THE LIBRARY

THH UNIVERSITY

OI'CALHORNIA

LOS ANGELES

c,u r I.IF

JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

JAPAN AT THE
CROSS ROADS

A. M. POOLEY

I.ATK KXHIIUTIONKK OK Cl.AKK COUJCdK, LAMKKIIX.K

KIMTOK OK "TIIK SKCKKT MKMOIKS OK

COfXT IIAYASIII," ETC., KTC.

NEW YORK

DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY

/ it

THE AUTHOR TAKES TIIK LIBERTY

OF INSCRIBING THIS VOLUME TO THE KIND

SENDERS OF SOME BOXES OF

DELICIOUS VIOLETS,

WHO OTHERWISE MAY NEVER KNOW HOW DEEPLY

THEY WERE APPRECIATED AND WHAT

GREAT COMFORT THEY GAVE.

fil

PREFACE

INVITED by the publishers to contribute a volume on
conditions in Japan at the opening of the Taisho Era,
th<- following chapters were written during the summer
of 1915 for inclusion in a considerably larger volume
than the present one. It being impossible to publish
the complete work during the continuance of the War,
the chapters dealing with internal affairs have been
segregated and are offered herewith.

As in part the author covers the same ground as
Professor W.. \VJ. McClarcn in his Political History of
Japan, arriving at identical conclusions in practically the
same words, it is allowable to point out that he had not
the advantage of seeing Professor McClaren's excellent
work until some months after the MS. of the present
book had been completed and delivered to the pub-
lishers (August, 1915). The only changes since made
therein have been the additions necessary to bring the
bare essentials of 1915 and 1916 under notice, which
additions are indicated in the text. The author ha
principally relied on notes taken during his residence
in Tokyo twelve boxes full but no one venturing to
write on Japan can afford to ignore the files of the
foreign Press of that country. Especially have the
columns of The Japan Mail and The Japan Chronicle
been laid under contribution. To the latter journal in
particular is the author indebted, not only in the com-

8 I'RKFACE

position of this volume, but throughout his stay in Japan.
Its pages an- an inexhaustible mine of scholarly research,
sane criticism, and sound patriotism.

The section on Japanese C'ourt Ladies appeared in
The Contemporary Review of November, 1913, and part
of it and various other jx)rtions of the Ixxik have appeared
from time to time in Russian and Kn^ r li>h journals.

LONDON. April (>, i<n~-

CONTENTS

PACK

INTRODUCTORY . . "

CHAPTKR ON'K
KMHKROR WORSHIP .... 2 3

CHA1 J TKR TWO
POLITICS ..... 1 ()

CHAPTKR THKKK
POLITICS (continued) ... . 161

CHAPTKR KOTR
FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE . igi

CHA1TKR K1VK
FINANCE, INDTSTKY, A\D COMMKKCI-; (c^nliiiucJ) . . . 22^

CHAPTKR SIX
SOCIAL CONDITIONS . . 2S S >

CHAPTKR SKVKN"
SOCIAL CONDITIONS (continued) ... . _^o

CHAPI'KR KIC.HT
RELIGION . .... . 340

INTRODUCTORY

IT used to he a common saving that the most far-
reaching event in the political history of the last genera-
tion was the rise of Japan, a^ the result of the Restoration
of 1808.

Whether the statement was as true as it was trite
remains to he seen. The historian of posterity will
in all likelihood consider the Reconstruction of the
Ciernian Kmpire in 1871 as an event of far greater
consequence, both in its immediate and ultimate effects,
than the adoption of Western standards of civilization
by a non -Aryan race. It may well he that the chronicler
of the future will find the Unification of Italy to be
as pregnant with momentous surprises, whilst the ampu-
tation of the Spanish colonies by the United States
and the awakening of American understanding to a
realization of the responsibilities of the United States
towards her own citizens, and to the world at large,
have already had more intensive and extensive influence
throughout the world than all Japan's victories over
China or Russia.

Various estimates have been attempted of the results
which the creation of a new ' Power ' in the Pacific
might be expected to produce. Subsequent develop-
ments have, however, clearly proved that the time for
anything like a precise calculation has not yet arrived.

In some respects the reaction on world-politics has
been much stronger than any writer was able to imagine.
In other directions the expected influence of Japan has
proved a pra tically negligibl- quantity.

.Who. for example, would have dreamed ten years

12 INTRODUCTORY

ago th.i; Japan, in alliance with Ivngland aiul Russia,
would have reconquered Kiao-' hau from Germany for
eventual restoration to < 'hina ? < )n the other hand, to
what extent have tin- predi< ted menaces of Japan against
the Philippines or Australia been reali/ed? Or again,
how nun h nearer is Japan to-day to the place- allotted
her by the {x>liti<\il augurs, and towards which she is
said to If -tnving a- th" leader of Asiatic hegemom
against the white race-,?

It i- interesting and instructive to examine the premise*
on wliich j>oliti' al seribcs have based their conclusions.
In my humble opinion those conclusions are wrong because
they are primarily founded on one simple illusion.

In ev'-ry lx>ok that has ever been written on japan,
the statement will be found under one form or another,
that in the short space of halt a century Japan has.
risen from a <<ndition ot barbarism to be one of the
in .it 1'owers of the world.

It is true that Japan is a (Ireat Tower : it is not
Hue that fifty year- ago she was in a st.ite of barbarism.
It would !> hard!) true to say th.it >he was in a state
of medi.i vali-m, so tar as the essentials of legislation
and administration were concerned.

To number Japan of i.Xo.X amongst the barbarian
nation- i- to confess to a painful ignoran. e of the insti-
lut'on- ot the (oiintry and ot its history. It is al-o to
pred. ate a similar iiinoraii' e on the part ot the reader

\\ h' :i ( omniodore Pen\ kno, krd at the doors ot
\ i d" and d'-manded adnnt'an c. we lind no admission
on hi- part that he had to deal uith barbai ians . ( n
the inntrary. \\>- -a:! that the fapan -< weie a i ultuied
and int 1 i^ent j>e< iple .

The;, were |>o--e^cd ot a naturally keen Hltelligf-ii' e,
u!r.' h h.id be. ;i 1:0:111 -bed lor i entmie^ on the philosophy
"t .Nun/, .md h.u j-!i'-'i in (lie i>-n;nr. ot early tmei-n
iiifi I- oiit-e 'e-. the t a lung-, ot the |e-Mii I.i'h'-ts i(n-\

h.i'i ia'e'ii b'lt "re.it [c .-!\i- ot tre:i;;t|| : tl|i Illal \ ellon-

ij .1 it. I.,: -.r ril itioti, .it v\hi !i the \\oild ha- -llh e

v. ' ; i' 1' ; < I . i in he re- it in 'In-m ili'ii in -t it nt ion*- were

INTRODUCTORY 13

based on the family .system, tin- most .stable of all political
units : their military arts wen- highly developed, as
was natural amongst a race of lighting -men ; to organi/e,
equip, and transj>ort an army of from 100,000 to 250,000
men for service abroad was in Japan no unknown
feat hundreds of years before Napoleon lived and led
in Europe. So far from Japan being cut off from
the outer world, she had had in the seventeenth century
very close contact with Europe through missionaries and
traders, and even after the jxjlicy of seclusion was
initiated, a colony of Dutch was permitted at Deshima,
near Nagasaki. This, with the annual batch of students
sent abroad by the liukufn, formed the medium through
which the rulers of Japan maintained a watch upon the
happenings of the- outer world and acquired a very-
fair knowledge of the trend of W.estern civili/ation. It
is more than a little interesting to note that vaccination
was introduced as early as 1847, whilst Alcock, Adams,
and other diplomats of prc-Restoration days found rilled
cannon in abundance in the possession of the great
daimyo .

The reports of the Dutch factors record the import
of matchlocks and muskets, and a constant demand for
European scientific publications. Siebold found a very
high standard of medical and astronomical learning ;
that woodtyping and stereotyping were well known ; that
mathematics, trigonometry, and civil engineering were
studied ; that canals, lathes, and water-mills were all
in use, though in some directions mechanics were not
encouraged, under the fear that the introduction of
machinery might displace labour and create unrest. There
was an efficient postal service long before the opening
by Perry, and bills of exchange were a common mercantile
convenience. In casting a contempt for proportion in
no way affected the merit of the work, whilst in lacquer,
silk, metallurgy, and horticulture the natives had little,
if anything, to learn from abroad.

So far, therefore, from the Japanese of Commander
Perrv's time being barbarians, thev had attained to a

14 INTRODUCTORY

comparatively high .state of i ivih/ation, whether that word
is understood or misunderstood in term-; of art, science.
politics, or warfare.

It is more correct to say that when the so-called ' re-
opening ' of Japan took place the Japanese wen- in a
state of mental stagnation. They were ready for a
change, hut the necessary impetus and model had to come
from without .

The history of Japan lias been one of adoption and
assimilation. Nothing in the country is pure and original.

The Buddhism which for a thousand years tilled the
place of a state religion was imported from Korea.
It is a concoction of Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese
Buddhism. It was taught to the Japanese in return for
naval and military aid sent to the King of Pakche, one
of the composite kingdoms later included in the Empire
of Korea.

The reform.-, of Taikwa <A.T">. 6.15), considered hv
historians as an even greater revolution than that which
opened the Meiji KIM, consisted of the transplantation
ot the Chines" >ystems of administration across the Yellow
Sea to Japan.

Th<- first law code was l*>rrowed from China, a>
was the oath ot allegiance, and even the design of the
( < -urt robe > .

Kven hu^hido is not a Japanese virtue, hut was im-
bibed from th" Sn:i l\m> f.'/ii/i }'fn, th<- greatest historn al
noM-1 of any time, and as Professor Chamberlain has
explained in his (Creation of a .Wir A', / .','.<;//. the word
\\.i-. not evn i oiued until well on in the reign of the late
Kni|;eror Mutsuhito. 1

< otint Okuma, more tamou- as an educationalist than
as a statesman, has nut on record that the pnncip.il

1 Mr. J.>h:i C i- 1 v ll.i'il. C'.I', , I.S.O.. wntf- in hi- .titio-in .
J.ip :r,'' <', ,:,!!!,; mi ::i : ' I ). /.n S'aml.u. nnr <>f tin- i:U'<-l t-initu : :
:itttl:> : > . pn-i .il-lv !< . ;I,I.M- ihr M,^ ,,!!..! U., v ;
V. '. :; -A. i . .1 \ i : ! u t :.i w ;,:!' < ft 1 inn . .1 1 1 i.-if. \<\ ; -u n n '. i <\ !'. : ', in
,i Hill ;:i.C: .: : .t i.i'i i i.i\

INTRODUCTORY 15

characteristic of his countrymen is the power to nirni-
latc. 1 Ho carried this further in a speech delivered to
the Osaka Bankers' Association in August, 1014, when
he said that his countrymen could " copy and imitate,
but neither initiate nor invent." 3

The early and mediaeval periods of Japan were respec-
tively deeply influenced by Korea and China ; then
came an age when the influence of Europe wielded
through the missionaries and traders was strong ; then
followed the era of seclusion, tempered, nevertheless, by
a current of Dutch influences via Dcshima. In 1853
commenced the great period of .Western influence,
wielded principally by England, supported by America
and Germany. Since the Russo-Japanese War English
influence has been distinctly on the wane, and Teutonic
views have correspondingly gained.

It is not with any view of depreciating Japanese
progress, or of minimizing its importance, that the writer
has, after long and careful consideration, concluded that
the popular conception of Japan is highly erroneous,
and that botli the achievements and the resources of the
country have been vastly overrated.

Probably within the history of newspaperdom no nation
has received so unanimously beneficent a ' press ' as
Japan did before, during, and after the war with Russia.
It was literally almost impossible to open a newspaper
or magazine without finding some article of fulsome
eulogy and praise for Britain's Far Eastern Allies. City
mcn will confirm the statement that the mere mention of
Japan on a prospectus was enough to untie the purse-
strings of the most hardened investor. Japan for a
time exercised an hypnotic influence on the British public,
and the effect is only now beginning to wear off.

Reference has already been made to the inherent genius
of the Japanese for organization . Never has that genius
been displayed to greater effect than in the conquest
of Great Britain.

1 Okumu, Fift\ }'<vz;> ,V" \cu 'Jap
3 'Japan \Vcckl\ Chrcniclc, Au^u>

16 INTRODUCTORY

Tlit pivot of Japan's policy has hitherto ap|K>ared in
IK North China and Korea, although Korea was, and
North China is, only a means to an end. China having
been disposed of in 18^5. there only remained two Powers
capable of blocking Japan's path. One of these was
Russia, the other (I real Britain.

'1 he manner in which Japan had 'defeated China, and
the subsequent progress of the country, had given the.
British public a justifiably good impression of the island
race.

( >n the other hand, in Russia Japan was looked upon
as an interloper, who could very soon lx- kicked out
if the way. The Japanese for their part regarded Russia
as an ancient enemy, who, by forcing the retrocession
of I'ort Arthur, had inflicted on her an almost indelible
humiliation.

Nevertheless, there were two conflicting parties amongst
the Jaj aii'-se statesmen. The one, headed by Ito, was
afraid of Rus-ia, and wished for an alliance with that
fountry. The other, headed by Kat-ura, desired an
alliance with Britain. It is ancient history that the
latter party gained the day. That victory was to a
great extent due to the Press Bureau. This institution,
though officially non-existent, manipulated a complete
ami most successful ' corner ' in Japanese new--. When
it i> remembered that the rorres{x)iidence of Renter's.
A-s4i, iated 1'p-ss. I he 7////<'s, A'< ir York Sun, I. all. in.
/)ii;lv I ilt'^rafh and StunJ.ir^l were for years all supplied
either by foreigners dire tly employee! by the Japanese

< io\ eminent, or bv Japanese in (iovernmeiit emplo\, then
it is not di.ii'iilf to imagine that the ileus was aluavs

< oult ur df rmr .

Again, in every Japanese Legation abroad was a
.seiietary who ~e sole dutv was to suj)j)!y p!ea-;ng i ' "py
!o i!ie re|rters.

a'ta'hed t-i the Foiei-n Miii-tej. \\a- a
'-tipply <oul('ir </< rn\f impre-^oii to ilie
-c.s'l to vi Itoi .. lo'iil ts, e\ei) laliioi:,

'--is uere -l-o::a'.i, r o]i> Ilicted, Mpjihed

INTRODUCTORY 17

with carefully edited material, and in some cases
with a guarantee for so many hundred copies of
any proposed volume on Japan embodying the gratis
subject-matter.

When the war with Russia occurred delegates were
sent to the neutral countries to ' maintain a favourable
public opinion.' Viscount Suyematsu was sent to Eng-
land, and very ably he did his work. Viscount Kaneko
filled the same role in America.

After the Russian War the special correspondents from
Europe and the States were withdrawn. The news again
relapsed under Japanese control. The only change, but
not one for the better, was in 1 906, when the American
Associated Press sent out a correspondent, Mr. J. R.
Kennedy, who soon proved himself more Japanophile
than the Japanese, and who, shortly after the visit of
the American battleship fleet, was the recipient of a
high decoration from the Japanese Government, for his
services as an ' uncrowned Ambassador ' in influencing
American public opinion. This gentleman is now the
head of the International News Agency of Japan, a
semi-official concern, which controls the Reuter service,
the semi-official Japan Times and Japan Mail, and
the correspondence of the New York Herald, Christian
Science Monitor, and other American papers, besides
having alliances with the Havas, Associated Press, and
Stefani Agencies.

In an Oriental country the original sources of infor-
mation available to a foreigner are strictly limited, and
must to a considerable extent remain so. In Japan in
particular is this the case. Not only is the ideograph
the boundary of first-hand knowledge, if written sources
are required, but the people themselves, and officials
in particular, have not learned, during fifty years of
foreign intercourse, to lightly drop the seclusion and
secretiveness of insular isolation. Just as the Japanese
keeps a suit of foreign clothes and a suite of foreign
rooms for the benefit of his foreign visitors, so he has
a separate set of ideas for their consumption.

i8 INTRODUCTORY

That the world is now in possession of far greater
and more exact knowledge of what is really passing)
in the country, and of wliat is in the minds of the jx-ople.
ii> due in part to the hiatus of two years, wlfc'ii tin-
foreign news services were subtracted from Japanese
control, but principally to the development of the spirit
of introspection amongst the Japanese themselves. The
vernacular press, during a period of four years previous
to the opening of the (ireat War in Europe, succeeded
in wresting from the authorities a considerable degree
uf freedom, and using that freedom for the national
advantage, obtained the promise of many, and the in-
ception of a few, sound reforms. Unscrupulous and
dastardly as the vernacular press often shows itself, the
nation owes it thanks for all of the most important legis-
lation of re ent years. In one important respect, however,
the pre-s is utterly subservient to the bureaucracy and
the apitalists. Kyobashi. the < iaimiisho and Nihonbashi
are at one in an insistence on an aggressive foreign jx>licy,
and there is only too certain proot that the violent
tirades against China find their inspiration in the Foreign
< Hi;i e and (he War ( Mrice. where they serve factional
interests, and are ta<itly sup|>orted by the other I)epan-
ments of State, as convenient red herrings ai ros-, the
path of -o ial ami economic reform.

I may -hoitly consider the statement repeatedly made
that Japan I- fated to be the leader of the Asiatii rates
again-t the ('auca-ian ones. This is the much-talked-ol
YI l!ou I'dil. I'nder certain londitions this may uell
ottur. Tho->e conditions are the continuation of the MI it
;K cjtlirM ence by (iieat I'ntain, a!id the active support b\
Ku la and 1'iatie.- of Japan's aggressive poll v to\\aid--
hlli. i. In that event the < iim<'-e may be e\pei{ed to
th'Ml attitude. ainf Join the Japanese in a!! e\i 111 loll
, diret t'-d a;.ai;i-t th' \\hiti--.. and e\cn!uali\ de

lopi;ig into a ra>e U.ir. No one, looking ba> k o\ei
Iop'e's i VIlli .il illsre;;aid 'if her pledge's alld pltillil-i- .

uld bi.Uli'- < 'hina for siii li a e'nursr.

.So far Jap. 1:1 ha- Hot made aiiv real pto:;ic,, to\^ard-

INTRODUCTORY 19

the dictatorship of Asia. Given normal conditions, and
what would he an abnormal hut reasonable development
of British policy, and she will make no real progress in
the future. I admit that this is the eventual goal to which
Japanese eyes are directed, but even such astute states-
men as Prince Katsura and Baron Kato have expressed
their doubts as to the ultimate possibility of success. The
late Prince Katsura in a conversation which I had with
him in January, 1913, discussed this matter. He most
emphatically denied the suggestion that Japan had such
aims. Ignoring the interpreter, ha broke into German,
and said, ' There are people who think such things.
They are stupids, who repeat what they are paid to say,
and are causing very serious trouble in our diplomatic
affairs." The late Prince made no secret of the fact
that the homes of this belief lay in a section of the army
and amongst a group of highly placed financiers in
Tokyo.

Count Okuma in 1914 put on record his belief that
Japan has no equipment to lead Asia, arguing that beyond
the assimilation of a certain amount of Western civiliza-
tion, a veneer of modernity and strong military forces,
Japan has nothing else on which she can claim to be a
Great Power. These views are strikingly similar to
those of the late Count Hayashi Tadasu. Count Okuma
continued the speech referred to by expressing a strong
disbelief that China can ever be regenerated. This,
however, must be regarded as a wish rather than a
thought. It is unreasonable to imagine that a country,
which was a great Empire in the dimmest ages, which
produced then a civilization and a morality which has
endured to the present, is incapable of adjusting itself
to modern conditions if allowed to do so. It is almost
an impertinence for Japan, which has made no original
contribution, scientific or intellectual, to modern civiliza-
tion to disparage the country from whom she has
borrowed her own ethics, art, manners, language, and
religion.

On the other hand, Count Okuma claims that Japan

20 INTRODUCTORY

has a mission as the mediator and modificator between
Mast and West. Japan, in other words, is to be the
half -caste nation of Eastern and Western civilizations.
Whether Japan can ever fulfil that mission the Japanese
Premier doubts, because of her dependence on Kuro|>e
and America, and because of her insignificant posses-
sions-' a bare 2 t ', th of the world's surface, a commerce
smaller than that of the smallest luirojx-an Power, and
an economy inferior to even that of China.' This is the
Ircquent error, the malevolent influence of German
thought, that a nation must be judged by what it has
and not by what it is.

The spirit of self -analysis has been, during the last
few years, rampant in Japan. It has caused a consider-
able depression throughout the country. The trend of
thought appears to he "Here are we victors in two
great wars, one over an Asiatic Empire, the other over
.1 Kuropean. W/e are allied with the maritime and
financial Power of Europe. Our flag is llown on every
sea. Diplomatically we are treated as equals in every
country. .We have a modern army, a modern navy, a
modern tariff, expanding industries, commerce, and emi-
gration. Yet, in spite of all this, wherever we go we
an- unpopular ; we are distrusted by everybody. At
home social unrest is increasing and economic conditions
are de-perate. iWJiy is it?

lip- old belief that the Japanese are a race of diminutive
-upermen die> hard, but dying it is. The Japanese
an- an extremely brave and brainy nation of M.il.ty origin.
'1 In y have in a very short space of time adopted the
habit-> and < ustom^ of the ()< cident, and lai Iced them on
to their ou:i. 1 "h-y are, hard a> it may be for (In- [.ipan
So' iety and kindred bodie-, to believe, ju^t human-* with
human faults and human virtues. They have a high
tod-- of military ethi ^, and a supreme but painfully
rno'i'in sense oi patriotism. 1 heir moral M-nse is low.
:he\ arc no! iri'!:i-trio'i>, their intelligeix e i> imitative but
riot nnti.itiv. v.ii,i t their amiiitiou i-> Itlcml' <1 urli an
* fo:luna'' a/^rfs i\- - f ;e <- a M d a d-[)l'ral>le en-itivt-nr-.

INTRODUCTORY 21

Mr. Aubrey Stanhope records an interview with the
late Queen Draga of Servia, which Her Majesty patheti-
cally concluded with the words, " Ditcs bicn de nous,
Monsieur ! " With the Japanese it is always ' Ditcs
bien de nous.' President Taft, when in Japan, remarked
to the late Count Mayashi on the touchiness of his com-
patriots, on their fear and resentment of criticism. The
Japanese statesman said, " My countrymen are suffering
from patriotic self-conceit." It is the commonest fault
of the country to mistake irritable self-complacency for
patriotism. Permission to criticize is inexorably refused.
The traveller comes to see, he must stay to praise. The
national attitude to foreigners is either contemptuously
patronixing or insulting. Whichever it may be, no
foreigner is credited with even the threat of intelligence.
The wonderful publicity campaign, to which I referred
earlier, and to which I shall have to refer again, was one
continuous, high-pitched, eulogistic misrepresentation.
What really were the crude, incoherent, rough-shaped
beginnings of a new State were placed before the world
as imposing ideals of morality and character. The
rhapsody of self-praise obliterated from view the network
of industrial, political, social, and economic problems,
which are the birthright of every nation, and no more to
be evaded by Japan than by Germany, Australia, or
America. Criticism is perhaps bitter to the palate, but
as necessary to the body politic as medicine to the body
physical. Every war has its regrettable incidents as
every nation's history has its record of mistakes. Hesi-
tation to face cither the one or the other means failure,
an attractive failure perhaps, but none the less failure.

Great as Japan's successes have been, though not so
great as she would have the world believe, she has now
to decide whether she will be a nation of promise or
one of achievement. The reward of the latter is eternal
fame, of the other a page or two in history as a ' has
been ' or ' might-have-been.'

Dreadnoughts, machine -grins, gold currency and braid,
electric railways and imported tailorings arc at best

22 INTRODUCTORY

only accessories. Poverty, mortality, and crime, and the
conditions of the subject races are the true barometers
of national welfare. In Japan the prisons are chronically
overcrowded, the taxes overwhelmingly heavy, and the
death-rate unduly high.

Many thinking Japanese readily acknowledge the
burdens under which their country is sulTering, and m
m<>st cases attribute it to the continuance of the bureau-
cratic system, which penetrates and endangers every class
of society. But whilst scientifically they regret these
thing-, they balance against them the benefits \vhich
Japan has gained in the past. They are like the Athenian
hctuira, who daily visited the temples and prayed, " May
the good gods make me (-haste but not yet."

It is generally conceded that when the Teutonic ques-
tion has been settled, the next problem the world will
be set to solve will be that of the Pacific. In t he-
solution ('treat Britain, America, and Japan will be vitally
concerned.

The object of this volume is not to predict the future.
It is an attempt to delineate; the real state of affairs in
Japan, and to indicate the fortes which are at work
moulding public opinion and the directions in \\huh
they are leading.

(iiven an urate data the moderately intelligent can
drav. their own conclusions.

JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

CHAPTER ONE
EMPEROR WORSHIP

PART I

The true gentleman observes moderation :
The mean man violates it.

CONFUCIUS.

ON official publications issued in Japan will be found
two dates, as 2576-1915. The former group repre-
sents the year according to the authorized version of
Japajiese history, the latter the year according to the
Christian Era. The little difference of six hundred
and sixty years is explained by the Empire not having
been founded until the reign of Jimmu Tcnno, the first
Emperor, which began in 660 B.C.

Since that time, orthodox history relates, the Imperial
power has descended in an unbroken, direct line. The
Imperial oath taken by the monarch at the Accession
ceremony runs : ' Having, by the virtues of the glories
of our Ancestors, ascended the throne of a lineal suc-
cession, unbroken for ages eternal,' etc., etc. Even
so severe a critic of the Japanese system of govern-
ment as Professor I'ehara in his Political Development
of Modern Japan writes : " Eor more than twenty-live
centuries, ever since the embryo of their national life
began to develop under the leadership of the first
Emperor Jimmu, the Japanese have always lived under
one and the same government, and have scrupulously
maintained their ethnic unity."

24 JAPAN AT TUP: CROSS ROADS

The orthodox profession of faith is as follows : The
Emperor holds his power by reason of his unbroken
descent from Jimmu Tenno, the first Emperor, who
was the lineal descendant of the divinities, who created
Japan. Consequently the Eni|K-ror is himself divine,
and, ipso facto, supreme lord of Heaven and Earth.
His country is therefore tin- first kingdom of the world.

The natural result of such a doctrine has been to
create the sentiment that the Emperor and his Ancestors
are sacrosanct and infallible : to extort an implicit
obedience to his orders, or rather to orders issued in
his name, and to establish a belief that Japan is as
superior to every other nation as the Mikado, thanks
to his alleged divinity, is superior to the common ruck
of kings and emperors.

The doctrine outlined above has obtained general
acceptance in Japan and a wide acceptance abroad.
That it is in itself unscientific and untrue is obvious,
but unfortunately people in Japan are forbidden to
believe otherwise, and people outside have had but little
opportunity or desire to judge for themselves as to the
correctness or otherwise of the views skilfully elabo-
rated for their benefit by the publicity department of
the Japanese bureaucracy.

This is the (iced, outwardly at least, of every
Japanese, and it will be of interest to see how it has
been evolved, what it -has accomplished, and to what
it is leading.

It is first necessary to carry the reader back to
prehistoric times, and shortly sket< h the origins of tin-
alleged divinity and mythological pedigree of the
Imperial family. He who would probe the matter
a jnndo may find a wealth of elaborate detail in the
researches of Aston, Chamberlain, Satow, Murdoch,
Hulbert, and Longford. If in doing so he finds that
most of the modern literature upon Japan teems with
inaccuracies and untruth he mu-t not be astonished.
He may impute it with jusine to the morbid hatred of
the Japanese themselves to adverse criticism, and to

EMPEROR WORSHIP 25

the weakness of modern journalists and authors, who
arc more willing to accept a brief than content to
record facts and let the reading public draw its own
deductions.

A considerable portion of the books dealing with
Japan published during the last twenty-five years have
been official or semi-official productions, such as Okuma's
Fifty Years of Modern Japan, Suyematsu's The Risen
Japan, and Dr. Nitobe's ttushido, which are only incom-
plete ,'md inaccurate records of historical events, jx.-r-
versions of facts to suit bureaucratic ideas of history,
or else volumes subsidixed by financial contributions
or official inspirations. It is a matter of considerable
regret that works in ,thc vernacular, even when trans-
lated, are generally useless to the- student. A letter
before me from a well - known Japanalogue says :
' Japanese writers seldom or never conform to the
rules of scientific writing, especially when dealing with
Japanese history. They make it impossible to verify
their statements by leaving out all references to the
sources of their information." In addition, there are
few Japanese writers who have not an axe to grind
for party, clan, or family.

After the introduction of Buddhism the upper classes
interested themselves in scholarly pursuits, and the art
of writing became more general instead of being the
monopoly of the corporation of Korean scribes. It
was in A.D. 621 that the first history of Japan was
written. The first part of this, The History of the
fimperors, was lost ; the second part, The History of
the Country, is embodied in the Kojiki and the Nihonji.

The earliest available records of Japanese history are
the Kojiki, or Record of Ancient Matters '(A.D. 712),
and the Ni/ionji, or Chronicles of Japan (A.D. 7201.
The former is, like the Iliad, a transcription of ancient
legends, dictated to the writer by one or more persons,
who had been able to memorize them. The /\ojiki,
according to the best authorities, contains nothing but
oral statements. The Nihonji, on the other hand, is

26 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

a connected account of prehistoric and proto-historic
event>, compiled back to the introduction of writing
(A.I>. 4001 fnm the existent documentary evidence, and
as regards earlier events from oral tradition. As u-gaids
the credibility of the happenings related, the mytho-
logical section deserves le>s belief than the legends
of early Rome, and no more, than the curiously similar
legends of th' % Kalevala or the Red Indians. (It may
be pointed out that the claims of ethnologists that the
Japanese are related to both the Finns and the Indians,
are largely based on the similarity of tlu-ir earliest
legends, i

AS regards the Dark Age-s the motto, " \\"here there
is stroke there is lire," applies as much to hi-tory as
to anything el>e. \\"hilst the precise details given in
both the Recent ;uid the (Chronicle are obviously faked,
the main events are correct, especially where inter-
national aitairs are dealt with, though the dates M>
meticulously inserted in both book.s must be corn-' ted
by the more trustworthy Chinese and Korean accounts.

A further reason for the greatest caution in utilizing
the Japanese records is to be found in the decree o|
Termini Tenno, wherein he ordered the production ol
an ottici.d history, the material for which \\a> !o be
-elet ted ti'iin the a va i la ' > le < locunien t s and stories, many
of whii !i i ontain "deviation-, from the truth and ampli-
ti'ations by falsehood." Muido, h points out thai the
^elective and edi'oiid work of the \\ liters (l f the Koj'.kt
,md \ihonji has resulted tathi-i in the production ol
uhat the ruler ic/s//rc/ to in- believed than ol uhai
adualK took jila'e a failing by no mean-- onlined
to ihe ollii ;al writers o| the earlier times of ihe F.mp:je

Ai'ordmg to thi- legend embodied in tin- A'f'/'-A'?.
in ill' tailhe,! ann- lba\'li and F.ailh \\eie i;o!
ep. irate, but I'lrni'-d on'- 'haoti< m.i->. Ihe pan-i
and more Man parent poitinn n,c up .i:\<\ bi-tann
I leaven, the h< .c. i-T and more opaque -i-itl'-d i!o\\n
v. a i d and \va ( ailed I .a i ' h In the
1 1 e.i\ en and I ai ' h \ ariou > -IK > < - -ion

EMPEROR WORSHIP 27

created. There were various generations of these deities,
the last live of which consisted of pairs, a brother and
a sister. The last brother and sister were I/anagi
and Izanami.

By order of the college of Deities these two descended
to ' make, consolidate, and give birth ' to the- drifting
land. From the Bridge of Heaven they thrust down
the jewel spear, and the brine which dripped from
it as they pulled it up formed the island of Onogoro
or Awaji. The brother and sister descended to that
island and dwelt on it, and created the other islands
of Japan. Then they became husband and wife, learn-
ing the meaning of love from the water-wagtails, and
gave birth to between thirty and forty other deities.
In giving birth to the last of these Izanami " divinely
retired," a Court euphemism for ' died.' This expres-
sion is still used in Japan in connection with the deaths
of members of the Imperial family.

Izanagi, despairing in his loneliness, visited his defunct
spouse in Hades, but, having violated her seclusion, she
chased him out again, aided by the forces of the Eight
Thunder Gods.

After this adventure Izanagi purified himself in a
stream, in the act giving birth to other deities, some
springing from the clothes he Hung upon the river
bank, but three from parts of his body. The Sun-
Goddess sprang from his left eye, the Moon-God from
his right eye, and the youngest of all, Susa-no-wo
(The Impetuous Male'), from his nose.

Among>t these three deities Izanagi divided his in-
heritance. The Sun -Goddess ascended to rule in
Heaven, the Moon-God disappeared to rule the night,
whilst to Susa-no-wo was allotted the ocean.

For a reason unexplained Susa-no-wo refused to rule
the water, and was expelled by his father. He then
ascended to Heaven to see his sister, the Sun-Goddess.

As these two stood on the banks of the River of
Heaven the Sun-Goddess took her brother's sword, broke
it into three pieces, crunched these in her mouth, and

28 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

blow out the fragments. The action of her divine
breath turned the fragments into three female deities.
Susa-no-wo, not to be outdone, took the jewels which
his sister wore, crunched these in his mouth, and blew
out the fragments, which by his divine breath were
converted into five male deities. The Sun-Goddess,
a^ ruler of Heaven, claimed the males as her progeny
.md allotted the females to her brother. The latter,
dissatisfied with this exchange, refused to agree, and
violently assaulted his sister, who lied into a cave,
removing her effulgence from Heaven and Karth. The
resultant darkness mightily inconvenienced the inhabit-
ants of both spheres. I'nder the leadership of the
Moon -God the eight hundred myriad deities took counsel
together, rescued the Sun-Goddess, and expelled Susa-
no-wo to earth after pulling out his beard and his
linger- and toe-nails.

Susa-no-wo, in accordance with this judgment, ( ame
down from Heaven and landed in Korea, whence he
crossed to Id/umo, in Japan, in a clay boat. In Id/umo
he rescued a beautiful maiden from an eight-tailed
dragon, in one of whose tails he found a wonderful
sword. This he sent back to the Sun-Goddess, pre-
sumably as a peace-offering. His descendants by his
marriage with the rescued maiden ruled Id/umo to the
sixth generation, when XMunuri abdicated in obedience
to a (oil! lave of deities, summoned in Heaven to di>, us S
and de< ide the affairs of Japan.

Hi- -u< < v-.sor was Nimji-no-Mikoto. grandchild of the
Sun-Goddess and eldest son of the eldest m.de born
from the fragments of the jewels crunched by Sus.i-
rio-wn. With him he brought the ' I )r.igon-sword.' sent
up to Heaven by Su-a-no-wo, and the ' Muroi <>l
Heaven.' tuo <>f the insignia of a Japanese monarch to
ihi, day. In his train tame Amatsu-Koyane, d:\ine
aln e >tor if the hou ..- < f ( \l | ;\\al .1 .

I tie ll'MVelih lort'ge le e.-nd' 1 '! nil MoiJIlt 1. 1 k . l 1) lllo

in KUIII.I--O, tin, making Kagoshim.i .i:id the Sat--:im,i
ountiy the in -I e.uthly home of the hnperi.il familv

KMPKROR WORSHIP 29

There Niniji had an intrigue with a girl of the neigh-
bourhood, who became by him the mother of three
boys. The youngest of these, Hodemi, crossed the
seas to the Dragon-land (probably Korea) and married
the daughter of the Dragon-king, and, after an alliance
with this monarch had been consummated, returned to
Japan, and, vanquishing his elder brothers, reigned in
Kurnaso and Id/umo. His son married his aunt, another
daughter of the Dragon-king, and the youngest of
their sons was Jimmu Tenno, first Emperor of Japan
(660 B.C. -5X4 B.C.).

On Jimmu Tenno devolved the task of unifying tin-
known parts of Japan and extending his power over
the unknown, or ' barbarian,' provinces. The barbarians
were the Ainus, a bare remnant of whom still exist in
the Hokkaido to the north and in the Loochoo Islands
to the south.

It is unnecessary to trace the history of Japan through
the Dark and Mediaeval Ages. It is advisable to note
that the first religion was Shinto, or ancestor-worship,
which began to be displaced about the tenth century
by a form of Buddhism imported from Korea. The
whole of the early history of the country is vague and
unauthenticated. Many of the early records arc worthy
to rank amongst the masterpieces of forgery, and what
little is known about those times can only be extracted
after careful collation with the Chinese and Korean rolls.
That there was frequent and close connection with those
two countries is well proven, and to the former Japan
vras indebted for her literature, arts, ethics, and adminis-
trative system.

With the gradual organization of the kingdom the
rulers degenerated from active government to thr posi-
tion of rois fdiniants, with the result that the civil power
was absorbed into the hands of one family, the Fujiwara,
who had a double advantage over their rivals, owing
to their alleged divine descent and to the practical
monopoly of supplying the Imperial Consort. The motto
of the Hapsburgs is equally applicable to the Fujiwaras.

30 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

The direction of military affairs was confided to an
official called the ' Shogun,' the Fujiwaras retaining for
themselves the office of ' Kuainbaku (rcgcnCi, which
became hereditary in their family. The creation of the
post of ' Shogun,' which brought as a necessary corollary
the creation of a military caste, led to a series of internal
disorders, which lasted for a considerable period. They
were the struggles of rival generals for the supreme
military jxwer. and involved a struggle for the control
of the Imperial jxTson. They ended with the complete
victory of Yoritomo and the establishment of the hakufti,
or Shogun's government, at Kamakura in 1184.

Voritomo's victory also ended the career of the Fuji-
war. is so lar as administrative power was concerned,
though to this day their daughters make worthy mates
for the Japanese Mik;'do.

Yoritoino organi/ed the country on a feudal ba-is.
Hitherto the provinces and districts had been go\erned
by Kii'^t' (Court noblemen), nominated by the Imperial
Court of Kyoto, responsible to the Knamhiiku, and
in no way concerned -with the Shogun. These /\n^f
were gradually displaced and their pi, tee taken by
diiirnyo (military chiefs'), to whom Yoritomo had forced
the Lmperor to grant land, or by ci\il servants appointed
by the hnhnlu. '1 lie Kni'.c retired to K\oto, where they
degenerated into leisured courtiers, living, so lar a^
the commonweal v-as concerned, in as cloM- retirement a^
the l.mperor.

Fioni the thirteenth < entury until the restoration ot
iX'.S the Shogunaie uas the Mile administration ol the
'unary. AS the Knnnihahu had originally been, it was
ctteii the object, ot civil war, and a^ the cli;;nit\ \\.i--
ne\'er hereditary, but due t the noniinalion oi the
i'.mpepir, the ii\,d c'l.iimants in\ariably attempt" d to
e;/'- th'- per- on of the monarch, and even on o arcoun;> to
,t '.;reat extent toi th'- numlM-r- of depositions ;iinl .ibdi
i.ition- iegi-,ter-d in th'- b t ol |-.mp-ioi -. An etleiti\i-
inon.in h \\ a ^ in him-^-ll ;i d.in:;er to this iinjnrmni in

EMPEROR WORSHIP 31

imperio, and the Shoguns took very good care that
if any Kmperor should grow to maturity it should cither
he as an effeminate wastrel or in the safe seclusion of
a monastery.

The Tokugawa Shogunate, the last cycle of this
extraordinary delegation of authority, lasted from the
beginning of the seventeenth century until the restoration
of Meiji and the ' voluntary ' retirement of Tokugawa
Nobunaga, whose funeral I attended in January, 1914,
at Tokyo.

The condition of government during that period must
be shortly described. The Shogun held his court at
Yedo, whilst the Kmperor held his at Kyoto. The feudal
conditions, established under Yoritomo, had been com-
pletely changed by the Tokugawas. Originally the
feudal chiefs had been big landowners, with absolute
power. The Tokugawas had succeeded, by means which
need not here be described, in concentrating all their
power in the hands of the bakufii, in confiscating much
of their property to their own advantage or for that of
their pet adherents, and in converting the daimyo from
being practically independent rulers to being merely
the executive officers of the Shogunate. Aggressive
acquisition was as much a characteristic of the states-
manship of the Tokugawas as it was of the Fujiwaras,
or as it was of the Satsuma or Choshu clans tinder the
Kmperor Mutsuhito. The voluntary feudalism of Yori-
tomo had been changed into a compulsory system, so
much so indeed that the daimyo had to live in Yedo,
and when they returned to their fiefs their wives and
daughters remained behind as hostages for their good
behaviour. A similar change had occurred in the
relations between daimyo and samurai.

The two conditions illustrative of the state of the
country were the imix)tence of the sovereign and the
absence of patriotism, and they are very clearly proved
by a study of Japanese history from 1850 to 1889.
These years are generally held to mark the change from
the old order to the new. but it would -Ue more correct

32 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

to say that they wore the period during which a new
order was grafted on to the old, for it must always
be borne in mind that though feudalism had been
abolished, the frudal spirit, the growth of so many
centuries, could not be wholly eradicated, and there was
no Mich intention on the part of the oligarchy which
succeeded to the Shogunatc. It was only the head of
the system to whom they objected, not the system.

In the Tokugawa age there were three authorities in
Japan : the tic /lire Sovereign, the Emperor, whose
authority was nil and toward whom the sentiment was
entirely religious ; the dc facto ruler, the Shogun,
who.se authority, as exercised through his Council, was
real, and toward-, whom the feeling was one of fear ;
the third was the daimyo, who was the immediate over-
lord of samurai, townspeople, and serfs, and towards
whom the sentiment was one of complete loyalty. In
fact, the ties between the clansmen and their lords were
far stronger than those of consanguinity.

When the power of the Tokugawa Shogunatc was
at its height there is no doubt that it was strong enough
to ellectively rule the country. Vedo was the fountain
of the national policy, and from Yedo were apjx)intcd
the officials tor its proper application. The daimyo
were reduced to the role of local officials. The claim
advanced by Tokugawa Keiki in his letter of resignation
that the Shogun. tte consulted the daimyo is unsubstan-
tiated by facts, < ertainly as regards the heyday of
Tokugawa absolutism.

'1 he object at \vhi( li tin- hahiiju aimed was, in short,
an undivided control o\cr tin- whole nation, inclusive
of the Imperial (Hurt and the dainn'o. The (Kurt ami

the Kll'.[C Were (-)Ued by the ( onM.IIlt presence at Kyoto

ol the Shogun's deputies and b\ the (lose proximity
ot the mtli'.irv for< es of the Shogunate at < 'saka. The
ddiin\'o were kept in hand by the appointment of sub-
idi.iiv oitiM.il-> from Yedo to manage then .ttf.ui, . by

their ellfoll e<l ie -lileIKe .it \e<lo, uliefe tliMI \\l\es aflll
f.tlllllle, Uele held .1. hostages ; .Hid l)\ I he extl.l

EMl'KKOR VVORSHir 33

ordinarily perfect system of spies (mctsukc'), whereby
their every movement, if not their every thought, was
at once rej>orted to the Shogun. The ideal of Toku-
gawa government was no had one. It was to maintain
peace and order throughout the land. Their methods
were simple and efficacious . The common people were
encouraged to industry, the artisans by the develop-
ment of arts and crafts, the peasantry by agriculture
and horticulture. The feudal aristocracy were en-
couraged towards the study of literature and military
pursuits literature to keep them out of harm's way,
military pursuits that the Shogunatc army, for the
greater part of which the daimyo were feudally respon-
sible, should always be prepared for service. To reduce
the risk of any daimyo securing a predominant position
by wealth various means were adopted to force
extravagant expenditure on him. The military retainers
swallowed a good portion of revenue, and in addi-
tion the daimyo were encouraged to ostentatious ex-
travagance at their yashiki at Yedo. If these means
w r ere insufficient there were two others which rarely
failed. The S ho gun would invite himself to dine with
the plutocratic daimyo, who to do honour to his guest
would be expected to ruin himself. A quaint legend
relates how the Shogun did this with the Lord of
Shimadzu, and was so jealous of the luxury displayed
that he ordered the latter to construct the triple moat
round the Chiyoda Palace. The other method was
to obtain an appointment for the daimyo at the Kyoto
Court, when the presents of gratitude which the Shogun
and his subordinates had to receive, coupled with the
presents to the Emperor and Empress, were sure to
obtain the desired end.

Such was the policy of the Shogunate at its zenith.
From the beginning of the nineteenth century, however,
matters had not been maintained on their old footing.
The wonderful system of espionage developed the ten-
dency of all such systems. It was so taken up with
recording the petty affairs of the population that it

34 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

missed the jv>pular movements and the genera! trend of
thought. The unchallenged sway of institutions created
decay within themselves. The stilling of criticism cau-ed
degeneracy in the ruler-. Discipline became lax. The
naybot'ti system became supreme. The policy of seclu-
sion was modified, and under foreign pressure- was
abandoned. No longer were hostages demanded of
the dainiyo. There was treason in the Shogunate
families and hierarchy. The younger branches were
squabbling as to the succession. The karos ' and yorn'ti, 3
(originally nominees, of the bakufu, became adherents
of the clans to winch they were appoaited. Many of
the big daitnvn, whilst not renouncing their allegiance
to Vedo, were intriguing together and with the Court.
At Kyoto the .-ituation w.is curious. The Emperor, as
ever, under the Shogunate was a nonentity. The
Throne, the symbol oi \\\< religious heredity, was
tolerated by Vedo for fear that its suppression
would cause jx>pular tumult. The A'w.C''. whose
only ration d'i'lrc was the care of and attendance on
the Imperial pcr-on, were tired of inaction but
incapable oi action. They iiniied to philosophy, and
found in the new scholarship a remedy for their own
ill-*. It i- a trui-m that every jx>htical regime
has behind it a philosophical sy-tem. Representative
government i - ba> -d on popular freedom : republican-
is m with"Ut democracy is inconceivable : the <li\ up-
right oi king- \- the faith o| ab-olute monarchy. Since
the (lenroku pt riod men h.,:d been beginning to think.
The scholars of "\iiio und r the h< ad ship of a T< >kugawa,
Tok'i I'.sa \lit-uk'ni, \\e:e th- < am- s; ri a -oners of
ni"<i<-:n Japm. The;r indies taught them that only
what i ba-ed on true j)lnld to meet particular
ioiidiM":i^ had n-> philosophy. 'I he [.annular

( ondi? ion h hid : u i n i ;: < to it \\ r ;( me.

KMI'KKOK WORSHIP 35

Every political revolution i^ preceded by a change
in tin- current of national thought. The Mho philoso-
phers led that change. Half-way along their path they
met the Kyoto Ku^c, who wanted to be restored to
power. They detected the Shogunate as much as the
Shogimate despised them. The revival of learning and
the renaissance of literature took on the guise of a
political ideal. Then the- Shinto priests joined in with
the hope of a revival of Shinto and their predominance
over the I>uddhi.-,ls. When the dissentient daimyo
from Satsuma and Choshti, oxer whom the- Shogun's
jxnver was more apparent than real, joined forces
the philosophical idea had become a revolutionary
movement.

Just at the same time America opened Japan to the
world. This provided the necessary concrete case for
di.sa flection. The Shogun had been quick to realize
the impotence of his nudiaval defences against modern
arms, and was desirous of making terms with the
foreigners. The daimyo, especially after the bombard-
ment of Kago.-hima, recognised their weakness, particularly
against foreigners ; but the Shogun was the dog they
wanted to beat, and his timidity before the strangers
was an excellent stick. The malcontents therefore rallied
to the cry of ' Down with ihe. foreigners ! ' and their
friend the Shogun, and adopted as their policy the
restoration of the administrative power to the Emperor.
This meant for them the transfer of the Imperial power
to their hands, for the Emperor was only fifteen and
immature alike in physique and mind. The foreign
imasion gave them their opportunity. The Shogun had
compromised with the foreigners. They must rouse
the nation against the foreigners, not because they ex-
pected to defeat them, but because the Shogun would
either be forced to tight the foreigners, in which case
he would be smashed, or he' would resign, in which
case the Tokugawa power would be. ended. In either
event it was decided to seixe the Imperial person in
order to cover with authority any violent acts they

36 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

might perform, ;uul as a rallying" cry for the people,
to whom they intended to appeal.

The fiction of the divine, descent of the Kmpcror
was revived, and the reverence due to a deity was the
welcome of the monarch wherever and whenever he
showed himself. That the fiction was not universally
received i-> shown by a conversation recorded between
a Shinto priest and a Buddhist, whom he was trying to
convert to the new order of things. " Ancestors."
replied the Buddhist, " may be revered for their human
virtues, but certainly not for th-ir alleged god-like
descent. It the am estors were not human probably
they were birds or beasts, but certainly they were not
gods."

To the literary renaissance, the Shinto revival, and
the }>olitical unrest must be added a fourth Jactor.
which helped tin- con-pirators. The Western clans,
e-pccially Satsuma, Choshu, and lli/en, were fighting
races, and to them the insular policy of the Shogunate
was distasteful. There \\as a strong expansion party
ajnongst them, who saw a future in expeditions across tin-
seas. Yoshida Shoin, who was executed in 1^50. for
complicity in a plot again-t the lokugawa rule, uas
one of the leaders ot the C 'lioshu rjaii, and his writing^
clcarK prove that over sixty years ago the leaders o(
the militari-t clans \\eiv planning the ultimate annexa-
tion of Fonno-a. tin- Kuiiie>. Kamchatka. Korea. Man
( huri.i, and a portion of Siberia. So soon after the
Restoration as I ; ~>7 > a Ministry composed of Saigo,
Soejuna, ( ioto. < >kuma. aii'i <'ki determined on a \sar
with (.'hin.i. It \\a> only the ti;ne!y r'-turn ot luakura,
Kl'io, and ( )kllbo fioin Kurope that prevented its or< ur-
rence, a retiogiv --i> >n uhi<!i <iro\c Saigo into retir.n
and subsequent rebellion. lh<ie i, no doubt U'li.il-
e\cr th.it tip- elan li-.idcr->, Iroin tin- very tnni- of tin n
i: urj:a':o:i of tip- goveininent, v.e;.- dele:mified to tollnu
an aggre MVC nnlr.ir;, poii<\, .ind th--ii adoption of tin,
(our e w.i ^ only \><> .t p< >n- < 1 t>\' ill'- tirgi-nt rcj)rc>e:iia-
tjonr> ui Iwakuia and Ito that Jaj>an nuiit lira (oin-

EMPEROR WORSHIP 37

pletely recast herself before she could be in any
condition to wage war abroad. Chauvinism is the
birthright of the lighting tribes, and Satsuma and Choshu
arc no exception to the general rule. Aggression abroad
is a Japanese jx>licy dating back to the Middle Ages ;
it is not a plant of tender growth, as uninformed London
newspapers would often have us believe.

Tokugawa Keiki did not wait for the Westerners to
force his hand on the foreign question, but resigned.
It has been a moot point whether this course was
adopted from wisdom or timidity. Until the family
papers of the Tokugawa are published it will not be
definitely known. I discussed the matter on various
occasions with Japanese, and one of these, a Tokugawa
man, expressed the view that it was a strategical move
on the part of the ex-Shogun. The \Vestern Lords
were demanding a restoration to the Throne of the
administration. To this no refusal could be made, for
the Emperor, theoretically at least, was the fount of
all honour and office. But Keiki in surrendering his
office did not want to see the Tokugawas not only sup-
planted by the Westerners but expelled by them from
the council of the nation. By a graceful retirement
he expected to keep for his clan a fair share of adminis-
trative power and advisory influence. It was only when
he saw in the following year that the opposition were
intent on crushing the Tokugawas out of existence that
lie retired from Kyoto and took up arms against the new
regime.

That the policy of the Westerners was wrong there
can be now no doubt. Their anti-foreign quasi anti-
Shogun campaign was directly responsible for the
hideous massacres of which Europeans were so often
the victims in ensuing years, and which brought
humiliation on themselves and their sovereign. That
they reali/ed their stupidity is evidenced by their volte-
face in their treatment of Enomoto when the Civil War
was ended.

The history of 1867 and 1868 is of considerable

38 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

value, as showing that there was hut little genuineness
in the claims ot the Western ddiinyo that they were
fighting lor the Throne. 1 In Restoration and the Civil
\\'ar were in plain lac; a light oi th init* against the in\.
1'atiioti-m and loyalty had nothing whatsoever to do with
it. 1 The re-toration oi the administrative power to
the Throne was merely a piece of political opportunism,
necessitated by the pet uliar strength of the Shogunate,
which called tor a far-reaching battl' -cry. The so-
called Restoration did not, and has not, restored the

1 "The l\ikutu \va-> .succeeded ly .1 el. in ^uver ::::unt " d'.i;nn
Shibn^aua 1 ).

" Mikado worship was r-taH>hrd te. in: thcr tlu- pi'htic.d ambitions of
the cl.iii chiefs who, v\vi e <1 !. in ed !r'>:;i I-\UA i->e of authority bv the
dr-pot:Mn <! t!ie >' '";4'.i: :.itr. '1 ':!- \v.i^ t!:e motive .ictu.itmi^ the Mi-iji
^!.tlL-->uieii -not 1< iv.iitv " <C > iiiiil S ','iini.i L

"Ti.L- I ! in i; veri!::ie:it diir'en-il \ml little I'rmn th.it of th<-
S!i. imm.ite " 'Count Itai^.ikii.

"The Ti>ki:ij.i\v.iv \veu exehaiiijed l"i S.ii^o, Kid'V ami Oiaibc. I;
\v ! ':ilv :i c::.iii^e i:i li.iine " lli:'.ii.

" Mik.idi' \v>i -!:ip lias ci'iidiK'ed t" the Ci.iiMiIid.iNun , .f tlie l-linpne.
l>:it it .^.ivr ->:.i!>iii:v \ :!ie form "| ^ <V( i inumi ii-t\'etl I'V tiie L!.HI mi
the onin'.r v " > I ' :ii::;; .

"A cli.iii^e ! : ' i;a 1 ( > .1! p.iti i ; 1-111 t ( < n.iM. >;i.il . i - :i;t.il i Sir I i.i i v
l':irk.-\ Di-p.i', ht-s).

"Tir I.ip i:;c-e ^t-n'Mncn! < f i'.t!n i.-ctlitv i> ij;;i'f :\\< ><K i n. uiei < Iv .1
iii.itt'T "! .1 L'eii' i Cii' in" il'inm: It'ii.

T!:i- w.iy i f lh<- w;i: t j..| . i.t?. -. 1 1 . ,11 ( ); !r :, Ti:; r . l.;i! >'i<-.!;i ill. ! i\< !
uic .1!) 1' A e i -1 i ':,:il i v. /':/.'. xv.i- ; >>-\ - n .1 .ti! u'i;r,u nt !u chu-f--. i-vcn
!-. the \>:> . i ',.,i.:' i .f : -. . I r> :I-.UI..MI :::' v i J )-:i:: .; .

1 In t !'' --.i\ in 1 . .1; ' i 1 1 I:IL'. - ' ! ilii- ''.'i '. ; i;> n. c ' -f ri i! in' [ v \v.i .1 I '!!:!: i.ni' i e;it Mlii ill.

' I hi : i \\ .i > MI i c', .(i'-in i- t th.e ( xi^tciK'i' i.f | .1': ! ii-.ni pi i< > t tin-
.il>' .1:1: in of l--,:i.,ih Ml in t f M'i^i f I .1 .11,1 i . ivui/W.U < ! I M:iMi

.I'MI- I i.i t .i 1 f.i: .i> p: i. t'i .1! <!i - pi i\ i i iiv i urd l.ipai 1 '- ' ! -.C : : ' i !:i i
.1 s-:.tlillell' -f Mt 1 i't'i ('". !< ipin.-n*. .Hid th.:f I'.'.r \v!;n il.um Mi\
i X' ! p: : iii.ii \V( .ill ii < t !:; ill p i!: !< >' t :n 1 I.i ' d
.1 -. ' ". l ' !: il i ! p i f ; i:r it .( I ! 1:1 .. 1 '< I aiiii.il: '

" A , ir^.i;.;, ,., t l 1 .- 1 ' I:..- I-,; ..:: i^ fit wi!!i

\ ' r : ; e n ' ( ;':.!: 1 ;:.;.:! i 1 . t ' ' . t > ! '. < I ! ; < : : ' ''. tt : ' h

.; !. v-!.- fa- f., d : , i. . .:. -.:.i'- I : . :'- ' !-. -.!!

i :'.'.\<'i.i'.in -. . I in.

EMPEROR WORSHIP 30

Imperial power. As regards unifying the country, the
only unification of which the opposition seriously thought
was unity against tin- Shoguii. Ii was only when the clans
had succeeded to his power that they realized that a
continuance of factions would inevitably end in national
disaster and that a sentiment for real national unity
entered their heads. The remarkable statement of Kido
Tadayoshi, who was the brain of the whole Restoration
movement, is sufficient evidence of this. Taken all
in all, the Restoration movement was as shrewd a
piece of political opportunism as the world has ever
seen.

The position of the Emperor was but little improved
by the change. His personality was nothing to his
advisers. His office was everything. It has been
described as the greatest asset of the Restoration.
Japanese history shows again and again that the Throne
was "what really mattered ; whether it was occupied by
a major or a minor, a widow, a congenital idiot or a
beldame, made no difference ! It was the Throne which
secured the reverence and affection of the people, not
the sovereign. This is easily seen by the lack of
surprise, amounting to indifference, when monarchs were
retired into prison or a Buddhist monastery. The
removal of the capital from Kyoto to Vedo, then re-
named Tokyo, was another instance of the impotence
of the Emperor. Economic and strategic reasons were
advanced to explain the transfer, but the real reason
was to take the Emperor away from the influence of
the Kugc< who had supported the Restoration move-
ment in the hopes of securing advancement for them-
selves, a step which did not appeal to the dairnyo.
In the same way in 784 the capital had been removed
Irom Nara to Kyoto to rid the Court of the influence
of the Buddhist priests.

That the Emperor could only be a puppet was natural
from the very state of tilings. Japan throughout the
ages has been a despotism, and the despots were law
and custom. The Imperial movements were controlled

40 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

by the tyranny of custom. The Mikado sat on the throne
immovably for so many hours a day. Hi*-, body and
dress \vere sacred. Kven the scraps of food lie left
uneaten, the dishes on \\hich he was seived. were equally
sacred, anil had to be destroyed imnu'diately they were
removed from his pr<M-nce. His hair and nails were
cut whilst he was asleep or feigned sleep, according
to the ntiybocn ' practices so prevalent in the land.
His Court consisted of the useless f\U'^i\ hi> household
only of women. Hi: wa> allowed twelve lawful wives
and a j)ractically unlimited numl er of concubines, mostly
drawn from the families ot the Ky<to nobles.

Thc^e practices ha\ e in principle remained unchanged.
The Empress is since iS,x<; the only lawful \\ite,- but
a number of the ladie^ of the palace are in fact con-
cubines.

liefore iSoS the only aets of the Mikado were of a
religious character, tin- deification and canon i/at ion of
the great- the great being- the nominees of the Shogun.

' \ii\l><'(n: a trim n-< d tu rxpir--, a friijtird i:_Mi"iaiKr < f a \v-l!
known fa> t. !'<>! < x.unplr, win i) .1 hiijh ottici.il died l!i" la, ! UM-. and
i v , ^uppic^cd fi'i a ti::ir ; nw.id.iv- in oi-ii-r to allow tlu- Kinpri''i l>>
ccnil'ci picol'it honmiis I'll tliL- ili-i "i .1- i'd. l''i;;;crl\ tu .illi>\v lu~- 'HII--
.111 i pp<>r(u::i;v f <>l>t.u;r.nj/ .ipp< 'i;i:nn-iit I" Li niiuc-. In i!;i- ca^r i
tin- l:npi.-i i.il di'.ttli. .innctinci-iiiriit xv.i^ p" '; ;.i '. -n .1- ID pmnit tin-
;ici;i-^ Men of thr ii>-\t IMU; <TDI bt-iiii. I'M- ''pj>.i-:ii ;\ iud IUIH- to :n.i!vO
troijhlc. ND l-.iiip'-i' .1 di<-->. llr ' v.i:i!^!n-s .1^ ln-iiitin;; .1 M-IDI-
diviiiitv. At tlic drith of tin- l.ttr l-'.mpri": M;it>itliit<). cunt iiMon ua>
..iiiM-d .uiii'M^ t tin- i(iin::iDM pi-i.p'.r in v.iii'His |\n^ IIUHIL; t thr
.inn' .iinci incnt in (.'mut l:ii:^u;i:;r r .it lli^ Mt)r-!\ t .id ' \ .uu>!u-d.'

' Tin- pM- i :it l-.;u; r: 1.1 i- n!v : li.ilf-li'.Di.d. .. , in.pt'':rt tn-m^ tin-
I.adv Van I.M-A.H .1. \v: n \v.i I:: t !.i>'v ii)-\\.iiti; i; t" !!] laic 1 : .; :
I 1. 1 1 uk". Si in i- tin- j'.i MIII; n| t!.r I inp.-i :.il I 1- :; r I i\V 1:1 !), I -a If
}!, ^i! air lli.t ICCOJ^.I/rd 111 ti ' Ml' i !!!. til..!ir!i l!ic All:, !r I I'M-
( ',n> 'iluti- :i ili ilin:' \\lth ihr vnnr lim-s ix.t jS',\ldr ! i t'.r r\ rtit ;:a!il\-
if thr I a' h:t i- nl tin- di: r> t in.iK -iu i i n n. ll i> i ni\ i ::: p n ,',:.> h
ir, rntiv thai ihr ladlrv i t lh< p.ila. r ii.l'.r [MVcl! Up i! < pl.u li.
i i r. in;; *l:r fr ,; ntVi ini:.i !i : , a p: :\ ! r r \\ !:t> !i t hi \ : '\ d
a ti.i i! p< i i'i< '!) -i . v. ". i - ' ! t J.r i It i'.u.d U.i 1 1 I'lii/i d I' \ n
a!!- I t!:r pro:::uh' \.\ 1 II i t I in In:; : -a I I ! : i I ..<. \t. : hi \ . :;! 1:1110 1 t,.
r '-i I-IM-. until pi"!' !, ll"::i '"inr ,1 !'' InMl-.'li irpn i nta! IVr . i ti
Vi \ id t :.I ' ni f \ !i thr I'.al 'il< . , N tii: . , . ii va put an i :i d ! . Itir > 11 .ti iin .

EMPEROR WORSHIP 41

After 1868 the public functions of the Mikado con-
tinued to be of a social or religious character, and there
is but little evidence that he was a real force in affairs
of State. As Professor I'ehara says : "No intelligent
person believes that all the affairs of State are fx-rson-
ally conducted by the Sovereign. . . . There is not
a 'single instance on record of the Emperor Mutsuhito
taking any State matter into his own hands."

On the other hand, there is no doubt that the late
Kmperor possessed a strong [>ersonality, and after 1890
exercised a considerable influence on public affairs,
though how far that influence went must always remain
a matter of conjecture.

There lias been in Japan no idea of respect to the
Sovereign as Sovereign. His authority lias never been
temjxmd, nor has there ever been any personal feeling
about him. He has been merely a useful nonentity,
filling the Throne, and it is the Throne which has been
the subject of respect.

In Count ( )kuma's I'ifty Years of Nc\\' Japan there
are many statements which are gro>sly inconsistent with
the truth. There is no statement more untrue than that
there never has been a revolution or attempt at assassi-
nation of the monarch, such as has been only too common
in other countries.' That is one of the biggest fictions
ever written about Japan, and Count Okuma as an active
participant in the events of 1867 and 1868 must know-
that it is not true. He was in Kyoto when Choshu
raided f the city and tried to carry off the Emperor.
He was an official of the Government at the- time of
the counterplot in 1871, when it was intended to raid
Tokyo and carry the Emperor back to Kyoto. He
was in the Government which fought the Satsuma
rebellion of Saigo. There is no nation in history which
has shown less re.-pcct for its monarch-, and in the:
history of no other nation has the sovereign been so
often the victim of murder, deposition, exile, and insult.
For sixty years the country was the prey of civiL war
between ^Northern and Southern Courts, and an illegiti-

42 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

mate usurper won. '1 hereafter the Shoguns ruled whilst
infant succeeded intant <m the throne, each as soon as
he reached puberty being demised and shut up in a
mona-tery or, more summarily, a>sassinated. Chamlx-r-
lain and Murdoch re, all how one exiled Mikado
e-.-aped from exile hidden under a load of dried li>h,
ulnNt one reigning monarch was reduced to such
peimry that he gained hi^ jxeket -money by selling hi^
autographs !

So much for the myth-- and legends gratefully
swallowed by the British public. The Jajxinese
Imperial Household docs not deso-nd in an unbroken
line from ages unknown. Its pedigree is broken again
and again by the oii'spiing of concubines and of in-
cestuous and ndulterou- connections. The Sovereign in
Japan until very recent year? has wielded no influence
and ha^ exerci-ed no au'hori'y on public affair^, but rather
from age-, eternal, under the Fujiwara, and then under
successive lines of Shgun-. .aid, since the Restoration,
under the cian o!i_\a;chv ha> been a figurehead, intended
merely to serve as a cloak for the actions of the
oligan hy . There :i-ver wa-, until after the Restora-
tion, any senv: of loyalty to the Kmperor or to the
country. At "lie Restoration there- never was any inten-
tion on the part of fh" clans to create such sentiments.
It w.ts onlv ulii-M tli-- cl.ins reali/ed the force of foreign
pre-.-ure and th'- imp- > ^i.iili'y of im}*)-:;!.; on the country
another ile-potism. the same in form a> that of the
Sho"unati\ th.il they -a\v the necessity of national union
by the erection of -ome central figure to which the
whole nation would rally, and under \vho--r shadow they
>uld dire' t the n.iti-.nd for< e> in th" paths whii h they

tllelll elv< .-, -ll' ill!' 1 ' h< >' >SC.

If tin- f'Hir tend' MCI- - leadin;; t-i the Restoration move-
men' are -nid'-r tood, and the three conditions outlined
abive [iropeil\ r- aii/ed, it i- not at all dilJK ult to
undei .(and the < mrs" ol e\<-nt-i in Jaj>an during, the
la t twenty fiv \ cars .

EMPKROR WORSHIP 43

PART II

The supreme work of the Mciji Kra has been the welding
of Japan from a < ongeiie of petty feudalities all nominally
o\vning admini-ttative allegiance to the Shogun and
religious allegiance to the Mikado into a closely knit
State, where the interests of the nation have been sub-
ordinated to the inter--.!-: ol a governing clique. This
has been no mea'i achievement, and its execution well
within the allotted -nan of a man's life is high testimony
to the efficiency of the handful of statesmen who were
responsible for it. It has been accomplished by the
identification of the Government with the Throne, and
this process lias been so successfully carried through that
there lias been no serious opposition to the system estab-
lished by the clan oligarchy in 1868 until the present
time. 1

The last statement will probably be challenged, on
the grounds that the movements led by Fukuzawa, Itagaki,
and Okuma for popular representation were protests
again>t the bureaucratic system. Indeed at first sight
they would appear to be so. The demand for popular
rights was, however, an inevitable result of the abolition
of the feudal system, and had no connection whatsoever
with a movement against the absolutism of the monarchy.
On the contrary, simultaneously with the ri^e of the
' popular rights agitation,' went a counter movement for
increasing the power of the Throne, and with the result
that the years since 1889 have seen far greater poux-r
developed on the side of the Throne than on the side
of the people. It is only within the last two years that
Japanese writers and thinkers have developed their
political sense to the point that a government should
be supported by a majority party in the Diet. Even
yet there is no well -defined expression of the sentiment

1 The rebellion c.f S.it-uma under Sai^o was not an attack on the
system, for \v:;'cii Sai<M him<elt was in \\;\{ p.irt r - -pop, -ible. but an
attempt to subtract the Emperor from his tutelage at Tokyo to place
him under the tutelage of Ka^oshima.

44 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

that the people should control the government. As will
be seen later, the Diet in Japan is a luxury. It has no
real j>ower, and until the Constitution is radically altered
it is not likely to attain such jx>wer.

Political movements in Jap. in have one very great
distinction from similar movements in Kn^land, France,
Russia, or America. They are not originated by or
amongst the people. A political party does not consist
of a number of men all imbued \\ith the same convictions,
and ideas derived from study and thought. The political
party i> a chorus to its leader. How long a leader can
rely on the sup|x)rt of his party depends almost entirely
on the depth ot his pur^e and the intensity of his personal
magnetism. The great ambition of every politician in
Japan i-> to attain otti. e and wealth. There have only
been three exceptions, for Fuku/aua was more a phil-
osopher and educationalist than a politician. Itagaki and
< 'kuina were de-erled by their followers when their
wanderings in th'- jxjlitical woods forbade any hopes of
earthly reuard, so long a-> they stuck to their leaders.
Inukai now leads a forlorn hope, since half of hi-.
adherents fell to th" late Prince Kaistra's golden promises
in i <> \ 3.

Almost the principal < hara t -i istic o| the Japanese
is then- ability to d<-< eive themselves. It has been
eupheinisti ally dcsciibed as th' 1 la<il;ty to (omproinisc.
It is really th' 1 art ot window-dressing, \\luch is so
pan, full-, aj parent in th' ir ' ommcri lal and linaiicial
institutions.

"1 IK- joliov.ers of the populir 1 a<!ers, after a short
experieiK " of the hard-hip> ol oppo-i'ioli. Were perfe, tly
wsllin:; to a< ' ept tli'- app.iM-ut lor ill'- real, and thoM- of
lli'- 1-Miler^ \vlio \\--n- u:iu:i!i:r.; to a.;ree were im on
tni'-ntly tlitoua over. Thu - i! anie aboi;; that a ( on -
-titntion wa > i'.ra'it'-l U'lii !i 1:1 no wa\' de, rea^'-d the
au'Iioii!\ o! tli'- Ihroa--, and, e\i -p; in words, i om eded
i.orhin;' to tli-- popular d'-;nand-> be-, ond th-- po\\er < <\
le.tit,;' a!i .1- etnblv, and ill 1 ' M.dit ot the a '-nibl\ to
in--' t and talk tor o m.inv d.ivs a \ear 1 li- Diet i.-^

KMl'KROK WORSHir 45

the most imfx>tent body in the country, if not in the
world. It can control neither finances nor administra-
tion nor the army nor the navy. The Throne i-> supreme,
either by its positive or negative powers, or through
the Privy Council.

ri'he various jx>litical compromises of recent years will
be dealt with in another chapter. The intention here is
only to point out that the clamour for popular representa-
tion, which was a feature of domestic politics from 1^79
to iS<Ss, in no way resulted in changing the clan scheme
of government, but rather strengthened the same.

The question will be asked, how was it possible for
the clansmen to upset the Shogunatc and to create a
form of government, which has proved in fact an oli-
garchic despotism, under the guise of a constitutional
government. I use the description ' oligarchic despotism,'
although most writers employ ' absolute monarchy.' The
latter implies that the monarch reigns and rules, is him-
self the active legislator and administrator. But, as I
have endeavoured to suggest, in Japan, in my opinion,
the monarch reigns but does not rule, the active conduct
of affairs having at the Restoration been seized by the
representatives of the clans (at first of Satsuma, C'hoshu,
Hi/en, and Tosa, later of only Satsuma and Choshuj,
who have ever since succeeded in holding the power.

The answer is by obtaining an unlimited power of
attorney from the Throne. It stands to reason that if
a person or institution possesses the virtue of infallibility,
if it is in a position, through real or alleged divine
favour, never to do anything wrong, the best method
for avoiding opposition to a proposed course of action
is to affix the infallible one's name to the transaction.
Of course, argued to its logical conclusion, such a course
can only lead to a Cretan fallacy ; but people in Japan
are only just waking up to the existence of logic.

The clan leaders achieved what most people would
describe as the impossible. In the middle of the latter
half of the nineteenth century they set up a system of
government, based on the divine right of monarchs,

4^> JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

and not only gained the willing support of thru own
countr\ men. i)Ut ol>t.ii:u'il its complete acceptance in
Kurope aii'l Auu-rit a. Nothing has been seen like it
since the Popes of Koine claimed infaiiihi!ity as tin- hens
of St. Peter. No more ma^nili- ent swindle has been
perpetrated on th- world at lar^e since the days ol
Juil.' a. No greater te-timonv to th'- gullibility of the
\\hite race- could he re'juired than the avidity with which
they have swallowed the !M)!US of Mikadoisin. The
historical tacts with which the\ h.tve been regaled are
a^ Ljreat humbug as Treit>chke's pedi;.;ive of \\'illiam 11.
Japanese history i> more modem than that ot any
luiropean country. it- anthenti l)c;^inning was in
A.I", ^oo, and in thi>, a-- in mo-t other events. Japanese
chronology is ind.-ed out of date. whiNt the sj)lendid
>j:eei'hi.'s a-ciit)"d to the earl.' Mikados are piracy from
the (."liiiu-sc ot the liio-t blatant description. In f.ui,
in dealing \\i:h tlie early record-- of the country, it is
now inip<>--Hbi'- to s-parate the native Japaiu-se from
the ('lune^r md l\or",i:i, so ido.-eiy were the manners of
tho-e two countries copied in l<-tter-, science, art, social
ru-.tom-', admini-tration, and morality.

It i. in-trti 'tive to com r ur" th'- ris" of Mikadoi>m
with the eoui's'- of eveiits in ( /er:nanv. \\ h ;( an .ilmost
parallel d--\ e> ipm-:it ha been a. tempted, thoiudi uith

( oli-lder.lbl'. l'-s: SUi-e-s, 0\\1I1L' to the pre-elU'C of oth-'l

^overei^n lieads t!ian the Kin:; ol l'ru-->ia within the
I'.mjMi'e. Ill 'i:ibro!-:in dyn.: I;, of th Mikado ha> been
paralleled b, Tre:t-<dike' l:.u:dnlent de-cent of th-
i lo!ie:;/o'l -in fiom ( "hat leina",: e. 'fir- 11:10:1 . .1 Japan
in i .- ') pie, ei b. i ;, 'i \rar only the < .{aohshin'-nt
<1 the ( lerman iCmp'ie m i. ~:. Tiie dni;iit\ "I tii
Mikado u.i, < oj.;-- i i,;. \\'.il:inn II. 1:1 I ; - ; . af \\'itt'n
bei/, . T!i" ;a .a! manu:n;s-,ion ,o-;--l < 1 1'nk;. o ir.
it, ' "pv at Miibn. Jh" laus ,,i '<>< rn.!/< -ti are a>

cs ei e in i a! ci a i;. iel'MiariV 1 ' ; 1 - la . '>s . ; h I ; ; j" 'I

I rm'i'.iM m. !- 'lr Sit lima i 'hodiu "1 'i'lniins. and
th' 1 a;-, P --.ive j'.i!: i nt th" f iwairnusho are in no \\hit
b- hind t ho - ot i he \Vd:, ; IM tia <-. 1'he theories of

KMl'KROR WORSHIP 47

industrial and commercial expansion and the methods of
colonial government are frankly admitted by Japanese
statesmen to be copies from German models.

.Whether the founders of modern Japan anticipated
the success which has attended their efforts it is imjxjs-
sible to say. I am inclined to think that they did not ;
that there were even at times fears of failure, which
would account for their coquetting with the theories of
popular government. Macaulay, in his essay on The
Church of Rome, points out that the Roman Catholic
authorities never wasted an enthusiasm. The theories of
the crank, equally with the doctrines of the philosopher,
were turned to the best account, the good of the Church.
The same may be said of the Japanese Government.
Like the Roman Church, it started with a great asset,
the representation of the Divinity on earth. The Mikado
was used to rally the nation against the Shogun. The
success immediately attained exceeded the highest expec-
tations, though in fact it was due to the apathy engendered
by the feudal system. Once in possession of the reins of
government, the Restoration leaders resolved to utili/e
the same magnet to ensure popular support of their
own undertakings. The Mikado was brought out from
his seclusion. On his prestige as Divine head of the
nation was grafted supreme authority as secular head.
The country was told :--

The Mikado is the- head of the country, in religion
and in administration, because he is the descendant of
Jimmu Tenno, who was the grandson of the Sun-Goddess.
He can do no wrong. Hear him and obey, otherwise-
be guilty of sacrilege, blasphemy, and high treason."
By what methods were the people persuaded to accept
this doctrine? By every method. School teachers, uni-
versity protessors, temple priest.-, officials oi /\e;i and Fu
all became ardent propagandists. Belief in the Imperial
divinity and infallibility was the only road, not merely
to success but to existence. The a.-tuie state-men who
engineered the whole scheme, Okubo. Iwakura, and
Kido, realized that the only danger they had to fear was

4$ JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

that of which the Tokugawas were always afraid, the
rise of some feudatory to a predominant or at all events
independent position. This, then, was early placed out
of the range of possibilities by a working agreement
between the four clans to surrender their fiefs in exchange
for money and jxjwer, and then to insist on the other
dtiiniyo surrendering their fiefs in exchange for money
only. The four western lords wrote their surrender of
their fiefs, hastened to Tokyo, advised the Fmperor to
at cept the same, and to issue a rescript ordering the other
datrnyo to follow suit. The western army was held in
readiness, and would soon have settled any reluctance,
but. as it turned out, all the daimyo preferred wealth to
lands. The next step uas to disband the samurai, which
was done by transferring a number of the Imperial army
and pensioning off the rest on the country. The /fans
(the (Juimyo's administrative fiefs) were changed into
Ken, and the whole government was centrali/ed at Tokyo.
This was tin- second great step. By the mere u-e of the
Imperial signature (the Mikado was a youth of eighteen
at the time), the feudal system had been abolished, and
not only the administrative, but the military power had
beeome the monopoly of the Sat -cho-hi -to ' coalition.
It was not long, however, before the country found that
Mikadoism \\as an evp'-iisive luxury. Finance has always
been the w-ak f*>i:!t of Japanese statesmen, and the
purchase and pension schemes of 1X71 produced very
-erious discontent, which finally culminated in the Civil
\Var of \ -','; ~] . People \\ere beginning to n -ali/e that
c l.iiiM in \\ a s only a ur\i\al of th<- oM r t ^:mt'. A- ;he
( h;li'--e p;ii'.e:t> sa\ - : '1 he go . eminent - o| 1 .00
\V. i an- b i ol he is." T!ie Sa' - ho slate men 'the Sat
III Io io. ill. loll broke u;i Pi | X ~ ,i lecogni.'-'d I ha'.

ait ion i had bet n too visible, and it was ne< e . -.uy still

further to .le\e!o[i t!l Illlpellal tll'ory to cloak them

In tier. Sar.'.o', manifesto, uh'-n he Ic-gaii hi- revolution,

li.id bf'-n a i omp'a;r;t that the go\ eminent a: lok\o

u.i not that of til-- i',ni|"-ror, but that <>f an ol^g.in by,

' 'sat-uni.i , Lln'sliu. i ii/cn, 'Jc-a.

EMPEROR WORSHIP 49

and this had brought him great popular support. When
the rebellion had been crushed, at great cost of life
and money, the theory of divine descent was the subject
of a wide campaign of exposition and advertisement.
The germs of jxjpular representation were discounted
by a sharp advancement in the theory of absolute
monarchy. Tin- Kmpcror was brought forward into the
public eye. He appeared at many public functions.
He became the visible as well as the nominal head of
the army and the navy. Imperial Rescripts grew more
frequent, but more ambiguous and formal. Foreign
aggression, always the secret aim of the Sat-cho clans,
became a national policy under the dress of ' expansion
of prestige.' The presentation of a Constitution became
the opixjrtunity for a clear definition, without veil or
apology, that the Kmperor not only was the head of
the country, but was the sole fountain of legislation and
administration.

Such in brief is the history of the rise of Mikadoism
from an abstract theory to the driving force of the
State. Its growth may be traced in the language of
the Imperial Rescripts. Its daily evidence may be seen
in the schools in Japan, where on set occasions scholars
and teachers perform genuflectory exercises before the
Imperial portrait. Its influence may be seen in ' Who's
Who in Japan,' where Admiral Togo and other victors
in Japan's wars ascribe their successes to the virtues
ot the Imperial Ancestors, or in the grounds of the
War Office and Stall" College at Tokyo, and in the
public squares, where cannon taken from China and
Russia are placarded as captured by the Imperial
virtues.

That Mikailoism could be a real religion in Japan
was pro\(M at ;'ne death oi the hit' 1 Kinperor. Nobody
who witnessed the thousands and tens of thousands
gathcre^ on tlv Nijuba-hi night and day, in pouring rain
or broiling sun, could deny for a moment the immense
hold which it has on the people. That the official in-
tention was to exalt it to a religion cannot be doubted.

50 JAPAN A'l 'I I IK CROSS ROADS

The declaration of Baron Oura, Minister of Home AtTairs,
in February, 1911, is evidence- enough on the point.
He said :-

'That the majesty of Our Imj>erial House towers
hijh above everything" to be found in the world, and
that it i- as durable as hea\en and rarth. is too well
known to need dwelling on here. If it is considered
that our country needs a religious faith, then, I say.
let it be converted to a belief in the religion of patriotism
and loyalty, the religion of Ini]>crialisni in other words
to Kmperor worship."

The famous three religion conference in I ) I 2 of repre-
sentatives of Shinto, Buddhism, and (,'hristiaJiity had
for its object the evolution of a new religion, a combina-
tion of the three, but a sine </ita non of which should l)e
the exaltation of the Imperial House. Though the official
annouru cinent was that the conference was highly satis-
fa< tory, it was on this point at least a dead failure, for
the representatives of SOUK- of the Buddhist sects, and
notably of the Tenrikyo. were unwilling to come to an
agreement with the others.

Buddhism has always been an obstacle in the way of
Mikadoi-m. In an< imt history Buddhism ua> supported
by the first Sho^uns, and it was to reduce Buddhist
inthieni e that the Shinto prie.sts, with their belief in
ancestral worship, were fa\ourvl at tin- Restoration.

'I hi- present stat,- of ('hristianity in Japan is eloquent
proof of the inlliience of Mikadoi-m, a;al it will be a
re\e]ation t" .\\<--t<rn countries to It , t rn that Japanese
( liii-tia!is i an ae''i-pt Avithoiit a[><!o.;v or hesitation the

tenet- of the Il-'W rell.'loli. '1 lie Re\ . I >r. 1'Jiilia. proliably

he inn-'. ]ro:jii!i'-nt I'lote-tant in th country, and a man
who m other re-pe< t-. ha- not ^lio\'.n him --ll unmindtul
of the fault- of his i ountrymen. urote :

" Thou -li tlr- '!! oura; eineni of ancestor uor-liip can
[.< t In- re/arded a- part of th-- e-s.-ntial tea> Inn:; ol
1 ',i: istianit y. it i^ not opjio >-d to the noiMn ih.it, \\hen
the Japan*- e I'.rnpiie \vas founded, it- earl* ruler, \v-re
in communication with the (,n.i' Spirit that iule> the

EMPEROR WORSHIP 5'

universe. Christians, according to this theory, without
doing violence to their creed, may acknowledge that the
Japanese nation has a divine origin. It is only when
we realize that the Inrjx^rial Ancestors were in close
communion with God (or the gods) that we understand
how sacred is the country in which we live." Dr. Ebina
ends by recommending the Imperial Rescripts on Edu-
cation as a text for Christian sermons. 1

That amazing utterance alone is superlative evidence
of the omnipotence of the ideas of Mikadoism among
the serious thinkers of the country. From cradle to coffin
Japan is saturated \vith this extraordinary doctrine of a
God -descended monarch and a God-favoured land.

Christianity has never received the ' glad eye ' of
Japanese statesmen. The theory of a Divine Power,
greater by far than the Godhead of the Mikado, is
something inconsistent with the obscurantist views of the
Tokyo officials. In Japan Christianity under the treaties
must exist. It is tolerated, but not encouraged, but it
is not discouraged because of the considerable educa-
tional work it does for the country. In Korea and
Formosa it is actively discouraged, as the teachings of
the missionaries arc calculated to hinder the propaganda
of Mikadoism amongst the natives.

