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THE SOIL, 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENTIFIC 
 STUDY OF THE GROWTH OF CROPS 
 
 BY A. D. HALL, M.A. (Oxon.) 
 
 DIRECTOR OF THE ROTHAMSTED STATION 
 (LAWES AGRICULTURAL TRUST) 
 
 FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 OF SWEDEN 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 LONDON 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 
 
 1912 
 
DEDICATED TO 
 THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF GOLDSMITHS 
 
 THE FIRST PUBLIC BODY IN THIS COUNTRY TO 
 
 CREATE AN ENDOWMENT FOR THE 
 
 INVESTIGATION OF THE SOIL 
 
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 • • » • • 
 
 
 
 First Edition . 
 
 March 1903 
 
 
 Reprinted . . , 
 
 September 1 904 
 
 
 Second Edition . 
 
 , September 1908 
 
 
 Reprinted . 
 
 /4/rz7 1 9 10 
 
 
 Reprinted . . , 
 
 , Afay 1912 
 
Photograph showing transition from Rock into Subsoil and Soil by Weathering 
 
 (Hythe Beds, Great Chart, Kent). 
 
 [Frontispie 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The study of the soil, which is fundamental in any 
 application of science to that part of agriculture which 
 deals with the growth of crops, has received greatly 
 increased attention during the past few years. The 
 crude chemical point of view, which in the main 
 regarded the soil as a nutritive medium for the 
 plant, has been altogether extended, by a considera- 
 tion of the soil as the seat of a number of physical 
 processes affecting the supply of heat and of air 
 and water to the plant, and again as a com- 
 plex laboratory, peopled by many types of lower 
 orgariisms, whose function is in some cases indis- 
 pensable, in others noxious, to the higher plants with 
 which the farmer is concerned. These three kinds of 
 reaction — chemical, physical, and biological — interact 
 upon one another and upon the crop in many ways; 
 they are affected by, and serve to explain, the various 
 tillage operations which have been learnt by the 
 accumulated experience of the farming community, 
 and the hope for future progress lies in the further 
 adaptation for practical ends of these processes at 
 work in the soil. But it must not be supposed that 
 science is yet in a position to reform the procedure of 
 farming, or even to effect an immediate increase in the 
 
 280282 
 
vi INTRODUCTION 
 
 productivity of the land : agriculture is the oldest and 
 most widespread art the world has known, the applica- 
 tion of scientific method to it is very much an affair 
 of the day before yesterday. Nor can we see our way 
 to any radical acceleration of the turnover of agricultural 
 operations that shall be economical ; the seasons and the 
 vital processes of the living organism are stubborn facts, 
 unshapable as yet by man with all his novel powers. 
 But even if the best farming practice is still a step 
 beyond its complete explanation by science, yet the 
 most practical man will find his perception stimulated 
 and his power of dealing with an emergency quickened 
 by an appreciation of the reasons underlying the 
 tradition in which he has been trained ; and such an 
 introduction to the knowledge of the soil it is the aim 
 of this little book to supply. The book is primarily 
 intended for the students of our agricultural colleges 
 and schools, and for the farmer who wishes to know 
 something about the materials he is handling day by 
 day. While a certain knowledge of chemistry is 
 assumed, it is hoped that the subject is so treated as 
 to be intelligible to the non-technical reader who is 
 without this preliminary grounding. Though the book 
 is in no sense an exhaustive treatise, it has been my 
 desire to give the reader an outline of all the recent 
 investigations which have opened up so many soil 
 problems and thrown new light on difficulties that 
 are experienced in practice. The scope of the book 
 precludes the giving of references and authorities for 
 all the statements which are made; but, for the sake 
 of the more advanced student, a bibliography has 
 been appended, which will take him to the original 
 sources and give him the means of learning both 
 sides of the more controversial questions. 
 
 The same reason — want of space — has prevented me 
 
INTRODUCTION vii 
 
 from giving an adequate justification of some of the 
 points of view indicated Any worker in so novel and 
 unsurveyed a field as the study of the soil still presents, 
 must arrive at certain personal conclusions, and I have 
 tried to steer a middle course between an over insistence 
 on these points on the one hand, and the colourlessness 
 that would come from their entire exclusion on the 
 other. No great part of a text-book can pretend to 
 be original, but in the sections dealing with the 
 chemical analysis and the physics of the soil, I have 
 incorporated a good many unpublished measurements 
 and observations ; for the mass of the results on which 
 the book is based, I am chiefly indebted to the work 
 of Lawes and Gilbert, as set out in the Rothatnsted 
 Memoirs, and to the writings of Warington in this 
 country, of King, Hilgard, and Whitney in America, 
 of Wollny in Munich. 
 
 I have to thank Professor J. Percival, of the South- 
 Eastern Agricultural College, for notes respecting the 
 association of plants with specific soils, and many 
 suggestions on biological questions; Major Hanbury 
 Brown, C.M.G., head of the Egyptian Irrigation 
 Department, for information concerning "salted" lands 
 in Egypt ; Mr F. J. Plymen, who has been associated 
 with me in carrying out a soil survey of the counties 
 of Kent and Surrey, and has executed many of the 
 observations recorded here ; Mr W. H. Aston, one of 
 my pupils, to whom I owe the observations on p. 135 ; 
 and finally, Dr J. A. Voelcker, to whom I am greatly 
 indebted for reading the proof-sheets, and making 
 many valuable suggestions thereon. 
 
 A. D. HALL. 
 
 Harpenden, December 1902. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 A CONSIDERABLE number of additions and alterations 
 have been incorporated in the present edition. These 
 include a revision of the method recommended for the 
 mechanical analysis of soils, the method now given 
 being that adopted by the members of the Agricultural 
 Education Association in this country. ' Owing to re- 
 searches which have appeared since the publication of 
 the first edition, I have greatly modified the views I 
 then expressed on the nature of clay, and on the part 
 played by zeolitic silicates in the retention of ammonium 
 and other salts by the soil During the last six years, 
 however, the greatest additions to our knowledge of the 
 soil are those dealing with bacteria; in consequence, 
 the chapter on the living organisms of the soil has been 
 largely rewritten and added to. A number of minor 
 corrections have been made in the text, some of which 
 represent the removal of errors, and others modifications 
 due to more recent research. For the mistakes which 
 must still remain, and which will become evident in the 
 course of time, I must ask my readers' pardon before- 
 hand ; in dealing with so complex a subject as the soil 
 we are still far from final conclusions, many of our most 
 trusted conclusions are only rough approximations to 
 the truth, and by the progress of research they may at 
 any time require remodelling until they are hardly 
 
 recognisable. 
 
 A. D. HALL. 
 
 The Rothamsted Experimental Station, 
 May 1908. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 PAGE 
 
 In the Scientific Study of Soils, Chemical, Physical, and Bio- 
 logical Considerations are involved . . • I 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS 
 
 Sedentary Soils, and Soils of Transport — Weathering — 
 The Composition of Rock-forming Minerals and their 
 Weathered Products — Distinction between Soil and Sub- 
 Soil — General Classification of Soils • . .6 
 
 CHAPTER n 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 
 
 Nature of Soil Constituents : Sand, Clay, Chalk, and 
 Humus — Methods of Sampling Soils — Methods for 
 the Mechanical Analysis of a Soil — Interpretation of 
 Results ....... 32 
 
 CHAPTER in 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 Meaning of Texture and Conditions by which it is affected 
 — Pore Space and Density of Soils — Capacity of the Soil 
 for Water — Surface Tension and Capillarity — Percola- 
 tion and Drainage — Hygroscopic Moisture . . 60 
 xi 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 TILLAGE AND THE MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Water required for the Growth of Crops — The Effect of 
 Drainage — Effects of Autumn and Spring Cultivation, 
 Hoeing and Mulching, Rolling, upon the Water Con- 
 tent of the Soil— The Drying Effect of Crops— Bare 
 Fallows — Effect of Dung on the Retention of Water by 
 the Soil • • . • , . 89 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 Causes affecting the Temperature of the Soil — Variation 
 of Temperature with Depth, Season, etc. — Tempera- 
 tures required for Growth — Radiation — Effect of Colour 
 — Specific Heat of Soils — Heat required for Evapora- 
 tion — Effect of Situation and Exposure — Early and Late 
 Soils. ••••••• 120 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 
 
 Necessary Conventions as to the Material to be Analysed 
 — Methods Adopted — Interpretation of Results — Dis- 
 • tinction between Dormant and Available Plant Food 
 — Analysis of the Soil by the Plant — Determination 
 of "Available" Phosphoric Acid and Potash by the 
 Use of Weak Acid Solvents .... 139 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL 
 
 Decay and Humification of Organic Matter in the Soil — 
 Alinit — The Fixation of Free Nitrogen by Bacteria 
 living in Symbiosis with Leguminous Plants — Soil 
 Inoculation with Nodule Organisms— Fixation of Nitrogen 
 by Bacteria living free in the Soil — Nitrification — 
 Denitrification — Iron Bacteria — Fungi of Importance 
 in the Soil : Mycorhiza, and the Slime Fungus of 
 " Finger-and-Toe " . .   • . .168 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Retention of Manures by the Soil — The Absorption of 
 Ammonia and its Salts ; of Potash ; of Phosphoric 
 Acid — Chemical and Physical Agencies at Work — 
 The Non-Retention of Nitrates — The Composition of 
 Drainage Waters — Loss of Nitrates by the Land — 
 Time of Application of Manures . • • .211 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY OF SOILS 
 
 Meaning of Fertility and Condition — Causes of Sterility: 
 Drought, Waterlogging, Presence of Injurious Salts — 
 Alkali Soils and Irrigation Water — Effect of Fertilisers 
 upon the Textuie of the Soil — The Amelioration of 
 Soils by Liming, Marling, Claying, Paring and Burn- 
 ing — The Reclamation of Peat Bogs . • . 233 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 SOIL TYPES 
 
 Classification of Soils according to their Physical or 
 Chemical Nature — Geological Origin the Basis of 
 Classification — Vegetation Characteristic of Various 
 Soil Types : Physical Structure, Chemical Composition, 
 Natural Flora and Weeds characteristic of Sands, 
 Loams, Calcareous Soils, Clays, Peat, Marsh, and Salt 
 Soils — Soil Surveys, their Execution and Application . 271 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 Appendix I.— Chemical Analyses of Typical Soils . 300, 301 
 „ II. — Bibliography. .... 302 
 
 Index ........ 3°5 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIGURES PAGE 
 
 Photograph showing transition from Rock into Subsoil 
 and Soil by Weathering (Hythe Beds, Great Chart, 
 Kent) • • . . . • • Frontispiece 
 
 1. Photograph of Soil-sampling Tools • • .49 
 
 2. Diagram illustrating Pore Space . • . 62 
 
 3. Diagram illustrating Capillary Rise and Depression of 
 
 Liquids ....... 72 
 
 4. Photograph illustrating Liquid Film round Soil Particles 73 
 
 5. Diagram illustrating Liquid Film round Soil Particles . 75 
 
 6. Water Content of Columns of wetted but thoroughly 
 
 drained Sand and Soil ..... 76 
 
 7. Diagram showing Rainfall and Percolation at Rotham- 
 
 sted, 1870-1905 ...... 78 
 
 8. Soil Temperatures at 9 a.m., Monthly Means • . 122 
 
 9. Soil Temperatures at 9 A.M., Daily Readings . . 123 
 
 10. Effect of Nature of Surface upon Soil Temperatures . 128 
 
 11. Temperatures of Drained and Undrained Bog . . 132 
 
 12. Distribution of the Sun's Rays on Southerly and 
 
 Northerly Slopes . . . . 133 
 
 13. Temperatures (Max. and Min.) at Various Altitudes . 135 
 
 14. Nitrates in Cultivated and Uncultivated Soil . . 195 
 
 15. Losses of Nitrogen in Drainage fiom Rothamsted 
 
 Wheat Plots ...... 226 
 
 16. Nature and Distribution of Alkali Salts . • • 246 
 
 XT 
 

> > > 
 
 THE SOIL 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 In the Scientific Study of Soils, Chemical, Physical, and 
 Biological Considerations are involved. 
 
 The whole business of agriculture is founded upon the 
 soil; for the soil the farmer pays rent, and upon his 
 skill in making use of its inherent capacities depends 
 the return he gets for his crops. Taking rent as a 
 rough measure of the productive value of land, it is 
 clear that enormous differences must exist in the nature 
 of the soil, for in the same district some land may be 
 rented at £2, and other land at as little as 5s. per acre. 
 Of course rent is not wholly determined by the nature 
 of the soil, but depends also on the proximity of a 
 market, and the adaptability of the land to special 
 purposes ; a light sandy or gravelly soil, almost worth- 
 less for general agricultural purposes, may be valuable 
 in the neighbourhood of a large town, because its earli- 
 ness and responsiveness to manure make it specially 
 suitable for market gardening. 
 
 In some cases the difference between soils is seen 
 in the quality of the crop produced rather than in the 
 productiveness ; for example, the " red lands "of Dunbar 
 are famous for the high quality of the potatoes 
 grown upon them : such potatoes will sell at 80s. to 90s. 
 1 A 
 
t- n i 
 
 2 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 per ton, when potatoes grown upon the Lincoln warp 
 soils are at 60s., and those from the black soils of 
 the fen country are only fetching 45s. to 50s. This 
 extra price for the red land potatoes is due to 
 the fact that they can be cooked a second time, 
 after cooling, without changing colour, whereas the 
 ordinary potato is apt to blacken a little when once 
 cooked and allowed to grow cold. 
 
 The scientific study of soils is concerned with the 
 differences indicated above ; its endeavour is to obtain 
 such a knowledge of the constitution of the soil and the 
 part it plays in the nutrition of the plant, as will make 
 clear the cause of the inferiority of any given piece of 
 land, and ultimately enable the farmer to correct it. 
 The problems involved are far more complex than 
 they appear; at first sight nothing would seem easier 
 than to make a chemical analysis of the soil and find 
 out in what respects it differs from another • soil of 
 known value ; then the deficiencies or the excesses, as 
 compared with the good soil, could be corrected by suit- 
 able manuring. The matter is not, however, quite so 
 simple, for if on the one hand the soil can be considered 
 as a great reservoir of plant food which can be recovered 
 in crops, on the other hand it is equally correct to 
 regard the soil as a manufactory, a medium for trans- 
 forming raw material in the shape of manure into 
 the finished article — the crop. In new countries where 
 virgin soil is being exploited, and in districts where the 
 systems of agriculture are primitive, the former point of 
 view is the correct one ; nothing is given to the soil 
 beyond that amount of labour which will enable some 
 of its inherent value to be realised in a crop. Little by 
 little the capital, which may be practically boundless, 
 as in the great wheat lands of Manitoba, or initially 
 little enough, as on a Connemara heath, is being drawn 
 
INTRODUCTORY 3 
 
 upon and not replaced. But in a Kentish hop-garden 
 or other land where an intensive system of cultivation 
 is practised, the crop does not remove as much as it 
 receives ; often the land is intrinsically poor, and owes 
 its value to the manner in which it will elaborate 
 the raw material supplied as manure. And not only 
 are these very special soils gaining, rather than losing 
 fertility with each crop, but, from a general point 
 of view, all countries that are being highly farmed, 
 like parts of Great Britain, are steadily increasing in 
 fertility at the expense of other countries which are 
 growing crops on virgin soil ; in the linseed, the maize, 
 the cotton seed, that are fed to our stock, there travels 
 to our soil some of the wealth of the lands upon which 
 these crops were grown. Hence the study of the 
 inherent resources of the soil is perhaps less important 
 than an examination of the manner in which the soil 
 deals with such materials supplied under cultivation. 
 
 The complete knowledge of the soil and the part it 
 plays in the nutrition of the plant requires investigation 
 along three lines, which may be roughly classed as 
 — chemical, physical or mechanical, and biological ; 
 naturally these points of view are not independent of 
 one another, but are only so separated for convenience 
 of study. 
 
 In the first place, we know that the plant derives 
 certain substances necessary to its development from 
 the soil: nitrogen and all the ash constituents reach 
 the plant in this manner. We have, therefore, to 
 investigate the proportions in which these constituents 
 are present in the soil, the state of combination in 
 which they may respectively exist, and the variations 
 in these factors normally exhibited by typical soils, 
 all of which questions may be described under the 
 head of chemical analysis. Further investigations of a 
 
4 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 chemical nature deal with the power of various soils to 
 retain manure, the causes of sterility or fertility, and 
 the measures that can be adopted for the amelioration 
 of soils. 
 
 The soil is, however, not merely a storehouse of food 
 for the plant, since water is equally indispensable to 
 its existence, and is immediately derived from the soil ; 
 hence it is of prime importance to study the causes 
 which underlie the movement of water in the land, 
 and its supply to the growing crop. In the relation 
 between soil and water the cultivation to which the 
 land is subjected plays a prime part, hence it will be 
 necessary to trace the effect of each of the main opera- 
 tions of tillage upon the structure of the soil. Again, 
 the texture of the soil and the proportions of water 
 and air it retains, affect its temperature and that 
 responsiveness to change of season which we roughly 
 indicate by the terms "early" and "late" soils. The 
 general consideration of these questions may be termed 
 soil physics. 
 
 Finally, the soil is not a dead mass, receiving on 
 the one hand manure, which it yields again to the 
 crop by purely mechanical or chemical processes; it 
 is rather a busy and complex laboratory where a 
 multitude of minute organisms are always at work. 
 By the action of some of these organisms, vegetable 
 residues and manures are reduced, we might almost say 
 digested, to a condition in which they will serve as food 
 for plants ; others are capable of bringing into combina- 
 tion, or " fixing," the free nitrogen gas of the atmosphere, 
 and therefore add directly to the capital of the soil; 
 others again are noxious or destructive to the food 
 stores in the soil. 
 
 The work of these organisms is much affected by 
 cultivation ; in fact, it would not be too much to say 
 
INTRODUCTORY 5 
 
 that most of the operations upon the farm have received 
 a new light from the knowledge that has been acquired 
 in the last few years of the living processes taking place 
 in the soil. In this direction also new developments 
 of agriculture seem to be possible, and though the 
 progress is only small as yet, we see indications that 
 the productive capacity of the land may be per- 
 manently increased by the introduction of certain 
 organisms capable of assisting the work of the higher 
 plants. 
 
 On the biological side we have also to study the 
 association of certain plants with particular soils ; an 
 examination of the natural flora of any district will 
 show that some species are almost confined to sandy 
 soils, others to soils containing chalk, rarely wandering 
 on to different types of soil ; again, particular weeds 
 are characteristic of clay land, others of sand ; and 
 some even of our cultivated crops show a marked 
 intolerance for particular soils. 
 
 The full story of the soil cannot yet be told ; small 
 wonder that in the course of the many centuries man 
 has been cultivating the face of the earth, he has found 
 out much which science can barely explain, still less 
 improve upon. Nor are the problems simple — the 
 food, the water, the temperature, the living organisms 
 in the soil are all variables, affected by cultivation and 
 climate, themselves also variable ; they all act and 
 react upon one another and upon the crops ; hence we 
 can easily understand that the smallest farm may 
 present problems beyond the furthest stretch of our 
 knowledge. 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS 
 
 Sedentary Soils, and Soils of Transport — Weathering — The Com- 
 position of Rock-forming Minerals and their Weathered 
 Products — Distinction between Soil and Subsoil — General 
 Classification of Soils. 
 
 The study of soils must begin with some knowledge 
 of their origin and their relationship to the rocks that 
 underlie them, out of which, in most cases, they have 
 been formed. 
 
 Perhaps the best way of arriving at an idea of the 
 natural processes which result in soil, is to visit a 
 river valley and examine, first a quarry on the flanks 
 of the hills, and then one of the cuttings for gravel or 
 brick earth, which often lie a little above the river level. 
 
 The face of the quarry shows at a depth of 10 feet 
 or so from the surface the massive rock, unaltered as 
 yet by any action of the weather. Closer examination, 
 however, shows that even at this depth the rock is 
 not quite solid ; if it be a stratified rock the planes of 
 bedding are apparent, along which the rock can be 
 split Joints again traverse the rock at right angles 
 to the bedding planes, and along both joints and bed- 
 ding planes it is evident that water makes its way, for 
 the edges of the cracks are slightly altered and dis- 
 coloured. Nearer the surface, the cracks and lines of 
 
chap, i.] SEDENTAR Y SOILS 7 
 
 weakness in the rock become more palpable ; in some 
 cases the joints have been forced open by the intrusion 
 of the roots of trees; minor cracks have started from 
 the main ones, and the disintegration of the rock at 
 the edges of the cracks has proceeded further, till at a 
 distance of 3 or 4 feet from the surface the whole 
 material is loose and shattery, though still preserving 
 the appearance of solid rock. Still nearer the surface, 
 the rock structure seems to have disappeared ; rock 
 may be there in lumps and fragments, but it is em- 
 bedded in small material that may fairly be termed soil 
 or earth. Still nearer the surface the rock fragments 
 become smaller, and the proportion of fine earth larger, 
 till in the top 9 inches or so a new change begins. 
 Here the stones are generally small, and the material 
 is dark from the admixture of decaying vegetable 
 matter, residues of the crops that have covered the 
 surface for long ages. This is the soil proper, generally 
 shading gradually into the subsoil below, which in its 
 turn passes insensibly into the underlying rock. It is 
 obvious that a soil such as we have been describing has 
 been directly formed from the rock — it is, in fact, the 
 rock disintegrated and reduced by frost and snow, air 
 and rain; all those agencies we group together under 
 the name of "weathering." We are dealing with a 
 soil formed in situ, or, as it is sometimes termed, a 
 sedentary soil. 
 
 The frontispiece shows a photograph of such a case 
 of weathering of rock into subsoil and soil, as seen in a 
 section of the Hythe Beds, near Great Chart, Kent. 
 
 But when we examine the section of the gravel pit 
 or the brick earth workings lower down in the valley, 
 the sequence is not the same ; we still have the soil 
 proper passing into the subsoil, but this is fairly uniform 
 throughout instead of showing a progressive change 
 
8 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 as we descend ; if it be gravel, the stones continue of 
 the same size ; if brick earth, neither stones nor hard 
 stratified clay make their appearance. Should the 
 exposed section be deep enough, we find at last the 
 subsoil suddenly giving place to entirely different 
 material — solid chalk, or massive clay, or sandstone, as 
 the case may be — perhaps incapable, when disintegrated, 
 of furnishing the stuff of which the upper stratum of 
 gravel or brick earth is composed. In this upper 
 stratum we see the clearest evidence of the action of 
 water ; the brick earth is free from stones and is of even 
 texture, the gravel contains hardly any fine material, 
 and its constituent stones are worn and partly rounded ; 
 only running water can thus sift the heterogeneous 
 results of the weathering of rocks, and grade them into 
 different deposits. From what can be seen of the 
 present work of the river, it is clear that the brick earth 
 was deposited where the water was moving very slowly, 
 in quiet bays and in cut-offs, which only from time to 
 time get filled up with muddy flood water ; the gravel 
 must have been laid down in the strongest wash of the 
 currents. 
 
 Soils and subsoils of this type, which bear no 
 particular relation to the underlying rocks, but have 
 travelled from a distance by means of running water 
 or some kindred agency, are known as soils of transport, 
 or, to use the terminology of the Geological Survey, 
 as drift soils. 
 
 Weathering. 
 
 The study of geology teaches us that nearly all the 
 rocks termed stratified or sedimentary, which cover 
 the greater part of the surface of the British Islands, 
 have been formed from the waste of previous rocks by 
 weathering, and by the subsequent redeposit and con- 
 
I.] WEATHERING 9 
 
 solidation of the weathered material. A grain of sand, 
 for example, is practically indestructible ; it may have 
 become cemented to the other grains on the sea beach 
 where it was lying, and give rise to the rock we term 
 sandstone ; the rock thus formed may have been elevated 
 into dry land, broken up into loose grains, and washed 
 down to the sea to form a new beach, over and over again 
 in the world's history; so long a time has elapsed since 
 water first began to work on the earliest rocks. For this 
 reason, if we want to trace out the origin of a soil in 
 detail, we must in most cases go beyond the sedimen- 
 tary rock from which it immediately derives, back to the 
 so-called primitive or crystalline rocks, which represent 
 in a sense the original materials of the earth's crust 
 
 Here we shall find certain fundamental minerals, 
 which in a weathered state, altered both mechanically 
 and chemically, go to form both the sedimentary rocks 
 and the soil which is our immediate study. Though 
 the number of distinct minerals is immense, practically 
 the mass of the earth's crust is made up of a few only ; 
 silica, various complex silicates of alumina, iron, lime, 
 magnesia, potash, and soda, together with carbonate of 
 lime, which is generally of organic origin, are all that 
 need be considered in relation to soils. 
 
 The various agencies which reduce rocks to soil, 
 grouped under the general term of weathering, may be 
 distinguished as mechanical — including the work of alter- 
 nations of temperature, frost, wind, rain, and glacial ice — 
 and chemical, the complex effects of solution and oxida- 
 tion that are brought about by water, especially when 
 charged with carbonic acid. 
 
 In dry climates the alternations of temperature 
 between day and night set up sufficient strain to fracture 
 even large rocks, and eventually reduce them to dust 
 The dust and sand of the deserts of Central Asia, the 
 
ro THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap, 
 
 barren lands of the United States, and many parts of 
 both North and South Africa, are formed in this way ; 
 because of the dryness of the atmosphere, radiation is 
 extreme, and the temperature of the rock surface will 
 rise to 6o° C. in the day and fall below zero at night. 
 Crystalline rocks soon disintegrate under such alterna- 
 tions of temperature, and the fine angular dust thus 
 formed is transported by wind into the plains and valleys, 
 giving rise to soils largely wind-borne. Richthoven has 
 supposed that the immense loess deposits of China are in 
 the main dust that has been blown from the Central 
 Asian deserts. Even in a humid country like our own the 
 wind plays a considerable part in forming soil, material 
 being constantly removed from any bare surface and 
 deposited elsewhere as dust When all the country 
 was in its natural state and clothed with vegetation, 
 the amount of transport as dust must have been con- 
 siderably smaller than at present, but even then worm 
 casts brought up in the spring would crumble in dry 
 weather, and be moved to lower levels by the wind. 
 The thickness of the dust deposit may be gauged 
 by the rapidity with which shingle beds newly won 
 from the sea become covered with vegetation ; in 
 the neighbourhood of Dungeness shingle beds known 
 to be less than fifty years old are already clothed 
 with a scanty flora. On scraping away a few inches 
 of the shingle the interstices between the stones are 
 found to be filled with a fine black sand, which 
 can only have been wind-borne ; this rapidly increases 
 as the first vegetation checks the velocity of the 
 wind above the stones and arrests the dust, till at last 
 it reaches the surface and the grass begins to spread 
 over the stones. Exact dates are difficult to obtain, 
 but probably considerably less than a century is suffi- 
 cient to form a thin turf over a bare shingle bed. 
 
I.] WEATHERING II 
 
 But the great weathering agency in temperate climates 
 is undoubtedly frost acting upon water contained within 
 the rocks and stones ; the water expands as it changes 
 into ice, and exerts an enormous pressure — indeed about 
 ioo atmospheres would be required to keep water in a 
 liquid condition at — i° C. All rocks when freshly exposed, 
 hold, by capillary attraction, a certain amount of water 
 known as the "quarry water," which amounts in the 
 white chalk to as much as 19 per cent A piece of such 
 chalk will be shattered into fragments by a single 
 night's frost Even after the quarry water has been 
 dried out the most close-grained rocks will absorb a 
 small quantity of water. The face of polished granite 
 rapidly deteriorates in severe climates, owing to the 
 freezing of the water that finds its way into the minute 
 divisions between the crystals : Cleopatra's Needle, 
 which had retained its smooth face for centuries in 
 Egypt, soon became affected after its removal to 
 London, and has to be protected by a waterproof 
 varnish, as have all the granite monuments in Canada. 
 
 In nature also, all rocks are traversed by joints and 
 bedding planes ; these cracks are filled with water and 
 opened and extended by its conversion into ice in the 
 winter, till finally a block is wedged off and a fresh 
 surface exposed to the action. Where flagstones are 
 quarried, the workmen are in the habit of saturating the 
 surface of the rock with water before the winter sets in : 
 thus the rock is split along its bedding planes more 
 effectively than by any artificial means. The fragments 
 that have been broken off the main rock will be con- 
 tinually reduced in size by successive frosts, until they 
 reach the ultimate fragments which are no longer 
 penetrated by water ; even in a soil the disintegration is 
 still proceeding. 
 
 The weathering agencies just described would gradu- 
 
12 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 ally cover any exposed rock with a layer of debris, 
 which would protect the lower layers from further action 
 were it not that the rain is always washing the finer 
 particles into the valleys and so leaving the rock open to 
 fresh attack. Even on grass land the fine mould brought 
 to the surface by worms, moles, ants, etc., is constantly 
 travelling downhill by the agency of rain. On arable 
 land containing stones it is a common expression to say 
 that the stones " grow " : however thoroughly the surface 
 may be picked clean of stones, in a year or two they will 
 seem as numerous as ever; the fine soil gets washed 
 away to lower levels, leaving the stones standing upon 
 the surface. Even the stones themselves gradually creep 
 downhill, the rain undermines them till they fall over, 
 they must fall a little lower down the slope, until they 
 eventually reach the valley and are subject to further 
 transport by running water. At the bottom of many of 
 the smaller dry valleys on the chalk rests an enormous 
 accumulation of flints of all sizes ; in one case in a small 
 upland valley the deposit was 6 or 7 feet thick, and the 
 unworn flints were so close as to be practically in 
 contact, only the interstices being occupied by soil ; yet 
 the surface carried good crops. 
 
 The material which thus creeps down the sides of 
 the valleys is further sorted out by the streams and 
 rivers and deposited as beds of gravel, sand, or clay, 
 the " alluvium " which underlies the level river meadows. 
 The coarser the material the more readily will) it 
 settle, the finer particles are only deposited when the 
 velocity of the stream has been almost entirely checked. 
 The gravel and sand are deposited in and about the 
 stream course itself, the finer material falls on the meadows 
 in flood time, so that their level is gradually raised from 
 year to year. Wherever the meadows get water-logged 
 the surface vegetation will begin to accumulate as 
 
I.] WEATHERING 13 
 
 peat; the 'stream also wanders about from side to 
 side of the valley, hence borings through any exten- 
 sive deposit of alluvium will disclose alternating beds 
 of gravel, sand, brick earth, and peat, of variable 
 extent and thickness. The great alluvial flats or 
 marshes at the mouths of many of our rivers are 
 formed in this manner ; the deposit takes place in the 
 sea or in the estuary, until the tides and currents work 
 the material up to high-water mark, after which only 
 fresh-water beds are laid down. 
 
 Although most of the materials of which rocks are 
 composed are in the ordinary sense insoluble in water, 
 few of them, except the pure sand grains, can resist the 
 attack of water charged with carbonic acid. The rain 
 water when it reaches the ground has little carbonic acid 
 in solution, but the gases in the soil contain a consider- 
 able quantity derived from the decay of vegetable matter 
 in the surface layer, and the water in contact with these 
 gases will dissolve a proportionate amount. The pro- 
 portion of carbonic acid in the soil gases varies very 
 much both with the permeability of the soil and the 
 proportion of humus, but at a depth of 1-5 metres 
 Wollny found it vary from 3-84 per cent to 14-6 per 
 cent at various periods of the year. At greater depths 
 the amount is still higher, so that the percolating water 
 becomes a weak solution of carbonic acid, and attains a 
 considerable solvent power. Not only are the alkaline 
 silicates attacked by the weak acid thus formed, but as 
 lime, magnesia, and iron protoxide also form soluble 
 bicarbonates, all minerals containing these bases are 
 liable to attack. Probably some of the organic acids 
 produced by the decay of vegetable matter in the sur- 
 face soil aid in the solvent power of soil water; yet, 
 undoubtedly, water containing carbonic acid is the great 
 natural solvent, and spme of the more striking cases of 
 
i 4 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 its action in breaking down rocks will be discussed later 
 under the heads of felspar, augite, and calcium carbonate. 
 
 The attack of frost and water upon rocks is much 
 assisted by the roots of plants and trees ; if we examine 
 a fresh section of the soil over a quarry or brick pit, the 
 roots of ordinary field plants can be traced downwards 
 for 4 feet or more, while the roots of a tree may be seen 
 working far into tiny fissures of the almost unaltered 
 rock. The roots follow the water in the fissures : at first 
 they can enter very minute cracks ; as they grow, the 
 pressure they exert widens the cracks ; finally, the roots 
 decay and leave a channel down which water can per- 
 colate freely. The fine roots themselves have a certain 
 solvent action; after plants had been grown in a pot 
 filled with powdered granite rock, which had been freed 
 from all fine particles by washing, an appreciable quantity 
 of mud and clay was found to have been formed. 
 
 The opening up of the subsoil to weathering by the 
 action of roots is also carried out by worms, which have 
 been observed making their burrows to the depth of 5 
 feet, thus introducing both air and water into the lower 
 strata. But the great work of worms in regard to soil 
 lies rather in the production of the fine surface layer of 
 mould rich in vegetable matter : Darwin calculated that 
 on an ordinary chalky pasture the whole of the fine 
 surface soil to a depth of 10 inches was passed through 
 worms and cast up on the surface in the course of fifty 
 years. During their passage through the gizzard of the 
 worms the stony particles will receive a certain amount 
 of rubbing and be reduced in size, so that some of the 
 finer particles in the soil owe their origin to worms. 
 The deposit of the fine soil on the surface in the shape 
 of worm casts, which are afterwards spread by the action 
 of rain and wind, explains why chalk, ashes, or even 
 stones placed on pasture land gradually sink below the 
 
l] transport of WEATHERED MATERIAL 15 
 
 surface. Darwin found in one case that a layer of burnt 
 marl spread on the surface had sunk 3 inches in fifteen 
 years, in another case a layer of chalk was buried 7 
 inches after an interval of twenty-nine years ; in neither 
 case, however, can we estimate the part played by the 
 accretion of dust in forming this deposit. When we 
 consider for how long a period worms must have been 
 working in our cultivated soils, it is clear that the whole 
 must have been through them over and over again, and 
 that much of the fineness of the surface soil must be due to 
 their action, both in actually grinding the fragments and 
 in constantly bringing the finest portions back to the top. 
 
 In addition to the alluvial deposits proper, which are 
 still in process of formation, beds of gravel, sand, and 
 brick earth occur in many river valleys, as terraces on 
 the flanks of the hills, often much cut and denuded by 
 the modern river. These high level formations prob- 
 ably represent alluvial deposits of a former epoch 
 where the general slope of the land was greater and the 
 rivers, fed by a higher rainfall in the hills, ran in greater 
 volume. That the material of which these deposits con- 
 sist has been sorted by running water is evident from 
 the uniformity of size it possesses in each bed : while 
 the coarseness of the gravel, and the fact that in some 
 cases the stones are not made from the immediately 
 underlying rock, all point to a great lapse of time and a 
 river of higher transporting power than the present one. 
 The wide deposits of brick earth in the neighbourhood 
 of London and in East Kent were probably laid down 
 either by floods on the river meadows or in quiet bays 
 and lagoons of an estuary. 
 
 Over a great part of Britain north of the Thames, 
 especially in the midlands and the eastern counties, 
 the surface of the land is covered with beds of clay 
 and sand which owe their origin to glacial ice. In 
 
i6 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS 
 
 [chap. 
 
 Scotland, the north of England, and Wales, these beds 
 are full of ice-scratched stones, and clearly represent 
 material that has been ground down by a moving 
 glacier : but the origin of the glacial drift of the eastern 
 counties is more obscure, for water seems to have played 
 some part in its formation. The beds are mostly stiff 
 and clayey in character, and by their included fragments 
 show from what formation, as a rule not very remote, 
 they have been derived. 
 
 Rock-forming Minerals. 
 
 In the solid crust of the earth D'Orbigny has 
 estimated that the chief minerals are present in the 
 following proportions — felspars, 48 per cent. ; quartz, 
 35 per cent. ; micas, 8 per cent. ; talc, 5 per cent. ; 
 carbonates of lime and magnesia, 1 per cent. ; 
 hornblende, augite, etc., 1 per cent; other minerals 
 and weathered products, 2 per cent. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of these 
 chief minerals, with a few others that play some part in 
 the formation of soil : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 .5 
 
 
 e« 
 
 ta 
 
 
 
 
 eS 
 
 
 
 a 
 ES 
 
 m 
 1 
 
 -♦-a 
 O 
 
 P4 
 
 e8 
 
 "55 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 fcO 
 
 9 
 
 4) 
 
 a 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Ferrou 
 Oxide. 
 
 Ferric 
 Oxide. 
 
 fa 
 s 
 
 Quartz . . . 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fOrthoclase 
 
 64-2 
 
 17 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 i's-4 
 
 ... 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 Felspar-! Albite 
 
 68-6 
 
 
 iz*S 
 
 
 
 19-6 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 
 ^Anorthite . 
 
 43-1 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 • • • 
 
 20 
 
 36-9 
 
 • •• 
 
 • •• 
 
 
 f 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Mica . . \ 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 • * • 
 
 . • . 
 
 to 
 
 • •• 
 
 t •• 
 
 to 
 
 [ 
 
 * 
 
 5o 
 
 10 
 
 i-5 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 /Hornblende . 
 
 \ Augite. . j 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 • •« 
 
 ... 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 . v. 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Olivine . . 
 
 4i 
 
 • • • 
 
 ... 
 
 49.2 
 
 
 
 9.8 
 
 ... 
 
 
 Talc 
 
 63-5 
 
 • • t 
 
 ... 
 
 31-7 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 4 '.8 
 
I.] ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 17 
 
 ~ Quartz, the crystalline form of silica, is found 
 massive and in veins in the primitive rocks, and in 
 fragments of all sizes in the granites, gneisses, and 
 similar rocks. From the waste of these crystalline 
 rocks are derived the sandstones of all geological ages 
 and directly or indirectly the sands now existing. 
 In a sandstone rock the grains of quartz are bound 
 together by a cement, which may be oxide or car- 
 bonate of iron, as in the Lower Greensand of Surrey 
 and Beds, and in some of the Wealden sandstones, or 
 carbonate of lime, as in the Kentish Rag, or even silica 
 itself, as in the hard blocks of tertiary sandstone, which 
 are left as " grey wethers " on the surface of the chalk. 
 In some of the older sandstones the rock is practically 
 homogeneous ; heat, pressure, and solution having 
 thoroughly felted the grains together. Many sand- 
 stones weather rapidly, through the solution of the 
 cement binding the grains together ; the resulting sand 
 has the same texture as it possessed before it was 
 cemented into a rock. 
 
 The grains of sand that are first weathered from a 
 crystalline rock possess an angular shape, but are 
 soon rubbed down in running water into rounded 
 grains with a surface like fine ground glass. Hence 
 the degree of angularity which the sand grains show gives 
 some indication of the amount of wear and tear they 
 have suffered since their origin as sand. Below a certain 
 size, however, quartz grains seem no longer capable of 
 rubbing against one another, but remain angular even 
 after long travel in running water. Daubree has shown 
 that angular fragments of sand of less than 01 mm. 
 in diameter will travel in water without becoming 
 rounded, hence any rounding 01 smaller grains of sand 
 must have been due to solution. 
 
 Silica in the crystalline state is very slightly soluble 
 
 B 
 
18 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 in water, a certain amount of solution taking place 
 even at ordinary temperatures : most natural waters 
 show a little silica in solution, though this more 
 probably arises from the decomposition of natural 
 silicates by water containing carbonic acid, rather than 
 from the direct solution of quartz. 
 
 Amorphous silica in the form of "flint" plays a 
 conspicuous part in the constitution of many soils in 
 the south and east of England ; owing to their 
 durability and the former greater extension of the 
 chalk, they are found in many districts remote from 
 the chalk, even in the drift beds of the Channel Islands. 
 When first won from the chalk, flints possess a clear 
 black translucent structure, and are easily fractured and 
 crushed ; when weathered, either in flint gravels or 
 on the surface of the soil, they become yellow or brown 
 in colour, more opaque, and much harder, so that 
 weathered flints are always preferred for road-making. 
 The surface also becomes covered with a white incrusta- 
 tion, extending to a depth of ^ of an inch or more ; 
 this is, however, only incipient weathering, probably 
 due to the freezing of the small amount of water that 
 soaks in at the surface. 
 
 The Felspars constitute the most important group of 
 minerals found in the crystalline rocks : they are 
 double silicates of alumina and some other base, potash, 
 soda, or lime, of the general formula R 2 0, A1 2 3 , 6Si0 2 , 
 where R 2 may be either K 2 0, Na 2 0, or CaO. In 
 granites and gneisses the common felspar is orthoclase 
 or potash felspar; in the volcanic rocks plagioclase 
 felspars predominate, in which the base is lime, gener- 
 ally with some admixture of soda and potash. 
 
 The felspars are all distinguished by the ease with 
 which they are attacked by water containing carbonic 
 acid, those containing lime more readily so than the 
 
I.] ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 19 
 
 potash felspar. The lime or the alkali is removed in 
 solution, some of the silica is also removed ; the alumina 
 remains as a hydrated silicate, A1 2 3 , 2Si0 2 , 2H 2 0, 
 called kaolinite. Owing to this disintegration of 
 felspar, the crystalline rocks in which felspar is present 
 weather rapidly, the other materials, quartz, mica, 
 hornblende, become loosened from the matrix, and 
 the whole rock becomes rotten. The granite of Corn- 
 wall and Devon is generally covered to a considerable 
 depth, as much as 100 feet in some cases, with a 
 layer of kaolinite, in which the unchanged quartz and 
 mica are embedded; the kaolinite, freed by washing 
 from the quartz, mica, etc., forms the " china clay " or 
 kaolin of commerce. In the same way the basalts and 
 other kindred rocks give rise to a red clay, consisting 
 of kaolinite and the red iron oxides resulting from 
 the oxidation of the magnetite and the hornblende, 
 augite, etc., which contain ferrous silicates. From the 
 decomposition of the felspars, augite, hornblende, etc., 
 all our clays arise; as these minerals also generally 
 contain potash, they are the source of the potash 
 required by crops, which is always more abundant as 
 clay predominates in the soil. 
 
 Daubree caused 3 kilos of fragments of felspar 
 to revolve in an iron cylinder with 3 litres of water, 
 so that they practically performed a journey of 460 
 kilometres, with the result that 2-72 kilos of mud were 
 formed, of which 36 grams were clay, and in the 
 water there were 126 grams of potash in solution as 
 silicate. 
 
 Senft examined the action of water charged with 
 carbonic acid upon two granites, one (A) composed of 
 orthoclase, quartz, and potash mica, the other of (B) 
 plagioclase, quartz, and magnesia f mica, and obtained 
 in solution — 
 
10 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS 
 
 [chap. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 Potash as Bicarbonate 
 Soda as Bicarbonate . 
 Lime as Bicarbonate . 
 Magnesia as Bicarbonate 
 
 Silica 
 
 Iron as Bicarbonate . 
 
 15 to 25 per cent. 
 
 2 „ 6 „ 
 
 1 », 2 
 
 a trace 
 
 a little 
 
 a trace 
 
 5 to 8 per cent. 
 8 „ 10 „ 
 
 4 » 5 u 
 
 10 „ 15 H 
 
 a little 
 a trace 
 
 The undissolved residue of A was a white, of B a 
 yellow, clay containing fragments ot quartz and flakes 
 of mica. 
 
 The following analyses show the change that takes 
 place in passing from orthoclase felspar to kaolin; in 
 the third column the analysis of kaolin is recalculated 
 to show what arises from 100 parts of felspar, on the 
 assumption that none of the alumina is removed by 
 solution : — 
 
 
 Orthoclase 
 Felspar. 
 
 Kaolin. 
 
 Kaolin 
 from 100 Felspar. 
 
 Silica • • 
 Alumina • • 
 Potash • • 
 Water • • 
 
 64.2 
 1S.4 
 17 
 
 46.8 
 37-3 
 2-5 
 13 
 
 23»i 
 
 18.4 
 
 I.I 
 
 6.4 
 
 99.6 
 
 99.6 
 
 49 
 
 % Mica is essentially a double silicate of alumina and 
 potash, with some oxide ol iron : the potash being 
 replaced by magnesia in black mica or biotite. Mica 
 splits up into minute flakes as the rock weathers, but 
 these flakes are fairly resistent to chemical change, and 
 may be detected in most sands and sandstones. Ulti- 
 mately, however, they pass into hydrated silicates of 
 
I] 
 
 ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 
 
 21 
 
 alumina, and are rarely to be detected in the soils 
 resting upon sedimentary rocks. 
 
 N Hornblende and Augite, though differing in crystalline 
 shape, are chemically identical, and consist of silicates of 
 varying proportions of lime, magnesia, alumina, ferrous 
 and ferric oxides ; manganese and the alkali metals are 
 generally also present They constitute, with plagioclase 
 felspar and magnetic oxide of iron, the chief part of the 
 rocks that are sometimes roughly termed " greenstone " — 
 basalts, diorites, etc., of both volcanic and plutonic 
 origin. They decompose under the action of carbonic 
 acid charged water, especially those containing much 
 lime, while those with much magnesia are the most 
 resistent; the products of the action are kaolinite, 
 oxides of iron, and carbonates of lime and magnesia. 
 The following analysis (Ebelmar) show the chemical 
 change in the weathered layers of a basalt from 
 Bohemia and a greenstone or dolerite from Cornwall : — 
 
 
 Basalt. 
 
 Greenstone. 
 
 Unaltered. 
 
 Weathered. 
 
 Unaltered. 
 
 Weathered. 
 
 Silica • • • 
 Potash • • • 
 Soda • • • 
 Lime • • . 
 
 Magnesia • • 
 Alumina . . • 
 Iron Protoxide • 
 Iron Peroxide . 
 Titanium Oxide 
 Water . 
 
 44.4 
 4.8 
 2.7 
 
 H-3 
 9.1 
 
 I2»2 
 12. 1 
 
 3-5 
 
 trace 
 
 4.4 
 
 42.5 
 
 } - ( 
 
 2.5 
 
 3-3 
 17.9 
 
 n-5 
 
 1.2 
 
 20.4 
 
 51.4 
 1.6 
 3-9 
 5-7 
 2-8 
 
 15-8 
 
 12-9 
 
 3-o 
 
 0.7 
 
 i-7 
 
 44-5 
 
 I«2 
 
 i-7 
 
 1.4 
 2.7 
 
 22-1 
 
 • •« 
 
 17.6 
 
 8-6 
 
 The loss amounts to about 44 per cent in the 
 case of the basalt, and 34 per cent in that of the 
 greenstone. 
 
 Another example may be given of the analysis 
 
22 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS 
 
 [chap. 
 
 (Hanamann) of a basalt from Bohemia, with that of 
 the weathered crust and of the resulting soil : — 
 
 
 Bock. 
 
 Weathered Crust. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Silica « • • 
 
 41-84 
 
 39*7 
 
 39-17 
 
 Potash • • • 
 
 0-82 
 
 0-83 
 
 0.94 
 
 Soda • • • 
 
 3-45 
 
 2.51 
 
 1-03 
 
 Lime . . • • 
 
 11.16 
 
 8- 02 
 
 4.72 
 
 Magnesia . • 
 
 3-63 
 
 3.20 
 
 2-92 
 
 Alumina . . . 
 
 17-51 
 
 16.94 
 
 16.58 
 
 Iron Protoxide • 
 
 3-71 
 
 
 ... 
 
 Iron Peroxide . • 
 
 12.77 
 
 15-05 
 
 14*22 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 o-5 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.48 
 
 Carbonic Acid . • 
 
 o-88 
 
 2.67 
 
 o-6i 
 
 Water . • • 
 
 3-56 
 
 10.5 
 
 19.28 
 
 Olivine is essentially a silicate of magnesia and 
 protoxide of iron, not uncommon in some basalts, 
 which easily weathers and becomes a soft hydrated 
 silicate, called serpentine, to which talc is very similar 
 in composition. These magnesian silicates are not 
 of great importance in the British Islands ; only in the 
 Lizard district of Cornwall are they extensively 
 developed and give rise to poor, barren soils. 
 
 Calcium Carbonate ', though present in many of the 
 older rocks in its crystalline form of Calcite or Iceland 
 Spar, is there to be regarded rather as a secondary product 
 brought by infiltering water than an original mineral. 
 It is soluble in water charged with carbonic acid ; 
 hence when the complex silicates containing lime 
 are weathered, the lime is removed in this form. The 
 calcium carbonate is redeposited when the water loses 
 the carbonic acid either by evaporation or by diffusion 
 on contact with air. In a massive form calcium carbon- 
 ate forms many of the sedimentary formations — the 
 older ones hardened to limestones, and the more recent 
 ones soft like the chalk ; in these cases it has been secreted 
 
I.] CARBONATE OF LIME 23 
 
 from natural waters by living organisms, foraminifera 
 corals, etc., and only gets a crystalline structure by 
 later change. Calcium carbonate from organic sources 
 is present to some extent in nearly all sedimentary 
 rocks ; the vast majority of the fossils there found are 
 constituted of calcite. 
 
 In the limestone and chalk rocks the calcium car- 
 bonate is never quite pure; in the white chalk, which 
 is the purest, the proportion of calcium carbonate, after 
 excluding the flints, is only about 98 per cent. ; in 
 others the proportion of clay and mud which were 
 simultaneously deposited gradually increases, so that 
 we can find rocks of every gradation between chalk and 
 clay or sandstone. 
 
 Owing to its solubility, the weathering of limestone 
 takes the form of the removal of calcium carbonate 
 more or less completely, leaving a fine-grained residue 
 of the insoluble clay or sand. In the case of chalk 
 and of the purer limestones, the insoluble residue con- 
 sists mainly of a fine red or yellow clay; the chalk 
 downs, when not obscured by drift formations, are 
 covered with a sticky, reddish soil, only as a rule a 
 few inches in thickness, and though the actual chalk 
 is so close, in many cases this soil is almost deprived 
 of all its calcium carbonate. Almost exactly similar 
 material may be obtained in the laboratory by dis- 
 solving a few pounds of chalk or limestone in dilute 
 hydrochloric acid. Whenever a section is exposed in 
 chalk or limestone rocks, it will be noticed that the 
 dividing line between soil and rock is very irregular; 
 thin as the soil may be as a whole, in places it descends 
 into cavities and " pipes " in the rock, sometimes 20 or 
 30 feet deep. In these depressions the soil is the same 
 reddish clay as occurs on the surface, mixed with flints 
 in the case of the upper chalk ; they are essentially the 
 
24 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 results of solution, and represent the lines along which 
 the drainage of the rain water has been more active, 
 owing to a joint or fissure in the rock below. 
 
 Other minerals which do not constitute any large 
 proportion of the earth's crust, but still play some 
 part in the soil, are apatite, glauconite, selenite, limon- 
 ite, and iron pyrites. 
 
 Apatite, or crystallised phosphate of lime, — 
 Ca 5 (P0 4 ) 3 F, — is present in small quantities in many 
 of the fundamental rocks, and is probably the ultimate 
 source of the phosphoric acid of soils. Apatite also 
 occurs massive in some of the older strata, and has been 
 worked as a raw material, for the manufacture of phos- 
 phatic manures, in Norway and Canada. 
 
 Selenite, hydrated sulphate of lime, CaS0 4 , 2H 2 0, 
 termed gypsum when massive, is not a fundamental 
 mineral, but occurs in most clay rocks in well de- 
 veloped crystals. Diffused through the soil and dis- 
 solved in soil water, selenite doubtless provides most of 
 the sulphur required by plants. 
 
 Limonite ) hydrated oxide of iron, occurs in lumps 
 and bands in many of the sedimentary rocks; in a 
 diffused state it is the main colouring matter of soils ; 
 in heavy, undrained soils it often forms a layer or " pan " 
 some inches below the surface. It is deposited from 
 water containing bicarbonate of iron on exposure to the 
 air ; the rusty deposits and stains from chalybeate springs 
 and wells consist of limonite. The action appears to be 
 as follows — the hydrated peroxides of iron in the soil 
 when in contact with humus (decayed vegetable matter) 
 and water charged with carbonic acid become first 
 reduced to the ferrous state by the organic matter, and 
 then dissolved as bicarbonate. On exposure to the 
 air, the excess of carbonic 1 *' acid escapes by diffusion, 
 the ferrous carbonate, as it is precipitated, is also oxi- 
 
I.] ROCK-FORMING MINERALS 25 
 
 • 
 
 dised by the oxygen of the air, and deposited as Hmonite. 
 It will be noticed that stones taken from peaty land 
 are always bleached white, through the removal of iron, 
 and the surface sand of heathy land is always simi- 
 larly bleached. On examining a section of any purely 
 sandy formation, the surface soil will be found to be 
 bleached below the layer of vegetable matter to the 
 depth of a foot or more. Then comes a layer an inch or 
 two thick nearly black in colour, where the sand is more 
 or less cemented together by Hmonite, and below this 
 the normal brown or yellow sand begins. The black 
 band is formed at the depth to which the air usually 
 penetrates the soil ; it consists of Hmonite deposited 
 at the evaporating surface of the soil water, which 
 contains the iron dissolved from the bleached surface 
 sand. In a similar manner arises the hard layer of 
 Hmonite, the " iron pan " or " moor-band pan," found just 
 below the cultivated soil on many undrained lands, and 
 again the deposit of " bog iron ore " which is generally 
 to be seen beneath the black peaty accumulation in any 
 swampy place. The solution of iron as bicarbonate, 
 and its precipitation as Hmonite, do not occur in soils 
 containing any calcium carbonate, being essentially a 
 sign of an acid condition of the soil and its need for 
 lime or chalk. 
 
 Glauconite is a hydrated silicate of iron, alumina, 
 and potash with a little lime and magnesia, which 
 occurs as dark green grains in many sedimentary rocks, 
 especially of the Cretaceous age. It is to the presence of 
 this material that the Greensand formations owe their 
 name; it is sometimes also to be seen in chalk and 
 in the tertiary sandstones. It readily weathers to 
 brown oxides of iron. 
 
 Zeolites, Akin to glauconite are certain hydrated 
 double silicates of aluminium and the alkalis or alkaline 
 
26 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 earths, called generically zeolites, which play a very 
 important part in the soil, though they may not be 
 present in large amounts. These bodies, which result 
 from the weathering of the felspars, contain a consider- 
 able proportion of water, loosely combined and readily 
 displaced, but their distinguishing feature is the ease 
 with which the secondary bases they contain, the calcium, 
 magnesium, sodium or potassium, are replaced by other 
 metals, whenever their salts are brought into contact 
 with the zeolites. Little is known of the actual nature of 
 the zeolitic bodies in the soil, but certain zeolites occur 
 from time to time in a pure state. The best known of 
 them is natrolite, which crystallises in fine needles 
 possessing the composition — Na 2 0, A1 2 3 , 3Si0 2 , 2H 2 0, 
 a little calcium being generally present also. 
 
 Iron Pyrites, FeS 2 , occurs in small brass yellow 
 cubic crystals in many of the older rocks, especially 
 those of a clay character; another form, in fibrous 
 masses of a lighter colour, is called marcasite, and is 
 common in the more modern clays, especially the 
 London clay, and again in round balls in the chalk. 
 Marcasite readily oxidises in moist air to ferrous sul- 
 phate and sulphuric acid : and many clay soils contain 
 basic sulphates, soluble in dilute acids but not in water, 
 that have arisen in this way. Selenite and the soluble 
 sulphates present in well waters, especially in clay soils, 
 are probably secondary products arising from the oxida- 
 tion of marcasite. In a finely divided condition iron 
 pyrites forms the colouring matter of many dark green 
 or olive rocks and clays. 
 
 Soil and Subsoil, 
 
 Although the transition from soil to subsoil is 
 gradual, the distinction between the two is, as a rule, 
 easy to be made; the change begins an inch or so 
 
I.] SOIL AND SUBSOIL 27 
 
 below the usual limit of cultivation on arable soils, on 
 pastures at the depth to which the mass of the roots 
 penetrate. The most obvious difference between the 
 two lies in the comparative richness of the staple in 
 decaying vegetable matter or humus, which indeed 
 would be entirely confined to the surface layers were 
 it not for the decay of the deeper roots and the work of 
 worms. To the humus is also due the difference in 
 colour ; not only does the colour deepen towards black 
 as the proportion of humus increases, but by it the 
 sands and clay are to a greater or less extent bleached 
 through the removal of the iron oxides which colour 
 them, hence the inorganic material is lighter and duller 
 in colour in the soil than in the subsoil. In stiff clays 
 the subsoil often shows signs of imperfect oxidation at 
 comparatively slight depths. On an old pasture on the 
 Gault Clay a trench was dug, the top 3 inches were black 
 or nearly so and gradually changed to a stiff brown 
 loam which extended to a depth of 9 or 10 inches, 
 becoming lighter and more distinctively yellow as 
 the admixture of humus diminished ; below this depth 
 the clay became mottled, grey, and yellow mixed, till 
 at a depth of 4 feet practically the whole was a dark 
 blue unweathered clay, owing its colour to iron pyrites 
 and glauconite or kindred silicates of iron protoxide. 
 One of the greatest distinctions between soil and subsoil 
 lies in their respective texture ; in humid climates like 
 our own the soil is almost invariably composed of coarser 
 grains than the subsoil, though in arid climates soil 
 and subsoil appear to be almost uniform. This is due 
 to the rain constantly percolating through even the 
 stiffest soils and washing down the finest particles ; in 
 heavy rains also, water runs off the surface into the 
 ditches, carrying with it the finest particles of the soil 
 and leaving behind the coarser grains on the surlace. 
 
28 THE ORIGIN OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 Naturally, this loss of the finer particles is greater as 
 the soil is more worked and made open to percolation 
 and washing ; to some extent it is counterbalanced by 
 the work of worms bringing the fine mould to the 
 surface from below, so that the difference is least in 
 an old pasture. Per contra, it is greatest in an old 
 garden soil, where the constant working and further 
 opening of the soil by the introduction of bulky manure 
 often results in so complete a washing down of all the 
 finer particles that the soil proper loses its power of 
 cohering, falls into dust when dry, and is popularly said 
 to be " worn out" 
 
 In addition to its humus the soil is nearly always 
 richer than the subsoil in all the essential elements of 
 plant food, despite the fact that crops have been raised 
 on it for generations ; the crops, in fact, have been the 
 cause of the difference, for the deeper roots draw food 
 from the subsoil and leave it behind on the surface as 
 the plants decay. Potash is perhaps an exception in 
 this connection; being essentially a product of the 
 weathering of felspar, and removable from the soil by 
 water containing carbonic acid, it is often more abundant 
 in the comparatively unweathered subsoil. The richness 
 of the humus, its greater warmth and the freer access 
 of air also cause it to be more abundantly supplied with 
 those organisms which play such an important part in 
 preparing the food of the higher plants: as will be 
 seen later, subsoils become almost without living 
 organisms at a very slight depth. 
 
 For all these reasons, — the absence of humus, and of 
 the organisms associated with it, the comparative poverty 
 in inorganic plant food, the presence sometimes of unoxi- 
 dised material, and on stiff soils the great change of 
 texture, — the subsoil is often comparatively unfertile 
 and may be almost barren. Desirable as it is to work 
 
I J CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 29 
 
 the subsoil and open it to the access of air and the free 
 penetration of roots, all methods of cultivation should 
 be avoided that would bury the surface soil and bring 
 the subsoil to the top. A plough which inverts the 
 soil should not go below the former limit of cultivation, 
 and if it is desired to deepen this limit, it should be 
 done by degrees, half an inch or so each year. Immense 
 damage has been done to the fertility of many of the 
 heavier soils by rash ploughing with steam, especially 
 where the old " lands " were thrown down, burying the 
 fertile soil in the furrows and baring the raw clay on 
 the tops of the ridges. 
 
 General Classification of Soils. 
 
 Although a distinction has been drawn between 
 sedentary soils and soils of transport, there are few 
 sedentary soils that do not contain material which has 
 been carried from some other formation at a distance ; 
 only on great stretches of flat country belonging to a 
 single geological formation may be expected a soil 
 purely derived from the rock below. Especially in 
 Britain, where the outcrops of the different formations 
 are generally narrow, and where the surface is always 
 undulating, we find that the continual creeping of soil 
 particles to lower levels has resulted 111 an admixture 
 of foreign material in most soils. " La couche tres- 
 mince de la terre vegetale est un monument d'une 
 haute antiquite" (Elie de Beaumont), so that in many 
 places the soil contains the debris of formations now 
 removed by denudation. In the south-east of England 
 the soils that rest on the chalk, which may be only 
 from a few inches to a few feet below, contain 
 abundance of quartz sand, even up to 75 per cent. 
 No such sand exists in the chalk itself, so that it has 
 come from the lower tertiary beds which once over- 
 
35 THE ORIGIN OP SOILS [chaP. 
 
 spread the chalk. On the wide flats of Weald Clay 
 in the same district, the soil contains sand that has crept 
 from the central hills of the Weald or from the Lower 
 Greensand escarpment, often several miles away. The 
 following analysis of a soil resting on a brick earth 
 bed in the valley of the Kentish Stour, shows that the 
 brick earth, which itself contains little or no chalk, has 
 become covered with chalky rain-wash from the hills 
 flanking the valley : — 
 
 Depth — Inched . 
 
 o to 6 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 12 to 18 
 
 18 to 24 
 
 Calcium Carbonate % 
 
 9-20 
 
 7.16 
 
 2-6 
 
 0-96 
 
 In the main, however, the bed below gives its char- 
 acter, both chemical and physical, to the soil ; and the 
 ordinary rough classification of soils into sands, clays, 
 marls, and loams, follows closely the nature of the 
 underlying geological stratum. A coarse - grained 
 sandstone gives rise to a typically sandy soil, such as 
 the soils derived from the Bagshot beds, which form 
 the New Forest and the heathy land in the Aldershot 
 district ; on the Lower Greensand lie the sandy heaths 
 in west Surrey, Hampshire, and in Beds ; again, on 
 the Bunter beds of the New Red Sandstone lie many 
 of the uncultivated commons and parks of the Midlands, 
 such as Sutton Park, Cannock Chase, and Delamere 
 Forest. These coarse sandy soils, which have so often 
 remained unenclosed as forests and commons, are gener- 
 ally deficient in chalk, and accumulate peat wherever a 
 parting of clay gives rise to stagnant water. 
 
 Clay soils are common in nearly every part of 
 Britain; they arise from the great clay strata of all 
 ages, like the London Clay, the Weald Clay, and the 
 Oxford Clay, or from metamorphic rocks like slate, or 
 from the crystalline rocks like granite and basalt, or 
 even from the limestones by solution. 
 
I.] CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS %\ 
 
 Between the sands and the clays come mixtures of 
 all grades, better working than the clays and more 
 fertile than the pure sands ; sometimes the clay forma- 
 tion itself contains sand, as in the upper beds of the 
 London Clay, or we may have a fine-grained sandstone 
 mixed with clay, as in some of the carboniferous rocks. 
 In all these cases, when chalk is absent, and drainage 
 incomplete, there will be an accumulation of humus, 
 resulting in a peaty formation. 
 
 Some argillaceous limestones give rise to typical 
 "marls," mixtures of chalk and clay; e.g., some of 
 the beds of the Lias and of the Keuper. 
 
 Other limestones with a sandy basis, and fine- 
 grained sandstones cemented by carbonate of lime, 
 give rise to * loams," which are free-working soils, mainly 
 composed of fine sand with some clay and a little 
 calcium carbonate. The alluvial soils in the valleys 
 are loams, passing in places into gravels; these are 
 generally the richest soils ; as a rule they are mixtures 
 derived from many formations, and so are well supplied 
 with humus and the mineral elements of plant food ; 
 they are deep, and not over consolidated, thus admitting 
 of the percolation of water and the descent of roots ; yet 
 they are fine-grained enough to prevent them drying 
 out too rapidly. But though these terms, sands, clays, 
 marls, loams, and peaty soils, serve for rough descriptive 
 purposes, a more exact determination of the constituent 
 particles is necessary to properly characterise a soil, 
 and for this we must resort to what is termed the 
 " mechanical analysis " of a soil 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 
 
 Nature of Soil Constituents : Sand, Clay, Chalk, and Humus— 
 Methods of Sampling Soils — Methods for the Mechanical 
 Analysis of a Soil — Interpretation of Results. 
 
 It has already been indicated that as soils are derived 
 from the waste of rocks, they consist of a mass of 
 particles of various minerals and of all sizes, together 
 with a certain amount of humus of vegetable origin, 
 and that they may be roughly classified according to 
 the predominance of the coarse-grained particles called 
 "sand" or the very fine material known as "clay" 
 
 The mechanical analysis of a soil consists in pushing 
 this rough " eye and hand " classification a stage further 
 into the region of exact measurement, and in deter- 
 mining the minute physical structure of the soil by 
 estimating the proportions in which particles of various 
 sizes are mixed together in the soil. Upon the physical 
 structure of the soil so determined, or as we should 
 practically term it, the texture, depend some of its 
 most important features, particularly its behaviour with 
 regard to the supply of water to crops and its amena- 
 bility to cultivation. 
 
 In the first place, it will be necessary to discuss a 
 *ittle more thoroughly the nature of the four substances 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 THE NATURE OF SAND 
 
 33 
 
 to which the texture of the soil has been referred — the 
 sand, clay, chalk, and humus — of which the first two 
 are of most importance, since soils which are mainly 
 characterised by chalk or humus are less commonly 
 in cultivation. 
 
 Sand. — On the seashore, in beds of an alluvial 
 nature, and in formations of all geological ages, we are 
 familiar with sand ; in the main it consists of grains of 
 quartz, rounded by continual rubbing, and more or less 
 coloured by oxide of iron. It represents the quartz 
 contained in the fundamental rocks, weathered and 
 worn by water : in some cases of comparatively 
 recent origin, in others it is material that has re- 
 peatedly been formed into a sedimentary rock, 
 disintegrated afresh and sorted by the action of running 
 water. The coarser the grains of which a sand is made 
 up, the more rapid must have been the current from 
 which it was deposited. The following table shows 
 the rate of flow which is necessary to carry sand 
 grains of various sizes : — 
 
 Diameter of Grain3, 
 mm. 
 
 Velocity of Current, 
 mm. per sec. 
 
 o-S 
 
 64 
 
 o-3 
 o-i6 
 
 32 
 16 
 
 0*12 
 
 8 
 
 0*072 
 
 4 
 
 0.047 
 
 0.036 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 0.025 
 
 0-5 
 
 A closer examination of most sands will show that 
 they do not consist wholly of quartz grains, but also 
 contain rounded fragments of many of the minerals 
 present in the fundamental rocks which have any 
 resistance to weathering. Flakes of mica are common, 
 
 C 
 
34 THE MECHANICAL ANAL YS1S OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 fragments of more or less altered felspar, of oxide of 
 iron, and even of tinstone, rutile, and zircon, may be 
 identified. In fine-grained sands the fragments of 
 minerals other than quartz become as a rule more 
 abundant, till they begin to predominate over the 
 quartz grains in the finest silts and muds that are 
 deposited from very gently moving water. Under the 
 microscope the quartz grains show a crystalline struc- 
 ture, and a surface more or less dulled and rounded 
 according to the travel the grains have suffered. In 
 mass the chief characteristic of sand is its want of 
 coherence when dry. 
 
 Clay. — The material we call clay is characterised by 
 certain properties that are shown when the clay has 
 been " puddled," i.e. y kneaded when in a moist condition. 
 The clay is plastic^ it can be moulded and worked into 
 various shapes, even into quite thin leaves, and it will 
 retain these shapes on drying. During the drying 
 process a shrinkage takes place: the dry material is 
 hard and tenacious, and can only be broken or crumbled 
 with difficulty. The shrinkage is considerable : a little 
 brick was made of good modelling clay 7 inches long, 
 and about 1 square inch in section; two marks were 
 then made on this 6 inches apart; after a fortnight's 
 drying in a room the marks were only 5-7 inches apart, 
 showing a shrinkage of 5 per cent. Clay is further 
 impermeable to water when in the moist puddled 
 condition, for which reason it is used to line the bottoms 
 of ponds in pervious soil, and is built up inside the 
 retaining dams of reservoirs ; quite a thin layer of clay 
 will hold water indefinitely as long as it is not allowed 
 to dry and crack, nor to be washed away by the action 
 of running water. 
 
