. 81-IV. 21). The offering to all animals is sometimes 
 called Kaka-bali, because crows are practically the chief 
 devourers of the offerings. In fact, the Vaisvadeva and Bali- 
 harana are complementary of each other, and are generally 
 regarded as one ceremony. 
 
 The worshipper begins by placing small mouthfuls of cooked 
 rice in a circle on the ground between himself and the fire- 
 receptacle, allotting separate portions to all the gods to whom 
 offerings have already been made in the fire, as well as to 
 other beings outside the circle, in regular order, saying : — 
 
 ^ Compare White Yajur-veda (Vajasaneyi-S.) IIL 62. 
 
 2 According to the manual I have followed, a Sruti enjoins that if any 
 part of the ceremony has been carelessly omitted, it is held to be com- 
 pleted by remembering and repeating the name of Vishnu.
 
 42 2 The Bali-harana Service. 
 
 * Homage (l) to Surya, (2) to Prajapati, (3) to Agni, (4) to Prajapati, 
 (5) to Soma with Vanaspati, (6) to Agni and Soma, (7) to Indra with 
 Agni, (8) to Heaven and Earth, (9) to Dhanvantari^, (10) to Indra, (11) to 
 all the gods, (12) to Brahma, (13) to the waters, (14) to the plants and 
 trees, (15) to the house, (16) to the household deities, (17) to the gods of 
 the foundation of the house.' 
 
 Then portions are placed ort the ground just outside the 
 
 circle for other gods and beings in the order of the quarters 
 
 of the compass, beginning with the East, saying : — 
 
 'Homage (18) to Indra, (19) to Indra's attendants, (20) to Yama, 
 (21) to Yama's attendants, (22) to Varuna, (23) to Varuna's attendants, 
 (24) to Soma, (25) to Soma's attendants, (26) to Brahma, (27) to Brahma's 
 attendants, (28) to all the Gods, (29) to all the Bhutas or Spirits, (30) to 
 all the Spirits who move about by day, (31) to all the Spirits who move 
 about by night, (32) to all Rakshasas and evil spirits, (33) to the 
 Pitris — the worshipper hanging his sacred thread over the right shoulder 
 and becoming Pracinavlti (see p. 410), (34) to the dog Syama, (35) to the 
 dog Sabala, (36) to Sanaka^ and the other Rishis (the worshipper hang- 
 ing his thread round his neck like a necklace and becoming Nivltl, see 
 p. 410). 
 
 While making offerings of food to the spirits and animals 
 
 he says : — 
 
 'I who am myself desirous of being fed, offer oblations of food to 
 those spirits that move about day and night and delight in doing mis- 
 chief. Let the lord of food grant me also to be nourished by the food 
 I am about to eat.' 
 
 While offering portions of food outside the door of the 
 
 house he says : — 
 
 ' Let the crows that come from all the four quarters of the sky (presided 
 over by Indra, Varuna, Vayu, Yama, and Nirriti) take the portions of rice 
 placed by me on the ground. I present a portion to the two dogs, called 
 Syama and Sabala (see p. 289), belonging to the family of Vaivasvata, 
 that they may protect me always in my path (through this world and the 
 next). I place portions on the ground for dogs, for low-born persons 
 (candalas) and outcasts, for all animals and for crows (Sva-candala- 
 patita-vayasebhyah ^).' 
 
 ^ Dhanvantari is not the physician of the gods produced at the churn- 
 ing of the ocean, but an ancient deity. 
 
 '^ Sanaka was one of the four sons of Brahma. 
 
 ^ The Rev. Nehemiah Goreh informed me that he used to repeat these 
 words every day when he performed the Vaisvadeva and Bali-harana for 
 his family.
 
 The Ceremony of Dining. 423 
 
 The householder then waits at the door for a short interval, 
 watching for some guest (atithi) who may be passing, or for 
 some beggar to whom he may give a portion of food as alms ^. 
 
 He then washes his hands and feet, sips water, and re-enters 
 the house, saying : — 
 
 ' Let earth, atmosphere, and sky be favourable to us and make us free 
 from fear of danger. Let all the quarters of the sky, the waters, and 
 the lightnings protect us from all harm ! Peace, peace, peace ! homage 
 to Vishnu, homage to Vishiiu, homage to Vishnu.' 
 
 The Ceremony of Dining. 
 
 After the due performance of the Vaisvadeva and Bali- 
 harana ceremonies the cooked food is considered fit to be 
 consumed, and it might be thought that after so long a 
 religious service the members of the householder's family 
 would have nothing further to do but to eat their dinner 
 without further ceremony. But not so. The process of 
 dining is itself regarded as a religious rite, and must be con- 
 ducted according to prescribed forms. 
 
 Most of the manuals in my possession give directions for 
 what is called Bhojana-vidhi, 'the ceremony of dining.' In 
 practice, what generally happens in the families of orthodox 
 Brahmans and other high-caste natives ^ is nearly as follows : — 
 
 The males of the family sit down in a row on the ground 
 with their legs folded under them in the usual manner. 
 They are waited on by the wives, daughters ^, and widows of 
 the family ; for no woman in any Indian household will 
 venture to eat till the men have finished. Boiled rice and 
 other kinds of grain or pulse cooked with condiments and 
 
 ^ The object of waiting at the door is that the worshipper may feel he 
 has done his best to discharge the duty of performing the Manushya- 
 yajna or Atithi-pujana, 'homage to men or guests,' enjoined by Manu 
 (in Book III. 70). 
 
 2 Of course great variations occur even among Brahman families, espe- 
 cially in large cities where anti-brahmanic influences are at work. 
 
 ^ Daughters, however, are often privileged to eat with their fathers.
 
 424 Grace before Dhiner. 
 
 sometimes various kinds of sweetmeats are served up on 
 plates made of leaves ^ (often of the palasa tree or the plan- 
 tain) and placed before each person; but no one begins 
 eating till certain religious forms have been gone through. 
 In the first place, there is the usual acamana or sipping of 
 water for internal purification (p. 402). Each person pours 
 water with a spoon into the palm of the hand, then some 
 one leads the others, and all sip together. Next, water is 
 sprinkled in a circle round each plate, and some one of the 
 company repeats a grace or prayer before eating. The most 
 common prayer is from two passages in the Taittirlya Brah- 
 mana ^, as follows : — 
 
 ' May rivers continue to flow, may clouds rain, may plants produce 
 good fruit (for the support of the world), may I be the lord of lands 
 (grama Com.) that produce food, rice, and curds.' 
 
 ' They extol food (saying), that which is food is certainly a great divine 
 power, since it leads a man (him) to supreme prosperity.' 
 
 The first clause of this curious prayer seems to be a bene- 
 diction spoken for the benefit of the world at large ; the second 
 is for the good of the speaker ; the third is a glorification of 
 the food which the speaker is about to eat. Sometimes the 
 following text from the Rig-veda (X. 121. 10) precedes the 
 prayer : — 
 
 ' O Lord of all creatures, no one else but thou keepest 
 all these living beings encircled by thy care ; with whatever 
 desires we sacrifice to thee, let the fruit of that be to us ; 
 may we become possessors of wealth ^.' 
 
 ^ In large towns plates ofmetal are generally used. 
 
 ^ Taittirlya Bralynana II. 7. 16. 4, and I. 7. 10. 6. The following is the 
 Sanskrit text : Yantu nadayo varshantu parjanyah supippala oshadhayo 
 bhavantu, annavatam odanavatam amikshavatam esham raja bhuyasam. 
 
 Odanam udbruvate, parameshthi va eshah, yad odanah paramam evai- 
 nam sriyarn gamayati. 
 
 ^ Prajapate na tvad etany anyo visva jatani pari ta babhiiva, yat-kamas 
 te juhumas tan no astu, vayam syama patayo raylnam. In Kulluka's Com- 
 mentary to Manu (II. 54) a much simpler form of grace before meat is given. 
 The eater is told that he is always to honour his food and never despise 
 it, and to pray that he may always obtain it (nityam asmakam etad astu).
 
 Offerings at Dinner. 425 
 
 After the recitation of this grace the actual business of 
 eating may begin, but each person first places either four or 
 five small mouthfuls (grasa) of food on the ground on the 
 right side of his leaf-plate. These are called simply ahuti, 
 'offerings^,' or sometimes Citrahuti, 'offerings to Citra,' or to 
 Citragupta, whose power in the intermediate state after death 
 is especially dreaded (see p. 293). While placing the mouth- 
 fuls he ought to say, ' Homage to Citra ^, to Citragupta ^ to 
 Yama, to Yama-dharma, to Bhur, bhuvah, svar/ 
 
 After the dinner is over these mouthfuls are left to be eaten 
 by cats (if there are any in the house), or together with the 
 leaf-plates and whatever is left upon them, they are thrown to 
 the cows, or simply thrown out of the house to be eaten by 
 dogs or animals of any kind. The evening family meal is 
 a less formal ceremony. 
 
 ^ In the same way, whenever a Roman family sat down to meals, a 
 portion of the food was presented to the Lares, regarded as departed 
 spirits. 
 
 ^ Citraya namah, etc., or svaha, may be substituted for namah. 
 
 ^ (Citragupta is the recorder who records the sins and merits of man- 
 kind in Yama's world.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 
 
 No country upon earth rejoices in a longer list of holidays, 
 festivals (utsava), and seasons of rejoicing, qualified by fasts 
 (upavasa, vrata), vigils (jagarana), and seasons of mortification, 
 than India. Most of these fasts and festivals are fixed to 
 take place on certain lunar days (tithi), each lunation or 
 period of rather more than twenty-seven solar days being 
 divided into thirty of these lunar days, fifteen of which during 
 the moon's increase constitute the light half of the month, 
 and the other fifteen the dark half. Some festivals, however, 
 are regulated by the supposed motions of the sun. To de- 
 scribe all the fasts and festivals would require a volume. 
 I can only indicate some of those most commonly observed. 
 And first, with regard to the general custom of fasting, it 
 may be worth while to point out that no Christian man — be 
 he Roman Catholic or Anglican — not even the most austere 
 stickler for the most strict observance of every appointed 
 period of humiliation and abstinence, can for a moment hope 
 to compete with any religious native of India — Hindu or 
 Muhammadan — who may have entered on a course of fasting, 
 abstinence, and bodily maceration. 
 
 In point of fact, the constant action of a tropical climate, 
 and the peculiar social habits of the sons of the soil in 
 Eastern countries continued for centuries, have induced a 
 condition of body which enables them to practise the most 
 severe and protracted abstinence wdth impunity, and even 
 with benefit ; while European Christians, who, with a view 
 of increasing their influence, endeavour to set an example
 
 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 427 
 
 of self-mortification, find themselves quite outdone and left 
 hopelessly in the rear by a thousand devotees in every sacred 
 city of India ^. < 
 
 It must of course be borne in mind that fasting is practised 
 by Indian devotees, not as a penitential exercise, but as a 
 means of accumulating religious merit. Moreover, severe self- 
 mortification is always connected with the fancied attainment 
 of extraordinary sanctity or superhuman powers. Amongst 
 other objects aimed at is the acquirement of a kind of preter- 
 natural or ethereal lightness of body. By long fasting a man 
 is believed to achieve what is called Laghima ; that is to say, 
 his frame becomes so buoyant and sublimated by abstinence, 
 that the force of gravitation loses its power of binding him to 
 the earth, and he is able to sit or float in the air. It may 
 seem the very height of superstitious credulity to give cre- 
 dence to an emaciated Hindu claiming to triumph in this 
 way over the laws of matter ; yet cool-headed and sceptical 
 Englishmen of unimpeachable sincerity have been invited to 
 witness the achievements of these so-called Yogis, and have 
 come away convinced of their genuineness and ready to 
 testify to the absence of all fraud. 
 
 Nevertheless, it must be noted that the rules of fasting, as 
 practised by natives of India in the present day, are by no 
 means so stringent as they were in ancient times. Several 
 severe forms of abstinence are specified by Manu. For ex- 
 ample, the fast called ' very painful ' (ati-kric'c'hra) consisted 
 in eating only a single mouthful every day for nine days, and 
 then abstaining from all food for the three following days 
 (Manu XL 213}. 
 
 Another notable fast was that called 'the lunar vow' (can- 
 
 ^ The truth is that any breach of the Creator's law of adaptation is 
 sure to be followed by a Nemesis, and those pious and devoted English- 
 men who practise protracted abstinence from religious motives in an 
 exhausting Indian atmosphere cannot expect to be exempt from the 
 operation of this law. We have recently had, I am sorry to say, several 
 sad examples of useful careers an-ested through this cause.
 
 428 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 
 
 dray ana -vrata). It consisted in diminishing the consumption 
 of food every day by one mouthful for the waning half of the 
 lunar month, beginning with ^fifteen mouthfuls at the full 
 moon until the quantity was reduced to nil at the new moon, 
 and then increasing it in like manner during the fortnight 
 of the moon's increase (Manu VI. 20, XL 316). 
 
 In the present day every religious Hindu fasts twice in 
 every lunar month — that is on the eleventh day (ekadasi) in 
 each fortnight. These fasts are usually kept in honour of 
 Vishnu, but are not very strictly observed, as fruit and milk 
 are allowed. The Saivas usually fast on the thirteenth or 
 fourteenth day of the dark half of every month, on the day 
 and night called Siva-ratri, ' Siva's night,' in anticipation of 
 the great fast on the night of Siva, kept once a year (p. 430). 
 The evening before is called Pradosha. Some, again, fast 
 in honour of Ganesa on the fourth lunar day (caturthi) once 
 a month, in anticipation of the chief Ganesa fast once a year 
 
 (P-431)- 
 
 An Indian friend of mine told me that, when a little boy, 
 
 he accidentally crushed a sparrow ; whereupon his mother 
 
 made him keep an eleventh-day fast, the merit (punya) of 
 
 which was credited to the spirit of the dead sparrow. 
 
 Other chief festivals and fasts beginning with Magha — 
 corresponding to our January-February — are as follow : — 
 
 Makara-sahkranti (popularly Sankrant), in celebration of 
 the commencement of the sun's northern course (uttarayana) 
 in the heavens. To mark this, a kind of New Year's festival 
 is observed towards the end of Pausha or beginning of Magha 
 (about January 12). The sun has then reached the most 
 southern point of the ecliptic. It is a period of rejoicing 
 everywhere, especially as marking the termination of the in- 
 auspicious month Pausha (December-January) ; but it is not 
 really the beginning of a new year, which varies in different 
 parts of India. In Bengal it may be called the * Festival of 
 good cheer.' Practically, at least, it is kept by free indulg-
 
 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 429 
 
 ence in the eating of cakes, sweetmeats, and other good 
 things. At one of the most sacred places in India, Prayaga 
 (Allahabad), where the Jumna and Ganges meet, a celebrated 
 religious fair (Mela) takes place during this season. 
 
 The same festival in the South of India is commonly called 
 Pongal (or Pungal). It marks the commencement of the 
 Tamil year, and is the day for congratulatory visits. People 
 purchase new cooking-pots and boil fresh rice in milk. Then 
 they salute each other with the question—-' Has the milk 
 boiled?' to which the answer is given that 'the boiling 
 (pongal) is over.' In reality the South Indian festival seems 
 to be dedicated to the glorification of agriculture. Cattle are 
 decorated with garlands, their horns coloured, and mango 
 leaves hung round their necks. Then they are led about in 
 procession, exempted from all labour, and virtually, if not 
 actually, worshipped. 
 
 Vasanta-paiic'amI, on the 5th of the light half of Magha 
 (January-February). This is a spring festivaL In Bengal 
 Sarasvati (Sri), goddess of arts and learning, is worshipped at 
 this season. No reading or writing takes place, and the day 
 is observed as a holiday in all public and mercantile offices. 
 The worship is performed either before an image of the god- 
 dess, or before an ink-stand, pens, paper, and other implements 
 of writing taken to represent the image. Sometimes an offici- 
 ating priest is called in who reads the prescribed formula, 
 and presents rice, fruits, sweetmeats, flowers, etc., while the 
 lay-worshippers stand before the images or symbols with 
 flowers in their hands, beseeching the goddess to grant them 
 the blessings of learning, wealth, fame, and health. 
 
 Moreover, on this day, according to Mr. S. C. Bose, every 
 Pandit in Bengal who keeps a school sets up an image of 
 Sarasvati and invites his patrons and friends to call upon 
 him and do honour to the goddess. This they do by making 
 off'erings of rupees, which really form an important part of 
 the Pandit's annual income. It is a significant fact that
 
 430 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 
 
 females are not allowed to take part in the worship of this 
 goddess, though she be of their own sex. 
 
 Maha-Siva-ratri, or 'great Siva-night,' is held on the 14th of 
 the dark half of Magha (about the middle or end of February). 
 A fast is observed during the day, and a vigil kept at night, 
 when the Liiiga is worshipped (see p. 90). At this season 
 many pilgrims flock to the places dedicated to Siva. 
 
 Holi or Hutasani festival — identified with the Dola-yatra, 
 or rocking of the image of Krishna^ — is celebrated, espe- 
 cially in the upper provinces, as a kind of Hindu Saturnalia 
 or Carnival, and is therefore very popular. It commences 
 about ten days before the full moon of Phalguna (February- 
 March), but is usually only observed for the last three or 
 four days, terminating with the full moon. Boys dance about 
 in the streets, and inhabitants of houses sprinkle the passers- 
 by with red or yellow powder, use squirts and play practical 
 jokes. Rough sports, obscene songs, loud music, merriment, 
 mid-night orgies, and excesses of all kinds are the rule. 
 Towards the close of the festival, about the night of full moon, 
 a bonfire is lighted and games — representing the frolics of the 
 young Krishna — take place around the expiring embers. 
 
 Rama-navami — the birthday of Rama-candra — is observed 
 on the 9th of the light half of the month Caitra (March- 
 April), and is kept by some as a strict fast. The temples 
 of Rama are illuminated, and his image adorned with costly 
 ornaments. The Ramayana is read in the temples, and 
 Naches (Nautches) are kept up during the night. 
 
 Naga-paScamI is held on the 5th day of the light half of 
 Sravana, in honour of the Nagas. 
 
 Two days later comes the Sitala-saptamI, in honour of the 
 Small-pox goddess (p. 228), when only cold food is eaten. 
 
 Krishna-janmashtami, the birthday of Krishna — kept on 
 
 ■^ The meaning of Holl is doubtful. It may be merely an imitation of 
 the sounds and cries made by the revellers. By some the festival is said 
 to be in commemoration of the killing of the demon Madhu by Krishna.
 
 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 431 
 
 the 8th of the dark half of the month Bhadra or (in Bombay 
 and the South) of Sravana (July-August) — is one of the 
 greatest of all Hindu holidays (see p. 113)- 
 
 The variation in time in this and other festivals is caused 
 by the circumstance that the months of the Northern and 
 Southern Brahmans differ in the dark fortnight. 
 
 Ganesa-caturthI — the birthday of Ganesa — is observed on 
 the 4th of the light half of the month Bhadra (August- 
 September). Clay figures of the deity are made, and after 
 being worshipped for a few days, thrown into the water. 
 
 Sixteen consecutive lunar days are devoted to the per- 
 formance of Sraddhas in the dark half of Bhadra, which is 
 therefore called the Pitri-paksha (see p. 308). 
 
 Durga-puja, or Nava-ratra, 'nine nights,' commencing on 
 the ist and ending on the loth day of the light half of 
 Asvina (September-October), are celebrated in various parts 
 of India, especially Bengal, and connected with the autumnal 
 equinox. Nominally they commemorate the victory of Durga, 
 wife of Siva, over a buffalo-headed demon (Mahishasur). The 
 form under which she is adored is that of an image with 
 ten arms and a weapon in each hand, her right leg resting 
 on a lion and her left on the buffalo demon. This image is 
 worshipped for nine days — following on the sixteen Sraddhas 
 of the Pitri-paksha — and then cast into the water. 
 
 The tenth day is called Vijaya-dasamI, or Dasa-hara. 
 
 Kali-puja is a kindred festival in Bengal, lasting only for 
 one night, and that the darkest night of the dark fortnight 
 of the month Karttika. The image worshipped is that of 
 Kali, the dark and terrible form of Siva's wife described at 
 p. 189. The well-known temple at Kali Ghat near Calcutta 
 and other shrines of the goddess are during this night 
 drenched with the blood of goats, sheep, and buffaloes sacri- 
 ficed in honour of the sanguinary goddess. 
 
 Rama-llla, 'Rama-play,' is celebrated in some parts of India 
 on the day when the Bengalis commit their images of Durga
 
 432 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 
 
 to the waters. It is a dramatic representation of the abduc- 
 tion of Slta, concluding with the death of Ravana. 
 
 Divall (properly Dipali or Dipavall), ' the feast of lamps,' is 
 observed twenty days after the Nava-ratra on the last two 
 days of the dark half of Asvina, and on the new moon and 
 four following days of Karttika, in honour of Vishnu's wife 
 Lakshmi or of Siva's wife BhavanI (Parvati). It is marked by 
 beautiful illuminations, in the preparation of which Indians 
 far excel Europeans. 
 
 In some parts of India the Sarasvatl-puja (described p. 429) 
 is kept at this season, on the 8th of the light half of Asvina. 
 
 The Divali is celebrated with splendid effect at Benares. 
 There its magnificence is heightened by the situation of 
 the city on the bank of the river and the unique contour of 
 the buildings. At the approach of night small earthen lamps, 
 fed with oil, are prepared by millions, and placed quite close 
 together so as to mark out every line of mansion, palace, 
 temple, minaret, and dome in streaks of fire. All the vessels 
 on the river are lighted up, and the city is a blaze of light 
 (see Asiatic Journal for 1833). Viewed from the water it pre- 
 sents a superb spectacle, 'a scene of fairy splendour,' the like 
 of which is not to be seen in any other city of the world. 
 Similar spectacles in the great European capitals appear ab- 
 solutely paltry by comparison. Perhaps the illuminations which 
 took place on the occasion of the Prince of Wales' visit to 
 Calcutta and Benares in 1876 reached the climax of perfection, 
 and will never be equalled for beauty and magnificence. 
 
 Karttika-purnima is a festival kept on the full moon of 
 the month Karttika (October-November), in honour of Siva's 
 victory over the demon called Tripurasura. 
 
 It must be noted that the months are lunar and that the 
 calendar varies in different parts of India. Every month, such 
 as Sravana, Vaisakha, and the intercalary or thirteenth month ^ 
 
 ^ There is an allusion to this thirteenth month in Rig-veda I. 25. 8, and 
 in Atharva-veda V. 6. 4, XIII. 3. 8.
 
 Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holy Days. 433 
 
 (Adhika-masa), has its Mahatmya or excellence. When the 
 intercalary month comes round every third year, preachers 
 make l^e most of their opportunity, and read its Mahatmya 
 in large towns^ hoping thereby to stimulate the generosity 
 of the people. Then, again, if a conjunction of the moon 
 (or in some places a full moon) fall on a Monday, this is 
 an astronomical coincidence that must be turned to the 
 best account. It is a conjuncture peculiarly favourable to 
 charitable acts. The same may be said of eclipses. A single 
 rupee given at such seasons is worth a thousand rupees at 
 other times. 
 
 Moreover, every day of the week has its sacred character. 
 Monday is especially sacred to Siva (Maha-deva). Pious 
 persons often fast on this day and worship the Linga in the 
 evening. Saturday is Hanuman's day, and offerings are 
 especially made to him on that day. Then the eighth day 
 in every lunar fortnight is sacred to Durga. This is a day 
 when no study is allowed, and therefore called An-adhyaya. 
 Indeed holy days or non-reading days may be multiplied in- 
 definitely. Thus a pupil will stop reading and go home if it 
 happens to thunder, if any person or animal chances to pass 
 between himself and his teacher, if a guest arrives, and often 
 during the greater part of the rainy season. 
 