Mikadoism is the dominating force of modern Japan.
It was a superb mendacity, or, as Chamberlain describes
it, " A pious fraud, maintained as a political device to
control the unenlightened." It was an engine of
despotism, to enable a particularly clever clique to arro-
gate to themselves the direction of national affairs. As
an exposure of the truth would have been calculated to
end their plans, the despotism was particularly directed
to the suppression of reason. In practice Mikadoism
was as effective as Tammany, and as unscrupulous. Its
omnipotence has resulted in as complete a tyranny as
history knows. That due respect should be paid to a
Sovereign on his passage through the streets is right
and proper. That ladies should be made to descend
1 'japan Mail, Yokohama.

52 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

from their carriages, if held up in a side-street oil the
route of the procession is perhaps, an exaggeration, but
that your dog should be made to get into the carriage is
absurd.

That schoolmasters should endanger their live-, to save
the Imperial {>ortrait in a conflagration is pathetic, but
that a station-master should commit hari-kiri because the
Im|K'rial .saloon was derailed in his shunting yard is
bathetic.

That the Imperial person should be sacred and divine
i-, an excellent idea, but it is a poor excuse for letting
a man die for lack of a thermometer and a poultice.
Vet this was the case with the late Krnperor. The- squad
of Court physicians pre-cri;>cd ' from afar,' for it was
forbidden to take his pul-e except through a silk cover-
ing, or to touch his body \sith thermometer or stethoscope.
When the late Hmpp-ss in-i-ted on -.ailing in out-ide
upinion. and gave the specialists Mima and Ao\aina
a free hand in their treatment of the patient, it was too
late. It is well to note that even the--- events caused a
shudder amongst the older clan-men. Marquis Saionji.
the then Premier, ha- always been noted lor his inde-
pendent spirit and revolutionary ideas, and. though he is
blood brother to Prince Toku-lai;i. the Lord Chamber-
Iain, a man bred in the a;mo-phere ot the Kyoto Court,
he has seldom di-p!a\ed much sympathy with Mikadoimi.
Hi- a'tion in breaking through ancient customs earned
him the In-arty curses ot th" (lenro, and in e-p^ i.il of
Princ" Varnagata. I" tre.it th Lnijvior a- an ordinary
pain lit, to administer <i_. -t.-i , to p.i< k him in ice, to

ls-ue bull- till. and advertj-" lil t'-mpMataie

ineasiin - beyond >,!;. t. .i::d, in th- i-\--, o| ;h

<! to - real a d: .belief i:i In - m- nty
It th" Kmp"ior 'o'lld rece;\e -ubi utaneous
I b'-at a j-iil e hk" th" < < imm< >n h"id. \\ hat
dillereiitiate him horn the ordm.n\ man'.'

i h' -e V.ef" the \-|e\', - tl'"!y ln;i?teled and Uttered behind

the 'Jioji of th" waiting-room- in the < hi\o'!a P.il.ue.
Lu'i the mutt<-rin: r . v,<i" ul no avail before the deter-

KMPKROR WORSHIP 53

mination of the Kmprcss to do everything which was
humanly jx)ssiblc to save her husband's life.

That in the past Mikadoism has been of benefit to
the country is undeniable. Under its a'^is Japan has
developed from an almost unknown island to one of
the important State-, of the world. A collection of feudal
fiefs has been changed into a closely knit Kmpire. An
island sternly barred against intervention from without,
and expansion abroad has become one of the continental
Powers of Asia, maintaining the closest intimacy with
all quarters of the globe. Undoubtedly it owes much
of its success to its diplomatic and military trumphs.

The- advantages obtained in th diplomatic negotiations
of 1882 and 1885 were the forerunners of the wars of
1894 and 1904. It ha> been one of the assets of Mikado-
ism, as it is the asset of all oligarchies that it has enabled
a continuous policy abroad. That policy was laid down
by Voshida Shoin, was accepted by his successors, con-
firmed in the Imperial Rescript of i S6,"\ and in the Acces-
sion Oath, and iias been carried out in the years that have
since elapsed.

In numerous ways, other than in expansion abroad,
there is much on the credit side of the ledger. In
internal administration, in financial reforms, in industrial
development, in education, in law and order, in the
thousand -and-one paths which make up national life
the despotism of the oligarchy has proved most bene-
ficial to the country.

So long as the aims of the clans were identified with
the progress of the nation no great objection could be
entertained to the methods adopted by the oligarchy, the
more so as for many years after the Restoration the vast
majority of the nation, born and bred in the passivity
of feudalism were lacking, not only in political sense,
but even in the desire for enlightenment. But as a
political movement arose under the influence of Okuma,
Fuku/awa, Nakae, Itagaki and others, the people began
to demand a share in the government. For many years,
until in fact the death of the late Emperor, that demand

54 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

was staved oil partly by the fulsome eulogy of Japanese
successes abroad and of their authors, and partly by an
absolutely unscrupulous despotism, achieved by the mi>-
use of the Imperial name. Oscar NVilde said. ' Nothing
succeeds like excess.' The Elder Statesmen of Japan
have proved the truth of his words attain and a^ain.
Having elevated themselves through the Sovereign to
a state of omnipotence in the Empire, any attempt to
oppose the development of their plans was ruthlessly
crushed by the invocation of the national Deity. Laws
objectionable to the Diet have been issued as Imperial
Ordinances ; laws parsed by the Diet and objectionable
to the powers that be have been, vetix-d or refused pro-
mulgation. Popular movements and political ideals have
been nipped in the bud by Imperial Rescripts. So far
has the process been carried that Imperial Rescripts
have been elevated to a |>osition above the law. Dr.
L'esuk'i. <i noted bureaucrat, discussing the Imperial Re-
script on Education 'iSno), claimed that Imperial pro-
nouncements, by mere authority, independent of their
contents, should rank above the laws of the country.
During the past two year-- the internal [>olitiral simple
in Japan has boiled it>e!f down to the Dimple problem
of whether an Imperial Rescript can override the (<>n-
^titution. The frequent abu-v- of the Imperial dignity
and authority by the EMer Statesman and 1'rinre KatMira
has started an inquiry into the legality of Mikado worship,
and even a demand for radical reform-; of the \\hole
< 'onstitution a^ affect im.r the powers of the Soveivu-ji.
The reformer-, have no alternative init to attack ih" -tain
of th" Tnor.an h, be* ail-e the clan 1 .rle 1 ^ hold DO ott'n
under the < 'oii-titution, and < loak all their ill' i-ali'ie- u"<
Imperial Rf-,i ript -.. To Mich an extent ha> tin- pn>< e-

been deV'lopi-d, tll.lt lit lol ^ I'lince Kat-MIM (M!. tilled

an Imperial Re- npf, orderin/, ^I.irq;n- Saionji, a -
of the Sej-. tik\v.ii. to ii!,:!.'- hi pa M y d-- i-t h'otn
oj.jo ition to the I'iKM' \\"hen the Marqui- fa'
i any out : h-- t'-i ;n - ot the '"hit he -.\ a inijtea' \-<
I i ! on < har/c , oi ;'i'o- - di ri-siK-ri to the I in; " 1 1 il 1 lou

KMTKKOR WORSHIP 55

In I.S9-S Mr. O/aki, a meml>er of the Progressive
I'arty, was Minister of Education. He is one of tin-
loading younger |x>liticians, and is blessed (or cursed)
uith a strong imagination, a flood of oratory, and a con-
spicuous lark of tart. He has been called the Lloyd
George of Japan, and not altogether incorrectly. In
addressing the Imperial Educational Association, he was
broad-minded but unwise enough to say : " Suppose
that you dreamed that Japan adopted a republican system
of government, a Mitsui or Mitsubishi would immediately
become the Presidential candidate." The mere idea of
an Imperial Minister mentioning a Republic in connec-
tion with the land of the gods was an outrage on
Mikadoism. A scream of indignation, carefully fanned
by the bureaucrats, went up, and O/aki resigned, to be
followed a week later by the Ministry of which he had
been a member.

In 1912 Mr. T. Yamamoto, Minister of Finance, owing
to the bankrupt state of the country, refused to subsidi/c
the Meiji Kxhibition, to be held to celebrate the fiftieth
year of the reign of the Emperor Mutsuhito. He was
charged with disloyalty and insulting the Imperial House,
because he said : " I am sorry that for lack of funds I
am unable to allot any subsidy to the; Kxhibition proposed
to celebrate the jubilee of the restoration of the Imperial
House." lie 1 had to solemnly apologi/e to the House
and request that his remarks be expunged from the records
of the proceedings.

In November, i 01 i, whilst the Emperor was in .Western
Japan, his saloon, in coming from the shunting yard at
Moji to the station, fouled the points ami was delayed
for twenty minutes. The station-master committed suicide
as an acknowledgment that the fault was his. Dr.
Yamakawa, the President of the Kyushu L'nivcrsity, wrote
a newspaper article arguing that the station -master, in
committing suicide, had shown a mistaken sense of his
responsibility. The outcry against the author of this
piece of common sense was the main topic for many
weeks, and Dr. Yamakawa was forced to tender his

56 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

resignation to silence his critics. Fortunately for Japan
the Marquis Saionji refused to accept it.

In I oo i Professor Kurno was dismissed from other
for critici/in^ the early Mikados, whilst Professor Ha:; a
lo-t his lectureship for saying that the ode- in the
Nihongin and the Ko;iki were comjtosed by the ^ods,
Jimmu Teiino, some Kmperors and monkeys. As a matter
of fact they were all stolen from the Chinese classics.

In i<;J2 the Memoirs oj a C^ourt lady, written by a
former lady-in-wailing to the Kmpress, was suppressed,
as ^ivin^; the public t<x> much familiarity with tin- customs
of the Palace.' In the following year a volume called
The /\ot\ l'u;n t '(ints of Kyo'.o wa- sei/ed by the police,
as lacking in respect to the memory of former Kmperors.
In 1014 several newspaper issues were Mippre-sed for
alleged lack of respect, to the Imperial Household, and
an < >saka paper was susj)eiided for commencing the pub-
lication of a serial. History of an l-'ffcminaii' Monarchy.

< Mdy lack ot -pace prevents tin-, record of injustice
and tyranny bem^ considerably prolonged. \\'oe to Un-
official who dares to even smell of heterodoxy. \Yoe to
the man, woman, or child who presumes to think contrary
to the treed of the bureaucracy. Thorns' is the j aili
ot the Profes-or who strays from the orthodox and dares
to investigate for himself.

I:i the |*>Iiti< al hi-tory of e\ p ery country statesmen
have aji}ealed with more or le > >ucrc>, to the sentiment
of the people. At it- 1) -st Mikadoi-m --tands on the
ame ](\ p '-l as the reformed p-li.Jo:: sto,,,l in Kn^land
under Henry VIII or ^ood .)ueen IM-. Henry \lll
did t.oi (are a raj) personally for :!ie Pioj. --1,11:1 t.nih.
i.o! d:d nor do the Sat-uma a': I < 'hodiu hadi-r--. care a
lap per-ona!!y for tlr- dr.i:;i!\ o! t'ie mo:iar< h. I..K!
v. a > .1 inea'i- !o ati fid jon'hal I'-iietit-.
uoith a ma--, and ih-- Sho;;un' po\\i-r '.\a
-real deal more.

I'c.it .M.kalo. ID l.a '.'':} 'a;ii'-d to tar ..!.
ilia: i air. a;p'-.i! to < P 1 t: i it'-:it in K IK; land oi

' ^."< i'- si-

KMPKROR WORSHIP 57

The Japanese arc notoriously larking in common seiisr
and abounding in sentiment. Tin; clansmen have taken
advantage of these failings, to impress on the country
a system of government, having as its first and supreme
object the maintenance of power in their own hands.
That their plans coincided with the- welfare of the coun-
try was at first an accident. That it involved a cynical
contempt tor the Sovereign meant nothing. ('ontetnpt
of the d(iimyi) for the Sovereign was the normal condi-
tion of Japan for hundreds of years before the Restoration.
The late Empress is credibly rejxM'ted to have shrewdly
realized this, and when dying at Xumad/u during tin-
Naval Scandal incidents, she said to her women : "It
is the final proof of what those men think of the Imperial
House." That the people are shrewd enough to re,ili/e
it is evidenced by the statement of the Asa hi Sliirnluin,
referring to Prince Vamagata at the time of the I'ehaia
boycott in 1912 : " It is bad enough that a (ienro should
shelter himself behind the Dragon -Throne (Mikado), but
it is intolerable that he should aspire to be the Dragon
Throne."

Mikadoism within limits was beneficial to the coun-
try, but carried to extremes, as it has been, is productive
of much evil. The repression of though', and the suppre-,-
sion of reason have been its natural weapons. Hven so
advanced a Liberal as Count Okuma only last year
(1914) forbade the formation of a Labour Partv, whilst
the suspicion of Socialism always ha- been and remain-
a bar to promotion, and is a passport to prison. It i,
not surprising that the official educational in-ti:ut;oi;- are
merely forcing-houses lor bureaucracy. The future ol
Japan educationally depend- on the pri\ate unhersiiie
at Keio and \Yaseda, which are turning out a class oi"
men, trained on foreign ideas, and free from the perversive
influence of officialdom. That a nau<m bred and fostered
on the doctrines of divine favour should be the epitome
of arrogance and self -conceit is natural. If the statesmen
who have guided the nation so long regard themselves
as the summit of earthlv wisdom, it is a corollarv that their

58 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

pupils, heirs, and assigns should In.' self-sufficient and
narrow-minded, and believe themselves tin- rc[K>itt)ncs
and trustees of all that is best on earth and under heaven.
In neither England nor America could a prominent news-
pajK-r surh as Asa hi SHirnbun dare to j)iihlish a sym{*>Mum
on, " .\\'Jiy \Ve should IK- 1'roud of Ourselves," and in
no other country eould the so-called cultured classes
swallow the rubbish contributed thereto.'

That a nation professing a corner in manliness, loyalty,
virtue, and descent should he impatient of criticism from
without is well understandable. The peptoni/ed thought
fed to it by the authorities has proved a wonderful
digestive for the annihilation of its b-.-in^, ,md a powerful
emetic against the critical rii'orts of well-meaning viMiors.

Destiny loves surpri-e-, but :t is doubtful whether the
country can make any true and lasting advance until
a mental humility, led from aixne, overspreads the people,
and a greater willingness is developed amount indi-
viduals and das-es to make s ;i rrilices for ideas. In
Japan the. individual relationship to the sum-total of
injustiee and evil is so infinitesinial and indirect that
individuals do not consider it worth tiidnine; for. Kven
when they have do;i'- -o their eilorts tailed, and they
thetn-elve> hav been crushed by the h<M\ y hand- and
slim dealings of the Mikadoist>. Joubert -ays: "("e-t
la ton" et Ie droit, <jni re, dent toute-, eludes d.uis !
nionde : l.i torce en attendant le droit." In Japan the
condition- are rever-ed. Mi:dit is n:_dit, an<l the only
nnvdit i-> the [xiu'er of the < lans, \\hicli r\ere an ali
pervadin.L,' evd inlluen' . in which their leadei- display
an in;-e:iuo!i> pride. That the pre-ent condition ot afl.nr .
< ani.ot Ion;; contni'ie i^ o1)\ lolls. It i^ an axiom that
i> nearest where reiv->ion i^ severest. I he

1 " l'.c< .n: < "I 'Hir unl>;'(kc:i l:iip<n.il il-.n.i ;v.
h.i .i;r.ti:in,' !'.'.' it. I .' >v.i!tv .t l.crr !> thi - TM< !!.! !
(;< \Vr ,t ' (liar. II I"..', .11'!. i'.

"Ill'- ' .u!\ n it i' 'ii w! . i- !,i '.><:; ;'"'- ! MI k t \v< ::'
<' \\rt ii:itiM!! in t !.< \\ !: Ir *A i i ii! :..i i IHMIV :n.

EMPEROR WORSHIP 59

hour will bring 1 its creditors in Japan as elsewhere and
mob law has become alarmingly frequent in Tokyo of
late years. That the mobs have hitherto been the hired
agents of opposing factions and interests matters not.
Once the national consciousness is really awakened tin-
mob will be the national representative's, and Hainan's
gallows will decorate the capital.

APPENDIX

JAPANESE COURT LADIES AXD LIKE'

The everyday life of the Japanese Court is practically
unknown to the public, in spite of the increasing enter-
prise of Japanese journalism, which lias made repeated
etTorts to break clown the barrier of exclusiveness and
mysticism which has hitherto guarded all approaches to
the inner apartments of the Chiyoda Palace. Invariably,
however, these attempts to violate the sanctity of the
Imperial precincts have ended in failure, and until quite
a short while ago no consecutive and intelligent account
of what actually goes on at Court had ever been pub-
lished. During the illness of the late Sovereign, how-
ever, a number of persons of the outside world were;
admitted to the Inner Palace, and occasional glimpses
of palace life appeared in the Press as the n. suit of
indiscretions on the part of some of these visitors.

The death of the Emperor Mutsuhito, who has now
joined the ranks of the Sacred .Yncestors with the post-
humous title of ' Meiji Tenno,' and the; retirement of
the Lord Chamberlain, Prince Tokudaiji, have removed
from the scene the two most conservative obstacle^ in
the way of a more intimate knowledge of palace happen-
ings. The succession of the Prince Katsura, ex-Premier,
to the posts of Lord Chamberlain and Keeper of the
Privy Seal meant the influencing of the new monarch
in more liberal paths than could ever have been hoped
for under the rule of the ascetic, conservative, and highly
1 Written in 101 }.

6o JAPAN AT Till-! CROSS ROADS

ari-t<< r.itir Prim e Tokudaiji. The new Kmperor and
hi- charming contort, the Krnpress Sadeko, an- much
more modern in their ideas and thought than the late
ruler, and it ha- n >t taken Ion:; tor .-everal cxpre-r>;on->
'.i their liberal tendencies to be ome e\ -icleiit .

'"a the day following the acee-sion 1IU Majesty d-me
to the palace with tin; Lmpre by hi-, side, and ordered
tiiat in future thi- course -.hould always |>e followed.
Innovation number ( >ne. On th-- s mu- occasion, when
the Kmperor received the JIL;h ( Mlii t-rs oi" State, his
Ministers and Councillor.^, in oid.-r to read to them the
Kdict- "i Aefi---ion and Suci e> i-)n, the Minj^n^- had
her place ty hi- -id in the tlnnne-room, whi!-t the
oli'uei- and ntiieials pre-ent had heen in\ itt-d to bnn:;
iheir ur.e- \\ith them to the ( < -n mom . Innovations
l\s' and '1 hree. \\ h -n the. member- f the ( 'orp- I hp'o
matKjUe J)re-eiited iheir iTedellt ia Is and utl'-red their
( -ondi ile-K . .ind congratulations th'-y were reeeived by
the I-.nip<-:'ir .tiid l-.mpre-.^ tn^ether, in-ie,id of, a^ in
i'ld'"i time , b'-in^ tn>i pri--en'.ed to the MmpM-ror .nid

then le-MIM^ to CnlleCI their lem.de beli ill;-; Mil,.- betnle

tu'inx a-ain int i < >d:;e<-d into ain'h. r t lii'one-roi iin t" b-
rci eived t>\ the Knipr'---. [niio\aiion lour -and thei--
are other-.

ill-' ne\v Ma; -lies !ia\e not \ et removed to the
< 'In .nd a I'a'a 1 e ! in- i i le:n < >t th" ! e.;^ ; i i;.; in 1 'ii.-.' > h.
Iri'ii; the AKa aha Pal ire. .1 br.ind-neu' (,eiman stnii
t:::e, uh-i h i- ili h :ne .| ;ln ' 'ro\vn Pnn e it Japan
I h; i- 'ittin.; to ;ir- IP , r.y <it tip- lo'iner under m:
a ih.pii.ii IUMJ-OU; and repair. \Vh--n they dn. h"\s

''.-;, > into T< ideni tin-It/ it 1> J.roiiable that the
Id oi !.-r v.;.l '[> ( h in .' 1. and that life m the palate
v. : 1 no ion er itiliow t!i-- old m;. t-aiai routine %\h:t!i
v. i .1 M i.i-.- i -,\ i'h the .! t\ -. oi Mu; u hi to. Ali the mote
in'.-:. ;, tin re! :. aita IH> to ;} M .- ''intent-, ..1 a mal!
.-.l';:;i'- it; ' {.'.'' ; di-d. Jo/.u.n Mt'iio-.^ititr:, or :he
; ; /;;/;. ,i i't;c< </ ( ourt I <.ili<'\, to v. h:' h the unter i^>

EMPEROR WORSHIP 61

partially inch-bird for some of the information contained
in this article.

The Chiyoda Palace is hidden away in the immense
compound, behind the triple moat and high walls, which
occupies practically the centre of th- city of Tokyo.
Besides the palace itself the compound contains barracks
tor a regiment of guanU, jhe offices of the Imperial
('al)inet, of the 1'iivy Council, of the- Ministry of the
Household, immense stables, telegraph station and po^t-
oflice, power and water stations, and residences for
almost innumerable officials. The two entrance best
known to the public are the ' Nijuba-hi ' and the
Sakashita Gate,' both of which are on the great open
space to the south. The ' Xijubashi ' i-> the Imperial
entrance, and literally means the ' double bridge-,' in
consequence ot the two bridges rising one over tin-
other spanning the moats. Its |>onals are only opened
lor the Kmperor and Kmpress, for visiting Royalties,
and for the Ambassadors of the Towers. The ' Saka-
shita Gate,' which is that by which most mortals enter,
leads directly to the Household Department, whence tin-
visitor is forwarded to any other points within the com-
pound which he is authorized to enter. Nobody is
allowed to enter without a pass, which varies lor foot
passenger, ricksha', and carriage.

The palace itself is divided into what, are called the
'Outer' and 'Inner' Courts. The former is that to
which the world of officials, nobles, and diplomats has
a limited admittance-. Its spacious halls and apartments
are all furnished in foreign style. It is illuminated with
electricity, warmed by steam heating, and, indeed, there-
is little internally to dillerentiate it from the palaces of
other countries. Externally the architecture- is Japanese,
but then- H no great show about tin- building, which
compares unfavourably wiih many ot the mansion-, built
by the richer Japanese nobles atul business men. The
structure- is one-storied, rambling, ami in parts visibly
ancient.

The 'Inner' Conn adjoins the 'Outer,' being 1 con-

62 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

nected with it by a wide corridor. It is both externally
and internally absolutely pure Japanese. The floors arc
covered with white tatanii, the walls of the rooms arc
shogi (sliding paper screens >, the furniture, mats for
-itting and low tables of white wood for eating. The
illumination is entirely by candles set in andon, whilst
warmth is obtained only from hibachi, or charcoal
bra/.iers. In the Inner Court is neither gas nor elec-
tricity nor even an oil lamp. The reasons are, firstly,
the danger of tire, the extinction of which would mean
the intrusion of unhallowed feet within the semi-sacred
domain ; and secondly, in order to preserve the unique
Japanese characteristics of the building. The Inner
Court is practically the only residence in Tokyo, of
high or low degree, \\iihout ihe slightest trace of
\\V-tern civili/ation, which has ostensibly conquered the
country. During the illness of the late Kmperor a brass
bedstead w.is introduced into the palace, which was the
lir.-t introduction into the Inner Palace of any piece
of foreign furniture. As a matter of fart, the Imperial
patient never >utiiciently rallied to be able to Ix 1 moved
on to it, and it was later returned to the- importers.
However, foreign-made sheets and pillows were used
instead of the native hubutayc,u\\ which His late Majesty
generally n-po.sed.

So >trict are the precautions against lire that ;i_ll
tic- kitchen stoves, which are of the Usual Japanese
~t\le, and all hihachi mu.st be extinguished at eight

Ytld'k III the evening, even III the coldest Weather.
Al! ni;.;hl a ua'.>h is kept by several o| the servmg-
uomi-n a:;un-t a possible outbreak as the result ot
leli'.'hting hib-ichi or nveriuinin;^ ol randies.

Si kvrrr IN i nr PAI.ACI:.

1 h< \\1, .] i if ih er\ ici- in i he jiala- e is monofxili/cd
b v won i' n, '.'.I'll ih'- \i cj>t ion ot t h< 1 iujwilal paj;es,
uho are the in-- - - :i.,d bi tvveen tl),- < ;iti-r and iln-
Inner ( '/;ir! Inde-d, v,i;h th<: e\iejtion ot these- ainl

KMPEROR WORSHir 63

of the Princes of the Blood, who have the entree, no
male, beyond an occasional carj>enter or plumber, is
ever seen. Not even the high dignitaries of the House-
hold, the Chamberlains or the Masters of Ceremonies,
are admitted beyond the ante-rooms. Even the presence
of a carpenter to carry out some; small job is a great
rarity, owing to the precautions which have to be taken
and the purifications which have to be undertaken. Also
the late Emperor disliked excessively the intrusion of
strangers, partly owing to his innate conservatism and
partly owing to a certain meanness, which objected to
the performance of repairs. There is a story, which
if not true is at least ben trovato, that on one occasion
on entering one of the rooms and finding a workman
there fixing new paper in the shogi, he sent for the
ladiete of the Court and delivered a short lecture on
economies, informing them that when the s/iogi wanted
repairing they should not have a workman in to fix
up new paper, but that they should themselves patch
it up with old. A certain Privy Councillor, who was
in attendance during the last days of the Emperor
and entered his room, told the present writer that
the paper of the shogi was brown with age and
patched in many places, giving the room a very gloomy
appearance.

The three essentials of palace life would appear to
be cleanliness, ceremony, and tradition, or rather super-
stition. To such an extent is the. cult of cleanliness
carried that even the maids who attend on the Court
ladies during their toilet perform their duties on their
knees, and on no account must they touch their own
lower limbs. Should this accidentally happen the oilend-
ing maid must instantly withdraw and undergo a course
of purification before she can again appear before her
mistress. If the rules with regard to the maids of the
ladies-in-waiting are so strict, it may be imagined that
those with regard t;> the personal attendants of their
Majesties are even more so. It is, of course, well
known that all service before their Majesties has to

64 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

be performed on the knees, and it is not etiquette to
approach their Majesties except on the knees, even tlKi
physicians who attended on the late KnijxTor during
his last illness not beiiv,; exempted from this rule. It
is also common knowledge that no one- may touch the
Imperial jv-rson with ungloved hands. Last July Drs.
Miura and Aoyama obtained permission for the first
time to take the Imperial pulse without the interposition
of a piece of silk between their finders and the patient's
wri-t, \\hilst for the first time, on record medical instru-
ments \\ere applied to the Imperial body. This rule
is equally strict for the ladies-in-waiting, and especially
so when in attemlaii' e on their Majesties when bathing
or at their toilet. There is a story, confirmed by the
polii e re onU. of how a coolie was sent to prison
tor tout h:n;_; the Kmpn-ss I )ow. tier's hands. Some years
a;.;- 1 the carriage in wlii h the Lmpre-s Dowager was
drixin.; in the country ne ir Nuina/u met with a slight
acci<lent, and a io<lie wot kin.; near by at the tune ran
up and assisted the Kmpiv^s I )owa;^er to alight, in so
doin:; to-aching h-T baud witli h;s own bare one. lie
xxa- arrested and punish"! for ins presumption.

'Tin; LAI >n->-i \-\VAITINV,.

'I he (''.urt ladii-s are dixided into scxen grades
^/KI/!, It nil. (-<>/i /<'://. Slioiijif ^on-Shonji. Mvo/u. and
'.'_(iri-M]'t>/ii . I nder the .Moii L-nno the rank of S/ioji
xx a > unoi i upied, but it has l>e< n reieiitly announced
that the La ix \'ana ixv.na, the iiiother of the prv-eni
j'.nijifi'or .m 1 on- 1 n| :!i- i\\o o< . -upaiits ol itnji :.!a>l<-,
\x:li be jromited to th- rank ! Shoji at th<- cornnati"ii,
*'. i;h the addi'iond Iillc <'l ft'. r !i'-/in-7'MJ f (inc, \s!n<h
.!.;.: .1 n , -.) tii I;,.;! i r ot !;,- rt i.; iiin, 1 , m < ..i'< h A I'
t It-- i.. i;i- " ip . .n |he ai >o; c-nii-nt ioned . <-n . t a< i-
i i'it; .t > h: !i >'\i< :als, and < a'l in- .id n ill ted into the
I .. ;) e -.x.il.o-.ii hi. i' bain c. L--io',s them i om three
r i<l' ''f ( '.:;i. x'.oni' ;i A vi>\'!;, .S //.'/:.' V". a:id /<>\/:. .
I).. iir t nani<-d are th' k'-'-peis of ih<- \\aidr' ibes /

EMPEROR VVORSHir 65

the second arc the attendants on the Court ladies
(Shimyo actually means needlewoman), whilst the third
arc actually housemaids and maids of all work. None
of the last three grades can be admitted to the Presence.
There are about thirty ladies-in-waiting and between
two hundred and fifty and three hundred Court women.
The monthly emoluments of Tenji is 25, of gon-Tenji
20, of Shonji ^15, of gon-Shonji 10, and so on in
a descending scale.

The ladies-in-waiting rise, when on duty, at six
o'clock, and an elaborate toilet has to be gone through,
of which the coiffeur, dressed in the exacting but charm-
ing ancient Court style, is not the least important part.
The ladies take an early breakfast, which is prepared
by their maids, and then don their morning Court robes,
which are generally of Western cut, the orthodox
Japanese ceremonial robes being reserved for great
ceremonial occasions. Each lady has the sen-ices of
three maids for her toilet, which, as already related,
have to be performed on the knees. This, however,
is not really such a hardship as might appear, for in the
first place all service before a superior, according to
ancient custom, is performed on the knees, a practice
to which the women have long been accustomed ;
and secondly, the furniture of the ladies' apart-
ments being entirely Japanese, they themselves have
to kneel on the floor before the little mirrors and dress-
ing-tables. Immediately breakfast is finished the ladies
proceed to the Imperial apartments for attendance on
the Emperor and Empress. At 11.30 a.m. a tiffin
is served to each in their rooms. This is, however,
only a formality, for all the food eaten by the ladies
on duty is sent to them from the Imperial kitchen,
whilst that prepared for them by their own maids is
remitted back to the maids for their own consumption.
The food is always Japanese, served in Japanese style.
At three o'clock in the afternoon fruits and sweet-
meats are served, and dinner at five o'clock. All these
meals are formalities in the same manner as the tiffin,

66 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

being sent nut again fur the delectation of the maids,
whilst the genuine edibles are sent in from the kitchens.
About three o'clock in the afternoon the ladies change
into Japanese robes, which they infinitely prefer to the
tight-titling corseted dresses of the West, which rarely
suit either their figures or their faces. Bedtime comes
about ten o'clock, the period after dinner being devoted
generally to conversation with the Imperial couple or
to some kinds of parlour games or to versifying, of
which the late Kmperor was very fond and in \\hich
he was most proficient.

THK KYOTO ATMOSPHKKK.

Nearly all-- indeed there is only one exception the
Court ladies are the daughters of Kyoto nobles, which
to a certain extent accounts fur the effeminate atmo-
sphere in the Inner I'alace. Although the late Kmperor
was the ruler who introduced into Japan Western civi-
li/ation and manner-, and removed his < apital to Tokyo,
then (ailed Yedo, he himself, < \t ept on State occasions
and for reasons of Slate, remained entirely imperviou^
to Western intluence, and, indeed, rarely allowed n to
enter .it all into his private lite. If Tokyo -w.is his
re-nience and capital, Kyoto remained the home ol Ins
\outh and his heart, and his private inclinations were
st lengthened 1>\ his being surrounded jn his private lite
by Kyotan Influence-,. Not only have the ladies-in-
uaiting been born oi Kyoto >tock, and thus inherited the
tradition-- of the old capital, but no language e\. ept
the Kyotaii <lialect is spoken \sithin the prec in< t-, nt
the Inner ('oiirt. A knowledge of that dia!<- t is a

s/V/c t/llil 'inn to eliMalne into ( 'olirt service. e\ en
though the Tok\o ihalei t i> the language ot the
Sta'e and the -taildaid ot the ( IIHM! imia! .c;t l.oul le--
I.\r;i th<- >ueetineats to: pa!a>e c on >uii:[: ion aie
ina'ie in K.oto. and no other-, are knoujngls
admitted,

KMl'KROR WORSHIP 67

A M US F. .\ 1 1: NTS IN 'III !: I ' A [ . A ( F. .

Except on the rare occasions \vhcii they accompanied
the Kmprcss Dowager to attend some charity function,
or to visit some school, or acted as the Kmpre-^'s
messengers on occasions of congratulation or condolence,
the ladies-in-waiting never leave the palace precincts.
The result is that most of them are, very naturally,
most ignorant of the affairs of the world, and even ot
things of the most common nature. The one lady who
has been in a theatre is regarded as approximating to
an adventuress. It is stated that the most anxious
hope of some of them is to one day ride in a
tramcar, their curiosity having been excited by the sight
of those which run around the- palace walls. What
their state will be when they ride in the automobiles
recently ordered from Kurope for the use of the palace
ii is hard to prophesy. On the other hand, they art-
well read, as there is no longer a censorship on the
books and papers introduced into the palace.

In order to counteract the hypochondriacal tenden-
cies of a life so grooved as that of the Inner Court
the Kmprcss Dowager some years ago insisted on the
ladies taking horse-riding exercise within the palace,
grounds. Some of them indeed attained considerable
distinction in this, and one of them, the I.ady Shogenji,
though only of the lowest grade, go/i-AI rofit, \\as pro-
moted, on account ot her equestrian skill, to be Her
Majesty's personal attenda.it when riding. It i-, n-lated
that this lady was so proficient as to be able to indulge
in trick riding and the hau'.c ccolc for the enjoyment
of the late Kmperor, who when younger was himself
no mean performer on horseback.

Fi-hing is another amusement at Court, for although
the Chiyoda 1'alace has no provision for this the llama
Detached 1'alace, \\huh is situated mi the shores of
Tokyo Hay, gives ample opportunities. The
Dowager is particularlv ton I ot the sport,
summer often drives across the city to tin-
residence to enjo\ it.

68 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

All the ladies are encouraged to interest themselves
in gardening, and each of them has a portion of the
gardens allotted to her care. Quaint stories are told.
some of them doubtless true and others certainly ex-
aggerated, of the wilderness which formed the Imperial
gardens on the arrival of the Court from Kyoto.
Badgers, lynxes, and wild rats were abundant, and
sufficiently wild to attack the women when crossing
the gardens at night.

SUPERSTITION.

Although foreign influence and customs have obtained
a considerable hold in Japan, there is still a gre.it deal
of attention paid to ancient tradition, superstition, and
necromancy. During the illness of the Crown Princess
a few years ago, and again during the last days of
the Kmperor Mutsiihito, the houses of fortune-tellers
were thronged with visitors, from the highest to the
lowest seeking to know the ultimate result. Indeed
on some occasions the police- had to clear the narrow-
streets to prevent the traffic being blocked. Again,
tlie funeral of the late Kmperor was origin. illy intended
for September loth, but the augurers objected as this
day is believed to be unlucky, and eventually the
obsequies took place on September I }th and I4th, the
latter of which was abominably wet.

It is a custom at Court in times of drought for the
ladies to hang up in the tree.s in the gardens fcru-
tt'rtthozu. or dolU of silk paper. These are invocations
to the deitie-, to send rain, and as they are left until
rain doe-> come may be presumed to be uniformly MK -
ce-sful. When at last the i.iin de>cends the dolls are
re-rued, soaked in sake, and floated away down the
ino.it .

In the p.tl.K e is also preserved a quaint sjx-c ih< for
he. ii 1. 11 lie-, and stoHU'K ll-a< lies. It ioiisi,t-, ot folding
the lea\-s of tli- sweet iu>li in a bandage, winch is
then tied atounil th<- ln.t<l oi the waist . the u Inle leil.un

EMPEROR WORSHIP 69

charms are recited. It is related that on one occasion
Admiral Count Yarnamoto was visiting the late Prince
I to, and complained of suffering from a terrible head-
ache. The Princess I to overhearing the remark imme-
diately sent for one of her maids, formerly in service
in the Court, who had often claimed to have an infallible
remedy for headaches. The maid, on learning die
trouble, immediately prepared her bandage of sweet
rushes, which she insisted on tying round the Admiral's
head, to the immense amusement of his host and
hostess.

Whenever the Emperor or Empress left the palace
it was customary for the ladies to hang incantations for
line weather in the trees in the garden.

DRESS.

As already related, the ladies wear in the morning
foreign dresses, as also whenever they accompany the
Empress outside the palace. For a long time the dressing
of the Imperial Princesses and of the ladies-in-waiting
was entrusted to the Baroness Sannomiya, an English
lady from Hull, who married the late Baron Sannomiya,
who was Master of Ceremonies. In their own rooms
and when in attendance during the afternoon or evening
Japanese costume is worn. The kimono is always of
white silk habutayc, which, by the way, is almost the
regulation costume at Court, the Emperor and Empress
both wearing the same when they don native costume.
With the kimono are worn scarlet hakama, or petticoat
trousers, and over these the ucfiikakc, or long over-
dress with train. The uchihakc worn by the ladies
in their private apartments is very showy and elaborate,
often with the most beautiful patterns embroidered on
it in gold thread. (It is forbidden for any one in the
Imperial entourage to wear purple, which by ancient
custom has been reserved for Imperial persons only.
This rule docs not, however, apply outside the palace.)
For attendance in the Presence the uchikakc is not

;o JAI'AN AT Till-; CROSS ROADS

generally so elaborate and gaudy as tho-e worn in tlie
private rooms, and there arc certain strict rules \vith
regard to patterns. which have to he selected in a> <ord-
ancc with the s t -av>n of the year. The kakt^hita, <>r
outer ohi. is s.-.irlei. and made of >ilk crepe. It \\otiM
appeal that the < 'otirt ladies are entirely ignorant ot
the fashions in vogue outside the palace, and \ery often
the\ ue.ir garm-nts and odours ulneh would aura* t
attention in tip- most Bohemian circles.

Tin; I.APY YA.\.\C,I\\ AKA.

Ih' pnncipal ladie--;n-uaiting are the Lady Yana-
gmaia, the Lady Takakura, and the Lady Sono. The
tir-t n, lined \\as the favourite lady-in-waiting ot "he
I )owager I-'.nipre^s, and \\as chos<-n hy her to he the
nioiher of the heir to the throne when the physicians
\\ere in-i-t'-nt that her own hopes in that direction
nui^t he ahand'>n((l. Lady Yanagiwara i> much heloved
at Court not only lor the above reason, hut also tor her
gentle d;-po-ition and her consideration tor her inferiors
At the -ame time she can. \\hen necessary, command
the -tin te^t di>' ij)l:n ( '. < >n the marriage of the I'rini'es-,
Sadeko. now I-jnpres^. to the then ('ro'.vn I'rince, Lad\
\.iiiti iv. a: a ua a]>])ointed her guardian, and during
her ward's si-nou> illn -> a few \eat- ago sh,- made a
pilgrimage to the (ira:;d Shinie- ot Ne and Yamada
to pr.c. tor h'-r rei ovcry. Lvery dav during the
ilhie-- 'it th'- la:-- Lmperor ^\\<- <lr<\e to the great
I 'ar,-i]i Shr;ne in Tokyo io oiler up piayr-, and to
i;i!'l'T..o p;n:tii itiHi i iv < old water. She is now lilly-
e\eii year-> o! j. her lalh'-r ha'.'ing h'-e:i the !a-t A"//:;-.
o: ( '< iiirt IP >'' de. of hi - iine.

111! I AI-V I \K. \KI i \ \M> l-'l.MIMM l.\ ! ! I I'M I A I

( '< ! i/ |

l.adv Takal.::!.i I (he oldest ..I all the Court ladle,.
hem- e\eni', three \eal of age, ami lia\ Ml ; hei-Ii .1

EMPEROR WORSHIP 7'

Court lady in the time of Kornci Tenno, grandfather
of the present Krnperor. Throughout the last reign
she was a great power at Court, and the late Kmperor
is reported to have relied very much on her wisdom
and advice. She has the exclusive* privilege of using a
cushion when in the Presence, a concession to her age
and a tribute to the Imperial admiration of her talents
and perspicacity. She has been the stumbling-block in
front of innumerable Chamberlain^, and "Ministers of
the Household who have striven to introduce a more
liberal o/one into the Inner Court. When the late Lord
Iwakura drafted a scheme of reforms which would have
much curtailed feminine influence, he sent for the Lady
Takakura, as First Lady-in-Waiting, and explained to
her his intentions. She looked at him a little pityingly,
and then replied : " My Lord, these things may be
very well, but, when I take instructions, I take them
only from my mistress, the Empress." That was the
end of Iwakura's well-meant reforms, for he lacked
the courage to run the gauntlet of the corps of ladies-
in-waiting.

Prince Ito's reform schemes ended in failure in much
the same manner, and thanks to the same lady, who
easily proved that the influence of Ito over the Emperor
was as nothing to that of the feminine, element of the
Court. This is the more extraordinary inasmuch as
Ito's influence was very strong indeed on the late
Emperor, lie probably was the only statesman to whom
the Emperor re. illy opened his heart, and who in turn
was not overawed by the latter's semi-divine attributes.
It is often related that he had the custom of never
removing his cigar when entering the palace precincts,
to the horror of the attendants, who were to the last
in doubt as to whether they should request him to throw
away his stump or not. .Again, he was accustomed never
to remove his hat until he reached the ante-room to the
Emperor's study, when he would throw it on the table,
commanding the Chamberlain, "Tell His Majesty that
Ito is come ! Ito reallv onlv suffered two severe

72 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

defeats one by the Satsuma-Choshu combination of
politicians, the militarists of to-day, and the other at
the hands of the Court ladies. He saw well that the
hot-house atmosphere of the palace must some time be
cleared, but he himself failed to do it.

Count Hijikata, for long the Minister of the House-
hold, was also severely rebutted "when he attempted
to correct the morality of certain of the palace women.
He took his complaints to their sujx-riors, the ladies-in-
waiting, but their only reply Was to recall a certain
delicious scandal having the Count and a famous geisha
as the hero and heroine. Later, however, he obtained
his revenge, for when the present Kmjx-ror "was eight
years old the Emperor Mutsuhito determined to remove
him from petticoat influence ami to have him brought
up in a more modern and manly style. Hijikata was
appointed his tutor, much to the resentment of his
former foes, the ladies-in-waiting. Before accepting the
appointment, however, he insisted on and obtained from
the Throne, a promise that under no circumstances
should interference with his conduct be permitted from
the side of the Inner Court.

It is curious to learn that Count Nogi was by no
means jx>pular with the [>alace, the ladies nf which
were never able to accustom themselves to the ideas
of his Spartan life and autocratic attitude toward women,
especially in his treatment of Madame Shimada, the
Principal of the Peeresses School, who objected to Nogi's
plans to educ.ite girls according to the old Japanese
ideals, and who insisted that "women of the present
generation have to have a wider outlook than the
women of old Japan.

Tin: LAI>Y SONO.

The Lady Sono i- probably the IH-M known, by name
at all event-, of the ladies-in-waiting. She is a daughter
of Count Sono, is still in the early forties, .md ranks
yet as one of the most beautiful women of Jap. in, even

EMPEROR WORSHIP 73

according to Western standards. On account of her
beauty, wit, and accomplishments she "was one of the
favourite attendants of tin- late Krnperor. She is a
brilliant poetess, and at the last Court Poetry Competi-
tion, held in January 1912, her verses on the selected
subject, The Crane on the Pine-Tree, won the first
prize ffom over twenty thousand sent in.

At Court she is known as ' The Lady of the Bottle
Gourd Suite,' many of the Court ladies being desig-
nated by the names of the apartments which they occupy.
The origin of the name is as follows : The late Emperor
strongly objected to the introduction of gas and elec-
tricity into the Inner Palace, and as u result, as already
mentioned, light is only obtainable from candles set
in lanterns. In summer these latter are of paper, being
made at Gifu, whilst in the autumn many of them are
of hollowed gourds. One evening when walking in
the gardens the Emperor was much amused to find
a suite of apartments lighted by candles set in the
gourds, on which comic figures had been painted. The
antics of these as they swung to and fro in the breeze
caused the most hearty amusement. Further examina-
tion proved the rooms to be those occupied by the
Lady Sono, and they were promptly and Imperially
dubbed ' The Bottle Gourd Suite.'

Amongst other accomplishments Lady Sono, who is a
Buddhist, is an expert in ,the chanting of the Sutras.
This was displayed in July, 1912, when the Emperor was
ill. Every morning a lady, heavily veiled, appeared
at the Honmonji Temple at Ikcgami, and, sitting before
the shamidan, proceeded to chant the Sutras with Mich
admirable intonation that the prie>ts came from their
rooms to listen to her. W.hen she had concluded they
said that there was no Buddhist priest in Tokyo
who could compare with her. Inquiry proved that
the mysterious visitor was no other than the Lady
Sono, gon-Tenji, praying for the recovery of the
Emperor.

74 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROAIXS

Ki i h;n\ AT CnrRT.

It is very curious to find that Buddhism is practiced

extensively at Court, anil that there is even a splendid
Buddhist shrine within the palace. It i> ^rnerally
a-sumed ih.it as Shinto is the State religion it would
he natural to find it <.-\clu-i\ civ patroni/ed at Court.
I he Lmpie-s Dowager, however, is a linn devotee of
Buddhism, to which the late Lmpcror aUo paid ;;reat
le-pect. In this connection it must not he forgotten
that Shinto as the State religion is a flower of recent
growth. having hecii used by the statesmen of the
Ke-torat ion to weaken the influence of the Sho;^unate
and to centre all religious belief in the Throne. The
\nhiren >(-,-( is th" form of Huddhisin mostly favoured
at <'ourt. thou-h Lady Sono is a iollowi-r of the
Ilokkeshu. It is worthy of note that two of tin 1 sisters
ot the Lmpie-s Sadeko married the Lord Abbotts of
the Hon^wanji Temples at Kyoto, the largest Buddhist
foundations in Japan, whilst at least one of the I'nn-
ce-ses ot th" Lushimi family is Abbess of a Uuddhi-l
( on\ cnt .

That ('-lint inlluence may be useful even in religion
th>- following anecdote pro\e-> : The grandfather of a
(erlain l,id> -in-wait ini; \iMied and died at the ( hm\o^i
I emple ot the Nichiren sect in Totoini I'ro\iu'-e. It
\s a a \ciy ponr and >bseure institution. His grand-
daughter visited her grandfather's :;ta\c, .and on liei
tiMiin deternunr-d to < opy out and present to the t mple
a> a prool of her ' ])ieta, ' the ei:;ht \(ilunie> of the
itlp!UIe> of ill'- M-it. 'Ill'' \\oik \\as Completed 111

t u o years, and \ci\- li:i'- n looked on vjlt-ed^ed paper,
\\;'h illuminated leiterin;.;, and bound m ^old broiadi-.
|u-t as the temp!.- authorities \\ere decidin;; that their
l.'iiii'- nr: t loiter onto n , founda'ions and umd up
il alt. ill-, tir- volume-, atiiX'-d, <oiiveyed by a ('oiirt
me en. i-i . Ih' 1 f am- o| \ h-- IIH idenl \\ a - Hoi ,< d abroad .
Adh'T e.-)' -. ;;a;h'-|i-d 1 -und. A sllb-i I 1JI loll list \\.t^

opr-iicd .md ea,;eily iiiled up. \\itlun a \eiy short

KMI'KKOR WORSHIP 75

time a brand-new, gold-lacquered temple was erected.
Funds still continued to roll in, and, started by an act
of filial devotion, the ('hornyogi i> now well on the road
towards a rich and prosperous career.

Prince Katsura retired lioni the Lord ("hamberlainship
to resume the 1'remiership in I)ecember, i<;i2, and died
in 1013, being siicce-ded by Prince Takatsiikasi, whil ,1
H.I.H. Prince l''u>himi became Keeper o! the Privy Seal.
It was stated that Prince Kat.-ura found palao- life too
dull for him, and it was freely rumoured that the ladie-,
of the Court we're not unconnected with hi^ decision to
exchange Court life for further adventures in the field
of politics. Certainly in a conversation I had with him
in January, 1913. he said that women were a good deal
more difficult to manage than men. The Empress
Dowager, llaruko, died in 1914.

( HAI'TKK TWO
I'OLITU'S

1'ARI I

<>KK,!N OK THK U)\STI Tl'TK )NA1. MVI,MK.\r

I I i-. curious to recall th.it the immediate cause ot the
ri-e of a {Hipular constitutional movement in Japan was
due to the >{>lit amonx the leaders of the Restoration
movement on the question of war \\itli Korea in 1X72.
I he majority of the Council of State, includini; Sai.^o,
<iotd, Ita^aki, and < 'kuma appnncd of war, but their
advice \\a-> overruled by luakura, ( 'kubo, Kido, and
Ito, win) had returned from a diplomatic mi-sion to
I. mope and Americ.i. The war ]>arty claimed that they
had Ix-hind them th-- ^U])jM)it nt the nation, and loi^ned
oiiK < to -tart a < ampai^M against the arbitrary jM>licy
'>f their ^uperiors. Thi^ culminated in a memorial
.id<!r( -N.-d d, the ('(iin.il n| State in Januar\. I ' "-].

nti'i/inv. the method^ of admini>tration and ur^in^
:h'- ad\ i -aliihty ot eitabhshin^ a ivpie-eniatu e ^\->tem

-t ,' ''.'el nment .

'1 In-ie i- li:tl>- !(!- m to -upjxis.- that the memorialist^
in p:rei i by .in\ pa! i l it i' le< b;i^ . Tin n sole cli - n ,-
to em'harra>i the i \<>\ rnment and dn\e it out, in
h i.i th'-\ \\'>'.ild ii.i\'- bet-n able to enfoite then
ted pill'\' it .1 Koic.ili \\.tr. I l)ey i\p!(i]'i-d tht-
'ii'i-!it ! 'h-- \iirmtrtii and th- pe-ijile joi tlp-n own
int.i .'<. re. Midi' - \ ;h'- f.n : th.tt th \ them el\es
be<-n ii pi.n ible t>r th'- i mde tinaii 1 lal s;ep, whr h
th- oi;. in of the popular unrest.

POLITICS 77

The sentiment of that first movement has, unfortu-
nately for Japan, remained the inspiration of all suc-
ceeding |x)litical movements. it has been pungently
claimed that the duty of an opposition is to opjx>se,
and if this is a true presentment of ]x)litical doctrine
no one can object to the tactics of the oppositions in
Japan. It is a justification of a perpetual warfare
between the ' ins ' and the ' outs,' and has no relation
to the good of the country. Especially must this be
the case in a country entirely new to all forms of
constitutional government, and where the would-be
politicians were themselves babes struggling with the
A 13 C of political theories.

The constitutional leaders were trying to run before
they could walk. As I have stated in. a previous chapter,
the abolition of feudalism necessitated the institution
of some sort of popular representation. Before that
abolition the people delegated, if serfs could delegate,
their interests to their lord, who was responsible for
them to the Shogunatc. Once the daimyo lost his
authority over and interest in his tenants and serfs, the
latter lost any claim on him to be their representative
near the administration. And even though the influence
of the council of the daimyo was more nominal than
real, there was a final appeal over the daimyo's head
to the Shogun himself. Though under the cruel Toku-
gawa laws this appeal resulted disastrously to the
individual appellant, it was nevertheless an effective one,
for it must be remembered that to keep the people con-
tented and industrious was a cardinal aim of the
Shogunate policy.

When the Western oligarchy secured the adminis-
trative power to themselves they abolished feudalism
in order to curb any ambition on the part of other
daimyo to rival them. The establishment of some sort
of a popular government had no place in their pro-
gramme. They soon found, however, that some form
of popular representation was a necessary corollary to
their own actions, and actually the leaders of the clans,

7-S JAPAN AT Till-: CROSS ROADS

in exjxvial Ki<!o, after the return of tin- I \vakura mission
fr'ui J-.urope. suj^tMed the introduction of sonic form
of conMiuiiional ^ovcnum-nt based on \\Y-tcrn ideas.

'1 In- nio-t curious point al>otn these early movements
was their disconnection from any idea of financial con
tml. It doe- not M-em that cither then or at any other
time any political party in Japan has adopted as it-
slo/..m the principle of ' No representation, no taxation,'
or, .liter the representation had !>een granted, the rii;ht
nl the n.ition's del-:;. ites to control the national ex-
penditure. \Y:th the j*>-~i'd exceptional Russia, there
i- no oilier country when- the pt oplc have 1< ss j>o\ser.
in theory or in practice, over the taxation and distribu-
tion ot the fund-. This is abundantly evidenced by
the fa>t t!.a* finance ha- lx e:i the national problem
lor the pa-t ten years, the first and se/ond Ka'-ura.
:ii-- lir-t a;:d M V o:.d Saion;i Cabinet.^ ultimately
I illin:, on ai count there >i. Yet hevond occasional
parnf'.i'l;/ in-nlin ;e:it retoim pro-i amnv. s notluii; ha->
'ecu don- to put th" finances on a souml ba^is, and
iiotlnn., \\hat--oe\er ha> bei-n attempted by any pohtual
jiir:\ to in-i-t on such reform- bein;^ undertaken.
Neithei tip- leider> o| til- movement in i^r> nor Kuio
nor It. i had any :.; iimnierm ,; ;hat true po]ular repre-en-
'i.ition iiie\i;ab!\ connote^ linancial imitrol. '1 !) i aus
ol tin- In 'in. i in ;he:r do.triii'- i> partly to be loui.d
;n the ait-ence ot an clleciivc iniiii-tai\ ^\--tein, pait!\
ouin:; to taxation i'i the ji-t ha \in_u', lepre^cnted e -
lori'-d ' oiieriiiL 1 . -.' partly in the people not h.t\ in:;
ie. ili/cil 'ln-ir -ejiar.i'e i-ntit\-, and pa:t!\ in th'- t.ui
' in: tlii- < i: ii r i on t itut i malist -, uad i t . id : he pra> ; i< <
,-. lii'h lh'-> p:ea. Ird aboii! a- mil h or ,e- little a- a
p i : i : u n d e : v a : : i ! -> the p h ; a - h \ t . i \ : h ! .

I i i:i' i- h.'l a <e-;n:an took u ho profe- ^> d a kliou -
1 ot ! .:,. !i h. \\ !,. n I b.id ..i < asjon to j- ak to

h<- .. 1 '-' in.- 0:1 ai>o-.i: ruen'k oi t \\ ' n*\ -ii\ r

-. d 111 :. ill u:i:e\t i If . .c.

\ ! -. nrii h tin- -ami SOUK- ),ad

POLITICS 79

visited Europe, and they studied superficially the repre-
sentative institutions of the West. On their return they
preached catchwords and phrases, without understanding
what they really meant. This lack of reasoning jxnver
remains to-day one of the marked liabilities of the
Japanese.

The attitude of the clans towards the movement was
characteristic. Men like Kido, Ito, and Inouye were
mentally alert enough to reali/.e that popular representa-
tion must eventually he admitted, hut they recogni/ed
that the country was not yet .sufficiently advanced for
constitutional government in the Western meaning of the
phrase, anil that when such a time should arrive the con-
cession of constitutional government would involve the
downfall of the clan system. The Imperial House-hold
Department inspired an article by Dr. Kato Hiroyuki in
the Nichi Nichi Shimbun developing the first of these
arguments, in which it said : " Public opinion is not
necessarily a wise opinion nor a correct opinion. The
object of a deliberative Assembly is the legislation of
such laws as shall place the peace and prosperity of
the nation on a firm basis. 1 think that there would not
be more than sixty or seventy men of distinguished
ability or knowledge in the whole nation. It is impos-
sible for these sixty or seventy men to be taken as a
standard of the whole thirty millions of the population.
Therefore, though the officials are not conceited and
arrogant, as alleged, it cannot be wondered at if they
think they are, at present, indispensable in the manage-
ment of all affairs of Stale." '

The policy of the clans, therefore, was to maintain
themselves in possession of the power, and when the
day should come when the clamour of the people must
be met, to grant such a lorm of constitution as would
keep the power in its existing hands whilst apparently
yielding it to the people. Whil>t the bureaucrats would
recognize that there was a popular will, they alone
should be competent to interpret that will.

' Uehar.i, /'i'/;7/j/ Dcrilopmcnt of [j\ipan.

So JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

The enunciation of these views showed the seccders
that they had nothing to hope for from the Government.
They therefore retired to the country with the intention
of educating the nation towards the ideals they had set
before themselves. How far the memorialists as a body
wen- dominated by the desire lor jx>wer and how far
by a real devotion to political science may be judged
from the attempt to assassinate Iwakura in Januat>,
iS74, by the Saga rebellion in the following year,
and by Saigo's provocative actions, extending over three
years, which culminated in the Satsuma rebellion of
I.S77- Itagaki and ( loto were the only two prominent
memorialists who really devoted themselves to the
political education of the nation. The opposition
measures necessitated a certain amount of concession
by the (iovernment, including the establishment of the
Senate as Legislative Chamber and of a Council of I'rc-
fectural (iovernors as an advisory body, whilst the
judiciary was nominally made independent of the
e\e<ume. Itagaki was brought into the (iovernment
as an Imperial nominee, and it is evidence of the jxiwer
the Imperial name was acquiring that he accepted office
in a form of government -which conceded nothing what-,
-oevrr to his own views. (lie resigned office in 1870.)
i'.ut it the ( laiismen were \\illing to grant something
apparent, they were strenuous in (lie* king the real aims
of the democrats. In 1^7^ a new Tress Law and Law

>i Libel \\ere passed, and a reign of terror was inaugu-,
rated a:;auist journalists and political agitators and asso-
Mation-,. I Minn:.; July, i^7>, every editor in Tokyo was
aliened at li-ast on> e, and either heavily lined or

Illlpl IV died .

1 In- siate-men of the early years of the Restoration

li-arly r<-.t!i/-'d that knowledge is jxuver and that the
dl -! ! liitlt I' ill ot pohtiial knowledge |s the \\.ty to . oin<T

po!i;n.d mt!u<-!i' c, and ih"\ had no intention of allowing
ambody bu: ! In n r rl\ rs to make that <orn<-r.

\\li.i' lli<-N i!id no! 'Midt-i land \sas that n-pte <-n:.t! ion
p| tit- !) oi(!r bad i\,-n';U.dl\ I me. and lli.it an\

POLITICS 81

efforts of theirs to cheat the natural development of
affairs would he as successful as Canute's efforts to
check the tide. The more they gagged the Press and
burked criticism the stronger would the opposition
become. Fear is the advance guard of reform, and
they could no more evade the awakening conscience of
the people than they could regain the Treaty ports.
Every editor arrested, every newspaper suppressed, every
petition rejected was a new milestone on the path of
progress. When a famous divorce barrister died some
years ago The Times obituary notice began : " No
woman knew how deeply she had been wronged until she
heard Ingersoll, K.C., open her case in court." Equally
no arrested Tokyo editor realixed how deeply the freedom
of the Press had been outraged until he read the com-
ment of his contemporaries after his release. Whilst the
early enthusiasm of the Japanese Press in the cause of
liberty was superficial and fictitious, an expression of
that enthusiasm for Western ideas, good, bad, or in-
different, which was then so marked a feature of Japanese
life, the trials and tribulations of the journalists pro-
voked a spirit of study which gave rise to steady con-,
victions. A school of real political thought came to
the front, and was supported not only by students and
professional men, but obtained the backing of a very
large number of the people, who were exasperated by
the economic depression of the country, a depression
deepened as a result of the Satsuma rebellion.

The first political movement, as I have said, was
brought to a head by a split in the clans. The second
followed the same course. After Saigo's defection Kido
and Okubo were supreme in the council at Tokyo. Kido
died in 1877, Okubo was assassinated in May, 1878.
Okuma Shigenobu, the Foreign Minister, was at the
head of the government. Born in 1838, he was a
clansman of Tosa, and a prominent member of the
administration which succeeded the Shogunate. As
Minister for Foreign Affairs he proved himself a
bureaucrat among bureaucrats, and was frankly out-

S_> JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

-poken in his detest, m. MI ot the doctrines of Fuku/awa
\nkuhi and ha:;aki Tai-uke. Such phrases as By
nature all men are lx>rn equal " or " (iovernnient is
instituted tor the people and should be conducted by
tin- people," smell and spelt rank lieiesy to him, and
a< a Minister of State and a i^ood clansman he had
otti. ially and unofficially frowned on them. From the
revolution of 1.^07 until 1^7^ the four clans, Satsuma,
<|io~!iu. Hi 'en, and Tosa. had monopolized the power
a> \\hit v.as tailed the Sat-cho-hi-to Coalition, and even
i:n;i' I > se\eri -eighths of the public office.- were held
IY th'-ir parti-an-. In 1873. iiowever. this combination
ii id been bioken up by the split in the Council, and
Sat -'ho ruled the roa-t. Okuma. though a To-a man,
hid >een retained in oflice, l>ut with the deaths of "Kido
and < >kubo he -aw an opportunity of t^'ainin^ for the
t\\o -mailer clans the control ot allairs. He SWUIIL;'
ti.'ht over to the popular party and put himself at the
he. id M( the constitutional mov-merit, and actually im-
pre-sed I'nnce An-u;.;awa and Prince Iwakura with the
ad\ inability ot -ettin- up an elective national assembly
in i > '.'; . So cleverly and s,.,retl\- did ( >kuma carry
out In-, intii;.;ues that ,tn Imperial Fdict \\ a - on th-- point
ot bei!!v i--uel when Iwakura uddenlv decide 1 to hed^e
i:n!e It') and other statesmen agreed. Then the fat
wa- ;n t Ir- lire. I'h.- Sat-<ho leaders reab/ed that a
-'id. [en ai ijuu'-i '-ni e to the popular demands under the

.CI-jC'e, ii| To ^l \\ollld < omplelely \\reek their o\SIl
| 'I -i ! in:I' :alr e, a; d tlie\ i on-ei |U lit iy set theill-elves to

de-ti')\ Mkurna's influence. In the u-ual m.iiiner ot
|apane-e p'Mi'i'-, ,i red herring \\a- dra\vn .across the
traik. An attempt v.as made i<> <Ii\er: the pu!>l;c energy
.in 1 a itaiion l:om ihe constitutional movement to a
p:ojMi i! ot Kuioda, Pre-,ide!it ot the Coloni/atioti Hoard,
\'.!i:'h t!ic , ( c. it ntii' -nt undertaking- in Hokkaido,
\', h.. !i hid ' ' ; ih'- ' >unt i y \ i .) , o< ><>,< >< >< >. \\ on ii 1 IK- ^old
;he |\ ','. in ': Hoei.i . i!r >',. .-, a i, a ])ii\afe iniit'erii o|
Ku:od.r , loi \ , M^OMI;, ill,- Mini-,ti\ p'n, and ho,

In i T .1 1 '

POLITICS 83

exposure of the graft scandal, was getting 1 out of hand,
stole Okuma's thunder and advised the Throne to call
a national assembly, hut in 1890 instead of in 1883.
Simultaneously Okuina was kicked out of office so that
he should have no share in the public gratitude for the
promise of a Constitution.

A HOXK WITHOUT MAKKOW

With the Imperial Edict of October 12, 1881, which
commanded a national assembly to be summoned in
1890, the constitutionalists considered that they had
gained their object. The great work of the government
thereafter was to prepare for the innovation by drafting
a Constitution. In March, 1882, Ito was sent to Europe
to study the various political institutions of the West
with the view to either selecting that most suitable in
its entirety or of drafting a Constitution embodying the
most suitable features of the Western systems. He
returned in August, 1883, so that, allowing for a two-
months voyage each way, just twelve months was
devoted to a personal examination of the political con-
ditions in England, America, France, Belgium, and
Germany.

A couple of years ago a very prominent lawyer who
has held high office in America was banqueted by a
barristers' club in Tokyo, and presented with a copy in
English of the Constitution with Ito's commentaries
thereon. A day or two afterwards he met one of his
hosts and said to him, " I have read that book of Ito's
with great pleasure and greater interest. There's one
thing I want you to enlighten me on, for as a good
American I'm interested in it." : ' Well, I will explain
anything I can," replied the Japanese barrister. " What
is it? " "I only want you to point this out to me
where do the people come in in your Constitution? "
" All ! " and the Tokyo lawyer smiled, " that's the clever
point of our Constitution. They don't come in at all
in practice. It's what you call ' a bone without

84 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

marrow.'' How did it conic about that Ito was able
to force on Japan a Constitution which more than any-
thing else erystalli/cd the power in the hands of an
oligarchy, acting in the name of the Throne, and yet
at the same time successfully deluded the people inU>
the belief that they were receiving that for which they
had asked?

As regards the latter part of the question, a great
majority of the people were apathetic, unwilling to look
a gift horse in the mouth, partly because the Constitution
was an Imperial gitt, partly because they were incom-
petent to critici/e or rcu< tionary against the extremes
to which the political discussions had led. Those more
actively interested and capable of adequate criticism
had been banished or otherwise gagged into silence.

Ito w.is a clansman, one of the Sat-cho Coalition,
and it was to them that he owed advancement. The
first duty of every Japanese is to show projx-r grati-
tude to his patron. Although Ito was beyond jx-rsonal
patronage he was not unmindful of the rights or, rather,
the ( laims of the two clans, and he was therefore
careful not to damage their position in the country.
Secondly, Ito was one of the band who had mack- the
Restoration in order to exercise power through the
Kmperor, and he had no intention of setting up, or
even conniving at setting up, a democracy to rule the
monarch.

With the exception of these two ideas pigeon-holed
au.ty Ito had an open mind on constitutional system^.
\sith a possible sympathy (before his travels) for the
Kii.:!!-h tuini, which was then very popular among -t
the \\DiiM-be politicians of Japan. Ih.s visit to London
\eiy <-<><in converted hi^ sympathy into a dislike, for a

< '< dl-l \\\l\ ion ulieje til 1 ' power lay entirely \\itll the people

\\,i> ni suitable government for a Sat-c ho adherent to
recommend. hi Berlin he found something extremely
to In- liKiM;; .iirl .1 111.1:1 at the he.a<I ol it after whom
n bei .tine In ' i -a i in -t de nc to model him -i l! . Hi ,man k
h t 1 i-\ol\cd !"i t!r (i'-rman 1-jnjiire, and I'ru-sia in

POLITICS 85

particular, a Constitution admirably suited to Ito's
requirements, and reinforced by a bureaucratic adminis-
tration and a graded nobility which, if they could be
transferred to Japan, would tend completely to keep the
people in what the clans conceived was their proper place.
The Constitution of Japan is remarkable for two
reasons. In the first place it was a gift from the
Sovereign, and was not extorted in any manner by
either the aristocracy or the people. Secondly, it was
worked out in the completcst secrecy, and even within
the sacred precincts of the Imperial Palace, by a special
bureau attached to the Imperial Household, consisting
of Ito, Inouyc Ki, Kaneko, and Ito Miyogi. Ito repre-
sented the clans, and to a certain extent the Emperor ;
Inouye represented, or was supposed to represent,
advanced political thought, on the strength of his having
in Kyushu a local political party with a platform opposed
to Itagaki and Okuma, and advocating a two-chamber
system subject to the absolute veto of the Throne ;
Kaneko, on the strength of a Harvard education, repre-
sented Western thought ; whilst Ito Miyogi was the
nominee of officialdom pure and simple. The draft of
the Constitution was subject to revision by the Privy
Council of which Ito was the President. Amongst
the list of members there was not one name representa-
tive of the popular movement in Japan. The whole
object, as Kaneko has left on record, was to prevent
any popular interference in the work or any influence
from public opinion. The Constitution, as a result of
its drafting by these carefully selected committees, com-
posed entirely of reactionary clansmen, aristocrats, and
officials, far from being an instrument of freedom and
progress, emerged as a document cloaking under fine
language and empty phrases the traditional policies of
the Shogunate and the oligarchy which rules in its
place. The representative institutions provided for in
the Constitution are absolutely bogus in practice. The
power allotted to the people is nil, and the possibilities
of the people legally developing power without amend-

86 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

ing the Constitution are also nil. The only |x>sitive
eflect of the Constitution is to confirm in words as the.
written law of the land the traditional sovereign power
of the Throne, the idea of which is inherent in every
Japane-e mind. The absolutism of the monarch, which
until i.SXg had been traditional, became perpetuated as
the fundamental principle of the new order of things.
1 have m> intention here of examining in detail this
extraordinary document, which riveted the bonds ol
clanni-m on the nation, but it is in itself so indetinite,
so contradictory, and so illogical that its drastic reno-
\ation is considered in Japan as the only jx>ssible cure.
A Japanese jurist, Dr. Shimi/u, has recently computed
that then- are forty-eight major faults in the Constitu-
tion, by major faults being understood articles con-'
tradiited by other article-, arti<Ies direct!) conflicting
\\iih other articles, articles capable of dual interpreta-
tion, and articles capable ol no exact interpretation
at all.

i! the powers of the Throne and the Diet are com-
pared it will be -'-en that the Throne is the head of
the exeiutive and the legislative, and possesses an abso-
lute veto ; ha- power to legislate without the Diet and
complete and ab-olute control over all civil and military
otniia!'. of the army and navy, and of foreign aliaiis
11 patronage. ( The onlv jxwer subtracted from
rial authority i> the sii-,p<-i)sion or amendment
\\lr.ch can, however, be accomplished by the
t -. invested in the 1'nvy Council or by proclaiming
ite i > | siege.)

; n Diet has the right to meet one e a \ear for ninety
, and to initiate (~u!)je< to veto or non -pi oinulga -
i-lation. and to pe'ition the Throne. In theory
ontrol th- na'ioria! hnaiii es, m piacp.ce

Xp'lldllUles i>.l,ed Upon the so\rp-|gn

1 hi i >ne i ,is administ i at ive, na\ a 1 and

I 1. !! < Mlii e expense-, i, all e\| en ^ U hit ||
' !!' ' of |.C.\ .. ,i!ld .ill expense, ap|iejtalll-
i! o' ill a! p MI - of tir- yo\ i-i nnieii! i iliteie I

TOLITICS 87

on National Debt, sinking fund, redemption of bonds,
subsidies, compensation, etc.) being excluded from reduc-
tion or rejection except with the consent of the govern-
ment. In case even these exemptions should put too
much j)ower in the hands of the Diet, the Throne may
take all necessary financial measures in cases of urgency,
as when the Diet cannot be convoked, by me.uis of
Imperial Ordinances. When the Diet does not vote on
the Budget an Imperial Ordinance authorizes the Budget
of the previous year.

This brief summary shows in concise form how Ito
so arranged the Constitution as to give the Throne all
of the power and the people none.

As a writer in the Taivo put it : ' The principal duty
of the Japanese people under the Constitution is to
elect representatives to say 'Yes' to the government."

In case the House of Representatives should find
some loophole by which it might be able to dictate
an undesirable measure to tin; authorities, Ito added a
second chamber, the House of Peers, 'to check tin-
evil tendencies of irresponsible discu>sions ' in the Lower
House, or, in plain English, to act as a first crusher in
any conflict between the authorities and the representa-
tives without the former having to use the Imperial veto
or other measure of direct repression. The comjx>si-
tion of the I'pper House as Ito planned it was admirably
adapted to his purpose. There were 201 hereditary
and representative Peers, all owing their rank to him-
self and conservative by the nature of things ; 122
Imperial nominees, 40 of whom are peers, all officials
and ex -officials, and therefore allies of bureaucracy ;
and 45 representatives of the highest taxpayers, coiiserva
live by their alliance with land and vested interest-.

Such was the Constitution Ito practically borrowed
wholesale from Prussia and gave to Jap, in, reinforcing
it-; conservatism by a Cabinet sy.Mem as tha* of Pru-i.i.
a Privy Council \\ith extraordinarily \\ule powers and
a graded nobility, under the control of a Bureau of ihe
Imperial 1 lousehold.

88 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

THK M AT K i. MM MAI. MACHINK

In igii the principal parties in Japan were the
Seiyukwai and the Nationalists. The former held an
absolute majority in the Lower 1 louse, and consequently
ruled the |X)litical field, a po-ition of which they took
\er\ full advantage.

The Seiyukwai was a party romjxised of, and drawn
from, a number of smaller parties, the principles and
programmes of which it is almost imjx>ssible to dif-
ferentiate. (Hit of the years of intrigue and turmoil
which had preceded and followed the promulgation of
the Constitution two chief parties had emerged, led
respectively by ha^aki and ( )kuma. In the main their
platforms were similar, but < )kuma jibbed consistently
at the theory of Ministerial independence of the Diet.
Neither of these parties, nor, for that matter, any other
party, retained its title for much more than a session at
a time, and the fivquent changes of name are conse-
quently an irritating source of contusion to the student.
The party led by Ita^aki may be described as Liberal,
whi!>t that <>f Okunia was Progressive. In iS<>> ho
abandoned, as the result of experience, the theory that
a Ministry can carry on business in the Diet without
soni'- party support, and mad'- an alliance with the
Liberal>, and was timber supjjorted by small official
.ni',1 semi-official cliques. In spite of this the Privy
' nuiii il would not allow either ho or any member of Ins
Mini-try to be a memb'-r of a politic.il party, and when
h.i:;aki uas bpiu 'lit 1:1 .is Minister <>) the Interior he
lit<l to -ever his oiiii i.il < omi'-ction \\iih the l.ibeial
lin- MIIU tr\ le'l (iv. in.; to the l.ulure to find a Forei.;n

Mini-te!, the l.l'ier.il e\-le.l<!er refusing t<> Ml i;j .1
' .tiilMc 1 Ui:!l t!te 1'pi. lr Ke le.i.ler. <>kuill.l, ull'i \\.l^

ii" n:il\ III r ii. m 1 lie M .i' -ukata- < 'km 1 1.1 Cabinet \\hiih

t'i'1'.'.M-d i ulit lulled OH'" ses lull of the Diet b\ llie.l'ls
I .1 M M |i M !' \ i ' )t'l| I' I i-il ii| the Progressives With the
ii!ln l.d .il.d r'tii; -nIlK l.d pendulum. U 111 !l H

1 N , t , I 1 1 1 . 1 1 \ . r n 1 1 1 e 1 1 1

POLITICS 89

months on the old question of Ministerial responsibility.
Its existence at all was a marvel of ingenuity, for
Matsukata was a typical clansman, and Okuma's views
on the subject of Ministerial independence had not
changed. A second Ito Ministry was a fiasco, and,
after a coalition of Liberals and Progressives, was
followed by an Okuma-Itagaki Ministry, which fell after
a few months as the result of a quarrel between the
parties over the distribution of the spoils of office.
Yamagata, the leading clan statesman, succeeded to the
Premiership, and was forced by circumstances to make
a temporary alliance with the Liberals to obtain an
urgently necessary increase of revenue. Though ready
enough with cash bribes, he refused to give party men
offices, and in September, 1900, he resigned, as a result
of the formation of the Seiyukwai under the leadership
of Ito. This statesman, a bureaucrat at heart and a
firm believer in the bureaucratic system of government,
realized its impossibility unless there was a strong party
subservient to officialdom in the House. He recognized
that the Liberals were willing to accept any arrange-
ment which would provide them with an adequate
solatium for the abjuration of their principles. Unlike
the Progressives, they had never opposed the govern-
ment on purely political grounds. They wanted an
entente with some leading statesman for material pur-
poses. Ito wanted a party behind him to which he
could dictate orders and on whose implicit obedience
he could rely. That was the bargain struck. Ito
and Yamagata were lighting for power, and the former
hoped that by controlling the Diet he would achieve it.
He was mistaken. He had little trouble in the Lower
House, but the Peers were staunch supporters of the
clans, and their opposition was only overcome by the
use of the Imperial Rescript. He fell in April, 1901,
and never again exercised any real power, though his
advice as a (ienro was frequently sought, and almost
as frequently ignored, and he continued to wield
considerable personal influence over the Kmperor.

<X> JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

The ap[x>intment of Viscount Katsura as Premier

marked t\vn important < han^e^. The Klder Statesmen
retired tr<ii!i the public arena, and henceforth officiated
a^ wire-pu'ler- behind the scenes. Through tin* Privy
("ou.'nil they exercised all the necessary authority to
hold r.ji measures of which they disapproved, and as
< ieiiro-m and patron-, of the younger men they were
able to inflaeiv e the actions of the ^overnment in an\
direction desired. Secondly, it became an acknowledged
tai t that an alliance mu^t exist between a leading
|N)liti< a! part) arid the government if the Slate bu-ine-
u.i-. to be < arried on e\ en ijuasi-constitutionally.

A- K.it-ma was the nominee of Yama^ala. ho did
everything in hi-, power to embarrass his politic--, even
to the cxtejit of ne M)tiatin^ r an alliance of Liberal^ and
Prov,re->ives. lie failed mi>eral)ly, ho\\c\cr, bei - au->e
Kai-ura me: ;he attack by the simple expedient ot

dl--o!\ m;_; the l)let, a measure \\IIK I) 1^ a 1 'l elilier's

1 1 ump ( a rd in a <"iin;rv like Japan where the Ministry
i- not M--J 'oii-i'il'- !> the majority ol the llonsc. To
prevent Inriher nn-< hiet from ho he was made President
ot tin- PM\ y ('o'ancil, and .Mari|iii> Saionji led that jiosj

!o !>C< ome the lead'T ot the Seiyilkwai.

At '.he time ot th" re'.o'u'ion m Portugal Hr. I 1 '.. |.
hill in -e!i; an i'luminatnix ine-->a^ r <- to the Ddi'y /V'r-

ry (//.// -!io\'.:!:;: ho\\ tin- _ej)vermnent m \}\{\ (oimtry v. .1^
. ondi; ted. '1 he ( 'aliinei .Mi!M !< i- and the 1 >nv. tor--
\ .1 N.;">nal I'.ank uere the e.xchan^eabh- la<ioi->.
\\li-n e LI ii < 'il'iiie! !,a ! mi-; r o\ ;;ied li.ii;^ t::oi;^h the
I 'i;i lor- be- anr .M.n ,ei". a; id th- Mi:. 1-0-1 I)iiet!oi^.
'ih<- ( li.i.'i;,'-- U"ie alv.a 1 . -, ni!i:; on id-- same loinbinatlon,
\\hil-; a i:..;'o:i;-. ul the Parliament, subservient to aii\'
m:::i trv v. hi h < ''.:! 1 ia' e moiie; ei.DiiiJi !o j a\ t : ,'
bl.n ;.;:ia:l dema:.!'-d, ji;o\id<-d a \o;in.; ina)orit> A
filial ' '"n p: e 1 . all" ! m |apan I roin I ';o ; i , , i > , \ ;

POLITICS 9'

out of office, through Marquis Saionji. When Katsura's
autocracy and financial recklessness reached a point
which might well be described as the limit, the Cabinet
resigned, and Marquis Saionji was sent in a^ a scullery-
maid to clean up. When the public susceptibilities had
been sufficiently smoothed down, bark went Katsura into
office. This method of affairs might have continued
long after 191.5 but for a quarrel between Katsura and
Yamagata, a split in the Choshu ranks which was taken
advantage of by the Satsuma statesmen to assert to
themselves a predominant position, which, however, they
were unable to retain for more than a year.

The Cienro Council has no place in the: Constitution
at all, but it has been all-powerful in Japan from iSXi
until now. It is an informal assembly of tho-e elders
of the State who have acquired particular merit in the
series of historic" occurrences which have raided Japan
to her present position. Needless to say it is composed
of clansmen from Satsuma and Choshu, whose influence
pervades Japanese affairs through every stage of life.
They have their nominee's in every public department,
and each has created around him a network of instru-
ments by clan relations, by marriage or by patronage.
Though feudalism is abolished, the feudal system remains
practically intact, and it will be many decades before
it is thoroughly uprooted from Japanese soil and politics.

The principal Cenro arc- Field-Marshals Princes
Vamagata and (Jyama, Marquis Matsukata, Marquis
Inouye, and Admirals Counts Kabayama and Vama-
moto. 1 Count Okuma and Marquis Saionji have by
their services and rank attained the position of Genro,
but for obvious reasons have never been invited to
take part in their discussions. Both are constitutional
statesmen who are hatelul to the clansmen, whose prin-
cipal aim has been to repress every form ot go\ eminent
which might be' considered as a roneessiem to the popular
will. Count Kabayama never now, and Prince 1 Oyama
but rare 1 !}', join the coiiteTe-nce-s, the former having retired

' Yumamoto is lU'iKT.iIlv onlv Mminv >nnl i.. discus n iv.tl ,iti:iii>.

92 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

from public life after the Chinese War, whilst the latter
hold- aloof from all political di-cussions on account of
hi- Sat-uma birth clashing with his Choshu professional
sympathies.

The (ienro who count in active jx)litics are there-
fore Yamagata, Inouye, Mat-ukata. 1 During his life-
time Prince ho wa- a regular member of the council,
whil-t the late Prince Kat.-ura was from time to
time tailed to the board. These men are the real
ruler- of Japan, and have by the merit of their services,
!>;. the loyalty of their clan-men, and by nepotism secured
the practical control of Japanese administration and
education. This latter i- extremely important, becau-e
it mean- that the ideals and object- of the Klder State,
men are -pread through the universities and schools,
ami thu- become, the ideals and aims of the nation.
The object which the (Ian-men have had in view has
been to make the educational institutions of the country
training -chools for the bureaucracy.

It is easily understandable that in a country emerging
from many centuries of feudal rule, feudalism, though
legally abolished, cannot be immediately eradicated. The
instincts of the clans remain unimpaired, and Satsuma
men to-day look to the lord- of Sat-uma for protection
and -acnlice themselves for their lord's protection a-
in day- gone by. To this form of feudali-m ha- been
added another and a ni"iv modern Co mi. The marriage
mart i, an nn|>onant consideration n fapane-e politics.

I he \.ui'>u, < ie-iro could ne\er have obtained the hold
the 1 , have on the administration except by the alliances
v. hi' h they have been able to form. In a (ouniiy
v. here polygamy ha> only Pe-ntly been abolished, and

v.h'ie on' ubinage i- SM I not unknown, matrimonial
I'iriii a -tio'i'. 1 nefuoik ill del elite. No -laden'

POLITICS <)$

sion of public opinion, consistent and determined oppo-
sition to popular representation, the development to the
uttermost limit of bureaucratic government, and control
by the military party of the colonies. He has, to obtain
his ends, backed the Choshu influence by a family clique
devoted to the furtherance of his aims. Baron Hirata,
Doctor Baron Kato, Mr. Vasuhiro, Baron Hamao,
Viscount Shinagawa, Baron Funakoshi, Mr. Kingoro
Kawamura, and the late Mr. Hagiwara, all relations
of Vamagata, formed the nucleus of this clique. Baron
Hirata, described by Japane.se writers as having the
demeanour of a village pedagogue, is a son-in-law of
the Viscountess Shinagawa, a niece of Prince Vamagata.
He was the Home Minister who, when it was necessary
to throw open the Civil Service to the people, drafted
the regulations which, in fact, kept it a close corpora-
tion. Isaburo Vamagata, the adopted son and heir of
the Prince, is Vice-Govcrnor-General of Korea and son-
in-law of Baron Hiroyuki Kato. Baron Kato was for
years President of the Imperial University, where he
inculcated into students and staff the principles con-
tained in his apologia for the Senate, 1 written when an
official of the Imperial Household. Baron Kato, as
the Cienro of education, disposes of an immense amount
of patronage in the universities and schools. In addi-
tion his sons hold influential positions Terumaro is
Physician to the Emperor, Haruhiko is a Manager of
the Bank ot Japan, Toshio was a Commissioner of
Prefectural Government. His five sons-in-law are well
up in the world one is Prince Vamagata's heir, another
Councillor of the Home Department, the third a Chief
Engineer of the Railway Board, the fourth head of the
Kyushu University, and the fifth professor at the Tokyo
University.