 From a chemical point of view, all clays are found 
 to consist largely of kaolinite, the hydrated silicate 
 
II.] THE NATURE OF CLAY 35 
 
 of alumina which is formed by the weathering of fel- 
 spar ; the other materials present consist of extremely 
 fine grains of quartz and other weathered minerals, 
 together with more or less oxide of iron. "China 
 clay" and the best "pipe clays" contain little or no 
 iron ; the deep-seated clay formations are generally 
 coloured dark green or blue or black by the presence ' 
 of ferrous silicates like glauconite ; on weathering and 
 exposure at the surface the clays become yellow or 
 brown, owing to the oxidation of these ferrous to ferric 
 salts. 
 
 Water in which a little clay has been rubbed up 
 remains turbid for a very long time ; days and even 
 weeks elapse before the particles settle down to the 
 bottom — indeed, however long the liquid may be at 
 rest, a slight haze or cloudiness may be observed 
 within it Schloesing has drawn a distinction between 
 the part of the clay, amounting to 1 or 2 per cent 
 only of the whole, which persists in remaining sus- 
 pended and the portion which settles down ; he has 
 called it "colloid clay," and attributes many of the 
 typical clay properties to the jelly-like medium of 
 colloidal matter by which the other defined particles 
 of the clay are surrounded. Schloesing associates this 
 colloid clay with such typical colloids as the highly 
 hydrated forms of silica and organic bodies like starch 
 and gum which, though they appear to be truly dissolved, 
 yet cannot diffuse through a membrane, and form, on 
 drying, hard non-crystalline masses, with much shrinkage 
 and a characteristic fracture. But later researches on 
 colloids show that they are not essentially different 
 from suspended matter; they consist of particles too , 
 fine to settle down in water, or to be arrested by a 
 filter even of porous porcelain, but which are still 
 sufficiently coarse to show their presence when a strong 
 
36 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 beam of light is passed through the liquid, as is not the 
 case with bodies truly dissolved. From this point of view 
 the "colloid clay" would only represent the limiting 
 state of fineness, differing in degree, but not in kind, 
 from the other clay particles. 
 
 The question still remains whether we shall give 
 to clay a physical or a chemical definition ; in the first 
 place, does the fineness of the material alone confer the 
 characteristic clay properties of plasticity, impermeability 
 to water, and shrinkage and tenacity on drying, or do 
 these properties depend on the chemical composition of 
 the substance making up the clay. It is easy to show 
 that fineness of division is a necessary factor in the 
 existence of clay, because we can obtain material 
 possessing the chemical composition of typical clays 
 which yet behave physically as if they were sand. A 
 sample of crude kaolinite rock as dug in Cornwall 
 from the surface of granite, was powdered and passed 
 through a sieve retaining all particles above o-2 mm. 
 in diameter; the remainder, which consisted mainly 
 of kaolinite with a little mica, was further separated 
 by sedimentation from water into four fractions : — 
 
 Fraction. 
 
 Approximate Size of 
 Particles in min. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 Original Material. 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 0-2 to 0-05 
 0-05 „ o-oi 
 o«oi „ 0-005 
 below 0-005 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 20 
 
 Of these fractions the first contained all the mica, 
 the others were practically pure kaolinite, yet the second 
 fraction showed none, and the third very little of the 
 characteristic properties of clay ; when dried they fell 
 
II.] 
 
 THE NATURE OF CLA Y 
 
 37 
 
 or could easily be rubbed into a fine powder, only 
 the fourth and finest fraction dried into a hard co- 
 herent mass. Thus we can have material which con- 
 sists entirely of kaolinite, and yet is not clay ; such as 
 we see in natural deposits of fuller's earth, which 
 consists of kaolinite but possesses no plasticity, and 
 falls on drying into a fine powder. 
 
 In the same way a natural soil contains particles 
 of silicates of alumina of all sizes, though they only 
 begin to predominate in the fractions of finest grain. 
 
 On separating one of the Rothamsted soils into 
 fractions, according to their size by the method to be 
 described later, and analysing them, the following results 
 were obtained : — 
 
 Fraction. 
 
 Approximate Size 
 
 of 
 Particles in mm. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 of 
 
 Original 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Percentages in Material. 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Ferric 
 Oxide. 
 
 Alumina. 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 o-2 to 0-04 
 0-04 „ o-oi 
 o-oi „ 0-004 
 
 0-004 „ O-0O2 
 
 below o-oo2 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 94.6 
 920 
 88-3 
 61.7 
 
 45-9 
 
 I-I 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-8 
 
 7.0 
 
 12*2 
 
 3-4 
 6-2 
 
 8-5 
 23-4 
 30-9 
 
 Taking the mean of several analyses, the fifth fraction, 
 which is to be regarded as clay proper, possessed the 
 following approximate composition, if all the alumina is 
 combined as A1 2 3 , 2Si0 2 , 2H 2 — kaolinite 72 to 75 
 per cent; ferric oxide, 11 to 12 per cent; quartz, 9 
 to 10 per cent; alkalis and alkaline earths, 4 to 6 per 
 cent. 
 
 From these results we must conclude that kaolinite 
 is not necessarily clay, but that fineness of grain is also 
 an essential factor, the characteristic clay properties not 
 being developed except in material the particles of 
 
38 THE MECHANICAL ANAL YSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 which are less than one-fivehundredth of a millimetre in 
 diameter. 
 
 But though fineness of grain is a factor, it is probably 
 not the only factor, as may be seen from a consideration 
 of another important property of clay — its power of 
 flocculating or coagulating under the action of minute 
 quantities of various salts. To illustrate this point, a few 
 grams of good clay should be rubbed up with several 
 litres of distilled water, and the supernatant turbid liquid 
 poured off into a series of tall jars each holding from 
 300 to 500 c.c. of the liquid. To one of these jars 
 nothing is added, to two others -018 and 0-009 gram of 
 hydrochloric acid respectively, to a fourth 0-028 gram of 
 calcium chloride, and to the fifth 0-58 gram of sodium 
 chloride. The contents of the jars are shaken up until 
 solution is effected, and they are then put aside to stand. 
 After some time the liquids to which the salts have been 
 added will begin to clear, and the clay particles will clot 
 together and fall to the bottom ; the jar containing the 
 larger quantity of hydrochloric acid will clear the first, 
 the others will clear approximately together, but the pure 
 clay water will remain turbid for many days. If a little 
 of the turbid clay water be examined by a T V-inch 
 oil immersion lens under the microscope, it is just 
 possible to see the clay particles in rapid " Brownian " 
 1 motion, and if a little acid or salt be then introduced 
 under the cover glass, they will be seen to move together 
 and form into little clots or aggregates as soon as they 
 experience the effect of the added acid or salt. By 
 comparative experiments it can be shown that the 
 flocculating power of any salt is proportional to its amount 
 up to a certain limit, when the material is so completely 
 flocculated that no further addition of salt has any 
 effect; conversely, the flocculating power of a given 
 amount of salt is inversely proportional to the quantity 
 
ii.] FL0CCULAT10N 39 
 
 of clay suspended in the liquid. The flocculating power 
 of a salt also varies with both the acid and the metal; 
 the following table shows approximately their com' 
 parative effect : — 
 
 HC1 . 
 
 • 30 
 
 HNO3 . . 28 
 
 H 2 S0 4 . 
 
 • 20 
 
 LyELylQ • 
 
 . 15 
 
 Ca(N0 3 ) 2 . 10 
 
 CaS0 4 . 
 
 • >5 
 
 KC1 . 
 
 3 
 
 KN0 3 . . >2 
 
 K 2 S0 4 . 
 
 • <i 
 
 NaCl . 
 
 • >i 
 
 NaN0 3 . <i 
 
 NaaSC^ 
 
 • 0.5 
 
 The alkalis and salts like phosphate of sodium, which 
 give rise to free alkalis on hydrolysis, instead of 
 flocculating have the opposite effect, and keep the 
 particles in their finest state of division without any 
 tendency to settle. 
 
 It is y furthermore, possible to show that many 
 substances, however finely divided, will not assume the 
 condition of indefinite suspension in water so as to be 
 flocculated by salts ; in particular, suspensions of finely 
 divided quartz, ferric hydrate, and hydrated alumina 
 flocculate spontaneously and will not remain turbid for 
 many minutes, though in their turn they can be 
 deflocculated and made to remain in suspension by 
 adding a trace of free alkali to the liquid. 
 
 Without going further into the details of a subject 
 which is still very obscure, the condition of free suspen- 
 sion in water and the Brownian motion of the 
 particles of clay seem to be associated with the presence 
 of the zeolitic double silicates which contain atoms of 
 potassium or sodium in their molecule, and which doubt- 
 less give rise to a little free alkali by their partial 
 hydrolysis when in contact with a large bulk of water. 
 
 We may thus conclude that fineness of grain is 
 not the only factor in the constitution of clay, but that 
 the characteristic clay properties which are always 
 associated with the power of flocculation depend also 
 
40 THE MECHANICAL ANAL YS1S OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 upon the nature of the material ; in the soil they depend 
 upon the presence of the zeolitic double silicates derived 
 from the weathering of the felspars in the fundamental 
 rocks. 
 
 The power of flocculation plays a very important 
 part in the cultivation of clay soils. When such a soil 
 possesses a good texture its finest particles are in a 
 state of temporary aggregation or flocculation, so that 
 they behave as if the soil, as a whole, were built up of 
 much coarser particles. Just as a potter or a brick- 
 maker brings his material into its highest condition of 
 plasticity by repeatedly kneading and working it, by 
 which process the naturally formed aggregates are 
 resolved into their ultimate particles and the material is 
 made as fine-grained as possible, so if a clay soil be in 
 any way worked or disturbed when in a wet condition, it 
 becomes apparently more clayey than before. It remains 
 persistently wet and impervious to the percolation of 
 water, and shrinks when dry into hard tenacious clods. 
 But if the clay be exposed to the weather for some time, 
 so that it undergoes alternations of temperature, freez- 
 ing and thawing, wetting and drying, it will experience 
 a certain amount of spontaneous flocculation and behave 
 as though it were coarser grained, so that if caught 
 in the right state of partial dryness it may easily be 
 crumbled. 
 
 Flocculation may also be aided or otherwise by the 
 use of certain artificial manures, as will be explained 
 later ; the incorporation again of humus much improves 
 the texture, while the action of lime is particularly 
 effective and is much employed in practice to ameliorate 
 the working. of clay soils. 
 
 Lime itself can be shown in the laboratory to possess 
 little flocculating power, for though its base is calcium, a 
 highly effective metal, it is combined as a hydrate, which 
 
il] CALCIUM CARBONATE 41 
 
 has a deflocculating effect. However, as soon as lime 
 is applied to the soil it becomes converted into carbonate, 
 and some of it will be always going into solution as 
 bicarbonate, a salt which possesses great flocculating 
 power. 
 
 In practice, the application of such small quantities 
 of lime as a ton or even half a ton to the acre have the 
 greatest value in ameliorating the working of clay land ; 
 not only does it move more readily and fall more easily 
 into a good tilth, but by becoming coarser grained it 
 allows the rain to percolate more freely and thus dries 
 earlier in the season, so that the limed land can often be 
 worked several days before the unlimed land can be 
 touched. Though the Rothamsted soil is by no means 
 of the heaviest, it is only because of the repeated 
 additions of carbonate of lime in former years that 
 it can be retained under arable cultivation ; portions of 
 the same land without carbonate of lime lie so wet 
 in the spring that they were laid down to grass in 
 consequence of the repeated failures to secure a good 
 seed bed. 
 
 Chalk, or carbonate of lime, is present in all soils, 
 with the exception of a few extremely open sands and 
 peaty soils that are practically of vegetable origin. 
 The proportion varies enormously, according to the 
 origin of the soil ; on some of the thin loams derived 
 directly from the great calcareous formations like the 
 chalk or the oolite, the calcium carbonate in the soil 
 may rise to as high a proportion as 60 per cent, but in 
 the majority of the loams under cultivation the pro- 
 portion is nearer 1 per cent, and it often falls much 
 below this in clays and sands. Chalk in the soil is 
 essentially a transitory substance, as it is constantly 
 removed by the action of percolating water charged 
 with carbonic acid, arising from the decay of vegetable 
 
42 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 matter in the surface soil. Many of the fermentation 
 changes that also take place in this vegetable matter 
 give rise to acids, which in their turn combine with 
 the calcium carbonate. So rapid are these removals of 
 calcium carbonate that it is difficult to understand how 
 any of it persists in the surface layers of many soils, the 
 subsoil of which shows that they must have been initially 
 poor in chalk, were there not some compensating 
 agencies at work. Amongst these agencies must be 
 reckoned the calcium salts in plants, which in many 
 cases are drawn up by deep-seated roots from 
 the subsoil and become calcium carbonate on the 
 ultimate decay of the plant tissues. 
 
 In a normal soil the particles of calcium carbonate 
 are of all sizes, many of the finer particles of silt and 
 clay are loosely cemented together by calcium carbonate, 
 as may be seen by the increase in the finer fractions 
 if a soil be washed with dilute acid before it is separ- 
 ated by sedimentation. 
 
 Humus. — On examining many rocks taken from 
 such depths that they have undergone none of the 
 weathering processes which convert them into soil, they 
 are found to contain both carbon and nitrogen, occasion- 
 ally in quantities comparable with those found in the 
 soil itself. This is only the case with the sedimentary 
 rocks and particularly the indurated clays, the carbon 
 and nitrogen in fact only represent the organic 
 matter in the original deposit in a more or less 
 mineralised condition. But since these carbon and 
 nitrogen compounds are only slightly affected by any of 
 the weathering processes by which soil is made, they 
 must pass into the soil and |here become merged with 
 the organic matter of more recent origin. Such material, 
 however, plays a very unimportant part in the soil, and 
 we may pass on at once to the debris of vegetation of 
 
II.] THE NATURE OF HUMUS 43 
 
 recent origin or the humus which is characteristic of all 
 soils proper. 
 
 The term humus is applied to the black or dark 
 brown material of vegetable origin which gives to 
 surface soil its characteristic darker colour as compared 
 with the subsoil. It is essentially a product of bacterial 
 action ; there are a number of bacteria working in the 
 absence of air and universally distributed, which attack 
 the carbon compounds of plant tissues, especially the 
 carbohydrates, with the production of marsh gas or 
 hydrogen, carbonic acid, and humus. In the presence 
 of air the characteristic humus-forming fermentation 
 is replaced by one which results in the complete com- 
 bustion of the organic matter to carbonic acid. For 
 this reason more humus is found in a pasture than in a 
 continually aerated arable soil, more again in clays than 
 in the lighter soils through which air is always being 
 drawn as the rain percolates, and the accumulation 
 of humus reaches its maximum where considerable 
 rainfall and an impermeable stratum combine to make 
 the soil so water-logged that all access of air is cut off, 
 as in swamps and bogs. The presence of chalk in the 
 soil also assists in the destruction of humus, since it 
 neutralises the acids which largely compose the humus, 
 and which tend to inhibit the further action of bacteria. 
 
 The chemical composition of humus is indefinite; 
 it is a variable mixture of several substances, themselves 
 of very complex constitution ; it always contains more 
 carbon and less hydrogen and oxygen than the vege- 
 table tissues from which it was formed. The following 
 figures show the composition of grass and of the top 
 brown layer of turf in a peat bog, also of the same peat 
 of greater age at depths of 7 and 14 feet, the mineral 
 matter and moisture being excluded in calculation in 
 each case ; — 
 
44 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 
 Grass. 
 
 « — 
 Top Turf. 
 
 Teat at 7'. 
 
 Peat at 14'. 
 
 Carbon . • 
 Hydrogen • 
 Oxygen . • 
 Nitrogen 
 
 5°'3 
 5-5 
 
 42-3 
 1.8 
 
 57-8 
 
 5-4 
 36 
 0.8 
 
 62 
 
 5-2 
 
 30.7 
 
 2.1 
 
 64 
 
 5 
 26.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 Substances akin to humus can be formed from the 
 carbohydrates (such as sugar, starch, and cellulose), by 
 heating them for some time with water under pressure, 
 the action being more rapid if a trace of mineral acid be 
 present ; the resulting substances are weak acids and 
 form salts, so are generally termed humic acid : — 
 
 
 Humic Acid. 
 
 From Sugar. 
 
 Natural. 
 
 Carbon . • 
 Hydrogen • 
 Oxygen . . 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 63-9 
 4-6 
 
 3i-5 
 
 56-3 to 59 
 4-4 11 4'9 
 
 32-7 1, 36 
 2-8 „ 3-6 
 
 As a rule, the active humus of the soil is 
 there present in the form of salts of calcium, which 
 on treatment of the soil with dilute hydrochloric acid 
 are decomposed, a little of the humic acids going into 
 solution but the greater part remaining undissolved. 
 By filtering off the acid and then treating the soil with 
 a weak (4 per cent, by volume) solution of ammonia or 
 other alkali, the liberated humic acids are dissolved and 
 may be reprecipitated either as free acids by the addition 
 of hydrochloric acid, or as calcium salts by the addition 
 of a solution of calcium chloride. The humic acids thus 
 going into solution are sometimes estimated as " soluble 
 humus," they do not include the whole of either the 
 organic matter or the nitrogen in the soil. The brown 
 
ii.] THE NATURE OF HUMUS 45 
 
 solution that is formed is akin to the dark liquid draining 
 from a dung heap, which contains humus dissolved 
 by the alkaline carbonates of the fermented urine. 
 
 Occasionally soils are found which naturally pos- 
 sess an acid reaction, and in which the whole or part 
 of the soluble humus is uncombined with calcium, 
 so that it goes into solution in ammonia without the 
 preliminary treatment with acid. The portion of the 
 natural humus of soils that is soluble in acids contains 
 nitrogen, and seems to be of the nature of an amide. 
 
 Although dark brown humic substances can be 
 prepared from carbohydrates, and therefore contain 
 only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, yet the soluble 
 humus of the soil, even when dissolved and reprecipi- 
 tated, always contains some nitrogen, nor can it be 
 obtained entirely free from phosphorus and mineral 
 matter. The original vegetable matter is made up not 
 only of carbohydrates, but of other carbon compounds 
 containing nitrogen, and in some cases both nitrogen 
 and phosphorus ; these all break down under bacterial 
 action into dark-coloured substances richer in carbon, 
 and roughly classed as humus. The splitting-up process 
 continues in the soil, so that humus becomes one of the 
 great sources of nitrogen for the food of plants, and a 
 soil well supplied with humus is generally regarded as 
 fertile. v 
 
 During the formation and continued decomposition 
 of humus the carbohydrates appear to be first attacked, 
 and the nitrogen-containing bodies, tg. % the nucleins in 
 particular, resist the action of bacteria. For this reason, 
 where we find the proportion of humus in a soil is low, 
 the proportion of nitrogen in the humus itself will be 
 high, the decay of the humus falls more heavily on the 
 purely carbonaceous part of the material. 
 
 This is seen in the figures obtained by Lawes and 
 
46 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 Gilbert for the ratio that exists between the propor- 
 tions of carbon and nitrogen in various soils : — 
 
 Ratio -^ 
 
 N 
 
 
 Cereal Roots and Stubble • < 
 
 43 
 
 Leguminous Stubble . • < 
 
 23 
 
 Dung ... • 
 
 18 
 
 Very old Grass Land • • 
 
 137 
 
 Manitoba Prairie Soils . • « 
 
 13 
 
 Pasture recently laid down • < 
 
 117 
 
 Arable Soil . . . . 
 
 , IO-I 
 
 Clay Subsoil • . • < 
 
 6 
 
 Hilgard and Jaffa also found that the humus of soils 
 in an arid climate, where the deficiency of rainfall causes 
 the soil to be very open, contains a higher proportion of 
 nitrogen than is found in the humus of damper soils : — 
 
 
 Number 
 of Samples 
 Examined. 
 
 Average per cent. 
 
 of 
 
 Humus in Soil. 
 
 Average per cent. 
 
 of 
 Nitrogen in Humus. 
 
 Arid Soils . • 
 Semi-arid Soils • 
 Moist Soils . • 
 
 18 
 8 
 8 
 
 O.75 
 0.99 
 
 3-04 
 
 15-87 
 
 10-03 
 
 5-24 
 
 The following table (p. 47) gives the results of the 
 determination of carbon, nitrogen, humus, and the 
 percentage of nitrogen in the humus, in a selection of 
 extremely rich virgin soils obtained from different 
 parts of the world ; the Canadian, Russian, and Monte 
 Video soils were very similar uniform fine-grained grey 
 or black soils found on the great plains. 
 
 These results would seem to indicate that the most 
 valuable humus, i.e. that which will decay rapidly 
 and yield nitrogen compounds available as food for 
 plants, is that possessing a high ratio of carbon to 
 nitrogen. 
 
II.] 
 
 THE NATURE OF HUMUS 
 
 47 
 
 Locality. 
 
 1. Canada 
 
 2. Canada 
 
 3. Russia . 
 
 4. Rhodesia 
 
 5. Monte Video 
 
 6. New Zealand 
 
 Indian Head 
 
 Wide Awake 
 
 Ploty 
 
 Salisbury 
 
 { 
 
 { 
 
 Tararua 
 Mountains 
 
 Description of 
 Soil. 
 
 Black Prairie 
 
 Black Steppe 
 
 Black Vlei 
 
 Black 
 
 44 Camp " Soil 
 
 Black Sandy 
 
 Pasture 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 — o5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 s 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 fc 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 CM 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 •— < 
 
 .-5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 eS 
 
 ^3 
 
 tH,Q 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 2-59 
 
 0-317 
 
 8-2 
 
 3-94 
 
 4-07 
 
 2-58 
 
 0-330 
 
 7-8 
 
 5-09 
 
 2-71 
 
 2-19 
 
 0-268 
 
 8-2 
 
 5-66 
 
 2.42 
 
 20-15 
 
 1-89 
 
 10-7 
 
 21.3 
 
 2-40 
 
 1-89 
 
 0-261 
 
 7*3 
 
 4.48 
 
 3-5i 
 
 12-66 
 
 0-949 
 
 13-2 
 
 10-35 
 
 4.67 
 
 Against this, Berthelot and Andr6 have investigated 
 the ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the different portions 
 of the humus which can be dissolved by alkalis or acids, 
 and they find that the most soluble portions contain the 
 highest proportion of nitrogen. It does not, however, 
 follow that the substances most soluble in acids or 
 alkalis are necessarily those which will most readily be 
 converted by bacteria into a form available for plants, 
 and, on the whole, the evidence seems to show that a 
 humus rich in nitrogen will yield it very slowly to crops. 
 
 Humus acts as a weak cement and holds together 
 the particles of soil, thus it serves both to bind a coarse- 
 grained sandy soil, and, by forming aggregates of the 
 finest particles, to render the texture of a clay soil more 
 open. In determining the sizes of the constituent 
 particles of a soil, the " mechanical analysis," it is desir- 
 able to remove the humus as far as possible, and so 
 break up these temporary aggregates. 
 
 . Sampling of Soils. 
 
 The first step in the analysis of any soil, mechanical 
 or chemical, consists in obtaining a sample that shall 
 adequately represent the land in question. 
 
48 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 In this country it is customary to take a sample down 
 to a depth of 9 inches as representing the soil proper ; 
 it is, however, doubtful if this is not too deep, being 
 below the depth to which cultivation is generally carried ; 
 probably a 6-inch sample would more truly represent the 
 cultivated soil. In many cases it will be found that the 
 true soil does not extend to a depth of anything like 9 
 inches, but that there is a sharp change into subsoil or 
 even rock before this point : e.g., on the chalk downs the 
 soil is often not more than 4 inches deep, below which 
 white broken chalk rock begins. In such cases the 
 sample must only be taken to the depth at which the 
 visible change begins. 
 
 To obtain the sample two methods are generally 
 adopted. At Rothamsted a steel box, without top or 
 bottom, 9 inches deep, and 6 inches square in section, is 
 used ; the sides are wedge-shaped, about f inch thick 
 at the top and tapering off to cutting edges below. 
 The surface, if uneven arable land, is first raked over 
 and gently beaten level, then the box is placed in 
 position and driven down with a heavy wooden rammer 
 till the top of the box is flush with the surrounding 
 soil. The soil enclosed by the box is then carefully dug 
 and scraped out into a bag for conveyance to the labora- 
 tory; two or three samples to the same depth being 
 taken from the same field and afterwards mixed. 
 Should samples of the subsoil be required, the box 
 is left in position after its contents have been scraped 
 out, and the surrounding soil is dug away to the 9-inch 
 level, the box is then rammed down for the second 
 9 inches, and its contents removed : the process being 
 repeated till the required depth has been reached. 
 
 A modification of the Rothamsted method consists in 
 marking out on the surface a square 9 inches on the 
 side, and digging away the surrounding soil until a 
 
# 
 
 
 FlG. i. — Photograph of Soil-sampling Tools. 
 
II.] METHODS OF SAMPLING 49 
 
 9-inch cube of earth remains standing; over this a 
 wooden box is slipped, and the cube is cut off by pushing 
 a spade beneath at the 9-inch level 
 
 On soils which do not contain many large stones, 
 samples may be taken with an auger, both more rapidly 
 and with greater security of obtaining an average 
 sample. A convenient tool for the purpose consists of a 
 cylindrical auger made of steel, about T V inch thick, of 2 
 inches internal diameter and 12 inches deep, with a slot 
 f inch wide running from top to bottom ; the lower 
 edge of the cylinder and the edges of the slot are 
 sharpened ; to the upper end of the cylinder a handle 
 carrying a wooden crossbar is riveted. The auger is 
 forced gently into the soil with a twisting motion until 
 the required depth is reached, when the tool is with- 
 drawn and the core scraped out into a bag. Six to ten 
 cores at least are taken at regular intervals in the same 
 field and mixed to secure an average sample. Each 
 boring can be continued to obtain subsoil samples as 
 deep as the length of the handle permits. It is impos- 
 sible to obtain samples with the auger when the soil is 
 dry. Fig. 1 shows a photograph of both types of soil- 
 sampling tools. 
 
 When the samples reach the laboratory they are 
 spread out on shallow trays to dry, which process may 
 be accelerated by a gentle warmth, not exceeding 40 C. 
 In dealing with stiff soils it is advisable to crumble all 
 the lumps by hand while the earth is still somewhat 
 moist When the whole is sensibly dry the stones are 
 separated by a sieve having round holes 3 mm. in 
 diameter; the material that does not pass the sieve 
 is gently worked up in a mortar with a wooden pestle, 
 care being taken not to break the stones, chalk, etc., 
 but only to crush the lumps of earth. Finally, the 
 material upon the sieve is roughly weighed and well 
 
 D 
 
50 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 washed in a stream of water till all the fine earth is 
 gone, dried, picked over to free it from roots and 
 stubble, and weighed as "stones." To get the pro- 
 portion borne by the stones to the soil, the fine earth 
 is also weighed, an addition being made of the weight 
 lost by the stones in washing. 
 
 Of course the figure obtained for the proportion of 
 stones is only approximate, for if the stones are of any 
 size they will be very irregularly caught by the auger 
 or even by the 6-inch square tool. The material passing 
 the sieve is again spread out in a thin layer in an 
 ordinary room, until the surface maintains the same 
 colour as the lower layers; it is then bottled up as 
 " air-dry fine earth " for analysis. 
 
 The Mechanical Analysis of a Soil 
 
 The mechanical analysis that follows consists in 
 dividing the fine earth into a series of fractions con- 
 sisting of particles of known size ; we can use sieves to 
 sort out the coarser grades, but the finer ones must be 
 separated by their relative powers of remaining sus- 
 pended in water. 
 
 The methods in use depend on two principles: 
 in one, the hydraulic method (Hilgard, Schoene, Nobel), 
 soil is washed by successive currents of water of veloci- 
 ties calculated to carry particles of the required size 
 according to the table on p. 33 : in the other, the sedi- 
 mentation method of Osborne, Knop, and Schloesing, 
 the soil is suspended in water and allowed to stand, the 
 separation being effected either by the times required 
 for the particles to settle down through a fixed distance, 
 or by the distances fallen in a given time. The method 
 to be described is based upon the latter principle. The 
 hydraulic method requires special apparatus, and is only 
 suited to laboratories entirely devoted to soil analysis. 
 
II.] ANALYTICAL METHODS 51 
 
 Method of Analysis. 
 
 1. Ten grams of the air-dry fine earth are weighed 
 out into a beaker or basin and treated with 100 c.c. of 
 Nj$ hydrochloric acid ; the soil is well worked up with a 
 rubber pestle (made by fixing a glass rod into a small 
 solid rubber bung) until all the lumps of clay, etc., are 
 broken up. If the soil contains much calcium carbonate, 
 a further addition of acid may be required. 
 
 The object of the acid is to dissolve the carbonates and 
 humates, and thus loosen the particles in any aggre- 
 gates where chalk or humus form the cement. With- 
 out this preliminary treatment the amount of clay 
 found will be largely determined by the proportion 
 of humus present ; the soil of an arable field, for 
 example, will show more clay than the soil of an 
 adjoining pasture, when the sedimentation is made with 
 water alone. But after the preliminary treatment with 
 acid to remove the humus, both fields will show the 
 same proportion of ciay (as they should do, since they 
 are of the same origin), and only differ in the amount 
 of humus they have accumulated — a temporary factor. 
 
 After standing with the acid for an hour, the whole 
 is thrown on a tared filter and well washed until all acid 
 is removed. The filter and its contents are dried and 
 weighed ; the loss the soil has suffered represents the 
 material dissolved and the hygroscopic moisture. 
 
 2. The soil is now washed off the filter with 
 ammoniacal water (about 1 c.c. of strong ammonia 
 solution in half a litre of water) on to a small sieve of 
 100 meshes to the linear inch, the portion passing through 
 being collected in a beaker which is marked on the side 
 at a distance of 8-5 cm. from the bottom. 
 
 The ammonia completes the dissolution of the humates, 
 and also masks the effect of any traces of soluble salts 
 which may be left and would cause aggregation in the 
 manner indicated earlier, p. 38. 
 
52 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 The portion which remains on the sieve is dried and 
 weighed. It is then divided into "fine gravel" and 
 " coarse sand " by means of a sieve with round holes of 
 I mm. in diameter, the portion retained by the sieve 
 being designated " fine gravel." 
 
 3. The portion in the beaker is well worked up with 
 the rubber pestle, ammoniacal water is added up to the 
 8- 5 cm. mark, and the whole is put aside to stand for 
 twenty-four hours. The turbid, supernatant liquid is 
 then rapidly poured off into a large jar, and the residue 
 is rubbed up again with the rubber pestle and more 
 ammoniacal water, as before. The whole operation of 
 filling to the mark, standing for twenty-four hours, and 
 pouring off the turbid liquid is carried through as 
 before, and repeated as long as any matter remains 
 in suspension for twenty-four hours. Generally seven 
 to ten decantations will be sufficient, after which the 
 united turbid liquid is evaporated to dryness in a tared 
 basin, and weighed. This fraction consists of the "clay" 
 particles less than 0002 mm. in diameter, together with 
 all the soluble and some of the insoluble humus. The 
 contents of the dish are ignited over an Argand burner 
 for some time and reweighed, to obtain the weight of the 
 " clay " after ignition. 
 
 4. The sediment from which the clay has been 
 removed is worked up as before in the beaker, which, 
 however, is now only filled to the depth of 75 cm. 
 The contents are now allowed to stand for twelve 
 and a half minutes only, when the liquid is poured 
 off into a large jar as before. The operations 
 are then repeated until all the sediment settles 
 in twelve and a half minutes and the liquid above 
 is left quite clear. The contents of the jar are now 
 evaporated to dryness and weighed, as in operation 
 3, before and after ignition ; this fraction is desig- 
 
II.] 
 
 ANAL YTICAL METHODS 
 
 53 
 
 nated " fine silt," and lies between ooio and 0002 mm. 
 in diameter. 
 
 5. The sediment remaining in the beaker is worked 
 up afresh just as in the previous operations, the mark 
 being now placed 10 cm. from the bottom of the beaker, 
 and the time of settlement fixed at one hundred seconds. 
 The sediment is dried and weighed as " fine sand," while 
 the portion that is poured off is obtained by evaporation 
 as in the previous operations, and is designated as " silt." 
 The soil has thus been divided into the following series 
 of fractions : — 
 
 
 
 Diameter in Millimetres. 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Stones and Gravel . 
 Fine Gravel 
 Coarse Sand • 
 
 Fine Sand • 
 Silt • • 
 Fine Silt . • • 
 Clay . • 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 0«2 
 0*04 
 O-OI 
 O«002 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 0*2 
 
 0*04 
 O-OI 
 0-002 
 
 \ Separated 
 
 f Jl 
 
 ] sitting. 
 
 -> 
 
 Separated 
 by 
 
 subsidence. 
 
 j 
 
 If there be much " fine gravel " in the soil, it is best to 
 make a separate determination of its amount on a 
 sample weighing 50 grams, treating with acid as before, 
 and then washing the whole on to the 1 mm. sieve. 
 The result obtained should be taken as the true 
 percentage, and the other percentages found in the 
 analysis of 10 grams only should be recalculated to agree 
 with it. 
 
 The sizes of the particles, the depth of the liquid, and the 
 times adopted above, are purely conventional. The time 
 of settlement required to obtain a fraction of any 
 given range of size can be determined by a series of 
 trials, the material remaining suspended in each case 
 
54 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 is measured under the microscope until the right time 
 is hit off to secure the desired range of size in the 
 sediment. The relationship between the time of settle- 
 ment, the height of the liquid column, and the diameter 
 of the particles, is governed by the formula : — 
 
 v = 2ga* O-/)) 
 
 9 V 
 
 where <r is the density of the particle, a its radius, p the 
 density, and tj the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. 
 The application of the formula, however, requires to be 
 checked by observation with the microscope, because 
 the particles are not spheres. 
 
 The hygroscopic moisture and the loss on ignition 
 also require determination, which is described under 
 the chemical analysis of a soil. 
 
 Interpretation of Results. 
 
 It is as yet impossible to predict the behaviour of 
 a soil under cultivation from a consideration of its 
 mechanical analysis; in a general way we can see 
 whether a soil is heavy, whether it is likely to dry 
 "steely," or whether it will crumble readily under 
 proper cultivation, and whether it is more suitable for 
 market gardening or wheat growing, but the more 
 refined points of difference connected with the manage- 
 ment of given soils, which become known by experience 
 to a good practical farmer, cannot as yet be deduced 
 from the analysis. It is necessary to accumulate more 
 data, until we possess the mechanical analysis of a 
 large number of soils whose texture and amenability 
 to cultivation have been ascertained by long practice; 
 then we shall be able to assign any soil by its mechanical 
 analysis to a known type. 
 
 The power of a soil to retain moisture and resist 
 moderate drought depends on a predominance of the 
 
II.] TYPICAL SOILS 55 
 
 finer particles and of humus ; good wheat land or 
 land that will form sound permanent pasture will 
 contain at least 30 per cent, of silt and clay. The 
 ease with which a soil suffers the rain to percolate 
 depends upon the relatively low proportion of silt and 
 clay rather than on the amount of coarse-grained 
 material; the fine particles pack in among the larger, 
 and the soil is equally resistent to the passage of water, 
 whether the finest material is diffused among coarse 
 sand and gravel, or among the finer grades of sand. 
 The shrinkage of a soil on drying, and its tenacity when 
 dry, are even more dependent on low proportions of 
 coarse sand, humus, and chalk, than on the actual 
 amount of clay and silt which cause the shrinkage. 
 The really difficult soils to work are those containing 
 less than 20 per cent, of sand above 01 mm. in 
 diameter. 
 
 The table on page 56 will serve to illustrate these 
 points. 
 
 Soil No. I represents one of the lightest of sands, 
 about the extreme limit of cultivation — a soil, indeed, 
 which had been found unfit for ordinary farming, 
 and had been planted with conifers. 
 
 It will be seen that more than 83 per cent consists 
 of " sand," nearly all of the coarser kinds, while the clay 
 only amounted to 4-7 per cent, most of which was really 
 ferric oxide. Calcium carbonate is also entirely absent, 
 owing to which the soil accumulates more humus than 
 would be expected from its great aeration, and in the 
 hollows where water lies it often becomes peaty. Such 
 soils are rarely in cultivation, but are left as wastes, 
 carrying a natural vegetation of heather and pine. 
 
 Because, however, of their lightness and warmth, 
 they are sometimes valuable for market gardening on a 
 small scale, if they are so situated that large supplies of 
 
56 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 farmyard manure or town dung are available, straw- 
 berries being a favourite crop. 
 
 Soil No. 2 was taken from the Stackyard field of the 
 farm of the Royal Agricultural Society at Woburn, and 
 represents a light sandy loam, early, and extremely easy 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 T3 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 CD c3 
 
 o a> 
 
 WT3 
 
 * 
 O 
 
 0} 
 
 
 
 4* 
 
 ,3 
 
 
 03 
 O 
 
 >> 
 
 > 
 
 «3 
 
 fc-a 
 
 f> SB 
 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 bO 
 
 3 
 
 1=1 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 H 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Fine Gravel • . 
 
 4.1 
 
 I»0 
 
 3-0 
 
 1*2 
 
 I *9 
 
 1.9 
 
 1-3 
 
 0-4 
 
 Coarse Sand • 
 
 70-3 
 
 49.9 
 
 33-8 
 
 5-3 
 
 3-3 
 
 6.2 
 
 21-2 
 
 o-8 
 
 Fine Sand • 
 
 7.0 
 
 l6»I 
 
 28-0 
 
 32'I 
 
 36.8 
 
 214 
 
 12-5 
 
 6.4 
 
 Silt 
 
 i-5 
 
 II'I 
 
 5-6 
 
 33-3 
 
 2I«0 
 
 32-5 
 
 15.0 
 
 i8-6 
 
 Fine Silt . 
 
 5-8 
 
 5.6 
 
 io-8 
 
 5-3 
 
 14-3 
 
 13-8 
 
 II-9 
 
 1 3-6 
 
 Clay • » 
 
 47 
 
 97 
 
 6.6 
 
 1 1.8 
 
 13-5 
 
 17.6 
 
 28-3 
 
 42.2 
 
 Moisture 
 
 2-6 
 
 I»2 
 
 4-3 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 2»2 
 
 1.6 
 
 9-5 
 
 Loss on ignition 
 
 3«o 
 
 3-8 
 
 6.9 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 7-8 
 
 9.1 
 
 Calcium Carbonate . 
 
 ... 
 
 • ... 
 
 0.2 
 
 01 
 
 o-3 
 
 2-5 
 
 ... 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 
 SUBSO 
 
 ILS. 
 
 
 
 
 Fine Gravel . • 
 
 6-5 
 
 1*0 
 
 4.1 
 
 o-3 
 
 2 -6 
 
 17 
 
 07 
 
 0«2 
 
 Coarse Sand . • 
 
 75-5 
 
 50I 
 
 36.8 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-8 
 
 4*3 
 
 n»6 
 
 o-5 
 
 Fine Sand « 
 
 4.9 
 
 15*9 
 
 26-1 
 
 27.O 
 
 35-2 
 
 15-8 
 
 7-3 
 
 6.2 
 
 Silt 
 
 1-7 
 
 12.5 
 
 5-4 
 
 40-8 
 
 19.9 
 
 24.0 
 
 9-8 
 
 15-9 
 
 Fine Silt 
 
 4.2 
 
 5-9 
 
 8.4 
 
 57 
 
 16.1 
 
 16.7 
 
 15-2 
 
 IO-2 
 
 Clay 
 
 2-2 
 
 8-6 
 
 9-5 
 
 16.4 
 
 i6«2 
 
 28.7 
 
 427 
 
 48.9 
 
 Moisture 
 
 1-6 
 
 0.9 
 
 3-3 
 
 3-6 
 
 1-2 
 
 3-8 
 
 2.6 
 
 6-3 
 
 Loss on ignition 
 Calcium Carbonate . 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 57 
 
 2-8 
 
 4.1 
 
 4.6 
 
 8-1 
 
 7-3 
 
 
 • •• 
 
 O'l 
 
 0.1 
 
 o-3 
 
 0«I 
 
 ... 
 
 0«I 
 
 to work in any weather. Owing to the preponderance 
 of coarse sand, it suffers somewhat from drought and 
 rarely carries heavy crops ; and though responding well 
 to manuring, the soil is hungry and does not long retain 
 organic manures. The soil contains enough silt to 
 possess a distinct power of lifting the subsoil water by 
 
II.] TYPICAL SOILS 57 
 
 capillarity, and similar soils containing less coarse sand 
 and rather more fine sand and silt are often among the 
 most valuable, because they combine free working 
 with a capacity to resist drought through capillary action. 
 This soil is more suited to market gardening than to 
 mixed farming, makes poor pastures, grows good barley 
 and turnips, but is too light for wheat and mangolds. 
 
 Soil No. 3 is a light sandy loam from one of the 
 most valued of the " red land " potato soils, near Dunbar. 
 In the cool climate, with a fair rainfall here prevailing, 
 this forms an excellent arable soil for all crops, specially 
 prized as yielding potatoes which retain their colour 
 and are mealy after boiling. 
 
 Soil No. 4 is a typical free working loam from the 
 Thanet sand formation, but rather lighter than usuaL 
 It is easy to work, warm and early, stands drought well, 
 and is grateful and fairly retentive of manure. This is 
 a highly valued soil for all ordinary arable cultivation, 
 but is rather too light for wheat and pasture in the 
 south or east of England. No particular fraction of 
 the soil is predominant, but the soil is a fairly uniform 
 mixture of particles of all grades. 
 
 It should be noticed that in these first four soils of 
 a sandy type soil and subsoil are of very similar 
 structure, whereas as soon as the smaller particles 
 predominate on the heavy lands, then the soil is coarser 
 grained than the subsoil. 
 
 Soil No. 5 comes from the Hastings Sand in Sussex, 
 and represents a light example of a type of soil which, 
 with a certain amount of variation in the relative 
 proportions of fine sand and silt, covers a considerable 
 area in the high Weald country. 
 
 Generally it forms a sticky, heavy working soil, 
 commonly described as a clay, though the sand and silt 
 fractions predominate and no excessive proportion of 
 
J8 THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 clay is present. The soil, however, is kept very close by 
 the lack of coarse sand and of any of the still coarser 
 gravel and stones, the absence of carbonate of lime also 
 makes it stickier and more difficult to work. If a good 
 tilth is obtained, as for instance a seed bed for roots, and 
 heavy rain follows, these soils are particularly liable to 
 run together and set on drying to a glazed caked surface, 
 very inimical to germination. When well supplied with 
 lime and organic matter, these soils are fertile and carry 
 magnificent crops ; but they are rather late and expensive 
 to work, so that they have in great measure been laid 
 down to grass. They carry good grass when well 
 treated, and particularly when dressed with lime and 
 basic slag. 
 
 Soil No. 6 is taken from the Broadbalk Wheat Field 
 at Rothamsted : it is a heavy loam, stubborn and 
 intractable to work, which would lie very wet were not 
 the land naturally under-drained by the chalk rock at a 
 depth of ten or twelve feet below. The surface soil also 
 contains a large number of flint stones, not shown in 
 the analysis, and these help to keep the soil more open 
 and assist the drainage. Heavy as it is, the soil is not 
 a true clay ; it is the silt and fine sand fractions which 
 predominate, and to these must be attributed the 
 tendency of the soil to run and dry with a caked surface, 
 if much rain falls after a fine tilth has been attained. 
 In the soil but not the subsoil there is a fair proportion 
 of calcium carbonate, of artificial origin, and this con- 
 tributes greatly to the workability of the soil, for it has 
 been found unprofitable to retain some of the fields, 
 in which the calcium carbonate is absent, under 
 arable cultivation. Land of this class is still largely 
 under the plough, and is good wheat, mangold, 
 and bean land, but is too heavy for barley or turnips. 
 An occasional bare fallow is desirable to clean the land 
 
II.] TYPICAL SOILS 59 
 
 and bring it into tilth again ; it also yields very fair 
 permanent pasture. 
 
 Soil No. 7 is situated on the Kimeridge Clay forma- 
 tion in Cambridgeshire ; it is heavy land, difficult to 
 cultivate, and when under the plough requires a bare 
 fallow from time to time to restore the tilth. This 
 represents one of the heaviest soils which respond to 
 arable cultivation, which indeed is only practicable 
 because the soil, though containing so high a proportion 
 of clay, also contains a good deal of coarse sand, which 
 keeps it open and helps to render it friable. 
 
 Soil No. 8 is a heavy, undrained London Clay, which 
 will carry nothing but poor pasture. At one time it 
 would carry in favourable seasons heavy crops of 
 wheat and beans, but the expense of cultivation and 
 the danger of missing a season have rendered it quite 
 unprofitable to farm under the plough. It will be 
 noticed that the soil consists almost wholly of the 
 finer fractions, nearly one-half being " clay " ; nor 
 is there any difference between soil and subsoil, 
 except in the humus, which improves the texture 
 of the surface. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 Meaning of Texture and Conditions by which it is affected — Pore 
 Space and Density of Soils— Capacity of the Soil for Water — 
 Surface Tension and Capillarity — Percolation and Drainage — 
 Hygroscopic Moisture. 
 
 In the preceding chapter, the nature of the particles 
 composing the soil has been discussed ; it now remains 
 to consider the manner in which they may be arranged, 
 and the structure that results from the interaction 
 of the soil particles, the water, and such salts as may 
 be dissolved in the water. On these factors depend 
 what the farmer knows as the " texture " of the soil, 
 the degree of resistance it affords to the passage of a 
 plough, etc., the ease or otherwise with which that prime 
 object of cultivation, the preparation of a seed bed, can 
 be attained. 
 
 It is clear that as a soil consists of particles there 
 must be between them a certain amount of space 
 which is occupied by air or water ; this is known as the 
 "pore space," and on its amount will largely depend the 
 density of the soil. Taking the simplest theoretical 
 case, a soil made up of equal spheres in contact with one 
 another, it will be found that the pore space is de- 
 pendent upon the method of packing, but not upon the 
 
 60 
 
chap, in.] PACKING OF SOIL PARTICLES 6 1 
 
 size of the spheres. If the system of packing shown in 
 A and B, Fig. 2, is adopted, the pore space reaches its 
 maximum and amounts to 47-64 per cent of the whole 
 volume occupied by the soil ; this proportion is the same 
 when the soil particles have a smaller diameter, as in B ; 
 as long as the spheres are uniform in size, whatever that 
 may be, and are packed as shown in the diagram, the 
 pore space will be at its maximum. The minimum pore 
 space is attained by the packing shown in C and D ; it 
 amounts to 25-95 per cent, and is again independent of 
 the size of the particles, provided they are uniform. If 
 the spheres are, however, of very different sizes, so that 
 smaller spheres lie wholly within the spaces between 
 the larger spheres, as in the arrangement shown in E, 
 the pore space may be indefinitely reduced. Per contra^ 
 if aggregates of particles exist in the soil, containing 
 both pore space between the ultimate particles and 
 between the aggregates which behave as single particles, 
 as in F, the pore space may rise much above the 
 maximum of 49 per cent A soil in situ generally 
 possesses a pore space larger than the proportions 
 indicated above; various causes, such as the stirring 
 due to cultivation, the decay of vegetation, etc., leave 
 definite cavities in the soil : for example, if a hole be 
 dug for any purpose in ordinary cultivated ground and 
 afterwards filled up with its own soil, it is rarely possible 
 to fill the hole completely, especially if a little pressure 
 4ias been used to trample down each layer. 
 
 In ordinary soils the pore space varies from a little 
 over 50 per cent among the stiff clays, down to 25 or 30 
 per cent, in the case of coarse sands of uniform texture. 
 The reason for the greater pore space with the finer 
 grained soils lies in the fact that the weight of the 
 small particles of clay is not sufficient to overcome the 
 friction and move the particles into the arrangement 
 
62 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 [chap. 
 
 CO 
 
 <— » 
 
 +3 
 t-. 
 
 ri 
 
 Oh 
 
 ft 
 
 u 
 
 *n 
 a, 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 <u 
 
 <L> 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 O. 
 
 <U 
 
 o 
 
 a. 
 
 a 
 
 fa 
 
III.] 
 
 TRUE AND APPARENT DENSITY 
 
 63 
 
 giving the minimum pore space. If some small shot are 
 shaken into a graduated measure and the pore space 
 determined by pouring in a measured volume of water, 
 the indicated minimum will be found ; but if the experi- 
 ment be repeated with sand which has been sifted to get 
 approximately a uniform size, a higher figure will result. 
 In the one case the particles are too light to exert 
 much force towards the rearrangement of the mass ; in 
 the former case the heavy smooth shot slip straightway 
 into the most compact arrangement, because by it the 
 shot attain their lowest position. In consequence of the 
 pore space, the density of a soil in situ will differ very 
 much from that of the materials of which it is composed, 
 nor will all soils possess the same apparent density when 
 dry. Perhaps the best way of ascertaining the apparent 
 density of a soil or soil materials is to get a smooth 
 metal pint pot or like measure, fill it with the material 
 in question with gentle tapping, and then strike off the 
 upper surface smooth with a rule. The weight of the 
 contents divided by the volume gives the apparent 
 density, from which the true volume and the pore space 
 can be calculated, if the true density of the material be 
 known. The following table shows the true and ap- 
 parent density of the chief soil materials ; as a mean 
 figure for purposes of calculation, 2-65 can be taken as 
 the true density of ordinary soils : — 
 
 
 True Density. 
 
 Apparent Density 
 when dry. 
 
 Humus • • • . 
 Clay . • • • . 
 
 Sand ..... 
 Calcium Carbonate. 
 Hydrated Oxide of Iron . 
 
 1-2 
 2-5 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-75 
 3-4 to 4 
 
 •34 
 
 1 
 
 1.45 
 ... 
 
 The following table shows a few determinations 
 
64 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 [chap. 
 
 made in the laboratory, of the apparent density of 
 various soils in a roughly powdered state and without 
 the stones, which, being solid, would add to the apparent 
 density of the soil. The results are also recalculated 
 to show the weight of a cubic foot of the soil, and the 
 weight per acre of a layer 9 inches deep : — 
 
 
 Apparent 
 Density. 
 
 Weight per 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Lbs. per acre 
 to 9". 
 
 Heavy Clay . • . 
 Sandy Clay . 
 Sandy Clay Subsoil . 
 Light Loam . 
 Light Loam Subsoil 
 Sandy Loam • . • 
 Sandy Peat • • 
 Light Sand • • • 
 
 I«o62 
 
 1*279 
 
 Ll8 
 
 1*222 
 
 LI44 
 
 1.225-^ 
 
 O.782 
 
 I«266 
 
 664 
 80 
 
 737 
 764 
 
 71-5 
 76.7 
 
 49 
 79.2 
 
 2,150,000 
 2,6oo,000 
 2,380,000 
 2,480,000 
 2,320,000 
 2,490,000 
 1,580,000 
 2,560,000 
 
 The figures given above are not exactly comparable 
 with soils under natural conditions, because of the 
 powdering, the exclusion of stones, etc., but they 
 serve to show that the clay soils usually described as 
 "heavy" are really less dense, and weigh less per cubic 
 foot than some of the lighter soils, whereas pure sands 
 are the densest of all. The farmer's terms of " light " 
 and " heavy " land refer to the draught of the plough, 
 the resistance the soil opposes to being torn asunder, 
 and not to the actual weight of the portion moved ; 
 sands which he calls " light," being, as the table shows, 
 heavier per cubic foot than the clays which the farmer 
 calls heavy soils. 
 
 This point will be further elucidated by the following 
 table, which shows the weight per cubic foot of the 
 arable soils at Rothamsted and Woburn down to a 
 depth of 3 feet These results represent the real weights 
 of the soil as obtained by cutting out a block 6 inches 
 square by 9 inches deep, weighing it, and afterwards 
 
III.] 
 
 WEIGHT OF SOIL 
 
 6$ 
 
 ascertaining the deduction to be made for water. The 
 Rothamsted soil is a stiff clay with many flints, the 
 Woburn soil is a loose, coarse-grained sand, containing 
 only a little stone derived from the rock below. It will 
 be seen that, if the stones are excluded, the density 
 increases with the depth, because of the greater consoli- 
 dation caused by the weight above and to some extent 
 by the washing down of the finest particles, but the 
 increase does not continue much below the depth of 3 
 feet, the limit of these measurements : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight per 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Weight per 
 
 
 
 
 
 cub. foot. 
 
 of Stones. 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 r °" 
 
 to 
 
 9" 
 
 95-4 
 
 16.8 
 
 3,116,000 
 
 Rothamsted Arable 
 
 9" 
 
 »» 
 
 18" 
 
 93*o 
 
 I20 
 
 3,037,000 
 
 Broad balk 
 
 1 8" 
 
 »i 
 
 27" 
 
 92*0 
 
 7-1 
 
 3,004,000 
 
 
 I 27" 
 
 )» 
 
 36" 
 
 92^ 
 
 7-5 
 
 3,012,000 
 
 
 f °" 
 
 »! 
 
 9" 
 
 96.6 
 
 2.96 
 
 3,157,000 
 
 Woburn Arable 
 
 9" 
 1 8" 
 
 
 18" 
 
 27" 
 
 103.8 
 106.2 
 
 5-95 
 4.92 
 
 3,382,000 
 3,462,000 
 
 1 
 
 [ 27" 
 
 n 
 
 36" 
 
 106.9 
 
 7-83 
 
 3,501,000 
 
 From the data thus obtained as to density and 
 pore space, together with a mechanical analysis to 
 show the proportion of particles of various sizes, it is 
 possible to calculate for any given soil both the number 
 of soil particles and the area of the surface they expose, 
 on the assumption that the particles are spherical. 
 Approximately with grains I mm. in diameter, there 
 would be 700 grains in I gram of the soil, and the 
 number of grains to the gram will vary inversely as 
 the third power of the diameter, i.e., if the diameter be 
 divided by 10 and become 01 mm., there will then be 
 700,000 grains to the gram. The surface possessed by 
 all the soil grains can be similarly deduced by calcula- 
 tion, and will be found to vary inversely as the diameter 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 of the individual grains ; a sphere I inch in diameter 
 will have only half the surface of the eight spheres of 
 half an inch in diameter which possess the same volume 
 Hence it follows that the surface of an ordinary soil 
 must be extremely extensive, and since many of 
 the properties of the soil are dependent upon the surface 
 it becomes important to arrive at some measure of 
 this quantity. By calculation only a very rough idea 
 of its extent can be formed, both because every 
 departure of the soil grains from the spherical form 
 will increase the surface without affecting the weight, 
 and also because the mechanical analysis of a soil 
 gives only a generalised statement of the distribu- 
 tion of soil particles of various sizes in the soil. But 
 the surface of the soil grains in the case of a sandy 
 soil where the grains are all free, may be calculated 
 from the observed rates of flow of fluids like air or 
 water through a measured portion of the sand ; and by 
 using this method King has computed the surface of 
 the constituent particles of various types of soil with 
 the results set out below : — 
 
 
 Pore Space, per 
 cent. 
 
 Area of Surface in 
 
 square feet, 
 
 per cubic foot of Soil. 
 
 Finest Clay . . 
 Fine Clay Soil . 
 Loamy Clay Soil • 
 Loam • 
 Sandy Loam . • • 
 Sandy Soil 
 
 52-9 
 
 48 
 
 49.2 
 
 44.1 
 
 38-8 
 
 32-5 
 
 173,700 
 110,500 
 70,500 
 46,500 
 36,900 
 II,000 
 
 As a rough figure to remember, the surface of the 
 particles in one cubic foot of an ordinary light loam 
 may be taken as about an acre; this will increase 
 as the soil approaches more and more to clay, and 
 diminish as the soil becomes increasingly sandy. The 
 
in.] WATER IN SATURATED SOIL 67 
 
 extent of surface exposed by the soil particles is im- 
 portant because it is their active part ; other conditions 
 being equal, the amount dissolved from a solid body in 
 a given time by any solvent will be proportional to 
 the surface exposed. 
 
 Again, the water in a soil usually exists as a film, 
 coating the surface of the soil particles, and the amount 
 of water that can be held under particular conditions 
 becomes a function of the extent of surface ; even the 
 power of a soil to remove certain substances from solution 
 is likewise dependent on the surface. 
 
 Capacity of the Soil for Water. 
 
 So far, the structure of the soil in a dry state has 
 only been considered, it is now necessary to consider 
 its behaviour when fully saturated with water, before 
 passing on to the more usual state when the soil con- 
 tains both air and water. 
 
 The amount of water which a soil will hold when com- 
 pletely saturated will depend upon the pore space, will, 
 in fact, be the pore space together with whatever water 
 the material of the particles can imbibe without causing 
 any swelling. Perhaps the best method for determining 
 the water capacity of a soil is one devised by Hilgard. 
 A small cylindrical brass box. is constructed, 1 cm. 
 deep and 6 cm. in diameter. The bottom is a sheet of 
 perforated brass, and the whole is supported on three 
 legs ; the capacity of the box is about 30 c.c The 
 exact capacity is determined by waxing up the holes, 
 weighing, filling with water, and reweighing. A circle 
 of thin filter paper cut to fit the box is laid inside 
 and wetted, any superfluous water that comes through 
 being wiped away. The box is then weighed, care- 
 
68 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap 
 
 fully filled with fine earth, and gently tapped to settle 
 the soil down ; finally, the surface is struck off level 
 with a straight-edge. The box is now weighed again 
 to find the quantity of dry soil taken, and placed in a 
 dish of distilled water, so that the water stands about 
 I mm. above the lower surface of the soil inside the 
 box ; the dish is then covered over to prevent evapora- 
 tion. The water rises in the soil, displacing the air, 
 and in about an hour's time the soil will have absorbed 
 all the water possible. The box is lifted above the water 
 a little, allowed a few minutes to drain, the excess of 
 water clinging to the under-surface is wiped away with 
 a clean cloth or filter paper, and the whole is then 
 weighed. A previous "determination of the moisture 
 present in the " air-dry fine earth " must also be made, 
 to provide all the data necessary for the calculation of 
 the water contained in the saturated soil. This calcu- 
 lation may be made in three ways: either the pro- 
 portion the water in the saturated soil bears to the 
 dry soil, or the proportion of water in the wet soil • 
 may be estimated, or again, the proportion by volume 
 that is occupied by water and soil respectively may 
 be calculated. The figures thus obtained will vary very m 
 considerably, because the less dense the soils, because of 
 the clay and humus they contain, the more water they 
 will absorb; thus the proportion which the water 
 absorbed bears to the weight of the dry soil becomes 
 exaggerated in their case. Perhaps the soundest picture 
 of the state of affairs is attained by considering the 
 volume that is occupied by the water in the soil, and 
 expressing it either as a percentage by volume, or as 
 lbs. or inches of water per cubic foot of wet soil. The * 
 following figures show the results obtained for four 
 distinctive soils, calculated out in the different ways 
 described above. 
 
III.] 
 
 WATER RETAINED BY SOIL 
 
 6 9 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 u 
 
 <D 
 
 ^^ 
 
 S3 CI 
 
 <D 33 
 
 ©JS 
 
 a >* 
 
 O >H 
 
 <D O 
 08 i-l 
 
 Pi 
 
 Per cent, of Water 
 
 in Saturated Soil 
 
 by Weight. 
 
 Per cent, of Water 
 
 in Saturated Soil 
 
 by Volume. 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 1— 1 
 u 
 
 B 
 Ph 
 
 JS 
 
 s 
 
 
 Coarse Sandy Soil 
 Light Loam. 
 Stiff Clay . 
 Sandy Peat . • 
 
 45 
 
 50-5 
 98-6 
 
 155 
 
 31 
 
 33-5 
 49.6 
 
 60.8 
 
 50.5 
 
 55-8 
 67.6 
 
 63.2 
 
 18 
 29-2 
 56.4 
 Il6 
 
 15*3 
 
 22-6 
 36-1 
 
 53-7 
 
 22*2 
 
 35*4 
 45.6 
 
 52-8 
 
 0-8 
 2.9 
 6.9 
 8.3 
 
 Under natural conditions a soil is rarely saturated 
 to the extent indicated in the previous table ; as the 
 rain water enters from above, the surface of the soil 
 is wetted first and the air within the soil finds a diffi- 
 culty in escaping, so that even after long-continued 
 rain the pore space does not become entirely filled 
 with water. 
 
 The following table shows the water contained in 
 a few field soils sampled a day or two after* the cessa- 
 tion of long-continued rain, and calculated as per- 
 centages of the wet soil by weight : — 
 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 in Wet Soil. 
 
 Sand at Water Level 
 
 18.4 
 
 Rothamsted Wheat Land, unmanured .... 
 
 23-0 
 
 „ „ manured with artificials 
 
 24.7 
 
 „ „ manured with dung for 26 years 
 
 37-6 
 
 Light Loam above Chalk . 
 
 20.3 
 
 Hellriegel has shown that the optimum proportion 
 of water in the soil for the growth of the plant is 
 40 to 50 per cent, of the maximum required for satura- 
 tion. 
 
7o 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 [CHAP. 
 
 Flow of Water through Soils. 
 
 The freedom with which water will move through 
 soils under the action of gravity or other force will 
 depend not only on the pore space, but upon the 
 mean size of the channels formed between the soil 
 grains. King made some experiments with sands 
 graded by sieves and formed into columns 14 inches 
 long and 1 square foot in section, above which the water 
 was maintained at a head of 2 inches. He obtained 
 the following results expressed in inches of water 
 passing in twenty-four hours ; the second column gives 
 the number of meshes to the inch of the sieves which 
 respectively passed and retained the sand : — 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Sieves. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 ,, . • • • . 
 
 >i • • • • • 
 
 Clay Loam . • 
 
 Black Marsh Soil . 
 
 _ 
 
 40 to 60 
 
 60 „ 80 
 
 80 „ IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 Ml* 
 •*• 
 
 301 
 160 
 
 73-2 
 
 39*7 
 1.6 
 
 •7 
 
 It will be noticed that there is a great diminution 
 in the rate of flow as soon as a soil containing small 
 clay particles is introduced ; of course, one of the 
 characteristic properties of clay is that it will not 
 allow any flow of water through it when it has been 
 puddled. In the puddled condition, the particles 
 constituting the clay are no longer aggregated, the 
 material is in its finest-grained condition, so that the 
 pore spaces between them must have become extremely 
 small. Not only is the flow diminished by the increase 
 of friction in the narrow channels, but in the case of 
 clay their dimensions have become so small that prob- 
 ably the contained water wholly within the range 
 
hi.] SURFACE TENSION 71 
 
 of the molecular forces to be described later ; it is thus 
 prevented from flowing at all, and only moves by 
 diffusion. If we assume for clay particles a mean 
 diameter of 00002 mm., and a structure similar to A in 
 Fig. 2, p. 62, it is easy to show that no molecule in the 
 space between the spheres can be further than about J 
 of the diameter of a sphere, or 000004 mm - from one or 
 other surface, while the range of molecular forces as 
 calculated by Quincke extends to about 000005 mm. 
 from the surface. Spring has indeed shown that infiltra- 
 tion of water is impossible through clays or loams unless 
 they are first allowed to expand by taking up water. 
 
 Surface Tension and Capillarity. 
 
 The existence of attraction between the molecules 
 causes the free surface of any liquid to become a sort 
 of stretched elastic film, in tension itself, and exerting 
 a certain pressure inwards when free. The molecules 
 within the liquid are equally attracted in all directions 
 by the surrounding molecules, and are therefore in equili- 
 brium ; the molecules on the surface, having nothing on 
 one side, are only attracted inwards, and so, as a whole, 
 exert a pressure on the liquid similar to that which 
 would be caused by a stretched elastic skin over the 
 liquid. 
 
 The existence of this force of "surface tension," as 
 it is called, may be demonstrated by many simple ex- 
 periments, e.g. y by the familiar fact that a clean needle 
 will float when placed carefully on the surface of water ; 
 or, by the fact that any portion of a liquid which is so 
 small that the force of gravity on it is not large 
 compared to the molecular forces, immediately assumes 
 the spherical shape. Of all figures, a sphere has the 
 smallest surface in proportion to its contents, *>., the 
 
72 
 
 THE TEXTURE 01 THE SOIL 
 
 [chap. 
 
 stretched film on the surface of a drop of liquid shrinks 
 as far as it can until the liquid is packed into the 
 smallest possible compass, into the form of a sphere. 
 
 When a liquid and a solid are in contact, the form of 
 the surface and the resulting pressure or tension depend 
 on whether the liquid "wets" the solid or not For 
 
 Water 
 
 FlG. 3. — Capillary Rise and Depression 
 of Liquids in Glass Tubes. 
 
 example, if a series of very fine or "capillary" glass 
 tubes are dipped into water and mercury respectively, 
 the water will rise up the tubes in inverse proportion to 
 their diameters, the mercury, which does not wet the 
 glass, will be correspondingly depressed. 
 
 The water surfaces a, b y c (Fig. 3), are convex to 
 the water, and become more convex the narrower the 
 tube is; the pressure below the convex surface must 
 
hi.] SURFACE TENSION 73 
 
 be less than atmospheric, or the water would not 
 stand higher within than without the tube ; further, 
 the pressure beneath a y the most convex and therefore 
 most stretched surface film, is lower than the pressure 
 beneath b> and still lower than that beneath c. Per 
 contra^ the mercury surfaces are convex outwards, and 
 exert pressure on the liquid beneath, depressing it 
 below the general surface of the liquid in proportion 
 to the degree of convexity. These instances will help 
 us to realise that the surface of a liquid may exert 
 either a pull or a pressure on the liquid within, 
 according to the curvature of the surface, and the 
 greater the curvature the greater will be the force 
 exerted. It is this tension of the surface film which 
 causes movements of water in soil, other than those due 
 to gravity; for example, if a flowerpot stands in a 
 shallow dish of water, the whole of the soil within the 
 pot is kept moist ; or if water is poured on to dry soil, it 
 is seen to work outwards through the soil, the water 
 advancing from particle to particle as it wets them, just 
 in the same manner as it rises up the capillary tubes. 
 When a soil is saturated, the whole pore space is filled 
 with water ; if this soil be allowed to drain, some of the 
 water is pulled away by gravity, but much remains 
 clinging round the particles in the stretched film con- 
 dition, the tension in the film balancing the pull due to 
 gravity. Perhaps the best illustration of the state of 
 affairs in a wet but drained soil may be obtained by 
 linking a series of toy balls together, as shown in the 
 photograph (Fig. 4), and then dipping the whole into oil. 
 When the oil has ceased to drip it will be seen that 
 every ball is covered by a thin film of oil, and that 
 between the balls there is a layer of oil much thicker in 
 the lower than in the upper layers. The whole surface 
 film is equally stretched, but the stretching in the upper 
 
74 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 layers is largely due to the pull from the oil below, 
 while in the lowest layer of all the whole tension 
 exerted by the stretched film is devoted to holding up 
 its own thick film of oil. If oil be taken away at any 
 point, the curvature of the film, and therefore the tension 
 of the surface in that region, is increased : a readjust- 
 ment then takes place till the stretched film regains the 
 same tension everywhere, which is effected by a motion 
 of the oil to the place where the tension has been 
 increased. If the withdrawal of the oil be continued, the 
 film round the balls becomes thinner and thinner ; the 
 more it is stretched, the more closely it clings to the 
 surface, so that the removal becomes progressively more 
 difficult ; at last the film becomes so much stretched 
 that it ruptures and reunites again over a smaller 
 surface, hence with a diminished tension. The rupture 
 naturally takes place where the film is thinnest, on the 
 top layer of balls, which becomes more or less "dry" 
 while the lower balls are still surrounded by their 
 film. 
 
