t v u^r- lA JOUA, CAUFORNIA 1 \ THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES SOUTH OF THE DANUBE. A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY AND I'RESENT STATE IN RELATION TO THE OTTOMAN PORTE. WILLIAM FORSYTH, Q.C., LL.D., M.P., Author of " The Lite of Ci< tio ; " "Cafes anci Ojiinions on Conllitutional Law," &c., &c. Late Fellow of Trinity College, CAMnRinoE. WITH A MAP. LONDON : JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE ST. 1876. [^RigAt of Translation is reserved."] BY SAME AUTHOR. HORTENSIUS; an Historical Kssay on the Office and Duties of an Ailvooilc. Second tdition, with Illustrations, Svo. I2s. LIFE AND TIMES OF CICERO; His Charactf.r as a Statesman, OratDr, and Friend. With a Selection from his Correspondence and Orations. 3nl tdilion. With Illubtralions, Svo. los. 6d, THE NOVEI^ AM) NOVELISTS OE THE iStu CKNTUKV; in Illustration of the Manners and Morals of the Age. Tost 8vo, lOs. 6d. HISTORY OF ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. I'obt Svo, 2S. M. PREFACE. So little is really known in this country of the paft hiftory and prefent ftate of the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey, and the information to be got is fcattered in fo many volumes— moft of them in foreign languages— that I thought it might be ufeful to bring the falient points within the compafs of a fhort notice, and thus affift in forming a corred judgment upon a queftion, which is, by the irrefiftible logic of fafts, forcing itfelf upon public attention, and which I believe is deiVmed, if not now effedually dealt with, to be a fource of ever-recurring trouble to the peace of Europe. CONTENTS. PACE The Slavs ' Servia ^5 Bosnia (and Herzegovina) 73 Montenegro 97 Bulgaria . "-9 Turkish Government '49 1. THE SLAVS. y I. THE SLAVS. By the Slavonic Provinces fouth of the Danube I mean Servia, Bofnia with the Herze- govina and Turkifli Croatia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. There are other Slavonic provinces to which the fame geographical definition applies, fuch as Croatia proper, Slavonia between the Save and the Drave, and Dalmatia ; but thefe do not come within the fcope of the prefent notice, for they belong exclufively to Auftria, and the Ottoman Porte makes no pretenfions to dominion over them. The Danublan Provinces of the Roman Em- pire in the fecond century of the Chriillan era THE SLAVS. were known under the general names of Dacla on the north of the Danube, and Moefia, Pan- nonia, and Dalmatia, on the fouth. But the whole of this fouthern region was generally called Illyricum. Dacia comprifed the modern pro- vinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, now known as Roumania, north of which were the vaft deferts of Sarmatia or Scythia.* Mccfia, which was divided into Superior and Inferior, contained part of Bofnia, and the whole of Servia and Bul- garia. The reft of Bofnia was in Pannonia, and Montenegro is part of the ancient Illyricum or Dalmatia, the name given to the ftrip of coaft on the eaftcrn fea-board of the Adrintic. The whole of thcfe provinces were known as the Illyrian frontier of the Roman dominion, and were efteemed, as Gibbon fiiys, the moft warlike of the Empire. The Dacians he calls the moft * Sauromatas gentes Scytharum Grac'i I'ocant, quos Sarmatas Romania Plin. Hill. Nat. lib. 4, c. 11. Florus lays of the inha- bitants, Tanta barbar'us est ut pacem non intelUgant, lib. 4, c. 12. VIA TRAJAXA. warlike of men. D.icia was conquered by Trajan after a memorable ftruggle of five years. It had been invaded previoufly by Domitian, and although he did not really fubdue it, he gratified his vanity by a triumph. The traveller, who like myfclf in 1869 defcends the Danube, will, on entering the magnificent fcencry of the Carpathian gorge, obferve on the right bank of the river, about ten feet above the furface of the water, a long feries of fquare holes in the lofty rocks of Servia, extending for nearly fifty miles, as far as the Iron Gates. For ages the origin of thefe holes remained a myftery, and puzzled antiquaries, many fanciful theories being fuggefted to account for them. But tiiey are now afcertained beyond a doubt to be the fockets in which were inferted the wooden crofs-beams upon which were laid planks to form the great military road called the Via Trajdua, along which the Roman legions marched. It mull have been a work of immenfe THE SLAVS. labour, and is one of the many proofs of the indomitable energy and engineering fkill of the conquerors of the world. Gibbon, who publifhed the firft volume of his Hiftory in 1776, fays,* " The inland parts (of " Illyricum) have afiumed the Slavonian names " of Croatia and Bofnia ; the former obeys an " Auftrian Governor, the latter a Turkifli " Pacha ; but the whole country is ftill infefted " by tribes of barbarians, whofe favage indepen- " dence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of *' the Chriftian and Mahometan power." This defcription is not applicable at the prefent day. The inhabitants are certainly not barbarians, and neither Croatia nor Bofnia is independent — the one belonging to Auftria and the other to Turkey. The real origin of the Slavs is loft In the darknefs of antiquity. Guided, however, by philology, which is the only fure key that un- ■* Decline and Fall, chap, i.^ 6 . ORIGIN OF NAME. locks the myftery of the primeval relatlonftiip of different nations, we know that they were a great offfhoot of the Aryan family of man ; * and hiftory tells us that when they appeared in Europe they dwelt or roamed in the boundlefs fteppes of Scythia and Sarmatia before they fpread weftward, croffed the Danube, and over- ran the provinces of the Roman Empire. The name is faid to be derived from Slava, which in the Slavonic language fignifies Glory ; but the people muft have had a diftindlive name, before by their warlike deeds they could arrogate to themfelves the title of Glorious, and therefore we cannot confider it as their original appellation. f * A reference to Bopp's Comparative Grammar {Vergleichende Grammatik) will rtiow how intimately the Slavonic language is connefted with Sanfcrit, or rather is derived from it. t Anotlier derivation is from Slo-vo, word or fpeech, to dif- tinguifti the nation from the races whofe language it did not underftand. So the Greeks called foreign nations Bdp^apoi, " Barbarians," which had special reference to language. Bap- ^apovs, dirrl tov d(fia)vovs. — Suidas. fya> yap aiirovs, (iapfiapovi bvras irpoTov, eSi'Sa^a ttjv (fxoPTjv — Ariftoph. Aves. THE SLAVS. Procopius (de Bello Gothico, iii. 14), who wrote in the fixth century, fays that the Slavs were anciently called Spori, becaufe they occu- pied land with tents fcattered far apart. This, however, is clearly a falfe etymology, for Spo- radic, which means " fcattered," is derived from a Greek word, a language of which the Slavs then knew nothing.* He generally mentions them in connection with the Antes, a tribe whofe conqueft by Juftinian induced the Roman em- peror to add Anticus to his other titles. And Jornandes, Biihop of Ravenna, who was a con- temporary of Procopius, fpeaks of the Slavs (Sclavini) and the Antes as the principal nations of Scythia, and as dwelling in marfhes and forefts inftead of towns. f According to Herder,J they were firft met with on the Don^ then * A not improbable derivation of Spori is from S^bor, pro- nounced Sabor, the Slavonic word for council or afTcmbly. t Hi paludes fyl-vafque pro ci-vitatibus habent. — Jornandes, Dc Rebus Geticis, cap, 5. X Ideen zur Philofophie der Gefchichte der Menfchheit, Viertcr Theil, p. 31. 8 ORIGIN OF RACE. amonsft the Goths, and afterwards on the Danube, amidft the Huns and Bulgarians — preferring to obtain quiet poffeffion of lands evacuated by the Teutonic tribes, rather than gain them by force of arms. Slavonic writers, fuch as Schafarik, arc fond of reprefenting their countrymen in the olden time as a quiet inoffenfive people, only too happy to be at peace with their neighbours. But there really feems to be no authority for this, and it is much like the dream of a former Golden Age — for certainly, when the Slavs firft appear on the ftage of Hiftory, we find them a reftlefs, warlike, and aggreflive nation. With regard to their origin, the truth feems to be that the Slavs were an agglomeration of various tribes united by the tie of a common dialed, of which Sanfcrit is the oldeft known form. Their Indian or Aryan defcent is fhown not only by their language, but alfo by one or two curious cuftoms which prevailed amongft THE SLAVS. them, and which no doubt they inherited from their Afiatic progenitors. One of thefe was the pradlice of Suttee^ for their widows ufed to burn themfelves on the funeral piles of their deceafed hufbands. Now, although it is true that futtee is not mentioned in the Vedas,* nor in their ancient commentator Menu, and hence fome have inferred that widow-burning is a later in- novation, it is recognized in the epic poetry of the Hindus, and was common amongft feveral of the Aryan nations. Another cuftom was the principle of undivided family, which exifts in full force amongft the Hindus at the prefent day. *' Equal divifion fprings from the moft *' ancient conftitutional principle of the Slavs — " that of joint and undivided family poffefTion, " and periodical fharing of the produce ; this " probably exifted among all the Slavonian races, * " The burning of widows was not enjoined in the Vedas, " and hence, in order to gain a fanftion of it, a paflage in the "Veda was falfified." — Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workfhop, vol. iv. p. 318. 10 JOINT FAMILY. " and is ftlll to be found in Servia, Croatia, &c., ** where it is the pradice in fome parts not even " to divide the land every year, but to cultivate " it jointly under the diredlion of the ' elders,' " and only to jfhare the harvefts equally among " the elders of the commune."* In Servia, at the prefent day, there is an inftitution called Zadrouga, which is defined in the Servian code to be '* a community of living and property " founded on relationihip." The oldeft living anceftor is called Stareschinay and all who are defcended from him work for a common purle under his diredion and management. But the aflbciation is voluntary, and any member is at liberty to withdraw from it, juft as in India " feparation " frequently takes place, and the undivided family becomes divided. f * Haxthaufen's Ruffian Empire, vol. i. p. 120. f "In Servia, in Croatia, and the Auftrian Slavonia, the " villages are alfo brotherhoods of perfons who are at once "co-owners and kinfnien." — Ancient Law, by Sir Henry Maine, p. 267. IT THE SLAVS. Procoplus tells us that the form of govern- ment amongft the Slavonians was a democracy, and they deliberated in a public aflembly.* But we are not to fuppofe from this that there was one afTembly for the whole nation, for there were numerous fubdivifions, each of which feems to have been independent of the other, and the old name for the petty chiefs was Znpan^ the original meaning of which is "funny land." They were as cruel as they were brave, and we learn from ancient writers with what ingenious barbarity they tortured their captives taken in' war. Gibbon, in his ufual ftyle of hefitating and qualified affertion, fays that the cruelties of the Slavonians are " related or magnified " by Pro- copius, but there fecms no reafon to doubt that what he tells us of them is true. A good de- fcription of their phyfical appearance is given by Count Krafiniki, and is, in fa6l, an epitome of * ovK (Ip^ovrai Trpo? dv8p6s evos, i.e. they had no fingle ruler. — Procop. de Bell. Goth. iii. 14. 12 THEIR DESCRIPTION. , the accounts we find in the old Greek and Latin authors. " The ancient Slavonians are defcribed as tall " and of very ftrong make ; their complexion " was not very white, and their hair was of a " rcddilh colour. They could eafily fupport " hunger, thirft, heat, cold and want of covering, " and were dirty in their habits. They lived in " miferable huts, and they often changed their " place of abode. They went into battle without " fhirt or cloak, and their only covering was a '* pair of fhort troufers." * In the great Slavonic overflow that rufhed like a torrent over part of Europe, fome portions of the race fpread themfelves through the pafTes of the Carpathian Mountians to the weft and north as far as Poland and Pomerania, and the Czechs of Bohemia are part of the fame nation * Quoted by Sir G.Wilklnfon in his " Dalmatia and Monte- negro," vol. i. p. 34- Except as regards the troufers the de- fcription might apply to the Highlanders of former days. 13 THE SLAVS. that fettled in the countries on the fouth of the Danube. The total amount of the Slavonic population in Europe now, is eftimated at not lefs than eighty millions.