Mr. Vasuhiro Ban-ichiro, before he married a niece
of Prince Vamagata, was a teacher of English in a
high school. He rose quickly on the wings of Hymen,
becoming a Secretary to the Cabinet, then Councillor

1 V. p. 7.).

>4 JAPAN AT Till-. CROSS ROADS

of the I. c.;!-!. itl\r Buivan, President of the Bureau for
( omnion S< hoN, Chief Secretary in the Cabinet, in
i|m> k -turi-i'n until, ten years after hi> marriage, he
ua- nominated .1 Member ii the House of Peers, a
dignity winch uas doubled dunni;' the- next ten vear>.
with the \ i< e-Mini-tership of A^ruultuie and Commen e.
The late Mr. Ha^iuara \\a^ a nephew ot the Prince,
.ml held -cveral important posts, until at his death he
\\.i- I)i;ect'r D| ( 'i >inmerrial AlVair.s at tlie I-'oreii^n ( Mtiee.
Ill- \\iie was the daughter ot Mr. ilainao, a Councillor
in the I-'.di;eation Department. The alliance \va> < <>n-
tra'li-d in lN>l. and thereafter Mr. Jiamao he< aine
\ i- e-I're- id'-nt <>f Tuk\o l'n;\ii^:t\. Director of the
Special Mincau tor I\< -form ol Education, Member of the
llou-e of Pe^rs, Minister o{ Milucation, Baron, and
.i..;ai;i Pre-ident of Tokyo \ ' \\i\- < r>ity after the strike ol
ill- prolV->or!al >'a!l".

liaion r un iko-Sii \\.i^ mixed up in a .^raft .scandal
d'inii.; the e.'fly \ear-. ot Meiji. and Vaiuai^ata, who was
Mini-ter of Mi.i;.iry Aliair-, pioieetrd hiai. I-'unako-hi'^
-'D i > in dried To a dau.Jit'T ot Yama^ata, and ! una-
ki hi -enior decorat - ;he Pri\\ ('otincil. whilst hi- Mm'.*,
i a ret-i i;i i IK \ .; , [ n ( Mli e ha- bee;; a !r< a< ly i ,il'\ ed .ut .
\i iniini Shi:'a;_.a\sa '\'aji:ni \\a- th'- Mini-ter of
Ili'iue Alla;r :n the Ma!-':ka!a Cabinet ot jSi^j. \\ho
\\ a tori ed to it-i.;! tor in!' ! ti ii:i;; with the freedom
o| (! !]'i:i and p'o\nki;i;; no's in \\hl-h J5 Jiel'sons
U'-;e k'M'd and ; .'-> > \\ounde<l, lie inairied Slnd/uko,
aiio;he! n!i ! S'ama^ata, .ind ln> son ha> married into
'die M i T a d . i i i a ! a i n i ! y .

A rt^liillt 'I thi- ^anla;.'.ata ci ililiecrions -hou > that hi'-.

itili'ien. i i paiti ii'arly stron..; in th'- ann\, \\hih r>,

.t OM: -e, tin- ( hovhti pla \ ;.; loiuid, in th'- loluine^. aUo

,i I:H -nopi.lv t- .1 tliai I m. in the 1 b une ( ):;,- e and in

i-d :.!': -nal <!!!. In I \\< I 'i u y ( < itim il. ot \s hii li

i P;e i ! V . in I'll , h" dip i tl\ < out lo'l' d. -!tln r

- 1 in i -i Ian ;ib. iiii; ,- .' '-, i lev i : i mi: ot tu etit \ -^ix

. i : d ' : a i ; i ! . i 1 1 n n ! o ; i t!i'- ; 1 1 1 p. 1 1 1 1 1 1

-.1 'ii-- i< m.ii.M:! .",'oiip . Ka! -ma, Sat-uina.

i.. !i: i.. n d Hoi: . h..ld.

I'OUTKS <)$

lii the (icmo meeting-- Iiiouyr and Iio generally held
together, lor they were closely related by family ties
and clan sympathy, but also l>y a bosom friendship
dating from the days when they se< retly visited Mngland.
1 hey both coquetted with representative government,
and thereby incurred Yamagata's wrath. Jto did so
because he recognixed that rcj)resentative government
must eventually arrive, and it was better to control it
than to be controlled by it. Inouye was a man of very
different calibre, and more content to hide his light under
a bushel ; he preferred whenever possible to be the
power behind the s/ioji. Much surprise has been
expressed that he never held the post of Premier,
but there never arose any reason for him to do so. As
the C'hoshu Premier of autocracy Yamagata was always
there : as the C'hoshu 'Premier of a mitigated form of
popular government I to was sufficient. The split between
Yamagata and Ito, originating in the Jailer's conces-
sions to democracy, was widened by Inouye's close
alliance with Ito. Yamagata was successful in securing
Ito's (all, but it in no way improved his own position,
for Katsura, his trusted henchman, was matrimonially
allied to Inouye, and in 1912 fell a victim to Inouye's
persuasion and became an adherent of party govern-
ment. It is remarkable evidence of Yamagata's con-
servatism that in his matrimonial ventures he never
made, or attempted to make, an alliance with a leader
of any political party whatsoever. That Viscount Shina-
gawa became the leader of the Kokumin Kiokwai was
an accident, resulting from the incidents of 1892 referred
to earlier, and his party consisted solely of out-and-out
adherents of bureaucracy.

TIIK I. ATM MAROTIS IXOl'YK

IJorn in i-Sjo in Xagato Pro\-ince, second son of
Inouye Mitsustike, a ^(iniunt! of Chos'ui lnoa\'e Kaora '

' Inotivc, like Ito :uul .KV.>:V.iii!4 !>
first luinic, aiul ;U v.utir.i., periods ot
Montu, and Kaoru.

/> JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

was from early days a lx>som friend of the Kite Prince
Ito Hirobunn. Together they attended the school of
Yo-hida iTorajiroi Shoin, the leading advocate of
Imperialism in the Choshu clan, and later they were sent
by their feudal lord to Nagasaki to study military arts
under the Dutch officers attached to the factory on
Deshima Island. After the execution of Yoshida Shoin
at Yedo, on account of his anti-Tokugawa actions Inouye,
Ito, and Yamagata Aritomo were attached to the suite
ot Kido Koin, tin- Choshu representative at the Shogun's
court. I'nder such auspices the young men were bound
to be severely anti-foreign, and they were leaders ot
the malcontent band which burned down the British
Legation at Shinagawa. After this futile outburst the
passions of the young patriots cooled down, and they
began to examine foreign affairs with a less prejudiced
mind. Ito gave- himself up to the study of English,
\\lnl-t Inouye attended th" lectures of Sakuma Shozan
on the necessities of naval expansion. 1 Finding it impos-
sible to make any headway in the- seclusion imposed
upon Japan by the Tokugawa laws, the latter determined
to proceed secretly to Kurope to study the foreign systems
<>l government, and having obtained the private but un-
ottii lal (oii-ent of Prince Mori, head of the Choshu clan,
persuaded Ito and three other young men to accompany
him.

To decide on the lourney and to carry out the decision
\\I-H- two very different matters, and the adventurers had
.1 number ot dii!i< ult n-, to surmount before they weir
-.if- K on board -hip. Ito h.i- left the following interest-
ing narrative ot tht- event :

K:io\un;j th.i! t!ir only w.iv t-> -ciiilr th'- p.i--- .i^e u.i- t" .ippr.ll
dlKLtlvt'i fo[ I-IJ.MK-I -., UC (lid ii. \Ve oil^lil .1 i U' I of

.in I 1 . :i;',h h Ii: ::i, Me -i -. < i!' \ i I and Co.. who --pi >l.r j.ij .me e \\eil, .11 id

' S.tkiiiii.i .il\: >d I:.- r.vct < -^ > .1! >i < >.id .ind -T tin- h.it'd f .1 , i^r-.rr
for him ell. !! id ;;-v ii ir.ii! 11 .idvn (., Vo.lni.i u !:M h.id l-rcn
.IMC ted u!.:l I 'r'.ii.; 1 t" ;; l .!". nd one of tin- -i.ip> of iVriv'-^
. iij.i '.'.''.}, \ ! . .1 i x; i ,i d in .1 i .r.'f 1 , tiic i o.ul id i .ind l.iti i <lci. .ipit.iti d.

POLITICS 97

we were fortunate enough to he successful. The five thousand
Japanese dollars we had had been exchanged for eight thousand
American dollars. We carried this in a draft, leaving only a small
amount in cash for our incidental expenses during the voyage. Thus,
after everything had been arranged, we went to Kanagawa and slipped
into a tea-house called Shimodaya, which was well patronized by
the clansmen of Choshu, and there we disguised ourselves as
merchants.

After entrusting our swords to the keeper of the tea-house, we went
secretly to Yokohama, where we secured a lodging and made our
preparations for the trip. We went to a European store, which was
only a little junk shop, and tried to buy shirts and suits, but in those
days there was nothing decent to be had, and we were compelled to
buy all second-hand tilings which had been worn by sailors. The
shoes we bought were each big enough to hold two feet ! Imagine
how funny we must have looked in this attire, with our Chonmagc
(top-knot) still on. On the night of May nth we were summoned to
the English firm and were told to wait until the captain had finished
dinner. So we complied with our instructions, and I remember we
hid in a corner of the hill which runs beside the embankment behind
the Company's offices. Whilst thus waiting each of us went off in
turn and had our hair cut. This made us look all the worse and
funnier. About midnight Mr. Gower came and told us that, after
consultation with the captain, that person declined to give us passage.
as it was against the laws for Japanese to leave Japan. We appealed
to him very earnestly, and finally told him that after thus cutting our
hair we would be arrested and executed by the government, and we
showed our determination to commit hari-kiri on the spot rather
than be disgraced and beheaded by the officials. At this determined
appeal Mr. Gower became alarmed and made another attempt to
induce the captain to give us passage. The captain finally agreed
to do so.

At about two o'clock in the morning of May i2th, when everything
was quiet, the captain and Mr. Gower led us toward the wharf. Mr.
Gower was trembling for fear of discovery by the Japanese customs
officials whose office we had to pass by, but he instructed us to respond
loudly in some jargon whenever he spoke to us, so as to pass ourselve>
off as foreigners. We followed his instructions, and finally reached a
boat at the end of the wharf which took us to the steamer.

This however was not all we had to suffer, for a customs' officer was
stationed near the wharf. So we were hidden in a small hole rigi.t
behind the engine-room, and did not come out until the steamer wa>
passing Kwannonzeki at the entrance of the Ray of Yeddo. At day-
break we were told to come out on deck, but trouble never ended, fr
we encountered so rough a gale that we were unable to eat uny tiling
during the whole voyage, because of sea-sickness.

9$ JAPAN AT T1IK CROSS ROADS

On arrival at Shanghai the party of live divided.
I to and Inouye sillied on with the sailing ship /'fsffisus,
their three comrade ,u r oin;< aboard the \\'tiitc Adder.
The voyage to London took them round the Cape of
Good Hope, and la-t< d lour months and three days, a
period which taught them something of navigation and
more of Kn^'lish. They were signed on as ordinary
sailors as a result of a misunderstanding. Asked their
object in i^oin^ to Kn^land. Inouve liad replied, 'To
study navigation,' whereas hi- had meant to say, ' To study
naval affairs.'

In addition to swabbing deck*., reeling yards, and
the use and ahu.-e of the Ln.;iidi lan.miai^e. the adveii-
turers learnt a ^ r ood deal ot huma'i nature, and more- of
card L, r anu.--> as played in the fo'ea^tle. ( >ne of lin-
stock stones the late .Manjui> u-'-d to tell was of how
they lo^t all their ready luiuN to th<-ir shipmates at euchre,
except live dollar-, with which the}' stepped ashore at
(jravcsend one i old moimn.;. Hungry, thev went to a
baker'.-, shop and a-ked tor bread, holding out the live
dollar-, and tru-tin- t!ie baker to -ive them the n.^ht
( han^e. " ile L, r ave u-> each a loaf," he --aid, "but I
am still waiting lor th- change. "

In London th J'arty lodged with I)r. W.illianison,
I'role--or ot ('li'im-t;;, at London l'ni\cr-it\. It wa>
v, hib: in hi^ hou-;- th it t!i--> re -Tved letter^ informing
them of ill'- proposal ol thi- < ho-h:i clan to declare uai
"M thi- lorei^n I'o'A'cr-.. Shoiilv att -r tin- new> i'-ai lied
Lir.daiid ot th- 1 alta< k on IOMM^II \',at'-lnp- in the Shimo-
no -eki St i alt >. 1 1 > iv!a;e> I i .

(in- tie. .t vi- ::i!"-i i .| I: - I 'i . i, f.i;;.il\ u ' v. . ;;' / /'. (

/ :, , -'iil'lt '. . .1 ',-. t ' i :- .1 ; < ' >:;i I ! : ' ;! i' i . .ur 1 :i S: '.,:,<. \.\ \\ .\
i i * ..... 1 1 . ' 1 ; j i 1 1 1 : : 1 1 i u i : . ! I 1 1 'i t h i u i ^ 1 1 j ' 1 1 l > 1 1 i ^ 1 1 \\ . 1 1 ' 1 1 j *

hv ( :. :,u W.ii i iui , \s !ii 1 1 i; j .11 I .1 ivi i I ; !',;( ', > i < .nl t i j .1 j . i
( ittf.:liv. V.'i- \.i;t- .ill .1 ', .',;:i<;i<! v. :,t-n I'ii .hi.it:. 11 \'..i 1 1 .tii/cil.
' Ji.i . !i : \. t ': ;; < .| tin- ' )! : \ ..: r \' .: K' v. ' n ! :: . t'n 1 : MI i.n '.< : \
.in<! ' !-.t;-\.i:-l at ( irn-nuu ;i ati>! <.;:n jlui ii:i!ini!i ! u- ! l!,r
UK ::.j .i: .il.ic ,i'!\ .1::' c < ( tl.r \\ t !d :i n.C :> ;i , n\ ci |.t; ,111. \\'<-
I (.-(.''jMll/cd t!n. cat. i ;i <j<li' u' :. !i [li'l.t t.ill up. -i ( ii.i-.liil 111 living

POLITICS 99

to waj^e w.ir against sucli great Powers. The attitude of the Knglish
Parliament, which favoured the bombardment of Shimonoseki,linadc
us tremble. Inouye and I determined to return home, though without
knowing whether our influence would have any effect or not. We
wanted to stop this folly even at the risk of our lives.

So Inouye ami ho attain took ship, leaving their
comrades to continue their studies. Arriving in Yoko-
hama, they were smuggled ashore by Mr. Harris, of
Messrs, (ilover and Co., and hidden in a boarding-house,
disguised a^ Portuguese. Finding it impossible to get
to Choshu overland, and learning that an ultimatum had
already been sent to Prince Mori, Inouye proposed that
they should visit Mr. Rutherford Alcock, the English
Minister. To him the young men appealed for a delay
in the bombardment. The Minister at lirst took the
matter as a joke, but then, recognizing their earnest-
ness and the truth of their argument that Choshu reali/ed
nothing of the greatness of the nations opposed to them,
and of the futility of resistance, lie agreed to lay the
matter before a council of the ministers and naval com-
manders of the Allied Nations.

As a result it was agreed to postpone the opening
of the bombardment of Shimonoscki a further twelve
days, and to send Inouye and I to on a foreign warship
to a [joint on the Bungo coast, whence they could easily
get overland to Choshu. Further, a letter was written and
signed by all the members of the council, addressed to
the Lord of Choshu, and handed to the two young men,
to be delivered at the time when they should advise
their chief of the futility of resistance. Captain (later
Admiral) Sir William Dowell took Ito and Inouye aboard
H.M.S. Hurroxa to ilimejima, whence they proceeded to
Yamaguchi, having meantime resumed samurai attire.

Mori Motoiio-i granted tlivm an interview, whereat,
as Ito writes, " we opened the map ami explained
European civi'i/ation ana i;s strength for nearly four
hours." They urged that a truce be made with me
enemy, and that thereafter every effort should be made
by Choshu to restorer the Imperial power. The letter from

ioo JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

the foreign minister> wa-> not presented, because it might
have aroused suspicion-. against the young men, the more
*j as it was couched in rather threatening terms.

Tluir efforts for a peaceful solution were- unavailing
against the fanatical extremists, who had obtained the
upper liar.d at the Cho-lm Court. The young men paid
a tinal visit to Admiral Kuper. who commanded the
Allied forces, and then went a-hore to return to Yama-
guchi. < >n their way they were attacked by a party of
the extremists, and though ho escaped without damage,
Inouye. who wa-> the real object of the murderous attempt,
was left tor dead. Though terribly wounded, his friends
carried him to his mother's house. Believing himself
dving, and fearful of the dishonour of having been killed
by his enemies, he (ailed hi- brother and ordered him
to Mrike his head ojf. Ju-t as his brother drew his
s\\ord for the purpose hi-, mother rushed forward and,
covering him with her body, protested that he would
re. 'over. He did. Three w< ek- Liter hi- enemies returned
and carried him oft" to pri-o:i, where he lay for .several
da\s fearing execution. That he was not at once executed
is surpri-ing, but wa- probably due to t!ie failure of the
< 'ho-hu arm-, a- he had Con-told, and a < on-e(jiient sneak-
ing re-jie. t tor hi- intelligence. At all events he was,
alter a short c ontmeiiifit, r.'!ea-ed by order of Prince
Mori, and re-tore. 1 to !a\our and the c ou;i< il of the clan.
N --\ rthel--- -, I)-- bore to the ^ra\e the s ( ar-, drastic
Aid'-nce of the (lan;;er of being hiieral in |)re-.Mei|i
da\s.

Shimoiio-eki had ben bombarded \\ith di-a-trous re-

ull , and at the .tine lim-- the < h.'^ha ann\ had bei n

at;a<k'-d b-. the Sho.'un'-. force > and driven ba<k, .\\hat

.Shirna:-u Hi ainit u. Prune ot ih Sat-uma < Ian. v\ . 1 1
aware, th.tn). ;. '':' re. ent boinliaidnient ot Ka: r o->hinia,
'f the -irenv.th o* ;he foreign -'jtiadton-. mt'-rveiied.
;! wa t!i-:i jiio'ti!^; ior the i<- toiaiion ot the Inijniial
rt/itnc, and h :d i:o v\ i h to .- the i Lin h- piniipally
Felled on to a ,1 .1 Sat 'Una < i u h- ! 1 t\'. < en t!u ton i:;nei s

TOMTITS ioi

and tin- Shogun. He persuaded the two Prince.-* Mori to
demand a truce, and peace negotiations were entrusted
to a commission of Tukasugi, Inouye, and I to. Sir
Ernest Satow, the [xditical agent witli the s(juadron,
refused to receive this commission as lacking full powers.
Another was apjxjinted, consisting of Takasugi, Admiral
Shishido, and Inouye, with I to as interpreter, a curious
appointment, inasmuch as he. sjx)ke English worse than
Inouye. A satisfactory treaty was signed, and henceforth
the two great clans, Satsuma and Choshu, lived on friendly
terms with the foreigners.

It was almost impossible at this time to differentiate
between I to and Inouye. Although the- latter was seven
years older, all through his life he was outshone by his
companion. This does not by any means appear to have
been justified. So little is known even to-day of the
inside of Japanese jxjlitics just before and after the
revolution, and so large did I to bulk in the public eye
during later years, that it is perhaps natural that he
should have received credit for actions inspired by Inouye.
In addition, I to was not the man to hide his light under
a bushel, and was by no means backward in announcing
and even in praising his own good works. Inouye was
a man of very different calibre, modest and retiring as
regards what he had done, though energetic in action
and even officious when he thought his services were
required.

There is a disposition to regard Inouye and I to as
having introduced the idea of a restoration of the Imperial
|K)\\"cr as a result of their visit to Europe. This view
is to be traced even in The Times biography of the late
Marquis. In fact, these ideas were by no means new.
Yoshida, Hashimoto, Rai Sanyo, and I'gai had been
executed for them years before Inouye's and Ito's furtive
voyage to London. The work that these latter performed
was not the creation of these ideas, but their translation
into deeds by the union of the four clans of Satsuma,
Choshu, Tosa, and Hi/en. Inouye and I to, raided to the
posts of clan advisers, were among the most important

102 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

diplomatic instruments which the feudal lord-, \\ho >up-
[*>rted the Emperor, had at their di-posal. Ito as-i>ted
Kido to make the alliance with Satsuma, whilst Inouye
was resjH)nsi!)le {or those with To-a and Hi/en.

Hoth before and after the Restoration Inotne was an
uncompromising advocate of progress and of the Kuro-
jw.ini/atioii of the country. The late Viseuum Fnkulu,
formerly lecturer to the Imperial HoiiM-hold, writes in his
Tfnto Sanjiuncn Shi :

In.'uyc's view at that time wa- not onlv l chantv tlu- national
institutions, learning and education to Km-,. pi an nx del-, luit to wipe
out all our ow'ii old cu-t<>m- and h.dnt^ ; in- wanted to >iil>>tituti-
biead for nee, Kuropian clothe--, ior k:m> rie, and to turn tin paddy-
fields into meadow-land to pastille- >heep.

Inouye admits the >oft impea hmeni. lie himself

writes :--

1'iuiei the Tokii^awas (lit- piincip.ti people in the eoutitiv weie ve; v
anti-l> : ei^n. and t;i;- attack on foreign -.hip^ w.t- onlv an outwaid
si^n of the altitude of the whole people. Att--r the Ke-i. .: a'.ioii we
i|Uli_k!y leah/i'd that We e.-iild oiiiv hope ],i itunpcii- With the
foreigner-- liv adopting their nietlio<N. TJ.,- teaeh-ni'^ of tl.e C'line-e
phil- .-oplie! s were p::ncipilly i e-jM.n-iMe f. .1 o.;i in.-nhtv. t >pm;on
-u i;:::; i ound. and t he: e w.:> a i ,u e t" Mm < >pea:n/e i vc i \ ll.in^. I'ndei
I he "I't ikimawas it had been ill.-^.il P.[ jap.ine e t" leave t::e lonntiy.
It. > ind I vvilii tlirc'i' oilier Voting nun !i i i i'oi !anaie!\ In i-n alle to ^o
to L -ndon, and after '.in leturn v. e 1:1 . ;ed vei v li'in^h' t'.e intio
dii' :: n of t ceiLj:i c: !'':n-. A reait:o:i -i-\ 1:1. a-id e\ el \ ' linu 1 , N 1 . i
;ir>di !! 1 ,iv c"'.: lim.^ t'i \\'e tern p:ac'.ic< .\irn\-, \.i\s-. t'ojiti-.
K ha;.it!o:;, etc. I la- n n i! -itu.it:. .n to!! wed. liie nppei >.l.i---
!'-.i:n' :;iui 'i .pai< i.i i t!ia : the lovvi;. .ind \\ ii;d t:e -keicl.'ii o| .1
:-;'.del!l ilYili/- ! late. i"<! t.'ie I,.'.; vie .ind l'.r:\ w e! < : .1 i It \ ']. .) . 'I
: -i e' .;npat i- .n. \\'e iiad, ! '! e\.i:n pie, v < ; :: ' -> o| p.i- IK e I at n .! 1 i
:- :l nor > i iinnial c-.dc- ./I law.

In tii' (it ' ( .1 hi d .;<>, ; niin-nt I n >u\
Mi:u let <d 1 ina::i -, and ]' l :;c'i'-tali\ <>: idi-ii-d tli.ii
; \s .i in fina'u ir- di [i!.i\ i- ! i:io : 'n.ii I. > !' . h; < t .il :\
.ind .'lnr!,i ti.i'i. a' 1 '! l . \-> ln;:i ua- pii'i ij'.ii!. d'n-
tlr- !i. ih torm.it o'i i.i I.UI.IT i urn-ii' . IIOM ,.i. k o|
1 1- e to ,;.jid and .iiveJ . I l< !.a i--!l n i<-< <'\>\ a \ - i .

POLITICS 103

concise and interesting account of tin methods by which
the changes were introduced. He points out what has
been little recogni/ed, that one of the chief reasons for
the abolition of the feudalities was the urgent necessity
ol eentrali/ing the tinancial system, and doing away
with the innumerable currencies, which were in circula-
tion, in accordance \vith the individual tastes of the
dainiyo. Kven so the reform was not sufficient, for paper
money was the only real money which Japan then had.
The taxes were still paid in rice, which had to be converted
into cash, a dangerous operation owing to the heavy
fluctuations of the market. In addition, the expenses of
the government, due to the introduction of .Western
methods, interest on loans and pensions for the samurai
consistent!}' exceeded revenue. Inouye and Shibusawa,
the two Vice-Ministers, unable to get their views on
the liquidation of paper accepted, resigned office in 1873.

In 1.^72 Inouye placed belore the Council a pro-
|x>sal to set aside Y 1,000,000 per annum for rebuilding
purposes in Tokyo, intending to reconstruct the city by
degrees in bricks and stone. The Council refused the
proposal. If it had been accepted Tokyo would have
been saved those appalling conflagrations which annually
cause losses of over I! 1,000,000 per annum.

Count Okuma took charge of the Treasury, but matters
went from bad to worse-, until in iSSi paper was at a
discount of (So per cent. In that year M'atsukata
Masayoshi was appointed Finance Minister and, acting
on the recommendations 01 a committee, presided over by
Inouye, put into operation a scheme for tin: conversion
of tin- currency notes within six years. So successfully
was this operation carried out that it was completed within
four years. It was during this period that the Hank of
Japan was founded, a circumstance with which Inouye
was intimately connected. It hail been during his Yice-
Ministcrship that a banking system on the American plan
was introduced, and thi> system, minus the note-issuing
privilege, remains still in force to-day.

During the Franco- Prussian War Inouve had been

104 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

in London, and afterwards was sent to Berlin. Tin-re
he had opportunities uf studying economics, and it was
the re-ult of his observations at that time which made
him an opponent of the enormous indemnity extracted
from China at the Peace of Shimonoseki. Inouye pre-
dicted the ' boom and the burst ' which followed tin-
victorious campaign. '.Many years later he referred to
this warning, and remarked that the indemnity from
China had gone the way of all other money abroad,
but with this difference, that it had gone quicker.

There was a distinct connection between the late
Marquis's tours abroad during the years following the
Restoration and his subsequent revision policy when
Foreign Minister. He wrote at tliat time :

The exodus of money from the country is one of the most serious
danger* we have to face. Whilst it is of the utmost importance for the
national prestige to restore as soon as possible the Imperial authority
over the Treaty port-:, it is no less important to obtain the abolition of
foreign control over <>:ir taril'f autonomy. Hy this fault not onlv are we
spending our money abroad unnecessarily and extravagantly, but the
development of our natural resources and of our industries is being
indefinitely postponed.

A founder of Japan's monetary system, the go-between
for her first foreign loan, the Marquis remained to tin-
time of his death the most trusted adviser of the late
Kmperor on all matters connected with finance. During
the Russo-Japanese \\"ar he was ap[x>inted a (Governor
of tin- J'reasury, and he was principally responsible
with Baron Shibiisawa for the cxposi- ot the financial
muddle which resulted in the substitution ol Marquis
Salon,! for the late I'rince Katsura i:i I<;M

I he '!>( ",i >'<! statesman was n<> !e>-> intimately < on-
rie< ted with the luinlu't ol {.ip.in'i foreign .ilfans than
with her finance.. His early diplomatic exjxTiencr in
lh' in'ere t . ol In i I. in wa . ,1 ii'tur; p:e!'i<!'- to grea'er
a'tivities .in In hall of tin- nation. Durni.; the earlier
yea; , ot Meiji It. eaiiMMly advocated the -.ubmission ol
lo:e; f ;;i .itl.ni> to the unity and de\elopment of |aji.m.

POLITICS 105

He was largely responsible for the derision of 1^73
not to go to war with Korea. In December 1875
Inouyc was Vice- Plenipotentiary to Count Kurocla in
the mission to Korea to obtain satisfaction for the attack
on the Unyo-Kwan, Although Vice-Plenipotentiary was
the title given him on this occasion, the diplomatic
handling was entirely in his hands, Kuroda in reality
being the commandcr-in-chief of the naval and military
forces which accompanied the mission.

The expedition left Japan on January 6, 1876, and
on February I oth the first meeting of the envoys and
the Korean representatives took place. The devious
diplomacy and internal intrigues of the Korean Court
threatening to waste time, Inouye on February I2th
handed the Korean Council a ten days' ultimatum, which
was finally accepted, and a treaty opening Korea was
signed on February 27th. The Japanese envoys had
followed in every detail and with equal success the
gunboat policy of Commodore Perry. This treaty is
particularly important, not only as the first foreign treaty
signed by Korea, but as the first diplomatic intimation
of Japan's future policy on the mainland. It was a
direct denial of China's sovereignty over Korea. It
is noteworthy, too, that the treaty, whilst obtaining for
Japan consular jurisdiction and cxtra-territoriality in
Korea, refuses the same to Koreans in Japan. In truth
the young nation was beginning to learn with a
vengeance.

Down to the Satsuma rebellion the five statesmen
who have probably had mo>t to do wuh the modernization
of Japan, Inouyc, Ito, Okuma, Vamagata, and Matsu-
kata, occupied only subordinate though important posi-
tions. In a country where the release from feudalism
was but a few years old it was natural that the clan
leaders should still hold the nominal power, even though
they were guided by the advice of their juniors. After
the Satsuma rebellion matters were changed, and the
younger men occupied the government in name as well
as in fact.

icV> JAPAN AT T1IK CROSS ROADS

In i-^r" Inouye became first Minister of Pub'ic Works
and thru Foreign Mini-tcr. In the latter office he
-IK i ceded Tera.shima Muncnori. <>ne of tin- m<M M holarly
(>t t!i<- iead'-rs of tlu- Restoration and tin- lir-i Japanese
Mnn-ter t<> (irc.it Britain, He still held th.it ofiic.- in
i >>,_' when the Koreans rose, e\[>e!led i\\<- |apane-e
!epu--,entative Ilanabusa. and burnt th<- legation. \\'hrn
the new- came to Japan the Council ot State \vas divided.
Kuri'da. Yama;^ata. Terashima, and < >ki wanted \\ar
< ':i!y Prime Iwakura and Inouye were firmly fixed on
a pi-aecful solution. No deci-ion was co^iv to, thoii^ii
the Council sat late into the ni;ht. The tollowinv; <!a\'
a Coun< i! lietore tile lh:o;e wa- held. Inouye tlefi-nd" d
In- ]'oli< y in a \ery (!e\riy argued speech. He ^aid
thit th- .irtion of tin- Seoul mo!> \'/a- not only a inaiter
a.'leciiliL, Ja|ian. lie lielie\cd that il (OIK cilied all the
foreign nation-, because it M eined to him to l>e merely
an cxpre-xion ( .t Korean hatred a.^ain^t all intrud'-r^,
'n tin- cav directed a^ain-^t the |apaii'->e a> the most
oi>no\iou-, o\\i;u; to the ticaty of i'>7'i ha\in^ i>eeii
toned iv japan on Koiva. " Sii' h a mo\rine:i! has
not iteen unknown in tin- (oimtry, and I lor one \se!I
i i-i;i'-n,| >< an t xpre--;nn of it v.h n the Mn;_;Ii^h legation
in Tok'. o \\a- : .it ire i\- fa:iatnai \,mur<ii." ile pi"
p-i-id to '-.end lianai'U a Iiack to Kona un<I' T mi!i'aiy
and na\al e-c.jjt a:.d diiiiai.d exj)l.mat ions I rom 'he
koifin a'llh ir;ii<->. At'i r li'a:in.: tin- arguments ol
Knroda .i'id tli'- pr-\'.ar Mini 'eis tin- Kniji^ror d< < ;ded
i",'i;e!\ in la\'iiir of liimr.r, and .1 re-crip! ua^ i surd
'I hiiii !o carry oil! !n- pi"j."-al. \\'ln n Ilanalm a
.iiii.i.l iia'k n l\"ia ];- i(i;;nd a ''iiii; ('linn-' army
\'..'!'in.' loi jnni. iMiki'i \>\ \.hi'h the K"iran ("oint

!'.! a [M.iii . <i| | " i.i -'inallon. R-:nfoi' einrnis

"> i;,"-,;., had ! . : , !;, pt in ;! |,. M ! v ;i"U',d. I he

Mi ''-I iX'iTfi .1 'r.it'.i rip a' io N::i-cn,

i : t : ! i ' 1 1 . a : i i li a > a ! ; < I ; ' I i ( < 1 1 1 i . ! - had armed,

. ! a ; 1 1 - I .1 i ' 1 1 p i ; I i ; m 1 1 : ; 1 1 1\ " i , i . c i < d

| i: an: ,- ,1,-mand Ih:-

v. i , IMC il', I"iio\\'-d i>\ th- l na:ille

POLITICS 107

of treaties between Korea and Britain, Russia, the United
States, and Germany. It may he remarked tint hefore
dispatching the exj>edition Inouye (ailed a meeting of
the foreign representatives at Tokyo, and, explaining
his plan, obtained their approval.

It was under Inouye and at the suggestion of Goto
Shojiro and Fuku/awa that Japan began to intervene-
in Korea's internal alTairs, and the subsidizing of news-.
papers in Seoul, of .schools and {x-r>onages, l"d to the
creation at the Korean Court of a distinct and influential
Japanophile party. The Franco-Chinese ,\Yar gave
Japan an opportunity of dealing the Queen's party some
heavy blows, and the' voluntary remission of the balance
of the iSS2 indemnity \vas compensated by the ex-
tension to Japan of the most-favoured-nation treatment.
Within a few months Japanese influence had become
so strong as to result in the proclamation of a new
form of government. Against this the Queen's party,
supported by the Chinese, forced a coup d'ctai, burnt
the Japanese legation, and the Minister, >um>unded by
his guard, had to fight his way out of Seoul to Xin>en.
Again the two countries were on the- brink ol war,
and Inouye for the second time saved them. Following
the precedent he had laid down in 18X3 he went himself
to Korea as special envoy with an imposing escort.
Arrived at Seoul on January }rd, he opened negotiations
on the <Sili with Kin-ko->hin, the Korean Fon ign
Minister, and, in spite of the threats of the Chinese
envoy against both Japan and Kore.i, in two da\s had
obtained the signature of a treaty embodying apologies
and indemnities. The policy of Inouye in respect to
Korea is particularly worthy of admiration. He made
no exorbitant demands on that country, and the modesty
of the indemnity required created, indeed, considerable
discontent in Japan. I kit Inouye was satisfied with a
moderate compensation because he had no belief in
the impossibility of friend>hip between Korean and
Japanese under wi>e and temperate guidance, and
because he realized that the crux of the trouble lay

loS JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

not in Seoul but in IVkin. For 1 this reason, his mission
accomplished, I to was dispatched to China, and extracted
from Li-hung-Chang the Convention of Tientsin, which
placed the two countries on a level in regard to
Korea. The Chinese have a proverb, " IK* who plays
the guitar has his eyes fixed on the swallows,"
and the Inouye mission was an exemplification of
the same.

During his long occupation of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs (iXjS-.S^i Inouye made various attempts to
obtain a revision of the treaties with foreign Powers,
but without success.

Of the Japanese statesmen of that time he was the
one most fitted by his liberal and progressive -pint
and by his knowledge of foreign conditions to essay
the task. Revision had by 18X2, when he made his first
attempt, already become the principal national demand,
and it was incumbent on the Government to make every
effort to carry it through before the new order of things
to be created by the Constitution should arise. Inouye
had very definite \iews on re\ision. He believed that
unles- s<,me rearrangement of the position of the Powers
was arrived at Japan inight easily be forced into a
similar position to Kgypt. He recognized that the
eountry was not ye! in a -ulliciently advained state to be
able to demand the complete withdrawal of consular
jurisdiction, but he telt That it was ^utii* iently advan< ed
to demand an immediate revision, provided that
guarantee^ were guen to the Powers in judicial
matter- in view of the non-completion of the codes and
the miprrfei ; organi/atioii of the judicature. He was
able to reali/e the ne< e-sit v of a < r ri,promi -e, < -ven thotr.di
th it compromise should ontain features di-.ta telul to
the turd'y n.iMonalism wli;< !i the I\- -.torat ion lia<l gi\eii
i*u;li to in ihe inuntry. lie w.r> th" more eager to
o!i, tin revision as !) f'-l; very wrongly t!ia: the I'-tti-rs
in Japan' tan'! aiitonoim \\eie setioii-. lundran* < -^ to

the ( leVeb j)I!le:i* ol t !|e ( i <UIlt !'\ .

At In. In -t .itt'inpt i'i i '-'< .- r \\.i-. < I'-n t" him that

POLITICS 109

the foreign representatives were unwilling to agree to
revision until reforms had been more effectually carried
out. This made Inouye more enthusiastic than ever
lor the Kuropeani/ation of the land. He handed each
of the representatives a schedule of the proposed
measures, and himself took the lead in their reali/a-
tion. The. Foreign Ol'iice became the hub of the
Western model school. He said, "The only way to
prove our Kuropeani/ation is to be it." European clothes
were officially encouraged, European coiffure for ladies
approved, Western fashions of dancing introduced and
even officially taught, foreign languages added to school
curriculums, social halls built, foreign architecture ad-
mired and copied. Side by side with these lighter
attainments foreign advisers were westernizing govern-
ment departments, laying railroads, building lighthouses,
drafting codes. Ito brought back from Europe the
Prussian grades of nobility and a Bismarckian ca^t-iron
Constitution. In all of these changes Inouye had a
large share, for in the Europeanization of (lie land he
was a whole-hogger second to none. 1

By iS8(>, when the Daijokwan with its Ministers
of the Right and Left had been abolished and Ito
presided over the first Cabinet, matters were ripe for
a new attempt. By April, 1887, an agreement with
the sixteen Powers had reached the point where only
signatures were needed. Unhappily at the last moment
a split in the official ranks occurred, a popular agitation
arose against the proposed admission of foreign judges
to the bench, even though officials of the Japanese
Government and not of their nationals, an agitation
increased by the failure of the Japanese prosecution
in the case of the ss. Nonnanton, and Inouye found him-
self obliged to withdraw the proposals. A few days

1 Inouye in i8cS6 gave a party at his country villa, which the
Kmpcror, Empress, and Dowager Empress attended. It was the
lirst time the Imperial personages witnessed a theatrical perturmancc.
It was he also who arranged the performance given by the Chari'ini
circus in the Imperial Palace garden-; in the sime year.

no JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

later he n--i_;ned oftice, and the Cabinet shortly followed
him. Thu.- eiid<-d the fmirth attempt to re\ ise the
treaties Th" conciliatory attitiulr of practical states-
m.m-hip wa> deteau-d )jy the sentimental inflexibility
of inujuiet patriotism.

ln<uve'- tenure of the Foreign < Mtiee was longer
than thai of any Minister before or since. It co\ered
a period of considerable TVMlessne-* in the Far Ka>t,
and oiu-re 1 to the Japanese op[)or;nnitie> tor I'Xpan^ion
\\ir.iii a le-> \\i->' and more a;^t;r(S-i\e man would have
a< rpted. In japan it-clt there \\as not during the
\\hok jieiiod any -< -rioiis tension with any one of the
l'reat\ l'o\sei-. uhilst the>e \'ears were marked by very
di-:inet step-, on the p.uh oi [>ro^'res>. l-\ir thi^ Inouye
\\.i- lar^el\ n -pon-iiiir. It i-- no -li^lu praise to be
ail<- to -a\ of ,i Mim-t- r tha'. lr nine \i-ars he reconciled
tin- iiiterr-t- of >ixteeii \\V-tern I'o\\er>. reproenteil by
^:Xt< t ri iTotcht ity. :li'eral ' li\er^,' and brought an
i iririita! State ihroti.di I!K- labour^ ot political i hild-
l.inh ai:d \uth:n nu-a- urablc distaiu e of C'hri>tian
adniini-traiioii.

! oi th- taK'ii oi tlr- iilth attrinpt Inouye \\'as in
jiir; n- j, .;i -i ; ,'c. M.ii(ji:i^ S.;i inji, acting under instruc-
tio;i> ti'oiii < 'oun: < ikian.i, \\ ho uas J^'orei;;;! Minister
in ?ht Kur-'di Cabine! i'i lS.'- : o. nt-;Mii.itcd. and actually
:iii;:a!!rd. v\ .th Colin; Ih-rb ri jii.niank. a diatt re\ i>ion
oi :ln- treaty \s:t!i (I. rh:any. I'nhajipily 1 lie 7'irtifs
prein iture!;, juil'l: !, d lii.- 'u xt of t!.<- proposed re\i~ion,
uhiili \\ a pla'M a'l. Inoti\eV j.lan ot iS,X'-~. Ito
and Inou\e. \\lio alter la- resignation had been apjxnnted
< oa:n ;!lor to th ( - Mikado, he.nl'-d the oj)jm>ition to it,
;!; lonner .1- bein.; coinrar to the n \\ ( 'oiistr.ution.

<- '.!' r i ia n^- own

i.- ;.,e i ..:...; i . ; j,. .; led < > la an. i, i u: Ma: -uk.it a and
,:, ;h-- M ii.. '. ot 1- in an e ,n\<[ ( 'onunanu at ion ,

id.. :;d d' :: and' d a < oiin< il b'-loic th" Ihrom-.

i.i :-,! i; , .: ; uliiay ui.id m.htiail oi ( 'ctoiier i ^\\\
-.;!.;; a '. . l n b<-lli;; l<a-h<d J'.eloi, t!;e adjou:ned

Mi: (oul.l I).- IK Id a fan iti' 1>\ n mi-- of Karo

POLITICS in

had blown < )kumu's leg oil and the Cabinet and its
revision scheme into nothing.

In addition to the personal pique that Inouye ma\
have felt over ( >kuma's draft there were strong political
reasons for opposition. The. revision of the treaties
was by far the most important matter then before the
public, and had been made a strong card by all the
political parties to whom the cian leaders were naturally
opposed. They had no intention of allowing Okuma,
who had transferred his allegiance- from clan to party,
to attain the triumph of securing revision. ho. Yama-
gata, and Inouye consequently formed a cabal against
Okuma, and were joined by Matsiikata, a strong clans-
man, and Cioto Shojiro, a passionate nationalist, who
by his fiery eloquence \vas enabled to carry with him
the mass of the people. The smashing of the Oerman
treaty was the result, but as important to the clansmen
was the snatching of what would have been an enormous
victory from the hands of the patty politicians.

In the second Ito Cabinet, which made and con-
ducted the war with China, Inouye occupied the Ministry
for Home Affairs, and temporarily those of Minister
President and Minister of Finance. Me was responsible
for and conducted the lighting Budget of 1893, which
was only compromised between the Ministry and the
Diet by the personal intervention ot the Kmperor. He
resigned office in October, 1094, to become Minister
and Adviser to Korea during the war. His regime a:
Seoul was completely successful, for, following the policy
which he had laid down when Foreign Minister, and
which had guided him in 1880, he did everything'
possible to conciliate the Koreans, thus imposing an
effective though galling restraint both on the: anti-
[apanese intrigues ol the Oueen's party and on the
anti-Korean one- ot an important band of miiit.irisi
adventurers, who, .siibsidi/ed by extremists in Japan.
spent their whole energies in trying to create trouble
between the two countries.

The recall of Inuuvc in i8<)^ \\.\-\ disastrous results.

M2 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

Ho>hi Torn and okamoto Ryonosukc were respectively
political and military Advisers to Korea, the one
notorious for his bludgeon politics, the other equally
known a- .1 ruffian of the worst character and the tool
of the militarist party in Tokyo. The re.su It was in-
evitable. Miura, th:- new envoy, acting under higher
instructions, shut his eyes to their intrigues, and within
a few weeks of his appointment the Oueen of Korea,
with a number of her ladies and the Minister of her
Household, were horribly murdered. It is evidence of
the high hand with which the military party carried
matters in Japan after the war that the officers, one
of whom was (ieneral Haion Kusunose (Minister of
War in 19141, were found not guilty, inasmuch as
they had only followed the instructions of the Minister,
whilst the Minister was found not guilty, inasmuch as
though he had admittedly planned the murder of the
(.Hieen In- had not himself murdered her (Judgment of
Hiroshima C.'hiho Saibancho, January 25, 1916 ; Judg-
ment of C'ourt Martial at Hiroshima, January 21, 1910).
It may be noted that Inoiiye on leaving Korea had
wrongly condemned the intrigues of these ronin and
rascals, which bad cau->ed him a good deal of trouble,
and predicted some di.-a>ter unless their activities were
curtailed. Alter ihe farce of the trials he expressed
linn-ell very strongly < >n the matter in a memorial to
the ('abiiiet. The net results of the murder were to
de-troy th'- whole of hi-, work in Korea since 1878,
and to give Ku-sia an opportunity, of \\hich she sjx-edily
a\ ailed herself, of replacing Japanese influence at the
Korean ('oiirt.

In tin- third Ito Mini-try, uhen Japan was suffering
under the (oll.ipM- of the ('hinese Indemnity boom,
Inotr.e v,as (ailed to tal;e the Ministry of l-'niaiice.
When ihc ( 'abinet fell before a coalition of tin 1 parties
he determined to r<ti;e from public attait-. t'nlike
lii, r ontemjH iraries, Yan;a; r ata, Ito, Mat-.ukata, Okuma,
.uid <)\am.i. he has -.-teadily declined otii< e .since.

iMiinc.' the pr. MI' ( i ntury a gre.it ileal has been

rouTics 113

heard of the ' KIder Statesmen ' of Japan. I hi- < icnro
(Council, su^cs i<-d by Ili> at th- < Kaka conference in
i<">74 to provide a continuity of policy and the sepa-
ration of the advi.-ory from the executive, consists of
personal advisers of the Kmperor, and is drawn from
the surviving statesmen of Mciji who have been respon-
sihle, for the building of modern Japan. It has no
position under the Constitution. iMirin;.; the last few
years its members have been Yama^ata, ho, Inonye,
Matsukaia, S ijonji and < )kuma beiiu; ex< luded until
this year owin;;' to then- connection with party politic-,.
It was in the Cienro Council that Inouye since i.So,.S
made his influence most felt, and this because of his
own characteristics and by reason of the composition
of the. Council. The three principal members were
Yamai;a ( a, Inouye, and Ito. ( )yama was a Ood-natured,
affable authority on military alTairs, and declined, except
on tile rarest occasions, to ;.;o outride tiK:in. Matsiika'a
is a financier, responsible for the establishment of Japan
on a t-M>!d basis, and his advice is respected on all
monetary matters and as the adherent of the Satsuma
(Navy )clan. Yama;j,ata, Inouye, and (to are all Choshu
men, and Inouye \vas undoubtedly the most j)owerful of
the three. Between Yama-ata and Ito there was always
bail feeling. The former is a bureaucrat, the direct
product ol feudal times, who regards the people- as
a regiment to be drilled and the ari-tocrats as the only
nil in v," class. Himself of <;ood birth, an hereditary
aristocrat, he stron:;i\- di.-liked Ito as a man of common
origin with more cuininL;' than brains and less manners
than ambition. So lon;_;' as I;o a^r< ed to [)lay the
clan i;'ame so lon^ he could endure him, but directly
Ito threw over the cians tor (he parties his fate \va.s
sealed. (That Ko rose to the jjiisiti-m he did was
partly due to his own ability and opportunities, partly
to the Imperial favour, but al-o to <L lari^e extent thanks
to Inouye's intelligence and pcrsor.alky. i

J>etween \'ama;.;'ata and Ito sto:_Kl the sui>ject of this
sketch, a man of j;\>od birth, of suj)en'or abilities to

H4 J.M'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

either, .inl of ^reat diplomatic adroitiu--^. In the
( ii-nro. so lon;^ a- I to \va> a member, 1 homes role
\va< thai of peacemaker between the two.

Inouye'- principal characteristic ua> unas>ertiveness.

Although Mai-ukata figure.-, i,ir more in the public eye
a- the creator of the financial Jap. in of to-day, it ua:-
M. 110,1:1-. inoiiye \\lio laid the foundations on which M.it-
-ukata built and v. ho was the ultimate referee on .i!l
financial mailer-, and eonseijiu ntly on all n,i\.d and
military ina'ter- "the lornier stale-man !-> a depart-
melltal expert, the laiter ,1 deCI-he jlld.'.e."
ho :;ot and took the credit of the (.'oiivent ion oi Tientsin,
i; \\a- I nome \vho M-nt him and draft* d ln^ m^tnic-
tion-. 'I'lioti:Ji Yama-aia i> pr.ii-ed ("..r the >y-tein ol
1'ical admini-uaii''!!, n v..t- hn.uxc \\ho initiated the
idea and -ent him io l.urij)i . II Inoirve'^ policy had
In -en pur-U' d in Korea alter hi- ricall in iS>5 theii
v.ould ne\er ha\c heeii an> ku>so- Japancx.- \\'ai, lor
th'' jiolicy of < < iti< iliat .on and pea. 'lal ]'-net rat ion ol
uhuh lie u'a- the advo( ate would ha\e liound Korea to
Japan by the bond- ot commerce and L;ooduill. It
ua- for tin- rta-on thai he di^appnned ot th'- An^!<>-
|apane-e Alhanci , and i: \\a> a' IIH in-ti;',.i! ion that
Ito ueii- to St. 1'et' -rdiur ; in I oo j to negotiate an
a^reem- nt v. !th l\n sia. Ib li- id lliat tin- Alliance u a
i diieet ihii-at to Kn--ia, and tlia'. it a \\ ar iollo\\<-<! it
uould IIII]M) c o!i .iii even \ iciorioii> Japan an alnio t
in iij>jxiitable Imani :al burihn. an eslini.ite \sln.li ha
pi 1 1\ i-d \ i-ry f orrect .

Ill- la k 111 th ( . Ill" < "oil! nil in< e the \\.u ha
n.ainl\ In en ih- ri -' ri ! i on .>! tin- d' -n land- < 'I t he
1 1 1 1 , 1! . 1 1 -; 1.1 1 ! ion \\ It III! I I'e.i oll.li lie lllli:! - . A- lie l iod

li \-..i h" the builer b tue.-n \.iiii.i. .ita and h;-, m-i-teiM
demand I' n nev. d;\ i i >;i < . c id Mi: nkata u :: ii hi no
! e\p n -!\ e ind 1 ;:' I 1 'i i.e\\ hip .

N e -, i - 1 1 i I : . ; 1 1 .' 1 r i ' : i ' I i > 1 1 1 , 1 ol .S i; >. ' IK ; I!)''. .m<l l\liio b. * .line

rouTio 115

the central figure of Japanese politic, and sought to
crush tin- famous Satsuma - Choshu coalition by re-
placing its elements \\ith member^ of the Liberal party,
it was Inouye uho manipulated the wires \\hich pulled
him down. lie investigated the Hokkaido Reservation
scandal and discreetly u.-^ed it against the Ministry,
though he left to ho the care of the puMic agitation
and to Matsukata some year-, after the expulsion of
( )kuma from the Privy Council. Thirty-three years
Liter (10141 it was Inouye u ho called ( )kuma back
to oilier to form a Choshu cum Doshikai Ministry.

\\'hen the veteran-- of Meiji decided to become itikyo
and to leave to younger men the actual administration
whilst they Idled the role of advisers behind the screen,
it was Inouye who suggested thi-. solution of the political
stalemate, and uho belie\ed that by this removal of
both ho and Yamagata I rom public lift 1 a satisfactory
ending of the feud between them would be attained.
Yamagata's approval was obtained by the nomination
of Katsura to the Premiership. ho agreed because
he thought that he recognized Katsura as a bureaucrat
who would fall foul of the parties and by a defeat in
the Diet necessitate his own recall to office. In leading
the attack from out>ide the House ho committed political
hari-luri, for Katsura dissolved the Diet and insisted
on ho being shelved in the Privy Council, his place
as leader of the Seiyukwai being taken by Marquis
Saionji. Inoitxe, both tor c'an and family reasons, in
addition to hi-^ \icws as a stale-man, could not support
ho in his attacks on Katsura. ^n July 12. 1903, when
he re-tired from politic^ to lake Saionji's place as Pre-i-
dent of the Pri\y Coiuicil, ho fell, and thereafter was
of little account in the affairs of the nation. As a
matter of courtesy or owing to Imperial favour his
advice "was asked, but almost as regularly unheeded.

No account of the late Marquis should omit a
reference to his matrimonial alliances, \\hich have played
a great part in the hi-tory of modern Japan. In countries
where the feudal svstem is or has been the \vonien

u6 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

of the aristocratic classes are often u-eft:l anil \alu-
ublc though pa-~ive as Mrs of their familie-. Through-
out the ages woman has been a pawn to advance the
ambition- and intere>t- of the males. Marriage alhanee-
often w.ll give the key to the domination ot elans and
faction-, in Japan as in England.

A clan-man of Chos'nu, Inouyc strengthened his ]x>-i-
ti'n h\ marriage with a daughter of Nitta Tadasama,
a leading (Ia : niyo of Cho-hn. llis brother-in-law, the
pre-ent \ !-count Nitta, marri: d Inoko, -i-t> r of Yi-count
Mori, a -c.on oi th" Prince- Mori, the Lord- of Cho-hu.
'1 he decea-ed's state.-man's heir i- hU neplu w. Inouye
Katstmosuke, lately Japane-r Amba--ador in London,
M>n ol the Marquis's e!d<-r brother Ikutaro, and married
to the lat" Manjuis's daughter. Im-uye Kat-nnosuke i>
blood brother of I'-Miee ho Hiroknni, \'ne-()rand
Chamberlain, v.ho married the late Prince Ito's daughter
and wa- adoj>ted ;LS his -on and heir. Ilaroii Keiroku
T-ud/uki, th" J'rivy (.'ounciilor, formerly in the I-'oreign
( M;ice, and well known as the late Prune Ito's diplo-
matic a-.-istaw on hi^ journey.-, abroad, i> married to
Mit-nko, -ister of the Marchion--,s Inouye. The late
Pnnce Kat-ura inarned a.-, hi^ .-eeond \vite Kana, .i'!op!ed
daughter ol Ma!'(ji:;> Inou\e, uhil^t hin son and heir
by hi- lir.-'. iii.irriage, \"oi< hi, married the Manjui-':
men-, T i, <1 .iu ;hter of the Vi-eonnt Nitta. The ion-
iieetion between th- 1 K.it ura and Inouye family goes
even t.irh'-r, 1 r hioir.e Kat-uno-uke's h'-ir and -on
by adojri'in, Sa'uro, i- blood >oa ot the late Prince
KatMira by In- :ir-t rnarriag'e.. i'.aron ho P>'inkn In,
le ;it iTiii/'-i 1 -on ( f t!i>- 1 it'- l'r:;ie.- I to, marri'-d a datighti i
of th" lite Princ I\a! -tira. A connection iie;\Mt-n
Inon\i- .in 1 ;,tri\ jo!;:;' j, -^cen r;ot only in th I'o
relation-hip :ni: ;n the marriage of Ii.ua \\< i. leader
d tli- Sriv.ikwai ai!i \-Mim t< r of llon.e Allait-.
to the d. .';.;!. 'e; o! I'M- Ma^hion ^ hv h -r in T mariiag.e
\\ith the !aT Mi N'.ii.ai, a. \\'-\l a- in the adoption
I-Y Marijili Sa: 'iin "1 a Mor; .r h;- h'-ir. and the ngage-

!.. n' ot till llf i! b) the late PlliM' 1 Kai.UM .1. lll-

-'-r onal -< retar.

POLITICS 117

The above by no means represents the full extent
of the alliances and connections established by the late
Marquis through his family, but it will give some slight
idea of the strings which wen; ] allied from his mansion
in Axabu, and ca-t some light on the infinite intricacies
of Japanese jxilitics.

A diplomat of rare foresight and ability, a financier
of marked capacity and a statesman of the highest
order, the death of Inouye Kaoru in 1915 was a loss
which Japan could ill allord. No word can better describe

*t i

the late Marquis than ' judgmatical,' if one may coin
it. lie was unrivalled at weighing the pros and cons
of a question, and it was rarely that his instinct did not
lead him to a safe <'uul honourable compromise. He
had in a high degree that art of using others which
was so marked a feature of Japanese political life in
the last century. He has been described as being all
head and no heart. This was true in that he had few
enthusiasms except Japan.

The most brilliant of the brilliant Sat-cho combina-
tion, no other member of it approached him in sacrifice
of personal pride and ambition to the interests of country,
party, and people, and it is unlikely that any of the
present statesmen of Japan will seriously rival his
reputation.

The I to adherents now occupy a far smaller position
in the affairs of State than was to have been expected
trom their brilliant start. Viscount Suyematsu, ex-
Minister for Home Affairs, is a Privy Councillor, but
has entirely dropped out of politics, and is engaged on
translating" Roman Law. He is one of the most accom-
plished scholars in Japan and a writer of uta of excep-
tional merit. Mr. llenshiro Ni^hi has never risen above
a Secretaryship in the Diplomatic Service. These- two
men were sons-in-law of the Prince, but neither Viscoum
I to Miyoji nor Viscount Kaiieko. two of his principal
adherents, have retained any trace of the political prestige
which accrued to them beiore hi-, assassination. Marquis
Inouve remained therefore the 1m: > of the Choshu anti-

nS JAl'AN AT T11K CROSS ROADS

Yama^ata fait ton. a faction whi> h hi- ae< epted a ba-i:in.l
fonn nf npre-cntat P. v >\ e: ; ment bv it-. <///<' uith
the Sei\ukwai. 'J'h.it e\en'. \'.a- tit a < < >n idei able
extent made po--ib!e jiy tin- la:m'y connection of Mr.
llara Kei uith Maicpi Ino'i-.e, he lu\in- mari;ed die
daughter <>t th'- Ma: '< h < me .-> b\ her nr-t manna. ;e uith
the late Mr. Nakai. I'he ( 1 -. eni'- -- < it I'iincc Yama,;aia
in LM-ttniL; Kat-nra a; [x>;n'.<-d a- Trenn- eati now 1>-
pioptils appreciated. \\V bin;., t< nt'.in die pi.v.er n
ln> oun hand-, and at all e.ent- th 1 - apji-araiiic >f non
i i imp lianre, he nominate 1 a man iiotonoM-l) o; !n- vieu-.,
\\ho by In-, family orille' : j. .;; - \'. lih Ii'ouye and It'" \\a--
able to eontiol the ha'ehd I )!;. Ka'-ura, t'lank-- to
lnoti\ e and I laia, earned on! the plan "\a tly a - piopn-ed.
but "ti ln> own a e ( ,u?it ueiu Inrlher and bioa_.dll die
ManjUi-. Sa:'>!i|i, u ho hid -uci ceded ho a- h' ad o| the
S'-i-su-kuai. into the i in le. Saionji adopted a- In- hen
the \otin;.;er broth -r oi I'nne. MOM. [!) a'l to. ta'ie head
o| < ho-hn. !\a' nr.. tools t|a- ! .pn d -on a- in- Trp-ate
Set ri-tary. beeau-. 1 he Irm '!) had in t-'.ie'al d t \ - b'-c!i
a retain- r oi di Lord ot ( 'ho hn. 1 lierealte: tlr p'aii \sa

iin|)l'. Ill' S i . n!. u .1 1, ui;h hi"ii\e a- a pix<>t. \\ a -
tied to Kat -nra and Saionji. r a''dle oi \\hi.li wa-
I 'i i mi' T. It hi- [irovc. 1 ;li'' n 10 t p rii< imi riihii in e
in mod' rn | a pan . \\ h i \ ani.i at a ue-'i u i o- , \\a - in
laihir.; to pel. er.i- ili.it |\ i : uia \\.i- -o \\ell > innei le.|
and -n i apable that h- i on' 1 do uitlnra! In- aid. and
fur tin r. that h- wa o am' > ' : >'i di i' ii \: > d 1 do o.

I h' n he icali 1 the 1 1 nth o) in I i; m r. in- . >/'//

ni'i /:/ f\iir<t i < h r:t, ' I ,\ e. i di ; >o ,k ii.

Id! Iroin the tree.'

|n ; ., ( IP hn i o!
th' Arm . . ih ' > ''' \ t'i ' i . : S> \ : , a 1 . I i .d ,< .r io ,.

I n, m< .-. and Indn tri- I; :!i-- f,o ! ,!.-> . i,. u
th . h i\.- Lr 1. ( !' th.? p: -\ !

a:, x'.ni in ! I t' r in . ,i :. rii la i ..I 'he

POLITICS 119

for ilic establishment of a hank, which, in capital, manage -
nictit, and object-, should ! exclusively representative
of Satsiima.

Marquis Ma! -ukata is the pivot of the clan matrimonial
ventures, and as he is a man \vith a quiverful, he i-,
well fitted for the position. A photograph taken two
years av,o showed the veteran statesman surrounded by
his family o! the first and ^eeond generations, eighty-
four in number. A Tokyo story ha-, it that on one occasion
the late Kmperor asked the Marquis how many children
he had, to which the solemn but stereotyped response
to all Imperial inquiries came, " Your Majesty, I will
have strict invent Ration made !

Iwao Matsukala, the Marquis's heir is Vice-President
of the i 51)1 liank, and married the aunt of Haron
Nagayo.

1 1 is second SOD, Shosaku, holds hi^h rank in the
diplomatic service, and married a daughter ot the !a!e
llaron Iwa/aki, of the Mitsii P.ishi. The third son,
Koejro (the President of the Kawasaki Dockyard).
married a daughter of Viscount Kuki, Privy Councillor.
The fourth, Masao, is a Director of the Naniwa Hank,
and is married to a daughter of Admiral Yauara. The
fifth, < Hohiko, Hirector of the Japan Oil Company, is
married to a daughter of Admiral Court Yamamoto,
Masukama, the .-ixth son, js Pre-ident of the Imperial
Sut;ar ('ompaiiy, and married to a daughter of Mr.
Arai, the banki-r, whilst \'ochixuk< > , the seventh, is a
head ol department in th Hank of Japan, and married
the daughter of Viscount inouye Ma-am. ()].(> daughter
is married lo Mr. l\a\\akami. Hiri-i-ior of the ll\j)ihec
l>ank, anollier to Mr. Matsumoto, brother ot Admiral
Matsnmoio. an<l a : hird to Mr. Ilorikoshi the silk
magnate.

If wt- iollow out some of the matrimonial conned ions
thus made we shall find a very complete control of the
Navy by Sat-uma. For example, the Iwa/akis, the
Yicker- of Japan, are linked up by a double 'marriage,
that ot Sho,.iku Matsukata reterred to al)o\e, and by

120 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

the inarna^t - ot Yukik<>, aunt ot tin- prvM-nt head> of
the firm. to tin- late Count Sho-jro. a To-.i man, but
identified uith Sat-uma in;eiv~i-. af:er the fall of the
Sut-Cho-IIi-To < omi'inat.o:; 1:1 i S" ;,. ar,d of hi- daughter,
Saiiai, to tin- late liaroii Yano-uke I\va/aki, a C.IM- of
an line!-- marrying hi- o\v;i m v. The late Count Coto'^
daucjKer married the Lit I!aro:i Xa^ayo, \\hox- daughter
married Iwao Mat-ukata. it uv turn to th' 1 other ieafl-
ii:;.; Sat-unia (imro, ('oun: Yarnainoto. \ve lirid a similar
(our-i.- of ii"\-c!o|,:nrnt and i-nxclopnu-nt. Iii-> >i\ and
heir, a naval o nicer, ha- married into th.' rich 1 1 irai laiiu!\ .
( >;;e il.iu^htrr, as we !ia\'e st-di, lia~. ie,-n allied to the
Mat-ukatas, another married ('ijitain TakaraSe. who lia^
-iin;e ri>en to he \'i> e-. \diniia 1 and \'in Minister ol
Marine. \'et another daughter married Lieutenant Kaini-
rnura, adopted ^on ot Admiral Kaminiura, and xoun^i-r

on of the late Admral Marjui-- Judo Sai;;o. It i->
the ^aine \\-itli the Kaiia\ama and Xire lamihe^. ('ount
Kab.r.'ama married an aunt t Conn! Yamamoto ; hi^

on, a director ol tip' Iloki.ailo I'an!;-. married a M-ter
of ('cm:.! Kauamura. Mi' 1 da.i. hn-r ot tu late \'i->(<mnt
Xi;e married A liniral liaio.n Sar.o, M:ni-:er ot til Xa\y
from I v ' : to 1914. \\<- e. therefore, thai 'he tamilie.
of ill'- three ton.; 1-r-, til tiie [aj'.in -e Xa\'y, Xire, Sai,i;o.
and Kalia;. am i. ha'.e retained ri:J.t dov,;i to Ia~t year
a t omplete (dnti'ol ot tlia*. d"pai'lmen:. In addition they
Ka\e l.iou ,h; v.:' ; ;;.; t'i" or'-i; oi t:i -i: in;lu :!<< tin- t\so
principal do. k'/ai 1 (on <::,. the Mi!-;: lii h; and Kaua
-a!:i, and al-o ni/tain-- 1 a linger ia many o! the Iradiii-^
tmam a! in.'imtion- in the lountiv. h 'he nicti.o U ot

la;. m m are pro; . : '.. \\\< ',} :>, d, ilien t!,. :e v. i '.]
no iliiii< ult v in i oj, ip: eh'-n- iin; the u h . - and A h i e|oi > ,
'.) ;h' jo't'-n a ::m ,i :ra'.on ;. ,: one, < >' ilv o-,ni:r> !>;;;
ot man'.' o! .; nio t pro mni-nt linan .1! in-trn'ion .

I he ai :den! oi [,;i :h i :." jUal '.:<..': i:\ t >i a iiank
inar.a, "P or to: a':v oiii : p i i'lon >l : _ >:i ; 'i! .{-. . a'cj

d'lro-i; h lii'h- -t . :'i pn:. ! , t i .n I :i I have

r ;! 'id i-;o ; 1 . :-vi: ;:n, a !,c ' ' o ! n ate je. ;

a ; lli't . ' in' ' it i. at ion hi l.ol da! d o j.; \:, \ I hi

POLITICS 121

authorities have not da ml to i^rant tin; fullest investi-
gation. 1

Mar(|iiis Malsukata has, considering the important posts
which he has tilled, concerned himself hut little with
the question of representative government. A typical
bureaucrat, he opjx)sed any concession.-, towards consti-
tutionalism : In- wa-- responsible for the dismissal of
( )kuma from the Privy ("ouncil in !<>'oi, because of his
connection with the Pro;;res>ivc j)arty. Later, however,
he imitated I to in making a virtue of necessity, and
he has shown himsell evn more alienable ( () the j)oj>ular
will, owino" to the inlluence of his family, who are very
much closer in touch with popular feeling than is he.

In i 01 i, when 1 arrived in Japan, the second Katsura
Mini-try had ju^t re-i^nril, and Marquis Saionji had
taken office for the second time. Of that administration
ot Prince Katsura, which had closed in September, I
had no experience, but by all account^ it will be re-
membered in Japan as one ot the most autocratic' which
the country ever suffered. It had come into power;
ostensibly on account of the miserable- financial results
of the first Saionji Cabinet : but, as Count llayashi
points out, Prince Katsura and the (ienro from behind!
the curtain were really responsible for the IJud^et and
its failure, and the real cause ot the change was Katsura's
impatience at inaction and Yama^ata's dislike of Saionji.
The Katsura Cabinet which followed consi>tcd of Prince
Katsura and some others. JJeyond the Premier there were
no men of strength and independence in it, and if there
had been they would soon have left it. In Japan
Ministers are not responsible to Parliament, but only

1 For example, the I-' 1 ;rd of Ar.dil in H)I2 repelled that the \V;u
Department i;.t v been .,u;l;y (if il.irty \\\'^ c L-CS u! m;>.ippriipriatiiin ot
inonev. In ci^iit cf llit-M 1 ca-es ir. . ie\ v:is .i-p-plieel to purpo.-es not
^anctii'ncd bv te.e 1 'iet : in i( :ir eti.er C:IM.'S tin- t>ii:ei..is rcspcinsihlc
h.id obtaii'ud the I'.i'Xies b\ - t.ilsc p 1 . etuiice^ : in >eve;!;eeii case>
contracts h.id 'nee 1 .'. a',K';;i''i \vit,i.nit le.uier contr.irx to t!:>' Ihul^ct ;
in t\vo cast > lull p.^vnieni li;ui i xeii ni.ule tor (ielicieiit wi.'i'k ; and one
case the Board de>cribes ;i^ iir ^^iy improper use of pi-bi;c fund;..

22 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

to the Premier, who is answerable to tin- Mikado. As
a con-etjuence, under Katsura Ministers were nothing
belter than senior clerks or departmental managers. Thai
Japan -o enormously increased her position and pre-tu;c
in th'- \\orld between 1001 and 1911 is almost entirely
due to him, and to the support he received iroin the late
Kmperor and the ( imro. and is. tribute to his remarkable
energy, capacity, and >Hf sufficiency. In neither hi^
lir-t nor his M-cond ('abinet had he any outstanding
figure whoM- will mi.dn cla-di with hi-, or u hose prineiples
and ] roclivities mi^ht wield a -trover influence than hi--.
Kven Koinura. Japan'- most brilliant diplomatist. Terauehi,
her Kitchener, and Yamamoto, her 1 i-her. worked
entirely under th order- of a Premier, who was himself
i apable ot holding any portfolio, and did actually held
tho-e of the Mini-trie- of Home Aifairs, \\'ar. l-"oreii;n
.\ltair-, ! inanee. and Induration. The -eeond adminis-
tration of thi- ( -\traortlinar\- man wa> noli'worihy to the
woi'ld at lar;^e tor the annexation ot Korea and the exe-
cution of Kotokn. the MI-' ailed Soejali-t, but in Jap. in
it uill lon^ be renie'nbercd a- a nn!i!ar\' de-j'oti-in and
a financial muddle. To maintain clan harmoiu and
national |re-ti;;e a wild e\|ian-ion in armament- \\a.>
considered nee es-ary, thou;.;h the remission o! some ot
tin- national bin'<len- \\a^ urgent to allay the popular
unnM. Katsura ru-h-'d in \\hejc linaiiMer, feared to
ip-ad. and him^-li iok Mini tr\ oi I-'in mce, thouvji he
had no exp*-rienec and i>ni ih'- ha 'i- -I notion- o|
e onomi' - It is dii" in pa r 'i to ;ii- expenditure on the
Isn---ian \\'av. !>ni tar more to hi^ ra h linani lal admiiii-
tration thai fapan ha- -o li'H" credit in the niai'kels
abroad. 1 h- tab'-- ot n,a: \ el'ou-, bu' hop c\i telil ;'ol<l
mine-,. Ion;; la!- d and e. rei bill-, foi<"l conver-ion-
ai'd li' ; i: irii; pi i' e-, |ii; . l:n;: \s th Sj-i ;al .\< < >M:t .
: > | .- . 1 1 U e i i \ < and 1 1 1 p i n - , aip! the \\ i ! d e i p j . i n 1 1 v t .
!o (orei-n bon ! hold, i \\ : ail pail and pn > ! ot hi-
IHI!'. .. and <jni'kl\ i< I'l'-d the ioii:itr\ !' a .i-nditioii
-,'. hi' h b- 1! 1 1 Ma i on Shi' MI a '.'. i and Mr \ alnaniolo. the
' '.'. .1 a b !e ! 1 1 i a n I 1 in I a ' C i . i e d I : i November,

POLITICS 123

i <) i i , as ' verging on bankruptcy.' When Katsura went
into office in i<;o'i three reforms were imperative, financial
readjustment and e. onorny, government according to the
(Constitution, and the extension of ihe franehise. Those
three reforms are as urgent to-day ( i <; i 5 j as ever they
were in i oo.S, and the various efforts made to obtain
them have all be.-n easily defeated because there is no
political paily or combination of parties, whieh is able
to eontrol the power of the elan statesmen. The latter,
as a consequence, were able not only to pinnae the nation
into appalling economic distress, but to control all thoughts
and aspirations towards better conditions.

The result was quickly visible in the rapid spread of
socialism, in the constant groan oi' the underfed, and in
insistent grumbling against the methods of government.
Nowhere was this more noticeable than in the educational
institutions. Loyally and discipline are the only lesions
taught in the elementary schools, and the virtues of
bureaucracy in the higher schools, but no number of
Imperial portraits or rescripts will appease the 'Tying ( >t
a pupil's stomach. Teaching a full child is a hard
enough task, but teaching an empty one is an impo^i-
bility for even the most highly developed bureaucratic
machine.

For this to a very great extent Katsura, with his
dogmatism and despotism, must be held responsible. No
statesmen had so great opportunities as he had in i <;oS,
and few have failed so miserably.

Bureaucracy has produced main' able men, but i'
maintains national culture and welfare on a low scale.
The curse of egotism and the instinct of domination are
its ineradicable sins. Katsura was an apt pupil, and
almost bettered his teachers. He arrogated to hiniseli
the right to dictate to the nation as a uhole, and as
individuals what it should read, think, belie\e, and do.
That in acting' so he violated the law again and again
was nothing. To a clan slate-man the violation ot custom.
the development of individualism is a far more Iv-inou-,
crime. Katsura and the Clenro. when they said libertv,

124 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

meant liberty only fur themselves to restrict the liberty
of others. '

On ih' other hand it i- just to remember that these
nun uere born uiul brought up in aJi atmosphere f.ir
ivmo\ ed from any democratic connection. War, as we
arc learning to-day, i- a prolific mother of autocrats and
bureaucrats.

Kats-ara Taro was born in 1^47 in Nai^ato Province.
IIi> family, though not prominent in the clan councils, was
a very old one, an ancestor, Oye Otohito, having been
a Court Councillor in the ninth century, whilst in thej
twelfth century Oyc Iliromoto, or Xakamura, wa>. the
backbone of the K.'in :kura Sho-unatc, and responsible
for the defeat and deposition of the precocious Toba II.
The Katstira family were feudal retainer^ of the House of
.Mori. Lords of Cl.odm, and the late Prince, all his life
\\a- devoted to its in'e:e t^. HI- pia el the c -ec'ond onl\
:o hi- duty to the Lnvieror, and took occasion at various
tiiiH-s to renew in p:ii>.i II.T vow of fealty to the family.

1 loin hi> earlie-t .I.iys he. was d'-stineil for the pro-
fession of arm-, a-- wa> only bec'jinin^ for the son of
a samurai. Ifc was with the detachment of Cliodiu
ret,iin<T^ which lire i on the foreign ship-, in the Straits
of Shimono->i:ki. Lat'-r he \s\is attached to Kid<> Kom,
on tin- secret mission ti O-aka. when Kido and Okuho

receisri! f''o;n the lliip-M'ial Kll'^t' ordel'.s to attack the

Prir.ce of Aid/u. and tr<-e tlr- Imperial Court from the
thraldom in which it u\t^ held by the Siio^unate. 1 le
!(! a d'-;a Jnncnt of til : Cho-hu \\-arriors at the battle
of I-'udi:mi, and was prv-i-nt .it tin- operation-i \vhich
precefjed ilr- Mirr-;ider ot Admiral Knomoio. At barely
l\\i-nty year-, of a;;<- lr- had borne a considerable share
in th'- > ampai;m u '" ''' accomplished the- Restoration,
and lul'r. earned the p-n ion \\hiih - .\'a^ award--d him.
lie had, however, 1,0 intention o! retiriiu;' on a

1'OLITICS 125

pension, and in 1X70 went to (Icnnany to study military
science. The years he spent there as a student were
often sj)oken of by liini in later life as among his happiest.
He referred not only to what lie learnt then.- professionally,
but also to the broad outlook which they gave birth to
and the ambitions which they fostered in him. It is no
secret that they inspired him with the hop'- oiv day to
emulate the feats of Mohke and von Koon, and the
ambition to be himself welcomed back to his fatherland
as a victor. In 187;; he returned to Japan and served
through the Satsuma rebellion and the Formosan campaign,
only after their termination to again return to Berlin a:-.
Military Attache. lie spent the period of his appoint-
ment in the hardest work and study, and devoted himself
in particular to military organization and administra-
tion. It was during these years of attachment to the
Legation at Berlin that Katsura learnt to the full the
necessity and the value of concentration. All through
his life a terrific worker, he was in after days accustomed
to say, " Yes, I am still, but never as when I learnt
to work in Berlin."

On his return to Japan he was attached to the staff at
Nagoya, but after a short di lay received an appointment
as Secretary to the Cabinet. Promoted colonel in 1X82.
he was nominated, in conjunction with Colonel Kawa-
kaini, to accompany C.cn"ral (afterwards Marshall Oyama
to Europe to study military organization. The mission
had a close connection with Far Eastern politics, and
was the immediate result of a memorandum laid before
the Council by the. late Marquis Inouye, then Foreign
Minister. Japanese aims in Korea were, already beginning
to conflict with Chiivse claims, and the backward state
of the military system was considered by the Marquis
as likely to be a handicap to diplomatic negotiations.
The three K's Katsura, Iv; lama, and Kawakami were,
with Major Mcckel, responsible fo;- ;h coirpiete re-
casting of the military system administrauoii, organi/a-
tion, drill, and education and to them, more than to
any other influence, were due the victories of Japan in

120 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

the wars with China and Russia. They were promoted
Major -Generals in 18X5. In the reorganization Katsura
had been re-jHiiisible for the administration. From 1X84 to
iXc;i he ua- Vice-Minister ot \Var, and in 1X0,0-1 uas
a ( io\ i rnni'-n' delegate to Parliament, where he obtained
with comparative ease the passage ot the, in those day-,
eiionnou- appropriations required, d his Micros in later
\<ar- \\as to have an unfortunate imluenee on Kat-uta.
for he never afterwards -e'-nu-d able- to reali/e that
military ambitions mu-t be limited by financial resources.
l!a\me; completed his \\oik at the \Var oni, e, he
;.;ave up his de-k for the i ommand of the Third Division
at Na;;o\a. On the outbreak of the war with China he
led thi- di\i-;on at Pm^ -N'an^. the \'alu, and in various
battle-, in Manchuria, both the system \\hi< h he had created
and th<- dm-ion he led uorkru; uitli monotonous siicro-
(in hi- return to Japan h" received a \i--count\. Already
hi;.J) in the councils of th State, he was ambitious for
higher honour-, and ''Xpei t--d to be offered the Ministry
of \\ ar, but Yama;.;ala uas jealous ot his success, and
O\aina. the commander of the Second .Army. was
aj |*ointe 1 MI his stead. In I X<;'i he \\as ( iovernor-( ieneral
ot I otino a. and u a - responsible, with Uaion ( Joto, lor
the administ i ati\ < or;;a:n/ation ot ihe island, ('omdnied
ol ihe truth ot the motto, ' ( )(\( . .j - 1 ./ h ! . on; of mind.' he
intrigue 1 to i) re< a'l d, and uas appninted ' onim md'-i of
ill- lok'.'i :'airiso;i, and in iXoX, num:; to the intlueii';
i >\ Marqui- Inouye, \\ a - ntleicd and act epted the po- t
it Mini ter o! \\'ar, a po iMon \\lii' h he held dov.n (.1
I '/"O, b,i )!;. ell^a^ed in de\elopin;; the .\im\, and ia]ol
Mi;.; "I ' oeft Mi; 1 , the iid a f \ \oies t 1 ' till t!f Diet. Ill

th.it year h je i ni'-d oln. e on ;\* count ot ill healdi,
but in June, i ' , i . on th- n liiemeni ( th Kidei Stale
ni'-n. hioiive an 1 \anii Mta ret omni'-nded |\a' ma, and
b> I- Mill- 1 hi - In ! < 'abine!

I i\s MI. ; ! hi a['pi e> ial loll "f ( e r man n let hod--. In
n i ! ! 1 1 a i \ 1 1 a i n i n . a u i ! a . In- 'Ian MI line; and a I n ! i a
lion , K.I! ma < t'U< to ih'- Pjemi<-! !ii|' a lead, made
biii eau i.it . 1 1 '', a - all to hi . h ad\ a.n'a."- in the pub hi

POLITICS 127

eye that he w;i-> a Choshu man and a strict adherent of
Yarnagata. It was to his advantage that in his dealings
with the Dirt IK- had known how to demand huge appro-
priations without visibly increasing the burden of taxa-
tion, due in great part to his social tact. He even came
into office with a considerable amount of public; confi-
dence, lie had in the pa-.t demanded enormous amounts
for military expenditure, but lie had given the people
some tangible results. He had created the most power-
ful Army in the Orient, and himself led a part of it to
overwhelming victory. Thereby he had obtained for
Japan Formosa, the Pescadores, and a huge indemnity.
Later he had wanted more money, and under his minister-
ship Japan covered hersdl with glory in the Boxer
rebellion. The Japanese public dearly likes to be tickled,
and Katsura knew how to tickle them. He was never
backward in singing ],j s own praises, and as his deeds
redounded to the glory ' Japan, he was at this period
of his career almost popular. He had no hesitation in
tolling the taxpayers that he wanted more money, but
he added to his demand, not only financial readjust-
ments, that made the burden appear less than it was,
but the reminder, " It's quite safe to give me the money,
because, as you know, I give you good value for it."
It may be safely assumed that when Katsura came
into power in 1901 his policy was mapped out for him
by the (lenro. If possible, an Kuropean Alliance was
to be contracted, preferably with (Ireat Britain ; the
Army and Navy were to be prepared, for any emergency ;
and the Russo-Japanese problem was to be settled one
way or the other, amicably or otherwise. It was at this
period that Ito lost his head and, in consequence, his
position. Ito and Yamagata, often before at a state
of veiled hostility, came to open enmity at the (".euro
councils, which followed the Cabinet crisis in June, 1001.
Ito declared for a ministry affiliated to a party, Yama-
gata absolutely refused to agree. Inouye proposed the
retirement of all the Elder Statesmen and the ap]xjint-
ment of Katsura, who, as a Choslm man, would be agree-

128 JAPAN AT THF. CROSS ROADS

able to Yarnagata and, as a relative by marriage of Ito
and Inouye, would be agreeable to them. So matters
were arranged. Ito, a^ leader of the Seiyukwai. put
up a fierce attack on tlr- Mini-try, intending to defeat
it and be called back to office, lie >urceeded in defeat-
ing the Mini-try in the Diet, but only when he had done
that did he find out th- -<>rt oi" man Kai.-.ura uas. d he
1'iemier di--o!ved the Dirt, and later in I'jo.} obtained
.in Imperial Rescript apjjointing Ito Piv-ident of the
1'nvy ( ouncd. a j-o-ition \\lrch :ieee>-itat"d hU rcMgn-
i:ig the lea !er.-hip oi th part;.'. Thi^ latter pn>t wa <
taken by Manjui- Saionji. a clo-v personal Iriep.d ot
Ito. but a!>o i losely a--oeiated with C'ho-hn and Ka;-ura
b;. hi-, eoiineetion with the Mr: iamily. So Ito, in the
(ji'.ain* Japanese ;il:ra-e. had ' pok-.'d the thieket and
bnni^ht out a erpenl.'

The lir-t Kat-ura .\ inn::i~t'M',i-)n u'ill a!wa\'s !>< a>-o. i-
ated with t!i-- eonelu-ion of ill-- Anglo-Japanes^ Alliain--.
Since th" p'.ib'i a'lon oi til 1 - late ( <nr.il 1 l,i\ a-hi'-- Mi-mon^
there ha- been a ti'nde.-u-y abroad to di-e;'edit the moti\c-
uith \\!.i !i that '(}in;iai"i wa . eo:n lud.ed. It i> probable
that Ha'.a-hi goe^ mir Ii t >o lar in hi> reileetiuii- o;i
Kat-ura'- and Konr;ra'> honesty in conne' t:')!i \\ith the
lt'> mi ion to I'etrograd.