 Just in a similar way water will always move in a 
 soil from a wet to a dryer place, till the film surround- 
 ing the particles is equally stretched throughout. 
 
 For example, if A, B, C (Fig. 5) represent three soil 
 particles, of which A and B are surrounded by a thin, 
 and C by a thicker, film of water : when the spheres 
 are in contact the water will fill up part of the angle 
 between the spheres, as shown in the diagram. But 
 the water surface at a is more curved than at 6, i.e., 
 it corresponds to the surface at a in the fine capillary 
 tube (Fig. 3) as compared with the surface at b in the 
 wider tube. But the diminution of pressure caused by 
 a is greater than that caused by fr, as shown by the 
 greater height to which water is raised in the tube ; 
 hence in the same way the pressure inside the liquid 
 
in.] SURFACE TENSION 75 
 
 at a (Fig. 5) will be lower than that at b y and there 
 will be a flow of water from b to a, until the curva- 
 tures and corresponding surface tensions are equalised. 
 In a wet soil, then, surface tension is a force tending 
 on the one hand to retain a certain amount of water 
 round the particles, and on the other to equalise the 
 distribution of water, by causing movement towards any 
 point where the surface tension has been increased. 
 For example, if the water in a soil is in equilibrium and 
 evaporation begins at the surface, the film there is made 
 
 FlG. 5. — Diagram illustrating Liquid Film round Soil Particles. 
 
 thinner, and the curvature increased in the angles 
 between the soil particles : hence the pull exerted by 
 the film is increased, and water is lifted from below 
 against gravity. Per contra, if rain fall on such a soil 
 the films round the upper particles are thickened, their 
 tension is lowered, and the pull of the film below now 
 acts with gravity in drawing the water down into the 
 soil. 
 
 Percolation, 
 
 The state of affairs illustrated by the model of balls 
 dipped in oil is seen in the case of a soil which has been 
 thoroughly saturated so that all the pore space is occu- 
 pied by water, and then allowed to drain until the remain- 
 ing water is held in the soil by surface tension only. 
 
76 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 [chap. 
 
 In the upper layers the film will be stretched to the 
 utmost, or even broken by the pull of the water below ; 
 in the lower layers the film will be wholly engaged in 
 holding the water immediately in contact with the 
 particles of the layer: these layers may be saturated, 
 while the upper layers hold an amount dependent on 
 their distance from the saturated zone, and on the 
 extent of surface exposed by the particles. 
 
 The accompanying diagram (Fig. 6) expresses the 
 results of an experiment of King's, where columns of 
 sand and soil, 8 feet and 7 feet long respectively, were 
 saturated and then allowed to drain till they parted 
 with no further water, which required a period of sixty 
 days in the case of the soil columns, and of more 
 than two years for the sand. The tubes were then 
 cut up, and the proportion of water in the sand or 
 soil in successive 3-inch lengths of the tubes was 
 determined. 
 
 It will be seen that the sands retain very little water 
 by surface tension in the upper layers, whereas the clay 
 loam, with the enormous area its particles expose, holds 
 practically the same proportion throughout 
 v If we also consider the following table, showing the 
 time taken by the same sands and soils to part with 
 their water, the difference of the texture of the soils will 
 be even more evident : — 
 
 
 Inches of Water Lost in 
 
 SO min. 
 
 31 to 60 
 min. 
 
 24 hrs. (?) 
 
 2 to 11 
 days. 
 
 12 to 21 
 
 days. 
 
 No. 20 Sand . 
 
 11 60 „ 
 
 „ 100 „ 
 Sandy Loam . 
 Clay Loam 
 
 IO«25 
 
 5-67 
 1*21 
 
 4.68 
 
 4-52 
 
 .84 
 
 • • • 
 
 • •• 
 
 2-64 
 1-96 
 
 • » • 
 
 5-07 
 
 2-II 
 
 • •• 
 
 •9 
 •49 
 
 . . '   
 
  • ; — 
 
 ^aMjul 
 
 bo 
 
 30 
 
 t \A~d/M ^.O^-Wt 
 
 
     ! I )   !   < ' ' \ I ' !       I 'i I   I — • • <*   ' 'i   » i i 
 
 FlG. 6. — Water Content of Columns of wetted but thoroughly drained 
 
 Sand and Soil. 
 

 
Hi.] PERCOLATION OF WATER 77 
 
 The downward movement of rain water through 
 soils is known as "percolation," and is distinguished from 
 " flow " by the fact that the water is supposed to have 
 free surfaces, so that surface tension comes into play. 
 It takes place under the action of gravity through the 
 pore space proper, and also through the cracks, the 
 worm tracks, the passages left by decayed roots, and 
 other adventitious openings in the soil. The percola- 
 tion proceeds until the zone is reached where the pore 
 space is completely filled ; this is known as the " water 
 table," and is the level at which water stands in the 
 wells. Above the water table the soil will be more or 
 less in the state represented in the diagram showing 
 sands and soils in which percolation has ceased ; though 
 there will be most probably a more irregular distri- 
 bution, with zones which contain an excess of water 
 travelling downwards with greater or less rapidity, 
 according to the texture of the soil. It is these 
 temporarily saturated zones which cause the ordinary 
 tile drains to run, although situated many feet above 
 the permanent water table. A soil in which percola- 
 tion has ceased, though it may still contain much 
 water, will not part with it to a drain ; the water 
 cannot break away from the elastic film and run 
 off down the drain, unless it be present in such an 
 excess that the surface tension is insufficient to hold 
 it against gravity. But in a clay soil, percolation is 
 so slow that the upper few feet of soil may become 
 saturated by the winter rains and remain so for 
 months, if percolation has to proceed all the way down 
 to the water table ; by the introduction of drains, the 
 percolating column is shortened to the distance between 
 the surface and the drain. In a coarse-grained sandy 
 soil percolation is very rapid, the land dries quickly 
 after rain, and retains a minimum of water by surface 
 
78 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 tension; in fine-grained soils, which are, however, not 
 too fine for percolation, the excess of rain will be 
 removed rapidly enough to keep the soil below the 
 saturated condition, yet enough water may be retained 
 to supply the needs of the crop between the intervals of 
 rain. 
 
 While the flow of water from a field-drain may be 
 taken as a rough measure of the amount of percolation 
 going on at any given time for that soil, the movement 
 may be followed more closely by means of a lysimeter 
 or drain-gauge. As a rule, the records of these instru- 
 ments are vitiated by the disturbance undergone by the 
 soil in filling them ; but the drain-gauges at Rothamsted 
 were constructed by building cemented walls round 
 blocks of earth in situ, and then gradually introducing a 
 perforated iron plate below to carry the soil. The 
 following diagram (Fig. 7) shows the mean monthly 
 records of rainfall and percolation through a depth of 
 20 inches and 60 inches respectively, over a period of 
 thirty-five years. 
 
 It will be seen that of the total rainfall a little less 
 than one-half percolates through 60 inches of the 
 Rothamsted soil; it should be remembered, however, 
 that the surface of these gauges is kept free from 
 weed or any growth. The total drainage through 
 20 inches of soil is practically the same as that through 
 60 inches, but rather a greater proportion of the rainfall 
 comes through the 60-inch gauge in the winter and 
 through the 20-inch gauge in the summer. In the 
 winter months the percolation reaches as much as 
 80 per cent, of the rainfall, in August little more than 
 20 per cent, of the rainfall finds its way through the 
 layer of soil. When the ground has become dried 
 to any depth in the summer, percolation may be much 
 hindered by the air within the soil and the want of a 
 
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in.] PERCOLATION OF WATER 79 
 
 continuous film of wetted surfaces to lead the water 
 down by surface tension. The top layer of soil becomes 
 thoroughly wetted and will not allow the air below to 
 escape ; only after some time are local displacements of 
 the air set up, which enable the water above to make 
 connection with the wetted subsoil below, so that 
 percolation can begin. For this reason summer rains 
 falling in a season of drought are often noticed to be 
 of little benefit to the crop, because they are retained 
 near the surface until wholly evaporated, instead of 
 increasing the stock of moisture at the lower levels 
 where the roots of the plant are then operative in 
 obtaining water. 
 
 Minimum Capacity of Soil for Water. 
 
 The amount of water retained in a soil by surface 
 tension alone, when percolation has removed as much 
 as possible, is rather an important factor to determine, 
 as upon it depends to some extent the power of the 
 soil to resist drought by retaining water for the crop 
 between intervals of rain. If short columns of sand and 
 soil which have been saturated and then allowed to 
 drain away into a state of equilibrium are considered, 
 it is clear that very different proportions of water 
 are retained by the various soils. Suppose, however, 
 the column be of such a length that at some level the 
 upper film of water cannot be further stretched, but 
 the particles cease to be wet; the layer immediately 
 below this dry soil contains the minimum amount of 
 water consistent with a continuous film at all. Soil 
 in this condition may be regarded as at the minimum 
 of saturation; it will part with no more water by 
 drainage, and will become drier only by evaporation. 
 In order to obtain such a sample of soil for determina- 
 
80 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 tion of its water content, much trouble would be 
 necessary, and a long time must elapse before equili- 
 brium could be obtained in the long tube filled with 
 wet soil. Practically, however, the same result can 
 be reached with the apparatus previously described 
 for estimating the maximum capacity of the soil for 
 water, by constantly bringing the thin layer of soil 
 there used into contact with dry soil, until the 
 previously saturated soil no longer parts with water 
 to the new soil. 
 
 After the determination of maximum water capacity, 
 as previously described (p. 6y\ a little more fine earth, 
 which has been standing for some time over water in a 
 closed space so that it has acquired all the hygroscopic 
 moisture it can, is shaken lightly over the surface of the 
 wet soil in the box to the depth of \ inch or so. It 
 rapidly becomes wet, as will be evident by a change in 
 colour, whereupon it is struck off by drawing a fine 
 tightly stretched wire across the top of the box and 
 shaking the loosened layer off. More fine earth is then 
 shaken on and struck off as before when wetted, the 
 operation being repeated again and again, until a thin 
 dry layer remains on the surface for half an hour or so 
 without showing by change of colour any absorption of 
 water. During this wait the box should be in a closed 
 chamber over water. With fine-grained clays and loams 
 the process does not take long, with a coarse sand the 
 water moves slowly into the dry layer, and it is difficult 
 to hit off the exact end-point, when the soil particles 
 are still surrounded by water but the surface tension 
 is too great to allow this water to pass into dry soil. 
 Finally, the box and its contents are weighed, dried 
 in the oven, and reweighed. The second weighing 
 when dry is necessary, because the box will be found 
 to hold more dry soil than was originally filled into 
 
in.] WATER LIFTED BY SURFACE TENSION 81 
 
 it ; a certain amount of consolidation has taken place 
 through the addition of the dry earth and the subsequent 
 striking off when wet The numbers in the columns 
 headed Minimum in the table on p. 6g were obtained 
 in this way: they show that though the maximum 
 capacity for water, or pore space, may not vary very 
 greatly for different soils, there is a much wider and 
 more important divergence between the amounts of 
 water they will retain by surface tension alone, this 
 latter being the important factor in judging of the power 
 of the soil to retain a reserve of moisture for crops. 
 
 Variations in Surface Tension. 
 
 The surface tension of water is very high, but it is 
 easily raised or lowered by the presence of small 
 amounts of material in solution. The effect of altering 
 the surface tension of a film at any point is to cause 
 motion, as is seen in the well-known experiment of 
 covering a plate with a thin film of coloured water and 
 dropping a little alcohol into the middle of the film. 
 The alcohol immediately weakens the surface tension of 
 the film in the middle to such an extent that all the 
 liquid runs to the outer edge and leaves the plate bare 
 in the middle. Most of the salts which are used as 
 artificial manures and are soluble in water increase the 
 surface tension of the soil water, hence an application of 
 salt or nitrate of soda may, by increasing the tension of 
 the surface film, lift more water from the subsoil and 
 maintain the top layer of soil in a moister condition. 
 Per contra^ solutions of organic matter, particularly of the 
 many organic substances used as manure which have a 
 little oil in them, extracts of dung, etc., have a surface 
 tension below that of water. To this fact may be 
 attributed the "burning" of soils which is sometimes 
 
 F 
 
82 
 
 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 [chap. 
 
 seen when organic manures are applied late in the 
 season and dry hot weather succeeds j the soil water at 
 the top in contact with the manure has a lower surface 
 tension and consequently less lifting power for the 
 subsoil water ; hence any shallow rooted crop is deprived 
 of some of the subsoil water which would have otherwise 
 been lifted to it. A rise of temperature diminishes the 
 surface tension of water, and therefore lessens the 
 sustaining power of the film ; as it also lessens the 
 viscosity of water, it will often cause percolation to 
 begin afresh from soil that had apparently ceased to 
 yield any more drainage. This effect may sometimes 
 be seen in variations in the flow of land drains or in the 
 level of water in shallow wells. The following table 
 shows the comparative surface tension of water and 
 various solutions: — 
 
 Nature of Solution. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Surface Tension. 
 
 Water . . • 
 Common Salt • , 
 Kainit • , 
 Nitrate of Soda • , 
 Dung . . . , 
 Superphosphate • « 
 Soil Extract . . , 
 Garden Soil Extract 
 
 
 
 l«l 
 I'l 
 
 I«I 
 
 1-0013 
 
 1-0104 
 
 I-O 
 I-O 
 
 Dynes per sq. cm. 
 
 7*532 
 7.9H 
 7.9 
 
 7*73 
 
 7.464 
 
 7.414 
 
 7.244 
 7-089 
 
 Cohesion caused by Surface Tension. 
 
 In certain cases the stretched film surrounding soil 
 particles will give them an apparent cohesion by 
 enclosing them and drawing them together. A handful 
 of wet sand can be moulded into shape, but falls in 
 pieces as soon as it is dry : just as in a camel-hair 
 pencil the bristles, which stand apart when dry or 
 wholly immersed in water, are drawn together to a 
 
III.] COHESION DUE TO SURFACE TENSION S3 
 
 point if the brush be dipped in water and withdrawn. 
 Or again, a flat sandy beach from which a smooth sea 
 is receding will often show above tide-mark one stretch 
 of sand quite dry and loose, in which the feet sink 
 deeply, and another very soft stretch immediately left by 
 the tide where the sand grains are completely sur- 
 rounded by water. Between the two is a stretch of 
 sand of the same character, but firm to walk upon; 
 this is partly wet, and there is enough water to form a 
 film round the grains and hold them in position with a 
 certain amount of force. That this sand is really just 
 as loosely arranged as the softer tracts that are either 
 wetter or drier, may be seen by the fact that it will 
 easily pack more closely together under repeated gentle 
 pressure with the foot The shrinkage of soils, especially 
 of clays, as they dry, may be attributed to the surface 
 tension of the films surrounding the groups of soil 
 particles; as the water content is lessened the films 
 exert more force in their effort to contract, and drag 
 some of the particles closer together, especially the very 
 small particles whose weight is trivial compared to the 
 forces exerted by the film. Clay shrinks more than 
 other soils because of the greater number of particles, 
 their small size, and the higher proportion of pore space 
 into which motion can take place. The tenacity of wet 
 clay is due to the number of water films that have to be 
 ruptured, the vastly greater cohesion of dry clay 
 probably to the fact that many of the particles have 
 been dragged within the range of one another's 
 molecular forces. There is a stage in the drying of 
 clay when it will fall to pieces when worked ; probably 
 this represents the stage analogous to the partly wet 
 sand, when cohesion is due to the surface films. The 
 clay is neither so wet that the particles just slip over 
 one another when pressure is applied — the pasty 
 
84 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 condition; nor have they been drawn so closely 
 together as to cohere without the aid of any water. 
 It is not quite intelligible why a piece of dried clay 
 becomes soft and swells again when wetted, nor 
 why the particles should once more move apart. 
 
 Hygroscopic Moisture, 
 
 If the withdrawal of water from a soil by evapora- 
 tion be continued, a point is at last reached when the 
 soil becomes air-dry : it still retains some water, which 
 will vary in amount with the degree of humidity of the 
 atmosphere and the temperature. This last film of 
 water is held very closely and in a somewhat different 
 manner from the ordinary film held by surface tension, 
 though the two shade off into one another. For example, 
 the film of hygroscopic moisture can be produced by 
 condensation alone, when perfectly dry soil is placed in 
 an atmosphere containing water vapour : the surface 
 of materials like glass, sand, etc., has sufficient attrac- 
 tion for water to condense it from a state of vapour. 
 The amount of hygroscopic water retained by different 
 types of soil when air-dried and then allowed to 
 stand in a saturated atmosphere at ordinary tempera- 
 ture, is given in the table below ; it will be seen to 
 be more or less proportional to the surface possessed 
 by the soil particles, clay and humus retaining the 
 most. 
 
 This hygroscopic moisture cannot be of any service 
 to plants : Sachs has shown by experiments in pots that 
 tobacco plants will begin to wilt before the soil has 
 parted with all its moisture. When wilting began with 
 a sandy soil the sand in the pot still contained 1-5 per 
 cent, of water, with a clay soil 8 per cent, of water ; with 
 a mixture of sand and humus there was as much as 
 
III.] 
 
 HYGROSCOPIC MOISTURE 
 
 85 
 
 i2«3 per cent of water retained by the soiL Heinrich 
 has further shown that wilting begins before the water 
 content of the soil has been reduced to the hygroscopic 
 water limit, as the following figures demonstrate — 
 
 
 Water per 100 of Dry Soil. 
 
 When Plants Wilt. 
 
 Hygroscopic Water. 
 
 Coarse Sand . • • 
 Sandy Garden Soil . 
 Fine Sand, with Humus . 
 Sandy Loam 
 Chalky Loam . • 
 
 i-5 
 
 4*6 
 
 6-2 
 
 7-8 
 9-8 
 
 49-7 
 
 115 
 
 3 
 
 3-98 
 5-74 
 5-2 
 42-3 
 
 This is easily intelligible in view of the fact that the 
 root hairs cannot be in contact with all the soil particles, 
 nor can the water move from particle to particle when 
 / it has been reduced to so low a proportion. King has 
 made some observations of the amount of water still 
 present in soils in the field which had become so dry 
 that growth was at a standstill and the plants were 
 wilting. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Nature of Soil. 
 
 Per cent, of Water 
 under Clover. 
 
 Under Maize. 
 
 o" to 6" 
 
 6" „ 12" 
 12" „ 1 8" 
 1 8" „ 24" 
 24" „ 3o" 
 40" „ 43" 
 
 Clay Loam 
 
 >> 
 Reddish Clay 
 
 n 
 
 Sandy Clay 
 Sand 
 
 8.4 
 8-5 
 
 I2»4 
 
 13-3 
 
 13-5 
 
 9-S 
 
 7 
 
 7-8 
 11.6 
 12 
 io-8 
 
 4.2 
 
 Under these conditions all the soils were about 
 equally dry, so far as any power to part with their 
 water went; if the estimates made previously of the 
 area of surface of the particles constituting various kinds 
 
86 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 of soil be combined with these percentages to calculate 
 the thickness of film of the water on that surface, it will 
 be found that on all soils the film possesses approxi- 
 mately the same thickness, about 0-00003 inch. 
 
 Because of the quantity of water which some soils 
 will retain rather than give up to the plant, it is possible 
 that such soils may have less available water for the 
 plant than a much coarser grained soil which starts 
 with a lower initial amount of water. For example, the 
 clay and sand in the table above contain when satu- 
 rated about 26 per cent, and 18 per cent of water 
 respectively; as the crop can reduce this to 12 per cent, 
 in one case, and 4-2 per cent in the other, both sand 
 and clay yield about the same amount of water to the 
 crop. 
 
 A good example of the fact that only the water in 
 the soil which is in excess of the hygroscopic moisture 
 is available for the crop, is seen in F. J. Alway's studies 
 of soil moisture conditions in the "Great Plains" region 
 of north-western America. There the rainfall is only 
 from 12 to 15 inches annually, and falls chiefly during 
 the summer months ; because of its insufficiency for the 
 production of continuous crops, it is customary to take 
 a bare fallow one season in three in order to accumulate 
 the rainfall for the benefit of the two succeeding grain 
 crops. 
 
 The table shows the water content of the soil down 
 to the depth of 6 feet on two fields near Indian Head, 
 Saskatchewan, taken at the end of July 1904, field B. 
 having been fallowed, and C. having carried a crop of 
 oats which had shown the effects of drought Figures 
 are given for the total water in the soil as sampled, the 
 hygroscopic moisture as determined in the laboratory, 
 and the difference, which may be termed the free 
 water : — 
 
III.] 
 
 HYGROSCOPIC MOISTURE 
 
 87 
 
 Foot Section. 
 
 B, after Fallow. 
 Water. 
 
 C, after Oats. 
 Water. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hygro- 
 scopic. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hygro- 
 scopic. 
 
 Free. 
 
 First 
 Second . 
 Third . 
 Fourth . 
 Fifth . 
 Sixth . 
 
 Mean 
 
 29-4 
 I4.9 
 1 6-4 
 17.4 
 21.8 
 19*6 
 
 I2'0 
 
 3-9 
 
 4-7 
 5-S 
 7-6 
 
 8-0 
 
 17.4 
 
 II-O 
 
 11*7 
 
 11.9 
 
 I4'2 
 
 1 1-6 
 
 20-0 
 22 '4 
 21-6 
 l6-I 
 15.I 
 15.9 
 
 12.7 
 13-2 
 
 13-5 
 4-6 
 
 4.2 
 5-9 
 
 7*3 
 9.2 
 
 8-1 
 II.5 
 10.9 
 IO'O 
 
 19.9 
 
 ... 
 
 I2»9 
 
 18.5 
 
 ... 
 
 9-5 
 
 In each field the upper layer of soil possesses a 
 higher capacity for retaining hygroscopic moisture than 
 does the lower layer, but in field C. this upper layer is 
 thicker than in field B. It will be seen from the table 
 that as regards total water there is no great difference 
 between the two fields, but when the hygroscopic 
 moisture is deducted, B. contains 3-4 per cent more 
 water available for the plant This difference was 
 manifested in the following season in the yield, which 
 was only 2160 lbs. of grain and straw on C. and 9200 
 lbs. on B. 
 
 Though it is doubtful if the hygroscopic moisture 
 gathered by the surface soil in the cooler and damper 
 periods of the night, can be passed on to the subsoil and 
 given up to the roots, yet by its evaporation the next 
 day it may help to keep the temperature of the soil 
 down, and so indirectly diminish the loss of water to the 
 soil. Of course in certain conditions of air and soil 
 temperature there is condensation upon the soil of visible 
 water which can be available to the crops ; for example, 
 in some months drain-gauges yield more water than the 
 rainfall, though a certain amount of loss by evaporation 
 must also have taken place. This usually happens in 
 
88 THE TEXTURE OF THE SOIL [chap. hi. 
 
 the early spring, and can be set down to the conden- 
 sation of dews by the thoroughly chilled ground from 
 a warm and moist atmosphere. Warington has sug- 
 gested that the persistent wetness of the soil in February 
 must be attributed to this cause. In a coarse-grained 
 soil mostly filled with air, the cooling of the surface that 
 comes by radiation at night may result in an upward 
 distillation of water from the wetter and warmer subsoil. 
 Hilgard has suggested this explanation to account for 
 the capacity of some Californian soils to maintain a 
 crop during a rainless winter, when the soil itself shows 
 only 3 per cent or so of water. 
 
 A. Mitscherlich has made a number of determina- 
 tions of the heat that is evolved on moistening dry soil 
 (benetzungs-warme), due to the condensation of the 
 hygroscopic water on the surface of the soil particles, 
 and regards the figure thus obtained as of great 
 significance in judging of the physical properties of a 
 soil, since it provides a measure of the total surface of 
 all the particles composing the soil. He obtained results 
 of the following order, in calories evolved per gram of 
 soil — sand ooi, calcium carbonate 0-38, sandy soil 0-79, 
 sandy loam 2-37, strong clay 14-98, peat 22-66. Un- 
 fortunately the determination is by no means an easy 
 one to make, and no sufficient number of results have 
 been obtained for soils of known behaviour in the field 
 to enable one to form a judgment of the value of the 
 method. 
 
 \ 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 TILLAGE AND THE MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER s 
 
 Water required for the Growth of Crops — The Effect of Drainage 
 — Effects of Autumn and Spring Cultivation, Hoeing and 
 Mulching, Rolling, upon the Water Content of the Soil — 
 The Drying Effect of Crops — Bare Fallows — Effect of Dung 
 on the Retention of Water by the Soil. 
 
 The amount of water transpired by various plants 
 during their growth has been investigated by Lawes 
 and Gilbert at Rothamsted, by Hellriegel in Germany, 
 and Wollny in Munich, and by King in America. The 
 general principle upon which these observers have 
 worked, has been to grow the plants in pots and 
 measure the amount of water consumed during growth, 
 care being taken to eliminate or allow for losses by 
 evaporation from the bare ground, and also to render 
 the conditions of the plant's life as similar to those of 
 the open field as possible. Finally, the plant is washed 
 free of soil, dried, and weighed, so that a ratio is 
 obtained between the dry matter produced and the 
 water consumed during growth. 
 
 Some of the numbers obtained are given in the table 
 below : it will be seen that the same plant gives very 
 different results with the different observers. 
 
 89 
 
90 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 
 Lawes and 
 Gilbert. 
 
 Hellriegel. 
 
 Wollny. 
 
 King. 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 22; 
 
 359 
 
 
 
 Barley . • • 
 
 262 
 
 310 
 
 393 
 
 774 
 
 Oats 
 
 ... 
 
 402 
 
 557 
 
 665 
 
 Red Clover . • 
 
 249 
 
 330 
 
 453 
 
 ... 
 
 Peas • • • 
 
 235 
 
 292 
 
 477 
 
 447 
 
 The divergencies in these results are intelligible, if 
 we consider that the " transpiration " process by which 
 the water is lost, and the "assimilation" process by 
 which the plant gets heavier, have no necessary con- 
 nection, though both become active under the same 
 stimuli of light and warmth. Some leaves transpire 
 rapidly as a means of maintaining a low temperature 
 whilst absorbing large amounts of radiant energy from 
 the sun; other plants which have to resist drought 
 reduce the transpiration by a thickened cuticle, or by 
 a more concentrated cell sap. Dr H. Brown has shown 
 that of the radiant energy falling upon a sunflower leaf 
 on a bright August noonday, about 95 per cent, was 
 consumed in evaporating the transpiration water; of 
 the energy falling upon the same leaf in bright diffuse 
 daylight, only 28 per cent was used up in evaporation. 
 Comparing in these two cases the water transpired with 
 the carbohydrate produced (and this will be about -£$ of 
 the total dry matter) we find in the sunlight the ratio 
 was 347 to 1, in the diffuse daylight 234 to 1. Further 
 investigations are desirable ; but, taking the whole 
 group of observations, we shall be justified in assuming 
 that our ordinary field crops transpire about 300 lbs. 
 of water for each lb. of dry matter produced. It now 
 remains to translate this approximate figure into tons 
 of water per acre required to grow the ordinary crops. 
 The following table shows the weight at harvest of a 
 
IV.] 
 
 WATER REQUIRED FOR GROWTH 
 
 91 
 
 fair yield of the crop in question, the percentage of 
 water contained in the crop, the weight of dry matter 
 produced per acre, then the water transpired as deduced 
 from the dry matter produced, and in the last column 
 this same amount of transpired water recalculated as 
 inches of rain. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Calculated Water 
 
 Crop. 
 
 at 
 
 of 
 
 Dry Matter 
 
 transpired 
 
 
 Harvest. 
 
 Water. 
 
 at Harvest. 
 
 during Growth. 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Inches of 
 
 
 per acre. 
 
 
 per acre. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 2'5 
 
 18 
 
 2*05 
 
 615 
 
 6 '09 
 
 Barley . • 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 1-66 
 
 498 
 
 4-93 
 
 Oats 
 
 2-5 
 
 16 
 
 2»IO 
 
 630 
 
 6*24 
 
 Meadow Hay . 
 
 i : 5 
 
 16 
 
 I «26 
 
 378 
 
 3«74 
 
 Clover Hay 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 1.68 
 
 504 
 
 (?) 
 
 Swedes 
 
 17 
 
 88 
 
 204 
 
 612 
 
 606 
 
 Mangolds 
 
 30 
 
 88 
 
 3-6o 
 
 1080 
 
 10*69 
 
 Potatoes • . 
 
 7-5 
 
 75 
 
 1.87 
 
 561 
 
 5-55 
 
 Beans • . 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 1.66 
 
 498 
 
 4.94 
 
 It will be seen that in all cases the amount of water 
 transpired by the crop is a notable fraction of the total 
 annual rainfall, particularly so in the case of a root crop 
 like mangolds, which in the south and east of England 
 will often require a full half of the total rain falling 
 within the year. As much of the rainfall runs straight 
 off the surface into the ditches, and another portion 
 is lost to the land by percolation into the springs, as 
 again a considerable fraction is evaporated at certain 
 seasons from the bare surface of the soil, it is evident 
 that the water supply, even in our humid climate, is 
 far from sufficient for the maximum of production, and 
 may easily fall below that which is required for an 
 average crop. Indeed, we may take it as a truism that 
 the yield is more often determined by the water avail- 
 able than by lack of the other essentials of growth — 
 
92 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 light and heat, manure, etc. Of this we can have no 
 better proof than the enormous crops grown by irriga- 
 tion on sewage farms. Where the conditions are 
 favourable, and the farm is situated on a free draining 
 sandy or gravelly soil, so that the water can be often 
 renewed and drained away to keep the soil supplied 
 with air as well as water, the production of grass, 
 cabbages, and other green crops is multiplied five or 
 even tenfold by the unlimited supply of water. Speak- 
 ing generally, over a great part of England, where the 
 annual rainfall is from 35 to 25 inches, a large proportion 
 of which falls in the non-growing season, it is necessary 
 to husband the water supply, and it will be found that 
 one at least of the objects of many of our usual tillage 
 operations is the conservation of the moisture in the 
 ground for the service of the crop. From this point 
 of view, the various operations dealing with the land 
 can now be considered, such as drainage, ploughing, 
 hoeing, rolling, and other cultivations. 
 
 The Effect of Drainage. 
 
 Drainage is usually regarded as a means of freeing 
 the land from an excess of water, but it also has an 
 important effect in rendering a higher proportion of the 
 annual rainfall available for the crop, so that drained 
 land will suffer less from drought than the same land 
 in an undrained condition. 
 
 Land may require drainage for various reasons : it 
 may possess a naturally pervious subsoil, and yet be 
 water-logged owing to its situation, or the subsoil may 
 be so close in texture that percolation is reduced to a 
 minimum and the surface soil remains for long periods 
 almost saturated with water, especially if the slope is 
 gentle and water lies after rain until very large amounts 
 
IV.] DRAINAGE 93 
 
 soak in. The flat meadows adjoining a river are 
 often water-logged because their surface is little higher 
 than the water in the river and the general water table 
 in the adjoining soil. In these cases tile drains are of 
 no value because of the want of fall ; open cuts and 
 ditches draw off the water best, and by exposing some 
 of the subsoil water both to aeration and evaporation, 
 lead to the improvement of the land. Another cause of 
 swampy water-logged land is the rising to the surface 
 of a spring or a line of soakage, such as is always 
 formed at the junction of a clay or other stiff soil 
 with an overlying pervious formation, " when the sand 
 feeds the clay," as the old rhyme runs. Such wet spots 
 can be drained by tiles or by an open ditch cutting the 
 springs or the line of soakage. Land lying on an 
 impervious subsoil at the foot of a slope is often very 
 wet because the water which has accumulated in the hill 
 and soaked downwards is forced to the surface by the 
 hydraulic pressure of the water above ; such seepage 
 water rising to the surface from the subsoil is character- 
 istic of many valley soils, and can best be dealt with by 
 a system of tile drains. But tile drains are most 
 generally employed and are of greatest value in dealing 
 with stiff impervious subsoils, which cannot get rid of 
 the rain falling upon them ; indeed, one of the prime 
 improvements effected in English agriculture was the 
 drainage of something like 3,000,000 acres of heavy 
 land between the years 1840-70. A great portion of 
 the work was unfortunately of little avail, because at 
 first there was a tendency to set the drains too deep, 
 at 4 feet instead of the 2 to 3 feet which have been 
 found to answer best. The benefits conferred by 
 drainage depend upon the lowering of the permanent 
 water table to the depth at which the drains are laid, 
 so that instead of constantly stagnant water a movement 
 
94 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 of both water and air is established in the soil above 
 the drain. In the first place, the introduction of the 
 air which follows the water drawn off by the drains 
 brings the whole depth of soil into activity, whereas 
 previously only the portion not water-logged was avail- 
 able. Plant roots cannot grow without oxygen from 
 the air, hence in a water-logged soil the roots 
 are confined to the surface layer only ; after drainage 
 the roots can penetrate as far as the air extends. 
 At the same time, all the fundamental chemical and 
 biological processes of the soil, such as nitrification and 
 weathering, are brought into action by the introduction 
 of the oxygen upon which they depend. Later it will 
 be seen that a water-logged soil results in the loss of 
 nitrogen to the land when such manures as nitrate of 
 soda are applied to it It is the extended root range of 
 the crop resulting from the introduction of air by 
 drainage which enables the drained land to resist a 
 drought better than before. In an undrained soil 
 the roots are confined to a shallow layer, which 
 they soon deprive of all moisture; further supplies 
 of water from the saturated soil move upwards very 
 slowly in a clay soil, so that the plant may suffer 
 greatly. In a drained soil, on the contrary, the roots 
 traverse the whole 3 feet or so into which air has been 
 admitted ; this mass of soil, even after it has given up by 
 percolation all the water it can, will still hold much more 
 than is contained in the shallow layer alone traversed by 
 roots before drainage. Following upon drainage, a slow 
 improvement in the texture of clay soil is always 
 manifest: by the drawing of air into the soil, by the 
 consequent evaporation and drying, a certain amount of 
 shrinkage and a clotting of the fine clay particles result, 
 which is never entirely undone when they are wetted 
 again. Roots, which afterwards decay and leave holes, 
 
iv.] DRAINAGE 95 
 
 and deep worm tracks, are all brought into the soil by its 
 aeration, and result in more rapid percolation. Again, 
 the washing through the soil of soluble salts derived 
 from the surface, especially the bicarbonate of lime 
 which is so characteristic a constituent of drainage 
 water, also induces flocculation of the fine clay particles. 
 Lastly, there is a steady removal by the drains of the 
 finest clay stuff, for whenever tile drains are running 
 freely the water will be found slightly turbid with clay 
 matter. All these causes contribute to establish a better 
 texture in the drained soil, beginning at the tiles and 
 spreading slowly outwards. The other result of drainage 
 which may be noted here is the greatly increased warmth 
 and earliness of a drained soil ; the high specific heat of 
 water, and the cooling produced by evaporation when 
 the water table is near the surface, combine to hinder 
 a water-logged soil from warming up under the sun's 
 heat in the spring, so that undrained land is notoriously 
 cold and late. 
 
 Effect of Autumn Cultivation upon the Water Content 
 
 of the Soil. 
 
 In regions where the annual rainfall is not very high 
 and occurs chiefly during the early winter months, it is 
 important to get as much of it as possible into the soil 
 for the use of the subsequent crop. Breaking up the 
 stubbles after harvest is an important factor in catching 
 the winter rain ; all land which is to lie idle through the 
 winter, previous to the sowing of roots or spring corn 
 should be early turned over with the plough and left 
 rough through the rainy season. On the old stubble 
 which has been made solid by the weather and the 
 trampling during harvest, the rain lies for some time and 
 evaporates, and if the land be at all on a slope the water 
 shoots off into the ditches. But the broken surface of a 
 
96 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 ploughed field both hinders the flow of the water and 
 affords it many openings by which to sink in ; at the 
 same time the increase of pore space in the loose 
 ploughed layer enables this portion to absorb more 
 water before percolation begins. King has observed in 
 May a difference of 2-3 per cent, of water in the top 3 
 feet of soil between land ploughed in the autumn and 
 the adjoining land not ploughed ; the gain in this case 
 due to the ploughing was no tons of water per acre or 
 rather more than 1 inch of rain. 
 
 The following table shows the effect of ploughing up 
 a stubble in autumn on a thin chalky loam at Wye, 
 Kent, where the soil is only about 2 feet deep. The 
 samples were taken on 3rd March 1902 ; there had 
 been but little rainfall except in the previous December. 
 The figures show mean percentages of water in the wet 
 soil exclusive of stones. 
 
 
 Land Ploughed 
 in Autumn. 
 
 Adjoining Land 
 not Ploughed. 
 
 1st foot 
 2nd foot 
 
 16.45 
 15-8 
 
 16 
 I4'6 
 
 Of course the autumn ploughing has many other 
 beneficial effects in addition to the above-mentioned 
 gain of water ; the ploughed soil gets alternately frozen 
 and thawed, wetted and dried, with the result that on the 
 stiff lands the puddling effects of trampling, etc., are 
 obliterated, and the soil acquires a loose, open texture, 
 out of which a seed bed can be made. Again, the 
 additional surface which is exposed to the action of frost 
 and rain causes increased weathering, and some of the 
 dormant mineral plant food is brought into a more 
 available condition. 
 
IV.] CULTIVATION AND SOIL WATER 97 
 
 Spring Cultivation, 
 
 In such climates as prevail in parts of England, 
 where it is necessary to retain as much of the winter's 
 rainfall in the land as possible, and where spells of 
 drying weather are apt to set in with the spring, it is 
 desirable to cross plough or otherwise move any land 
 that is destined for a summer crop at as early a date 
 as it will bear cultivation. This spring working is 
 necessary for two reasons : to obtain a mulch, or layer 
 of loose soil, which will conserve moisture in the sub- 
 soil during the dry periods that follow, and to give the 
 surface soil an opportunity of drying gradually into a 
 condition that will yield a good tilth. The land, even 
 though ploughed in the autumn, will become consoli- 
 dated again to a considerable degree by the beating 
 rains of winter. In this closely packed material capil- 
 lary water can move freely, and as the surface layer 
 dries under the action of the sun and wind, fresh supplies 
 of water are lifted from the subsoil by surface tension, 
 with the result that there is a steady and continuous 
 drain of subsoil water through its connection with the 
 exposed and rapidly evaporating surface. But if the 
 top layer of soil is broken up and left loose upon the 
 land by the cultivator, there is no longer a continuous 
 film joining the exposed surface and the subsoil water ; 
 surface tension can only lift water as far as the film is 
 unbroken, i.e., as far as the unstirred soil extends, and 
 this layer is protected from evaporation by the loose 
 soil above. Regarding it from another point of view — 
 in the undisturbed land there exist fine passages and 
 capillary spaces extending from the surface down to the 
 subsoil ; up these passages water will rise as long as it is 
 withdrawn by evaporation at the top ; in consequence, 
 the surface soil is not allowed to dry, being fed with 
 
 G 
 
98 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 subsoil water which is constantly withdrawn from below. 
 But when the land is cultivated the capillary channels 
 are broken, water cannot rise into the loose layer of 
 surface soil, which in the main is separated from the 
 firm soil below by large spaces across which water 
 cannot rise; hence the surface soil can become dry, 
 because it is cut off from the subsoil water, which in its 
 turn is preserved for use later. The drying of the 
 surface soil which ensues, through its severance from 
 the water-yielding subsoil, is of the greatest possible 
 importance in obtaining a tilth. At a certain stage 
 the soil can be dragged and will fall in pieces, but if 
 it be not detached from the subsoil it will either remain 
 persistently wet, so that it cannot be harrowed down, 
 or if it be forced to dry under the action of wind and 
 sun, it will set very hard and " steely," should it contain 
 any admixture of clay. The sudden forced drying of 
 strong land always produces hard and intractable clods, 
 which may defy all the efforts of the cultivator during 
 the rest of the season, unless a fortunate succession of 
 weather enable him to begin to make his tilth over 
 again. 
 
 It may be thought that the amount of water lifted 
 by surface tension cannot be so large as to result in 
 any serious losses to the subsoil store, but in soils of 
 suitable texture enough can certainly be raised to keep 
 the crop alive during periods of drought. In some of 
 King's experiments with a cylinder full of very fine 
 sand, he found that the evaporating surface lost daily 
 an amount of water equal to 0-46 inch if the per- 
 manent water level were 1 foot below, 0-405 if the 
 water had to be lifted 2 feet, and 0-18 inch if the 
 water had to rise 4 feet to the evaporating surface. 
 When the sand was replaced by a clay loam, the lift 
 of water to the surface was somewhat less, but in all 
 
IV.] WATER LIFTED BY SURFACE TENSION 99 
 
 cases the amounts were probably less than would be 
 realised under field conditions, because the evapora- 
 tion was not enough to dry the surface, and was 
 further checked by the formation of a saline crust on 
 the surface. Working in the field, King obtained a 
 daily loss at the evaporating surface of 1-3 lb. per 
 square foot, or 0-19 inch of water, the water table 
 being from 4 to 5 feet below the surface. 
 
 The relative powers of different soils to lift water by 
 capillarity alone is well seen during any long summer 
 drought, such as prevailed in the south of England 
 during 1899 and 1900. In the Thames valley, fields of 
 swedes grew till the roots were one or two inches in 
 diameter, and then died outright, although the water 
 table was not more than 16 or 20 feet below; yet the 
 coarse-grained gravel of which the subsoil was composed 
 could not lift the water in any appreciable quantity to 
 the surface. In the same seasons the crops upon the 
 chalk hills were quietly growing ; though the water table 
 was as much as 200 feet below the surface, there was 
 still a steady capillary rise of water through the fine- 
 grained chalk. In a drought it is always the gravels 
 and coarse sands which suffer first, and this not because 
 they start with less water, for we have already seen 
 that what they absorb they can give up almost wholly 
 to the plant, whereas a clay, which absorbs much more, 
 can only hand over about the same proportion to the 
 plant as the sand did, so much being held as hygroscopic 
 moisture. The plant suffers because the small surface 
 of the soil particles gives the coarse-grained sand or 
 gravel a very limited power of lifting the subsoil water 
 to the roots of the plant. Should a drought continue, 
 the clay soils begin to suffer next, for though they start 
 with large supplies of water and have an extensive sur- 
 face of soil particles, yet water can be moved so slowly 
 
loo TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 through the very fine pore spaces that the upward lift 
 cannot keep pace with the loss by transpiration and 
 evaporation. The soils which are least affected by 
 drought are the deep loamy sands of very uniform tex- 
 ture, fine-grained enough to possess a considerable lift- 
 ing surface, and yet not too fine to interfere with the 
 free movement of soil water. The western soils which 
 the American writers describe as capable of growing 
 wheat with a winter rainfall of 10 to 12 inches and an un- 
 broken summer drought of three months' duration, are 
 deep, fine-grained, and uniform, with practically no 
 particles of the clay order of magnitude to check the 
 upward lift by capillarity. 
 
 The following table illustrates how the subsoil acts 
 as a regulator to the amount of water contained in the 
 surface layer, absorbing the water which descends by 
 percolation during rainy periods, and giving it up again 
 by capillarity to the surface soil during periods of 
 drought The first line shows the rainfall during the 
 periods indicated, the second line the amount of 
 evaporation during the same period, while the third line 
 shows the changes in the water content of the top foot 
 of soil. As this change is not represented by the 
 difference between the rainfall and the evaporation, it 
 is clear that water must have been in some cases passed 
 down to the subsoil, in others lifted from it, in quantities 
 shown by the last set of figures. 
 
 
 30/iv. 
 
 80/v. 
 
 9/vii. 
 
 7/ix. 
 
 Water in inches. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 30/v. 
 
 9/vii. 
 
 7/ix. 
 
 27/x. 
 
 Rainfall • • • • . 
 
 0-18 
 
 4-53 
 
 3-17 
 
 5-63 
 
 Evaporation ..... 
 
 3-45 
 
 2^96 
 
 5-71 
 
 1-83 
 
 Gain or Loss of Water in top foot 
 
 -10 
 
 + 1-4 
 
 -0*24 
 
 + 0'6i 
 
 Water furnished by ( - ), or passed 
 
 
 
 
 
 on to ( + ) Subsoil . . 
 
 -2.27 
 
 + 0.17 
 
 -20 
 
 + 3-21 
 
IV.] 
 
 CULTIVATION AND S'6/L WATER 
 
 101 
 
 During the first period, the month of May, a dry 
 spell prevailed, only 018 inch of rain fell, while the 
 evaporation amounted to 3-45 inches; despite this 
 loss the top foot of soil only contains 1 inch of water 
 less than at the beginning, so that the rest of the 
 excess of evaporation over rainfall must have come 
 from the subsoil, which had in fact to furnish 2-27 
 inches. In the second period more water fell as rain 
 than was evaporated ; the surface soil gained 1-4 inch, 
 which did not account for all the excess of rain over 
 evaporation, a further -17 inch must have descended 
 into the subsoil. 
 
 The following figures, obtained by King, illustrate 
 how a spring ploughing preserves the soil moisture 
 during a period of dry weather, by establishing a 
 loose protecting layer over the water bearing subsoil. 
 The upper line shows the water content of the top 
 4 feet of a certain piece of land on 29th April, on 
 which date part of it was ploughed and part left 
 untouched. On 6th May, no rain having fallen, 
 the soil was sampled again, both on the ploughed 
 and the unploughed piece, with the results set out 
 in the lower figures : — 
 
 Lbs. of Water in each successive cubic foot. 
 
 1st. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 4th. 
 
 Land on 29th April .... 
 Land on 6th May, ploughed 29th April . 
 Land on 6th May, not ploughed 
 
 14-1 
 
 13-9 
 io-6 
 
 20-1 
 
 207 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18-3 
 
 17-3 
 
 16.6 
 16 
 
 13-9 
 
 It is seen that the ploughed land practically lost no 
 water during the week ending 6th May, whereas 
 during the same period the land not ploughed lost 
 9* i lbs per square foot of surface, a quantity equivalent 
 to if inch of rain. 
 
102 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 A similar trial made on a light loam at Wye during 
 a dry period in the spring of 1902, gave the following 
 percentages of water in the wet soil. 
 
 
 Land Ploughed 
 Autumn and Spring. 
 
 Ploughed Autumn 
 only., 
 
 1st foot 
 2nd foot 
 
 16.7 
 154 
 
 15-9 
 13*9 
 
 There can be little doubt that the earlier land 
 which is intended for spring corn, or particularly for 
 roots, can be moved in the spring, the more water 
 will be saved for the use of the subsequent crop, and 
 the easier will a good tilth be established. The chief 
 danger lies on the very fine sandy soils which, when 
 in a loose condition, are apt to run together under 
 heavy rains and afterwards cake on drying. 
 
 Hoeing and Mulches. 
 
 The principles which have already been developed 
 to explain the effect of an early spring ploughing in 
 saving subsoil water, apply even more markedly to 
 all the later spring and summer cultivations, hoeing 
 and the like, which have for their object the mainten- 
 ance of a loose tilth upon the surface. The loose soil 
 becomes itself dry, but by reason of its discontinuity 
 and coarse-grained condition, does not conduct the 
 moisture from the firm subsoil to the surface exposed 
 to sun and wind. Under these conditions the only 
 loss will be of that water which evaporates from the 
 moist soil into the air spaces of the loose upper layer 
 and then diffuses into the atmosphere ; the deeper the 
 loose layer thus formed, the more effective will it be, 
 and if it is destroyed by a fall of rain, which consolidates 
 
 V 
 
IV.] CULTIVATION AND SOIL WATER 103 
 
 the ground and establishes a continuous liquid film 
 from the subsoil water right up to the surface, it should 
 be renewed by a fresh cultivation as soon as the land 
 will admit of working. It is often noticed that a casual 
 shower during a dry period, or watering a garden unless 
 the operation is done very thoroughly, may result in a 
 greater drying up of the soil than ever, just because 
 a film of water is created able to lift water from the 
 subsoil up to the evaporating surface. The loose hoed 
 ground practically forms a mulch, though the protect- 
 ing material is the soil itself instead of straw or kindred 
 substances. 
 
 Of course, the conservation of soil moisture is 
 not the only good effect brought about by the surface 
 cultivation during the summer: the aeration of the 
 soil, the mechanical distribution of the nitrifying 
 bacteria that is effected, the warmth of the surface 
 layers due to their dryness, all combine to render 
 nitrification active, and to bring into a form available 
 for the plant the reserves of nitrogen in the humus of 
 the soil. This point will be dealt with more at length 
 later : for the time, it will be sufficient to remind the 
 reader how a turnip crop with its frequent spring and 
 summer cultivations is almost independent of any 
 nitrogenous manure, though it removes something like 
 100 lbs. of nitrogen per acre : whereas a wheat crop, 
 removing less than half that quantity of nitrogen per 
 acre, often requires the application of a nitrogenous 
 manure, because it is grown on undisturbed soil in 
 the cooler season of the year. 
 
 The saving of soil moisture which can be effected by 
 hoeing is illustrated by one of King's experiments, 
 when, during a dry period, the soil on a piece of land 
 kept cultivated to a depth of 3 inches was sampled from 
 time to time down to a depth of 6 feet, samples being 
 
104 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 taken simultaneously from an adjacent piece of land 
 where the surface was kept smooth and firm. On the 
 cultivated land there was a daily loss equivalent to 
 14 \ tons of water per acre, which was increased on the 
 uncultivated land to 17-6 tons per acre; the difference 
 during the 49 days over which the trial was spread, 
 amounting to 1-7 inch of rain saved by the cultivation. 
 
 The value of surface cultivation is well seen in other 
 trials of King's, where the water content down to a 
 depth of 4 feet was compared on two adjacent pieces of 
 land, one stirred to the depth of 3 and the other to 1 \ 
 inches only. The 3-inch soil mulch, taking the whole 
 season through, preserved more soil moisture than the 
 shallower cultivation, but by keeping the soil immedi- 
 ately below the mulch more moist and therefore with a 
 better developed water film, it also enabled this layer to 
 lift more moisture from the 3 or 4 foot depth into the 
 top or second foot, a position more available for the 
 crop. Thus the average of three determinations of 
 water content on 16th July gave the following results — 
 
 Per cent, of Water. 
 
 1st foot. 
 
 2nd foot. 
 
 3rd foot. 
 
 4th foot. 
 
 Soil cultivated, 3" deep 
 
 „ 1 J" deep . 
 
 12.3 
 
 II-2 
 
 l8-6 
 17.6 
 
 1 6-8 
 17-8 
 
 14*6 
 16.2 
 
 On this occasion it is seen that the upper 2 feet of 
 soil are being kept moister by their greater power of 
 lifting water from the lower layers, which actually con- 
 tain more water under the ij-inch mulch than under 
 the 3-inch mulch. 
 
 Although the gardener uses the hoe freely to estab- 
 lish soil mulches, he also employs dung, grass-clippings, 
 and even straw to the same end, anything to break the 
 
IV.] MULCHES   105 
 
 connection between the water-bearing subsoil and the 
 exposed evaporating surface. Such mulches of loose 
 organic material are even more effective in conserving 
 soil moisture than a fine tilth, there is less tendency to 
 form any continuity of water film between subsoil and 
 mulch; moreover, the evaporation of the water they 
 themselves contain helps to keep the temperature down. 
 The great drawback to their employment is that they 
 prevent the continual stirring of the ground which 
 promotes aeration and nitrification. 
 
 Stones serve almost the same purpose as a mulch, 
 especially when they are impermeable, like flints, and 
 cover the surface at all thickly. They shield the land 
 below from evaporation ; indeed, on picking a flint off an 
 arable field the ground below will generally be found 
 cool and damp. The vineyards of the Rhine, etc., are 
 generally set on steep slopes very thoroughly drained 
 and exposed to the sun; it will be noticed that the 
 utmost care is taken to keep the surface of the soil 
 covered with the broken slaty rock. 
 
 Effect of Rolling. 
 
 Though it has been pointed out that maintaining a 
 loose tilth on the surface is the most effective means 
 possessed by the farmer of saving the soil water and 
 minimising losses by evaporation, yet one of the funda- 
 mental acts of husbandry in the spring consists in roll- 
 ing and otherwise consolidating the land. Particularly 
 is this the case on the chalk and similar light soils ; when- 
 ever a spell of dry weather prevails in the early part of 
 the year the farmer will be observed rolling his seeds, 
 or his spring corn, or his newly sown turnip land, as 
 the case may be ; he will even take a heavy cart 
 wheel down between the drills when the roller will 
 not give him pressure enough. The result of the 
 
106 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 consolidation of the surface soil thus effected is to 
 improve its power of lifting the soil water from below 
 by capillarity, because the pore space is diminished 
 and the wide intervals across which the water film 
 cannot exist are largely closed up ; just as the motion 
 of water through surface tension almost ceases in a 
 thoroughly loose soil, it is, per contra, increased when 
 the particles are brought more closely together. 
 Hence, on the rolled land there will be a greater lift 
 to the evaporating surface and subsequent loss of 
 water, but the farmer faces this loss in order to keep 
 the upper few inches of soil supplied with moisture. 
 Rolling is only done on land occupied by germinating 
 seeds, young spring corn, or a young ley, where the 
 roots, if any, are so close to the surface that the whole 
 crop will perish if the top layer is allowed to dry. The 
 effect of rolling is to increase the capillary lifting power 
 of the top soil, so maintaining it in a moister condition, 
 although the land as a whole is made dryer by the extra 
 evaporation which must accompany the rise of subsoil 
 water to the surface. It is a maxim in farming on the 
 chalk, where there is always a store of subsoil water at 
 some depth or other, and where also the surface soil is 
 peculiarly liable to become open in texture through the 
 action of worms and the rapid decay of dung, that the 
 land will become moist if it can only be got "tight" 
 enough. On any light cultivated land it is easy to 
 notice how much moister the soil remains when it has 
 been consolidated by a foot mark ; a gardener again, 
 whose rich and deeply-worked soil is apt to get very 
 open, always treads the ground as solid as possible in 
 preparing a seed bed for onions and other small seeds. 
 The following figures given by King as mean values 
 from a number of measurements show how rolling dries 
 the soil as a whole when samples are taken down to 2 
 
iv.] ROLLING 107 
 
 feet or more, but maintains the surface soil, sampled 
 only down to 1 8 inches, in a moister condition. 
 
 Depth of Sample. 
 
 Down to 18" . 
 Down to 24" . 
 Down to 36"- 54" 
 
 Percentage of Water. 
 
 Boiled Ground. 
 
 15-85 
 19.49 
 1872 
 
 Unrolled Ground. 
 
 15.64 
 19-85 
 19-43 
 
 Since rolling dries the soil as a whole, it is only desirable 
 when shallow-rooted crops must be kept supplied with 
 water at any cost ; as soon as they get their roots down 
 hoeing should begin to diminish the inevitable evapora- 
 tion from the firm surface. Thus a tool like the old 
 broadsharing plough, still used on the chalk, is particu- 
 larly valuable in preparing a tilth for roots, for, while 
 creating a loose surface tilth, it is consolidating the soil 
 below and increasing its power of lifting water from the 
 subsoil. 
 
 Similarly, in the semi-arid regions of Western 
 America and in Australia, where the rainfall is barely 
 sufficient for the needs of the crop, in the preparation of 
 the land great importance is laid on the two operations 
 of "subsoil packing," and "the establishment of a soil 
 mulch." This is the equivalent of the English practice 
 of preparing a seed bed for roots ; frequent cultivation 
 without inverting the soil to work it down to a fine 
 tilth, constant use of the ring roller or subsoil packer to 
 consolidate this crumb until it will lift water by capillarity, 
 and finally the production and continual renewal by 
 means of light cultivators or horse hoes of a very thin 
 skin of loose soil on the surface. 
 
 Valuable as the operation of rolling is on grass 
 land in the early spring, in order to consolidate the soil 
 
108 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 round the roots of the grass after the surface has been 
 lifted by the winter frosts and by the action of worms, 
 it should be borne in mind that it is easy to do harm 
 by injudicious rolling in wet weather on soils that are 
 at all heavy. Even on grass land the clay may become 
 so puddled or tempered that it dries round the roots 
 with a very harsh caked surface, little permeable to 
 air and water. This sort of damage is perhaps most 
 often seen on lawns and cricket grounds which are 
 often rolled repeatedly with heavy rollers when the 
 ground is thoroughly wet; a smooth, pasty surface is 
 produced to the ultimate great detriment of the growth 
 of the grass. Of course upon arable land the greatest 
 care must be taken never to roll when the top is at all 
 wet or even damp, lest a pasty surface be developed, 
 which will dry to a glazed baked crust. It is necessary 
 even to wait until the dew has been dissipated before 
 rolling strong land that has been well worked and 
 drilled for roots. 
 
 The Drying Effect of Crops. 
 
 Since a crop transpires about 300 lbs. of water for 
 each pound of dry matter produced, any land which 
 is carrying a heavy crop must contain much less water 
 than the adjoining uncropped land, unless there has 
 been such an excess of rainfall as to saturate the soil 
 in either case. Any summer growing crop, however, 
 especially one of roots, transpires so large a proportion 
 of the customary rainfall during the period of growth, 
 that it must leave the soil much drier for its growth. 
 As an example of this removal of water by the growing 
 crop, the following figures obtained at Rothamsted 
 during the very dry summer of 1870 may be quoted, 
 showing as they do the water present in successive 9 
 
IV.] 
 
 WATER EVAPORATED BY CROPS 
 
 109 
 
 inches of fallow and of adjoining land carrying a barley 
 crop — 
 
 
 Percentages of Water in fine Soil, 
 June 27-28, 1870. 
 
 First 9" 
 Second 9" . 
 Third 9" . 
 Fourth 9" . 
 Fifth 9" 
 Sixth 9" . 
 
 FalloNjy. 
 20-36 
 
 29-53 
 34-84 
 34-32 
 3I-3I 
 33-55 
 
 Barley. 
 
 II* 91 
 
 19.32 
 
 22.83 
 
 2509 
 
 26.98 
 
 26.38 
 
 The total difference between the cropped and un- 
 cropped land down to the depth of 54 inches, amounted 
 to more than 900 tons of water per acre, or 9 inches 
 of rain, which is quite half as much again as would 
 be accounted for by the crop on the assumption that 
 only two tons or so of dry matter had been grown at 
 the date of sampling. 
 
 Another example of the withdrawal of water from 
 the soil by the crop is seen in the proportions of water 
 in the soil of certain of the permanent grass plots at 
 Rothamsted, taken in July of the same year, 1870 — 
 
 
 Plot 8. 
 
 Plot 9. 
 
 Plot 14. 
 
 No Manure. 
 
 Mineral Manure 
 
 + 
 Ammonium Salts. 
 
 Mineral Manure 
 
 + 
 Nitrate of Soda. 
 
 Crop, 1870 . 
 
 5$ cwt. of Hay. 
 
 20J 
 
 M| 
 
 Per cent, of Water. 
 First 9" 
 
 Second 9" • . . 
 Third 9" . 
 Fourth 9" . . 
 Fifth 9" . 
 Sixth 9" . 
 
 10-83 
 
 13-34 
 19.23 
 
 22.71 
 
 24-28 
 25.07 
 
 13-00 
 10.18 
 16-46 
 18-96 
 20-54 
 21.34 
 
 12-16 
 ii-8o 
 
 15-65 
 16.30 
 17.18 
 18.06 
 
 Means . • • 
 
 19.24 
 
 16-75 
 
 15.19 
 
no TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 Down to the depth of 54 inches the plot receiving 
 minerals and ammonium salts contained 200 tons, and the 
 plot receiving minerals and nitrate 325 tons, less water 
 than the unmanured plot, quantities in this case some- 
 what less than would be indicated by the amount of 
 dry matter produced. 
 
 There are two important cases in which the drying 
 effect of vegetation needs to be taken into account, in 
 the use of catch crops and in the planting of fruit trees. 
 On the lighter lands of the south of England catch 
 crops are not uncommonly taken on the land before 
 roots. The stubbles are quickly broken up, and 
 vetches, trifolium, or rye, are sown in time to make a 
 start while the land is warm, and to be either cut green 
 or fed off before the land is wanted for turnips in the 
 following spring. The advantages of the practice are 
 that the summer-formed nitrates in the stubble-ground 
 are saved from washing out, and that a valuable bite of 
 early fodder is obtained : with the leguminous crops also, 
 the farm is enriched by the nitrogen gathered from the 
 atmosphere. The difficulty of getting catch crops lies 
 in the fact that the stubble ground is left very dry by 
 the preceding crop, so that a timely rainfall is needed to 
 obtain a plant. The danger of their use is that they 
 may so deplete the available soil water as to give the 
 succeeding crop of roots a very poor chance of germin- 
 ating or growing well. In America the practice has been 
 suggested of sowing some leguminous crop like clover 
 in the tillage orchards about the end of July, so that the 
 new surface crop should so dry the ground as to forward 
 the ripening of the apples on the trees; again, any 
 second growth of the trees due to a late summer rainfall 
 would be prevented, this moisture being dealt with by 
 the catch crop. 
 
 The second illustration worthy of notice is that fruit 
 
iv.] PLANTING FRUIT TREES IN GRASS LAND ill 
 
 trees when newly planted in grass land often make a 
 very poor growth for a year or two. This is because a 
 fruit tree when planted is but indifferently supplied with 
 water-collecting roots ; inevitably they are few in number 
 and have a very restricted range. Hence they must be 
 in a soil well supplied with moisture if they are to provide 
 the tree with the necessary water, and they are very ill 
 fitted to compete with a crowd of fibrous grass roots 
 surrounding them, should the season turn out dry. In 
 one experiment the moisture in the top foot of a 
 pasture was found to be only half that present in the top 
 foot of neighbouring uncropped land. 
 
 The following table shows the percentages of water 
 in the fine earth of an orchard on heavy soil, part of 
 which was under grass and part kept tilled ; it will be 
 seen that in the winter the grass land carries as much 
 or even more water than the bare soil, but towards the 
 end of the summer the drying effect of the grass becomes 
 very pronounced, even down to the third foot 
 
 
 1st 9 Inches. 
 
 2nd 9 Inches. 
 
 3rd 9 Inches. 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Bare. 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Bare. 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Bare. 
 
 December 19/05 
 March 3/06 
 May 24/06 
 July 25/06 
 September 27/06 
 April 6/07. 
 October 9/07 . 
 
 250 
 
 26.7 
 
 17-7 
 13-8 
 
 I2«6 
 2I-I 
 22<6 
 
 24.7 
 
 23-3 
 24.0 
 
 15-6 
 
 15-7 
 21.6 
 27.1 
 
 23-5 
 21-2 
 
 I87 
 
 13-8 
 21. 
 
 237 
 
 23-5 
 21.9 
 
 24-5 
 
 18-2 
 
 24.0 
 
 ••* 
 
 25-0 
 
 20'6 
 22.3 
 148 
 15-6 
 19*6 
 23.6 
 
 27.O 
 
 19-6 
 25-0 
 24.4 
 l8-8 
 21.3 
 25-0 
 
 Few crops so effectually dry the surface soil as grass 
 does, because of the intimate way in which its roots 
 traverse the soil ; hence a fruit tree cannot compete 
 with grass for water as long as the two sets of roots are 
 confined to the same layer. The experiments at the 
 
H2 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OP SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 Woburn Fruit Farm of planting fruit trees and sowing 
 the seed of coarse meadow grasses at the same time, 
 show this competition at its highest degree, but even 
 when trees are planted in old pasture care should be 
 taken to keep a ring round the tree free from grass 
 and well cultivated or mulched for at least two years. 
 For similar reasons, when trees are planted in arable 
 land weeds should be kept down, nor should crops like 
 cabbages or mangolds be grown between the rows 
 of trees ; such crops are usually considered to " draw 
 the land " and deplete it of plant food, but the harm 
 they do lies in the water they withdraw just at the most 
 critical season, when the tree is making its first start in 
 its new quarters. 
 
 Bare Falloivs. 
 
 The custom of fallowing land, of leaving it entirely 
 bare for a season, during which the land is worked as 
 often as possible, is one of the oldest in agriculture ; a 
 rotation of wheat, wheat, fallow, .or of beans, wheat, 
 fallow, being almost universal, until the introduction! of 
 turnips gave the farmer a chance of cleaning his land 
 and yet growing a crop at the same time. The objects 
 of a fallow were various : in the first place, the summer 
 cultivations resulted in a thorough cleaning of the land 
 and in a free development of nitrates for the succeeding 
 crop ; also on the heavy soils, which are the most suited 
 to fallowing, a good tilth was obtained that was often 
 impossible otherwise. Indeed, at the present day it is 
 found desirable and even necessary to introduce an 
 occasional bare fallow when farming on the heavy clays 
 of the south and east of England, in order to obtain a 
 satisfactory tilth in that dry climate. 
 
 One of the most notable effects of fallowing lies in 
 the production of a stock of nitrates from the stores of 
 
IV.] STORAGE OF WATER BY BARE FALLOWS 113 
 
 combined nitrogen in the soil ; these nitrates are at once 
 available for the ensuing wheat crop if the autumnal 
 rains are not too great to wash them out of the soil 
 (see p. 116). 
 
 But in addition to the gain in available nitrogen due 
 to fallowing, the land which does not carry a crop during 
 a season will accumulate a store of water which may be 
 of the utmost service to the succeeding crop. In the 
 preceding section some figures have been given showing 
 how much more water is present at the end of the 
 summer in the fallow land than in the land which had 
 carried a crop, so that in districts where the winter rain- 
 fall is small the fallowed land will start the next season 
 with a great advantage. Indeed, in a semi-arid climate 
 where the annual rainfall is insufficient, satisfactory crops 
 may yet be grown in alternate years by using an inter- 
 mediate fallow period in which to accumulate a reserve 
 of subsoil water. 
 
 The following series of measurements will illustrate 
 this point ; it shows the percentages of water in spring 
 and autumn on fallow and cropped land respectively, 
 also the water present in the same land in the following 
 spring and autumn, when both plots were in oats. 
 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Following 
 Spring and Autumn. 
 
 Fallow. 
 1. 
 
 Corn. 
 2. 
 
 Fallow. 
 1. 
 
 Corn. 
 2. 
 
 Oats. 
 1. 
 
 Oats. 
 2. 
 
 Oats. 
 1. 
 
 Oats. 
 2. 
 
 1st foot • 
 2nd foot • 
 3rd foot • 
 
 24% 
 20 „ 
 18 „ 
 
 22% 
 
 19 * 
 18 „ 
 
 17% 
 20 „ 
 16 „ 
 
 7% 
 12 „ 
 
 4 H 
 
 19% 
 21 „ 
 
 18 „ 
 
 16% 
 18 „ 
 
 IS „ 
 
 6% 
 10 „ 
 
 9 N 
 
 4% 
 
 5 N 
 
 8 „ 
 
 The effect of the fallowing in retaining more moisture 
 in the soil is seen throughout the whole of the second 
 season. 
 
H4 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 At Rothamsted portions of the wheat field were 
 fallowed during the summer of 1904, and the following 
 table shows the percentage of water in the fine earth on 
 13th September, 2-849 inches of rain having fallen since 
 the crops had been cut. 
 
 
 TJnmanured. 
 
 Dunged. 
 
 Mean of 8 Plots. 
 
 Cropped. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Cropped. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Cropped. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 1st 9" . 
 2nd 9'' . t 
 3rd q" • 
 4th 9" . 
 
 15-8 
 18.9 
 20-8 
 
 23.1 
 
 i6«o 
 19.8 
 
 23-3 
 25-2 
 
 20-2 
 I4.5 
 
 13-7 
 
 15-5 
 
 19-3 
 17-0 
 184 
 19.7 
 
 17.4 
 l8-8 
 20*1 
 
 20-9 
 
 17-2 
 20-0 
 22-3 
 23.I 
 
 Mean • 
 
 19-6 
 
 20-8 
 
 16-0 
 
 18-6 
 
 19-3 
 
 20-6 
 
 In the surface layer there is practically no difference, 
 both having become equally wet by the rains after 
 harvest, but in the lower depths the fallow soils are the 
 wetter, and the differences are more pronounced for the 
 unmanured plot where a small crop had been grown 
 than for the dunged plot with its larger crop. 
 