* This is a fad with which Europe will one day have to reckon. They are fcattered over the continent, and in fome parts fo intermixed with other races that it is difficult to diftinguifh them. The only geo- graphical divifion which has obtained or kept the original name of the nation is Slavonia, the country between the Save and the Drave, both affluents of the Danube, and which belongs to Auftria. It is to the fouthern immigration of the race that I fhall confine myfelf in the following notice. * Deutfches Staats Worterbuch. Die Slaven, Band ix. 14 II. SERF I A. II. SERVIA. Servia ought to be pronounced Serbia. The foftening of the b into v is fuggeftive of a wrong etymology, as if it had fome connexion with the Latin word Servits* But inveterate habit has taught us to fpealc of Servia, and fo it is written in all the Confular Reports received at the * And yet the word " flave " is fuppofed to be derived from the Slavs, and to have originated in the eighth century in the eaftern part of France, where the princes and bifhops had many Slavonian captives. " From the Euxine to the Adriatic, in the " ftate of captives or fubjefts, or allies or enemies, of the Greek "Empire, they (the Slavonians) overfpread the land; and the " national appellation of the Slaves has been degraded by chance " or malice from the fignification of glory [Jla-ua, laus, gloria) " to that of fervitude." — Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 55. The old Slavonic word lox Jlwve is rab. 17 SERVIA. Foreign Office.* I fKall therefore ufe the word Servia, although under proteft. The moft powerful Slavonic tribe that crofTed the Danube and fettled itfelf on the fouth of that river was the S'rbi or Serbi, fometimes written S'rbli. Their name feems to have been applied in old times very generally to the whole Slavonic people. This immigration was in the feventh century. At that time the favage hordes of the Tartar Avars had devaftated the northern provinces of the Greek Empire, and fettled themfelves in Macedonia. The Serbs were invited by the Emperor Heraclius to come and expel thefe intruders, and when they had done this, they foon afterwards marched northwards and fpread themfelves over the country now known as Bulgaria, Servia, and Bofnia, great part of which had previoully been occupied by * The proper name of Servia is S'rbia, and the Servians are in Slavonic S'rbs ; but the necefTity of pronunciation compels us to infert the e, juft as we are obliged to turn the Slavonic word S'bor^ council or aflembly, into Sabor. i8 CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY. the Getas and Triballi. Gradually they extended their poffeiTions both weft and fouth, and the Servian hiftorian, Davidovltch, enumerates thir- teen territories now known under diftindl names which were once under the dominion of his countrymen.* According to Conftantine Por- phyrogenitus the Servian people embraced Chrlfllanlty in the reign of the Emperor Heraclius, but It Is believed that their converfion took place at a later epoch. We know that the Scriptures were tranflated into the Slavonic tongue by St. Cyril and Methodius fome time in the ninth century, and this is ftlll the facred language of the Slavonic nations which are members of the Greek Church. The Serbs were governed by chiefs called Zupans, and it was not for fome time that thefe fubmitted to the autho- rity of a fingle ruler called Veliki or Grand Zupan. Indeed It Is not clear that at firft the Grand Zupan was more than primus inter pares y * Les Serbes en Turquie, par Ubicini, pp. 24, 25. 19 C 2 SERVIA. and In the old Slavonic language he was called Starjejhia or Senior, and had his refidence at Deftinika on the Drina, which feparates Servia from Bofnia. In the tenth century the Zupan of Dioclea raifed himfelf to the chief power. In the meantime the Servians acknowledged the fupremacy of the Greek Empire, but made it a condition that they fhould reniain under the rule of their own Zupans, who were elefted by the free choice of the people. They were long en- gaged in bloodv ftruggles with their neighbours, and in the year 924 the Bulgarians who occupied the territory to the eaft. and of whom I Ihall fpeak more particularly hereafter, invaded Servia and completely conquered it. Many ot the Servian nobles were fent as hoftages into Bul- garia, and a great part of the population was \ tranfplanted there, while the land was ravaged and laid wafte by the Bulgarian hordes.* This was while Symeon was ruler of Bulgaria, but * Schatarik, Sla-x-ij'che AlierthiinuT, ii. 31. KRAL OR KING. after his death the Servians, with the help of the Greek Emperor, recovered the territory they had loft, and their Grand Zupan Tcheflav renewed his homage to the Greek Court. This feudal relationfhip became complete dependence after the overthrow of the Bulgarian kingdom by the Emperor Bafil \\, in 1018, and Servia was treated as a province of the Greek Empire. But in 1040-43 Stephan Bogiftaw, who had been imprifoned at Conftantinople, efFefled his efcape, and returning to his native country expelled the Greek governor and reftored Servia to a ftate of independence. And when in 1043 the Greek Emperor Conftantine Monomachus fent a pov/er- ful army to attempt the conqueft of Servia, it was met by the Servians in the mountains, and annihilated in their impaflable defiles. Bogiflaw's fon and fucceflbr Michael took the title o{ king or kral of the Servians, and as fuch was acknow- ledged by Pope Gregory VII. (1073-78). We need not follow in detail the obfcure 21 SERVIA. hlftory of the Servians and their ftruggles with the Greek Empire, but come at once to Stephan Nemandia, Zupan of Rafcia, who was raifed to the throne in 1165, and became the founder of a powerful dynafty, the feat of whofe govern- ment was at Rafcia, now Novi Bazar. He was of the family of the Zupans of Dioclea, and ruled for thirty-fix years with vigour and fuc- cefs, confiderably enlarging the extent of his dominions. At laft he abdicated the throne and became a monk, dying in a monaftery of Mount Athos, in the year 1200. He was fucceeded by his fon Stephan, who was furnamed Pervovenfhani, " firft-crowned king," although, as we have feen, the kingly title had been aflumed by earlier rulers ; and the crown was worn by fucceffive members of the Ne- \^ mandia family until it came to Stephan Dufhan (1336-1358), under whom the Servian Princi- pality or kingdom rofe to its greateft height of power, and embraced the largeft extent of terri- 11 STEPHAN DLSHAN. tory — Including not only Servia proper, but Macedonia, Theflaly, and Albania, and alfo Bulgaria.* With him, fays Schafarik, the cer- tain hiftory of Servia begins. f With the affent of the ^abor — an aflembly of the principal chiefs, which, on fpecial occafions, formed the Parlia- ment of old Servia, he affumed the title of Czar. In his reign (1349) a code of laws was enaded in an affembly at which were prefent " the Patriarch, the Metropolitans and the " Bifhops, the Czar, the Kniezes or Knees, and " the greater and lefTer governors of the " empire." Thefe laws confifted of 105 articles, and it may be interefting to cite a few of them. They provided for the maintenance of Chriftian * Schafarik, Slavifche Alterthumer, li. 32. t Ranlce (Hiftory of Servia) fays, " A complete and authentic " Hiftory of Servia cannot be expefted until writings, fuch as " Domitian's Life of St. Simeon and St. Sava, and the Rodoftow *' of the Archbifliop Danien and his fucceffors, are publiflied, and *' with a correft text." 23 SERVIA. worfhip and the extirpation of herefy. Converts to the Latin Church, on refufal to return to the orthodox faith, were to be punifhed with death. No layman was to a6t as a judge In ecclefiaftlcal affairs. The Church alone was to decide in Church matters. Church property was not to be alienated. The Churches were not to be fubordlnate to the Great Church (of Conftantl- nople). A nobleman who affronted the honour of another nobleman was to pay a fine. But a mere gentleman who did fo was in addition to be flogged. A nobleman who violated a mar- ried woman was to have his hands and nofe cut off. The adultery of a married woman was punifhed by the lofs of her ears and nofe. A nobleman not Invited to a repaft was not to intrude himfelf by force ; but if invited he was to be punctual, or he was guilty of an offence. All meetings of peafants were forbidden under the penalty of mutilation of ears and branding. Difputes between different villages vvere to be 24 DUSHAN'S LAWS. fettled by an appeal to the Czar. The burning of corpfes was forbidden. Wilful murder was punifhed with lofs of hands, but if the murdered man was one of the clergy, with death. Parri- cides and infanticides were to be burnt. Whole neighbourhoods were made refponfible for theft. Brigands and robbers were to be hanged. Ad- vocates -in courts of juftice were not to calum- niate their opponents. Judges were to deliver written judgments, and give copies to the parties. Drunkennefs was feverely punifhed : drunkards who made a riot or committed an afTault were to have their eyes torn out and one of their hands cut off. A widow was not to marry again until a decent period of mourning for her former hufband had elapfed. The wife of a foldier engao;ed in war was to wait ten years, unlefs fhe had written news of his death, before fhe could contra6l another marriage. Stephan Diifhan affumed the proud title of Czar of the Serbs and Greeks, and even afpired 25 SERVIA. to the throne of Conftantinople itfelf. In the conteft for the imperial purple between John Palaeologus and John Cantacuzene, the latter had invoked and obtaiued the aid of Stephan. The Servian ruler was at this time a powerful monarch, and he made it a condition of his alliance that whatever towns were taken fhould have the liberty of choofing either himfelf or Cantacuzene as their fovereio;n. Gibbon does not mention this ftipulation, but he defcribes the attitude of the two monarchs. " The Cral or *' defpot of the Servians received him (Cantacu- *' zene) with generous hofpitality ; but the ally " was infenfibly degraded to a fuppliant, a hoftage, *' a captive ; and in this miferable dependence ^' he waited at the door of the barbarian, who " could difpofe of the life and liberty of a Roman \^ " Emperor."* The ill-afiorted alliance, how- ever, did not laft long. Jealoufies broke out, and Cantacuzene miftrufting Stephan fought for * Decline and Fall, chap. 63. 26 ENTRY OF THE TURKS. Other fupport. He called to his aid theOfmanli Turks, who had invaded Afia Minor, but had not yet crofTed the Bofphorus. Thus came about "the paffage of the Ottomans into Europe *' — the laft and fatal ftroke in the fall of the " Roman Empire."* Stephan Dufhan feems to have been a true *'Ai/a^ aVSpo)!/, leader of men, tall of ftature, and of commanding prefence. Gibbon is quite wrong in calling him a barbarian. He overran nearly the whole of what is now called Turkey in Europe, and befieged the Emperor Andro- nicus in Theffalonica, compelling him to cede Macedonia. Afterwards he turned his arms northwards, and defeated Louis, King of Hungary, in feveral battles. Having quarrelled with Cantacuzene, as I have already mentioned, he marched upon Conftantinople at the head of a large army, but was feized with fever at Devoli and died there in 1358. * Decline and Fall, chap. 63. 