It i- din".' ul' ti ;:,id- r ' :' ! th p.irt whi h !\oin:iia
I * 1 a \ e i in t ! i : . a ' t A ' i . i > d i '. h h \\ a > g > n i a ! 1 \
ion-idtre-1 a> th-- i;.o-: buli:a'it l-'orei.;:j M:ni-;ei tli'-
(i\vti ; tni:^!:-> l.a 1 i-v.-i !i :d. b - it n.oie re. ently th- re ;> a
di-jni-;tion l :--d;i'" t'li -'i:;: '.', and to n-;;a;d him
lath'-r a- a a great '..t-nia'i
An in ! ! .1 ' i. a: >' wo: !.e;'. ' \\'.i idva'ie-'d i;: \ !, etnie
hi. talent- n,'-t v.i'ii : >i.-nrion. l-.\ -n v.l:-'! :!f '.it -
< cunt M :; a i !;a ! l .o <-\\ in.n ; ir ad\ an> >-'\\ '.;. \\\\\ \
t! ;'. it ;er . am : aj >. . '. . h: - < 1 iv - \M-I- '. n !. : \ '< <\ \l\>-
ha-l.'W oi -IIM..;... i. A . . i ! :a;i - . ..t .! .;

- a i!. -I:-.'.'. :. .' t';,.| ;-,M -. , ,| an a' i r: ^:'h ,: .

rOLITICS 129

Lord Lansdowne's proposals, work which he carried out
in his usual de-xhous and adroit manner.

It was a peculiarity of the late i'rince Katsura that
whatever |w)st he nominally tilled in his own Cabinets,
he actually managed all the ministries. He was at once
Foreign, Finance, .\\'ar, Xavy, and Home Minister, his
nominees to those offices being in fact only chief clerks,
or at best supervising I'nder Set re-taries. This was due
not oids r to the late Prince's masterful personality, but
equally to the constitutional system of Japan. The
1'remier is the only member of the Japanese Cabinet
who really counts. lie is invariably nominated by the
FJder Statesmen, and has to conduct his policy in accord-
ance with their views. II is colleagues, in reality sub-
ordinate, have to adjust their opinions to his, and it would
be not only against Japanese etiquette, but against the
whole sy.stem ot government for any one of them to oppose
a more than deferential opinion to the policy ordained
by their chief.

There is little doubt that in 10,00 the Hlder States
men, as well as Katsura, were, for reasons of foreign
policy, favourably inclined to an alliance with Great
Britain. Katsura in addition was eage-r for the sanv on
account of the financial backing which Japan would be
able to obtain in London, and which would considerably
ease his burdens in connection with the expansion of
the Army and Xavy. The alliance was definitely approved
at the meeting of the Gcnro in August, 1901, to which
llayashi refers, and the only point which arose there-after
was Ito's dejection from the scheme and his \isit to
Petrograd. At first sight it would appeal' as though
Katsura, in authori/ing this visit, was playing double 1 with
llavashi. As a matter of fact, Ito's mis, inn had every-
thing to do with internal politics and nothing to do with
foreign politics. Ito was tlie state-man who rounded on
the proposed alliance, not because he had any real objec-
tion to it, but because oi his opposition to Yamagata
and Katsura. That Katsura sanctioned the Ito mis-ion
was due [tartly to deference to the Marquis's position

130 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

and re|iutation, and to hU h-in.j; pcrso/;,! \\nti <.i \\ith

the Kmp'Tor, hut more -o to the idea of leKIIiL; him

ride tor a fail. The Premier rcan^ni/eil that he hail
hi h;n i l.im the majority ot t'ne (,i nro, Yam.t;;ata. Mat-u-
ka'a. an! <)\ama. Inouye had approved ot the Alhanre
in pnn ipl 1 . hut wa> d<--irou> of hrin^inu;' (lermany into
it. 1 1-- :!' tha'. an An.;!o-japa:ie .e treaty would oifi-nd
K'.: :a, an 1 p -:hap- proxoke a premature war. hut an
An.; io-i ii-rm. m-Jap ane>e tr.-aly \\ould he a i omhiiiatiou
\\!r.' h Ku--ii \\ouid not dar to face.

In tii'- Kat-ura ('a: :n< t- the rules ot suh^er\ ienee
([noted a'>ove were -:ri tly e:.!'..n '-d. and in addition tin
Premier too!. \<--y ;_;oo 1 e.are ihat iu^ mini-NT.-, \\ere men
v. ho--- ideas, it th'-y had any, .-!: raid not run eonlraiy to
hi- ov. n. As ie;.nti'ds the majority, however, tIu-\' had no
ideai l)e\o;.l tiio e -Uppii"d th.-m \\it!l. d'eraULii! and

N'amarnoto. the M;m-t-:> oi tin Army and the N.i\\

le -p,-i t:\rly, Wefe InVi- !a-> lil; n. and \.rie tlie nominee >

<;i ("hodiu and Sat-uma, i.ui amon., t the re-t, \\\:\\ the
| o--ih!e i-.\."epl:on o{ ]\i'i;.n;.i, then- \\a not one \\ ho
\\.i> ah' -v tii I -\.-l of ,;a o:n c h ! k.

Th- Kn --] ap.ine-'- ,\\'.ar :;a"o ! a tremendo'as -tiai;:
oii K.it-ura. win h, however, h- lo id .-u<"( - tu!l\. and
lie ha ! tii'- p'"a u: o; -e> in th diploia.i! \- \\lni h lie
.ondu- :. d. an ! th ..rmv v.h;. h he had j.;in r-'dl) < ivat.-d,
!;iin;; :' to an ho-oura'd -. ;! not a in,Ji!\- -u:ie--tnl,
i or., h: Kin. '] he Trial) o! Por:-m,.ulli hrou^li! on him
and oi; konrara a t: :.. :. ion-. -:orm ol ;;n; ijtulaiit).
i i .1 t h e; e;:t . ;n I a: a . du 1 in and at aT tiie !. -:;ot iat ion
: i : ' : ; 1 ' o : : t ! i n n - '. t * a : : in K a ' - u : a ' .; , ..; hi - 1: i nd -. Ii would ha'.e !
i a . in! . to inn a ; : t a .!>': o ! 1 ; ; n i - e i t a : : ' i 1 1 1 e
1 ah;;.' : on to t . '<:: ^ : o. j .,_ < c.\ p' --npoien: iai .
.it I'm! ::. o .ta. .. ;' ... '-a ! .;d-.; :::i;: a t p Jo! v-hi Ii

1'OIJTICS 131

she had started to light, the eontioi of Korea and the
evacuation by Russia of .Manchui ia. II -h*' had continued
the campaign she would have been in an unfavourable
(H)sition, for her money was exhausted and her la-t
fighting men called up. In addition, her forces were
spread over an enormous front. Russia, on the other
hand, though beaten in battle, was militarily in a stronger
position than wh'-n war broke out. Her communications
became more secure as tho.M- of Japan becani' 1 more
precarious. To continue lighting would ha\"e been for
Japan to ri-k everything on a campaign, having tor
Us object territoiia! or monetary acquisitions, and would
have- certainly re-ultel in endangering linti-h friendship.
Komura was sent to Portsmouth to ratify the stmn^ (/n >,
which actually existed, and t > pick up any additional
items which he might be able to get from .\Yitte. If
the Ru .sian plenijx)tentiary was obtuse enough to pay
an indemnity, all the better. lUit he was not, nor did
he even consider the suggestion for a minute. Katstira
showed great wisdom and courage- in making peace when
he did, the more so as he rccogni/ed what an outcry
would follow the publication of the terms. It was the
psychological moment to obtain the very best conditions.
That the nation rebelled ae-ainst what thcv considered was

and to the mistaken action o! the authorities in presenting
to the country only th-- most favourable aspects of the
military and financial situations.

The failure to obtain an indemnity from Ru-sia un-
doubtedly left Kat^tira in a serious linancial hole, from
which he endeavoured to climb by the nationalixation of
the railroads, lie was unable, however, to face the !)iei
on account of hi- unpopulaiity, and resigned in January,
i t/o(\ leaving behind him a budget to be adopted b"
his successors, and a railway scheme to the acceptance of
which Marquis Saionji was pledged.

In the history of Japan th- first Saion.i Minisirv \\ill
probably not figure as a s' parate entity, lor in reality it

132 I. MAN AT THK TKOSS ROADS

u.i- onl. an app'"id:\ (<> the preceding ;iiiiuinitrati<m.

It u.i ton-ideied advisable h\ tin- KM*-: Si ite^men .nul
l>. Kat-nra InniM-il th.it In- >hou! ! >urn-nder tin- teim.
>>f i'tti<e for the tiuic Ix-jmj;, ami ;^i\c place to a more
liberal ^tate-nian. There \\a-> no inten'Mii in a!iaiu;im;
'ln^. >t altering the JM)!I. y di the country a!>n>a<l. uhiUt
i! ua- believed that at lioni-- a more liberal administration
v. 'iild have Iris difficulty in reor:'.ani/ine; th-- tniani es
..:iil strengthening the nation, tl < ontidence in the ;.;o\ em-
inent. I'niortunaU'ly the-,- :;oo 1 i;i;e:i;io:is \\<-re ruined
ff. the appalling I'Xpi-nditure (leinanded !>y the inih-
taM-t> and !>y the a",^re^-ive action <t th" --aine party
in Manchuria. l)unni;' the whole oi the in -t SaKinp
a<lnnni->tration, the \-i'reniier \\a^ the v, ire-j!u!'-T In tund
t!ie M-fMi'S, and it \\-as o\vin;.; to him that l>aron Ka'o
re-i^ncd the lo; i^n Mini-tci^liij). and tha: the l.^c ( 'ount
IIa\adii tell into di-;.;race. XeithM' of them \\.i> pliable
enough to vait hi> \ - iew^. That !!a\a-iii did not .! lually
h,i\e to re .;_;!! o ! li i e u.i^ dii'' to th' ;;reat credit he
ei!|o\rj .-.hio.id, ati'l to a k'!o\\ ic d'.;e ot the cvnici-m
\ i . M h \\ii:i h he \vonl 1 have rxpo--,j tj !( - ulpilc intrigue
in the j>re s. !!r did in !a ', tht'e.iien to re i^n in
Si pi- mi >-r. \ < ' < >. :n connection \\ 'th t he i !' l.i\ in the
c\ a< uaMon oi M nn !iini i. and \'..i- onl\ not t i'-.' n at In-
\\iitd () a'l-^e 1 1! j\oimna'> rej i i-ntaMon-^ trom I.on'.on

lh.it -i: h a -tep \v r; ! ! |oi 1 eit a "/ i id ( ! MI i ! t!i" (<i',ill
d< ".' ' |apan e-i 10 . cd m th" t il y .

II: o;. ! ,'ia' in a :<!:..'! i tia'io'i, ,-. h ( !; la^t' '. iiom
IT' to !</' i. u a - nonnnalK i\\:< to tiie iail'ne ol ih
Jin.ii:' : i ! p: >i >o a! > o! t li- ( 'aliiriet, t!: >'i ii in la' I i 1 .
v. .1 ill-- ! 'il: o; th'- ' i' I'l U. .' -p!"lio!i \s i:h ;n -
a- 'IV It \ I h. \\ a rea li\ n) d- iini'e p. i!i' h a! r a :'

!"i . > i .oa a' - i i n i 1 . >\\ i ; \\ a I . n t h i' ! hi- tin m- iai

POLITICS 133

It is only reasonable to suppose that the political
changes between i<;oo and looS were the result of
arrangements privately made between Katsura and Saionji
and sanctioned by the demo. Xo Japanese -tate-man
has ever had su< h complete faith in himself as Katsura
had. He surrendered oilier to Saionji i'i January, i <)<><>,
to escape a serious disturbance in domestic: aliairs as the
result ol th" antagonism aroused by the Treaty of
Portsmouth and the Hibiya Park riots. Discretion was
the better part ol valour. Saionji was olicred olli< e on
condition that he should pursue Katsura'-; policy, and
gracefully retire when Katsura should feel that the time
had come to return to power. That occurred in i^oS,
\\hen Saionji stepped out and Katsura in. This would
appear to be the case i rom the statements of Saionji at
the time. The only curious feature is the servil-- ac<|ui-
e--ccnce of the majority party in the Diet. In ioo'.
read\- to pull Kaisura down, in roo.S it dumbly obeyed
the instructions of Saionji to support Kat-ura.
planation is in part that Katsura, in obtaining S
agreement, included in the 1 arg'ain that of tin
lie led, but main!}' that the Seiyukwai was
poiiiics to (ie ! end principle-;, but to obtain spoils,
sition does not pay a political party in Japan,
the strong leadership of I to. and with a large majorii\
in the Diet, the Seiynkwai had twice been badly de-
feated by Katsura in 1902 and i go }. It they were not
ready to make an cnii"itc with the ( iovernmeut. either
tin- Diet would iie dissolved, and they must i;;.,!i; another
general election, u hen fun. Is were lo\v and defeat certain,
or other panic- would accept Kat->ura's overtures.

It ha- been freely alleged, and ui;h ju~t ; <. that
Katsura was iv) constitutional statesman. Though it was
not until the y. ar of h;s death that he embraced a political
party, at the last convince 1 of the futili;\ of trying \
go\ ern without the support ot one, yet throuvjriut his
career he dUpiav.'d unparallele 1 dexterity in h.mdliiig
the \arious j)ait : .e-> in th- Diet, lie bou::d the SiT. uk\\ ,ii
to hi- cliariot -wheels, an! \vitli necul'ar adr. ijtai -uc-

134 JAPAN AT Till: TROSS ROADS

erded in converting the partv of constitutional reform
into th" nio-t p--'niciotis or --.in of bureaucrat y \\hich
tin- i.iuntiY has ever known. Prating |>oliticians \\ho
tor \ear> !ia 1 foamed with riejiteous nidi-nation at tlu-.
. r HP n'!on ot the dan- eagerly, nay avariciously, ate
:h<n own \vorls. }>!-. isantly dis-i:i-ed in the -olden pilK
a::d h .It- y<-d p:oin;-e- whi' 1) lie knew so \\.-|l hou to

I In- si-Co;-,, i i\.it-n:a Administration \vas in many re
-[ ' i !s very d:!t>Tr:i; from hi- tir-t e>-av a-. Premier.
a;.d in no r>-sj>ect was tin, more marked than in tin-
p--i:;o:i ot its i hief. Autocratic a- he had l)-en in
li.ti.dhie.' hi- !;r-: ],n:ii-!r,. he had not tailed to -hou
deference to the M;dT Statesmen. \\ho had supported

him n-ht through th" Irvm- period of the Russian \\ at .
In looj Kat-u:a v. a - takin;; a trial run. In looS he
took the \vh---d a a pr.t ti-- 'd and thofon-hly <|!iahlied
dn\er. ! h" efie< t oi this \\a- evidint in the \'ery hack
at \\hnli the r:!der Sta'e men occnpr-d during his
!< o;,d tcinri- of office. Alter h" retired, Japanese used
1" sa\ : ' \Yhati ver liajfn Kat-ma has done, he ha-
a' 1- .ist lone th;> -o)l, h- banidi"d th" (lenro." d'he-e
old ;.;i-nt leinen. ho\\e\-i-r, di-co\i-red an cxtraonlinary l:ke
in-- , to ; h" h 1 . ii if i ' pe n\ , for thon. !i i >am h -d !>'. K.it -n: a
and oii!it ra:-d \e-l>dc at lea-l !>. Sa;o:;j'. Vaiuam -to.
( >!;i. n!. i, and Kato :n - ;> < din- \ea*'s, th'ir -ervites ate
-'d! in\ ,i i ;a! i; \ i< ,"ii 1:1 -' 'i at mon.i n' - \ nation. d < r;-i-
I h" -ei ond Ka'-nra ( a!>ini-t ha- !)--en des( rilx d .1
'he nio-t d'-spoti' 1 of a!! ih- .id'r.ini-t : a' ion-, \\lr-h |ap.m

h t nilefed -i:i< tl: - al'f I i "M ' if!' i' U!. ll :;o\ efll-

r;i'-nt v. i ' -*aili -ii" i in th" lonntr.. i: on i-!< I !
! i I ' : : i : i an! n ' i i ' ' . 1C i a n- h i and S 1 1 1 i
. ! ,: ti, \I-:a Hi,-- oi \V .1 an i ill N.i\ \ . I i - oii.e
i ; i'-i;ili i uei. '.! 11 M; . , |e< :,- 1 |, n ih.-n . o :. .1 t . .

t,. in th I':, .: r' II.-. in add:':.m (..

:h- da" i t n P: i-l- '.'.t. undeitook :lj.. o| ih

M;:,! -i . .-! i ,-, I ' i ,,o : v.a. undo': 1 ,! -dl> ill--

... ail t ' I. and :!i."- v. , ,; ,;;,;\ no

-. I ! " i : i a' i i . c ' i ' ai! i ; > e > 1- < >l

POLITICS 13;

occupying it. No one would admit that Katsura was a
born financier, and few would care to admit that he
was even threatened with expert financial knowledge.
It is improbable, however, that even a Nei ker or a
< Ios< hen would have been able to serve fapan iisefullv
at that time. The trouble ;h,it had to be la< ed wa- not
so much a financial one as a politic. d one. The Army
and the Navy were both making; enormous demands
lor new expenditure, and the problem was to ;;rant as
little as possible to either without dii\in;., them to despair.

Katsttra's princiji.il financial uork wa -. the e\'olution
of a scheme lor liquidaliiu;" t!ie National 1 )ebt and the
conversion ol the \\'ar Loans. His measure, had the
merit ol a definite character, and his establishment ol
the Sin km;.; Lund on a lilty million yen ha-is diil much
lor a time to revive Japane-e ere lit abroad. Mis con-
version scheme was cLver but, so tar as the internal bonds
wen- concerned, marred by the fictitious maintenance ol
prices. I nahle to carry on without borro\\ inv;, he kept
the letter ol hi- promi-e. though not the sjiirit. by a number
ol trick\- operations, which later weighed heavily against
Japan's requirements in the monev market.

In foreign politics the Prince tried to adopt what
Marquis Komura described as a policy of ' the perfec-
tion ol beauty,' the cardinal feature ol which wa> a
series of ententes with all the Powers. It was an exten-i<>n
of the Hayashi plan of controlling- the actions of lun-o;>e
in ('hina by negotiating coiu'ention-; \\-liich should i;i\e
)ap;in a voice in an\ - mo\ - e m,'.;K' by any other nation.
Ilaxashi had completed the Fran co -Japanese Trea - \ - , and
Katsura negotiated a d"d.iration ot policy with. America.
\'er\- much nn-ler the intltienre ot the late X'iscount Aoki.
he fa\'oured a treat 1 / with (lermanv, and

Irom which he was only turned by the urgent remon -
stranci's ol Komura. \\ho refused to -hare in a negotiation
which miejit ha\'e proved embarras-iin^ to (I re it Ilritam.
In Korea the Prince deli'rmined It pur-ik 1 hi- former
policy, and tlu protectorate \\hich had been then di'clared

136 JAI'AN AT THE CROSS ROADS

was convert:- 1 into annexation, a step which would have
been tak'-n ratiuT earlier hut for the op;osi;ii>n ot tin-
late I'r:n< e Ito. Japa' e e Resident -(ieneral at Soul until
his a-sa--ination in i () 10.

\Vlfil--t the eve- o! Kurope were mainly directed to
the foreign and Irian ial {xjli-.-y of the administration,
its internal j>oii \v wa ^ not l'-ss worthy of seiioiis atten-
tion. Lar^e appropriations \\ere toned through for the
initiation of pubh. work--, 1'Ut the amount were out
<it all proportion to tlie enonnou-. Mims devoted to die
expansion of armani'.ut-. It wa- not ^urpri-i'i:; that the
i ontmuar:ce ot the uar taxa'i >n and its heavy increase to
meet t!ie po^t helium expenditure raided a 'pirn oi un-
re t. uhi' h fou.nd it- ou:l t in -o lali-m. The l.ine.ui-
t r;!tic o!ii'':a'>, u;ter!v ignorant of the aiin^ an i doctnne->
of -o . ia'i -m, !iut well .iw.ire that it-> advant e must m an
t!i-;r own retreat, la'x-lled it .i> aii.i: hi -m, a:ul sternK"
:ejU'e>-ed it. l.iiierty of tiio;i;;ht \sa-> more -^e\e;'ely
|.;:'i! died than h!)--rty of ,i- tion, and no'diri;.; more --hocl< d
the out-id-- \\o-ld than the secret fial a::d execution \
K"to!-;u and h;> a -o Kite., on a c!:ar:;e uhiili ua^ 1:1-
d finitely !o:mu!atel and, a^ iat -r k: owied^e has !io\vn,
quite inadequately ]iro\-.-d. In dome-ti allaiis ilie Ka:-
sura ri<^:/!ii' ua- o:)' 1 I"';.; wr.-ncli .it the con-ti'nt loiial
jinvile.; \\i'h w!:ich the Iat monai"' !i endo\\'-d hi-

|M-.,|,1,..

\\ith th" eclip-e ot the I^lder State-men Knt-uia

ti H d out a t !i'- - ile champion (4 e\ t r. -me 1 mreaiu : a> \ .

Ilia' h'- \\ a ^ alili to ho! 1 the all "ii -o Ion; 1 . \ | .a- due

a mu 1 h \ th- toml'-te :a;!u: \ the oiitii.i! -\s-,cni

i k Ie- , u-e nt I m;; -rial < ; :i:.ani e-, \\ l:ii ; r t id- ! . :
' !!ij o! a; ', d.iii' u !t 1 , l:ot on!', i :.;' -d < !a: i ;<; , ,.! ; >i .
' i d i 1 1 1 ot u h . < 1 1 : i ' e i v M i : 1 1 t e r h a \ . t \ a 1 1 e. i t ; . , m
:\ , iiu! a:, .u I a h s'ld "t h:-. m'f!i" i a:, ! a
i!i n/aid !'i: til'- 'a;ii-uie au'- r; r a; ill. \\h. !i in lol ,
','. a to j r 1 1 \ ! i : o A n u : i i i > : . \'> , :: < ' 1 1 a ' . ! a !

,;: i' <; ! an! 1 1- U 1' it in f.'o - a'l ini- \\ a ' l.e i < \ i > \\ \> '. . i ' i
it <i ' a IOIM- i '.', i f ii 1': i:i' i a:;.a.-at i No '.. man L i- ..

POLITICS 137

away the ladder by which lie climbs, at all events until
lie has arrange | another bv whi< li to escape it necessary.
This was what Katsur.i did, thou-h it mn-t be admitted
that circumstances combined to disable hi-< second ladder
before he had it tirmly placed in position.

< >n resij^nini; oinVe in i <> i i he reali/ed the imposM-
bility ol attempting t> i arry on the i;overnnr-nt without
the support of a pojlti al parly of his own. lie consulted
with Marquis Inouye, \vho since looi had been inclined
to the same opinion, and rather drew towards Count
( Manna, who, though re;ired from an a< live share in
politics, continued nevertheless to strenuously c\pre^
his views both in the pre^s and at public meetings.
In the summer of 1 01 2, in <ompanv with Baron ( loto,
Mr. \Vakatsiiki and a numerous suite, he left Japan lor
Lurope. It was repeatedly denied that he had any
diplomatic mi-sion, and so far as the government \vns
concerned this \\as true. It inu-t, however, aluay> be
remembered that Katsura distinctly fancied hiniM-lf in
the role ot diplomatist, a failing which had ^i\-en rise
to disayrccnic'iHs \\ith I\<-mura in i<;oS and 190*;. lie
had never abandoned hi> hope ot negotiating a (.lerman-
Japanese treaty, and e\-en had \ i^ions of di^.-olvint;' the
enmity between (ireat Hi'itain and (lermany by such
nu-an^, in much the same way as the An^Io-Kus>ian
entente had created a rapprochement beiueen Russia and
Japan. A not less important object hi- had in VKW
was the study of party Lvovernment in Kurope, and for
this he was accomjKiaied by \\irious gentlemen \\'hose
work on arrival in Knrope was to be the examination
ol party sysli-ms. Arrived at i'etro^rad, he \\a-
re<~alleil to Japan by the death of the Meiji Teimo.
Vecompanied on his return by llanm (loto and Mr.
\Vakatsuki, the other members o! his partv i oiilinued
their |ourney. and in dne cotir-e completed the investi-
gations tor which til- 1 .' ha'l srt out.

Hack a^'ain in I'ok\o, t!ie I'rir.c" u\a- appointed Lord
Keeper ol the I'nvv Seal, to the astonishment ot every
one and not ;h !.a-t o{ himseh . The secret hi-torv ol

138 JAPAN AT Till-. CROSS ROADS

th" appointment has ni'vrr yet been written, and prob-
ably never will be. It was ^.-nerally regarded as a
supreme eifort of 1'rnice Yama^ata to -h<-l\e Kat-nra in
a |*i-:t.(>:i ii'-ar th" Kmperor. where he < ould not interfere
with a revival ot the \ ama^ata inllucnce. ( )n the other
hati'l. many Japanese inclined to see in it a parallel to
the Sho.;u!iate, Katsiira in an unavailable [M>sition. able
to dominate the whole administration of th iountr\. A
- - ory i iivulaU'd at th" time related that th" d 1 . in:;' Kmperoi

aroused Inillselt -"Mi; i'-:it !y to -ay to his -!liie-^.u and

hi. uife: ' d'rn-t Kat-nra." '1 here aj/p'-ar^ on hi.,h
< oMrt authority to be no ^ood foundation lor :he aiie. d ite.
\\'hat i certain i> that \'amaxata li.id alread) decided
on lurnn:^ out tli Sa'onji Mini t;\ and in-tailing nth'-r

IVraii'Iii or llira'a in th" Mai'j'!:>'> |I i- e. It l\.it-ii:a
at th<- tmi" hef.l oiiice in th<- I'al e'e, ->n h a -tep \\onld
b-- comparative!) e.i-,y, but if h- -^hoiild -till be at a
loo^c end, no inlluen e ol \',imaL;ata'- could ha\ c- per-

uaded cither ot hi- henc'nm-n to i-\pd>e tlieni-elves in
a i i rtain and <iu-hm;;' d--lea!. That Siionn \\a~- con-
sulted on the apjx liniment a::d a;;ri.-d is certain. Mi-
a< < jUJi'-i en< e was probably due to the kllouled^e that
if and uh'-n Ka'^ura retnr'i'-d t pou.-r it \\onld be
at the h' ad of .1 putv more po\\t-rliil by far than the
Scr.ukuai. of uhi'h h \\a- tii'- leader.

I saw a ;;ood d'-al ol him duntr.; th'- -tormy da\'s ol
his tli;rd ('.tbinit. and ma:vll'-d at the indomitabi'i: \
ol a man .eekiii:; tin- impO'-i!>Ie At \'arions tim.', he
told \eiy tnilv ot In, in!'-ntio:is and platls. lie had ihea
bci om<- (on\'erti'd to tli" party s\->t'-:n. an 1 \\ a - deter-
mi!;ed to lo'Mi a party ot hi- o\\:i. I he Se;\nkuai, h"

aid, \'. re a ]> a k <! bi.u kmailet s, and thieve , and
hn.i;,' :a! i Jo; m \\ a impo i!>!e ,o 1 i i.; a ; !;
|- . ei -. I :'ii!' ! a! lii" tho-i !i! i .[ l\a: - n.i '! ad:n a
parts, altln>u:;h i k:i"U thit h" !ia I Ion;; iM'-nd-d \
do ii, that I.e.": 1 , ! ><< n t!i" j ; in i: 1 1 r -a -on tliat \ania
.ata h' !ved him in :ln- I'a! i a I or, I 1'tiv . Seal
I aid, ' V..IM Hi h ;e ,o : !,a.

POLITICS 139

you now? " "Sir nuissen ! Sir miissen ! " he said.
" Die Sriyukai mil-sen ausgeschlosscn sein I " He
always sjxike in ( irrman in conversation (he knew no
Knglish), hut his official statements, to avoid errors creep-
ing in, were always given in Japanese and translated by
an interpreter. Katsiira's conversion to the party system
dated from the fall of his second ministry. His journey
to Kurope in i<>!2 had a threefold object to discuss
the Chinese situation in Russia, to make an agreement
with Cicrmany similar to the Franco-Japanese Agreement,
and to study party institutions in Kurope, especially in
(lermany, Scandinavia, and Kngland. I happen to know
this because I was instrument.il in procuring for some
ol the member-; ol his suite introductions whit h wen;
helpful to them in their studies. When the Prince was
retailed to Tok\o, owing to the death of the Fmperor,
these gentlemen continued their journey and carried out
the investigations as required. Subsequently the Prince
told me that such had been one of the objects of his
journey, and thanked me for the slight assistance I
had been happy to give.

What party government would have been like under
his a?gis I cannot imagine. I think that his party would
have become a second Seiyukwai in mora's, for he
was lavish in his patronage and pistona^c, and reckless
in the use of bribes, and with the Japanese politician
the habit of bribery and blackmail grows the more it
is fed. His administration lasted from December \2,
1 1; i 2, to February II, i ( ;ij, under conditions which
will be recounted on a later page.

That it ~was the democracy that swept him from oliice
is true enough, but that it was a democracy which was
lighting for the sweets of power and not in defence
of its supjxised principles was shown by the agility \\ith
which the Seiyukwai proffered its support- -on terms -
to the succeeding Vamamoto Cabinet. Whether Prince
Vamagata, whose ambitions and intrigues were respon-
sible for this series of dramatic situations, did hinisrlf
anv ''ood therein is a matter of great doubt. The mili-

JAPAN AT TI1K CROSS ROADS

in whose int"rests lie acted have ne\er since
attained power, and though. owini^ to tlte Kuropean \\'ar,
they have obtained expansion ot armaments, tb, \- ha\e
lo-t their most powerful weapon in the o;>enin:, r . b\ Conn 1 .
< 'knma. oi the \Var and Navy M in i -tries to retired oliii ei .

Out <>t ol'ticc Ka'-ura di voted him-i-'.t to the oi-an-
i/at;on and the strengthening ot his new parr,, the Rikken-
Doshikwai. now. two years later, the dominant part\ in
the I);et. Striken do\vn wi:h cancer of the stomach,
promoted on his death-bed t > th" Order ot the Imperial
Chrysanthemum, and :<> the I-'ir-t < 'onrt Rank, he dp-,!
at midnight >n th niidit of Friday, September i S. ioi ;,.
Hi tuneral service ua- (onducted a> ordri;; to l'cii<lilhist
rite-, and almost a- a military pa:;''-ant. in the pre-en, e
ot a \a-t (oncoiirs;- at the Shojoii Temple at Slnba,
Iok\o. So ]ia--ed one ot th'- nio-t remarkable m<-n
< 'i a rem.irk.ible :; -n- ration, xsho. m a'i'1 on! ol o!n> e,
:',o\crned Japan lor (I..-i- on tuei\e year- bv -In -er loiie
oi in-, i;on will.

A man ot -tron:; pa--;on . and inn-n-e ambition, Kat-
-i;ra \\a- hroti^ht up in a de-.jxitic .itinosplicre. whu h
1--I: it- -tamp on him throu-hont life. \\'i:h ht:le bai km.;,
b, h'-'T energy a:i I > om entration oi \\ill, he toped
him ell into [he vry t;o-:t rank oi naiioiial l-a lets.

' '! i ompl'-'e II! I'M) 'ildeni e ot ' liala- ter, h" relied o;i

lnm-e!t an I on no o; e 1-.-. A do ,\ :! i: k. r hi:; a born
tighter, on. hi- mini u a mad' 1 np lie kip; on hi-

' oil! e undeterred b', ,ili\ ob-; a I'' -, and 111 - i om ; ' \\ .l>

r.ti'ely ;ha! o! ! a t p--i^a:)< \\'hil : li<- lai.;. I', (on

:;;bi:!ed to di- ;.,'o:, ol hi- -onntr\. lie Icil- re. ke.l
th > o-t . V: ,i ; M ia: ol an'o, ta , h . to.,, h id to bou
tir' kii'-e to mo . :] ;d |p a . an ! tip- di-spot. \\iio to! a
hiC'-d a: . in;! '1 tii'- ma; > ] .\ >l di nio, M . di--d
a ' o;,\ f ; l !o ;i.i; t , : 'o\ i i niiii-: : . .1 - o; .1 :: m '. ] ><' .1 l;;i :;r

v, lil \ : b- a .lit' 1

..-. a; .i i! i . ui'boM d

ii h h- \'. i '.''( j ,.;, I

till' v. ;, -;i iic lia i !o i

I'OUTICS i-M

terms with tin- late Sir ('laude MacOonald, the conver-
sations were always in (ierman, the only foreign lan^ua;,;e
dl which tin- lad- Prince wa-. a competent master.

No two mm could form a greater contrast than Prince
Katsura and Marquis Saionji did.

Saionji Kimmochi was born 0:1 < )< tober 2 >, 1^40., anr '
\vas the son of the thirtieth A'//.','*' "' t'"' house of
Tokudaiji, one of the noblest families of the Kyoto
Court. Ills lm>ther, Sanetsune, succeeded his lather,
and became the last Kni^c of the line. lie served the
Imperial family previous to the Restoration and became
the closest personal friend and attendant of the Meiji
Tenno, to whom he \\',i^ lor loir.; Cirand ( hamberlain,
and until the Imperial demise in 1912 (irand Keeper
of the Imperial Seals. In i<SS4, on the institution of
the peerage, !ie wa < create 1 .Ma r (ju.i-. and in 1911 Prince.

Kimmochi married the Saionji heiress and was adopted
as heir of the family, bein^ created Marquis in iSS-j.
Scion of a leading Kyoto family, closely involved in
the mesh of intrigue which connected the C'ourt and
the dissentient tluinn'o, and himsell of a precocious di^-
j-osition, it is not surprising- that at an earl\ - a.L;'e Saionji
himself took part in the Imperial councils which pre-
ceded the Restoration. That his merits were consider-
able may be judged from the fact that at nineteen he
commanded one of the Imperial armies, and in the,
year of the Restoration, i8'><\, he was appointed
( lovcrnor of Niu;ata Province.

Immediately the Sho^un had retired there was an
exodus from Japan ol a :H:III!KT of the younger men
de-iious of studying a'oroad and of learning aboui ihe
world. Saionji was one of these. In i<S f g he. re.si^neil
office and went to France, and liked that country so
much that he remained there for eleven years. It was
a very different Saionji who returned from Paris to the
aristocratic, despoil' \oun_; man who had i;one there.
It was in Pari- tha; S.iionji met Nakae t'homin and
Matsuda Masahisa, two men who were destined to con-
siderably influence his life. The former v.as an eccentric,

U2 JAPAN AT T1IK CROSS ROAPS

hard-drinking, often drunk, literary hack, sent to 1'aris
to study French. Malsuda was .1 xouii^ man whose,
talents wen- discovered by the late Marijiiis Nalushiina,
who paid his rxp-nses in France as a student. N'akae
ran intellectually wild, einbiaced Republi an, even revo-
lutionary principle-, and infected Saionji wich Radii al
ionta;^ion. .Mat.siula equally .s'udied politic-, in the
intervals of attending lectures on law. and not only
became a capable lawver but one of the few true >n-
stitutionalists in Japan. It may be imagined that asso-
ciation with a red-hot Radical and a progressive I.ib<ral
in Ri-publican !" ranee in the strenuous years th it
succeeded the Franco-Prussian War. < oiild not but have
an etlri ! on Saion;fs ii'-rvous and ima;_;;na'. i\e teia-
perament. As a result hi- \iews when he returned to
[apan were a shock and a Sorrow to his relatives and
superiors. I'ndcteiTed by their >b\ ious disapproval,
in < onipany with N'akae and Mat-nda he start'-d a
new-paper called the 7'<>yii Jivu Slrinihun, in whi<h
in unmeasured terms he d< iiounced the < 'a::s and all tii'-n
works. Saionji ami his associates ba->el their po!ri>al
views on Rousseau's (".out rut Socuil, and then' inte 1 no;*
was to agitate for the creation of a s; tem of -ovein
n.ent founded on th" rights of man and on Ficm'n
political thought oi the ei.; htee.nt !i < ejitury.

In th" < irdmarv lourse i: \>, ould not have brrn ditin ult
for the auilioiuie^ to nip the movement in the bud,
uppivs-, th" newspaper, and deport ;;! editors. 'I he

(oniieitlon of SalolijI VV.tll the moveliie'it made this a')

awkward ] >t ' >\*>- \', i"ii . Sanjo and ''ku^o a;.;i:ed kindly
bu; unav ainn,.l>- wrh tin- perver-e aristocrat, and in- P,
at the end oi t!i ir re oarers, tuine.l him n-.e: to ( >kunia,
I hen I I ii;!> Minister .ill' 1 as bin eau* rat 1C a - anv . < )'. : .a
.o-.i./h: to persuade, and failed. Me then iht< item d
arie ', and Saionji ;;a\e IM, vv::hdi".v !r.^ i;.iir- tr.>m
th" 'o'arnal, and ic'iied to the orritiy io b\e do\\n In-
reputation Mr,: lie !o-t iii> ni-! i han ot : . o-inn.;
tamo'i . Nake ( iioiirn wa < \\> \ ] <<l tloni th" 'api'a!.
and Mat uda b< line pp id, nt o| a li!.,h ho, >!. In

I'oUTirs 143

the course ol time Saionji entered the ( io\ cninicut
service, where his t.itnily and talents soon marked him
out for rapid promotion.

Saioiiji is oiten spoken of, outside Japan at least,
as an almost unknown man, whereas in fact he has
occupied every important post wlnVh oilers to one who
is neither soldier nor sailor. A Vice-Senator in 1881,
he accompanied Ito in the following year on his tour
of Kurope and America, when the late Prince inve-,ti-
gated the various constitutional systems with the view
of drafting the Japanese Constitution. If Saionji still
remained a believer in Rousseau'.-:, doctrines it must
have been galling in the extreme to be a member of
a commission which adopted the German political phil-
osophy of the State. It seems probable, however, that
before this Saionji had abandoned his revolutionary
\iews, and under Ito's influence toned down into a
respectable if not extreme bureaucrat. In 1885 he
was appointed Minister at Vienna, and in i8,S8
\\as transferred to Berlin. His residence there was
marked by two incidents. The first was his intense
dislike of the city and of the people, which resulted
in prolonged absences spent in Paris, so prolonged,
indeed, that he h id to be summarily recalled to his post
by a wire from Okuma, then Foreign .Minister. The
second was his negotiation with Count Herbert Bismarck
of a treat}' abolishing extra-territoriality in Japan
and establishing Mixed Courts for the trial of foreign
accused. The premature publication of the text of the;
treaty by The Times caused a great popular agitation,
and as a result the projx)sal was abandoned. He
returned to Japan in 1891 and was appointed Presi-
dent of the Board ot Decorations. In 1803, when
Mutsu recommenced negotiations with the Powers for
the revision of the foreign treaties, lie became Yice-
President of the Code Investigation Committee and also
Vice-President of the House of Peers. The following-
year a Privy Councillor, after filling various offices in
the medley of Cabinets which followed the war, in 1900

144 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

he ln-came President of the Privy Council, as incumbent
of uhi'h olti, e he held i'ie Premiership </(/ interim on
no le-s than tine- occasions. in i<;o> he vacated the
Piesidency to exchange positions with the late Prime
Ito as Uader of th Sei\ukwai. This la^t was one
of the most important mo\ es on the political chessboard.
Ito since the opening of the century had completely
;^one o\ ( T to the political parties, and Saionn. \\lio
-nice i,X;'j had been his c!o -e friend, sympathi/.ed \siih
these \iews. To crush the party opposition Ito was
shel\ ed in the Pnvy Council and Saionji. his most accept -
ab'e -ucce-sor. led th" Se;;,uku,ii. The reason \\as
that Saionji, though a friend of Ito. hacl already once
been proved amenable to discipline. Iio was not. So
amenable did the former >lmw himself that from !<yo>
to lo i 4 the Sei\ ukwai supported the Kat lira rt^inic
without a murmur. In [anuarv. i<>o<>, when Kalsiira
resigned. Sa'onn formed h:s firs; Mini-try, \\hnh la-ted
u:ilil |uly, loo". liis M-, OI ,d la -ted I'.oin Atl;.'U-t. lul I,
umil December, i<;i 2. Sim c tin n he ha- b< en iti
ret ireiiient .

Saion;i is one of the most cnriou- conundrums ,i| any
time, and <ertam!v ;!ie nio-t i urious m modern Japan.
lie ha- be- n desenh"d a- .1 bundle of i out radid ions,

and lie I'-iiali; -. i-, U.'lles-, 1) be A- ep'.ed as th" lll'.ll
pi' (it that 1,0 [apaiie-e ta;e-;..a:i ha- aii\ led pohti al

on vii t !"!i-. An an- to: rat, m h, u ith tin- In he -i bai {-
in;; in ('our; < :r a- . he I) -came e,ul\ in lile a lantin;.;
Kadlial, Pa !. in Japan In- abandoned hi- ;d".i!- and
\\ a for \ cars as ,oi la ted \\ it h d - -]) ; ; bin earn : at i -m ;
lin-n he ( on;: d In - i our- until h" bd a::M- ' -ad- ; "I ti:e

hi'-! ion t itu: i- in d part ;. . w In n he mi:;h; i < a - i ,ai <\\

|l I \ ' ; b e ' n e \ p i 1 1 d to 1 1 1 \ e I n a d ' o III P. i o \ e in I h e
i!;i> ' :- 'II of i;iaii;..! : a' in;; |-a:t\ .'''' ' i.ineiit . instead
h. d'-!l\ . led hi jia! t \ , iionn I b nl\ and ;!. o\ ei to
|\ ' ; 1 1 . i , i h ' 1 1 ; e : i . I ; > ; i r < a ; . i . i > \ , ' a n d - < > i a ! ' j > s 1 1 > I e
that tale man' < : : d t : , t ; i e o I . < : \ . . I 1 1 1 . i . . I a ; a I n
Premier, !)- ma!'-.,n- h h'. and wii'-:i uoi ted \\ithdri\\
i l on i the 1 1 a'. .

POLITICS 145

What is the reason that a man with all his advantages
of birth, wealth, and influence, of great intelligence and
fine scholarship, should pnne really a failure'/ Regarded
as an advocate oi liberty and freedom, in and out of
office he has proved himself an absolutist, An aristocrat
to the marrow, there are few of his political speei lies
which do not smack of the plebeian. He condemns
<lisplay as vulgar, but advises |>ohlician-> to ad\ ertise.
He denounces intiigue and show, retires to his \illa
at Kyoto, where he poses in the role of the 'ascetic
hermit,' whilst some of the most notorious schemers
in Japan are. in his following. lie used to abu .< the
clans but adopted a Mori for his heir, and made an
alliance with Katsura that checked the advance of
democracy for a decade. Why all these paradoxes?

The truth is that Saionji is a Rosebery and a
I.ucullus combined. lie is fond of luxury, ease,
pleasure, gaiety, scholarship, literature, music, and line
art ; he detests work ; he has no ambition and few,
if any, convictions. Rumour has it that he is -writing
a book. Certain it is that the book will never be
written, for he knows so much theoretically that he
knows but little practically, lie has had one enthusiasm
in his life, and ( >kuma killed it in iS.So. He is the
most obliging man in Japan. K\ery office he has held
he has accepted not because he \\anted it but Ix-cau-e
some one else wanted him to take it. lie became
leader ot the Sciyukwai to oblige ho. and Pivmiei
in I <.;oo to oblige Katsura. Hi 1 went cut in i<iu~
to oblige him once more. He accepted the Premier-
ship in i <; i i to oblige 1 Marquis Inouye. I he only
time he refused to oblige anybody was \\hen he \\cni
out in 1912, and by then he was frankiy sick i>f
tin- cares of office.

The Marquis appears to be without convictions. He
wanted to be a Radical Democrat, and as the powers
that were peremptorily forbad it he has refu.-ed to
be anything at. all. He never yet dratted a policy of
his own. In looo Katsura did it tor him. e\ en down

146 JAPAN AT TilK CROSS KoADS

to his I'tid'.;e( : in i <; i i Inouye A\ rote it and Yamanioto
Tat-uo i arried it out. There used to be a -on.; on the
London mu-ic-halls about a ' tired ' man. 1 he Marquis
i- the ' tired ' man ot fapan. l-'ar happier amongst
hi- pi Hire---, hi- curio-, and hi-, manuscript-, lie i- frankly
bored with the selfishness, the corruption, and the in-
tii;_;ue of the /\(tsurni-if(iM'ki . Brimful of all j;'!itiial
theone-, h' has n-.ili/ed that in Ja.m the\ mu-' still
remain theoii--. Ki h, he does not -uorry about mone\ .
so much so thai hi- brother, Maron Sumitomo, manages
his a Hairs, and even pay.s his bill,. A- \ > leading the
St iyukwai. once or twice a \ear In- de!i\e:cd a p'-r-
iun< lory addre-s, but left all active management to llara
Kei. the manager, and to Mat-uda Mi ahi-a. the clian -
man of committee. If am one told him thai hi-
followers wer<- a band oi thieves and ru'iian- it rai-ed
a -mile, but certainly no interest.

In I'rince Yama.,aia he had, and has, a .-.iron;; enemy.
The Liberal prim i| It - he brought irom Fran, e weie
red ra;.;s to the veierin of odawara, and in addition
Saionji followed I to and hi- semi-consimitional nlca-
rather than the extreme view, of the militari-! c lan--
men. 'i'o make matter- worse, Saionji ha- ne\er paid
fli-tfi'-ii'e t" \'ama;;ata. uhi'h in \i.-\\ <.t jhe fornr-r's
ain ienl lineage and In.di rank i- \\.ll understandable
At ;li'- di-adiii d oi 'hf Mf|i ICii'iii h- e\en lio'.if.
Iran. ^i\ MIL; t !" d '< lor-- f re f d> .in t ' om I radii imial ' ; i
in handlin:; th !': \> rial pati'-iil. and a iio-a n if
if m[fl a! U: e, pu! e. i oil' ii; n ill. .Hid dfa!a a -> ihj'll'.di h'
ui i'f but i oninii ii <'..-..

."aloliji \', ill Hot ;.;o dn\\a to po .(ei:!\ a- a .'I'f.ll i'l.in
1 I f ha rie\'el dolif aii\ 1 h:n;; bi ; , he ha li.'\ ( ! < i- . . 'i-ip.'tj
a poll, y . 1 1 hf ha- an;, on\ ii : ion h- hi ;:o;
i ' i a i a . " to -land up lor 1 1 1 > n i . I I ha I ." ' d on a
i !a\ our, h' h . q'lit :< 1 l' '.'. .:h : ii I \\ : 'i i. l : '

i ft u i ' 1 to (.', an I n;: f i ia! Ke-,. rip* ia I ; i ; in look
the bianif on h'm - 1: a-.d ill-- -; ;>oi :u-i,! . . \;,- \> MD

p'lMl- lit- I ; Ua !)' ' -a- 1 111' f, 1"! !',; l;.r: 1 Ii' '1.

and iif . el ha i n, m I >k\ Ad> i-ndaiit of thn :\

POLITICS 1.17

one generations of Kugc, the prodiu t of centuries of
elf eminism, the natural growth of age-, of cloistered
seclusion, it is certain that Saionji Kimmochi, the aris-
tocratic reclu-e, is happiest dreaming Utopias in his
villa at Kyoto. Ili^ decision was a lo-,s to his country,
for a man even without ambition but with transparent
honesty of action and purpose i> not easily to be spared.
His partisans ascribe hi-, failure to Yamagata's malevo-
lence. If he ever thinks of it he himself might a >< ribe
it to ()kuma. In reality it was due to his own lack
of definition. The weakness of his character and his
amiable facility for obliging others will mark him out
only as a might-have-been on the pages of history.

The composition of the second Saionji Cabinet 1 was
proof sufficient of the poor state of party politics in
Japan, and in especial of the state of the Seiyukwai.
As head of that party and unfettered by the inheritance
of a definite programme from his predecessor, as had
been the case in I <;oo, it might reasonably have been
expected that Saionji would form a party Cabinet, ex-
cepting of course the Ministers of \Yar and the Navy,
still the nominees oi the two clans through the Kmperor.
<>u!y three portfolios were, however, allotted to the
Seiyukwai, and of these two were held by Hara and
Matsuda, men \\l\o had been long associated with
bureaucracy. That not more were given was due to
the party's lack oi men of even ordinary probity and
respectability. More striking still, the two departments
of Communications and Agriculture and Commerce were

1 1'nmuT M ;r ]!'.is S.iioiiji

Mini- !':' ct Kureii*!! AltaTS Yi>c<nint I'ciml.i

I limn.' A Hairs Mr. ! l.ir:i

Ki:i:c.KV Mr. T.it-uo Y.i:r,a;n "!

\\'.ir I'i.ii'(.ni IsiiiiiHiio, II.IMMI

X.ivy Baron Saito

A^ncul'c.iic \' l'i)ni:iHTi.x' r..ir,>n M.ikiin)

C>!nr.iuiii>.-.iti t >ii- C'":'.n; iliv.i,-hi

Kducalion .. . Mr. tl.i.-L'!\i

i4 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

specially entrusted to Ilayashi ami Makino, as being
men whosf personal integrity would be a guarantee
against a continuance ot the corruj)tion and ^raft which
rmvloju-d those two insiitutions. Of the individual
members Haya.shi had previously served as Foreign
Minister, but had so provoked the clan wrath by his
sturdy independence on the Manchurian question that
its portals wen- closed to him. Makino, a son of the
great Okubo, had been Minister of Education, whilst
H.ira and Matsuda returned to their former posts.
Yamamoto was the unknown (juantity of the Cabinet.
Of none of the others much was expected. Ilayashi
in his new berth had no scope for his diplomatic talents,
anil neither Matsuda, Haseba, I'chida, nor Makino were
men of much energy or initiative. Events fully ])roved
the correctness of the popular anticipations, and for
all the impres.sion that any one of them has given to
hi- department the apjxmitinents might just as well
have, bem K-ft unfilled.

Ishimoto, uho died in April, 1012, and was succeeded
by Haron I'ehara. and Saito as the nominees ol ( hoshu
and Satsuma. fulfilled their u.siial roles, demanding the
largest possible appropriations for the Army and Navy,
liar. i as manager of the Seiyukwai held a rather more
imjiortant p-o-.it i<m than any ot his colleagues.

'I In- th'-n leader of the Seivukvvai and one of the
mo-t j)owerful personalities in Japanese jmhtK was born
in 1^54 at Morioka. He studied law in the college
atiathevl to the I)epartment ot Ju-tnc, but, i omin^ lo
the eon< lu-ion that an oliice career had little to otter
him, abandoned his lectures and entered tree-lance
journaii in. This \va-. at the time whi-n tin- early (on-
tuu'ioi'ali t^ were b'-;;imii:ij.; their press agitation, and
in i. So h- joined th" ^ta!t ot the Ynl'in I lot hi .\/i.rn/>un,
:n the (olumn^ of \\hnh paper Inukai Ki. I'.aki N'ukio.
Nakae ('homin, and o'her reformers were lien ely aila'k-
1111; th" ai/u e, ot clan government. Il.ua addeil In -
pip- t> the ion ,-rt, but though lie \\M . a s^ilj'jj , l!1( |
eiier.;etii jilaver lie fnund that he ua, onl\ a member,

POLITICS 149

and an insignificant one at that, of a large orchestra,
and with little chance of early promotion to the rank
of soloist. With startling rapidity he abandoned his
progressive principles, accepted baptism in the creed
of ultra-bureaucracy, and became editor of a (loyo
Shimhuri (official organ > started by the clans to combat
the democrats. He was attached as olVn ial reporter
to the Japanese Mission to Korea, and thus came into
touch with the late Marquis Inouye, then Foreign
Minister. The latter recogni/.ed his business ability and
offered him a post in the Foreign Office, as well as
arranging a marriage with his stepdaughter. In 18X4
he was promoted to be Consul at Tientsin, a post which
he held during the I to mission, which concluded with
the signature of the Convention of Tientsin. From
that time his future was assured. lie was connected
by marriage with both Inouye and Ito, a relationship
which, coupled with his ability, ensured rapid progress.
He served a period as Secretary of Legation and Charge
d'Affaires at Paris, but returned to Japan when Inouye
resigned the Ministry of Foreign Affairs after the failure
of the treaty revisions. On his patron filling the Ministry
of Agriculture he took the post of private secretary,
and was transferred with the portfolio to Mutsu when
the latter succeeded to the office.

The association between Inouye, Ito, Mutsu, and Hara
was a very striking one. Inouye frankly had no delu-
sions on the question of politics. lie strongly approved
of the clan government as best suited to the needs of
the moment and because there was nothing to replace
it. On the other hand, he could see that with increasing
progress and extending knowledge the popular demand
for a share in the administration would have to be
admitted. Ito was an opportunist. He had too many
enemies in high places to jx'rmit of his openly embracing
party views, besides which he was too much of a (Ian-
bureaucrat to sacrifice the official predominance; on the
altar of democracy. Like Inouye he recognized a con-
cession to be necessary, but he adopted the German

150 JAl'AN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

ilortrini'S whieh ( onrrd-d nothing to ih>- |> -oplr and
<-ver\ thin-, to the State as a satisfactory evi' fnun ihe
//.//<;.vsf. At th" -am- tini'-, thoii_;h ac:ive'y an:;-d ino-
crat!'\ liodi Ito and In iiiyr were pa->;\e!y -ympathrli'
toward-- the popular niovein' nt-. i hev eave pe- luir'torv
lMi;ed'e;iin- to Ita.:aki and < 'kuma. Int more than thai
th-\ drew r Hind them in :) like Mnt-u. Saioiiji, IIa:a.
Mat-uda, < >i hi, M >ii. and other-, .md v,h:!-t ad. r.xin;.;
them in otn ' un 1 th art- ot ;.;o\ eminent eiea'.ed .t
t la-s ot party po'i-.j, ian- who niK;ht in the tutnie lie
relied on to aet a- a hrak,- on any ati-'injit l 'h
extreini-ts to >tainp'ed'- the country in the ai:-e o!
ileni' n ra^ y .

To return to the -uSj'-et of this -kei, h. Ila-a fod< \\ i d
Mnt-u to the Foreign < M'lice. ! :<-, t >,\'-} - l)ir,eior .,! the
( onirnrn ial Bureau, and, att-r lia\a-!'! 1 adasu > .ij>-
pointmcnt a- Mini ter to 1'i-kin. \i e Mi-.i t r ot I''oniMi
Aliairs. It wa- in the-e po-itioii^ tha: iiaia di>[;!'i\ed
nio-t hrilli int 1\' hi- IniMii'-s-. a!)i!itie-. \\'!ie;i ,M;;t-n !ie<!
llar.i re-i;jned ollicf, and on a hint trom Ito \\<-;,i
haek to journa'i-ni a> oli'.or ot the ()*tikn M.;iu:ch ;
Slutnl/un. a -turdy or;;an ot i on-; it'in >: ,ii _L,O\ i -r; men: ,
and one ot th" m>-t \vid !,- lead ni-'.v-paj'rr^ in l.iian.
Strau- ucre a'read\" >ho\',:n.; ;h<- dire' tio:i ot the v. md.
and it \'.a> no Mirpiie \\ h n iti lornied ;he Sei\u-
kwai in i'>'>'> to find ii.i-'.L a-> one o! ;he mana
'Ihe -am' 1 year h" wen: in: < th C,i! : < t . -s M ;:.-:, i
nt Cominuni at ion i in '-i: -:on to ! I . . !n I'ura . < ' :
the i.iil ot the h . ( ',i'>in -: he d -i ! l--'l th !
ot ;!ie ( t^(ii,.!i .S /.'//.,'/ ti u:;!i :!:- i:: r^., ; t,\ ;h.

patt'/. I !' ua- M i; i n i t I !om< A: .;i f -
ihe Sai 1 HI ;i ( 'aoi;i'-t- , and <.n lh- i . I :n n-e- ! . .1
Sal' 'ii i in i / i ; 1" anie in i ani'- \\ !; it h had n

'i >!:/, li'-en. ! e ! r ot the Se; . ;'. v, a! .

Jlar.i !<:. i; : ." th- la'-- I':;n . k -.: :.M

JM,!;-| d tho-i dit . I ! i . a :

o! -i < M r . .1.. ! . ..n

I'OLITICS 151

to avoid rocks and shoals. lie has de< ided views both
on policy ainl admini .tration, and once lie had risen to
positions of authority lie knew how to impress tho,<-
views on his superior-.. In the two Saionji Cabinet-,
he \vas certainly the dominating per-on.dity, so mn- h
s< that the Japanese nicknamed ih'-m ' llara's <'abi-
nets.' ilioirji as regards hi, per-onal po-ition In-,
career has been a success, the same c.miiot be s.cd of
the parly of wh'ch he is now th- 1 acknowledged head.
It ever theic was a i;' :in !-'' () ' th;e\e> out for boodle
i; was the Seiyukwai during th-- years that succeeded
the Russian \\'ai'. It is the conduct of his part}' which
has made 1 Lira's name mud in Japan, for lie H even-
tually the responsible person, and has never made any
effort to check the corruption and the blackmail wh:< h
is rampant through its ranks. Such incidents as the
Klectric Li^ht Charier, the Tramway Municipali/ation,
and the Katsura entente clearl}' demonstrated the im'qui-
ties of this Japanese Tamilian} I ball. Th" Seiyuk\vai
simp]}- put up its services to auction, and the price was
cash and concessions. The most illuminating proof of
the unlitness of the part}' was the refusal of Saionji
and Ilara to admit more than three of KS members to
office.

Against Ilara himself no charge of immorality has
e\er been brought. A rich man himself, he receives
li.pouo jier annum as adviser to the Furukaua family
in adilition to his salary from the part}' and his own
resources. No bi\ath oi si;spicioii has cvc'i' dimmed
his personal reputation for integrity. \"et, like ( >ura,
an equally honest man, he has throughout his party
career been the leader ol a band of rascals to whom
public funds and public requirements are the natural
avenues to Wt a'th.

It is an extraordinary thine; in Japan that most of
the political leaders are comparatively hi^h-minded and
honest, but they have been forced to -wink at, and
even on occasions to encourage, the vilest ptactices
by their supporters, owine, to the constant necessity

152 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

of recruiting, rewarding the recruits, ard of meeting the
bribery and corruption practised by the clans in their
ti^ht against the people. In a country where neither
the public conscience nor the public funds are strictly
regarded, it is only n.ttuial that politics should be a
welter of tilth.

I he ques'.loii inav be a--k'-d, ' \\'helice come the lunds
t the politician-?' The linanci.d requirements of .1
party are extremely lar^e, and it onlv C I on \\as ^i\en
by each headquarters to each ol its candidates sonic
Yo.oo.ooo \\ouhl be required at every election. K:i< h
party contains some rich men who L'Jve of their abund-
ance. J-'.ach party contains some men who though not
i 'i< h theniseh es handle money, and these arc able to
obtain considerable contributions in return for the
support ot the party to their schemes. A writer on
tin-, subject in the 7'<iivo says : " In the Seiyukwai
there are individual numbers who are known to be
very wealthy. Mr. K . <>ka/aki, for < -sample, himself
ha> a toruine of halt a million, and in addition tho
ba- kmv, ot the Furukawas, th |- copjier millionaires, lint
Mr. <>k.i/al;t i- not well known for j^enerosits . Mr.
Satake, i're.ident ot iln- Tokyo I'Ji-'tric Li-ht ('oiii-
p.nr, , is v.e]| known to ha\e \ ^.ooo.ocx) and his nun
li'li family, tip- Ko-hn, behind him. Mr. I'.okiishin < )i,
ot <-aka. is another n h man \\lio has coiitrihuted
treely. 'I hi- Sumromo iamiK annually put \ ^o.ooo
at the d: po ,a! <it Mai ;uis Saion|i, whr h sum heir.ui---
let's to the part}'. Mr. Mara Kei, as advisei to tli<-
l-iiruk.iwa, di'au^ an annn d allowaiii >' ot N'^n.oo' . but
tin- i -. |aid lo Mr. I 1 a ra |/<-i '-ona II \ . and it an\ i-
pa.d to tli<- Si ivukuai i; i not a family aliair. tot
:h'- I iirukaua-. li.c.e a fainlly law li"t lo support poli'ii al
p irtie-,."

Hi-- imp'irtance of linances in |Hilni'al lit'- is thai
i on! ri but 10 i i i .( lar.;e sum-, are a bl'- noi oti l\ to mliui \\< e

pro;; r. m n 1 1 1 nn t\-n ! < < imt.-- 1--\ ie\-ri - it. n
n a p r on doc ;.. .! ,u'>- lib" to a pal t \ he< all -e
|)pro\ e i; . p'.c t inn . < >n t h- i onti ar\ , \\ hen a

POLITICS 153

party is seen to he in funds many jx-rsons subscribe
to its principles. The most dangerous influence the few
genuine patriots have to fight is that of money. The
only group which i-. not subject to the gold stream is
the Nationalist with Mr. Inukai at its head. When ihe
Tosa-Iwasaki ^ei lion of it demanded an entente with
Katsura on the -ani" lines as the Seiyukwai had, the
necessary funds to shut out the dissidents were raided
by a whip round the loyal members of the party and
YSo.ooo was paid in, though the members are mostly
|>f)or men but men whose principles are above their
pockets.

One method adopted to raise the wind has been to
start a commercial undertaking, buy the share.* issue
with borrowed money, and when the stock had been
sufficiently boomed to unload on the public, placing 1 the
profit to the credit of the party funds.

Both individual members and parties receive con-
siderable sums from corporations and the great business
linns, \vho in return control their voting on questions
affecting their interests. In njoS the Fujimoto Bank
failed, and as a result of a complaint from the British
Ambassador a searching investigation ensued, which
showed that a sum of Y 120,100 had been paid by
the directors of the Dai Nippon Sugar Company
to members of the Seiyukwai to induce the party
to approve a measure creating a State monopoly of
sugar.

The municipali'/ation of the Tokyo tramways in 1912
was the result of a measure introduced by the Katsura
Cabinet, firstly that the foreign loan floated in London
might be available to bolster up the specie reserve,
and secondly that the proprietors might be eased of
their burden. It was estimated that the Seiyukwai
touched \'395,ooo over this transaction.

When the Sciyukwai supported Sat^uma to turn out
the third Katsura Cabinet the Navy paid Y 150,000 to
the part} 1 and individual members, whilst Katsura spent
Yj4,ooo of public funds from the Secret Service account

154 JAPAN AT T11K CKOSS ROADS

and some YJ^O.OOO of hi, emu m"i'ey in forming a
party to nnjv^e them.

Tin sJiipljuililiiii; romp;.mes and armament linn- have

-pent a lot of money 0:1 ;.;eltin^ the iia\al and military

pro-.; famine-, passed. A rotr i!(" able jon:on <if tlr-

i on .in | , -.oils ( \po (1 ;n ill- \'.i\ ,il Si .r :< 1 :l o| I o I .}

V.iTr III'< !Iili d .liitl U. 1'r I! I'll I'M' lil'li!' !)i I!!'; p. lit'. .!< tl'>!l--

1:1 tin- I>iet.

I :i I < > I J ail'! i < j I ", .1 I i en. h arm illl'Mil li; i;; u.i-
anxious lor the pnv;! ;.;e of -u!)-rri!)i:ii' : ) th- Sri.u
k\\ai and it- < -iroM.il-. o! lilim; \\\ ordi-r^ for -'iin .
lh" M hcnic, curiously cnotr.Ji, caun' lo noa: iii. In?
ih' r>- \\a- .m umlrrs'amliir,; in i-<>:inc''tio:i \\:t'i the .\nvj
fajiani'-c A!l:a;i( that a ivrtain pr ij)ort:o:i of J.IJMM'-
torci^n annaincni ordrrs r-hall he ]il r --d i:i Mnijand,
.Mid the iH"V-v>ary >tcp- wi-n- taken to up-i t th-- (i.ill;.
,ip;;!:i an! . In tail, th'- Lower Ilmi-c i:i J.ipan as a
rule represents e\'cr\ int'-ri--t e\''ej,t th-- pu'ili.-.

I'rihery i- at present a sv/r n;;j nun I pi'iiii'-- ri
[.ipan. \\hi-tln-r part:!-- or ind:\ ui;;.i'-- an (oueinied.
!n ioi ;, .if'jer Kat-i'.ra !-- ; l ;!'. I'..i!o:i ( loto stuuijted
ill'- eountr\ on In-h.tlt of hi party, th" lofni.it inn "I
di" nu-'l u-, ot \\hii h ' o -t N'^oo.ooo and <nie more.
Ihe Ij.iron --aid i! was mij>' -:'ile to o MM ui'h tin
p.irsy un!'--s Y i. 000,000 \\i-re p;;t ;:M |nr c\' /<;)< !-
\\ h\ '.' niivioii !y l!ie inilh.'ii v,.i- ua-ited to |>II'H-
'''' T- ,Mid \'. i r. i!d ' >" < ! - T: 'T.. ,\ ||o
'<> tin '. the n.ii<i:i uith th;> 'i:.i h- ; . n>
\. \\\\ .

c. r ; \' l < ' o . .in I n n a: . i MI ' I ;:'!' '< dv . .irn
!'i \ ; oo 1 o. lh //./', \'t i A '( / / ,\ ','//,/' S '; in !::!! I'i Mr.

I ; " J. .H ! . " I h' i; !.<.!..' oi ; ; i p. o; ! if l!,--

. i';d t iai' tion ol i o'i-t I'u' i -n.il ;' >\ < :".\\\.- n: I .t i id:
in ! IP- pi e . .1 !;!) lit 1 ii ;! ii r\ and > >i '.:>:[. 1 i. 1 1 ; :i
I'M on ( . r ' h : '- it n u.-'i >< i .if \ :. i'.ii j. i . \ ' I . '

' ' - . -

I'oUTICS "55

person who v. il! a> knowledge tlnir services. In
a vote \\ a . \\<:;th i-i;;]it vrii, i:i I t) l .' :! \\.is worih
I'ouneen." Not only is biib'Ty rampant l)r. I'ehara
ealls il ' ;:<!]<!. ! '/in even int amida 1 ion is ; on .tain ly
tv-orted i'). I n number a ca-e al \\a!.a\ania ai \<)\2
where the Sri\u!:wai eandidaie \\- Id dr pollinv'.-bnoth
at the point ol the |>i to', on!\ admit ; in;.; hi.-, ov.n Mip
poiter--. N'o!>od\ aUnrij)t:-i! !o aircst him. Ahhon^h
thi^ year ( l <; I ^ ) the Mi'ii..ir\ ha n;.;orou-,!y asserted
the l,i\\, charge-, <>l i)i'ih.Tv ha\e heen stj frequent in
the !a\\- Ii--ts as to leav.- no dotiiSt that the ivnera!
eoiuhtions are unchriM^cd.

It is unre .sonahle to blame the people lor tin.-, Male
of affairs, din- ( i. )\\'ni!nen! alone is re-onsilile. The

has hi'i'ti to mininnxe the po\v T ot the Hid and the
importance of the i "ranehi.-e. '1 he \"oter }}.(-, no idea
of polities, or even of thi- politi<-al nieani!:;.;' i-f lii.s
act. l!is vote has no political \~alu' 1 \\'!iale\ cr ; n
repi'c-^c'iits a possible avenue to a litt!;- ea-h ii adroit!\-
and secretively used. d he system ol eJ.ueation, whieh
is based on n;\-tho!o-\ and servility, is to blame 1or
this ignorance.

.\;;ai;i, it \va^ the ( lo\ ci - ;iment \\-hi,'li initiated th--
briber}- and intimidation ulneh are the u-ua! me'. hods
of beeomin;j, M . I' . \\'hrn X'i.-eoinit Shina^a\\a held
the booths in i. Si)- it was at the behe>t o! Manjtiib
Mat.-ukata, \\hilst Vama^ata's ' i.;o!d pills' were lamou-
twenty years ag^o. 'I'll' Cniio-ha, the political pa r ty
!eil !)} Haron ( )ura, \,a-. Vama^ata's maehiru 1 , and \\a>
opeidy aekiio\\ led;..;e(l to be hep! together b\ l)r:b(i-\'.
It is one ol the paradoxes oi jajian that I>aro:i ( >nra,
\\lio played so pro:u;nent a pail i'i t'ie Shinauawa aiiair
ol iSi)2, who has lor years led the Chtio-ha, a band
ot political beachcombers, who was responsible t >r the
riots of i()j -, should no\v a;j,a':i ride at the Home office
to enforce the Klcction Law. I'll:' lengths to \vliich a
Cio\ ernnient and a party will i;o were illiistratL-cl in
1013, when the k S t il>uma-Seiyuk\vai Mini-ir}- h -id up

156 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

all the mail of the Katsura party, and M-nt round
policemen on house-to-house visits advising the electors
to ' beware ' of the Rikken Doshikai. 1

The extent to which politicians are influenced by stlf-
interest may be suggested by the career of the late
Hoshi lorn. Originally a teacher of Knglish, he was
taken up by the late Count Mut>u. under whose leadi-r-
-h:p he distinguished himself in a dispute with Sir
Harry I'arke- as to the correct translation of the words
' Hueen ' and ' Kmpre-s.' Later he w.is sent to Kn^land
and graduated at the Temple. On his return he joined
the Department of Justice. In 1X83 he (juitted office to
follow Count Itati'aki, a step due entirely to the ti^ht
between th" Mitsii Bishi and the Kyodo I'nyo Com-
panies, in the latter of which Hoshi held shares. His
energy and boldness soon placed him at the top of
the ladder, and he even displaced Ita^aki in the leader-
ship of the party and in the a/lections of the people,
lie berame President of the Lower I louse, but in eon-
junction with Cioto and other prominent men became
mixed in a K ra 't ^candal, which tin- opposition quickly
ntili/ed to e\p<-l him. He- stood in the next Election,
and alter a bitter eonte-t, in which one person was
killed and 117 wounded, was defeated. Ambition was
his weakness, and he readily i;ave up domestic jxilitics
to accept the [x^t of Minister to Washington. In
Americ.i h- learned all the method^ of the political
boss, and on his return [sive combination and took the former party o\er
to Ito, who rewarded him with the portfolio of Com-
inunii atioiis.

Moth the bureau 1 iats and the Progressives attacked
ho tor thi^ apjxiintment with su h \ioleii 1 < that Ibi-lu
wa-. fop ed to t'esj^Ti. The bureaucrats, led by N'ania
;;ata, u-ed lio-hi a^ a sti k to beat ho, .u i u -in;;' him
-.( di-re-pei t t.i th" ThrDjie in appointing a- a Minister
.1 p'T-oii a '.read 1 , on- 1 - impelled from the HM;;M-, \\lii] t
the I'ro;;re sues weie frankly afraid of lloshi'- methods

' I'liiur K.i! ;jr.i' |'.i;t\, i) 1 \s i!ici; f ('l in the Kriik<>( j.u.

POLITICS 157

and ambitions. He entered municipal politics, converting
the town hall into a Tammany brothel, on the steps
of which he was eventually assassinated as the result
of the incitation of Shimada Saburo, now Speaker and a
leader of the Rikken Doshikai, and then editor of the
Tokyo Muinichi Shirnbun. Hoshi has left a deeper
mark on political methods in Japan than any one else.
A man of extraordinary determination and of mag-
nificent eloquence, he had the lowest political standard.
He was himself repeatedly bribed into the surrender
of his party's aims, and had no hesitation in u^ing
similar methods towards his su|>jx)rters and enemies,
lie deliberately sold out to Yamagata and to I to. More
than any other politician he was resjxjnsible for the
policy of intimidation, and never went to an electioneer-
ing meeting without a bodyguard of sushi (toughs),
who at the least sign of heckling or dissent were loosed
on the opposition. His career affords an interesting
study of political knavery, and is a useful index to
the customs of his time, customs which have to a great
extent endured to the present day.

In the Confucian Analects the following passage
occurs : ' Tsu Kung asked for a definition of good
government. The Master replied : ' It consists in pro-
viding enough food to eat, in keeping enough soldiers
to guard the State, and in winning- the confidence of
the people.' ' And it one of these- tilings has to be
sacrificed, wlrich should go first? ' The Master replied :
Sacrifice the soldiers.' ' And il of tin: two remaining
things one has to be sacrificed, which should it be?
The Master said : ' Let it be the food. From the
beginning men have had to die. But without the
confidence of the people no government can exist.'

It was with the intention of carrying out the prin-
ciples of Confucius that Marquis Saionji formed his
second administration. The confidence of the people,
the food of the people, and then national defence. It
was for these reasons that sweeping changes were made
in administrative oltices, that a non-party Finance

i;s i. \r.\.\ AT Tin-: CROSS ROADS

Minister ua> appointed v..ih tin- m<>--t explicit instnie-
ti'i!;-, to cut dov.n e\pen><--, and a \\ide ami i<pre-
>en'au\e * 'ituirtie lonn; i t- in-'iy
l.i-:-. in i o i j jaj an \\a as near a:i inten.al ie\o-

itltlori a- It !- ^oo 1 I">I" a!lV !,at;nH ID ;M. I'hc CD-.t

"I ii'iii;; v.a-> pr< 'liibilivr, a.'i'i ilic utniDst IIII--T'. \\a
-pn.ul thr' ';;;.,!) i;;t tin- country. In HD:I--) .ri'i tiu-
-!i:in <!;-:n (^ rn:il!t:i :i- \\cic a'i ;'l::'fly n:\ a t.i!!!i;u-
lia^-is. and c\c:i i;i ill" h< ttrr <:ur.rr- ihf (i;^!i - - ua-^

pt;:!f. ID,C u-D'a \"i;."7 per h')ku ID Vjv^5- ' ' '' '
p; i. ;:; I . \ T It
;- i!nj M >--;' ] ID in ';<*; ;mat 'If (ii^a-tri ais ciu-c o!
;hi- ri-c. IDT ;!-,- }>: d ric-- i-, tin- IMM-. <ni uhi. !i
v, , !.,<- aiid t oinnii) .r.i"- .!'' ti\vi'i. laxation \va- another
: i'( ;;ic:;d .n luird-n on i!r p"D])!r. 'I'Jn- tutil' 1 I\a:-'iia
plan- ;D p.jy oil jhr v. ar <- p nd'V.irr 1:1 ;< cnrd time
iiad !IDJ,( !- Iy c liaj)- d. a:id i..id !.! a it'.M'd-n <'') the
p. nj|e nt \ 12. o / 1 ' Cd^lia. 'I he avera.;c ir.miiH'
u! an ,'e.;i :< n!'.::ra! 'a' > >n: -; ' - fariiiy in i ; ;i-: \'..i N-J 1 )
P'-V a:;n;nn. I edn : \' 'J..;o, ! ;:r; t..-i o! i ice t^r .1
. < .11 to: .1 |.i;.ii!y o; IIM ! ia: >d, u il .-, .in ! ! h r < in'- in-n.
ind i;o! ni;:i h i l<-t t t .r < 1 >' ':) -. r n: . I o d. hi;!r a ;d
:.i\< -. v.'iii !i ; . pri -ent \' i o.. o i. T - u !i a taini!;, . Hi--
Cud et !,-i! i -i-.-.aid !.-. Mr. .iii.r.n ,;. ; 'M, d v \ r/.i--

POLITICS IS')

trative Kelonn Committee had issued its report (June,
i <; i 2 i <t im:her reduction ol V70, 000,000 was shown,
ol which \ 20-,' ( <o,i 'Oo ua. obtained by postponing con-
tinuing prog; an sines ;ii:d Y j 5, 20* >,ooo by increased
revenue Ironi the monopolies a;;d public works. No
less than \ 2<;, 000,000 u a s ^a\cd \>y ri organi/ation ol
the \arinus minMenal department -, whit h in idrntally
restihed 111 thr <ii>iin^--a! <>l v ^oo .senior oiiicials and
al><>ut 20,000 jirity oiiicials and employes, and '-<!(-
dcn\in;; ordinance-, \\eiv undertaken that no lorei^n
loan^ should he i-siu-d and that the amount ol Treasury
Hill- should !>e strictly limited.

The principal hacker of the Ministry, the Kmperor
Mut.uhito, died nn July ,iO, 1912, and thereafter trouble
was just as certain as the sea is wet. Yama^ata, always
an opponent of Saionji, re-umed an a:^t;'ressi\'e attitude,
and ii!-trueied I'ehara, the Minister of \Var, that no
economies were to be- eii'ected in his department unless
the Cabinet agreed to de\'ote those economies to an
increase in the Army oi two divisions, the first in-lal-
nient of a proposed increase to twenty-live divisions.
This proposed augmentation had been pending for some
years, and was part of the <;randiloquen! expansionist
jioiic\- f-hicli had been tile Choshu contribution to the
f'O^i -hi llunj Imperialism. it had received the consent
el ihe l;i:e i'jnperor, but this consent had bei-n coupled
\\iih an explicit vein oa the implementing 1 ol the j>ro-
p'l-al nniil such time as the countrv was in a linancial
posiiion to bear the additional burden. It h.id aire.'dy
bec-n rejected by Ivit-ura, and \\as rejected by him
a;;ain in i <) i > expre-sly on this Imperial proliihition.
'I'his f;ict htid no influence whatsoever with Vama;_;aia.
l'/'.s ti-\;s the interests of the Choshu clan the Imperial
wishes ha\e li;tle weight. \'am;ie,ata intended to kick
Saionji out because he did not like him and his popu-
larity, because h had granted part ot the demands of
the Na\y but none of t!io-e of the Army, because he
had llomed him ;md ins position as President ol the
Privy Council durine, the 1-imperor's ilhus-. and, most

160 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

important <>f all, hccavi-c he (Yama^ata i wanted the
power bark in hi- own hands. lYhara \\a^ tlir cioll tliat
did the jumping, \"aina;_;ata pullrd tin- Mniu;>.'

' A^ l'r!i.i:.i \v.i> Ivttvily .itt.iLKCil in c iinncc'.u.n with hi^ rr-i^n.ition.
it !- wnitli \vh;l<- pi'Mitini; nl tli.it he- .u!ol iiii-\'iy \\.i\ | ci ic^tlv
O'liec'ly .K.V' ij,liii^< to the Cmi^IitutixM. i in.- f.iult did ic 1 i.iv v. ith
I 'cli.ii .1, l>.it witii tiu- Con^t 1 1 ul h MI .in.! its fi .i:iu i -.

CHAPTER TIIRKE
POLITICS

PART II

ON No\ ember }oth I'ehara's preliminary proposals
having been refused by the Cabinet, the \Var Minister
called on Saionji and delivered an ultimatum, either
acceptance ot the Army increase or -. A Cabinet
meeting was called that evening and the proposal
placed before it. It was unanimously rejected. ( )n
December I st (Sunday) the Minister of War \va.->
officially informed of the decision, and at 10 a.m. on
Monday morning he placed his resignation in the hands
of the Emperor. Readers may say that there was
nothing serious in the situation at this stage, and Saionji
could have appointed another Minister to replace t'ehara.
But really he could not. By three o'clock in the after-
noon it was known that Choshu and the. Army had
declared a boycott of the Saionji Cabinet, and no general
officer would accept the portfolio. The Minister for
\Yar had to be a general. 1 On December 4th Saionji,
whp refused to have recourse to an Imperial Edict to
keep I'ehara in office, resigned, and Prince Vamagata
had attained his first object.

In the second phase, however, the Choshu veteran
overstepped himself. Saionji, who was by no means
the fool that Yamagata believed him to be, recom-
mended Kalsura as his successor. Now the Prince had
wanted the Saionji Ministry out of the way to make
room for Terauchi or Ilirata, these being his two faith-

' In 1914 the Okuin.i Cabinet obt. lined an Imperial Rescript opening
the post tq retired generals.

162 JAPAN AT THK (ROSS ROADS

lu! ht:;thmn. Kat-ura in dftiee \\ a > eertain to pa\
a- \'.\<- h el to s\!:i ;er- 1m.ii I d iwara a Saioaii
had done. To make matter-, worse, both Teram hi and
llirat.i frit -hy of the honour propped for them. Deter-
mined not to have Katsura, \"ama;;ata f(dl haek on a
Sat -i ho i -tialition of the old type with Matsukata as
i'remier. '1 hou^h se \' en ty -three years of aj;e the
Maiqui- fe.t equ.il to tlie ta^!<. tlie- more so a> it
aiiorded <>p| ortunnies tor tin- exen i-e ot hi> Wolldeiful
linaiifia! ahil:tie>. Atlair.s even ;;ot si tar as for the
Marquis t) I'onie up to Tokyo, but as soon as he ^ot
there the SatMima men opened his eyes to the real
-tale of affair-, nam-ly, taai Yam.iL;ata, foiled mil e.
uanied to u-e him as a <at>p.r.v. and, more inijyort.mt
Mill, that ( 'ho-hu \\ere at sixt-s and s^x'ens OWIIIL; to
the -plit hetween \'ainai;ata and Katsura, a eonditum
tiMin uh'th SatMima i ou;d reap nun h ad\-anta^i- hy
ho'.din;.; their hoi-i s. lie \\eiit to hed MI k ot the
Momaeh. the u>ual rerour-c ot a Japanese in trouMe.
KatMira. f:ankl> ile iron- ot seein;; N'ama^aia de
lea'.e.l, v. a > soiii itoiis enough to send the Imperial
ph\ MI ian to iert:ly that the Marquis was too ill to
take otii' e. I h Te wa- .i d< -.idiot k all round. \ ama^ata
had no i andidale, SatMima de- lined the honour for the
tune iiein^, and >a,on|i \sa^ nnu p out and determined
''i -lop Mtit. I lie final de ( iMoii < anie f M im \\ithm the
pa! i' e. 'I h'-re Saionji enjoys ( < .n.sidcrai <}< intllleiiee
ihroudi hi- i'lnthe:, l'i in< e lok;nlai|i. and. as Mated,
Saion;i had rei ommeiided Katsura. In addition the
ia<iie, M( the jialaee did not uant Katsura a- Lord
I'livy Sea!. 1 h- \ n \er ha 1 , e uaiited anyii'idy with
ener.; 1 , and <!(' : i in, and the\ rjadly helped in the
nn . emeiit . I ma il\ l'i ;;i' e 1 n h mi, the I .< .1 d ( ham
l,er!ain and u:n le "t th" l.mpeior, ad\i-ed the transfer
i.t the l.oid I'r;\ y .^eal to th 1 I'remier hip. Yania;:aia
ua lori i-d to a:;ree, and Katstna foinied In. third
Mini tr. A- tat a^ \ ama;;ata \\a- ( on< erned h.- had.
.1. tin |aj)ai,e e , t v, ' pik-d tlie ii'.l-li and 1 > I ra ; ; lit out

i ertient ' I 'id Kat uia \\ant to take oin< e a^ain?

POLITICS 163

Yes, hut not then, lie was tired of ili< palace, l)ii'
he had no desire lo see Saionji resign. Indeed he went
so far on I)ecember i st as to promise Saionji his
sup|x>rt if he would remain in ol'lice.

The results of" the fall of the Saionji Cabinet were
important. I think that the general assumption ilia,
the incidents demonstrated the eiletene^s and failure of
the Genro is incorrect. It appears to me that the clans
arc- to-day as linn I y entrc-nehcd as ever they were.
The set-back which Yamagata received was not due
to a failure of Genro prestige and methods but to a
split between the- Choshu factions a:id to th'- refusal
of Satsiuna to take part in the proceedings.

The most noticeable- feature of the events of .1 )ecember,
10.12, was the- remarkable grasp of the constitutional
aspects of the situation displayed by the fapane-e pres-,.
No reader of the- vernacular papers could any longer
be in doubt of the existence and extent of the clan
machine and of the infallible- processes by which it
could assert to itsell the power to dictate the policies
of ministries and nation. Tin- popular indignation gave
to the press an opportunity of leading the nation. That
it later resulted in mob law, a condition which has
been repeated in successive- years (1913, 1914. and
19151 is a matter of regret, but inevitable in a country
where the people have no other articulate* method of
expressing their grievances.