 No less than four eras are commonly current among the 
 Hindiis in India: — i. Samvat (of King Vikramaditya), rec- 
 koned from 57 B.C.; 2. Saka (of King Salivahana), reckoned 
 from 78 A. D.; 3, San, current in Bengal, reckoned from 593 A. D.; 
 4. The era of Parasu-rama, current in Malabar, reckoned from 
 1 176 B.C. In almanacks it is usual to state how many years 
 of the present age of the world or Kali-yuga (p. 39 H) 
 have elapsed ; thus at present 4984 out of 432,000 years have 
 gone by. The three previous ages are the Krita or Satya, 
 Treta, and Dvapara. Almanacks which follow the Saka era 
 begin the year with the light half of the month Caitra, but 
 the Samvat year usually commences with Karttika. 
 
 Ff
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Temples, Shrines, and Sacred Places. 
 
 It is well known that the principal seat and great centre 
 of the cultus of Siva is Benares (Varanasi)^ — a city whose 
 world-wide celebrity has earned for it the title of KasI, 'the 
 resplendent.' In the Kasl-khanda of the Skanda-purana it is 
 recorded how the god himself chose that city for his special 
 abode, and how after having undergone severe austerities in 
 the neighbourhood he made it sacred to himself and to his 
 sons Ganesa and Skanda (p. 211). 
 
 Elsewhere Benares is described as a special creation of the 
 Creator, who formed it of pure unpolluted earth, separated it 
 from the rest of the world, and caused it to rest on one of the 
 points of Siva's trident. 
 
 No doubt Benares was one of the first cities to acquire a 
 reputation for sanctity, and is still regarded as the most 
 sacred spot in all India. It is the Hindu's Jerusalem and 
 Mecca. Here, temples, shrines, and idols are multiplied 
 beyond all calculation. Here every inch of ground, every 
 clod of earth is hallowed, and the very air believed to 
 be holy. 
 
 No wonder, then, that every pious Hindu is ambitious of 
 accomplishing at least one pilgrimage to what he regards as a 
 portion of heaven let down upon earth, and if he can happily 
 manage to die within the magic circle of what is called the 
 
 ^ The popular name is more properly written Banaras. The name 
 Varan asT, of which it is a corruption, is said to be derived from two 
 small rivers outside the city, the Varana or Varna and the AsT.
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. Benares. 435 
 
 PancakosI — that is to say, within a circuit of ten miles round 
 the centre of the holy city — nay, if the most desperate 
 criminal from any part of the world — be he of any religious 
 denomination, Christian, Buddhist, or Muhammadan — die 
 there, no amount of the rnost heinous guilt, not even the 
 deadly sin of eating beef, can prevent his immediate trans- 
 portation to the heaven of Siva. Yet Benares is by no means 
 exclusively dedicated to Siva ; nor are its inhabitants exclu- 
 sively devoted to the worship of any one deity in particular. 
 Benares is the very citadel of Brahmanism — the stronghold of 
 every form of Hinduism — the great central focus from which 
 all the lines of the most complicated religious system in the 
 world diverge, and to which they again converge. Here 
 priestcraft reigns supreme in all its plenitude and power. 
 Here a population of above 200,000 persons, men, women and 
 children, and a countless number of pilgrims deliver them- 
 selves up to be deluded, defrauded, and kept in moral and 
 religious slavery by 25,000 arrogant Brahmans. 
 
 Picturesquely situated on the Ganges and stretching for 
 three or four miles along this most sacred of all rivers, with 
 magnificent Ghats or flights of steps conducting pilgrims by 
 thousands into the very midst of the hallowed waters, Benares 
 is the home of every form of Hindu religious earnestness and 
 enthusiasm, combined with every conceivable variety of 
 hideous superstition and fanaticism. 
 
 No description indeed can give the slightest idea of the 
 reality of the sight presented to the eye by this unique city. 
 The traveller bent on investigating its inner mysteries, and 
 eager to solve for himself the riddle of the grosser forms of 
 its superstition and fanaticism, finds that his only hope of 
 traversing its tortuous streets, or penetrating the living tide 
 which daily ebbs and flows in its leading thoroughfares, is by 
 trusting to his personal powers as a pedestrian. Pushing his 
 way through the seething throng he beholds everywhere, as 
 he advances, the most striking contrasts and curious incon- 
 
 F f 2
 
 436 Temples and Sacred Places. Benares. 
 
 <^ruities — princely mansions and mean tenements, handsome 
 edifices and fantastic freaks of architecture, crowded shrines 
 and empty sanctuaries, bright new temples and dilapidated 
 fanes, freshly gilded domes and mildewed pinnacles, graceful 
 minarets and unsightly cupolas, open streets and impassable 
 lanes, dirty squares and well-kept quadrangles — everywhere 
 and from every point of view a strange intermingling of the 
 beautiful and the grotesque, the tasteful and the bizarre, the 
 simple and the extravagant. 
 
 The living objects which meet his eye as he proceeds are 
 not less interesting, odd, and incongruous. Now he is jostled 
 by sacred bulls which wander everywhere free and uncon- 
 trolled ; now a number of impudent monkeys bound over his 
 head or spring from roof to roof ; now a dozen sacred pigeons 
 fly fearlessly almost into his face, or a flight of parrots circle 
 noisily around his head. In one part of the city he is hemmed 
 in before some sacred pool or noted temple by a motley 
 throng of pilgrims, some pressing forward to perform their 
 ablutions, some carrying Ganges water for use at the idol- 
 shrines, some vociferating the name of their favourite gods. 
 In another quarter he is surrounded by groups of half-naked 
 mendicants and dirty devotees, many of whom parade their 
 bodily austerities in a manner highly repulsive to European 
 eyes. Here he struggles with difficulty through streets of copper- 
 smiths and workers in brass. There his path is obstructed 
 by the stalls of vendors of coarse sweetmeats, sellers of flower- 
 garlands, or money-changers sitting behind heaps of cowries 
 and piles of gold and silver coins. Everywhere temples, 
 shrines, mosques, images and symbols, holy wells, pools, and 
 sacred trees present themselves in bewildering confusion. 
 
 The number of principal temples is at least two thousand. 
 Smaller shrines are, of course, innumerable. Of Muham- 
 madan mosques the total is said to amount to three hundred. 
 The tale of idols is computed at about half a million. 
 The chief temple called the 'golden temple,' dedicated to
 
 Tanples and Sacj'cd Places. Benares. 437 
 
 Siva or Maha-deva (see p. 78), is disappointing to any one 
 who has seen the South Indian temples ; for although Siva is 
 specially worshipped and propitiated at Benares he has no- 
 where so many earnest votaries as in the South, and the 
 Benares temple in respect of size, external appearance and 
 importance is to the great temples of Tanjore, Madura and 
 Tinnevelly, what a village church is to St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 The fact is that the waves of Muhammadan invasion which 
 swept over the North-west and Central provinces of India, 
 and seemed at one time likely to obliterate Brahmanism 
 altogether, were either arrested in their onward course or else 
 spent themselves before reaching the South. This is remark- 
 ably illustrated at Benares^ where the most conspicuous build- 
 ing is the great mosque of AurangzTb with its lofty minarets 
 on the Ganges. Even the old original Saiva temple of Visve- 
 svara does not exist. It was pulled down by the ruthless 
 AurangzTb and a mosque built on its foundations ^. Another 
 temple, however, speedily arose close at hand and rivalled the 
 old one in picturesque beauty, if not in size. It stands at a 
 distance of two or three hundred yards from its predecessor. 
 Between them is the Jnana-vapT, or holy well of knowledge — 
 a spot greatly frequented and held in the highest veneration 
 by pilgrims from all parts of the country — a legend being 
 universally current that when AurangzTb destroyed the Hindu 
 temple its idol took refuge of its own accord at the bottom of 
 this holy well. Thither therefore a constant throng of wor- 
 shippers continually resort, bringing with them offerings of 
 flowers, rice and other grain, which they throw into the water 
 thirty or forty feet below the ground. A Brahman is per- 
 petually employed in drawing up the putrid liquid, the smell 
 or rather stench of which from incessant admixture of de- 
 caying flowers and vegetable matter makes the neighbourhood 
 
 ' According to Mr. Sherring — whose book on Benares is well worthy 
 of perusal — there was a still earlier temple on a site not far distant.
 
 438 Temples and Sacred Places, Benares. 
 
 almost unbearable. This he pours with a ladle into the hands 
 of expectant crowds, who either drink it with avidity or 
 sprinkle it reverentially over their persons. A still more 
 sacred well, called the Mani-karnika, situated on one of the 
 chief Ghats leading to the Ganges, owes its origin, in popular 
 belief, to the fortunate circumstance that one of Siva's 
 ear-rings happened to fall on the spot. 
 
 This well is near the surface and quite exposed to view. 
 It forms a small quadrangular pool not more than three feet 
 deep. Four flights of steps on the four sides lead to the 
 water, the disgusting foulness of which in the estimation of 
 countless pilgrims vastly enhances its efficacy for the removal 
 of sin. The most abandoned criminals journey from distant 
 parts of India to the margin of this sacred pool. There they 
 secure the services of Brahmans appointed to the duty, and 
 descending with them into the water are made to repeat 
 certain texts and mutter certain mystic formulae, the meaning 
 of which they are wholly unable to understand. Then while 
 in the act of repeating the words put into their mouths they 
 eagerly immerse their entire persons beneath the offensive 
 liquid. The longed-for dip over, a miraculous transformation 
 is the result ; for the foul water has cleansed the still fouler 
 soul. Few Hindus venture to doubt that the most depraved 
 sinner in existence may thus be converted into an immaculate 
 saint, worthy of being translated at once to the highest heaven 
 of the god of Benares. 
 
 But to return to the temple of Visvesvara. I found, when I 
 visited it, a constant stream of worshippers passing in and out. 
 In fact, Siva in his character of lord of the universe (see p. 78) 
 is the supreme deity of Benares. Not that the pilgrims 
 are prohibited from worshipping at the shrines of other 
 gods, but that Siva is here paramount and claims the 
 first homage. Yet this supreme god has no image ; he 
 is represented by a plain conical stone — to wit, the Liriga 
 or symbol of male generative power. The method of
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. Tanjore. 439 
 
 performing worship in this great central and confessedly 
 typical temple of Hinduism appeared to me very remarkable 
 in its contrast with all Christian ideas of the nature of worship. 
 All that each worshipper did was to bring Ganges-water with 
 him in a small metal vessel and pour the water over the stone 
 Liriga, at the same time ringing one of the bells hanging from 
 the roof to attract the god's attention towards himself, bowing 
 low in obeisance, and muttering a few texts with repetition of the 
 god's name. In this way the god's symbol was kept per- 
 petually deluged with water, while the crowds who passed in 
 and out lingered for a time close to the shrine, talking to each 
 other in loud tones. Nor did any idea of irreverence seem to 
 be attached to noisy vociferation in the interior of the sanctuary 
 itself. Nor was any objection made to an unbeliever like 
 myself approaching and looking inside ; whereas in the South 
 of India I was strictly excluded from all the avenues to the 
 inner Lihga-sanctuaries (see p. 447). In the courts adjacent 
 to the Linga were other shrines dedicated to various deities, 
 and in a kind of cloister or gallery which encircled the temple 
 were thousands of stone Liiigas crowded together carelessly 
 and apparently only intended as votive-ofiferings. I noticed 
 the coil of a serpent carved round one or two of the most 
 conspicuous symbols of male generative energy, and the com- 
 bination appeared to me very significant and instructive. 
 
 The goddess Anna-purna has a temple close at hand. She 
 is thought to be charged by the god Siva with the duty of 
 keeping the inhabitants of Benares supplied with abundance 
 of food. I found the quadrangle which surrounds this shrine 
 crowded with bulls, cows, priests, and mendicants, who are 
 daily fed by the offerings of the rich. The effluvium emitted 
 by the filth and dirt was insufferable. 
 
 Turning from Benares to the South Indian Saiva temples, 
 the palm must be conceded to that at Tanjore. 
 
 It is contained within a vast quadrangle, the floor of which 
 is paved with bricks and kept scrupulously clean. Two lofty
 
 440 Temples and Sacred Places. Tanjore. 
 
 Gopuras or gateways surmounted by high pyramidal towers ^ 
 lead into this square, and a sort of double cloister or arcade 
 surrounds it. In the second or hinder part of two sides of 
 this arcade are arranged a hundred and eight black stone 
 Lingas of different sizes, one for each of the hundred and eight 
 principal names of Siva, and behind these again are sixty-four 
 frescoes painted on the wall — many of them highly grotesque — 
 representing various exploits of the god or his attendants^. 
 A catalogue of sixty-three saints or distinguished personages 
 whose devotion to Siva gave them the power of working 
 miracles or performing supernatural feats is sometimes enu- 
 merated ^ On the left of the quadrangle as you enter is 
 a pleasant grove of palms and other trees. In the centre is 
 the principal temple, containing the Garbha-griham or inner- 
 most sanctuary of the sacred Liiiga, a kind of holy of holies 
 to which I was not allowed access. This is an imposing 
 structure, made still more so by the fine Mandapa or open 
 hall erected in front of it as a shrine for the stone image of 
 Siva's bull (nandi), which is a magnificent specimen of Indian 
 sculpture of great size. Near the principal temple are four 
 subordinate ones, two behind and two on one side. Those 
 behind are dedicated to the two sons of Siva, one to Gancsa 
 and the other to Su-brahmanya (p. 2i]). In front of the 
 Ganesa temple is the image of a rat looking into the shrine, as 
 the bull does into the shrine of Siva. The rat is an emblem 
 of sagacity, as the bull is of strength and generative power. 
 
 ^ These structures are of oblong form, and sometimes of immense 
 height. They are only pyramidal in the sense of being broader at the 
 base than at the summit. It is remarkable that Vaishnava carvings are 
 found on these Tanjore Gopuras, showing that the temple may have once 
 belonged to the Vaishnavas. Everywhere the two systems seem inter- 
 mingled. 
 
 '^ In one of these a Linga is represented with a face inside it. 
 Another has a serpent for a canopy. In another Gandodara, an attendant 
 of Siva, is swallowing mountains of rice and drinking up a river. 
 
 ^ The catalogue is given by Mr. Foulkes in his Saiva Catechism.
 
 Temples and Sacred Places, Tanjore. 441 
 
 The image of Su-brahmanya or Skanda is seated on a peacock 
 and has six faces. 
 
 One of the side temples near the entrance of the quadrangle 
 contains an image of Siva, lifting up his left leg while dancing 
 the Tandava dance and trampling on the Asura Apasmara. 
 He holds the Damaru in one hand, using it for a musical 
 instrument or rattle, as a dancer would castanets. This 
 temple has some curious pictures on the walls. One is of 
 Bhrihgi, an attendant of Siva, who became so feeble and 
 attenuated through self-mortification ^ that the god furnished 
 him with a third leg for support ; another represents an 
 attendant with the lower part of his body terminating in a 
 snake ; a third depicts one of Siva's servants with the feet of 
 a tiger. In a fourth the sage Markandeya is about to be 
 carried off by the king of death (Yama), when he grasps Siva's 
 Liriga and saves himself. A fifth represents the story of Kala- 
 hasta, a pious forester who habitually did homage to Siva 
 with offerings of flowers. One day having forgotten his usual 
 oblation he without a moment's hesitation tore out one of his 
 own eyes from its socket, and having offered it was proceeding 
 to take out the other, when Siva prevented him. 
 
 The second side temple is an oblong chamber containing an 
 image of ParvatI at the further end, with lights always burning 
 in front. Near the entrance is a representation of Parvati's 
 darpana or mirror. On one of the walls is a remarkable 
 picture of a large Liriga with the serpent Sesha forming a 
 canopy over it. 
 
 To describe all the principal Saiva temples of India would 
 require volumes. One thousand and eight are said to exist, 
 one for each of the one thousand and eight names of the god, 
 but of these only one hundred and eight are regarded as 
 important. 
 
 ' He was a model ascetic, and fasted so continuously that he became 
 not only emaciated, but an actual living skeleton. He is so represented 
 in the sculptures of the caves of Elephanta near Bombay.
 
 442 Temples and Sacred Places. Madura. 
 
 Of the others which I visited, the temples at Madura, 
 Ramesvara, Trichinopoly, Kanjivaram, Tinnevelly, and the 
 shrine of Kapalesvara at Nasik (one of the oldest), appeared 
 to me most worthy of note. 
 
 At the Madura temple Siva is worshipped as Sundaresvara, 
 a name given to him as the husband of Mlnakshl (corrupted 
 into Minaci), the deified daughter of a Pandya king^. 
 
 A very extensive and imposing series of shrines, passages, 
 and galleries, including a thousand-pillared open hall of great 
 beauty, constitute the temple. These are enclosed by a high 
 wall, inside of which and encircling the interior building is an 
 open road or way for the benefit of pious persons who use it for 
 reverential circumambulation (pradakshina) round the sacred 
 shrine. Two lofty Gopuras form the entrance to the temple, 
 each leading by long corridors to the two principal shrines. 
 That on the left leads to the shrine of Minakshl (commonly 
 called Minaci) ; that on the right terminates with the Linga 
 shrine. It is noteworthy that near the latter are images of 
 the five Pandava princes who are generally connected with 
 the worship of Krishna^. Various interesting carvings and 
 sculptured figures are in the neighbouring corridors. It is 
 evident that Mlnakshi is the real popular deity of the dis- 
 trict, and that in the estimation of the inhabitants of Madura 
 her consort Siva is quite secondary. 
 
 I happened accidentally to witness a festival held in her 
 honour called Tailotsava, ' the oil festival.' A coarse image of 
 the goddess, profusely decorated with jewels and having a high 
 head-dress of hair, was carried in the centre of a long proces- 
 
 ^ The temple is commonly called the Mlnakshl-sundaresvara pagoda, 
 the wife's name being placed first, as it generally is in other cases also 
 (see p. 184). The legend is that MfnakshT was born with three breasts, 
 but one disappeared on meeting with her future husband Siva. She was 
 then converted into a local goddess of great celebrity. 
 
 ^ This is an evidence of the tolerant spirit which marks Hinduism. 
 Where Saivism got the better of Vaishnavism in the South, the Vaishnava 
 ornaments were respected and allowed to remain in Saiva temples.
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. Raincsiara. 443 
 
 sion on a canopied throne borne by eight Brahmans to a 
 platform in the magnificent hall or Mandapa of the Tirumell 
 Nayak opposite the temple. There the ceremony of undress- 
 ing the idol, removing its ornaments, anointing its head with 
 oil, bathing, redecorating and redressing it was gone through 
 amid shouting, singing, beating of tom-toms, waving of lights 
 and cowries, ringing of bells, and deafening discord from 
 forty or fifty so-called musical instruments, each played by 
 a man who did his best to overpower the sound of all the 
 others combined. At the head of the procession was borne 
 an image of Ganesa. Then followed three elephants, a long 
 line of priests, musicians, attendants bearing cowries and um- 
 brellas, with a troop of dancing girls bringing up the rear. 
 
 No sight I witnessed in India made me more sick at heart 
 than this. It furnished a sad example of the utterly debasing 
 character of the idolatry which, notwithstanding the counter- 
 acting influences of education and Christianity, still enslaves 
 the masses of the population, deadening their intellects, cor- 
 rupting their imaginations, warping their affections, perverting 
 their consciences, and disfiguring the fair soil of a beautiful 
 country with hideous images and practices unsanctioned even 
 by their own most ancient sacred works. 
 
 Probably the Ramesvara temple ranks next to those of 
 Tanjore and Madura in point of magnificence, and to those of 
 Benares in point of sanctity. It is situated at a remote 
 corner of the island of Ramesvara — a small island about eight 
 miles long by four broad — which, with the coral reef stretch- 
 ing out for twenty-one miles from its furthest extremity and 
 often appearing like a broken bridge above the sea^, nearly 
 connects India with Manaar and Ceylon. The journey to this 
 shrine caused me more discomfort and fatigue than any other 
 part of my travels. 
 
 ^ The natives still believe this to be the remains of the bridge formed by 
 Hanuman and Rama's army of monkeys, when he invaded Ceylon for 
 the recovery of his wife Sita (see Indian Wisdom, p. 358).
 
 444 Temples and Sacred Places. Ramesvara. 
 
 Starting from Ramnad a vast sandy waste has to be tra- 
 versed in bullock carts (called bandies) before this sacred 
 island can be reached. Yet thousands of pilgrims walk the 
 whole distance from Benares and from all parts of India. 
 And perhaps such a journey is the most meritorious act a 
 Hindu can perform. Not that an enormous store of merit 
 (punya) may not be accumulated by simply visiting Rame- 
 svara^ but that such a store is as nothing compared to what 
 may be obtained by going first to Benares ' the resplendent.' 
 
 In fact, if a man wish for the perfection of bliss hereafter, 
 he has only one course open to him. He must first journey 
 to Benares, there go through at least a hundred ceremonies 
 at a hundred shrines in the sacred circle surrounding the 
 centre of the city, pay large fees to the Brahmans at innu- 
 merable temples, and especially pour plenty of Ganges water 
 over the symbol of Siva at the Visvesvara shrine. Then he 
 must fill a jar with more holy water from the Ganges, and toil 
 with it on foot through dust and sand for about twelve hun- 
 dred miles to Ramesvara. There the sacred water is to be 
 poured over the symbol of Siva with the certainty of securing 
 complete beatitude hereafter, provided the act of bathing 
 the symbol is accompanied by sufficient payment to the 
 Brahmans, and provided that the whole process is wound 
 up by a bath in the sea at Dhanush-koti, a little further on, 
 with, of course, further fees to the attendant priests. 
 
 Shortly before my arrival at the temple a father and son 
 had just completed their self-imposed task, and after months 
 of hard walking succeeded in transporting their precious 
 burden of Ganges water to the other side of the channel. 
 The longed-for goal was nearly reached and the temple of 
 Ramesvara already in sight, when the father died suddenly 
 on the road, leaving his son, a mere child, utterly destitute 
 and unprotected. 
 
 The boy, however, had one treasure left — his jar of Ganges 
 water. This, if only it could be poured upon the sacred 
 
 1 
 
 1
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. Jambukesvara. 445 
 
 symbol, would prove a complete panacea for all his earthly 
 troubles. Eagerly he grasped his burden once more and 
 hurried on to the shrine. Imagine the child's outburst of 
 passionate grief when the door was closed against him. He 
 had no fee for the presiding priest. 
 
 The temple of Ramesvara itself is a vast oblong 
 structure containing an immense collection of Lihga shrines, 
 open halls, and tanks surrounded by long and beautiful 
 galleries and corridors, one entrance to which is from the 
 small town of Ramesvara and the other from the sea-shore. 
 The principal sanctuary or Garbha is well secluded and care- 
 fully protected from all unhallowed eyes in the centre of the 
 structure. It contains the celebrated Liiiga set up by Rama 
 after his return from Ceylon (Lanka). 
 
 The legend is that, anxious to expiate the impurity con- 
 tracted by the slaughter of Ravana in the great battle which 
 terminated in the demon's death, Rama despatched Hanuman 
 to bring a Linga from Benares that he might erect a shrine 
 over it and so propitiate Siva. But the monkey-god was so 
 long in executing the commission that Sita prepared a Liriga 
 of sand with her own hands, and Rama having then and there 
 performed the ceremony of setting it up (pratishtha) and 
 consecrating it, proceeded to worship it. He then bathed in 
 the sea from the neighbouring promontory at a spot which 
 was afterwards called Thanush-kodi (Dhanush-koti), because 
 marked by the corner of his bow. Hence a visit to this spot 
 is essential to a completely meritorious performance of the 
 Ramesvara pilgrimage. 
 
 The Saiva temple at Trichinopoly is dedicated to Siva in 
 his character of Jambukesvara, lord of the Jambu tree^ It 
 is not far distant from the celebrated Srirangam Vaishnava 
 pagoda described at p. 447. The Jambukesvara temple 
 is one of the most important and interesting shrines in 
 
 ^ The connexion of Siva worship with tree and serpent worship seemed 
 to me traceable everywhere in Southern India (compare p. 331).
 