27 . SERVIA. He was fucceeded by his fon Urofch, who was murdered by one of the Servian chiefs, and he was the laft of the Nemandia dynafty in the dired line. On his death in 1357, the people chofe, or the crown devolved upon, Lazar, who was related to the Nemandia family, and he became king or Cral of Servia. The memory of none of their ruleis lingers more fondly in the hearts and fongs of the people than that of this unfortunate prince. He wa^ brave and juft and generous, but fortune hardly ever fmiled upon his arms. In a conteft with the Hungarians he was defeated and deprived of the royal title, and was obliged to content himfelf with the inferior dignity of Knes. And when, in 1389, the Sultan Amurath I. invaded Servia, he had to fight a laft defperate battle for the indepen- dence of his country. Alarmed at the rapid approach of the Turks, Lazar looked round for help, and appealed to the rulers of Bofnia, Hungary, and even 28 BATTLE OF KOSSOVO. Poland to aid him in the ftruggle. But no efFedtive affiftance came, and he had to bear the brunt of the ftorm almoft alone. The two armies met in the Plain of KofTovo, and the Servians were utterly defeated. Lazar fell in the battle, but at the fame moment, or indeed jufl: before, the Sultan Amurath perifhed by the hand of an aflaffin. Milofch Obilitch, one of Lazar's fons-In-law, had been fufpeded of being in fecret intelligence with the Turks, and on the eve of the battle, at a banquet given to the Servian chiefs, the Czar offered a goblet to Milofch, and faid that he drank to the fuccefs of his fchemes, even if next day he fhould betray him to the Sultan. Stung by the farcafm, Milofch drained the cup and fwore that he would {how whether he could prove traitor to his religion and his king. Next morning he went to the Turkifh camp, and being conduded to the tent of the Sultan, knelt before him : then fuddenly rifmg he plunged a dagger in SERVIA. his heart, and as he rufhed out of the tent he was feized by the guards and cut to pieces, after a defperate refiftance. KofTovo was the Fiodden Field of Servia, but the battle there was more difaftrous in its confequences to her than tliat of Fiodden Field was to Scotland, for it was the firfl: ftep to the abfolute fupremacy of the Turks. Bajazet, who fucceeded Amurath on the Ottoman throne, divided Servia between Stephan, the fon, and Vuk Brankovitch, the fon -in-law of Lazar, both of whom bound themfelves to pay- tribute to the Sultan, and furnifh troops for the military fervice of the Sublime Porte. Branko- vitch died of poifon in 1396, and the chief power in Servia became again vefted in a lingle chief of the old reigning family, who was allowed by the Turks to retain the title of Krai or Defpot, although really a vaflal of the Sultan. In the 15 th century a powerful confederacy was formed under the King of Hungary to roll TURKISH OPPRESSION. back the tide of Ottoman conqueft, and it was joined by the Servians, whofe ruler then was George Brankovitch. The Turks were com- pelled to retreat after many obftinate conflids, and by the Peace or Treaty of Szegedin (July, 1444) they relinquifhed their hold of Servia, and reftored it to its independence. But after the death of Brankovitch internal diffenfions on the queftions of the rival pretenfions of the Latin and Greek Churches again opened the door to the admiflion of the Ottomans. They were invited to occupy the fortrefles, and foon became matters of the country. During the long war between the Hungarians and the Ottomans, Servia fufFered terribly. They were crufhed down by the Turks, who had taken Conftantinople in 1453, and are defcribed by a traveller of the i6th century as " poor captives, " none of whom dared to lift up his head."^^ But Auftria and the Germans came to the refcue of * Ranke's Hiltory of Sei-via, chap. 2. 31 SERVIA. Hungary, and the Servians joined the alliance. The refult was that the Crofs triumphed over the Crefcent, and, owing to the brilliant vidories of Prince Eugene, the Peace of PafTarowitz was figned in 1718, by which Servia, or at leaft the northern part of it, was delivered from the Turks, and acknowledged the fupremacy of Auftria. But again the fcene fhifted, and in twenty years the complication of European politics placed Servia once more under the dominion of the Ottoman Porte. It then became to all intents and purpofes a Turkifh province, and until the period of their ultimate deliverance, which I fhall narrate hereafter, the Chriftian inhabitants of Servia, like all the other Rayas in the Otto- man kingdom, became " hewers of wood and "drawers of water" to their infidel mafters. They were domineered over by Turkifh Begs under a Turkifh Pacha, had to render heavy feudal fervices, and pay a poll-tax for every male from the age of {^y^w years. Juftice was 32 TURKISH OPPRESSION. adminiftered by Muffulman Kadis, whofe pay came chiefly from the Rayas, that is the Chriftian inhabitants. The Bifhops received their infignia of office from the Sultan, and to maintain their dignity were not backward in fleecing their flocks. The Rayas were excluded from all fhare in the conduct of public aff^airs, and were in fadt treated as Serfs, '^ as the means where- *' with to realize a revenue for the fupport of " the State which had fubjugated them, and of '^ providing for its foldiery, its officers, and "even for the Court."* No Servian dared to ride into a town on horfeback, and to any Turk, who might demand it, he was bound to render perfonal fervice. If he met a Turk in the road, he was obliged to halt and make way for him, and if he carried arms as a defence againft robbers, he had to conceal them. '* To fufl^er " injuries was his duty ; to refent them was "deemed a crime worthy of punifhment." * Ranke, chap. ili. SERVIA. "The Rayas were confidered a weaponlefs herd, " whofe duty was obedience and fubjedlion." The oppreffion of the Turks naturally pro- duced refiftance, and numbers of the male popu- lation of Servia, rather than fubmit to their extortions, abandoned their homes, and, taking refuge in the forefts, became outlaws and", brigands. Thefe are the Haiduks fo often mentioned in Servian hiftory, who waylaid the Spahis and other Turks in ambufcades, and robbed and murdered them whenever they had the opportunity. By the Peace or Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, Belgrade, which had been occupied by Auftria, was reftored to the Porte, and by Art. 3 of the Treaty, "His Imperial Majefty cedes to the " Octoman Porte the Province of Servia, and " the limits of the two Empires fhall be the " Danube and the Save."* But the time of deliverance came at laft. In * Wenck. Codex Juris Gentium, vol. i, p. 316, et seq. 34 THE JANISSARIES. 1788, Ruffia and Auftria combined In war againft the Sublime Porte, and the Servians rendered the two Chriftian Powers adive affiftance. A volunteer corps was formed, which did good fervice at the fiege of Belgrade in 1789, and next year carried Krufchewatz by ■ ftorm. - Servia, in facft, was pradically re-con- quered from the Turks ; but the old jealoufies between the European Powers on the queftion of the difmemberment of Turkey and aggran- dizement of any of them at her expenfe, were for the moment fatal to her caufe. Peace was made with Turkey in 1791, and Servia was given back to the Sultan. The only ftipulation made in favour of the inhabitants was, that an amnefty fhould be granted to all who had taken part in the revolt. But the inveterate mifgovernment went on as before, and this was met by difturbance and partial infurreftions. It would take too long to tell the ftory of the Janiflaries and their 35 SERVIA. hoftile relations with the Sultan, whofe foldiers they were, but who dreaded them as much as any of the Roman Emperors dreaded their Prastorian guards. Lei; it fuffice to fay that in Servia as elfcwhere they fet the orders from Conftantinople at defiance, and fome of them became mere brigands under chiefs called Dahis, who pradifed every kind of outrage againft the Chriftian Ray as. In 1 804 a terrible maflacre of thefe took place. The Dahis fpared neither rank nor age. The firft viftim was Prince Stano'i, and every Servian of reputation who could be got at was pitileffly murdered. The inhabitants fled to the mountains, and when the Turks approached the villages they found them tenanted only by old men and children. The cruelties of their oppreflbrs at laft roufed the people to refiftance, and leaders were found in three brave men, George Petrovitch, better known afterwards as Kara George or " Black George," Janko 36 RESISTANCE OF THE PEOPLE. Kalitfch, and VafTo Tfcharapitch. The Turks were everywhere attacked, and compelled to take refuge in their fortrefles. Black George, who had been a mere peafant, received the chief command, and a long and bloody ftruggle enfued. The Janiffaries held Belgrade, which was attacked by the infurgents, and they found unexpeded affiftance in the policy of the Ottoman Porte itfelf. That policy was to cripple the power of thofe formidable foldiers, and the Grand Vizier made ufe of the revolt for the purpofe. Bekir, the Pacha of Bofnia, was ordered to interfere, not as the enemy but rather as the friend of the Servians. When he entered the country at the head of 3,000 men, he was received by them with every mark of honour and refped. The commandant at Belgrade did not dare to difobey the dired orders of the Sultan, and on the fummons of the Bofnian Pacha, the gates of the fortrefs were thrown open. The garrifon in the meantime made its efcape by 37 SERVIA. embarking on the Danube and taking refuge in Orfchova. But here the Servians efFedcd an entrance, and fe'veral of the moft obnoxious of their enemies were put to the fword. After this Bekir declared that all was finifhed, and he affured the Servians that they might return peaceably to their occupations. But, although tranquillity was thus reftored for a time, the caufes of difcontent lay too deep for cure fo long as the yoke of Ottoman defpotifm prefled upon the necks of the Rayas. The old fyftem remained in force — infult and outrage on the part of the Turks, and humilia- tion and fuffering on the part of the Servians, Again the flame of revolt againft mifrule was kindled, and encouraged by the fympathy which Ruffia had fhown for her Slavonic brethren in Moldavia and Wallachia on tjie other fide of the Danube, the Servians invoked the protedtion of the Ruffian Czar. Their appeal was favourably received, and negotiations for a peaceful fettle- 38 JVAR WITH THE PORTE. ment of their grievances were fet on footj but the Porte was ftaggered by one of their demands, which was that all the fortrefles in Servia fhould be placed in their hands. The Servians, however, were determined at all hazards to fecure thefe important places, and, while the negotiations were ftill pending, Kara George appeared at the head of a body of troops before Karanovitz, and, after an attack which in the firft inftance failed, fucceeded in getting pofTefTion of the place. Other fortreffes were taken or furrendered by the Turks, and Servia was now in a ftate of open war againft her opprefTors. While the war againft Napoleon was raging over the continent of Europe, Turkey, in 1807, joined the fide of France, and declared war againft Ruflia. Servia naturally fided with a Chriftian Power of which a great part of the population is Slavonic, and aided Ruftia as ftie beft could in the ftruggle. In the campaign of 1809-10 Kara 39 SERVIA. George was hard prefTed by the Turks, and they would probably have been vidorious had not the opportune arrival of a Ruffian army, which croffed the Danube in Auguft, 1809, changed the face of aiFairs. The Turks were again com- pelled to quit their hold of Servia, and fhe was able to deliberate on the courfe of policy which it was mofh for her intereft to adopt. Perfed independence in fo fmall a ftate midft the clafh- ing arms of mighty kingdoms feemed practi- cally impoffible, and Kara George at firft wifhed to place the country under the protedlorate of Auftria. But Ruffian influence prevailed, and no definitive ftep was taken before the campaign of 1 8 10 opened. The Ruffian General, Ka- menikoi, addreffed a proclamation to the Ser- vians, in which he called them " brothers of the " Ruffians, children of the fame family and the " fame faith," and they heartily refponded to his appeal. The Turks again entered Servia ; the former ftruggle was renewed and lafted until 40 TREATY OF BUCHAREST, 1812. Odiober in that year, when the Turks, havnig been worfted in a defperate conflidt near Lofnitza, recrofTed the Drina into Bofnia, and an armiftice was agreed upon, by which that river was made the frontier Hne which neither army was to pafs. Diflenfions, however, between the Servian chiefs now broke out afrefh, and threatened a difTolution of the government — but the refult was that the authority of Kara George became ftronger than ever, and he was from that time pradlically King or Defpot of Servia. But the little State had not been recognifed as independent by any of the Great Powers, and fhe was ftill in theory the vaifal of the Ottoman Porte, and in the treaty of peace which was figned between Ruffia and Turkey at Buchareft in 18 12, Servia is mentioned as fubjed; and tributary to the Sultan. It was therein stipulated that the Servian fortrefles fhould be garrifoned by Turkifh troops, but the internal government of the country was to be left to themfelves on 41 SERVIA. payment of a tribute to the Porte — and promifes were made of fecurity and privileges, which long experience has fhown to be utterly worthlefs v;hen made by Turks to Chriftians under their control. So long as part of the Ruffian army remained in Servia, the inhabitants might confidently rely upon the ftipulations of the treaty being obferved, but Ruffia had now to ftruggle for her own exiftence againft French aggreffion, and all her forces were withdrawn to the north. The Ruffian regiment quartered at Belgrade quitted the country, and Servia