The most important consequence of the whole affair
was the- confession by Katsura that a (iovc-rnment must
be backed by its own party, an expression of opinion
which has been further developed by his successor, Kato,
into ' a Government can only rule by the support of a
majority of the Ilou-e of Representatives.' Whether
Kato can carry that maxim into practice re-mains to
be seen, for it implies a determination to resign in the
event of the- failure ot a Ministerial vole in the House.
The Genro firmly believe that whilst there is life there
is scope, and will strain every faculty to revert to the
old order of things.

164 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

There is no doubt that observers both abroad and
in Japan believed that the millennium had arrived when
Pi inre Katsiira was driven out of office in February,
I<>M. The words of ( >no A/usa .it the foundation of
Wa-eda I imerMty were recalled, printed as leaflets,
and ^cattered broadcast. "A country's independence
depend-- on the indepetidem e of her people." This and
-imikir extract^ from the writing and sayings of the
early pioneers ot democracy were, widely published. The
fall of Kat-ura, the ' ti^er of bureaucracy, ' was wel-
< omed as the .smashing up of the bureaucratic system.
Hut nothing has hapj)e!ied Mnce in Japan to indicate that
the antii ipation was correct .

When Kat-ura had formed his Ministry ' he had to
i;et a party to ba- k it. It was at once known thai
such was his intention, and it was quite in accordance
\\ith the Japanese idea of politics that a party should
be formed before a platform was publi.shed. After
all. .1 platform is only important where a party has
fixed id-. i-, bm \vh-n it i> on'y a chorus to its leader
it> priii' ipN-s are a s'-eondarx matter.

I think Kat-ura made a ej'eat mistake in accejumj;
offii e. lie < x u-i d himst-it ,d'teruard> by saying That
it \\.i- fori cd on him bv the palaie. If accept. uice
\\a> ine\ liable, th-n he seriou-ly overestimated his own
inllueiii e aiid s'-nocsly underestimated the j>ower of ]ns
eneiiiie-. \\iiliout <iou i t Pr'nie \,ima:;a!a could have
undeiri\id him, but it was no part of that worthy's
L-aiii'- to p;rv-nt Kat-ura lommittiiiL; politiial hari-kiri.
\\\\\\ the ba l;;n ; of the S'-ivuk\vai lie could ha\e

li.uun Goto

POLITICS 165

got through, but he deliberately ' cut his ropes ' with
them as a ]X)litical party, though he intended to seduce
individual members by bribes. lie was heavily handi-
capped by the personnel of his Cabinet. He relied
in an entirely new scheme of government on men who,
with one exception, were notorious for their connection
with 'bureaucracy and with his previous despotic
administration.

Kato Takagaki, the exception, was born in 1860
in Aichi Prefecture. He graduated in law from the
Tokyo Imperial I 'Diversity in i.S.Si, and thereafter
entered the service of the famous Mit-u Bishi. lli^
marriage with Harugi, the 1 sister of Baron Iwasaki,
the present head of the firm, is the reason that Japanese
writers refer to him as a Mitsu Bishi bridegroom.
Thanks to the Iwasaki influence he quickly obtained
an appointment in the Tokyo Foreign ( Mtice, eventually
becoming private secretary to Count ( )kuma, Director
of the Finance and Taxation Bureaux at the- Treasury,
and in 1894 Minister in London. In the fourth ho
Cabinet he was Minister of Foreign Affairs, but retired
to acquire the Nicfii Nit hi Sliinibun and a seat in
the Lower House. At thai time a supporter of repre-
sentative government, he endeavoured to create a
political entente between I to and Okunia. Ito had been
so impressed by his energy and knowledge of party
politics that his reminiscences record that in 1900 In-
only invited Kato to join the Cabinet because he was
too strong a man to have in opposition. Kato himself
was more attracted to ( >kuma, whom he early recog-
nized as the ' good egg ' of Japanese politics, whilst
Ito was only good in parts.

In the first Saionji Cai>inet Kato was Foreign Minister,
but resigned on the Railway Nationaii/ation proposal,
of which he strongly disapproved.

Although Amhas>ador in London from i<;oo-i }. Kato
has been largely responsible tor Japan's Chine-e policy
since 1911. He has ideas ot his own on tin- subject,
on which lie came to an agreement with Kat-ura in

1 66 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

1912. In 1913 he joined the latter, as much because
he hoped t> put these ideas into practice as because
he had reccivrd assurances from Katsura as to the
genuineness of his party intentions.

lli- alone was responsible for the Japanese demands
on China at the be^innhi;.; of I <; i :; . How it was that
he tame to so misjudge the situation, and in particular
thi- strength of British f'-elinjj with regard to China,
cannot be explained. 1'Yw Japanese have been credited
with a deeper knowledge of British affairs and a clearer
insight into British character than Kato, and ye: no
occupant of the (hvuimu^ho ( !".< ) . < h.is ever made .1 bi^v^er
blunder. The re-uhs of his a^ressjve jMhcy \\ill have
far-reai hint; re-ults. and it will take all the suavit\ and
tail of Baron Nlni to remove the suspicion of Japanese
de-i-n.s that has been aroused.

ilia' Kato was the strong man oi the ( >kuma Cabinet
ol \>>\4 was clear to every student of Japanese politic-.
Invited to join the third Katsura Administration on
ai count ol his intimate acquaintance with the Knejibh
political s\siein, he was largely respon-ible lor the
del. ills ( it the torm.itioii ol the RikkiM l>o-hikai. ol
\\hi- h party he became the \ i< c- President . At the
death <>l the late 1'rini e he succeeded to the I'resi-
den< y, and -pe:it the whole ol his time in energetic
propaganda and administration. lie \\.is responsible
t-|- the le-i-naM'in ol liaion ( ioto, who was imbued
uith the old idea- nt the purpn-e of pn|itic. At the
laM (iener.i! !.! t :on the Barun led his paiiy to o\er-
uhelmin; 1 , \i't"i\, and a- he is bound to the prnniple
I Miiii teiial ifspon -.ibilit y to I'a: liainent If- is i er'.ain

ui;hin a -!ioit pi-i;id t me ba> k m;<> old. e a! ihe

h'-ad ( 't a pure]\ pil'!> < ablll"!. Ill" Hit ." 111 ' ii >:\ "t
pair. ;;n\einmenl o;i tip- I'.lii'Jl-h innde! is the uoik
he h.i t' ' a< i olllpllsh .

lie i- -tmri.'K di-hk'-d b\- the SUIAIVIIII.; ( .emo, b\
\ all i.i ; ,al a. alu I I he III! , I' a 1 1 I ' il < IH ' -lit I, \ ><" ail e he j -
too Hid' j 'em ii lit t" life! then \ieU , lln'l/il III 111! Il
tli-". oue him a ni'-ed <il .' I at it lid-- loi bnakiii: 1 . up the

POLITICS 167

Seiyukwai, for fifteen years the Field-Marshal's bete
noir. \\\ Matsukata and Satsunia he is naturally hated,
for he pulled the wires which wrecked the Yamainoto
Cabinet in 1914. In addition, he has been outspoken
in his views on the anomalous ]x i-.it ion of th<- < icnro,
though lie was not able to resist their demand {or his
resignation in August last.

A strong man, a gentle-man, wealthy and with con-
siderable family influence behind him, he is now with-
out doubt Japan's leading statesman. lie is curiously
unpopular, for he is lacking in that magnetic attrac-
tion "which was so strong a feature of the late Prince
Ito. A very undemonstrative man, lie does not care
for public approval or disapproval, and he is wanting
in enthusiasm of speech or manner. He ha-, even been
accused of being ' too Hnglish,' an accusation distinctly
to the credit of the English.

The idea of Katsura governing according to correct
party rules, struck tin- man in the street as irresistibly
funny, forgetting the words of Wei San Kuei, ' The
truly great man will always frame his actions with care-
ful regard for the exigencies of the moment." Katsura
himself gave the show away in an interview which was
not for publication. I asked him how he proposed to
proceed, and he ran his first finger along a groove
in the table at which we were sitting. " So. Just so !
The rule of thumb, the straight line, regimental discipline
were the only methods he understood. <>m-ide of Kato
his Cabinet contained nobody of note. The Minister of
Finance, Wakatsuki, had still his reputation to make.
though he could expatiate on the mercantilist theory
by the hour. The inclusion of (Jura and (ioto was
alone sufficient to provoke disaster. No two men were
more disliked both in and out of the Diet.

The Home Office is the most, important poM in the
Cabinet for any Premier with autocratic tendencies.
Police, prefectures, and the whole vast machinery of
local government with .ts inmirii-e patronage is at the
disposal of its occupant. In 1871 ( >ura. u ho was Ivirn

i68 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

in 1850, was a sergeant of police. He rose to be
a junior inspector, and in 1874 took part in the Formosan
expedition. On his return he rejoined the police and
became Inspector. In the Suigo rebellion, 1877. he
became a sub-lieutenant, and then lieutenant in the
Anny. He rose through the positions of Vice-Chief of
the Police Bureau and Commissioner of I'olice fur Osaka,
and ( lovernor of two prefectures, to the post of Super-
intendent -( ier.eral of Police in 1809, and in I ooo was
an Imperial nominee to the Hou-e of Peers. In the first
Kat-ura Ministry he was Mini-ter of Communications,
and in the se< ond Minister of Agriculture and Commerce,
and visited London as President of the Anglo-Japane-e
Exhibition. ( )ura i^ one of the few exceptions in Japan
to the rul;- that kissing goes by tavour. He has ri-en
tiitirely by the merit> ot his o\vn character, principally
b\ hi- strict obedience to the instruction^ of his superiors.
He is a simple man, without leaning", without want-, and
without influence, and tar more coiisiderative of his social
and official inferiors than of his superiors. He has
great self-{X>s-ession and immense cour.ij.ji-, physical and
moral. He is entirely la king i:i independence, and he
ha- Daniel considerable opprobrium owing to the duties
he has had to perform on behalf of Yamagata and
Kat-ura. His explii it obedience to orders i, almo-t
j.ithetii. It In-, i lii'-f instructed him to lock up all the
member- of the l)i<(, he uould do it without hesitation,
and v. ithout regret. A > head of the
hand! d lar^e -unis in biibe-. but hi-
ei ( har:_;e I him \\ith keeping hack a
ed tlimu-h in , hand-. I Ie is a man
,imb;ti'):i and uithout independeiu <, but he oue-
the i,irm-!i on hi-, reput.ition to the duty umk he has
[ejeatedls had to do t! his superiors.

( ioto i -, a man of <|Uite ditieient I'ahbie. He \\as
Imrn in I "'>;*, both In- father and :; r andfathei Ix-in;;
do. tor. lie hid th" ;'<od foitnne t-i attend t' ( .iuit
It, i. al. i. .ill- i t!i-- attemp: t as^a-sinate him .it I umoto
in |- I he ( ou.'it'. inteie-t obtained In- tiaii-^fei

POLITICS 169

to the Home Department, and in itS.S^ he became Director
of the Sanitary Bureau. In i.SXc; he was sent to Berlin
to study Hygiene, returning in 1X92. The following year
he was implicated in the Soma graft scandal, but was
acquitted, the Judge accusing him of shamming cra/.y.
He lias been principally noted for his ambition, vanity,
and servility. At the same time he is extremely capable
in his own sphere. His sanitary work was so excellent
in the China War that Count Kodama took him to
Formosa as his Chief of Civil Administration. To ( loto
is due entirely the excellent system of light railways
throughout the sugar districts of the island. He planned
and set up the whole of the Civil Administration, the
camphor and salt monopolies, and his regime was on th
whole very creditable. As President of the Manchurian
Railway after the war, In- showed himself a good traffic
manager, which resulted in his apjxjintmcnt as Minister
of Communications in the second and third KatMira
Cabinets. I 'nfortunately, though the Baron published
a book on (.Character d* the Means of deft ing On in
the World, he is generally reputed to be no stickler for
character. He is certainly the richest ex-Cabinet Minister,
and his name has been frequently mentioned in con-
nection with graft scandals. Foreign merchants openly
assert that he is an incorrigible commission hunter, but
also that he is very square in his dealings, once his
own share 1 has been fixed. When the S.M.R. raised
.C6, 000,000 in London and spent it on American rolling
stock and locomotives, the Japanese press credited (ioto
with 5 per cent, commission. Mr. Tayabe Shuntei, in a
very brilliant summary of the man, described him as
a " brilliant stage actor, in turn the worshipper of the
man in power, being successively an Okumaite. Itoite,
yamagatitc, and Katsurite. In addition he is the biggest
boaster in Japan, though in fact as courageous as a
chicken." Certainly he was >crvile as a worm. I well
remember the scene Avhen K at -lira and he left lor
Petrograd in 1912. The t\v<> principal characters met
in a waiting-room at Shimba-hi Station, and then walked

170 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

down the platform between crowds carefully staged on
either side. First came Kat.-.ura. straight in the- hack ami
perky as ever, a panaina hat in his hand. A few paces
behind came (into, making low bows to the people,
and lower l>ows >till to anybody he. happened to know.
\Vith Katsiira he went out of power, and with Katsura
dead he will hardly become a power a^ain. His supreme
ambition lias been to represent Japan abroad, and
IVtro^raol is the post he has always had his eye on.
It is quite certain, however, that this ambition will
remain unfulfilled. 1

< >t the other member^ of the Cabinet none call for
especial mention. None had held office before, and their
j.rnii ip.il cl.uni wa-. a willin^nes-. to obey order.-., (leneral
l\i^o-ln took tlii- \\'ar portfolio, beinu; -ele( ti'd lor the
pjst as a non-Cho-hu otlicer.

The Rikken I)o>hikai was the name < hosen by 1'rince
Kat ura for hi^ new party. Su h is the [x>\\er ot money
that he succeeded in ^ainini; in the short space ot three
uc-'k- sixt\'-tour adherents, mo>tl\' deserters from the
Sei'.ukwai. tin- Kokuminto i \ationalist> t. and the hule-
|endent-. No le-s than foit\-^e\cn Nationalists \\eiit
ovi-r, tin-d ot tollowini; a leader \vh> preferred his piin-

< iple^ to office. The HUM notable ot the new party
uei-- M'--.sj--.. < Mshi. Shimada, and Minoura. The former
had previou-dv b-e;i ia';.;ht in In h treason axain^t his
o\sn part\. when in i;ii he f n -d to rie^otiate an tntcntt'
uith th'- "coiid Katsnra Mini-try. Shimada \vas the
I'-adu-;; d'-ma;, r o^ue of Japan, and v.a> in t!:.a M ill diin-
inltic-,. uliK h kind ln--nd- sirai-hiened out, be-ides -:\MI^
him a handsome motoi - ,ir. Minoura \\ a - 'h- e lit M i!

< ikuiiia'- paper. I h-- I lo< In ' .

palt 1 . ha\nn;; \>< en toirned, a platform \\a- pni>
lii-io'A 1 (omp.it' it \\ith tho e nt the Seiuikual
nnt' ). a'l' 1 ' hn e; - kai.

POLITICS

171

klKKKX DtHHIKAl
rLitform or Mtini I'oluv

(1) Devotion to Impel ial llon-M-

(2) Advancement of Japan

(3) Preservation of the C'onsti-

tution

(4) Definition of Ministeiial Ke

sponsihilitv

(5) Dissemination of Morals and

Kdtication

(o) The promotion of fraternal
relations

(7) Improvement of Industry and
finance

(Si Strengthening of C"loni.il
Policy, the upholding of
Intel national Peace and
National Prc-.ti^e and the
I'm ilicatiuii of the l'iibli<.
Services

SKIYI:KWAI

tm or Miiin

Same

Clll'SKlKWAI

la Ho i' nt or Main I'oln v

Same

Can any OIK- iina^inr four different almonds? The
stranger, who witnessed the scenes in Tokyo, would have
wondered what tin- trouble- was about, and would have
certanly been flabbergasted if told that four political
parties were quarrelling violently as to how to carry
out the same programme. There was and there remains
among Japanese politicians an extraordinary unanimity
as to principles, and a violent antipathy as to methods.
It is quite surprising that there has not been, and
apparently there is no room for, an aristocratic party,
nor for a more democratic party with an extension ot
the franchise as its appeal to the voter. All platforms
art 1 vaguely idealistic. No political leader, except Inukai
Ki, has displayed any ability to come to grips with his

i;2 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

subject, and Inukai is still in the }x>litical backwoods.
Pious a-piration, office and bribes form the begin-
ning and end of Japanese politics, as at present
conducted.

KaNura's only real bid lor popularity was a wild
promise to reduce expenditure by YSo, 000,000 a year.
and if anything were needed to seal his fate that did it.
Baron Saito had refused to remain in office, but had
been maintained there by an Imperial Kdict. As he
i ould not ijuit ottice. other means were necessary. Sat -
suma. who would have let Katsiira remain for a time
in retuin tor an adequate naval appropriation, revolted.
< 'ount Yamamoto took charge of the proceedings, in -
-tailing him-elt in Saito's olhcial residence. He- made
a working agreement with the Seiyukwai, and when
the Diet met all parties except the Rikken Doshikai
united against Kat-ura. The llnis<- was thrice adjourned.
An Imperial Kdi. t wa^ i- -ued to Saionji to bring the
Seuuk^'ai to h'-el. an edi> t which Saionji accc-pted
with the re-ply that it wa-> a matter tor the Seiyukwai
themselves to decide. < >n February 13, \>)i >, Yama-
moto -cut Katsura a message advi-ing him to resign, as
otherwise there woiilcl be blood-hed. The gathering of
the- Diet resulted in such demonstrations as convinced
Kat-ura that hi-, race was run, the more so a- th-- (ienro
under Yatn r_;ata'- lead advi-ed the Kmpeior not to di-
-olve tli'- Diet. Blockaded uith the other Mmi-iei-, in

111- olfl lal le-idence, he II 1 1 ill l.i: ed bv telephone his III-
te:it!o:i to Ie i _;!i, \\hllst the mob tore up the police bo\e-,
-ma-hed the ho:i-e-, ot his -uppoi ter->, and hied hi-
new-paj)'-i otiuf-. 1 he iie\t day I he ( 'abinet loiniallv

I'Ulthe; (jenro IlieetMlg- eIi-U--(|. and <'-'U:.t \'a!!la'I!o!i)

\sa- (ailed on to torm a < abuiet . I he Sei\t;kuai
lli'Ii jue ,--d :he;i ,id\ aiita.'e, ai:d ^!Jpu!a!ed thai it
he uaiit'-d :h'-i; -ir'jH'it. l!ie members ot the Mi:n-,:i\

111 1 1 I ' 1 1 h I ''.>' Hi' Ml 1 x I -. <>t the pal! 1 . or ' i 1 1 1 1 I ll e
put-.. I . ;h; , the I't mn-l had lo a.Ti I In 'ii.di

th- N'alltaniotn Mini ti\ I otteii iel-iiid to .1 , a

POLITICS 173

Seiyuk\vai ( abinet, it was not. It was a Satsuma-
Seiyukwai alTair. 1

Yamamoto Gombei was born at Kagoshima in 1852,
and his career may be said to have been synonymous
with the development of Japan's navy. As a retainer
of the Prince of Satsuma, he fought on the Imperial side
in the Civil War. He was among the first group of
students when the Naval Academy was founded, and
after passing out visited America on a training vessel,
and later went to Germany, and on board a German
warship circled the globe. He brought out the Naniwa,
Togo's llagship in the China War, from England in
iS(S5, and two years later went back to that country
on the Naval Mission headed by Admiral Kabayama. In
1890 he rose to post rank, and a couple of years later
was transferred to the' Administrative side of the- Depart-
ment, passing in quick succession from Secretary to the
Minister to be Director of Bureau, and then Vice-Minister.
Six years after entering the department he was Minister,
a {x>st which he filled with the utmost distinction from
1898 to 1906, a period which covered the arduous
preparations for and the conduct of the war with Russia.
Short and thick -set, with a two-finger beard, the Count
in appearance strikingly resembles the accepted portrait
of the British naval officer of the beginning of the
century. He walks with a roll, and he walks every day
for exercise. lie speaks English fluently, and is con-
versant with German. lie is probably more a man of

' Premier Vdmiral Count Yamamoto

Minister for Home Affairs Mr. T. Hara (Seiyukwai)

,, Foreign Allaire Baron Makino

,, Finance Baron Takahashi

,, War General Ki^oshi and later

General Kusuno.-e

,, Navy Baron Saito

,, Justice Mr. M. Matsuda (Seiyukwai I

,, A i^ r i c u 1 1 u re and

Commerce Mr. T. Yamamoto

,, Education Dr. Okuda

,, Communications ... Mr. Motoda (Seiyukwai)

174 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

the world than most of his contemporaries, and knows
more than any of them how to Ix- silent. It has been
said that a grunt is his affirmative, and a 14 runt is his
negative. It may IK- so. but certain it is that he is no
lover of words. He himself has related that when in
America in 1007 he had a conversation on the California!)
question with President Roosevelt, whereat the President
sjx)ke for two hours and the Count for thirteen minutes.
His replies in the I)et to interpellations were modi-Is
of brevity, and often of diplomatic vagueness.

The expulsion of the Katsura Cabinet in loi } u.is
entirely due to him. and there- can be no doubt that he
planned it immediately on the outbreak of the I'eh.ira
coup. The manner in which he carried it out was in strict
accordance, with naval strat"g"y. Kvcrything had been
carefully prepared, and Sat-uma marked time until the
moment came to strike, when the Count struck hard.
As a tour dc force, and as a one-man ellort. his action
may be aptly compared with Lord Fisher's demolition
nt the A-ijuith Cabinet in \<>i^. Whilst all the eredit
it th-- jHipular eruption ha-' been -houered on ' >/aki.
Inukai. and ih S< i\ukwai dema ;.o-ne-. f.-w have icah/ed
that without Yarnam >to in the background t> pull the
-tnngs, th" whol" nioveni"!it mu-t have ended in tia-M o.
It was the silent man, sitting in the \aval .Minister's
resident c, \shen- he stayed lor ten 1-in^ days, only gom^
out tui'e to answer an Imperial mandate, uho inspired
and manipulated the 'Constitutional' ou'.bi'eak. 1 .o\ <
of demo. ra< . had no -hare in In- motive-, uhiih \\eie
direr tfd -olely to advancing th" interest-, ot Sa'-uma,
to uhifh < Ian th" Count is bound by birth. prote--ion.
and marriage ties.

'if the \-ariou- members nt th" Cabinet Mara, Makino.
Saito. Ma!>uda. and T. Yamainoto had pre\'iou-K h"!d
oltu e und'-r Manjui- Sa:onji. |)r. < )kuda ua- a <lis
tin^'uidied law\er who had hell \ i< -M in i-te' hiji. undei
the bure.iM' rat- in i v;-I and l^ 1 ) 1 ), and u!> e.jU'-ntl 1 .
b n ' <im:ni^-:oner ot tip- Imperial l-ai;u!\ Hureau.
Motoda had been a memlx-r of the I lou^c sin< < its founda-

POLITICS 175

tion. At first one of the official group, ho joined the.
Seiyukwai at its formation, and had been Vice-Presi-
dent of the Lower House. His appointment was a reward
of years of hard and unrequited service to the party,
(ieneral Kigoshi remained for a couple of months, but
then retired to make room for (Ieneral Kusunose, a clans-
man of Kaga, but a protege of ( hoshu, who had filled
various responsible commands in the army, but was best
known as the commander of the Japanese troops, who
murdered the Oueen of Korea in i<S<;S. For this offence
he was put on trial at Hiroshima, but acquitted for
lack of evidence.

The Yamamoto Ministry was certainly not worse, and
was considerably better than some of its predecessors.
Unable to form a Budget of it> own for lack of time,
it took over, with a few alterations, that drafted by the
second Saionji Cabinet. It carried on the business of
the country in a satisfactory manner, though the even
tenor of its way was broken by the sudden acuteness
of the -American and Chinese questions. The opposition
with the ingenuity of hate used both these matters to
embarrass the government, and very nearly succeeded in
bringing about a war. A praiseworthy item of its ad-
ministration was the restoration of the Educational appro-
priation to the figure at which it stood before the war,
in spite of some substantial reductions in the Budget
for the fiscal year 1914-15.'

The Yamamoto Cabinet did not last long, though its
fall, due to the Naval Scandal of 1914, occurred sooner
than might otherwise have been expected. I low far
the country was shocked by the revelations of graft
in the navy is uncertain. The assumption of \irtue
by politicians and bureaucrats was certainly calculated
to deceive the casual investigator. But the indignant
cries of Choshu and the Rikken Doshikai can hardly
have taken in those who had followed the course of
events in Japan during the last twenty years. Bribery
and corruption are standing dishes in the Japanese political
1 For further details of financial policy, see Chapters IV and V.

176 JAPAN AT T1IK CROSS ROADS

<ind administrative bill of fare, and if the surprise so
skilfully delineated was real, it was more probably at
the si/e of the commissions taken rather than at the dis-
covery of their existence. The spread of the scandals
to imjx>rtant religious institutions and to the Imperial
Household uas .-uffn-.em proof that the navy were not
the only black sheep, and there was a good deal of more
than suspicion that all was not well in other of the big
-pending departments. The irony of the situation
uas that the Cabinet should be- pulled down because
of bribery by a party which had IHVII created by
bribery.

In its essentials the outcry against the Cabinet, which
resulted from the disclosure ol the Richter papers in a
( ierman court ol law. were merely further rounds in the
tight for clan control. The restoration ot iSoX owed
its success to the support of the Satsiima and Choshu
clans, who, as soon as they had acquired a predominant
{option in the State, entrenched themselves by assuming
(ontrol the one ot the N'avy, tin- other of the Army, and
in i<in\'ertmg these into preserves tor the clan-men. For
long they reigned together- in sweet unity, undisturlx-d
until, in i </c>7, the Na\ y got a bigger slit e of the estimates
than thi- Army. In I <;o.S ('ho>hu got the upper hand.
In I'M I, uheii Saionji came ba<'k into otl'n c, Satsuma
urn- striving, and \\ith -onie success, to regain the pre-
dominance. In i';ij the aj)pointment ot Kat-ur.i
thie.iti-ned tli'- Sat-uma [Ki-itioii. and afier marking time
lor a i oiiple ot montlj, Satsuma. ]>lus the mob,
turned Kat>ma out and pra'tiially rout'-d the ho^-t- ot
' ho-hu. Ill'- latter in their turn ma iked time until the
revelation o! the \a\al Scamlals : ? a\f them their oppor-
tunity, and in I'H-J they > a me bai k to [xi\\er under
the gui-e ot a constitutional party. The -truggle i-, not
. et ended. 'I he ,S'//.'s// hiit^u and the ('fin />.//,// uiil (oii-
tinue tic- lend tor m, iii\ a Ion;; sear, .iIth"U ; ;h ri .ill piob
abilit\ the 1 ,t!.-r \\ ill be di -gui e 1 as the Rikki-n ! 'o Ink n
p.ut\, and the tnnier \sill be alli--d \\ith some pohtnal
or/am/ation. -nh'T th (< Seivukwai or it^ sui ces^or, for

POLITICS 1/7

the Seiyukwai, being defeated and disgraced, in all
likelihood "will, more Japonico, change its name. Though
names may change, the conditions remain. Yamagata
is still Pope in Choshu, even though Choshu has espoused
constitutionalism, just as MaKukata is in Satsuma and
Yamajnoto his Vicegerent. They are all 'true men of
T'se," to whom none are so good as their own clansmen.

A couple of weeks of (ienro meetings and two abortive
attempts at Cabinet building by Viscount Kiyoura and
Hirata (both Yamagata men) resulted in Count < )kuma
being invited from the wilderness. A Cabinet was
formed by Japan's (i.O.M., of which the principal
personalities are Baron Kato and Mr. Oxaki, the remain-
ing members being adherents of the late Prince Katsura
and of die Rikken Doshikai.

Okuma Shigenobu was born in 1838 in Hi/en Pro-
vince. When the Restoration movement broke out he
was entering the prime of life. A prominent member of
one of the four Western clans which broke clown the
Shogunate and established their own oligarchy in place
thereof, he was rewarded for its services with the
headship of the department which in the first form
of government corresponded to the Ministry of Home
Affairs. After the split in the Sat-cho-hi-to combination
he attained the leadership of the Government, but being
found out coquetting with the democrats to advance
Ilixen interests he was turned out by Ito. lie then took
up constitutionalism in earnest and formed the- Kensei
Homo in 1881, remaining its head until 1907. He
wa> in office for various short periods, anil from June
to November iSoS Premier ot a Coalition Cabinet.
Expelled from the Privy Council on account of his political
views, he has been boycotted by the clans and the
p.irties, by the former tor his refusal to abjure party
politics, by the latter for refusing to abjure his principles.

Seventy-seven is noi a great age, according to Count
Okuma, the more especially as he is determined to se.e
out the century. In order that he should not be alone
when he arrives at that age, he formed in 1912 a club,

i y -S JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

called the " Want to lx> a Hunched Club." Candidates
were limned to men of -evenly -live years of age, who
I-'ledged themselves to live to be a hundred.

Not* idy know- what to make of the veteran Count.
Seventeen years ago he was Premier for live months,
ju-t long enough, a- the Japane-e said, to prove that
h- wa-. no state-man. Last year he again became Premier
and the most jiopular man in Japan. He founded the
Japanese Peace Society, but in I <; l 2 declared himself
a militarist, as militarism is good lor the country. For
years In.- criti< i/ed the expansion ot armaments, but la-t
yeai dissolved the Uiet lor rejecting a large increase
in the Army vote.

Out ot otiice he declared 'the national finance- will
not stand naval expansion, military expansion, nor tax
reduction.' Before he was a month in oilier he promised
an expansion ot the lleet by three battle-hips, an ex-
pan-ion of the arm;, by two division.-,, and a reduction
of taxi-- by \ 2 j),oOO.o ><J.

It i- perhaps thc-e (harming inconsistencies which make
< onnt Okuma the nio-t popular idol the Japanese people
have i-ver had. Nolxnly know.- and nobody can po--
sibl'. gii'-s- what \'ii-w he will take on a subject, or hou

long he Will e-jMiU-e the Vle'As he has adopted. In

lii- '.ontli he wa--. a clan-niati, and after the Re-toration a
bureau' lat. He ile^pi-"d i-'uku/awa and Itagaki, the
leader- "1 th'- constitutional movement. .1- " vulgar denia
^ogu*--." l):it he became him-elt a eunstitutionali-t, and
tor m<-d a ' o.i'm jon < ai unel u ith Itagaki, and ha f m yeai ^
bt-r n the nio I olll-poken ot all |.ipain--e in his liatle,!
o| ;h'- iciireai! 1 ra. y. Now b.e k in o!Iii e, he de. Lues
' beii'-lp ent bui'-aucrai \ i- a good loim of go\ ernment ,'

and ' ei ta:ii I 1 , llo olle !l\ l!:g 111 | a pa II to-day \\ ouid in lag I lie
1 1 1.1 ! th PJ ein.er u a - < >ku:na I he I >eino i at

ikunia a :-t < \'-i\ pionn- oi\ no'e otii p-d him.
.\; In, in -t nii-eting \\ilh the Pio\i!uial (io\einol- he

jio al m id'-, v.hi-thiT i! \\.is
t , alary, oi an extra allow-

roi.mcs 179

He is indiscreet to ;i decree. A few years ago he
said that ' 300,000,000 natives in India are waiting to
be freed from the thraldom of (ireat Britain,' and it
t<x)k a long explanation to show that he had not meant
what the words meant.

Okuma ha-, long had his eye on China, and has twice
projx)sed an Anglo-Japanese Kconomie Alliance, Kng-
land to provide the money and Japan the brains for
the exploitation of China, and he was much disgusted at
the cool reception the proposal met with in Kngland.

When the lirst revolution broke out in 1910 he said
Japan nui-4 help, not hinder China. Last year (1914)
he said Japan could not help China, she had no equipment
beyond an army and a navy. Further, he said that his
opinion was that China was beyond regeneration.

In 1912. addressing the Peace 1 Society, he declared
himself a militant, militaiism \\as neces-ary to the coun-
try, and cynically |x>intcd out that ' war is nearest when
protestations of peace are loudest.' ' International peace
conferences,' he said, ' are the forerunners of calamitous
wars.'

< )kuma's popularity (Upends upon two things, the lirst
his university, secondly his influence \vi:h the press. He
lounded Waseda I "niver.-ity, which, though a private con-
cern and boycotted by the Imperial Educational authori-
ties, is the best educational establishment in Japan,
and is turning out in large numbers a type of student
who is a credit to the country.

It is the Press which has done most to put the Count
on a pedestal. Himselt a journalist, he owns the Hochi,
a virulent rag with an enormous circulation, aid the
a monthly review of the standard of the
lie is always glad to sec- journalists, and
talk to journalists. He holds a daily reception (or
them. When he was Premier he arranged reception
rooms tor them in his official residence, and fitted up
telephone boxes, and provided tree lunches. He will
talk to them by the hour on anything or nothing. His
loquacity is proverbial. He has been nicknamed Saburo

I So JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

(llic talkative) on account of his loquacity, and 'the
groat promiser,' because of the bright hopes he raised--
when in opposition. A foreign diplomat described him
as a ' windy old gasbag ' ; a leader of the Seiyukwai
as a ' genial old buffoon.' Okuma does not mind, he
talks and talks, whether he knows anything of the subject
under discussion or not. He make* more speeches a
\ea: than any other man eat.s breakfasts. He is the
most indiscreet speaker in Japan. He is no re>j)ecter
uf per-ons, exrept of the Imj)erial family.

On one occasion at a Press banquet, where the late
Prince I to was a guest, he got up and assailed the
latter roundly. When he had finished he sat down, and
turning to I to, he said : ' Your character is finished."
I to got up and improved on his example ; then he
turned to Okuma and said : " So is yours," whereafter,
laughing heartily, the two veterans went olT into the next
room to play go.

It is often said in Japan that Okuma cannot be taken
seriously. When he made his lirst speech before the
l)iet last year, lie began, 'Though the earth is yet
fresh on the grave of the late Kmperor," and before he
got an> further laughter broke over the House. The
idea ol Okuma talking seriously was irresistibly funny.
.\c\ertheless there is a lot of sound common sense in
his utterances. He is certainly saturated with insular
self-satisfaction, but he is also aware of the advantages
to Jap. in of grasping enlightened Western principles, and
In- knows lull wdl that only the show part of these have
been vi tar adopted.

He hate-, writing. He dictates his articles for the
pre-s, and never prepares a sjK-ech. He has only \\ntten
IIH own name t\\i<e. once on a report to the Throne, and
once on an abstract of evidence given in a lawsuit.
Japanese \i-i!or> ad.ipt all sorts of tn< ks to g-: a >]*( mien
of hi-, wri'ing Once a visitor took his little son to
vi it him, ami in th'- i ourse of i oiiver ^at i< >n tlie child,
pro lii' ing a p'-n and paper, ask'-d ( )ktiina to write a
<haia<tei he had u -ed in MX-. ikniL' <)kuina \\a> lieari\

POLITICS 181

caught. Just as ho was putting pen to paper he rocogni/ed
the trap, dropped the pen, and taking 1 a stick from
the hibachi (charcoal 1>ra/ier), traced the characters
in the ashes. It is not surprising to learn that he was
bottom of his class in penmanship when at school, hates
the ideographs, and has long supported the plans to
introduce Roman characters.

How does he live, this Pacifist-Militarist, this Dema-
gogic-Bureaucrat, who makes a stump speech of two
hours' duration as easily as his COIIIIKXTS drink a cup of
sake't " Rise early, exercise early, feed well, work hard
and go to bed early and you will live to be a hundred ! "
That is the Count's advice, and he practises it. lie gets
up at five every morning. With the aid of his stick (his
right leg was blown off by a bomb thrown by a would-
be assassin in 1889), he walks for an hour. Then he
reads the morning papers. At 7 a.m. he breakfasts :
he always cats Japanese food, and never drinks alcohol.
After breakfast he receives journalists, granting on an
average ten interviews a day for publication purposes.
From ten o'clock he receives officials and other visitors,
talking, as a Japanese put it, ' without bridle on his
mouth, foaming with his own eloquence.' After lunch
he takes a drive, attends meetings, goes slumming or
Cabinet making or breaking as his mood may be. At
4.30 p.m. he goes home, takes his bath and dines. In the
evening he reads, dictates, and talks. ' Conversation
is my hobby,' he once said. Commenting on this, the
late Prince I to is rejK>rted to have said : " Conversation
implies two persons talking together. But when Okuma
is one of them, the other has to listen only."

In his house in Tokyo the Count maintains the state
of an ancient f/almyo, and is called by his fifty retainers
and the neighbours Gozen, a feudal title meaning ' Lord.' '
His wife is the Countess Ayako, who is now sixty -five
years of age. She is the antithesis of her lord and master,
for she is as silent as he is verbose, as mild as he is
assertive, and as stop-at-home as he is restless.
1 He was created Marquis in 1916.

182 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

For all the fun that is (juicily jx>ked at him. the
present Premier is ra-ily the mo-t |>opular man in Tokyo
to-day. In spite of hi- political inconsistency he ha-
done more; than any man to purity public lite in Japan
and to impro\e th" lot of the common jn-ople. It i- a
tribute to his hi^li character and to the innate honeys
ot his mind that it wa- hi- .--\\orn enemies. the arisincrats
and i Ian-men, who. .ifter keeping him in the wilderr.e.
for ni:;h twenty years, put him into oiii< e a^am Ij-t
year.

The principal work of the < >kuma Cabinet has been,
cx> lu-ive of the war, the. smashing of the Seiyuk\\.n.
an Dj)eration in whi"h the Cabinet has b"en heartily
supported by \'ama^ata. who.se ht'tc noire the <lefeated
party has been since IC;QI. T'or the lir-t time Jap. in
has a Cabinet sup[x>rted b\ - its own maiority in the
House, the Chuscikai hax'in;^ amalgamated with the
Rikken Doshikai. \\hether representatuc ^<ivernment
in the I-iritish sens" of the word will follow is doubtful.
The ptrsonnd of the cabinet i-. distinctly bureavicrati' .
by jia-t form. 1

It is to be wondered if an\- mi!ii-tr\- can -uccessfully
introduce \\'e-tern ideas of n-pre-cntatnc government
without a dra-tic amendment of the ( 'onstitution. So
Ion; 1 , as the ( lans bv their ion;rol of the Mini-tries of
War and th" \a\ v < an br.-ak a <abi;:et. -o loni; is ;he
Jinal appeal to them. I he e two po^:> must be made
a\ai!able either to civilians or to retired otti- IT'S.

The (oiitrol of the Diet o\ er tin. mi e mi; t be made
elld live, and the u-e of Imperial nrtlmam es, of \\hich

POLITICS 1X3

even the present Cabinet has shown a fondness, must
he invalidated.

Ministers must he made responsible to the Diet lor
the advice which they :;ive to the Throne.

Beyond everything the politK al education of the
people mu>t he developed on a much wider basi-, to
(lie end that the politit al value of the hallot may Im-
properly realized and that the administration may b<-
for the- true benefit of the people and not for tip 1 ex-
clusive benefit of the officials. The whole tone of
political life must be altered, and members understand
that the letters M.P. nu-an more than .social prestige,
imitations to Imperial parties, and covert avenues to
wealth. The I)iet must become more than a talking-
shop and a bargain-counter. The ( lenro and the clans
have created a defence work of class interests, and
though their position is extra-constitutional, and though
the Constitution has no room for them, yet they got
themselves recognized by the. late Kmpcror and the
present Kmpcror. Count ( )kuma has uttered brave-
words :

" It was true," he said, " that tin- Meiji Tenno had
recognized the I lenro by Imperial Juliet, but even the
Meiji Tenno could not override the Constitution by
creating a body not provided for in the Constitution.
lie had formed his Cabinet at His Majesty's order
and not at the, order of the (lenro. So long as he was
Premier the C.enro would not be allowed to interfere."
Baron Kato lias described the ('.euro as 'past history.'
Will they be able to keep them in the past, or will
the Klder Statesmen again assert themselves in the
future? From Baron Kato's speech in the Hiet (May,
19151 on the Sino-Japanese negotiations it is plain
that the (lenro influence was very much alhe.

As stated above, the Okuma Cabinet came into office
in succession to that of Count Vamagata, which fell
as the result of the Xaval Bribery case, and after
strenuous but futile efforts had been made to per.-uade.
Count Terauchi or Viscount Kivoura or other of the

184 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

Yama^ata henchmen to accept office. From the first
it fa<ed a minority in tlie l>i t which the Seiyukw.u
controlled, and from whom nothing hut obstruction was

t> IK c\p'-i ted nwin^ to the inclusion in it of Baron
Kato and other representatives of the Rikken Do-dnkai,
the party torrned by the late Prince Katsura in I o, i }
In all prohability, however, ihe Seiyukwai \\oild not
have proceeded to extremes but for the introduction
of tin- Two I)i\is!ons Hid. the m< a-ure which had been
refu-ed by Marquis Saionji and Mr. Yamamoto Tatsiio
in i <> i 2 and <au-ed the boycott of the War Ministry
by the Choshu clan and the consequent fall of the
Saionii Cabinet. ('oiint < >kuma in accepting office had
accepted the principle of the Hill with it, understanding
plainly that it he were appointed he was to swallow
the Hill and introduce an appropriation for implement-
ing (lie -ame in it; I 5. as the Budget for 1914 did
not permit of -uch expenditure. After a consultation
uith Baron Kato it wa> decided that other and the
opportunity ot -nia-lun^ the Seiyukwai was worth the
t\\o di\i-;ons, the more M> as a< ( eptance of oitice would
be a di-tni't Mep touards true representative ^ r o\crn-
ment. the [inn ip'e> o| whii h both statesmen had very
inn h .it heart Acceptance of the Bill by the new
( "abinet meant. hou(\rr. a retraction of previous nppo-
-ition to it by many of the rneinbi-rs of the new Mini-dry,
,t \ulti jitc ot ulrch Sei\ukwai lifkld-, took lull
ad\anta;.;e. < Mi the otlu-r hand, it may be pointed out
that the arguments ju. \iously u>ed a.^ain^t the Bill
v.ere ba-ed lar.;el\ on financial grounds, and when the
Hill \\a> finally introduced su< h arguments were no
longer \alid, pro\-jded, of coiir-e, that the military
ie.i on^ tor the increase in the .Army justified the -x-
p-ndi'ui'-. lip- S<r,ukwai olij< < t<-il to the Hill no!
be an tlr y obj. >ted to t!ie expenditure but be< ause
they \\<-\, I'.-ttin; 1 . nothin;.; out of n, and the Ministry

U, is hot 1)1' p i;' ! f o b 1 :'. ill' 1 .1 i he re IP e ot the whole

part'., a had hitherto b--n 'he usual procedure I-'iom
'he \er. introdti'tion of : he measure in the I)iet it

POLITICS 185

was clear that the Lower House would reject it, and
the choice lay before the Premier of dissolving or of
awaiting defeat. Viscount Oura, educated politically
in the school of gold pills,' which the Klder States-
men had conducted in the earlier days of the, Constitu-
tion, authorized an attempt to convert a section of
the Seiyukwai by what were euphemistically termed
' present^ ' and ' loans.' The leader of the Seiyukwai
dissentients, Itakura Chu, wanted 300,000 to form a
new party, the Kosei Kanyumi, which would vote in
favour of the Two Divisions Bill. The Viscount, greatly
erring, only provided some 40,000-50,000, which was
paid out through Mr. Hayashida Kamctaro, Chief Secre-
tary of the House of Representatives. A number of
representatives were accordingly bribed, but as the funds
were not sufficient to go round handsomely enough some
of these ' ratted ' on the eventful day, the Bill was
defeated, and the Diet dissolved. A new General Klec-
tion took place, and owing to a quite unexpected mishap
the whole affair came to light. The fact of bribery
of members of Parliament created comparatively little
stir, even though the Minister of Justice was Mr. Ozaki.
Probably the memories of some members of the Cabinet
took them back to the ' golden days ' before they were
Ministers of State, whilst Mr. Shimada Saburo, tin-
Speaker of the House, must have recalled the happy
arrangements (Mr MacClarcn puts his price at i 5,000)
made when he deserted the Kokuminto for Prince
Katsura's Doshikai. What was really annoying was
the prospective shadow which threatened the Corona-
tion ceremonies, preparations for which were then in
full swing. The election incident directly involved
Viscount Oura in obtaining the withdrawal of a rival
candidate in favour of a Kosei candidate, Mr. Shira-
kawa Tomoichi, and the payment of 10,000 by the
latter to the Viscount for party funds. There was
nothing illegal in this, but a Seiyukwai member who
had not shared in the Two Divisions bounty and had
lost his seat, as had most of his party, at the election

iS6 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

tiled an impeachment of the Viscount at the Ministry
of Ju-th e. This, unlike the hints thrown from pohtital
rostrums, could not be ignored, and Mr. < >/aki uas
tori ed to intervene. \ iscount ' >ura prompt!) n signed
and bet ame tn/;yo. The Shirakaua election in< ident
was probed, the Y i 0,000 \\.i-, found to be in tut
money repaid by Shirakawa from the funds provided l>\
Hayashida to bribe members, and Hayashida and a
number ot members and ex-members uere put on trial.
A niusf I'tli'hrc developed in which the sympathies ot
press and people appeared to be in favour ot the
accused. < >ura as a Minister ot State uas not arrc-t-d
or tried, the Usual formula that he had purged hi-
oiieti' e by resignation heinj^ accepted. In tin- <nd
Haya-hida \\a> fined Yi5') and thirteen member- were
senteni ed ea<h to a few months' imprisonment, with
the beni tit of suspension ot sentence, thus once av,am
demonstrating that briber)' is no ot'i'enre in Jap. in. The
uhole case was particularly interesting' because ot the
i onnedion ot < )ura v.ith Yama^ata and ( )kuma, with
the former as clan < hief and political henchman and
v.ith the latter a> a mdnber of the Cabinet. 1 he case
a^am-t < >ura is \'er\' -rnple and very fragile, and it
is JIIMI : i< a !) <erta;n that no [apanese court would even
ha\ e dared to ( on<!emn li'in. '1 hou;.;h nominally a j>arty
jxihti! :an, lie u a - \ i< e-I'n sidi-nt ot the Doshikai, he
\\a- .i<;ua!lv in the Cabinet to repp-sen! \'aina:;.i'a.
uho-e priiH ipa! anus m liie a* that time \\iic to -mash
;he Si-;\ukuai and pa- th'- I\\o |)p,i ion- I'.ill. I he',
i .in be little, it ail)', do'iot tliat in adx.ilidni; Itind- to;
tip- ion\er~ioii ot Sei\i;kuai member- he u.i- adin
uith the knoule'L 1 ,'- and tai' .ip;i!o\.d ot N'ama^ata,
\'.ho.e methoiU, ind'-ed. were In- MispiMn:; example. 'I. i
v. hat e\tent ua - < 'l.unia pi l . v to ; h> tads V I h- c. did a 1
UpposMioii ua th.it <"ua \\.i- ji'it into olli. e 1m thi-

\et) ptl I po e ; h" Uas p'lini -te.l IJonie M'Dl !' I altel

'he dl -olutioM. an 1, a u a -hieudlv tat'd at lie tune.
-.'. ;'h iii tin t :on- !o ' mana.;e ' the i !..; n in , and \\ hdi

h'- le l;;n-d \.I\- Hi ele - , I , \ j 1. 1' h )' ua- e\jile,~ei| \\ \{\\

POLITICS 187

him l>y both the Premier and 15. iron Kato. It is at
least a justifiable surmise that the Cabinet, being deter-
mined to uproot the Seiyukwai e\il influence, stooped
to fi:;ht them with it-, own weapon-, and, though suc-
cessful, was itself hamstrung in the effort. I low far
Prince Yamagata double-crossed the Cabinet i-, unknown,
hut it is shrewdly observed that by the ( Jura attair
Yamagata not only ouied the Sciyukwai but at the
same time purged the government ot the leaders of the.
l)oshikai. The Premier, more Jiiponico, tendered his
own resignation and thai of all the Ministers to atone
for the- offence of his subordinate, but alter a meeting
of the (ienro Count Okuma was restored to office with
a reconstructed Cabinet, from which Baron Kato, Mr.
\Vakatsuki, and the principal leaders of the Doshikai
were absent. So once again existed a Ministry nearly
independent of party, but it was clearly understood and
officially stated that the Premier would resign at a
convenient time after the Coronation and when certain
important affairs had been adjusted. In all likelihood
the' plea that Okuma was kept in office so as not to
depress the sanctity of the Coronation year was mi-rely
eye-wash, for the year of the death of the Meiji Tcnno
had not been a sufficient reason for Yamagata to post-
pone the I'ehara boycott, with its di.-astrous con-e-
([iiences to the nation. Ik-sides Okuma himself was
unable to take part in the supreme Coronation ceremony
because, being a cripple, he was unclean. Yamagata
wanted ( >kuma in office because the latter was the only
statesman capable, of passing the Army Kxpansion Bill
through tin 4 I)iet without serious opposition. Although
he had forced mo-t of the l)o.-hikai leaders out of
the Cabinet he could not instal a purely clan Ministry,
which could rely on sufficient parliamentary support
to pass contentious mea-ures. < >kuma, if kept in office,
could manage the Doshikai. and the Doshikai, though
out of office, were willing to support the Premier pro-
vided a reversion to office were given them on his
resignation. Accordingly it was announced bv Reuter

i88 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

that when Marquis Okuma should eventually resign
Baron Kato would succeed him as the head of a
Doshikai Administration, and the wiseacres all agreed
that tin- era of true representative government was about
to begin in Japan. The hand of < >da\vara had, however,
by no means lost its running, and when Marquis < )kuma,
pleading fatigue, laid down the seals of otVi< e, it was
not to a party leader that the call was sent but ;o die
most stalwart of all the sons of Choshu, (ieneral Count
Teraurhi, the ex -Governor-( ieneral of Korea.

Terauchi Masakata was born in 1X52 in Choshu, and
in liis nineteenth year became a sub-lieutenant in the
army. Fighting on the Imperial side in the Civil \Var
the ligaments of the right arm were severed, and he
lias passed through life since with this limb completely
useless, a hindrance which has, however, had no etlect
soever on his advancement or utility. In 1X82 he was
sent to France to study, and returned from that country
with a considerable fund of logic and a more than
usual development of the bump of organi/ation. He
demonstrated this with no little success as Chief Trans-
[Kirt ( Miner dm ing the China \\'ar. It has been said
of Terauchi that he is all brain, and it is true to a
\ery large extent. < hvmg to phy-i< al disability debarred
from "many of the u*ual pleasures of his equals, he make*,
up for it by a greater devotion to work. As Vice-Chief
of the (ieneral Stall under Kat-ura he soon drew the
latter'*- attention to his merits, and when Katstira became
Prime Minister Terauchi became bis Minister- of \\'ar.
This [>ost he held until i<>i\. It is not too much to
sa\ that the triumvirate of Katsura, Terati hi. and l*hi-
inoid (the \ 'i' '--Minister i ran Japan during that period.
They \\en- in many way*, a remarkable trio, and not
the lea^t .so in their capa> ity for work (.real workers
as Katsura and Tera'.i In wen-, I dnnioto w.is an even
greater, and the Lite Sn ( laiide Ma> I)on.dd. l>r so many
y.irs the distingui^ln-d Mntish represen:.tti\-e at th'-
lapaiie^r ('oiirt. at tli'- tune of the death oj the \'ic< -
Mini -ter laughingly as^-ried that he had never heard

1'OLITICS 189

even a rumour of Ishimoto getting any sleep during
the war.

Tcrauchi was largely responsible for the strategy of
the Russo-Japanese War, both from having been Vice-
Chief of the General Stall under Kodania when the plan
of campaign was evolved in the years immediately pre-
ceding the outbreak and as head of the Staff College
after the conclusion of the Chinese War. An American
journalist lias said that ' organization ' is Terauchi's
second name, and it is by no means a silly remark.
To him to a great extent is due the system of constant
drill, preparation, and prevision which is characteristic
of Japanese official action, whether in war or peace.
He is a terrible stickler for order, for having the right
thing in the right place at the right moment, and
thence came his excellence as a transport officer and
as a Minister of War in war-time. The same qualities
are observable in his administration of Korea, of which
he was Governor-General from 1911 to 1915. Though
his rfgimc was blotched by various scandals, as the
so-called Conspiracy Case and the constant rapacity
of the Oriental Colonization Company, it has been of
enormous benefit to the country, and restored it from
a condition of indigency, revolution, and poverty to one
of prosperity, order, and progress, and affords a striking
contrast to the miserable conditions which obtain in
the much older dependency of Formosa, a colony which
is the world's outstanding example of how not to govern.

As a clansman of Choshu and a close adherent of
Prince Vajnagata it is almost needless to say that
Terauchi is a bureaucrat, and the personnel of his
Ministry leaves no doubt that the new Cabinet is a
reversion to the Cabinets of Katsura days. It includes
only adherents of feudalism or as it is termed nowadays,
Imperialism. From the names of the Ministers it would
appear that militarism is now again on the ramp. Mr.
W. E. Griftis, than whom there is no more able com-
mentator on things Japanese, sees in the new appoint-
ments another bid for further national expansion, with

IQO JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

the brake on the more ardent spirits removed by the
gradual disappearance of the (ieiiro. My own opinion,
for what i: is worth, i- that the new Premier ui!l prove
(if nun h greater a--i-tamv to tlie Allies than ever ( 'otint
>kuma \va-. Count Terau> hi is extremely pro-Frenrh
in -entimer.t, and ha- no pn>-( ierman -ympathie- what-
-o'-vcr. Hi> patron, Prince Yama^ata. i- of the same
Jr. nne of mind. it i- quite certain that so Ion:;
a- hi- i- at the helm there will be no more talk
o! Jap. in be:n;4 a -emi - neutral. ' It may be that
the "1 eraiu hi Mini-try will not be able to outlive a

-MOI1 of the l)let, but the IleW premier 1>> stroll;; .111(1

able, .ind M liooled in the manipulative politics of Yama-
Xat.i and Kat.-ura, ^' that lie may by a ' po-itivt* '
ford^n policy that cry dear to p:v-s a;:*! j)eoj>le be
able to rule the re-ti\'e Diet succes-fully . {-'(jually likely,
ho\se\cr, i- it that In- tenure of otlnv i- intended only
to be temporary, previou- to retiring from public life
to Mep into the -hoe-, ot Yama_;ata a- tin- ri-pre-entative
of Chii-hn in the inner councils of the j>alace. The
.iL;ed Prune < annot ionu; a\<id paying the debt to
N.rure. lull it i- quite i ertain that he \\ill n->i do NO
uni:! he ha- nominated a -uccex>or und-'r the \'erarnla.
li\ lir-t the deteition and then the death of Kat-ur.i

1(1.1,1 hi !- oli\loiis!y lh.it -U' re--or, by I'e.i-oHot birth,

ol in.iri la-'e tie-, -en: unent , and career.

I'HAI'TKK F01'k
FINANCK. INDl'STKY, AND (OMMKHCK

I 'ART I

THK conduct of the pi)s(-l)c!ltini finance is the true
cause of the parlous coiulition of Japanese finances
at the present time. Instead of the end of the war
marking the commencement oi a golden era, as the
nation hail been taught to believe it would, an era
during which Japan aided by an enormous indemnity
would develop Tier manufactures and trade and cconomi/e
on her administrative expenses, the signature of peace
brought not a .sou of indemnity and marked the begin-
ning;' of a crisis ihe acutencss of which has hardly yet
(in official circle.- at least) been truly recognized and
the end of which is still atar otT.

Fed by the authorities with extravagant ideas of the
victorv that bad been won over Ktis-ia, the people
naturally developed similar ideas of the prosperity which
mu-t attend Mich a victory. Money was cheap owing
to the inilux. of tin- \\ar loans raided abroad, the
company promoter was active- and the investor was
umiMially trusting. '1 he boom went to mad heights,
and the awakening was the usual one after a bout ot
wild dissipation. To make matters worse the (Govern-
ment by the nationali/ation of the railways had removed
from the reach ot the investor the only good security
on a large scale which the country possessed.

" If the tiger or the rhinoceros escapes from its
cage, if the gem be injured in its casket, wh >se is the
fault? "

192 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

There were of course innumerable scoundrels who
made fortunes out of the people at that time, and
many of the leading banks and commercial concerns
were not above lending their name and protection to
the most rotten scheim-s known since the South Sea
Hubble. Hut the real blame must be laid an the
shoulders of the late Prince Katsura ami the (ienro.
Although the Saion;i Cabinet was in office in 1006
;uid 1907 it was on such terms that Katsura controlled
it-> policy and, according to Count Hayashi, even drew
up its Hudget. It was Katsura wluj was responsible
for the enormous inflation of tin- national conceit alter
the war, as also for the enormous inllation of debts
and expenditure.

The jxjsition was absurd. Russia, though defeated
in battle, had fought Japan to a standstill. Th.it
country could not put another man or gun in the- field
and was holding a line three hundred miles in length.
Her financial resources were finished and she' could
not raise more money anywhere- ior war purposes. She
made peace. She had to ! By it .she gained the South
Manchurian Railway, the Kuantung Peninsula, the
southern halt of Saghalien, and 1)4,800,180 refunded,
being the tost of the maintenance of the Russian
prisoners of war. In addition she obtained the privi-
lege of carrying on her own shoulders Y 1 ,37 2, i i 5, 570
of funded debt, raided to uage the war with. Any
sane Cabinet fa< ed \utli MH h a condition of allairs would
have reah/ed that they were up against a M-MOUS [no
|>osition and would have de< ided to go >low, anyhow
lor a \\hile. In Japan sti< Ji a reasonable- step as pulling

III a bit Would not do. It llllgllt ha\e Ix'eli tolr-tlllr>i

.1-1 .1 loss of ' face."

'I he nation. il finaix e-, are a matter of uhhh the
leader^ nl tli-- Army and the \a\y know absolutely
IP thin,; and <are le-.s. I'll- 1 i laiis were on the top of
tin- v>.i\e, i rcated (eit.iinly by their oun j!o\\e,s, .tinl
intended to \i-<- their (Million to obtain e\ci\ advantage.
1 hey a<iordingl\ indented on the Mnii-tiy foi l.u larger

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKKCK 193

appropriations than c\cr before. The Budget of 1907-8,
the first after the collapse of the boom, came there-
foil- as a shock to the world. The promises held out
in the previous ye.ir of a reduction of taxation and
a redemption of debt were entirely shelved, and
instead a total increase of expenditure amounting to
138,000,000 was shown, necessitating a considerable
increase in taxation.

The Army and Navy were responsible for an augmen-
tation of V 109,000,000,' whilst the Finance Department
absorbed Y 3 /, 000,000 more than in the previous year,
and Communications Y22, 000,000 more.

It was with the demands of the Army and Navy in
1907 that the present financial crisis began, and it
has been continued by the necessity of completing the
programmes then approved and by the addition of other
programmes of not less magnitude. \Yith the popular
idea of a \ictorious war to support them one cannot cavil
at some reasonable expansion of the Army and Navy,
but the demands made since 1900 have been quite
abnormal and out of keeping with the requirements and
resources of the country.

The Budget ol 1907 and all succeeding Budgets have
only been able to be balanced by the introduction into
the revenue account of surpluses from preceding years,
by loans, anil by cross-transfers from various accounts.

The surplus is the. most elusive item in the whole of
the Japanese accounts, which, to quote the Jiji Shimpo,
must have been devised for the sole purpose of defeating
investigation. What is a surplus? is as difficult to
decide as 1'ontius i'ilate's What is truth? One thing
which is quite certain is that it is not what it is supposed
to be. In ordinary parlance a surplus should be the
excess of revenue over expenditure. According to the
Japanese system, however, it is the amount from an
invisible reserve which is used to balance the excess of
expenditure over revenue. It may be. a legitimate surplus

1 Including Y-ji;,ix>vxx) reward-; anil pensions, \\luch were i^nud in
bonds though li^urin^ in the Budget as cash.

1^4 JAPAN AT T11K CROSS ROADS

or it may consist of the residues of loans, 01 rveii ol
new loans or of the unexpended deparlnient.il balances,
or merely of book entries.

If we examine Table 2 of The f inaneiul Annual of
the Department ol l : imince /or i <; i 4 surplus would
cippear to have its normal significance, but if we examine
Table } in the .same the figures are in many cases quite
dilTerent.

Kv;

i<"-J-5 ."<'. >' i .- -"4

i<*>^ '> i : .} -; i ^. i>7

=.'>.4 : i ..'^ ^

I.,'- 7 f".!7-'.-"i

57,i'*'.vS

i'f~ * -';!.' sj.s.sX

's l '7-"->'>7

i.^'N <) i ;*o7< i'-7

:>". .N.-.^.V S

>>> \<> i.|.|fi5-v.|;

i .-s ;7'..i''7

iio-i i IM; 7 in 7-0

i.H"- 1 ''-)^

1^1 1- 1 j 71 .> r/.Ut-S

lot,- 1 ;7.7-<-

>!-' i;, ).;. 7> /.'.-)

i 7i.Ni7.'-- s

'<! ^ ' J '

'u. ''.'.'. <<7^

''M-'5' 'i\.',:2 --;^

7' >.ui.; - 1 }

In i<,<>7 the urj'!u-> ot Y j - 4,' >S j,s ;,S \\.i> represented
by o\cr \ j()i),o< 'i.ooo drawn t;<ini balances (if the
\\\if loan- Mib>>c nb'-'l 1:1 Iv.ii'o]e pl'.i- \ .} S. ' -00,0 >o re -
<ei\i-d tr"iu I\u->ia on aeecunt ol tli-- maint' nan c ot the
pri-oncr^ of uai. In somi- oth -r yiars, a^ aliead\ >UL;-
L;c-lt-il, surp'.u- has at T-a I bern hd]><-d l>y ir\riiue
!:..( ihn.; e tiniates. if.ijM:ic-e hnancial i -tmia'.e- ar<-
II' Moi i< Hi Iy tail!; \' . )

Io \\lia! c\tent t!i ( - mi' xp'-ndi-d balatii'c- hom d j.iit
nn-iiial \ott- i- in !ii'l'-l i:. ili' -urjil'is \, doir ; fi:I. ihon.'h
I bellrv' 1 that i! i- !)'>A ih-- jna !;' 'o in-i-t "\\ ^u. !i
balall- > belli;.; r-fu!.dcd to (hi- ('elitlal Tlea-'.llY )<!
;ii' !;i ;i >:i in lip- : c:, :a! - :r ' 'u lull I > \ .' \\ \\ a . no-
! 1 1 ' l : i . a : : a i 1 [ I i < ', : > < , . i i 1 w . 1 1 1 t i i \\ a r and \ a \ y

HNANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKKCK 195

Department^ it was never the pia< tire. According to
a statement made in ilie Diet in i <; i > the unexpended
balances in 1 <; i 2 amounte<l t<> Y. So, 000,000. The Board
of .Audit has on various occasions drawn attention, though
perfunctorily, to the practice of departments skinning
the Treasury of unexpended sums. I suppose the clans
regard the Okitru-sho as fair game, in much the same
way as income-tax payers do the assessor. Anyhow,
they always put in a sufficiently large estimate to allow
for liberal discounting, and stick to any unconsidered
trifles on which they can lay their hands. Cases have
not been unknown where votes have been put in three
years in succession, duly allowed, and the money never
expended. .Whilst this is not a particularly honest
course, it is not graft as it is understood abroad. The
money does not go into anybody's pocket. It is care-
fully reserved, and forms a sort of emergency fund
for the department. It was out of such a iund that
the Navy Department advanced Y 1,000,000 in July,
i<;i.>, to one of the dockyard firms which found itself
in difficulties. It is out of a similar fund that the War
Office finances its China propaganda. 1

The principal difficulty with which any Minister of
Finance in Japan is faced is the curtailment of the
demands of the Army and Navy to an amount which
would be proportionate to the national resources. That
is the backbone of the whole trouble, and if once it
could be accomplished it would be possible to remit
taxation and to start on a real redemption of the National
Debt.

' \Vh.it a surplus is or is nt m:iy be leathered from the note attached
to tin- n)i2-i^ Hud^ct. as foil .\\-s ;

"The surplu^ carried forward from the fiscal vear 1010-11 to the
present fiscal Year i<)ii u was Yioi. 247.705. Ik-ducting from this a
sum of Y4S,ooo,o(xi as revenue to meet expenditure carried forward, a
balance is left of \'53. ^47.71)5. Of this a Mini of about Y^i .(XXVCXKI is
reserved for the Supplementary lUidv^et and other indispensable ex-
penditures, a balance of YJM ,7o-\<vxi beint; left. Of this last
Yt8, 1x17, 717 is drawn tor the present estimates to balance expenditure,
leaving a sum of about Y^, 700,000 for supplementary purposes."

K/> JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

Ihe normal expenditure of tin- country ha- n>eii from
N J4'>. ;<>' . i ; i in 100^-4, the year before the Russian
\\.ir, to V5 59, 7517,598 for tin- year 1914-13.

i'i".i 4 i<<!4 I.S

Yi 11 \( n

Impel i.il H' u-'-li' !().. 4,y','\>

K'-n-i^n AIM-.: - .'.71 V>44 \.>>~.<,<\

I!-. nit- Alf.ui ]".*^4~<i- n/>4>.i;'.

l-'Mi.ifui- =;.'.i<;5.i4.* i^. s 4''; v..-

i i. 7' '4.4 i"
".>4."i 4

4 -'>;;" ; 4

i _; . > .- ; . 1 1

.''(.17; I".v,. v ''.i

S 7/'. V ' S".7 v j i i i

<;.;'" 4'-; u is

r ;.'/ i.' ;.',')7 1

Jv4''4 7.W77"

7, -,: .'17 14

! roiii ihe-e (inures, u
UK re.i>e^ ate in th- dej) u

aii'l the \a\;. . \\hll-t :!

lerntoMal .1' i jll!--:t loll> lia'.e !Ill]ni .-il ail .t(l(ii: jotl.ll I'tltdeii

I'ii thi iM'ion. tin- ha- onl-, i>i---n + ui'!iie< ' l\ . lorino^a.
Kuantun/, the S'r.i'h Main hill lan l\ai!ua\. K'Me.i. aii'l
N.i-.'.ha !n n ha\e ea 1 h ep.nate liiii'.^ets, a::'l only li;;liie
;n the i:.i'i"':a! ai'oUtit- "t to iav to the -nial! li.tal
<\ \ i i ,' ; ;, liein:; ill-- t'.ral "t tin- -rant - Irom

the iiational tie.) ui\ t" til-- a'lnnn: tra!:on ..| K"i.i.
>aL'h.ii!en. ami K \\ an tun;;.

Th'- h'-a\ \ iii' rea-e in ilie c-iini.t'c- lur the 1' in, tni. i;

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 107

Department is due to the enormous burden of the
National Debt, which now absorbs V 142,000.000 per
annum in interest and redemption, to the expenses for
the collection of taxes (about Y I 1 ,000,000 1, and to
the charges of the Deposit Bureau, a similar amount.

With regard to the Army, there is no doubt \\hat-
soever that this is administered in a mo-t extravagant
and wasteful manner. The events of the constitutional
crisis in 1 1; i 2 showed very dearly that considerable
retrenchment-^ were possible in military finance, but that
tin- Chosliu leaders were unwilling to allow such retrench-
ment unless tin- money so saved was re-devoted to them
for further expansion. Whether Japan really needs tin
enormous army which she maintains is extremely doubt-
ful. At various times the Chauvinists have advanced
three- different arguments for the maintenance of this
large force. The first was the prospect ol a iiucrn'
tic rc\(Uichc by Russia, the second the constant possi-
bility of trouble with China, the third the necessities of
the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Kven if every one ol
these had been a good justification in the past, not one
remains to-day. Russia by the time the Creat War is
finished will not be looking for more trouble in the
Far Mast. She will have enough to do to consolidate
her new territories and to develop her industries and
commerce, which will keep her occupied for main years.
China is now a republic, and her principal hope is
to be allowed peace and quiet to settle down. China
will not. make war on Japan nor on any other nation
unless she is forced to by foreign aggression. The
possibilities of trouble- with China lie in tin- hands of
Japan, not in those of China. The Anglo-Japanese
Alliance has very little to do with Japan's military
torces. Tlu* only country against which a big Japanese
army could be uiili/ed is Russia, and it has been a
cardinal point ot British policy to make friends with
Russia, a country where British capital is going to
take the place of (ierman. The capture of Tsingtau
is almost the only conceivable military operation where

198 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

the Japanese army roulcl he of service to (ireat Hritain.
The other possibility is that of an anti-foreign rising
in China. The employment of a Japanese anny in
Kurope or in India is incredible. To bei^in with the
expense would l)c appalling, and secondly, such a course
would require the amendment of the Japanese Constitu-
tion. 'I here i-> no adequate rea.son at present for [.ip.m's
Iarj4<' army, .md then- will be even less reason after the
termination of the war. A -mailer standing army and
a wider system of manhood training would elicit a
considerable 1 saving in money, would maintain military
prestige and etlu i< n< y, and assist considerably to reduce
the cost of living.

"I he case of the Navy is on a different footing.
K\ery insular ami maritime nation requires a MKUI;.;

lire! for Its own del'ell'e and that of Its trade lollies.

and Japan's Navy has therein its |u>t il\< at ion . .\!-<>
by notes attat hed to the AIIL;!O- Japanese Alliance the
Na\y has to be maintained at a < ertain level. The
Jap.ine-e Navy is not out ot jiroportion to its defeiisi\e
and politiial rei juir-mcnt-, but it is nut >t propornon
to tin re ouri es of the country. No doubt eon-iderah!e

ei oliomies could be ette<;ed b\ the pla<in,; ol more

i on- 1 ru t ion orders .iliro id. but this would con\'ers ( -l\-
i ( a< t on the shipbuilding abilities o! the home yards,
whi'h miv.ht re-ult di-a>trou-ly in a moment ot i ri-is
In the j)fesent war :h (apai.e e Na\ . until late!'. p!a\ed
but an UK on id- i a' >!e pa ; ! . Japan's pai 1 1 ipat io;i < a me too

late to ple\ent the CM ape ot the (iellllaU ('Ililia -qiiadr'!|
from 'lsin:'!aU, and uas Iinnt-d to the Slian'ui:/ opeia-
tion-, to the o i-upa'.ion oi the ('aroiines. a::d to |.i't<>l
liir^' the tiade routes. I; is (Uiious, but \\oiih\ (!

note b\ ! l]o>c in' i f ' ted . till' the Il.l\ a 1 ( Xp.ltl 'Oil \\ . I

prim ipalh din-' ted low ai the < real ion ol a \ ei \ - 1 1 1 mi;

! .at t le i jliadi - >n. and not, a , ni! lit h i\ e In en i \p--i ti-d.
to the buildltc' ot la 1 lii'ht nii^-i -, a l.i' t iieialK

F1NANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 199

Turning from expenditure to tin- National Debt, it will
be seen that in the same period the funded debt ha-,
risen from Y 530, i So,S i i (19031 to Y 2, 545,070,505
( i <; i 4 ), or nearly live times. For this increase the war
was greatly responsible. An analysis of the objects of
the borrowing gives the following result :

Yen

Rcorgruii/ation of I'uhlic Institutions .^,<x;i,Si_j

Kconomic t'ndri t.ikini^s 53 3 > 2 ^5'4'9

Milit.irv Alt. ins !S 1 7,03! j.ooo

I 'on si ilul.it i i':i cif ( Hi! I , i.ms 1,1 jf 1. 1^17, 3 23

Moiliipulv .}..vi ' .V'O,

O'lom.il Kxpl. 'it.iti.ni 6. i, 3*5,050

I ntortunately tlie above figures, though, and perhaps
because, taken from the ( M'ticial Report, do not convey
a correct classification of the National Debt. The phrase
' financial adjustment ' or ' consolidation of old loans '
is an excellent method of concealing the baneful influence
of militarism, and prevents any adequate conception
of the charge which the war has laid on the country.
For example, the 4 per cent. Sterling loan of second
and third i-stie 1905 and 1910, the 5 per cent. Sterling
loan of 1907, the 4 per cent. Paris loan of 1910,
the 4 per cent, loan of 1910 (first and second scries),
were all in reality war loans, whilst the Exchequer Bonds
of 1913 were issued in connection with the railway
development. Financial adjustment should only be a
second title for this immense total, eleven-twelfths of
which was directly borrowed to cover the costs of the war.

The- Japanese have a most unfortunate penchant for
avoiding displeasing facts and an equal taste for window-
dressing. Saving ' face ' is iu-t as much a characteristic
of the country as it is of China. Whilst it may bo
technically correct to place the- thousand odd million
yen mentioned above to financial adjustment, such an
explanation by no means tells the whole truth, and to
debit the war and military and naval expansion with

200 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

only YX i 7,000,000 is tin- concealment of a material
fact. This attitude towards linancial matter^ is by no
means un< ommon. and of the many attempts at tinker-
ing up the situation which have- been witnessed since
looj* only one made any pretence at a true reali/ation
and at a fundamental solution ot the dilliculties.

It is witli the second Katsura Ministry that the genuine
maladministration began. Katsura himself took i harge
i'l the Department of Finam e, a [Million for wln< h In-
had no training and little ability. lie uas faced with
problem-, wliii h an expert ei ononnst would have found
ditrii ulty in sohmg. lie had to restore general financial
credit in Japan, for this had been rudely shaken by
the di-closuic oi serious trouble in -oine ot the leading
institutions. Me had to re-tore Japanese < redit abroad,
whh h was weighed down by the hea\ y burden of debt
and by the steady rise in expenditure. In addition In-
had to inert demand-. Iroin all (juarters for funds for
prodii' -live and military purposes, and to answer the
lamour of the people lor a redu< lion in taxation. That
Kat-ura made serious mistakes i animt be denied, but
there can }) no doubt that he tackled the situation
with reikle-s courage and de< i^ion. and the manner m
uhi'h he (allied In-, \anous <on\er-ion -cheine-, \\a-
< le\ i-r and ei onomical. 1 i ln> device ot maintaining the
4 per i cuts, at a lictiiimis level was a mistake, n was
one for \shi h the underwriters weie a> mu> h ie-p<>n-ible
a- he V..IN, and It 1- one uhlih has sini e been < opied
in other i unt rie>. '

' '[.. !,.!! I'n (.''-lil. I'. :M!- \Vcir l--i:ni \>< .1 l>.mi.c!'- ^VH 1 li. .i!c,
' -:i-i-;:nL' 't t:.f Spcv. :r, liidr.~iii.il. ll\p iiirt, M:i-'ii. Mitsi: !'.!>!. i.
l-.r '. I'iatil, I 1 :!!' i'Hl ii, 1 1 H:II !u-' i:!i. Y .1 mil. Si:nn!< >:m i. K< in .iJ.r.
V.tut.i^i-<. -ii. N.t:i:u.i, I ::i: I y I:: - '. .i:.i ! Kii .c ..uii.i I l.in). . 1 IK I-.MH pi u c
W.i-. i; ' .1:1 1 ! I .1 i i 'll\ r:it '."ii.ll jn ! ; ,i I ! in: l..ii;iN lilidfl d '. -k l.i ! \<~
ill ; '-I '.':..: ;.')! l;i: t > mi'iii tii.tt li^nii-. 1 :.c -Ninii, .itr \\.i

< ! 1 - , . i '. ' . 1 . i ! ! . . ' i : : ' 1 < ' I t . . c ' > : 1 \ r r 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 . 1 1 p i ! ; , . , 1 , M . 1 1 , I ' j I .' . . i -

M: V. en .in .f. ri'/iidi-'l it. > ..n';n ; i'i ,;, ., . mi' It i! .iMr. |.\ t;,.it
1 1:;;-- tin- in. i. ... : . ill. i- i.l ;!.< I., ,'nl h i' 1 .is . ,ppi-| i-. -/ i i u t. :

\^ .;, ' si- .ii 1 ' 1 ! i -!,. ;\- !<>t !':i < ct tin- |..iiil.- i : . I n.r.i-t! :.il
.ir.'l Kit ,!i.i::i.i -A.., . i.i 1 > uliiiU'.l !.) v.ilu.- i t-ii ; i li;n. .il t:.c

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 201

When he embarked on the reformation of Japanese
finance in i<;oS he had to lind, according to uuthorixcd
programmes

Yi 10, (xx>, <KM> pi-r iiiminn for National Ik'ht cliarjji's
Y i Mo. o<>o,o<> MI tliiitrrn \i-.n-. tOi tin- Aniiy
Y }^o,ooo.ooo ,, ,, Navy

Y }io,(xx>,ix>o ,, ,, I'nxliiclivc purposes

Y.j.jo,o(x>,tHX) ,, ,, K.iilw.ivs

and Y. 1 1, v^'.oyi P*-' 1 anninii for interest on K.iilway I'onds

besides the funds for the various Departments of
State and for the normal development of the country.
Further, he had to do this without borrowing any more
money, for he issued a self-denying ordinance to that
eltect as soon as he took oitice. It \vas quite impossible
tor him to achieve his object, the more so as he volun-
tarily added to his own burdens and submitted to the
imposition of further burdens laid on the Treasury by
the Army and Navy.

lie issued a statement that lie not only would not
indulge in further borrowing except for loan conversion,
but pledged himself to pay off Y 50,000,000 of debt
per annum. lie authorized a further naval programme
ol Y<So, 000,000 spread over six years, a riparian im-
provement scheme of Y<), 000,000 per annum for
twenty years and Y 10,000,000 per annum for ten
years tor Korean railways, roads, and harbours, plus
a Y i 2,000,000 annual L;ram to Korea. (This followed
the annexation ot Korea in 1910, and has since been
reduced to Y<;, 000,000. )

In considering the country's financial position too
much attention is paid abroad to the verbosity of the
Japanese" financial agents in London and New York
and that of their chiefs in Tokyo. Such promises as
Katsiira's, not to borrow but to redeem all bonds in
thirty years, ou;.;ht not to be taken into serious con-
sideration at all. fhe\' are merely the bright hopes
ot optimists, and most Japanese are incurable optimists
when thev have foreign listeners. These -littennu and

202 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

attractive utterances are merely delusions for the unwary,
as the following incident show-.

\\'hen the Japanese ' hooni ' campaign] was on in
London during the Russo-Japanese \\'ar, Mr. Arakawa,
tin- Japanese C'on-ul-t ieneral, issued a statement that
;_;old -fields had !><en discovered at Iwate, one-fourth of
uhi'h had been examined by I)r. \\"atanahe, the Ihnne
(Mine expert, who hail estimated the ore on that section
at C i 00,000,000. " If the remaining three-fourths of
the ^oldfield." v;iid Mr. Ar.ikawa, "are, after exannna-
tion, foiinil to he similarly prolitic in ore, I)r. \Vatanabe
estimates that the Japanese treasury will he enriched to
tin- extent of 11400,000,000." It was a beautiful dream.
1 he ^old-mine was worth just about C. ^oo.ooo. monev
unk in it by the -fini otin lal Industrial Hank under
the order- <if Vi-- mint Smie. Minister ot Finance, ami
the i'remicr. Marquis Katsura. l)r. \Vatanabe had made
the report (jiioted by Mr. Arakawa '.:nd< r the untun
in -; nil t ii Mis of Sone and Ka'-ur.i, and wh<-n. in I o i o.
he uas ait.u ked in the pn-s. by the shareholders of the
bank he published the inst nn t ions. 'I he bank lost every
\tn ii had put in the mine, an 1 was only saved from
iKjuidatinii ounu; to thi- and oilier ' looh.slmes-, ' b\-
a lo.in arran ;ed by the ( iovrnment in l<)l >.

It i- (jin'e ( le.ir t ) any one \\]\t\ tries to study

|apane-e filiaine that he \\lil lle\cr be able to j.;ct

ML', lit lo the boUom of things. 'llu-re LS too nnu h
lU..;^ hn. 1 , , l\iii;.;, and o[ it im 1-111. It is on I; p<i--i'ile to
i on -ider poinjs \s hi. h . .i:,:.ot be ( mil t-a'ed an 1 to di aw
i "ii< lu-ion-. a- to the renia :ni ler .

1 he Spei ] R. ( r\ e Is the i loud \\lll< ll lo.illl- O\CI'

th'- \\hnle -itua'Min, and ::i' id- n'all\ : i\ es si ope for
iH'ire < !<,( r manipulation than all the ie-t of the a. > mints
p;;' to. ether I';i;;i.'. tlr \\at |ap..n boirov. ed a lot
ill mone\ abtoad, and i; ua- arranged th.r, -;: h <a-li
h' 'ii!d be i., ; IM 1 . i;id< m t" s. r\e as a fund Im the
pa\ni'iit >! ncimtioii' and ^ippii- - and th" int-st mi
:he IMP i, ii <i lit I i, a I i an..; e me nt \\a ui.d'iiibledls

.L Ullable one h '.'.a. hand', to! [apaii to hold the

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 203

money there, and it was comforting for the investors
to know that it was there. Until I <; I 2 the amount of
the Specie Reserve was kept strictly secret, and then-
is still a halo of mystery around it, for no regular

statement is issued, and the hare total is all the infor-
mation which can he extracted from the government by
interpellations in the Diet. Part of this reserve, generally
from one-halt to two-thirds, belongs, however, to the Hank
of Japan, and forms a portion of the gold stock held
against the issue of currency notes. The government
share fluctuates from ci;;ht to twenty millions sterling,
and, except for constant replenishment by the proceeds
of new loans, would have vanished into nothingness within
two or three years ot its formation.

That part of the reserve which is kept in London
is a striking example of the manner in which the finances
are conducted. It was originally created Irom the un-
expended portions of the war loans, and u-e of capital
to pay interest which would not appeal to a financial
purist, and a clear indication that the Japanese (iovern-
nient at thai time did not expect revenue to expand at
a rate sufficient to cover the charges on the debt.

In addition to the payment of interest and redemption,
tlii- reserve is also u-ed by the Financial Commissioner
to maintain Japanese credit in Furope. For this purpose
he goes into the market and buys Japanese bonds. That
is to say, that the Japanese Government invests its reserve
in its own paper a tad which very materially alters
the status of the reserve, making it a paper instead of
a gold one. I am aware that this suggestion has been
made before and repudiated by the authorities, but its
truth cannot be denied in view of Harori Takahashi's
\ery definite statement in the- Die: on the subject. lie
admitted that when Japanes" Financial .Age.it in London,
he was authori/ed to imest up to \ '( .0.000.000 per annum
in Japanese bonds, th.it this policy was -till being pursued,
though tlu 4 amount available had been reduced to
\ "40.000.000 per annum. 1 believe the present go\ em-
inent, in view of the diminution ot the reserve, hail onlv

20 4 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

authori/cd Y 20, 000,000 bcin^ thus employed. In any
case the practice is clear and materially alieets the basis
of Marquis Inouye's figure--. That it can involve the
authorities in serious difficulties was shown in March,
1913, when the Specie Reserve was so low and locked
up that there was insufficient to pay a miserable V, 700.000
(< 1'aris to redeem a parcel of 5 per cent. Imnds which
had been drawn for redemption. The reserve has been
maintained by a continuation of the- borrowing policy,
which Katsura nominally eschewed. And even in hi-
self-ilenial there was a tly in the ointment, for when
foreign investors understood by it that he intended not
to born>w lor any purj>oses whatsoever, he hedged by
excluding the railways from the scope of the ordinance,
although e\'en railway loans were not to be raided so
I'lii- a^ the jvistal saving and other funds in the Deposit
l'>ureatt were available. This did not allect the steady
diminution of the government share of the Specie Reserve
abroad. Interest and redemption had to be continued,
and of course the available balance steadily fell, lor
no replenishment was possible l>v shipping ,^ (| ld from
J.ipan, when- revenue only met expenditure by a course
ol hi^h financing. I he South Manchurian K nlw.iy loan
in all piobabiiity went into the London re>i-rve. The
Industrial Hank issue of i <>o.S certainK did. and in this
tian-aition a douiile blult \\MS playd. for not only ua>

the monev plai ed 111 til-' IC-ClVe alld Ijote- l-si|ed li! |'ok\o.

but as the London l'ie-s pointed out the MJ.OOO.OOU
tellin had been iiono\\ed tui<e o\er tor the

nt ol bo i
Muni' i;
( 'i ,

n i\ ffl
A loan u a

lot \ S ' I I ' M ) O . ) . Ml

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 205

London, which had fallen to Yi 10,000.000. The money
raised was retained in London, and notes to the amount
weir issued in Japan. As I lie i'.conomi^t pointed out
in a very serious criticism, such action madi* the sink-
ing fund ' a sham and something worse.' This last
transaction was the final coup of Katsura finance. After
the authorization of the purchase he resigned, though
leaving to his successor the ta^k of completing a very
unsatisfactory business. This was typically Katsuresque.
As in 1006, he laid on Saionji the burden and the
odium of the railway nationalization, so in 1911 he laid
on him the task of depreciating the currency. Mr.
Yamamoto, his successor at the ()kiira-*ho, was strongly
opposed to the whole scheme, but had to carry it through,
though he refused all responsibility for its initiation.