 446 Temples and Sacred Places. Kanjivaram. 
 
 India. No one could fail to be impressed with its beautiful 
 colonnades, cloisters, and thousand-pillared Mandapa, though 
 when I visited it in 1877 it was in a somewhat decaying con- 
 dition. In the central court of the temple is a metal column 
 (stambha) supporting a flag (dhvaja) ^, and near it is the 
 Jambu tree over which Siva is supposed to preside. 
 
 The chief object of worship is a stone Lihga, always kept 
 under water and thence called the Ap-lihga. The Pandits 
 informed me that four other celebrated Linga-shrines in India 
 represent the remaining four elements — fire, air, earth, and 
 ether ^, all of which are believed to be manifestations of Siva 
 (compare p. 85). 
 
 At Kafijlvaram (the ancient Kafidi), one of the most sacred 
 places in India ^, not far distant from Madras, there are two 
 principal temples at opposite ends of the town, one dedicated 
 to Vishnu (as Varada-raja), the other to Siva. Both were 
 visited by me, and both I found to be striking examples of 
 South Indian architecture, containing a very considerable 
 collection of imposing buildings within their exterior walls. 
 According to a local legend the goddess Parvati once per- 
 formed penance under a mango-tree (amra) on the spot 
 where the Saiva temple now stands. There her husband 
 Siva appeared to her, and there he is worshipped as Ekamra- 
 natha, ' the peerless lord of the mango ^.' 
 
 The Tinnevelly Saiva temple is also highly interesting and 
 instructive. Siva is here again worshipped in connexion with 
 a sacred tree, the Vata or Banian tree, whence his name 
 Vatesvara, 'lord of the Vata-tree ^ ;' but here, as at Madura, his 
 
 ^ A similar column is in other South Indian shrines. 
 
 ''■ They are called the Tejo-linga, Vayu-linga, Prithivl-lihga, and Akasa- 
 linga respectively. 
 
 ^ It is enumerated among the seven most sacred places. 
 
 * So he was described to me by a Pandit in the temple. Otherwise his 
 name might literally be ' lord of the one mango.' 
 
 ^ Here is another instance of Siva's association with trees (compare 
 p. 331). The Pandits who took me round the temple described the god as
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. S^-i-rahgam. 44 7 
 
 wife Parvatl, who has a shrine on the left side of the temple, 
 under the name of KantimatI, '■ the lovely one,' is the most 
 popular object of adoration ^. The Liriga of Siva, in a 
 kind of holy of holies in this temple, is very sacred. The 
 approach to it is by a long corridor ; but the sanctuary itself 
 is not visible at the end of the vista. It is protected by three 
 other approaches or vestibules, each increasing in sanctity 
 (called the Ghanta-mandapa, the Maha-mandapa, and the 
 Arddha-mandapa), into none of which was I permitted to enter. 
 
 The Lihga is, of course, never moved from its place in the 
 penetralia of the temple, but an image of Siva, called the 
 Utsava-murti, is carried about in procession on certain festival 
 days, especially when the annual ceremony of marrying the 
 god and the goddess is performed every October. The god 
 of love (Kama-deva) and his wife Rati have also images in 
 this temple, and a festival is held in their honour every 
 spring. Two magnificent open halls — one with a thousand 
 columns, the other with a hundred and eight — a tank, a beau- 
 tiful garden, and a grove of palms are all contained within the 
 enclosure of the temple. 
 
 Without adverting further to the temple of the Kapalesvara 
 form of Siva at Nasik (p. 442), which I visited in 1875^ I 
 conclude this chapter by a brief account of a Vaishnava 
 temple, selecting the most noteworthy and striking of all, 
 that of Srl-raiigam at Trichinopoly. 
 
 This remarkable structure, or collection of structures, con- 
 tains in one of its courts a shi'ine of Ramanuja, the great 
 Vaishnava teacher (p. 119), who is supposed to have lived 
 here for a considerable time before his death. Sri-rahgam is, 
 indeed, rather a sacred city than a temple. Hundreds of 
 Brahmans dwell within its precincts, thousands of pilgrims 
 
 Salivatisvara (or in Tamil, Nel velll-natha). 1 was informed that, at a 
 sacred shrine south of the Vindhya, Siva is worshipped as Draksharame- 
 svara, 'lord of the vineyard.' 
 
 ^ Live parrots and cockatoos are hung before her shrine as offerings, 
 just as before the shrine of Mlnakshl at the Madura temple.
 
 448 Temples and Sacred Places. Srt-rahgam. 
 
 throng its streets, and on great anniversaries myriads of wor- 
 shippers crowd its corridors, and press towards its sanctuary. 
 No sight is to be seen in any part of India that can at all 
 compare with the unique effect produced by its series of seven 
 quadrangular enclosures formed by seven squares of massive 
 walls, one within the other — every square pierced by four 
 lofty gateways, and each gateway surmounted by pyramidal 
 towers rivalling in altitude the adjacent rock of Trichinopoly. 
 
 The construction of this marvellous congeries of sacred 
 buildings must have cost millions of rupees, and since its first 
 construction fabulous sums have been spent on its main- 
 tenance and enlargement. It is said that kings and princes 
 have emptied their coffers and given up their revenues for 
 the completion and extension of its many-storied towers ; 
 rich men of every rank have parted with their treasures 
 for the adding of column after column to its thousand- 
 pillared courts ; misers have yielded up their hoards for 
 the decoration of its jewelled images ; capitalists have be- 
 queathed vast benefactions for the support of its priests ; 
 architects and artists have exhausted all their resources for 
 the production of a perfect shrine, the worthy receptacle of 
 an idol of transcendent glory. 
 
 The idea is that each investing square of walls shall form 
 courts of increasing sanctity which shall conduct the wor- 
 shipper by regular gradations to a central holy of holies 
 of unique shape and proportions. In fact, the entire fabric of 
 shrines, edifices, towers, and enclosures is supposed to be a 
 terrestrial counterpart of Vishnu's heaven (Vaikuntha), to 
 which his votaries are destined to be transported. 
 
 The idol itself is recumbent, and its legendary history is 
 curious. When Rama dismissed his ally Vibhishana — the 
 brother of the conquered demon Ravana who had carried off 
 Sita to Ceylon — he gave him, out of gratitude for his services, 
 a golden idol of Vishnu, with instructions not to lay it down 
 till he had reached home. Vibhishana accordingly set out on
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. Srt-rafigam. 449 
 
 his return to Ceylon, taking the precious image with him. 
 Passing near SrI-rahgam, and wishing to bathe in the sacred 
 tank, he gave the image to one of his followers, charging him 
 to hold it upright, and on no account to let it pass out of his 
 hands. But Vibhishana was so long over his ablutions, that 
 the holder of the image, finding its weight insupportable, 
 deposited it on the ground, intending to take it up again 
 before Vibhishana's return. The dismay of all parties con- 
 cerned was great when they discovered that the idol obsti- 
 nately declined to be removed from its comfortable position. 
 It had, therefore, to be left in a recumbent attitude, and a 
 shrine was built over it, shaped liked the sacred monosyllable 
 Om, supposed to be a combination of the three letters 
 A, U, M, mystically significant of the Supreme Being's three 
 principal manifestations, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. On the 
 summit of the shrine were placed four pinnacles to denote the 
 four Vedas, and around it were constructed seven walls built 
 ill squares, one within the other, and forming seven quad- 
 rangular courts, figuring the seven divisions or degrees of bliss 
 in Vishnu's heaven. 
 
 Of course the original idol of Vishnu is supposed to be still 
 immovable ; but another image has been consecrated (called 
 the utsaVa-vigraha), which is carried about in processions on 
 certain anniversaries — such, for example, as the car-festival, 
 when the enormous car, attached to every Vaishnava temple 
 in Southern India, is dragged through the streets of the town 
 by thousands of men. 
 
 The dress, decorations, and jewelry belonging to this port- 
 able idol were all exhibited to me. I saw the idol-crown 
 covered with diamonds, pearls, and rubies — worth at least 
 eighty thousand rupees — with a breastplate, ornaments for 
 the feet, and necklace, worth at least eighty thousand rupees 
 more. 
 
 In the centre of the inner wall of the temple, near the 
 interior shrine on the north side, is a narrow door called 
 
 Ge-
 
 450 Temples and Sacred Places. Sri-raugam. 
 
 heaven's gate. I happened to visit Sri-rahgam at the time 
 of the annual festival celebrated on the 27th of December. 
 This is the one day in the year on which the gate is opened, 
 and on the occasion of my visit the opening took place at 
 four o'clock in the morning. First the idol — bedecked and 
 bejewelled to the full — was borne through the narrow portal, 
 followed by eighteen images of Vaishnava saints and devotees ; 
 then came innumerable priests chanting Vedic hymns and 
 repeating the thousand names of Vishnu ; then dancing girls 
 and bands of musicians — the invariable attendants upon idol- 
 shrines in the South of India. Finally, a vast throng — pro- 
 bably fifty thousand persons — crowded for hours through the 
 contracted passage, amid deafening shouts and vociferations, 
 beating of drums, and discordant sounds of all kinds of music. 
 
 Not a single human being passed through that strait and 
 narrow portal without presenting offerings to the idol, and 
 gifts to the priests. Many, doubtless, joined the surging 
 throng from a vague sense of duty, or because their fathers 
 and grandfathers had joined it from time immemorial ; but 
 the motive which actuated the majority was a firm conviction 
 that the passage of the earthly heaven's gate, kept by the 
 priests, and unlocked at their bidding, would be a sure pass- 
 port to Vishnu's heaven after death. 
 
 I may mention in conclusion that most of the South Indian 
 temples are sufficiently well endowed to maintain a band of 
 musicians. That of Tanjore has fifty. The number and 
 variety of their musical instruments struck me as extra- 
 ordinary, though the resulting sounds at the time of morning 
 and evening service, when a noisy orchestra is thought to con- 
 tribute largely to the merit of the homage paid to the deity, 
 are productive, at least to European ears, of excruciating 
 discord. 
 
 All the temples also maintain troops of dancing girls. 
 The Tanjore temple possesses fifteen, ten of whom danced 
 before me in the court of the temple with far livelier move-
 
 Temples and Sacred Places. Srt-rahgam. 451 
 
 ments than are customary among the Nach girls of Western 
 and Northern India. There can be no doubt that dancing 
 in the East was once exclusively connected with religious 
 devotion, especially with homage paid to Siva in his character 
 of lord of dancing (see p. 84). Further, it is well-known that 
 in ancient times women were dedicated to the service of the 
 temples, like the Vestal virgins of Europe. They were held 
 to be married to the god, and had no other duty but to dance 
 before his shrine. Hence they were called the god's slaves 
 (deva-dasl), and were generally patterns of piety and pro- 
 priety. In the present day they are still called by the same 
 name, but are rather slaves to the licentious passions of the 
 profligate Brahmans of the temples to which they belong. 
 
 What surprised me most was the number and weight of 
 their ornaments, especially in the case of those attached to 
 the temples in Southern India. Some wore nose-rings and 
 finger-rings glittering with rubies and pearls. Their ears 
 were pierced all round and filled with costly ear-rings. Their 
 limbs were encumbered with bangles, anklets, armlets, toe- 
 rings, necklaces, chain-ornaments, head-ornaments, and the 
 like. One of the Tanjore girls informed me that she had been 
 recently robbed of jewels to the value of Rs. 25,000. All 
 this proves that they drive a profitable trade under the 
 sanction of religion. 
 
 Some Indian courtezans have been known to amass enor- 
 mous fortunes. Nor do they think it inconsistent with their 
 method of making money to spend it in works of piety and 
 benevolence. Here and there Indian bridges and other useful 
 public works were pointed out to me, which owe their exist- 
 ence to the liberality of some well-known members of the 
 frail sisterhood. 
 
 G g2
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Indicstries. 
 
 In India, caste, custom, and industrial occupations are not 
 only closely connected with one another, they are all three 
 intimately bound up with religious thought and life. 
 
 According to the last Census^ the Queen's Indian Empire 
 now possesses more than 252 millions of inhabitants, or at 
 least one-sixth part of the whole human race, and its 
 foreign trade amounts to 124 million pounds sterling, or 
 nearly ten shillings per head of the population. Whereas 
 the population of the United Kingdom amounts to only 
 thirty-five millions, and the foreign trade is to the annual 
 value of 697 million pounds sterling, or more than £10 per 
 head of the population. On the above difference of figures 
 an assertion has been founded that India is a poor country. 
 But is this exactly the case } During two journeys through 
 the length and breadth of the land I myself witnessed abun- 
 dant instances of extreme poverty among the people, but on 
 each occasion I returned to England convinced that India 
 is one of the most productive countries of the globe. Her 
 material resources, her potential wealth, are incalculable. 
 
 India is, in fact, a small world in itself. India can offer 
 you a specimen of every form of climate. She can scorch 
 
 ^ This chapter was originally delivered as a lecture at the London 
 Institution and Ventnor, and illustrated by specimens of Indian industry 
 lent by Her Majesty and by the South Kensington Museum.
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 453 
 
 you with heat or shrivel you with cold. She can present to 
 your gaze every imaginable physical feature of plain and 
 desert, river and torrent, fen and forest, hill and dale, rich 
 field and barren waste, dark crag and snow-white peak tower- 
 ing to twice the altitude of the loftiest Swiss mountains. She 
 can excite your wonder by ten thousand varieties of animal 
 and plant life. She can enrich you with gold and precious 
 ores, with diamonds and precious stones, with coal and iron. 
 She can pour out before you wheat and grain of all kinds, oil 
 and sugar, tea and coffee, tobacco and opium, perfumes and 
 spices, every conceivable species of vegetable and mineral 
 produce. She can clothe you in soft vestments of silk, wool, 
 cotton, cambric, and embroidery. She can call forth your 
 admiration by matchless examples of industrial and decora- 
 tive art, of unrivalled manual skill, of consummate taste and 
 dexterity displayed in every kind of manufacture — every kind 
 of useful and ornamental article. And let us not forget that 
 India had not only attained a high degree of commercial 
 eminence and industrial skill, but had besides made great 
 advances in science and philosophy when our ancestors were 
 half-naked savages. The Old Testament affords clear evi- 
 dence of the great antiquity of Indian trade. Moses^ 1500 
 years before Christ, mentions various Indian products — 
 bdellium, myrrh, cinnamon, onyx, diamonds. In the Rig- 
 veda (composed about the time of Moses) the god Tvashtri 
 is described as a skilful workman, a divine artisan. He was 
 a kind of Indian Vulcan. He made the chariots and imple- 
 ments of the gods, and taught three semi-divine beings called 
 Ribhus, who were also skilled workmen. Other trades and 
 occupations are also mentioned in the Veda ; for example, 
 those of the carpenter, blacksmith, weaver, rope-maker, 
 leather-worker, boat-builder, ship-builder, agriculturist, phy- 
 sician. 
 
 And yet, notwithstanding all her vast potentiality of wealth, 
 all her ancient superiority in arts, sciences, and industries,
 
 454 Caste in t- elation to Trades and Industries. 
 
 carried back through countless generations for at least 3500 
 years, it is impossible to deny that India has never advanced 
 beyond a certain point, and that she is at present both 
 scientifically and commercially left far behind by European 
 nations. Let us go back to the beginning. Let us try to 
 trace the causes which first promoted and then impeded the 
 development of her trades and industries. 
 
 We must bear in mind that the first Aryan settlers on 
 Indian soil were all tillers of the land. Parties of immigrants 
 from Central Asia gained possession of fertile tracts in 
 Northern India and formed themselves into separate agri- 
 cultural communities. Soon the richness of the soil on the 
 plains of the Indus and the Ganges enabled them to support 
 a considerable surplus population. New wants arose with 
 the gradual growth of the community. Soldiers were needed 
 to fight their battles, watchmen to protect their crops, priests 
 to perform their religious duties, weavers to weave their gar- 
 ments, artisans to supply them with common articles of 
 every-day use. Hence arose social organization, with a com- 
 plete system of division of labour. To every man his distinct 
 place, work, rank, and remuneration were assigned. Hence, 
 too, every member of the body so constituted acquired great 
 skill in his own particular crafty and took a pride in con- 
 tinually improving it. This skill and these feelings of pride he 
 transmitted to his children, by whom again they were deve- 
 loped and intensified. In this manner a strong esprit de corps 
 was generated, and associations of persons engaged in the 
 same occupations were ultimately formed, each of which fenced 
 itself round with rules and regulations necessary for the pro- 
 tection of its own rights and privileges. 
 
 These associations are called by us ' castes,' a word bor- 
 rowed from the Portuguese. Caste and occupation were for- 
 merly convertible terms. The number of these trade-castes 
 is in the present day quite incalculable. There seems to 
 be no limit to their formation. New ones are continually
 
 Caste in i' elation to Trades and Industries. 455 
 
 forming. Old ones are continually passing away. Even 
 to enumerate their names would be impossible, but they 
 have all grown out of the primitive constitution of village 
 communities. 
 
 And here I may observe that no circumstance in the 
 history of India is more worthy of investigation than the 
 antiquity and permanence of her village and municipal institu- 
 tions. The importance of the study lies in the Hght thereby 
 thrown on the parcelling out of rural society into autonomous 
 divisions, like those of our own English parishes, wherever 
 Aryan races have occupied the soil in Asia or in Europe. 
 The Indian village or township, meaning thereby not merely 
 a collection of houses forming a village or town, but a division 
 of territory^ perhaps three or four square miles or more in 
 extent, with its careful distribution of fixed occupations for 
 the common good, with its intertwining and inter-dependence 
 of individual, family, and communal interests, with its perfect 
 provision for political independence and autonomy, is the 
 original type — the first germ of all the divisions of rural 
 and civic society in medieval and modern Europe. It has 
 existed almost unaltered since the first description of its 
 organization in the code of Manu, five centuries before the 
 Christian era. It has survived all the religious, political, and 
 physical convulsions from which India has suffered from time 
 immemorial. Invader after invader has ravaged the country 
 with fire and sword ; internal wars have carried devastation 
 into every corner of the land ; tyrannical oppressors have 
 desolated its homesteads; famine has decimated its peasantry; 
 pestilence has depopulated entire districts ; floods and earth- 
 quakes have changed the face of nature ; folly, superstition, 
 and delusion have made havoc of all religion and morality — 
 but the simple, self-contained Indian township has preserved 
 its constitution intact, its customs, precedents, and peculiar 
 institutions unchanged and unchangeable amid all other 
 changes.
 
 456 Caste in relation to Trades and Industi^ies. 
 
 Let us endeavour to draw a picture of one of these Indian 
 communities. In the first place we must bear in mind that 
 it consists mainly of tillers of the soil. At least three-fourths 
 of the whole body are common field-labourers. Each man 
 tills a small plot of ground of his own, which may vary in 
 extent according to his position and capabilities. In some 
 parts of India the cultivators form a separate caste, but as 
 a rule almost any low-caste man may become a tiller of the 
 ground. The implements are of the rudest kind. An Indian 
 plough is exactly what it was two or three thousand years 
 ago, not unlike a thin anchor, one claw of which pierces the 
 ground while the other is held by the ploughman. It may 
 be carried on a man's back, and scarcely does more than 
 scratch the soil. 
 
 How, then, does this body of agriculturists provide for the 
 management of its own affairs and the maintenance of order 
 and organization ? Each community forms itself into a little 
 republic ; bound, however, to the central Government by the 
 regular payment of an assessment or tax on the produce. 
 The first step is to elect their Headman or President, who 
 is paid by a fixed proportion of the land, and is a kind of 
 mayor or civic magistrate. He is the chairman of the village 
 or town council — called a panchayat — a kind of local board, 
 which often holds its sittings under a large tree. He decides 
 disputes, apportions the labour and the amount of produce 
 each labourer is to receive as remuneration, and is responsible 
 for the annual proportion due to the Government. It will 
 astonish an English workman to learn that the amount of 
 grain required for the support of an adult man in Bengal 
 is only valued at three shillings a month, and for a woman 
 at eighteen pence. A whole family may be supported for 
 fourteen shillings a month. 
 
 The next important personage in the community is the 
 accountant or notary, a kind of local attorney, who transacts 
 the village business and keeps an account of the land, the
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 457 
 
 produce, the rents, and assessment. In some respects a far 
 more important functionary than either headman or notary- 
 is the priest (purohita), the spiritual head of the society, who 
 performs all religious ceremonies for its members whether 
 at births, marriages, or deaths, and is supported by fixed 
 allotments of grain, or special offerings on solemn occasions. 
 As a Brahman he may be of higher caste than either the 
 headman or notary (who are not generally Brahmans), and 
 his spiritual power is unbounded. His anger is as terrible as 
 that of the gods. His blessing makes rich, his curse withers. 
 Nay, more, he is himself actually worshipped as a god. 
 No marvel, no prodigy in nature is believed to be beyond 
 the limits of his power to accomplish. If the priest were 
 to threaten to bring down the sun from the sky or arrest 
 it in its daily course in the heavens, no villager would for a 
 moment doubt his ability to do so. And indeed the priests 
 of India, in their character of Brahmans, claim to have worked 
 a few notable miracles at different times and on various 
 occasions. One of their number once swallowed the ocean 
 in three sips, another manufactured fire, another created all 
 animals, and another turned the moon into a cinder. The 
 priest confers incalculable benefits on the community of v/hich 
 he is a member by merely receiving their presents. A cow 
 given to him secures heaven of a certainty to the lucky donor. 
 The consequences of injuring him are terrific. The man who 
 does him the smallest harm must make up his mind to be 
 whirled about after death, for at least a century, in a hell 
 of total darkness. This will suffice to account for the respect 
 paid to the priest by the simple-hearted peasantry, who some- 
 times drink the water in which his feet have been washed, 
 by way of getting rid of their sins with the least possible 
 difficulty. 
 
 Sometimes the priest combines the functions of village 
 astrologer — a very necessary official, since the chief religion 
 of all Indian peasantry consists in a fear of evil spirits,
 
 45 S Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 
 
 witches, and devils. The astrologer determines the lucky 
 days for sowing and reaping, tells fortunes, prepares horo- 
 scopes^ and knows how to counteract bad omens — to avert 
 the evil consequences of an envious look, of a sudden 
 sneeze, of the yell of a jackal or chirping of a lizard. If the 
 astrologer also practises sorcery it becomes necessary to 
 conciliate him by frequent gifts; for he can cause diseases 
 as well as cure them, and can destroy the life of any one 
 who displeases him by the simple repetition of magical texts 
 and spells. 
 
 Then nearly every Indian village possesses a schoolmaster, 
 and his functions also are sometimes united in those of the 
 priest. In passing through a large village in Bengal, I came 
 upon a group of at least fifty naked children squatting under 
 a tree near a homestead, some engaged in scratching the 
 letters of the alphabet on leaves, and some learning to write 
 on the dust of the ground. This was the national school, 
 presided over by a nearly naked pedagogue who, on my 
 approach, made his pupils show off their knowledge of 
 arithmetic before me, by shouting out their multiplication 
 table with deafening screams. It may be noted as remark- 
 able, that no religious teacher in the native schools of India 
 receives money for teaching. Divine knowledge is too sacred 
 a thing to be sold. It is, therefore, nominally imparted gratis, 
 though the teacher has no objection to receive presents from 
 the parents on festive occasions. Some of the national punish- 
 ments are certainly curious from our point of view. For 
 instance, a boy is condemned to stand for half-an-hour on 
 one foot. Another is made to sit on the floor with one 
 leg turned up behind his neck. Another is made to hang 
 for a few minutes with his head downwards from the branch 
 of a neighbouring tree. Another is made to bend down 
 and grasp his own toes and remain in that position for a 
 fixed period of time. Another is made to measure so many 
 cubits on the ground by marking it with the tip of his nose.
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 459 
 
 Another is made to pull his own ears, and dilate them to 
 a given point on pain of worse chastisement. Two boys, 
 when both have done wrong, are made to knock their heads 
 several times against each other. 
 