was left alone to be trampled under the heel of her hereditary oppreffiors. The inhabitants were ordered to deliver up not only their fortreffes, but their arms ; and on their refufal, Turkiffi troops began to affiemble on the Servian frontier. No longer deterred by fear of Ruffia, whofe power they thought had received a fatal blow at the battle 42 MILOSCH OBRENOVICH. of Lutzen, the Ottoman Porte once more recommenced a Servian war. Never were the fortunes of Servia darker than during this cam- paign. The Turks vidorioufly advanced, and at laft when they crofTed the Morawa river, Kara George, having firft buried his treafure, fled acrofs the Danube, and took refuge in Auftrian territory, where he was foon followed by the Servian Senators. The whole country was now defencelefs, and the Turks took pofTeflion of Belgrade without refiftance. There was, however, one man whofe fortitude did not fail him in this hour of extremeft peril. This was Milofch Obrenovich, who in early youth had herded fwine in the Servian forefls. He had become a Voivode, but did not, like the other Voivodes, abandon Servia. When urged to fly he nobly faid, " No ! whatever may be " the fate of my fellow-countrymen shall be " mine alfo." At firft the Turks tried the policy of conciliation, and induced Milofch, who 43 SERVIA. had neither the means nor the power to make an eiFectual refiftance, to fubmit to their authority. He and other chiefs btcame reconciled to the Porte, and he received from It a confirmation of his dignity as Grand Knes of Rudnik. But, as Ranke fays, the Turks having recovered pofTeffion of the country by hoftile invafion, governed as they thought fit. In other words, their rule was as opprefTive as ever, and taking advantage of a partial attempt at infur- reftion. In the autumn of 1814, Soliman Pacha caufed 1 50 of thofe who had been engaged in it to be carried to Belgrade and there beheaded. Others were impaled alive. Some were bound hand and foot, and fufpended by the extremities, with heavy ftones hung from the middle of their bodies. Some were flogged to death ; others roafted alive on fpits. In anfwer to all remonftrances, the Pacha faid that he was ftill far from afting up to his inflrudlions from 44 INSURRECTION. the Porte, that in faft he was fparing the country ! Thefe atrocities changed the condud: of Milofch. He felt that his own life was no longer fafe, and the miferies of his countrymen were at their full. They were ready to hazard everything rather than endure the continued curfe of Turkifh tyranny, and after a fhort period of fecret organifation, Milofch came forward as their leader and hoifted the ftandard of infurre6lion. On Palm Sunday 1815 he appeared in the midft of an affembly at Zrnutfcha, fully armed and with the banner of a Voivode in his hand, crying out : " Here am I ! and now war agalnft " the Turks is begun 1 " The revolt fpread rapidly, and was as rapidly fuccefsful. In general the Turks made a poor refiftance, and haftily retreated from the open ground, fhelter- ing themfelves in their fortifications. Several of thefe were taken or abandoned, and the ftrong entrenchment of Pofcherawatz was carried after 45 SERVIA. a fierce ftruggle. The Bofnian Pacha, Ali, who came to the affiftance of his countrymen, was defeated by Milofch and taken prifoner. But notwithftanding thefe fuccefles, the fate of Servia hung trembling in the balance. The principal fortreiTes were ftill held by the Turks, and two formidable Turkifh armies, were on the march to crufh the infurredlion, when happily peaceful counfels prevailed at Conftantinople and the war ended without further bloodfhed. Deputies from Servia appeared at the Con- grefs of Vienna in 1815, but little attention was paid to their complaints and earneft prayers for recognition and help. But the two Turkifh armies that were advancing againft Servia halted on their march, owing to orders from Conftan- tinople, and negotiations were opened with a view to peace. Milofch ventured to truft him- felf in the Turkifh lines, but when he found one of the demands was that the Servian population fhould not be allowed to retain their arms, he 46 ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF SUBJECTION. inflexibly refufed, and left the camp. Soon afterwards, however, the commander of the Turkifli army on the Bofnian frontier, with- drew the obnoxious fl:ipulation, faying, *' only " be fubmiflive to the Grand Signor, and you "may carry as many piftols in your belts as " you pleafe — cannon even, for what I care ! " The refult was that the Servians allowed the Turks to occupy Belgrade, and there Milofch, in a folemn conference, on being alked by the Pacha, " Are ye Servians subjedl to the Grand " Signor? " anfwered " We are fubjeft to him." The queilion and anfwer were repeated thrice. The fortrefles of Servia were now garrifoned by the Turks with the confent of the inhabitants, and an Embafly was fent to Conftantinople to regulate the terms on which the country was in future to be governed. In the meantime " the " haughty infolence of the Ottomans difplayed " itfelf in the rudeft and moft offenfive condud."* * Ranke, Hift. of Servia, chap, xviii. 47 SERVIA. But diffenfions broke out again amongft the Servian chiefs themfelves. They were jealous of the authority of Milofch, and tried to thwart his influence. Kara George had returned to Servia, and a league called the Hetaira (not confined to Servia alone), was formed, the members of which fwore to fight with the enemies of their country until they were annihi- lated. Kara George placed himfelf at the head of this league, and invited Milofch to join and renew the fl:ruggle for independence. But Milofch refufed to do this, and denounced Kara George to the Pacha, who told him to bring him his head. Milofch iffued his orders, or at all events indicated where Kara George was to be found, and he was bafely murdered while he was afleep. This great crime left Milofch without any dangerous rival, and in November 1817 he was acknowledged by the Servians Supreme Knes or Ruler of the whole of Servia. Matters remained in an unfettled fl:ate as 48 ARREST OF SERVIAN DEPUTIES. regards the relations of Servia to the Ottoman Porte until 1820, when a Firman *was fent from Conftantinople fpecifying the concefTions which the Sultan had refolved to grant. The autho- rity of the MufTulmans was to be refl:ri6led to the fortrefles, and Milofch was recognifed as the Grand Knes of Servia. A fixed tribute was alfo fubftituted for the former varying amount. But there were other conditions which were ftrongly unpalatable to the Servians. They were to remain " Imperial Rayas " as their forefathers had been, they were to provide for the Turkifh armies whenever they might happen to pafs through the country, and they were re- quired formally to promife that they would never again demand anything more from the Grand Seigneur. They therefore refufed to accept the terms, and an embaffy was sent to Con- ftantinople to prefent the demands which would fatisfy the nation. The deputies however when they reached the capital were put under arreft, 49 ^ SERVIA. and, that he might not be compromifed by any agreement they might make while under durefs Milofch withdrew his credentials from them. The Greek revolution now broke out and materially changed the attitude of the Great Powers, and efpecially of RufTia, towards the Ottoman Porte and her vaflal ftates. RufTia determined to exadl a literal fulfilment of the Treaty of Buchareft, which in fome refpeds had remained in abeyance for feveral years. The Sultan, terrified at the afpe6l of affairs, and threatened by the three Great Powers, England, France and RufTia, did not dare to refift, and having firfl fet at liberty the Servian deputies who had been ftill detained at Conflantinople, he promifed to enter into negotiations with the Servian people, for fecuring to it all the privi- leges conceded by the Treaty of Bucharefl. The refult was that, by the Convention of Ackern.an in 06lober, 1826, Servia was ered:ed 50 TREATY OF ADRIANOPLE, 1829. into a Principality tributary to the Porte, but with an independent internal adminiftration. But the Ottoman Porte could only be trufted fo far as it was coerced by fear, and it began to play its old game of fad and loofe. In a katti- Jheriff\^uQd in December, 1827, the Sultan made the ominous declaration that he had yielded to the demands of the Servians only from the prefTure of circumftances, and that he had entered into the Convention of Ackerman only to gain the time neceffary to prepare for war. And war began in earneft between RuiTia and the Porte, and was continued until the vidorious flag of RufTia was carried across the Balkan, when, to avert the capture of Conftantinople, the Otto- man Porte gave way, and confented to the terms impofed upon her. She agreed to recognife Greece as an independent kingdom, and by the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829, the Suitan pledged himfelf to perform the ftipulations ot the Conference of Ackerman with reference to 5^ SERVIA. Servia " without the leaft delay, and with the "moft confcientious exadnefs." In conformity with that Treaty, the Porte ifTued on the ift of October, 1829, a hatti- jlieriff which provided amongft other things that the Servians *' might freely exercife in their " country their mode of worfhip, and follow *' their own religion ; that the adminiftration '*of the internal afHiirs of their country might "be under their own authority, and that the dif- " ferent kinds of taxes, revenues, and capitation " duties might be all confolidated and fixed into " one sum." Moreover, the important ftipula- tion was added, that " the Mufliilmans or Turks, " except those who are to guard the caftles, " fhould be prohibited to refide in Servia." * And in 1830 a Firman was granted by the * See Hevtflet's Map orEurope by Treaty, 1814.-1875, vol. ii. p. 833. When Lord Ponlbiiby, on behalf of Great Britain, lug- oefted certain modifications, the Sultan refufed to recognife any rio-ht in Great Britain to interfere in the affairs of Servia, but admitted the right of Ruffia under her treaties with the Porte. 5^ RECOGNITION OF MILOSCH. Sultan, by which he formally recognifed Milofch Obrenovich as " Prince of Servia," and decreed that the dignity Ihould be hereditary in his family. He alfo folemnly promifed that the Sublime Porte would not interfere, in any manner whatever, either in the internal adminiflration or in the affairs of the country ; and that it fhould not be allowed to " exadl a fingle para " beyond the ufual tribute." * Another concef- flon was that, " with the exception of the Im- " perial fortreffes which anciently exifted in *' Servia, all thofe that have been eredled lately " fhall be demoliilied." But it was ftipulated that when the dignity of Prince of Servia became vacant, the new Prince fhould pay the sum of 100,000 piaftres when he received from the Sub- lime Porte ''the noble 5eT<3/of inveftiture." This affertion of fovereignty was more explicitly made in a fubfequent Firman granted in 1833, one of the articles of which provided that " neither you * Ibid. p. 843. sz SERVIA. " (the Prince) nor the Servian nation fhall ever a6t " in any manner whatever contrary to the duties " of faithful fubjeds, nor contrary to the fub- " miffion which you owe to the Sublime Porte."