 The way in which fallowed land is of benefit to 
 the crop, both by making nitrates and particularly by 
 saving water in a dry season, is easily seen in the 
 superior plant always found on the outside rows or 
 edges of an experimental plot divided from the others 
 by a bare path ; on one side the plant has the benefit 
 of fallow ground as well as of extra space, light, and 
 air, and flourishes accordingly. The Lois-Weedon 
 system of husbandry, where the land was divided 
 into alternate 5 -foot strips of corn and cultivated 
 fallow land, was nothing but an application of this 
 principle on a large scale, as indeed is any system of 
 growing a crop in wide rows to admit of some form 
 of hoe or cultivator working regularly at the ground 
 
IV.] 
 
 VALUE OF BARE FALLOWS 
 
 US 
 
 between. In a humid climate or on a porous soil there 
 is great danger of losing the nitrates formed in the 
 summer by washing out during the autumnal and winter 
 rains, nor is there any advantage gained by storing water 
 where the usual winter rainfall is sufficient to saturate 
 the soil. For this reason, in the Rothamsted experi- 
 ments, the plot growing wheat continuously has given a 
 greater crop per acre per annum than the plot fallowed 
 and sown with wheat in alternate years, though the 
 wheat crop following fallow has always been larger than 
 the crop grown the same year on the unmanured plot 
 
 Average Crop. 
 
 Wheat every Year. 
 
 Fallow and Wheat. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 1856-189$ • • 
 
 Bushels. 
 I2| 
 
 Lbs. 
 II27 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 H 
 
 Lbs. 
 798 
 
 Of course the average crop on the fallowed ground 
 was twice the above figures, i.e., I7§ bushels of grain and 
 1595 lbs. of straw, but it was only grown every alternate 
 year. 
 
 That the autumnal rainfall is the great factor in 
 determining whether a bare fallow shall be profitable 
 or not to the following crop, may be well seen by a 
 further examination of the results obtained at Rotham- 
 sted on these plots, by comparing the crops with the 
 percolation which took place in the autumn previous. 
 
 The percolation through 60 inches of bare soil for 
 the four months, September to December inclusive, as 
 measured by the drain gauge previously described on 
 p. 78, amounted on the average to 6-45 inches for the 
 31 seasons 1870-1901. If, then, we divide the harvest 
 years into two groups according as the autumnal 
 percolation is above or below the average, and allot 
 
n6 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 to each year the crops on the continuous wheat and 
 wheat after fallow plots for the harvest following the 
 given percolation, we shall obtain the following 
 average results, which show in group I the mean 
 crops following autumns of less than average percola- 
 tion, and in group 2 those following autumns of 
 comparatively high percolation. The percolation is 
 given in inches, the crops in lbs. per acre of total 
 produce, both grain and straw ; and as further evidence 
 of the extent of percolation, the average number of 
 days are given during the four months on which 
 water ran from the tile drain underlying the con- 
 tinuous wheat plot 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 si 
 
 1 
 
 9 -; 
 £ to 
 3 & 
 
 •+= eS 
 <D 
 
 a 
 
 OS 
 
 O 
 
 Crop, lbs. per acre. 
 
 Wheat after 
 
 Wheat 
 each Year. 
 
 
 Gain due to 
 Fallow. 
 
 15 Years of Percolation 
 below average . 
 
 16 Years of Percolation 
 above average . 
 
 8.94 
 13-78 
 
 3-99 
 8.92 
 
 4 
 13 
 
 1807 
 1627 
 
 2677 
 1757 
 
 870 
 130 
 
 Thus the bare fallow which increased the succeeding 
 crop above that given by the continuous wheat plot 
 by nearly 48 per cent, in the seasons when a com- 
 paratively dry autumn succeeded the fallow, increased 
 it by less than 8 per cent, when there was much 
 percolation after the fallow. 
 
 It follows, therefore, that the practice of fallowing 
 land is only an economical one where the annual rain- 
 fall is low and where the land is too strong to admit 
 of free percolation ; it is, however, admirably adapted to 
 the successful cultivation of clay land in dry, hot climates. 
 
IV.] 
 
 HUMUS AND SOIL WATER 
 
 117 
 
 Effect of Dung on the retention of Water by the Soil. 
 
 A soil which has been enriched in humus through 
 repeated applications of farmyard manure will resist 
 drought better than one in which the humus is low ; the 
 difference is seen not so much in the greater amount 
 of moisture present in the soil containing humus, as 
 in the way it will absorb a large amount of water 
 temporarily during heavy rainfall, and then let it 
 work more slowly down into the soil, thus keeping 
 it longer within reach of the crop. Good examples 
 are afforded by the Rothamsted plots; samples of 
 soil from the wheat land were taken on 13th September 
 1904, on the previous day 0262 inch of rain had 
 fallen, but for nine days before there had been little 
 or np rain. The portions of the plots from which 
 the samples were drawn had been fallowed through 
 the summer, so that the drying effect of the crop 
 is eliminated. Samples were also taken from the 
 barley plots on 3rd October of the same year; 0-456 
 inch of rain had fallen on the 30th September, before 
 which there had been fifteen days of fine weather. 
 The following table shows the water in the soil of the 
 unmanured and the continuously dunged plots respec- 
 tively, as percentages of the fine earth from which the 
 stones had been sifted 
 
 Percentages of Water in Rothamsted Soils. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Broadbalk Wheat. 
 
 Hoos Barlky. 
 
 Unmanured. 
 
 Dunged. 
 
 Unmanured. 
 
 Dunged. 
 
 0" to 9" 
 
 9" „ 18" 
 
 18" „ 27" 
 
 160 
 19.8 
 23-3 
 
 19-3 
 170 
 184 
 
 17-0 
 
 22-5 
 22-1 
 
 20-7 
 
 177 
 18.3 
 
n8 TILLAGE— MOVEMENTS OF SOIL WATER [chap. 
 
 It is thus seen that in both cases the dunged soil, 
 rich in humus, had retained more of the comparatively 
 recent rainfall near the surface, so that the top soil was 
 moister while the subsoil was drier. The difference 
 in favour of the surface soil was about 3-5 per cent, which 
 on that soil would amount to about 30 tons per acre, 
 or approximately 0-3 inch of rain. It is thus seen 
 that the surface soil of the dunged plot had retained 
 practically the whole of the preceding rainfall ; and 
 the greater dryness of the subsoil was due to the way the 
 soil had kept back the small rainfalls, which have 
 been evaporated instead of passed on to the subsoil 
 as they were on the unmanured plots. The same fact 
 is illustrated by the behaviour of the drains which run 
 below the centre of each of the wheat plots at a depth 
 of 30 inches ; below the dunged plot the drain very 
 rarely runs, only after an exceptionally heavy and 
 long - continued fall, whereas the drain below the 
 unmanured plot runs two or three times every winter. 
 Putting aside the greater drying effect of the much 
 larger crop on the dunged plot, the difference is mainly 
 due to the way the surface soil rich in humus first 
 of all absorbs more of the water, and then lets the 
 excess percolate so much more slowly that the descend- 
 ing layer of over-saturation, which causes the drain to 
 run, rarely or never forms. 
 
 The water-retaining power of the dung may also 
 be seen in the superior yield of the dunged plots 
 in markedly dry seasons. The following table shows a 
 comparison of the yield on plot 2, receiving 14 tons 
 of dung, and plot 7, receiving a complete artificial 
 manure, for the years 1879, which was exceptionally 
 wet and cold, and 1893, which was hot and dry 
 throughout the growing period of the plant The 
 rainfall for this period, /.&, for the four months March 
 
IV.] 
 
 HUMUS IN WET AND DRY SEASONS 
 
 119 
 
 to June, was 13 inches in 1879 an ^ only 2-9 inches 
 in 1893. 
 
 Wheat. Yield in Bushels of Grain. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1893. 
 
 Average 
 51 Tears. 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 16-0 
 16.25 
 
 34-25 
 20.25 
 
 357 
 329 
 
 The average yield on the dunged plot is about 3 
 bushels more than on plot 7, but in the dry year its 
 superiority amounted to 14 bushels, whereas in the 
 very wet year the two plots sank to the same low level. 
 In a bad season the bacterial changes which render the 
 plant food in dung available for the crop go on very 
 slowly. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL 
 
 Causes affecting the Temperature of the Soil — Variation of 
 Temperature with Depth, Season, etc. — Temperatures 
 required for Growth — Radiation — Effect of Colour — Specific 
 Heat of Soils — Heat required for Evaporation — Effect of 
 Situation and Exposure — Early and Late Soils. 
 
 The life of a plant is practically suspended below 
 a certain temperature, which is about 41 ° F. for the 
 majority of cultivated plants ; all the various changes 
 which are essential to the development of the plant 
 such as germination, vegetative activity, and the bac- 
 terial processes in the soil, show a similar dependence 
 upon temperature. 
 
 These vital actions cease below a certain minimum, 
 above which they usually increase with the tempera- 
 ture until an optimum is reached, when the action is 
 at its greatest ; beyond this point the action decreases 
 until a superior limit is reached, which again suspends 
 all change. It therefore becomes important to study 
 the manner in which heat enters and leaves the soil, 
 because upon the temperature acquired depend such 
 practical questions as the suitability or otherwise of 
 the land for particular crops, the season at which to 
 sow, and the earliness or lateness of the harvest 
 
 The surface soil receives heat in four ways : — 
 (1) By direct radiation from the sun, whose rays 
 both of light and invisible heat are absorbed 
 
 120 
 
chap, v.] AGENCIES AFFECTING TEMPERATURE 121 
 
 and raise the temperature of the absorbing 
 soiL 
 
 (2) By precipitation, as in the spring when warm 
 
 rain enters the ground and brings with it a 
 considerable quantity of heat, or when aqueous 
 vapour in the air is condensed on the colder 
 soil 
 
 (3) By conduction from the heated interior of the 
 
 earth a small amount of heat reaches the 
 surface. 
 
 (4) By the changes which result in the decay of the 
 
 organic material of the soil, when as much heat 
 is developed as if the same material had been 
 burnt in a fire. 
 
 The surface soil loses heat : — 
 
 (1) By radiation; like any other body possessing 
 
 heat, the surface of the soil is always emitting 
 invisible radiant heat, which may, or may 
 not, be counterbalanced by the corresponding 
 radiations it is absorbing. 
 
 (2) By conduction either to cooler layers of earth 
 
 below or to cooler air above. 
 
 (3) By the evaporation of # the water contained in 
 
 the soil ; at ordinary temperatures the evapora- 
 tion of 1 lb. of water would absorb enough 
 heat to lower the temperature of about 7500 lb. 
 of soil by 1° F. 
 
 The actual temperature attained by a given soil at 
 any time depends upon the relative effect of the heat- 
 ing and cooling actions set out above. 
 
122 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 Soil Temperatures. 
 
 The accompanying curves (Fig. 8), show the 
 monthly mean temperatures of the soil at 6 inches, 3 
 feet, and 6 feet respectively, as compiled from readings 
 taken at 9 A.M. at Wye during 1896, the soil being a 
 light well-drained loam under grass. It will be seen 
 that the variations in temperature diminish with the 
 depth: in fact a point is soon reached, about 50 feet 
 down, below which the effect of the gain or loss of 
 heat at the surface is inappreciable, and the tempera- 
 ture is constant from day to day, only increasing with 
 the depth, according to the well-known law. Each 
 curve cuts each other curve at least twice ; for a 
 certain period the upper layer is giving, and during 
 the rest of the year, receiving heat from the layer 
 above or below. The maximum temperature attained 
 at a depth of 3 feet comes a little later in the year 
 than the maximum for 3 inches, and the maximum 
 at 6 feet lags still further behind, owing to the slow- 
 ness with which the heat is conducted. It will be 
 seen that the curve indicating the temperature at 6 
 inches (and the mean figures for 3 and 9 inches are 
 almost identical) does not reach the 41 F. required for 
 the beginning of vegetative growth until April ; it 
 is, however, constructed from monthly averages only, 
 and from observations taken at 9 A.M., when the 
 surface soil has been considerably cooled during the 
 night. Much higher temperatures are obtained during 
 certain parts of the day even in the early spring 
 months, otherwise no germination could take place; 
 these diurnal and hourly fluctuations are, however, 
 chiefly confined to the surface soil. The following 
 
vo 
 00 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 *5 
 ON 
 
 u 
 a; 
 a. 
 
 S 
 
 v 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 C/3 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 

 N 
 
 cO 
 
 I / 
 
 4 < 
 
 ffi 
 
 J, 
 
 i. 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 bo 
 
 c 
 
 •3 
 
 Q 
 
 < 
 ■+-> 
 
 cd 
 
 CO 
 
 <U 
 In 
 
 £ 
 H 
 
 o 
 en 
 
 I L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 .3 
 
 < ..r 
 to 
 
 
 
v.] 
 
 VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE 
 
 123 
 
 curves show firstly (Fig. 9), the daily results during 
 a fortnight of April 1902, also (Fig. 10) certain hourly 
 readings obtained in the same month, in this case 
 beneath smooth, well-worked arable land. The diurnal 
 variations die away before the depth of 3 feet is reached, 
 nor are hourly variations perceptible at the depth of 
 one foot, except in the case of heavy precipitation and 
 a pervious soil. It will also be noticed from the 
 last curves that during part of the day the temperature 
 at the depth of 6 inches ran up to a point well above 
 the minimum required for germination, although the 
 mean soil temperature at 9 A.M. was near that limit 
 
 Temperatures required for Growth. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the fact that a 
 certain temperature is necessary before the vital 
 processes involved in growth become active; this 
 temperature is not always the same, but may be con- 
 sidered to lie between 40 and 45 F. for most of the 
 plants grown as crops in this country. 
 
 The following table shows minimum, optimum, and 
 maximum temperatures of growth for a few plants. 
 
 
 Minium in. 
 
 Optimum. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Mustard • • 
 
 32° F. 
 
 8i°F. 
 
 99° F. 
 
 Barley . • • 
 
 4i 
 
 83-6 
 
 99.8 
 
 Wheat . • 
 
 41 
 
 83-6 
 
 108.5 
 
 Maize . • . 
 
 49 
 
 92-6 
 
 115 
 
 Kidney Bean.   
 
 49 
 
 92-6 
 
 115 
 
 Melon . 
 
 65 
 
 91.4 
 
 in 
 
 The next table shows the effect of soil temperature 
 uoon the growth of the root of maize. 
 
124 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 Root Growth of Maize in 24 Hours. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Millimetres. 
 
 6 3 °F. 
 
 1-3 
 
 79 
 
 24-5 
 
 92 
 
 39 
 
 93 
 
 55 
 
 IOI 
 
 25-2 
 
 108.5 
 
 5-9 
 
 The osmotic absorption of water by the roots of 
 a plant is much affected by the temperature of the soil ; 
 although some plants, like cabbage, will continue to take 
 in a little water even near freezing point, others require 
 a higher temperature; for example, Sachs has shown 
 that tobacco and vegetable marrow plants will wilt 
 even at night, when transpiration is very small, if the 
 temperature of the soil falls below about 40 F. 
 
 The killing of plants like rose trees during frost is 
 generally due to drying out from this cause rather than 
 to the actual cold. As the air is often very dry during 
 a frost, evaporation continues, especially if a wind be 
 blowing at the same time ; thus the exposed shoots of 
 the plant are losing water which is not being replaced 
 by the roots, whose action is suspended by the low 
 temperature. A covering of snow or dead leaves, or 
 even the protection afforded by a little straw, bracken, 
 or spruce boughs, prevent the destruction of the plant, 
 not by keeping it so much warmer, but by pro- 
 tecting it from evaporation. 
 
 The connection between soil temperature and vital 
 processes is perhaps most apparent in the case of 
 germination, for which not only is a certain minimum 
 temperature requisite, but for several degrees above this 
 minimum the germination is so slow and irregular that 
 the young plant is very liable to perish while remaining 
 
v.] 
 
 GERMINATION 
 
 125 
 
 in such a critical condition. The following table shows 
 the range of temperatures for the germination of various 
 cultivated plants. 
 
 Temperatures of Germination. 
 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Optimum. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Wheat .... 
 
 Barley • • 
 Oats • • • 
 Pea 
 
 Scarlet Runner • • 
 Maize .... 
 Cucumber, Melon, etc 
 
 32° to 41° 
 
 40° 
 32° to 41° 
 38° to 41° 
 
 49° 
 
 49° 
 6o° to 65° 
 
 77° to 88° 
 77° to 88° 
 
 9*i° 
 
 9i° 
 
 88° to 99° 
 
 88° to 110° 
 
 ioo° to IIO° 
 
 88° to ioo° 
 
 115 
 
 ii5° 
 
 110° tO I20° 
 
 The practical bearing of these figures is obvious; 
 it is necessary to sow some seeds, like the melon, in 
 heat, and to defer the seeding of other crops, like 
 mangolds or maize, until the ground has acquired not 
 only the temperature necessary for germination but 
 one that will ensure a subsequent rapid growth of 
 the seedling plants. 
 
 For example, turnips will germinate at almost as 
 low a temperature as barley, but the optimum tempera- 
 ture is higher for turnips ; they are therefore sown much 
 later in the spring, when the ground has more nearly 
 reached this temperature, because the seed is small and 
 the young plant very susceptible to insect attacks, so 
 that the turnip seed must germinate and grow away 
 rapidly if it is to succeed. 
 
 Under ordinary field conditions much of the 
 nutrition of the crop depends upon the activity of 
 certain bacteria in the soil which break down organic 
 compounds containing nitrogen, and ultimately resolve 
 them into the nitrates taken up by the plant Most 
 
126 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 bacteria are active within about the same limits of 
 temperature as have been indicated above for the 
 higher plants ; the nitrification bacteria, for example, 
 cease their work below 41 ° F. and above 130 F., their 
 optimum temperature being about 99 F. 
 
 The way a low temperature will check the production 
 of nitrates until they are inadequate for the needs of 
 the crop is often seen in spring, and may be connected 
 with the yellow colour of the young corn during a spell 
 of cold and drying east wind. 
 
 Radiation. 
 
 The main source of the soil warmth consists in the 
 heat received from the sun by radiation ; this, according 
 to Langley, amounts to about 1,000,000 calories per 
 hour per square metre of surface from a vertical sun in 
 a clear sky. Supposing this energy were wholly 
 absorbed by a layer of dry soil 10 cm. thick, its 
 temperature would rise by as much as 90 F. in an hour. 
 Of course in nature many other factors are at work to 
 reduce this temperature; the sun is rarely vertical, 
 the soil material does not completely absorb but reflects 
 some of the sun's rays unchanged ; at the same time it 
 is always radiating in its turn rays of lower pitch than 
 the majority of those received. The latter rays are 
 easily caught by many substances, glass and water 
 vapour in particular, which are transparent to the rays 
 of higher refrangibility proceeding from the sun. A 
 greenhouse, for example, is practically a radiant heat 
 trap ; the temperature inside runs up because the sun's 
 rays of light and heat can penetrate the glass, whereas 
 the obscure heat rays radiated back again from the 
 warmed-up surfaces inside the house are not able to 
 pass through the glass again. Just in the same way the 
 temperature rises and the sun's heat becomes oppressive 
 
v.] COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE 127 
 
 when the air is laden with water vapour, because it 
 retains the radiations emitted by the surfaces heated by 
 the sun. Per contra, the temperature of the ground 
 falls more rapidly at night when the sky is clear and 
 the air dry, for then there is no blanket of cloud or 
 water vapour to arrest or reflect the radiations from the 
 surface. 
 
 The power of soils to absorb the sun's rays depends 
 very much upon colour : with black soils the absorption 
 is almost complete ; it is greater for red than for yellow 
 soils, least of all for those which look distinctly white or 
 light coloured. It has already been shown that the 
 colour of soils depends mainly upon humus and 
 hydrated ferric oxide, the latter accounts for all the 
 red, yellow, and brown shades, the former for the black 
 coloration of the soil Deep-seated clays are often 
 blue or green, due to various ferrous silicates or to 
 finely divided iron pyrites, which afterwards oxidise 
 to brown ferric oxide. The more finely grained a 
 soil is the more surface it possesses, and the greater 
 amount of colouring matter that is required to pro- 
 duce a given colour; a coarse sand is often quite 
 black though it contains but a small percentage of 
 humus. 
 
 Though the colour of a soil affects the rate at which 
 it absorbs heat, it does not follow that the dark soils 
 will lose with a corresponding rapidity when radiation 
 is taking place at night; the emissive power of the 
 substance for rays of low refrangibility, such as are 
 emitted at ordinary temperatures, is not affected by 
 colour. Hence, the extra heat gained by a dark soil 
 is retained and not lost by a corresponding increase in 
 its radiating power. 
 
 The curves in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 10), 
 show the temperatures of the soil at a depth of 6 
 
128 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 inches during an April day with a bright sun and a 
 strong drying wind. The land was a light loam of 
 a grey-brown colour when dry; it had been culti- 
 vated, rolled, and the surface hoed over before the 
 thermometers were inserted ; on plot I the bare 
 ground was left untouched, plot 2 received a dressing 
 of soot until the surface was black, plot 3 was 
 similarly whitened over with lime. It will be seen 
 that the covering of soot warmed the soil until at 3 
 P.M., when the maximum temperature was attained, 
 the difference was 2-4°; this superiority is also re- 
 tained during the later cooling stages; even at 9 P.M. 
 the blackened soil was still 2-5° warmer than the bare 
 ground. The whitening with lime had caused so con- 
 siderable a reflection of the radiant heat that the soil 
 beneath was always 2 to 3 cooler than the bare ground. 
 In carrying out this experiment it is necessary to use no 
 more lime or soot than will distinctly colour the soil ; 
 the results will be disturbed if an excess of either loose 
 powder acts as a mulch. 
 
 Specific Heat. 
 
 The specific heat of the substances of which soil 
 is composed is comparatively low, ranging from 01 
 to 02, z>., only from one-tenth to one-fifth as much 
 heat will be necessary to raise the temperature of 1 
 lb. of dry soil by i°, as would be required to produce 
 the same rise of temperature in an equal weight of 
 water. The humus possesses the greatest specific heat 
 and the sand the least ; against this must be set off the 
 fact that the densities of these soil constituents vary 
 in the opposite sense, so that the amounts of heat 
 required to bring about a given rise of temperature to 
 a certain depth in different soils are more nearly equal. 
 The specific heats are, however, small in every case 
 

 
 
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v.] 
 
 HEAT REQUIRED TO WARM SOIL 
 
 129 
 
 when compared with that of water ; hence soils which 
 retain much water will require far more heat to raise 
 their temperature than dry soils would. In consequence, 
 clay and humus soils are cold because the water they 
 retain gives them a high specific heat, they require more 
 of the sun's rays in spring to bring them up to the 
 proper temperature for growth, while sandy and other 
 open-textured soils are warm because of their dryness. 
 
 If the figures given by Oemler for the specific heats 
 of various soils be combined with their approximate 
 densities and with their minimum capacity for water, the 
 following results are obtained for the specific heats of 
 certain typical soils in a saturated but completely drained 
 condition — 
 
 
 Specific Heat. 
 
 Equal Weights. 
 
 Equal Volumes. 
 
 Water . . 
 Humus . • • 
 Sandy Peat • • 
 Loam . • • 
 Clay • • • 
 Sand . • • • 
 
 Dry. 
 
 IO 
 
 0-21 
 
 O.I4 
 
 OI5 
 
 OI4 
 
 O-I 
 
 Dry. 
 I-O 
 
 O-I I 
 
 0-18 
 0.15 
 0-125 
 
 Wet. 
 I-O 
 
 0-72 
 
 o-53 
 o-6i 
 
 o-34 
 
 The sandy soil only requires about half as much 
 heat to raise its temperature by a given amount as 
 would be needed by the peaty or clay soil, when all the 
 soils are in a wet but thoroughly drained condition ; of 
 course if the clay or peat were inadequately drained, so 
 that a higher proportion of water was retained, their 
 specific heats would approximate still nearer to that 
 of water. 
 
 Just as a clay soil is slow to warm in the spring, its 
 high specific heat causes it to cool correspondingly 
 
*3o THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 slowly after the heat of the summer. On clay soils 
 growth will be noticed to continue later into the autumn 
 than on the lighter lands. 
 
 Heat required for Evaporation, 
 
 The coldness of a wet and undrained soil is due, not 
 only to its high specific heat, but to the fact that so much 
 of the heat it receives is spent in evaporating some of its 
 retained water, without causing any rise in temperature. 
 The evaporation of I lb. of water at 62 F., z>., its con- 
 version into water vapour at the same temperature, 
 requires as much heat as would raise the temperature of 
 1050 lbs. of water by i°F., and, if there be no source of 
 external heat bringing about the evaporation, the sub- 
 stance from which the water is evaporated must become 
 cooled to a corresponding extent The cooling effect of 
 evaporation is well known, but its application to the 
 soil is not always realised ; clays and even more so un- 
 drained soils are cold and late, not only because of their 
 high specific heat, but because they retain so much 
 water which can be evaporated. The drying winds of 
 early spring exercise a great cooling effect whenever 
 the soil moisture is allowed to evaporate freely, hence 
 the importance of establishing a loose tilth, if the 
 seed bed is to warm up the temperatures requisite for 
 germination. 
 
 Anything providing a little shelter to check evapora- 
 tion and break the force of the wind in the spring will 
 have a considerable effect in raising the soil temperature. 
 The dotted curve in Fig. 10 shows the effect of enclosing 
 a plot of the same land with a slight hedge made of 
 spruce fir boughs about 2 feet high. In the morning 
 the temperature of the sheltered plot was below that of 
 the open ground because of the shading from the direct 
 rays of the sun, but as soon as this effect was over 
 
v.] EVAPORATION COOLS THE LAND 131 
 
 it will be seen that the wind break, by checking evapora- 
 tion, maintained the soil temperature more than 2° 
 above that of the open ground. Sufficient attention is 
 not given in practice to the value of even slight wind 
 breaks for checking evaporation and so raising the 
 temperature of the soil in early spring. The raisers of 
 specially early vegetables, radishes in particular, on a 
 strip of light land close to the sea in Kent are, however, 
 in the habit of breaking the sweep of wind across their 
 fields by erecting temporary fences of lightly thatched 
 hurdles. 
 
 Even the stones upon the surface of the land help. 
 In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for 
 1856, an experiment is described in which the flints 
 were picked off the surface of one plot of ground and 
 scattered over an adjoining plot, with the result that the 
 plot with double its usual allowance of stones was three 
 or four days earlier to harvest than the rest of the field, 
 while the plot without stones was a week later still. It 
 will always be noticed how the grass upon a field coated 
 with dung starts earlier into growth, because the loose 
 manure acts as a mulch and protects the soil from the 
 cooling due to evaporation. 
 
 Land which is protected from evaporation, and to 
 some extent from radiation, by a layer of vegetation, is 
 always both warmer and less subject to fluctuations of 
 temperature than bare soil. 
 
 The warming up of a well-tilled surface soil is 
 increased by the fact that the conduction of heat into 
 the soil below is much checked by a loose condition. A 
 solid body will always conduct heat far better than 
 the same substance in the state of powder, and the 
 more compressed the powder is the better it will conduct, 
 simply because there are more points of contact Hence 
 a rolled and tightened soil will conduct the heat it 
 
132 
 
 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 receives more rapidly to the lower layers than one 
 which is loose and pulverulent. King has shown that, 
 despite the increased evaporation, there is always a 
 higher temperature below a rolled than an unrolled 
 surface. 
 
 A few observations may be given showing the effect 
 of drainage in enabling the sun's heat to raise the 
 temperature of soil. The curves (Fig. n) show the 
 hourly temperatures of the drained and undrained por- 
 tions of a peat bog during two last days in June (Parkes, 
 /. R. Ag. Soc, 1844, I 4 2 )> at depths of 7 inches and 13 
 inches respectively; the sudden rise of temperature 
 between 3 and 4 P.M. on the second day was due to a 
 thunderstorm, during which heavy rain at a temperature 
 of j2>° F. was falling. 
 
 The figures in the table below are derived from 
 observations made by Bailey-Denton in 1857 (/. R. 
 Ag. Soc, 1859, 273), on a stiff clay soil situated on the 
 Gault at Hinxworth, the drains being 4 feet deep and 
 25 feet apart in the drained part It is noteworthy 
 that the temperature of the air 9 inches above the 
 surface is higher for the drained than for the undrained 
 land, thus supplying further evidence of the cooling 
 effect ot evaporation. 
 
 Mean Temperature °F. at 9 a.m. 
 
 
 A.— Land Drained. 
 
 B.— Land Undrained. 
 
 March • • • • 
 
 April # # 
 May . . . 
 
 Mean excess over B. . 
 
 Air. 
 
 39-4 
 
 43 
 
 52-9 
 
 At 18". 
 40-6 
 46 
 
 51 
 
 At 42". 
 
 4I.7 
 
 44.8 
 48.4 
 
 Air. 
 
 39 
 42.4 
 
 52-7 
 
 At 18". 
 
 38-2 
 
 44 
 48-8 
 
 At 42". 
 
 40-3 
 43-8 
 47.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 2»2 
 
 1*2 
 
 .»• 
 
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 .»» 
 
■a 
 
 03 
 
 S3 
 
 
 T3 
 
 03 
 
 d 
 
 J3 
 
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 BQ 
 
 03 
 
 03 00 
 
 E 
 
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 go 
 
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 01 
 
 -r— 
 
 — - w 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 — r 
 
 01 
 
 to 
 
 J 
 
v.] SPRING FROSTS 133 
 
 Effect of Situation and Exposure, 
 
 Other conditions being equal, in the northern hemi- 
 sphere the soil temperatures will always be higher on 
 land sloping toward the southern quadrant than with 
 any other aspect. King found a difference of about 
 3 F. down to the third foot between a stiff red-clay soil 
 with a southern slope of 18 and the same soil on the 
 flat ; Wollny obtained a mean difference of i°-5 between 
 the north and south sides of a hill of sandy soil inclined 
 at 1 5 . The chief cause of these differences is the fact 
 that in this country the sun is never vertical, hence a 
 beam of sunlight represented by xy, Fig. 12, is spread 
 
 FlG. 12. — Distribution of the Sun's Rays on Southerly and 
 
 Northerly Slopes. 
 
 over an area represented by AB when the ground is 
 flat ; if the ground slopes to the south, the same beam is 
 spread over the smaller area represented by AC ; if the 
 ground slopes to the north, it is spread over the larger 
 area represented by AD. During the winter half-year, 
 also, the southern slope will have a longer duration of 
 sunlight than the northern slope. 
 
 Though in a general way the temperature both of 
 the air and the soil decreases with elevation above 
 
134 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 sea- level, yet it is well known that the severest frosts 
 occur locally at the bottom of valleys and hollow places. 
 This is particularly noticeable in the sudden night frosts, 
 characteristic of early autumn and late spring, which 
 are so dangerous to vegetation ; it is usual to find the 
 tenderer plants of our gardens, such as dahlias, cut 
 down by frost on the lower levels long before the 
 gardens on the hill are affected. Spring frosts, again, 
 will often nip the early potatoes in the valleys when 
 the higher lands are untouched. Fruit plantations 
 should not be set in the valleys, for no crop suffers 
 more from these unseasonable snaps of cold ; so clearly 
 is this fact recognised, that in some fruit-growing 
 districts only land above a certain elevation is regarded 
 as suitable for fruit, and commands a higher rent in 
 consequence. Two causes co-operate in producing the 
 excess of cold at the lower levels. The night frosts 
 in question are always the result of excessive radiation 
 when the sky is clear and the air still. The ground 
 surface loses heat rapidly and cools the layer of air 
 above; the cold air thus produced is denser, and pro- 
 ceeds to flow downhill and accumulate at the lower 
 levels. There is thus a renewal of the air above the 
 higher slopes, and the effect of radiation is mitigated 
 by the inflow of warmer air ; at the bottom no change 
 of air is produced and the radiation proceeds to its 
 full effect. 
 
 At the same time the vegetation in the valley 
 is generally more susceptible to a frost; the greater 
 warmth by day, together with the extra moisture and 
 shelter, induce an earlier and a softer growth. 
 
 The other cause that operates to produce severer 
 frosts in the valleys arises from the fact that frosts, 
 and radiation weather generally, accompany the dis- 
 tribution of pressure known as an " anti-cyclone," during 
 
VMax, 
 
 Min. 
 
 May 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th May 16th, 1902 
 
 FlG. 13. — Temperatures (Maximum and Minimum) at Various Altitudes. 
 A = 100 feet. B = 150 feet. C = 500 feet. 
 
v.] DRY SOILS ARE EARLY 135 
 
 which there is always a gentle downdraught of cold 
 air from the clear sky above. But the circulation of 
 air in an anti-cyclone is always reversed at a certain 
 elevation, so that as one ascends, the downdraught of 
 cold air becomes less and eventually ceases ; the mean 
 temperature at the same time rises instead of falling 
 with the elevation. 
 
 Observations of the minimum temperature on the 
 grass made at two stations on a gentle slope of the downs 
 at Wye, about a mile apart and differing in level by 
 100 feet, showed during a period of thirty-six days 
 in February and March 1902 (which was exceptionally 
 calm and mild), a mean difference of i° in favour of 
 the upper station, but on two occasions the lower 
 thermometer fell to 24°- 5 and 2i°-5, when the upper 
 thermometer was 30°* 5 and 29°- 5 respectively. 
 
 The accompanying curves (Fig. 13) show the daily 
 maxima and minima of the air temperatures of 4 feet 
 from the ground for a few days before and after the 
 occurrence of a disastrous late spring frost in May 1902. 
 One station, A, was in a river meadow about 100 feet 
 above sea-level, the second, B, was on a terrace about 
 50 feet higher and half a mile away ; the third, C, was on 
 the flat summit of the down, 500 feet above sea-level 
 and about ij mile from the first station. It will be 
 seen that the river-side station gave always the highest 
 maxima during the period and the lowest minima, 
 showing on the one occasion n° of frost. 
 
 Early and Late Soils. 
 
 From all the considerations developed above it will 
 be seen that an early soil is essentially a coarse-textured 
 and well-drained one. Such a soil retains little water, 
 thus possessing a low specific heat, and is easily warmed ; 
 
136 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 at the same time the low water content gives rise to 
 less evaporation at the surface, and this great cause of 
 cooling is minimised. The dryness of the soil permits 
 of early cultivation, which, by cutting off the access of 
 subsoil water and diminishing the conduction of heat 
 from the surface, quickens the warming up of the 
 seed bed. The early aeration and warming of the soil 
 promotes the nitrification which is also necessary to 
 growth. If, further, the soil be stony, the conduction of 
 heat from the surface layer into the soil is more rapid, 
 solids being better conductors than powders. Such 
 soils, again, are generally dark coloured, because on the 
 comparatively small surface exposed by the coarse 
 grains the same proportion of humus has a greater 
 colouring effect. 
 
 These conditions are generally fulfilled by the 
 alluvial soils bordering the larger rivers; in the 
 neighbourhood of large towns, which are generally 
 situated on a river, they form the typical market- 
 gardening soils, especially as their natural poverty can 
 be alleviated by the large supply of dung which is easily 
 obtainable from the town. 
 
 At the same time these soils have their dis- 
 advantages ; from both their nature and their situation 
 they are subject to rapid changes of temperature ; they 
 suffer much from night frosts both in spring and 
 autumn, and dry out easily in the summer, so that 
 some crops do not come to their full growth. Autumn 
 planted vegetables grow away rapidly, and are apt to 
 become " winter proud " and killed by severe weather. 
 
 Of course, to ensure the maximum of earliness and 
 freedom from spring frosts, the geographical situation 
 and the climate must be considered as well as the nature 
 of the soil. The neighbourhood of the sea or any large 
 body of water has a great effect in equalising the 
 
v.] EARLY AND LATE SOILS 137 
 
 temperatures and preventing severe frosts ; in the 
 British Islands, for example, the earliest potatoes are 
 grown in Jersey, near Penzance, and on other light land 
 along the southern coast of Cornwall, and again a little 
 later near the sea in Ayrshire. Light land round the 
 coasts of Kent and Essex, which borders, and in some 
 cases is almost surrounded by the sea, is also specially 
 valued for the growth of early vegetables. 
 
 The soils naturally retentive of water are late, 
 both because they dry slowly and are rarely fit to work 
 early in the year, and because the high water content 
 keeps their temperature down. Except in long-con- 
 tinued droughts they maintain a supply of water to the 
 plant, their high specific heat keeps them at a com- 
 paratively equable temperature and prevents them from 
 cooling down so soon when the summer heats are 
 past. In consequence, the crop is neither forced early 
 to maturity nor is growth checked so soon in the 
 autumn, the period of development is prolonged until 
 in some cases the season becomes unsuitable for 
 ripening. Many subtle differences may be noticed 
 between the quality of produce grown upon early and 
 late soils ; for example, a comparison made by the 
 author of the same variety of apple grown upon 
 adjoining clay and sandy soils showed that the apples 
 from the clay land were smaller and greener, but 
 contained a greater proportion of sugar and acid, 
 and possessed a higher aroma than the apples grown 
 upon the lighter and earlier soil. Wheat grown on 
 the clays is generally of better quality and " stronger " 
 than that yielded by the lighter soils ; whereas the 
 lighter soils yield the finer barley, in which carbo- 
 hydrates and not nitrogenous materials are characteristic 
 of high quality. On a light soil, becoming both warm 
 and dry early in the season, the plant ceases the sooner 
 
138 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL [chap. v. 
 
 to draw nutrient material from the soil; assimilation, 
 however, continues after the plant has ceased to feed ; 
 finally, maturation — the removal of the previously- 
 elaborated material into the seed — begins earlier and 
 can be more thoroughly accomplished. Hence grain 
 from an early soil is, on the whole, characterised by 
 a higher proportion of carbohydrate to albuminoid, 
 always provided that no excessive or premature dry- 
 ing-out has taken place, for that ripens off the grain 
 before the transference of starch has been completed 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 
 
 Necessary Conventions as to the Material to be Analysed — 
 Methods Adopted — Interpretation of Results — Distinction 
 between Dormant and Available Plant Food — Analysis of 
 the Soil by the Plant— Determination of " Available " Phos- 
 phoric Acid and Potash by the Use of Weak Acid Solvents. 
 
 The chemical analysis of a soil aims at ascertaining the 
 amount which the soil contains of the various elements 
 necessary to the nutrition of the plant, with a view of 
 either making good the general deficiencies of the soil or 
 of adjusting the supply of plant food to such special 
 requirements of a particular crop as may have been 
 indicated by previous experiment 
 
 The analysis of plants grown under ordinary con- 
 ditions shows that a comparatively limited number of 
 elements enters into their composition ; in the main they 
 are composed of water and certain combustible com- 
 pounds of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. In 
 the mineral residue that is left after the combustible 
 material has been burnt off, will be found potassium, 
 sodium, calcium, magnesium, and a little iron among 
 bases ; and phosphorus, chlorine, sulphur, and silicon 
 among non-metallic elements. Manganese in very small 
 quantities occurs in nearly all plants : other elements 
 like lithium, zinc, copper, are found in traces under 
 
140 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 special conditions of soil. By pot cultures in the 
 laboratory it can be shown that of the above elements, 
 the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are drawn from the 
 atmosphere or the water, and that nitrogen, chlorine, 
 sulphur, phosphorus, among non-metals, and potassium, 
 calcium, magnesium and iron, among metals, are ele- 
 ments indispensable to the plant, and are derived by 
 way of the root from the soil. In view of the above 
 facts it is clearly unnecessary to make an ultimate 
 determination of all the elements present in the 
 soil, which has already been shown to consist largely 
 of sand and various silicates of alumina, etc. These 
 materials constitute the medium in which the plant 
 grows, but do not themselves supply it with any 
 food ; they need not, therefore, be estimated chemi- 
 cally. 
 
 The chemical analysis of a soil, then, resolves itself 
 into determinations of the nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- 
 sium, calcium, and (of less importance) of sodium, mag- 
 nesium, iron, aluminium, chlorine, and sulphur. To 
 these must be added the determination of the carbon 
 compounds of the soil, which have already been touched 
 on under the head of humus, and of the carbonates of 
 calcium and magnesium, which in most soils constitute 
 the bases available for neutralising any acids that may 
 be produced. Having decided upon the elements to be 
 determined it would then be possible to proceed as in 
 an ordinary mineral analysis : the sample of soil would 
 be reduced to such a state of division as would admit 
 of drawing an accurate small sample, and then entirely 
 disintegrated by some such reaction as fusion with 
 ammonium fluoride. But results obtained in this way 
 would give very imperfect information about the soil, for 
 the procedure draws no distinction between material 
 present in the imweathered interior of the stones and 
 
vi.] NECESSARY CONVENTIONS 141 
 
 coarser particles, which could not reach the plant for 
 generations, and that which exists as very small particles 
 or as a coating on the larger ones, and is therefore open 
 to attack by the water in the soil. The nutrient material 
 of the soil can only reach the plant in the dissolved 
 state, and in dealing with slightly soluble substances 
 such as constitute the soil, the amount which goes into 
 solution is practically proportional to the surface 
 exposed. But the surface exposed increases as the 
 material is subdivided, one gram of soil in pieces 
 1 mm. in diameter would only expose one-thousandth 
 of the surface exposed by the same amount of soil in 
 particles 0001 mm. in diameter, so that to all intents 
 and purposes the stones and coarser particles con- 
 tribute such a small proportion of the surface of the 
 soil that the material dissolved from them can be 
 neglected. ■"* 
 
 For these reasons — the small surface exposed by 
 the larger particles and the unweathered nature of 
 the compounds within them — the stones above a 
 certain size are not included in the analysis, nor is 
 any attempt made to bring into complete solution even 
 the selected material. Hence it becomes necessary 
 in soil analysis to accept certain "conventions" as to 
 the preparation of the soil for analysis, the nature of the 
 acid used for solution, and the duration and temperature 
 of the attack ; all of which factors so affect the mineral 
 matter going into solution that results are only com- 
 parable when obtained in the same way. It must 
 always be remembered that soil analysis is only a 
 relative process, by which soils that are unknown can 
 be compared with others whose fertility has been 
 tested by experience; no means exist of directly 
 translating the results into terms of the crop the soil 
 will carry. The methods of analysis that are indicated 
 
142 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 below are those adopted by the members of the 
 Agricultural Education Association in this country : 
 unfortunately, there is no uniformity in the methods 
 pursued even among chemists in the same country, 
 wide as are the variations introduced by the different 
 processes in vogue. For example, an acid such as 
 hydrochloric will dissolve very different amounts of 
 potash from a given soil, according as the soil is 
 treated directly with the acid or first ignited, nor is there 
 any constant relation between the amount dissolved 
 from ignited and from raw soil. 
 
 Method of Analysis. 
 
 The soil sample is taken, passed through the 3 mm. 
 sieve, and air-dried, exactly as previously described 
 for the mechanical analysis. From the large air-dried 
 sample of "fine earth" a portion of about 100 grams 
 is drawn, and either ground in a steel mill or broken 
 in a steel mortar till it will all pass through a sieve 
 with round holes 1 mm. in diameter. This is done 
 to enable the analyst to draw a fair sample weighing 
 only a few grams : if the " fine earth " which passes 
 the 3 mm. sieve were itself used, it would be impossible 
 to adjust the relative proportions of coarse and fine to 
 correspond with the bulk. It is not uncommon to find 
 coarse particles of carbonate of lime sparsely scattered 
 through the soil when the land has been limed ; only by 
 grinding and mixing can this matter become evenly 
 distributed through the soil. On the ground material 
 the following determinations are made:— 
 
 (1) Moisture lost at ioo°C. 
 
 (2) Loss on ignition. 
 
 (3) Nitrogen. 
 
 (4) Earthy carbonates. 
 
VI.] ANALYTICAL METHODS 143 
 
 (5) Phosphoric acid and potash soluble in strong 
 hydrochloric acid. If necessary, soda, lime, 
 magnesia, oxides of iron, alumina, and 
 sulphuric acid can be determined in the same 
 solution. 
 
 (1) About 5 grams are weighed out into a plati- 
 num dish or porcelain basin and dried in the ordinary 
 steam oven, the temperature of which is never quite 
 ioo°C. If the soil contains much organic matter, it 
 will be difficult to bring it to a constant weight, the 
 material will slowly lose water for weeks. An arbitrary 
 limit of twenty-four hours drying should be taken. 
 
 (2) The loss on ignition should represent the organic 
 matter which is burnt to carbon dioxide and water when 
 the soil is heated in the air, but it is impossible to 
 avoid at the same time driving off some of the water 
 of constitution in the zeolites, kaolinite, and similar 
 hydrated silicates in the soil. It is difficult even to 
 obtain consistent results, because of variations in the 
 temperature and time of the operation. The best plan 
 is to heat the soil, as dried in the previous operation, 
 at as low a temperature as possible, to a barely visible 
 redness, preferably in a platinum dish, for some hours 
 with occasional stirring. 
 
 The loss on ignition is wanted as a measure of the 
 organic matter of the soil, but we have no means of 
 estimating the varying part, great with clay soils, 
 that is played by the water of constitution. It is possible 
 to get a better measure of the organic matter by estimat- 
 ing the total carbon in the soil and assuming that the 
 organic matter of the original soil contained about 
 55 per cent, of carbon. The combustion of a soil by the 
 ordinary method for determining carbon is rather a 
 tedious process even in skilled hands ; in dealing with 
 soils it is convenient to effect the oxidation by means of 
 
144 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 a mixture of sulphuric and chromic acids, taking care to 
 interpose a tube of heated copper oxide between the 
 flask containing the soil and acids and the apparatus 
 used for absorbing the carbon dioxide, in order to 
 complete the oxidation of some of the products formed. 
 This process can be made to follow the determination of 
 the carbon dioxide evolved by the action of acid alone, 
 the same apparatus and the same portion of soil serving 
 for both. 
 
 (3) The nitrogen in 10 to 20 grams of the ground 
 " fine earth " is estimated by Kjeldahl's process. Though 
 there is some nitrate present in the soil, no special 
 precaution need be taken on its account, the proportion 
 it bears to the total nitrogen is so small as to be 
 negligible. 
 
 (4) The earthy carbonates of the soil are estimated 
 from the quantity of carbon dioxide, which is evolved 
 on treating the ground "fine earth" with an acid. 
 When the proportion of calcium carbonate is high the 
 determination can be made by the usual gravimetric 
 methods. Scheibler's apparatus for measuring the 
 volume of carbon dioxide evolved is suitable when the 
 proportion of calcium carbonate does not fall below 
 1 per cent. ; below that point some other method must 
 be employed, because all the carbon dioxide evolved goes 
 into solution in the reacting acid. The most exact and 
 convenient method for determining calcium carbonate, 
 especially when the quantity involved is very small, 
 consists in absorbing the carbon dioxide evolved by 
 dilute caustic soda in a Reiset tower, and estimating the 
 carbon dioxide by titrating the alkali first with phenol- 
 phthalein and then with methyl orange as an indicator 
 (see Amos. Jour. Agric. Sa\, 1, 1905, 322). Certain acid 
 soils rich in humus contain other organic substances 
 which yield carbon dioxide on boiling with dilute acid, 
 
VI.] METHODS OF ANALYSIS 145 
 
 in which case the soil should be attacked with a boiling 
 dilute solution of ammonium chloride. It is not 
 sufficient in such cases to estimate the calcium dissolved 
 by dilute acids from the soil, because there are always 
 present other compounds of calcium, e.g., silicates and 
 sulphates, which are soluble in the acid and would be 
 reckoned as calcium carbonate. The factor that is 
 required is not the calcium, but the amount of 
 carbonate which will serve as a base in the soil and 
 combine with the acids liberated by decay, nitrifica- 
 tion, or from some of the artificial manures. To this 
 end it is not necessary to discriminate between the 
 carbonates of calcium and magnesium, accordingly 
 the carbon dioxide evolved is calculated back to 
 calcium carbonate. In a few soils ferrous carbonate 
 may be present; this is oxidised to ferric hydrate 
 when the powdered soil is boiled with water, and 
 may be so removed before determining the carbon 
 dioxide. In temperate climates, however, it is only 
 a few bog soils that need be examined for ferrous 
 carbonate. 
 
 (5) For the determinations of soluble constituents 
 20 grams of the powdered soil are placed in a flask 
 of Jena glass, covered with about 70 c.c. of strong hydro- 
 chloric acid, and boiled for a short time over a naked 
 flame to bring it to constant strength. The acid will now 
 contain about 20-2 per cent, of pure hydrogen chloride. 
 The flask is loosely stoppered, placed on the water- 
 bath, and the contents allowed to digest for about forty- 
 eight hours. The solution is then cooled, diluted, and 
 filtered. The washed residue is dried and weighed as 
 the material insoluble in acids. 
 
 The solution is made up to 250 cc and aliquot 
 portions are taken for the various determinations. 
 The analytical operations are carried out in the usual 
 
 K 
 
146 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 manner, but special care must be taken to free the 
 solution from silica and organic matter. For phos- 
 phoric acid a portion of the solution is evaporated to 
 dryness and ignited, the residue is taken up with 
 hydrochloric acid, filtered, again evaporated to dry- 
 ness, and heated in an air - bath for half an hour at 
 1 05 . This residue is then taken up with dilute 
 nitric acid, filtered, and made up to about 50 c.c. 
 Five grams of ammonium nitrate are added, and 50 
 c.c. of a solution of ammonium molybdate containing 
 60 grams molybdic acid per litre. The mixture is 
 put aside in a warm place for twenty-four hours, the 
 precipitate is filtered off, and, after washing with 
 ammonium nitrate solution, is dissolved by ammonia 
 into a tared porcelain basin, evaporated to dryness, 
 and gently ignited over an Argand burner. The 
 resulting material contains 3-794 per cent of phos- 
 phoric acid. For the determination of potash the 
 same procedure is followed, but the residue after the 
 second evaporation is taken up with dilute hydro- 
 chloric instead of nitric acid. To the solution 25 c.c. 
 of a solution of chloroplatinic acid containing 0-005 
 gram platinum per c.c. is added, and the whole gently 
 evaporated over a water-bath till almost dry. It is 
 then thrown on to a filter and washed with alcohol, 
 then washed again with a solution of ammonium 
 chloride which has been saturated with the double 
 chloride of platinum and ammonium, and finally dis- 
 solved off the filter paper with a little hot water in a 
 tared basin, evaporated, and weighed. A Gooch crucible 
 is most convenient for handling both the phosphoric 
 acid and potash precipitates. 
 
 The other determinations which may be made in 
 this solution consist of soda, lime, magnesia, iron, 
 alumina, manganese, and sulphuric acid, but in most 
 
VI. ] METHODS OF ANALYSIS 147 
 
 cases these may be omitted. It is occasionally desirable 
 to examine the soluble salts in the soil ; about 200 
 grams of the fine earth should be successively washed 
 with small portions of hot water by the aid of a 
 filter -pump. In the solution the total solids are 
 determined ; they consist, in the main, of the nitrates, 
 sulphates, and chlorides of sodium, potassium, mag- 
 nesium, and calcium, which can be determined by 
 the usual methods. Of course, the amount of soluble 
 salts to be found in the surface soil at any time is 
 largely regulated by the previous weather ; after con- 
 siderable rainfall the soluble salts are washed down 
 into the subsoil, after long evaporation they are con- 
 centrated in the surface layers. The amount of nitrates 
 that is present is further affected by the previous 
 cropping, temperature, and working of the soil, and 
 by the manipulation the soil receives after it reaches 
 the laboratory. Thus the determination of the soil 
 constituents that are soluble in water does not enter 
 into the ordinary routine of analysis, their presence 
 is affected by so many temporary factors which pre- 
 vent the comparison of one soil with another. 
 
 As, however, the determination of the amount of 
 nitrate present in a soil is often required for other 
 purposes, it will be convenient here to indicate the 
 method to be followed. In the first place, the soil must 
 be analysed either immediately after it has been sampled 
 and after rapid drying with the aid of heat, for the 
 manipulation a soil sample usually receives in the 
 drying, sifting, and other preliminary operations, 
 will cause the production of large quantities of 
 nitrates in ordinary soils. 
 
 A funnel with a large filtering surface, at least 2 
 inches in diameter, must be taken ; Warington originally 
 made use of the inverted upper portion of a Winchester 
 
148 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OP SOILS [chap. 
 
 quart bottle with a disc of copper gauze, 2 inches in 
 diameter resting in the neck, but this may be replaced 
 advantageously by a Buchner funnel 6 inches in 
 diameter. In either case the funnel is connected with 
 an exhaust - pump, the disc is covered with a good 
 filter paper wetted, then at least 500 grams of the soil 
 are packed carefully into the funnel and pressed down a 
 little, care being taken to avoid plastering if the soil is 
 clayey. The soil sample as it comes from the field is 
 spread out, roughly crumbled, and mixed ; from this the 
 500 grams or so are taken and weighed before putting 
 on the funnel. Another portion is weighed out and 
 dried in the steam oven, to ascertain the proportion of 
 water in the sample. 50 cc of hot distilled water are 
 now poured on the soil, allowed to stand a few minutes, 
 and the pump started. When the liquid has been drawn 
 through, successive small portions of hot water are put 
 on, and the pump started afresh; it will be found 
 possible to wash out practically the whole of the nitrate 
 with 100 cc. of water. 
 
 If the liquid shows any tendency to come through 
 the filter turbid, this can be obviated by adding a few 
 drops of sulphuric acid to the water. In the filtered 
 liquid the nitrates may be determined by reducing with 
 the zinc copper couple, distilling off the ammonia and 
 determining it either by Nesslerising or by titration, 
 according to its amount. The couple is prepared by 
 dipping half a dozen strips of thin sheet zinc, 6 inches 
 long by I J broad, successively into dilute caustic soda, 
 very dilute sulphuric acid, and then into a 3 per cent, 
 solution of copper sulphate, in which it is allowed to 
 remain until it has acquired a good black deposit of copper. 
 They are washed by immersion in water, and finally in 
 ammonia -free distilled water, and placed in a bottle 
 with 200 cc. of the soil extract and a crystal of oxalic 
 
VI.] ANALYSES OF TYPICAL SOILS 149 
 
 acid. The bottle is kept in a warm place or an incubator 
 at 25° for twenty-four hours before distilling off the 
 ammonia. 
 
 The table (Appendix I.) shows the analyses by the 
 method above described of a few typical soils. 
 
 It will be seen, as a rule, that the water retained by 
 the soil when air dry, the loss on ignition, and the 
 nitrogen, rise and fall together, because the humus 
 which contains the nitrogen is the most hygroscopic 
 constituent of soils. Clay soils which tend to conserve 
 humus also contain the most constitutional water ; this 
 further tends to increase the loss on ignition in their case. 
 
 The proportion of nitrogen found ranges from 0-5 
 per cent, in very rich pasture soils down to below 01 
 per cent, on light arable soils, it is rarely up to 02 per 
 cent, in arable soils, and the warmer, the more open, 
 and more worked the soil is, the less will be the pro- 
 portion of nitrogen. In the fertile hop-gardens of 
 East Kent the percentage of nitrogen is rarely as much 
 as 02 per cent., despite the great dressings of nitro- 
 genous manure that are annually applied. 
 
 The proportion of phosphoric acid in soils is not so 
 variable as the proportion of nitrogen ; it ranges from 
 about 006 per cent, to 02 per cent. ; the lower amounts 
 occur generally on the sands and clays, the higher on 
 loams and soils well provided with calcium carbonate. 
 
 The proportion of potash shows extreme variations, 
 a clay soil may yield one per cent, of potash to strong 
 hydrochloric acid, a sand only one-tenth as much. It 
 has already been pointed out that "clay" is chiefly 
 the result of the weathering of felspars and kindred 
 minerals containing potash; this weathering is never 
 chemically complete, so that all soils containing any 
 considerable admixture of clay are necessarily rich in 
 potash. The amount dissolved out by hydrochloric 
 
150 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 acid is also somewhat of an accidental figure, as it 
 depends very much on how far the previous treatment 
 of the soil has forwarded the weathering process, for 
 there remains in all soils rich in potash much material 
 that will not tyield potash to strong hydrochloric acid 
 even after forty-eight hours' digestion. For example, 
 the soil from one of the plots in the Broadbalk wheat- 
 field at Rothamsted only yielded 0-5 per cent, of potash 
 to hydrochloric acid, but when completely broken up 
 by ammonium fluoride it was found to contain 2-26 per 
 cent, of potash. 
 
 Of all the soil constituents calcium carbonate shows 
 the widest fluctuations ; it may constitute 40 or 50 per 
 cent, of some of the thin soils resting on the chalk, 
 or it may sink on some of the sands and clays to such 
 small proportions as only to be detected by the most 
 refined analysis. 
 
 The importance of the calcium carbonate lies not 
 in the calcium that it supplies for the nutrition of 
 plants, but in that it acts as the chief base, maintain- 
 ing the neutrality of the soil. Many plant diseases, 
 like the slime fungus which causes " finger-and-toe " 
 in turnips, etc., are only prevalent when the soil is 
 losing its neutral condition, and are not found when a 
 sufficiency of calcium carbonate is present. The normal 
 changes in a soil are brought about by bacteria, which 
 only flourish when the medium is neutral or very faintly 
 alkaline ; as soon as the soil becomes acid the bacterial 
 actions are largely suspended, and in their place moulds 
 and other micro-fungi become predominant. It is for 
 this reason always desirable to test the reaction of a 
 soil by putting a little on litmus paper, moistening 
 it, and after a few minutes washing away the soil. 
 What proportion of calcium carbonate is required for 
 fertility and health is difficult to say, probably an 
 
VI.] INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 151 
 
 inferior limit of 0-5 per cent, is the lowest that is safe. 
 In the case of soils containing about this proportion 
 much will depend on how finely it is disseminated, 
 05 per cent, in visible pieces will not be so effective 
 as o- 1 per cent, of the amount in particles of the same 
 order of size as the clay or silt particles. For this 
 reason it is advisable when analysing a doubtful soil of 
 this kind, to make a rough separation of the finer 
 particles, by pestling up 10 grams of the soil with water, 
 and pouring off the supernatant liquid after one minute's 
 standing, as in a mechanical analysis. Having washed 
 away the finer portion of the soil two or three times in 
 this way, the residue is dried and the carbonates which 
 remain are estimated as before, thus a rough idea is 
 obtained of their distribution among the finer or coarser 
 sets of soil particles. 
 
 Interpretation of the Results of a Soil Analysis. 
 
 Though much may doubtless be learnt by a com- 
 parison of the analysis of a given soil with the analysis 
 of others whose fertility has been proved by experience 
 or by actual manurial experiments, there are yet many 
 considerations which prevent much weight being attached 
 to the results thus obtained. 
 
 A comparison of the total amount of any of the 
 elements of plant food in the soil with the amount that 
 is withdrawn by an ordinary crop shows at once that 
 even in the poorest soils there is sufficient material for 
 something like a hundred average crops. 
 
 The density of the surface soil has already been dis- 
 cussed ; it will be sufficiently accurate for our purpose 
 if we consider that the top 9 inches of one acre of 
 an ordinary arable field weighs 2,500,000 lbs. On this 
 basis, and without taking into account the fact that 
 
152 THE CHEMICAL ANAL YSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 the roots of most cultivated plants range far deeper than 
 9 inches, there is yet present about 2500 lbs. per acre 
 of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid in a soil con- 
 taining only 01 per cent, of these constituents*, which 
 is about the lower limit usually found. The following 
 table shows the amounts of these food materials — 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — which are taken 
 from the soil by an average crop grown in rotation. 
 
 Lbs. per acre. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Swedes. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric Acid . 
 Potash . 
 
 41.7 
 20-5 
 
 3-56 
 
 94.O 
 24.I 
 
 93-5 
 
 49.O 
 207 
 
 35-7 
 
 159*3* 
 
 28.2 
 
 102 4 
 
 * Partly derived from the atmosphere. 
 
 It is clear from a comparison of this table with the 
 quantities previously specified, that even the poorest soil 
 contains the nutrient material required by any ordinary 
 crop many times over, yet we know that crops respond 
 vigorously to dressings of manure which only add a 
 fraction to the plant food already stored in the soil. 
 For example, a wheat crop on poor soil would often be 
 doubled by the use of 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, 
 i.e., by the addition of 35 lbs. of nitrogen in nitrate of 
 soda to a soil that already contained in the top 9 inches 
 more than 2000 lbs. per acre. Again, 4 cwt. per acre 
 of superphosphate, containing about 60 lbs. of phosphoric 
 acid, will be necessary in the usual rotation to secure 
 a good swede crop, though there may be already 2000 
 to 3000 lbs. of phosphoric acid in the soil. We are 
 then driven to conclude that the nitrogen, potash, and 
 phosphoric acid are present in the soil in some other 
 mode of combination than the form in which they exist 
 in manures ; so that although they may be in the soil 
 
VI.] RESERVES OF PLANT FOOD IN THE SOIL 153 
 
 they are in such a state as to be very partially of service 
 to the growing plant. Further evidence of the enormous 
 stores of plant food in the soil and the comparative slow- 
 ness with which they can be utilised may be obtained 
 by considering the results obtained at Rothamsted, 
 where on one plot wheat has been grown continuously 
 without manure for sixty-four years (to 1907). The 
 average yield from this plot was for the first twenty years, 
 1844-63, 16-3 bushels of grain and 15-1 cwt. of straw; 
 1 1-6 bushels of grain and 9-3 cwt. of straw for the next 
 twenty years, 1864-83 ; and 12-3 bushels of grain and 
 8-7 cwt. of straw for the third period of twenty years, 
 1 884- 1 903. It is calculated that during the last fifty years 
 there have been removed from this plot about 900 lbs. 
 per acre of nitrogen, 470 of phosphoric acid, and 760 of 
 potash, i.e., about 18, 9, and 15 lbs. per acre per annum 
 respectively ; yet from analyses of a sample taken in 1893 
 the surface soil to a depth of 9 inches still contained 
 oil per cent, of nitrogen, 0-114 per cent, of phosphoric 
 acid, and 0-38 per cent, of potash soluble in strong 
 hydrochloric acid, or 2750, 2850, and 9500 lbs. per 
 acre respectively. The soil must therefore be re- 
 garded as possessing most of its plant food in states 
 of combination that cannot be utilised by the plant, 
 and these forms slowly pass, by weathering and other 
 changes, into material which is available for the crop. 
 The plant food of the soil represents so much capital, 
 and, as in many another business, but a small proportion 
 of the capital is liquid at any given time : it is largely 
 the object of cultivation to effect such a turnover of the 
 capital as will liquidate some of it in a form available 
 for the nutrition of the crop. 
 
 In the old systems of agriculture, before the land was 
 enclosed, the whole crop was grown out of capital, 
 nothing but labour was put into the soil : in which con- 
 
154 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 nection it is interesting to note that the original mean- 
 ing of manure was to work by hand.* 
 
 It becomes important, then, to attempt to discriminate 
 between the various forms in which the nitrogen, 
 potash, and phosphoric acid may be present in the soil, 
 according as they are soluble, or likely in a short time 
 to become sufficiently soluble to reach the crop. In the 
 case of nitrogen we know that of the various compounds 
 such as proteins and protein residues, amides, ammonia 
 salts, and nitrates which can be detected in the soil, only 
 the latter can enter the plant, but that, by processes of 
 fermentation, all of the other compounds will eventually 
 pass into the state of nitrate. Of the immediately soluble 
 nitrogen compounds — nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia — 
 a very small amount, varying from 5 to 200 lbs. per 
 acre, is ever present in the soil at any given time, 
 though it is constantly being renewed by fermentation 
 processes. 
 
 Phosphoric acid also exists in the soil in many 
 distinct compounds: in combination with carbon, etc., 
 it is found in nuclein and lecithin, which in a more 
 or less humified condition are found among the plant 
 and animal residues : it also occurs as phosphate of 
 the sesquioxides of iron and alumina ; as tribasic, and 
 probably also as dibasic phosphate of lime. Of these 
 compounds the latter are undoubtedly the most soluble 
 in either pure water or the carbonic-acid-charged water of 
 the soil, but much must depend on the physical condition, 
 as well as on the chemical combination, in which the 
 material exists. For example, when using tribasic phos- 
 phate of lime as a manure, the softer phosphates, such as 
 steamed bone flour, are more effective than the chemically 
 similar but harder material in ground rock phosphate. 
 
 * Cf. Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (17 19)— "The ground that I had 
 manured or dug up for them was not great." 
 
vi.] DORMANT AND ACTIVE PLANT FOOD 155 
 
 It is not so easy to classify the various compounds 
 of potash existing in the soil : we know that as felspar 
 passes into kaolinite there are intermediate stages of 
 weathering in which the potash is gradually becoming 
 more soluble in soil water, but it is impossible to isolate 
 or classify the various hydrated silicates containing 
 potash that must exist. Potash, again, which has once 
 been dissolved, is caught and retained by the soil in 
 various ill-defined compounds, some of which must 
 reach the crop more rapidly than others. 
 
 The work, then, of soil analysis must be extended 
 to include some investigation of the condition of the 
 plant food in the soil, as well as its absolute quantity : 
 it is not enough to determine what constituents are 
 present with the view of making good the deficiencies, 
 because there is always more than enough for many 
 crops ; inquiry must be rather directed towards finding 
 how much is likely to reach the crop. The attempt 
 to discriminate between the total and what may 
 be termed the available plant food in the soil, i.e., 
 that which is in a form the crop can immediately 
 utilise, has been made in two ways — by using the 
 growing plant as an analytical agent, or by attacking 
 the soil with very dilute acids, whose action is akin 
 to the natural solvent agencies at work when the 
 plant is growing. The former process proceeds upon 
 the assumption that any given plant has a certain 
 average composition which it will acquire when freely 
 supplied with all the elements of nutrition; if this 
 plant be grown upon a soil deficient in one particular, 
 that deficiency will be reflected in the analysis of the 
 plant when fully grown. It is thus necessary to select 
 a standard plant and grow it under normal conditions 
 of manuring to ascertain the proportion that nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid, and potash usually bear to the ash. 
 
156 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 The selected plant is then grown upon the soil in 
 question, gathered at the appropriate stage and ana- 
 lysed, when the composition of the ash, as compared 
 with its composition under normal conditions, should 
 give indications of the state of the soil. Various dis- 
 turbing factors come into play ; for example, the presence 
 in the soil of large quantities of a non-essential material 
 like calcium sulphate or sodium chloride lowers the 
 proportion that potash bears to the total ash without 
 necessarily indicating any want of potash; again, a 
 deficiency of nitrogen is more seen in a general stunting 
 of the whole development of the plant than in a com- 
 parative poverty of nitrogen in the final growth. But 
 by selecting suitable test plants, valuable indications can 
 be obtained as to the need or otherwise for specific 
 manuring. As a rule, cereals are unsuitable test 
 plants, since they are well able to satisfy their require- 
 ments for mineral nutrients from comparatively im- 
 poverished soils ; the straw of barley, however, shows 
 considerable variations from which the condition of the 
 soil as regards its supply of phosphoric acid and potash 
 can be interpreted. The phosphoric acid in the ash of 
 barley straw will vary between 2 and 4 per cent, and 
 the potash between 6 and 24 per cent, and as the 
 straw of barley grown without special manuring can 
 readily be obtained, it forms a convenient test plant. 
 The most sensitive test plants are provided by roots — 
 swedes for estimating the phosphoric acid, and mangolds 
 for estimating the potash in the soils on which they 
 have been grown. The phosphoric acid in the ash of 
 swedes has been found as low as 9 per cent, when the soil 
 was one that responded readily to phosphatic manures, 
 rising to 16 per cent, when the soil was one that required 
 no phosphatic manure. Similarly, the potash in the ash 
 of mangolds will vary between 12 and 40 per cent 
 
VI.] ENTRY OF PLANT FOODS BY OSMOSIS 157 
 
 The method which is now very largely employed 
 to determine the mineral plant food in the soil that 
 may be regarded as immediately "available" for the 
 crop, consists in attacking the soil with a very dilute 
 acid, whose action shall be comparable with the natural 
 solution processes bringing nutriment to the plant. The 
 mineral matter finds it way by osmosis into the plant 
 in two ways : either from the natural soil water, or from 
 the more concentrated solution formed in immediate 
 proximity to the root-hairs by the attack of the excreted 
 carbon dioxide upon the soil particles. 
 