 Amongst the most important functionaries of the com- 
 munity I ought to mention the barber, who with the roughest 
 implements does his appointed work admirably. An Indian 
 barber can if he likes shave without soap. Shaving is, as 
 we have seen, a religious duty with all Hindus, but no one 
 ever thinks of shaving himself. He sends for the barber, 
 as he would for the priest or the doctor. Nor are this func- 
 tionary's duties restricted to shaving. He cuts the nails, 
 cleans the ears, kneads the body, cracks the joints, and often 
 does the work of a homely surgeon. The natives of India 
 are particularly fond of having their joints cracked. A rich 
 man's barber performs all these operations for him every 
 day, and is content with two shillings a month wages. 
 
 Next we have the village carpenter. If you enter a village 
 at early dawn you will probably find him engaged in making 
 handles for ploughs. You will see him saw as much by the 
 help of his feet as his hands ; for a Hindu's toes are never 
 cramped or made useless by tight shoes, but early begin 
 to assist his fingers. The ground is our carpenter's only 
 bench, while the tools he uses are of the rudest kind, per- 
 haps nothing beyond a coarse saw, hammer, plane, chisel, 
 and wedge. 
 
 Next look at the village blacksmith, he has only a hammer, 
 file, pair of tongs, and bellows. His forge is hollowed out of 
 the ground or constructed of a few broken bricks, and his 
 only anvil is a stone. Sitting on his hams he fashions old 
 hoop-iron into bill-hooks, nails, and ferrules for ploughs. 
 
 Then there is the cowman, who furnishes the milk, curds, 
 and a kind of butter, but not cheese ; for cheese is an article 
 of manufacture quite unknown to the Hindus. No such trade 
 as that of a cheesemonger is to be found throusrhout India.
 
 460 Caste in relation to T7^ades and Indtisti-ies. 
 
 Again, in some parts of India, behind the low huts of the 
 irregular village street is sure to be seen the weaver's loom. 
 For India, as Sir George Birdwood has well shown, is probably 
 the first of all countries that perfected weaving. The weaver's 
 art is alluded to in the Rig-veda, 1500 years before Christ, 
 and as the original source of any textile fabric is often 
 indicated by its name, so we find that calico takes its name 
 from Calicut, on the western coast of India ; chintz from the 
 Sanskrit citra^ ' variegated ; ' shawl from sald^ ' a hall ; ' 
 just as damask is from Damascus, dimity from Damietta, 
 muslin from Mosul, nankeen from Nankin, drugget from 
 Drogheda. The cotton thread used in India is spun by 
 women of all castes. They spin it on a thin rod of iron with 
 a ball of clay at the end, but the coarser thread is spun by 
 means of a wheel similar to that of an English spinster. 
 
 Another useful functionary is the village shoemaker. If 
 you wish him to make you a pair of shoes you must pay him 
 in advance, that he may first purchase a prepared hide from 
 the tanner, or prepare one himself, for he has no stock of 
 leather. Then with a rough last, a knife and an awl, he will 
 turn you out a very respectable pair of shoes, if you only give 
 him plenty of time. 
 
 Then on the outskirts of the village is sure to be established 
 another indispensable and much respected functionary, the 
 hereditary potter. There he sits on a slightly elevated piece 
 of ground outside the door of his hut with his apparatus ready 
 for use — the ideal of a man who has achieved perfect mastery 
 over the mechanism of his fingers, and is conscious of the 
 power of the human hand, as the instrument of bringing 
 beautiful shapes within the reach of the humblest cottager. 
 The apparatus with which he effects this object is a simple 
 circular horizontal well-balanced fly-wheel, generally two or 
 three feet in diameter, which can be made to rotate for two 
 or three minutes by a slight impulse. This he loads with 
 clay, and then with a few easy sweeps and turns of his hands
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 461 
 
 he moulds his material into beautiful curves and symmetrical 
 shapes, and leaves the produce of his skill to bake by them- 
 selves in the sun. In fact, the sun is the Indian workman's 
 head assistant— nay, rather, his ever-present benefactor, from 
 whom he gets coals, candles, clothing, and almost every 
 necessary of life, free of all cost \ This relieves him from a 
 deadweight of care, and enables him to give to his work — 
 which in India is always regarded as_aj;eligious function — that 
 placidity of mind, that pride and pleasure in it for its own 
 sake, which are essential to all artistic excellence and per- 
 fection. And no man takes a greater pride and pleasure 
 in his work, no man displays a greater air of dignity, self- 
 respect, and contentment than the village potter (kumbha- 
 kara, corrupted into kumbhar). No man furnishes a better 
 illustration of that excellent doggerel of ours, 
 
 If I were a cobbler, it would be my pride 
 
 The best of all cobblers to be ; 
 If I were a tinker, no tinker beside 
 
 Should mend a tin-kettle like me. 
 
 It never enters into his head to work for merely mercenary 
 motives or with any idea of making money. He simply 
 works because it is his appointed duty — the sacred duty for 
 which God created him — to supply the villagers with as many 
 pots, pans, bowls, and jars as they need, and to make them in 
 the best and most workmanlike manner possible. Nor does 
 his ambition ever soar above simple earthenware. Such a 
 man never dreams of aspiring to the manufacture of valuable 
 china dishes or vessels and plates of porcelain. He has no 
 idea of rising above the art received from his fathers. One 
 reason for this may be that in India there is no demand for 
 chinaware. No orthodox Hindu likes to eat off anything but 
 plates of leaves freshly prepared for every meal and never 
 used again. Even earthenware dishes ought to be thrown 
 
 ^ All this, too, has been shown by Sir George Birdwood, C.S.I., to 
 whose able works on Indian art my descriptions are greatly indebted.
 
 462 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries, 
 
 away immediately after use. The great demand for earthen- 
 ware vessels in India arises from the impurity supposed to be 
 contracted by using any such articles a second time. It is 
 noteworthy that during an eclipse the very poorest people 
 fling them away. 
 
 I could go on to speak of the dyer, the washerman, the 
 druggist, the oilman, the water-carrier, the watchman, &c., 
 but i,t is time we should pass from villages to towns. 
 
 The towns of India are often of immense size and have 
 teeming populations. Calcutta and Bombay are larger towns 
 than any in the British Empire except, of course, London. 
 They have a larger population than Manchester and Liver- 
 pool, and every conceivable kind of trade is represented in 
 their streets. Even in the days of Rama, several centuries 
 B.C., the procession that went out to meet him from the 
 capital of Oudh included metal-workers, copper-smiths; ivory- 
 workers, crystal-cutters, glass-makers, inlayers, umbrella- 
 makers, perfumers, hair-dressers, fishmongers, musical instru- 
 ment-makers, painters, distillers, seedsmen, gardeners, partridge 
 dealers, basket-makers, brick-makers, plasterers, architects, 
 clothiers, exorcists, with the headmen of guilds bringing up 
 the rear. In an ancient work (already alluded to) by a sage 
 named Vatsyayana sixty-four arts are enumerated. Among 
 them are the following : — singing ; dancing; playing on musical 
 instruments ; playing on musical glasses filled with water ; 
 tattooing ; colouring the teeth, hair, and nails ; dyeing and 
 painting ; writing and drawing ; scenic representations, stage- 
 playing ; fixing stained glass into floors ; magic or sorcery ; 
 culinary art ; making lemonades, sherbets, and acidulated 
 drinks ; practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and 
 bow and arrow; carpentry; architecture; knowledge about gold 
 and silver coins, jewels and gems; chemistry and mineralogy; 
 gardening ; knowledge of treating the diseases of trees and 
 plants, of nourishing them and determining their ages ; cock- 
 fighting, quail-fighting, and ram-fighting ; teaching parrots and
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 463 
 
 Maina birds to speak ; knowledge of languages and vernacular 
 dialects ; obtaining possession of the property of others 
 by means of incantations ; skill in youthful sports and gym- 
 nastics ; knowledge of the art of war, arms, armies, etc. ; 
 knowledge of the rules of society and how to pay respects and 
 compliments to others ; art of knowing the character of a man 
 from his features. 
 
 It is curious to compare this ancient list with that recently 
 published by the Indian Census Ofifice, in which, among other 
 remarkable varieties of modern trades, the following are 
 enumerated : — professional makers of speeches, professional 
 ear-cleaners, vendors of drugs to promote digestion, and 
 professional givers of evidence. 
 
 Now, in India, all who practise the same trade are con- 
 gregated in one quarter of the town. Some artisans are 
 scarcely numerous enough to form a street of their own ; but 
 you might find whole streets of ironmongers, copper-smiths, 
 braziers, weavers and confectioners, and these streets of shops 
 are called bazaars. Let us wander for a few minutes through 
 one of these native bazaars. We see nowhere any closed 
 shops resembling those of Europe. On both sides of us are 
 open recesses with dark interiors, wholly destitute of glass 
 windows, but protected towards the street by projecting 
 wooden eaves, often covered with cocoa-nut leaves or bamboos, 
 and sometimes supported by well carved wooden pillars. In 
 these recesses, or under the open projections, are exposed for 
 sale all kinds of commodities, their scantily clothed owners 
 squatting in an apathetic manner on the ground, and ap- 
 parently by no means eager to serve their customers. Here, 
 in one quarter, we find vendors of coarse confectionery — 
 strange concoctions of ghee, sugar, almonds, pistachio nuts, 
 and saffron, or sellers of vegetables prepared with turmeric 
 and flavoured with assafetida. There, in another street, are 
 the workers in metal or wood. Everywhere we see open 
 workshops filled with artisans patiently and persistently plying
 
 464 Caste in relation to Trades and Indtistries. 
 
 their occupation after the fashion of their fathers. Even 
 artificers of a higher grade carry on their work ahnost in the 
 open street before your eyes, not at all disturbed by the 
 jostling throng of passengers around them, and not at all 
 objecting to their operations being watched, or the secrets of 
 their craft studied. The patience, perseverance, and power of 
 physical endurance displayed by an Indian workman are well 
 worthy of imitation by us in Europe. He seems to be pro- 
 foundly conscious of the truth that nothing of any kind can 
 be well done, and no success of any kind achieved in this 
 workday world of ours, without the application of the most 
 common-place patient drudgery. 
 
 It is curious that in some trades even strict holidays are 
 made a source of revenue to the general body. One shop 
 in each market is then allowed to be kept open. The right 
 to open this shop is put up to auction and given to the 
 highest bidder, the amount being devoted to the general 
 purposes of the caste. 
 
 In a few trades children help the men. The aid of their 
 lithe and supple fingers is of great importance in all delicate 
 manipulations. It must, however, be admitted that the Hindu 
 is a slow worker ; he will take a whole day about a thing 
 which an active European would finish off in a couple of 
 hours. Yet for all that, if we watch a party of Hindu work- 
 men for a sufficient length of time we shall see the crudest 
 raw material transformed before our eyes into excellent 
 articles of every-day use; not very rapidly — not by any 
 striking processes of inventive art — but by simple dexterity 
 of manipulation, by skilful movements of hands and feet, 
 aided by a few rough implements according to the most 
 primitive methods. 
 
 Often these humble artisans have no workshops of their 
 own. They bring their implements and their whole stock-in- 
 trade to the houses of those who need their services, and 
 when the work required of them is finished, pack up their
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries, 465 
 
 tools and seek another employer. Nor does it ever enter into 
 the heads of even the better class of workmen to think of 
 availing themselves of any modern scientific improvements. 
 If the most wonderful labour-saving machine were offered for 
 their use, they would still prefer the machinery of their fingers, 
 and the old traditionary practices received from their fathers. 
 
 And, perhaps, the great secret of the beauty of Indian art 
 lies in the suppleness and flexibility of Indian fingers, and the 
 consequent delicacy of Indian manipulation. The hand of 
 the commonest menial servant in an Indian household is often 
 as delicately formed as that of the most refined aristocratic 
 beauty at a European court. Yes, we must go to India for 
 the best illustration of the truth that the human hand is the 
 most wonderful of all machines. In Europe, manufacture is 
 no longer, as it ought to be according to its etymology, hand- 
 work. But in India the hand is still the chief implement 
 employed ; and a fervent hope may be expressed that no 
 European machinery may soon take its place. No greater 
 calamity could befall Indian art than that it should abandon 
 its own traditions and principles for meretricious ideas derived 
 from European sources. If any one doubts this, let him visit 
 the Indian Museum at South Kensington and examine the 
 specimens there collected. No one could fail to admire the 
 exquisite carvings, the delicate silver filigree work, the artistic 
 feeling displayed in the fashioning of ornaments ; the gor- 
 geous richness of the Kincob work, with its gold, silver, and 
 silken threads, woven into the texture of the fabric ; the 
 tasteful designs and matchless colouring of Cashmere and 
 Delhi scarfs and shawls ; the marvellous skill and taste 
 displayed in the sandal wood-carving and inlaid wood-work ; 
 the sumptuous gold and silver plate-work and highly-tem- 
 pered steel weapons of Kutch ; the exquisite embroidery and 
 needlework of Amritsar and Delhi ; the exquisitely fine 
 muslin produced at Dacca. 
 
 In this last kind of manufacture the Hindu artisan is 
 
 Hh
 
 466 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 
 
 absolutely unrivalled. With a loom of the simplest con- 
 struction, formed of a few rough sticks and reeds, he pro- 
 duces something which no European machinery can equal ; 
 for the mysteries of his craft have been transmitted from 
 father to son for thousands of years. The names given to 
 different kinds of these muslins, such as 'woven air,' 'web 
 of the wind,' ' evening dew,' ' running water,' indicate the 
 extreme fineness and subtlety of their texture. A whole 
 dress of the finest quality may easily be passed through a 
 small finger ring, and a piece thirty feet in length may 
 be packed in a case not much bigger than an &gg shell — 
 yet such a piece may take a workman at least four months 
 to fabricate, and be worth forty pounds. 
 
 It is recorded that a cow-keeper was once prosecuted by 
 a weaver because one of his cows had eaten up three dresses 
 of this muslin accidentally left on the grass. The cow-keeper 
 pleaded before the Judge that the muslin was too fine to 
 be distinguished by a hungry cow, and his plea was accepted. 
 
 Again, a story is told of a young lady who appeared at the 
 court of a Muhammadan Emperor in much too transparent 
 garments to be thought respectable. When accused of ex- 
 hibiting rather too much of the surface of her body in a 
 questionable manner, she indignantly repudiated the charge, 
 on the ground that she had carefully enveloped her entire 
 person in seven folds of Dacca muslin. 
 
 It would be easy to dilate on other examples of the higher 
 artistic genius of India. We are astonished at the Indian 
 workman's mastery over his materials. Even in the more 
 common work great regard is paid to beauty of form and 
 right proportion, and great taste in the arrangement and 
 distribution of the ornament. Seldom has the border of a 
 shawl or other woven cloth too much or too little detail. 
 Seldom is a flowery pattern overdone, too full or too scanty, 
 too large or too small. As to the jewelry, this of all Indian 
 arts is the most ancient and most elaborated ; for what would
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 467 
 
 Indian women, from the lowest to the highest, be without 
 their jewels? In most large Indian houses belonging to rich 
 natives a jeweller will be found at work in some ante-room 
 manufacturing jewels for the family, or repairing those in 
 daily use. Here is a description of a typical Indian bride 
 of high rank in ancient times arrayed for her marriage. ' She 
 has no other clothing but one light garment, ten yards in 
 length, of a rosy red colour, embroidered with gold, wound 
 round her body in graceful folds; she has jewelled butterflies 
 in her raven hair ; her ears are bored in six places, and 
 loaded with resplendent gems ; a magnificent nose-ring of 
 emeralds and pearls sparkles in one nostril ; bright golden 
 bracelets encircle her wrists, and shining armlets her arms ; 
 a golden zone binds her slender waist ; she has jewelled rings 
 on her fingers, and golden rings on her toes, and golden 
 anklets, with musical bells attached, are fastened round her 
 ankles, which make a tinkling sound as she walks with her 
 naked feet over the carpeted floor.' 
 
 Those who were in India during the Prince of Wales' 
 visit, and saw the jewelled dresses of the Indian chiefs, will 
 not easily forget the sight. I was myself present in Sir 
 Richard Temple's house, when the Maharaja of Patiala hap- 
 pened to make a morning call. His coat was of blue satin, 
 beautifully embroidered with rows of pearls ; he had costly 
 ear-rings, and a matchless necklace of diamonds worth ^^ 60,000 
 was suspended in a careless manner about his neck. Strings 
 of immense uncut jewels ornamented his white turban. Even 
 the humblest woman in India would lose her self-respect if 
 she ever appeared before her family without a nose-ring and 
 a few bangles. Children are often left without a thread of 
 clothing, till they are six or seven years of age, but they 
 are rarely without wrist-bands, or jewelled ornaments of some 
 kind. 
 
 When the sister of the late Bishop of Calcutta once visited 
 some native ladies in a Zenana, she made some remark about 
 
 H h 3
 
 468 Caste in relation to Ti'ades and Industries. 
 
 the simplicity of their attire. * Look,' she said, 'at the number 
 and weight of my garments.' ' Yes,' they replied, ' but look 
 at the number and weight of our jewelry.' The use of jewels, 
 especially diamonds, as amulets or talismans, is not un- 
 common. Certain gems are believed to possess magical pro- 
 perties. A celebrated amulet once existed in ancient India, 
 supposed to be all-potent in protecting from evil influences. 
 It consisted of nine gems (a pearl, ruby, sapphire, topaz, 
 diamond, emerald, lapis lazuli, coral, and one unknown gem 
 called Gomeda). Even the commonest Indian jewelry pre- 
 sents examples of every variety of beautiful design and 
 workmanship. The forms have come down by unbroken 
 tradition from the earliest times. 
 
 The fact is, that in India, artisans are not obliged to be 
 ever pandering to the mania for novelty, ever racking their 
 brains to invent some new fashion. They plod on in the 
 old beaten paths ; they are able to devote their energies 
 to the beautifying, improving, and perfecting of what already 
 exists. Perhaps the most beautiful ornaments are the work 
 of artificers, who have continued in the service of a particular 
 line of Rajas for centuries. These men dare not work for 
 other employers. The secret of their skill is presei"ved reli- 
 giously in their own families, and held to be the property of 
 their masters. 
 
 Sometimes the work of such men is made subservient to 
 the spiritual interests of their masters in rather a remarkable 
 manner. For example, it is recorded of a certain king of 
 Travancore, that feeling the blood he had spilt in his many 
 wars lie heavily on his conscience, he sought counsel of his 
 priests, who told him that if he wished to be cleansed from 
 his guilt his only course was to pass through the body of 
 a cow — that being the most sacred of all animals. This 
 seemed rather a difficult task to perform, but it was eventually 
 accomplished by help of the court Jeweller and goldsmith, who 
 manufactured a jewelled cow of the purest gold of immense
 
 Caste in relation to Tirades and Industries, 469 
 
 value. Into the interior of this golden image the king 
 solemnly crept, and there lay for many days in a state of 
 abject contrition, till at length the process of purification 
 being completed, he was permitted to emerge with all his 
 blood-guiltiness removed, all his sins atoned for, and all his 
 cheerfulness of mind restored. Then would it be possible 
 to see anywhere more admirable specimens of modelling 
 than the clay figures made at Krishnagar ? Such exquisite 
 modelling, and the beauty of Indian miniature paintings on 
 wood, talc, and ivory, prove that had the arts of sculpture 
 and painting been cultivated by the Hindus, they might have 
 attained great perfection. As it is, not a single fine large 
 painting, nor beautiful statue is to be seen throughout India. 
 Even the images of gods are only remarkable for their utter 
 hideousness ; nor do we see anywhere good specimens of 
 household furniture, for in India the houses of the richest 
 natives are, to European eyes, almost furnitureless. Even 
 in princely palaces we may pass through beautifully decorated 
 rooms, we may see exquisite carved wood in niches and 
 verandahs ; yet the rooms appear to us bare and empty. 
 Not a chair or table is to be seen except in apartments, set 
 apart for Europeans ; and the princely owner of the mansion 
 will probably be found seated on a rug with a pillow behind 
 his back. 
 
 And here let me say, that if the excellence of the articles 
 which the Indian artificer produces, with no other appliances 
 than his hands, and the rudest tools, and the admirable tra- 
 ditions of form, design, and colour preserved in his produc- 
 tions, excite our surprise, we are no less astonished at the 
 low cost of his workmanship. I visited a turner's shop in 
 Benares, where a man was making a set of twenty toy boxes, 
 some lackered, some coloured, all neatly constructed and 
 furnished with lids, and fitting one inside the other so that 
 the smallest box in the interior of all was not bigger than 
 the head of a knitting-needle. The price of the whole nest
 
 470 Caste in relation to Trades and Indiist7'ies. 
 
 of twenty boxes was not more than fourpence or sixpence, 
 although twenty-three different manipulations were needed 
 to complete each box. 
 
 Again, I went into a brass-worker's shop in the braziers' 
 quarter at Benares, where men were engaged in manu- 
 facturing drinking cups, salvers, vases, and other vessels. 
 These workmen were seen chiselling out exquisite intricate 
 and beautiful patterns with no other implements than a 
 hammer and a nail. A purchaser of any such articles re- 
 quests to have them weighed before buying them, and only 
 pays a shilling or two beyond the actual value of the brass. 
 
 Frequently, indeed, it strikes a European as strange, that if 
 he desires to purchase any of the beautiful articles he sees 
 before him in native workshops, scarcely a single thing is 
 to be had ; they have all been made to order. There is little 
 stock kept, and whatever a customer wants must be made 
 specially to order, and not without an advance in money. 
 There is little capital to be found in India ; and this perhaps 
 will account for the undoubted fact, that Indian industries are 
 left behind in the race of competition by those of Europe. 
 
 During the American war, vast quantities of Indian cotton — 
 to the annual value of twenty-two million pounds sterling 
 — found its way to England, to be returned in the form of 
 printed calico to Indiai The Manchester cotton cloth was 
 far inferior to that spun and woven, and decorated with orna- 
 mental patterns, by men's hands in India, but it was much 
 cheaper, because even the most active hand workers, working 
 with imperfect implements and tools, according to antiquated 
 methods for the lowest possible wages, cannot compete with 
 machine-made goods, or make head against the combination 
 of European science, capital, and enterprise. It is on this 
 account that cotton mills have recently been established at 
 Bombay, and in some other parts of India. No less than 
 fifty-three spinning and weaving mills had been erected when 
 I was in India, while others were in process of erection. Is it
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 471 
 
 likely, then, that Indian trades and industries will be inju- 
 riously affected by the introduction of English ideas, English 
 machinery, and English education? Time will show. But 
 Caste is a strong conservative force, and as long as its strength 
 continues, and the present intimate connexion between trades 
 and caste is maintained, so long may Indian artisans be ex- 
 pected to work on in their old grooves, Indian agriculturalists 
 to plod on in their old ruts, and primitive customs to hold 
 their own against all modern inventions. 
 
 Even in England caste feeling operates strongly in certain 
 trades and professions. In India it is all powerful, and any 
 individual workman who might wish to adopt new ideas, 
 would find it impossible to withstand the opposition of his 
 caste-fellows. For be it observed that an Indian caste is 
 something more than a mere union or league for trading and 
 commercial objects. It is certainly much more than a mere 
 social division, or class of men. Caste is not class ; the pro- 
 per native term for caste is jati (jat), birth. 
 
 And, in truth, the idea of a man's birth in a particular social 
 circle, with a particular fixed occupation, and of his perpetual 
 and unalterable confinement within the boundaries of that 
 social circle is essential to the true idea of caste. This applies 
 even to certain criminal castes in India, whose fixed and 
 unalterable business, inherited from their fathers and grand- 
 fathers, is that of plundering others. Of course there are 
 exceptions to this general rule. In some instances castes 
 have changed their occupations without changing their names, 
 just as the members of our great city companies are no longer 
 goldsmiths, drapers, merchant tailors, or fishmongers. The 
 higher castes, too, are allowed considerable liberty of employ- 
 ment. A Brahman may devote himself to almost any pursuit 
 not absolutely degrading. He may be a cook, or even a soldier. 
 Occasionally, too, men of the lower castes may rise to higher 
 professions, though not to higher castes ; but these exceptions 
 only prove the rule. A Hindu is taught by his religious
 
 472 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 
 
 books to believe that God created orders of men, with fixed 
 employments, as He created varieties of animals and plants. 
 Priests, soldiers, field-labourers, and servants were born, 
 and must continue as distinct as eagles, lions, horses, and 
 dogs ; wheat, rice, barley, and beans. 
 