When Katsura resigned office in 1911, it would not
have taken very much to precipitate a financial crisis
of the very first quality. That it was not precipitated
was due to the wisdom of Marquis Saionji in appointing
Mr. Yamamoto as Minister of Finance, and in giving him
every support, a course in which he was heartily backed
by Marquis Inotiye and the bankers of Tokyo, led by
Baron Shibusawa.

UJnconnccted with any political party and almost un-
acquainted with the manojuvrc^ and intrigues of Japanese
politics, Yamamolo Tatsuo was the right man to handle
the financial situation.

Horn of lowly parentage in Bungo province in 1^50,
he worked as an usher in a primary school at Osaka in
order to obtain the funds wherewith to educate himself.
With his savings he went to Tokyo and entered the
Keio University, but his poverty was such that he was
unable to complete the curriculum. Fortunately lie came
under the notice of Mr. Shoda Ileigoro, manager of the
Mitsu Bishi Company, and on his nomination entered the
Commercial School founded by the firm. From bring
teacher he eventually became head master, a post which
was only vacated to become first Director ot the < >kayama
Commercial School, and then Director of the Osaka

206 JAPAN AT THK (ROSS ROADS

School. Like- .til adherent-, ol Fukuzawa, lit- was an
enthusiastic joJitician in his youth, and of course a demo-
crat, but on leaving Keio he i;ave up all interest in
|x>litics. Rejoining tin- Mitsii liishi, Yamamoto first
entered the Yokohama branch of the firm, but was soon
transferred to Tokyo as sub-manager, where he remained
until, in iSou, he was ap{x>inted private secretary to
Baron Kawada. President of the Hank of Japan. His
knowledge of finance was such that he became Director
of the Business Department, and under the late Baron
Iwasaki was th yonin, who really managed the -whole
concern. In iXoX he became in hi> turn President ot
the Bank, from which jx>st he retired 0:1 the accession
ut the Katsura Cabinet ri i<;oi. During his tenure of
office lie had some rare lights with a clique of the
Directors, but sure ot his arguments, and backed by
public opinion, he \u>n through on each occasion. His
next appointment was as President of the Hypothec Bank,
uhere he placed to his credit a complete reor^ani/ation
ot the management and a considerable increase in capital,
turnover, and profits.

The apj>oiiitnient of Mr. \"amamoto wa> the most darin:;
experiment that lias b-en tried of ic ent \ears in Japan.
Io take a man unconnected uith bureauciMcy or politics
and hand him the mo>t < iitical of all the poiifolios. \\ith
ciirtt' lilancfii 1 to <!o \\hat he lik'-il, V.MS an extraordinary
a< ; of courage and wi-dom. I do i;oi think that anybody

exp-'i'ted that the lieu Mi.'M tcl \\ould be able to (MIIV

through the pro^raintiic \\|IK!I lie laid d'>wn. I am
i eiJain lie did not hlin-elt c\p i I to snored, (><\ In-
had a;;a!i)-t him th-- -Ian inlhi'-nce, u!ii<!i < ould not
endure tor a moin<-:it ill.- diversion ot hinds trom the
-hips and .^tin^ to ca e the iind'-n ol taxation. \\'M;IIIV;
to London on De. ember ;, \ ' > i i , I aid : " \'.imamoto's
e.\ie!!enl and j-op'iiai. and it he <,m cair\
-houJd in a t'".\ ye.u - jc.it tin- country on
ou:id ba i-. I-'ioin uliat I leain, howevei,

alloU'cd Io r .it'M It oill ' Ilia! plo\c-c|

tine pi ophi \-. I'

KINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND ( OMMKKCK 207

was unsuccessful, the muntry owe-, linn thanks for the
fearless manner in which he grasped the situation, and
for having had the wisdom to take the public into his
confidence and teach it the true condition of alfairs.

His first step was to issue a very serious warning to
the nation that unless drastic remedies were taken the
country would go bankrupt. In thi> view he had behind
him the Premier, Marquis Saionji, and the three financial
veterans, Marquises Inouye and Matsukata and Baron
Shibusawa. Yamamoto held the opinion that a country's
finances should be managed like those of a business or
a bank. Accordingly he wanted to cut down expendi-
ture to meet revenue, to charge the National Debt service
against income, and to develop manufacturers and com-
merce* so that the annual drain of gold should be replaced
by steadily increasing exports. All continuing expendi-
tures were to be reduced to the limits of the revenue.
This programme may not seem to be very different from
the views enunciated by Katsura when he had assumed
office in 1908. The difference lay in the author. Katsura
made promises, but had no intention of keeping them,
if they were difficult to keep. Yamamoto laid his course,
and was determined not to swerve from it, even at the
cost of his post. Saionji was equally steadfast, and
intended to risk his Cabinet rather than give in. The
first fight came with the Army, and the proposals for
the two new divisions were rejected. Ishimoto, under
orders which originally emanated from the Meiji Tenno,
withdrew his demands. The next on the list was the
Navy, who put in a demand lor yet another programme
totalling Y_35o. 000,000,' which Damn Saito absolutely

' At the time the Y_^o,ooo,ooo scheme \vas proposed Japan already
li.id four other programmes under execution.

The following are the programmes now under construction :
(i) Xo. }. 100^ Yoo.oovi.ooo terminating in n>i^
(2} Xo. 4. 1904 Yi 2^,000,000 ,, ,, 1914

(3) Xo. 5. 1907 Y76,ooo,ooo ,, ,, 1015

(4) Xo. 6. KJIO YXo.ooo.oix) ,, ,, 101^

(5) Xo. 7. i<)i 2 Yoo,oo,ooo ,. ,, loin
(o) Xo. 8. 1914 Y35o,ooo,ooo ,, ,, KJO

2oS JAPAN AT TIN'. CROSS ROADS

iefu-ed ti withdraw or redu<v. It t ame ti .1 < lean
fight between th'' \.i\y and the I'reasury. Saito said
he must have the money, as it was vital tt the (otintry. Yamamoto replied tliat he fully appre-
ciated the argument, hut there was no money. Saito
went out to -M'ek dan support, and Vamamoto gave him
forty-right hours to hring in new estimates. Finally
Yamamoto gave him Y2, ;oo ooo. hut only money win. h
Saito had sa\ed out of the ordinary Naval F-timates,
as an instalment of Y<;o, 000,000 spread over se\ en year-..
It was a hig victory, and it mad' 1 the Finance Minister
very jxtpular. The final de< 1-1011 was come to at a
< 'abmet held late .it night, and was at once announced
.ind cabled away. Till an early hour there were callers at
the ofli'-ial residence to oiler congratulations, and tele-
grams and letters arrived next day in shoals. Other
economies followed. Th- 1 government grant to the Meiji
Kxhihition, tli-- co:; strut t;on <>f the new I'arii.iment 1 louse,
the improvement of harbours a'id extension of telephones
were all abandoned or largely curtailed. < >ut of
Y.} ;.ooo.O' )O Yamamoto, now in fact the autocrat of
ih'- money-ba^-, allowed only \"^. 400,000, \\hiih all
went for pK ) due; iv<- and educational purjo-es.

Thi- ljudg<-t. \\lii' h \\MS drawn up and presented to
the I)id, showed a ba!a;i! e of Y 5 7 }. v ' J }.';7o, being an
UK rea-'- of \ v'/;X.oXo. laxes -hdwed a decrease of
\\,\ vj. i '>';. but Stamp- and ( !o\ i-rnmeiit I'.u-me^- an
IIP ira i- ol S' 5,000.0 o If the Mudget did not appear
to do niU'h to tu'nl th' 1 pro- ;i aninie laid do\\n b\ the
Mini-ter, it at lea-t did no; lontravetie any of the niI'-,
he ha 1 made. In addr.ion it was well undeistd-.d that
.i r.ud.;et (anno; be dia\'.n up ;n a I < w weeks, and
lli.ii tin- oil' 1 wa> in la'i merely a Ncnia! allaii foi
parliamentary pur,-) e>, and had b - :i iifje relation wi;h
:!i-- ul'imat" interrinn .( :h" ' io\ <] \ .m- :it I he I'lemier
and Mr. Naintiiio'd re n.-rn/e,! ;!,.it no pii>j.--i refirjin

' O'lld be ft!,-, 1 -d 1C. ni'-I.-lv le.|, [.in- ' II. Uie

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 209

mission was accordingly appointed, which after six months
published in June, 1912, a rejxjrt, which was immediately
translated into law, and went into force from the elate of
promulgation. By it a reorganization of offices, economies
in working, adjustment of revenue, and postponement
of continuing works took place, resulting in the dismissal
of 27,000 officials and employe's, and in a total annual
saving of 70,373, 433. As affecting the 1912-13
Budget, as the new scheme was put to work at once a
saving of 66,144,430 was made.

In another chapter I have given the causes of the
fall of the Saionji Ministry, and with it failed the only
honest attempt made since the war to grapple with Japan's
financial problem. It is more than a thousand pities
that Mr. Yamamoto was not continued at the Okura-sho
by Count Yamamoto. His next step after the curtailment
of expenditure was to have been a revision of the tax
system, and it would have been interesting to see how
he would have accomplished it.

His successor, Mr. Wiakatsuki, is a bureaucrat bred
in the atmosphere of the department, of which he is now
for the second time the head. His first tenure of office
only lasted a few weeks owing to the collapse of tin-
third Katsura Ministry. He has no great reputation a->
an economist, but has had considerable experience ot
official finance as Commissioner in London and as Yice-
Minister. If he gets staunch backing from his chief's
he may be able to fulfil his promises to reduce expendi-
ture, but generally he is regarded as being too much
under the thumb of the militarists, whose excellent servant
he was during Katsura's second Ministry, and so may
not now be able to resist their importunities.

Baron Takahashi, who was Minister of Finance under
the Yamamoto Ministry, was the very antithesis of Mr.
Yamamoto. A big, hale and hearty figure, he has the
appearance of a prosperous stockbroker rather than that
of the custodian of a nation's wealth. He is lavish in
hospitality and in promises, a habit he is reported to
have acquired when Financial Commissioner in London.

210 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

His usual remedy for a lack of revenue is a loan.
His policy in this respect was to raise money by Railway
Notes and Exchequer Hills, and by l*)rrowing from the
Special Accounts and Deposit Himau. The former he
then converted into foreign loans, long or short term,
and used the proi eeds to bank up the reserve against
an issue of notes to refund the latter. lie reduced the
maximum issue of Treasury Hills by V 50, 000,000 so
as to keep the note issue somewhere near relation to the
Specie Reserve.

From the investors' point of view it was a good thing
that tin* Vamamoto Cabinet fell, for if this jx)licy had
been {xi-rsisted in, a very considerable addition to the
foreign debt would have been incurred. To a certain
extent the jxjlicy of converting the floating debt into a
funded debt is a sound one, especially in Japan, where,
matters had got to such a [>oint that the country was living
on paper. Hut to the foreign investor it was most
undesirable to have the foreign debt increased by the
( oriversion of these Railway Notes and Hills, only to
have the floating debt again run up to its original amount
In addition the foreign loans cost a great deal more than
the internal paper. The Hank of Japan will di-count
government paper at from 2 l , to 4 per cent., but foreign
loans, as raided by Haron Takaha>hi in I <y i }, cost from
I 2 to 14 per rent.

Haron Takaha^hi's ideas on loans may be gathered
from the following criticism by Haron Megata, formerly
J- main ial Adviser to the Korean ( io\ crnmeiit. and one
of the mo^t a-tute linaix ial experts in Japan, lie s.nd :

The lloii-e of I'eers ha-, been obliged to ^wallow
the Hudget for I i; I } - I .} oumg to the aition of the
( .\ eminent, uithotit making any amendments, but 1 .1111
very mui h <on<erned about tin-, ^tate of things ,t^ \\ell
a-, aixiut the future oj the I-lmpir<v The lo'.il .uuoiint
nf Hond- to I)-- i-Miei| for the Sjx-< i.il At > ou[it, not
ID: til*- N.itiori.il liud.'/'t i> Y I .So, $ ^<;. 5 >J" p.ut of \\ln.h
h.i-. .i!rc.i'l\ b'-en l^^il''di. pill- i'.\i lletjllel IlliL to tin-
lot. il of \ ; ( ). x ) ,o< xi. making a graiul tot.il of

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 211

230,000,000. These bonds, according- to the govern-
ment, must be issued or renewed by the end of the year.
Such a policy, when our finances are already embarrassed,
cannot possibly strengthen our position, and it is this
failure which is the cause of our troubles. The following
is the loan account :

Yen Yen

Railway Notes in London, due March 13, 1014 14/144,500

Railway Notes in London, due March 13, 1015 14,* (44, 500

Railway Bills, due April 14, i<M3, of which 5,000,000
to be redeemed by part proceeds of London

loan 2 5,000,000

Railway Hills, due June 13, KM.? 25/300,0x1

Bonds authori/ed 1012/13, to be issued 1913/14 5,000,000

Bonds authori/ed for issue 1913/14 35,103,216

Total loans for railway account - - 119,392,216

Korean Industrial Bonds :

Total authori/ed 1012/13 24,920,736

Total authorized KM3/I4 12,629,220

Riparian Improvement Account :

Balance authori/ed 1912/13 to be issued i3-75'.55

Total authori/ed 1913/14 to be issued 0,262,^87

Exchequer Bills outstanding 50,000,000

Y 2 29,976, 567

"It must be clearly understood that these loans are
not for general financial purposes, but for the Special
Accounts, and largely exceed the similar loans in the
last Budget, an increase of close on nineteen millions.
Judging by the present state of things our indebtedness
will never be reduced, but will go on increasing each
year. The government has declared its intention to raise
funds by drawing on the Deposit Bureau 'and by short-
term loans. Short-term loans are well enough if the
government has abundant funds for redemption at
maturity. If not then the loans must be renewed at very
disadvantageous terms, and so the increase in indebted-
ness is maintained, and eventually the short -termers will
have to be converted into long-term loans, in raising
which insuperable difficulties will be met unless the nation
is to be placed at still further disadvantage. As for
the Deposit Bureau, its funds are limited and cannot be

212 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

expected to meet the government's never - ending de-
mands." '

Two {x>ints appear greatly to worry Japanese econo-
mists. They are the efflux of gold from the country
and the increase in the currency. In 1911 the Litter
was a prolific cause of argument, but no decision was
come to on the> matter. Although Mr. Yamamoto was
credited with a belief that the volume of currency should
l>e decreased and Baron Takahashi with a contrary view
the subject never became a serious jxjlitical issue. The
argument that currency depreciates as its total increases
is one which lias not yet l>een satisfactorily demonstrated.
In any event the depreciation could not amount to very
much. On the other hand the jxjint which was avoided
in Japan, but whirh was capable of abundant demonstra-
tion, is that currency in excess of a proportionate relation
to reserve must ipso facto depreciate in value. If tin-
issue of bank-notes is to lx- regulated only by tin-
financial requirements of the government, the purchas-
ing power of notes cannot IK- maintained. The Japanese,
as might be e\[>eeted, are note and silver user-, by
preference, which may also have >orne influence on tin-
situation, though there is reason to believe that the
authorities strongly approve of this altitude towaids g<ld.
It is a rarity to see gold in circulation, and it is quite
a l>u-iness to ol)tain ^old in any ijuantit\. Anybody ^lx>
i^oes to a Japanese bank for the purpose of changing
paper into ^old will n-ali/e the suspicion which such
an a< t \\ill produce. On one oc< a^ion I received iiMruc
lions to pay 1,000 yen to a foreign tourist, and as he
wanted i^old for a portion of it I had to ^o to
tin- Spe< ie Bank to ^-et it mysi-lf, and when there had
to an-wer a ii-gular catechisni as to why I wanti-d ;;oM.
Mr. |. V.. Suttor, th-- Australian Cnininerci.il <'oinmis-
SIOIMT, ha^ on \a!io'i> o< < a^iorii ilr,\\n attention in his
re|rt> to thi> hoarding of m-tal, and I l>-||.\c inakc^
a juiiiit nt :',-ttin.; ;:"M wh-ni-\cr h<- i an, tlioii.'h it i^
note'.vortlp.' that tli-- point ha-, attiacted imt little alien-
' li.ii'.n Mi-.'.it.t in )'. mm 1 1 \li:<n'nn. M.ii. !i, P/I \.

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 213

tion in other official communications. Nevertheless it
is a jx>int which will have considerable' importance in
the event of a crisis developing 1 .

The annual efflux of gold is a question which would
appear to rest on a very definite basis, and one which
is responsible for a tremendous amount of anxiety. The
authorities are firm believers in the mercantilist theory,
and regard with dire dismay the excess of ini{X)rts over
exjxirts. The annual drain of gold is allowed to be
between eleven and twelve million sterling* per annum,
a calculation which is arrived at as follows :

Yen Yen

Average excess of imports (5 years) :

Japan Proper 20,307,324

Formosa 4,ii/>,972

K( >rea 21 ,239,04 1

45,*33.337

Special imports 10,154,860

Interest on National, .Municipal, and

Company bonds 72,761,068

128,749.865

In How of gold by other causes than

ordinary trade 63,804,125

Net cfllux 64,945.740

Bonds redeemed (average for 15 years)... 46,470, 109

Yi i I.4I5.S49

The above statement was drawn up in January, 1912,
by Marquis Inouye and Baron Shibusawa, with the assist-
ance of the various banks, steamship offices, and govern-
ment departments, and as the Marquis and the Baron are
two of the most eminent of Japanese financiers, their
statement is worthy of some consideration.

According to a certain school of economics the theory
of the balance of trade is responsible for the whole of
the financial troubles of the country. Certainly it is
a serious matter to have to find an annual amount of
gold such as that mentioned, and strenuous efforts are
made by the authorities to make the figures appear more

2i 4 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

kind an etTort in which they regularly fail, because
the publication of the true figures would at once dis-
close their disregard for the no-loan [>olicy. I'nfortu-
nately it is very difficult to LM-I at the correct figures,
and in addition it appears doubtful as to what is meant
by the efflux. For example, are the payments out of Un-
reserve in London included? From the above account
it would appear that they are on the etilux side, and
yet if they are not also included in the inllux, the above
figures cannot be correct, Howe\er. whether or not the
reserve abroad and its manipulations are included in
the calculations, the basis of Manjuis Inouye's figures
are fallacious. To be^in with, nothing like Y-jo.ooo.noo
of foreign debt is redecm<-d JKT annum. ( )n the
contrary, the average redemption over fifteen years ha-,
been at the rate of V I n. 5<;o,'> jd. whilst the average
Ixirrowint; in the funded foreign debt has been
Y i i 6,028.746, without mentioning 1 municipal and com-
pany borrowing. Unfortunately no mention is made by
the Marcjui-. of borrowings, and it i^ uncertain whether
the [Hircha-e of Japane.-.c internal lxnul> by London and
Paris is included, an item whieh often exceeds
\' i 5,000.0^0 j>er annum. By >j)ei-ial ini]M>rts is meant
^oo(L on government account, whieh mo-i certainly ex-
ceed Y i 0,000,000 per annum. Iron ore for the Imperial
Foundry amount-; to Y7.ooo.ooo per ainium. The
1 inflow of iM>M from other e,iu-e> than trade ' is that
highly speculative item known rl-ewhere a^ ' m\ i-iMe
im[x)rts. and include, -hinpni^ return^, in-ura'ice tourist-
fli -bur-ements, interest on foreign iiivcstineiits. etc.

Neither th'- fi^un-^ ;:iven by M.injui- In>i!\-'- nur any
figures ^ r iven by the financial authorities are <>f any
value as th'-y arrange th-m. They are so \a.;ue ami i'n
fu-ed that t'> bas<- any d'-du-tions on t!i-m ^ useless.
I do not Ix-li'-v that the r\ndu- of ;-<ild is at present
any serious danger, thou; 1 , h I ijuahfy tin- i -t Cement bv
aildin;.; that I am d'Mii;i", entiri-lv with the -itu.ition

b'foie the U,ir. It Is, t'i be.'lil \\ltll, Ijlllte impossible

to talk aUnit an exodu^ of ;.','>M (mm Japan, and at is

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 215

equally futile to debit the payments for redemption and
interest unless ne\v loans are also credited. The following
table was drawn up by an unofficial Japanese economist,
and presents another side to thi-. question. I Ix-lieve
that previous to the war there had been an influx of

gold, though probably not a
suggests.

Yen

Debit
Interest on foreign N'a

tional Debt (actual) . 65,1^7,000
Redemption (5 years

average) i'>o<><>,<tx>

Municipal Bonds (Int.

and Red. actual)... <),55^.o<x>
Government Imports

(average) 1 22/>oo,(x>o

Kxcess of Imports (5

years) 4S,j6o.,(xx>

Balance [being influx) 53,76o,(xx>

great as this account

Yen

l,oSo,otX>

Credit

I'.ullion Import (at 5
yeai s) ..................

Invisible Imports ' ...

Colonist^ 1 ............... 28,<xx>,oo

Lo :ms(aveiage 5 years) i i6/>3H,o(xi
(inld and Silver prod. 13,000,000

21 6, 708, cxx.)

210,70^,000

The above figures are all from official sources, and
have bien carefully checked. So far from there being
an exodus, there is an influx, and this, it seems to me,
must lx % correct, because the rate at which money has
been borrowed exceeds considerably the rate of pay-
ment. \Vhcn the money really begins to leave the country
imports will be naturally checked. If the nation has
not got money it can't buy, but so long as it has money,
whether from internal production or by inflow, it will
go on importing. The actual inflow and outflow of coin
or bullion from the' country as a geographical unit is
in this connection of no real importance. As we know,
the Hank of Japan keeps a great portion of its reserve
abroad. So does the government, and so does the nation.
What is, or at all events should be, understood by thi:i

1 Official Estimates 1013.

X.B. All Korean, Formosa, and Manchurian figures are omitted
except a sum of YiS,^iio.<\v> included under invisible imports, being
dividends and interests on investments in China and Manchuria.

2if, JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

so-called exodus of gold is the profit and loss account
of Japan in its transactions with the world. A nation's
solvency, especially a debtor nation's, does not depend
on the amount of gold in the country, and I contend that
the proceed^- of loans incurred ought to be considered
in this problem just as much as the redemption of such
loans, the more so as revenue is not sufficient to cover
the debt service, and when debt is repaid it is. out of
the proceeds of new loans.

The financial trouble in Japan has really no connec-
tion with the gold reserve, the amount of the currency,
or the exodus of gold. It is the result, in common parlance,
of high living and low thinking. Alxuit three-fifths of
the National Debt is unproductive. The Russian \Var
h.is given Japan nothing which can produce large returns.
Korea every year needs. Yo.. 000,000 or more. Saghalicn
and Kwantung" also are a burden on the Kxcheijuer.
Japanese investments, in Marn Iniria are not yet producing
any great revenue. In addition the [H>sition Japan has
attained as a (ontinent.il jxiwer necessitates an ei ormoiis
military expenditure. She is mightily over-taxed to pay
the ( h.irg" -, on the \\ar loans and to maintain her position,
a:i<l even so the p-venur is iiisiillii lent to cover expendi-
ture. As a re-ul' further loans have to be raised. Capital
and lalxuir are being heavily oppressed to pay for the
ilaii-' ambitions. There is onlv one course open to her
financial authorities it they really wish to save a -enoiis
disaster. It is to drop all aggressive ambitions, t,, cut
doun mi'itary exp'-ndr.ure to a Injure uell uitliin th<
our;tr\'-> means, and with the money thus economi/ed,
pav oil debt. a-e off taxation, and develop prodlUtlVe
industries. Im ulenlally ilev \vill do well to take a <our-e
of |e . on - in polrral economv and accountant).

An adverse balatn < of trad'- does not ni'-an thai a
loiintr. is hung on i;-> tapiial. Iliat i- an exploded
thtorv. Ka.'. 'o'to'i imported from India and Anieiit.i
is made III'M \arn foi <\j)o;t to < liina, .in<l otton fabn< .
for -ale in [an in. < Li'ia. and Au-tiaha. Mat huier\
earn-, manv tinp ^ it^ own \alu-- in the wirk it does in

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 217

the mills. The Wakamatsu foundry irnjx)rts ore, which
makes plates, which build a ship, which in a few years
earns freights and fares to many times its cost.

Take the ca-.e of cotton. The import of raw and
ginned in 1911 was i 4 v > million yen. What happened
to it? It produced cotton yarn, which wa . exported
ro the value of Y jo, 200,000, and fabiicx. exported to
the value of Y37,ooo,oo<>, and in addition piece goods
for the local market to the value of Y 1 40,000,000. It
provided work for 1,900,000 spindles in ninety factories,
employing .S8,5oo operatives, Ix-sides the immense number
working in the weaving mills. It produced ovei
Y/, 000,000 in freight and insurance, and enabled the
twenty-six spinning companies to pay an average dividend
of 1 4' 4 per cent.

Yet, according to the authorities in Japan, the country
lost 07-3 million yen over :he transaction, because cotton
exports were valued at that much le^s than the imports.

The balance of trade theory is a relic of feudalism,
and the sooner Japanese economists reali/e it the better.

I do not suggest that Japan can do without foreign
money, because she cannot, and money will have to be
borrowed from time to time for railway and industrial
purposes. What she must not continue to do is to borrow
money, nominally for industrial purposes, but really to
bolster up that illusory reserve in London. The' industrial
purposes will have sooner or later to be provided for in
reality as well as in name, and it will save very painful
criticism if loans in the future are de\o;ed to their proper
purposes.

The present Ministry have taken the wi>e course of
cutting down the Sinking l-'uiul. Investors will be far
better pleased to have Y 20. 000,000 per annum sure
than spasmodic lumps and a volley of promises which
are incapable of fulfilment. Taxation must be reduced,
because at its present level it is crippling the future oi
the country. Whilst, as 1 believe, the exodus of gold
has in the past been a bogey, it may become a reality
in the future, because the destruction of capital, owing

2iS JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

to the present war, is ^oini; to keep the foreign investor
interested at home for some time to come. In the future
Japan will not be able to raise loans as in the past,
and she must make her revenue suffice for her needs.
Whilst on the one hand her imports will be checked, thus
helping to sa\e money, on the other her manuia< tures
\sill also sutler from depression abroad. Nevertheless,
she should be able to develop her foreign trade \ery
considerably, though it will be at the expense of KUL;-
land and (Iermany. and to a certain extent of America.
Having to pay out of her own resources the interest and
redemption of her bonds, she will be obliged to do this
by legitimate commercial methods. These are either bv
proceeds of investment abroad, by freight and carry-
ing services, or by a favourable trade balance. The
former she cannot yet avail herself of because she has
no considerable foreign investments ; it must be done,
therefore, by th-- two latter. Kveti since the be^inninv;
of the war Japanese shipping has received a considerable
impetus, and lines are running through the Panama ("anal
and across the Atlantic. Her e.xjxirt trade must be
developed, and so developed that her acquisition o|
markets shall be permanent and not teni]>orar\ . To
do this she must reduce taxation, because it is taxa
tion whi< h is annihilating her principal manufacturing
asset, cheapness of labour. If new loans are really
estopped, the favourable trade balance \\ill automata ally
arrive. When foreign debt is created, the pim eed> do
not ^o to fap.in in coin but in i^ooiis. and the implement-
ing of the self-denying ordinance will in itself < he< k
imjx>rts, and tar more effectually than Inijx-ri.il Kescnpts
aii' I < iflii ial encouragement .

\\'ith a leform of the tinain e- it is to be hoped th.it
there \\ill b- a diminution of th'- a- tmties of the I main ial
< 'oinnn --loners abroad, so far a^ their pres , ( anipai:;ii

l< 'o:|<eni'-d. Mall', of the -fa'elllents j--Ued I' 1 . them

have been, to a\ th'- NM t. mi d< . id in.; . it not untiuthful.

I he\ s,-e!|| to be ]Illbiied Ultll the lie'ief that ail\ < tllH I-I1I

of |apane-e tinali' e > must be ba <:d on a <le lie to damage

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 219

that country, and entirely fail to recognize that any
damage to Japanese credit must inflict heavy losses on
that country's financial hackers, the British investors.
No editor and no correspondent would therefore dare
to publish harsh criticisms without a knowledge of the
facts before him, and unless he was con\ine<-d of its
justification. It cannot be denied that the country is
over-taxed, the expenditure abnormal, the National Debt
for the most part unproductive, and the administration
muddled, and in addition there- is a morbid objection
to the publication of the truth. A Japanese reviewer
criticizing my publication of the Memoirs of C.oiint
Hityashi, said that everything contained therein was
already well known to the Japanese public. Exactly !
But not to the British public, and the object of the
publication was to enlighten the latter. It is the same
with the finances. The Japanese public is well aware
of the defects of the financial situation, but the authorities
object to the foreign public, which has found and lost
a lot of money for Japan, sharing the secrets.

On several occasions when in Japan I had consider-
able trouble over the financial reports sent by me to
London, and I refer to some of them as illustrating this
fear of criticism. 1

I must say that these did not occur during Mr. Yama-
moto's regime. That gentleman was always ready to
give any information possible, and as long as he con-
trolled the department, the press could rely on being
told the substantial truth. During the Ministry of Count

1 In my dealings with Japanese statesmen I adopted a plan winch
ou^ht to have prevented any misquotations ari^-intj. I never made any
notes during an interview, because an interviewer who doo tin.-,
inevitably develops a tendency to emphasi/e picturesque phrases out
of proportion to their context. After the interview I would write it
out from memory, and then, before sending to London, submit it to the
interviewer for ZTV. Only al'ter it had been >i^ned by him or his
private secretary was it di>patched. By this means it was difficult for
me to misquote a Minister, and equally difficult for a Minister to claim
that he had been misquoted, an excise which has become very
frequent in connection with interviews in the Japanese press.

2 jo JAPAN AT TH1-: CROSS ROADS

Yamamoto it was by no means so easy to obtain infor-
mation, and it \vas quite impossible to rely on the
correctness of statements issued to the press. At the
time when a parcel of short-term bills were issued in
London and Paris in March, n;i >, a statement was
given to the pres> representatives that a |H>rtion of these
bills were to be issued in New Y<rk through Messrs.
Kuhn, Loeb \- Co. This information I telegraphed to
London. Two days later another statement was issued
denying that there had ever been any intention of issuing
bills in New York. I happened to go to Yokohama that
day, and went into one of the foreign banks, which
h.is largely to do with governmental finance. I asked
the manager about the denial of a New York issue.

It's all lies," he said. "Look here." He pulled out
the decode of a cable from hi> New York agency, saying
that the projxjsed New York issue had fallen through
as only 11.000 could be underwritten there. Leaving
the bank. I walked in to the manager in the Far I.a-t
of one of the big American insurance companies. Know-
ing that they Usually underwrote Japanese issues in New
York, 1 a-ked him alxmt it. \"esterdav," he said,

I got a (able from New York to say that they had
been a-ked to underwrite part of these bonds and had
refused. They instructed me to go to the Finance people
in lokyo and tell tip in that as they were forcing us
under th' new Insurance Retaliations to stop writing
new business, in fap.m, we \\ ic forced to stup \\nting
their Ixmds in New York. I told them so \eMerday
afternoon." I -nb-< qu< nt h -au the diti- i.il roj-on-i!)!" tor
is-iiin:; the-e t w< ( ontradi' tory ;.o'i -e, to the jii'is,. .uid
.1 keil luni tc, (\pl.illl. " All, S -e--./' he -aid ; " I .ill) \et\
orr;, lo; sou. It is .1 mi-take -oiiieu heie." I thought
he mi;dit ha\e reserved In, -^irrow tin the department.
Alxitif the aM)e time a tan;.;!'' arose in L'i!i!on bef.\'-en
Renter', .tnd th- I in.i!i- n! ' 'imrni- -loner in <onne<tioii
witli a spec, h nia<!e b\ I'.ai<>;i Takaha-hi in th' I)iet.
I rejMirt'-d the Mini t'-r a- -a\in:; that Y i< 10,000.000
\s a . required for new undertakings, .md was ix in;; ;;iadn-

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 221

ally raised by short-term bonds, a statement which,
published in London, produced a flat denial from Mr.
Kongo Mori, and a telegraphic inquiry to myself as to
whether I was sure of my facts. I had assumed that
the Minister, speaking in his official rapacity Ix-fore tin-
Diet on the government's financial programme, referred
to the government's needs, and on inquiry of the banks
and in diplomatic circles I found that the same view
prevailed. On inquiry at the department, however, I
learned that the Minister did not refer at that momeni to
government finance, but to the requirements of the nation
at large, which, considering the official control of foreign
issues, I regarded as splitting straws. That the oflicial
explanation was by no means the general view was
evidenced by the comment of the vernacular press, the
Jiji S/iitnpo, for example, said : ' To procure funds
for the construction of railways by means of short -term
bonds issued abroad is a mistake, which can only lead
to serious trouble, and signifies a return to the follies
of the second Katsura Cabinet."

It is foible of the Financial Agency that nothing which
appears in the London press with regard to Japanese
finances should be regarded as correct, or even as credible,
unless it bears the official imprimatur. One example
of this occurred in the same- month, March, 1915, when
I wrote to London and re{X)rted that it was proposed
to issue C2, 000,000 of Korean Oriental Exploitation
bonds in Paris, a statement I later amplified by adding
the Industrial Bank and the Franco -Japanese Hank as
the intermediaries. Mr. Mori wrote to Renter's that
" there is not a word of truth in your Tokyo corre-
spondent's statement," yet an examination of the Korean
issues shows that in due course the loan was issued in
Paris, and through those very two banks. Similar inci-
dents are of constant occurrence with any correspondent
who attempts to report Japanese finance without paying
due homage at the official shrine. The most notorious
occasion which concerned myself, however, was in
November, 1913, and the usual categorical denial from

222 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

Gracechurch Street received a rude contradiction from
a quite unex{>ected quarter.

On November 8th that year I sent ,i message to
I-ondon announcing that negotiations were pending be-
tween the Japanese (iovernment and French capitalists
for a loan amounting to 1140,000,000, to Ix- taken up
in amounts of ^4, 000,000 for ten years, and was intended
to cover railway construction. This message was
published in London on November 26th. On November
27th Mr. Kengt) Mori issued a c omplete denial, couched
in rather superior and sarcastic language. The denial
was sent on to me, but I could only reply : Wait and
see ! It w.is obvious from the letter I received that
Renter's in London were- disjM>sed to Ix-lieve the Financial
Commissioner's statement. On December 1 2th, M.
Caillaux, French Minister of Finance, said Ik-fore the
Budget Commission of the Chamber of Deputies, that
the Japanese Government had approached French
capitalists to borrow Frs. 1,000,000,000 for engimvr-
ing purj*)ses, and that the negotiations had failed : that
then the Japanese authorities had opened negotiations for
a loan of Frs. 500, 000,000, and that the negotiations were
-[\\\ proceeding. It is im[>os.sible that the Financial Com-
missioner was unaware >t the negotiations, for he had
only left Japan on November 2nd to return to his post.
I leave the reader to compare the three statements and
(let ide who-e was the inexactitude.

Renter, Km.iih i.il C":nmU- M. l/.uii.mx.

7\>*\,'. .V,;. S//;. i;ii--|..i K -r, /'.;/;,. 1 >i . . I .'//;.

l.--n,i< it. .Y :. 2-t',t.

puMilie<l in l.'-:i'!cin p-ibli^hev. puhh lied I>rr. i ;th.

on N"V. ,'''!:. |.ip:ui .'"/t 1 !. 'llici'- li.e.r J.ip.m h.i- .ipplii-d ti>t

j^ tr\in,'. to I.ll-r .1 1'irll nn -'.all nri''!l- ;i 1. .111 nl .1 lilllimi

lr,.ui !ui /)o,i.. )< x K i ,il!u!l> c;t!n I i;i I'.ili-^ h.llliv, |i.;i .is |i.i-

i.i l>i!h' n f;.in. in "i anvv. lu tr il -r 1:1 .ipplu .iti 'ii lie. 1 < rn

l'.i:i-,r.i i .tilw.iv 'i>:i- tin' \>.<<;M. 'I'. :< i- uii^u. ( r -fi:i i..i~ IT

-tit;- ti'.n. M ' ii:t'ii!;< n ' [ !><>i- I'.un in; 1 ' t:.r,i''i)~ fi*l

i "\Miitj I'licii^n t'.ipit.il ii.ilt li..il .iiii"iinl.

1(1 IK !l J'1,1 pi (-.. 'I in- III' !)< V Will lu-

ll t tl l< ! Clllll

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 223

It might almost apix-ar, as Tin- Japan Chronicle
pointed out, that the Japanese Financial Commissioner
was not so well posted on Japanese financial negotia-
tions as Renter's correspondent in Tokyo. These are
only a few of the occasions when reports from Tokyo
with regard to financial conditions have been vehemently
denied, and my object in drawing attention to them
is to point the moral that the official statements are
not trustworthy. That such denials will be less frequent
in the future is highly probable since Renter's have
surrendered their interests to a semi-official concern, whose
existence will depend on complying with official require-
ments.

The naive (lenient is issued in London have their
counterpart in the official utterances at Tokyo. It must
be honestly confessed that the majority of Japanese states-
men have little conception of the real state of the finances,
and very little reali/ation of how near they are wander-
ing to disaster. The present Premier, Count Okuma,
has a world-wide reputation, which, even if it has been
cheaply earned, at least necessitates a consideration of
his remarks. In the January (1914) number of the
Shin-Nihon he very strongly criticized the economic con-
ditions. He pointed out that the return to the old loaning
policy was merely raising fresh foreign loans to pay
off old ones, and causing an enormous rise in the volume
of currency, with the attendant increase in prices and
imports and decline in the reserve. lie demanded that
the loaning policy be abandoned, that the Bank of Japan's
gold reserve against notes be used to redeem loans,
and that the note issue be expanded \\-ithont regard
to a bullion reserve. This proposal is not unlike Sun-
yat-sen's proposal to abolish gold and silver in China
and make paper the sole medium of wealth. The
simplicity of this proposal of Count Okuma lias perhaps
been only equalled by his sudden volte lace after assuming
office in April, 1914. when, having assembled the re-
porters, he said : ' To speak as briefly as possible, the
tinances of the country are in a quite secure condition.

22 4 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

I would not blame you if you wonder at this declara-
tion." i They certainly did. ) " You have doubtless heard
and re. id a ^ r reat number of gloomy things about the
fiscal condition of Japan. Yesterday it was in .1 bad
condition. but to-day I declare to you it i> all ri^ht.
The elucid.ition of the riddle is quite simple. All depends
uj)on the administration. Previous cabinets, notably the
one which I have succeeded, have not been doin^ what
they ou^ht t<> have done in linain ial affairs." The C'ount
i an alway> be depended on to say something startling,
but thi> declaration resembles nothing so much as Miss
Vesta Til lev'- somr with the refrain

I joined tin.- ,ir;nv yc-U-rd.iy
So (In.- .11 inv iif t' '-d.iv's alright

The mental at robatics of fapanesc statesmanship were
well exemplified by the ('ount tsvo months later, when
he had to an-wer in the I) let an interpellation on his
tinaiu ial views. lie said : " It is true that when in
op[H)sition 1 said that the national finances \\ould allow
ot no expansion ot the armaments, nor of a reduction
of taxation. Now, as you have he. ml, I .nn framing a
HudiM t, allouiii;; for an expansion of the Army and
the Nasy. and lor a reduction ot taxation. I hese luo
opinion^ (lit not M-etn consilient, and I < an mils explain

enthu-ia-m uh--n in opposition ! " S'f trtin^H i'Jorui
niuntli !

1 he li;J)t -h-aitc'l manner in \shi' h ott'u laldom
ajiproai In - a consideration of dnai.< i.ti altair- 1- e\ ident
in the manner in \\hii h it refer-, to the burden of taxation.
Mi. \\ak.itstiki, sslii-:i ' OmmissKdier in London, m.ide
a 1 1 putai 10:1 bv In- ;;losvin:', o[t:mi-m. lie ssas one
of (ho e pi Hi' ipa! 1 v responsible for the proposal to ji.ts
oil tin i I'-b' in tin:; -. \ <-at -, b\ s fin.: ' ' i'' '-' ' ' ' 1( " ' ' " ' '
a yrai for th-- p;:ipo -. \\ 11. one thud of tip- j"-nod
ha . p.i e.i, arid the total of the debt h.i M - !i : > pel
icllt. It s\a th-- ame ollnlal ^ ho i on ld'lel ; :; . r

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 225

cent, of the national income as a comparatively low
measure of taxation, and even then lie was 7 per cent.
below the fact.

Prince Katsura, on taking 1 office as Premier for the third
time, was particularly naive in his remarks. Addressing
the conference of Prefectural officials, lie said : " Having
had no time to elaborate a general administrative policy,
I shall frame the Budget for the coming fiscal year
in accordance with that of the present year. I shall
change nothing in the fundamental jx>licy which I followed
in my previous administrations. It is unnecessary to
say that the application of that policy may vary as
circumstances require. For example to-day it is par-
ticularly necessary to keep a balance between revenue
and expenditure, to harmonize government finance with
public economy, and to strengthen our financial and
economic bases." It might almost be imagined that the
Prince had forgotten that these were the very problems
which had taken him back to office in 1908.

Mr. Midzumachi, Vice-President of the Bank of Japan,
was the author of a typical conlcur dc rose report during
1912, and displayed considerable courage in setting him-
self against the whole current of commercial and public
opinion at that time. His statements were so typically
bureaucratic that a few may be quoted with advantage.
' The rate of the advance of Japan's trade is far
ahead of that of any other country. The pessimism
with regard to our trade is because it has not advanced
as rapidly during recent years as during the seven years
after the China war, when it doubled itself. The opinion
that our export trade is handicapped by the high prices
of commodities is wrong, for the rise in prices of export
goods has not been as high as in either Paris or Hamburg.
Neither is the statement correct that it is due to the
burden of taxation, for Japan's burden of taxation, 10-
12 per cent, of the national income, is less than that of
either Italy or Spain, and in the neighbourhood of the
burden in France and Russia. Vet Italy, France, and
Russia are all expanding their, trade, It is true that

226 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

prices in Japan arc- much higher than in England or
America, but tin's is due to the faulty methods of distri-
bution, not to taxation."

It is rather a pity that otticials do not a.^rce on their
figures before s|x.-akin^. because Mr. Mid/umachi's prc-
decessor, Mr. NV.ikat^iki, made the burden of taxation
24 per cent, for national taxes and }o JHT cent, for
national and local taxes, and on another occasion 35 JKT
cent., whilst unofficial economists as l)r. Honda have
made it a-> hij^h as 42 JMT tent.

1 will leave the otii< ial eulogists, repeating that their
statements often retjuire a ;^ood deal of salt.

It i-> fair to add that the end of 1014 saw a very
substantial reduction in the debt, no less than \'38, 709,458
having been wiped out. .A tu.dly <>.S,ooo.ooo yen was
redeemed during the \ear 1^14- 15. whiM new loans
totalling 2v,ooo.ooo \eii were i-Mied.

At the be^innin;^ ol this i hapter, written before the
result.^ for the lineal \ear 1^14-15 were available, I
said that I did not think that Japan would ever ^o
bankrupt. The ie-ult^ only ^tren^ihrn ih.it \iew. li
the authorities will direi t their ener^ie^ to the development
of the productive power- ot the country, economi/i 1 on
the military and naval programme-, and insist on the
strictest a< n<> n u-on uhy Japanese
tinaiH e^ should not be plaeed on a sound louiulaiion.
'I lie war, strange ;^ it may apjiear, uill x lv '' Mrr '"
ex< client op[>ortun!ty. M.irket^ uill U- available to her
which '-he has never betore been able to enter, her
shipping <'an extend it-, held at renmnei'aii\ < rales, her
exj^itt^ will automatically CM eed her inipoit^, and that
>tav of th-- weak-kiieeil. tin- tun i:;ii money market, will
not be so available a > bi-fore. In addition --he will
ha'v tie h li'-ld- in SliantUIU;, and \\lll le el\e lai;^e
-urn-, in return for the arm-, with \\hnh -he i, fuim^hin^
her alii' . All ol thcM- in um-tan< e - loim a lavourable
conuiu tion lor the str'-n;;thenin:; ol h'-r hnarn ial ba-es.

CIIAPTKR FIVE
FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE

PART II

WHATEVER may be the differences between official esti-
mates as to the burden of taxation, there can be no doubt
whatever that the country is seriously overtaxed. There
would be also little dispute of the statement that she is
badly taxed in regard to quality as well as quantity,
if taxes can be said to have any quality or quantity.

The vast expenses of the Russo-Japanese war and
the heavy post-bellum programme necessitated the dis-
covery of new sources of revenue, and it would now be
difficult, in a moment of crisis, for die authorities to find
any new subject for imposition unless, indeed, a duty
were charged on births and deaths, which have been
described as the only moments when a Japanese is not
taxed. As the Malthusian doctrine is unpopular and
the race prolific, a fair addition to revenue might well
be obtained.

According to the estimates 1913-14, the taxes account
for 336,000,000, or 0*63 of the ordinary revenue, and
0-56 of the total revenue. Since 1903-4, the year before
the war, the proceeds of taxation have increased 230
per cent., and since 1 1)06-7, tnc year after the war,
19 per cent., according to the estimates, and 27 per
cent, according to the settled accounts. .WJiilst a certain
increase is due to the normal development of the country,
by far the larger jxjrtion is due to the increased levies.
The reader will observe, if he looks down the schedule,
that there ar.e only three considerable sources of revenue

228 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

--taxes, stamps, and government undertakings. Practi-
cally all the re>t is book-keeping and borrowing.

In I'; i 2. when the economic di-tress was very severe,
Count Okuma ]H-r-onally condin ted an examination into
the conditions of the poorer elates in Tokyo, and came
to the conclusion that the a', erauv income of the Tokyo
labourer's family was YiS4 per annum, on a Calculated
family ot five heads. That works out at a fraction
less than \'4o '^41 per annum per capita. Deducting
^5 j>er cent, of this income for taxes, and each per>on
;<eta \2 f > to k<-ep himselt for a twelvemonth. It is not
to be wondered at that the slum quarters of Tokyo exceed
in squalor, po\i.-rty. and de-pair the -him- of any Furopcan
city. 'I he increase, ot crime during recent years has
been dire tlv trace. i!i]e to the increase in tin- cost of
living, whit h has been aln,o-t eii'irely due to the financial
[x)hcy of the eovcrr.ment . Feel once defined a Finance
Minister's duty a- " to mak (> the country a clieap country
to live in." In tin- th Janane-c auihoiities have toni-
p'et'T/ and i^nominiouslv tailed, and ( iladstone's reflec-
tion- on another l-'i':ance Minister'.- action- apply equally
to them : "All rxi i>s in jiu!>lic expenditure. be\ond the

legitimate want- of 'h untry, i- no; only pecuniar)-

waste, but a ;.;reat [i!ri',d and a urea' moral evil."
Takini; the p; ! < ot i >;oo a- loo. the index pm es
ro-e bv I H 2 as follow.- :

I ; ; ( .,:;.-!! ^' .: I, ,

.' -j ( itt,.!l I.J.I I,

.]! S.'ui tin: 1

I'/'

1 h.it a ii" 1:1 'h" < o t ot iivin.; i\- > ;:,i
;n \v.ij.;<:s l -. ob\;ou-, and |.ipin- l.ibouii-i
.1 very i on>ider.tb!" ,ci.;::i' -ntation. aver.i n:;.; liom .} ^
to 55 j; ( :r e- :.t . lh" im !' .1 in \\a;;e ua -. h' iu<-\ er, not
equivalent to tlie n .< in \y >'<' ^" r u -' ll 1:i proportion

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKKCK 229

to the increase- in taxation. The unrest in Japan was
very deep, as the large number of strikes clearly indicated,
and this number would have been further increased but
for the official view that strikes savour of Socialism which
is anathema to the bureaucrats.

It is no easy matter for a Minister to finance a National
Debt such as that which Japan has incurred, and it is
practically impossible for him to enforce, even if IK;
could devise a programme which should distribute the
burden evenly. It is very difficult for foreigners to
realize the forces in opposition to a liberal financial
scheme. A Minister of Finance, on entering office after
the war, had to find an enormous annual sum, and on
looking round for sources of revenue, had to strike- out
many of the most suitable for fear of offending influential
persons or damaging veiled interc-ts. He was obliged
to adopt the most expensive method-^ of taxation, namely
the indirect, because he wanted to make his impositions
as little obvious and as painless as possible to the payer.
It was for this reason that the heavy tariff, the transit tax,
the monopolies and other obnoxious out ill-defined burdens
were levied. If I take a railway ticket from Tokyo to
Yokohama, I do not worry thai 5 per cent, of the fare-
is going into the government's pocket. I have got to
pay the fare in order to get to Yokohama, and the ultimate
destination of my cash is of no importance. Equally I
spend 30 sen per diem in tramcar tickets, and six of
those go to the government. My coachman receives
Y2O per mensen, on which he has to keep a wife, a
sister, and two children, and pay Y5 per mensen to his
employer. On the food for himself and family he has
to pay Yr85 per month in duty. He spends 36 sen
a week on tobacco for himself and his women, which
is exactly double what the same quantity of better quality
tobacco cost in ioo'>. His kimonos cost him 45 per
cent, more than in loo", and 50 per cent, of the increase
goes to the government in duty on raw material, in
the consumption tax on textiles, and in the business tax
on manufacturers and dealers. The average increase

230 J A P A N AT T H K C R OSS R( ) A I >S

in my coachman's cost of living since igoo was over
loo per cent., and his waives had gone up only 40 per
cent. Before I went out to Japan the Chief Accountant,
basing his estimate on the figures of 1003, informed me
that I could engage a good translator at \'2o per month.
The lowest figure for an unqualified man was \"45, and
eventually I had to pay from Yoo to V75-

It is not difficult to diagnose the causes of this in-
crease in the cost of living. The burden and system of
taxation are mostly responsible. Indirect taxation is
expensive, inequitable, and conducive to evasion. In
indirect taxation the burden of proof is on the government,
and necessitates an army of officials to as-ess and collect
duties. Hut its greatest claim to expensiveness is in
the check it imj>o^es on manufacturers. Sixty per cent,
of the customs duties are collected on raw material, and
therefore manufacturers are penali/ed with those duties
before they can commence operations. When in addition
foodstuffs are taxed for the benefit of the agriculturists,
a further imposition is placed on industry, because wages
are based on the cost of food. As if tin- were not enough,
a consumption tax of 10 JMT cent, ad valorem is placed
on the goods before they leave the warehouses,' \\ t;ix
of 12 10,000 is i harged on whole-ale distributors, and
//> 10,000 on the retailer, in addition to a rental duty
of <) per cent, on premises, and a YJ poll tax on every
employe. When all this has he; n aliowed for income
tax, varying from 4 to i } per cent, is charged on the
profit^. All this succession of imports eventually lands
on the shoulders of tin- man in tin- street. There is no
form of indire. t taxation yet devi--d which die-> not
in the end get paid by the consumer, and Japan is no
ex< ept ion .

It is an an< i'-nt saying that what is the government's
bu mess is nobody's care. In |,ipan, as elsi-\vln-re, to
evade the ia\ ( ollector \ -. .1 meritorious a'lion. and the
naive stat'-rii' i.t m ide b\ Japanese ofti^ial. in London
th.it the native , like to p tv taxes, and voluntai ily do so

1 1 fXtllf )',' '0(lv

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 231

without hint or sway, delightfully pictures things as they
should be, but not as they arc.

Direct taxes count for very little in the fiscal scheme.
The land tax, the income tax, and the business tax arc the
three most important, and it is in connection with the
last two that there is most complaint. There has been,
during recent years, a readjustment of the income tax,
and a raising of the untaxable income to 400 per
annum. Those most severely hit by it are the professional
middle classes, whose incomes, ranging from Yi,ooo to
5,000 per annum, are taxed from 3' to 7 per cent.

There is no doubt that the big fish escape from the
tax net, owing to the extraordinary system of feudal
patronage. The Osaka ASY////, in 1912. ransacked tin-
tax books and registries with a view to finding out who
were the richest men in the kingdom, and the investigations
revealed that there were 501 millionaires in yen in Japan,
and 24 millionaires in sterling. A very simple calcu-
lation, based on the minimum figures, put the income
tax due from millionaires at 8, 700,000. If it were
assumed that this amount really was collected from these
501 millionaires, then they were paying 25 per cent, of
the total income tax of the country, which certainly
appears to be unreasonable. This led to further in-
vestigations by the press sleuths, and the publication
of the income-tax payments of some of the most promi-
nent men in the country. Princes, marquises, and counts,
the registered proprietors of millions were found to be
paying paltry sums of from 50 to 500 as their con-
tribution to the Exchequer. One revered Elder States-
man, whose financial genius is universally acknowledged,
and who has made himself and his sons very rich men,
returned 350. As the press took very good care to
point out, what was wanted was not so much a readjust-
ment of the income tax as a strict enforcement of its
terms on the upper classes. But how difficult such an
enforcement is in a country "where official advancement
is mostly due to patronage and rarely due to merit !

If the burden of taxation and its methods is a principal

232 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

cause of the economic crisis the laxity of official account-
ancy is a contributory cause. If the history of Kraft
in the Meiji Era could be written, I think that the
world would stand aghast at its magnitude. It is the
most extraordinary paradox in Japanese affairs that a
nation, which is capable of the marvellous devotion and
self-sacrifice which the Japanese have shown at various
crises of their history, should be so oblivious to any regard
for honesty in dealing with public funds. Throughout
the Far Kast ' squeeze ' is a part of every transaction.
In China this has been so much the case that the late
Count Haya-hi devoted a considerable portion of his
Memoirs to a consideration <>f the question, and came
to the conclusion that commissions in China must be
regarded not as illegitimate and immoral, but as a regu-
larized addition to salary. Chinese <itli< ials were so poorly
paid that perquisites were a recognized medium for in-
creasing th'-ir ap{>ointrnents. Although the Count
acknowledged the commission habit to be a custom of
the neighbouring country, he could not take the same
view of similar practices in Japan. Nevertheless, he
was quite auarc of th" prevalence ot the habit in his
own country, and fcan-d unhappy consequences from it.
It is very dini' ult to t s'imate to what extent a sj m ilar
view f the prevalence of graft in Japan should be
taken. The idea that publi funds a f e h"ld and expended
Tinder tru-t for th" nation is comparatively new. I'ubhc
funds were originally r -gardcd as lair g;une for oi'iiciaU.
and th" higher th'- rank of the oiti ial the lugger the
[Miking;-, he might anticipate from his tenure of otnce.
J*ut even if in the earl;/ day- of M.-i|i commission \\.n-
a more or !<--> ret ogni/e 1 addition to salary, -\\< }\ a
view (ould no; po i'.l', hold once a f<uiu of parliamentary
g'o\ernm-nt had b- en initiated and the national accounts
wen- MibmiHe 1 for th- approval of a national a embly.

If glalt \'.a- till 1" be the pepjlli-ite of :,ite Ilien It
\'.o',l!'l be lllljio l'>\'- to iha'A Up c-MlUte., jieiaUsr t||e

relation of tip- tun. I- to ;h-ir purpose, \\oaid \ai\ in
a< ' oi' laip with ill'- app<t;te ol the olir ia! ' io;j(eind.

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKKCK 233

Recent disclosures have for sonic reason given the out-
side world a shock, and then: is a distinct tendency to
believe that Japan is degenerating. There is really no
reason for such a belief, which is in reality a reaction
due to the fictitious level to which the Japanese character
has been boomed by the activities of the Press Bureau.
If the world is constantly having it dinned into its ears
that Japan is an earthly paradise: where patriotism,
honesty, and bravery an: rampant and vice is unknown,
then, when the world hears of some unsavoury scandal,
it jumps to the conclusion that the barriers of virtue have-
been broken down, and that wickedness is at last obtain-
ing a hardly won entry. Now graft is no more a new
crime in Japan than in England, where an awakened
conscience has coined a new name for an old offence.
It is as sure that graft was known in the days of the
Old Testament as that justice was bought and sold in
the days of Queen Bess. That Hiram, King of Tyre,
got a rake-off on the cedar logs of Lebanon is as prob-
able as that Francis Bacon received ^40,000 from the
Goldsmiths Company. Japan has been no different from
other countries. Before the grant of the Constitution the
administration, oligarchic and uncontrolled, asserted to
itself the right of saying who should and who should not
be privileged to supply the nation's wants, and its de-
cisions in most cases were regulated solely according
to the percentage which the contractors were willing to
put into the pockets of the officials. Since the Consti-
tution matters have gone a little further, for Japan has
adopted, with ,\V/estern improvements, also that organi/ed
intimacy between privileged business and politics which
is so prominent a canker in modern civilization. The
subjection of the legislation to private rather than to
public interests is the outstanding feature of Japanese
politics. This, added to the' improper relations existing
between the administration and the markers has created
a feeling of pessimism and hopelessness, which would
predicate badly for the future, if it \\vre not that below
the surface there are unmistakable signs of an awakening

234 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

sense of responsibility. The tendency of the clay towards
internal affairs is to demand and to obtain facts. Con-
vention, though still strong", is becoming less and less
a binder on the truth.

If a Minister of State is a grafter and a thief his
position is no longer recognized as a reason for condoning
his offences. The public money is the money of the
people, paid for certain definite purposes, of which the
lining of offirial pockets is not one. It is a criminal
offence to steal that money, and it is equally a crime
to knowingly permit such theft.

The great fortunes of Japan can be grouped under
thre" heads the honest, the near-hone-t, and the frankly
di-hone>t. Among the first come the great landowners
and feudal chiefs, whose vast hereditary domains are
the ba-is of tin ir wealth. With them, too, may be
ret koned tho>e iiienhant princes \vhoM- fortunes ha\e
been amassed by labour and sagacity, by the exploita-
tion of the resources of the country, by the import of
raw materials and by manufactures. ( )f the near-honest
are tli'is-- fmanc'er-. uho-e bank accounts have Ix'en
created by treading the Ixnmdaries of the law, by water-
ing stoek, by bulling and bearing the markets through
their connection with officials, and by their manipulation
of scMin'ie-, and their operations on the exchanges.
Amongst ihe-e are many who-e fortunes are due to e\-
( es-'ive tatiii pio'ec'-on ?oo often pa^-ed (id /i<>c, or
to a parru'ar skill in m-lking the 'I'n-a-ury of -ub-idies.
Among-,! the third (lass are iho-e contractor^ and ofticials
who-e balance-^ ha\'e depended ^-oleK on favours received
and given, wh'>>e bri'x -. have [irocured orders, and \\ho~.e
order- have been exi hanged for bribes. 1'he-e owe then-
rank and Banding -imply and ^olely to money fiN hed
from the ]i'o].!e', poi krts or sloinachs, and, 'unou^-ly
enough, the-, <l;-j)'a\ an ingenumi- prid<- in the -limne^
of ih'-ir dealing. < 'I tin < la th--re has been an in< reading
devlofirn-nt uith th-- \e,n-. It mu-t be admi't-'d that
ill'- steadier head, of the louniry are iho-e now in the
g'ra\c or JM -ing into retirement, worn out by the nervous

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND ( OMMKKCK 235

energy of creating a new land. The younger generation
arc too often amiably incapable or incipiently degenerate.
The struggle to live is far more severe, and money is
to them the only means of comfort, let alone luxury.
That matters will right themselves in the end I do not
doubt, but it cannot be denied that the lack of a national
tradition must severely handicap a country which has
at a bound reached from obscure media-valism to up-
to-date modernity. The self-reliance which follows a
struggle for existence is lacking, and self-conceit is but
a [X)or substitute. A nation \vhose Magna Charta is a
birthday present can only reali/e. with difficulty the mean-
ing and responsibilities of freedom. A sudden transition
from Lockhart's counter to the Kit/ Hotel would upset
the steadiest stomach. A people which jumps from the
fifteenth to the nineteenth century must miss the prefatory
but most necessary developments of the intervening ages.
Undoubtedly corruption is rife throughout the country ;
officials, manufacturers, merchants are mostly grafters,
not by nature but by the sequence or lack of sequence
of events. I believe that this condition is due not so
much to immorality as to immorality. Just as the political
system is rotten because* of the lack of education in
things political, so lack of education is to a great extent
the cause of trade and financial immorality. Education
is not an end in itself. It is a means to acquire wisdom
and judgment. It is these latter which are so much
wanted in Japan now.

The absolute disregard of the sanctity of public funds
has been exemplified so otten during recent years that
I do not propose to otter many proofs. The Dai Nippon
Sugar Scandal was an illuminating example of the con-
nection between politics and bu-iness, and proved clearly
enough that Members ot Parliament were as willing to
sell their own votes as they were to buy those of their
constituents. 1

The Imperial Household Scandal of I > n 4 was par-
ticularly noteworthy, inasmuch as it proved that even
1 Uchara, The Political Development of J.i^in.

236 JAPAN AT TI1F CROSS ROADS

the propinquity of the sovereign and tin- semi -divine
surroundings of tin- palace were no defence against the
malversations of officials or tin- intrigues of contractors.
The full details of the scandal never came to light,
as it was not considered proper to humiliate by a public
trial, an otii i il >o ni-ar ih-- monarch as the Minister
of the Household. The alleged facts of tiie case were that
the Minister of the Ilou-ehold, Count \\"atanabe, and
the rx-Minister, fount T.maka, were charged with ha\ in:;
received a commission over the sale of the Suma Imperial
Palace, which had been purchased at an exorbitant price
on behalf of the Imperial Ilou-ehold. There were other
charges in connection with contracts for work at the
Imperial Palaces. On the day of the d-ath of the
Empress -Do wager, the Kmpcror and Empress left Tokyo
hurriedly for the death-bed at Numad/u. Before leaving
a council was hurriedly held at the Chiyoda P.ilace at
four (/clock in the morning, and Count \Vatanahe resigned
his office and went inkyo (into perpetual retirement i.
resigning the headship of his family. Ins orders and
decorations. He subsequently attempted to commit
suicide;. Similar action followed by hi> predecessor, \\jth
regard to whom the amu-ing point was that he had
only a year prwiou ly obtained damages against an ( ) -aka
newspaper, whi-'h had accused him of graft.

The Naval Scaudal ol i <; i 4 proud the connection
between < ontractors and govcrinii'-nt oliiciaN. and demon
strated only too p!a:nl\ th" Tiiana -T in uhi'h orders are
obtained by dire t b; i!>er\' .

'I hat ^ratt r- a commonplace may !> gathered from
the ca-ual mann-r m win- h it i^ di>< n-sed. Bai^-n dot.i.
in an a< conn! ol ih-- .idoptio'i of the catn;hor monojmlv
in I'ormo-a, desi ijiie-, th<- ( omj.e; ition of tin- MM in and
Yokohama iitm . an<! how the fnii--r of Me T.. Sami:el
Samuel \" < o. UM . a i p'ed. I hen, lie - a \ - : "1 \\as
aicu-ed of ha\in.; it('-i\ed oni'tiipig fiom Me-Ms.
/ani'iel Sam 1 :'! Jv ' "o , a:id to ha\e .dio\\ed thi- Inm
t ( > up a ;ii' e ou|',' a :h'- a\mg 1-. But thi> \\ a -.
no l r. all , the < a e ! " A; ;ai!:, la onilm t ion \\ ;ih the

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 237

introduction of the salt monopoly, " I was accused of
having associated with Oguri, appointed the sole agent
for the sale of Formosan salt, with dishonest motives,
but it was not so, and ( )guri was, I believe, almost
reduced to bankruptcy before the appointment became
valuable."

In these reminiscences Baron Goto tells a quite amusing
story oi administrative methods. Before the final de-
rision to introduce the salt monopoly was made the
late General Kodama, the. Governor-General of Formosa,
called a meeting of all the high officials of the Govern-
ment-General to hear their opinions. Kodama addressed
the meeting as follows : " I have invited you here to-
day to ask your views on the important question which
the Administration has been considering, namely, the
introduction of the salt monopoly into the island. As,
however, this proposal is one of the greatest importance,
it is of no value to debate; it, and I therefore, by the
powers vested in me, declare the proposal accepted with-
out opposition. The meeting is dissolved. Good morn-
ing ! " The Baron related that the officials were not
annoyed at the arbitrary action of the Governor-General,
but were extremely irritated at having to turn out in
the heat of the day for a meeting which had no puq>ose.

Anybody who turns over the Japan papers will find
abundant evidence of the irregularities in the semi-official
and other financial institutions. The case of the Credit
Mobilier in 1912 and 1913 forms an adequate example.
1 have; already referred to the money lost by this bank
in the bogus gold-mine at Ilasami, during the Russian
War. The bank also held a large quantity of the 4
per cent. Comer-ion Bonds, issued by Prince Katsura
in 1910. These bonds had been issued at 95, and the
syndicated banks undertook not to sell them at less
than the issue price during a conventional period termi-
nating in 1912. By that time the market price of
the lx)nds had fallen to .Sj, and dropped a further three
points on the dissolution of the syndicate, so that on
about Y2O,ooo,ooo face value, the bank dropped some-

238 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

where round V 3,000.000, making 1 a loss on gold-mines
and bonds of over V 6, 000,000.

'Hie non-discovery of the loss was due to the issue of
a false bahuice sheet by the directors. Obviously the
correct thing' to do was to appropriate the reserve
(V 1, 40 l,ooo) to pay the loss, and write off capital for
the rest. No ! Such a proceeding would have meant
a loss of face, and as it W.LS a semi-official institution, the
government would have lost face. So the government
changed the Directors, but even then did not give them
a free hand. Mr. Shidachi, the new President, wished
to appropriate profits until tlie loss was recovered, even
if it meant some years without a dividend. The Finance
Department vetoed this scheme, formed another syndicate
to lend the Credit Mobilier a sum of VS. 000,000 at low-
interest, and limited the dividend to 5 per cent. JKT
;umum until such time as the losses were written off.'

The Kitahama Hank Affair, with a ls of YS, 000,000,
is another failure which is closely connected with official
finance, and the 4 per rent. Com ei>ioii Hoiuls.- Inspec-
tion of banking institutions is a very proper measure,
but undue intimacy Ix-tuvcn the government and the
credit organs can only be severely re-probated. In Japan
the government have < reated a (ham of banks in the
closest touch with itself fni" the sole purposes of absorbing 1
official paper and importing foreign money. It is inter-
'stmg to note that Prince KatMira in i <; 1 4 intended to
appoint the Pre>id-nt of this bank to be President of
the Hank of japan.

< )ne of the mo^t amusing' instances of high finance
vJii' li I < anie across \\.is \\heii one of the [>io\i!uial

1 The Mmi-.trr of JtMirr, I h , < )kiid.i, in .uiNwn ti > .1 <|ur>'i< -M in the
I );i t dii J. i : ni.it v .''). 1 1) i }, ^.ud the I Mi i IT . i , !i. id lu-i MI s^mlt v i >t i-- iiinij
.1 i i .i'.;i lull :it I'.il.HH.c -!:< d , 1 'ut thm pi i ' culi< !) \vi>nM h.ivr < .iii-^cd

: DC' 'IT. r!:lrln_ c, .1 Mj'lv \V ! ;li!l I:;' .11: i pllllf. 1 on J.iliu.lIV ', 1 >t t'\ .i\!|p.;

l!:.it p; it hern i;:ult i I .ii,( n !><.. iu c ot tin .tdviiM-

l.'ili'.HMI' i: t!u; )>:. cxu!l"!l i-l Mii.il lllljll iitllCl.ll, Wolilil il.tvr III

< (.' -n :nu: i in !> .

' Ii;i- I'n i'l' ;;t .iM'i .ill !lic li-.i'Iin; 1 , i'flici:N i 'f this l).uik were
<ur-.ti(l in i<>i.| "ii ch.ni'.t-, if fi.iud .iiul t :n!n v/lc UK lit.

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 239

semi-official banks wanted to issue delx-ntures in London.
The representative of the English group went down to
investigate the projxjsal, and found tlie hooks in apparently
good order. He inquired as to the location of the reserve
fund of over a million yen, and was informed that it was
invested at X JXT cent, interest.

Further inquiry revealed that it had been lent to tin-
son of the President, who had given as security a //as/ obit
on his father's life 1

The following table gives the progress of Japanese
trade between 1903 and 1913.

Yen Yen

Imports ............... 317.1.0.51* 7 2l M3i.<M4

IVi capita ...... 6.79 I 3-77

Kxports ............... ^9,51)2,4 2 2 632,460, iS^

I'cr capita ...... 0. 19 1 1.1)4

Total .................. 6o6/>37,9cx^ 1,361,891,857

I'cr capita ...... 12.98 25.71

The future of Japanese industry and commerce is one
of the most interesting' problems at present before the
world, and it must be admitted that it has given rise
to considerable disquietude in foreign circles. Japanese
ambition is to obtain commercial predominance in the
East, and if, in doing so, she can capture a slice of
the trade of the West all the better. Against this ambition
no objection whatsoever can be raised ; it is a legiti-
mate aspiration, and a good portent of the virility of
the nation. How far Japan has advanced towards her
goal may be; gathered in part from the table on
page 240.

Japan has, therefore, in ten years developed her Asiatic
exports two and a half limes. In the >ame period her
exports to Europe have doubled, whilst those to America
are two and a third times as great. There can be no
denying the enormous progress which must have been
made in Japan itself to produce such results. That
imports h?vc more" than doubled -luring the same- period

2 4 o JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

is a necessary corollary, for Japan has but few natural
sources of wealth, and lack of raw material i-> one of
the handicaps to industrial advancement.

KXPOKTS TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES

ic/>3 ic;i3

Yen Yen

Hi.niiLuii^ ............... 2c>.724/<>4 33/'-'- ( '7- s

Hiiti-h India ............ S.oSoj.j* 2^73,414

K<TC.I ..................... 1 1,701 ,.}<>4 4o,42>,c>55

Straits Settlements ... 7.10.^.701 10,141.55.^

Asiatic Ru.s-ia ......... 2.2V),<;^7 4,271.413

French Indo China ... i'>7-775 i- () Svi<M

I)utcii Indies ......... i)U..jn; 5.i.}'V>No

Philippines ............ I / l 75-5i<j ''i- iS 3o5

JJefore c-on^idrrin:; the method^ by which Japan's com-
mercial rxpan-ion ha-> been achieved it will l>e advisable
slujrtly to consider the n-Ialion-, with her three principal
markets, Aiii'-ii* a, China, and C.reat Britain.

As I havi: jMjintrd out in the chapter on Foreii^n
I'ohcy, th<- poliii* al rclatujns bet\vcm America and Japan
have be n at ten-ion lor >orne years. Although there
have bren moments m tlir p.i-t when the belli' i^e clans
mi^ht lia\'e \\i-lied to try their lu< k in the lit Id, tlu-re
is no r< a-on to b-li'-ve that tlu-re is a general feeling
in Japan towards war. That tin-re is a strong under-
< uncut a;'a!ii-t Anirina is v<-ry true, and this cjlten
^weil^ to ihr<-at'-nin.;' limi:-, but no statr-man in his SLUM'S
(ould dr-am ol \\ar, lor Anii-riia di>li:ictl\ hohN the
uhip hand. At pre-'-nt, and fii many \ears to come.
that country is and \\iil b-- Japan's mo-t important trade
ionne't:on. Two ol Japan'- mo-t impoit.mt indu -tries
ai- jua ti'ail', jiionoj > >] \/> \ \>\ the American maik't, and
OIK- oi t!i- m i- a luxury, !'*r whi' h the demand \\ould
j;ieat!v diiiiini !i m urn-- ol -trc---, fapan liij>- annually
to Amelia two-third ^ ol h--r raw --ilk and lour-lilthb

' I;.ir;d:n;' Kw.iatlllii' I'l'VKin- .

F1NANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 24 1

of her tea crop, which, with other items, make a total
of one hundred and eighty million yen per annum. \Var
with America would throw idle halt a million ^i!k weavers,
would ruin hundreds of thousands of sericulturists and
tea-j)lanters. ( )n the other side of the account al-o
Japan would stiller, not America. .America ship-, to Japan
every year goods to the value of Y i 2 5,000,000, of whi< h
raw cotton represent-, sixty-four millions, or 25 per cent,
of the- total import, ra'her more man halt' of the petroleum
import, and nearly hall ol the imports ot machinery
and metal manufacture'-. It would not he exaggerating
to say that stoppage of trade with America would spell
ruin for Japan.

As regards China, the total imports are ninety-two
million yen (including Kwantung Province, which, though
Japanese terriiory, is commercially only a -hipping di->-
irict for Manchuria). The export-; to China arc one
hundred and eighty-live million yen, or double the- im-
jx)rts. China is becoming Japan's greatest market, and
from her Japan draws great quantities of raw material.
In geographical propinquity no country is better situated
than Japan to exploit the China market. In many other
ways Japan possesses advantages no other nation can
boast, but it remains to be. seen to what extent she, has
discounted those advantages by an aggre-sive diplomacy.
Politically, without doubt, Japan i > hated in and by
China, but that will in no way ailect her determination
to achieve predominance in that country. '1 he late Mr.
Mid/uno, Councillor of Legation at IVkin, in the only
conversation 1 had with bun, laid great stress on tin:
commercial ambitions o! Japan in China, but ho ?ul-
mitted that tho.e ambitions could only be ruhilled by a
break "with (In at !>:i:ain, h-T ally. i remember quite
well his comical smile as he said : "It we become pre-
dominant in the Yang-t-e, we will be so unpopular in
London." Japan regards (iivat IJritain as a political
and not as a commercial ally. It they can cut our
mercantile throat i.i China, they will do \\ wi:h th_- greater
pleasure and pride.

242 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

Great Britain and her colonies still remain a most
important factor in Japanese commercial development.

Exports and imports between Japan and territories under
the Union Jack are :

Kxportb Imp.'it".

Yen Ym

Hongkong 33 ,02 1,07* i, :>>.;. 7}'i

Straits Settlements ... io,i.p,:;vS 5,20^,01.4

(ireat Britain 3-,^*>/>57 i--,7V>.*7 ( >

British America ^.oi^o.oiS i,Sv;.4^'

Australia ^'>37. ( >7-4 M.'H.v '4.S

Cape Colony 474-''-5 45o<>5

Kjiypt 1.37'. "2 7.43.">5

British India 2()>73,4i4 17 vi7;,,.soi

Yi 22. 3 1 0.33'. Y; > jf..; v si,<,55

The whole of the imports from British India consist
of raw cotton, rice, ll.tx, and oil-take. K^ypt supplies
raw cotton, Australia wool and live-stock, the Straits
rubber and tin, and (ireat Brit. tin wool, iron, rails, steel,
machinery, ships, and Manchester t^ood-. Japan sends
rice and tea to Canada, T7iarine products, coal, cotton
goods, fibres, and matches to Ilon^kon--, camphor, silks,
cotton iMods, and coal to India, copper. sj!k habutai,
and {M>ri clam to (ircat Britain. If e\cr a country was
dependent on the An^lo-Saxon rai'o for e\i-ten(<- Japan
is. If .America and (ireat Britain \\cre to break oil
commercial relation- with lapan that country \\ould be
(oiuerted almo-t instantaneou \\~ into a hu^e \\oikhou-e.
And this not only from the rea-.on that they are lar^e
<u-toinei>, but from the t,n-i thai thev <on;:-ol the -ources
of r.iw material 0:1 whi h fapan-'-e indu-trv i- bmh ii]>.
\\'h'-r (i would < ) -aka be u ithoui tli-- < ot;< >n of Am-i K a and
India and Br.idtoid ai.d Australian \\ool ? II<-would the
M it'ii Bi-hi. tlr- Kawa-aki. or th-- nuni'ioti^ en. i::ee["m^
-hop- of Ko'ie. Moji. and rl.s. u here exist uitlio-;; the im-
ports from <i!'.i' B:i'ai:i and Ani-riia? A I; d \'.h n- \\ould
Jaj'ane nidi: try be to day uithou: Bnti h a; ii.ilV That
i. the mo,t paiadoxi- il t all thin.;- in th-- lar I.a-(.
\V|i- are. leiidin;; Japan money at from .} '. to ,S per

'FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 243

cent, interest, to drive our own trade out of China and
India. At the end of the present war one of the problems
to be fared will !* whether we can continue such a
jxjlicy. In saying this I do not deny that this policy
lias been profitable to us in the extreme in the past,
but the war is going to alter many things, and not
least of all the terrific financing which it necessitates
will result, and has already resulted, in the liquidation
of many foreign investments, and a < on-cquent decrease
in the invisible income of the country.

The " Yellow Peril " is a favourite theme for political
writers, and to a certain extent it is capable of fulfilment.
It may, however, be conveniently divided under two heads,
jx>litical and commercial, and it is the latter with which
we are concerned in this chapter. The advancement
of Japanese trade in China gave rise to a feeling of
trepidation amongst European thinkers that Western
commerce was fated to be expelled from China by
Japanese competition. It is to be admitted that there
were superficial reasons for that belief. I do not think,
however, that at present, at any rate, the reasons are
more than superficial. Equally I do not believe that
Japan normally can be a commercial rival of unusual
strength. Fifteen or twenty years ago if Japan had
devoted herself to commercial expansion, and eschewed
political aggression, things might have been very different.
Japanese commerce would have developed much faster
than it has done, and she would have retained all the
immense advantages of cheap labour which she then
possessed. Cheap money, cheap labour, and a ready-
made market would have enabled her to rise in an extra-
ordinarily short time to be the commercial autocrat of
the Far East.

The most dangerous point about Japanese competition
is its official character, a point which' our supermen in
Downing Street, studying affairs in the intervals of dozing,
rarely get sufficiently far with their reading to realize.
British trade is not only up against Japanese trade, but
also against the Japanese Government and the whole

244 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

Japanese nation. If 1 dare to critici/e Briti-h officialdom
in its relation f> trade, it is because I have had twelve
years' ex{>eri(/nce of it in various part- of the world.
and have had innumerable example- of its cra-s ignor-
ance and brutal stupidity in all that appertains t<> com-
merce anil industry. A- 1 write I have a letter before
me from a British Coiisul-( ii-ncral, -in< e retired, in which
he says : " For year- I \vept bitterness over the ways
of I )o\vnin;^ Street, but now 1 nvo^ni/e the trirdi. Ilon-'iir
thy Consul -(iciicral and the Hoard of Trade, and \\hen
thy day come-, thoii -halt be a- lit a recipient of a
decoration and a- ta-ty enough a mor--l for the worm-.
as any." Japanese individuals an<l ja| ane-e eorporation^
are only the outward and vi>i!>l<' >ix"n-> <f the eft'oru of
the State to or^ani/e and control all commerce and
indu-try in the Kar Ma>t.

It can be .-aid, with ab-olute truth, that not a -ilk-
worm is fed, not a -hovel i-> di^ed. not a -[)ind!e re-
volved. or a -!;!;i load ! without th" e\rl:i it care and
advic'- of the Tok\'o authorities, jt money is reijiiired
on ea-y tenn> for for.-i^n tra !. the \"okohama Speeie
I'.ank lias a -j)--- ial fund trom ;h ;.'o\crnment (Or this
jiurpo-e. It >hij)s are recjuired to compete with her
alh- -. th ;,o\ , rn:::ent -ub-idi'e- iheir buildi:,:; and
runmi:;^". If a IK w :ndu ti\ i- to be -;a't'd. 'he i;o\ern-
ni'-ri! \\'i!I ,^i\'e a ^:ant-ii:-aid and penal;/'- \r> i ;:i com-
petitor-. It expotti fall i.eloU' -ample, \\\<- aUlho-'iHe,
impo- an in ])< i.on >' h'-ine. It manuka- turei - \\.mt to
u-'- trad-- -ei ret- from abroad, ^./vernnn-nt student- are
-<-nt to 1- arn t!:e!n. Tli" Im'-rial HOP. eh.i!-' iak<-- an

a- ti\-- ntere t n ,-, .mnj.-j, .a

h.i'vhold'-r 1:1 ma:r. oi t:, m >,; i
lap. i': . I h iv-- a':tl.< >: iiy '< >r ta'i
inv-- -tin- n' i:: i'ldu t ;al an- ! . >JM:C
(C-'d three a;:d a h i!f midi-.n

I h- 1 xtent ' it ,- rverm.M' :.t : ? .'e: te
' online: i i i i j':i'' e\* i ao: liuar 1 M
to:- /:. v: ;'or 1 ;-.,i-., :.r l.r.o;:!

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 245

the government. The heavy tariff is a bonus to manu-
facturers ; subsidies to shipbuilders, steamship corpora-
tions, export societies, and emigration companies are well
recognized forms of encouragement ; in certain export
trade's specific bounties are paid, and rebates offered
on goods shipped in Japanese bottoms and over Japanese
lines. In addition there are a number of heavily capi-
tali/cd and mismanaged government factories which
seldom secure a profit, and the annual appropriations for
which are to oner a deficit. Further there are a
host of semi-oflicial concerns receiving financial aid from
the Budget, ,-uid which together form a very serious
burden on the taxpayer. To make matters worse the
government, now presided over by Count Okuma, has
gone a step further in adopting measures for interference
in the rice and silk markets, when the prices of those
commodities fall, measures so plainly calculated to pander
to the agricultural classes for vote-catching as not to
require discussion. That Count Okuma, the democratic
hero, should adopt measures which perpetuate the misery
of the working classes, and deliberately play into the
hands of the banks and rings, which have for years
been cornering the foo.l supplies is a striking commentary
on the real views of that eminent orator. State-aided
industry is one of the great clangers of Japanese compe-
tition, but, as I have- said, one of its weaknesses. It
creates an atmosphere- of prosperity, which is very often
not justified by the facts. One day popular pressure will
insist on the 1 withdrawal of the government aid. and the
Japanese bogey will fade away to its proper perspective.
Japanese industry is peculiarly interesting inasmuch
as it is represented by the modern factory system and
the handicraft system, which has vani^lvd in England,
(iermany, and Am 'rica. Japan i> or.e of the few countries
where the two can be seen working si le by side. In
Kyoto you ma\ sec* the oKler phase still in full swing,
turning out excellent work of high artistic, and intrinsic
value. You may then train an hour to U-aka. and see
the modern factories competing with those of Manchester

246 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

and Massachusetts for the markets of the Kast. Both
systems are allied with the government. The older, the
handicraft, is controlled by guilds, the latter by sub-
sidies. tariffs, and the other eccentricities of modern
indu-tri.ilism.