 The natural soil water is constantly dissolving 
 small quantities of phosphoric acid, potash, and other 
 materials, in which it is aided by the carbonic acid 
 it also contains ; as this water passes by osmosis into 
 the root-hairs it will carry with it the dissolved 
 material, with the exception of any particular ion or 
 radicle which has already attained in the cell sap a 
 higher concentration than it possesses in the external 
 soil solution. But if the soil water alone brought the 
 mineral matter with it, not enough enters the plant 
 to account for the observed facts. For example, the 
 growth of a crop of a ton and a half of clover hay 
 requires the transpiration through the leaves, and 
 therefore the absorption at the root, of about 400 
 tons of water (see p. 91) ; the same crop would also contain 
 about 50 lbs. of potash. If, then, the crop derived all 
 its mineral matter by the simple inflow of the soil 
 water into the root, the 50 lbs. of potash must have 
 been originally dissolved in the 400 tons of water 
 that passed through the crop, which means that the 
 soil water contained as much as 0006 per cent, of 
 potash, a greater concentration than is observed in 
 humid climates. In fact, the particular ions or radicles 
 concerned in nutrition enter the root faster than the 
 
ISS THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 water does ; they diffuse through the cell wall because 
 the sap within is maintained in a less concentrated 
 state as far as they are concerned than the external 
 soil water, because they are constantly being withdrawn 
 from solution by the living protoplasm of the cells. 
 
 It has been supposed that solvent action of the soil 
 water is also assisted by the cell sap of the root-hairs, which 
 is always distinctly acid in its reaction ; these root-hairs 
 are always very closely in contact with soil particles, 
 and some of the acid has been supposed to diffuse out- 
 wards through the cell wall. Sachs has shown that a 
 polished slab of marble is etched wherever the fine 
 roots of a plant came in contact with it, and on the 
 strength of this and similar experiments, the cell sap 
 has been regarded as a factor in bringing the minerals 
 of the soil into solution for the plant. All the solvent 
 actions, however attributed to the cell sap, can be 
 brought about by the carbon dioxide which is always 
 being excreted by the root, and more critical experiments 
 seem to negative the opinion that any fixed acids pass 
 outwards through the cell wall of a living plant, at any- 
 rate after it has passed the seedling stage. 
 
 Whatever the theories which have been formed as 
 to the manner in which the mineral constituents of the 
 soil pass into solution for the plant, it is improbable that 
 the conditions can be reproduced in the laboratory, and 
 for the practical purposes of analysis the desideratum is 
 a solvent that will dissolve the class of material which 
 is found by experience to reach the immediate crop, but 
 which will not touch the same material should its state 
 of combination or physical condition be such as to render 
 it unavailable for the plant. Various solvents have been 
 proposed: for example, Deherain showed that dilute 
 acetic acid, while dissolving some phosphoric acid from 
 ordinary soils, was incapable of extracting any from a 
 
vi.] SOLVENTS FOR AVAILABLE PLANT FOOD 159 
 
 particular soil which yielded very poor crops unless man- 
 ured with superphosphate, though it contained o-i per 
 cent, of phosphoric acid soluble in strong hydrochloric 
 acid. Hence he concluded that dilute acetic acid 
 forms a solvent only capable of attacking the avail- 
 able phosphoric acid. A solution of carbonic acid has 
 been suggested as akin to the natural soil water; 
 other solutions have been employed because they will 
 dissolve certain of the compounds of phosphoric acid 
 in the soil, but not all — the calcium phosphates, for 
 example, but not the phosphates of iron and alumi- 
 nium ; other solvents, again, are recommended as 
 akin to the acid cell sap. However, experience seems 
 to show that the 1 per cent, solution of citric acid pro- 
 posed by Dyer in 1894 gives results that are most in 
 accord with what is known of the soil, either from its 
 past history or by cropping experiments. 
 
 The method of conducting the analysis is as follows : 
 — 200 grams of the " fine earth " that has passed the 3 
 mm. sieve, in its air-dried state, is placed without any 
 further grinding in a dry Winchester quart bottle with 
 20 grams of pure crystallised citric acid and 2 litres of 
 water. The bottle should either be one previously used 
 for the storage of strong acids or should have a pre- 
 liminary soaking in dilute hydrochloric acid. The 
 mixture of soil and dilute acid is thoroughly shaken from 
 time to time, as often as may be convenient, during the 
 seven days the solvent action is allowed to proceed. 
 After seven days the solution is filtered, and two aliquot 
 portions of 500 c.c. each are evaporated to dryness and 
 ignited to get rid of the citric acid and other organic 
 matter. The residues are dissolved in hydrochloric acid, 
 again evaporated, and heated for a time to I05°C. to 
 render all the silica insoluble. In one portion the 
 phosphoric acid, and in the other the potash, are deter- 
 
160 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 mined by the processes previously described. The time 
 of extraction may be shortened to twenty-four hours if 
 the bottle be put in a good end-over-end shaking 
 machine which will keep the soil and the solvent 
 thoroughly agitated. 
 
 An examination of the citric acid solution shows that 
 all the compounds of phosphoric acid that have been 
 indicated as existing in the soil are more or less 
 attacked; at any rate, the resulting solution contains 
 organic matter and salts of aluminium and iron, in 
 addition to calcium. It has been suggested that the 
 varying amounts of calcium carbonate contained by soils 
 will much affect the material dissolved by the citric acid, 
 some of which becomes neutralised by the calcium 
 carbonate. But though the amount of phosphoric acid 
 dissolved from a given soil by the citric acid solution will 
 be diminished if the calcium carbonate in the soil is 
 increased, a very similar reduction will be effected in the 
 natural processes of solution of the soil phosphates under 
 field conditions. No attempt should be made to add an 
 extra amount of citric acid to combine with the calcium 
 carbonate ; secondary solvent actions are set up both by 
 the carbon dioxide evolved and by the calcium citrate 
 formed, moreover, the real comparative basis of the 
 method of analysis is destroyed. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the citric acid solution, 
 nor indeed any of dilute acid solvents that have been 
 proposed for this purpose, are real differential solvents, 
 which extract the material in the soil which is available 
 for the plant and leave untouched whatever is combined 
 in some other form. In reality, as soon as the acid has 
 been for a sufficient time in contact with the soil a state 
 of equilibrium is attained between the phosphoric acid, 
 for example, that has gone into solution and that which 
 remains in the solid state. The precise equilibrium 
 
VI.] t/SE OF WEAK ACID SOLVENTS 161 
 
 attained depends not only upon the strength of the acid 
 solution and the nature and amount of the phosphoric 
 acid compounds in the soil, but also on the nature and 
 amount of the bases that are there present. If, for 
 example, the citric acid solution is filtered off after it has 
 extracted all the phosphoric acid it can, and a second 
 portion of solution is added and the soil extracted afresh, 
 then more phosphoric acid will go into solution, the 
 amount being smaller than before but still considerable. 
 A third, a fourth, and even a fifth extraction does not 
 remove from the soil all the phosphoric acid that will 
 go into solution in the dilute citric acid solution. Thus 
 it is impossible to say that the dilute citric or any other 
 acid dissolves out and measures the "available" phos- 
 phoric acid or potash ; it does, however, provide a figure 
 indicating the comparative rate at which the soil is likely 
 to yield up its nutrient constituents to the normal solvent 
 actions going on in the soil. The results, then, of this 
 method of analysis are not to be regarded as absolute 
 amounts, but as empirically obtained figures which must 
 be interpreted in the light of experience. The type of 
 the soil plays a part ; for example, a quantity of citric acid 
 soluble phosphoric acid that would indicate poverty in a 
 strong loam or in a soil rich in organic matter like an 
 old pasture, would be ample for ordinary crop purposes 
 if the soil were light and sandy. Again, the crop must 
 be taken into account ; a percentage indicating enough 
 available phosphoric acid in the soil for wheat or man- 
 golds would indicate deficiency when the swede crop 
 came round. 
 
 In certain cases, by continuing the extraction with 
 citric acid until the amount going into solution at each ex- 
 traction becomes approximately constant at some low 
 figure, it is possible to differentiate between the phos- 
 phates in the soil that are easily soluble and may 
 
 L 
 
162 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 0£ SOILS [chap. 
 
 therefore be termed " available," because they possess a 
 comparatively high solubility factor, and other phosphates 
 which would yield, under natural conditions, solutions 
 too dilute to nourish the crop efficiently. 
 
 For example, the following table shows the amounts 
 of phosphoric acid dissolved by successive extractions of 
 certain Rothamsted soils with I per cent, citric acid 
 solution, from which it will be seen that at about the fifth 
 extraction the quantity dissolved begins to approach a 
 constant. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, Mgms. per ioo Grams Soil. 
 
 Field. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 Treatment each Year. 
 
 Extraction. 
 
 1st. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 8rd. 
 
 4th. 
 
 5th. 
 
 6th. 
 
 Broadbalk 
 
 »> 
 
 »» 
 
 11 
 »» 
 11 
 
 3 
 5 
 7 
 8 
 
 10 
 2 
 
 Unmanured . 
 
 64 lbs. P 2 5 , no Nitrogen 
 
 64 lbs. P 2 5 , 86 lbs. N. . 
 
 64 lbs.P 2 5 , 129 lbs. N. . 
 
 86 lbs. N. only 
 
 Dunged .... 
 
 6«4 
 69-0 
 56.1 
 46-3 
 
 7-7 
 49-3 
 
 6-8 
 
 28-0 
 22-8 
 
 18.9 
 
 5.2 
 
 15-3 
 
 3-9 
 H-3 
 
 8-9 
 7.8 
 
 3-3 
 
 7-5 
 
 3-0 
 7-3 
 6-5 
 5-3 
 2.7 
 6.0 
 
 2-5 
 
 4-5 
 4.4 
 4.0 
 27 
 4.4 
 
 2-3 
 4.4 
 
 3-o 
 
 27 
 
 Hoos 
 »» 
 n 
 » 
 
 iAA 
 2AA 
 3AA 
 
 4AA 
 
 43 lbs. N. only 
 64 lbs. P 2 5 , 43 lbs. N. . 
 43 lbs. N. and Potash 
 64 lbs. P 2 5 , 43 lbs. N., 
 Potash 
 
 6-3 
 
 52-2 
 
 6-3 
 53-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 2I«2 
 2-7 
 
 io-6 
 
 2*2 
 
 8.9 
 
 2-3 
 
 6.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 6-5 
 21 
 
 4.9 
 
 2«0 
 
 3-8 
 1.9 
 
 4-5 
 
 I «2 
 2-9 
 
 i-5 
 
 3-8 
 
 The successive amounts going into solution in the 
 first four or five extractions of the soil from the plots 
 which had received soluble phosphoric acid every year 
 are found to be decreasing in a logarithmic series, and 
 this may be supposed to indicate that the solvent is 
 dealing with only one class of material, which is entirely 
 removed at about the fifth extraction. After the 
 fifth extraction there only remains the more insoluble 
 classes of phosphates which form the main stock in 
 
VI.] 
 
 AVAILABLE PLANT FOOD 
 
 163 
 
 the soil. The unmanured plot and that which has 
 received dung do not show the same regular decrement, 
 indicating that the solvent is each time dealing with a 
 more complex mixture of phosphates successively going 
 into solution. This conclusion is strengthened when the 
 total amount of phosphoric acid dissolved in five extrac- 
 tions is compared with the amount known to have been 
 applied to the land during the period the plots have 
 been under experiment, after deduction has been made 
 of that which is also known to have been removed in the 
 
 crop. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid in Rothamsted Soils. 
 
 Field. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 Dissolved in Five 
 Extractions. 
 
 Supplied 
 
 in 
 Man are. 
 
 Removed 
 
 in 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Surplus. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Lbs. 
 per acre. 
 
 Broadbalk 
 
 >> 
 11 
 >• 
 
 3 
 5 
 7 
 8 
 2 
 
 0-0226 
 0-I20I 
 0-0987 
 0-0823 
 0-0825 
 
 565 
 
 3000 
 2470 
 
 2055 
 2060 
 
 O 
 39 6 
 3810 
 38IO 
 4780 
 
 550 
 790 
 
 I370 
 
 1520* 
 
 1650 
 
 -550 
 3170 
 2440 
 2290 
 3I30 
 
 Hoos 
 
 iAA 
 2AA 
 4AA 
 
 0-0159 
 0*0926 
 00799 
 
 400 
 
 2315 
 2000 
 
 
 
 3390 
 3390 
 
 555 
 1200 
 
 1240 
 
 -555 
 2190 
 2150 
 
 * Approximate estimate, since the crop has rarely been analysed. 
 
 It will be seen from the above table that the amount 
 of phosphoric acid dissolved by the five extractions 
 agrees closely with the surplus left by the manuring in 
 all the cases where the phosphoric acid has been put on 
 as soluble mineral superphosphate. This is not the case, 
 however, for the plot manured with dung, which contains 
 a considerable proportion of difficultly soluble phosphate. 
 
 It should not be supposed that the whole of the 
 so-called " available " phosphoric acid or potash will be 
 
164 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 removed by the crop; even the minimum of o-oi per 
 cent., soluble in citric acid, which has been suggested, 
 as marking the limit of fertility, means about 250 lbs. 
 per acre in the surface layer 9 inches deep : and few 
 crops will take away as much as 50 lbs. per acre of phos- 
 phoric acid or 150 lbs. per acre of potash. No crop 
 searches the soil so thoroughly for food as does the 
 solvent acid : if we assume that the roots themselves by 
 their excretion of carbon dioxide effect some of the 
 solution, it is obvious that they come in contact with but 
 a small proportion of the soil particles ; nor can the soil 
 water, limited in amount and moving slowly, attack the 
 soil with the vigour displayed by an acid which is 
 continuously shaken with a comparatively small propor- 
 tion of soil. Even in the case of material so essentially 
 * available " as a manure soluble in water, the whole of 
 the manure applied is never recovered in the crop ; e.g., 
 in the experiments with wheat at Rothamsted, only 73 
 per cent, and with mangolds 78 per cent, of the nitrogen 
 supplied as nitrate of soda has been recovered in the 
 crop, though there was an abundant supply of the other 
 manurial constituents. In the same way, on the plot 
 with an excess of nitrogen there was recovered only 
 36 per cent, of the phosphoric acid supplied as super- 
 phosphate, and 50 per cent, of potash supplied as sulphate 
 of potash. 
 
 In other words, the "available" plant food in the 
 soil represents not that which the succeeding crop will 
 remove, but that which it can draw upon : how much 
 it will acquire will depend on a variety of factors, such 
 as the nature of the plant, the texture of the soil, 
 the supply of water, and other necessaries of nutrition. 
 
 No method akin to solution in dilute citric acid 
 has yet been devised for determining what proportion 
 of the nitrogen reserves in the soil is likely to be avail- 
 
vi.] DETERMINATION OF SOLUBLE HUMUS 165 
 
 able. The conversion of the nitrogenous matter of 
 the soil into soluble nitrates, in which form nitrogen 
 enters the plant, is a biological process which is influ- 
 enced by a number of conditions, such as temperature, 
 degree of moisture and aeration of the soil, the mechani- 
 cal treatment it receives, all impossible to predict. 
 
 Some idea of the condition of the organic matter 
 and the readiness with which it is likely to change, may 
 be obtained by a determination of the humus soluble in 
 dilute ammonia and the percentage of nitrogen in this 
 humus, or again by a study of the ratio of carbon to 
 nitrogen in the organic matter as previously indicated 
 (p. 46). In order to determine the soluble humus, 20 
 grams of the soil are digested with enough 1 per cent, 
 hydrochloric acid to dissolve all the calcium carbonate, 
 thrown upon a filter, washed with a little more of the 
 hydrochloric acid and then with water until neutral. 
 The soil is then washed off the filter into a bottle with a 
 4 per cent, solution of ammonia and shaken for twenty- 
 four hours, after which the bottle is left to stand until 
 the bulk of the inorganic matter of the soil has settled. 
 150 c.c. are pipetted off and evaporated to dryness over 
 the water-bath, weighed and ignited, a deduction being 
 made of the inorganic matter remaining after ignition. 
 
 To determine the nitrogen content of the humus a 
 second 1 50 c.c. are placed in a Kjeldahl flask. Two or 
 three grams of magnesia are added and the whole 
 evaporated to dryness to get rid of the ammonia in the 
 solution, after which the contents of the flask are 
 digested with sulphuric acid in the usual manner. 
 
 Valuable as these determinations may become in 
 judging a soil, a sufficient body of data do not as yet 
 exist to enable them to be interpreted with precision. 
 
 In the analysis of a soil, without doubt the most 
 important figure is the proportion of calcium carbonate, 
 
166 THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS [chap. 
 
 for on that must be based the decision not only of 
 whether liming is necessary, but what class of artificial 
 manures should be employed. Where the calcium 
 carbonate is scanty, manures like superphosphate and 
 sulphate of ammonia should never be employed, but basic 
 slag or some neutral phosphate on the one hand, and 
 nitrate of soda as a source of rapidly acting nitrogen on 
 the other. The texture of the soil, the rapidity with 
 which decay and nitrification of organic matter take 
 place, freedom from fungoid diseases, all depend on an 
 adequate proportion of calcium carbonate in the soil, 
 say from half to one per cent. ; so that of all the 
 determinations this is the most important. 
 
 The determinations of the loss on ignition, the 
 nitrogen, and possibly the humus, give the analyst an 
 idea of the reserves of organic matter in the soil; 
 judged in conjunction with the mechanical analysis and 
 the proportion of calcium carbonate, an opinion can be 
 formed as to the condition of the soil and how far these 
 reserves are likely to be brought into play by cultiva- 
 tion. An opinion may, again, be formed as to the need 
 for organic manures to increase the humus content of 
 the soil, or whether fertility is likely to be maintained 
 with purely mineral manures. 
 
 A consideration of the available phosphoric acid and 
 potash will give the analyst an idea of the immediate 
 need or otherwise of mineral manuring ; the proportions 
 these bear to the "total" phosphoric acid and potash 
 give him grounds for deciding whether the lack is only 
 temporary or real. In the former case measures may 
 be taken to liberate some of the reserves, as by the 
 judicious use of lime or of organic manures which will 
 generate carbonic and other acids within the soil. 
 
 Such further questions as the presence of harmful 
 substances, or even of an excess of more normal con- 
 
VI.] INTERPRETA TION OF ANAL YSES 1 67 
 
 stituents of the soil, must be considered by the analyst, 
 but will be dealt with in a later section. 
 
 In some cases it will be possible by a chemical 
 analysis to pronounce a given soil to be unsuited to a 
 particular crop : as a rule, however, it is not its chemical 
 composition which fits the land for a particular crop, 
 but its mechanical texture, water-bearing power, drain- 
 age, etc. In most cases the soil can be adjusted to the 
 crop by manure, though the process may be unsound 
 from an economic standpoint, but no expenditure can 
 ever rectify unsatisfactory texture, e.g., convert a light 
 sand into good wheat land. 
 
 Even in considering the chemical analysis of a 
 soil, no hard-and-fast rules can be laid down, the 
 judgment and experience of the analyst must come into 
 play in deciding how far the deficiency or excess of one 
 constituent is likely to affect the action of some of the 
 others : and again, how far the texture, the aspect, and 
 other factors that can only be ascertained in situ, will 
 exercise an influence upon the enormous reserves of 
 plant food contained in every soil. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL 
 
 Decay and Humification of Organic Matter in the Soil — Alinit— 
 The Fixation or Free Nitrogen by Bacteria living in Sym- 
 biosis with Leguminous Plants — Soil Inoculation with Nodule 
 Organisms — Fixation of Nitrogen by Bacteria living free in the 
 Soil — Nitrification — Denitrification — Iron Bacteria — Fungi 
 of Importance in the Soil : Mycorhiza, and the Slime Fungus 
 of " Finger-and-Toe." 
 
 The soil is the seat of a number of slow chemical 
 changes affecting the organic material it receives: 
 residues of an animal or vegetable nature, when applied 
 to the soil, are converted into the dark-coloured complex 
 known as "humus," which becomes eventually oxidised 
 to carbonic acid, water, nitric acid, and other simple 
 substances serving as food for plants. These changes, 
 at one time regarded as purely chemical, are now 
 recognised as dependent upon the vital processes 
 of certain minute organisms, universally distributed 
 throughout cultivated soil, and subject to the same 
 laws of nutrition, multiplication, life and death, &s 
 hold for the higher organisms with which we are more 
 generally familiar. 
 
 The microscopic flora of the soil, roughly classed 
 as fungi and bacteria, is vast, and has been very in- 
 adequately explored as yet: certain types of change 
 
 m 
 
CHAP, vil] TYPES OF BACTERIAL ACTION 169 
 
 in the soil materials have, however, been associated 
 with particular organisms or groups of organisms, and 
 many of these changes are of fundamental importance 
 in the ordinary nutrition of plants. The organisms in 
 the soil which so far have received the chief attention 
 are those concerned with the supply of nitrogen to the 
 plant. Certain organic compounds of nitrogen, chiefly 
 of a protein nature, become gradually broken down by 
 the action of soil bacteria into simpler compounds, e.g., 
 into amino-acids, and then into ammonia, which latter 
 substance is seized upon by other organisms and oxidised 
 successively to nitrous and nitric acid. As nitric acid 
 is almost the only form in which the higher plants 
 obtain the nitrogen they require, the fertility of the 
 soil is wholly bound up in the maintenance of this 
 cycle of change. Under certain conditions the work 
 of other organisms intervenes, and the nitrogen com- 
 pounds, instead of becoming nitric acid, are converted 
 into free nitrogen gas, and are lost to the soil. Per 
 contra, another group of organisms possesses the power 
 of "fixing" free nitrogen, i.e., of taking the gaseous 
 element nitrogen and combining it with carbon, 
 hydrogen, oxygen, etc., into forms available for the 
 higher plants. Such organisms sometimes act when 
 living in "symbiosis" with plants possessing green 
 carbon-assimilating tissue: the two form a kind of 
 association for mutual support, the bacteria deriving 
 the carbohydrate which they must consume from the 
 higher plant supplied by them with combined nitrogen. 
 
 Other symbiotic processes have been traced in the 
 soil, and may yet be made to play an important part 
 in the nutrition of field crops. Indeed, a number of 
 tentative trials have already been made with the view 
 of increasing the productiveness of the soil by introduc- 
 ing either useful organisms that were wanting, or 
 
170 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 improved types to replace already existing kinds of 
 less effective character. 
 
 The Changes of Organic Matter in the Soil. 
 
 The surface layer of soil is constantly receiving 
 additions of organic matter, either leaves and other 
 debris of vegetation covering the ground, together with 
 the droppings of animals consuming that vegetation, 
 or dung and other animal and vegetable residues which 
 are supplied as manures to cultivated land. These 
 materials rapidly change in ordinary soil, losing almost 
 immediately any structure they possess, becoming 
 dark-coloured humic bodies, or even burning away as 
 thoroughly as if placed in a furnace. That these 
 changes are due to micro-organisms is seen by their 
 immediate cessation if the soil be treated with anti- 
 septics like chloroform or mercuric chloride : or if the 
 mixture of soil and organic matter be sterilised by heat- 
 ing. Attempts have been made to estimate the number 
 of bacteria contained in the soil : the prodigious numbers 
 obtained, 2 up to 50 millions or more per cubic centi- 
 metre of the upper soil, show little beyond the fact that 
 the soil is tenanted much as any other decaying organic 
 material would be. The soil bacteria are always associ- 
 ated with a certain number of fungi and yeasts, 
 especially when the reaction of the medium is at all 
 acid: the organisms are most numerous in the surface 
 layer, though they are still to be found in the deepest 
 subsoils. Below a certain depth they must disappear, 
 because deep well water often comes to the surface in 
 an absolutely sterile condition. The changes which 
 organic materials undergo in the soil may be roughly 
 grouped into two classes ; according as there is free 
 access of oxygen or not, either decay (eremacausis) 
 
vil] FORMATION OF HUMUS 171 
 
 with eventual resolution into the simplest inorganic 
 oxidised compounds, or " humification " will set in. 
 These changes can be best indicated by the fate of a 
 dead branch when it falls either upon the ground, or 
 into a pond or swamp where it becomes buried in the 
 mud at the bottom. In the latter case the fermentation 
 changes cause the wood to darken even to blackness ; 
 gases like carbonic acid and marsh gas are split off, so 
 that the material becomes proportionally richer in 
 carbon and poorer in oxygen. Eventually, however, the 
 process slackens, the losses practically cease, and a 
 large proportion of the original material persists. On 
 the other hand, the branch exposed to the air, without 
 darkening very much, becomes slowly resolved by the 
 action of fungi and bacteria into carbonic acid and 
 water, ammonia, nitrogen gas, and mineral salts, with 
 much the same final result as though it had been placed 
 in a furnace. In soil, both these types of change may 
 go on, and the conditions of the soil as regards aera- 
 tion, drainage, temperature, and cultivation, determine 
 which will predominate. 
 
 Practically, the whole group of aerobic bacteria, i.e., 
 those which require free oxygen for their development, 
 and fungi are capable of bringing about the oxidation 
 changes which result in the production of carbonic 
 acid, the combustion of some carbohydrate being 
 essentially the means by which they derive their 
 energy. As an intermediate step between the carbo- 
 hydrate and the carbonic acid, a certain amount of 
 humus is produced — " mould," or the " mild humus " 
 of the German writers. Examples of this material 
 can be seen in the leaf-mould collected by gardeners 
 from woods, or the fine, brown powder which can be 
 scraped out of the inside of a hollow tree, particularly 
 of a willow ; this mould differs from the peaty humus, 
 
172 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 to be described later, in its neutral reaction and in 
 the readiness with which it can be further oxidised. 
 Neutral in its reaction, it yields but little soluble 
 "humic acid" to the attack of an alkali. 
 
 Besides carbohydrates, most aerobic bacteria require 
 some carbon compound of nitrogen, and will begin to 
 break down protein and other nitrogen-containing 
 materials. The products of their attack are succes- 
 sively peptones, bodies like leucin and tyrosin, even- 
 tually ammonia, and probably free nitrogen, but the 
 ultimate production of ammonia is perhaps the most 
 characteristic feature of the aerobic fermentation of 
 protein bodies. Other amides are also resolved into 
 ammonia, of which a characteristic example is afforded 
 by the change of urea into ammonium carbonate. 
 This process [which is one of hydrolysis, not of oxi- 
 dation, being represented in the gross by the equation 
 CO(NH 2 ) 2 +2H 2 = (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 ] is brought about by 
 more than one organism, universally distributed and 
 abundant in such places as stables and cattle stalls. 
 In warm weather the conversion of the urea of the 
 urine into ammonium carbonate is very rapid, and as 
 the re3ulting product dissociates into gaseous ammonia 
 and carbonic acid, to this cause is due the smell of 
 ammonia which is always to be noticed in such places. 
 These changes to ammonia are the necessary prelim- 
 inaries to the final oxidation process or nitrification, 
 which, as the means by which the higher plants receive 
 their supplies of nitrogen, will be discussed separately. 
 The various oxidation processes in the soil are, like 
 all other bacterial actions, promoted by a certain 
 warmth, the optimum temperature being about 25°-30°, 
 by a sufficiency of moisture, and by the presence of 
 mineral food, like phosphates and potash salts. In 
 any great quantity, however, salts are harmful, 
 
vil] DEC A V OF ORGANIC MATTER 1 73 
 
 particularly sodium chloride; an acid reaction also 
 diminishes considerably the rate of decay. Speaking 
 generally, bacteria do not thrive as soon as the 
 medium passes the neutral point, and all the decay 
 processes must be carried out by the development of 
 fungi when the medium is acid. The presence of 
 chalk, or any form of carbonate of lime, by neutral- 
 ising any acids as fast as they are formed, promotes 
 the destruction of organic matter. Wollny has also 
 shown that calcium humate will oxidise much more 
 rapidly than uncombined humic acid placed under 
 similar conditions. To the absence of carbonate of 
 lime and mineral salts generally, may be ascribed the 
 tendency of -humus to accumulate and persist on the 
 very light, sandy heaths, where the soil is dry and 
 hot in summer, and also well aerated. It has already 
 been indicated, in treating of humus, that the various 
 organic compounds of nitrogen show very different 
 susceptibility to the breaking-down process which even- 
 tually renders the nitrogen available for the crop — 
 amongst the most resistent substances being the nucleo- 
 proteins in the undigested portions of food which form 
 dung, and the humus residues from poor, cropped-out 
 land. As in all cases much of the nitrogen of both soil 
 and manure seems to pass into obstinately persistent 
 compounds yielding slowly, if at all, to oxidation, and 
 hence wasted to the farmer, an attempt has been made 
 to increase the preliminary breaking down of nitrogen 
 compounds in the soil by the introduction of certain 
 very active bacteria. Stoklasa has shown that various 
 organisms — B. megatherium> B. fluorescens, etc. — when 
 seeded into soil manured with bone-meal or similar 
 materials, increase both the nitrogen and the phosphoric 
 acid obtained by the plant. A pure cultivation of some 
 such organism, B. Ellenbachensis> was for a time sold 
 
174 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 commercially under the name of alinit, and though 
 the power of fixing nitrogen was claimed for it, its 
 chief action was probably such as was described above. It 
 has been found to cause increased crop returns on peaty 
 or other soils rich in humus, or where slow-acting 
 nitrogenous manures have been applied. 
 
 The fermentation which goes on in absence of 
 oxygen, is brought about by a large number of bacteria, 
 some of which are only active in the absence of oxygen, 
 others are aerobic, but will continue their work when 
 deprived of free oxygen. Carbohydrates are decomposed 
 with formation of carbonic acid and other gases like 
 hydrogen and marsh gas, butyric and other fatty acids, 
 a residue of humus being always produced at the same 
 time. The protein bodies readily undergo putrefactive 
 change, with the production of tyrosin and various 
 amino-acids, fatty acids, ammonia, phenol, and other 
 bodies containing an aromatic nucleus, gaseous com- 
 pounds of sulphur, etc. In the main, however, the 
 changes of organic material in the soil fall upon the 
 cellulose; it loses carbonic acid, marsh gas, hydrogen, 
 etc., and becomes humus with a gradually increasing 
 proportion of carbon ; the nitrogenous materials resist 
 attack more than the carbohydrates, and hence tend to 
 accumulate, so that an old sample of deep-seated peat 
 is richer in nitrogen than a more recent sample taken 
 from nearer the surface. Finally the humus thus pro- 
 duced, which may be called peat, is essentially an acid 
 product, and even when aerated and supplied with 
 mineral materials will oxidise with extreme slowness. 
 
 The Fixation of Free Nitrogen. 
 
 In the earliest theories regarding the nutrition of the 
 plant which were accepted after chemistry had become 
 an exact science, it was considered that the plant 
 
Vii.J EARLY THEORIES 175 
 
 derived its nitrogen from the humus of the soil, as, 
 for example, in de Saussure's statement that " Plants 
 receive their nitrogen almost entirely by the absorption 
 of the soluble organic substances." This view was 
 displaced by the so-called " mineral theory " of Liebig, 
 who, in laying down the broad principle that the plant 
 only derived certain necessary mineral constituents, its 
 "ash," from the soil, and the whole of its carbon 
 compounds from the atmosphere, was led to regard 
 the nitrogen as well as the other combustible matters 
 of the plant as due to the atmosphere, largely because 
 of the exaggerated estimate which then prevailed as to 
 the amount of ammonia from the air that was brought 
 down in the rain. Boussingault had already shown, by 
 weighing and analysing the crops on his own farm for 
 six separate courses of rotation, that from one-third to 
 one-half more nitrogen was removed in the produce 
 than was supplied in the manure. The gain of nitrogen 
 was little or nothing when cereal crops only were 
 grown, but became large when leguminous crops were 
 introduced into the rotation. Liebig, however, con- 
 sidered that cereals, as well as the other plants, were 
 able to draw their ammonia from the atmosphere, 
 and that, provided sufficient mineral plant food were 
 forthcoming, there was no need of ammonia compounds 
 in the manure. 
 
 This view of Liebig's, though modified later, when 
 he admitted that cereals must obtain their nitrogen 
 from a manurial source in the soil, led to considerable 
 investigation of the source of the nitrogen in the plant. 
 Boussingault himself carried out a long series of 
 laboratory experiments, in which weighed seeds con- 
 taining a known proportion of nitrogen were grown 
 in artificial soils containing no nitrogen, but supplied 
 with the ash constituents of the plant. Care was 
 
176 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chaP. 
 
 taken to remove all ammonia from the air in which 
 the plants were grown, and from the water and 
 carbonic acid supplied to them ; finally, after growth 
 had ceased, the amount of nitrogen in the plant and 
 in the soil was determined. In some cases a known 
 quantity of nitrogenous compounds was supplied as 
 manure; but all the results went to show that there 
 was no gain of combined nitrogen during growth ; the 
 seed and manure at starting contained as much nitrogen 
 as was found in the plant and soil at the end. 
 
 Similar experiments were carried out with the 
 utmost precautions by the Rothamsted investigators, 
 who likewise found no gain of nitrogen by the plant 
 from the atmosphere. The following results, obtained 
 by Lawes and Gilbert in 1858, will serve to show 
 the agreement between the nitrogen supplied and 
 recovered : — 
 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 nts. 
 
 
 d a £ 
 8>5 1 
 
 geni 
 and 
 
 nts. 
 
 a 2 
 
 
 o& f* 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 o'd fl 
 
 O ■— < c3 
 
 .;- 
 
 
 £0Q <h 
 
 
 
 Nitr 
 See 
 Ma 
 
 
 88 tJ 
 
 Wheat 
 
 0-0078 
 
 0-0081 
 
 + 0*0003 
 
 0-0548 
 
 OO536 
 
 -OOOI2 
 
 Barley 
 
 0-0057 
 
 0-0058 
 
 + O-OOOI 
 
 0-0496 
 
 OO464 
 
 -0-0032 
 
 Oats . 
 
 0-0063 
 
 0-0056 
 
 - 0-0007 
 
 0O3I2 
 
 002l6 
 
 - 0-0096 
 
 Beans 
 
 0-0750 
 
 0-0757 
 
 + 0.0007 
 
 0-07II 
 
 00655 
 
 - 0-0056 
 
 Peas . 
 
 O.OI88 
 
 00167 
 
 -0'002I 
 
 0-0227 
 
 0O2II 
 
 -OOOl6 
 
 Clover 
 
 ... 
 
 • • • 
 
 ... 
 
 0O7I2 
 
 OO665 
 
 -0-0047 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Q.0200 
 
 0-0182 
 
 -0.0018 
 
 00308 
 
 0O292 
 
 -OOOl6 
 
 It has sometimes been objected that the plants in 
 these experiments made such a poor growth as compared 
 with their normal development in the open air that they 
 never attained their usual power of fixing nitrogen. 
 However, HellriegeFs experiments on plants which 
 were supplied with limited amounts of nitrogen showed 
 that growth is practically proportional to the supply of 
 
VII.] 
 
 FIXATION OF NITROGEN 
 
 177 
 
 nitrogen as long as that is below the maximum required 
 by the plant. Field experiments at Rothamsted with 
 leafy crops like mangolds, to which a very small amount 
 of nitrogen was supplied in order to give them a start, 
 showed that the increase thus produced was only pro- 
 portional to the nitrogen supplied, so that there is no 
 evidence that even a plant which has begun to grow 
 vigorously can then continue its development by taking 
 nitrogen from the atmosphere. 
 
 From all these experiments the conclusion was 
 drawn that cultivated plants are unable to "fix" 
 atmospheric nitrogen, but obtain this indispensable 
 element in a combined state from the soil together 
 with the ash constituents; and such was the opinion 
 that prevailed for something like thirty years. 
 
 Notwithstanding the conclusive nature of all the 
 laboratory experiments, there was still a residuum of 
 facts obtained under field conditions which were in- 
 explicable on the theory of the non-fixation of nitrogen, 
 and these facts were chiefly connected with the growth 
 of leguminous crops. 
 
 Boussingault's crop statistics have already been 
 referred to ; the following table gives a short summary 
 of the kind of results he obtained : — 
 
 Rotation. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 Kilos per hectare. 
 
 Supplied in 
 Manure. 
 
 Removed in 
 Crop. 
 
 Wheat, Wheat, Fallow 
 
 Potatoes, Wheat, Clover, Wheat or Turnips, 
 
 Potatoes, Wheat, Clover, Wheat . , 
 Lucerne, 5 years 
 
 87.2 
 
 202 -2 
 182 
 
 • t • 
 
 82-8 
 
 268.5 
 339 
 1035 
 
 The amount of nitrogen removed was equal to 
 
 If 
 
178 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 that supplied only when wheat was grown, but became 
 progressively greater the more frequently leguminous 
 crops occupied the ground. 
 
 At Rothamsted the following average quantities of 
 nitrogen were removed per acre per annum in the 
 crop, when mineral manures only were applied : — 
 
 Wheat (24 years) • • • • 22-1 
 
 Barley (24 years) • • • • 224 
 
 Roots (30 years) • . . • 16*4 
 
 Beans (24 years, only 21 years in Beans) • 45*5 
 
 Red Clover (22 years, only 6 years Clover) • 39*8 
 
 In this case also the amount of nitrogen in the 
 produce was much increased when a leguminous crop 
 was grown. 
 
 Another of the Rothamsted experiments showed still 
 more strikingly the accumulation of nitrogen by a 
 leguminous crop. A piece of land which had been 
 cropped for five years by cereals, without any nitro- 
 genous manure, v/as divided into two portions in 1872, 
 one being sown with barley alone, and the other with 
 clover in the barley. In 1873 barley was again grown 
 on the one portion, but the clover on the other, three 
 cuttings of clover being obtained. Finally, in 1874, 
 barley was grown on both portions. The quantities of 
 nitrogen removed in the crops of 1873 an d 1874 are 
 shown in the table. 
 
 
 Nitrogen in Crop— Lbs. per 
 
 Acre. 
 
 
 1873 
 1873 
 
 Barley . 37-3 
 Clover . 1 5 1. 3 
 
 1874 
 1874 
 
 Barley 
 Barley 
 
 . 39*1 
 . 694 
 
 Thus, the barley which followed clover obtained 
 30-3 lbs. more nitrogen than the barley following barley 
 though the previous clover crop had removed H4lba 
 more nitrogen than the first barley crop. An analysis 
 
Vii.] LEGUM1N0S& AND NITROGEN FIXATION 179 
 
 of the soil was made in 1873, after the clover and barley 
 had been removed ; this showed down to the depth of 
 9 inches an excess of nitrogen in the clover land, despite 
 the larger amount which had been removed in the crop. 
 
 In Soil after Barley • 01416 per cent Nitrogen. 
 
 In Soil after Clover • 0*1566 „ „ 
 
 In another experiment, land which had previously 
 grown beans and then been fallow for five years, was 
 sown with barley and clover in 1883, the clover being 
 allowed to stand in 1884 and 1885. At starting the 
 soil was analysed ; the surface 9 inches contained on 
 an average 2657 lbs. per acre of nitrogen, while of 
 nitrogen as nitric acid the soil only contained 24-7 lbs. 
 per acre down to a depth of 6 feet. As a result of the 
 three years cropping with barley and clover, and then 
 with clover only, an average amount of 319-5 lbs. of 
 nitrogen was removed, yet the soil contained, on 
 analysis at the end of the experiment, 2832 lbs. of 
 nitrogen per acre in the top 9 inches, or a gain of 
 175 lbs. per acre in the three years, making a total, 
 with the crop removed, of nearly 500 lbs. of nitrogen 
 per acre to be accounted for. 
 
 The consideration of field trials of this description 
 led many observers to think that there still might be 
 some fixation of free nitrogen, particularly by legumi- 
 nous plants. Voelcker, in England, when discussing 
 the power of a clover crop to accumulate nitrogen, 
 expressed the opinion that the atmosphere furnishes 
 nitrogenous food to that plant; in France, it was 
 maintained by Ville; Berthelot also brought evidence 
 to show that the soil itself, by the aid of its micro- 
 scopic vegetation, assimilated some free nitrogen. Even 
 in the laboratory experiments, some of Boussingault's 
 results, and others of Atwater, in America, showed a 
 
1S0 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL chap. 
 
 gain of nitrogen. But the clearing up of the whole 
 subject came with the publication, in 1886, of the 
 researches of Hellreigel and Wilfarth. These investi- 
 gators found that when plants were grown in sand 
 and fed with nutrient solutions, the Gramineae, the 
 Cruciferae, the Chenopodiaceae, the Polygonaceae, grew 
 almost proportionally to the amount of - combined 
 nitrogen supplied; and, if this were absent, nitrogen 
 starvation set in as soon as the nitrogen of the seed 
 was exhausted. With the Leguminosae, however, a 
 plant was observed sometimes to recover from the 
 stage of nitrogen starvation, and begin a luxurious 
 growth which lasted until maturity, though no com- 
 bined nitrogen was supplied. In such cases the root 
 of the plant was always found to be set with the little 
 nodules characteristic of the roots of leguminous plants 
 when growing under natural conditions. Further experi- 
 ments were made in which the plants were grown in 
 sterile sand, but as soon as the stage of nitrogen hunger 
 was reached, a small portion of a watery extract of 
 ordinary cultivated soil was added; whereupon, the 
 plants receiving the extract recovered from their nitrogen 
 starvation and grew to maturity, assimilating consider- 
 able quantities of nitrogen. The renewed growth and 
 the assimilation of nitrogen were always found to be 
 attendant upon the production of nodules on the roots. 
 The nodules were found to be full of bacteria, to which 
 the name of Pseudomonas radicicola has been given. 
 They could only be produced by previous infection either 
 by an extract of the crushed nodules or of a cultivated 
 soil ; in some cases (lupins, serradella) only by soil which 
 had previously carried the same crop. 
 
 These results, though not at first accepted by Lawes 
 and Gilbert, led to a repetition of the experiments, 
 which brought out the fact that in their earlier 
 
VII.] HOW IS NITROGEN FIXATION EFFECTED? 181 
 
 trials with leguminous plants the necessary inocula- 
 tion had always been wanting because of the great 
 care that had been taken to prevent the entry of any 
 accidental impurity. Eventually, both at Rothamsted 
 and by other investigators, the conclusions of Hellreigel 
 and Wilfarth were confirmed, that when leguminous 
 plants are grown under sterile conditions, without a 
 supply of combined nitrogen there is very limited 
 growth, no formation of nodules, and no gain of nitrogen. 
 But when the culture is seeded with soil extract there is 
 luxuriant growth, abundant nodule formation, and coin- 
 cidently, great gain of nitrogen, many times as much in 
 the products of growth as in the seed sown. Gilbert also 
 showed that there is a gradual accumulation and then 
 withdrawal of nitrogen from the nodules. Lastly, 
 Schloesing^/.r and Laurent, by growing Leguminosae in 
 closed vessels, and analysing the air before and after 
 growth, found an actual disappearance of nitrogen gas, 
 agreeing with the amount gained by the plant during 
 growth. Thus, a conclusion was reached that the 
 leguminous plants can assimilate and fix the free 
 nitrogen of the atmosphere by the aid of bacteria living 
 symbiotically in the root nodules, — a conclusion which 
 served to explain, not only the discrepancies in the 
 previous experiments, but the long-accumulated experi- 
 ence of farmers that crops like clover and lucerne enrich 
 the soil, and form the best preparation for cereals like 
 wheat, which are particularly dependent on an external 
 supply of nitrogen. The mechanism of the fixation of 
 free nitrogen is still incompletely understood. It has 
 been found possible to grow these bacteria apart from 
 the leguminous plants, if they are cultivated on a medium 
 containing only a trace of nitrogen but supplied with 
 the ash constituents of the plant and also with 
 some carbohydrate like dextrose or maltose. The 
 
Ib2 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 quantities of nitrogen fixed in this way are always, 
 however, very much smaller than are fixed by a 
 leguminous plant on whose root the nodules are well 
 developed. To fix the nitrogen, some expenditure of 
 energy is required, and this is derived from the 
 combustion of carbohydrate supplied to the bacteria by 
 the higher plant ; indeed it has been observed that the 
 nitrogen fixation and general growth of the Leguminosse 
 is stimulated by a supply of sugar or other carbohydrate 
 to the soil. The organism, Pseudomonas radicicola, 
 appears to be capable of considerable modifications; 
 in the nodules it forms rather large rod or Y-shaped 
 organisms, but if an active subculture be obtained by 
 inoculation from a nodule into a non-nitrogenous 
 medium as described above, excessively minute rod- 
 shaped organisms appear, generally in rapid motion. It 
 is in this minute unspecialised form that they exist free 
 in the soil, and it has been shown that they infect the 
 leguminous host by getting through the thin walls of 
 the root hairs. The characteristic Y forms have also been 
 obtained in artificial cultivations by introducing certain 
 substances into the medium. Much investigation has 
 also been applied to the question of whether there 
 is only one kind of bacterium living in symbiosis 
 with all the Leguminosae, or whether there is not a 
 definite race appropriate to each species of leguminous 
 plant, with which it alone can bring about nitrogen 
 fixation to the full extent. The earliest investigations 
 had already shown that lupins and serradella did not 
 develop nodules when infected with an ordinary 
 garden soil, but only when an extract was added 
 from a sandy soil on which these plants had been 
 previously grown ; and Nobbe brought further evidence 
 to show that, though there is very widely distri- 
 buted in the soil an organism which will cause 
 
vii.] CULTURES FOR SOIL INOCULATION 183 
 
 some nodule formation and fixation of nitrogen, 
 yet it becomes so modified by growing in symbiosis 
 with the different leguminous plants, that the best 
 results are only obtained when each species is directly 
 infected from nodules taken from the same kind of plant. 
 Accordingly, he proceeded to the introduction, on a 
 commercial scale, of pure cultivations on a gelatine 
 medium of the races of bacteria appropriate to each of 
 the leguminous plants grown as field crops. The jelly, 
 which was called " Nitragin," was to be dissolved in a 
 large bulk of water and sprinkled over the seed before 
 sowing ; thus ensuring inoculation with the appropriate 
 organism, which might not happen to be present in the 
 soil. Nitragin failed to fulfil the expectations which 
 were formed at its introduction, partly because of the 
 nitrogenous character of the medium, in consequence of 
 which the organisms possessed very little vitality or 
 power of fixing nitrogen. Since that time, however, 
 several other methods of cultivating the organism for 
 inoculation purposes have been introduced, either by 
 growing it on an agar jelly, which contains practically 
 no nitrogen (Hiltner), by drying up cotton wool which 
 has been soaked in an active liquid culture (Moore), 
 or by drying soil which has been treated in the same 
 way. The culture thus obtained is added to a large 
 bulk of water, containing a little separated milk to 
 protect the organisms from substances excreted during 
 germination, and the seed is dipped into it and 
 allowed to dry before sowing. The culture may 
 also be sprayed over the ground or absorbed by a 
 large quantity of earth which is afterwards sown. The 
 results of such inoculation are very conflicting ; where the 
 land has been regularly under cultivation and has carried 
 the leguminous crop in question many times previously, 
 nodules are practically always formed whether the seed 
 
184 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap 
 
 be inoculated or not. In such cases inoculation can 
 only be beneficial if the bacteria introduced either 
 belong to a more vigorous race of nitrogen fixers 
 than those normally present in the soil or are more 
 specifically adapted to that particular crop. It has not 
 as yet been conclusively demonstrated that such im- 
 proved races can be cultivated in the laboratory, or that 
 they can maintain themselves in the soil in competition 
 with the kindred organisms already present. It should, 
 moreover, be borne in mind that even if such improved 
 races of the nodule-forming organism can be introduced 
 to the plant, the improvement they can produce in the 
 yield is likely to be something of the order of a ten per 
 cent, increase, a gain which is only really perceptible 
 after careful and continued field experiments, and one not 
 to be detected by the ordinary farmer's eye. Of a very 
 different order are the results attained by inoculation 
 when the land contains none of the appropriate organ- 
 isms; inoculation will then change a stunted, sickly 
 looking growth into a profitable crop. It is only in 
 special cases that land devoid of the nodule organisms is 
 to be met with, most commonly when land is being 
 brought under cultivation for the first time, as in break- 
 ing up a virgin soil or in reclaiming heath and bog land. 
 Such peaty and heathy soils, which are devoid of 
 carbonate of lime, rarely carry any leguminous plants 
 the nodules of which could supply the necessary bacteria 
 to farm crops like clover and lucerne ; when such land 
 has been reclaimed and limed an inoculation is advisable 
 before sowing a leguminous crop. 
 
 Similarly when the cultivation of such leguminous 
 crops as lucerne or even sainfoin is being extended into 
 districts where they have not been grown previously, an 
 inoculation is often necessary before the roots will nodu- 
 late freely and the plant make its proper growth. Lucerne 
 
vii.] GREEN MANURING 185 
 
 grown for the first time on heavy land in a new district 
 has been observed to fail completely, the failure being 
 attended by a complete absence of nodules from the roots. 
 Inoculation with soil from a field which has pre- 
 viously grown the crop about to be sown has often 
 proved a signal success in reclaiming the poor heath 
 lands of East Prussia, by the system of green manuring 
 worked out by Dr Schultz at Lupitz. Very large 
 areas of barren sandy heath land have been re- 
 claimed and rendered fit for the cultivation of the 
 ordinary crop by a system of growing lupins and 
 ploughing in the green crop. Mineral manures alone 
 are employed, latterly basic slag and the Stassfurt 
 potash salts; the lupins accumulate nitrogen from 
 the atmosphere, thus gradually there is built up both 
 humus to bind together the loose sand and make it 
 retentive of moisture, and also a store of nitrogen for 
 the nutrition of succeeding crops. The soil of a field 
 growing lupins every year from 1865 was found in 
 1880 to contain 0-087 per cent, of nitrogen in the 
 surface 8 inches, as compared with 0-027 per cent. 
 in an adjoining pasture. By 1891 the proportion of 
 nitrogen had increased to 0-177 per cent, despite the 
 annual removal of the lupin crop and the fact that 
 the manuring had been with phosphates and potash 
 only. It is in reclaiming these heath lands which 
 have not previously been under cultivation, nor, in 
 many cases, carried any leguminous vegetation what- 
 ever, that soil inoculation from land previously cultivated 
 has given successful results. Dr Salfeld of Hanover has 
 recorded several cases of the successful cultivation on a 
 large scale of various leguminous plants, beans, clover, 
 serradella, lupins, only after previous inoculation with 
 soil. The experiments were made on both peaty (moor) 
 and sandy soils, on which, without inoculation, legumin- 
 
1 86 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 ous plants made but little growth and developed no 
 nodules. Success followed when about 8 cwt. per acre of 
 soil from a field which had previously carried the crop in 
 question were sown broadcast over the land in April, 
 and harrowed in just before seeding. In one case, over 
 7 tons per acre of green serradella were grown where 
 the land had been treated with 8 cwt. of soil from an 
 old serradella field, whereas the crop failed after germi- 
 nation where no inoculation had been practised. 
 
 Fixation of Free Nitrogen by the Soil. 
 
 As already indicated, Berthelot attributed to the 
 soil itself the power of fixing a small quantity of atmo- 
 spheric nitrogen, a power which was lost when the soil 
 was sterilised and maintained under conditions prevent- 
 ing infection. This gain of nitrogen was independent 
 of the small amount of ammonia absorbed by soil from 
 ordinary air, which always contains a trace of ammonia ; 
 and at first it was attributed to the microscopic green 
 algae which clothe the surface of ordinary moist soil. 
 The experiments of Kossowitsch, and of Kriiger and 
 Schneidewind, have, however, shown that the growth of 
 pure cultures of these algae is dependent on a supply 
 of combined nitrogen, and that no fixation of free 
 nitrogen takes place whether the algae growth be small 
 or large. It is possible, however, that they may live 
 in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and supply 
 the carbohydrate, by the combustion of which the 
 energy needed for the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria 
 is obtained. More recently, however, several organisms 
 have been isolated from the soil which are capable when 
 growing in a free state of fixing nitrogen drawn from the 
 atmosphere, and it is to these that the gains of nitrogen 
 observed by Berthelot must be attributed. Winogradsky 
 was the first to isolate an organism of this type, which, 
 
vii.] FIXATION WITHOUT LEGUMINOUS PLANTS 187 
 
 when grown under anaerobic conditions and supplied 
 with soluble carbohydrate, breaks the latter down with 
 the formation of butyric and other acids, and at the same 
 time draws some of the gaseous nitrogen present into com- 
 bination. This particular organism Clostridium Pastori- 
 anum is very widely diffused and can readily be isolated 
 from pond mud and similar material, where organic matter 
 is decaying under comparatively anaerobic conditions. 
 The extent of the nitrogen fixation is, however, small ; 
 in the laboratory not more than 2 to 3 mg. of nitrogen 
 are brought into combination for each gram of carbo- 
 hydrate oxidised. By far the most effective of the 
 nitrogen-fixing bacteria that are free in the soil is a large 
 organism, named by its discoverer, Beijerinck, Azotobacter 
 chroococcum. It may be easily isolated from most soils 
 by adding a small portion of soil to 50 c.c. of a culture 
 medium containing per litre 10 grams of mannite or 
 glucose, 02 gram each of potassium phosphate, mag- 
 nesium sulphate, and sodium chloride, and 01 gram of 
 calcium sulphate, half a gram of calcium carbonate being 
 also added to each flask. The solution and its flask 
 and plug of cotton wool are previously sterilised by heat. 
 After inoculation, the flask is placed in an incubator, 
 and after a week's time a considerable fermentation will 
 be observed to have taken place, attended by the 
 evolution of gas and the formation of a brown scum upon 
 the surface. By making a subculture in a similar 
 medium, inoculated with a trace of the brown scum, a 
 fairly pure growth of the Azotobacter can be obtained 
 for examination, or the amount of nitrogen fixed may 
 be determined by Kjeldahling the contents of the 
 flask. 
 
 Azotobacter chroococcum is a large oval organism, 4 to 
 5 jul in length and 3 fj. in width, which differs from most 
 bacteria in containing glycogen, so that it stains a deep 
 
188 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 brown colour with a solution of iodine, a method which 
 is convenient for the observation of the organism. It is 
 aerobic, and is, in fact, a strong oxidising agent, the 
 dextrose or other carbohydrate which it requires being 
 converted by it into carbon dioxide and water, together 
 with small quantities of lactic and acetic acids, alcohol, 
 and sometimes butyric acid. 
 
 A very characteristic bye-product is the dark brown 
 or black pigment from which the organism derives its 
 specific name, a pigment which may play its part in the 
 usual coloration of humus. 
 
 As a rule, about 9 or 10 mg. of nitrogen are fixed 
 for each gram of carbohydrate oxidised, but the ratio 
 obtained varies considerably under different conditions ; 
 cultures which have been repeatedly transferred, being, 
 as a rule, less effective than the impure culture derived 
 directly from the soil. 
 
 Azotobacter chroococcum and its kindred forms are 
 widely distributed in soils from all parts of the world ; 
 it has been found in most cultivated soils, and the author 
 has observed it in virgin soils from East Africa, India, 
 New Zealand, Egypt, Russia, Monte Video, Ohio, and 
 Sarawak. 
 
 It is, however, not to be discovered in acid soils ; the 
 presence of calcium carbonate appears to be essential to 
 its development. Certain minor differences are to be 
 seen in the Azotobacter organisms present in the soil 
 from different parts of the world. From tropical and 
 semi-tropical soils in East Africa, for example, a form 
 has been isolated which is a very effective fixer of 
 nitrogen, but which differs from the normal in not giving 
 rise to the brown pigment ; another form, again, from 
 Monte Video gives rise to a green fluorescence in the 
 culture medium. 
 
 The amount of nitrogen fixed by Azotobacter may 
 
Vii.) NITROGEN FIXATION IN VIRGIN SOILS 1S9 
 
 easily be rendered evident by an increased yie'd of 
 crop. Koch treated soil in pots with large quantities of 
 sugar, 2 per cent, 4 per cent., and even more of dextrose, 
 and then sowed oats, buckwheat, etc. At first the sugar 
 was injurious, and the first crop suffered in consequence ; 
 but the proportion of nitrogen in the soil increased, and 
 the second and third crops were far greater than those 
 in the check plots of untreated soil. When the soil, 
 after the application of the sugar, was placed in an 
 incubator for a month, in order to complete the oxidation 
 of the sugar, the increased yield due to nitrogen fixation 
 was also seen in the first crop. 
 
 To the Azotobacter and kindred organisms must 
 certainly be ascribed a large part in preparing and 
 maintaining the world's stock of combined nitrogen. It 
 is customary to regard such virgin soils as the black soils 
 of the Russian Steppes, of Manitoba, and of the Argen- 
 tina, as rich in nitrogen because of the accumulation of the 
 vegetable debris of many epochs ; but since plants other 
 than the Leguminosae do not fix nitrogen themselves, 
 there could in this way be no addition to the original 
 stock, which would only circulate from the soil to the 
 plant and back to the soil again. Under such conditions, 
 however, there is a continual addition to the soil of the 
 carbon compounds which the plant derives from the 
 atmosphere, and this is material which the Azotobacter 
 can oxidise, and so derive the energy required for the 
 fixation of nitrogen. It is the constant return to the soil 
 of oxidisable organic matter which differentiates the 
 wild from the cultivated land, and renders possible the 
 long-continued storing up of nitrogen in the virgin soils. 
 
 Interesting evidence on this point may be derived 
 from the Rothamsted experiments; on the Broadbalk 
 wheatfield the unmanured plot has, during the fifty 
 years 1844-93 yielded a crop containing on the average 
 
igo THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap 
 
 17 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per annum. Analyses of 
 the soil at the beginning and end of the period showed 
 a decline in the amount of nitrogen equivalent to a 
 removal of 12 lbs, per acre per annum, and the rainfall 
 is known to bring down between 4 and 5 lbs. per acre 
 per annum. The annual withdrawal in the crop would 
 thus be closely balanced by the loss experienced by the 
 soil and the additions, were there not other unknown 
 withdrawals in the weeds which are removed from the 
 plot, and in the nitrates which are washed down into the 
 subsoil and the drains. Doubtless, neither of these two 
 withdrawals are large, but because of their existence, un- 
 balanced by any corresponding falling off in the nitrogen 
 content of the soil, it must be concluded that even on 
 the arable land some small restorative action is going 
 on. A portion, however, of the same field has been 
 covered with a wild vegetation of weeds and grasses for 
 the last twenty-five years, and this is never cut or 
 harvested, so that all the debris fall back on the land 
 just as it would on a virgin soil. Analysis of samples of 
 this soil taken in 1881, when it ceased to be under cultiva- 
 tion, and in 1904, showed an annual accumulation of 
 nitrogen of more than 100 lbs. per acre. The enormous 
 difference in the fixation on this plot as compared with 
 the unmanured plot carrying wheat, must be set down 
 to the difference in the supply of non-nitrogenous carbon 
 compounds to the two plots ; in the one case the wheat 
 is all removed except a small portion of root and stubble ; 
 in the other the whole of the vegetable growth falls back 
 on the land. The wild vegetation on this plot did include 
 a considerable proportion of leguminous plants, but a 
 similar, though smaller accumulation of nitrogen was 
 observed in another plot of land which had been allowed 
 to run wild in the same manner, but which carried no 
 leguminous vegetation in consequence of the small 
 
vil] FORMATION OF NITRATES IN SOIL 191 
 
 amount of calcium carbonate in the soil. These two 
 plots present a very close parallel to the actions which must 
 have been taking place in all virgin soils where the soil 
 similarly contains the Azotobacter organism. Doubtless 
 also some of the value of laying down land to temporary 
 pasture must be due to the accumulation of nitrogen by 
 the same agency, because we know that land under grass 
 accumulates carbon compounds from the roots and 
 stubble that is not removed during grazing. 
 
 Nitrification. 
 
 It has long been known that when any organic com- 
 pound of nitrogen is applied to the soil it becomes event- 
 ually oxidised to a nitrate, which is practically the only 
 compound of nitrogen taken up by cultivated plants, the 
 Leguminosae excepted. The potassium nitrate collected 
 from Indian soils, the calcium nitrate made artifically in 
 nitre beds in Europe, owe their origin to this oxidation 
 of organic compounds of nitrogen. That the process 
 was a biological one was first indicated by Miiller in 
 1873, but any widespead recognition of the fact did not 
 take place before the work of Schloesing and Muntz in 
 1877. These investigators showed that the formation 
 of nitrates in the soil ceased at temperatures below 5° 
 and above 55° C, that it could be stopped by chloroform 
 vapour and similar antiseptics, and that the soil lost 
 entirely its power of nitrification if it were heated to the 
 temperature of boiling water. The investigations of 
 Warington confirmed these results, and brought to light 
 the further fact that there were two stages in the oxida- 
 tion process, one being the formation of a nitrite, 
 followed by the conversion of this nitrite into the com- 
 pletely oxidised product. It was found possible to obtain 
 cultures which would only push the oxidation to the 
 nitrite stage, thus indicating that there must be at least 
 
192 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OP THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 two organisms concerned in the complete nitrification 
 process. The further study of the organisms was for 
 a long time hindered by the fact that they could not be 
 got to grow upon the gelatinous media employed in the 
 ordinary methods of isolating specific bacteria; and 
 though P. F. Frankland, by a dilution method, succeeded 
 in isolating and describing a nitrifying bacterium, it was 
 not until 1890 that Winogradsky cleared up the problem. 
 He prepared a solid nutritive medium containing no 
 organic matter but with silica in its gelatinous form as a 
 basis, and thus was able to separate nitrifying bacteria 
 from the large number of other species simultaneously 
 present in the soil. Winogradsky was able to isolate 
 two species of bacteria capable of transforming ammonia 
 compounds into nitrites. One of these, termed Nitro- 
 somonas europcza, was obtained from all the soils of 
 the old world he examined ; the other, ascribed to 
 the genus Nitrococcus, was peculiar to the soils of 
 America and Australia. The former occurs both as a 
 single, free-swimming form, and clustered together in a 
 colony or zooglcea state. 
 
 Finally, there appears to be one type of organism 
 only, included in the genus Nitrobacter, which oxi- 
 dises the nitrites to nitrates. Winogradsky and other 
 observers have worked out the conditions of life of 
 these nitrifying organisms — the limits of temperature 
 for their growth, 5 and 55° C, have already been given, 
 the optimum temperature is about 37 C. Their action 
 is much restrained by the presence of organic matter, 
 or any quantity of alkaline carbonates or chlorides ; at 
 the same time, some base * must be present to combine 
 
 * Instruction sur la fabrication du nitre : — Par les rdgisseurs 
 gMraux des poudres et salt pHres> 1777, "Elles doivent F6tre 
 toujours avec une addition de terre calcaire qui puisse servir de 
 base a l'acide nitreux." 
 
Vli.] CONDITIONS FAVOURING NITRIFICATION I9J 
 
 with the nitrous or nitric acids produced, for nitrification 
 ceases as soon as the medium becomes at all acid. 
 While calcium carbonate is the substance which, 
 as a rule, is effective to this end, many organic salts will 
 also supply the necessary base. Ammonium salts of 
 the strong acids will not nitrify directly in the absence 
 of a base, and the function of the calcium or magnesium 
 carbonate is usually added to form, by double decomposi- 
 tion, ammonium carbonate, which the nitrifying organ- 
 isms can attack. The complex salts formed by the 
 interaction of the zeolites of clay with ammonium 
 salts can be nitrified directly, but not, however, the 
 ammonium humate formed by the corresponding 
 interaction of ammonium salts and humus. Humus 
 itself does not inhibit nitrification, and, indeed, the 
 organisms can be brought to tolerate considerable 
 quantities of other organic matter, by transferring 
 them into successively stronger solutions. The organ- 
 isms are able to obtain the carbon necessary to their 
 growth from carbonates in the culture medium or 
 carbonic acid in the air ; the energy necessary to 
 decompose the carbon dioxide and fix the carbon is 
 derived from the oxidation of the ammonia, about 
 35 parts of nitrogen being oxidised for each part of 
 carbon that is fixed. The nitrifying organisms are 
 chiefly confined to the cultivated surface layer of 
 the soil. Warington found that, in the close-textured 
 Rothamsted soil they were by no means uniformly 
 distributed below the top 9 inches, and that they were 
 never present, except accidentally, in the subsoil below 
 a depth of 2 feet. It has also been shown that they 
 are entirely absent from many heath and moor soils, 
 even in the surface layer. They are abundantly found 
 in the water of shallow wells and rivers. 
 
 Summing up the above facts, it is seen that for the 
 
 N 
 
194 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 active production of nitrates from the organic com- 
 pounds of nitrogen present in the soil — and this is 
 necessary if the crop is to be kept supplied with the 
 nitrogen required for its growth — the following condi- 
 tions are requisite : — The presence of the nitrifying 
 organisms in sufficient quantities, a certain degree 
 of temperature, darkness, sufficient moisture for the 
 development of the bacteria, free aeration of the soil 
 to supply the oxygen necessary, and a base to neutralise 
 the acids as they are produced. 
 
 The scanty number of nitrifying bacteria in any 
 subsoil below the cultivated layer helps to explain 
 both its sterile nature when brought to the surface, and 
 the difficulty and length of time required to develop 
 a state of fertility, especially when dealing with a 
 clay soil in which percolation and aeration have been 
 deficient. 
 
 The effect of a low temperature in checking the 
 formation of nitrates is well seen in the way the growing 
 corn turns yellow through nitrogen starvation whenever 
 a cold and drying north-east wind chills the ground 
 in spring: the bright green colour returns as soon as 
 warmer and moister soil conditions restore the activity 
 of the nitrifying bacteria in the surface layer. King 
 found in the top foot of soil when oats were turning 
 yellow only 0-026 parts of nitric nitrogen per million 
 of dry soil, whereas in soil where the oats were green 
 on the same date there was 0-255 parts of nitric nitrogen 
 per million, itself a small amount. The greater warmth 
 of a light soil also causes it to form nitrates quickly in 
 the spring, and so assists in producing an early growth. 
 
 But in obtaining early crops, even when the land is 
 rich, a dressing of ready-formed nitrate is often of the 
 greatest assistance, for the development of very early 
 crops may easily outstrip the rate at which the nitrates 
 
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 3 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 c3 
 
 o 
 
 Pl, 
 
 <u 
 
 -4-> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 kai 
 
 P- 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 P- 
 
 „ Tf- 
 
 
vil] NITRATES IN SOIL 195 
 
 they require can be formed in the still unwarmed soil. 
 Nitrates are much more freely formed in the summer 
 than in the winter, and as they are not retained by 
 the soil, they may easily be washed away when the 
 crop has been removed, unless weeds or a catch crop 
 sown to that end are present to take up the nitrates 
 and store them as organic compounds of nitrogen for 
 the future enrichment of the land. 
 