* The recognition of Milofch as Prince of Servia was in accordance with a folemn refolu- tion of the Skoupjchina^ or General AiTembly, and the wifh of the whole Servian nation. He thus became the undifputed Ruler of Servia, and the founder of a new dynafty, although he could neither read nor write! His government was fevere and harfh, and practically abfolute, and he had to put down more than one attempt at infurredlion again ft his authority. " He exercifed," fays Ranke, '' the ^' power of life and death as defpotically and as " unfcrupuloufly as any Turkilh Pacha." But he had the good (Qn{Q. to fee that tyranny only aggravates difcontent, and in 1835 ^^^ granted * See Hertflet's Map of Europe by Treaty, i8 14-1875, vol. ii. P- 933- 54 CONSTITUTIONAL CHARTER. a Conftitutional Charter to Servia, which, under the name of the Servian Code, for the time fatisfied the people. Still, however, Milofch governed in an arbi- trary manner, and many a6ls of injuftice, and even cruelty, are recorded of him, which made him very unpopular. " At laft," fays Ranke, " as the outrages of which the Knes was " accufed were flagrant and undeniable," an urgent warning was given by the Court ok. St. Peterfburg to Milofch to ad; with more juftice and humanity. Servian deputies alfo went to Conftantinople, and laid their grievances before the Sultan, and the refult was that a new Conftitutional Charter was framed, limiting the power of Milofch, and increafing the power of the Senate, whofe members, feventeen in num- ber, were, however, to be appointed by the Prince for life. This was in 1839. Milofch met the change with fullen oppofltion ; and amongft the peafantry, with whom he was more ss SERVIA. popular than in the towns, he foftered a fpiritof refiftance to the new charter, which broke out in fome places into violence. He was ftrOngly oppofed by many of the chiefs, and one of them, named Wiitfchitfk^ who was appointed to the military command againft the infurgents, having compelled a large body of them to furrender, took Milofch's brother Jovan prifoner while he was endeavouring to colle6l a frefh band of adherents to fupport, as he faid, the authority of his brother the Prince. The Senate, therefore, determined to depofe Milofch, and his refidence at Belgrade having been furrounded with troops, he, on the 13th of June, 1839, ^gi^^d a formal inftrument of abdication in favour of his eldeft fon Milan. But Milan at the time was in bad health, and he foon afterwards died, without, it is faid, having ever known that he was Prince of Servia. Michael, his younger brother, was alive, but his name was not in the line of fucceflion which 56 MICHAEL OBLIGED TO FLY. had been guaranteed by the Porte. The Senate, therefore, determined to afk the Sultan to fanc- tion Michael's appointment to the vacant throne, and the requeft was granted. The rule of Michael was a difturbed one, and he had to contend againft a ftrong oppofition, fupported by the partifans of Milofch. The Turks took advantage of the difficulty, and became more preffing in obnoxious demands. At laft, hearing that a Skoupfchina was about to be held in order to compel him to change his adminiftration, Michael took the field, and ad- vanced againft the malcontents, who were already in arms, under the command of Wutjchitjk. A parley was agreed upon, but Michael refufed to confent to the conditions which were offered. He was deferted by his foldiers, and at laft aban- doned Servia, and took refuge acrofs the Auftrian frontier, while Wutjhitcjk entered Belgrade in triumph, and, ftyling himfelf " Leader of the "Nation," affumed the chief authority. 57 SERVIA. A Provifional Government was formed, and a Skowpjchina fummoned in September, 1842, to determine who fhould be Ruler of Servia. With one voice they declared that they would not have Michael, and with equal unanimity they declared in fivour of Alexander Kara Georgevich, the fon of their former favourite leader Kara George, or Black George. Their choice was confirmed by the Porte, but Ruflia refufed to acknowledge the change of dynafty — at all events, not unlefs a new eledlion took place, for flie alleged that the former one was made in hafte and tumult. Accordingly, in 1843, another Skowpjchina was afTembled, and again Kara Georgevich was unanimoufly chofen Prince of Servia. He received the Berat of inveftiture from the Sultan, and proved himfelf a wife and able ruler. During his fway many internal im- provements were made, not the leaft important of which were good roads. Education was TREATY OF PARIS, 1856. carefully attended to, and military fchools, and fchools of commerce and agriculture, were eftablifhed. When the quarrel took place between Ruffia and the Porte in 1853, which led to the Crimean War, Georgevich obferved a ftrid neutrality, and would not yield to the natural defire of the Servians to feize the opportunity of Ihaking themfelves entirely free from Turkifh fove- reignty. For this fidelity to the Ottoman Porte he received a Firman confirming the liberties and privileges of the Servian people. By the 28th article of the Treaty of Paris, 1856, it was provided: "The Principality of " Servia fhall continue to hold of the Sublime " Porte, in conformity with the Imperial Hats " which fix and determine its rights and immu- '^ nitles, placed henceforward under the colledive " guarantee of the contrading Powers. In confe- *' quence the faid Principality fhall preferve its " independent and national adminiftration, as 33 SERVIA. " well as full liberty of worfhip, of legiflation, of " commerce, and of navigation." In 1857, ^ confpiracy was formed againft Georgevich by the partifans of the depofed Milofch. The Prefidents of the Senate and of the Court of Appeal were accomplices, and they were arrefted and condemned to death ; but at the inftance of the Porte, fupported by the remonftrances of the confuls of France and Ruffia at Belgrade, they were reprieved. The Skoupfchina^ however, called on Georgevich to abdicate, and he quitted Servia. He was then (December, 1857) declared depofed, and Milofch was recalled, and reftored to the dignity of Prince of Servia. He continued to reign until his death in September, i860, when he was fuc- ceeded by his fon, Michael Obrenovich III. In 1862, the Turks bombarded Belgrade to avenge a quarrel between a Turkifh foldier and a Servian, who was killed by the Turk. A long diplomatic ftruggle followed, England and 60 ASSASSINATION OF MICHAEL. Auflrla taking part with Turkey, and France, RufTia, and Pruffia fiding with Servia. The refult was that Turkey agreed to evacuate the Servian fortrefTes. Prince Michael proved himfelf an energetic ruler. He armed the nation, eftablifhing an arfenal, and procuring mufkets from Ruffia. But in June, 1868, he was aflaflinated at Bel- grade, while he was walking in a park. He was met by three members of the Radovanitch family — a father and two fons — the former of whom had for fome offence been punifhed with imprifonment. They fired their piftols at the Prince, and he fell mortally wounded. At the fame time two ladies, his coufins, with whom he was walking, were attacked by the affaffms and murdered. A Provifional Govern- ment was immediately formed ; the regicides were committed for trial, and ten other perfons were arrefted on the charge of being implicated in a confpiracy to place Prince Kara Georgevich 61 SERVIA. on the throne. Prince Milan Obrenovich, the fon of the former ruler, was ele6led to fill the vacant throne, and as he was then a minor, a Council of Regency was formed to hold office until he came of age. At the fame time the Skoup/china paffed a law by which Prince Kara Georgevich and his defcendants were declared incapable of wearing the Servian Crown. When the news of the aflaffination of Prince Michael and the formation of a Provifional Government reached Conftantinople, the Otto- man Porte immediately communicated to the Provifional Government its defire that the refult of the eledion of a Prince of Servia, " which " ought to be fubmitted for the fand;ion of the " Sultan," fliould be in accordance with the legitimate needs of the country, and that the Servian nation fhould exercife its eledloral rights with all the liberty compatible with order and due regard to law. But in a note addrefi^ed to the Great Powers in June, 1868, by Fuad 62 CONSTITUTION OF SERVIA. Pacha, he faid that while the Sublime Porte left to the Servian people its free choice of a new Prince, it was refolved to fandlion only the eledlion of one who was a native of Servia [origi- naire du pays). The Turks had {till continued to garrifon Belgrade, Semendria, and five other fortreffes ; but now they have abfolutely quitted the foil of Servia, and the folitary fymbol of titular fove- reignty on the part of the Ottoman Porte is a green flag that floats on the ramparts of Bel- grade. * The national religion of Servia is that of the Greek church. The Archbilhop and Bifliops acknowledge the primacy of the Patriarch of Conflantinople, " but know nothing, and ac- " knowledge nothing of a fupremacy in that " Patriarch, "f Perfedl toleration of Chriftian * Belgrade is properly Beo-grad, "the white town." f Servia and the Servians, by Rev. W. Denton, London 1862, p. 86. « 63 SERVIA. worfhip was fecured by a law of September, 1853, and akhough there is no exprefs fandion of the Jewifh religion, a fynagogue exifts at Belgrade, which the Jews frequent without hindrance or molefLation. According to the cenfus of 1866, there were in Servia 3409 Roman Catholics, 352 Proteftants, and 4965 Mahometans. The Conftitution of Servia confifts of the Prince, affifted by a council of feven minifters, a fenate, and a Skoupjchina,^ or Houfe of Repre- fentatives. The fenate confirts of 17 members, nominated by the Prince, who fit en permanence — one for each of the 17 Departments into which the Principality is divided. The Skonpfchina is compofed of 134 deputies, of whom 33 are nominated by the Government and lOi chofen by the electors, at the rate of one deputy for every 2000 eledors. The electors are the male inhabi- tants above the age of 21 years, paying diredt taxes, and not being domeftic fervants or gipfies. * Skoupfckina is derived from the Slavonic verb fkoupiti, to alTemble. 64 CONSTITUTION OF SERVIA. As regards its internal adminiftration, Servia is divided into 17 departments, 60 fub-depart- ments, and 1059 communes. Thefe communes, which include villages and hamlets, are governed by municipal officers called kmetes, who are affifted in the difcharge of fome of their func- tions by village councils, cdWtdi Jkoupe , compofed of the head men of the village. " Every Sun- " day the heads of the village families meet to " form t\itJkoupe. The aflembly is held in the " open air, and lafts four or five hours. In the " centre fits the kmete, furrounded by the chief " men, and with their aid and advice he fettles '* difputes, difcufTes the wants of each village, " and makes known the decrees of the Govern- " ment." Such, at leaft, was the parochial fyflem in Servia a few years ago ; but I am not fure that it has not been modified by recent legiflation. The foil of Servia is fertile and productive, but three-fourths of its furface are uncultivated. 65 SERVIA. The people are averfe to labour, either as culti- vators or artizans, and the peafants, rather than work themfelves, employ for the conftrudion of their cottages itinerant mafons and carpenters, who flock yearly in fvvarms from the adjacent provinces of Albania and Macedonia.* The chief grain is maize, but the country produces hemp, flax, tobacco, and cotton. The lad Confular Report in Servia which has been publiflied, fo far as I am aware, is dated March, 1872. The population is there ftated to be 1,100,000 fouls.f As in all the other Danubian provinces, the roads are bad ; indeed, they are hardly paflable except when a hard froft has fet in. Servia has as yet no railways. The exports of the Principality are corn (which conftitures generally three per cent, of the whole), wool (averaging _^6o,ooo a year), * Confular Report on Servia for 1872. t But according to tlie cenfus of 1S66 the population was 1,216,346, ol whom 24,607 were gipfies, and 2,509 German fettle rs. 66 CONSULAR REPORTS. tallow, fpirits, made from the plum, which gc into Auftria to be redlified, ftaves for cafks, of which ;^ 1 3,000 are exported yearly; and laft, but not leaft, pigs^ for the pig trade amounts to nearly one-half of the whole value of the exports of the Principality. They find their way chiefly into Hungary, where they are melted down for their fat. Salt cannot properly be included amongft the exports, although a very large quantity pafTes the frontier outwards ; for it is not produced in Servia, but pafTes through it from Wallachia into Auftria, and is in fad chiefly fmuggled. There is a copper mine at Maidan- pek, belonging to an Englifti company, which produces about ^13,000 of copper yearly, and is capable of confiderable increafe. As regards imports, the Confular Report fays the trade in cotton goods and yarns has very largely increafed of late years. In 1864, it was only ^2,000, but in 1871-2 it had reached to ^30, ceo in one year. 67 f 2 STARA, OR OLD SERVIA. Hitherto we have been fpeaking of the Prin- cipality of Free Servia, but there is a diftridl due fouth of it which is properly Stara Servia, or Old Servia, although called by the Turks Arnaout- luk, and confidered part of northern Albania, as appears from the various confular reports. This diftri6l contains about half a million inhabi- tants, and its hiftory is curious. " Previous to " 1389 it was the moft flourifhing and favoured " portion of European Serbia ; at prefent, ex- " cepting the neighbouring mountains of Al- " bania, it is the pooreft and worft ruled part of *•' Turkey in Europe."* The year 1389 is the date of the battle of KolTovo, when the Servians were conquered by the Turks. Old Servia fol- * Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey in Europe, by Muir Mackenzie and Irby, p. 246. 