 In Europe, the laws of society are supposed to be of inferior 
 obligation to the laws of the nation and the laws of religion. 
 An educated Englishman, for instance, is ready to submit to 
 the unwritten laws of his own social circle, but never allows 
 any rule of caste to supersede the higher laws of the nation 
 and of Christianity. In India, on the contrary, the laws of 
 caste, and the laws of religion, are part and parcel of one 
 Divine law, of which the Brahman is the interpreter, and 
 the laws of caste are stronger and more effectual than any 
 law of religion or Government. 
 
 Perhaps the nearest parallel to the action of Indian caste 
 to be found in Europe is in such a social confederation as the 
 late Land-League of Ireland, the members of which were 
 bound together by an iron bond, were allowed no individual 
 liberty of action, were forced to submit their lives to the will 
 of the League, and made to subordinate the laws of the state 
 to the laws and mandates of their own unscrupulous leaders. 
 Let not those leaders pride themselves on the invention of 
 Boycotting as if it were a clever device, due to Irish ingenuity. 
 India has furnished examples of Boycotters, and Boycottees, 
 for many centuries. If a man offend against the rules of 
 caste, a meeting of his caste-fellows is instantly called, and 
 the offence being proved, he is thereupon condemned to a 
 form of persecution of which Boycotting is a bad imitation. 
 
 "When I was in Gujarat, in 1875, a man named Lallu-bhal, 
 a cloth merchant of Ahmedabad, was proved to have com- 
 mitted a heinous caste crime. He had married a widow of 
 his own caste, and to marry a widow is, in the eyes of a 
 Hindu, a most awful offence. A woman once married, belongs 
 to one husband, for time and eternity. Forthwith, he was
 
 Caste in relation to Trades and Indnstries. 473 
 
 sentenced to complete excommunication. No one, either of 
 his own or any other caste, was to be allowed to associate 
 with him ; no one was to eat with him ; no one was to 
 have any trade-dealings with him ; no one was to marry 
 any of his children ; no temple was to receive him as a wor- 
 shipper ; and, if he died, no one was to carry his body to the 
 burning ground. On the morning after the sentence was 
 passed, he went into the bazaar as usual, but not a person 
 would buy from him or sell to him ; he could get no home 
 to live in ; and none of his debtors would pay him their 
 debts. It was impossible to sue them, as no one would give 
 evidence. He was a ruined man, and had to leave the 
 country, and obtain Government employment in a distant 
 city. 
 
 This may seem an extreme case, but it would be easy to 
 multiply similar instances of the tyranny and terrorism of 
 caste-leagues in our Indian Empire. Yet, it cannot be 
 doubted, that as a matter of fact, the caste system of India 
 really resulted from a natural and beneficial process of de- 
 velopment. Nor can there be a greater mistake than to 
 conclude that the lower castes and trades are in a condition 
 of unhappiness or oppression. They all take a pride in their 
 own work, and their own caste, and are not the despised 
 creatures they are usually represented to be ; though here 
 and there an arrogant Brahman may look down upon them. 
 
 The truth is, that of all masters, caste is the worst when 
 allowed to become a despot. It is then a league of the worst 
 kind ; and we have not far to look, even in our own favoured 
 country, if we wish to see the tyranny and terrorism such 
 a league may establish. Its action tends to arrest progress, 
 to paralyse energy, to crush manly independence, to stifle 
 healthy public opinion, to make nationality, patriotism, and 
 true liberty almost impossible. At the same time caste- 
 leagues have their good as well as their bad side, and at 
 a particular stage of a nation's life may do good service. In
 
 474 Caste in relation to Trades and Industries. 
 
 India, caste has been useful in promoting self-sacrifice, in 
 securing subordination of the individual to an organized body, 
 in restraining from vice, in preventing pauperism. And 
 certainly the antagonism of these caste associations and trade, 
 leagues has helped us to govern the country by making 
 political combinations impracticable ^ Our wisest policy will 
 be to convert caste from a master into a servant ; to defeat 
 its evil action, not so much by forcible suppression as by the 
 gradual application of corrective influences ; to counteract its 
 false teaching by imparting true ideas of liberty — true principles 
 of political economy, social science, and morality ; to supplant 
 its tyrannical enactments by considerate legislation, based on 
 the ancient laws and customs of the country ; to make its 
 hard support and iron grasp needless by helping the masses 
 to ameliorate their own condition, and stimulating them to 
 improve their own national arts, trades, and industries in their 
 own way. By doing this will England best fulfil her mission ; 
 best discharge her sacred trust ; best advance the cause of 
 religion and justice ; best promote the well-being and con- 
 ciliate the affections of the countless millions of her Eastern 
 Empire. 
 
 ^ The great diversity of languages and dialects, numbering at least 
 200 — not to mention religious and sectarian differences which accompany 
 caste — is doubtless another great element of safety. It may be well, 
 however, to point out that the increasing employment of English as a 
 common medium of communication among an increasing number of 
 intelligent natives educated by us in every separate district and pro- 
 vince of India, is contributing in no small degree towards making 
 national union possible, and towards weakening the wall of partition 
 hitherto strengthened by linguistic divergences.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Modern Hindu Theism ^ Rmnmohun Roy. 
 
 It is a mistake to suppose that the first introduction of 
 Theism into India was due to the founders of the Brahma- 
 Samaj (in Bengal written Brahmo-Somaj), or modern Theistic 
 Churches of Bengal. Some of the oldest hymns of the Rig- 
 veda are monotheistic, and all the most pronounced forms of 
 Indian pantheism rest on the fundamental doctrine of God's 
 unity. ' There is one Being and no second,' ' Nothing really 
 exists but the one eternal omnipresent Spirit,' was the dogma 
 enunciated by ancient Hindu thinkers. It was a dogma 
 accepted by the philosophical Brahman with all its con- 
 sequences and corollaries. He firmly believed himself and 
 the Universe to be parts of the one eternal Essence, and 
 wrapped himself up accordingly in a kind of serene indiffer- 
 ence to all external phenomena and circumstances. Again 
 even the ordinary Hindu who practises the most corrupt 
 forms of polytheism is never found to deny the doctrine of 
 God's unity. On the contrary, he will always maintain that 
 God is essentially one, though he holds that the one God 
 exhibits Himself variously, and that He is to be worshipped 
 
 ^ Although my account of modem Hindu Theism — which appeared 
 first in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society — is principally the result 
 of my own researches in India, yet I am indebted to Miss S. G. Collet for 
 much information. Her Brahma Year-book, published at the end of every 
 year, gives a lucid and impartial account of the progress of the Indian 
 theistical movement, and it is to her able and disinterested labours that 
 the interest felt by the British public in that movement is mainly due.
 
 476 Modern Hindu Theism. Ranimohun Roy. 
 
 through an endless diversity of manifestations, incarnations, 
 and material forms. 
 
 It is to be observed, too, that as often as pantheistic and 
 polytheistic ideas have been pushed to preposterous extremes 
 in India, a reaction has always taken place towards simple 
 monotheism. The Vaishnava Reformers of the I2th, 13th, 
 15th, and 1 5th centuries inculcated a doctrine which was an 
 approximation towards the Christian idea of God's Unity and 
 Personality, as set forth in the first article of the Church of 
 England. Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Caitanya, all, 
 as we have seen, taught the existence of one supreme personal 
 God of infinite power, wisdom, and goodness, the Maker and 
 Preserver of all things — a God whom they called Vishnu, and 
 whom they believed to be distinct from the human soul 
 and the material world. 
 
 But none of these great Reformers succeeded in counter- 
 acting the corrupt tendencies inherent in the Vaishnava 
 system. That system contains within itself the seeds of 
 constant morbid growth and unhealthy development. It 
 cannot get rid of its dogma of repeated incarnations, or, to 
 speak more correctly, repeated descents (avatara). Vishnu, it 
 is believed, has ever been accustomed to descend in the shape 
 of great warriors, great teachers, and even animals, to deliver 
 his creatures in seasons of special exigence and peril. Of 
 course such a theory opens the door to every kind of extra- 
 vagant superstition. Notwithstanding, therefore, the partial 
 reformation accomplished by Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, 
 and Caitanya, the tide of degrading idolatrous practices set in 
 more strongly than ever. 
 
 Then followed the monotheistic reaction led by Kablr in 
 the 1 6th century and improved upon shortly afterwards by 
 Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion. These movements 
 were in a great measure due to Muhammadan influences. 
 Both Kablr and Nanak did their best to purify the Augean, 
 stable of corrupt Hindu doctrine, but met with only partial
 
 Modern Hindtc Theis7U. Rdmmoktin Roy. /^'j'j 
 
 success. They taught devotion to one personal God, whether 
 called Vishnu or Krishna, or designated by any of his 
 established epithets or synonyms. They even endeavoured 
 to unite Hindus and Muhammadans on the common ground 
 of belief in the Unity of the Godhead. But in this they were 
 wholly unsuccessful, and the tenth Sikh Guru, Govind, made 
 religious fusion impossible by converting Sikhs and Muslims 
 into bitter mutual opponents. 
 
 It became, indeed, a question whether the followers of 
 Kabir and Nanak were not destined to become exterminated 
 under the persecutions to which they were exposed in the 
 reign of Aurangzib. Under that Emperor India suffered 
 everywhere from an outburst of Muhammadan fanaticism. 
 Nor was the stability of Islam shaken or its hold over the 
 people of India weakened, when the political power of the 
 Muhammadans declined. On the contrary, the number of 
 Muslims increased, and their bigotry and intolerance gathered 
 strength in opposition to the advance of British domination, 
 and the diffusion of European knowledge. 
 
 The Hindus, on the other hand, were not too proud to 
 profit by contact with European ideas. Everywhere at the 
 great centres of British authority a mighty stir of thought 
 began to be set in motion, and able men educated by us made 
 no secret of their dissatisfaction with the national religion, and 
 their desire for a purer faith than that received from their 
 fathers. At the moment when thoughtful Hindus were thus 
 asking for light and leading, the right leader appeared. The 
 Hindu reformation inaugurated by Rammohun Roy was the 
 first reformation due to Christian influences, and to the 
 diffusion of European ideas through English education. He 
 was the first great modern theistical reformer of what may 
 be called British India. 
 
 Unhappily no biographies of India's eminent men have 
 ever been written. Neither Hindus nor Muhammadans have 
 ever shown any appreciation of the value of such writings.
 
 478 Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohun Roy. 
 
 A good life of Rammohun Roy, composed in Sanskrit or 
 Bengali, and translated into Hindustani and other principal 
 vernaculars, together with a collection of his writings, were 
 for a long time greatly needed ^ ; but these wants have been 
 recently to a great extent supplied by Nagendra-nath 
 Chatterjea and Raj Narain Bose. The former has published 
 a life of the Raja and the latter a new edition of his Bengali 
 writings. What little is known of his early history is soon 
 told. According to Nagendra-nath he was born in May, 
 1774, at a village called Radhanagar, in the district of 
 Murshidabad. His father, Ram Kant Roy, was a Brahman 
 of high caste, and his grandfather had held offices under the 
 Mogul Emperor. At an early age Rammohun Roy was sent 
 to study Persian and Arabic literature, including the Kuran 
 itself, at the great seat of Muhammadan learning, Patna. It 
 was thought that his proficiency in Muhammadan lore might 
 lead to his advancement at the Mogul court. Not that he 
 neglected Sanskrit or his Brahmanical studies. His father 
 was a worshipper of Vishnu. Every morning the son was 
 accustomed to read a chapter of the Vaishnava bible — the 
 Bhagavata Purana. Naturally thoughtful and intelligent, he 
 soon began to think for himself, and to see through the absurd 
 tissue of fable by which its authority is supported. Wholly 
 unable to acquiesce in its extravagant mythology, he betook 
 himself to the simple Vedic system, and the Vedanta as 
 expressed in the Upanishads attracted his special attention. 
 
 At the age of sixteen he composed a spirited tract against 
 idolatry. This for a mere boy was a sufficiently remarkable 
 achievement, and not likely to pass unnoticed. As a matter 
 of course it roused the anger not only of his own immediate 
 
 ^ The Rev. K. S. Macdonald gave « short and interesting summary of 
 his life in a paper read at Darjeeling (June, 1879), and Miss Mary Car- 
 penter published an interesting account of his ' Last Days ' in 1866. Mr. 
 Macdonald's anecdotes were chiefly taken from a speech delivered by 
 Raj Narain Bose at one of the annual meetings for commemorating the 
 memory of the Raja.
 
 Modern Hind^t, Theism. Rammohun Roy. ^.yg 
 
 family, but of all his relatives and superiors. In consequence 
 of the enmity thus excited against him, it was thought 
 advisable that he should leave his father's home for a time. 
 He resided first at Benares, the stronghold of Brahmanism, 
 and afterwards in Tibet, where he gave himself with much 
 zeal to the study of Buddhism, and had many controversies 
 with Buddhist priests. Probably Rammohun Roy was the 
 first earnest-minded investigator of the science of comparative 
 religion that the world has produced. From his earliest years 
 he displayed an eagerness to become an unbiased student of 
 all the religions of the globe. His sole aim in such studies 
 was to seek out religious truth for himself v/ith perfect fairness 
 and impartiality. Hence he spared himself no trouble in 
 endeavouring to master the several languages of the world's 
 sacred books, each of which claimed to be the sole depositaries 
 of such truth. As he studied the Hindu Veda in Sanskrit, so 
 he is believed to have given his attention to the Buddhist 
 Tripitaka in the original Pali. He is known, too, to have 
 mastered Arabic that he might read the Kuran, and later in 
 life he learnt Hebrew that he might form a just estimate of 
 the authority of the Old Testament, and even began Greek 
 that he might gain a complete knowledge of the New 
 Testament. 
 
 On his return home about the year 1796, he appears 
 to have been reinstated in the favour of his family and 
 relations. This led him to apply himself with more zeal than 
 ever to the study of Sanskrit literature and an examination of 
 the doctrines of his ancestral religion. He had too logical 
 a mind to be deceived by Brahmanical sophistries. Yet he 
 was accustomed to assert that he had found nothing in the 
 works of any other country, Asiatic or European, equal to 
 the scholastic philosophy of the Hindus. It was at about 
 this period that he gave himself seriously to the study of 
 English. At the same time he began to shake off the 
 prejudices he had imbibed against social intercourse with his
 
 480 Modem Hindu Theism. Rammohun Roy. 
 
 country's rulers, and to derive benefit from mixing in 
 European society. After his father's death in 1803^ Ram- 
 mohun Roy became bolder in his controversies with the 
 Brahmans. Soon he began to publish various pamphlets and 
 treatises against the errors of Hinduism. This he did at 
 considerable risk to his own worldly prospects. His father 
 had left his property to be divided among his three sons ; 
 but it was not long before, by their death, Rammohun Roy 
 became possessed of considerable patrimony, which would have 
 been forfeited had he formally abjured his family religion, 
 and legally lost caste. With an increase of wealth came an 
 increased desire for extension of usefulness. Notwithstanding 
 an inheritance sufficiently ample for his own personal wants, 
 Rammohun Roy found himself cramped in the carrying out 
 of the vast objects he had in view. This led him to seek 
 Government employment, and we find him acting for ten 
 years as Dewan or managing officer to the judges and 
 collectors of Rangpur, Bhagalpur and Ramgarh, especially 
 to a Mr. Digby. Hence he was often called Dewanji, — a 
 title by which he continued to be known until he received 
 that of Raja from the ex-Emperor of Delhi, on the occasion 
 of his embassy to England. One object he had in under- 
 taking revenue work was to gain a practical knowledge of 
 the working of the British administration. Some have 
 spitefully accused him of augmenting his own legitimate 
 earnings by doubtful and underhand transactions. It is far 
 more likely that his prosperous career was due to his 
 righteous dealings, which made him popular among the 
 landed proprietors, and to the skill he displayed in the 
 settlement of Zamlndari accounts, which made his services 
 indispensable to his masters. 
 
 Notwithstanding his assiduous attention to business, he 
 
 ^ Some give 1804 as the date of his death. His mother, who was at first 
 very bitter against him, lived to acknowledge that he was right, though 
 she could not give up her old faith, ' which was a comfort to her.'
 
 Modern Hindu Theism. Rammohtm Roy. 481 
 
 found ample time for study and for the prosecution of his 
 schemes of reform. Every year his attitude of antagonism 
 to the idolatry of his fellow-countrymen became more and 
 more marked and decided. The ground he took, according 
 to his own statement, was not that of opposition to the 
 national faith, but to a perversion of it. He endeavoured to 
 show that the idolatry of the Hindus was contrary to the 
 practice of their ancestors, and to the doctrine of the ancient 
 books and authorities which they profess to revere and obey. 
 Very soon after his father's death he had written a book in 
 Persian : ' Against the idolatry of all religions.'' This was 
 followed at intervals by various treatises, and especially trans- 
 lations of some of the Upanishads. In the preface to the 
 Mundaka Upanishad of the Atharva-veda, he says : — 
 
 'An attentive perusal of this, as well as of the remaining books of the 
 Vedanta, will, I trust, convince every unprejudiced mind that they, with 
 great consistency, inculcate the unity of God ; instructing men, at the 
 same time, in the pure mode of adoring him in spirit. It will also appear 
 evident, that the Vedas, although they tolerate idolatry as the last provi- 
 sion for those who are totally incapable of raising their minds to the con- 
 templation of the invisible God of Nature, yet repeatedly urge the 
 relinquishment of the rites of idol-worship, and the adoption of a purer 
 system of religion, on the express grounds that the observance of 
 idolatrous rites can never be productive of eternal beatitude. These are 
 left to be practised by such persons only as, notwithstanding the constant 
 teaching of spiritual guides, cannot be brought to see perspicuously the 
 Majesty of God through the works of Nature. 
 
 * The public will, I hope, be assured that nothing but the natural in- 
 clination of the ignorant towards the worship of objects resembling their 
 own nature, and to the external form of rites palpable to their grosser 
 senses, joined to the self-interested motives of their pretended guides, has 
 rendered the generality of the Hindu community (in defiance of their 
 sacred books) devoted to idol-worship : — the source of prejudice and 
 superstition, and the total destruction of moral principle, as countenancing 
 criminal intercourse, suicide, female murder, and human sacrifice.' 
 
 Perhaps the most important point to which he awakened 
 attention was the absence of all Vedic sanction for the self- 
 immolation of widows (Suttee = Sanskrit SatI). It was prin- 
 cipally his vehement denunciation of this practice, and the 
 
 I i
 
 482 Modern Hindu Theism. RammoJmn Roy, 
 
 agitation against it set on foot by him, which ultimately led to 
 the abolition of Sati by statute throughout British India in 1829. 
 
 Long before that period, however, the effect of his pub- 
 lications and addresses was to make his position one of 
 increasing isolation, until, in 1814, finding himself surrounded 
 by religious opponents^ and ostracised by his own social 
 circle, he retired to Calcutta. His property by that time 
 had so far increased that he could reckon on an income of 
 ;^iooo per annum, and he was able to purchase a residence 
 there. 
 
 It was only to be expected that among the inhabitants of 
 the metropolis would be many thoughtful persons capable of 
 sympathizing with his lofty aspirations. Accordingly he 
 attracted a number of adherents from Hindus and Jains 
 of rank, wealth, and influence. They gathered round him 
 in a small but united band, and agreed to co-operate with 
 him for the purification of their religion. 
 
 It may well be imagined that opinions like those which 
 Rammohun Roy laboured to propagate could not have been 
 adopted by any body of Hindus without, so to speak, loosen- 
 ing the anchorage by which they held on to the foundations 
 of their ancient faith. Yet in seeking their co-operation, he 
 never swerved from his original position. He continued to 
 declare that his only object was to bring back his countrymen 
 to what he believed to be the true monotheistic doctrine 
 underlying the Vedic hymns and brought out more clearly 
 in the Upanishad portion of the Veda. 
 
 The first step taken was to establish a private society for 
 spiritual improvement. The association was called Atmiya- 
 Sabha, spiritual society, and was first formed about the year 
 1816. It consisted chiefly of Rammohun Roy's own personal 
 friends, among whom was Dvaraka-nath (Dvvarkanath) Tagore. 
 It met in Rammohun Roy's house at Manictolah, for discussion 
 at periodical intervals; but the hostility of the Brahmans and 
 Pandits who were sometimes present, and who were offended
 
 Modei'n Hindu Theism. RmninoJiiin Roy. 483 
 
 and alarmed at the crushing demolition of their arguments 
 by the reforming party, proved too strong for its continued 
 existence. One by one its members dropped off, till by 
 degrees the society ceased to exist. The great leader of the 
 movement, however, was not to be so easily suppressed. On 
 the contrary, he braced himself up with greater energy than 
 ever, to continue the conflict single-handed. His zeal and 
 industry in writing books, pamphlets, and addresses, only 
 increased in vehemence. 
 
 It is clear that even at that time his study of the sayings 
 of Christ in the New Testament had brought him to a quali- 
 fied acceptance of Christianity; for in 1820 he published in 
 Bengali and English a book called ' The Precepts of Jesus, 
 the Guide to Peace and Happiness.' In the preface he 
 wrote : — 
 
 * This simple code of religioTi and morality is so admirably calculated 
 to elevate men's ideas to high and liberal notions of one God, .... and is 
 so well fitted to regulate the conduct of the hrnnan race in the discharge 
 of their various duties to God, to themselves and to society, that I cannot 
 but hope the best efifects from its promulgation in its present form.' 
 
 In a letter prefixed to one of his later works (an edition of 
 the Kena Upanishad) he makes the following admission : — 
 
 ' The consequence of my long and uninterrupted researches into reli- 
 gious truth has been that I have found the doctrines of Christ more con- 
 ducive to moral principles, and better adapted for the use of rational 
 beings, than any other which have come to my knowledge.' 
 
 It is said that on being one day shown a picture of Christ, 
 he remarked that the painter had represented Him falsely, 
 for he had given Him a European countenance, forgetting 
 that Jesus Christ was an Oriental, and that, in keeping with 
 the Eastern origin of Christianity, the Christian scriptures 
 glow throughout with rich Oriental colouring. 
 
 Some, indeed, have not hesitated to affirm that Rammohun 
 Roy, though he never abjured caste, was in reality a true 
 Christian. But that he ever had the slightest leaning towards 
 Trinitarian Christianity is altogether unlikely. 
 
 li a
 
 484 Modei-n Hindu Theism. Rammohiin Roy. 
 
 In his ' Final Appeal ^ ' he says : — 
 
 'After I have long relinquished every idea of a plurality of Gods, or 
 of the persons of the Godhead, taught under different systems of modern 
 Hindooism, I cannot conscientiously and consistently embrace one of 
 a similar nature, though greatly refined by the religious reformations of 
 modern times. Since whatever arguments can be adduced against a 
 plurality of Gods strike with equal force against the doctrine of a plurality 
 of persons of the Godhead ; and on the other hand, whatever excuse may 
 be pleaded in favour of a plurality of persons of the Deity, can be offered 
 with equal propriety in defence of polytheism.' 
 
 In fact his sympathies with the Unitarian sect were always 
 strongly marked, and it is certain that, whenever his mind 
 could free itself from the influence of Vedantic proclivities, 
 it gravitated towards a form of Unitarian Christianity. 
 
 But in truth the dominant feeling in Rammohun Roy's 
 mind was a craving for a kind of eclectic catholicity. 
 Throughout life he shrank from connecting himself with 
 any particular school of thought. He seems to have felt 
 a satisfaction in being claimed as a Vedantist by Hindus, 
 as a Theist by Unitarians, as a Christian by Christians, and 
 as a Muslim by Muhammadans. His idea of inspiration was 
 that it was not confined to any age or any nation, but a gift 
 co-extensive with the human race. He believed it to be a 
 kind of divine illumination, or intuitive perception of truth, 
 granted in a greater or less degree to every good man in 
 every country. Whatever was good in the Vedas, in the 
 Christian Scriptures, in the Kuran, in the Zand Avasta, or in 
 any book of any nation anywhere, was to be accepted and 
 assimilated as coming from the ' God of truth,' and to be 
 regarded as a revelation. The only test of the validity of 
 any doctrine was its conformity to the natural and healthy 
 working of man's reason, and the intuitions and cravings of 
 the human heart. ' My view of Christianity,' he says in a 
 letter to a friend, ' is, that in representing all mankind as the 
 
 ^ He published three 'Appeals to the Christian public' against the 
 unfair construction which Dr. Marsham and others had put on his 
 ' Precepts of Jesus.'
 