The guilds are an imjx>rtant feature of Japanese ><ciety.
For fuller details of them the reader may refer to the
rejK>rts of ' The Asiatic Society of Japan,' and to the
work of Mr. C. V. Sale and others. Their power is very
great, for it is fixed by legislation. They may even
enforce membership amongst traders. In 1^1 I they were
|V S3 m number, covering sales purchases, credit, and
production. Their funds, founded on membership fees,
are increased by treasury grants, the <juid(s) pro (/no
for agreement with a policy laid down by the authori-
ties. In 19,13 the local ;^o\ernments spmt Y i 1,240.072
in encouragement grants for industry and agriculture,
and the following table for I <; i 3 shows the rise in the
index number of these grants <|X<;5 100).

( )rditi:irv A
(.'"<; i ><>n-> mid Silk
IV.t
M.i; IMC l'i i 'din t^

I''i >i c-trv anil Mi!ii
I n ( I u 1 1 v

Shows

K'i-j : t^ .iiul St. ill -!:

All O\<T ill'- ' ouiitrv S.unpl M u eunis h.i\i- bei-n c-t,il>-
ii IK,"!, arid are k-jt ihoioi:;-hK up-to-da'e. and bulli-tin^
( onv\ in:; very nnnut'- iiiloi nuin m o| tin- i<-' j'.in* incuts
of lorci_.;n in.nk'-t- an- i in ulated rvrry d.r, .

'1 In- l.i'foi. -\-fi-ni In-, ot cmnsr, liccn ,i modern
iriuo\Mt i' in, bu! there .ue ;n.in\ null- and '-!i'p> ulnh
will i onip.ire mo t l.i\ M\iia'''l> uiili .ins in Kuiopc .md

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 24;

America, though as a general rule the Japanese factories
leave very much to be desired, especially in the con-
ditions of female labour. In March, 1911, the Diet
passed a Factory Law to regulate the conditions of em-
ployment, but at the date of writing nothing has lx_*en
done to put the provisions of tin- law into effect. The
reason for this delay is alleged to be the lack of money,
but is more likely to lx- the opposition of a very large:
and strong group of capitalists, who prefer cheap and
sweated labour, and the conditions of a pigstye to inspec-
tion and regulation, and the accordance to their hands
of permission to live and -work in some semblance to
decency. The Japanese are notoriously lacking in
common sense, and the attitude of employers towards
labour, and of the government towards the labour problem
is abundant proof of mental myopia. Dr. Abe Isoo,
Professor at .\Vaseda University, writing in the Taiyo
in April, 1914, said :

" After repeated postponements the Factory Law Bill
was introduced to the Diet in 1911. It was duly passed,
but its coming into operation has been deferred pending
the necessary preliminaries. Some time ago it was re-
ported that the government had decided to put the law
into operation from 1915, and the news was received
with much satisfaction by those who are interested in
the labour question. They were, however, greatly dis-
appointed by an official announcement towards the end
of last year that the operation of the law has been
indefinitely postponed.

" .The object of a Factory Law, needless to say, is
the protection of factory workers in general, and women
and children in particular, by effecting an improvement
in the conditions under which they are employed.
Japanese capitalists, however, regard the Factory Law
as a terrible bugbear that must be kept at bay at all
cost. They think that a shortening of working hours
will result in a reduction of output, and that any ameliora-
tion in the treatment of workers means a lot of expendi-
ture. They do not understand that improved working

248 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

conditions nu-ans increased production, a> has been
demonstrated in Kumpe and America. The capitalists,
as a roult of their strenuous elYorts, introdui ed >uch
sweeping alterations in the J'ill as have made the
[apane-e Factory Law the mo-t imperfect legislation of
its kind in the world. St:li. we waited for the early
operation of the l.iw, -jn< e a little improvement was
better than none at all. Our hope-, however, have been
shattered by the indefinite postponement of the operation
of the law."

The Proles-or adds nur.e in;cresiin:: comment.- on
Japanese character, a- !o;lo\\ - : -

' Japanes people, a- well as the in>vernmeiit, seem
to be under the misapprehension that a restriction ot
working hours would roult in decrva-ed production. It
i> a characteristic peculiar to children and the ignorant
to place more important- to quantity ilian to quality.
Tins tr.iit is discernible in every walk of a< live life
in tl)is country. In government office-^ ami pnldie
companies j; ;s u-ual to ^pen-i i:o:n ei;Jit to nine hours
upon woik thai conl-i be done in Ir/e or MX. I'eojile
are reijtn're 1 to a'te!pi otiii c promptly at a certain hour,
and to Icav- at a c'-rtam hour, though t\\'o or three ot
ill-- inter 1 , e'-iii; hou: - mav ' >< ua-t not taken ii.to con idera'.ion. '1 If -aiif i- ;he c. t se
v.itli -<! hool f'in< it ion . 'i'h--rc i> no l'mver-it\ in the
\\oild wliere f!:iry ho':r a \s -ek i- devoted !< le--on-
.Mv',!..;. ill-- - iioo.s. a- \\ i 1 i a- -!;:de!it-, ;,i\e mote
importance \<, ijuantitv ilian ijtiaiif.-. t:: 1 ^o the\ i;i\-e
and ii tin to more !< tnre- than -;,;,!,.,;, , . m j M i-,-ibl\
di;.;e t. I he priirnoter^ oj politi' ..I meet in;.;-' are a'-o
winded 1 .;, ;hi- principle. ( ne n r i\'.o \ . ak. i .. lio\\ -
, er \\e''l l;ni.u.i ;'. . ni.r lie, \\.11 no; !e -ulii' lent to
i 1 1 1 a t a 1 ir.'f . >',\ ] ;-:, . o a I in;, i ; ! l < : ' t:d or
third-c!a > m- n i -. ;h plot" ad\ ifi <<i, 'A;'h ti" 1 icMill
?!ia'. the ui Ti :; ; i :i'<- to ) 'hfon ;e I. J h" lapaif e
j -i t P li' ' I'H i j";a!:' !' > I it h : ' a, in - j' : i ' i' ' I a; j /a 1 1 nt

il le .1 e! eV, hep;.

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 249

' The theatre may he cited as another example. True,
theatrical performances nowadays do not last so long
as they used to ; still, a perfonnanee continues for six
or seven hours at a stretch, otherwise the audience is not
satisfied. These arc only a few examples showing how
much importance the people atlach to quantity rather
than quality. The same, tendency is evident in every
sphere of national life.

" Working hour-, and tlie amount of production will
no doulit keep pace up to a certain point, hut beyond
this all proportion is lost. It is therefore a mistake to
think that long hours result in the turning out of a
proportionally larger amount of work. There are several
instances where the shortening ot working hours has
actually resulted in a larger output. It is evident that
si\ty-si\- hours work a week for children under fifteen
years is too severe a strain, and it is certain that employers
could obtain better results by a curtailment of working
hours.

" The life of mill operatives in the factory quarters
demands immediate and thorough improvement. Japanese
factory workers are living under conditions which are
interior to those of slaves in certain respects. Slaves
had at least a guarantc ot living, which the present-
day worker lacks. As long as he or she is able to,
\\ork is exacted lo the utmost limit, as one gets money's
worth out of a hired horse. But the instant the worker
breaks down, owing to overwork, merciless eviction
follows. In fact, factory hands are treated worse than
ber.sts of burden. Farmers treat their animals with care
and sympathy, because it is to their interest to do so.
It is not so, however, with the factory owners. They
work their employes as hard as they can, and ii they
drop dead or are incapacitated their place can easily
be ti'led by new-comers. 1 Fmp!o\<.-rs. therefore, do not
lind it essential to shorten iv.'iirs ot work or pav attention

' YVii.iti.-Yer bnst:Ltj ir.ay !-r in military at'fairs, it i- cc: ;.ii;i!y nut
carried into busin^- or imlustrv. The Factory Law was promul-
gated in 1915, ami is now more or k>- in operation.

250 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

to the moral and physical well-being of their employes.
I'nless an amelioration be introduced to the existing
state of affairs by the operation of the Factory Law,
a serious crisis will be brought about in the industrial
world." '

At present the employment of children under twelve
years ot age is common, and they have to work for
fourteen or fifteen hour-*, and art- in many cases subject
to sickening ill-treatment from the overseers. 1 have
heard of two or three cases where foreign employes
have thrown up their jobs on account of the physical
brutality employed towards women and children in mills.
In one case, at U>aka, an overseer knocked a girl down,
then grabbing her by the bark of her kimono, threw
her acn>- the room. A< she fell her kimono caught in
some machinery, and the -irl was killed. Certainly the
man did not intend such an unhappy result, but a verdict
of accidental death was merely trilling with the truth.
The following extract from The Japan Chronicle gives
a gha-t!y insight into the life of these tens of thousands
of women, the conditions o! \\hoM- service is infinitely
wor-e than tho-e surrounding the prostitutes of the

i he gloom ot fa- torv lite i- graphically deputed
in a 1- lure delivered by I)r. Ishikawa at a meeting
ot the Kokka Ig.tku-ka (National Me'lical Society), lie
said :

l-'einale workers in Japane-e tai lories number
;oo.ooo, (it \\hoin }oo, <><><> are under twenty years ot
age. ( )nt (it this arm\ ot \\oinen opeia!i\e-i .joo.ooo are
engaged in the -pinning, \\ea\mg. and dseing industries.
Seventy per cent, ot th->e wonn-n h\-e in the factory
quarters, v\h; h mean-- a -oil of t onlmeinrnl . \\'oik in the
i.tw i ; k l.i lories l.i-t thu'leen io tointeen hour- .1 da\ on
an a\ i rage, . md that in the wea\ ing null - toui teen to >i\ teen
hour. 1 he remaining, ho'.irs .([ de\otid to |eejing,
bathing, toilet, eh. It i not >U!pn-ing that the health
ot ill- -< \nung \som--n i> -eiioii.!-, muiied \>\ -u h < on

' I .I'.;-' I!', L'y ('/;; ;;, /, , M.,\ '/. \<)l }.

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 251

ditions. .With regard to the spinning mills, female
workers arc put to night work every seven or eight
days. Night work affects the workers' health so severely
that at the end of a week they lose considerable weight.
This loss may he partly recovered during the succeeding
week on the day shift, but the night work, though inter-
mittent, ultimately wrecks the health of the workers.
None can stand the strain for more than a year, when
death, sickness, or desertion is the inevitable outcome.
The consequence is that Ho per cent, of the female
workers leave the factories every year through various
causes, but this loss is immediately replenished by new
hands.

' The. food provided by tlr- factory boarding-houses
may be tolerable to the class from which the women are
recruited, but as to the other accommodation it is simply
sickening. The women on the night and day shifts are
obliged to share one bed, which is neither aired nor
dusted, and never exposed to the sun, since as soon as
one leaves it, another takes her place. Consequently
consumption spreads among the operati\cs like an
epidemic.

' Tin: number of women who are recruited as factory
workers reaches 200,000 every year, but of these I 20,000
do not return to the parental roof. Hither they become
birds ot passage, and move from one factory to another,
or go as maids in dubious tea-houses, or as illicit prosti-
tutes. Among the So, ooo' women who return to their
homes, something like 13,000 are found to be sick,
about 25 per cent, ot them having contracted consump-
tion. The death-rate from consumption of female factors'
operatives is, as reported to the police, S per 1,000 ;
but the death-rate from the same disea-e, after their return
home, is 30 per 1,000."

Japan is making this terrible sacrifice in order to
increase her exports abroad. The revolting- nature of
factory life is gradually dawning on the dull intellects
of country folks, and the recruiting of female workers
is becoming 1 more and more difficult. Those who have

252 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

travelled in tin- interior bear indisputable testimony that
consumption is spreading in localities that had never
kmnvn the malady before the advent of factories in the
country. Consumption had been contracted and brought
back to the villages by the factory ^irls. to do its
fell work aniorv^ the country i>eojile. In such circum-
stances it is not surprising that the country folks have
been led to regard the factories as terrible places, to
be shunned at all costs. In certain villages of Nii^'ata
prefecture the headmen and police have formed a com-
bination to prevent women leaving their home-, for the
factories. In Akita the prcJ'ectural authorities have
publicly prohibited the recruiting of factory twirls by
labour agents. The famine in the north-east has no
doubt been a windfall to the recruiting agents, but it
is probable thai a lew years hence the supply of female
operatives \\ill !) practically exhausted. If this come-,
to |>ass it will mean a seriou-; industrial crisis.

In a Aeries of articles contributed to the \V.t'*/m:nstt'r
f/(i~cttc in i u i 4, Miss Violet Markham skilfully sketched
political and social conditions in China and Japan.
Dealing ui:h th- ta< . tory sy-tem. she sa\s that in Japan
the condition-, ap- open to "very ;;rave criticism," e\en
when every ailowance h.i - !) CM made tor the dilterence
between Japanese and Kr.eji-h standard-^. Discussing
.Ma

'<;

i.i. n Hi i , .\i i -, -> .>iaii

enerally -p'-akin;.: 1 , J.

M 1 . 1 1 H - . O i .

ij ane-e w< .men en^a;.

;ed in tin 1

' i /t tO'l

trade wni'k under

( out rai 'ts es en! i.illv

servile in

< har.u

ter. '1 h'-y are indi

ntur'-d for a peiii'd

of three

years.

and live m compo

und^ at tai h'-d to tin

factory .

1 Jurin:

; thi- lenil they

- li ni l'-a-. e the i ompi

itind. and

< annot

a\ e under \er\ <>

.( phonal it' um-tani

es, break

th- ir i

ndenuire-,. Sunday,

ol i i iiir-e. i iM >t k<

pt !!l the

1-ar I-

.at, t h'- pr;;:< ij.le oi

on-- day's re t in v

\ ell due-.

not o!

tain there. | h>- .

o! toll 1 .11 tol je -. \\- i! k

day and

hi-ht

oil 1.1 1 ' oj tuelv,

iii r.n . e.ii h, ail' 1 t In i '

are i \M i

hohda

y > in t h'- in* r,' h, nil

le. olle -u-jie t -. 1' il-

Ihe Iieed>

o( th'-

ina. 1 1 ; : i - r v than I ' .> ,

lt < it t h-- ir.inian i K i ,

... The-

.ivfia

dad-. ua-. : . ..t tl

i- t' male -ilk pini!

ir i - i o

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 253

sen (say scvenpcnce), and of the. female weaver 25
sen. lint from this sum 9 sen i> deducted daily for
food."

The conclusion drawn that a continuance in the present
path will lead to ' inefficiency, failure, and a whole-
sale wreckage of Japan's greatest national asset the
health and physique of her women ' is a very just one.

There is a general delusion amongst foreigner.^ that
Japanese labour is very cheap. Doubtless twenty years
ago it was. To-day there is only a fractional difference
between costs in Japan and abroad. Wiages i" J ; M Kin
are based on the price of commodities, the most im-
portant of which is rice, the staple food of the whole
nation. For many years now the average price of rice
has been mounting 1 , partly owing to the production being
insufficient to meet the requirements of the country, parth
owing to tin- manipulations of the brokers, and partly
to the tax on foreign imports, a sufficiency of which
would bring the price down with a run. Commodities
having gone up in value, wages have al>o had to be
raised, though the depreciation in the purcha-ing power
of the yen has to a certain extent neutral i/ed ibis con-
cession. For example, a carpenter who in ioo_, received
58 sen per diem, in 1914 was getting Yi.os. This
certainly compares unfavourably with a British carpenter's
Sd. per hour for an eight hours day, which is 5>. 4<1.
per diem. But it requires three Japanese workmen to
get the same output as one foreigner, so that our three
Japanese carpenters will actually o>-t more -Y^.i5 > than
our one British workman. In the cotton mi!K the pro-
portion is more than three to one. and touches four to one.
Not only has the price ri-en, but it is C'>mim:ing to ri>e.
and will continue to do so, in >p;te of the abnormally
low price of rice in 1915, vhi/h ma\~ cause a temporary
reduction.

The cost of Japane>e manufacturers is increasing in
other ways than the actual cost of labour. Though raw
materials escape lightly in the tariff, yet they have to
bear heavv taxes in invi-'ble wavs, in the subsidies on

254 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

shipping, in ronsumption and other imports. In machinery
Japan is heavily handicapp<'d. Her technical education
is very backward, and everything mechanical ^ets badly
knocked about. I am assured by competent engineers
that the lit'e of a machine is shorter in Japan than in any
other country. I am aware ol a steel foundry in which
forei^ii interests arc lari;e, where tile machinery has had
t<> be practically replaced within five years, not worn
out, but racked out. A motor-car rarely lasts over two
years in Japanese hands. In one wool mill I have seen
mat hines to the value of thousands of pounds idle, and
had bem idle for weeks, because the essential parts
had been ruined by carelessness. A Japanese super-
I Dreadnought had four hundred ton- of armour-plating
cut out of her, because the wroiiL, r blue-prints were sent
to Midland. Another one received a set of condensing
engines, a -i/e too lar^e, as one mi^ht say. owin^ to a
similar mistake. Th" director of one concern bought a
thiee thousand pound machine because he liked the look
ol it in the photographs, and regardless of his factory
beiriLC too small to admit it. I knew an Kn.^lishman
ap|K)inted manager of a (Government foundry, who->e first
act was to close the place for a month to allow it to
be cleaned out and the machines scrapped. The Hon.
\V. Kedin Id ha- related how lie arn\ed at a village,
where tlr-re was a <o;ton mill, full of modern machinery,
and with nobody to work it. The ( 'on^re^s man took
oil hi- coat and -howd them.

< >n the other hand there are fa' tones and yards second
to none abio.id in (-(juipment, intelligence, and product-,.
Ill-- M.t-u llidn at Na/a-aki !-> one, the |-u.:ita mines
aiio'her. the Kawasaki I)oik\ard and the Kanci^atmhi
< 'ot to:i Mill, an- i ither example-, .

It is not to be wondep-d at, therefore, that [apane^c

manuf.u ture ^ are \ery uneijual in (jiiality. It is, there-

in;; " i' !e, oi - at ]--a -t tin wi -e, ti > ;

n \ ard will turn o-it a liner n

ar.< i 1 !i' r u i'l tarn out a i ter
th- i-.i , tha:ik to a < ouple of thousand

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 255

pig-iron ballast. One silk factory in Kyoto will turn
out fabrics which arc a delight to see and purclui.se ;
another in Tokyo, with an equally famous name, will
deliver skimped and watered stuff. Local conditions of
credit, purchase, labour, and taxes, and above all tradi-
tion, will account for a tremendous variety in the produc-
tion.

Japanese tradesmen and merchants have a bad repu-
tation in commercial matters, and the statements of
Viscount Oura, Baron Makino, and other Ministers and
officials are proof enough that the reputation IK us been
deservedly gained. The excuse so often advanced, that
Japanese traders were originally a low-class of Japanese
whose example has set the fashion is not only foolish
but untrue. Anyhow to-day the aristocracy is so deeply
involved in trade that the excuse no longer avails, though
the complaint still holds good. At the final meeting of
the Nippon Syndicate, Limited, in London, the Chairman
said that the reason for the winding-up was due " to the
widespread unreliability of the Japanese nation in com-
merce, no less than to the reluctance of our allies to admit
British enterprise to any share of the resources of the
Far East. The selfish policy ot the Japanese lias reduced
the doctrine of the open door to nothing more nor less
than a fiction." For trade-marks the Japanese have
no respect whatsoever. The ' Black and White ' trade-
mark is fraudulently applied to whisky made in Osaka,
and the courts refused protection to the foreign owners,
on the ground that anybody who sampled the two brands
would immediately be able to tell the difference. Sir
Claude MacDonald, G.C.M.Ci., lately Ambassador at
Tokyo, wrote that ' half an hour's walk in Tokyo will
discover from ten to twenty imitations of British trade-
marks.' Professor Kimura, 1'h.D.. dealing particularly
with electrical imlu-tnes, said : " Foreign inventors by
no means get the protection for their patents which they
ought to get in this country." The same applies to other
classes of inventors. The Japanese market is a growing

w? 1 O O

one, and patentees should obtain protection in that country

256 JAI'AN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

by taking out patent and confiding their interests to
capable foreign agents to prevent infringement. The
same applies to trade-marks.

In 10,13 a cargo of tinned crab from the Hokkaido
was rejected by the Seattl" authorities as until for human
consumption. It was brought back to fapan, offered
to an Indian agent and ivfu-ed. shipped on commission
to Calcutta, and rejected by the h'-al'.h authorities, and
finally sold off in Java. The evidence of Japane-e com-
mercial immorality is overwhelming, ai.d i: \\ill require a
great deal more than mini-terial pla'.itudes to correct
it. On the other hand then- are great and small firms
there with whom it i-. a plea-ure to deal. Japanese
commercial morality at it- be-t \- equal to the best
in any country. At it-; wor-t. and the black sheep un-
doubtedly predominate, it make-, even the Japanese
Con-ul-( ieii'-ral in San I''ra:i<i->co ' i--el a- though 1
\\anted to hide ;ny-elt tor shame.' <

\\'hat may the hir.irr be for Japane-e industries'/
Cotton, coal, an-i -ilk are in all \ ioi).ib;lity the three
indu-trie-, in uh:<'h Japan might lioji.- to compete with
the \Yje-t for th < 'hina mark-'!-.

One of the mo-t nindt-rn indn-trie-. in Japan, cotton
-pinning, i-. no-.v one ot the mo-t important, and pro
Vide-, the -ei oud la r ;.;e- it-'in 111 th- !l- of exports.
The lir-t mill ua- I'-taMi h I in I S-.S b;. l'i m< e
Shimadxu, h' .id ''I the Sat -nma cl.m. \\!io i:i;port--d the
neces-ary ttan.e .nil p.nd^-, lro;n Ain-ii a, -mne.glmg.
theiu into Japan by \\a\ o! ih Loo. hoo I -land-. Hi--
object of (a'ting t!i in-ln f, \\a- ;h e\,-r re. nnent
one of i hei king iniji'-'t- ! tor--: -,n ;,"od , an in.'e'itio-i
fuither ni'ii .c'd b. tl|- ::::!" i -;i : o'i ot c.r.to!i jir-iumg.
A ' rt.nn d- \ !oji;ii-n: \-..i o' tamed, b;;' th-- l.innei
uere nn- 1 .: < ful v. :t!i :h-- n v. p!.i:.t. and r wa- al\sa\

h'-.iji- ; t- 1 im; o: ; |or--ign i -.;'o:i \ am -. v. !: - 'i \\eic a! o

-I up'-ri- ! '! : ci' y

Alt i tic S.il .:;. i !!. I.'IMI:

FIN A NCI';, INDUSTRY, AND COM MERCK 257

they met with little Miceess. I-'rom 1^95 Japanese yarn
figured in the exjM>rl li-t.->. From the time of tin: Chinese.
war a steady development set in. The Chinese indeinnity
provided abundant funds, (heap freights were arranged
from India, Kore.i became a Japanese market, the import
duty on cotton was abolished, as aNo the export duty on
yarn. The attempt to ou^t Indian yarn from China in
I 900 failed, and the fall in iiver caused a setback which
was further accentuated by the Boxer outbreak. After
the Russian war a further .steady development set in,
until in 1913 the figures relating to the industry were

Spinning Mills ()~\ M.ilr Operatives H),j2H

Capital Y'I'I, I'M ,^7 ', l-Vmalc Operatives ^^,362

Spindles j.j i -.',;(>/ Annual Days ^o^

l\'a\v and LJiniud l>aily 1 1 > in -> 20

Cotton ( Kwan I ... /'*/'''.>.<;'>.> 1 'ailv \Va^L' i Malt-) \.\ -vi-ii

Yarn '>7.i;i j,nS ; Diiily Wa^e (Kcinalc) ^c;-rn

EXI'OKTS.

Yen

Yarn C"i;ina

Mi>(.'(.-lla!n.-iiti> ...... i .(>_'<>, 4:; i

72.S4S.i5

-All t'oivii^n (.-(uiii'irics 1 1 ,

I\i uxa .................. ii ,1

Japan's gTcatc>t danger in connection witli the China
market is the establishment of the spinning industry in
China, in which case the Japanese nulls would >oon be
bankrupt. To meet this menace two steps have been
taken. The one has been the- acquisition, wherever pos-
sible. of mills already existing in China, or of a financial
interest in the sime, the other has been diplomatic ob>truc-
tion of any ixni-imi ot the Chinese taritf, which would
raise a barrier to the import of Japanese yarn at a less

258 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

price than China could manufacture. On I'Ybrunry I S.
1912, I wrote from Tokyo :

" The Hua H-.uan Spinning Mill at Shanghai, and
the Wuchang Spinning and Weaving Mill-, have been
placed under the control of the Mit-u liussan Company,
which will in future manage them. The Mit-u P>i-hi
Company is purchasing the Chen Hua Spinning Mills
at Shanghai, a concern operating 21.770 spindle-, to
which another 40,000 will be added by the new owner-."
'The following- Chine-e mill- have been at quired by
Japanese interests, either completely or as manager- :
Changhai Spinning Mills, Santai Spinning Mill-, Jih H-m
Spinning Mill, Nai Wai Spinning Mill. Nai (iai Cotton
Spinning Company."

That [x>h( y of ab-orption has been continued since,
and any one who goe- to Shanghai can drive out to
the Point, pas-ing many flourishing mill-, which have
pa-sed over from Chin<'-e to Japane-e control.

The propo-al that the Chine-e Cu-toin- duties be in-
crea-ed to 12.'. per cent, has been blocked by the- action
of Japan, which refu-e- to agree becau-e su< h a pn>-
[Kj-al would endanger Japanese trade with China. Shi-
argue- that so great an advance would proceed beymd
th'- need- of revenue to protection. That -IK h an attitude
i- (on-i-tent with Japane-e -elti-hne-- need- no empha-i-.
A- in every other international matter into whit h -he ha-
been able to poke her linger, only the Japane-e stand-
jK)int mu-t be re^ard'-d. For [apan to set up a pro-
hibitive tarin i- ti/Jr and proper ; for any other P<>\vei
to do -o i e\-en if thi- were intended in the < a-e ol ( "hina >.
i- mo-t imjiroper, and obviou-ly aimed again-t Japan.
It only th ( - Japali<-- ( - \\ould \\aive th'il egol-m lor a
moment, to believe tha* ti
Jajian, aii' 1 other int< re-t-
l-'orejg-n < mi. e- of th-- worli
i o n j : i a i '. . i . a i , !
Kar La : would be
o d taiit! 1 1 . : : !i i;. <
(a'.a .' Had-- 1 vei .

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCE 259

levy would hit other countries jiM as hard, and tin'
Japanese have no special license from Heaven to receive
partial treatment. The Japanese do not fear foreign
competition, but what they wi^h to do is to deny the
Chinaman the right to initiate and operate industries in
his own country in the same way as they have denied
him the right to construct and operate railways in
Manchuria. If China can establish the spinning industry,
Japanese mills will certainly be hard hit, for the com-
petition will be most severe on the coarser counts, on
which Osaka is distinctly strong. If the proposal to
drop i os. and 2os. for the liner counts is adopted,
Japan will have to face sharp competition from India
as well as America, which has been brought appreciably
nearer to Chinese markets by the opening" of the Panama
Canal, besides having the advantage of using her own
raw material. In cotton yarn Japan ha> won her way
on the coarser counts, whilst in fabrics her product is
quite second class. In Australia and Canada you may
buy Japanese towelling 1 at half the price of English,
and wear it out more than twice as quickly. Neither
as regards cotton nor woollen piece-goods did English
experts, whom I met in Japan, express much fear of
the native article. Manchester men unanimously were
optimistic. The dependence on abroad for raw material,
the low productive capacity of the workers, the tempera-
mental and climatic differences, which count for much,
the increasing cost of labour, and the heavy prime cost
and annual depreciation of machinery are all factors
against Osakan predominance. Stuff is produced, and
plenty oi it, but not tine stuff. It was generally con-
ceded that when China begins to manufacture in real
earnest she will be able not only to supply herself, but
to under-sell Japan in Korea and elsewhere.

In woollen goods Bradford thinks similarly. To begin
with the Japanese niiil- are hopelessly incapable of ful-
filling the ever-increasing demand in Japan for European
style cloths. The present factories, which are all heavily
subsidized, date only from after the Russo-Japanese war.

2oo JAPAN AT Till-: (ROSS RoADS

I heir products arr va-t!y inferior to imported x i>0( ^-
.mil ( tj^{ 1-. ]K-r \.ird mote, e\en after allo\\rr,; tor the
t.inti. A^.iin in \\ool it In- to !> r m< :-mh< r< <! ih.it
pattern- arc ni"-t important. an-! th- J.ipane>e are al\\a\-
a < ouple ot \ear- behind 1:1 d'--l;;mr.:; . I In r< arr a
^o<>d manlx-i' ot liii'' * !o:h-. pin on the maikrt a^ Japanese,
hut all an- Iir.i.lt..nl. 'An I would,' 1 ioul.1 tdl
a in:in\- --tory ol rc.;inicnts dr-^-cd in r.ra-lfi'rd kliaki.
-<ld in Bradford !'> (I'-nnany. and rr-rxportrd to a
a.iiu-x' i oiitrartcir. \\li" ^-old it t<> a -u! >-idi/r< 1 fa< lor,

-pn ialit<'.' Any idea tliat tin- Jajiaiic-c null- will

tin- l-'ar I'!a-t d'-p -rid- cntirrly on how far and how

Ion;; < 'hina \\ill b'.r. !':! r:or dioddy.

'"oal i- OIH- oi Japan'- ino-t important rxport-, luit
opinion i-. doubtful a-, to \\lsitli-i- n \\ill !> a!>I<' to hold
t!)<- inarkft. 1 p t!r- \a'i;^!-c i 1 ha- a!r. ad\ ln-cn di->-

the ad\rntitiou- aid <>t strik--^. I; i- r-:iniat'-d th.r.
thcri 1 at''- I ,joo. OOo.ooo ton- of coal in k\a-hu, vdnl-t
thcp- an- tar larger ^-ap])li<-> in tin- llolckaido. I n-
iort:ina!'-K o!il\ a lf\v -ram-, ot uhi> h th<- nio-t impoi-i.mi
i rli-- Takadiimi ia u!mari:n nata d'- o\cn-d 1>\ the
la'.e Mr. 1'. li. idover, and now ouned !> the Mit-;i
I',: hi i, .it' o| f:r-t :,t-- i|iialii\. I'll-- ii-l i- !iro\v;i
li;_;i:iie. a very [Mior i alorii< . In addniitn to ih- ( ..m
P"ti'io;i ut ( 'hin- >al t;om llnnan and l\\in/. i. M.i'k
< oal ot . \.i -li'-nt j)!oji"i ii< . th i;n i< a in: u ol oil
!'i' ! v. ill dinnnidi, tho-.^.'i i*'M :Md'iid'. t!i-- d- m.md
lor !,'::!!;. T..

In ili. iron and -' ! !i..d- fy on:! '. j ..< [,.,,
p-o ; - t i . | .1; in h.i I ;:' \ < '. . i:n.r- ! ot . i < ,

a::d 'lo; :!,: d:.iv. .,:, Hi la .,' !'T: i th--

I .r t mm- in I!--:, d. < \- ? tin- ! ;: ! a

n.- r ' 'a ". ' ''.i! \ r :."!,(). i ,( i, \', hi I i i-i

annn.d .- :p;it. I' i i

f< ::.' i in K' a ea, and <''.. i '.'.

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 261

nature have not been l.u kinv;, hut so far the announce-
ments have noi hccn implemented by serious operations,
'lied to foreign siippli--,, it is doubtful whether Jap. in
can do much in the way of manufacturing for export.
Such demands as those mad;- on China recently, that
railway material should he bouvjit from Japan would,
if acquiesced in, simply m^an that Japan would buy
abroad and resell to ( 'hina at a profit, pocketing the
difference. \\'ide advertisement lias been made ot the
construction of super-Dreadnoughts in Japan. A-. a
matter ot tact, ho per cent, of the juris of these ships
are made abroad, and only fitted together in Japan. 1
1 was immensely ti kled by th*' relation of a foreign
Naval Attache of his \isit ID Kure Arsi-nal, to see. the
progress made in the construction of a super-DrcadnouLdit.
Having been carefully told that everything in connec-
tion with the vessel was of Japanese manufa< tun-, he
was proceeding across the bay ui;h the [apanese oincer,
who uas his cicerone, \vhen t!i"Y passed a UIL;' with
two barges in tow. ( >n thes" laitc-r was a Iiu^e [irupeller
shaft, {tainted in red, with the name of the maker, a
well-known liriti-h linn. ' \VJiat '> that for? " lie a^k-'d,
and in an unguarded moiiieat hi.s cicerone replied, " 1'dr
the f-'uso !

In copper Japan is rich, and in water she is richer
still, it is estimated that there is 10,000.000 h.p. avail-
able in the country of which only }oo,ooo h.p. has been
harnessed. As the porcelain industry is well developed,
and supplies ot mica are abundant in KOPM, the manu-
facture of electrical appliances is making headway.
Hydro-electric enterprises should be encouraged, and if
foreign co-oj>erat it>n i- united on reasonable terms a
;.;reat deal could b, done for th-' adxancenieiit of the
country.

In silk Japan at present holds its own. Sericulture
is a side line w!;h lanners, and is liable to severe ups
and do\\iis. I'lievc is a danger that ;^o\ei'nni'nt inier-
lerence ma\ check the further tle\'elopnient of the in-

: I'l.iii'n S.u;<> in 1'ici. l-'

262 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

dustry, hut Driven normal conditions tin- weavers should
he uhle for some tune to come to meet the comjx'tition
expected from China, or even that of artificial weaving
threatened from America.

That Japanese themselves are pessimistic as to their
industrial and commercial future may he gathered from
Count ( )kuma's summary in the Shin-\i/ion in 1 )ecemher,
1911, where he said : " Cotton extremely doubtful :
roal hopeless : iron no future: silk- -good*: lacquer
-already killed."

The Japanese are intensely intere-tcd in every foreign
criticism of their commercial conditions, and eagerly pick
uj) ajiy jx>ints they can Irom it. In February, 1012,
1 sent to London a lon^ report on Japanese industries,
the whole of which was immediately telegraphed hack
to japan, and a day or two later I recencd a call from
a very jx>lite otiicial of the Department of Commerce,
who wanted to di-cuss one or two points I had raised.

In September, I'M 4- live weeks after the outbreak
of war, I was in Colombo, and in the Hotel Bristol 1
met the a^'ent of sonic twenty Japanese linns, and ot
the Department ot ( 'oinnierce. lie had two ^lock-rooms
full of samples of Japanese ;_;oods. whicli would replace
( ierman and Austrian. He had Camples of the t\\o
latter placed -id<- by -ide \vith those from Japan, with
tickets att.i' h'-d showing the dilterente in pri. e and
(jnality. He told nic that in a week he had dour twenty
thou-and j)oiinds ot business, r,ot only \\i:h the Cingalese,
but with niei'i hant-v from Madras, Iravamore, and othei
jilaces.

1 he vi'-\v expre--n] in th- < onrludm^ sentence, of
th" la-t paia^iM|>h, and \\i,t! -n wh'-ii (lie war u.i- onl\
a ( w month* oM, ha- re'--i\-e,l remarkable coniinna-

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 263

trade balances to favourable ones. The value of imports
fell from 729,431,044 in 1913 to 595,735,725 in
1914, and to 532,449,93^ in 1915. During the nine
months which ended in September, 1916, the imports
were 539,405,000. Exports during the same three
years wen- in 19 13 632,460,213, in 1914
591,101,461, and in 1915 708,306,997, a figure
which had already been increased by 5 per cent, during
the nine months which ended at September 30, 1916.
So that during 1913 and 1914 there was an 'adverse'
balance of 101,706,195, whilst 1915, and the first
nine months of 1916, showed a favourable balance of
372,1 i 1,059.

The supply of munitions to the Allies, principally,
of course, to Russia, was responsible for a large jx)rtion
of the increase in exports, no less than 136,000,000
being traceable- to war requirements. Very large in-
creases were also registered in the shipments to China,
British India, the Dutch Indies, and Australia. It is
noticeable, however, that exports to these latter countries
were directly due to the lack of foreign competition,
owing to the blockade of German manufactures and the
preoccupation of the Allied and American factories with
war work. As might be expected, the lines in which
advances were most marked were not those generally
regarded as staple export commodities. Raw silk and
cotton yarns showed important decreases. Rice, tea,
copper, habutac, cotton knitted goods, and matches showed
increases of considerable amount, but by far the largest
improvements were in goods which hitherto had only
figured in the export li>ts for a few hundred thousands
of yen, and in which Japan had never before appeared
as a world supplier. Boots and shoes, leather goods,
woollens and serges, antimony, steel and iron goods,
rubber goods, cement, oats and beans were all new lines
of Japanese enterprise in which remarkable figures were
recorded in 1915, and in which evidence of even greater
prosperity will be found when the figures for 1916 are
published. Of course, the change in Japan's position in

264 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

the \vnrM'-> economy, a> the change in the comparative
values iif "her various export-, i-. largely due to the
abnormal ronditions created by the war. How permanent
tho-e t han^e.-. arc to be depends very much on the
economic programme of the world when pea* < -ha!l be
concluded. It i^ doubtful whether Japan \\ill e\ a r be
ousted from tlie po-ition whii'h >he ha> won for herself in
the ChincM- market^, and in the wri:cr'> opinion it \\ould
not be altogether a i^ond tiling if >he could be. British
India i> another question, and the bc-t public opinion
in India do<-> not wi-h to >ee Japan permanently in-lalled
in control of the A-iatic yarn market^. Sir Shapurji
Hroatha, for exaniple. >aid re-ently : " India need->
j>rotcv'tion aj^ain-t Japanese ( oinpeiition, not only in
India, but *> j)re\nit Indian yarn beiii^ ou-tcd from
China."

In Im]'<-nal finance u;reat imj.Tove?nents h.i\e taken
placi- a> the ie-uh ot the < \: r.toi din,ir\ pro-peiity \\huh
ha-, oxcrtaken th lountry. Marqui> < >kuma >pecihcalh
<li>a-^>- iated liiniseli 1 rom th f - no-loan polux, \\'hu h had
bei-n ad<ipied by ln> predei e -01 , on the pica that circum-
^tancj-s alone < ould ! tin- decisive !a> tor> ot p'hc\.
A^ ,i matter ot }a' t. cionninic ( on<li:ion-, wre -u< h that
there \\-.i> no ne(e j:\ to rai-e monc\ abroad, even it tin-
rould have been done. ai;d the Specie Kr-erve ilK reaped
-o that a po-itive and exact redenijition jMlny could
be iniiiated tor redu :;i j tlie out -tain lini; Jorej-n debt.
I he I)ii-t authori/el 1:1 Ma\ an aiiirial redenijition of
Y ;< >,<)()' i.oo<) ' C ', . f ) " J.i >< '< ' , \\ 1 ;l ( h ha - b< en cai I l f 'd m:'
e.ic !i year, and .t turth'-r -um o| N'^o.oo i.ooo ha-- been
ntili/ed for ill'- pa-t ;\so \ear- lor ion\eitin,; toiei;.;n
loan into n,!' inal, a rein uha'd r /'< / n'< horn the
ri'i':fU' ot I ia i ' .n I a'.a ; a h:, \\ ho r ' < -id- d 'o i i.in ei 1
irit'-r nal loan > into lop ; .;n . In addition, i h,- . j eat a< < nmu
la' ion ot : old a' >< ]>' ml > r ;o. I '/ i ' ll.e Spe. n- Ke -n \ e

\looil .i' \ ' .: I .< '<)< i.i ii .( ) ' , ha < 11. tb'.ed (.ij-an to t.ike up

numeric.; , i- ir ot !<; ian, 1 P ii' h. and 1 1: i'i h I P a in \

bill -. a - Uel 1 i to 'ib-, t l' 1 I'' I I'. 1 It ! ll !o,i!l 'I ^ I ' '. <><><..( M )
in 1 .1: \ o. ai i ot U i 1 1 i l I e\< eljelil 1 e t ill loll , to the

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 205

heartiness with which the Japanese authorities have
identified themselves with the. Allied cause,-.

The following from an American Consular report
efficiently sununari/.es tin- situation at September, i>>\<>.
It say.s that, compared with last year, exports to tin- i ai
East and the South Seas in< reaped by a little more than
40 |)er cent., and imports therefrom by .about 20 per-
cent. An increase of about 40 per cent. is shown in
exports to Kurope, and a little more than 30 per eent.
in imports from Kurope. The rate of m< rease in exports
to and imports from the l.'nited Slate.--, is ~() and 73
per cent, respectively.

Exports to South America increased 130 per cent.,
and imports therefrom 154 per cent. The trade \\ith
Australia increased by 57 per cent, in exports, and 32
per cent, in imports. Exports to South Africa increased
by 310 per cent., while an increase of 57 per cent, is
shown in imports from South Africa.

The principal factors in the enormous developments
in japan's foreign trade have been : -

i . Exports of munitions of war.

2. Increased exports to the I-'ar East, Smith Seas,
Australia, South Africa. South America, and other place-
as substitutes lor European ^oods.

3. Increased activity in the export trade of the ("nited
St. itt's, consequent upon American financial prosperity.

.} . Increased imports of industrial material-.

5. Advance in the \alue of exports and import- on
account of the appreciation of commodities due to the
war.

It is stated thai at the end of September japan's
etild reserve totalled < >Jo.cKiO,> oo yen * ; I ;. 5 ; <>, ;oo < .
It increased to ' > ^0,00 1,000 \en * 524.02 5.000 > *'"
October i ^th. making a new record in Japan's pus.-e^on
ot ;-M>ld specie. Of this figure, J I O.ooo.ooo \e;i
i "> 1 04,08 5,000 > was held ai home, and 440.000.000
yen 1*210.340.000) abroad. There are indication- of
a still further increase in the accumulation of ^pecie,
and the authorities expect that it will c;o beyond

266 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

700,000,000 yen (^348,950,000) before the end of the
year.

In no direction has Japanese progress been more
marked than in the wide extension of lier shipping
interests. In this respect, more than in any other. Japan
resembles (ireat Britain, and it i> in this field, more than
in any other, that this country will find the competition
with Japan greatly increased after the war. It may
nut, therefore, be without interest to give a short rt'^unit'
of the development of tin- Japanese mercantile marine.

.\VJii 1st it is not correct, as sentimental historians have
claimed, that there was regular maritime connection
between North America and Japan in the Middle Ages,
it is true- that until the seventeenth century there was
oversea commerce from Japan to the China Coa-st, and
during the -ixteenth and part of the seventeenth centuries
the Japanese carried on a considerable trade with the
Philippines, Cambaya. Java, the Moluccas, and India.

The first Englishman to arrive in Jap. in was \\"ill
Adams, of Gillingham, Kent, pilot of the Dutch Mast
India Company's DC I. it file, which was wrecked on the
P.un^o Coast on Ajiril i o, I'-oo. Mo-t of the pilots in
tin- Hutch M-rvice \\ere Englishmen who had sailed with
llav.kins, Drake. Cavendi-h, and Lam -aster, and of whose
knowledge and daring the " Mynheers " were glad to
avail themselves, when they, too, decided to ignore the
I'.ipal Dull of 140,}, whi< h a-piied to ;^iant to Sp.nn and
Portugal the ri lies of the Indies. ,\\".i!l Adams \\as a
< hara< ter who--- name is ^\\\\ honoured in Japan.
Almost the last function the la:<- Sir Claude MacDon.ihl
attend' d before \\v ating the po-t of Ambassador at 1 ok\o
in 1<>12. was the unveiling of a monument to his memory
at the >|x>t on the shore of Tokvo Hay \vhere the jilot
l.ni'leil after th'- D( / it / if. pat lied and rejiaiied, had
b'-en tou<-d around to \"eilo. I'oku.'.awa b-.a U, founder
of 'he l.i I and great"-! of ;h" Sh >i;un.i!e ., jefu-c-d to

allow Ad.nn to retuin in I'.uinjM-. and k-j>t him near
liini .1 hi i onhdeiitial advi -er on cornnien i.i! and foreign
matter-.. A pilot shall not be uithoul ho:.o-.:r in the

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 267

land of his shipwreck, and in time Adams became a
landed proprietor, lord over li\ encore slaves, and a rich
man with a street named after him.

It was not until 1011 that, spurred on by the news
of many Dutch successes, the Mast India Company ordered
Captain John Lewis, who commanded that year's expe-
dition to the East, to continue his voyage from the
factory at liantam to the Island of Firando. He took
his flagship, The CVmv, appropriately laden with 700
sacks of pepper, and, with a complement of 84, includ-
ing one " Japoii " and four blacks, arrived at Hirado
on June II, 1013. lie obtained a charter to found a
factory, but, contrary to Adams's advice, located it at
Hirado by the side of the Dutchmen's. Little wonder
that, after ten years and a debit balance, it was closed
down, and would have been forgotten but that Cocks, the
factor, introduced " pottatos " into Japan. " Pottatos "
are now a staple food of the country.

Shortly after the closure llidetada, who had succeeded
to the Shogunate, became obsessed with the idea that
Spain intended to absorb the- Far East, and that Christi-
anity was only a means to that end. He had certainly
arguments in his favour, not least of all the accusations
preferred by the Dutch and Kngiish traders against their
Catholic rivals. Hidetada was a gentleman who never
made two mouth! ills of a cherry. Having decided that
Christianity was harmful, he stopped it oil good and
hard. He expelled the priests, and those who objected
he killed. lie forbade the Christian propaganda and
exterminated the converts. He then drove out all
Spaniards, and, finding that the Portuguese were also
Catholics, he expelled them as well : when the Governor
of Macao thought that there had been a mistake and sent
a ship with a mission on board to inquire, he cut otT the
heads ot every member ot the mission and of the crew,
bar two cabin-boys, and sent the last-named back to
assure the Governor that he had heard right on the first
occasion. The English having quitted, the Dutch alone
remained to be dealt with, and as they were not Catholics,

268 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

but I'rote-tant-, they w< re all moved to De.-hima. an
i-land near Xa:;M-aki, where a factory wa- e-tabli-hed
(in quarantine, as it were), and one .-hip per annum
allowed to arrive. So murh for the foreigner- and then-
trade with Japan. To handle hi- own people \\a- not
more difficult lor a thorouyh-jjoin^ autocrat like Hule-
t.ida. " ll you -o abroad and brini;' home bad habit-
like tin- ' diabolical religion,' ' he told them, ' \oii
-han't xi .ibroad at all." Idem jt'dt. A law w.i- i ued
forbidding any fa]'aiH--e to leave the ountry under
penalty, it he returned, of something' in <il. terminating
with beheading, and, in < a-e he >hould not return, the
execution of all In- relative.-. And, further, -o that no
Japane-'- tould i;o abroad, it wa- lorbiddc-n for any
Japatle-e -hip- except the (Jo^/l llin-HlUU' < ve.--cN \\ltll
vermilion charter- i to -ail to foreign port-, and even
the-e were withdrawn after a tew years. And -o that no
Japanese -hip could -ail tar aiield it wa- forbidden to
build a ve--el ol o\ -,-r ;oo kol;u, or \\ith more than one
ma-t. or \vith other than a lou!-.-haped -tern, \\hiih let
the water iii it the wave- were mote than ripple-,. So
llidi'ada re-juia'ed Japaiie-e -hippine, oil the fate ol the

01 eail 111 ord'-r to a\o]d tile Wl!e> ot tiie [e-int I'atliel--

a:id to -a\e hi- pi ople Iroin the damnation.- ol the
l\enai--ali' e pur.uatorv .

'I he u ritinij-- ol the 1 )-;t h t o!oni-t- and ot the Spani-h
aii'i 1'ort;:. Me-e jn ie-t - tell u- a e s ood d- al of the ex Tent of
japalM -'- -hippin., illleie-t> at tha' tillie. \\V jearil that

tin I e V. '! e I < , ', \ (-- el - o| l)\er 100 It. l.'l length U hi' ll

\\ i i e |ji en,ed ;-i trad-- abroad. \\'.<- i;no\s that th'ii-
v, i re i ;,(,oo " |.ijo;i, ' :n I.u/on, ai.d a L; I - .it number
inoje in the Mr, in (a- and India. \\> knou that I >a\ \ -,
the Lh/abelhan i-\jdoier, \\ , - kiM'd in a ti ,ht betueen
111: I I'.'i r a!id / //< / . f ;i r\ \\' ! :,'f: and a Japuie-e
HK-p hant j'liik oil l'.ata\ia. I he Ma-ao leionh teil ho\\
lapaii' - j na? 1 n;'e 1 :h'- < 'iiina S- a - and ho\\ tin- |e MI!
l'io\ ;;.. ;.,!. v.h- n h- \\< :r .1 \ : itin:;. had t . - ' pa-
poll ho;:, ill- , h;, t loYi.-i . ..' ..i \ l< . - I';..

,' la I. in a !'!'! u i .!; !i r i I - I -, . leiati h< >\\ the

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 269

Japanese junks were cornering tin- i i< e trade to Manila ;
how they carried tour times the amount of silk between
Macao and ('hina that the Portuguese did ; and how
they had driven the Portuguese out of the ('odiin trade,
"a most < lamaging trallic lor us." \\V learn amongst
other items ol local gossip (and " loial " in the Far
Fast means from Singapore to \Iadi\o-toik), that in the
Japanese marine were two vessels ol complete Furopean
style, ol So and I oo tons respecti\ely. constructed under
the supervision of \\"ill Adams.

There is abundant evidence that the shipbuilding in-
dustry was at that time ol important dimensions. NV.heii
Hideyoshi invade<l Korea in i 5<;j it meant the transpor-
tation ol over joo.ooo men from .\aiM>\a to Fu-an. and
consequently the provision ot se\-eral thou-and vessels.
Again, the losses admitted by the Japanese in the naval
campaign included 500 war galleys. The war-hips of
those days had ordinarily two ma-ts, ^o to ,5 oars a-ide,
each with siv rowers, and numerous cannon for the di--
charge of shot, lire arrows and incendiary missiles. I''rom
the naval point ot view the victory ol the Korean- on
the water is ot interest, as it was due to the lirst armoured
vessel of which hi-tory tell-,. This -hip was imented b\
\'i Sun--in. Admiral of ('hull.i, and constructed according
to the pritici|)les of high -p:-ed and armament which re-main
to-day the basis ot sea power.

It w.i- c.ilk'd tlic /v";;/-w/;;, or " tnrtdisc-bo.il." It- .^rj.iU'-t pvCiili.ti itv
\v:is .1 c:n'\T(l deck i -I i:i>n p'.u.'- lil<i' the k.ck ni a ; >i li ii-c. \\';:ic!i
allorded co'.npk'U' j" 1 ; >tcc!p'r. t' 1 iiLj'ilfr- :rui lowers. In the ln;\s u.i>
;i (Ir.iuon'- ln'.ul ol iron \vi;ii oprn iiU'-atli, ilireugli w!:icli c.ir.n >n C"tiKl
hi- iliscli.u\icil. In tiu- -tt.-i n \v.i> .uuitlur ojvning in tin- -'i.ipc ot" .1
torioi>c-t.ul, .uul ihcri 1 wri\ - MX c.i:i'.i'>n pr.; on each -:dr. l)n tup ot
tiic cuiAed deck w.i- a n..: row walk tioni -!i-;n \<> -tern, and < nc ai;nd-
-liip- from -idc to >!>! . I-',\\'i'y otiicr par; . : 'he carved dick 1". !-!! d
with i'.on -pikt-s. -o t'.iat anv i-nciny ..:;e:nptii!L: t> 1^'ard v.^.iid tind
hi;n-eit iniiuediateix' !'.;:pal'\l nil a -core t ^pi-ar-!uad-. O\vr.;^ lu ti:e
iron deck the ve--el \v.:- impervioas to aUciiipts to set it aii:c.

The hulk ol tli;s vessel \\a- di<ro\-ered in tlie .-and-
at KO--IUI some thirt\" odd vears a^o, and formed the

2;o JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

subject of re]>orts by the British and American naval
authorities.

Sonic idea of the facilities for shipbuilding in Japan
at that tune may be gained from a letter written in \<>2o
by Cocks the Envji-h factor at llirado. He say-. :

There is ^i cat ordinance both of bra-<e and iron, with powdct and
shott, ijood, chcapc. Am! fur piovition ot Oiipint; fit her tvnibei 01
planke-, with ma-tes yaide-, or what cl-e [ make .1 shipp with j^ood
c.irpente: ~- to \v< 'i k it, a- al->> ro/en or pitch enough, bui no l.u i . . \l--o
there is heinpi. , nulilicicnt t(> in:ike i..il>k> .nul ti:eni \v!ii(.h c.in
rea-onablv well \\ rk it. And non woi k. ne.tU . .imi such lyke. there
i-> noe want, and -:nith- thai can make ancors ..I !iani' - r w. ii k of ^n or
30 C' wi^ht yf need be; foi -;Kh have l>vn made for carickt-s winch
came from Aui.icou to Nani^.ixuiuc'.

All thi> .ui'i-at de\cl>i>mc:it of ^hippini;' and shipbuilding
was Middcnly ^topj>cd when Hidetada dn ided that neither
hi^ own nor lu> >nbjet ts' >ouU were to be >a\ed by
the Je-uit>. and a< < ordi:i_L;l> put lii^ uuntr\ into ijuarantine
for a couple ot centuries.

It wa> not until i ; ">5>, when Commander Perry's
"-black veel-, " opened the c<u;n!r\, that Jon-i^'ii inter-

colir-e \\M^ I'e-tinied and atleinpt-, \\eic made to re\l\<-

shipbuilding and the mercantile marine. In llii-^ re\-iv.d
forei^nier-^ had a .^n-at -hare. Putiatm. < aptam ot the
Ru^-ian \\ar-hip l):<uhi, ulr.ih ua^ wrecki'd at Shimoda
in the earthquake and tidal wave of i.S;.}, taught tin
Japanese how tu build schooners a t \ pe of ve>>el \\hiih
be. atlie \ery popular III the coaMHi:; trade. In 1^5^
th" I>utch (io\crnnient ^"ave t!ie Sim ;un a .-mall \\ar-lnp,
and in 1 " ^ 7 ( .>uei-;i \i loii.i ;.;ave him a ^teain \.nht.
In i' -; 5'; the N.i 'a aki ( ioverpin-'tit !)> k\aid wa-> opened
under I)-;'i!i mana.'.emeni, and ;n succc-. i\e \e.ir-> the
\ard- at Vokoliam.i. \'ol-.o uka. and th <- en;;ineei inr, -hop,
at l-hikawajima. all under torei.'Ti mana;.;eme:it . In iH' j.
.i -mail Wooden wu ln;>. ill- ( hiv ."',//;/'/. A.I- launi hed
at Na;.-.a-aki. In th-- lift- n \eai-. jiom i .-'.;.) -.,> i SS ;.
.:'.'. > t e. une r -, w- n I > ' 1 1 '. ' .1:1! ; ; i i u n k , and hooner > .
In th'- latter yai a law wa > pa ed torbiddlli;; the (on-

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 271

struct ion of junks of over 500 koku, so as to encourage
the building' of steamers.

In the previous year the Mit-.u Hishi Company had
been formed and had taken over the Nagasaki Dockyard.
The Ishikavvajima works had already pa-^cd to private
ownership ; an Englishman, tin- late Mr. E. II. Hunter,
had founded the Osaka Iron Works; and in iSS6 the
Kawasaki Dockyard had been established at Kobe.

In i<S<;(> tin- Shipbuilding Encouragement Law was
passed, to remain in force for fifteen years, when it was
renewed with slight modifications. The subsidy was only
applicable to steel vessels, of which up to that time
only two had been built in Japan. The result was a
phenomenal advance* in construction. Whereas in iSo,6
the largest vessel built had been of 1,500 tons, the first
vessel ordered after the passage of the law was of 6,000
tons. .Within twenty years the same yards, which once-
regarded 6,000 tons as a dangerous risk, are turning
out with equanimity 15,000-1011 liners and 30,000-1011
super-Dreadnoughts and battle-cruisers. The payments
under the Shipbuilding Subsidy Law of 1909 are as
follows :

O A^S A Ci v-s I:

Stc.mi-Oiip^ u ill) a ( )Uu r

minimum nl 50 \e>^cN

bui Ih - <>r i K i !li
pc: it*) '."iis sjni>s
Yen

1. (Ocean-going) 23 per ton

II. iNYarSea>) 21

III. ((.'oastini;) 19

IV. (Smooth waters) i.j

The manner in which a mercantile marine has been
created and developed is no less notable and creditable.
The determination to make Japan a country of the world
instead of one outside, it was an old political argument
of the (faimyo, who opposed the rule of the Shogunate.
Some of them, especially the great Princes of Sat>uma
and Choshu, had long carried on an illicit intercourse
with foreign countries through the Luchti Islands, and

JAPAN AT Till-: CROSS ROAHS

\vere fully awake to the profit- to be made by foreign
trade. 1 he pioneer- ot the Meiji Mia, and none ot
them more than the much-lamented Man|ui- Inouye,
ret o'/m/ed thai commercial and maritime expan-ion \vere
a- nece--arv a- politi'a! or military domination if Japan

Ueje to be IV (l^Ill/ed a- b'-JIl^ Oil aU e(|Uallt\ U!tll other

1'ouei-. i hi- remain- true to-day, and in no direction
i- the Tok\" Foreign < Mine more a<ti\e than in findim;
fre-Ii rnaikei- i-u Japane-e export- and new route- tor
Japane-e -{ ainer-.

It ua- not. ho\v<\er. until the early 'eighties ot the
la-t century that it wa- po>uble to devote much atten-
iiori to the expan-in of the menaiitile marine. By that
time 1 to. Yama;;ata. and their colleague-- had reco^m/ed
the likelihood ot Japan fi^htine, ('luna one day in the
future. It i- a cardinal principle ol Japanese policy
that the -,<>il of 1 )at Nip])on mu-t not be polluted b\
i:iva-ioi). 'I he corollary i- that in ca>e ot a foreign war
an expi'litionary tone mu-t be -cut abroad. The
p rob 1. -in ;o t>e ta> ed wa- one of 1 1 a i -) MM tat ion . In 1^71
the (\\a-aki family had -tailed the Mit-u I'5i-hi Steam-
-hip ' Minpany. \\!u h UM- in receipt ot a -mall -ub-idy
from th'- '..,n\ ' ; nni' nt tor it- Sha: ;.;hai -ervice. A le\v
\-ar- lat'-r a rr.al ompaiiy hid been e-tabli-hed, the
Kyido I n\u Yu-en l\'a:-ha, and a late uar -et in. I he
t\\o compame-. fnu;;h' eai h oth< i toi'th and nail, and the
l! ;ht v.a, i on-ideiably embitt--ied by political con-idera-
t;on^ bcin;.; importecl mto the contro\er^y. I-inalK, in
i . ;. inlhieiii e \\a- bio;i;;ht to bear, and the tuo rival-
1 c. down t' ..;-'h'-r and iiiiali;amated into the Nipjio
Yu i n K a ' ha | i ! -an Mail Steam -hi j> C< ini; MU\ >, \\ lu< h
r-ruain- to ila\ th-- pnnu'-r [< am-hip i mnpany < ( th<-
At th'- time of th'- ama; '.amation the N \'l\ . had
: . if - ',-', \< , el-. :ii'a di'i:; ' .}. \''^ 'o:.-. A i;"\< rnment
i !' \\ a - ob' allied t 1 >i t he i .: i ;a: ; i 't inal i > a 'id t oil
i ilia! on iniMovcinent- and add.tion^ to th,- lie.-;. 'I he
'.'.' ua if at v.'r'i ill- \var ui'h < luna bi'oke out

I -;:. '!) '. ,..,,- . ,, ,, .,!,',
h ,- mil, i,i i ;<) ' o i,,:

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 27

The Os.'ik.'i Shoscn Kaisha was formed in 1884, and
was, in fact, an amalgamation of some seventy different
owners, who had until then been endeavouring' with vary-
ing success to cut each other's throats in the coastal
trade. The mutual difficulty in making both ends meet
brought them together in a co-operative scheme, which
widened into an amalgamation as a limited company with
a capital of 1,400,000 yen. The ileet at that time
consisted of a hundred small coasters. The Government
granted a subsidy on terms similar to those given to the
N.V.K., so that at the opening of hostilities in 1894
the authorities took up 12,500 tons from the Company, the
boats being all good sea-going craft. As both the N.V.K.
and the O.S.K. owed their establishment to cut-throat
competition, it might be assumed that they would in their
turn compete with each other. This is not so ; their
spheres hardly clash. The N.V.K. is particularly de-
voted to the North of Japan and the East Pacific coast-
board, whilst the- O.S.K. is essentially interested in
the home provinces, the fertile and industrial centre
of which Osaka, Kyoto, and Nagoya are the
capitals.

Up till the period of the China .W^ar the steamship
services abroad were limited to Shanghai and Korea.
The successful conclusion of the war and the post bcllnm
indemnity boom gave an enormous impetus to commercial
expansion. Of this the steamship companies were not
slow to take advantage. The N.V.K. opened in i8<;5
a monthly service to Europe, and in the following year
lines to Tacoma, Bombay, and Australia. The O.S.K.
inaugurated services up the Vang-tse, to Formosa,
the (iulf of Pechili, and to Hong Kong and South
China.

The war had another very important result. The
Japanese have never failed to recogni/e the uses of
publicity, and the Press campaign which followed the
Treaty of Shimono-cki, and has not yet ended, made of
Japan a Mecca for tourists, a fate which she most
thoroughly, deserves, thanks to her wonderful scenery.,

2;4 JAI'AN AT Till-: CROSS ROADS

The touri-t traffic is e-timated to be worth U '',000.000
}KT aniuiiii, and tho-r who have -erii the i;reai liners of
the P.M.S., C.r.K., G.X.R. and T.K.K. d;-< liar-in-
hundred- of '^lobe-trotting Americans on to the hatolxi
at Yokohama ran well credit it. It was to capture a
slice of this tratlir that the 1'ovo I\i-en Ka;-ha was
founded in I'-'o.^'. The nervier was H 011:4 Kon- and or
M. i;:il. i, Shanghai. Japan, Honolulu. San I -'ram i-t o. and
vice vcr^n, and three fa-t liner- .were built in I'.n^l.ind
and put on the route. Later three very fine turbine
flyers, built in Japan, were added. They are the
^/linyo Mara, C/n'rt) Marti, and I\'H\'O Miirti, and they
are ccrtaiiily tlie three nm-t coniJ'ortaiil boat> on tin-
North 1'aeili'-. The Chivo Md'U ha- -ince if. en wrcekeil.

I)urinu;' tin Ru->o-Jai>ane-t- War all the-e > oinjianies
[)crfonii'-tl valuabl" services to the Stale in -up])l\'ini;
tran-jiorts, ho--;-ital >!ii;is. and auxiliary irin-er-. Afier
tli'- 'J'rraty )! I'oi t -nm'a'li the iner. an;ile marine received
i;reat expansion, and it ha- now bet nine the op< n Imjie
o! |apane.-e o\\?ie:- to capture the I'aeilie (lade. Ill
th: de-ire they i;a\c, and quit: ri.ditiv. the sup]Krt of
th"'r ;.,o\ eniin ni . There i- iurhi;ij vdn- h the Japane-e
a\i!!iori;ii-^ eon-ider so important a- th" e\pan-:on ot die
inx'i-i!)!' 1 nnjxirt- o! the country. I hi- !:<> at the bottom
of a ;.. ood manv < uriou- move-, on their part, but the
tr-u'di i that th" linan i il eondition- ol tin- (otintiy are

!o pat it nnldl. -o in< on\ '-nieiit tiiat ea -v money must
b- obtain' d, 1:1 ho.vever ;-mall iju-intiti'-- and e\en at

the i 0-t ol . i;;( i: on !/mi; torei;.;li IcellllL', . I hat It may
plov e\|, ; |\c !!!"; '. ill the elid 1- be-ide ihe j'oint ;
I! I IlllIM'-dlate Hi- iney .

in i,'-; ' h" La .\ io; di' Lii' oura;; me".l ot \a\ lu.'.atioii

\\a pa '. it v. a .inrnd<-d in loo-j a".d remains,

; i ditlv n,o iiin-d.. in fon < n i-da> . A- < onlim. to th-

!,; t \..\v.' lii' i v. a - a :;enei.il -ui> idy loi .ill o, i ali-;;oini;

!-, p! 1 : an additional <nb-id\ tor \< el-, on pe ( UK

lo-r . In \>><><>, lioss- V r, thi- law v. a alt'ied <> a-

to aj)j,ly only to Jaji.ii:- ^ budt Meam- i ot 1< . than

tift'-en \eal "t a" . o( .c j. , t : . to. r - i . , , ( ( 1 .1

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 275

minimum speed of 12 knots, and plying regularly between
specified termini. The rate of subsidy is :

50 sen (=is. o{d.) per ton ^ross per thousand miles, />/<$ 10 per cent.
per knot over 12 knots, mtnux 5 per cent, for each year over five years
of age.

Japanese-owned hut foreign-built vessels under five years of njje if
employed \vilh the consent of the authorities may receive one-half of
the above snbsidv.

Japanese-owned and built vessels constructed to plans approved by
the naval and military authorities receive an addition of 25 per cent, of
the above rates.

The above law expired in 1914, and as a result of
the opposition to the generous scale on which subsidies
had been granted, modifications were introduced. By
the Law of 1915 the amounts payable are:

OVKRSKAS SKKYICK SUBSIDY.

No. Of

Min.

Services

Route-
European ...
N. American

Comp.inv
X Y K

Steam-
ships
I i

Min.

Speed
Knots

I T

Year

Amount
Yen

X.Y.K.

/ o
5o

... 14 .

.. 26 I

O.S.K.

4 ...

5,500 .

.. 14 .

.. 26

2,924.777

T.K.K.

13,500 .

.. IS .

.. 14 )

S. American
Australian ...
South Seas ...

T.K.K.
\ Y K.

3
3

0,000

>OoO

13 .
15

.. 6 ..

. 303. <><*>
183,206
28o,OOO

Xan-yo Y.K.

4 ...

3,200 .

.. 14 .

.. 16 ...

COASTING AND NKAK SEAS SKKYICK SIT.SIDY.

Yang-t<e ...

XNshin Y.K. .

.. Shangai-Hankow Ichang, etc.

Sh.mo.ii ...

X.Y.K

.. Kobc-Shan^.ii

N. China ...

X.Y.K

.. Kobe-Ne\veluv:ui^' ...

I). lit en

, O.S.K

Kobc-Cheinulp"-Daricn

Hokkaido ..,

, X.Y.K., etc. .

.. Kokkaido, Sayhalien and Kuriles ...

Islands ...

X.Y.K., etc. .

. Uijasawaiii, Luchu-, Boains

Owing to the tactics of the Opposition, the Diet was
dissolved in December, 1914, without the new subsidy
law being passed, and the above grants were made by
the Cabinet under the authority of an Imperial Ordinance
'(equal to an Order in Council). After the General Elec-

276 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

tion in May, 1915, the Diet approved of a new law,
to be in force for four years to 1920, and the figures then
authorized, including 1 those for 1915, which were con-
firmed, showed a reduction of no less than 17,500,000
yen on the figures for the preceding 'five years. This
drastic change demonstrates to a certain extent the op|x>-
sition felt in Japan to the subsidies. 'The Ini|x-rial
Government (both the Imperial Household and the most
prominent statesmen are heavily involved in Japanese
shipping finance) lias protected the companies at the
expense of the traders. The former have been bolstered
up to a fictitious state of prosperity. The subsidies and
bounties received from the treasury consistently exceed
the net profits of the companies. 1'revious to the
outbreak of the European ,\Var doubts were freely
expressed as to the future of Japanese shipping, and
there need be no hesitation in quoting [x)pular opinion
that the outbreak of hostilities was a godsend. The
removal ol German and Austrian shipping from the face
of the water> and the severe demands of the JJritish
Admiralty for tonnage practically left the Pacific
trade in Japanese hands. High freights have given
larger profit^., and increased working expenses have not
been so noticeable in the Orient a^ in the <>ceident.
The scarcity of tonnage in the Atlantic ha. enabled
Japanese owners to employ their >hips in n<-\v trades.
For example, the \.Y.K. are trading to New York, and
the (>.S.K. to Kurojx:. In addition, -.nine extraordinary
bargain-, have been driven in Mvond-hand tonnage,
ves>el-, bnnglit from I'Zurojx- |ii-t b< tore or alter war
broke ont Iwing -.nM at an advam e of Joo and ><><> pci

that some
U in
IIIL;!I
i' hoin

\ an{a;'e<uis to ih<-
nnl\ ''-i/inur l<ng
i otinter;n t the e\il

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 277

effects of too much subsidy. No reader should imagine,
however, that the time has rorne for him to speculate in
N.Y.K. shares. Jle might be well advised to do so if
he. could, but as no foreigner is allowed to hold any,
he is protected against himself. This regulation is one
of the shrewdest points in Japanese administration. There
is a long list of semi-official, heavily subsidized con-
cerns banks, railways, steamship companies from which
foreigners are barred. In addition, Japanese law pro-
hibits foreign -owned vessels from carrying cargo or
passengers between Japanese ports. .WJiilst the latter
regulation only hits the native shipper, the former is
one which ought to be imitated in Great Britain, where
it would do much to expel German influence from our
commercial circles.

An important company which has not been mentioned
is the Nisshin Risen Kaisha (Japan-China Steamship
Company) which was formrd in i<;o<\ and was an
amalgamation of four rival services in Chinese waters.
They were the Hunan Steamship Company, the; Daito
Steamship Company (both Japanese concerns), and the
Vang-tse services of the X.V.K. and O.S.K. This
Company now has some 30,000 tons afloat and has an
ever-increasing share of the Vang-tse and China coastal
trade. It is an im{X)rt;int consideration in the foreign
policy of the Tokyo Foreign Office, as all the world
became aware when it was put forward as a purchaser
of the China Merchants' Steamship Company during the
Revolution of 1912, a deal that was very fortunately
frustrated. Other imjxmant lines important politically
more than commercially are those to South America
and the South Seas. That to the nitrate ports has an
additional rat's on d'etre in the efforts made to find satis-
factory outlets for Japanese emigration. Various attempts
have been made in South America, but without any
considerable success being achieved. Japanese eyes have
been turned to the South Seas since the days of Voshida
Shoin, the Choshu patriot who was executed by the Shogun
for trying to leave Japan on one of Perry's ships.

2;S JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

Yo-hida was the champion of a vast scheme of expansion
beyond the seas, which included the absorption of Korea
and parts of China and of the inlands of the South Pacific.
The formation in 1012, under government au-piccs of
tlie Nan-yo Vusen Kai-ha, war, only a step towards the
realization of long-deferred hopes, to which another step
wa- added by the occupation of the German Hands
last winter.

The subsidi/ed shipping 1 i- that jx>rtion of Japan's
mercantile marine with which the foreign public is mo-t
fiimiliar. But it i> by far the least imjxtrtant in volume
of the total tonnage. The total tonnage of the mercan-
tile marine at the end of 1914 was 1,577,025 tons gro^s
of steam tonnage, and 513.244 tons gro-s of sail, exclud-
ing' all vessels of under 20 tons. In addition there were
250,000 ton> registered at Damn. The tonnage engaged
in Japanese waters was about I [ million, and on tin-
Korean and Chinese ( oa-t- about three-quarters of a
million, the rest b'-ing scattered in various <juaner- of
the globe. In addition, at the outbreak of war about
2.000,000 ton- of fon i;'ii -hipping wa- under charter to
Japanese owner-. The mo-t important owner- and ( har-
terer> of freight -'teenier- an- the Mit-ui l'.t:->-an ; tin-
Mit-u I'Mii ; the Hokkaido Tanko ..Steam-hip and
Colliery Company) ; the Su/i:ki Coin; any of Kobe : and
the I'kon and <>\a linn- in the eoa-ting trad''. Tin
Mit>u Mi-hi and th M:t-ui I'.u-^an ate the two greatest
firm- of j.ipan, th'- iriation- re -|.ei ti\ dy ot the Iwa-aki
and Mit-ui families. The Mit-u llMu 1'oik.anU at
Nagasaki and Kobe are ra -ilv the nn>-t inijioi tant in
'.In- lountrv. The \a:;a-aki yar-i i over-, an are i o|
115 acre--, with a water f:o;ita,;e ot m-arlv t\\o mill--
Tin- rquiplneat i- thoio;;,h!\- up to <la'e ; the ma< hlllcs
and tool-, ari- eh-iiri ally ilii\rii. It- i ontributson - .o the
m-ri antili- HUNT- irnlude the '/ < ny<> \Lir:i and ('/i:v<>
Miiru I 1.500 ton i. ot ill' 1 T.K l\.. air! til-- Kan:* Marti
and a mnnbrt oi m t < ',i li.vi toi th" Kurop.-.m and
Ani'-ri an Iin- of th-- \ .',' i; . .ml ( ) S K i or the n.ivy
tin- Mlt u I;i-hl IMM- a Ion ; il t to tii n < ledlt. iln hiding

FINANVK, INDl'STRV, AM) (OMMKKCK .79

torpedo bunts, destroyers and cruisers, and ending with
the battle-cruiser A'/r.'s/////^/, completed in 1915, < i: 'd the
//yu<rfi, a }o.ooo-ton super-Dreadnought, now on tin-
stocks. 'I he Kobe yard is mostly devoted to mercantile
construction and repair^, for which latter the tuo floating
docks ot 7,000 and i j.ooo tons respectively come in
handy. A- an instance of rapid construction by this
firm, it may be meniioned iliat in \o\emher, 101.4,
the navy placed rush orders for two de-troy<T.s with the
Mitsu I'islii. The boat-; were laid down and launched
inside of fourte.i-n week-.

The Kawa-aki I )o kyard. which is largely under the
influence and administration of the M.itsiikata family,
can turn out anvthin;.;' from a sl'-am launch to a battle-
cruiser. The Y(t*i!/;<i Marii, one of the craek T.K.K.
boat-;, < ame from hep', as also several of the <).S.K.
Seattle liners, and two lo.ooo-ton boats are now in hand
for the N.Y.K. Panama service'. In navy work Kawa-
saki has a proud record. In i <; i ^ tlie battle-cruiser
lliirnim was compleicd, and 'he Ycmtshiro, naiiie ship of
a new clu-vs of stiper-Dreadnou^lu^, has been laid down.
The |;:])inese Prc-s averts tlial ihe ne\\~ t\"pe v, ill opi'ii
up some nc'w idea- in na\\il arcliiteciure. AS the Japanese-
claim to have invnted the Dreadnought, the baltle-
ci'iii-er and the oceaii-LVoiau;" de-iro\'er, the evolution ot
the Yannt^liiro will be awaited v/itli interest by naval
architects abroad. 1 In TV i- a Ka\\'a-aki rej-air yard at
! hiiren.

The ()-aka Iro;;work- C'ompan\', founded by .in
I-'n^lishman, own^ th'-ee yards close to < >saka, ha\'in;^
--e\'en dry dock- an'! seven berths, m addition to repair
yard-' at Moji and Keelun^', l-'ormosa. i''or many \ears
the Osaka Company : -:ru.;e; led wi;h adversity, and it has
nex'er obtained the \\ide renown of the oilier two
companies. Tin- wa- ro; due io an\' i:u k of excellence
in \\'ork, but to it- poor i"eo--rap]:i 'al position, the
shallow water on th<- front, and la k of p.o!i:i.\d jtull.
It was not until the ( )-ak.i Ilaibour \\"o:ks were
undertaken that th, L lirm came into its own. Xeverlhe-

28o JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

less, it launched the first steel vessel in Japan and was
first to introduce triple-expansion engines. During the
Chinese and Russian wars the yard undertook a lot of
work for the navy, and has turned out a number of fast
torpedo boats, destroyers, and patrol boats. It has been
closely associated with the development oT the <>.S.K.
At the present moment it has more tonnage on its order
Ixjoks than any other yard in Japan.

< hi May 31, 1015, the following new tonnage, exclu-
sive of navy work (125,000 ton-), was on order in
Japan-:-

Nagasaki (M.I i.) ... 7 str.tiiK 1 ! -< ... -j'/.y <> t< p n s ,^i" s s

Kobe- > M.I;. ... ;> 11.71*1

.. (K.D.i ... ... .,N,

0-wik.uO.IAV.) ... JJ ... NI.;,..

\'.il lull- in 1 :;.."' >

Since that dale orders for .mother ^70.000 tons have been
placed. In hut, the \anU are now unable to rope with
the work ottered them. The Mit-it l)i-hi re. ently
announced that the statement that tiie Kn-^ian Yolunieei
Fleet had ordered a li:ier from them was untrue ; tin-
latter had a-ked them to < on-truct three steamer-, but
it had been imj>o>-ibl'- to accept the order, owmi; to the
num!)er of < ontrarts on hand.

It \\ould appear fiom the balan--- sheet- ot shipbuild-
ing i oi!i]).tni'-s a- if new <o;i^tnn lion \\a- .1 \ei\ hi. i.iiue
bu-ine^-. Ther-- i> n-a-on to doubt whether i; i- eiju.ilK
M> for the rountry. A rei ent icport ot the M'-n .n:ile
Marine Uur'-au ol the I )epartin<-nt ot ('oinmene [xnnt-
out that in rea'i'y only ve-seN ot up to j.ooo ton-- r.m
be e< onomii ally built in [apan. I h-- ro i ot I.u.'.ei
Ve ',]- eX' eed by fiom IJ ! to Jo per (en!, tlf ro-t o|
(on tiU'tion abroad, p';; . th'- i;n|oit dutie and . \p< n-< -.
i'roli.ibly uhat th" Department \\ i h to indi> a'e i- that
what i a hi' rative bu-ine lo|- th-- baildei j a \ei\
bad one for th'- (oUlltlV. Alt' I ail, tin blalin- 1- oil

KINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND TOMMKRCK 281

the Department, for it is owing to the subsidies that
matters arc so. It is tin- government and the subsidi/ed
companies who an- the best customers of the shipbuilders.
It is difficult to see how construction can be economical
when the steel foundries cannot turn out sufficient material
for the- use of the government, let alone the private yards.
A production of four times the quantity would barely
meet the pre-war demand. Kven then Japan IKLS no ore
resources of her own, and is obliged to import from
Sweden, Kngland, India, and China. In addition, many
imjxjrtant parts cannot be manufactured in Japan, but
have to be imported. The bubble about Japan being
able to manufacture everything she requires herself is
blown. Admiral Yashiro, Minister of the Xavy, recently
admitted in the Diet that only 70 per cent, of the
material used in the Hanuia was made in Japan, and, in
addition, turbines and other machinery came from Kng-
land. Similar conditions, though not to so great an
extent, prevail in mercantile construction. This notwith-
standing, the Japanese- have brought the shipbuilding
industry to a very high level, both as to output and
quality, and its future will be watched abroad with con-
siderable interest and sympathy.

The Toyo Risen Raisha lately announced that it has
tinder construction a new liner which will, when completed,
be the crack vessel on the Pacific. It is being" built at
the Tsurumi yard, recently laid do\\n near Yokohama on
the shores of Tokyo Hay by the President, Mr. Asano.
The Sd/i r'rdiicisco Mam is to be 03 h feet long ;
her quadruple-expansion engines will develop 23 knots,
and she will have accommodation for 300 first-class,
i oo second-class, and Soo steerage passengers. Tin-
new boat will be 40 feet longer than the- latest Kmpre>s
class of the Canadian Pacific Ocean service.-,. The Sun
Francisco Marit marks a new departure in Japanese
shipping' policy, which is attracting a good deal of atten-
tion in American commercial and official circles. Hitherto
the T.R.R. boats have- run from San Francisco to Yoko-
hama, and on to Hong- Rong. making connections at the

2S2 JAPAN AT Till-: CROSS ROADS

latter place for Manila. The development of the
JajKine-e tran-pacili' service-, has. then-fore, been a
matter of general utility to all Americans trading in the
J-'ar Ka-t, for, whether via San Frajv i-co or Seattle.
they have 1)' en, in la- t, through -'-rvice- to China. Tin-
new boat i- only to run between Yokohama and San
I- rancisco, and the China end i- to be left to -mailer
\e--el-. Since the war and the consequent -horta^e of
tonnage sufficient to .erve to whole I-'ar Ka-t, Japane-e
line-> have concentrate I th< ir bi^' .-hips on the cro-s-1'acitic
service, which is, <it cour-e, of va-tly greater importance
to the country. The announcement that the new c\pre-s
steamers are only to run betwei-a America and Japan
empha-i/cs the new policy that Japanese line- arc there
to -,crve Japane-e intere-ts lir.-i. and that American.
Chinese, and Philippine wants mu-t be m--t fioni other
-ourre-. Comment from Am- ncaii oliicial -our< e- on
the change i- rath'-r a> rid. but there i- no real rea-on for
it. American legislation ha- done e\vr. thin;; it j>o--ibl\
<an to drive the American llav; on the I'ac'.hc. and
the only Ameri' an lin- now runnin;; i- doin- -o in -pile
of otiii ial di-abili'.ic-, and not be< au-e oi oi.-'n-ial aid.
.After dn\'in; r Am-rican e\[Kirter- to depend on Japane-e
shipping. Ann-rii an ofiieialdoni -eem- quite p-e\:di be-
t au-e th'' fapan<--e lin- -. an- d^nion tratin;:' th.ii they are
in budne !or tli"ir own and th"ir i oimtry's i;ood. and
not for that ot tlr- Sta'---. An rxpe- ted de\-e!o|.ment

of th 1 ' IieW M-rVJer \\iil be tile tran-lef ol 'lie fap.llle-e

-ilk imjHir'! trade from Seattle t<> San I'lancixo. 'I he

holt Voyage b\ IiiM 1 ll la !e| and better boats \\lll redilii

!n-uran< e (har'<- t-i a n.i:i;m-:n. one ol the mo .t i:n
jxirt.mt eleni'-iit o| ;he ti.i ! and as \\\>- mil' a_..'.e hum
San I ran' i ( o to \i-.v YOI! i ;!) '.ini'- as tti.i.'i Si-attic
the futu-e u;'! pi-'tb.i!'!'. -e t!)c J.ij m Shi; S;" lai runnm;/
f p.rn :!) o-;'ii- : n po! ' in 'e i ! "t ' - i:o: -hern . 'I he
' 1 1 a n , ; in | a ; i : ; j i ' i . -, . i \ < : i it permanent, b \ 1 1
Hi' an invn!\e an\ < iim;;.-;' -0:1 i.l |api:" mi-re t n
'he ( 'inna t : .1 'e. b::t on! ilia' 'In v. :! 1- < m d lor

FINANCK, INDUSTRY, AND COMMKRCK 2X5

the big liners will make the terminus of their trans-
pacific voyages in a home port instead of in Hong
Kong.