68 STARA, OR OLD SERVIA. lowed the fortunes of (what is now) Free Servia until the latter part of the feventeenth century, when Auftria took up arms to repel Turkifh invafion, and called upon the Servians to affift her in the ftruggle. They obeyed the call, and the Auftrians advanced as far fouth as KofTovo Polie, or the Plain of Koffovo, when they were driven back and compelled to abandon the country fouth of the Danube. As the effeft of this retreat was to leave Servia at the mercy of the Turks, the German emperor offered an afylum in his own dominions north of the Danube to as many of the inhabitants of Old Servia as chofe to emigrate. The confequence was that in 1690, 37,000 families, under the guidance of their patriarch Arfenius Tfrnoievitch, quitted Old Servia and fettled themfelves along the frontier north of the Danube and the Save. Here they have remained, and form a great part of the Slavonic population that guards the military frontier of Auftria. Old Servia had thus become 69 SERVIA. almoft denuded of her Chriftian inhabitants, and their place was gradually filled by Albanians, or, f,s the Turks call them, Arnaouts, from the neighbouring mountains on the weft and fouth. Thefe Albanians were for the moft part Chrif- tlans of the Latin Church ; but after they had fettled in Old Servia they gradually adopted the Muffulman creed, and at the prefent time there are only a few Roman Catholic Albanians in the diftricfl. The defcendants of the Mufliilman converts feem, however, to have little fympathy with the other Turks. " Their antagonifm to " the authority of the Porte is quite as marked ^' as their arrogance to the Chriftians. * Fear '^ ' God little/ fay the Arnaouts of Ipek [the " principal town in Old Servia], ' and as for the " ' Sultan, do not know that he lives.' "* But there is ftill left in the diftrid a remnant of the families of Old Servia who are Chriftians — * Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey in Europe,, p. 253, by Muir Mackenzie and Irby. STARA, OR OLD SERVIA. a fmall minority in the midft of MuiTulmans — and they have an evil time of it. Leaving the towns to the Mahometans, they dwell chiefly in villages and the country. They are heavily taxed, and we are told by eye-wItnefTes that " the condition of the country is bad enough to " reduce to defpair all its inhabitants, excepting, " of courfe, thofe evil men who thrive on it." It is no wonder that they look with longing eyes to their brethren in the Principality of Free Servia that adjoins them on the north ; but it is faid that the Government there difcourages emi- gration from Old Servia, becaufe this would tend to abandon the anceftral home of the race wholly to Mahometans, and thus what I fuppose the Free ^Servians would call a feeling of patriotifm is indulged in at the expenfe of the fufFerings of their unfortunate fellow-Chriftians, and in reality fellow-countrymen. 71 111. BOSNIA. III. BOSNIA. Bosnia takes its name from Bosna, a tribu- tary of the Save which flows into the Danube at Belgrade. It is bounded on the north by the Save, which feparates it from Slavonia, and on the eaft by the Drina, which is the frontier Une between Bofnia and Servia : on the weft by Dalmatia, and on the fouth by Mon-tenegro and Albania. The name of Bofnia firft emerges in the feventh century in the midft of the irruption of the Serbs into the countries south of the Danube, as I have already mentioned. So far as the obfcure hiftory of thofe times can be trufted the prefent Bofnia feems to have been 75 BOSNIA. occupied by Croats in the eighth century, and to have formed part of the pofTeffions of the Archbifhopric of Spalato.* It fluftuated, how- ever, for many years under Croatian and Servian dominion, but in the eleventh century we find a Ban of Bofnia as one of the {^-^tw Eledors with whom refted the eledion of a king of Croatia.f After the extindion of that dynafty, the King of Hungary in 1102 aflumed the crown of Dalmatia and Croatia, and he alfo called himfelf King of Rama, which name properly belonged to the prefent diftrid ot Herzegovina, and was derived from the river * See Von Thoemmel, Bcfchreibung des Vilayet Bofnien, Wien, 1865. f The word Croats is a corruption of Chrobates, a Slavonic tribe who fpread themfelvcs over Illyricum and Dalmatia. In courfe of time their different hordes roamed northwards, and peopled the countries now known as Croatia and Slavonia. Bofnia was at firft included in the general name of Croatia under the Greek Empire. "The Chrobatians, or Croats, who now " attend the motions of an Auftrian army, are the dcfcendants " of a mighty people, the conquerors and fovereigns of Dal- " matia." — Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 55. 76 THE BAN AT. Rama which flows in it. But it was ufed in- differently for Bofnia, and we find in old charters the expreffion Rex Rhama seu Bojnide. For feveral centuries Bofnia remained a Banat under the dominion of Hungary, and one of the Bans named Kulin in the twelfth century defcribed himfelf as Fiduciariiis Regni Hungaria. He is faid to have been the firft who coined money in Bofnia, and introduced foreign artificers into the territory. His name is fl:ill remembered among the people as mark- ing the era of a diftant golden age.* The Banat lafted until the fourteenth century, when Stephan Turtko in 1376 exchanged the title of Ban for that of King, and was folemnly crowned in the monaftery of Milofevo near Priepolje. At the difaftrous battle of Koffovo in 1389, * From an article on Bofnia by Mifs Irby, who is one of the two accomplifhed authoreffes of Travels in Slavonia, and who, during the laft few years, has refided much at Serajevo, the capital of Bofnia, in purfuance of a fcheme for training native fchoolmillrefles. 77 BOSNIA. when the Servian power was fhattered by the Turks, 20, coo Bofnians fought fide by fide with their Slavonic brethren, and their leader was able after the defeat to make good his return to Bofnia at the head of his troops, who vic- toriouily repelled the Turks when they prefled forward in purfuit. The hiftory of the next feventy years is a confufed record of war and inteftine troubles under native Bans and Kings, until the Sultan Mohammed II. in the fifteenth century invaded Bofnia with an overwhelming force and reduced it to fubjedlion, making it tributary to the Porte. And when the King of Bofnia attempted foon afterwards to free himfelf from the yoke and refufed to pay the ftipulated tribute, the Sultan again in 1463 invaded the country, and taking fortrefs after fortrefs became undifputed mailer of Bofnia. The king and many of the nobility, Voivodes and others, were put to death, 30,000 of the youth were drafted into the ranks of the TURKISH DOMINATION. Janiflaries, and a large number of the inhabi- tants reduced to slavery, A Turkifh Vizier was appointed to administer the government, and he took up his refidence at Bofna Serai, now generally called Serajevo. But the Kings of Hungary had never given up their pretenfion to be coniidered lords of Bofnia, and almoft immediately after the Sultan had quitted the country which he had fo cruelly ravaged, Mathias Corvinus, King of Hungary, marched into Bofnia and made himfelf mafter of many of the towns and fortreffes in fpite of the ftrong oppofition of the Turks. From this time forward for upwards of fixty years Bofnia was divided between the two con- tending powers of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte, and was the fcene of conftant ftruggles between the hoftile camps. But the Crefcent prevailed againft the Crofs, for the King of Hungary was too weak to defend the extremities of his kingdom. In the year 1527, the whole BOSNIA. of Bofnia had fallen into the hands of the Turks, and as part of their dominion it has remained from that time to the prefent day. Not how- ever without frequent ft/uggles for independence, the laft of which occurred in 1849-51. The Muflulmans of Bofnia were ftrongly oppofed to the introduction of the Tanzimatu^ the celebrated code of reforms promulgated by the Sultan Abdul Medjid ; and when in 1849 the Porte attempted to force it on the province, it was refifted. A confpiracy of Muflulman chiefs was formed, whofe place of rendezvous was the Kraina,* which has generally been the theatre of infurredionary movements in Bofnia. To reprefs this, one of the moft diftinguifhed Turkifh generals, Omer Pacha, who was by birth an Auftro-Servian and a convert to the faith of Iflam, was fent into the country at the head of a powerful force, but it was not until after a long and obftinate refiftance that he was * I believe the meaning of Kiaina is " frontier." 80 CONVERSION TO ISLAMISM. able in 1351 to accomplifh his objedl. The reforms were no doubt in the main favourable to the Chriftians, but one ftipulation was moft obnoxious to them. They were ordered to give up their arms and forbidden to wear them, although afterwards the Sultan granted par- ticular exceptions in favour of individuals when permiffion was aiked through the priefts or foreign confuls. One remarkable efFed of the conqueft of Bofnia by the Turks was, that a confiderable part of the population embraced the MufTulman religion. We muft never forget this when fpeaking, not only of the Bofnians, but alfo of other MufTulmans in Turkey in Europe. They are not Ofmanlis — not of the fame race as thofe fierce Orientals who crofTed the Bofphorus, and made fubjedl to their fway fome of the faireft regions of the earth. The confequence is that they have always been diftinguifhed by a fpirit of oppofition to the central authority of Conftan- ' 81 c BOSNIA. tinople, and Tome writers who have had oppor- tunities, by refidence in Bofnia, of clofely obferv- ing the temper of the people, are of opinion that the Bofnian MufTulmans would, in cafe Bofnia became independent of the Porte, have little dif- ficulty in changing their religion, and embracing the Chriftian creed of their forefathers. I think, however, that this is more than doubtful — for hitherto they have been diftinguifhed by a very fanatical hatred of the Rayas, and are by them more hated than the Ofmanli Turks. The old Bofnian nobility, whofe forefathers became MufTulmans, have been metamorphofed into Begs and Agas, But their power is gone, and their caftles are crumbling into decay. They are excluded from official pofls by the jealoufy of the Ottoman Porte, and being too proud to engage in induftrial purfuits, they live poor and with little influence. Their old rank of Spahis, or feudal military chiefs, has been abolifhed, and the tithe they formerly received from the peafants 82 HERZEGOVINA. is paid into the Government Treafury. They are defcribed as ignorant, corrupt, indolent, and wholly incapable of organization or combined adion. The MufTulman population fills the towns, while the Chriftian Rayas chiefly occupy the villages, which are fcattered far apart. In ancient times HERZEGOVINA formed part of lUyricum, and was included in the Roman province of Dalmatia. Under the old Servian dominion, the eaftern part of it^ which was called Humska, was a Zupania ; but after the battle of Koflbvo and the difmemberment of Servia, the Zupans of Humfka, who were the defcendants of Stephan Nemandia, quarrelled amongft themfelves for the chief rule, and Stephan IV., the Ban of Bofnia, taking advan- tage of their diffenfions, incorporated the diftrid with his own dominions. This was in 1334. For fifty-five years it remained part of Bofnia, but in 1389 Turtko I., who was then King 85 BOSNIA. of Bofnia, granted it as a fief to one of the Voivodes, Vlatko Hranie, who, as well as his fon and fucceffor Sandlaj, ftood firmly by their liege lord, the ruler of Bofnia, in his contefts with the Turks, and contributed materially to his fuccefsful refiftance. After the death of Sandlaj in 1435, Vlatko's nephew, Stephan Kofaca, fucceeded him, and he extended the limits of his territory by abforbing part of the lands of Bofnia proper, and adding the old Zupania of Rafcia. At laft he threw off his allegiance to the King of Bofnia, and acknow- ledged himfelf the vafTal of the German Emperor, Frederick IV. In confequence of this, Frederick beftowed upon him the title of Herzog, or Duke, from which the province derives its prefent name. Duke Stephan was an ambitious ruler, bent on aggrandizmg his own domain ; but he was fhort- fighted enough to ftand aloof and render no afliftance to the King of Bofnia when the Turks 84 HERZEGOVINA. burft into the country in 1463, and reduced it to fubjedlion. Herzegovina foon followed the fate of Bofnia, and became tributary to the Porte. Stephan placed in its hands as a hoftage his youngeft fon, who became a Muffulman, and married one of the daughters of the Sultan. He died in 1466, and foon afterwards Herzegovina became a Turkifh province — in faft, nothing more than a Sandjak of the Vilayet of Bofnia, and as fuch it has re- mained to the prefent day.