 The need for aeration in connection with the nitrify- 
 ing process has already been alluded to when discussing 
 drainage : all processes of working and cultivating the 
 soil assist nitrification, both by the thorough aeration 
 they effect, and by the mere mechanical distribution 
 of the bacteria into new quarters, where there are fresh 
 food supplies. In some experiments of DeheVain's he 
 found that the drainage water from pots of cultivated 
 soil, which had been sent from a distance, and thus 
 much knocked about in travelling and filling into the 
 pot, contained as much as 466 to 664 parts of nitrogen 
 as nitric acid per million. The drainage water from the 
 Rothamsted wheat plots contains only from 10 to 20 
 parts per million; even the cement tanks at Grignon, 
 2 metres cube, into which the soil had been filled, gave 
 drainage water containing only 39 parts of nitric 
 nitrogen per million. In another experiment a quantity 
 of soil was thrown upon a floor, and worked about 
 daily for six weeks ; on analysis it contained 0-05 1 
 per cent, of nitric nitrogen, as against -002 per cent, of 
 nitric nitrogen in the same soil left in situ. The diagram 
 (Fig. 14), due to King, shows the dependence of nitrate 
 production on temperature and the cultivation of the 
 soil. The lower curve shows the amount of nitrate 
 in parts per million in dry soil in the top foot of land, 
 which was not being cultivated because it carried clover 
 and oats. The upper curve shows the same results 
 
196 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 obtained on well-tilled land carrying maize and potatoes. 
 On the cultivated land the proportion of nitrates rises 
 rapidly until the end of June, when the crop begins to 
 draw freely upon them, and reduces them to a minimum 
 throughout August and September. 
 
 One of the best examples of the manner in which 
 the thorough working and aeration of a warm soil 
 promotes nitrification is seen in the management of 
 the turnip crop as usually grown in this country. 
 Though shallow-rooted, and taking away large quan- 
 tities of nitrogen per acre, it is usually grown with 
 but little nitrogenous manure ; phosphates with a little 
 dung or with a comparatively small nitrogenous dress- 
 ing, being sufficient. The rest of the nitrogen is derived 
 from the rapid production of nitrates, due to the very 
 thorough working of the soil in the warm season of the 
 year that is characteristic of the cultivation of the turnip 
 crop. The production of nitrates by cultivation for 
 the benefit of a succeeding crop by bare fallowing, 
 or of an adjoining crop as in the Lois-Weedon system 
 of alternate husbandry, has been already alluded to. 
 At Rothamsted, nearly 60 lbs. per acre of nitric nitrogen 
 were found in October in the top 27 inches of soil 
 that had been fallowed, as against about half that 
 amount in land which had been under crop. The un- 
 manured alternate wheat and fallow plots showed in 
 September 1878 to a depth of 18 inches 33-7 lbs. of 
 nitric nitrogen per acre after fallow, and only 2-6 lbs. 
 after wheat. In land occupied by cereal crops the 
 drainage waters show that there is practically no nitrate 
 left in the soil by May, or, at the latest, June; they 
 reappear again towards the end of July or in August, 
 and after harvest, if rain falls, and especially if the land 
 be ploughed, nitrification becomes very active. It 
 depends upon the rainfall of the autumn and winter 
 
vil] LOSSES OF SOIL NITROGEN 197 
 
 whether these nitrates, formed after harvest, are retained 
 for the succeeding crop or are washed out of the soil. 
 To sum up, increased nitrification, together with the 
 conservation of soil moisture and the warming of the 
 surface soil, are among the chief benefits derived from 
 all forms of surface cultivation. 
 
 As so much of the fertility of a soil must depend on 
 the number of nitrifying organisms it contains, attempts 
 have been made to compare soils in this respect, by 
 seeding small quantities of them into a standard solu- 
 tion capable of nitrification and determining the amount 
 of nitric acid formed after a given time. Although con- 
 siderable differences are seen in the action of different 
 soils, satisfactory quantitative results have not yet 
 been obtained, because of difficulties in the way of 
 drawing strictly comparable samples of the soils, 
 and the uncertainty still attaching to the amount 
 which should be used for inoculation or the best period 
 of incubation. 
 
 Denitrification. 
 
 The term denitrification is most properly applied 
 to the reduction of nitrates to nitrites, ammonia, or 
 particularly to gaseous nitrogen, which is brought 
 about by bacterial action under certain conditions. 
 Of late, however, the term has been more loosely 
 used to denote any bacterial change which results 
 in the formation of gaseous nitrogen, whether de- 
 rived from nitrates, ammonia, or organic compounds 
 of nitrogen. 
 
 Angus Smith was the first to observe the evolution 
 of gas from a decomposing organic solution containing 
 nitrates, which were destroyed in the process. Other 
 
198 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 observers, particularly Deherain and Maquenne (1882), 
 with regard to soils, confirmed these results and showed 
 that they were due to bacterial action. In a paper 
 published in 1882, Warington described an experiment 
 in which sodium nitrate was applied to a soil saturated 
 with water ; after standing for a week, the nitrate was 
 washed out of the soil, part of it had disappeared, and 
 part had become nitrite. The total of both nitric and 
 nitrous nitrogen only amounted to 20-9 per cent, of that 
 which had been originally applied. That the nitrate 
 had been reduced to gaseous nitrogen was seen by the 
 development of transverse cracks filled with gas in the 
 soil, and it was concluded that some of the nitrogen 
 applied in manures and unaccounted for in crop and 
 soil may well be due to the reduction of nitrates to 
 gas, by the combustion of organic matter with the 
 oxygen of the nitrate, especially in ill-drained soils in 
 wet weather. Gayon and Dupetit, in 1886, isolated two 
 organisms from sewage which would reduce nitrates 
 to gas in the presence of organic matter, the action 
 being chiefly carried on when oxygen was absent; it 
 came to a standstill when plenty of air was supplied, so 
 that the organism had no need to attack the nitrate 
 to obtain oxygen. Both in their experiments and in 
 others, the presence of an abundant supply of soluble 
 organic matter was one of the necessary conditions 
 for the destruction of the nitrates. The denitrifying 
 bacteria are widely distributed. Warington found, out 
 of thirty-seven species of bacteria examined, only 
 fifteen failed to reduce nitrate, twenty-two reduced 
 it to nitrite, and one of them liberated gas. P. F. 
 Frankland, again, found that fifteen out of thirty 
 organisms derived from dust or water would reduce 
 nitrate to nitrite. In fact, a large number of bacteria, 
 when deprived of oxygen and in contact with abundant 
 
VII.] 
 
 DEN1TR1FICA TION 
 
 199 
 
 organic matter, will obtain the oxygen, which they 
 normally require for the breaking up of the organic 
 matter, at the expense of the nitrate. 
 
 Many experiments, in which farmyard and other 
 organic manures have been employed in conjunction 
 with nitrate of soda and similar active compounds of 
 nitrogen, have shown a smaller crop for the manures 
 used together than when either was employed singly. 
 These results were particularly apparent when large 
 quantities of material like fresh horse-dung or chopped 
 straw were used in pot experiments. With well-rotted 
 dung, the effect of organic material in depressing the 
 yield which should be given by the nitrate was not 
 so great. 
 
 The nature of the results obtained may be seen 
 from the following table, which gives the percentage 
 recovered in the crop of the nitrogen supplied in the 
 manure, when used alone, or in conjunction with fresh 
 horse-dung : — 
 
 Percentage of Nitrogen Recovered (Wagner). 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 recovered when 
 
 used alone. 
 
 When used 
 
 with 
 Horse-dung. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda . • • . 
 Sulphate of Ammonia • • • 
 Urine . . . • • • 
 
 Vjrass • • • • • • 
 
 77 
 69 
 69 
 43 
 
 52 
 50 
 40 
 20 
 
 Numbers of similar experiments in pots have been 
 recorded. In some cases the use of fresh dung has 
 even resulted in a smaller crop than was obtained with- 
 out any manure at all ; but it should be noted that 
 very large amounts of the organic manures were used, 
 
200 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 equivalent to ioo tons or more per acre. Similar results 
 have, however, been recorded in field trials, as in some 
 experiments of Kriiger and Schneidewind's, where fresh 
 cow-dung was applied at the rate of 23 tons per acre, 
 horse-dung, 21 tons per acre, and wheat straw at 5-8 
 tons per acre, on 10th July. These three plots were 
 in part cross-dressed with urine or with nitrate of soda, 
 each supplying 43 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Two suc- 
 cessive crops of mustard were immediately grown, and 
 the amount of nitrogen removed by the crop was 
 ascertained. Compared with the wholly unmanured 
 plot, the cow-dung alone slightly depressed the crop, 
 about 1 \ lbs. per acre less nitrogen being recovered ; 
 the horse-dung produced a depression of nearly double 
 this amount; the wheat straw produced the greatest 
 depression, its crop containing about 18 lbs. per acre 
 less nitrogen than that given by the unmanured plot. 
 Where straw was used with nitrate of soda the two 
 gave a crop containing 23 lbs. less nitrogen per acre 
 than the nitrate alone; where urine was used alone, 
 the produce contained 25 lbs. more nitrogen per acre 
 than when it was used in conjunction with cow-dung 
 and straw. 
 
 In fine, all the results pointed to the same con- 
 clusion — that large amounts of fresh organic manure 
 not only do not themselves help the crops, but 
 diminish the effect of other rapidly acting nitrogenous 
 manures like nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, or 
 urine. 
 
 The action cannot, in the two latter cases at least, 
 be put down to denitrification proper, unless it is 
 supposed that nitrification and subsequent denitrifica- 
 tion can proceed practically simultaneously in the 
 same soil. It must either be attributed to the fact 
 that nitrification is very much checked by the 
 
vil] LOSSES OF SOIL NITROGEN 201 
 
 presence of large amounts of organic matter; or tc 
 the conversion of readily available nitrogen into a 
 comparatively insoluble albuminoid form in the actual 
 material of the enormous numbers of bacteria that 
 are developed by the free food supply; or, lastly, 
 to those fermentation changes of organic nitrogen com- 
 pounds which result in the liberation of free nitrogen. 
 Several of these changes may take place together ; the 
 essential point is, that nitrification does not go forward 
 in the presence of much organic matter, which instead 
 favours all the bacterial processes resulting in the 
 development of free nitrogen. 
 
 The conditions indeed which prevail in these experi- 
 ments are scarcely comparable with the ordinary practices 
 of agriculture. Enormous quantities of fresh organic 
 manure are employed immediately before the crop is 
 sown, the temperature of the pots, or of the ground in 
 the field experiment quoted, is very high, so that it 
 is easy to see that an abnormal condition, both as 
 regards nitrification and the supply of oxygen and water, 
 must be developed. 
 
 There are not lacking both long-continued experi- 
 ments and ordinary farming experience to show that 
 nitrates and other artificial manures can be used in 
 conjunction with dung with the best effects. 
 
 For example, the mangold crop at Rothamsted 
 shows the following average results for the recovery of 
 nitrogen from various nitrogenous manures used first 
 with mineral manures alone and then with annual 
 dressings of 14 tons per acre of farmyard manure, a 
 quantity that never would be employed so frequently 
 in practice: — 
 
 [Table, 
 
202 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 Nitrogenous Dressing. 
 
 Yield. 
 
 Tons 
 
 per acre. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 In 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Recovered 
 in Crop. 
 
 Percentage 
 recovered 
 per 100 in 
 
 Cross- 
 dressing. 
 
 PLOTS MANURED WITH PHOSPHATES AND ALKALINE SALTS. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda . 
 Ammonium Salts . 
 Rape Cake . • 
 Ammonium Salts and 
 Rape Cake 
 
 17*95 
 
 15*12 
 
 20.95 
 24.91 
 
 86 
 86 
 98 
 
 184 
 
 67.2 
 
 49*3 
 69.4 
 
 103-0 
 
 78.1 
 
 57-3 
 70.9 
 
 56-0 
 
 PLOTS MANURED WITH DUNG. 
 
 Nothing 
 
 Nitrate of Soda . 
 Ammonium Salts . 
 Rape Cake . 
 Ammonium Salts 
 Rape Cake 
 
 and 
 
 17.44 
 24.74 
 
 21-73 
 23-96 
 
 24-05 
 
 200 
 
 63-3 
 
 286 
 
 H5-8 
 
 286 
 
 105.6 
 
 298 
 
 iii»i 
 
 384 
 
 129-8 
 
 3i-6 4 
 61 -o 
 49.2 
 48-8 
 
 36-2 
 
 * Percentage of Nitrogen in dung recovered. 
 
 It will be seen that all the nitrogenous cross dressings 
 produce an increase of crop when added to the farm- 
 yard manure. When the cross dressings are used on 
 plots receiving only non - nitrogenous manures, the 
 nitrogen recovered varies between 56 and 78 per cent, 
 of that supplied in the manure; when they are used 
 in conjunction with dung, the recovery of nitrogen in 
 the increased yield above that produced by dung alone 
 varies between 36 and 61 per cent. That the recovery is 
 smaller in the latter cases is due to the fact that with such 
 excessive amounts the yield ceases to be proportional 
 to the supply of nitrogen, being limited by other factors. 
 Denitrification is only likely to cause rapid loss 
 of nitrogen when large quantities of nitrate are 
 applied to undrained or sour land, or when they are 
 
vil] LOSSES OF SOIL NITROGEN 203 
 
 used with excessive amounts of fresh dung, which has 
 not been rotted and so deprived of much of its soluble 
 organic matter. Of course, a steady loss of nitrogen 
 due to such causes as have been enumerated above must 
 also be expected wherever large quantities of organic 
 nitrogenous manures are accumulating in the land. If, 
 for example, we compare 2 and 3 of the Broadbalk wheat 
 plots at Rothamsted, the latter of which is unmanured 
 and the former receives dung containing 200 lbs. of 
 nitrogen per acre every year, we find that at the end 
 of the fifty years, 1844-93, the dunged plot contained 
 in the top 18 inches about 2680 lbs. more nitrogen than 
 the unmanured plot, or a mean annual accumulation of 
 50 lbs. The extra crop grown on the dunged plot 
 would remove a further 31 lbs., thus leaving 119 lbs. 
 per annum to be accounted for, either as nitrogen 
 washed away in the drainage water or lost as gaseous 
 nitrogen by denitrification processes. 
 
 Iron Bacteria. 
 
 Another series of bacteria playing an interesting 
 part in certain soils, consists of those which secrete 
 hydrated ferric oxide or bog-iron ore in undrained soils, 
 where the soil water contains ferrous bicarbonate in 
 solution. Winogradsky investigated four of these 
 organisms, to whose vital processes he considered the 
 presence of soluble ferrous salts was essential. Molisch, 
 however, regards the secretion of ferric hydrate as, in 
 a sense, an accidental accompaniment of their growth, 
 much as the separation of large quantities of silica, so 
 characteristic of the straw of cereals, is unessential to 
 their development. It has already been noted that 
 these iron earths do not form in soils containing calcium 
 carbonate, which seems to prevent the formation of any 
 soluble ferrous compounds. 
 
204 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 Fungi of Importance in the Soil. 
 
 Allusion has already been made to the fact that a 
 large number of fungi inhabit the soil — Penicillium y 
 Mucor, Trichoderma, Spicaria, etc., Cladosporium, Clado- 
 thrix, and various wild yeasts, Monilia, etc. — all of 
 which aid in breaking down the organic matter. Many 
 of these fungi possess the power of attacking ammonium 
 salts applied as manure, withdrawing the ammonia and 
 setting free the acid. To this action is due the acidity 
 produced by the long-continued use of ammonium salts 
 as manure, as seen on the experimental plots at Rotham- 
 sted and Woburn. At Woburn the soil is light and 
 sandy, containing but little lime, and the application of 
 ammonium salts containing 50 lbs. ammonia per acre 
 every season for twenty-four years, has rendered the 
 land practically incapable of carrying the crops. A 
 moderate dressing of lime, however, restores the fertility. 
 The following crops were obtained in 1900 on the barley 
 plots : — 
 
 
 Ammonium Salts 
 only. 
 
 Minerals 
 + Ammonium Salts. 
 
 With no Lime .... 
 
 With 2 tons Lime, applied Nov. 
 
 1897 . . . . . 
 
 5-6 
 28-9 
 
 12.3 
 
 33-7 
 
 The soil had become acid to litmus paper where the 
 lime had not been used : it is interesting to note that 
 though barley would not grow, oats flourished freely on 
 this sour soil. There are, however, two special organisms 
 which merit further consideration — the fungus which 
 clothes the finer rootlets of many classes of plants, 
 forming mycorhiza and the slime fungus, or Plasmodio- 
 phora which causes the disease known as "finger-and- 
 toe " or " club " in turnips and other cruciferous plants. 
 
VII.] MYCORHIZA 205 
 
 The term " mycorhiza " is applied to the symbiotic 
 combination of the filaments of certain fungi, whose 
 complete development is as yet unknown, with the 
 finest rootlets of certain plants. Sometimes the fungus 
 forms a sort of cap on the exterior of the short root- 
 lets, which are generally without root hairs; in other 
 cases it penetrates the cortical tissue of the root itself, 
 which may also be furnished with root hairs. Accord- 
 ing to the researches of Frank, the fungus of the 
 mycorhiza lives in symbiosis with the higher plant, 
 attacking the humus and also the mineral resources of 
 the soil, and passing on the food thus obtained to the 
 host plant. In some few cases the host plant possesses 
 no green assimilating leaves, and is wholly dependent 
 upon mycorhiza to obtain its necessary carbon from 
 the humus. Such a case is seen in the Neottia Nidus- 
 avis, or Birds' Nest Orchis, to be found chiefly amongst 
 beech underwood in this country. 
 
 More generally, the host plant is capable of nutri- 
 tion in the ordinary way when growing in media in 
 which nutrient salts are abundant, but becomes myco- 
 trophic in soils and situations unfavourable to the pro- 
 duction of directly absorbable food — as, for example, in 
 heaths and moors, where the soil is almost wholly 
 humus, or beneath the shade of trees, where nitrates are 
 rarely found and where illumination is insufficient for 
 much assimilation. Later researches, particularly those 
 of Stahl, have shown that the symbiosis of mycorhiza, 
 instead of being a phenomenon restricted to a few 
 species, is widely diffused among many classes of plants, 
 and is indeed causally connected with other facts of wide 
 general importance in plant nutrition. It has already 
 been indicated that the cultivated plants give off con- 
 siderable quantities of water by transpiration ; the form 
 and arrangement of their leaves are adapted to expose 
 
206 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 a large evaporating surface, the root is well developed 
 and provided with root hairs to keep up the supply of 
 water to the plant. There are, however, a number of 
 plants in which transpiration is much less active, and 
 the leaf area is restricted or otherwise arranged to 
 diminish the loss of water, so that the proportion 
 previously stated as existing between the dry matter 
 produced and the water passing through the plants 
 is greatly diminished. A diminished supply of water to 
 the root would, however, necessitate a loss of nutri- 
 ment to the plant, as both nitrates and other mineral 
 salts enter the plant with the transpiration water. 
 Stahl has shown that, in general, these plants with a 
 small transpiration activity are furnished with mycor- 
 hiza, by means of which they obtain food of all kinds 
 from the soil ; whereas, on the contrary, the plants, 
 like the cereals, the cruciferous and leguminous plants, 
 Solanaceae, etc., which give off water freely, are never 
 associated with mycorhiza. Many of the conifers and 
 heaths which grow on dry soils show this correlation 
 of a low evaporation and restricted leaf development 
 with a root-system furnished with mycorhiza. 
 
 Another interesting generalisation has also been 
 brought into line with the above facts by the observa- 
 tions of Stahl that the mycotrophic plants with a 
 feeble transpiration do not store starch in their leaves, 
 but contain instead considerable quantities of soluble 
 carbohydrates, chiefly glucose. In normal plants, though 
 sugar is the first tangible result of assimilation, it is 
 rapidly removed from the sphere of action by being 
 converted into starch, such withdrawal of the product 
 of the reaction being necessary if a rapid rate of 
 assimilation is to be maintained. Should, however, 
 sugar accumulate in the cells, the concentration of the 
 cell sap is increased, so that it parts with its water 
 
vil] MYCORHIZA 207 
 
 by transpiration less readily. Though many excep- 
 tions can be observed, there seems to be a very 
 general association of the development of mycorhiza 
 with a diminished transpiration and the absence of 
 starch from the leaf, especially among plants like the 
 orchids, lilies, iris, etc., which often grow in dry or 
 shady situations, such plants being further distinguish- 
 able by a shiny, glossy leaf surface. Stahl has again 
 shown that the average proportion of ash to dry 
 matter in the leaf is lower for mycotrophic than for 
 normal plants; the former grow, as a rule, in situa- 
 tions containing but little mineral salts, particularly 
 in humic soils, where, in addition, the plant is put 
 into competition for whatever nutriment may be present 
 with the mycelia of fungi, which everywhere traverse 
 humus in its natural state. By direct experiment, it 
 has been shown that normal plants grown in humus 
 develop better when the humus is previously sterilised 
 by long exposure to chloroform vapour than when it 
 is in its fresh condition, full of living mycelia com- 
 peting successfully for the nutriment. The absence 
 in the leaf of calcium oxalate and of nitrates is 
 particularly characteristic of mycotrophic plants. 
 
 Stahl concludes that symbiosis between the roots of 
 plants and the mycelia of fungi is a very general 
 phenomenon, especially characteristic of plants growing 
 in soils subject to drought, or poor in mineral salts, 
 or rich in humus. These mycotrophic plants are 
 generally of slow growth, possess a feeble transpiration, 
 and limited root development ; their leaves rarely con- 
 tain starch ; they are also characterised by containing a 
 comparatively small proportion of mineral salts, among 
 which calcium oxalate and nitrate are notably absent. 
 
 To the mycorhiza associated with plants of the 
 genus Erica the power of fixing atmospheric nitrogen 
 
2o8 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. 
 
 has been attributed, but the question still requires further 
 investigation. 
 
 The existence of mycotrophy has certain interesting 
 applications in practice; there are many plants which 
 can only be cultivated with difficulty in gardens ; for 
 example, some of the orchids, ericas, lilies, and others, 
 generally plants which must be grown in leaf-mould, 
 peat, or other material rich in humus. Yet humus 
 alone is not always sufficient for the purpose, the peat 
 or leaf-mould has often to be obtained from a particular 
 place; other materials, though equally rich in humus 
 and possessing similar mechanical properties, prove 
 quite unsuitable. It is easy to surmise that this effect, 
 confined in the main to mycotrophic plants and humic 
 soils, may easily be due to the absence of the proper 
 fungus from the soils found to be unsuitable. 
 
 It has also been shown that the difficulty usually 
 experienced in raising seedlings of exotic orchids, 
 which die off in great number just after they have 
 germinated, may, to a large extent, be obviated by 
 mixing with the medium in which the seeds are sown 
 a little of the material in which the parent plants are 
 growing. The young seedling is found to develop 
 mycorhiza at a very early stage, and then only will 
 grow properly. 
 
 " Finger-and- Toe" 
 
 On many soils, particularly those of a sandy nature, 
 the turnip crop is often almost wholly destroyed by the 
 disease known as " finger-and-toe," " club," or " anbury." 
 Cabbages and other cruciferous crops are equally at- 
 tacked ; so much so, that in gardens which have become 
 infected it is practically impossible to raise crops of 
 this nature. The disease is caused by an organism, 
 Plasmodiophora brassicce, belonging to the slime fungi, 
 
VII.] 
 
 * FINGER-AND-TOE » 
 
 209 
 
 and forming spores which may remain dormant in the 
 soil for some time, certainly for two or three years. It 
 has long been known that the best remedy against finger- 
 and-toe consists in the application of lime; and as far 
 back as 1859, Voelcker showed that soils on which this 
 disease is prevalent are deficient in lime ; and in many 
 cases in potash also. Later researches have only served 
 to emphasise the fact that the disease is associated with 
 soils of an acid reaction, in which calcium carbonate is 
 wanting, or present in very small proportions. The 
 fungus, as is generally the case with fungi, refuses to 
 grow in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium, and the 
 only way to get rid of the infection in the land is to 
 restore its neutrality by repeated dressings of lime. At 
 the same time, the land should be rested as long as 
 possible from cruciferous crops ; uneaten fragments of 
 diseased turnips, etc., should not be allowed to go into 
 the dung, or if they do, the dung should be used on 
 the grass land. Manures, again, which remove calcium 
 carbonate from the soil, like sulphate of ammonia, or 
 acid manures like superphosphate, should not be em- 
 ployed ; neutral or basic phosphates, with sulphate of 
 potash on sandy soils, should be employed instead. 
 
 The following figures show the amount of lime dis- 
 solved by hydrochloric acid from soils affected with 
 " finger-and-toe," as compared with spots in the same 
 field where the disease was not in evidence : — 
 
 
 Lime per cent. 
 
 Voelcker. 
 
 Voelcker. 
 
 Hall. 
 
 Sandy Soil. 
 
 Clay Soil. 
 
 Soils affected 
 by disease . 
 
 Soils free from 
 disease . . 
 
 .14 
 
 .89 
 
 .084 
 •52 
 
 •13 
 
 •43 
 
 •31 
 ••• 
 
 •39 
 
 o 
 
210 THE LIVING ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL [chap. vii. 
 
 It must be remembered that in these cases the total 
 lime soluble in acids is given, not merely the lime 
 present in carbonate. 
 
 Whenever a turnip crop is seen to be infected with 
 " finger-and-toe " the land should be well dressed with 
 3 or 4 tons per acre of quicklime immediately the 
 crop has been removed ; as long an interval as possible 
 should be given before again taking a cruciferous crop, 
 substituting, for example, mangolds for turnips in the 
 next rotation ; every effort should be made to destroy 
 cruciferous weeds like charlock ; turnip-fed dung should 
 not be applied, and another dressing of finely divided 
 quicklime should be put on for the crop preceding 
 the sowing of the new turnip crop. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS 
 
 Retention of Manures by the Soil — The Absorption of Ammonia 
 and its Salts ; of Potash ; of Phosphoric Acid — Chemical and 
 Physical Agencies at Work — The Non-Retention of Nitrates 
 — The Composition of Drainage Waters — Loss of Nitrates 
 by the Land — Time of Application of Manures. 
 
 Many of the substances employed as manures are 
 soluble in water, hence it becomes important to ascer- 
 tain what is likely to be their fate in the soil, when 
 their application is followed by sufficient rain to cause 
 percolation into the subsoil. Of substances contain- 
 ing nitrogen, nitrate of soda, the salts of ammonia, 
 urea, and kindred bodies, are freely soluble in water; 
 superphosphate alone of the compounds of phos- 
 phoric acid commonly used as manure is soluble; but 
 sulphate, chloride, and carbonate of potash are easily 
 soluble. 
 
 Not long after the principles underlying the nutri- 
 tion of plants had been established, Thompson and Way 
 showed that ordinary soil possesses the power of with- 
 drawing most of the above substances from solution, 
 and so saving them from washing away into the subsoil 
 or the drains. Some of the salts, like sulphate of 
 ammonia, are decomposed, the base alone being re- 
 
 211 
 
212 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 tained and the acid draining through. Way found 
 that liquid manure from a dung-heap, which contains 
 both organic and ammoniacal compounds of nitrogen, 
 potash, and a little phosphoric acid, when filtered through 
 a short column of soil, parted with almost the whole of 
 its organic matter and much of its salts to the soil; 
 compounds of calcium were, however, more abundant in 
 the filtered liquid than before. Way's observations 
 were extended by Voelcker, who compared the absorb- 
 ing powers of different types of soils, and so obtained an 
 idea of the method by which the absorption of each 
 substance was effected ; and later researches have only 
 served to confirm the results then obtained. It was 
 found that all the organic compounds of nitrogen, 
 ammonia — either free or in combination — phosphoric 
 acid, and potash were wholly removed from solution 
 by ordinary soil, though some soils were more effective 
 than others ; whereas nitrates, sulphates, chlorides, and, 
 among bases, sodium and calcium, were only slightly, 
 if at all, retained. These results are confirmed by the 
 analysis of the water which flows from land drains 
 under normal conditions; this will generally be found 
 to contain nitrates (sometimes in fair quantity), sulphates 
 and chlorides of calcium and sodium, and considerable 
 amounts of calcium bicarbonate, but rarely shows more 
 than a trace of ammonia, phosphoric acid, or potash. 
 The absorptive action of the soil is partly a chemical 
 process, due to interactions with the humus, the zeolitic 
 double silicates, and the calcium carbonate of the soil ; 
 and partly physical, dependent upon the extent of 
 surface offered by the soil particles (for the surface of a 
 solid possesses the power of concentrating molecules of 
 any dissolved substance in the layer of solution with 
 which it is immediately in contact). The mechanism of 
 this physical " adsorption " is but imperfectly understood 
 
Vlii.] ABSORPTION OF NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS 213 
 
 but even pure sand will remove sodium chloride from 
 solution if the filtering column be sufficiently long; it 
 may, again, be illustrated by the phenomenon of 
 "laking," i.e., the power of certain colloid bodies, like 
 the hydrates of iron and alumina, on precipitation, to 
 drag down with themselves many organic substances 
 from solution. 
 
 The absorption of the organic compounds of nitrogen 
 by the soil seems to be a physical process of this kind, 
 comparable to the action of charcoal in absorbing 
 ammonia or the strongly smelling products of putre- 
 faction, etc. The deodorising powers of earth for 
 faecal and decomposing matter are very familiar; this 
 means that fixation in a more or less insoluble and 
 non-volatile state of various organic nitrogen and sulphur 
 compounds is effected, and other inodorous nitrogen 
 compounds are retained in the same way. The 
 absorption is most marked with soils rich in humus 
 or in clay — the soil materials which present the 
 largest surface. The absorptive power of soil for 
 organic compounds of nitrogen is well seen in a 
 sewage farm, the object of which is to so far purify 
 sewage by percolation through a few feet of soil, as 
 to fit it to be turned into a river without danger to 
 health. For example, on the Manchester Sewage 
 Works, in 1900, percolation through 5 feet of soil 
 reduced the organic nitrogen in the liquid from 0-26 to 
 0-056 parts per million, and the free ammonia from 1-89 
 to 0-92. It is necessary, also, on a sewage farm to work 
 with soils possessing but a small absorbing power ; only 
 sandy and gravelly soils will permit of rapid enough 
 percolation, both to deal with large volumes of sew- 
 age and afterwards to aerate themselves and accom- 
 plish the destruction by bacterial action of the absorbed 
 material. Stiffer soils would be far more effectual 
 
214 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 absorbents of the sewage material, but are unsuitable 
 because they do not admit of percolation. 
 
 Absorption of Ammonium Salts. 
 
 The absorption of free ammonia follows the lines 
 indicated above for the absorption of the organic com- 
 pounds of nitrogen ; but the salts of ammonia are 
 retained by the soil by purely chemical processes which 
 result in the formation of insoluble salts of ammonia in 
 the nature of double silicates and humates. Way and 
 Voelcker first found, that when either the sulphate, 
 chloride, or nitrate of ammonia in solution is allowed to 
 remain in contact with soil, the base is absorbed, but the 
 acid portion of the salt remains in solution in combina- 
 tion with lime. Voelcker also showed that when soil 
 was shaken up with dilute solutions of ammonium salts, 
 the withdrawal of ammonia from the solution was never 
 complete, but varied both with the nature of the soil and 
 the strength of the solution, a greater proportion being 
 taken from weak than from strong solutions. 
 
 The absorption of the ammonium salts by the soil is 
 now known to be due to the combined effects of at least 
 three actions — upon the zeolites, upon the humus, and 
 upon calcium carbonate. With the zeolites a double 
 decomposition takes place, ammonium becomes insoluble, 
 and equivalent amounts of calcium, magnesium, potas- 
 sium (sodium also on occasion) enter into combination 
 with the acid in the solution, for no acid is absorbed 
 and the whole solution remains neutral. 
 
 The reaction is a reversible one, but the clay con- 
 taining the zeolites is not capable of absorbing more 
 than a certain small amount of ammonium from the 
 strongest solutions of its salts. The following table 
 shows the ammonia absorbed by ioo grams of very 
 
VIII.] 
 
 ABSORPTION OF AMMONIA 
 
 215 
 
 pure clay when shaken with 300 c.c. of ammonium 
 chloride solution of varying strengths. 
 
 Original 
 
 Concentration of 
 
 Solution. 
 
 Ammonia 
 Withdrawn. 
 
 Ammonia 
 Withdrawn. 
 
 N/IO 
 N/12 
 
 N/15 
 N/20 
 N/30 
 N/50 
 
 N/100 
 
 Grams. 
 
 0-126 
 
 0-II5 
 
 0-104 
 
 0-090 
 
 0-068 
 
 0-049 
 
 0.031 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 247 
 28-1 
 
 30-5 
 35-3 
 40-3 
 48.0 
 60-0 
 
 Thus from the weaker solutions a smaller total but a 
 larger proportion of the ammonia was removed by the 
 clay, and the removal was never complete. Of course, 
 in the field the amount of soil is so enormously in excess 
 that the absorption of ammonium salts applied as 
 manure is practically complete. Thus at Rothamsted 
 the presence of ammonia in the drainage water is rarely 
 detected, even when heavy rain immediately follows the 
 application of the manures. 
 
 With humus, ammonium salts interact in a very 
 similar fashion, calcium coming into solution, and the 
 ammonium forming some insoluble compound with the 
 complex " humic " acids. 
 
 With calcium carbonate a double decomposition of 
 the type — 
 
 (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 + CaC0 3 ^Z± (NH 4 ) 2 C0 8 + CaS0 4 
 
 — takes place, not only with such substances as 
 ammonium sulphate, but also with humic and zeolitic 
 compounds of ammonium, and though the proportion 
 converted into carbonate is small, it is constantly 
 renewed as the ammonium carbonate is nitrified, so that 
 eventually the whole of the ammonium salt applied to 
 the land undergoes this change. 
 
216 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 In consequence, the continued use of ammonium 
 salts as a fertiliser results in the depletion of the stores 
 of calcium carbonate in the soil, as may be seen from 
 the following determinations of the rate of disappearance 
 between 1865 and 1904, of calcium carbonate from 
 some of the soils of the Rothamsted wheat field where 
 the calcium carbonate is of artificial origin and is con- 
 fined to the surface layer of the soil. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 Manuring. 
 
 Bate of Loss 
 
 of 
 
 Calcium Carbonate. 
 
 3 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 Per acre per annum. 
 Unmanured ...•••• 
 
 „ „ + 200 lbs. Ammonium Salts 
 »» it +400 „ „ 
 
 M »> +600 „ „ 
 
 „ „ +412 lbs. Sodium Nitrate . 
 400 lbs. Ammonium Salts only • 
 Farmyard Manure ...... 
 
 Lbs. per acre 
 per annum. 
 
 800 
 
 880 
 1170 
 IOIO 
 
 1170 
 
 565 
 
 1045 
 590 
 
 Thus the use of ammonium salts increases the 
 normal loss of calcium carbonate experienced by the 
 soil (due to solution as bicarbonate), and the amount 
 removed increases with the larger applications of 
 ammonium salts. Taking the mean of these and other 
 results obtained at Rothamsted, 200 lbs. of ammonium 
 salts causes a removal of about 120 lbs. calcium 
 carbonate, whereas the amount calculated from the 
 equation given above would be about 160 lbs. That 
 the loss from the plots receiving sodium nitrate and 
 dung is less than from the unmanured plot, is due, in 
 the former case, to the base left in the soil by the growth 
 of plants which derive their nitrogen from sodium nitrate, 
 and in the latter, to calcium carbonate formed by 
 bacterial action from organic calcium salts in the dung. 
 
VIII.J 
 
 POTASH 
 
 217 
 
 The Absorption of Potash. 
 
 In all respects the absorption of potash follows the 
 same laws as that of ammonia : Le. y caustic potash 
 is absorbed directly, but sulphate, nitrate, and chloride 
 of potash undergo a double decomposition, by which the 
 potash is retained and calcium sulphate, nitrate, or 
 chloride, appear in the water draining through the soil. 
 Voelcker found in laboratory experiments with small 
 quantities of soil that potassium carbonate was more 
 freely absorbed than sulphate, and that clays, marls, 
 and pasture soils were more effective in retaining potash 
 than light loams or sands, which latter had but little 
 absorbing power. 
 
 The following table shows some of the results 
 obtained when potash and soda salts were compared : — 
 
 Percentage retained. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Soda. 
 
 Chalky Loam • 
 Clay • • 
 Sandy Loam • 
 Pasture . • • 
 Loam • . • • 
 Ironstone Sand • 
 
 3-6 
 
 4.0 
 
 2-6 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-4 
 I- 1 
 
 o-8 
 i-i 
 06 
 
 I-O 
 I-O 
 
 0.6 
 
 Both the humus and the zeolitic double silicates take 
 part in the retention of the potash salts, the reactions 
 being exactly similar to those taking place with the 
 ammonium salts. In some of Way's experiments with 
 pure clays the application of potash salts was followed 
 by the appearance of the corresponding sodium salts in 
 the percolating water, though with most soils it is 
 calcium that is turned out of combination. Potash salts 
 applied to the soil also react to a certain extent with the 
 calcium carbonate, giving rise to a little potassium 
 carbonate, the bad effect of which upon the tilth of the 
 
218 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 soil will be considered later (p. 253). Dyer has examined 
 the soils of the Rothamsted wheat plots which had then 
 been continuously manured in the same way for fifty 
 years, with the view of tracing the fate of the mineral 
 manures applied. The following table shows a com- 
 parison of the amounts of potash soluble in strong hydro- 
 chloric acid, in lbs. per acre, found in the top 9 inches 
 of soil from four of the plots; one (No. 11) received 
 nitrogen and phosphates, but no potash, every year, the 
 others were variously manured, but all received 200 lbs. 
 per acre of sulphate of potash. Estimates are also given 
 of the total amount of potash applied as manure and 
 removed in the crops over the whole period, so that in 
 the last two columns a comparison can be made between 
 the actual surplus of potash in the manured over the 
 unmanured soils, and the surplus calculated from the 
 differences between the potash added in the manure 
 and removed in the crops : — 
 
 Plot and Manuring, 
 per Aero. 
 
 Potash— Lbs. per Acre. 
 
 Surplus 
 over Plot 11. 
 
 In top 
 
 9 inches 
 of Soil. 
 
 3 s 
 
 3S 
 
 8? & 
 
 > 
 n 
 
 rS a 
 
 3 
 
 
 c— 1 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 
 11, receiving no Potash . 
 7, receiving 200 lbs. Sul- 
 phate of Potash 
 5, receiving 200 lbs. Sul- 
 phate of Potash 
 13, receiving 200 lbs. Sul- 
 phate of Potash 
 
 5107 
 6793 
 7233 
 7078 
 
 15 
 
 5037 
 5203 
 5287 
 
 1 190 
 
 2550 
 
 1136 
 2410 
 
 ••• 
 3662 
 5242 
 4052 
 
 ••* 
 
 1686 
 2126 
 1971 
 
 On the whole, about one-half of the estimated surplus 
 of potash received by the manured plots still remains in 
 the top 9 inches of soil. 
 
 Dyer further estimated the proportions of potash in 
 the same soils which was soluble in a I per cent, solu- 
 
VIII.] 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID 
 
 2I<) 
 
 tion of citric acid, and found that both the surface and 
 the subsoil down to a depth of 27 inches contained more 
 of this readily soluble potash where it had been applied 
 as manure, than did the companion plot receiving no 
 potash, as will be seen from the following table : — 
 
 Plot. 
 
 Lbs. per Acre of Potash, soluble 
 in 1 per cent. Citric Acid. 
 
 Surplus over Plot 11. 
 
 First 
 9 inches. 
 
 Second 
 9 inches. 
 
 Third 
 9 inches. 
 
 Calculated. 
 
 Found. 
 
 II 
 7 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 83 
 602 
 
 799 
 487 
 
 75 
 374 
 598 
 363 
 
 IOI 
 179 
 257 
 235 
 
 3662 
 5242 
 4052 
 
 896 
 
 1395- 
 
 826 
 
 These determinations show that soluble potash salts 
 applied to the land are retained chiefly by the surface 
 soil, as much as one-half of the estimated additions of 
 potash during fifty years' manuring being found there. 
 Some of the potash, however, sinks further and is 
 retained in the subsoil ; in the top 27 inches a large 
 proportion — nearly one-quarter of the whole — remains 
 in such a loose state of combination that it is soluble 
 in 1 per cent, citric acid, and so may be regarded as 
 available for the plant 
 
 Absorption of Phosphoric Acid. 
 
 The retention of soluble phosphoric acid by the soil 
 is more easily intelligible, for there are present several 
 substances capable of forming insoluble compounds 
 with phosphoric acid — e.g., calcium carbonate, hydrated 
 ferric oxide, and the hydrated silicates of alumina which 
 make up so much of clay. Sand and powdered silicates 
 like felspar have been found to possess little or no 
 power of removing phosphoric acid from solution, nor 
 
220 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 have either soil, clay, or peat which have been pre- 
 viously washed with hydrochloric acid. 
 
 The following table shows the percentages of the 
 total phosphoric acid supplied, which were removed 
 from solution by various soils after remaining in con- 
 tact for the specified times, the ratio between soil and 
 phosphoric acid being about iooo to E. 
 
 Percentage of Phosphoric Acid Absorbed (Voelcker). 
 
 
 After 1 day. 
 
 After 8 days. 
 
 After 26 days. 
 
 Red Loam • • 
 Chalky Soil • • • 
 Stiff Clay • • • 
 Stiff Subsoil • • • 
 Light Sandy Soil • . 
 
 60 
 
 89 
 
 51 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 78 
 
 99 
 62 
 
 69 
 
 59 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 86 
 
 74 
 73 
 
 In an ordinary soil containing a sufficiency of 
 calcium carbonate, the application of soluble phosphoric 
 acid like superphosphate will chiefly result in the 
 precipitation of di-calcium or "reverted" phosphate, 
 wherever the solution meets with a particle of calcium 
 carbonate. This di-calcium phosphate is a compound 
 easily soluble in weak organic acids or in water con- 
 taining carbonic acid : hence the great value of applica- 
 tions of superphosphate on soils rich in lime, for thus a 
 readily available phosphate is very quickly disseminated 
 throughout the ground in a state of fine division. But 
 on soils poor in calcium carbonate the precipitation will 
 be chiefly effected by the hydrated iron and aluminium 
 compounds, and the resulting phosphates are practically 
 insoluble in water containing carbonic acid, and but 
 little in saline solutions or in weak organic acids. 
 Hence applications of superphosphate to such soils 
 become much less available to the crop, and should be 
 preceded by a thorough liming of the land. Even a 
 
Viii.] PHOSPHORIC ACID 221 
 
 subsequent liming on soils containing phosphates of 
 iron or alumina will help to bring them into a more 
 available form, because a double decomposition result- 
 ing in calcium phosphate and aluminium or ferric 
 hydrate, will proceed to an extent dependent on the 
 mass of lime present in the medium. 
 
 Further evidence of the precipitation of phosphoric 
 acid within the soil is afforded by Dyer's examination 
 of the Rothamsted wheat soils at various depths, after 
 fifty years' continuous manuring with and without super- 
 phosphate. By comparing the amount of phosphoric 
 acid contained in the soil of the unmanured plot 
 with that contained in the soils of the plots receiv- 
 ing superphosphate every year, and knowing also the 
 amount removed by the successive crops in each case, 
 it is possible to calculate the surplus that should 
 remain in the manured over the unmanured plots, on 
 the assumption that the soil was uniform at starting. 
 Calculating in this way, Dyer found that no less than 
 83 per cent, of the phosphoric acid which six of the 
 plots should possess after fifty years' manuring was 
 still present in the top 9 inches of soil, whereas the 
 subsoils from 9 inches to 18 inches, and 18 inches to 
 27 inches, showed no accumulation of phosphates. 
 Dyer further determined the phosphoric acid which 
 was soluble in a I per cent, solution of citric acid, 
 and found that on the manured plots the top 9 inches 
 of soil contained about 39 per cent, of the estimated 
 surplus of phosphoric acid so combined as to be 
 soluble in this medium, whereas in the subsoils the 
 "available" phosphoric acid was, if anything, less for 
 the manured than for the unmanured plots. It has 
 already been pointed out (p. 163) that if the extraction 
 with citric acid be repeated, practically the whole of the 
 phosphoric acid applied as manure and not removed in 
 
Ill POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 the crop can be recovered from the top 9 inches of these 
 Rothamsted soils. It is clear, then, that soils well 
 provided with calcium carbonate, as the Rothamsted soil 
 is, will precipitate very near the surface any soluble 
 phosphoric acid applied, and retain it for a long time in 
 a form easily redissolved and obtainable by the plant. 
 It follows, therefore, that superphosphate, the most 
 soluble of the phosphatic manures, can be applied to 
 normal soils in the winter or early spring without any 
 fear of the phosphoric acid being washed out. 
 
 The Composition of Drainage Waters. 
 
 Further evidence of the fate of the various substances 
 applied as manures, their retention or otherwise by the 
 soil, can be obtained by studying the composition of the 
 water flowing from land drains. 
 
 The drainage from the continuously manured wheat 
 plots at Rothamsted, each of which possesses a tile drain 
 running down the centre at a depth of 2 feet to 2 feet 
 6 inches, has been collected from time to time and com- 
 pletely analysed by Voelcker and Frankland ; in addition, 
 systematic determinations of the nitrogen contents have 
 been made for many years. In a general way, the chief 
 constituent of the various drainage waters is lime, either 
 as bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride, or nitrate; soda is 
 the only other base present in any quantity, very small 
 amounts of magnesia, potash, and ammonia pass into 
 the drains. Of the acid radicles, chlorine and 
 sulphuric acid predominate according to the manuring, 
 and the proportion of phosphoric acid is minute ; but 
 the amount of nitric acid varies according to the 
 manure applied and the season at which the water is 
 collected. 
 
 The following table shows the complete analysis of 
 the drainage water from twelve of the plots : — 
 
VIII.] 
 
 ROTHAMSTED DRAINAGE WATERS 
 
 223 
 
 iH 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 -J 
 
 < 
 
 00 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 © 
 49 
 
 a 
 M 
 ft 
   
 
 
 A 
 
 ft 
 
 CQ 
 + 
 
 ■BtsauSBK; jo 
 ^Bqd[Tis+ 
 
 m n ^^9 9 ^9 *** ?*" *> 9 9 s 9 
 
 VO ON O VO M H lOtO^ONHVO "+ 
 
 lo i-h c^ h co On vr» hi 
 
 VO 
 00 
 
 ON 
 
 vn 
 
 eo 
 
 •qe^oj jo 
 
 9^Bqd{ri8+ 
 
 VO ON 
 
 co rh t-t rf- co co hi nvO On O m co 
 
 vo t-» 6 hi ON covo covO O h hoo 
 t*- 11 O coco vn ci 
 
 CO 
 
 ■+ 
 
 vo 
 
 CI 
 r-t 
 
 "epog jo 
 e;«qding+ 
 
 O vO 
 co m covO vp NvO vO CT>N WVO ON 
 
 ON vr» O hi vO W 4h CO 6 vO m rf-t>. 
 IN hi ON <N co On VO m 
 1-4 
 
 6 
 
 CO 
 
 vn 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 
 r«* vo 
 tJ- CO HH vO co p vp rf-vo covo ON «o 
 
 OOinO^'lNHVOWH 4h HI -+H 
 
 CO ►-< vO MVO 4« 
 
 l-l 
 
 vn 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 00 rh 
 
 vo on 9 m ^ pN ? 9 9 t*" T** "^" 9 1 
 
 co co 6 rhNH *>» rh W 4h vo 6 
 co hi xn co rf- rh hi 
 M 
 
 o> 
 
 v6 
 O 
 
 Oi 
 
 4 
 a 
 
   
   
 
 ft 
 
 "epos jo a^Bi^iN 
 *sqi 099+ 
 
 5 
 
 I^t|-«njmO > >mw»h09 9*9 
 vo ob 6 00 ur> 4j-vo vn w hi   co 6 
 
 d HI HI \Ti »H ^- • t^ hH 
 
 ON 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 
 e» 
 
 •s^«g umiuouirav 
 •sqi 00*+ 
 
 n hi 
 o> 9 ^" C P9^9 > *^ *? *? 9*9 9 
 
 "t^OHOONOOOVOOOOON 
 
 COHI OO HI dO> VO NH 
 
 M 
 
 ON 
 
 to 
 
 •s^sg umiuoniaiv 
 *sqi 003+ 
 
 Th 
 
 NU)(H ONON^NN^covop N 
 vnob 6 WNrhO N 6 Mm cVi^ 
 o» Th m w n vn cn 
 
 M 
 
 VO 
 O 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 O CO HI 
 
 Mm m *f> "^" ^t" ^- "**• f M C^rhrh 
 cViui 6 rj-vo vo hi TfHivO O rf- vo 
 
 HI CN HI HI VO ■+ HI 
 HI 
 
 9 
 vo 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 O N co 
 
 O^ h m hi *>. *>» ^ nvo hi on 
 <* co6oovomv6vo6 "+600 6 
 
 C| ON m e< tJ- i-i 
 
 vO 
 
 ea 
 
 Q 
 
 VO 
 1-1 m i-h tJ- on rt* r^vo ^ hi (on 
 
 VO^O 6 N^vnfON O^O ! CO vo 
 
 N H Tj- M VNO*Tt-CO 
 M HI 
 
 HI 
 VO 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 IS 
 
 "3 
 
 +-» 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 . § . 
 
 ij ^ <« c *s < -2 
 
 ± ^ ^ -^ Hi * -£ p^3 cj^ 
 O^^Hjsa,wOOcoPkOvX) 
 
224 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS |chap. 
 
 An examination of these figures shows that the 
 amount of organic matter and ammonia reaching the 
 drains is practically nil; the organic matter supplied 
 as dung, and the ammonia, which is employed up to 
 400 lbs. of mixed ammonium chloride and sulphate per 
 acre, are wholly retained by the soil. The effect, how- 
 ever, of adding either organic compounds of nitrogen or 
 ammonium salts is to increase the proportion of nitrates 
 in the drainage water. Lime is the chief constituent of 
 the dissolved matter in the drainage waters, the propor- 
 tion is lowest for the unmanured plot (3), it rises with 
 the application of minerals (5), and rises again with each 
 successive application of ammonium salts (6) and (7). The 
 formation of calcium chloride and sulphate respectively, 
 when the corresponding ammonium salts are applied to 
 land containing calcium carbonate, has already been 
 discussed : it is well seen in the increased richness in 
 lime, sulphuric acid, and chlorine of the drainage water 
 from 6 and 7, which receive 200 and 400 lbs. respectively 
 of ammonium salts, as compared with 5, which receives 
 the same minerals without any nitrogen compounds. Plot 
 1 1 receives superphosphate in addition to the ammonium 
 salts which 10 receives: the effect of the gypsum con- 
 tained in the superphosphate is seen in the increased 
 lime and sulphuric acid content of the drainage water of 
 1 1. The increase is not so great, however, as that caused 
 by the addition of sulphates of potash and magnesia to 
 the superphosphate and ammonium salts (plots 13 and 14) 
 whereas sulphate of soda causes little loss of lime (12). 
 The use of nitrate of soda on plot 9 causes no increase 
 in the proportion of lime in the drainage water, but a 
 large quantity is removed, chiefly as sulphate, from plot 
 2, receiving dung every year. The quantity of lime 
 removed annually in this way will be very great: 
 assuming a mean annual drainage equal to 10 inches 
 
Viii.j LOSSES TO SOIL IN DRAINAGE WATERS 2S5 
 
 of water, the unmanured plot will lose about 220 lbs. 
 per acre per annum of lime : equivalent to about 400 lbs. 
 of carbonate of lime, whereas the analysis of the soil 
 shows (p. 216) an annual loss of about 800 lbs. per acre. 
 The discrepancy between these two figures is due to the 
 fact that the results are calculated from but a small 
 number of analyses of the drainage water, the amount 
 of which is also very uncertain. When 400 lbs. of 
 ammonium salts are used as manure, either alone or 
 with minerals, the increased loss of lime calculated on 
 the same basis amounts to 126 lbs. or 225 lbs. of 
 carbonate of lime per acre per annum, as against about 
 240 lbs. found from the analysis of the soil. 
 
 The amount of magnesia lost is small, 5 to 20 lbs. 
 per acre per annum, nor is the amount reaching the 
 drainage water much increased by its application as 
 manure to plots 5, 6, 7, 9, and 14. 
 
 The amount of potash lost is still smaller, from 
 3 to 12 lbs. per acre per annum, but it is distinctly 
 dependent on the amount supplied as manure, being 
 at a maximum with the dunged plot (2) and the plot 
 receiving minerals only (5), and greater from all the 
 other plots receiving potash than from those without 
 it, i.e., 3, 10, 11, 12, 14. The use of sulphate or 
 nitrate of soda increases the amount of potash in the 
 drainage water, not so, however, the use of sulphate 
 of magnesia. Practically all the soda, chlorine, and 
 nearly all the sulphuric acid, that are applied in the 
 manure pass through into the drainage water. 
 
 A comparison of the drainage waters in winter 
 and spring shows that they are more concentrated 
 in the winter, because the manures (excepting the 
 nitrate of soda) have then been recently applied : the 
 chlorides wash out first, then the sulphates, and as 
 the season advances not only is the total amount of 
 
 P 
 
226 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 lime present much diminished, but it comes away 
 chiefly as carbonate. With the growth of the crop 
 in spring the nitrates disappear from the drainage 
 waters. 
 
 The amount of nitrates found in the drainage water 
 varies not only with the time of year, but also according 
 to the interaction of temperature, growth of crop, culti- 
 vation, and percolation. Nitrates are only rapidly pro- 
 duced when the temperature of the soil has risen : if the 
 percolation is not excessive the crop may remove the 
 nitrates as fast as they are formed, but a heavy rainfall 
 in the spring before the nitrates have been much drawn 
 upon by the crop, or one just after the land has been 
 broken up in the autumn and is still warm, will result in 
 a considerable washing out of nitrates. At the same 
 time a certain amount of moisture in the soil is necessary 
 for the formation of nitrates, and the crop itself may so 
 dry the soil as to reduce nitrification considerably. The 
 following table (p. 227) shows the estimated loss of 
 nitrates from the same wheat plots at Rothamsted as have 
 previously been dealt with, during two years, each of 
 which has been divided into two periods : firstly, from 
 the date at which the nitrogenous manures were sown up 
 to harvest ; and secondly, from harvest round again to 
 the sowing of manures in spring. 
 
 The diagram (Fig. 15) shows the same results in a 
 graphic form. 
 
 The seasons were rather exceptional, the summer 
 rainfall and drainage in 1879 and the winter rainfall in 
 the following year being both above the average. It 
 will be seen that except on the autumn manured plot 
 15, the loss was greatest from plot 9 receiving 550 lbs. 
 of nitrate of soda, and this excess of loss was chiefly in 
 the summer drainage water of 1879; the figures are, 
 however, exaggerated by the fact that half the nitrate 
 
of Nitrogen per acre. 10 20 30 40 
 
 Fig. 15. — Losses of Nitrogen in Drainage from Rothamsted Wheat Plots. 
 
 Black = Losses in Summers 1879, 1880. 
 Shaded = Losses in following Winters. 
 
VIII.] 
 
 NITRATES IN DRAINAGE WATER 
 
 227 
 
 plot received no mineral manures, and therefore grew 
 but a scanty crop. The losses during the winter months 
 are more nearly the same for all plots, and represent to 
 a large degree the nitrification of the organic residues in 
 the soil. The losses from the plots receiving minerals 
 and varying amounts of ammonium salts (5, 6, and 7) 
 increase with each application of nitrogen : the losses 
 
 Nitric Nitrogen in Drainage Water.— Lbs. per Acre. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 Manuring, per Acre. 
 
 Unmanured 
 
 Minerals only 
 
 Minerals + 200 lbs. Ammonium Salts 
 „ +400 „ „ 
 
 >» +55° i) Nitrate of Soda 
 
 400 lbs. Ammonium Salts alone 
 Do. do. + Superphosphate 
 
 Do. do. 4-Sulph. Soda 
 
 Do. do. 4-Sulph. Potash . 
 
 Do. do. 4-Sulph. Mag. 
 
 Minerals 4- 400 lbs. Ammonium Salts 
 in Autumn 
 
 Estimated Drainage — inches 
 
 1879-80. 
 
 1880-81. 
 
 bo 
 
 bb 
 
 M 
 
 bo 
 
 iTj 
 
 ~ 
 
 • ~ 4* 
 
 B 
 
 > 
 
 is 
 
 co £ 
 
 43 > 
 
 si 
 
 O CO 
 
 
 1 *? 
 
 tc>2 
 
 £ * 
 
 |5 
 
 wg, 
 
 •Co 
 
 W £ 
 
 w a 
 
 BQ 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 i-7 
 
 io-8 
 
 0-6 
 
 17-1 
 
 1.6 
 
 13-3 
 
 07 
 
 17.7 
 
 IO-I 
 
 12-6 
 
 2-2 
 
 19-8 
 
 18.3 
 
 12-6 
 
 4-3 
 
 21-4 
 
 45-o 
 
 15-6 
 
 15-0 
 
 41*0 
 
 42.9 
 
 14-3 
 
 7-4 
 
 35-2 
 
 28.3 
 
 17.7 
 
 3-4 
 
 29.6 
 
 21-2 
 
 17-5 
 
 3-3 
 
 27^2 
 
 I9-0 
 
 16-4 
 
 3-7 
 
 25-3 
 
 26-0 
 
 16.8 
 
 4.2 
 
 25.9 
 
 9.6 
 
 59-9 
 
 3-4 
 
 74-9 
 
 II'I 
 
 4-7 
 
 1-8 
 
 18.8 
 
 from the plots receiving ammonia and various mineral 
 manures diminish as the mineral manure becomes a 
 more complete plant food, because the greater growth of 
 crop thus secured more completely removes the nitrates 
 as they are formed, besides hindering nitrification by 
 drying the surface soil. 
 
 The effect on nitrification of crop and surface 
 cultivation is well seen in the following table of results 
 
328 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 obtained by Deherain, who collected the drainage from 
 cement tanks 2 m. cube and systematically filled with 
 soil taken from corresponding depths in the field. The 
 soils had been several years in the tanks, so that they 
 had settled down into practically normal conditions, 
 though the effect of the aeration and disturbance of 
 the soil in filling the tanks is still visible in a rather 
 high rate of nitrification. Each tank carried the crop 
 indicated in the first column. 
 
 Cropping. 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 Nitrogen as Nitric 
 Acid. 
 
 Fallow, no cultivation . 
 Rye Grass , 
 
 Oats 
 
 Maize 
 
 Wheat, followed by Vetches , 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Fallow, hoed .... 
 Fallow, no cultivation . 
 Fallow, hoed and rolled . , 
 Vine .... 
 Sugar Beet • 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 II-2 
 
 7-8 
 
 7-3 
 6-9 
 6-6 
 
 7-5 
 II* 
 
 II-2 
 II-2 
 
 7-5 
 7.2 
 
 Lbs. per acre in 
 Drainage Water. 
 
 18670 
 2.28 
 
 7-37 
 2l«6o 
 
 12.90 
 
 28.70 
 196-56 
 15800 
 183.20 
 
 36.20 
 0-27 
 
 The rainfall of the year in question, March 1896 to 
 March 1897, amounted to 28*8 inches, most of which 
 fell in the autumn. The most noteworthy results are 
 the effect of the various crops in diminishing the loss 
 of nitrates, which is not wholly to be attributed to the 
 quantity taken up by the crop, because the sum of the 
 nitrogen removed in the crop and that carried off in 
 the drainage water is never equal to the nitrogen 
 removed from the uncropped plots by the drainage 
 water alone. ' During the comparatively dry spring 
 months the crops leave so little moisture in the soil that 
 nitrification is checked, and the total production of 
 
viii.] TIME OF APPLICATION OF MANURES 229 
 
 nitrates is less where there is a crop than on the moister 
 uncropped plots. 
 
 When the wheat was followed by a crop of vetches 
 the loss of nitrates during the comparatively wet autumn 
 was considerably reduced. Lastly, the hoeing of the 
 fallow plots resulted in a considerably increased produc- 
 tion of nitrates. 
 
 Time of Application of Manures. 
 
 The facts set out above as to the retention of most 
 of the soluble constituents of manures by the soil, while 
 the nitrates are liable to wash out, have an impor- 
 tant bearing on the season at which artificial manures 
 should be sown. In the first place it is evident that 
 there is no danger of losing phosphates, or even of 
 their washing deep into the soil, when employed in 
 their most soluble form as superphosphate. It is the 
 general custom to sow superphosphate with the drill 
 for roots at the same time as the seed : the large 
 quantity of manure near the seedling in its early critical 
 stages is probably valuable, and as the roots of swedes 
 and turnips do not extend very deeply, the phosphoric 
 acid may be placed in the most likely place to reach 
 them. 
 
 But for more deeply rooting crops, hops and fruit 
 or even mangolds, it seems probable that superphos- 
 phate is often applied rather too late in the season, 
 and that if used as a winter instead of a spring dressing 
 it would have a better chance of getting well diffused 
 through the soil. Basic slag and other insoluble phos- 
 phates should be used in the winter or even the autumn : 
 there is no risk of loss, and as much rain as possible 
 is wanted to get them distributed in the soil. As 
 regards potash salts, Dyer's experiments go to show 
 that they descend further in the soil, and are a little 
 
230 POWER OF THE SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. 
 
 more subject to washing than the soluble phosphates : 
 for this reason, where sulphate of potash is employed, 
 as for potatoes, it will best be sown with the seed. 
 Where kainit is used, it is best employed as a winter 
 or autumn dressing ; there will be little loss of potash, 
 for this will get fixed chiefly in the surface soil. But 
 the chlorides, which are present in kainit and are 
 sometimes not wholly beneficial in their action upon the 
 crop, will be removed and washed out into the drains or 
 the subsoil water by the winter rains : the magnesia 
 salts also will be precipitated within the soil, and to a 
 large extent removed from possible action upon the 
 crop. Turning to the nitrogen compounds, it is 
 necessary to keep in mind that all of them will become 
 transformed into nitrates which are liable to be washed 
 out All insoluble organic manures should be put 
 on before or during the winter : the decay processes 
 will begin, resulting in the formation of amino-acids, 
 ammonia, etc., which will become fixed in the soil, but 
 the low winter temperatures will not permit of much 
 nitrification. Liquid manure and similar materials 
 containing such readily nitrifiable substances as urea 
 and ammonium carbonate, should be reserved until 
 early spring, so that the crop may be growing whenever 
 nitrification begins. Ammonium salts are very rapidly 
 nitrified, so that they should only be used in spring. 
 At Rothamsted nitrates begin to appear in the drainage 
 water immediately after the application of the ammonium 
 salts to the wheat plots in March if rain falls, and one 
 of the plots which has its ammonium salts applied in 
 autumn shows not only a considerable falling off in 
 crop but also large quantities of nitrates in the winter 
 drainage waters. 
 
 The following table shows the amounts of nitrates 
 removed in the drainage water from the two plots which 
 
VIII.] 
 
 NITRATES IN DRAINAGE WATERS 
 
 231 
 
 receive 400 lbs. per acre of ammonium salts with mineral 
 manures, only differing in the fact that on plot 7 the 
 ammonium salts are sown in March, and on plot 15 in 
 October ; also the average crops of grain and straw for 
 the twenty-three years, 1875-97. 
 
 1879-1881.— Lbs. of Nitric Nitrogen per Acre. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 1879-80. 
 
 1880-81. 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 s, > 
 
 02 
 
 si 
 
 W Q 
 
 fi'C 
 
 H 
 
   <Q 
 
 'u 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 II 
 
 OS Q 
 
 ® CO 
 
 m Oi 
 
 m 
 
 LRur. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 7 
 15 
 
 I8.3I 
 9*62 
 
 12-63 
 59-92 
 
 4.29 
 
 21.38 
 74-94 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 314 
 
 28J 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 31 
 26J 
 
 Drainage 
 
 1 1- 1" 
 
 4-7" 
 
 1.8" 
 
 18.8" 
 
 • •• 
 
 ... 
 
 That sulphate of ammonia will to some extent 
 persist in the soil, and become available for a succeed- 
 ing crop, after even a whole year has elapsed, is to be 
 seen from the results of the Woburn experiments upon 
 wheat. Some of the plots at Woburn receive mineral 
 manures every year, but ammonium salts or nitrate of 
 soda only every alternate year : in both cases the crop 
 falls very much in the years of no nitrogen, but the 
 decrease is by no means so marked with ammonium salts 
 as with nitrate of soda, which latter seems to leave no 
 residue whatever. 
 
 The soil at Woburn is an open sandy loam ; but in 
 the years for which the results are quoted (see Table, 
 p. 232) the rainfall was low. 
 
 The difference between the results set out in the 
 above-mentioned table and those obtained upon the 
 corresponding plot at Rothamsted, where the dressing 
 
232 POWER 0* SOIL TO ABSORB SALTS [chap. vin. 
 
 of ammonium salts every other year seems to leave no 
 residue for the following year, may perhaps be set down 
 to the different texture of the two soils. The ammonium 
 salts are converted which are washed down into the 
 subsoil ; at Woburn they can rise again by capillarity, 
 as the soil, though sandy, is still fine in texture; at 
 Rothamsted the soil is too close-grained to admit of 
 any considerable movement of the subsoil water back 
 to the surface. 
 
 Plot. 
 
 1899. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 1900. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 f8B 
 
 Minerals only . 
 
 20-3 
 
 Minerals + Ammonium 
 
 
 ^8A 
 
 Minerals + Ammonium 
 
 
 Salts . 
 
 27-3 
 
 1 
 
 oilitS   • ) 
 
 33-1 
 
 Minerals only . 
 
 l6«2 
 
 |9B 
 
 Minerals only • 
 
 9.8 
 
 Minerals + Nitrate of 
 
 
 i9A 
 
 Minerals + Nitrate of 
 
 
 Soda . • 
 
 27.7 
 
 1 
 
 Soda . 
 
 4i 
 
 Minerals only . 
 
 6-8 
 
 4 
 
 Minerals only, every 
 
 
 
 
 
 year • 
 
 6.9 
 
 Minerals only • • 
 
 5-9 
 
 The experiments recorded above and the results 
 of the examination of drainage waters go to show 
 that nitrate of soda should only be employed when 
 there is a crop in possession of the ground and ready 
 to seize upon the salt as soon as it becomes diffused 
 through the soil. Only on dry soils can it be safely 
 applied as early as the sowing of the seed ; in wet 
 climates sulphate of ammonia will often be preferable 
 it the soil is warm enough to induce reasonably quick 
 nitrification, and when large quantities of nitrate are 
 wanted they should be put on by successive applications 
 of not more than 1 cwt. per acre at a time. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY OF SOILS 
 
 Meaning of Fertility and Condition — Causes of Sterility : Drought, 
 Waterlogging, Presence of Injurious Salts — Alkali Soils and 
 Irrigation Water— Effect of Fertilisers upon the Texture of 
 the Soil — The Amelioration of Soils by Liming, Marling, 
 Claying, Paring, and Burning — The Reclamation of Peat 
 Bogs. 
 
 In discussing the question of fertility, a difficulty at the 
 outset crops up in the definition of the term " fertility " : 
 we are dealing with something intangible and dependent 
 upon so many varying factors that it becomes a matter 
 of judgment and experience rather than of scientific 
 measurement We have to distinguish between the 
 fertility proper, "the inherent capabilities of the soil," 
 to use the language of the old Agricultural Holdings 
 Act, which is the property of the landlord, and for 
 which the tenant pays rent; and the "condition" or 
 " cumulative fertility," the more temporary value which 
 is made or marred by the tenant. Though in the main 
 it is easy to feel the distinction, it is often difficult, if 
 not impossible, to draw a line of demarcation between 
 them. Clearly the farmer in a new country on virgin 
 soil is dependent wholly on the inherent fertility of 
 the land, but with much of the land in this country it 
 is hard to say how far its value is inherent, or due to 
 long-continued cultivation. When a tenant by many 
 
 288 
 
234 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 years of skilful management makes a good pasture, 
 the improvement is rightly credited to him, as fertility 
 which he has accumulated : the next tenant must 
 regard the same pasture as part of the inherent capacity 
 of the soil. Again, a farmer working on the old four 
 course rotation, selling only corn and meat and purchas- 
 ing neither feeding stuffs nor manures, is dependent on 
 the fertility of the soil : another farmer, carrying on an 
 agricultural business such as market gardening or hop- 
 growing, and putting more into the land every year as 
 manure than he takes out as crop, is only using the 
 land as he would a building, as a tool in a manufactur- 
 ing process. 
 