 Modern Hmdii Theism. RammoJmn Roy. 485 
 
 children of one eternal Father, it enjoins them to love one 
 another, without making any distinction of country, caste, 
 colour, or creed.' It was easy for a man of so catholic and 
 liberal a spirit to become all things to all men. Hence, it 
 is not surprising that he cultivated friendship with Christian 
 Missionaries of all denominations. He assisted them in their 
 translation of the Scriptures, and occasionally joined in their 
 worship. It is well known that he aided Dr. Duff in the 
 establishment of his educational institution in Calcutta, re- 
 commending that its daily work should be commenced with 
 the Lord's Prayer, and declaring that he had studied the 
 Brahman's Veda, the Muslim's Kuran, and the Buddhist's 
 Tripitaka, without finding anywhere any other prayer so 
 brief, comprehensive, and suitable to man's wants. 
 
 In 1828 occurred an event which may be regarded as an 
 important turning-point in the history of the Theistic move- 
 ment. Mr. W. Adam, a Protestant Missionary, had entered 
 into friendly communications with Rammohun Roy, and had 
 been led through his influence to adopt a decidedly Unitarian 
 form of Christianity. This led to his being called ' the second 
 fallen Adam ' by his opponents. But not content with 
 changing his own creed, he sought to disseminate the 
 opinions he had adopted by holding meetings and giving 
 lectures in a room attached to the Bengal Hurkaru News- 
 paper Office. For some time Rammohun Roy, with a few 
 of his friends, was accustomed to be present, till at last the 
 thought struck them that, instead of being dependent upon 
 a foreigner for religious edification, they might establish a 
 meeting-house of their own. Dvaraka-nath (Dwarkanath) 
 Tagore, Prosonno Kumar Tagore, and others, came forward 
 with pecuniary aid. Temporary rooms in the Chitpore Road 
 were hired by Rammohun Roy, and prayer-meetings held 
 there every Saturday evening. The service was divided into 
 four parts — recitation of Vedic texts ; reading from the 
 Upanishads ; delivery of a sermon ; and singing hymns.
 
 486 Modern Hhidit Theism. Rdmmoktcn Roy. 
 
 It was thus that the germ of the first Theistic church was 
 planted at Calcutta in 1828. The commencement of its 
 existence as a living growing organization did not take place 
 till two years later. The beginning of January, 1830, now 
 half a century ago, inaugurated a new era in the history of 
 Indian religious thought. It ushered in the dawn of the 
 greatest change that has ever passed over the Hindu mind. 
 A new phase of the Hindu religion then took definite shape, 
 a phase which differed essentially from every other that had 
 preceded it. For no other reformation has resulted in the 
 same way from the influence of European education and 
 Christian ideas. 
 
 The increase of contributions had enabled Rammohun Roy 
 to purchase a large house in the Chitpore Road, and endow 
 it with a maintenance fund. Trustees were appointed, and 
 the first Hindu Theistic Church, or, as it was sometimes 
 called by English-speaking natives, the Hindu Unitarian 
 Church ^ was then opened in Calcutta on the nth Magha, 
 1 751, equivalent to January 23, 1830. The name given to it 
 by Rammohun Roy indicated its Unitarian character, and 
 yet connected it with the national faith. It was called 
 Brahma-Sabha, or Brahmlya-Samaj, that is to say, 'the 
 society of believers in God,' the word Brahma being an 
 adjective formed from Brahman (nom. case Brahma), the 
 name of the one self-existent God of orthodox Hinduism. 
 
 The trust-deed of the building laid down that it was to be 
 used as a place of meeting for the worship of the One 
 Eternal, Unsearchable, and Immutable Being, the Author 
 and Preserver of the Universe, to the promotion of piety, 
 morality, and charity, and the strengthening of the bonds 
 of union between men of all religious classes and creeds^. 
 
 ^ So the Press at which Rammohun Roy's publications were printed 
 was called the Unitarian Press. 
 
 '^ It is said that in accordance with this principle, Eurasian boys used 
 to sing the Psalms of David in English, and Hindu musicians religious 
 songs in Bengali.
 
 Modern Hindu Theism. Rafmnohun Roy. 487 
 
 Moreover, that no image, print, picture, portrait, or likeness, 
 should be admitted within the building, that no sacrifice 
 should be offered there, and that nothing recognized as an 
 object of worship by other men should be spoken of con- 
 temptuously there. Yet Rammohun Roy still held fast to 
 his original position. He was careful to make the members 
 of the new society understand that he had no idea of found- 
 ing a new sect or new system, or even a new church in the 
 ordinary sense of the word. He simply claimed to have 
 established a pure monotheistic worship for the first time in 
 a building where men of all castes, all classes, and all creeds, 
 Hindus, Muham.madans, and Christians, were invited to 
 worship together, the only unity of faith demanded being 
 belief in the Unity of God. This first introduction of public 
 worship and united prayer — before unknown among the 
 Hindus — was not the least of the benefits effected by Ram- 
 mohun Roy. At the same time, he never quite abandoned 
 the idea of an order of men ordained by God to be special 
 teachers of divine truth. It is said that the meeting-house 
 of the Samaj had a private room open only to Brahmans, 
 where special readings of the Veda were conducted by them. 
 
 And, in truth, Rammohun Roy's attitude towards his 
 national religion continued that of a friendly reformer, even 
 to the end of his life — a reformer who aimed at retaining all 
 that was good and true in Brahmanism, while sweeping away 
 all that was corrupt and false. The weak point in his plan 
 is manifest. The form of theology he propounded was too 
 vague, undogmatic, and comprehensive. He was, in fact^ by 
 natural character too intensely patriotic not to be swayed, 
 even to the last, by an ardent love of old national ideas. He 
 had denounced caste as a demoralizing institution ^ ; he had 
 
 ^ Thus, in the introduction to his translation of the Isopanishad, he 
 says, 'The chief part of the theory and practice of Hindooism, I am sorry 
 to say, is made to consist in the adoption of a pecuHar mode of diet, the 
 least aberration from which is punished by exclusion from his family and
 
 488 Modern Hindu Theism. Rdmmohun Roy. 
 
 adopted a nearly true theory of the unity and personality of 
 God ; he had abandoned the doctrines of transmigration and 
 final absorption of the soul ; he had professed his belief in 
 a day of judgment; he had accepted the Christian miracles, 
 and had even declared Jesus Christ to be the ' Founder of 
 truth and true religion,' and had admitted that the Son of 
 God was empowered by God to forgive sins ; but he never 
 entirely delivered himself from his old prepossessions, and 
 the alleged purity of his monotheism was ever liable to be 
 adulterated with pantheistic ideas. In the eyes of the law 
 he always remained a Brahman. He never abandoned the 
 Brahmanical thread, and had too lively a sense of the value 
 of money to risk the forfeiture of his property and the con- 
 sequent diminution of his usefulness and influence, by formally 
 giving up his caste. In fact, though far in advance of his age 
 as a thinker, he laid no claim to perfection or to perfect dis- 
 interestedness of motive as a man. 
 
 Unfortunately for the interests of India, Rammohun Roy's 
 career was cut short prematurely. In 1830 the ex-Emperor 
 of Delhi, having long felt himself ill-treated by the Indian 
 Government, deputed Rammohun Roy to lay a representation 
 of his grievances before the Court of Great Britain, at the 
 same time conferring on him the title of Raja. The Raja's 
 great wish had always been to visit England and inter- 
 change ideas with the Western thinkers. He also wished to 
 oppose in person a threatened appeal against the law for the 
 abolition of Suttee (Sati), the passing of which had been 
 just effected through his exertions, and which only required 
 the royal assent. He was aware, too, that the granting of a 
 new charter to the East India Company was about to be 
 discussed in Parliament, and he felt the importance of 
 
 friends. Murder, theft, or perjury, though brought home to the party by 
 a judicial sentence, so far from inducing loss of caste, is visited with no 
 peculiar mark of infamy.'
 
 Modern Hindu Theism. Rarnmolmn Roy. 489 
 
 watching the proceedings on behalf of the natives of India, 
 and for the furtherance of their interests. 
 
 No better time for carrying these objects into execution 
 seemed possible than the period which followed the opening 
 of his new Church. He therefore sailed for Liverpool in 
 November, 1830, and arrived there on the 8th of April, 183], 
 being the first native of rank and influence who had ventured 
 to break through the inveterate prejudices of centuries by- 
 crossing ' the black water.' In England his enlightened 
 views, courteous manners, and dignified bearing attracted 
 much attention. During his residence in London he took 
 great interest in the exciting political conflicts then raging, 
 and the passing of the Reform Bill caused him unmixed 
 satisfaction. He was presented to the King, and was pre- 
 sent at the coronation. The evidence he gave on Indian 
 affairs before a Committee of the House of Commons was of 
 course highly valuable, and ought to be reprinted. In 
 one of his replies to the questions addressed to him we 
 find him asserting that the only course of policy likely to 
 insure the attachment of the intelligent part of the native 
 community to English rule was ' the making them eligible 
 to gradual promotion, according .to their respective abilities 
 and merits, to situations of trust and respectability in the 
 State.' Unhappily Rammohun Roy had not sufficient phy- 
 sical strength to contend with the severity of a European 
 climate. After visiting Paris and other parts of France in 
 1833, he began to show symptoms of declining health. He 
 had been invited to visit Bristol, and to take up his residence 
 at the house of Miss Castle — a ward of Dr. Carpenter — in the 
 vicinity of that city. He arrived there early in September, 
 1833, and shortly afterwards was taken ill with fever. Every 
 attention was lavished on him, and the best medical skill 
 called in ; but all in vain. His death took place at Bristol 
 on September 27th, 1833. He died a Hindi! in respect of 
 external observances ; his Brahman servant performed the
 
 490 Modern Hindu Theis7n. Rammohiin Roy. 
 
 usual rites required by his master's caste, and his Brahmanical 
 thread was found coiled round his person when his spirit 
 passed away. In all his Anti Brahmanism he continued a 
 Brahman to the end. 
 
 Even after his death it was thought advisable to keep up 
 the fiction of a due maintenance of caste. His body was not 
 interred in a Christian burial-ground, but in the shrubbery at 
 Stapleton Grove, and without a religious service of any kind. 
 It was not till about ten years afterwards that Dwarkanath 
 Tagore, on the occasion of his visiting England in 1843, had 
 the coffin removed to Arno's Vale Cemetery, and a suitable 
 monument erected over the remains of one of the greatest 
 men that India has ever produced. Yet his grave is rarely 
 now visited, even by Indians, and few care to make them- 
 selves acquainted with the particulars of his last days. For 
 India is not alive to the magnitude of the debt she owes to 
 her greatest modern Reformer. Nor have his merits yet 
 received adequate recognition at the hands of European 
 writers. Nor indeed has it been possible within the compass 
 of the present summary to give even a brief description of 
 all the services rendered by Rammohun Roy to his country 
 as a social as well as religious Reformer, of his labours for 
 the elevation of women and for the education of the people 
 generally, of his invaluable suggestions made from time to 
 time for the carrying out of Lord William Bentinck's 
 political reforms, and of his efforts for the improvement of 
 the Bengali language, and the formation of a native litera- 
 ture. Assuredly the memory of such a man is a precious 
 possession to be cherished not by India alone, but by the 
 whole human race.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Modern Hindu Theism. Rainmohun Roys successors. 
 
 It was not to be expected that the void caused by the 
 death of so great a patriot as Rammohun Roy could be 
 filled up immediately. The Church he had founded in Cal- 
 cutta languished for a time, notwithstanding that his friend 
 Dwarkanath Tagore and his learned coadjutor Ramachandra 
 Vidyabagish made efforts to maintain its vitality, the latter 
 acting very regularly as minister of the Samaj. At length, 
 after the interval of a few years, a not unworthy successor 
 to Rammohun Roy was found in Dwarkanath's son, Deben- 
 dra-nath Tagore. 
 
 This remarkable man, who was born in 1818, and is now, 
 therefore, sixty-five years of age, received a good English 
 education at the old Hindu College \ and was the first 
 to give real organization to Rammohun Roy's Theistic 
 Church. But he imitated his great predecessor in doing 
 as little violence as possible to the creed and practice of 
 his forefathers. He aimed at being a purifier rather than 
 a destroyer. He had the advantage and disadvantage of 
 a rich and liberal father. The luxury in which he passed 
 his youth was for some time a drawback rather than an 
 aid. It was not till he was twenty years of age that he 
 began to be conscious of spiritual aspirations. Utterly dis- 
 satisfied with the religious condition of his own people, and 
 with the ideas of God presented by Brahmanical teaching, he 
 
 ^ Under the teaching of a man to whom Bengal is perhaps as much 
 indebted as to David Hare.
 
 492 Mode7ni Theism. Rammohtin Roy'' s successors. 
 
 set himself to discover a purer system. It was highly credit- 
 able to his earnestness and sincerity that he took time for 
 consideration before joining Rammohun Roy's Brahma-Sabha, 
 or, as it came to be called, Brahma-Samaj (Brahmo-Somaj). 
 
 In 1839, he established a society of his own, called the 
 'Truth-investigating' or 'Truth-teaching Society' (Tattva- 
 bodhinl Sabha), the object of which, according to its founder, 
 was to sustain and carry on the labours of Raja Rammohun 
 Roy, and to assist in restoring the monotheistic system of 
 divine worship inculcated in the original Hindu scriptures. 
 
 This Society lasted for twenty years, and was not finally 
 merged in the Brahma-Samaj till 1859. It met every week 
 for discussion at Debendra-nath's house, and had also monthly 
 meetings for worship and prayer, and the exposition of the 
 Upanishad portion of the Veda. It had its organ in a monthly 
 periodical, called the Tattva-bodhinI patrika. This journal 
 was started in August, 1 843, and was well edited by Akhay 
 Kumar Datta, an earnest member of the theistic party. Its 
 first aim seems to have been the dissemination of Vedantic 
 doctrine, though its editor had no belief in the infallibility of 
 the Veda, and was himself in favour of the widest catholicity^. 
 He afterwards converted Debendra-nath to his own views- 
 It was not till 1841 that Debendra-nath, without giving 
 up occasional meetings at his own house, formally joined the 
 church founded by Rammohun Roy. He soon saw that if 
 Indian Theists were to maintain their ground in India, they 
 needed organization, and that if the Samaj was to exist as 
 a permanent church, it wanted a properly appointed presi- 
 dent, a regularly ordained minister, a settled form of worship, 
 and a fixed standard of faith and practice. He himself under- 
 took the task of preparing what is sometimes called the 
 Brahma covenant, consisting of seven solemn declarations, 
 
 ^ The Tattva-bodhinI patrika is still in existence and is now known as 
 the organ of the Adi Brahma-Samaj. 
 
 I
 
 Modern Theism. Rammohiin Roys successors. 493 
 
 or vows to be taken by all candidates for admission into the 
 Theistic Society. 
 
 By the most important of these declarations every member 
 of the Society bound himself to abstain from idolatry ; to 
 worship no created object, but to worship through the love 
 of God, and through doing the works dear to God (Para- 
 brahmani pritya tat-priya-karya-sadhanena), the Great God 
 the Creator, Preserver, Destroyer (srishti-sthiti-pralaya-kartri), 
 the Causer of emancipation (mukti-karana), the Partless (nir- 
 avayava), the One only without a second (ekamatradvitiya) ; 
 to lead holy lives, and to seek forgiveness through abandon- 
 ment of sin. At the same time a few short formulse of divine 
 worship (Brahmopasana), consisting of prayers, invocations, 
 hymns, and meditations, were promulgated for use in the 
 daily services. This took place at the end of 1843. 
 
 Pandit Ram Chandra Vidya-bag-ish was appointed minister 
 of the newly-organized church, and not long afterwards 
 Debendra-nath, with twenty friends, solemnly took the oaths 
 of the new Theistic covenant in his presence. The year 
 1844 may be given as the date of the real commencement 
 of the first organized Theistic Church of India, hence after- 
 wards called the Adi Brahma-Samaj, though at that time 
 and until the first secession it was simply denominated the 
 Calcutta Brahma-Samaj. 
 
 Three years later, in 1847, the number of covenanted 
 Brahmas had increased to seven hundred and sixty-seven. 
 
 But, as usual, with the accession of new members, the 
 growing church began to be agitated by contending opinions. 
 It was affirmed that the Vedas had never been thoroughly 
 examined with a view of arriving at a just estimate of their 
 value as an authoritative guide to truth. Four young Brah- 
 mans were therefore sent to Benares. Each was commissioned 
 to copy out and study one of the four Vedas. The result of 
 a careful examination of the sacred books was, that some 
 members of the Samaj maintained their authority, and even
 
 494 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roy^s successors. 
 
 their infallibility, while others rejected them as abounding in 
 error. A serious conflict of opinion continued for some time. 
 In the end it was decided by the majority, that neither Vedas 
 nor Upanishads were to be accepted as an infallible guide. 
 Only such precepts and ideas in them were to be admitted as 
 harmonized with pure Theistic truth, such truth resting on 
 the two foundations of external nature and internal intuition. 
 In short, the religion of Indian Theists was held to be a 
 religion of equilibrium— neither supported wholly by reason 
 on the one hand, nor by blind faith on the other. 
 
 This took place about the year 1850, by which time other 
 Samajes had begun to be established in the provinces, such 
 as those at Midnapur, Krishnagar, and Dacca. Raj Narain 
 Bose was minister of the Midnapur Samaj for many years, 
 when he was Head-master of the government Zillah (county) 
 school of that place. 
 
 A new Theistic Directory was then put forth by Debendra- 
 nath, called Brahma-Dharma, or ' the Theistic Religion.' It 
 contained a statement in Sanskrit of the four fundamental 
 principles of Indian Theism, together with the seven declara- 
 tions revised, and approved extracts from the Veda, Upani- 
 shads, and later Hindu scriptures, as, for example, from the 
 Isopanishad, Satapatha-Brahmana, and Manu. Selections 
 from these works were thought to have the advantage of 
 national association as an instrument for the dissemination of 
 truth. Otherwise they were not regarded as possessing any 
 peculiar inspiration, or even any inherent superiority over 
 extracts from other good books. 
 
 Any one who examines the whole compendium with im- 
 partiality must come to the conclusion that, although the 
 quotations it gives are pervaded throughout by a strong 
 aroma of Vedantic and Pantheistic ideas, it marks an advance 
 in the Theistic movement. It presents us for the first time 
 with a definite exposition of Indian Theistic doctrine, which 
 may be held by those who reject Vedantism. Its four funda-
 
 Modern Theism. Raniinohtin Roy's succcssoi's. 495 
 
 mental principles (called Brahma-dharma-vTja) translated from 
 the Sanskrit are : — 
 
 I. — In the beginning, before this Universe was, the One Supreme 
 Being was (Brahma va ekam idam-agra asit) ; nothing else whatever was 
 (nanyat kificanasTt) ; He has created all this universe (tad idam sarvam 
 asrijat). 
 
 II. — He is eternal (tadeva nityam), intelligent (jnanam), infinite (anan- 
 tam), blissful (sivam), self-dependent (sva-tantram), foi-mless (nir-avaya- 
 vam), one only without a second (ekam evadvitiyam), all-pervading 
 (sarva-vyapi), all-governing (sarva-niyantri), all-sheltering (sarvasraya), 
 all-knowing (sarva-vid), all-powerful (sarva-saktimat), unmovable (dhru- 
 vam), perfect (purnam), and without a parallel (apratimam). 
 
 III. — By Worship of Him alone can happiness be secured in this world 
 and the next (Ekasya tasyaivopasanaya paratrikam aihikam da subham 
 bhavati). 
 
 IV. — Love towards Him (Tasmin prltis), and performing the works 
 he loves (priya-karya-sadhanam da), constitute His worship (tad-upasa- 
 nam eva). 
 
 Any one who subscribed to these four principles was ad- 
 mitted a member of the Calcutta Brahma-Samaj. The seven 
 more stringent declarations were only required of those who 
 desired a more formal initiation into the system. 
 
 The substance of this improved theistic teaching may be 
 thus summarized : 
 
 Intuition and the book of Nature form the original basis 
 of the Brahma's creed, but divine truth is to be thankfully 
 accepted from any portion of the ancient Hindu scriptures 
 as from any other good books in which it may be contained. 
 According to the truth thus received, man is led to regard 
 God as his Heavenly Father, endowed with a distinct person- 
 ality, and with moral attributes befitting His nature. God 
 has never become incarnate, but he takes providential care of 
 His creatures. Prayer to Him is efficacious. Repentance is 
 the only way to atonement, forgiveness, and salvation. The 
 religious condition of man is progressive. Good works, charity, 
 attainment of knowledge, contemplation, and devotion, are 
 the only religious rites. Penances and pilgrimages are useless. 
 The only sacrifice is the sacrifice of self, the only place of
 
 496 Modani Theism. Rdmmohun Roys successors. 
 
 pilgrimage is the company of the good, the only true Temple 
 is the pure heart. There is no distinction of castes. 
 
 Yet there can be no doubt that great latitude in regard to 
 the maintenance of old national customs was still allowed, 
 and a friendly demeanour towards the national religion 
 encouraged. 
 
 In fact, the Mission of the Calcutta Brahma-Samaj, accord- 
 ing to its president and most able literary representative Raj 
 Narain Bose \ was to fulfil or at least to purify the old religion, 
 not to destroy it. 
 
 Such a compromise appeared wholly unsatisfactory to the 
 more thoughtful members of the Samaj, especially to those 
 who were beginning to be influenced by the opinions of a 
 clever eloquent young man, Keshab Chandar Sen, who joined 
 it in 1858. They felt that a more complete Reform was 
 needed before the Samaj could deliver itself from all complicity 
 with degrading social customs. 
 
 The youthful Keshab addressed himself to the task of 
 radical reform with the ardour of a young man full of spirit 
 and energy, who had his knightly spurs to win. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that we in Europe are wholly 
 unable to realize the difficulties which beset the career of a 
 radical religious reformer in India. There, religious and social 
 life are so intimately interwoven — there, the ordinary creed of 
 the people, their debasing idolatry and demoralizing super- 
 stitions, are so intertwined with the texture of their daily life, 
 with their domestic manners and institutions, and even with 
 the common law of the land, that to strike at the root of the 
 national faith is to subvert the very foundations of the whole 
 social fabric. Let a man enter on the path of progress, let 
 him abandon the ideas inherited from his parents, let him set 
 
 ^ Raj Narain Bose has rendered good service to the Adi Brahma- 
 Samaj by his able writings, just as Mr. P. C. Mozoomdar has done to the 
 later development of Theism about to be described — the Brahma-Samaj 
 of India.
 
 Modern Theism. Rdmmohun Roys successors. 497 
 
 his face against the time-honoured usages of his country, let 
 him stand up boldly as the champion of truth, the eradicator 
 of error, the regenerator of a degenerate age^ the purifier of a 
 corrupt condition of society, and what are the consequences ? 
 He has to fight his way through a host of antagonisms and 
 obstructions, sufficient to appal, if not to overpower, a man of 
 01-dinary courage and determination. The inveterate pre- 
 judices of centuries, deeply-seated antipathies, national pride, 
 popular passion, a thousand vested interests of tradition, 
 ignorance, bigotry, superstition, indolence, priestcraft, conspire 
 to crush his efforts and impede his advance. Every inch of 
 the ground is disputed by a host of bitter antagonists. 
 Humiliation, insult, threat, invective, vituperation are heaped 
 upon his head. Father, mother, wife, children, relatives and 
 friends hold him fast in their embraces or unite their efforts 
 to drag him backwards. No one stirs a finger to help him 
 onwards. At length, by the force of his own resolute 
 character, by patience and conciliation, by firmness and 
 gentleness, by persuasion and earnestness, by carrying people 
 with him against their will, by making his work theirs as 
 well as his own, he gains a few adherents ; for nowhere do 
 qualities such as these command so much admiration as in 
 India. Then his progress becomes easier. But if his attitude 
 towards ancient creeds and social abuses continues that of an 
 uncompromising enemy, he will still have to do battle at the 
 head of a little band of followers against countless adversaries, 
 and will only triumph over opposition in one quarter, to find 
 it renewed with increased acrimony and vehemence in other 
 directions. 
 