* Sir Gardner Wil- kinfon fays: — ''The miferies endured by the " people when conquered by the Turks . . and " the perfecutions that led to the flight of ** thoufands of Slavonian Chriftians are scarcely " known, or ceafe to prefent the pidure of woe *' that for years afflided the unhappy countries *' (Bofnia and Herzegovina)." f * Von Thoemmel, Befchieibung des Vilayet Bofnien. t Dalmatia and Montenegro, vol. ii. p. 97. The chief town in Herzegovina is Mostar, on the banks of the Narenta. It was once a Roman Municipium, called Mandertium or Matrix. 85 BOSNIA. There are in Bofnia about 1800 Turkifh mofques, but many of thefe are mere wooden buildings. The population of the whole country, includ- ing Herzegovina, according to the lateft official reports, is 1,216,846, thus divided: — Bofnian Muflulmans .... 44.2,050 Chriftian.s of the Greek Church . . 576,756 Roman Catholics .... 185,503 Jews 3,000 Gipfies 9'537 1,216,846 Befides thefe there are about 3000 Auftrian fubjedls, and a few hundreds of Turkifh officials. The Roman Catholic population has for cen- turies acknowledged as its immediate fuperior authority in matters of religion the Provincial Order of Minorites of St. Francis of Affifi, to which it was made fubjed by the Pope Leo X. in 1517-* Herzegovina, however, in 1852, withdrew itfelf from their authority. There ftill * Von Thoemmel, Befchreibung des Vilayet Bofnien. 86 PRAVOSLAV RELIGION. exifts a Firman by which the Sultan Mahomet, in 1463, granted fpecial privileges to the Bofnian monks, and forbade them to be molefted or dif- turbed. But this could not prevent the ravages of war and diforder, and of the thirty old monafteries which once exifted in Bofnia, it is faid that in i860 only three remained. But fince then the number has been increafed, and three ftately monafteries have been built, one in Herzegovina, and the others in Bofnia Proper. The Greek Church in Bofnia ufes a Slavonic Liturgy, and the members of the Communion call their religion the Pravoflav, which is the fame as that of the Ruffians ; but they are forced againft their will to fubmit to the jurif- didtion of the Greek Patriarch at Conftantinople. The Jews live chiefly in the capital, Serajevo (the old Bofna Serai), and are there a profperous community. But they are met with alfo in fome of the other provincial towns, fuch as Moftar (the capital of Herzegovina) and Travnik. 87 BOSNIA. The gipfies in Bofnia are like all gipfies in ■ the reft of the world, and their occupation is defcribed as " fmith-work, begging, and thiev- " ing."* While on the fubjedl of religion in Bofnia, I may mention that there exifted there for feveral centuries a Proteftant fed known by the name of Paterenes or Bogomilen, faid to have been founded by an Armenian named Bafil in the reign of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus. The origin of the name Paterenes is uncertain, fome deriving it from patiorj which means " fuffering," — and this would not inaptly defcribe the hiftory of their perfecutions. They denied the fove- reignty of the Pope, the power of the priefts, the efficacy of prayers for the dead, and the exiftence of purgatory. In many refpedls their pofition and dodrine remind us of the Albi- genfes. Pope Innocent III., who made himfelf confpicuous by his perfecuting zeal againft * Von Thoemniel, p. 109. 88 THE PATERENES. heretics, called upon the King of Hungary, who then was Suzerain of Bofnia, to expel all the Paterenes from the territory ; but Kulin, the Ban of Bofnia, evaded the order, and continued to encouraee the Paterenes until his death at the end of the 12 th century. Succeeding Popes fulminated their anathemas againfl: the increafing fed, but they continued to flourifh, not without many viciiTitudes of fortune, until the reign of Stephan, King of Bofnia, who, in 1449, ordered all the Paterenes to leave Bofnia Proper, which was under his immediate fway, and 40,000 of them toolc refuge in Herzegovina. " From *' that period little is known about them in thofe " parts of Europe."* Bofnia Proper, as diftinguifhed from Herze- govina, is a rugged mountainous country full of magnificent forefts. The climate of Herzegovina is much milder, efpecially in the fouth, and in its • Dalmatia and Montenegro, by Sir G. Wilkinfon, vol. ii. p. 113. 89 BOSNIA. lower valleys the vine and the olive flourifti abundantly. There are alfo mulberries, figs, rice, and tobacco.* '* The foil of Bofnia teems " with various and valuable minerals, her hills " abound in fplendid forefts, her well-watered '' plains are fertile and produ6live ; her race, " under culture, proves exceptionally gifted. "f But what is the condition of the people ? *' La Bofnie eft de toutes les provinces " turques celle ou la civilifation a fait le moins " de progres.":j: Mifs Irby, who has long refided in Bofnia, defcribes it as " the moft barbarous of "the provinces of Turkey in Europe The "mafs of the people are ground to the duft under " the prefent regme There is no develop- " ment of the immenfe material refources of the * See La Bofnie confideree dans fes rapports avec I'Empire Ottoman, par Pertufier ; and Von Thoemmel, Befchreibung des Vilayet Bofnien. t I take this defcriptlon from Mifs Irby's article on Bofnia, before mentioned. X Provinces Danubiennes, par MM. Chopin et Ubicini, p. 239. 90 MISERY OF THE PEOPLE. "country, no means of employment and occupa- "tion, which might enable the poor to meet the " ever increafing taxation, the extortions of the *' officials, and the heavy exadlions of their own " clergy." Not one man in a hundred of the inhabitants knows how to read, and the chief town Serajevo, which contains from 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, does not pofTefs a fingle bookfeller's fhop. And Von Thoemmel, who was attached to the Auftrian Confulate there for four years, fays that " Nature has " granted to thefe lands many fertile fources of " profperity, but in mournful contraft to the '^ lavifhnefs of nature the people languifh in deep " dejedion and poverty, frequently even in " mifery."* Here we have French, Englifh, and German teftimony borne to the miferable condition of the people under the curfe of mif- government, although foil, climate and pofition are all favourable to happinefs and profperity. * Befchreibung des Vilayet Bolnien, p. 211. 91 BOSNIA. The population of Bofnia is chiefly agricul- tural. The peafants are maintained by and work for the proprietors of the foil, and are very poor.* The food of the people confifts chiefly of coarfe bread, native cheefe, and vegetables, with very rarely meat or poultry. The lodgings of the artizans " an Englifli mechanic would confider " uninhabitable The houfes of the poorer '' clafles are mere hovels without any kind of '* comfort or accommodation, fltuated in the " midfl: of reeking filth, and as unhealthy as *' overcrowded and air-poifoned dwellings can *' pofiibly be."t The climate, however, is confidered good — cool and bracing in the moun- tainous parts, but " in the Herzegovina and " other low fituations the heat is confiderable, " and miafmatic fevers are trequent.";{l In the Confular Report on Bofnia for 1874 it is fl:ated that " the general political condition of * Confular Report for Bofnia, 1870. t Ibid. \ Ibid. 92 ^ CONSULAR REPORT. « Bofnia during the pad year has been perfedly ^'^i'^45* The right of collecting this tax is fold to the higheft bidder. The farmers of it buy each a whole fandjaky and fell their bargains in lots to others, who again fub-divide their lots to others, and on each of thefe fales a profit muft of courfe be made. This fyftem is called iltizam, " The profits made in this way by the higher " contra6tors are known to be enormous, and " have been the foundation of the largeft for- TURKISH GOVERNMENl. " tunes in Turkey. This traffic is generally " purfued by ' ray as/ or even foreign fubjedls, " but always requires for fuccefs the affiftance " and connivance, often the fecret participation, '* of an influential Turk at head-quarters." * The fyflem has been denounced by all, or nearly all, competent authorities. *' Whole diflridls ** have thus been, and are now being, firft im- '* poverifhed and ultimately depopulated." And to fhow how wafl;etul is the fyftem to the public treafury, I may mention that in the fandjak of Rouftchouk, in Bulgaria, the tithes were fold in 1869 ^°'' ^^^yOjOOO ; but only realized to the Government ^^i 80,000, owing to the contractors being unable to pay the ftipulated prices. It reminds one of the ruinous competition for land that ufed to prevail in Ireland, when farmers offered rents for leafcs which they were utterly • Report on the Taxation of Turkey, by Mr. Barron, H.M. Secretary to the Embafly, prefented to both Houl'es of Parlia- ment, May, 1870. TAX A TION. unable to pay and make anything like a profit. " As a tax the tithe itfelf is radically vicious in " principle, and oppofed to all found economical " do6trines, being levied on the grofs, not on the '^ net, produce of the foil, and taking no account " of the relative coft of produdlion," A modification has, however, been recently introduced in favour of the peafants. This confifts in felling the tithes in every village fepa- rately, and thus permitting the " Commune " to declare itfelf the purchafer at the maximum price attained by the biddings. And every State functionary is prohibited, under penalties, from bidding for the tithes diredlly or indiredly. Another tax is the verghi, raifed on property and income ; which is fixed beforehand at a certain amount for each province, and is then apportioned among the fandjaks and other fubor- dinate divifions by the provincial authorities. The apportionment, however, is not annual, and " the fub-allotment of the tax among individuals TURKISH GOVERNMENT. ** is not governed by any law or fixed prln- "ciple."* In the village medjlis, or councils, it offers the wideft fcope for favoritifm, for tyranny towards the veak, and truckling to the ftrong. " Everywhere the apportionment is *^ arbitrary. In fhort, it may be faid that this " tax in no way affeds the richer claffes, the " middle but {lightly, and falls, fo to fpeak, '* altogether on the poorefb." A third tax is the haratch^ which falls exclu- fively upon the non-Muflulman fubjedls of the Porte, in confideration of their exemption from military fervice. It is eftimated to produce an annual fum of more than half a million. " It is " not eafy to learn what data the Government " pofTeffes for apportioning this impofl among "the vilayets and provinces." The remaining tax is the fayme^ a tax origi- * Report on the Taxation of Turkey, by Mr. Barron, H.M. Secretary to the Embaffy, prefented to both Houles of Parlia- ment, May, 1870. .56 VAKOUF. nally on (Keep and goats, but afterwards extended to fwine and cattle. It is a fort of equivalent impoft on pafture lands for the tithe which is payable on arable land, and amounts to ten per cent, on the average value of the fheep. One charadleriftic of land tenure in Turkey is the immense quantity of land which is held in Vakoufy that is, in a kind of mortmain, confe- crated to religion, and belonging to mofques or holy places. In order to efcape from the oppref- fion of the tax-gatherer it is not uncommon for the Raya proprietor to make over his land in Vakouf to a mofque, under an implied truft, and to cultivate it himfelf as a farmer or labourer employed by the priefts of the mofque. It would be a miftake to fuppofe that the Chriftians are the only part of the population that is opprefled and miferable. Turkifh mif- government is uniform, and falls with a heavy hand upon all alike. In fome parts of the kino-dom the poverty of the Muffulmans may be TURKISH GOVERNMENT. adually worfe than the poverty of the Chriftians, and it is their condition which moft excites the pity of the traveller. It is indeed an inftrudtive fa(5l that whenever a writer on Turkey fixes his attention on any particular part of the popula- tion, he defcribes it as the moft miferable of all. M. Cyprien Robert fays that the Chriftians in the Eaft have, with a few noble exceptions, no greater enemies than their monks {moines)^ who profit by the oppreftion of the people, and ftiare with the Turk the impofts laid upon the Rayas. " The firft meafure of regeneration would be the " reform of the clergy."* But it is untrue to aflert that the fufferings of the Muftiilmans are anywhere equal to the fuffer- ings of the Chriftians. Common fenfe tells us that where there is a fanatical dominant popula- tion infpired with hatred and contempt of a fubfer- vient race, the fcalcs of juftice and equity can never be held evenly between them. And to all the * Le Monde Greco-Slave, Revue des Deux Mondes, 1862. 