 Fertility proper is by no means a wholly chemical 
 question, dependent upon the amount of plant food the 
 soil contains; in many cases the physical conditions 
 which regulate the supply of air and water to the plant, 
 and as a corollary, the bacterial life, are far more potent 
 in producing a fertile soil than the mere amount of 
 nutrient material it contains. Especially is this the 
 case in an old settled country like England, where 
 manure is cheap and abundant ; here a fertile soil is 
 often one which is not rich in itself, but one that is 
 responsive to, and makes the most of, the manure 
 applied. Clay soils are not uncommon which show on 
 analysis high proportions of nitrogen compounds and 
 potash, and again no particular deficiency in phosphoric 
 acid, but from their closeness of texture they offer such 
 resistance to the movements of both air and water as to 
 carry very poor crops. Some light soils again, such as 
 those on the chalk, would be regarded on analysis as 
 rich, but they are made so persistently dry by the natural 
 drainage, that only in a wet season do they keep the 
 crop sufficiently supplied with water for a large crop 
 production. On nearly all poor soils it is impossible to 
 
ix.] FERTILITY 235 
 
 effect much improvement by the use of manures ; in fact, 
 manuring will not turn bad into good land, the con- 
 ditions limiting the amount of crop being other than 
 the food supply. Of course, by the continued incorpora- 
 tion of humus into a light soil, its physical texture may 
 be improved at the same time as its richness, until it 
 becomes sufficiently retentive of water for the needs of 
 an ordinary crop, just as a heavy soil may be lightened 
 by similar additions of humus. It has already been 
 mentioned that many subsoils, especially of the heavier 
 loams and clays, are extremely infertile when brought 
 to the surface, even though they may possess a fair 
 proportion of phosphoric acid and potash and be arti- 
 ficially supplied with nitric nitrogen. Some of this 
 effect is due to texture, part to the very scanty 
 bacterial flora they possess, but it is to be noted that 
 in arid climates the subsoils, which are not more fine- 
 grained than the surface soils, do not show the same 
 infertility when brought to the surface. 
 
 The soils which show the greatest fertility are, as 
 a rule, soils of transport, uniform and fine-grained in 
 texture, but with particles of a coarser order than clay 
 predominating, so that, while lifting water easily by 
 capillarity, they are freely traversed by air and per- 
 colating water. As a rule, they also contain an appreci- 
 able amount of organic matter at all depths ; in Britain 
 they have been deposited from running water, and 
 represent the silt from which both the coarsest sand 
 and the finest clay particles have been sifted, together 
 with a certain amount of vegetable debris. We have 
 nothing comparable with the typical "black soils" of 
 the North American prairies or the Russian steppes, 
 which contain very large proportions of organic matter 
 to considerable depths in the subsoil : as, for example, 
 a soil from Winnipeg that contained 0428, 0-327, 0158, 
 
236 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 and 0107 per cent, of nitrogen in the top 4 feet of 
 soil successively. Many of these deep rich soils appear 
 to be wind-borne : in all cases they are of very uniform 
 texture, and represent the accumulated residues of ages 
 of previous vegetation in a form that is capable of 
 decay and nitrification so as to become available for 
 subsequent crops. In a peat bog there is equally an 
 accumulation of organic matter and nitrogen, but the 
 mass is infertile because of the acid character of the 
 humus (which causes the absence of the valuable bacteria, 
 such as those fixing nitrogen and nitrifying ammonia), 
 the deficiency of mineral plant foods, and the bad 
 mechanical condition which affects the supply of air 
 and water. In the main, then, a fertile soil is one rich in 
 the debris of previous vegetation, one which has been so 
 sorted out by running water, wind, the agency of worms, 
 etc., as to possess a very uniform texture, adapted to 
 satisfy the needs of the plant for air and water. 
 Mechanical texture is of fundamental importance : in 
 this country many soils owe their value to this property 
 alone ; for example, the Thanet Sand formation in East 
 Kent (a very fine-grained sand or silt), though it con- 
 tains but little plant food, yet carries some of the best 
 fruit and hop plantations in the kingdom, and farms on 
 it command a high rent 
 
 Condition. 
 
 The question of condition has equally its chemical 
 and its mechanical side; it is well known that on 
 any but the lightest soils continued cultivation makes 
 the texture better and renders it easier to obtain a 
 seed bed. On clay soils the effects of bad manage- 
 ment are very persistent; any ploughing, rolling, or 
 trampling when the soil is wet will so temper the 
 
IX.] CONDITION 237 
 
 clay that the effect is palpable until the land has been 
 fallowed again or even laid down to grass. Once 
 protected from the action of frost, stiff soil which has 
 been worked ? when at all wet never seems able to 
 recover its texture, as may be seen by examining the 
 clods that are to be found on digging up an old post, 
 the result of the trampling when the post was originally 
 put in. The dependence of "condition" upon the 
 maintenance of a good texture is to be seen in the 
 custom of regarding wheat as an exhausting crop, 
 whereas few of our farm crops withdraw less plant 
 food from the soil. The popular opinion really 
 represents the fact that the wheat crop occupies the 
 land for nearly a year during which period it receives 
 little or no cultivation and so falls into a poor state of 
 tilth. 
 
 From the chemical side "condition" means the 
 accumulation within the soil of compounds that will 
 by normal decay yield sufficient available plant food 
 for the requirements of an ordinary crop, e.g., of 
 organic compounds of nitrogen which readily nitrify, 
 of phosphoric acid and potash compounds which readily 
 become " available " for the plant. 
 
 The condition of land cannot be restored all at once 
 by manuring ; the residues of manures left in the soil 
 after the first season are slow-acting, i.e., only a small 
 proportion of them becomes available year by year, 
 so that there must be a considerable accumulation of 
 such residues before the proportion becoming avail- 
 able during the period of growth is sufficient for the 
 crop. Per contra, the condition can be only too easily 
 destroyed by cropping without manure ; the unexhausted 
 residue left after each year is successively less and less 
 active, the crop falls off rapidly, till at last a sort of 
 stationary condition is reached, and the somewhat inert 
 
238 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 materials, still left in large quantity, liberate year by year 
 a fairly constant proportion of active plant food. The 
 plots at Rothamsted which have been cropped without 
 manure for more than fifty years show but little less 
 average production during the last twenty years than in 
 the twenty immediately preceding. For example, the 
 unmanured wheat plot shows the following crop in 
 bushels of dressed grain : — 
 
 First 23 years, 
 1852-74. 
 
 Second 23 years, 
 1875-97. 
 
 1898. 
 
 1899. 
 
 1900. 
 
 I4i 
 
 "I 
 
 I2j 
 
 12 
 
 12* 
 
 Condition may best be regarded as a state of equi- 
 librium when the land will continue to give a good return 
 in crop for the manure applied; as a rule, the crop 
 recovered by no means contains the whole of the 
 material applied as manure, a certain portion being 
 retained in a comparatively inactive form. With the 
 land in condition the remaining nutrient material 
 required for a good crop is supplied by the dormant 
 residues in the soil which have become active : at the 
 same time, these reserves are protected from depletion 
 by renewal from the inactive portions of the current 
 manuring. On the other hand, if the land is in poor 
 condition the crop gets little or no assistance from 
 the soil, but is grown from the active part only 
 of the manure : the rest of it accumulates and begins 
 to build up condition, which, however, does not tell 
 on the yield for some time. As a practical conse- 
 quence, it is noticed that only land in good condition 
 gives a paying return year after year for the application 
 of manure : yet if the experiment be made of omitting 
 the manure on a portion of the land for one year, 
 there is little corresponding reduction of yield, as 
 
IX.] FAIRY RINGS 239 
 
 though the manure went to keep up the "condition," 
 and the crop was grown out of that rather than from 
 the manure applied. 
 
 From the point of view of analysis the estimation of 
 the " condition " of a given piece of land is a difficult, 
 matter on which light is only just beginning to be 
 thrown by the determination of " available " plant food, 
 such as the nitrates and the phosphoric acid and potash 
 soluble in dilute acid solvents. By considering such 
 factors as these and the amount of humus soluble in 
 alkali, the ratio of the soil carbon to the nitrogen, 
 and the proportion of calcium carbonate, the agricul- 
 tural chemist may form an idea as to the immediate 
 state of the land. Doubtless, the prevalence and dis- 
 tribution of such necessary bacteria as those causing 
 nitrification are also important factors in determining 
 the fertility, but on this point we are without exact 
 information. It will be seen that "condition" is one 
 of the most valuable of the properties of the soil to 
 the cultivator; as it may be destroyed or created by 
 the tenant during his occupation of the land, it should 
 be as far as possible a tenant's asset, to be bought by 
 him on entry and valued to him on leaving. The 
 difficulty which even an experienced man finds in 
 putting a value on so intangible an item makes it 
 almost impossible to assess the condition of a farm, 
 but it is desirable in every way that the outgoing 
 tenant should be encouraged to maintain the condition 
 of his farm by giving him due compensation for the 
 unexhausted value both of manures and foods used 
 in the latter years of his tenancy. 
 
 Fairy Rings. 
 
 The significance of "condition" and its dependence 
 upon a supply of recently decayed organic matter is 
 
240 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY (chai*. 
 
 well seen in the development of "fairy rings" in 
 pastures. "Fairy rings" are circles of dark -green 
 grass, common enough in poor pastures, which are 
 found to extend their size every year, leaving the grass 
 within the ring of a lighter colour and of generally 
 poorer aspect than that outside. On examining the 
 soil immediately outside a ring, it is found to be full of 
 the mycelium of one or two common species of fungi, 
 but the mycelium rarely occurs in the soil beneath the 
 ring itself, and never in that within the ring. The 
 ring appears to be dependent on the growth of 
 the fungus, which starts at one point and draws 
 upon the humus reserves contained in the soil. 
 Having consumed whatever humus is available, the 
 mycelium must proceed into the annular area of soil 
 immediately, round the first patch, thus from year to 
 year it spreads outward. After the death of the 
 fungus, there is left behind in the soil it has just 
 occupied a quantity of organic matter, which readily 
 decays and becomes available for plant nutrition; 
 thus a ring of luxuriant vegetation immediately 
 follows the death of the fungus. In other words, 
 the humus of the soil, slow to decay and nitrify in 
 the usual way, is changed into material undergoing 
 rapid change by its preliminary conversion into the 
 tissue of the fungus. At the same time, as the 
 supply of rapidly acting plant food has been solely 
 derived from the soil, the ultimate result is the im- 
 poverishment of the soil within the ring by the develop- 
 ment of the fungi and the subsequent luxuriant growth 
 of grass. 
 
 The following figures relate to the composition of 
 the soil (mean of five examples) within, on, and outside 
 fairy rings : — 
 
IX.] 
 
 CAUSES OF STERILITY 
 
 241 
 
 Outside the ring 
 On the ring 
 Inside the ring . 
 
 Carbon per 
 cent. 
 
 3-30 
 2.99 
 2.78 
 
 Nitrogen per 
 cent. 
 
 0-28l 
 0266 
 O.247 
 
 Nitrates per 
 million. 
 
 2.44 
 
 11*46 
 
 1-03 
 
 It will be seen that the unchanged soil outside con- 
 tains the most carbon and nitrogen; the ring itself 
 contains an intermediate amount, and the least is 
 contained within the ring after the luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion has passed away. The soil on the ring is in high 
 condition, because the organic residues it contains are 
 recently formed and will change rapidly; after they 
 have been cropped out, the land is less able to support 
 a crop, even though there is still much plant food left 
 in the soil. The last column in the table (the analysis 
 of a single example only) shows the difference in avail- 
 able nitrogen ; and though in a pasture there are never 
 many nitrates to be detected, so rapidly are they seized 
 upon by the crop, still the organic nitrogen compounds 
 in the soil must be in a more nitrifiable condition on 
 the ring to yield the results there shown. Doubtless an 
 investigation of the nature and distribution of the 
 bacteria and micro-fungi in and about a fairy ring would 
 throw further light on the varying fertility of such closely 
 neighbouring areas of soil, but no data are at present 
 available. 
 
 Sterility of Soils, 
 
 Few soils occurring in this country can be described 
 as absolutely barren, yet from time to time land is met 
 with which yields such poor crops that it may fairly be 
 designated as sterile. The causes of sterility are 
 various; amongst them may be enumerated both the 
 
 Q 
 
242 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 want and the excess of water due to texture and 
 situation, deficient aeration, the absence of calcium 
 carbonate, and the toxic action of certain com- 
 pounds, such as the salts of magnesia, iron pyrites or 
 ferrous salts generally, and common salt itself. An 
 acid reaction of the soil, which is highly prejudicial to 
 vegetation, is generally brought about by one or other of 
 the causes enumerated above. 
 
 The sterility brought about by a deficiency of water 
 is only seen in this country when the soil is so entirely 
 composed of coarse sand that it possesses no retentive 
 power for the rainfall; even then the absolutely bare 
 condition does not persist long, and may be attributed 
 as much to the lack of nutriment as to the want of 
 water. Little by little vegetation is found to creep over 
 recent deposits of coarse sea-sand and shingle, until a 
 turf is established. As a rule, such deposits have perma- 
 nent water at a comparatively short distance below 
 and by this the vegetation is maintained ; but where a 
 coarse, open-textured sand occupies the uplands, as on 
 the Bagshot and Lower Greensand formations of the 
 south of England, or the Bunter beds of the Midlands, 
 the soil is kept so poor that it has largely remained 
 common heath land, never having been worth the 
 expense of enclosing. Allusion has already been made, 
 under the head of drainage, to the evils which ensue in 
 a waterlogged soil : from time to time clays are met 
 with of so close a texture that the vegetation suffers in 
 an analogous manner through deficient aeration. On 
 certain areas of the Oxford Clay and London Clay, and 
 the Boulder clays derived therefrom, pastures degenerate 
 after a few years into a mass of creeping rooted plants 
 like bent grass, and the land must be broken up afresh 
 in order to aerate it before any crop can be grown. 
 
 Sterility due to chemical causes is perhaps most 
 
IX.] CAUSES OF STERILITY^ 243 
 
 generally caused in this country by the absence of 
 calcium carbonate from the soil. When this happens 
 on light sandy land it will become evident by the 
 tendency of black mild humus to accumulate, by the 
 paucity of leguminous plants in the herbage, and by the 
 prevalence of fungoid diseases like " finger-and-toe." 
 On strong lands, and when accompanied by water- 
 logging, black acid peat accumulates : the soil shows 
 an acid reaction, oxide of iron forms below the surface, 
 and the soil water contains soluble iron salts, as is seen 
 by the iridescent scum which spreads over any water 
 standing in the ditches. 
 
 Another source of sterility is the presence of un- 
 oxidised iron salts in the soil : many clay subsoils are 
 coloured dark blue or green by double ferrous silicates 
 like glauconite, or by finely disseminated iron pyrites. 
 Until these materials become oxidised to ferric hydrate, 
 the soil remains sterile: particularly is this the case 
 with iron pyrites, which in the form of marcasite easily 
 oxidises to yield both ferrous sulphate and sulphuric 
 acid. Voelcker has recorded three instances of soil 
 sterile through these causes : one was land reclaimed 
 from the bed of the Haarlem Lake, which contained 071 
 per cent, of iron pyrites and 0-74 per cent, of ferrous 
 sulphate, as well as some insoluble basic sulphate of 
 iron. Another example of land reclaimed from the 
 sea contained 0-78 per cent, of pyrites and 1-39 per 
 cent, of ferrous sulphate. Cultivation with a free use 
 of lime and chalk is the best means of ameliorating 
 such soils, which always show an acid reaction. 
 
 Kearney and Cameron in America have shown that 
 salts of magnesia possess, even in solutions of great 
 dilution, a toxic action upon plant roots, which is much 
 diminished if calcium salts be present at the same time. 
 Loew at the same time has indicated that a comparative 
 
644 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [cha*. 
 
 excess of magnesium over calcium in certain soils 
 results in sterility. With this may be correlated the 
 fact that the soils resting upon the serpentine, which 
 is a compound containing magnesia, are notoriously 
 poor, also that certain very impoverished clays on the 
 Wealden formation contain a high proportion of 
 magnesia. 
 
 Sterility caused by salt is sometimes to be seen in this 
 country in the marshes near the sea : more often a " salt- 
 ing," even where the sea has regular access, is clothed 
 with vegetation which is able to endure very consider- 
 able proportions of salt. Most farm crops will grow in 
 soil containing 0-25 per cent, of salt, and in the reclaiming 
 of the old sea lake of Aboukir in Egypt, it was found 
 that grasses would grow freely when there was still as 
 much as 1 per cent, of salt in the soil, and a scrubby 
 winter crop of barley was grown on soil containing more 
 than 1 J per cent. " With 2 per cent, of salt in the soil, a 
 fair crop of dineba (grass), 2 feet high, can be grown ; 
 with 1 per cent, it attains its full height of 4 feet, and 
 sells as a standing crop at from 20s. to 25s. per acre. 
 For l berseem,' or clover, the percentage of salt should 
 not exceed |, and about the same for ' sabaini (quick- 
 growing or seventy-day) rice/ " Much, however, depends 
 upon the relations between water supply and evapora- 
 tion, as to the amount of salt in a soil which would be 
 tolerable to vegetation. From time to time cases occur 
 in this country of crops being destroyed, and land 
 rendered sterile by the incursion of sea water ; the effect 
 is not always apparent at first, though sea water contains 
 as much as 2-7 per cent, of sodium chloride and 0-5 per 
 cent, of other soluble salts, but the permanent pasture 
 becomes seriously injured, and for two or three years 
 even the arable land yields very indifferent crops. 
 Dymond has attributed this after effect to the injurious 
 
ix.] ALKALI SOILS 245 
 
 action of the sea water on the texture of the soil, due to 
 the attack of the sodium chloride upon the double 
 silicates of the soil, lime in particular being displaced 
 by soda. The result is the deflocculation of the clay, 
 which will not settle down for many weeks when sus- 
 pended in water. The sodium chloride of the sea water 
 would also interact with any calcium carbonate in the 
 soil, giving rise to sodium carbonate, the deflocculating 
 effect of which upon the clay has already been noticed. 
 Biological effects may also be surmised : it is always 
 seen that the earth worms are killed in the land which 
 has been flooded with sea water, and in view of the 
 known unfavourable effect of chlorides on nitrification, 
 it is possible that the rate of production of nitrates in 
 the inundated soil is seriously lessened. 
 
 Alkali Soils. 
 
 In arid climates the rainfall is often insufficient to 
 produce percolation through the soil and subsoil into the 
 underground water system ; in consequence, the salts 
 produced by the weathering of the rocks tend to 
 accumulate in the subsoil, and may be brought to the 
 surface by capillary rise so as to cause almost entire 
 sterility. Such bad lands are known in America as 
 " alkali soils," but they are well known in India and in 
 Egypt, and indeed are common to all countries possess- 
 ing a small rainfall and great evaporation. In its most 
 aggravated form alkali land, particularly at the end of 
 the dry season, shows an actual white efflorescence of 
 salts at the surface ; all vegetation is destroyed, except 
 one or two plants which seem tolerant of large quantities 
 of saline matter, such as " greasewood," Sarcobatus sp., 
 or the Australian " saltbushes," Atriplex setnibaccatum, 
 etc. In some cases the alkali is chiefly located at a 
 slight depth in the soil, and only effloresces on spots a 
 
246 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 little below the general level, where the subsoil water 
 comes to the surface. A heavy rainfall may be followed 
 by a rise of alkali, because a connection is then 
 established between the saline subsoil water and the 
 evaporating surface, whereupon a continuous capillary 
 use of salts takes place, followed by their crystallisation 
 at the surface. Per contra, the establishment of a soil 
 mulch, and shading the ground with a crop, so that 
 evaporation only takes place through the leaves, will aid 
 in keeping the alkali down. The composition of the 
 salts varies; as a rule, sodium chloride predominates, 
 with some sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium, 
 in which case the material is known as " white alkali." 
 Under other conditions the material is really alkaline, 
 containing carbonate and bicarbonate of soda ; the 
 saline solution then dissolves some of the humus present 
 in the soil, and also causes the resolution of the clay 
 material into its finest particles, so that the soil forms 
 an intensely hard black pan when dry, which is known 
 as "black alkali." The carbonates are far more 
 injurious to vegetation than the neutral salts ; few 
 plants can bear as much as o I per cent, of sodium 
 carbonate, but are tolerant of 0-5 to 1 per cent, of 
 the other salts. 
 
 Though the alkali salts are sometimes chiefly 
 sulphates, more commonly sodium chloride is the 
 main constituent, together with the products of its 
 action in mass upon calcium carbonate and sulphate. 
 The diagram (Fig. 16), due to Hilgard, shows the dis- 
 tribution with depth of alkali salts in this type of soil 
 at Tulare, California ; the greatest accumulation of salts 
 takes place at a depth of 30 inches, the point to which 
 the annual rainfall penetrates. One of the most difficult 
 features presented by the cultivation of land in arid 
 regions where alkali occurs in the soil, comes from the 
 
iches, 3 
 
 FlG. 16. — Nature and Distribution of Alkali Salts (Hilgard). 
 
ix.] EVILS DUE TO IRRIGATION 247 
 
 tendency of the sterile spots to spread and the alkali to 
 be brought to the surface as soon as irrigation water is 
 employed, for without irrigation agriculture is hardly 
 possible. Many districts, which at first carried good 
 crops and were even laid down in fruit or vines, have been 
 ruined through the rise of alkali to the surface brought 
 about by irrigation ; in fact, in all these arid regions it 
 becomes exceedingly dangerous to raise the water table 
 in the land anywhere near the surface, because capillarity 
 then causes a rise of the salt changed water, and evapora- 
 tion concentrates it on the top. Just as some of the worst 
 alkali land occurs where rain falling upon the surround- 
 ing mountains finds its way by seepage through the 
 subsoil rich in salts and then rises to the surface in the 
 dry basin areas below, so the introduction of irrigation 
 canals pouring large volumes of water upon the land, 
 may equally establish the capillary connection between 
 the subsoil salts and the surface. The following extract 
 from Bulletin No. 14, U.S. Dept. of Agric, Div. of Soils, 
 dealing with alkali soils in the Yellowstone Valley, 
 shows the evil effects of incautious irrigation : — 
 
 " Irrigation has been practised for twelve or fifteen 
 years. The water for the main ditch supplying the 
 valley is taken out of the river nearly 40 miles above 
 the town of Billings. When the country was first settled, 
 and indeed above the ditch at the present time, the 
 depth to standing water in the wells was from 20 to 50 
 feet, and there was no signs of alkali on the surface of 
 the ground. Under the common practice of irrigation, 
 however, an excessive amount of water has been applied 
 to the land, and seepage waters have accumulated to 
 such a degree that water is now secured in wells at a 
 depth of from 3 to 10 feet in the irrigated district, while 
 many once fertile tracts on the lower levels are already 
 flooded, and alkali has accumulated on them to such an 
 
248 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 extent that they are mere bogs and swamps and alkali 
 flats, and the once fertile lands are thrown out as ruined 
 and abandoned tracts." 
 
 Nor is it necessary that the subsoil be charged with 
 salts for irrigation to produce alkali land; the mere 
 continual evaporation of ordinary river or spring water 
 may cause such an accumulation of saline matter at the 
 surface as is harmful to vegetation. This is well seen in 
 Egypt, where perennial irrigation is practised with the 
 Nile water, and the following quotation from Willcock's 
 Egyptian Irrigation will explain the action that takes 
 place :— 
 
 " The introduction of perennial irrigation into any 
 tract in Egypt means a total change in crops, irrigation, 
 and indeed everything which affects the soil. Owing to 
 the absence of rain, the land is not washed as it is in 
 other tropical countries, unless it is put under basin 
 irrigation. 
 
 " An acre of land may receive as many as twenty 
 waterings of about 9 cm. in depth each, i.e., a depth 
 of water of i-8o metre per annum, which is allowed 
 to stand over the soil, sink about half a metre into 
 the soil, and then be evaporated. Since the Nile 
 water, especially in summer, has salts in excess, these 
 salts accumulate at the surface, and if not eaten down 
 by suitable crops, soon appear as a white efflorescence. 
 While the spring level is low, capillary attraction 
 cannot bring up to the surface the spring water, which 
 generally contains a fair proportion of salts, but where 
 the spring level is high the salt-carrying water comes 
 to the surface, is there evaporated, and tends to further 
 destroy the soil. In old times the greater part of 
 the cultivation land was under basin irrigation, and 
 was thoroughly washed for some fifty days per annum ; 
 while the rest, consisting of the light sandy soils near the 
 
IX.] IRRIGATION NECESSITATES DRAINAGE 249 
 
 Nile banks, was protected by insignificant dykes, which 
 dykes were burst every very high flood, and thus allowed 
 to be swept over by the Nile and washed once every 
 seven or eight years. All this is at an end now in 
 the tracts under perennial cultivation, and other remedies 
 have to be found." 
 
 The only remedy for the evils attending irrigation 
 is the introduction of drainage channels at a lower 
 level than the canals bearing the irrigation water; in 
 this way the percolation through the soil, which in 
 humid climates naturally removes the salts not taken 
 up by the crops, is effected artificially; there is some 
 apparent loss of water, but this is absolutely necessary 
 to maintain the land free from injurious salts. As 
 an example, the following passage may be quoted 
 from one of Major Hanbury Brown's reports on 
 Egyptian Irrigation : — 
 
 " It has been ascertained that the blessing of 
 improved water supply which has resulted from the 
 barrage having been made to do its duty, has been 
 attended in some localities with the evils due to 
 infiltration and want of drains. The remedy, as pointed 
 out in last year's Report, is to remove the want of 
 drains by digging them, and to provide the means of 
 washing out the salt brought to the surface, by infil- 
 tration in the shape of a liberal supply of water, by 
 which the salt would be carried away in solution along 
 the drains, or be forced down below the surface of the soil 
 to a depth at which it would be harmless. The liberal 
 water supply is not to be obtained except by the con- 
 struction of a storage reservoir at Aswan or elsewhere." 
 
 It was the neglect of drainage, when irrigation 
 canals were introduced, that led to so widespread a 
 deterioration of land in Egypt. To quote from Lord 
 Milner's England in Egypt ; — 
 
25o CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 "But perhaps the worst feature of all was the 
 neglect of drainage, which was steadily ruining large 
 tracts of country. Even where drains existed, they 
 were frequently used also as irrigation channels, than 
 which it is impossible to conceive a worse sin against 
 a sound principle of agriculture. In some cases these 
 channels would be flowing brimful for purposes of 
 irrigation, just when they should have been empty 
 to receive the drainage water. Elsewhere the salt- 
 impregnated drainage water was actually pumped back 
 upon the land. 
 
 " It was the want of drainage which completed the 
 ruin of the Birriya, that broad belt of land which 
 occupies the northern and lowest portion of the Delta, 
 adjoining the great lakes. There are upwards of 
 1,000,000 acres of this region, now swamp, or salt 
 marsh, or otherwise uncultivable, which in ancient 
 times were the garden of Egypt." 
 
 It has been the business of the English irrigation 
 officers since the occupation to restore and improve 
 the drainage system, and to begin the reclamation of 
 the salted areas by cutting drainage canals and passing 
 enough of the abundant winter flood water through 
 the soil to wash out the salts into these drains. 
 
 Hilgard in California has also indicated that it is 
 impossible to wash the salts from the soil, even by 
 leaving the water to stand upon the surface for some 
 time, unless provision is made to remove the salted 
 water by underdrainage. In the case of black alkali, 
 however, the soil has become too impervious to 
 allow water to percolate at all; the first remedial 
 measure is to incorporate considerable quantities of 
 gypsum with the soil ; this will interact with the 
 sodium carbonate, producing sodium sulphate and 
 calcium carbonate, at the same time precipitating the 
 
IX.] FERTILISERS DESTROYING THE TEXTURE 251 
 
 humus in a flocculent form. If now underdrainage be 
 brought into practice the soluble salts can be washed 
 through, and a very fertile soil results, owing to the 
 presence of the finely divided humus and calcium car- 
 bonate. Where underdrainage is hardly practicable 
 because of the expense, irrigation water should be 
 used in as limited amounts as possible, and every 
 care should be taken to keep the surface tilled and 
 under crop, so as to minimise evaporation from the 
 bare ground. In humid countries like our own, 
 damage due to the accumulation of salts are rare; 
 the author has, however, seen one case where the 
 vegetation of a lawn was destroyed during a hot dry 
 spell of weather by continuously applying water in 
 quantities which never washed down into the subsoil, 
 but evaporated every day. An efflorescence practically 
 identical with white alkali is sometimes seen on green- 
 house borders, which are constantly watered, but never in 
 sufficient quantities to cause percolation ; and gardeners 
 again are familiar with the check of growth which 
 sometimes occurs in the case of plants long in one 
 pot and constantly watered with hard water. The 
 remedy is to water from time to time so heavily as 
 to cause abundant percolation and thus wash all the 
 salts out. 
 
 Closely related to some of the phenomena presented 
 by alkali soils are certain secondary effects upon the 
 texture of the soil which are produced by the action of 
 some of the salts used as artificial manures. A good 
 friable texture in a heavy soil depends upon the clay 
 particles being generally flocculated and gathered 
 together into little aggregates, which give the soil a 
 coarser grain until they are resolved into their ultimate 
 particles by incautious working when the clay is in a wet 
 state. It has already been shown that acids and most 
 
252 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap 
 
 soluble salts, particularly those of calcium, possess a 
 strong flocculating power, whereas the soluble alkalis — 
 the carbonates and hydrates of sodium, potassium, and 
 ammonium — are active deflocculators, causing the clay 
 particles to separate into their most fine-grained condition. 
 
 It has long been recognised that large or frequent 
 dressings of nitrate of soda had an injurious action upon 
 the tilth of the soil, causing it to remain very wet, and 
 then to dry into hard, unkind clods. Since nitrate of 
 soda is very hygroscopic, the wetness induced in the 
 land was attributed to the absorption of moisture from 
 the atmosphere by the nitrate of soda, but when it is 
 considered what a very small proportion the water 
 absorbed by as much as 5 cwt. of nitrate of soda would 
 bear to the hundred tons which is the approximate 
 weight of an acre of soil an inch thick, it is obvious that 
 the difference in water content so induced would not be 
 sensible. 
 
 Clay soils, in fact, which have been treated with 
 nitrate of soda, do not show any excess of water ; but 
 they are very much deflocculated, as may be ascertained 
 by comparing the appearance after standing of a jar of 
 distilled water rendered turbid by shaking up in it a 
 gram of the soil, with a second jar in which the water 
 has been shaken with a gram of the same soil in its 
 normal condition. But nitrate of soda itself possesses 
 flocculating powers even when concentrated, hence the 
 observed deflocculation can not be due to the direct action 
 of the fertiliser upon the clay. However it has been 
 found that when plants feed upon a nutrient solution 
 containing nitrate of soda, an excess of the nitric acid 
 is withdrawn by the plant, and part of the soda is left 
 in the medium combined with the carbon dioxide 
 secreted by the plant The existence of this soluble 
 alkali after the growth of the plant can be verified by 
 
IX.] BAD TILTH DUE TO FERTILISERS 253 
 
 experiments with water cultures, it can also be extracted 
 from the soil of the Rothamsted plots which have for 
 many years been manured with nitrate of soda. Small 
 as the amount may seem to be, it is quite sufficient to 
 account for the deflocculation of the clay and the 
 defective tilth observed on heavy land after nitrate of 
 soda has been used. 
 
 The bad repute of nitrate of soda as exhausting or 
 scourging the land, is less due to any sensible diminution 
 in the stock of plant food in the soil that follows its use, 
 than to the deflocculation it sometimes induces, and the 
 consequent deterioration of the texture of the soil. 
 As a remedy lime is not effective, since it is an alkali 
 itself; instead the nitrate of soda should be used in 
 conjunction with acid flocculating manures like super- 
 phosphate, or a mixture of nitrate of soda and sulphate 
 of ammonia should be used as a nitrogenous manure, 
 because the two manures will act upon the soil in 
 opposite ways, the nitrate of soda as an alkali and the 
 sulphate of ammonia as an acid. Dressings of soot are 
 also effective; not only does it assist the soil mechanically, 
 but also the small percentage of sulphate of ammonia it 
 contains possesses some power of flocculating the clay. 
 
 Other fertilisers which give rise to an alkaline 
 reaction in the soil are sulphate of potash, common 
 salt, and other soluble salts of sodium and potassium, 
 which as has already been noticed (p. 217) interact 
 with calcium carbonate in the soil, and give rise to a 
 little soluble alkaline carbonate. The injurious effects 
 of sulphate of potash upon the tilth of the heavy soil 
 at Rothamsted is very evident on the mangold field, 
 where the plots receiving this fertiliser every year 
 become excessively sticky and clinging in wet weather, 
 and dry, with a hard caked surface. It has often been 
 noticed that applications of potash salts and common 
 
254 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 salt have depressed instead of increasing the yield ; this 
 may probably be set down to the deterioration of tilth 
 that ensues when the soil is heavy and also contains 
 calcium carbonate. Some fertilisers, on the contrary, 
 aid in the flocculation of clay soils, the most effective 
 being superphosphate, which is acid and contains gypsum, 
 an effective flocculating agent. The ammonium salts, 
 which give rise to free acids, in consequence of the 
 withdrawal of ammonia by the moulds, etc., living in 
 the soil, act as very potent flocculators, and at 
 Rothamsted, for example, give rise to an open and 
 friable soil, as compared with the neighbouring plots 
 receiving nitrate of soda. Lime, which is the chief 
 flocculating agent employed in practice, is only effective 
 when it has become dissolved as bi-carbonate in the 
 soil water. 
 
 Amendments of the Soil. 
 Many soils, without being absolutely sterile, carry 
 very poor crops until their physical character has been 
 altered by the admixture of some considerable quantity 
 of one or other of the constituents of a normal soil 
 that may happen to be originally wanting. These 
 amendments of the soil by the mixture of other soils 
 date from the time that enclosures first began to be 
 made ; they were perhaps at their height during the 
 early years of the nineteenth century, after the middle 
 of which they rapidly diminished as it began to be 
 less and less remunerative to "make" land, until at 
 the present time the fall in the prices of produce and 
 the rise in the cost of labour have put an end to all 
 such operations. Among other causes of this neglect 
 may perhaps be set down the increased use of artificial 
 manures ; men began to take too exclusively a chemical 
 view of the functions of the soil, and shirked expendi- 
 
IX.] WARPING 255 
 
 ture which did not seem to add directly any food for 
 the plant. However, it is probable that with modern 
 facilities for moving earth on a large scale by steam 
 power, the improvement of much poor land might even 
 now be profitably undertaken. 
 
 The operations which may be grouped under the 
 head of " amendments of the soil," comprise — drainage, 
 which has been dealt with elsewhere ; the marling and 
 claying of light sands ; the reclamation of peat bogs ; 
 the improvement of clay soils by liming and chalking, 
 or by paring and burning ; and lastly, the creation of 
 new alluvial soils by warping. 
 
 Warping. 
 
 The operation of "warping," or u colmetage," is 
 only possible in the vicinity of tidal estuaries, where 
 lands exist below the level of high water, and is in 
 this country practically confined to the estuaries of 
 the Humber and Ouse. Warping is carried out by 
 the construction of a wide drain protected by sluices 
 from the tidal river to the low land, which is first 
 divided by embankments into compartments of various 
 sizes up to 150 acres. When the embankments have 
 become consolidated, the flood tide, heavily charged 
 with suspended matter which is really fine earth 
 brought down by the river, is admitted into the 
 compartment, where it deposits most of its silt and 
 is allowed to run off when the level of the water in 
 the river has fallen during the ebb. The operation 
 is repeated until a layer of silt has formed 1 to 3 
 feet thick over the land, which is then dried and 
 brought under crop. As the chief deposit is always 
 near the mouth of the drain, where the velocity of 
 the silt-bearing current is first checked, the position 
 of the inlet must be shifted about to secure a 
 
256 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 uniform deposit all over the land and to distribute 
 the valuable fine silt which settles furthest from 
 the inlet. In some cases the sluice gates are auto- 
 matic, and water is admitted and drawn off at 
 every tide, but in others only every other tide is 
 admitted, thus giving time for the deposit of the finer 
 particles, and greatly improving the character of the 
 resulting land. As a rule, only the spring tides are 
 utilised, because the suspended matter is then at its 
 maximum, and the process is confined to the summer 
 months, to avoid danger from flooding when there is 
 much land water about. In exceptional cases land 
 may be warped 2 or 3 feet deep in one year — from 
 January to June — in other cases, where the water is 
 less charged with sediment, or the land is at a higher 
 level, an efficient warping, which should not be less 
 than 18 inches deep, requires three or four years. 
 When finished, the land is allowed to dry and con- 
 solidate, drainage grips are then thrown out, and a 
 light crop of oats, in which are sown clover and rye- 
 grass, is taken; after the seeds have been down two 
 years the land is generally ready to carry wheat. 
 Warp soils are, as a rule, fertile, and noted for 
 growing seed corn of high quality; they are to all 
 intents and purposes artificial alluvial soils, composed 
 entirely of the finer sands and silts without much 
 clay material, and are comparatively rich in organic 
 debris and other plant food, except perhaps potash. 
 The fertilising of the Egyptian land by the red Nile 
 flood water, the formation and improvement of river 
 meadows by winter flooding, are both analogous to 
 the process of M warping." 
 
 Marling and Claying. 
 Many light and blowing sands, almost too pure to 
 
IX.] MARLING 257 
 
 permit of any vegetation, have in their immediate 
 neighbourhood a bed of marl or clay which can be 
 easily incorporated, practically creating a soil where 
 there was none before. Among the New Red Sand- 
 stones of Cheshire and the Midland Counties beds of 
 true marl occur and were at one time enormously 
 worked, so that every farm and almost every field shows 
 its old marl pit; the sandy Lower Greensand soils in 
 the Woburn district have been extensively marled from 
 the adjoining Oxford clay, and many of the Norfolk 
 soils have been made out of blowing sands, by bringing 
 up the clay which immediately underlies them. The 
 earlier volumes of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
 Society contain numerous accounts, showing how much 
 land was brought into cultivation by these means in 
 the first half of the nineteenth century. 
 
 " He that marls sand may buy the land, 
 He that marls moss shall suffer no loss, 
 But he that marls clay flings all away." 
 
 The usual practice in Norfolk was to open pits down 
 to the marl or clay, dig and spread it at the rate of 
 50 to 150 loads to the acre on a clover ley or turnip 
 fallow. In some cases trenches were opened all along 
 the field, and the clay thrown out on either side. By 
 the action of the weather, drying and wetting, followed 
 by frost, the clay comes into a condition to be harrowed 
 down, after which it can be ploughed into the ground. 
 
 The effect of marling or claying is more evident after 
 a year or two than at once, because the fine particles 
 become each year more thoroughly incorporated with 
 the soil. The effects are to be seen in increased crops, the 
 production of better leys and pastures, greater resistance 
 to drought, and particularly an increased stiffness in the 
 straw where manures are used to grow the crop. 
 
 R 
 
$5^ CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chaP. 
 
 Marl containing carbonate of lime is always far more 
 valuable than clay; pure clay is so little friable, and 
 so sterile itself, that it effects an improvement only 
 slowly; marl not only ameliorates the texture but 
 adds at once a supply of carbonate of lime, potash 
 compounds, and in some cases phosphoric acid also. 
 Clay and marl both have a tendency to sink, and 
 eventually require renewing, but if well done will last 
 for thirty to fifty years, because the accumulation of 
 humus and fibrous root-remains, due to the increased 
 crops, itself binds the soil together. 
 
 At the present day the need of marling or claying 
 on a small scale is often seen in old gardens, 
 particularly in old town gardens which are situated 
 upon gravel soils, initially very short of the finer soil 
 particles. The constant breaking of the surface by 
 cultivation, and the use of large quantities of stable 
 manure, which decays and leaves the soil open, result 
 in a continual washing down of the finest particles, until 
 the remaining soil loses all power of cohesion and of 
 resisting drought, falling into a dusty powder immedi- 
 ately on drying. A coating of clay in the early autumn, 
 or, better still, of good marl, is the only method of 
 giving consistency to such a soil and soon remedies 
 its worst defects, such as susceptibility to drought and 
 rapid fluctuations of temperature, and tendency to 
 produce soft vegetation, veiy liable to disease. 
 
 Reclamation of Peat Land. 
 
 One of the earliest methods of bringing peat land 
 in the Fens and similar districts into cultivation was, 
 to dry the land by means of open drains and break 
 up the surface with the breast plough ; the clods were 
 then gathered together, and burnt when dry, after- 
 wards the ashes were spread and a crop of rape taken. 
 
ix.] RECLAMATION OF FEN LAND 259 
 
 The fire was never allowed to burn too fiercely, the 
 object being to obtain charred residues rather than 
 white ashes. The effect of burning the peat was to 
 provide a certain amount of ash rich in saline matters 
 and particularly in alkaline carbonates, thus correcting 
 the two great faults of the remaining peat, its deficiency 
 in mineral matters, and its sour reaction. At the same 
 time the weeds and other coarse vegetation occupying 
 the surface were destroyed, and a clean seed-bed prepared 
 for the crop. However, the process of burning is a 
 very wasteful one, involving the loss of the combined 
 nitrogen contained in the accumulated organic matter, 
 and after a few repetitions the land was found to be 
 seriously depleted of its reserves of humus. Burning 
 became replaced in the Fens by a marling process, 
 especially where the peat was of a sandy nature ; trenches 
 were opened to the bed of marl or clay always found 
 beneath the peat, and the clay thrown out and spread 
 at the rate of 100 loads or so per acre, the burning 
 process being reserved for the first reclamation, when 
 a mass of surface vegetation had to be got rid of. In 
 other districts, where marl is less available, peat has 
 to be brought into cultivation by draining the land with 
 open cuts, allowing some considerable time to elapse 
 during which the peat dries, shrinks, and consolidates, 
 and then correcting the acidity with lime. It is desir- 
 able to use large dressings of mineral manures like 
 basic slag and kainit to compensate for the deficiency 
 in mineral matter, especially where the peat is initially 
 of an acid character. In the Fens the peat is some- 
 times found to be mild humus containing lime ; this 
 does not respond to liming, and gives better crops with 
 superphosphate than with basic slag. 
 
26o CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 Paring and Burning, 
 
 When the poorer clay soils were first taken into 
 cultivation, a beginning was generally made by " paring " 
 the surface with the breast plough, and " burning " the 
 clods as soon as they were sufficiently dry. The clods 
 were made up into heaps a yard or so in diameter with 
 the brushings of the hedges and all the rough surface 
 vegetation, together with as much clay as was judged 
 prudent. Each heap was then allowed to burn slowly 
 and char the clay, without permitting the heat to rise 
 sufficiently to vitrify the clay or dissipate such valuable 
 material as the alkalis of the ash. The resulting ashes 
 effected a great improvement in the soil : the clay was 
 partially dehydrated, or at least coagulated, thus pro- 
 viding a certain amount of coarse material to ameliorate 
 the texture ; in the charred clay also, some of the potash 
 was rendered more available, while the plant residues 
 provided mineral salts and alkalis to promote nitrifica- 
 tion. The drawback to the process is the inevitable 
 loss of nitrogen to the soil; but any one who has 
 noticed how freely crops grow on the patches of 
 arable land where couch heaps have been burnt the 
 season before, will see that, for the time being, the 
 fertility of the soil is increased by the process. Other 
 advantages of burning lie in the destruction of weeds 
 and insect life of all kinds, and although it has been 
 almost wholly discontinued at the present day, the 
 older writers on agriculture are unanimous as to its 
 beneficial effects in bringing poor clay land into cultiva- 
 tion. Recent investigations also show that heating the 
 soil to low temperatures, such as that of boiling water, 
 bring about a great increase in its productivity, probably 
 owing to a rearrangement of the bacterial flora of the 
 soil, for complete sterilisation is only effected at higher 
 
IX.] LIMING 261 
 
 temperatures. The subject is still obscure, but these 
 effects of heating the soil may well be a factor in the 
 value of such processes. 
 
 A variation on the old process of " clod burning " 
 consists in " border burning," in which clay is dug from 
 one corner of the field and burnt by means of the couch 
 and other weeds cleaned off the land, the hedge trim- 
 mings, etc. ; the burnt clay is then spread over the 
 surface to improve the texture of the soil. Without 
 doubt the latter process might still be profitably adopted 
 where heavy clay land is under the plough ; if every 
 year some clay were added to the fires made from the 
 weeds and hedge trimmings, valuable material for 
 lightening the soil would be obtained without wasting 
 too much soil nitrogen. 
 
 Of course the incorporation of any large-grained 
 material will improve the texture of clay soils ; in some 
 cases sand has been dug and spread with advantage ; 
 road scrapings, town refuse, and even coal ashes help 
 to lighten the soil, though, in the case of gardens, coal 
 ashes should be avoided. 
 
 Liming and Chalking. 
 
 Of all the methods of improving the soil, other 
 than actual manuring or cultivation, none is more 
 important than the incorporation of lime or chalk. 
 It has already been indicated that many soils exist, 
 chiefly clays and sands, containing less than 1 per cent, 
 of carbonate of lime ; on all such land liming produces 
 very pronounced effects, both on the physical texture of 
 the soil and on the character of the resulting vegetation. 
 
 It is on the clays and other strong soils that lime 
 produces the greatest alteration in texture; its effect 
 in coagulating and causing the finer particles to form 
 into aggregates, which remain loosely cemented by 
 
262 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 the carbonate of lime, has already been discussed. 
 The soil becomes much less retentive of water, perco- 
 lation is increased so that the limed land is drier 
 and warmer, admits of cultivation at an earlier date 
 in the spring, and is far more friable when dry. 
 In fact, the liming gives a coarser texture to the clay 
 soil, and all the effects pertaining to the coarser texture, 
 such as diminished capacity for retaining water and 
 consequent greater warmth, less shrinkage and tendency 
 to cake on drying, are all manifest after the application 
 of lime. It does not, however, follow that the crop 
 will mature more readily though the season is made 
 earlier through liming ; in many cases in dry seasons 
 crops upon clay ripen prematurely, because the drying 
 up and shrinkage of the impervious clay cut the 
 roots off from all access of moisture. The liming, 
 by opening up the soil to the motion of water by 
 surface tension, keeps the plant growing for a longer 
 period ; at the same time, the increased amount of plant 
 food rendered available also tends to prolong the dura- 
 tion of growth. On very light soils the addition of lime 
 acts to a certain extent as a binding material, and in- 
 creases the cohesion and water-retaining power of the 
 soil, but it is not so effective in this respect as humus. 
 Besides its physical effect upon the texture of stiff soils, 
 lime has a very powerful chemical effect, liberating freely 
 the reserves of plant food of all kinds in the soil and 
 rendering them available to the plant ; so that on soils 
 naturally deficient in carbonate of lime, manures of all 
 kinds can only find their proper value if lime be also 
 used from time to time. On soils that have been 
 under intensive cultivation for a long time immense 
 reserves of plant food have been accumulated, which 
 only require the addition of lime to bring them into 
 action. As an example may be quoted the result of 
 
IX.] 
 
 ACTION OF LIME 
 
 263 
 
 applying lime to an old hop garden at Farnham, 
 Surrey, where the soil consisted of an alluvial loam, 
 very deficient in carbonate of lime, and heavily dressed 
 with organic manures for many years previously. The 
 plots chosen for comparison received a complete artificial 
 manure with or without 1 ton of lime per acre; the 
 figures for the crops in the following table have been 
 reduced to percentages to eliminate the great fluctua- 
 tions due to season. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Artificial Manures. 
 
 With Lime. 
 
 Without Lime. 
 
 189S 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 1900 
 1901 
 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 
 70 
 84 
 80 
 81 
 90 
 
 Of course, as lime itself supplies no food to the 
 plant, but only sets in action the dormant residues 
 already present in the soil, the forcing of crops by the 
 aid of lime alone soon results in the exhaustion of the 
 land. Hence the old saw : — 
 
 " Lime, and lime without manure, 
 Will make both land and farmer poor." 
 
 The exact effect of lime in promoting fertility 
 depends upon the plant food in question. We have 
 already seen that all the decay processes which result 
 in the oxidation of the humus are promoted by the 
 presence of a base to combine with the organic acids 
 produced by the decay, and, in particular, that the 
 presence of an easily attacked base is necessary for 
 nitrification. As a nett result, the oxidation of the 
 humus and the formation of nitrates is much increased 
 
264 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 by a dressing of lime, which, indeed, is the first 
 indispensable step towards rendering available the rich 
 organic residues accumulated in a sour soil. As regards 
 the mineral constituents, lime has a very marked power 
 of bringing potash into a soluble state ; the double 
 hydrated silicates of potash and alumina, etc., which 
 result from the partial breaking down of felspars and 
 are the sources of the potash of our soils, are de- 
 composed, lime being substituted for the potash going 
 into solution. It is a case of mass action, where the 
 addition of one soluble constituent to the soil will 
 increase the amount that goes into solution of all 
 the other constituents which are capable of being 
 replaced by the base added ; the extent of the action 
 is therefore dependent upon the amount of lime used. 
 The fact that more potash has been rendered avail- 
 able in limed soils is clearly seen in the character of 
 the vegetation, e.g., in an increased proportion of 
 clovers in the herbage of pasture or hay land. The 
 action of lime as a liberator of potash is illustrated 
 by the effect of a dressing of chalk applied in 1881 
 to part of the permanent grass plots at Rothamsted; 
 by 1884 differences began to be manifest, the chalk 
 caused a change in the herbage of those plots which 
 had been receiving potash each year for twenty-five 
 years previously, increasing the production as a whole, 
 and particularly increasing the proportion of leguminous 
 plants in the herbage. On the plots, however, which 
 had been receiving no potash, and therefore contained 
 no recently accumulated reserves of this material, the 
 chalk had practically no effect, either in the weight or 
 character of the crop. 
 
 To some extent lime seems able to act as a liberator 
 of phosphoric acid in the soil. As pointed out by 
 Thdnard, lime is able to act upon the very insoluble 
 
ix.] LIMING 265 
 
 phosphates of aluminium or iron which are present in 
 many soils, and, by converting them into phosphate of 
 lime, renders the phosphoric acid more available for 
 the plant. 
 
 Besides its specific actions in thus rendering more 
 soluble the soil constituents which nourish the plant, 
 lime exerts a very beneficial action by maintaining 
 the neutral reaction of the soil ; it neutralises the acids 
 produced by the decay and nitrification (see p. 174) of 
 the organic matter in the soil, or those due to the 
 oxidation of materials like iron pyrites in other soils 
 (see p. 243). Again, as has been shown already, it 
 is necessary as a base to satisfy the requirements of 
 artificial manures like sulphate of ammonia, superphos- 
 phate, and kainit (see p. 216), or to prevent the soil 
 being invaded by such organisms as the destructive 
 fungus causing " finger-and-toe " (see p. 209). It must, 
 however, be clearly realised that lime is wanted as a 
 base, not as a compound of calcium, necessary though 
 calcium itself may be to the economy of the plant ; and 
 that only carbonate of lime (chalk, limestone, etc.) or 
 quicklime and slaked lime, which promptly become 
 carbonate of lime when incorporated with the soil, are 
 capable of acting as the required base. Other calcium 
 compounds, as superphosphate of lime or sulphate of 
 lime (gypsum), or phosphate of lime in bones, etc., are 
 either acid or neutral, and do not supply the base 
 required to effect the beneficial actions set out above; 
 they cannot replace lime or chalk — in fact, they do not 
 contain any " lime " in the farmer's sense. Unfortunately, 
 it has been too often supposed that the use of artificial 
 manures, such as superphosphate of lime, removed the 
 necessity of a periodical liming of the soil, and some 
 of the neglect into which this all-important operation 
 has fallen may be set down to the unfortunate confusion 
 
266 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 hanging round the word lime. However, as will have 
 been gathered from a consideration of the effects of 
 sulphate of ammonia in depleting the Woburn soil of 
 carbonate of lime, the use of artificial manures generally 
 demands an increased rather than a lessened attention 
 to the periodical liming of the land. 
 
 The method of liming which was formerly in vogue 
 consisted in applying very large quantities of quicklime 
 at comparatively long intervals, ioo to 150 bushels 
 per acre ( = 2 to 4 tons) every eight or ten years, or 
 an initial dressing of 100 bushels, with a further dressing 
 of 50 bushels per acre every third year. The reason 
 for this interval lies in the fact that the best effects 
 of lime are to be seen after the lapse of a year or 
 two; the material becomes carbonate, which, being 
 insoluble, is incorporated with the soil and passes into 
 solution as bicarbonate but slowly. The immediate 
 effect of lime may even be a diminution of the crop 
 if it be used on very rich land, or in actual contact with 
 fresh dung ; under these conditions there appears to be 
 some loss of ammonia by volatilisation. Of course the 
 effect of lime is not very persistent, and the dressing 
 must be repeated ; as the farmers say, the " lime sinks in 
 the land," i.e. y carbonate of lime is removed from the 
 surface soil by solution as bicarbonate. 
 
 In carrying out the operation of " liming," the aim 
 should be to ensure as fine a division as possible, so as 
 to incorporate the material intimately with the soil. In 
 some cases the lime is thrown out in heaps on the 
 stubbles in autumn, and slaked by pouring on water, 
 the hot slaked powder into which the quicklime falls 
 being immediately spread over the land. This method 
 only answers with "fat" limes, which slake and fall 
 readily to a dry powder ; a better method is to lay up 
 the quicklime in heaps and cover the heaps with soil ? 
 
ix.] LIME 267 
 
 in which case the lime slakes gradually to a fine powder 
 that can be spread before the plough. It is not wise to 
 spread the quicklime over the land, as much of it, 
 after slaking and becoming carbonated, remains in 
 lumps which cannot be reduced to a powder. 
 
 The expense of liming in this fashion is consider- 
 able, and as the action is not immediate, owing to the 
 difficulty of getting the material mixed with the soil, 
 it is desirable to replace it, if possible, by a cheaper 
 process. This has been attained by the use of ground 
 lime, which is at the present time prepared by most 
 lime works for the use of builders ; 5 cwt. of ground 
 lime per acre, distributed by a manure barrow or by 
 one of the artificial manure distributors now manu- 
 factured, will be found more effective for one or two 
 seasons than ten or twelve times as much applied in 
 the old-fashioned method. Of course such a small 
 dressing of ground lime requires renewing more fre- 
 quently; but, as the expense is comparatively trifling, 
 both for labour and material, as compared with the 
 older process, it may be hoped that on many soils this 
 all-important operation will assume its old prominence 
 in the routine of farming. 
 
 Considerable differences are to be seen in the 
 character of lime made from the various calcium car- 
 bonate rocks burnt for lime in the British Islands; in 
 the main a distinction may be drawn between the white 
 11 fat " limes made from the White Chalk, the Mountain 
 Limestone and other comparatively pure deposits of 
 calcium carbonate, and the " thin " grey or stone limes 
 made from less pure and more argillaceous limestones. 
 The " fat " limes are the purer, slake readily and swell 
 considerably in the act, forming afterwards a bulky 
 white powder ; the " poor " or " thin " limes slake with 
 comparative difficulty and do not increase much in 
 
268 CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. 
 
 bulk. The "thin" limes partake somewhat of the 
 nature of a cement, setting after mixture with water, 
 and are more esteemed by builders than the "fat" 
 limes, which harden with extreme slowness and are 
 chiefly employed for plastering and kindred work. 
 Naturally the " fat " limes are preferable from an agri- 
 cultural point of view, both for their purity and the 
 finer condition into which they fall; unfortunately few 
 of the lime works grind the white lime in the ordinary 
 course of trade, as they do the builders' lime. 
 
 The lime made by burning the Magnesian Lime- 
 stone which occurs in Durham, Yorkshire, Derby- 
 shire, and Notts, is disliked by farmers and regarded 
 as injurious rather than beneficial to the land. It 
 contains 50 to 80 per cent, of lime and 4 to 40 per 
 cent, of magnesia, which latter constituent may be 
 the cause of the ill effects. 
 
 The following analyses show the mean composition 
 of several samples of "fat" and "poor" lime, being 
 "white" and "grey" lime respectively, made from the 
 Upper and Lower Chalk of the North Downs : — 
 
 
 White Lime. 
 
 Grey Lime. 
 
 Caustic Lime • < • • 
 Carbonate of Lime • • 
 Magnesia • • 
 Oxide of Iron . . • 
 Alumina • • 
 Silica as Soluble Silicates • • 
 Insoluble Residue • • 
 Water, Alkalis, etc. . • 
 
 90.20 
 2*40 
 
 o-35 
 0-52 
 
 1*70 
 
 2»6o 
 
 •25 
 1.98 
 
 74.OO 
 2-66 
 0-38 
 
 I'OO 
 
 7.60 
 8.60 
 
 •94 
 4.82 
 
 ioo-oo 
 
 IOO-OO 
 
 In place of lime, chalk may often be used with 
 advantage when it is readily accessible ; for example, on 
 
ix.j CHALKING 269 
 
 one side of the Chalk formation the Gault and the upper 
 beds of the Lower Greensand, and on the other side the 
 London Clay and the Bagshot Sands, are generally in 
 need of lime, and are never very remote from the out- 
 crop of the chalk. The superficial clays and sands 
 lying on the Chalk itself are often deficient in lime, and 
 may be readily chalked by sinking shallow pits. It 
 must be remembered that much larger quantities of 
 chalk than of lime are needed to produce a given effect ; 
 not only is the chalk equivalent chemically to about 
 half its weight of lime, but in practice it can never be 
 reduced to so fine a state of division as lime obtains by 
 careful slaking. In chalking, it is desirable to obtain 
 the soft upper white chalk from a pit, so that it is 
 saturated with quarry water ; if then spread over the land 
 in autumn it gets frozen while still full of water, and 
 becomes reduced to a comparatively fine powder which 
 can be ploughed in if on arable soil or spread with 
 a harrow on the pastures. Very large quantities of 
 chalk are used, up to 100 loads to the acre; naturally 
 the effect of such treatment is more permanent than 
 the usual liming. 
 
 The custom of "chalking" was very extensively 
 practised during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
 in Hertfordshire on the high plateau land on which the 
 Rothamsted estate is situated. There the "clay with 
 flints" and the "boulder clay," though not, as a rule, 
 more than 10 to 12 feet thick, and resting on the chalk 
 rock from which they have largely been derived, have 
 been completely decalcified by the solvent action of the 
 rain water, and no longer contain more than a trace of 
 carbonate of lime. It was customary to sink bell pits 
 through the clay until the chalk was reached ; this was 
 then dug out, hauled to the surface in baskets, and dragged 
 out on to the fields in sledges. Sixty to a hundred or 
 
rjo CAUSES OF FERTILITY AND STERILITY [chap. ix. 
 
 even a hundred and fifty loads per acre were spread, 
 and from time to time the process was repeated. The 
 amount of chalk thus spread upon the surface was con- 
 siderable ; the surface soil of the arable fields on the 
 Rothamsted estate now contains from 3 to 5 per cent, 
 of carbonate of lime, which is equivalent to 30 to 50 tons 
 per acre ; and since none has been spread for the last 
 seventy years at least, and solution in the rain water has 
 constantly been going on, there must have been nearer 
 100 tons per acre at the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century. 
 
 The result has been practically the creation of a soil 
 fit for arable farming, for some of the Rothamsted fields 
 which had never undergone the operation have had to 
 be laid down to grass, so difficult did their cultivation 
 prove in wet seasons. 
 
 Chalk is perhaps more suited than lime to very 
 light sandy soils like the Lower Greensand or the 
 Bagshot beds, for on such dry hot soils the application 
 of quicklime is apt to result in too rapid a decay of the 
 organic reserves of the land ; on clay soils, however, 
 quicklime is preferable, as it is a much more effective 
 agent in coagulating and improving the texture of the 
 clay 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 SOIL TYPES 
 
 Classification of Soils according to their Physical or Chemical 
 Nature — Geological Origin the Basis of Classification — Vege- 
 tation Characteristic of Various Soil Types : Physical Structure, 
 Chemical Composition, Natural Flora and Weeds character- 
 istic of Sands, Loams, Calcareous Soils, Clays, Peat, Marsh, 
 and Salt Soils — Soil Surveys, their Execution and Application. 
 
 Perhaps the question of the greatest practical import- 
 ance in connection with the scientific study of soils 
 is their classification into certain types defined by 
 their physical or chemical properties, and the alloca- 
 tion of these types to their appropriate areas, so as to 
 obtain a soil map of any given district. Despite 
 disturbing factors, to which allusion will be made later, 
 certain types of soil persist over wide stretches of 
 country, and are characterised not only by a general 
 resemblance in chemical or physical constitution, but 
 by a corresponding similarity in the natural flora they 
 bear, and their appropriateness to certain crops. The 
 constancy of the soil types is the result of a common 
 origin from the same kind of rock, and the difficulty 
 lies less in recognising the types than in drawing 
 boundary lines, so imperceptibly does one class shade 
 off into another. The only classification that can be 
 at all general, is one based upon the physical structure 
 
 271 
 
272 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 and texture of the soil, viz., into sands, loams, and clays, 
 with subdivisions dependent on the presence or absence 
 of calcium carbonate, and upon the situation, as causing 
 the accumulation or otherwise of humus. 
 
 In attempting to review the vegetation appropriate 
 to different types of soil it will be found that two 
 distinct factors must be taken into account — the 
 relations of the soil to water, and its chemical con- 
 stitution — which factors often interact in a complex 
 fashion, different causes producing the same effect. A 
 plant, for example, may be found upon sand because 
 of its dryness, or, because of the absence of calcium 
 carbonate usually associated with sand; another 
 plant, having adapted its structure to use very small 
 quantities of water, may equally well be found on a 
 dry sand, or on a clay which holds so much water 
 as to be injurious to the ordinary plant. 
 
 Plants have adapted themselves to conditions of 
 dryness in very diverse ways; in some cases, as in 
 gorse or broom, the leaf surface is much restricted ; in 
 others, the thickness of the cuticle has been increased, 
 or the surface of the leaf is thickly clad with hairs ; in 
 other cases the leaves possess special tissues for storing 
 water. Such plants are known as " xerophytes," and 
 are found on soils which appear to differ very much 
 from one another, for a soil may contain plenty of 
 water and yet be physiologically dry, because of the 
 presence of some other constituent hindering the 
 absorption of water by the plant. 
 
 The areas on which xerophytic plants are found 
 include not only the true desert areas, where great 
 heat and intense illumination occur during the larger 
 part of the year, but also the pervious sandy soils re- 
 taining very little moisture — sand dunes, shingle flats, 
 and the like. Again, the plants of alkali soils and of 
 
x.] PHYSIOLOGICAL DRYNESS 273 
 
 salt marshes invaded by the sea, develop a xerophytic 
 structure, because they would be injured if they absorbed 
 large amounts of saline soil water. Peaty areas also 
 act in the same way, for it is found that the humic acids 
 in such soils withhold the water from the plant very 
 obstinately. Exposed elevated regions with a low 
 temperature, by reducing the power of the roots to 
 absorb moisture, render it necessary that the plant 
 should lose little by transpiration; hence we see 
 certain conifers flourish both on dry sandy soils and 
 wet elevated moors. 
 
 As regards the chemical side of the question, the 
 most important soil constituent affecting vegetation is 
 calcium carbonate; a large number of plants seem 
 absolutely intolerant of lime in the soil, while others 
 are rarely seen off limestone and chalk areas. Even 
 among the humus-loving plants a different flora is found 
 on the acid peaty areas from that prevalent on the 
 mild humus areas where the soil water contains calcium 
 bicarbonate in solution. 
 
 But, however characteristic the general aspect of 
 the vegetation may be upon the different types of soil, 
 it is rare to find cases of plants entirely intolerant of 
 a different kind of soil from that which they habitually 
 frequent; many plants show a preference for one soil 
 or other without being exclusively confined to it For 
 example, the common primrose is undoubtedly a clay 
 lover, yet it will be found widely distributed over all 
 the English soils; the beech and the yew are typical 
 trees of the chalk, good oak and hornbeam of the clay ; 
 Spanish chestnut, and many conifers like the Scotch 
 fir, are sand lovers ; yet each of these trees will be 
 found commonly enough on other kinds of soils. It will 
 rarely be found that plants will absolutely refuse to grow 
 or even to flourish on soils of which they are naturally 
 
 S 
 
274 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 intolerant ; a lime-hating plant like gorse, for example, 
 will grow freely enough on a calcareous soil in a garden 
 where it is protected from competition. But in nature 
 all plants are subjected to severe competition, and a very 
 small depression of their vitality brought about by the 
 presence or absence of some constituent of the soil, may 
 so turn the scale against them that they are almost 
 invariably crowded off areas of such soil, the exceptions 
 being due to some other favourable factor coming into 
 play locally. 
 
 Sands. 
 
 The typical sandy soils of this country are either 
 alluvial flats in the lower levels of our rivers, passing 
 into dunes where the sand accumulates near the sea, 
 or are directly derived from some of the many coarse- 
 grained sandy formations developed in England. The 
 Bagshot beds and the Lower Greensand form wide 
 areas in the south-east ; the sandy beds of the Oolite 
 produce similar soils in Northamptonshire and the 
 East Midlands ; further west and northward the Bunter 
 beds give rise to other very coarse-textured soils, as 
 does the Millstone Grit in more elevated areas in the 
 North. 
 
 As these coarse-grained sands have been laid down 
 in rough water, they consist in the main of silica, which 
 alone is able to resist the degree of weathering and 
 attrition to which the original material has been 
 subjected. In consequence, the rock is initially with- 
 out much calcium carbonate or other material which 
 will yield soluble salts on further weathering ; the open 
 texture of the material also results in a very free 
 movement of soil water, and this continues the removal 
 of anything soluble. Occasionally a sandy rock is 
 found which has been largely formed by the disin- 
 
X.] SANDY SOILS 275 
 
 tegration of shells, so that it is rich in calcium 
 carbonate ; but, as a rule, sandy soils are characterised 
 by poverty in this material. Most soils of this sandy 
 type seem to possess considerable amounts of oxide 
 of iron ; the actual proportion present may not be so 
 large as in ordinary soils, but, being spread over the 
 comparatively small surface offered by the large grains, 
 it is more in evidence. The phosphoric acid, which 
 is rarely present in any quantity, generally about 01 
 per cent, is chiefly combined with the oxides of iron. 
 Because of the general lack of finer particles — in the 
 main clay derived from the weathering of felspar — 
 soils of this type are notably deficient in potash. 
 
 Despite their warmth and free aeration, sandy 
 soils often accumulate considerable amounts of humus, 
 an effect probably due to the absence of calcium 
 carbonate. Where depressions occur in the general 
 level of the ground, a layer of impervious ferric 
 hydrate or "pan" forms below the surface and holds 
 up the drainage water, which waterlogged condition 
 is at once followed by an accumulation of peat. 
 
 On these sandy areas cultivation is a very artificial 
 affair, and the soil has practically to be created. The 
 first necessity is a supply of lime and mineral salts, 
 to remedy the lack of nutriment ; then as much humus 
 as possible must be obtained, by turning in or fold- 
 ing green crops, or even from their roots and stubble 
 only. The humus binds the soil together, creates a 
 reserve of manurial material, and much increases the 
 retentive power of the soil both for water and mineral 
 salts. 
 