 This may be taken as a description of the early career of 
 the third great Theistic Reformer of British India^ Keshab 
 Chandar Sen, who was born in 1838. 
 
 A few particulars of Mr. Sen's life ought here to be given. 
 He is a grandson of a well-known member of the Vaidya 
 caste, Ram Comul Sen, who was a man of great worth, talent 
 
 Kk
 
 498 Modern Theism. Rainmohim Roys successors. 
 
 and literary culture \ but a bigoted Hindu of the Vaishnava 
 school. The young Keshab was brought up in an atmosphere 
 of Hindu superstition and idolatry. As might have been 
 expected, the Vishnu-worship in which he was trained pre- 
 disposed him to emotional religion and to a belief in one 
 supreme personal God. Subsequently he received a thorough 
 English education at the Presidency College, Calcutta. There, 
 of course, the foundations of his family faith crumbled to 
 pieces. It could not bear collision with scientific truth as 
 imparted by European teachers. Nor was any new faith 
 built up immediately on the ruins of the old. His attitude 
 towards all religion became one of absolute indifference. 
 Happily, in a character like that of Keshab, the void caused 
 by the over-development of one part of his nature was not 
 long left unfilled. With a greater advance in intellectual 
 culture came a greater consciousness of spiritual aspirations, 
 and a greater sense of dependence upon the Almighty Ruler 
 of the Universe. He began to crave for a knowledge of the 
 true God. One day, when he was twenty years of age, some 
 sermons by Raj Narain Bose fell into his hands, and he found 
 to his astonishment that a pure Theistic Church had been 
 already founded in Calcutta. Without a moment's hesitation 
 he decided to enroll himself a member of the Calcutta 
 Brahma-Samaj. This happened towards the end of 1858, 
 when he was in his twentieth year. 
 
 The English culture and freedom of thought, not unmixed 
 with Christian ideas, which Keshab imported into the Calcutta 
 (Adi) Samaj, could not fail to leaven its whole constitution. 
 Not that Debendra-nath had been uninfluenced by similar 
 culture in his reorganization of the Brahma-Samaj. The fear 
 however was that Keshab's enthusiasm might lead him to put 
 himself forward prematurely. Happily his extreme youth- 
 
 ^ He was held in great esteem by Prof. H. H. Wilson, and was the 
 author of a useful English and Bengali dictionary, to which my own 
 lexicography is under some obligations.
 
 Modern Theism. Rdimnohun Roys successors. 499 
 
 fulness and inexperience compelled him to veil his own 
 individuality. He longed from the first to bring all the 
 impetuosity of his fervid nature to bear on the accomplishment 
 of vast changes. He was ambitious of penetrating to the 
 very springs of social life and altering their whole course. 
 But he was sensible enough to perceive that he could not 
 enter upon such a Herculean task without feeling his way and 
 testing his powers. He, therefore, commenced his mission as 
 a fellow-worker with Debendra-nath, and in due subordination 
 to him as his recognized leader. Their fellowship and co- 
 operation lasted for about five years. Nothing, however, 
 could keep the enthusiastic Keshab long in the background. 
 It was not sufficient for him that idolatry had been eliminated 
 from Hindu usages. They remained Hindu usages still. He 
 soon began to urge a complete abolition of all caste-restrictions. 
 The first change he advocated was that all who conducted 
 the services in the Mandir should abandon the sacred thread 
 (upavlta) which distinguished the Brahmans and higher castes 
 from the lower. But Debendra-nath, though he consented to 
 give up the sacred badge of caste in his own case, declined to 
 force a similar renunciation upon others. Unhappily this was 
 the commencement of a difference of opinion between the 
 progressive and conservative Reformers, which afterwards led 
 to a more complete rupture. 
 
 Next to the abandonment of the thread came the alteration 
 of the Sraddha, or worship of deceased ancestors — a rite 
 involving ideas incompatible with the Brahma doctrine of 
 a future state. This was followed by a remodelling of the 
 ritual at the ceremonies of birth (jata-karma, p. '^S'i)> name- 
 giving (nama-karana, p. '>)S'^'> ^"d cremation of the dead 
 (antyeshti, p. 354). Then a solemn and impressive form of 
 initiation into the Brahma faith was substituted for the 
 Upanayana, or initiatory rite of Brahmanism. Of course, 
 efforts were made for the education and elevation of women. 
 They were encouraged to join the Brahma-Samaj, which 
 
 K k 2
 
 500 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roy's successors. 
 
 many eventually did under the name of Brahmikas, worship- 
 ping at first either behind screens, or in a separate room. 
 
 A still more important matter was the reform of marriage 
 customs. Vast difficulties beset any reform in this direction. 
 Marriage is the most ancient, sacred, and inviolable of all 
 Hindu institutions, and its due performance the most com- 
 plicated of all religious acts. It involves intricate questions 
 of caste, creed, property, family usage, consanguinity, and 
 age. To remodel the institution of marriage is to reorganize 
 the whole constitution of Indian society, and to create, so to 
 speak, an entirely new social atmosphere. The first change 
 advocated by the Reformers had reference to the abolition of 
 child-marriages. Nothing has tended to the physical and 
 moral deterioration of the people so much as child-marriage. 
 It has not only resulted in excessive population, rapidly 
 multiplying till reduced to so low a standard of physical 
 and moral stamina that every failure of crops adds demoral- 
 ization to starvation. It is an ever-present source of weak- 
 ness and impoverishment, destructive of all national vigour, 
 and fatal to the development of national thrift and economy. 
 The progressive Reformers felt that until this evil was re- 
 moved there could be no hope of India's regeneration. 
 
 Of course, another reform aimed at had reference to poly- 
 gamy. No man was to be allowed more than one wife. 
 Then widows were to be released from enforced celibacy. 
 And here, in justice to Raj Narain Bose, it should be stated 
 that he was the first to introduce the remarriage of widows 
 into his family ; a reform for which the inhabitants of the 
 village in which he was born threatened to stone him to 
 death. As to the marriage ceremony itself, all semblance of 
 idolatrous worship, all foolish ritual, all noisy music, needless 
 display and unnecessary expense caused by spreading the 
 festivities over many days were to be eliminated. Debendra- 
 nath himself was induced to set the example of celebrating 
 a nuptial ceremony in his own family according to this simple
 
 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roy s successors. 501 
 
 Brahmic form. His second daughter was engaged to be 
 married to Babu H. N. Mukerjea. The rite was performed 
 on the 26th of July, 1861, quietly, solemnly, simply, and 
 without protracted festivities, in the presence of nearly two 
 hundred co-religionists. This was the first Brahmic marriage. 
 A still more momentous reform was attempted by Keshab 
 Chandar Sen when he performed a marriage ceremony 
 between two persons of different castes in August, 1864. 
 An innovation so revolutionary gave gceat dissatisfaction to 
 Debendra-nath. In fact, Mr. Sen, notwithstanding the real 
 good he had effected by his influence, example, and personal 
 efforts^ found himself hampered by his connexion with the 
 too conservative Calcutta Adi-Samaj. He was like a man 
 working in chains. He felt himself powerless to penetrate 
 beneath the outer crust of the social fabric. The old caste- 
 customs, the old superstitious rites, were still practised by 
 a large number of Theists, while others who professed sym- 
 pathy with the advanced Reformer, and adopted his opinions 
 in public, secretly reverted to their old ways. It was not to 
 be expected that a man of Mr. Sen's temperament would 
 long acquiesce in merely superficial changes and patchy 
 half-finished reformations. He was willing to accept half 
 measures as an instalment. But nothing short of a thorough 
 reconstruction of the whole religious and social fabric could 
 afford him permanent satisfaction. He was bent on laying 
 the axe to the very root of the tree. He felt his own mission 
 to be very different from that of Debendra-nath. He was to 
 destroy rather than to renovate the old Vedic system with all 
 its train of ceremonial rites and observances. 
 
 Of course, he no sooner gave up all idea of compromise 
 than instantly he found himself plunged in a slough of 
 obstruction. Difficulties and opposition met him at every 
 turn. At length, in February, 1865, the inevitable crisis 
 arrived. Keshab Chandar Sen with a large number of the 
 younger members of the Samaj formed themselves into a
 
 502 Modern Theism. Rammoimn Roys successors. 
 
 separate body of advanced or progressive reformers, and 
 seceded from the old Society, leaving behind them all its 
 accumulated property. It was not, however, till November, 
 1866, that they were able to organize themselves into a new 
 Theistic Church called the Brahma-Samaj of India (Bhara- 
 tavarshlya Brahma-Samaj ^), a church which gloried in having 
 broken entirely with Brahmanism, and severed every link 
 which connected it with the national religion. 
 
 At a meeting held on November nth, 1866, the day of 
 the incorporation of the new society, Mr. Sen announced that 
 the aim of the new Church would be to unite all Brahmas 
 into one body, to reduce their labours to a well-organized 
 system of co-operation, and to establish a central metropo- 
 litan Brahma-Samaj of all India, to which all other Samajes 
 throughout the country might be affiliated, or with which 
 they might establish friendly relations. This idea was not a 
 new one. An effort had been made in 1864 to establish 
 a General Representative Assembly or Council of all the 
 existing Brahma Samajes. A meeting was then convened, 
 and twenty-eight out of the existing fifty Samajes sent repre- 
 sentatives, but little further was done. Nor did Mr. Sen 
 ever succeed in making his own Samaj a centre of union and 
 authority, though for a long time his talents as an orator 
 secured him a position as chief leader of the Brahma com- 
 munity. 
 
 The first stone of the new Mandir or place of worship of 
 the Brahma-Samaj of India was laid on the 23rd of January, 
 
 1868, but the building was not opened until August (Bhadra), 
 
 1869. As might have been expected, the new Samaj ex- 
 hibited from its first foundation a decided reflection of its 
 founder's individuality. He had imbibed Vaishnava ideas 
 with his earliest impressions. Yet the peculiar vein of 
 
 ^ This new Church has been sometimes called the progressive Brahma- 
 Samaj.
 
 Modern Theism. Rd^nmohiin Roy's stucessors. 503 
 
 Hindu theology which permeated his mind only operated 
 beneficially. The introduction of faith (bhakti), emotional 
 religion, and devotional ferv'our into the Brahma system was 
 a real advantage. It infused warmth and light into a cold 
 inanimate Theology, and brought the latest development of 
 Indian Theism into closer harmony with Christian ideas. 
 
 It remains to describe more fully the nature of that de- 
 velopment. No sooner was Brahmanism finally discarded than 
 it became necessary to formulate more definite articles of 
 faith. Briefly the new creed might have been described as 
 'the Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of Man.' Its 
 most essential points are as follow : — 
 
 God is the first cause of the Universe. By His will He created all 
 objects out of nothing and continually upholds them. He is spirit, not 
 matter. He is perfect, infinite, all-powerful, all-merciful, all-holy. He is 
 our Father, Preserv^er, Master, King, and Saviour. 
 
 The soul is immortal. Death is only the dissolution of the body. 
 There is no new birth after death ; the future life is a continuation and 
 development of the present life. The men that now live are the embryos 
 of the men that are to be. 
 
 The true scriptures are two, — the volume of nature, and the natural 
 ideas implanted in the mind. The wisdom, power, and mercy of the 
 Creator are written on the Universe. All ideas about immortality and 
 morality are primitive convictions rooted in the constitution of man. 
 
 God Himself never becomes man by putting on a; human body. His 
 divinity dwells in every man, and is displayed more vividly in some. 
 Moses, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, Nanak, Caitanya, and other great 
 Teachers, appeared at special times, and conferred vast benefits on the 
 world. They are entitled to universal gratitude and love. 
 
 The Brahma religion is distinct from all other systems of religion ; yet 
 it is the essence of all. It is not hostile to other creeds. What is true 
 in them it accepts. It is based on the constitution of man, and is, there- 
 fore, eternal and universal. It is not confined to age or country. 
 
 All mankind are of one brotherhood. The Brahma religion recognizes 
 no distinction between high and low caste. It is the aim of this religion 
 to bind all mankind into one family. 
 
 Duties are of four kinds: (i) Duties toivards God — such as belief in 
 Him, love, worship, and service ; (2) Duties toivards self^svi<:\\ as pre- 
 servation of bodily health, acquisition of knowledge, sanctification of 
 soul ; (3) Duties towards others svic}^. as veracity, justice, gratitude, the 
 promotion of the welfare of all mankind ; (4) Duties to%uards animals 
 and inferior creatures — such as kind treatment.
 
 504 Modern Theism. Rammohim Roys successors. 
 
 Every sinner must suffer the consequences of his own sins sooner 
 or later, in this world or the next. Man must labour after holiness 
 by the worship of God, by subjugation of the passions, by repentance, 
 by the study of nature and of good books, by good company and by 
 solitary contemplation. These will lead through the action of God's 
 grace to salvation. 
 
 Salvation is deliverance of the soul from the root of corruption, and its 
 perpetual growth in purity. Such growth continues through all eternity, 
 and the soul becomes more and more godly and happy in Him who is the 
 fountain of infinite holiness and joy. The companionship of God is the 
 Indian Theists' heaven. 
 
 With regard to the worship of God, it was declared to be 
 ' a wholly spiritual act.' 
 
 The form of divine service was as follows : — First a hymn ; 
 
 then an invocation of God by the minister, followed by 
 
 another hymn; then adoration of God, chanted by the 
 
 whole congregation together, and continued by the minister 
 
 alone ; then silent communion for some minutes. Then the 
 
 following united prayer \ chanted by the whole congregation 
 
 standing : — 
 
 ' Lead us, O God ! from untruth to truth, from darkness to light, from 
 death to immortality. O ! thou Father of truth, reveal thyself before us. 
 Thou art merciful, do thou protect us always in thy unbounded goodness. 
 Peace! Peace! Peace!' 
 
 Then a prayer for the well-being of the whole world by the 
 minister alone standing, succeeded by another hymn, and 
 by a recitation of texts from Hindu and other scriptures. 
 Finally, a sermon, followed by a prayer, a benediction, and 
 a hymn. 
 
 Services of this kind still take place — generally on Sundays, 
 and often on a week-day in addition. There are also grand 
 anniversary festivals to celebrate the foundation of the Brahma 
 Church. The chief festival, called Maghotsab (Maghotsava), 
 on the 23rd of January (nth of Magha), is kept by all the 
 Samajes in commemoration of the founding of monotheistic 
 worship by Rammohun Roy. Another^ called Bhadrotsab 
 
 ^ This was taken from the form used by the Adi Brahma-Samaj.
 
 Modern Theism. Rammolmn Roys successors. 505 
 
 (Bhadrotsava), is held by the Brahma-Samaj of India in 
 celebration of the opening of the Mandir in August, 1869. 
 Solemn initiation services for the admission of new members 
 are also performed. They correspond in an interesting 
 manner to our Confirmation services. 
 
 Clearly it would be easy to prove- that the advanced 
 Indian Reformers, trained and educated by us, and imbued 
 unconsciously with Western theological ideas, have borrowed 
 largely from our Christian system in formulating their own 
 creed. The points of agreement are too obvious to need 
 indicating. One noteworthy point of contact with Chris- 
 tianity is the active missionary spirit displayed by progres- 
 sive Brahmas, which indeed was originated by the members 
 of the Adi-Samaj. Such a spirit is, of course, essential to 
 the growth and vitality of all new systems. Keshab Chandar 
 Sen has made several Missionary tours in India, and in 1870 
 he came to England, giving out that his mission was to 
 excite the interest of Englishmen in the religious, social, 
 and political progress of his fellow-countrymen. Here he 
 visited fourteen of the chief towns of England and Scotland, 
 and conducted religious services in the pulpits of Baptist, 
 Congregational, and Unitarian chapels. He preached to 
 large congregations in East London, and addressed seventy 
 meetings in different places in behalf of such objects as 
 Temperance, Peace, Reformatories, Ragged Schools, and 
 general education. He had interviews with Her Majesty 
 and several eminent Statesmen. 
 
 And what were the impressions he formed of Christian 
 
 religious life and doctrine in England? It may do us no 
 
 harm to listen once more to the Hindu Theist's utterances 
 
 before he left our shores : — 
 
 'One institution,' he said, 'in England I have looked upon with pecu- 
 liar feelings of delight — the happy English home, in which the utmost 
 warmth and cordiality of affection, and sympathy, are mingled with the 
 highest moral and religious restraint and discipline. The spirit of prayer 
 and worship seems mixed up with daily household duties, and the
 
 5o6 Modern Theism. Rdmmohwi Roy's successors. 
 
 influence of the spirit of Christ is manifest in domestic concerns.' ' Yet,' 
 he added, 'it grieves me to find that the once crucified Jesus is crucified 
 hundreds of times every day in the midst of Christendom. The Christian 
 world has not imbibed Christ's spirit.' 
 
 At Birmingham he said : — 
 
 ' Since my arrival in England I have found myself incessantly sur- 
 rounded by various religious denominations, professing to be Christians. 
 Methinks I have come into a vast market. Every sect is like a small 
 shop where a peculiar kind of Christianity is offered for sale. As I go 
 from door to door, from shop to shop — each sect steps forward and offers 
 for my acceptance its own interpretations of the Bible, and its own 
 peculiar Christian tjeliefs. I cannot but feel perplexed and even amused 
 amidst countless and quarrelling sects. It appears to me, and has always 
 appeared to me, that no Christian nation on earth represents fully and 
 thoroughly Christ's idea of the kingdom of God. I do believe, and I 
 must candidly say, that no Christian sect puts forth the genuine and 
 full Christ as he was and as he is, but, in some cases, a mutilated, 
 disfigured Christ, and, what is more shameful, in many cases, a counter- 
 feit Christ. Now, I wish to say that I have not come to England as one 
 who has yet to find Christ. When the Roman Catholic, the Protestant, 
 the Unitarian, the Trinitarian, the Broad Church, the Low Church, the 
 High Church, all come round me, and offer me their respective Christs, I 
 desire to say to one and all : " Think you that I have no Christ within 
 me ? Though an Indian, I can still humbly say, thank God that I have 
 my Christ." ' 
 
 This remarkable statement has become invested with far 
 deeper significance and interest since the pubhcation of Mr. 
 Sen's last year's lecture, on the subject ' India asks, Who is 
 Christ?' It might have been expected that his English visit 
 would have brought his Theism into closer affinity with 
 Christian dogma. But such was not really the case. I may 
 state, however, as an interesting fact, that two of his Hindij 
 travelling companions were afterwards baptized. 
 
 On his return to India Mr. Sen applied himself zealously to 
 the work of social reform, and at once started what was called 
 ' The Indian Reform Association ' for female improvement, 
 for the promotion of education among men and women, for 
 the suppression of intemperance, and generally for the social 
 and moral reformation of the people of India. This society, 
 open to all classes and creeds, was founded November 2nd,
 
 Modern Theism. Rdnmiohiin Roys stLcccssors. 507 
 
 1870, and a female Normal and Adult School was opened 
 in 1 87 1. 
 
 The most important Reform of all — that relating to mar- 
 riage — to which Mr. Sen's efforts had already been directed, 
 had not made much progress. The example so well set by 
 the marriage of Debendra-nath Tagore's daughter in 186 1 had 
 created hopes of a better state of things, but little real advance 
 had been achieved. It is true that similar marriages had fol- 
 lowed, but the legality of such marriages was disputed, though 
 a form of ritual had been adopted which was thought to be 
 sufficiently conformable to Hindu usage to insure their va- 
 lidity. It was not encouraging that between 1864 and 1867 
 only seven or eight Adi Samaj Brahma marriages and four or 
 five Progressive Brahma intermarriages between persons of 
 different castes had been solemnized. Nor had much success 
 attended the attempt to prevent early marriages. Mr. Sen 
 and his followers now threw themselves more vigorously than 
 ever into the marriage-reform movement. The best medical 
 opinions were sought, and the proper marriageable age fixed. 
 But the most important step was to memorialize the Govern- 
 ment for a new Marriage Act, to relieve Brahmas from their 
 disability to contract legal marriages according to their own 
 forms. Much agitation ensued. The native mind became 
 greatly excited, and Indian society was stirred to its depths 
 by a conflict of opinion on a matter which affected the very 
 framework of its whole structure and composition. 
 
 At length a Bill was drawn up by Sir Henry Maine, and 
 improved upon by his successor Mr. Stephen (now Sir Fitz- 
 james Stephen, the Judge), which pleased no one. It was 
 violently opposed not only by the orthodox Brahmans, but 
 by the more conservative Theists. The struggle was pro- 
 tracted with much bitterness on the part of the natives for 
 four years. Finally, after many ineffectual attempts at ob- 
 taining a general agreement of opinion, a third Bill was 
 elaborated by Mr. Stephen, and under his able management
 
 5o8 Alodern Theism. Rammohun Roys successors. 
 
 the Native Marriage Act became law on the 22nd of March, 
 1872. It commences thus : — 
 
 ' Whereas it is expedient to provide a form of marriage for persons who 
 do not profess the Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Muhammadan, ParsI, Bud- 
 dhist, Sikh or Jaina reHgion, and to legalize certain marriages the validity 
 of which is doubtful ; it is hereby enacted,' etc. 
 
 The Act, in fact, introduced for the first time the insti- 
 tution of civil marriage into Hindu society. It sanctioned 
 matrimonial union without any necessary religious ceremo- 
 nial. It legalized marriages between different castes. It 
 fixed the minimum age for a bridegroom at 18 and of a 
 bride at 14, but required the written consent of parents or 
 guardians when either party was under 21. It prevented the 
 marriage of persons within certain degrees of consanguinity. 
 It prohibited bigamy, and permitted the remarriage of Indian 
 widows. 
 
 After the passing of this Act fifty-eight marriages took 
 place in the eight and a half years ending August, 1879, 
 against fifty-one in the ten and a half years which preceded 
 its ratification. The average of widow marriages has not as 
 yet been greatly increased by the passing of the Act. The 
 same may be said of intermarriages between persons of dif- 
 ferent castes, though these are said to have become more 
 numerous during the Prince of Wales's visit. All the mar- 
 riages which took place before the Act might have been 
 registered retrospectively, and in this manner legalized, but 
 only twenty-one were so registered. Singularly enough, too, 
 even to this day, some Hindia Theists continue to prefer being 
 married according to Brahmic rites, without availing them- 
 selves of the Act. There appears to be a dislike to the 
 Registrar, as if he were required to take the place of the 
 minister of religion, whereas he simply witnesses the contract 
 between the bride and bridegroom, and listens to the words 
 by which they bind themselves to matrimonial union. Some 
 Theists also object to the categorical repudiation of the Hindu
 
 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roy s successors. 509 
 
 religion which must precede the performance of the civil mar- 
 riage, considering that because they are Brahmas they are 
 not, therefore, un-Hinduized. 
 
 Yet, it cannot be doubted that Mr. Sen and his followers 
 deserve the gratitude of their fellow-countrymen for their 
 labours in agitating for and obtaining the ratification of so 
 useful an Act. At any rate the events of the year 1873 
 must always constitute an epoch in the history of the reform- 
 ing movement. 
 