158 TURKISH INSOLENCE. mifery which the MufTulman has to endure from his own poverty and the rapacity of officials, is to be added in the cafe of the Chriftian the info- lence and brutality of ^ governing clafs. What- ever may be the theory of equality laid down in Firmans, and Hats, and Trades, and Hatti- Sheriffs, the Turk never has treated, and never will treat, the Giaour as an equal. I will men- tion an anecdote related by Mifs Irby, by way of illuftration of this. A Dervifh met in the road near Serajevo (Bofna Serai), the capital of Bofnia, a Pravoflav prieft on horfeback. He ordered him to difmount, faying, " Bofnia is dill a *' Mahommedan country ; do you not fee that a " Turk is paffing? Difmount inftantly!" Three different times the Dervifh met the fame prieft, and each time obliged him to get off his horfe. If we wifh to know how the pompous profeffions of the Sultan have been realifed, we muft sather information from the diftant provinces of the Empire, and fee what is the adlual condition of TURKISH GOVERNMENT. the Rayas there. And very recently we have been furniflied with authentic fads from Bulgaria, which fhow how groffly they are outraged. Chriftian women are violated, and Chriftian men are tortured by Turkifh mifcreants with impunity. I will cite two inftances out of many which have recently appeared in Turkifh news- papers — as told in a letter written from Efki- Zaghra. At Sulmuchli *'the Turks have broken into " the houfes of the Bulgarians, where they *' violated half a fcore of young girls and three " young married women. They killed twelve " Bulgarians and wounded eight ; then, as they ** withdrew, they took away with them the corn, " the lighter furniture, and all the portable pro- " perty of the Chriftian inhabitants. " In the village of Cafanka, three hours and a " half diftant from Efki-Zaghra, the rural guard, " with two zaptiehs, or policemen, and other "Turks, arrefted fifteen Bulgarians, fhut them 160 TURKISH O Ul RA GE. *' up In a hut, and putting knives to their *' throats, extorted 46 Turkifh lire (the lira is " equal to i8j. 2^.)." * It would be eafy to multiply cafes of Turkifh outrage not only in Bulgaria but in Bofnia ; and in the latter province there is the peculiarity I have before alluded to, that the MufTulman population there, with the exception of a few officials, are not Ofmanli Turks, but defcendants of Chriftians who in former times apoftatized from their faith, and who are diftinguifhed by their rancour againft the Rayas. Hence, says Profefibr A. Vambery, In an article in a leading German Review: — '' The genuine Turk is not fo much *' hated by the Chriftians as the Slavonic Muf- " fulman." Nor ought we to forget that the poor Rayas fufFer much from their co-religionifts. \i we may truft the teftimony of eye-witneffes. they are fleeced by their Biftiops and priefts ; * Quoted by the Special Coricfpondent of the T:ifnes in a letter dated Pera, Dec. 31, 1875. 161 " TURKISH G VERXMEX T. and the Chriftians who fit amongft the Medjlls, or municipal councils, are generally worthlefs creatures, who cringe to their Turkifh mafters, and betray the caufe of their Chriftian brethren. Altogether the pidure of the ftate of the Rayas in the Slavonic provinces of Turkey is mofl; deplorable, and I do not believe it ever can be effedually ameliorated until Turkifh domination is put an end to. Hitherto none but MufTulmans have been liable to confcription for military fervice. And this, of courfe, was not out of fivour to the Chriftian Rayas, but from fear of admitting them into the ranks and accuftoming them to the ufe of arms. They confiderably outnumber the Muflulman population, and the Government knows too well that they have good caufe for difajffedion. We can hardly, therefore, blame a policy which has been didlated by an inftindl of felf-defence, and which is necefTary fo long as the opprellion of a Government makes it unfafe 162 MILITARY SERVICE. to truft the greater part of its fubjeds with arms. As to the admifTion of Chriftian fubjeds of the Porte into the army, although it is true that the Hatti Humayoum of 1856 expreffly declared that in future there fhould be no difference between Rayas and Muffulmans, and all alike fhould be liable to ferve, it is equally true that " thefe clear provifions of the organic law have " been hitherto entirely ignored." * Fuad Pacha explained this in 1866 by the alleged repugnance of the non-MulTulmans to enter the military fervice ; but he declared that it was the intention of the Government to carry out the meafure, and, he faid, " there exift, moreover, already in " the Ottoman army two regiments of mixed " Coffacks, compofed of Muffulmans and Chrif- " tians." It is not, however, furprifing that the Chriftians themfelves are little covetous of * Report on the Taxation of Turkey by Mr. Barron, H.M. Secretary to the EmbalTy. 163 M 2 TURKISH GOVERNMENT. the honour of being liable to confcription, and we are told, on authority, that the Haratch is probably the only tax which is paid with cheerful alacrity. And Mr. Earron, in his Report on the Taxation of Turkey, dwells on the '^ mifery en- " tailed on the Mohammedans by the enormous " burden of the confcription. This latter is the " true caufe of the decreafe of the Moham- " medan, and increafe of the Chriftian popu- " lation." And, he adds, '*this is the monfter *' evil which is gradually confuming the Turkifh "race." The evidence of Chriftians againft MufTuImans is not admitted in the Kadi Courts, which take the Koran exclufively for their guide ; but in the modern courts, compofed of Medjlis, it is ad- miflible by law. *' But it is certain," fays Mifs Irby, who has long refided in Bofnia, " that " in ordinary cafes the evidence of twenty " Chriftians would be outweighed by that of two " MufTuImans." 164 OPPRESSION. It would be idle to infift upon the grofs mif- sovernment of the Ottoman Porte. The tefti- mony of every writer of every nation who has examined the fubjed, is uniform and decifive, and after reading what they fay, one is tempted to exclaim, in the indignant language of the Roman orator, Qjioufque tandem abutere patientid noftrd ? How long is Chriftian Europe to endure the fpedlacle of an alien and infidel government oppreffing Chriftian races ? '' Some writers erroneoufly attribute the decay " of agriculture to the religion or apathy of the " population ; others to the want of roads, of " hands, of capital, or of pradlical knowledge. *^ Thefe are all only fecondary caufes. The great *' primary caufe is want of fecurity, in other " words, the defedlive organifation of Govern- '* ment. A weak, needy, and unftable executive " is a necefiary caufe of incompetency, cupidity, " and corruption in the provincial authorities, '*' therefore of ruin to agriculture. Of all clafTes 165 TURKISH GOVERNMENT. " the farmer has moft need of juftice, fecurlty, " and encouragement. Yet here he has to bear " the whole brunt of taxation — a burden often " made doubly onerous by the iniquitous mode " of colledion. Nothing is returned to him in " the fhape of roads, police, or juftice. His " produce is taxed over and over again without " pity."* In Bulgaria the peafant is not allowed to re- move a fheaf from the ground before the multizim or farmer of the tithe has feleded his portion ; and in 1869 the harveft was left all over the vilayet rotting on the ground, devoured by birds and vermin. f The Turk has never aflimilated with any Euro- pean people. There has been no chemical fufton, nothing more than mechanical contact. It is not only religion but race which keeps him apart,- although in his religion alone we can * Report by Mr. Barron, H.M. Secretary to EmbalTy, on the Taxation of Turkey. f Ibid. 166 TURKEY IN THE OLDEN TIME, ■ fee fufficient caufe for his ifolation. " From " this oppofition," fays Ranke, '' of belief and '' unbelief proceeds the whole political fyftem of " the Turkifh Empire. The two principles of *' its foundation will always be antagoniftic to *^ each other. No hope of forming a united " nation can confequently be entertained."* An old Englifh traveller in the reign of James I., in his "Relation of a Journey begun in 1610," fays of the ftate of Turkey then: '' We may conclude that the Mahometan reli- <■<■ gion wherever it is planted, rooting " out all virtue, all wifdom and fcience, and in *' fum all liberty and civility and laying the " earth to wafte, difpeopled and uninhabited, '' neither came from God (fave as a fcourge by *^ permifTion) nor can bring them to God that ** follow it." t I might cite a catena of authori- * Hiftory of Servia, chap. 3- t Sandys, Relation of a Journey begun A.D. 1610 j containing a Defcription of the Tuikifli Empire, &c. 167 TURKISH GOVERNMENT. ties all telling the fame melancholy tale, but It is unnecefTary, and I will content myfelf with quoting a paffage from an able article In the Edinburgh Review of January 1854, which puts the cafe with brevity and force. '^ Habits *' of toleration and decrees of equality are a dead " letter beyond the diameter of the capital; and " we venture to affirm that more adls of cruelty *' and extortion are fllU perpetrated in the " Turkifh Empire than In all thofe countries of " Europe which habitually infpire us with the " ftrongell: commlferatlon." Even Lord Strat- tord de RedclifFe, whom no one can accufe ot being unfriendly to the Ottoman Porte, has admitted in a letter to the Times (January 3, 1876), "that Turkey Is weak, fanatical, and " mifgoverned, no one can honeftly deny." Lord Palmerfton indeed faid in the Houfe of Commons in 1853, *' I afTert without fear of '' contradiftion that Turkey, fo far from having " gone back within the laft thirty years, has 168 LORD PALMERSTON AND MR. COBDEN. '' made greater progrefs and improvement, in " every poffible way, than perhaps was ever '* made by any other country in the fame " period." No doubt Lord Palmerfton was fincere in his belief, but he miftook profeiTion for pradice, and trufted to nominal reforms as it they were equivalent to real improvement. It would have puzzled him to make good the aflertion if its veracity had been tefted by the adual condition of the people, although he did fpecify '^ the adminiftration of juftice, the ** condition of agriculture, manufa6lures and " commerce, and religious toleration." Black indeed as midnight muft have been the former condition of Turkey, if an Englifh ftatefman could hail the fainteft twilight as if it were adual funfhine. In the fame debate Mr. Cobden faid that the Turks in Europe were confidered as intruders ; that their home was Afia ; and the progrefs of events had demonftrated that a Mahommedan 169 TURKISH GOVERNMEM. Power could not be maintained in Europe. If he were a Raya fubjed; of the Porte he fhould fay, " Give me any Chriftian government rather '■^ than a Mahommedan." And furely events have fhown that Mr. Cobden took a jufter view of thequeftion than Lord Palmerfton. What proof is there of even phyfical improve- ment in the country ? There are roads and roads. But as to the roads in Turkey, a chapter on them might be as fhort as the famous one in Hans Troil's Hiftory of Iceland, which is headed " On the Snakes in Iceland ; " and the whole chapter confifts of the words "There are no fnakes in " Iceland." So there are really " no roads in " Turkey," at leaft none worthy of the name. When I was at Conftantinople in 1869, a new one had been conftruded by an Englifh engineer from Buyukdere on the Bofphorus to the Sultan's Kiofk in the foreft of Belgrade, a diflance of feven or eight miles. He was urged by the Turkifh Government to make the road 170 CORRUPTION. with the utmoft pofTible fpeed, as there was an idea that the Emprefs of the French, whofe vifit was approaching, might pofTibly wifh to fee the Kiofk. I was afked by the engineer to accom- pany him and try the road, but the weather had been wet, and when we reached it, it was in an impaffable ftate of mud. Even between Con- ftantinople and Adrianople, where the country is a long, wide, undulating plain and the foil clay, the fo-called high road is nothing but a rough track, and a fingle day's rain converts it into flufh and mud. And as to the ftreets of Conftantinople itself they look as if cart-loads of ftones had been dropped from the Iky, with deep ruts and holes in them, which no one takes the trouble to fill up. Corruption has eaten into the heart's core of the Turkidi Government. It was faid of the fall of the Roman Republic, Nulla alia re magis Romana Re/publica periity quam quod magi- ftratus officia venalia ejfent. 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