 Being so dry, the specific heat of sandy soils is 
 exceptionally low; in consequence these soils are 
 early, and as they also recover quickly from rain, so 
 that cultivation is not forced to wait much on the 
 
276 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 season but can be proceeded with very readily, they are 
 especially suited to market gardening, wherever situ- 
 ated sufficiently near to a large town to enable large 
 quantities of manure to be obtained cheaply. Where 
 the water table is close to the surface, sandy soils can 
 become very fertile, roots range freely in them, and appli- 
 cations of manure have their full effect. Like all light 
 soils, they are apt to become very weedy. Of the crops 
 suitable to soils of this type, spring wheat is often better 
 than the autumn-sown variety; the quality of wheat 
 is, however, generally inferior on sandy soils; barley 
 is better than oats, and maize is worthy of attention 
 as a fodder crop. Swedes, cabbages, and the cruciferous 
 crops generally, are subject to " finger-and-toe," in conse- 
 quence of the poverty of the soil in lime and soluble 
 mineral constituents. 
 
 With certain exceptions, leguminous plants do 
 not grow well on sandy soils, and require considerable 
 supplies of lime and mineral manures ; there are, how- 
 ever, some leguminous plants which are characteristically 
 calcifuges — i.e., intolerant of lime in the soil — lupins, 
 serradella, and gorse belong to this class. Allusion has 
 already been made to the reclamation of sandy land in 
 Prussia by means of lupins, and probably more use 
 might be made of the crop in this country on similar 
 soils. Experiments made with gorse on the coarse 
 sandy soil of the Royal Agricultural Society's farm 
 at Woburn, indicate that it may become a profitable 
 fodder crop on such soils. 
 
 Potatoes are perhaps the best crop on the sandy 
 soils, but require considerable expenditure of manure, 
 including large dressings of potash, to do well. Carrots 
 are another crop particularly appropriate to sandy soils, 
 as they need a deep, fine tilth. 
 
 The manuring of sandy soils must be based upon a 
 
X.] SANDY SOILS 277 
 
 liberal use of lime, frequently renewed because of the 
 ease with which water percolates and removes the 
 calcium carbonate. Marling and chalking, wherever 
 such materials are available, are better for the land 
 than the use of quicklime, which is apt to induce too 
 rapid an oxidation of the organic matter. Nitrogen is 
 best supplied in its organic forms, as in well-rotted dung, 
 the guanos, fish or meat manure, rape cake, etc. ; nitrate 
 of soda is apt to induce too rapid a growth, and also to 
 be washed away. Sulphate of ammonia is unsuitable, 
 owing to the lack of lime in the soil. Of phosphatic 
 manures, superphosphate is unsuitable owing to its 
 acid nature. Basic slag is also unsuitable as a rule, 
 owing to the small quantities of water retained by 
 the soil, but it answers well on sands where the 
 water table is near the surface; on the whole, 
 neutral easily available phosphates like phosphatic 
 guano and steamed bone flour give the best results 
 on these soils. Potash manures are much needed, 
 and either kainit or sulphate of potash may be used. 
 Gypsum is often used with good effect on such soils 
 in the Wealden area, acting as a liberator of what 
 little potash may be in the soil. 
 
 The natural flora of the sandy soils is of a double 
 character — in part xerophytic, and associated with the 
 prevailing dryness of the soils; in part calcifuge, 
 and dependent on the absence of calcium carbonate. 
 Plants with mycorhiza are abundant, owing, as already 
 explained, to the comparative poverty of these soils 
 in both water and soluble salts. 
 
 The characteristic sand trees are the Spanish 
 chestnut, birch, holly, and many conifers; of these 
 the Spanish chestnut and some of the firs, like 
 Pinus pinaster, are particularly intolerant of calcium 
 carbonate. 
 
278 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 Many of the Ericaceae, such as common heather and 
 the heaths, cultivated species like the rhododendrons 
 and azaleas of our gardens, are similarly intolerant of 
 lime and associated with sandy soils ; at higher levels 
 various species of V actinium and kindred plants are 
 common. Gorse ( Ulex europceus and U, nanus), broom 
 {Cytisus scoparius), Genista anglica, Ornithopus, and 
 several vetches like Vicia cracca, are characteristic legu- 
 minous plants of sandy soils. The foxglove {Digitalis 
 purpurea), sorrel {Rumex acetoselld), and in undrained 
 situations the sundews {Drosera sp.) are intolerant of 
 lime and are common plants on sandy soils, as also 
 are the common bracken {Pteris aquilina), and wavy hair 
 grass {Air a flexuosa). 
 
 Characteristic weeds of sandy soils are, spurrey 
 {Spergula arvensis), and sandwort-spurrey {Spergularia 
 rubra), corn marigold {Chrysanthemum segetum), and 
 knawel {Scleranthus annuus and perennis) ; Papaver 
 dubium and Centaurea cyanus are also common on 
 such soils. The bulbous buttercup {Ranunculus bul- 
 bosus) is very frequent on dry pastures, whether sandy 
 or chalky, as is the small bindweed {Convolvulus 
 arvensis) of similar soils under cultivation ; the silver- 
 weed {Potentilla anserina), though generally indicative 
 of winter flooding, is to be found on all kinds of 
 poor, light land. 
 
 The Loams, 
 
 The sandy soils pass by imperceptible stages into 
 the loams — free-working soils containing enough sand 
 to be friable and to admit of percolation, yet retain- 
 ing sufficient water near the surface to withstand 
 short spells of dry weather. If the sandy fractions of 
 the loam are mainly fine grained, the soil is apt to 
 run and become very sticky in wet weather, afterwards 
 
X.] ALLUVIAL LOAMS 279 
 
 drying to hard clods; an admixture of coarser sand 
 results in a better texture. The loams are typical 
 soils of arable cultivation and are suitable to all crops ; 
 their manurial requirements vary with the origin of 
 each soil, and are largely conditioned by its poverty 
 or richness in calcium carbonate. While no special 
 flora can be associated with the loams, there are several 
 weeds generally taken as indicative of good fertile soils 
 of this class; such are chickweed (Stellaria media), 
 groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) , fat hen {Chenopodium 
 album)) stinking mayweed (Antkemis Cotula), and 
 the Sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus). Other weeds 
 of cultivated land, which only occur when the soil 
 is capable of carrying fair crops, are goose grass 
 {Galium aparine), the speedwells {Veronica agrestis, 
 etc.), pimpernel {Anagallis arvensis), henbit (Lamium 
 amplexicaule\ wild poppy {Papaver rhaeas\ and the 
 small spurges like Euphorbia Peplus. The alluvial 
 soils which border the rivers and pass into con- 
 siderable marshes at their mouths, must, by their 
 texture, be classed among the loams, and present no 
 specific features, except where they are waterlogged 
 and marshy, or near the sea where the subsoil water 
 becomes so rich in salt as to alter the character of 
 the vegetation. The marshy patches accumulate, as 
 a rule, what has already been described as " mild 
 humus," owing to the presence of bicarbonate of lime 
 in the soil water; it is generally accompanied by 
 deposits of pulverulent ferric hydrate. The presence 
 of rushes, of sedges like the carnation grass, or orchids 
 like 0. maculata and O. latifolia y are characteristic of 
 these spots requiring drainage. Lousewort (Pedicularis 
 palustris) is said only to occur in marshes where the 
 water contains lime. 
 
 The salt marshes possess a characteristic vegeta- 
 
2 8o SOIL TYPES 
 
 tion of what are termed halophytes, plants capable 
 of resisting a considerable quantity of salt in the 
 medium in which they grow. Among cultivated 
 plants, mangolds, asparagus, and crucifers like cabbage, 
 
 are most tolerant of salt, and the two former are true 
 
 « 
 
 halophytes. 
 
 Many halophytes live by acting as xerophytes, and 
 taking very little water up; they are also able to 
 store away in their tissues quantities of saline matter 
 which would be toxic to the majority of plants. The 
 ash of Armeria maritima shows 12 to 15 per cent, of 
 chlorine in the ash; in Aster tripolium the proportion 
 rises to over 40 per cent, in the ash of the leaves, and 
 to 50 per cent, in that of the stem; yet although the 
 plants habitually contain these large amounts of salt, 
 they will grow perfectly well in ordinary soil where 
 they can get but little. 
 
 The Australian salt-bush {A triplex semibaccatum), 
 which has already been mentioned as tolerant of a 
 large amount of alkali in the soil, also removes much 
 soluble matter — the dry plant containing as much as 
 20 per cent, of ash, so that the salt content of 
 the soil may be materially reduced by cropping with 
 this plant. The halophytes seen in the salt marshes 
 of this country consist of various species of Atriplex y 
 Beta (the source of the cultivated beets and man- 
 golds), and other Chenopodiacese, Statice armeria. 
 Aster tripolium, Frankenia, and a number of crucifer- 
 ous plants like Crambe, and Cakile, with umbellifers 
 like Crithmum. Some plants show a great dislike to 
 salt, even in small proportion, e.g., the Rosaceae, 
 Orchidaceae, and the Ericaceae. 
 
x.] CALCAREOUS SOILS 281 
 
 Calcareous Soils. 
 
 It is difficult to draw an exact line of demarcation 
 between the loams and calcareous soils, so variable is 
 the proportion of carbonate of lime, owing to its con- 
 tinual removal by the percolation of water containing 
 carbonic acid. Even on the chalk and limestone, where 
 the thickness of the soil layer is to be measured in 
 inches, the surface soil may have its calcium carbonate 
 almost wholly removed, and, again, where the deeper 
 soils of calcareous origin accumulate in the valleys, 
 there is nothing to distinguish them from ordinary 
 loams. However, the general aspect of the calcareous 
 soils containing from 5 to 60 per cent, of calcium 
 carbonate is characteristic, and the natural flora always 
 indicates the presence of much lime. The texture of 
 the calcareous soils may vary within any limits, accord- 
 ing to the formation from which they have originated. 
 On the one hand, extremely fine-textured heavy marls 
 exist; for example, the soils derived from the strata 
 at the base of the Chalk and upper beds of the Gault 
 in the south and east of England; on the contrary, 
 fairly coarse sand may form a considerable proportion 
 of the soil, rendering it light in texture, as is the case 
 with many of the soils resting on the chalk of the 
 North Downs. In all cases these calcareous soils are 
 typically sticky when wet, and easily cake on the surface 
 when dried. Such soils, again, lose their organic matter 
 very rapidly by decay ; in farming them it is desirable 
 to use every means to increase the proportion of humus 
 by adding farmyard manure, by folding roots on the 
 land, or by ploughing in green crops. Slowly acting 
 nitrogenous manures, like rape dust or shoddy, are 
 valuable ; again, there is always enough calcium 
 carbonate present naturally to render to sulphate of 
 
282 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 ammonia its full value as a source of nitrogen. The 
 lighter calcareous soils require a free use of nitrogenous 
 manures to get good crops. Calcareous soils are 
 generally well provided with phosphoric acid, owing to 
 the organic origin of the calcium carbonate; the rule 
 is, however, by no means universal, the upper Chalk, 
 for example, yields soils with less than 01 per cent, 
 of this constituent. Superphosphate is undoubtedly 
 the best source of phosphoric acid for such soils, 
 basic slag is almost without action. The propor- 
 tion of potash present in these soils is generally 
 reflected in their texture; if light and near the 
 unaltered rock, they are as a rule very deficient in this 
 constituent, and require its addition for the growth 
 of any of the root crops. Salt is generally bene- 
 ficial as an addition to manures on the calcareous 
 soils. 
 
 The calcareous soils are generally warm, dry, and 
 healthy for stock; when deep and sheltered they are 
 extremely fertile; the thinner soils are rather subject 
 to certain insect pests, like the turnip flea. The abund- 
 ance of worms in chalky pasture is worthy of note. 
 The lighter calcareous soils are notoriously weedy. In 
 addition to the usual weeds of light land, Fumitory 
 {Fumaria officinalis). Geranium tnolle, and kindred 
 species, are almost confined to soils with a consider- 
 able proportion of calcium carbonate. Two crops 
 are very characteristic of calcareous soils wherever 
 the climate will admit of their growth, viz., sainfoin 
 and lucerne, which flourish excellently, and provide 
 abundant and valuable fodder even on the driest 
 chalk soils. 
 
 The natural flora of these calcareous soils includes 
 the beech, yew, and wild cherry, among trees; the 
 juniper, box, mealy guelder rose {Viburnum lantana\ 
 
X.] CALCAREOUS SOILS 283 
 
 beam tree {Pyrus aria), dogwood (Cornus sanguined), 
 and Clematis vitalba, among shrubs. 
 
 The vegetation is characteristically rich in flower- 
 ing plants: amongst the Leguminosae, the horse -shoe 
 vetch {Hippocrepis comosa), bird's-foot trefoil {Lotus 
 corniculatus), kidney vetch (Anthyllis Vulnerarid), are 
 everywhere abundant; milkwort (Polygala), bladder 
 campion {Silene inflatd), Spircea filipendula, burnet 
 (Poterium sanguisorbd), wild parsnip {Pastinaca sativd)* 
 sheep's scabious {Scabiosa columbaria), chicory (Cicho- 
 rium intybus), and certain of the Gentianaceae, as G, 
 amarella and Chlora perfoliata, the viper's bugloss 
 (Echium vulgare), and a number of labiates like Ori- 
 ganum, are characteristic of the pastures and waste 
 places on chalk and limestone. Amongst grasses, 
 A vena pubescens, A. flavescens, Bromus erectus, and 
 Brachypodium pinnatum, are common. 
 
 While it has been indicated that many plants are 
 intolerant of lime, others show the effect of any excess 
 in the soils by a stunted development of the plant, 
 often accompanied by a reduced size of the leaf, and 
 a sickly yellow or even white colour. This unhealthy 
 condition of "chlorosis" is particularly noticeable on 
 the stiff marls, which are but little aerated but contain 
 much calcium carbonate; on the Continent it often 
 affects vines, particularly when grafted on American 
 stocks. 
 
 Clay Soils. 
 
 It has already been indicated that clay soils are 
 those in which the finer fractions of sand, silt, and 
 clay predominate ; the presence of any considerable pro- 
 portion of coarse sand causes the soil to become friable, 
 and would class it with the loams. The texture of 
 
284 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 clay soils naturally varies very much; the heaviest 
 clays occur in dry climates, where the percolation 
 has not been sufficiently great to wash away many 
 of the finer particles ; in the east and south-east of 
 England the Oxford and the London Clay, with the 
 Boulder clays derived therefrom, give rise to the 
 most stubborn and intractable clays. On these soils 
 the old practice of an occasional bare fallow is still 
 carried out, and is almost necessary to maintain the 
 soil in good cultivation. As a rule, the strong clay 
 soils have of late years been laid down to permanent 
 pasture; the cost and the difficulty of arable culti- 
 vation (for much wet weather in autumn or spring 
 may render it impossible to put horses on the land 
 for long periods), and the great fall in prices of both 
 wheat and beans, the staple crops of such land, have 
 rendered it necessary to resort to a cheaper method 
 of farming. 
 
 Most clays carry good permanent pasture, because 
 the soil retains enough water to keep the grass growing 
 through any but the longer periods of drought ; in very 
 dry years, however, clay suffers severely from the 
 drought; the surface cracks and the subsoil dries 
 through the cracks ; the resistance also offered by the 
 close texture of the soil to the capillary rise of soil 
 water renders the winter rainfall le$s available to the 
 crop than on soils of lighter texture. The benefits 
 accruing from drainage, in making the soil dry more 
 quickly after rain and resist drought better, have already 
 been discussed. Certain clay soils may be found too 
 close textured to carry good pasture; the soil sets so 
 firmly that aeration becomes very defective, and the 
 vegetation degenerates into surface rooting, stoloniferous 
 grasses like Agrostis alba. 
 
 Owing to their fine division, their origin from the 
 
x.] CLAY SOILS 285 
 
 compound silicates of primitive rocks, and the reduced 
 percolation which they permit, all clays are compara- 
 tively rich in soluble mineral salts. Many of them show 
 crystals of selenite (CaS0 4 2H 2 0) in the subsoil com- 
 paratively near to the surface ; magnesium sulphate is 
 often abundant, and strongly impregnates the water 
 obtained from the wells or the occasional springs to be 
 found in the clays. In the Weald of Kent the shallow 
 wells in the clay yield water that is almost undrinkable, 
 containing, as it does, from 150 to 450 parts of dissolved 
 matters per 100,000, consisting chiefly of the sulphates 
 (with some chlorides) of magnesium and calcium. The 
 sulphates often originate from the oxidation of finely 
 divided iron pyrites. The presence of ferrous salts 
 and other unoxidised iron compounds has already 
 been alluded to as a source of sterility in clay soils 
 particularly where the subsoil has been incautiously 
 brought to the surface. In the cultivation of all land 
 it is important to keep the surface soil on the top, and 
 to attempt to deepen the staple with care ; but this is 
 particularly the case with clays, where the land may 
 easily be injured for years by over-deep ploughing. No 
 soils show more marked change than the clays do in 
 passing from soil to subsoil, both in chemical com- 
 position and physical texture. 
 
 Many clay soils, especially when undrained, possess 
 a great tendency to accumulate hydrated ferric oxide 
 some few inches below the surface, at about the level 
 to which the soil is ordinarily aerated. This deposit 
 sometimes forms a continuous layer or " pan " ; in drier 
 climates it becomes a kind of " crowstone " gravel, made 
 up of little nodules of hydrated oxide of iron, contain- 
 ing also manganese. This material frequently forms 
 a serious obstacle to cultivation, and requires to be 
 broken up with a crowbar or a subsoil plough before 
 
286 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 any deep-rooting crop can be properly grown. Its 
 origin is perhaps not entirely explained as yet; the 
 respective shares of the iron bacteria of Winogradsky, 
 or the purely chemical actions of solution and reduc- 
 tion by the organic matter and carbonic acid, followed 
 by redeposit on evaporation, is a matter requiring 
 further investigation. The formation of the material 
 is only noticed in clays very poor in calcium carbon- 
 ate and liable to waterlogging through insufficient per- 
 colation. 
 
 Owing to their coolness, their retention of moisture, 
 and comparative impermeability to air, humus tends to 
 accumulate in the clay soils ; both arable and pasture 
 soils show a higher proportion of organic matter and 
 of humus than is found, as a rule, on the lighter 
 lands; the effect of manures like farmyard manure is 
 also more lasting. The use of more slowly acting 
 nitrogenous manures is therefore not so desirable 
 on the clay soils; on the other hand, sulphate of 
 ammonia is often unsuitable because of the want of 
 calcium carbonate, and nitrate of soda, which often 
 gives the best returns, is apt to affect the texture 
 injuriously. 
 
 The clays are very generally deficient in calcium car- 
 bonate, often to an extreme degree, much to the detri- 
 ment of the texture of the soil. The use of lime is of 
 the utmost value to all clay soils, improving the texture, 
 making them drier and therefore warmer and earlier, 
 and rendering available the supplies of nitrogen and 
 potash with which they are often liberally endowed. 
 The excess of magnesia and unoxidised iron com- 
 pounds which also characterise many clays is corrected 
 by the use of lime. 
 
 Many clay soils also show a considerable deficiency 
 of phosphoric acid, and respond freely to dressings 
 
x.] CLA y SOILS 287 
 
 with manures containing this substance. Superphos- 
 phate may be used with advantage wherever there is 
 enough calcium carbonate in the soil, but basic slag 
 is the typical phosphatic manure for the strong soils 
 which retain sufficient water to render the phosphates 
 active. While supplying phosphoric acid, it also 
 contains free lime in a fine state of subdivision, and 
 so liberates in a soluble state the reserves of nitrogen 
 and potash in the soils. It should, however, not be 
 forgotten that as the basic slag only supplies one 
 element of plant food, the phosphoric acid, the soil 
 may easily be exhausted by continual cropping and 
 manuring with basic slag alone. 
 
 Potash is always present in large amounts in clay 
 soils, 05 per cent, soluble in strong hydrochloric acid 
 is often to be found, while the proportion which can 
 be extracted after completely breaking up the soil 
 with hydrofluoric acid may rise to 2 per cent. Clay 
 soils are late, and their crops grow sltfwly and ripen 
 tardily except in specially dry seasons, when the clay 
 shrinks so much as to cut off all access of moisture 
 from the subsoil, and prematurely ends the period of 
 growth ; on the other hand, the quality of crops grown 
 on the clay is often high. The typical crops of strong 
 land are wheat, beans, and mangolds; owing to the 
 closeness of the texture of the soils, weeds are much 
 less in evidence on the clays than elsewhere, though 
 some few are exceedingly troublesome. 
 
 On the poorer pastures, the spiny form of 
 rest harrow (Ononis arvensis), the wild teazel 
 (Dipsacus sylvestris)) Ranunculus arvensis, and Genista 
 tinctoria, are characteristic and often troublesome 
 weeds ; on cultivated land the " black-bent " grass 
 (Alopecurus agrestis), and field mint (Mentha arvensis) 
 are difficult to deal with. Other plants characteristic 
 
2&8 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 of strong soils are the primrose {Primula vulgaris), 
 and the wild carrot {Daucus carota). 
 
 Peaty Soils. 
 
 The accumulation of humus to form peaty soils has 
 already been discussed, and is associated with water- 
 logging, which cuts off the access of air and so sets 
 up an anaerobic fermentation of the residues of the 
 vegetation growing upon the surface. There is always 
 a deposit of ferric hydrate accompanying the accumu- 
 lation of peat, as explained before. As the reclama- 
 tion of peaty soils has already been dealt with, it will 
 be sufficient here to indicate that their great character- 
 istic is a deficiency in soluble mineral constituents, 
 notably salts of lime and potash. It has also been 
 mentioned that, as a consequence of the acid nature 
 of the medium, the bacteria of nitrification are absent 
 or few in number. All attempts at the cultivation 
 of peaty soils begin with drainage, and must then 
 proceed on the basis of neutralising the organic acids 
 with lime and providing a sufficiency of mineral food 
 for the plant, thus also inducing nitrification to render 
 available the large quantities of nitrogen which have 
 accumulated. Of the common crop plants, oats and 
 potatoes are perhaps the most tolerant of extreme 
 amounts of acid humus. The normal vegetation of 
 peaty soils is a mixture of xerophytic and calcifuge 
 forms; the Conifers, the Ericaceae, Drosera, Rumex 
 Acetosella, Pedicularis sylvatica, Sphagnum moss, and 
 many sedges and rushes, are characteristic of sour, 
 peaty soils. Other characteristic plants are more pro- 
 perly Northern or Arctic species, and, occurring only in 
 the uncultivated uplands, need not be considered here. 
 
x.] SOIL SURVEYS 389 
 
 Soil Surveys. 
 
 To render the scientific study of soils properly 
 available for the service of the agriculturalist, more is 
 required than the examination of single samples of 
 soil, representing, at the best, only the land dealt with 
 by one person. Over any wide district, not only would 
 such work become expensive and practically endless, 
 liable also to many sources of error through local 
 and accidental variations of the soil on the spot from 
 which the sample was drawn, but each analysis would 
 lose the greater part of its value if it could not be co- 
 ordinated and brought into line with others drawn from 
 soils of the same type. A general soil survey of a 
 district, so as to be able to lay down a plan of the 
 distribution of the various soil types, accompanied by 
 a discussion of the broad characteristics of each, 
 should be the basis upon which the interpretation of 
 the analysis of the soil of any particular field is to 
 be founded. Only by comparison with the type can 
 the analysis of any particular soil be properly inter- 
 preted — e.g., the fact that a soil from a given arable 
 field contains 015 per cent, of phosphoric acid takes 
 a very different aspect when it is known that the 
 soils of the same type contain as a rule 018 to 0-20 
 per cent, of phosphoric acid, particularly if, also, the 
 response of that kind of land to phosphatic manures is 
 known by field trials, or from the accumulated experience 
 of farmers. The first question which requires settle- 
 ment is how far a soil survey is possible; to what 
 extent can the boundaries of soil types be traced ; are 
 the various types sufficiently constant over a wide area 
 to render this mapping feasible ? In many cases there 
 seems to be little but confusion, even in the soils on a 
 single farm ; field differs from field, and great variations 
 
 T 
 
296 soil Types (chap. 
 
 may be manifest even within the confines of a single 
 field. But, in the main, each soil type has a well-defined 
 area, within which it presents a reasonably constant 
 composition and texture, and though the boundaries 
 cannot be laid down with the precision of the outcrop 
 of a stratum, the zone of transition from one type to 
 the other may be indicated with approximate accuracy. 
 
 The basis upon which any soil survey must be 
 constructed is the origin of the soils; each geological 
 formation, for example, will give rise to a distinct type 
 of soil if it has been formed in situ; should the 
 weathered material have further undergone transport 
 by water, two or more types may have been constructed 
 by the sorting action of the water. It is also well 
 known that a geological formation may change very 
 considerably in lithological character in passing from 
 the lower to the upper portions of the bed. For 
 example, stiff as the London Clay is, the upper beds 
 become increasingly sandy in character, so that it is 
 not easy to draw a line of demarcation between the 
 soil arising from these beds and those due to the Bag- 
 shot Sands above. The lower beds of the Gault Clay 
 are also very pure, and give rise to a stiff clay deficient 
 in calcium carbonate; the upper beds become marly, 
 and form soils indistinguishable from those due to the 
 contiguous Chalk Marl. Similarly, a geological forma- 
 tion may show a progressive change of character in 
 passing into a different area, which change will be 
 reflected in the soils derived from them. For example, 
 the Great Oolite limestones of the Cotswolds shade 
 off into sandstones in Northamptonshire, and the Hythe 
 beds of calcareous sandstone in East Kent become pure 
 coarse-grained sandstones in West Surrey. However, 
 in the main, geological origin may be taken as the 
 basis of a soil survey, to which must be added the 
 
X.] MAPPING SOILS 291 
 
 further subdivisions due to the causes enumerated 
 above, or to the local movements of rain-wash or ill- 
 defined drift, that may alter the character of the soil 
 without being of any particular geological importance. 
 
 A soil map will consist of a " drift " map, with some 
 further details showing the superficial formations occupy- 
 ing the surface of the ground, and notes regarding the 
 local variations in the type of soil derived from each 
 particular stratum. The aim of a soil survey is to 
 carry further the work of the geological survey as 
 regards the superficial formations; the only classifica- 
 tion which can be adapted will be one based upon the 
 physical texture of the soil, and indicated by such 
 conventional terms as clays, clay loams, sandy loams, 
 marls, etc. At the same time, the map must indicate 
 the various origin of the different loams which may 
 be found in the area under survey, and, by reference 
 to the accompanying text, should give those details 
 of physical structure and chemical constitution which 
 characterise the soil, but which cannot be set out 
 except by an over-elaborate classification. 
 
 The field portion of the work of a soil survey con- 
 sists in the exploration of the subsoil by means of 
 an auger, aided by any natural sections which may 
 be displayed. The boundary between two soil types 
 may generally thus be laid down by the aspect of the 
 soil and subsoil ; from time to time, however, samples 
 must be retained for more detailed examination in 
 the laboratory, whenever the look and touch of the 
 material are not sufficient for a decision in situ. An 
 immediate examination with the microscope, the 
 behaviour of the soil with acid, or a rough sifting in 
 a stream of water, will, as a rule, be sufficient to 
 refer a given example of subsoil to one type or another. 
 Complicated cases arise from time to time, especially in 
 
292 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 the river valleys, where alluvium of varied epochs and 
 rain-wash of not very different origin may be hope- 
 lessly intermingled. In many cases, however, where 
 the outcrop of the originating formations is broad, and 
 where the gradients of the country are slight, the soil 
 may be extremely constant in composition over a wide 
 area, so that the survey has only to notice such minor 
 variations as the grading from a lighter to heavier type 
 as one descends a slope, or the occasional influx of 
 drift material by creeping from a neighbouring area. 
 The further work of a field survey will be the selection 
 of typical samples of soil and subsoil for detailed 
 examination and analysis in the laboratory, the col- 
 lection of such data as the distance to, and nature of 
 ground water, and any particulars which may be 
 available locally, as to special features in the working 
 of each type of soil, or in the growth of its crops; 
 the nature and character of such deposits as "brick 
 earth" in each district can also be reported. The 
 samples for detailed analysis should be taken where a 
 general survey of the district indicates the soil as most 
 likely to be typical of the formation, and free from 
 admixture with drift and other accidental intrusions. 
 At the same time, since the soil in the main will by no 
 means be so pure as the typical samples, a much larger 
 number of samples should be taken and subjected to 
 a less detailed examination, by way of ascertaining 
 within what limits the normal variation of the soil is 
 confined. 
 
 The number of type samples to be taken must be 
 entirely decided by an examination of the circum- 
 stances; in continental areas, where deposition has 
 been very uniform over wide districts, one or two 
 samples may be sufficient to characterise an extensive 
 soil type ; in other cases the local variations may be so 
 
X.] PURPOSE OF SOIL SURVEYS 293 
 
 much in evidence that the "typical soil" can only be 
 constructed by putting together the results of many 
 separate determinations. 
 
 But the practice of constructing a typical soil for 
 analysis by mixing together equal fractions of many 
 samples drawn in the area in question, is not to 
 be recommended. Not only may an entirely foreign 
 or accidentally impure sample be introduced without 
 detection, but, further, the limits of variation normally 
 to be expected in individual soils of the same type is 
 just as important as the composition of the type itself. 
 Again, the existence of unsuspected systematic varia- 
 tions is entirely obscured by any process of mixing 
 samples. The character of the information which 
 should accompany the soil maps must largely depend 
 on the purpose of the survey, whether it is concerned 
 with the agriculture of an old and settled country, or 
 whether it partakes of the nature of an exploration, and 
 aims at showing the capacities of the land for new 
 crops and industries. In the United States, for 
 example, the latter form of soil survey is exemplified ; 
 in many parts of the country agriculture is so recent 
 that there is no accumulation of experience as to the 
 crops most suited to each kind of land; hence the 
 survey, by comparisons of the texture of the soil, the 
 climatic conditions, and the depth to ground water, 
 with the conditions prevailing in better known areas, 
 can directly tell the settler with what crops he is most 
 likely to succeed. The cultivation of special crops like 
 tobacco and sugar beet, to take two examples of special 
 interest at the present time in the United States, 
 can be extended into new districts possessing suitable 
 soils, with a minimum of the risk which must always 
 attend the introduction of a novel form of culture. The 
 suitability of other classes of land for irrigation, the 
 
294 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 nature and extent of already existing alkali patches, 
 and the most promising methods of reclamation, are 
 also prominent features in the work of the United 
 States soil survey. As the crops in a new country of 
 this kind are in the main grown by the aid of the 
 natural fertility of the soil alone, and fertilisers are 
 little used, the chemical examination of the soil becomes 
 of less importance than the mechanical. 
 
 In a settled country like our own, the character of 
 the information to be derived from a soil survey is of a 
 different order ; the land has been under cultivation so 
 long that a great mass of local information, based upon 
 experience, exists as to the character even of individual 
 fields. 
 
 Hints as to the cultivation, based upon the texture 
 of the soil as determined by analysis, would be too 
 general to be of any service ; indeed, it is rather to 
 be hoped that by collating many mechanical analyses 
 with the information derived from men possessing long 
 experience of the soil, further light can be shed upon 
 the connection between physical structure and the finer 
 points of tillage. The suitability of the different types 
 of soil to new crops — as, for example, the extension of 
 the area under fruit — can be ascertained, and many 
 expensive mistakes due to planting on unsuitable land 
 could be saved to the farmer. Suggestions can also be 
 made as to the amelioration of the soil by drainage, or 
 by the incorporation of materials like clay, chalk, or 
 marl, occurring in the vicinity. Fifty years ago, no 
 department of British agriculture was more carefully 
 attended to than the improvement of the texture of 
 the soil, and great tracts of what is now fertile land 
 were practically created ; lower values to-day have 
 caused this important matter to be almost entirely 
 neglected. 
 
X.] APPLICATION OF SOIL SURVEYS 295 
 
 But the chief application of a soil survey in this 
 country lies in the information that can be afforded 
 as to the use of manures ; enormous economies might 
 be effected in the bills of almost every farmer using 
 artificial manures, if the latter were properly adapted 
 to his soils and crops. Farmers are often recom- 
 mended to carry out manurial trials upon their own 
 farms until they have ascertained the peculiarities and 
 specific requirements of the soil, but advice of this 
 kind treats altogether too lightly the somewhat delicate 
 business of conducting field experiments. Putting aside 
 the mechanical difficulties attending a trial of this kind, 
 and the overpowering effect of minor inequalities of the 
 ground and other accidental conditions which so often 
 nullify the experimental treatment, it is rarely that 
 the farmer will be found able to arrange a scheme of 
 experiment likely to give information of permanent 
 value. If one may judge from the published accounts 
 of many field experiments carried out in this country 
 by public bodies, which so often show a misappre- 
 hension of the points really at issue, there is every 
 probability that the individual farmer will be as often 
 misled as guided by the results of his own experiments. 
 The design and conduct of field experiments must be 
 left to the expert, who surveys the subject from a wider 
 standpoint, who can compare various trials, and is in a 
 position to continue them for a period of years, rejecting 
 at any early stage a considerable proportion which are 
 inevitably vitiated by some concealed local peculiarity. 
 A body of experts conducting a soil survey and field 
 experiments simultaneously in the same area and co- 
 ordinating their results, can give advice of the most 
 definite character as to the scheme of manuring to be 
 adopted for each soil type. The fundamental factor 
 requiring consideration in this matter, and brought out 
 
296 SOIL TYPES [chap. 
 
 in the soil survey, is the proportion of lime normal to 
 each soil type ; knowing this factor, and the retentivity 
 of the soil for moisture under ordinary conditions of 
 rainfall, one can decide upon the character of the 
 manures for most loamy soils. Soils of more specific 
 character, like the sands or clays, present more character- 
 istic deficiencies of some of the manurial constituents, so 
 that for many crops the use of manures like phosphates 
 and potash is wholly determined by the soil and not the 
 crop. 
 
 It is not too much to say that the information as 
 to the manuring which is being accumulated at many 
 experimental centres throughout the \ country can only 
 be rendered properly available by the execution of 
 a soil survey in the district under consideration. In 
 many countries a soil survey has been made part of 
 the national service for the agriculturist; the mag- 
 nificent publications of the Division of Soils of the 
 United States Department of Agriculture form a case 
 in point. In Prussia, the maps and reports of the 
 Laboratorium fur Bodenkunde at Berlin may be con- 
 sulted as models of the thoroughness and refinement 
 to which work of this kind can be pushed ; the 
 Gembloux Station in Belgium is executing a system- 
 atic chemical survey of the Belgian soils. In France, 
 the work rests with the local authorities of each 
 Department, but in parts is being carried out, 
 as witness the beautiful maps due to the single- 
 handed work of M. Gaillon, Director of the Station 
 Agronomique de TAisne at Laon. In Britain the 
 great initial want is the publication of drift maps 
 of the geological survey on the 6-inch scale; the 
 I -inch to the mile survey, which alone has been 
 published, or even executed in most districts, is too 
 small to admit of necessary detail. It is also very 
 
X.J SOIL MAPS 297 
 
 often laid down on an early cadastral survey, which 
 makes the identification of the modern boundaries a 
 matter of difficulty. If the country were in possession 
 of a series of "drift" maps on the scale of 6 inches to 
 the mile, the work could be rapidly supplemented by 
 soil surveys and analyses executed by the local agri- 
 cultural colleges and research institutions, until every 
 farmer could be put in possession of that exact 
 knowledge of the soil which is fundamental to all 
 farming operations. 
 
APPENDICES 
 
APPEN 
 
 CHEMICAL ANALYSES 
 Percentages on the 
 
 Number . 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 District 
 
 • { 
 
 Wisley, Surrey. 
 
 woodnesborough, 
 Kent. 
 
 Teynham, 
 
 Kent. 
 
 Formation . 
 
 • • 
 
 Bagshot Sand. 
 
 Oldhaven Beds. 
 
 Thanet Sand. 
 
 Naturb • « 
 
 -( 
 
 Very poor, light 
 
 land, much of it 
 
 in waste. 
 
 Very Light Sand, 
 
 valuable for Market 
 
 Gardening, but not 
 
 for General 
 
 Farming. 
 
 Light loam of 
 
 great repute for 
 
 fertility. 
 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Subsoil. 
 
 Moisture • • 
 
 • • 
 
 O.79 
 
 i-oi 
 
 I«05 
 
 204 
 
 1*62 
 
 I.71 
 
 Loss on Ignition 
 
 • • 
 
 3*32 
 
 2.18 
 
 3-33 
 
 1-93 
 
 3-46 
 
 2.49 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 • • 
 
 O'lO 
 
 0*07 
 
 CI2 
 
 0-08 
 
 o«i6 
 
 0-04 
 
 Potash • 
 
 • • 
 
 031 
 
 0.17 
 
 o-33 
 
 0.38 
 
 o-35 
 
 O.47 
 
 Potash, soluble in 
 cent. Citric Acid 
 
 : pei :} 
 
 0*02 
 
 • •■• 
 
 0018 
 
 ... 
 
 0*019 
 
 .»« 
 
 Lime • 
 
 
 CIO 
 
 • »• 
 
 0*31 
 
 .». 
 
 0.58 
 
 . . . 
 
 Magnesia • 
 
 
 CI2 
 
 • • • 
 
 0.23 
 
 ... 
 
 0-26 
 
 ... 
 
 Alumina • . 
 
 
 O.92 
 
 ... 
 
 1.74 
 
 ... 
 
 2-34 
 
 . • . 
 
 Ferric Oxide . 
 
 
 0-57 
 
 ... 
 
 1.38 
 
 ... 
 
 2.10 
 
 ... 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 
 
 OO4 
 
 ... 
 
 0-05 
 
 ... 
 
 0-14 
 
 ... 
 
 Calcium Carbonate 
 
 
 OOI 
 
 0-04 
 
 0*02 
 
 O-OI 
 
 o-33 
 
 0-05 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 
 C05 
 
 003 
 
 0O6 
 
 0.05 
 
 O'lO 
 
 007 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, soluble ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m I per cent. 
 Acid • . 
 
 Citric V 
 
 0*012 
 
 .... 
 
 O.OI7 
 
 ... 
 
 0*044 
 
 ... 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 • . 
 
 0O3 
 
 ... 
 
 0-05 
 
 ... 
 
 0*01 
 
 • »• 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DIX I. 
 
 OF TYPICAL SOILS. 
 
 Fine Earth— Air-dried. 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 U 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 Sutton by 
 Dover, Kent. 
 
 Bentley, 
 Hants. 
 
 Marden, 
 Kent. 
 
 Wanborouqh, 
 
 SURREV. 
 
 woodchurch, 
 Kent. 
 
 Chalk. 
 
 Upper Green sand. 
 
 Alluvial. 
 
 London Clay. 
 
 Weald Clay. 
 
 Light loam, 
 
 " sheep and 
 
 barley land." 
 
 Good loam, 
 
 noted 
 for fertility. 
 
 Heavy loam, 
 rather poor. 
 
 Heavy loam, 
 of fair repute. 
 
 Very heavy clay, 
 of little value. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Arable. 
 
 Soil. 
 6.76 
 
 9-28 
 0-25 
 o-43 
 0-018 
 
 0-69 
 6.45 
 4.27 
 0.16 
 18.1 
 0*19 
 
 O-OOI 
 
 0.09 
 
 Subsoil. 
 4.18 
 
 7-37 
 0.13 
 
 0.60 
 
 ••• 
 »•-. 
 ••• 
 11.4 
 0.17 
 
 • *• 
 
 Soil. 
 3-23 
 4-60 
 0*19 
 0'6o 
 
 0-025 
 
 2-6l 
 
 0.38 
 9.87 
 2-25 
 
 0-12 
 
 0.47 
 0.27 
 
 0»i6 
 
 0-06 
 
 Subsoil. 
 4*22 
 
 4-03 
 0*12 
 0.63 
 
 0-031 
 
 2.61 
 0*48 
 
 2- 06 
 0'i6 
 
 3-48 
 0.15 
 
 0-08 
 
 0*12 
 
 Soil. 
 2.40 
 
 6.11 
 
 0.18 
 
 0-90 
 
 0-006 
 
 0.99 
 
 o-37 
 8-44 
 
 3-92 
 0-03 
 0-64 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-009 
 006 
 
 Subsoil. 
 3-i6 
 
 3-78 
 
 ••* 
 
 ••* 
 
 ••• 
 
 Ma 
 • •• 
 »•• 
 
 ••• 
 ... 
 
 0-18 
 0-06 
 
 ••• 
 ••• 
 
 Son. 
 3-91 
 4-38 
 0-19 
 
 o-33 
 0-017 
 
 o-35 
 4.14 
 2.47 
 0-71 
 0-06 
 0-06 
 
 0014 
 
 0*04 
 
 Subsoil. 
 2.94 
 
 3-88 
 
 0-06 
 
 0-67 
 
 »—* 
 
 •»• 
 
 ••• 
 
 ••« 
 
 ••• 
 o-o8 
 0-03 
 
 SoU. 
 4.07 
 
 8-73 
 0*26 
 
 1*03 
 
 0-012 
 
 0-70 
 C3I 
 
 6-45 
 8-8i 
 0-08 
 0-08 
 
 O-II 
 
 0-004 
 0-08 
 
 Subsoil. 
 3-62 
 
 5-37 
 
 0*12 
 I'll 
 
 • •• 
 
 • ■• 
 
 • •■• 
 
 ••4 
 
 • •* 
 . •• 
 
 0-03 
 0-05 
 
 . «• 
 
 .»• 
 
 301 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following short list of references will take the student to 
 some of the more important original sources of information on 
 each of the subjects treated of in this book. They have been 
 selected from among the great mass of papers that exist, not 
 because they are necessarily the most important, but as suggestive 
 in themselves, and likely to lead the student to make further 
 acquaintance with the methods as well as with the results of 
 research. Several of the papers also contain a series of references 
 to other workers in the same field. 
 
 The Origin of Soils. 
 
 i. Risler, E. — Ghlogie Agricole, 4 vols., Paris, 1884-97. 
 
 2. Merrill, G. P. — Rocks, Rock Weatherings and Soils, New 
 
 York, 1897. 
 
 Analysis and Composition of Soils. 
 
 3. Launfer and Wahnschaffe.— Mit, a. d. Laboratorium fur 
 
 Bodenkunde, B. III., h. 2, Berlin. 
 
 4. Petermann.— Recherches de Chimie le, III., Brussels, 1898. 
 
 5. Hilgard, U.S. Dep. of Agric, Div. of Chem., Bull. 38, 1893. 
 
 6. Hilgard, U.S. Dep. of Agric, Div. of Soils, Bull. 4, 1896. 
 
 7. Hilgard. — Soils, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1906. 
 
 8. Mitscherlich, E. A. — Bodenkunde fiir Land u. Forstwirte, 
 
 1905. 
 
 9. Lawes and Gilbert.— -Rothamsted Memoirs, V., No. 19. 
 
 10. Dyer.—/. Chem, Soc, 1894, 65, 115. 
 
 11. Dyer. — Phil, Trans., 194, B. (1901), 235. 
 
 12. Dyer.— U.S. Dep. of Agric, Bull. 106, 1902. 
 
 13. Hall, Plymen, and Amos.— Trans. Chem. Soc, 1902, 81, 
 
 117 ; 1906, 89, 207. 
 
 14. Hall.— "Analysis of Soil by the Plant,"/ Agric, Sci., 1905, 
 
 1,65. 
 
 802 
 
APPENDIX 11 303 
 
 Soil Physics. 
 
 15. WARINGTON. — Physical Properties of Soils, Oxford, 1900. 
 
 16. King. — Physics of Agriculture, Madison, Wis., 1901. 
 
 17. Hilgard. — U.S. Dep. of Agric, Weather Bureau, Bull. 3, 
 
 1892. 
 
 18. Whitney. — U.S. Dep. of Agric, Weather Bureau, Bull. 4, 
 
 1892. 
 
 19. Hellriegel. — B. z. d. nat. Grundlagen des Ackerbaues, 
 
 Braunschweig, 1883. 
 
 20. Lawes and Gilbert. — Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. III., No. 
 
 II j Vol. V., No. 5. 
 
 21. BRIGGS. — U.S. Dep. of Agric. Year-Book, 1900, 397. 
 See also Hilgard, No. 7 ; Wollny, No. 20. 
 
 Soil Organisms. 
 
 22. Wollny. — Zersetzung der Organise/ten Stoffe, Heidelberg, 
 
 1897. 
 
 23. Omeliansky. — Compt. Rend., 121 (1895), 653 ; 125 (1897), 
 
 97o. 
 
 24. WiNOGRADSKY.— Compt Rend., 121 (1895), 742. 
 
 25. Lafar. — Technische Mycologie, 2nd ed., Fischer, Jena, 1904. 
 
 Fixation of Nitrogen. 
 
 26. Lawes and Gilbert.—/^//. Trans., II., 431, 1861 ; B. I., 
 
 1889. 
 
 27. Lawes and Gilbert.—/. R. Ag. Soc, E., 3rd s., II., 657, 
 
 1891. 
 
 28. Hellriegel and Wilfarth. — D. Land. Vers. Stat., 460, 
 
 1887. 
 
 29. Nobbe and Hiltner. — D. Land. Vers. Stat., 1899. 
 
 30. Winogradsky. — Co?npt. Rend., 118 (1894). 
 
 31. Maz£. — Ann. de VInst. Pasteur, 11 (1897). 
 
 32. jACOBlTZ.~Cent.fi/rBakt., II., 1901, 7, 783. 
 
 33. Beijerinck. — Cent, fur Bakt. y II., 1902, 9, 3. 
 
 Nitrification. 
 
 34. Schloesing and Muntz.— Compt. Rend., 80 (1877), 1250. 
 
 35. Warington.— /. C. S., 1878, 1879, l88 4> 1891. 
 
 36. Lawes, Gilbert, and Warington.—/. R. Ag. Soc, E. t , 
 
 2nd s., 19 (1883). 
 
3 o4 APPENDIX II 
 
 37. Winogradsky. — Compt. Rend., 113 (1893), 116. 
 
 38. Deh£rain. — Ann. Agron., 19, 409. 
 
 39. King. — Wisconsin Ag. Exp. Station Annual Reports, 17 
 
 (1900), 18 (1901). 
 
 40. Boullanger and Massol. — Ann. Pasteur, 1903, 17, 492. 
 
 Denitrification. 
 
 41. Gayon and Dupetit. — Compt. Rend., 95 (1882), 644. 
 
 42. Wagner. — D. Landw. Presse, 1895, 123. 
 
 43. Warington.— J. R. Ag. Soc, E., 3rd s., 8. 
 
 44. Stoklasa. — Cent.f. Bakt, 7 (1901), 260. 
 
 Mycorhiza. 
 
 45. STAHL.—Ja/ir&.f. wiss. Botanik., 34. 
 
 Absorption of Salts by Soil. 
 
 46. Way.—/. R. Ag. Soc, E., 1st s., 11, 323 ; 13, 123. 
 
 47. Voelcker.— /. R. Ag. Soc, E., 1st s., 21 (i860), 93; 25 
 
 (1864), 333. 
 
 48. Voelcker.—/. R. Ag. Soc, E., 2nd s., 10 (1874), 132. 
 
 49. Lawes, Gilbert, and Warington.—/. R. Ag. Soc, E., 
 
 2nd s., XVII. (1881), 241 ; XVIII. (1882), 1. 
 
 50. Hall and Gimingham, Trans. Chem. Soc, 91 (1907), 677. 
 
 Alkali Soils. 
 
 51. Hilgard.— U.S. Dep. of Agric. Year-Book, 1895, 103. 
 
 52. Hilgard.— Univ. of California Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull. 128 (1900). 
 
 53. Willcocks. — Egyptian Irrigation, 2nd ed. 
 
 Soil Surveys, etc. 
 
 54. Schimper, A. F. Vt.—Pflanzen Geographie, Jena, 1898. 
 
 55. U.S. Dep. of Agric, Div. of Soils, "Field Operations," 1901. 
 
 56. Whitney.— "Tobacco Soils," U.S. Dep. of Agric. Bull. 11, 
 
 1898. 
 
 57. Veitch.—" Maryland Soils," Maryland Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull 
 
 70, 1901. 
 See also Nos. 3 and 4, 
 
INDEX 
 
 Absorption of salts by soli, 211. 
 
 Acid soils, 44, 204, 242. 
 
 Aerobic bacteria, 1 71. 
 
 Alinit, 174. 
 
 Alkali soils, 245, 272. 
 
 Alluvial soils, 279. 
 
 Alluvium, 12. 
 
 Altitude, effect of temperature, 133. 
 
 Alway, soil- water required for crops, 
 86. 
 
 Ammonia, absorption by soil, 214; 
 formation from urea, 172 ; salts, 
 removal of lime by, 216, 224. 
 
 Anaerobic bacteria, 174. 
 
 Analysis, available constituents, 158 ; 
 chemical, 1 39 ; interpretation of, 
 151, 165 ; mechanical, 32, 50; of 
 soil by plant, 155. 
 
 Anbury in turnips, 204, 208. 
 
 Angus Smith on denitrification, 197. 
 
 Anticyclones, reversal of tempera- 
 ture in, 134. 
 
 Apatite, 24. 
 
 Arid soils, characteristics of, 46. 
 
 Assimilation and transpiration, 90. 
 
 Atwater on fixation of nitrogen, 179. 
 
 Augite, 21. 
 
 Autumn cultivation, gain of water 
 
 by, 95. 
 Available plant food in the soil, 157, 
 
 164. 
 Azotobacter chroococcum, 187. 
 805 
 
 BACTERIA in soil, 4, 168 ; denitri- 
 fying, 197 ; nitrifying, 191 ; iron, 
 203 ; nitrogen fixing, 174. 
 
 Bailey-Denton on effect of drainage 
 on temperature, 132. 
 
 Bare fallows, 86, 112. 
 
 Basalt, weathering of, 21. 
 
 Beaumont, E. de, on antiquity of 
 soil, 29. 
 
 Beijerinck on Azotobacter, 187 
 
 Benetzungs-warme, 88. 
 
 Berthelot on fixation of nitrogen, 
 179, 186 ; and Andre on nitrogen 
 in humus, 47. 
 
 Black soils, 235. 
 
 Bog iron ore, 25. 
 
 Boussingault on source of nitrogen 
 in plants, 175, 177. 
 
 Brick earth, 13, 15. 
 
 Brown on energy absorbed in 
 assimilation, 90. 
 
 Brownian motion, 38. 
 
 Calcareous soils, 281. 
 
 Calafuges, 276, 288. 
 
 Calcium carbonate, 22, 40 ; aids 
 
 decay of organic matter, 173 ; 
 
 determination of, 144 ; in soils 
 
 subject to " finger-and-toe," 209; 
 
 removal by manures, 216. 
 Capacity of soil for water, 67. 
 
 U 
 
306 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Capillarity, 72 ; supply of water to 
 
 crop by, 97, 106. 
 Carbon, determination of, 143. 
 Carbon to nitrogen in soils, ratio 
 
 of, 46. 
 Carbonic acid in soil gases, 13 ; 
 
 excreted by roots, 158 ; and water, 
 
 action on rock minerals, 13. 
 Catch crops, no. 
 Chalk, 41; "pipes" in, due to 
 
 weathering, 23; soils, 281. 
 Chalking, 261. 
 
 Chemical analysis of soil, 139. 
 China clay, 19, 35. 
 Chlorosis, 283. 
 Citric acid as solvent in soil analysis, 
 
 159. 
 
 Clay, colloid, 35 ; flocculation of, 
 38 ; impermeability to water, 34, 
 71 ; nature of, 36, 52 ; origin of, 
 19 ; shrinkage on drying, 34, 284 ; 
 soils, 30, 283. 
 
 Claying, 256. 
 
 Cleopatra's Needle, weathering of, 
 n. 
 
 Climate and situation, 136. 
 
 Clostridium Pastorianum, 187. 
 
 Club root in turnips, 204, 208. 
 
 Cohesion due to surface tension, 82. 
 
 Colloid clay, 35. 
 
 Colmetage, 255. 
 
 Colour of soils, 27; and temperature, 
 127. 
 
 Condensation of water by soil, 87. 
 
 Condition of land, 233. 
 
 Conventions necessary in chemical 
 analysis of soil, 141. 
 
 Crops, plant food removed by, 152. 
 , Crops, water required by, 91, 108. 
 ** Cultivation, effect of, on water con- 
 tent of soil, 95, 101, 104. 
 
 rounded by running water, 17 ; 
 weathering of felspar, 19. 
 
 Deflocculation, 39, 252. 
 
 Defoe, definition of manure, 154. 
 
 Deherain on available phosphoric 
 acid in soils, 158 ; nitrates in 
 drainage waters, 228 ; nitrifica- 
 tion, 195. 
 
 Deherain and Maquenne on denitri- 
 fi cation, 198. 
 
 Denitrification, 197. 
 
 Density of soils, 63. 
 
 Drainage, 92 ; required with irriga- 
 tion, 249 ; warms the land, 1 32 ; 
 waters, composition of, 222. 
 
 Drains, flow of, 77. 
 
 Drain-gauges, 78 ; flow greater than 
 rainfall, 87. 
 
 Drift, glacial, 15 ; maps, 297; soils, 8. 
 
 Drought of 1870 at Rothamsted, 
 108. 
 
 Drought, susceptibility of different 
 soils to, 99. 
 
 Drying effect of crops, 86, 108. 
 
 Dunbar, potato soils of, 1. 
 
 Dung, effects on water in soil, 117; 
 and denitrification, 201. 
 
 Dyer on determination of available 
 phosphoric acid and potash, 1 59 ; 
 potash and phosphoric acid re- 
 tained by Rothamsted soils, 218. 
 
 Early and late soils, 135. 
 Ebelmar on weathering of basalt, 2 1. 
 Egypt, irrigation in, 248. 
 Eremacausis, 170. 
 Evaporation, cooling effect of, 1 30 ; 
 
 losses of water by, 97. 
 Exhausting effect, of nitrate of soda, 
 
 253 ; of wheat, 237. 
 
 DARWIN on action of earthworms, 
 
 14. 
 Daubree on size of sand grains not 
 
 Fairy rings, 239. 
 Fallows, bare, 86, 112. 
 Felspar, 18. 
 
INDEX 
 
 307 
 
 Fen land, potatoes from the black 
 
 soils of, 2 ; reclamation of, 258. 
 Ferrous carbonate in soils, 145. 
 Fertility, 233. 
 Film of water surrounding soil 
 
 particles, 73. 
 "Finger-and-toe," 204, 208, 243, 
 
 276. 
 Fixation of nitrogen, 1 74. 
 Flint, 18. 
 
 Flocculation of clay, 38, 40, 253. 
 Flow of water through soils, 70. 
 Frank on mycorhiza, 205. 
 Frosts in valleys, 135 ; killing effect 
 
 of, 124. 
 Fruit trees in grass land, ill. 
 Fuller's earth, 37. 
 Fungi in the soil, 168, 204. 
 
 Gayon and Dupetit on denitrifica- 
 
 tion, 198. 
 Germination, temperatures of, 124. 
 Glacial drift, 1 5. 
 Glauconite, 25. 
 Granite, weathering of, 19. 
 Gravel, 15. 
 
 Green manuring, 185. 
 Greenstone, weathering of, 21. 
 Grey wethers, 1 7. 
 Gypsum, 24. 
 
 Halophytes, 280. 
 
 Hanamann on weathering of basalt, 
 
 22. 
 Heat received by the soil, 120, 126 ; 
 
 required for evaporation, 130. 
 Heavy soils, 64. 
 Heinrich on hygroscopic moisture, 
 
 85- 
 Hellriegel on fixation of nitrogen, 
 176, 179 ; on optimum proportion 
 of water for growth, 69 ; on water 
 transpired by crops, 89. 
 
 Hilgard on alkali soils, 246 ; on dis- 
 tillation of water from subsoil, 88 ; 
 on mechanical analysis of soils, 
 50 ; on method for determination 
 of water capacity, 67. 
 
 Hilgard and Jaffa on nitrogen in 
 humus, 46. 
 
 Hiltner, cultivation of nodule organ- 
 isms, 183. 
 
 Hoeing, 102. 
 
 Hornblende, 21. 
 
 Humic acid, 44. 
 
 Humus, 24, 27, 42, 118, 168, 171, 
 174, 243. 
 
 Humus, soluble, 44, 165. 
 
 Hygroscopic moisture, 84. 
 
 Ignition, loss on, 143. 
 Inoculation of soil, 183. 
 Interpretation of soil analysis, 151, 
 
 165. 
 Irrigation, 246. 
 Iron bacteria, 203. 
 Iron pan in soils, 24, 275, 285. 
 Iron pyrites, 26 ; causing sterility, 
 
 243. 
 
 Kaolinite, 19, 34, 36. 
 
 King on area of surface of soil 
 particles, 66 ; on bare fallows, 
 113 ; on effect of cultivation on 
 water content of soil, 96, 101, 103; 
 on effect of slope on temperature 
 of soil, 133 ; on flow of water 
 through sand, 70 ; on nitrates in 
 soil, 195 ; on percolation, 76 ; on 
 transpiration water, 89 ; on water 
 in soils too dry for growth, 85. 
 
 Kossowitsch on fixation of nitrogen, 
 186. 
 
 Kriiger and Schneidewind, 186, 200. 
 
 Laking, 213. 
 
 Langley on solar radiation, 126. 
 
3o8 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Late soils, 135. 
 
 Laurent on fixation of nitrogen, 
 181. 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert on fixation of 
 nitrogen, 176 ; on ratio of carbon 
 to nitrogen in soils, 46 ; on tran- 
 spiration water, 89. (See also 
 Rothamsted.) 
 
 Leguminous plants, fixation of 
 nitrogen by, 180 ; green manur- 
 ing with, 185. 
 
 Liebig, mineral theory, 175. 
 
 Light soils, 64. 
 
 Lime, effect on temperature of soil, 
 127; composition of, 268 ; floccu- 
 lation of clay by, 40; for " finger- 
 and-toe," 209 ; in drainage waters, 
 223 ; removal from soil by use of 
 ammonium salts, 216, 224. 
 
 Liming, 41, 209, 261. 
 
 Limonite, 24. 
 
 Loams, 31, 278. 
 
 Loess deposits, 10. 
 
 Lois-Weedon husbandry, 114. 
 
 Lucerne requiring inoculation, 184. 
 
 Lysimeter, 78. 
 
 Molecular forces, 71. 
 Molisch on iron bacteria, 203. 
 Moor-band pan, 25. 
 Moore, cultivation of nodule organ- 
 isms, 183. 
 Mould, 171. 
 Mulches, 102, 246. 
 Muller on nitrification, 191. 
 Mycorhiza, 205, 277. 
 
 Natrolite, 26. 
 
 Nile water, 256. 
 
 Nitragin, 183. 
 
 Nitrates, determination of, 147; for- 
 mation of, 112, 194; in drainage 
 waters, 226 ; in soil, effect of 
 cultivation on, 195 ; produced by 
 bare fallow, 112, 196. 
 
 Nitrification, 191. 
 
 Nitrogen, determination of, 144 ; 
 fixation of, 174 ; proportion re- 
 covered in crop, 199, 202. 
 
 Nobbe on nitragin, 183. 
 
 Nodules on leguminous plants, 180. 
 
 Magnesia in drainage waters, 225 ; 
 in soils, 146, 243, 285. 
 
 Manures, absorption of, by soil, 21 1; 
 effect on texture of soil, 251; 
 original signification of, 154; re- 
 covery of, in crop, 164 ; time of 
 application of, 229. 
 
 Marcasite, 26. 
 
 Marling, 256. 
 
 Marls, 31, 257. 
 
 Mechanical analysis of soil, 32, 50. 
 
 Mica, 20. 
 
 Mineral theory, Liebig's, 175. 
 
 Minerals, composition of rock-form- 
 ing, 16. 
 
 Mitscherlich on benetzungs-warme, 
 88. 
 
 Oemler on specific heat of soil, 
 129. 
 
 Olivine, 22. 
 
 Optimum proportion ot water in 
 soils, for growth, 69 ; tempera- 
 tures for growth, 123. 
 
 Orchids, germination of, 208. 
 
 Osborne on mechanical analysis of 
 soils, 50. 
 
 Osmosis, entry of plant food by, 
 157. 
 
 Packing of soil particles, 6r. 
 Pan, iron, in soils, 24, 275, 285. 
 Paring and burning, 259. 
 Parkes on temperatures of drained 
 and undrained land, 132. 
 
INDEX 
 
 309 
 
 Peat, origin of, 43, 174 ; reclamation 
 
 of, 258 ; soils, 288. 
 Percolation, 75, 115; through 
 
 gauges at Rothamsted, 78. 
 Phosphoric acid, determination of, 
 
 146 ; retention by soil, 219. 
 Pipe clays, 35. 
 Pipes in chalk rock, 23. 
 Plasmodiophora brassicae, 204, 208. 
 Plasticity of clay, 34, 40. 
 Ploughing, damage done by deep, 
 
 29, 285. 
 Pore space, 60. 
 Potash, determination of, 146, 150; 
 
 origin in soils, 19, 28 ; retention 
 
 by soil, 217. 
 Potatoes grown on different soils, 
 
 value of, t. 
 Pseudomonas radicicola, 180, 182. 
 
 Qqality of produce from early and 
 
 late soils, 137. 
 Quarry water, 1 1. 
 Quartz, 17. 
 Quincke on range of molecular 
 
 forces, 71. 
 
 Radiation, 126. 
 
 Rainfall and crops, 91. 
 
 Rainfall and drainage, 115. 
 
 Recovery of manures in crop, 164. 
 
 Red lands of Dunbar, value of 
 potatoes from, 1. 
 
 Richthoven on loess deposits, 10. 
 
 Rock-forming minerals, 16. 
 
 Rolling, effect of, 105. 
 
 Roots, solvent action of, 158 ; 
 weathering action of, 14. 
 
 Rothamsted, available constituents 
 in soil of, 162 ; bare fallows at, 
 114 ; composition of drainage 
 waters at, 222 ; composition of 
 soil, 37. S 8 I drain gauges at, 78 ; 
 
 drought of 1870 at, 108 ; investi- 
 gations on fixation of nitrogen at, 
 176, 178, 189 ; lime in soil of, 216; 
 losses of nitrogen in manure at, 
 201; method of sampling soils at, 
 48 ; nitrates in soil at, 196 ; phos- 
 phoric acid in soil of, 162, 22 1; 
 potash in soil of, 218 ; weights of 
 soil at, 64. 
 Rutile, 34. 
 
 Sachs on solvent action of roots, 
 158; on temperature and tran- 
 spiration, 124 ; on water in soil, 
 when plants wilt, 84. 
 
 Salfeld on soil inoculation, 185. 
 
 Salt, causing sterility, 244 ; marshes, 
 vegetation of, 279. 
 
 Salts, soluble in soils, 147. 
 
 Sampling of soils, 47. 
 
 Sand, origin of, 17, 33 ; velocity of 
 current required to carry, 33. 
 
 Sandy soils, 30, 242, 274. 
 
 Saturation of soils by water, 69, 77. 
 
 Saussure" on theory of nutrition, 175. 
 
 Schloesing on colloid clay, 35 ; on 
 mechanical analysis of soils, 50. 
 
 Schloesing and Muntz on nitrifica- 
 tion, 191. 
 
 Schloesing/?/* on fixation of nitrogen, 
 181. 
 
 Schneidewind on denitrification, 200; 
 on fixation of nitrogen, 186. 
 
 Schultz on green manuring, 185. 
 
 Sea, effect on climate, 1 36. 
 
 Sedentary soils, 7. 
 
 Selenite, 24, 26, 285. 
 
 Senft on decomposition of felspar, 
 19. 
 
 Serpentine, 22. 
 
 Sewage farms, crops on, 92 ; purifi- 
 cation of, by soil, 213. 
 
 Shingle, growth of vegetation on, 
 10. 
 
3io 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Shrinkage of clay on drying, 34, 
 284. 
 
 Silica, 17. 
 
 Silt, 53. 
 
 Soil, alkali, 245, 272 ; analyses of 
 typical, Appendix I.; description 
 of, 7, 29 ; drift, 8 ; gases, 13 ; 
 inoculation, 183 ; mulch, 107; of 
 transport, 8 ; relation to subsoil, 
 7, 26, 194 ; sedentary, 7; surveys, 
 289 ; temperatures, 122 ; typical, 
 55, 149, 271; worn-out, 28, 257. 
 
 Soot, effect on temperature of soil, 
 128 ; effect on texture of soil, 253. 
 
 Specific heat of soils, 128, 275. 
 
 Spring on impermeability of clay, 
 
 71. 
 Spring cultivation, gain of water by } 
 
 97 ; frosts, 135. 
 Stahl on mycorhiza, 205. 
 Sterility of soils, 241. 
 Stoklasa on alinit, 173. 
 Stones, reputed growth on arable 
 
 land, 12 ; retention of moisture 
 
 by, 105 ; warming effect of, 131. 
 Subsoil, description of, 7, 26, 194 ; 
 
 as regulator of water supply, 100 ; 
 
 packing, 107. 
 Surface of soil particles, area of, 65 ; 
 
 rise of salts to the, 245. 
 Surface tension, 71; cohesion due 
 
 to, 82 ; variations in, 81 ; water 
 
 lifted by, 97, 106. 
 Surveys, soil, 289. 
 Symbiosis, 169. 
 
 Talc, 22. 
 
 Temperature, effect of colour on, 
 
 127; effect of exposure on, 133 ; 
 
 required for growth, 120, 123 ; 
 
 weathering due to alternations 
 
 of, 9. 
 Texture of soil, 32, 60, 251. 
 Thanet sand, soils on, 236. 
 
 Tillage and soil water, 89. 
 Tilth, 97, 253. 
 Transpiration water, 89. 
 Typical soils, chemical analysis of, 
 149 ; mechanical analysis of, 55. 
 
 UREA, conversion into ammonia, 
 172. 
 
 Valley frosts, 134. 
 
 Velocity of currents carrying sand 
 grains, 33. 
 
 Ville on fixation of nitrogen, 179. 
 
 Vineyards, stones on surface of, 105. 
 
 Virgin soils, nitrogen in, 189. 
 
 Voelcker on absorption of manures 
 by soil, 212 ; on analysis of drain- 
 age waters, 222 ; on fixation of 
 nitrogen, 179; on "finger-and- 
 toe " in turnips, 209. 
 
 Wagner on denitrification, 199. 
 
 Warington on determinations of 
 nitrates in soils, 147; on denitri- 
 fication, 198 ; on nitrification, 191 ; 
 on wetness of land in February, 
 88. 
 
 Warp soils, 255 ; growth of potatoes 
 on, 2. 
 
 Water capacity of soil, 67. 
 
 Water table, 77. 
 
 Way on absorption of salts by soil, 
 212. 
 
 Weathering, 7, 8 ; due to alterna- 
 tions of temperature, 9 ; due to 
 frost, 11; due to water and car- 
 bonic acid, 13 ; due to roots, 14 ; 
 of granite, 19 ; of basalt, 21. 
 
 Weight of a cubic foot of soil, 64. 
 
 Wheat as an exhausting crop, 237. 
 
 Wilfarth on fixation of nitrogen, 1 80. 
 
 Wilting of plants in soils containing 
 water, 84. 
 
INDEX 
 
 3ii 
 
 Wind, transport of, soil by, 10. 
 
 Winogradsky on iron bacteria, 203, 
 286 ; on nitrification, 192 ; on 
 nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 186. 
 
 Woburn, lime in soil at, 204 ; 
 residues left by ammonium salts 
 at, 232 ; weight of cubic foot of 
 soil at, 64 ; fruit farm, growth of 
 trees planted with grass, 112. 
 
 Wollny on composition of soil gases, 
 13 ; on effect of slope on tempera- 
 ture, 133 ; on oxidation of humic 
 
 acid, 173 ; on water required by 
 
 crops, 89. 
 Worms, fine soil brought to surface 
 
 by, 14. 
 Worn-out soils, 28, 257. 
 
 Xerophytes, 272, 277, 288. 
 
 Yeasts in the soil, 1 70, 204. 
 
 Zeolites, 25, 39, 214. 
 Zircon, 34. 
 
PRINTED BY 
 
 OLIVER AND BOYD 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
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