 For some time afterwards the Adi Brahma-Samaj led by 
 Debendra-nath, and the Brahma-Samaj of India under Keshab 
 Chandar Sen, achieved good work in their respective spheres, 
 and in not unfriendly co-operation with each other. The two 
 leaders, though very different in character, were both men of 
 unusual ability, and both penetrated by a sincere desire for 
 the regeneration of India. Each Samaj, too, had its able 
 Secretary and Writer, and Adi-Samaj in Raj Narain Bose, 
 and the more Progressive Samaj in Mr. Sen's cousin Pratap 
 Chandar Mozoomdar^. Moreover, the Conservative Samaj 
 had its literary organ in the Tattva-bodhinI patrika, and the 
 Progressive in a daily newspaper called ' The Indian Mirror.' 
 
 No better proof of the activity of the two societies could be 
 given than the success of their missionary operations. By the 
 end of 1877 the number of Brahma Samajes scattered through- 
 out India,, including Assam, had increased to a hundred 
 and seven, some following the Conservative pattern, and 
 some the Progressive. In 1875 fresh attempts were made to 
 establish a general representative Council of all the Samajes, 
 and one or two meetings were held, but no definite scheme 
 has yet been matured. 
 
 Meanwhile, lamentable dissensions leading to a serious 
 
 ^ This gentleman has been in England for three or four months this 
 year (1883). He kindly called to see me at Oxford and much impressed 
 me by his conversation. I hope to give an account of my interview with 
 him in a future volume. He has lately published a very interesting 
 summary of the doctrines of his Samaj.
 
 5IO Modern Theism. Rammohun Roy s successors. 
 
 schism have taken place in the Progressive Brahma-Samaj. 
 Without doubt the career of this Samaj continued for several 
 years to be one of real progress. It did sterling work in 
 propagating its own reforming principles. It sent forth 
 earnest missionaries to all parts of India. It put forth an 
 ably written Sunday edition of its daily newspaper the Indian 
 Mirror ^. It encouraged fervour of faith and devotion (bhakti) 
 to such an extent that it was accused of making religion an 
 affair of mere emotion and excitement. One direction in 
 which the devotional side of the movement developed itself 
 was in the rapturous singing of hymns in chorus (samkirtana), 
 sometimes performed in procession through the streets. 
 Another form of development was the establishment of 
 Brahmotsavas, or periodical religious festivals as seasons of 
 special prayer, faith, and rejoicing. Besides all this, many 
 members of the Society were remarkable for austerity of life, 
 and the Samaj had a niche for those who gave themselves up 
 to severe self-discipline and asceticism (Vairagya). 
 
 The rock on which it split was its too unquestioning 
 submission to the commanding ability of its leader. Keshab 
 Chandar Sen had fought his way through difficulties, hard- 
 ships and perils, with indomitable energy, but was not prepared 
 for an unsuspected danger — the danger of success — the danger 
 that too much praise would be lavished on the work he had 
 accomplished. For many years his daily path had certainly 
 not led him through clover ; nor had his nightly rest been 
 taken on a bed of roses. Nowhere is eminent ability wor- 
 shipped with more fervour than in India. So conspicuous 
 were Mr. Sen's talents that he soon became the object of a 
 kind of adoration. He was even accused of accepting divine 
 
 ^ Besides the 'Indian Mirror' the Sidabh Sumac/idr {' Cheap News') 
 and Dhar7na-tattva^ ' Religious Truth,' have long been exponents of Mr. 
 Sen's teaching. Mr. Mozoomdar's ' Theistic Annual,' and his ' Theistic 
 Quarterly Review' which has lately taken its place, are more recent 
 advocates on the same side.
 
 Modern Theism. Rdmmohun Roy's successors. 5 1 1 
 
 honours. This, of course, he denied, and his followers have 
 always indignantly repelled the charge, but his old Vaishnava 
 training was not without its influence on his own estimate 
 of his own mission and office. He certainly supposed himself 
 to be in some special manner a partaker of divine gifts. Even 
 in his address, delivered so recently as January, if^79, though 
 he answers the question, ' Am I an inspired prophet ? ' in the 
 negative, he lays claim to a kind of direct inspiration. He 
 declares that he has had visions^ of John the Baptist, Jesus 
 Christ, and St. Paul, who all favoured him with personal 
 communications, that the Lord said he was to have perennial 
 inspiration from heaven, that all his actions were regulated by 
 divine command (adesa), and that men should remember that 
 to protest against the cause which he upheld was to protest 
 against the dispensations of God Almighty. 
 
 Then, again, Keshab Chandar Sen was not merely an 
 autocrat among his own people in matters of faith and 
 doctrine. He was the sole administrator of the affairs of 
 the Society, and ruled it with the rod of an irresponsible 
 dictator. People began to complain that the Progressive 
 Brahma-Samaj was without a constitutional government. It 
 had no freedom of discussion in the management of its own 
 affairs. Keshab Chandar Sen was not only its Bishop, Priest, 
 and Deacon all in one. He was a kind of Pope^, from whose 
 decision there was no appeal. 
 
 ^ A great part of the matter in this chapter was dehvered by me before 
 the Royal Asiatic Society and printed in the Journal of that Society. 
 A Brahma Missionary Conference held on Dec. 22, 1880, commissioned 
 the brother of Mr. Sen to write me a letter calling in question some of 
 my statements. In that letter the members of the Conference object to 
 the expression ' visions,' and declare that on the occasion here alluded 
 to Mr. Sen only meant to use metaphorical expressions. Further, they 
 assert that Mr. Sen is not regarded by them as a Pope, but only as an 
 inspired apostle commissioned by God. 
 
 ^ Raj Narain Bose considers that Mr. Sen is justly amenable to this 
 charge, as he (Mr. Sen) brought the same charge against Debendra-nath 
 at the time of the schism.
 
 5 1 2 Modern Theism. Rd-imnolmn Roys successors. 
 
 While all these elements of discontent were at work, a 
 most unexpected revelation took place, the effect of which 
 was to precipitate the disruption of the Samaj. It turned 
 out, in fact, that Keshab Chandar Sen, with all his almost 
 superhuman eloquence, ability, and genius, was nothing after 
 all but a plain human being, with very human infirmities. 
 It appears that as early as August, 1877, it began to be 
 anxiously whispered that the great social Reformer was 
 likely to sacrifice his own cherished principles at the altar of 
 ambition. He, who had denounced early marriages as the 
 curse of India, was said to be inclined to accept an offer of 
 marriage for his own daughter not yet fourteen, from the 
 young Maharaja of Kuch Behar not yet sixteen years of age. 
 The rumour proved to be too true, and the Indian Mirror of 
 February 9, 1878, formally announced that the marriage had 
 been arranged. Protests from every conceivable quarter 
 poured in upon the great social Reformer, but they were not 
 only unheeded, they v/ere absolutely ignored. The marriage 
 ceremony^ took place on March 6, 1878, and not without 
 idolatrous rites on the bride's side, though these were not 
 performed in the presence of Mr. Sen himself^. In point 
 of fact, the performance of certain ceremonies — such as the 
 Homa, or fire-oblation — was necessary to secure the validity 
 of the marriage in a Native State protected by our Govern- 
 ment, but not subject to the operation of the Marriage Act. 
 Immediately after the wedding the young Maharaja set out 
 
 * The Missionary Conference of Dec. 22, 1880, commissioned Mr. Sen 
 to inform me that this ceremony was only a betrothal and that the parties 
 did not live together as man and wife till a final ceremony had been per- 
 formed in the Brahma Mandir on Oct. 20, 1880. But the ceremony of 
 March 6 was surely the legal ceremony. 
 
 ^ The Indian Mirror of March 17, 1878, informed its readers that 
 ' though the Raja's Purohits, who were orthodox Brahmins, were allowed 
 to officiate at the ceremony, the Homa was not performed during the 
 marriage ; but after the bride and her party left the place. The prin- 
 ciples of Brahma marriage were barely preserved.'
 
 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roys successors. 513 
 
 for England, and the bridegroom and bride did not live 
 together as man and wife till a final ceremony had been 
 performed on Oct. 20, 1880. 
 
 Subsequently the Dharma-tattva and the Indian Mirror 
 published an elaborate justification of Mr. Sen's conduct. 
 The defence set up was that Mr, Sen had no choice in the 
 matter. He had acted, it was said — as was said of Muhammad 
 of old — under divine command (adesa), and in obedience to 
 God's will. Moreover, it was contended that the marriage of 
 his daughter with a Maharaja had dealt a blow at caste- 
 marriages, while the propagation of Theistic opinions in Kuch 
 Behar and other Native States was likely to be materially 
 promoted. Another line of defence taken was that Keshab 
 Chandar Sen's mission had always been that of a religious 
 and not secular Reformer. 
 
 Mr. Sen himself has made extraordinary efforts to restore 
 his own prestige by the elaboration of novel ideas. The year 
 1879 was signalized by the institution of an order of professed 
 teachers of religion, called Adhyapakas. Four teachers were 
 ordained by Mr. Sen on September 7, 1879, among whom was 
 Mr. Mozoomdar. A curious practice has also been introduced 
 of holding supposed conversations and passing days and nights 
 as imaginary pilgrims with the great prophets, apostles, and 
 saints of the world — as, for example, Moses, Socrates, Caitanya, 
 the Rishis, Muhammad, Buddha — who are supposed to be 
 present and to take part in the dialogues and to inspire the 
 pilgrims with the fire of their own nature. 
 
 Furthermore, a remarkable ' Proclamation ' was issued in 
 the Sunday Mirror of December 14, 1879, purporting to come 
 from ' India's Mother.' It is here abridged : — 
 
 ' To all my soldiers in India my affectionate greeting. Believe that 
 this Proclamation goeth forth from Heaven in the name and with the love 
 of your Mother. Carry out its behests like loyal soldiers. The British 
 Government is my Government. The Brahma-Samaj is my Church. 
 My daughter Queen Victoria have I ordained. Come direct to me, with- 
 out a mediator as your Mother. The influence of the earthly Mother at 
 
 Ll
 
 514 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roys stcccessors. 
 
 home, of the Queen Mother at the head of the Government, will raise the 
 head of my Indian children to their Supreme Mother. I will give them 
 peace and salvation. Soldiers, fight bravely and establish my dominion.' 
 
 This idea of God's Motherhood as a correlative to God's 
 Fatherhood is, as I have already pointed out, an essential 
 characteristic of Hinduism (see chapter VII, p. 181). 
 
 Mr. Sen's lecture delivered on the 24th January, 1880, 
 called ' God-vision/ is too full of rhapsody mixed up with 
 many fine thoughts ; but that delivered in the Town Hall, 
 Calcutta, on the 9th of April, 1879, before at least a thousand 
 persons, on the subject, 'India asks. Who is Christ?' was 
 pronounced by those who heard it to be a masterpiece of 
 oratory^. He not only entranced his hearers by an extra- 
 ordinary effort of eloquence ; he surprised them by calling 
 upon India to accept Christ. According to Mr. Sen, 
 Christianity is the true national religion of his fellow-country- 
 men. India is destined to become Christian, and cannot 
 escape her destiny. ' You, my countrymen,' he says, ' cannot 
 help accepting Christ in the spirit of your national scriptures.' 
 In another part of the lecture we find him using these 
 remarkable words : — 
 
 ' Gentlemen, you cannot deny that your hearts have been touched, 
 conquered, and subjugated by a superior power. That power, need I 
 tell you? is Christ. It is Christ who rules British India, and not the 
 British Government. England has sent out a tremendous moral force 
 in the life and character of that mighty prophet to conquer and hold 
 this vast empire. None but Jesus, none but Jesus, none but Jesus, 
 ever deserved this bright, this precious diadem, India, and Jesus shall 
 have it.' 
 
 It is evident, however, that Mr, Sen intends Christ to be 
 accepted by his fellow-countrymen as the greatest of all 
 Asiatic saints and not in the character ascribed to Him by 
 the Church of England. ' Christ comes to us,' he says, ' as 
 
 ^ The Rev. Luke Rivington is my authority. He was present with 
 the Bishop of Calcutta and a few other Europeans. Indeed the lecture 
 was due to a previous conversation with Mr. Rivington at a dinner-party 
 given by Mr. Sen to him and a large number of thoughtful natives.
 
 Modern Theistn. Rdmniohun Roys successors. 515 
 
 an Asiatic in race, as a Hindu in faith, as a kinsman and as a 
 brother. . . . Christ is a true Yogi, and will surely help us to 
 realize our national ideal of a Yogi. ... In accepting Him, 
 therefore, you accept the fulfilment of your national scriptures 
 and prophets.' This is all very striking, but seems rather 
 like presenting Christianity to the Hindus in the light of an 
 advanced phase of Hinduism. 
 
 Mr. Sen's still more recent annual sermon delivered at 
 Calcutta announced the advent of a New Dispensation, which 
 any one perusing the discourse will be surprised to find, is a 
 kind of amalgamation of Hinduism, Muhammadanism, and 
 Christianity. The Reverend E. H. Bickersteth, of Christ 
 Church, Hampstead, was present on the occasion and has 
 recorded his impression of the address in a letter written from 
 Bishop's Palace, Calcutta : — 
 
 * This afternoon Keshab Chander Sen gave his annual address to the 
 Brahma-Samaj in the Town Hall. The huge hall was crammed, I should 
 say 3500 men and some six ladies ; almost all were Hindus, thoughtful, 
 earnest-looking men. He spoke for one hour and forty minutes — a tor- 
 rent of eloquence. He denies the Godhead of Christ, though, with this 
 grave and grievous lack, nothing in parts could be more impassioned 
 than his language of devotion to Christ, He thinks himself the prophet 
 of a " New Dispensation," as he calls it, which is to affirm the Unity 
 of the Godhead, and the unity of all earnest creeds — Hindu, Moslem, and 
 Christian — who worship God. Of course it is a great advance upon the 
 multiform idolatry of this land ; and again and again I said to myself, 
 " Quoniam talis es, utinam noster esses." ' 
 
 As might have been expected, the Protesters, who objected 
 to Mr, Sen's proceedings in regard to the marriage of his 
 daughter, met together, soon after he left for Kuch Behar, 
 to decide on their line of action. An unsuccessful attempt 
 was then made to depose Mr. Sen from his office as Minister, 
 and an unseemly struggle took place for the possession of 
 the Mandir. In the end it was determined to establish a new 
 church on a constitutional and catholic basis. All the pro- 
 vincial Samajes were consulted, and with the approval of the 
 majority, a meeting was held in the Town Hall, Calcutta, 
 
 L 1 2
 
 5i6 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roys successors. 
 
 May 15, 1878, Mr. Ananda Mohan Bose being in the chair, 
 when the following resolution was passed : — 
 
 ' That this meeting deeply deplores the want of a constitutional organiz- 
 ation in the Brahma-Samaj, and does hereby establish a Samaj to be called 
 " The Sadharana [or general] Brahma-Samaj," with a view to remove the 
 serious and manifold evils resulting from this state of things, and to 
 secure the representation of the views and the harmonious co-operation 
 of the general Brahma community, in all that affects the progress and 
 well-being of the Theistic cause and Theistic work in India.' 
 
 At first the Prayer Meetings of this the latest Brahma- 
 Samaj, of which Mr. Ananda Bose was the first President \ 
 were held in temporary rooms, but a new Prayer Hall was 
 commenced in January, 1879, and the building is now, I 
 believe, nearly completed. At the same time, the Brahma 
 Public Opinion^ newspaper, and the Tattva-kaumudl^ 'Moon- 
 light of Truth,' a fortnightly paper, were started as religious 
 and literary organs of the protesting party. 
 
 It is scarcely possible as yet to predict what may be the 
 future of this fourth development of the Brahma Theistic 
 movement. Its name, Sadharana, implies that it aims at 
 more comprehensiveness, and a more democratic system of 
 Church government, but its organization, though promising 
 well under the leadership of Mr. A. M. Bose and Pandit Siva- 
 nath Sastrl (a man of undoubted eloquence and ability), is not 
 as complete in relation to the rest of India as it may yet 
 become. There appears in fact to be no one man at present 
 among its members who has the religious genius of either 
 Keshab Chandar Sen, or of Debendra-nath Tagore, or the 
 literary culture which characterizes the best productions of 
 Mr. P. C. Mozoomdar and Raj Narain Bose. But there are 
 a larger number of secondary leaders — men of good sound 
 sense, religious earnestness, and plain practical ability, who 
 
 * He has been succeeded by Babu Shib Chandar Deb. 
 
 '^ This has now become a purely secular paper and has changed its 
 name to ' Bengal Public Opinion,' while the ' Indian Messenger,' well 
 edited by Sivanath Sastrl, M. A., has taken its place as the religious organ.
 
 Modern Theism. Rammo/mn Roys successors. 5 1 7 
 
 accomplish a great deal of useful work together, and will 
 probably hereafter make their society the leading Samaj of 
 India. 
 
 It is to be hoped that much of the bitterness of feeling 
 produced by the late schism has already passed away, and that 
 the various Samaj es of India may ere long forget their petty 
 differences, and agree upon some course of combined and 
 systematic action. Surely the little army of Reformers, how- 
 ever courageous, is not strong enough to bear weakening by 
 internal divisions. A compact and serried front is urgently 
 needed in the presence of malignant foes, who neglect no 
 opportunity of marshalling their forces, and uniting in active 
 co-operation for the destruction of the scattered ranks of their 
 opponents. 
 
 Some attempt at concerted action between the numerous 
 bodies of Theists, which the operation of our educational 
 system is rapidly calling into existence, is certainly needed ; 
 for there are now more than a hundred and seventy Theistic 
 Churches scattered throughout the country. That at Madras, 
 founded in 1871, and developed out of a previous Society, 
 called the Veda-Samaj, was well led for some time by its 
 Secretary, Sridharalu Naidu (long under the tuition of the 
 Adi Brahma-Samaj), but at his death languished. It revived 
 in 1879, but seems to be still in want of a good leader. At 
 Bombay, the Prarthana-Samaj, or Prayer Society, was the 
 first Theistic Church of Western India. It was founded in 
 1867, and owes much of its continued vitality to the support 
 of an enlightened native Doctor of Medicine, Dr. Atmaram 
 Pandurang. 
 
 Many of the Samajes take an independent line of their 
 own. Some are conservative, and conform to the pattern 
 of the Adi Brahma-Samaj at Calcutta \ Some, again, have 
 
 ^ According to Raj Narain Bose, the Adi Brahma-Samaj, though 
 generally conservative, contains individical members who have taken 
 part in very progressive reforms, such as discarding the thread, the
 
 5i8 Modem Theism. Rammohun Roys successors. 
 
 distinct characteristics peculiar to themselves, which ca'4 only 
 be understood by personal investigations in each locality. 
 
 I myself attended meetings of the Adi Brahma-Samaj at 
 Calcutta, and of the corresponding Samaj, called the Prar- 
 thana-Samaj at Bombay. The services at the former w^re 
 conducted by a son of Debendra-nath. The sermon was 
 preached from a raised platform or altar (Vedi) ; and three 
 singers, seated in front of a kind of organ, chanted the hymns 
 in loud tones, and with much warmth of manner and energetic 
 gesticulation. 
 
 At Bombay the Manual used by the Prarthana-Samaj con- 
 tained selections from the Veda, Upanishads, Christian Bible, 
 Kuran, and Zand-Avasta. Hymns were sung with much 
 fervour in a thoroughly Hindu fashion to an accompaniment 
 played on the Vina or Indian lute, and prayers were said, 
 consisting chiefly of invocations of the Supreme Being, with 
 praise and adoration of His attributes, but without confession 
 of guilt, while the congregation remained seated, though their 
 hands were joined in reverence. After the prayer a sermon 
 was preached by Professor Bhandarkar of the Elphinstone 
 College, who took for his text a passage from the Katho- 
 panishad (VI. 15), thus translatable: — 'Man cannot bbtain 
 immortality till all the knots in his heart caused by ignorance 
 and unbelief are untied (yada sarve prabhidyante hridayasya 
 granthayah).' He then illustrated his text by quotations 
 from other books. For example — a passage from Tukaram 
 — the most popular Maratha poet : — ' There is no happiness 
 other than peace. Therefore preserve peace, and you will 
 cross over to yonder shore.' 
 
 What chiefly struck me was the apparent absence of sym- 
 pathy or rapport between the official performers of the 
 services and the general congregation. The hymns were 
 
 remarriage of widows, emancipation of females, etc. The Adi Samaj in 
 fact is conservative in religious reform, basing it on Vedas and Vedanta, 
 but leaves social reform to the judgment and taste of individual members.
 
 Modern Theisvi. Rammohun Roy s successors. 519 
 
 energ tically sung by the appointed singers, the prayers 
 earnestly repeated, and the address solemnly delivered by 
 the minister, but the congregation neither stood nor knelt, 
 and seemed to take no really cordial part in the proceedings. 
 It i:: true that a sitting posture at prayer is customary, and 
 by no means intended to imply irreverence ; yet I came 
 away persuaded that the Prarthana-Samaj of Bombay, in 
 spite of honest strivings after a pure soul-stirring Theism, is 
 still chilled and numbed by the lingering influence of the old 
 Vedantic Pantheism, which it is unable wholly to shake off. 
 
 Before concluding these remarks I should note that occasional 
 Reformers still arise who make efforts to go back to the 
 Veda, and to found a pure Theism on the doctrines con- 
 tained in the hymns. A conservative Theistic movement of 
 this kind has recently been inaugurated by a remarkable 
 Gujarat! Brahman named Dayananda SarasvatI SvamI — now 
 about 60 years of age — who calls his new church the Arya- 
 Samaj. He is a strong opponent of idolatry as well as of 
 both Pantheism and Polytheism, but contends that the four 
 Vedas are a true revelation, and that the hymns to Agni, 
 Indra, and Surya are really hymns to One God. In the 
 printed statement of his creed he declares that he is not an 
 independent thinker (naham svatantrah), but a follower of 
 the Veda ; that the four Samhita texts of the Vedas are 
 to be received as a primary authority in all matters relating 
 to human conduct ; that the Brahmanas, beginning with the 
 Satapatha ; the six Ahgas or limbs of the Veda, beginning 
 with Siksha ; the four Upa-vedas ; the six Darsanas or 
 Schools of Philosophy, and the 1130 schools of Vedic teach- 
 ing (sakhas^) are to be accepted as secondary authority in 
 expounding the meaning of the Vedas, and that adoration, 
 prayer, and devotion are to be offered to One God only, 
 
 ^ That is * branches.' Of these there are one thousand for the Sama- 
 veda, one hundred for the Yajur-veda, twenty-one for the Rig-veda, and 
 nine for the Atharva-veda. See Patanjali's Mahabhashya I. i. i.
 
 520 Modern Theism. Rammohun Roys successors, 
 
 abstracted from all idea of shape and form, and without any- 
 second, as set forth in the Vedas. 
 
 Of course such a form of monotheistic teaching — including 
 as it does the doctrine of metempsychosis (punar-janma) — is 
 repudiated by the various Brahma Samajes, and even by the 
 Adi Samaj of Calcutta. Nor would Dayananda himself 
 admit an identity of teaching with the Brahma Theistic 
 movement. Nevertheless he is doing undoubted good by 
 his uncompromising opposition to the later developments of 
 Hinduism, including the whole circle of Puranic mythology. 
 
 And let us not be slow to acknowledge the good results 
 likely to flow from all this agitation in Indian religious 
 thought — all this upheaval of old ideas, all this change in 
 religious life — due to the various Theistic movements. Still 
 less let us regard with suspicion the efforts of these modern 
 Theistic Reformers^ as if they were unfavourable to the 
 progress of Christian truth. We may be quite sure that men 
 like Debendra-nath Tagore, Keshab Chandar Sen^ and the 
 other leaders of the chief Theistic churches, are doing good 
 work in a Christian self-sacrificing spirit, though they may- 
 fall into many errors, and may not have adopted every single 
 dogma of the Nicene or Athanasian Creeds. 
 
 Let us hold out the right hand of fellowship to these noble- 
 minded Patriots — men who, notwithstanding their undoubted 
 courage, need every encouragement in their almost hopeless 
 struggle with their country's worst enemies. Ignorance, Pre- 
 judice, and Superstition. Intense darkness still broods over 
 the land — in some places a veritable Egyptian darkness thick 
 enough to be felt. Let Christianity thankfully welcome and 
 wisely make use of every gleam and glimmer of true light, 
 from whatever quarter it may shine. 
 
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