An interesting report was issued in September, 1916,
by the Department of Commerce at Washington, dealing
with Transpacific shipping. It is intended to show the
altered conditions which the war has brought about on
the Pacific, and particularly emphasizes the remarkable
expansion of the Japanese share. Commercial Attache
Arnold and Vice-Consul Kirjasoff, who are the authors
of the report, estimate the total pre-war yearly freight
capacity in Transpacific shipping- meaning thereby regular
steamers running" between the- Orient and North Pacific
Coast ports at 1,387,1 13 tons. This tonnage was made;
up as follows: 353,060 tons, or 25*45 per cent.,
American; 410,305 tons, or 29*58 per cent., British ;
256,248 tons, or 18*47 percent., (ierman ; and 367,500
tons, or 2 6* 5 per cent., Japanese. The conditions in
May of tlie present year are calculated by the same
authorities as follows : The total available, yearly tonnage
on regular lines of all nations was 960,960 tons, and this
was supplemented by 130,000 tons estimated for chartered
shipping. The 960,960 tons were made up as follows :
19,000 tons, or i'97 per cent., American ; 364,260
tons, or 37'9 per cent., British; 100,000 tons, or
10*04 per cent., Dutch ; and 477,700 tons, or 50*09
per cent., Japanese. If the 130.000 tons of shipping*
capacity chartered by the Japanese lines are added, the
Japanese percentage rises to 55*75 per cent., and tin-
percentages of tonnage under other ilags are necessarily
proportionately decreased. Of course. since May the
percentage of tonnage under tin- American llag has been
rising through the appearance of the Pacific Mail Service
on the Transpacific route once more, but it must be
remembered that the Japanese percentage is also rising.
and that the young world Power of the Far Ka>t is
making every effort to consolidate and make permanent
the fruits of the opportunity which she, has sei/ed with
such energy and determination. A Dutch correspondent

284 JAPAN AT THIC CROSS ROADS

in the Far Ka^t, dealing with the same subject, says that
Japan ha> conquered the Pacific trade, and there is
practically no port of inif>ortance there which Japanese
lines are not serving. A noteworthy development, too, is
the extension of these services to South America, and
regular services are actually in being all along the Pacific
roa>t, whilst lines are announced to commence early next
>car to Plate and lira/ilian {xjrts. Almost the biggest
business Ixrtween San Francisco and Australia is being
done by the ( )saka Shosen Kaisha, much to the disgust
of American lines which formerly controlled the trade.
\V.e may quote a sjx-ech by Mr. Samuels, managing
director of the Oceanic Company of San Francisco, in
which he say.s : "It is only a question of time until
the Pacific becomes a Japanese lake, for their working
co>ts are much less than ours, and they receive official
backing in a manner quite unknown over here." One
can quite understand the bitter references of American
Writer^ to the Japanese subvention system, in view of
the persistent efforts of the American authorities to drive
the American mercantile marine out of business. There
H no doubt that Japan has sei/ed with both hands the
opportunity uhi h the war has given her to consolidate
and develop her marine business, and no one will blame
her for making the nio-t of it.

The ioilowin^ translation, from an arti< le contributed
by a Ku>-ian \ui'er to th'- lltirl>:u s/; ; IVx//;//;, i;ive-> a
very good .summary ot the < han^e-, in Ja[)an\ industrial
{.o-ition a^ a re-ult ot the war :

Japan ha-> in recent years developed its manufactures,
ha 1 - found ii'-w niaik't- tor it-; produ t>, parti<ulaily in
ku--ia an<l ih'- <'entral and So'.uh American I\ej>ublics,
and now ha-, the very be-,t ojijortumty to become one
oi the lor'-ino-t i oinniereial countries. In I'y<>.> the total
turnover of Jajian'- lorei-n trade was ooo.uoo.ooo yen
> ,(><>.<>'><>.< xx > < 4 It :.;:a'h:all\ in<i<a-.ed until in P)O5
;i v, a ,'S I o,(;( j- '.ooo .:! , in I'^lo it \\ a - < ;J J ,< -00,000
%-n ; in I'/lJ th'- am- 1 in it wa - 1 , 1 S;*.ooo,< >oo yen ;
an-' in i >} i 5 it w.i 1 , 34 I ,ouo,oo<j yen ($<>'/, 500,000 >.

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 285

Japan's business was chiefly with England (27 per cent.),
America (23 per rent.), and Cliina (20 per cent.) In
only a few countries with which it dealt was the balance
in Japan's favour America, China, Russia, and I-' ranee.
Japan's total balance, with the exception of the years
1906 and 1909, was not in its favour up to 1915,
although in 'the last few years its exerts have been
increasing steadily. In 1915 Japan's trade took a turn
for the better. The exports exceeded the imports by
175,800,000 yen (87,900,000). In the first half of
1916 the exjxjrts exceeded the imports, according to pre-
liminary reports, by 80,000,000 yen (^40,000,000;.
Ten years ago there were only 4,000 factories in Japan
using power machinery, with an aggregate of 120,000
horsepower. At present the country has i 6,000 factories,
using 1,125,000 aggregate horsepower and employing
1,500,000 workmen. In July, 1907, Japan possessed
a commercial steamer fleet with a total net tonnage of
679,000; on July i, 1916, it had a fleet with a net
tonnage of 1,169,105. It is easily understood that the
Japanese wish to reach such a state in their industries that
they may feel the least possible dependence upon other
countries. But this is very difficult on account of the
scarcity of natural wealth in Japan, which is such that,
notwithstanding all endeavours, they have not been able
to meet the demands of their manufacturers for raw
products. The yearly growth of Japanese industries has
increased the demand for raw products, and to meet
this demand Japan is forced to import raw products
from other countries. It is said that ten years ago
this condition was even more unfavourable, and that
only on the acquisition of Korea, Kwangtung, and South
Manchuria was relief felt. I low much Japan is in need
of raw products is shown by the import statistics. Of
the total imports, to the value of 488,500,000 yen, for
eleven months of the last year for which figures are
available (1915), 312,600,000 yen represented raw pro-
ducts and 89,700,000 yen semi-manufactured products.
Of the raw. products imported by Japan the following

286 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

are among the articles of greatest value : Cotton,
200.000.000 yen ; wool, 28,100.000 yen ; linen and
hemp, 7,800,000 yen. All of Japan's agricultural area
is occupied by rice-fields and orchards. Cotton, the
most important raw product necessary to Japanese in-
dustries, is raised in very small amounts. Almost all
the large quantity of raw cotton Used in Japan is imported.
Cattle-raising in Japan is MI. h that it cannot be favourably
compared with even that of countries of less importance.
I'nder these conditions Japanese industries are unable
to obtain even such important domestic products as hides
and wool, but nevertheless the country produces many
articles of leather, the whole raw product for which must
come from abroad. The >anie is true of woollen goods,
but woollen and semi -woollen textiles are not largely manu-
factured, .ind Japan to a great extent uses foreign-made
goods (ino.stly English). Hardly any flax or jute is
rai-ed in Japan, but this does not hinder the Japanese
from exerting canvas, bags, and other manufactures of
these product-. Among the more important Japanese
raw and semi-manufactured imported products the amounts
for eleven months of i <; i 5 were : Sheet iron, 19,400,000
yen : pig iron and iron ore, '>.ooo,ouo yen : iron pi|x\
1,^00,000 y<-n ; rail-. ' 00,000 yen ; lead, 2.500,000
yen ; paper pulp, 5/100.000 yen ; linen yarn. 800,000
yen ; leather, i,'- 00,000 yen. For eleven months of 1014
the amount- we re : Sheet iron, 2 },<;oo,ooo yen ; pig 1
iron and iron ore, 7,^00,000 yen ; iron pipes, 4,000.000
yen ; raiN. 2,000,000 yen ; lead, 2.700.000 yen : pajxT
pulp, 4.100.000 \rii ; linen yarn, ;. 500.000 yen :
leather, i , .'-.(jo. ooo yen. Although Japan'-- mining in-
du-trv is weil org.mi/ed. the production of iron ore is
o .-mall that fajMii nri-t import from < lima more than
; oo.o< >o ooo j;n i < ,t ,i \,i i , ; ; Ib.j iif i a-t iron. I icm
I-Jigl.'ind, Sweden, and < .ermany Japan imi-oit- man-
'.Cii<- e-nnn allo 1 /, mirror -at ii'on. iron i
MM].,. From Am- ri a are iinj>ortcd pe\\t'i

I I' iW lUU" h [.(Ji Hi 1 . Ill Iiecd (;f IIOll i

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 287

a special column of imports headed " old iron," of which
120,000,000 jiu (160,000,000 It).) are imported yearly.
In all, raw and semi-manufactured iron products im-
jwrtcd into Japan amount to 100,000,000 yen yearly.
Notwithstanding 1 ihc fad ih.it Japan is dependent on
other countries for iron, it has been able to develop a
g<x)d metal industry, with the exception of machinery.
Machine' manufacturing 1 was badly organized in Japan
'before the war, so that it was necessary to import from
other countries, principally from (Germany. Since the; war
Japan has been forced to build its own machine shops ;
that is to rebuild and extend machine shops and ship-
building" yards, either belonging to the Government or
else subsidized by the Government. It is stated, how-
ever, that even at the present time machinery is being
imported. Japan's imports for eleven months of 1915
in various lines were : Food products wheat, 1,500,000
yen ; rice, 4,600,000 yen ; bean products, 8,500,000
yen; sugar, 13,600,000 yen ; miscellaneous, including
tobacco, 3,800,000 yen. Manufactures cloth, 2,800,000
yen ; satins, velvet, etc., 1,700.000 yen ; paper,
2,700,000 yen ; iron nails, 6,400,000 yen ; naphtha,
7,600,000 yen. For eleven months of 1914 the figures
were : Food products wheat, 8,300,000 yen ; rice,
24,300,000 yen; bean products, 12,400,000 yen;
sugar, i 9, 700,000 yen : miscellaneous, including tobacco,
4,000.000 yen. Manufactures cloth, 4,600,000 yen ;
satin, velvet, etc., 1,900,000 yen ; paper, 4,600,000
yen ; iron nails, 500,000 yen ; naphtha, 7,400,000 yen.
Notwithstanding Japan's great progress in textile manu-
facture-, still it import^ cloth and the better qualities of
woollen textile- > principally from England > besides cotton
piece goods. This is explained by the better quality
of foreign goods. During the past year the Japanese
have been very much intere-ted in hops, which before
the war were brought from Germany, and are now being
offered by America. Line"! and bristles also are sought,
and it is known that several sales ot them have been
made, There have al.v> been inquiries through the Russo-

288 JAl'AN AT THE CROSS ROADS

Japanese Association as to the possibility of receiving
jxjtash and tobacco from Russia, hut the very hi^h price
of {x>ta^h makes it impossible to do this business until
thr clo-H' of the w.ir. As to leaf tobacco, this question
has not been fullv examined."

ril/UTKK SIX
SOCIAL CONDITIONS

PART I

IT will probably be a long time before the world arrives
at a just estimate of the Japanese character, and when
it does it will most likely be found somewhere half-way
between the fulsome standard set up by the Japanophiles
and the equally exaggerated low level claimed by the
Japanophobes. Although the country has now been
opened more than half a century, admitted to the so-
called comity of nations for twenty years, and in alliance
\\ith (ireat Britain for thirteen years, it remains a paradox
that no nation has been so misunderstood by the Western
world, and of no nation has the Western world thought
it knew more. The explanation is simple. The imita-
tive powers of the Japanese have been of a remarkably
high quality, \vhilst their secrctiveness has prevented
almost /// toio critical examination of the depth of their
assimilation of foreign civilixation. To a large extent
the foreigner has been dependent for his information
upon the valuation given by Japanese officialdom, and
of the nature of that valuation the bookshelves of any
first-class library or the columns of the daily press during
the last two decades are eloquent witnesses.

It is only during very recent years that information
of the true conditions have been available, owing entirely
to the private enterprise ol Japanese investigators and
thinkers, who have gone past the vain imaginings of
bureaucracy and examined matters at their source. In
this work none have been more industrious than the

19 2Sg

290 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

proprietor-- at th'- Osaku A^ih; SIr.mbnn, a new-paper
of Ljreat ( irculation and prc-ti.;e, and iiulerx-ndrnt from
the mflurnc'- lit authoiity, the Tokyo I\rorunni*t, a monthly
review oJ hi^li standing, and the f\t)kunrn Xi/ss///, a
retleetive or^an \vho-e anii de- arc well worth -uidyin;.;,
ulnUt t> ///< Jii/an CfironitTc the outer world i*. deeply
indebted lor it- pubiii ation in Kn^li-h <>f ;he-e rcx-an in--.

The -tale o! the a^ii UiPii.il rla.*>s and ot the li>v\r
inuldle la--, may !) u-ually tak -;i a> a lair Mandaid
ol the c'oiiditiuiii of a eotmtr\', and \l the^e are .oii^idered
in [apan, <jne i-> rekii tantl\ forced to tin- roiu hiMon thai
tiling -. arc very \--rv far tn>m p:o-j eiou^. <)>aka i- tin-
j)nni ij.al m.mutai turin;^ < entre of Japan, and by tar the
mo>t \\cll-to-do city in '.}} country, even though Tol;\o
may {;o--c i -> a lar^f-r number of millionaires. In (> aka
in i<>\2 43.000 pcixjin paid UK oine tax . \" 1 . 50.7.000 i,
and their average income \\a-> \'Si; p- r annum. <M
the-e, 2 >,oo > j)i-i-on> had im oir.c- a\cia^in;^ \'35'> p'i
annum, or \ 2<> per month, and there \veri- t<-n> and
hundred- of thou-and- not liai-lr to iin oine taxation a-
th-'ir in oni'-i were le^-^ than \ 25 per montli. I he a\er.i^ -
1'armly in th-- < ity H of five person-. It i- plain that a
faniiiv of ti\'- endeavouring to h\r or talln r to <\IM
on \ j; or \ }o jrr moiith i- ai t'-mj >: in_.; the i;npo->-ii!e.
lh- :;o\-ri nni'-nt i> thi- wor-t cnipio'.rr of !a -our in the
(ountr\. lh'- p' >-.' -oiiii r emj)'o;.e- are diockin^l^ und- ;
| ail. Iwo-thild- of them not e\' eedl'l^ \'.'<) j"l month,
although, a> mo-! "I the:n ar<- - on ii MI a' i\ ' 1 v \o;;:i,',. the.
(in no? -;:ltei ih-- burd'-n i dcjcnde;.t . -o n::; 1 h a> -oiin-
o'h'-r 'ia- e-. ll ;- t-> !) i.oli < i, howe\i-r. lha: a- -o u.
a-, an i mj )'<>',(' i! < a!jo\e i!i-- \ .: < > maik in maiur
o; 1:1 aiioth'-r '.\ a . in r a > In- ! ; ,< in^i!ii:i i<- -.

llf j-o'i i-ijian i"<-r.'-- tio'n \ i ; \ \ .1 \ -! ";.;-an!

ji'u a i oi.; r liiut ion I" hoii>f rent, hi> un'form and -i -.

b;s' out .,; h;- ..i h v.i."- lr- ha< t 1 ' -lipjoii t'li-i- i.i
fo 1 ; i 1 1- nil . II j 1 1 i : ; v, < c - ' ha 'i l In p' I man. lo:

' i ' i! io! a ii' , .1 ' '.', ]! : i ' .' i 1 1 ! 'i h ei-j > . li 1 '1 ' an 1 :' a> i ' '[ >!
p!;:!an'h:< >\ h" '. i ! !. i an in th-- a'li' | - r ion.

.'. i'ii an .c, '? ,i.'<- v,.i.' '.I \ jo '> \ (> IK i ni'i.'tih ' on i

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 291

mercial employes arc in a worse rase, for their salaries
are about the same, but they have to keep up a certain
social position, and very often to dross in Kuropean
style.

The above may lx- described .is th>.- ' genteel jx>or.'
Their families live in one room ; they die if they fall
ill, for they have no money for hospitals or doc tors ;
their children are stunted, underfed, and tuberculous ;
they more often than not have to be buried by charity
or tlu- State, for life insurance, death benetits, or any
other prudential economies are as much beyond their
reach as is the food to strengthen their children to 140 to
school. The following is a typical monthly budget of
a \'25 family :--

YI-II

Rent 4.50

Rice S. i o

Other food }-V'

Charcoal for cooking and warning 1.45

Say, sui^ar and salt 0.70

Children's necessities o.f>..>

Bath 1.20

Tobaro > i .00

Presents 0.50

Club J.i>o

Newspapers, school books, etc 0.43

Laundrv () 5 (! i

Clot hi us* i

Water '

If the condition of this stratum of society is miserable,
the condition of the artisan class is no better, though
they may be saved a small fraction ol expenses, incurred
tor social reasons. Many of these, if their positions were
permanent, would indeed be considered affluent in com-
parison with the clerk or postman or petty government
official, who has to keep himself and his family on o'j>
sen a day. A carpenter makes S;r sen, a plasterer Sg sen,
a stone-cutter V r, a sawyer S; sen. a tiler Vi .03, a brick-
layer Vi.oO, a European style tailor 8^ sen, and a

292 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

shipwright 91 sen. Hut in most trades the wages are
much lower, for in such poverty as exists in Japan even
two or three sen constitutes a sum of consideration.

A mat -maker receives 77 >en, a scrern-maker /S sen,
a paper -hanger 75 sen, a cabinet-maker 79 sen, a cooper
<>$ sen, a lacquerer <>(> sen. a blacksmith 70 sen, a j>otter
03 sen, a paper-maker 44 .sen, a type-setter 54 sen, .1
printer 50 sen, a tobacco cutter Oj sen, a weaver 4 } sen,
whilst the earnings of ' rickishamen ' vary from 40 to do
sen. For such as these life is indeed one long struggle.
though if their health keeps up they are enabled
to make both ends meet by the stncie>t econoinv
and by piecework done al home by the uile and
children.

Below the arti-an comes the labourer, the casual
employe, the man to ulmm rain spells food or starvation.
In Tok\o and other big titles this submerged jx>pula
lion forms 10 per cent, ot the whole. It lives in ncke;\
tenement hou-es, tli" ro i;n , ot which measure <j feet by
'' teet, and there is generally more than one family in
cai h room, the ^/io^i (screens) arc broken and torn, ot
furniture there i> none, the Moor malting is damp and
rotten and torn, and the whole abode one ol td;h and
di-ea^e. Su< h families pay a d.id\ rent ot a leu -en.
and their food, \\hen they i an get it, is the refuse and
the leaving-, from r->taurant-, markets, and houses. \\'hen
in work their earning-, ratine from \ :. to i^ \en p-i
month, but tor one-third ot a \ear the\ < annot \\ork on
a< i onnt ot the rain. AS is u-ual with MII h (lasses m
all < oiintrie-, their miseries are in< reaped b\ large Jainihe-.
I hen on!-, expenses are lood and rent, but e\en so
they i annot ke-p out ot debt. A typi'.d budi;et ot an
(' onomif al ( ouple, who i 1 e|ther smoked nor diank, .md
had b-.;: one ihrd. shoued a monthly dctn it ot \\ to
\ ; . 'I hat these a re the
been c]finoiist i.i'e<! n/l
th' iniddl'- < la -. matt'
\s a ; ' e . 1 1 1 d a ! a r l e s 1 1 a \

h' ' o ' ot ll\ III. I.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 293

Filial piety lias ever been a virtue of the land, and
the creation of posterity is as much a duty to the ancestors
as to the nation. As Mencius wrote : ' To have no
posterity is the worst of the three unfilial things."
In the middle class there U an increasing tendency
to avoid this duty on account of the straitness of the
family budget. During the past few years women's
magazines have been repeatedly suppressed as ' subversive
to public morals,' and inquiry frequently shows that the
excuse for the censorship has been a protest against
child-bearing to propitiate ancestral spirits. As a Mrs.
Yamada wrote in one of these forbidden reviews : " Why
should women be forced to bring into the world children
we cannot feed, clothe, or educate? Why must we in-
crease our population at the dictates of passion and
superstition, when large sections of the population are
starving."

It might be argued that with increasing industrial
activity wages will go still higher, and an improvement
be gained thereby. Or on the other hand the development
of agriculture may cause a reduction in the price of
commodities, and so give relief to the people. I am
afraid that a long while must elapse before relief is
afforded in these ways. If the industrial population was
liable to be limited, then the law of supply and demand
would force a living wage, but unfortunately conditions
on the land are such that agriculturists are migrating to
the towns, and employers will have no difficulty in obtain-
ing plenty of labour, and the labourers must accept what-
ever terms the employers give. An increase in agricultural
production may come, but the annual increase in popula-
tion of i d per cent, prevents it bring of general benefit.
The big development of agriculture will only be when
modern machinery is introduced and the plot system,
the survival of centuries, i.s abolished. When that day
comes the migration to town will increase several hundred-
fold, for the machinery will replace the labourer.

Japan will only be a cheap country to live in when
the taxation is reduced, when militarism is abandoned,

_>04 JAPAN AT T11K CROSS ROADS

\\heri the true ba>i> oi economy i> understood, and when
the l'a!-e jirid- 1 . which i- at present one of the principal
i ur- of th-- co;jir.ry and the people, i^ duly e\om-ed.
A v. tit;i ::i th' 1 Osf/Av/ .Is.////. says, " a pnni ipal < an---
ot ih- hi.,'1) p'i e- are the extravagance and mint-it of
the nation alter the war wr.li Ku---ia. and the eh'-apii'-^
of tin- borroue 1 monev uhi h then llo\\ed into the countrv
lapane e uoiiien do not appiei late the importance ot
buvin;,; th' ir own pr<>\i-:on--. but think thai MI< h econom:
mean a !"-- of dignity. It i- the ambition of e\er\
\\oman to keep a M-rv.mt, even in familie- who.e income
dot- not allow of -ui h an extravagance. 1 hey like
to -it at home or j^o viMtin^, and leave the manage
im-nt of their !iou>e t i the maid, who ))uy-> the provision,
and fixe- h'-r own pri < \vith the ^-Her, who vi-it- the
liou-'-. Thi-, i- mo-t uneconomical and ua-tefnl.> It
i- tin- fadiion nowaday-- to de-pise work, an unhapj)\ n-li.
ot leU'!ah-m. a::d wive-, infinitely pieler to dre-> them
-!ve-, ri- lily and to order their M-ivant here and there
to dom^ atr. thin;; tli'-m-e!\- : >-. 'I he re-tilt i^ that there
i- \\a-te, extravagance, and debt."

It i- Inli!'- for th' |aja!ie-e aiitlii'i it ie-> to bra/en oat
to ili. woi I 1 tha' th-- country i- pio-peroa^ and happ\
U!M;I the majoM'y o! th'- jMjti'a'ion i> in ui;^ m absolute
uani and d'- titntioii, lot th-- (oiidr.ion-^ ol 10 p--r ( i nt
nl ih'- uri)aii popniation i- tic- noim.d OM- ot mo-t of th--
a;. 1 , i i' I:!"M a! li i looii-h tor \i-itoi- \\}\<> ^peiid a t< v\
\\t-i-k-. in the land, and aie ojn id!. io-;ducte(| imind
'h'- i;di'-. to thrik tna' l!ie\ ha\'- --ecu japaii. or aie

nahti' d tn [> ak o} i; . I b .\\ man\ of tic- latnoi;- id. id
han ier-., \\!io ar- r -pon ilj'e undi r ^'o\ en.nient pat rona^e,
!' ih' p'-r -! -!:. t eMoit- to i)oo:n -he roiintrv ha\e e\ ei
been jn j ! an < > aka mill, or \ i ited th-- -him of Tok\o,
ot ( i .ik e 01 \a.;o\a. o; \>'-' \" 1 in-lde a larnier'- !n-'l '

I h nd;i ;o:i \\ ; :. !i i h.i\ a't mp'ed to d- i ibe j n-

v.ul. and o,l ,: p.,t: ioi a < 'oiint < >k'.:ma ha .1- knov.

le,!-'. ! th' 111 ' be a dl ..-r.l. e.

i : . ' i i : :.!I'i i: : '< : ' \ til >...:< :i

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 295

During the summer of i <> \ 2 th<- Count devoted a con-
siderable aiiioiint of time to investigating the Conditions
ol the jHMir, hinisrlf visiting and thoroughly examining
the darkest quarter-* of Tokyo. His descriptions of life
in I longo and across tlie Suinida River were published
in the S/i:'ri-\//iort, a;id < onfirin and elaborate the <tate-
ments of other investigators. Speaking "' 'he poor of
Maunen-cho in Tok\o, he said : 'They live in the two
01 three mat rooms of the ill-lit and low-built duellings
ri groups of from two to seven. The greatest number
of them get one, or at most two. meals a day, but some
had not fed for three days. Many are in a chronic state
of ill-health. .Most suffer from skin diseases, the natural
consequence of never enjoying the sun, bathing at long
intervals, and eating bad food."

It is not only the immediate conditions which are bad,
it is the outlook for the future. If the Japanese authori-
ties intend to continue their policy as in the past, that
is bureaucracy, Mmpcror-worship, militarism, and the other
'isms that spell negation of th-- individual, then it is
going the very way to cau-e its own ruin. The- onfy
justification of despotism is the benefit of the people.
The benevolent despot is an ideal ruler, but he H a
rarity. The unconfcs.sed fear of the Kasumi-gascki is
Socialism, and the conditions I have mentioned are breed-
ing a very fierce form of Socialism, which one day
will find its outlet. On various occa-ions during recent
yeai> the Tokyo mob has ta-tcd blood. True, it was
a suborned mob. Ivnigdu up by the politicians, but it
has learnt something of its own power, and it is not
likely to forget. There is no reason to doubt that what
the authorities describe as ' dangerous thoughts ' have
found their way into the army and the navy, and though
it is highly improbable that much ground has as yet
been gained, it is acknowledged that there is a certain
amount of unrest, and certain incidents have required
a good deal of explaining away.

The national health and phy-ique is bound to -utter
\\here large portions of the population are underfed and

296 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

improperly housed. Infantile mortality accounted for
413.999 deaths in 1911, and there is a heavy toll of
stilll>oni (157,392'. The death- rate in 1913 from
tubercular complaints is 49^9 males and 59 7 females
per 10 OOQ. and is increa-ing annually. It is ottic i.illy
ark now lodged that 25 per cent, ol the school teachers
.ire in advanced stages of consumption, and '-3 per
cent, are tuberculous in one way or another. Congenital
debility and malformation, almost entirely due to the
poor feeding and accommodation of the mothers, is at
the very high level of I 73 per mille of the deaths,
whilst internal disorders caused directly by food stand
at 4'95 per mille.

I have read somewhere- words to the following effect :
Infant mortality is the most sensitive index we- can have
of social welfare. It measures mercilessly the intelli-
gence, health, and right living of parents, the morals
and sanitation of communities and governments, the
efticienry of physicians, nurses, health officers, and edu
<atoi's. Well, in Japan 3^ jx-r cent, of the annual deaths
are of children under live ! If my memory of the quota-
tion is correct, that 3>S per cent, of deaths answers
effectively a whole lot of <|ii---t i< nis about Japan. In
addition, it may be added, that 9 p--r tent, ol the total
births are stilllxjrn.

The following stati-tics, showing the most prevalent
diseases among' the pour, were compiled at the Mitsui
H'l-piial, an e-tabli-hment endoued 1>\ the Mit.ui f.nmh

f'M the b'-Ip lit ot tile loWef classes 111 I'okvo. Ilie-c

figure-, <uigi:iall. appean'd in the U '////< ("/(Ms, a newl\
p'lb'i-heri organ of an .1 o>ia'ion lor the p:e\i-ntion of

N ,! :n ', l>

Alum--.! .: <

IMI;' tl-.ul.l.
'I iil.r-t ul -, i

N. -;

Ir.l.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 297

The classification of the patients treated at the Philan-
thropic Hospital in Tsukiji is as follows:

Day l:ib<>uuT >... /()/ l':u pcntrt > ...... 2i\ T.nl'U, ......... i.}2

Jinrikish.itiu-n... mj Sinilli^ ............ j.^S l-'.n t<M \ hands ^'7

(.'Ink-. ............ .MI; I'linU-i-' ......... 17;, ('iii-ini'l'iyi-ii ... 501

Alimentary diseases, tuben ulosjs, and trachoma are
the three diseases thai are undermining the vitality of
the |x)orer classes in Tokyo. The number of trachoma
patients in the Mitsui Hospital in one year .done ro-e to
1,2X4, and deaths from tuberculosis in the three muni-
cipal di-tricts of Yotsuya, Akasaka, and A/.abu, in 1910,
rosr to 3,4 i S.

The bad effect on the physique of the younger genera-
tion can be well understood. The inadequate and
monotonous dietary is depreciating the stamina of the
race and producing a general prostration. Whilst modern
manners, the use of chairs and tables, coats and trousers.
have conduced to raising the standard of height, the
pallor and weediness of the younger generation is a
constant cause of remark. Not only is the death-rate
rising, but the birth-rate is falling, whilst there has been
a steady increase in the number of the unmarried, an
increase in no way set off by the high level of illegiti-
macy, 10 per cent, of the birth-rate.

That the moral balance of men and women as such
is endangered by the course events are taking can hardly
be denied. That the- morality oi the whole nation is being
seriously affected is beyond dispute. The records of
the criminal courts show that 90 per cent, of the offences
committed are thefts, gambling, fraud, and robbery, uhtlst
95 per cent, of the offenders are persons without property,
and trying to acquire property. Poverty is a Fagan,
and is more responsible for crime than all other causes
combined. The appalling monotony of existence in the
lowest classes is the supreme evidence of the hold that life
has on man.

That the government could do much to alleviate the

298 JATAN AT Till-: CROSS ROADS

miseries of the slums is certain. The removal of the
duties on imported food-tuffs, which are mij o-ed in the
interests of the landed proprietors would j^o tar t > help.
Rice i- the staple food ot the nation, and any o'tn i d
meddling \\ith it- \.ilue can only 1> ad to di-< (intent and
di-a-ter. In handling the problem ot food -upphe- the
otti' lal policy i- \acillatory and \a:;ue. One year food
i- taxed according to one authority to maintain the price
ot hoine-vj-own rice, according to another to develop
agriculture, according to a third to rai-e revenue. The
next \'ear dutie- are redueed or remitted to louer price-,
or to encourage tanners to increase acreage or t > break
corners, dhis lack ot unaniniiu i- t\pual ot all e^ou-rn-
nient institutions. It would at lea-t be \\ell to in all
the words ot Lord Melbourne, when the urn dut\ was
under di-cu-sjon b\ th I>:iti-h Cabin--;. ' Well, gentle-
men, wh\ ap- we doin.; it? I- it to rai- the piiie
of i orn. to lou.-r th pin -, or to -teady it? \\dinhe\er
it i-, let u> all -ay the same thine;' about it !

Japan remains an a^'ri' ultural countrv, the "j'e.i'.er
|)art of her population bein^ -till en^a^ed in tannin;.;
or allied occupations although, a- b-'tme remarked, tin-re
is a steads initiation from country to town. In \<n ;
< o per rent, ot the people \\ere dnHu;- agricultural \\oik.
I he record of ^ovemnient mti rlereip e in tin- sphcie
:'oe, ba> k to th'- da>- ot th" Sho^utiate, \\hen number-,
ot the \uni!if<n la!>oured in the t;c Id- ot th-- <Itr.ni \'<) . ,\t;ei
the Restoration Mkubo inten e!\' deve!oj)ed oit'n lal -Lipei
\i-ion. and obtain--.! the -"i\; < - ot a number ot (inman
and Ani'ii'an '.xp'it to a-:-' the Monibudio. I'ndei
M C -ukata the ,|, t iv |T i, , i ,( the ; o\ c i ;ini- nt \\ i-re
dllilllil h'd. but ot i-i'-nt \eal- they ha\-- b-en a;. 1 . tin
develop -i i. d he two drawha- k- f loin whl< h Japan -ullci-
.1/1; ::'';!. ill. are the imni'ii e .:Pa ol iion-aiable l.md
and th- < out i';:i,i!u ot m> - 1 ;.' \ al m< t h- >d - .

1 i < al' ula'ed th it o d . 1 ind ini lin'-d .it ! d: m
llfi-'-n (i<-;.';ee i, i apable ..t utl!l/at!on, and U- ll la'.d
aii.ouri 1 . ix ludin; 1 di Hokkaido, to 7 i .; ; . i .,' , ar- ,iip ad'- UI)<1< I ' ult 1\ at ;on. le,i\ in"

SOCIAL CONDITION'S 299

about ^o per cent, yet to he reclaimed, which is being
done at the rate of 17,000 r/io per annum. Therefore less
than 20 per rent . of the total area ol the country is capable
of being tilled, and at present only aboti' 14 per rent,
is under cultivation. It is not une\pec:cdly, therefore,
that Japan has come to tlr- end of her food resources,
and is obliged to impor: rice from abroad. The normal
crop is 49, 9 1 0,85 5 AVJ/O//. which fall- between four and
live- million short of the requirements of the nation. Ii
stands to reason that il the acreage cannot be largely
expancled, the \icld must be increased, and a great deal
has been done in this direction by the us;- of fertili/er-.
blight preventives, etc. In main places the yield ha
increased i<>^ per cent, as against forty years ago.

That the acreage could be further in< Teased and the
yield immensely developed by a radical change in the
system of land tenure 1 and culture is almost certain.
Japan is still the home of the peasant proprietor, and
wherever \ou go in the country the eye is pleased by the
picturesque but uneconomical weeny plots. The average
si/e of these rice plots is o' I o of an acre, and 54 per
cent, of the paddy field.- are so divided and held. The
average si/e of the 1 upland farms is a quarter of an
acre, and three-quarters of the to; a! area oi such farm-
is so divided. The average proprietor owns paddy ploi .
up to 7 '.>.} acres, and this class accounts for 52 per
cent, of the rice acreage of the country. The tenants
distribute their yield as follows :

Rent "/ ",, ( 'hvay> p. in! in iac)

M.iumv anil i-x|vn-i -< '5 ''>

Costs !.t' li\ 11114 -- "..

Profit . 6 ",,

Out of the rent the proprietor ha- to pay all taxes and
rates, about 30 per cent, of the total yield.

Out of the proprietor's rent and out of the tenant-'
profit has to be paid the interest and redemption of the

300 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

huge debt under which agriculture labours in japan.
< M'fu ial statistics put this at V i oo jx-r household for
jK-a-ant proprietors, and \ '50 for the more well-to-do,
or a total of Y7oo.ooo.ooo. I'nofiicial but more tru-t-
wortliy statistics put the total at over a thousand million
\en. ami the in- idence ranges from Yi^o to Y;2o per
household. Of this great amount the vast majori'v is
due to private Usurers, and stands at 12 to 21 |>er cent,
interest, whilst th'- remainder has been lx>rro\ved from tin-
Agricultural Hank- at 5! to S per cent. The average
profit of a peasant proprietor is Y ;o 50 per annum,
which does not leave much mar-in for interest or for
investment in modern instruments and in fertili/ers. A
gradual change has been taking place with the steady
increase in the percentage of tenant farmers, due to
capitalists either buying up land or foreclosing on
mortgage-;. 'Ih" development has not been for the better,
as the rents charged are extremely high, due to the value
of land, which is in Japan live times as much a> in
Kngland. It is a pity that if the land is to Ial! into
the hands of capitalists that these men do not abolish
the plot syst"in. which would increase the acreage, and
aid the introduction o! machinery and modern methods.
I he present system is wasteful and expensive. Horses
cannot be iis-vl, machinery cannot be employed, and the
profits are so -mall that the laborious and unpleasant
u-e of night-soil as manure has not yet been replaced
bv the u-f of fertili/ers. Japanese ri> e i> groun undei
modern londitions. and with ri'sprctable jirolit in Texas,
and costs ^ ', da\ > of labour per acre a> against i 10
da\s in Japan, wl:i!-t the yi- M is ^j per tent, higher

Th<- d'thMiJt;, ot Ir.JMg. as alf.-( ui:g both the urban
.unl nnal populations, i , one \\!ii h < ou!d onl\ be fully
diM us-ed in a \-olum-- to itself. It is a <jue-tinn wlm h
i- no! ot mod'-rn ongin. but dat--s ba' k to l"iig b'-loj-e
the tali ol :!f Shogunat'-. Its imfMrtaiv dm in:; m en;
'.'ar- ha- b'-'-n pu he I m'o th-- f n'<- ;t i-nid be. aii-e it
i 'h'- flrivin;; for- e o! ahno ,t ever\ oiiiiial nio\e in
I.ipan. It <onne(tio:: \\it!i foreign pohi v i. < lo >e ; it-

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 301

intimacy with financial {x>Iicy is obvious ; the unrest
which it has provoked is the cause of the anti -Socialist
anil anti-Liberal policies of successive cabinets ; the recent
efforts of the government to interfere in religious matters
has one of its reasons in the desire to find an ethical means
>f satisfying material wants.

It may be reasonably asked why, if the difficulty of
living is such an ancient and pressing problem, the people
themselves have not demanded and obtained some satis-
factory solution. A-, matters stand at present in Japan
the pmple have little, if any, say in the matter of govern-
ment. In every country under the modern system then-
is a parliament and a cabinet, and in that cabinet, or
behind it, are a group of men whose names are often
unknown but whose powers are immense. In some
countries, as in (Jreat Britain, it is a clique in the cabinet.
In other countries, as in Russia and Japan, it is a clique
outside the cabinet. It is these mystery men, these pillars
under the veranda, these Elder Statesmen who are the
real rulers of the country. They decide all threat questions,
the problems of peace and war, and in Japan they have
chosen very deliberately a policy of military prestige
rather than one of popular contentment.

Such a system is by reason of the country's early
history peculiarly successful in Japan, and peculiarly
adapted to the character of the people. After centuries
of feudalism it has been impossible for the Japanese to
eradicate that servility and complete obedience which i>
the principal feature of the feudal system. The bureau-
cracy has been created by the Elder Statesmen as an
immense machine for the registration of their policies,
and whilst they may admit that there is a popular will,
they arrogate to themselves the right to direct and explain
that will. The bureaucracy is practically founded on
feudal lines, and the subservience which the people
formerly rendered to their local overlords has been trans-
ferred by an easy change, mostly one of name alone, to
the local officials. II the reader should happen to reside
for any length of time in a Japanese village he is almost

302 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

certain to have an op{x>rtunity of witnessing the paternal
conduct ot officialdom. Tin- mayor or, in that beloved
Japanese phrase, : he ' proper ' official, will lecture his
flock on any subject under the sun. from the regulation
way to make rice-seed beds to the higher branches of
political economy or the correi t manner to wear a frock-
coat, alway*. i>a*i:i;_;' his remarks on the stereotyped instruc-
tions ot the Home ( Mti; e. It is uncommonly difficult for
people so coddled by officialdom to <^et a hearing for their
complaints, and even if the\ could t;'ct the hearini; to
the local authorili'-s, it would be so smothered in red
tape by the t;m it i^ot to Tokyo as to be inarticulate,
winch is another cause for the present unrest be in:; sub-
terranean rather than on the surface.

To the numeroii*. harrowing at counts of starvation and
mi-cry the bureaucratic reply is as unfeeling .is its argu-
ments arc- unsound. Mr. Nakashoji Ken, Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce, in the third Katsura Ministry,
said that sii> h conditions were not to be complained of,
for they were- the re-ult of normal development rather
than of any circumstances for which a i;'overnment or
individual < ould be blanii-d. He --aid that the taxation
uas liea\ y and the i urreiicy mflatc'd. but these were e\il*
uinch would be cured by the further development of
indi:Mr\ and (-initiation . I lie tanlt ua- not a burdi-n
on 'he loiuiir., because the- increased i o-t \\ a set oil by
the iin rea-e in pio>perit\, and he reminded In-, audieine
that ri e had risen from Y I .' in iSSi to \"jo. He failed
to remind his hearers of the la- t that taxation falls
IMM\|'--: on ill- io-Ai-r i lasses because l\at-ura, in onlei
io ^.-: h;s bond - accepted, e\i 'udi-d di\ idends on L;O\ ei n
nient jtapei fioin iin oine tax. He did not jioint oil!.
a-- Mr. \\a!;er I Jen in;.; has done, th.it le-s than hall the
i orn i ! ini oiue tax l- collected Itoin the Il'ii, nor that
cnonno: i -, t ra i - ot build in;; land in the < n ie , .in- annual I 1 .
lee isjei c. ! a .i:;;i u!;u;al 'and to avoid t!.e hi. lie; i de.
and tha' tin- n-.;; -: i .e ;..n i- \\mked at !>. th auihoi i: i-- .
Noi d:d h' pori! o-it that (ap.m I- aiitraall\ inul<1 in
nil di po. k< t- ot tlie n.;ar . am

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 303

in Formosa. 1 lie said that Japan had become a Great
rower, which is true only from the political standpoint,
but he forgot to show that Imperialism has meant oppres-
sion and misery and the suppression of thought, reason,
art, and religion.

A Japanese journalist, writing in the Jitsugyo-no-Sekai,
said :

"It is a relic of the feudal times to draw a distinct
line of demarcation between the Government officials and
the rest of the |x>pulace, and to attach supreme weight
and importance to the former as being" far above the
latter. It is all very well for the official to respect himself
as a trustee ol power, but tor the people to accord him a
markedly special treatment, as if he were of nobler race
is quite nonsensical. . . . The popular tendency of over-
rating officials is traceable to the ' Government -respect-
ing", people despising idea,' a relic of feudalism. Militarists
of olden times, however, had rightly a claim to be regarded
as the head and front ot the nation, rising over and above
the general current of the times in their unimpeachable
principles of morality, their excellent learning and their
profound wisdom. Government officials of to-day have
no such reasons to be superior to the general public. '1 he
Privy Council is, it is superfluous to say, the highest organ
ot administration in direct contact with the Emperor, and
therefore its members are all shining lights of the nation.
However, it is a recent tact that a Privy Councillor.
while Governor a few years ago, possessed himself of a
valuable gold screen by suspicious means.- 1 )oes a fellou
who is so mean as to ' pocket ' a gold screen think himself
entitled to eulogixe the people?

' Sugar cost in ii)'.> -f, >v
excise.

Baron Sufn, ! 'rivv (.Councillor and ex-(tovri nor of l\;in.i^'iw:i Km,
was alleged to have acquired :i valuable t^>id >ereeii, Ivloii^n.^ to the
KanaLjawa I'rekvtural ant'i* >i iiii 1 ^. \\'ii.iu-\fi liic l.icN \veii- the
matter wa.-> hushed :ip !>y ti;e iniltience oi ti;e Kir >n'> patri.n, 1'iince
Yam.i j,;it.i, who was rep' i'tcvl to have bei n tiie uili:;i;ti.e henclici.u'y.
I'he Uarou re'-iyned liis oilice and hecaiue :nk\\\

304 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

One of the most striking characteristics of the Japanese
is the facility with which they accept compromise, or
even worse, the ready adoption of the make-belief for the
real. I have referred elsewhere to the notorious nayboen
system, by which an event is well known in fact but
officially unrecognized. For example, a person of position
dies, but though all the world knows that he is defunct,
no announcement can be made of the fact until official
recognition of tin- circumstance has been obtained. When
the late Prince Arisiigawa died .it Maiko in 1913, the
corpse was coffined and brought up to Tokyo, but the
announcement of his decease was not made until the body
hail arrived at hi-, palace. Similarly, when the Empress-
Dowager died at Numadzu last year the body, dressed in
ceremonial attire, was brought to Tokyo three days later,
was met at Shimbashi Station by the dignitaries of the
land, placed in an Imperial landau and, escorted by
lancers and the Imjx-rial banner, driven to the .Aoyama
Palace, every ceremony being carried out as for a living
per-on. After arrival at the Palace a special ( la/ette
was issued : " Her Majesty, the Empress Dowager,
arrived at the- .\o\aina Palace from Numadzu this even-
ing." A little' later another notification was issued : " Her
Majesty, the Empress Dowager, passed away at the
Aoyama Pala* e," even a fictitious hour and minute of
death being attai lied. Thus in both cases was the- real
truth i:; 1 10 red, the customs of centuries observed, and
the etiquette that an Imperial per-onagv cannot die outside
of a c ertain radius of the ( 'hiyoda Palace strictly enforced.
Tin-, spirit of compromise is to be found throughout
(apane-r society. It i- to be reeogni/ed in the refusal
to a< < ept payment or gift-,. If money be offered to a
Japaiie-e he will refuse it. In reality he has no intention
vvhat-oever of refusing, but it is not etiquette to accept
until the fourth time of a-kin;r, and both the donor and

the receiver Well know tin-. 1 Ilie acceptall<e of the

1 Till - li.ii ill v .ipplii--- in <!
! , i.ikc pcopi-- .it then v.c,i <l. | ip
|. ,i i u'ncr -, i'ilt im>ii.- tii. in <>!iic .ind

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 305

apparent for the real i^ to be seen throughout jxilitirs,
business, and religion. Nowhere is it more evident than
in the balance sheets of financial and commercial insti-
tutions. I have, tried to show elsewhere that the whole
|x>litical system in Japan is make-belief. The demo-
cratic movement only resulted in nominal concessions,
whilst in fact the official power was widely extended.
In religion it is the same. The Japanese really have
no fixed religious beliefs, but the popularity of creeds
and sects changes with startling frequency and momentum.
At times the authorities feel the need of some ethical force,
or recognixe the necessity for some concession to tin-
hysteria of thi' moment, which may have its origin in
sentiment or in the material distress of the people. At
such times officialdom cudgels its brains to find some
formula, which, in no way affecting its own prestige and
authority, will at least warrant the belief that something
is being done to meet the; popular wishes. It was this
window-dressing " ability which gave ri-e to the
immense extension of the \inomiya doctrine, and to the
vogue of the Boshin Rescript.

Ninomiya Sontaku, the Peasant Sage, was born in
17^7 at Kayama, near O lawara. His father was a man
of charitable disposition, who gave nearly all he possessed
to the poor, and who was finally ruined by the overflowing
of the River Sa, which destroyed his property. When
his son was twelve years old the father died. The boy
showed himself- hard-working 1 and eager to learn. On
his journeys into the village he carried a -mall tray of
.sand, so that at his meals and halts he could practise
the ideographs with the aid of his i hopsticks. When
employed in hulling rice he would set up a book so
that each time as he walke-1 round the mill he could read
a word or two. He devoted much of his time to studying
rural life, and devised a plan for planting trees along
the Sa to strengthen its banks and prevent further inun-
dations. At the age of sixteen lie lost his mother, and
went to live with an uncle, a mean old fellow. \\ ho scoffed
at his studies, and grudged him oil for his reading lamp.

3 o6 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

After .t few years he returned to Kayaina, ami by much
labour re-obtained his father's property, and restored it
to .1 flourishing condition. Hearing of this success. a
much -embarrassed feudal lord of < Mawara offered him
tlie jx>st of manager, which he accepted on terms of
,ib>olutc authority, and in five years handed back the
property free of debt and producing a respectable income.
His next venture was the resurrection of Sakuramachi,
a district which had fallen into threat distress, and from
once fix-ding 800 families, could only supply 130. At
the end of twelve years from his granaries he fed, during
the famine of iS^o. forty thousand .souls outside of the
distri' t, and lent large >ums of money, the product of
years of labour and economy. It is to be understood
that Ninomiya reaped no personal advantages from hi.s
actions, beyond the respect of men and the happiness which
good work give-.. The rest of his life was devoted to
similar ventures, and he died in the seventh year of Kaei
( 1X54). His followers have established a religion known
as Hotoku.

Ninomiya wa-> a product of his time, an age when the
upper classes were living in inordinate luxury and ease,
when the Shogunate was ra|)idly imiMJverishing the land,
when religion was neglected and the priests were vicious
and abandoned, and crini'- was rapidly in (he ascendant.
He was not a religious man in the modern sense of the
word. lie had no u-e for temples or priests, lor the
former swallowed up the wealth, whilst the latter could
not prodin e it. When a Huddhist pne-t came to see
him, Ninomiya a-ked. "Can you draw a bean?" The
pri<-st did so. ' Will a hot ^e -at your bean? " asked
Nmoiniva. Tin- priest shook l)js head. " A horse will
at the-r beans," said Niiionnxa du'ing a hand into his
sleeve and prodM' ing' a palm-1 ill ot the real article,
lor s ( holars \v had as little reverence. 'Tiue
i-, not a knoul'-'li;e of book,. Learning i^ not
unle-s it i-, pra- M< a!, and arable ol |ua< tical application."
" ( iood thought- aie ni< e, but good CoIldlK t l- better."
Speaking of the th'-n philosrjpliii a! renaissance, he said :

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 307

4 Tlir scenery of Nikko is beautiful, hut it cannot be
eaten."

Though Ninomiva had no use for religion as he found
it, he created a religion, the principles of which were
patriotism, morality, and industry. Ilis patriotism wa->,
it is to he presumed, feudal loyalty, for of national
patriotism there was in those days no idea. His moral
doctrine was combined with his industrial. Self-help,
gratitude, co-operation wen- counterbalanced by unfail-
ing toil and economy. Work, useful, physical work was
to be the anodyne for mental anguish. Oratitud'- for
favours received from heaven and earth and man meant
a continuance 1 of benefits in the future. Humanity was the
great virtue, and could only be; learned by helping other-,.
His industry was real. A terrific worker himself, he
had an eagle eye for slackers and shammers. A gang
leader much praised one of his men for his hard work,
but Ninomiva, who had watched the man, gave him a
tearful lecture, because he only worked when the leader
was around. An old man was upbraided for his small
output, but the sage reproved the foreman, because the
man was old and actually worked as hard as he could,
and his example was therefore 1 good, even it the results
of his labour were- .small. lie introduced many reforms,
reclaiming wa->te land, inijxirting labour where hands were
few, providing homes for the men ; he lent money to
fanners without interest, only demanding that the
borrowers should stick the loan-ticket on the family altar
and express gratitude to the gods each day ; he bought
and lent out implements, and organi/ed sales and
purchases on a co-operative basis. His economy was
simple, though it has attained great renown. ttundo
was the fixing of a limit to expenditure, and this limit
must be within the margin of income. As a corollary,
all extravagance and luxury wciv to be avoided. It
the Ninomiya do. 'trine be summarized it consisted of
sincerity, industry, economy, and service. He recom-
mended no special religion or code of ethics. He said :
" As various paths lead to the top of Fuji, so truth may

308 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

be reached through various religions. My own is a
spoonful of Confucianism, with half a s|x>onful each of
Buddhism and Shinto."

The recent history of Hotoku is a striking example of
the hall -measures which the Japanese are ready to accept
in amelioration of their social troubles. In i<;o.S, when
the country was suffering under the supreme depression
which followed the boom of 1906-7, the authorities sought
a way out of their difficulties, and naturally enough a way
which should avoid their own errors and rnal-administra-
Uon. They decided that the cause of the trouble was
the extravagance and luxury of the people, and the
Bo-hin Rescript on thrift was issued, enjoining the reduc-
tion of expenditure, the increase of economy and strict
fulfilment of the doctrines of Ninomiya. Co-operative
societies, for the propagation of those doctrines, wen*
established under august patronage, and these now number
1,'>4O controlling funds to a total of Y i 9.000.000.

It was typical of the governmental attitude to charge
the extravagance and enjoin the thrift on the people,
whilst their own reckless expenditure and borrowing con-
tinued unchecked, and it was ecjiially characteristic ol
the people to accept an Imperial pronouncement on the
Ninomiya cloctime as a sul!i< lent relief ol their own
burdens. As results have -hown, the Mo Inn Rescript
ha-, been a cli-a-tiou^ failure. It encouraged ancl ;;ave
a -enn-<li\ ine authority to a parsimony, uhi'h t|uic kly led
to a stagnation of trade. ( )n the one hand n ordered
a s.ivm; 1 ; ol money, on the cither an increase of produc-
tion. Mui what wa ; the :;ood of developing!; output if
the m.uket wa-. simultaneously tlo-ed. I he Mushin
Re .( ript totall 1 . ignored the (han;;e ol Ninomiya
\\-eie to have had any benethial diet 1 at all in I <;() \
the'/ -hould ha\'e b'-en eiii'uned on the Annv ami the
N.i\\ and ill- 1'iea^uiv i.i'li'-i than on tin- oninioii

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 309

No mention of vague and inchoate schemes of relief
should omit a reference to the Red Cross Society, and to
the .SY/sr/A'iu//, the Imperial Charity Fund. Th<- former
must be one of the largest organi/aiions of its kind in
the \vorld. It wa ^ founded l>y the la'e Counts Sano and
Ogyu at the time of the Satsiima rebellion, to give relief
to the sick and wounded, joined the Hague Treaty in
i.SSo, and during the China War had its fust opportunity
of demonstrating its utility and efli> ie:icy. 'I he Society
has in the past done much for the cause of charity, but
during the present century has become to all intents and
purposes an attachment of the War and Naval Depart-
ments. The imperial patronage and th" privileges j^iven
to members have gained for it an enormous membership
and corresponding financial benefits, yet practically the
only work it does is the maintenance of a few hospitals,
which are to all intents and purposes Sanatoria lor
government officials and officers. Japanese critics
describe the Society and its magnificent headquarters
in Shiba as ' the palace- of mystery.' From being an
extremely u-.eful institution for the relief of sickness, tin-
Society has become a training school for nurses and
doctors for the- Army and Navy, and has recently been
placed under the supervision of the Ministers of those
two departments, with a General as Director. The
finances of the Society are not without interest, especially
for those studying the Japanese military system. In
1911 the annual income was \'42<S,ooo % whilst the Reserve
Fund stood at Y24. 077.000. of which YjV'So.ooo was
cash in hand and on call, and the balance in securities.
The annual expenditure totalled for hospital and relief
purposes Y 105, 700, and for office expenses Y2<So,ooo.
Only sixty-three rases of relief were dealt with by this
great charitable organization during the year. It is
certainly not a matter tor surprise that the members
complain that they are being hoodwinked under the guise
of charity into financing a branch of the military services.

The Imperial Chanty .Association is a bird of the
same family. It was started by an Imperial donation

310 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

of V i, 5 00,000 in 1910. and was stated by the second
Katsiira Ministry to be intended tor the provision of
medical assistance for the poor. The use of the Imperial
name and cash gave it immediate jx>pularity, and tin
government Used every form of oflicial and semi-official
| re-sure to promote it. As government funds were not
available, iMs were drawn up, and the wealthy reieixcd
intimations ot how much they had each to subscribe.
This method of benevolence produced promises of over
YjO. 000,000. and cheques to Y 5,000.000. With the
tall of the Katsiira Ministry nothing more- has been heard
of the attair. No meetings have been held, no rejxnts
furnished, and nothing done for the obje< ts mentioned
in the Imp'-rial Rescript bevond an appropriation of a
quarter ot a million vcn for investigating purposes. 'I he
\\hole scheme was in reality an hysterical concoction,
resultant on the Kotoku attair. It was a theatrii al attempt
to prove to the lower classes, what was impossible ot
demonstration a sympathy ot the government tor the
Miditjon > >l the masses.

There are one or two funny anecdotes in circulation
with regard to the Imperial Charity Association. The
following was recounted to m-- by the victim. A young
and very w a'thv ' nut ' of Tokyo was advi-ed by his
family to -tti'ly bu-ine-s, and a> cordingly obtained a
position in th" In<!u~t-:al Hank a^ a il'-rk at \ 15 [MT
month. Heing indejM-ndent ot his salary, he drove every
(lav to the b. ink in a phaeton behind the smartest pan
in lok'.o, and lelt every evening in the same manner.
Having -pent -onie months at the monotonous labour ot
rattling tli<- u!><ti'u\, \i>- de< Med to demand an increase
o! wages, and put in a formal and humble appli-atioii
loi an in i' a < ot --alar, by Y ;. p<-r men-em. I he mattei
r.it'-d b. the 'lire! tors, and in due course he
lell'T it legivt ilia' hi- -ervi< es vveie onlv vvnilh
I hi alii' 1 ] x . I h received a no; i!n a! ion that

)i ) to t he | lllpel l.ll

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 311

to certain financial expectations having unfortunately
failed."

The poor in Japan are unhappily between two stool,
I'nder the family system there is little SCOJK- for public
benevolence, but with the increase of individualism
resjx>nsibility falls from the family, and as yet in Japan
there is no proper system whereby weaker- brethren can
be heljX'd, and such ill-organi/cd and hysterical eliorts
as the Stisrfk:i(ii cannot prove of value. As unions
for mutual help, except under the annihilating official
patronage, arc difficult of formation, owing to the confusion
in the offn ial mind between them and trades unions, there
seems to be nothing for the Japanese; |x>or to do but
die.

Luxurious tendencies are constai.tly quoted a- a caiiM-
<>1 financial and economic depre^-ion in Japan. 1 woul.l
not deny for a moment that extravagance and inefficient y
are two ol the existing evils of the country. It luxuries
me. in an advance in the standard of living, it is fallacious
to argue that they check the progress of the nation. The
consumption of meat, if it became general throughout
Japan, would be a very considerable advance in the
standard of living", but it would be entirely wrong to class
it as a luxury, which would impoverish the country.
Rather would it be of considerable benefit, for it would
greatly develop stock-farming, encourage agriculture to
provide fodder and improve the stamina of the people.
Sumptuary laws have never succeeded in their objects,
and only lead extravagance into artificial channels. When
the Tokugawas forbad the wearing of silk, and the Use
of gold and silver ornaments in Yedo. it merely created
an outward show ot humility, for the citizens lined their
cotton kimono with silk, whil-t tobacco pouches and orna-
ments were made of gold and silver coated with iron,
a quaint conceit still to be discerned in the Tokyo of
to-day. When Philip 11 ot Spain forbade the use ot
silken skirts for the merchants' womenfolk, they took
to wearing gorgeous petticoats, and even a few years
ago in Bogota and other parts of Spanish South America

312 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

a woman's r.ink was estimable by the number ami elegance
of her underclothes. Luxurious tendencies an- un-
doubtedly rife in Japan, but they are to be observed
amount the upper classes and government official-, and
little enough is done by the authorities to die* k t;:eir
e\tra\ 'again e. The prodigality ol an Iwakura or an
< >tam i- only a matter for restraint when it produce-
a public -caudal. 1 hat a high oliicial of the Imperial
1 fou-chold should be deprived of ottice and title- 1<>I
lontracting debts ot Y3.ooo,ooo, and afterwards figure
HI the law courts for a matter of a necklace \alu-d at
Y- 5,000 given to his mistre-s. a Shimba-hi i^ci^/it/. and
not paid tor. was presumptive evidence that thril; needed
preaching nearer to high (juarters than the lio.shin Re-i npt
ua- aimed.

Authority in Jap. in never ha ncogni/ed any m<>t"
in it- own eye. and certain -ecuon- ot society have alua\-
been rather petted and praised tor their e\tra\ agam e.
A la-'e lor literature, a ion\e;,ient memory for the < <n-
lii'ian Anale< ts, a jdea-ing liserimination in food, and
a careles i di-regard tor nionev ha\c inure often than
not le.-M a pa--j)oit to po-nion a:; 1 otlit e. 'I hi- i- b\
no meai.s -trange, when it i- !< a'led that the -ole ooei;i>. inter-pel st-d \\ith af.endalu'-
'II a throne n. cupied \\i'h the -inn'ar hard la!our. A
like lend'-ii' . \\ i ! 1 \- found in all (ountiies uheie eon
i ubina;.;e i jK-l'imt t-'i ! . < 'on I '.:< in- a\ - : ' I he eha i in
>t the fell in n lie u\ ei i oniet ll 111'' t I'ong lna! 1 .'- \\lil," ,i'id
it i ijuii'- uiidei sta:nlable. \\diaie\cr nia\ ! :he
th<oic'i al ])o-it.on o! uoinan to man, llieie i, i.o iloiib'
that b- Icii 1 t!i'- ^ho'j! \\\< ofte; ->i-x i> ;h slri-ngei jiaitne:.
and, t our-e. nuiiilie:-, t II \- a Japai.ee u liter I
lia\e ail'ad. <juot"d ha J;<i;i:ied out. the v.^nim of t!ie
middle and upj><T ' ;a e> ate ( nin.; i all-e ot e\tia\a
gain e.

Ano'h'-; undo'i! i' "d e. : <\ e\t ra\ a;;at,< a d n:i'
.. Is 1 ' ii b ; .a; in :. . pi . . > >' . r 'eir \< >:\ \ \ \\ < m i; I .
.-> tli< halo'a' ell -. h lia d-\ eloped

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 313

into a terrible self-conceit since the war with Russia.
As the outside world ha-, understood for a long tune,
Japan did n<t gain a glorious victory. At the best it
was a drawn conflict, and it it had been continued Japan
might conceivably have suffered an actual defeat. It
would |>crhaps be unreasonable to expect the leaders
ol the nation to have explained thi -,, but it is not un-
reasonable to blame them for having gone to the other
extreme and u--ed (he war as the basis for an orgy of
sell -glorification. 'I he result has been to fill the jx-ople
with sill\ ideas of their own importance and worth, \\ith
the consequence that though in na'ural resources one of
the jM)orest countries in the world, over-taxed, over-popu-
lated, and underfed, Japan has been trying to ape richer
and far more prosperous nations. ' The shell of the
crab define^ the si/e of its hole," is a proverb which ha-
gone out ol mind during recent years. The eulogistic
lectures ol school teachers, saturated with bureaucracy,
has created a class of student which is likely to cause
trouble in the future. If schoolboys are brought up in
the belie! that the acquisition of money is all that counts,
the outlook is poor. Few Japanese are taught either
at home or at .school that there should be any relationship
between income and expenditure. Speaking generally,
figures have no interest for Japanese, who in money
matters are gloriously vague and painfully optimistic,
.mother relic of feudalism.

The social evil is a very important cause of extra\a-
gance, and here I refer not only to th<- inhabitants of
the yoxlinrura, but also t<> the ^ciJiti. The looseness ol
|a]anese sexual morality is a hyword in America, and
the length of the China coast, wherever ;hcrc are Japanese
settlements. Describing the Japane-e colony outside Oak-
land in California, a Japanese writes : ' The population
is too. Then 1 are tliirte n inn-, ti;ir;ee!i billiard-rooms,
six or seven restaurants and bar-, besides a number
of brothels and gambling -hells." The foreigner in con-
sidering Japane-" moralit) i- .dways in difficulty whether
to describe it as unmoral or immoral. I he prevalence

JAl'AN AT TUP: CROSS ROADS

of courtesans is an evil, which figured prominently in
the earliest accounts of Japan, and is as prominent to-day.
The record^ of the Dcshima factors prove the equanimity
with which the natives regarded feminine frailly in pre-
Resjoration days, whilst the title of Court Ladies, until
only a few years ago, was a euphemism for secondary
wive-, of the Mikado. (The present Emperor is the
son of a concubine, his mother, the Lady Vaniguwara
having been chusen to bear the Imperial offspring by
the late Empre>s Haruko, when the doctors declared
th'- latter barren. * \\'ith the prov.itutes of the yo^hnvuru
and other licenced (juarters, we arc' not concerned here
beyond saying that they and their maids number
i.Soo.ooo. and that in all then- are some ^,000,000
persons in Japan living directly or indirectly from the
proceed^ of legali/ed prostitution, excluding gci^hu and
parents, of prostitutes. Female honour has little value
in Japan beyond a financial one, and a daughter or a
v. ife must sacrifice herself for her family or her husband
in accordance with filial piety or obedience. Two in-
stances of this cam under my jKT.sonal notice. My cook
gave notice, and in reply to inquiries, informed my wife
she mils? return to her village to look after hr parents,
as her father, who had made a bad ^pe. ulation, had
been obliged to sell his other daughter ' to the naught)
hie' to pay some of his debts. The otln-i ease was
that of an emplov ' of an American < onipaiiy. who ein-
be/xN-d some hundreds of yen. He had the alternative
ol refunding tin- money or being prosecuted, and uas
given tlnee da'.s' gra< e to d< i-le. At the end of three
day- he Teturn- d. a coin]ia;;icil b\ ih whole family, gr.i i 1
[areiit-, parents, and three sister-*. An oiler \\as made
for nio^t of ih'- inon'-y to !)- rej>aid \\rlnn a few days,
tli-- b.ilam e after s|\ months. Ilnw \\a- the moil' \ g"ing
to b- iai-ed? Ih" grand'a'her evplaillcil. I he t \\ o
eldest 'ill- \\'Te \ go at once into a brothi 1, and ;he
\oung-- '. uh" was noi , . t sixteen. ,i- soon .! .}\<- ifa.hed
MM! ag-- I h inaliagei rang hi-, bell and ent Joi a

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 315

One of the most knotty jx)ints that came before the
courts during 1012 had to do with the mortgage of
a wife. The husband Ixjrrowed money and handed over
his spouse as security. Some months later lie sought to
redeem his projx-rty, but lK)th wile and mortgagee refused
a settlement, and the judge had to decide whether the
mortgage of a wife w.is legal, and if so whether tin-
wife can refuse to be redeemed. I believe the matter
was finally settled by the husband divorcing" the wife
and keeping 1 the money.

The <rfis/ia was originally an entertainer, dependi-nt
solely on her art and accomplishments. She was the
Japanese equivalent of the high-class hdairti of Athens,
whosf company was much sought by the literary and
fashionable men. A <^cisli(i. then as now, was as much
a part of a banquet as the sake or the rice, but then her
company wa-> sought for the amusement she provide;!,
but now for more equivocal purposes. During the past
\ears. and the decadence of the profession does not extend
back more than twelve years, the condition and occupation
ot these girls has completely changed. The ^CI\/HI who
are only entertainers are. few and far between, and the
vast majority are practising illicit and secret prostitution.
There- an- over 5,000 gcis/id in Tokyo, and it is estimated
that a sum of twelve thousand yen is s]X'nt every nigh;
for their services, which represents a very considerable
annual revenue, and the greatest jxjrtion of this amount
is for their physical, and not for their mental, charms.
In addition to these may be added tea-house girls,
waitresses, and other classes, whose nominal occupations
are only cloaks for Mrs. Warren's profession. The in-
mates of the yoshiwara number about 5,000. and increase
at the rate- of 100 per annum. The number of licenced
gets/id increases at double this figure, whilst the total
number of this secret army of ("ythera is said to exceed
100,000. The- amount of revenue thcv obtain may be
suggested b\ the fact that a er/V/r/ of fair renown di->-
inir-es annuallv Y^.Soo. It is v T\ difficult to obtain
exact or even approximate figures, but the reports of the

316 JAPAN AT TIIK CROSS ROADS

Army do tors have drawn very serious attention to the
menace to public health, which tae failure of the segrega-
tion s\>tein entails, whilst the investigations of Professor
Iliranuma of Wa-eda I Diversity demonstrate the social
and economic dangers whii'h arc now becoming apparent.
1 lie problem-^ of the gcisfni and the yoshiwara rai-e
the whole que-t:o;i ot the jx>si;ion of women in Japan.
< M the hundred- of thousands ot women leading a life
')! shame, few are doing MI Irom vanity or from choice.
1 he\' havi- been toned to -acntice themselves in re-ponse
to tin orders ol those in authority over them. The inmates
>t the ^ci^lhi house, of the nuichiai and the yos/tni'iiru.
It ail a life of ab-olute slavery, and in all but a tew
ru-.es it i> a life t considerable physical hard-hip. 1 he)
aie bound lor a number of yai's to their proprietors, and
there is practically no limit to the power ot the latter.
.\<>t only i- this ruinous to the physique and moral'- ot
the women themselves, but they are beroming a serious
in* nare t<> the State itselt. Alin<i-t tln-jr on I)' < haiu e
I t n-edoin is to imd a lover who \\ill be- ome sufficiently
enamoured to pun ha>e :ln-n r. 1 a-<' or generous enough
in git'N to enabli- them to aina-s a hoard to the same
i nd. 1 hat ill'- loim-r ottr:i 01 cur> is w, 1! knoun. and

-oni- of til' 4 Illi'-,; j)lolin:i'-!lt of the --o. lal ho--te>-.es ot
I ok\ o, < ) -aka. and K \ oto ha\ e a> tjUli e 1 th<-ir attainnieiit-'
apj.'i * -:ii i< I'd in a ^<:^/i of tin- criminal
p- embe/xli-ment. fr.md, an<l roiiber)' a;e again
.ii'i (liagnoi-j a- (lue to iiitnguo with courtesan--
/*/. It is not t > be io;,(-aled that ;h.- \\i--'-r head>
|.t|M;i ar- awak'-iiing to tic c danger-, but it r- doubt-
tu! if t IP I r i utln i lit i oil, li.' i;. ciisi abl oad in the i oun: !
to !iiii:t tli'- xt'i\hti and Ir-i !' r'!io\'.n<-d ollcagues to

' lr II it

( '.s ) ear-, t hou; 1 h it li.i
i ;t on \\lu< 'i ;t o. . ap:--

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 317

been regulated according to an ann'-nt moral (ode, \\.\\\t h
is summarized in tin- Onna Dtiiguku. 1 In -Imrt, it is
obedience to the father Ix-fore marriage, to the husband
during marriage, and t<> the son during widowhood. Hie
whole idea ot woman is negative, a condition whi< h
dates from the rise of tin; Shognnate. \\'onian was and
is the chattel ot her lord and master, be he father,
husband, or son. Her principal characteristic is
stupidity,' and her principal virtue blind submission to
her in -laws. The demarcation of the v\e-i in Japan
has been hardly less complete than in India or Turkey,
even though there is no ptirda'i or zenana. There is
no possession that the aristo-.-rats guard more jealously
than their women until the time comes to reali/e their
assets by strengthening their family intluence by ad-
vantageous marriages. To the lower classes the women
are no less an asset, though the reali/ation is often in cash
value. The feminine in Japan are strictly guarded from
all entanglements until the propitious moment, but no
restriction is imposed on the predatory instincts of the
males. It is this onc-sicUxlncss of life against which
the Feminist movement is directed. The position of
women is an outcome of the family .system, and with
that jiosition women are frankly bored. They are no
longer content to be the property of man, but demand
education, the right to think, and the right to act. Kven
to-day women are not allowed to attend jxilitii al meetings,
but are classed under the exi-ting law as ' vagabond-,
robbers, and Liberals' md a proposal in i<;i2 to amend
the law so as to permit tlvir at:e:; lance was rejected on
(io\ eminent initiat : ve by a large majority. That there
is as yet no properly organi/.ed movement of revolt is
true, and the organi/ation of such a movement would
meet with scant courtesy from the powers that be, for
it would surely be regarded as a stop as dangerous as

' K:iib:ir:i Kkkcn. t'-c author of Omia /\;\',; ; :< .The (IKMUT
Learning for \Yoim'n> was .1 l.ijvm.^r inoialist of t!n- ri^l-.tci-nth
century; see \Vsmcn anJ \Visdsm of ~i\i'-an. Muiray. IMI;: Tl::".^
/'ii^u'itSt', b Professor Risil Chainbei lain.

318 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

the Kotoku plot. It docs not seem likely th.it authority
will willingly do much to lighten the degradation and
humiliation of the sex. When Dr. Kliot of Harvard
wrote ur^ r inx an improvement in the educational facilities
for women, \'IM ount Kancko deliberately altered the letter,
putting into the Doctor's mouth words of such opposite
view as to produce a stin^in;^ rebuke. Tin-re is strong
opposition to the emancipation of women, based curiously
enough on a possible darker to the morals of the com-
munity. It is unfortunately true that some leaders oj
the movement have expressed views on matters better
undisclosed in public, but there is no reason to believe
th.it any serious degeneration f the feminine virtues would
result from greater freedom. In any case it is doubtful
whether the experiment could produce any worse state
of alTairs than that which exists at present, with the
glorification of vice in the yo>.hi\\-ar<i. the slavery of
th r/s/;<7, and a divorce and concubinage system which
is closely akin to the freee-t ! >ve with consent necessary
only on the man's side. In what other so-called civili/ed
(ountry in the world could a Member of Parliament

' haT'Il^e the whole ('abillet ui'.ll keepi:)^ i OIK llbllH's as

well as wives, .ind he answered <.-il\ \\ith .t ^mui;" smile
of a->ent ? ^'et thi^ happ'-ned 1:1 Ma'<li. lH2, in Japan.
K then- any other i oimtrv where the pun ha-e of a N-.nliii^
i^ci^hti Mr the national ecjuivalent i to be his concubine
by the j;reate-t steamship magnate ot the land would
be heralded with i on^ratulat :on> and interviews and
pi< lure- in the paper? Yet ihi> 01 i urn-d in < ), tobei,
l <; i '), ar.d th'- happ\ man \\a- ilaron Kondo Keinpei
>f th<- Nip-poii \'u-'-n Ka;-ha. Tm--. --oine sh^ht < on
( e-s|ons l:a\r been mad'- to mo lern ileniand-. but nu:i h
-til! remain^ to he (Ion- before fapane .e u'o!ii-n rei ei\'e

th- ( on - i' lei at -i i'i \\hnli tli'ir character demands
po nj-iii \> v.'l\\< h th'-ir inn-l'i'M-'n e and number

, th'-rn. 1

"'.' !l'l!!i! "'! ( 'I II ; 11 I !.;' Ill I'll 1 \\ ,i I t '''',' I \\ ! l< h I ;.> >.'S

N'nit ti- Jv'iiin t ni.iti in. r i I- .i vvi.l '.v.i-i'i I I'M Ki" l.ninlv n;iiir i,
j^.V'.' M'.i'<"'. ' ; n ill'.' 1 --! 'M iniiiic-. t':,' l.ui.'litn </l t!ic

SOCIAL CONDITIONS v<j

The Japanese pre>s can do much to obtain an improve-
nicnt in the position of women, and the passing of the
many social and financial reforms which are so ne( es-
sary for the pro.-,j>ri ity of the coi.mtry.

fioiiM'). Tin 1 nuiiil)iT of divoriTs was ^i;,|^j, ^i;,oi<) <if uliicli WCK l>v
mutual coiiM'iit. Six pi-i irnt. of tin- di\i nr-^ \vrii- vvitiini five vr.u % dl
manure ami cii^lil | ci ci-nt. within trn yi.ns.

CHAI'IT.K SKVKN
SOCIAL CONDITIONS

1'AKT II

I UK history of the press in Japan is to .1 L;reat extent
the history ot demo ra> \ in that country. Previous to
the Restoration there we'v news or hroad sheets, hut it
ua> not until alter the M-in Kra had hem inaugurated
that journali-m in the \V.e tern .-ense ot the word became
known. The fir -a daily was e>ta'm-hed at Yokohama
in iX~S, and within lour year--, a hundred newspapers
\\ere l>ein;^ r published in Japan, and to-day there is no
lountry in the world which ! -o well >tij>p!ird with m-ws-
paper^. Political journali-in datr> from iSp^, when the
^pht in tlie < laiis over the Korean question led to the
M -e ol ,i democrat i' part\\ and the ie\v cditor> were
only pro or ,inti--tlie ;;o\-erninent. 1 he jmlirji ,il i>aity
eia i-',,i\'e a :. real nnpetu- to uri'in^, ami on the print iple
that ne\v. is knowledge, a;.d knouled^e i> pou-r. the
pajirr-. a< (juii'i d i on- i r ie; ai>le inlhi n< e. 'I'hen fo]Io\\cd
a -hoit period uhen the printing |re-s toinjit tor and
a:'.ain ! th'- wordiipol tdi'i;^n idea!^, and in |X.S<> repre

e;;'.i!i\.- :;o\ ( i niiiet.t und'-r on-- ; .i < ..r another hei anie
ill-- jtrin- ip.il -u)i] r( ; oi conllii ; het\\een tin documaiie,
ot K '. o ' M In. and n main - -o to-dav .

'Mie-i are line-- :-i:;r ol inn-re, i in tonnntion uiih

lh< | a pa',' i pie- . Ml'' I'r-t I - the < \'r\.' o( r . Hide
p'-nd- n- '-. the >iiond i- ! h'- extent o! i's intlii'-ii. c, and
di-- !h:r ! Its 'a k ..I eH p,-. Iii i Xo i Napoleon I

,:p|.'re cd /' Jmiffit:' <!> I^iiH-, hn' a leu month
la' i n e talili-h-'d it a // Jonnnr. <l< /'/ //.yv/v. at

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 321

tin- same time issuing the following instruction to the
editor : " Nothing shall be published which can be con-
sidered unfavourable to the government until such time
as the truth is so well known that publication is un-
necessary."

That is also the poli< y of the Japanese Government in
regard to the press. The Foreign, Naval, Army, and
Home Departments have power to suppress any newspaper
or any edition of any newspaper publishing' matter con-
sidered objectionable to the authorities, and in addition
there is a standing prohibition against publishing anything
reflecting- on the Imperial Family or Ancotry. So much
for the direct power of the authorities over the press.
Indirectly official influence i.-> very strong. Most of the
important papers have some connection with the powers
that be. I\okumin Shimbiin was the organ of the late
Prince Katsura, and is now the organ of Baron Kato
and the Rikken Do-hikai. Jiji Shimpo, founded by
Fuku/awa, the Sage of Mite, was the organ of the late
Count Hayashi, and draws largely on Keio for its initiative
and writers. Chtio Shimbun belongs to Mr. Ooka, ex-
President of the Diet and leader of the Seiyukwai.
Nippon Stiimbun long ago had a reputation in financial
matters, and has behind it a strong Capitalist group,
headed by an ex -Director of the Bank of Japan. A'/V///-
A'/V/// Shimbiin was formerly the property of Baron Kato,
but now is controlled from the \Var Office. Huchi
Shimbun is controlled by Count Okuma. The largest
paper-, in Japan are the twin Asahi Shimbun, of Tokyo
and Osaka, owne;l by Mr. Murayama. This gentleman,
though no journalist or writer, has raised his property
from an obscure sheet to a great journal, and has done
it by the merit of his energy and straightforward dealing.
He is the Burnham of Japan. It will be clear from the
above that all the leading papers, except the Asahi, have
behind them some party or statesmen, and there are
many other papers besides those I have mentioned with
which [X)liticians are closely connected.

In addition to this personal influence, which varies

322 JAl'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

the imjwrtance of a paper according- to the party in
power, the Government keeps a close grip on the press
by means of the I'ress Clubs of the various departments.
By this means it is the easiest tiling in the world for
public opinion to be directed in the path desired. Nowhere
is this more noticeable than in the comment on foreign
affair^. I do not recollect ever having seen any news-
paper critiei/e the Foreign < ) it ice for its aggressive policy
towards China, though 1 have seen many and many
criticisms of its so-called weakness. This latter is due
to the pressure of the War Office, which issues its own
communiques on China, and does not hesitate to appeal
to the Chauvinism of the nation to obtain support for
its own ends. It must be remembered that the Foreign
Office does not .shajx; the foreign jxjlicy of the country,
but only conducts it. The following extract from a
lecture given by Mr. Sawada, of the Japanese Kmbassy
in London, fully illustrates this {x>int, that in foreign
affair-, the Japanese press always adopts the motto : " My
country's gain, ritjit or wrong." He said : " In iX<M
all the papers without exce{)tion appealed for the justice
of the Chinese War. The newspapers stirred the en-
thusiasm of the jx-ople. . . . The power of the news-
papers was again shown in the case of the Russo-Japanese
War. Perceiving the incvitableness of the war, all the
newspapers united in arguing for submitting the whole
(ontrovi-rsy to the tribunal of the .sword. Thus they
edui ated public opinion. Hut for the strong national
sentinn-nt in favour of war expressed by the newspapers,
thi- Government i ould not have rorne to ^u< h an audacious
d'-.ision." () r a^ain : 'The moment anything occurs
v.hi'h seriously a!!e<ts the national honour and the vital
interests oi t!)-- <ountry, all newspapers unite to -upport
the m-MsUics taken by tip- Government." Mr. Sawada
nimtvd to mention tha 1 unle-s they did -o they would be
^MJ ; ie ed . 11' also lot.;ot the numerous jireparatory
artu le-, by Mu!-:i and Ha\a-hi, whi' h prepared publn
nlMM'in for tli- ('lima \\ar, nor did he mention Hayashi's
pi- ptup ig.ind.i m [.ipan ,md iluo.id. supported }>'.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 323

the writings of Dr. Ariga ami the other Tokyo professors,
which led the way to the Russian War.

The extent of the influence of the Japanese press is a
question very much debated in that country. Japanese
journalists, when discussing the matter, adopt a very
lofty tone, and almost assert to themselves the. res|X)nsi-
bilities of government. This may or may not he due
to a nice professional conceit. The rapid progress of
journalism in Japan was undoubtedly due to the pre-
eminence of the men with whom it was associated. They
wrote not only to make money or to advance themselves,
but to propagate the ideas, political or social, in which
they believed. The names of Kuku/awa, Fukuchi, O/.aki,
Shimada, Tokutomi, Matsuda, and Mutsu are definitely
associated with certain jx)litical principles, and will remain
so associated long" after their connection with journalism
has been forgotten. The early Japanese press, like the
early political parties, drew its inspiration and owed its
popularity to personal influence. The present Japanese
press owes its popularity entirely to the ability with which
the circulation department is managed. It has been
unfortunate that the history of the Japanese press has been
so modern that it has no tradition, and owes most of its
teaching to American methods, and these by no means
of the best standard in America.

1 should say that the Japanese press cannot create a
cause, but it can lend very jxnverlul support to a move-
ment, and it is to its credit that during recent years it
has been able to focus public attention on certain matters,
and has succeeded in getting improvements inaugurated.
Even so, it must regretfully be admitted that such action
has only too often been due to selfish, rather than public,
motives.

The worst feature of the press, and there is no paper
which can be excluded from the criticism, is its lack
of self-respect. A Japanese editor has absolutely no
idea of fairmindedness, no idea of courtesy, no idea of
decency, and but little idea of truth. The present Minister
of Justice, Mr. O/aki. in a criticism of the press, ascribed

324 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

four major faults to the fourth estate obscenity, untruth,
partiality, and scandal, and his opinion is amply confirmed
by other men of position and by a study of the columns
of the daily pros.

The ' 3rd' pa;_, r e is an institution with Japanese. On
it are published the nio-t libellous, pornographic, ami
-eandaloiis statements \sith regard to persons in all grades
cf society, and without the slightest regard lor decenc\
and truth. The law ot libel is so vai;ue that it is almost
imjx)ssible to take action, and it is now customary not
to sue on anything appearing on that pai;e. Yet every
\ear many and many a life is ruined, and innumerable
sui< ides are caused by the filthy innuendo appearing
there. Charles Hrooktield's words apply with more force
to the journalists ot Tok\o than to those of any other
country : "liod. who in Ili> infinite mercy has deprived
the ne; s To of his .scii-e of siiidl, appears alx> to have
deprived the journali-t of his sense of decency."

There is a -troni^ foreign pre-s in Japan. The Japan
Mdil, founded by the late Captain Hrinkley, was toi
niaiiv years the leading foreign or.;an, and in spite of
its Japanophile proclivities, \sas for \-ery many years
.1 l'-h^ht to the reader, not o:il\ tor the a^i!il\ ot it-.
ar^i:m'-nt and the wid'- kim\v]<-du, r e ot its contributors,

elegance ot its laii^ua^'e. SUM e
seini-oiticial syiidii ate it has In^t
ino-f ot its intlueiii . \\hilst its n-'\\- proprietors disp!a\
a pi' a-iii;', di-K-^aid ot the |-ji;.;lish l.tii^ua;.;e and
mantlet x .

I In Justin A'/\-t ff.'--i r i- run on rather Ani'-riian lines,
i! nwnej l)i-in.; ol lii.it uat K':a In \\ and ina\ be considered
t' iijM.-.rnt the Ann n an p''ii.! ot \ie\\-. I h<- Japan
<ia::<ti< : a I.'it; h ot;;.in. published in Yokohama, and
npre-rnts the iiit-ret . i-t (o:it.'.ri I'linmerce. I hi' Jtif'iin
lltrii'i! w.i-, a ( lei niali -< -uned IO-MIM!. \'. hi h \\.i- < losed
down atiei the fiutbreak ot war. A- ail ( ii-nnaii papei>
in :he l.i- I.i ', it \\ i i I.iM-h i;i to-i' h \\ith (letin.in
otri laldoin, .Cr i ,i ; H a! liUmb- I "I j; , .nil' le \\ < re \\ ntleii
die < , ( i:n.ci I .: at 1 ok ,0. \\'ii n the U t nil I

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 325

was suppressed in 1914, The Japan Mail distinguished
itself by likening its writings to tin- ' shrill shrinking*
of a wayside ->lut,' but even il true, the Herald could
not be charged with leading a life of prostitution. I In
Japan Chronicle of Kobe is ,i strong and shrewd ( run
of things Japanese, and has again and again done good
service to foreign interests by it^ reasoned argument-,
on political and coinnierci.il matters. At tunes it appears
to the reader to devote too much space to " rubbing
in," but it lias the excuse that Japan is peculiarly a country
where taisscz-fuirc is omnipotent.

There is no department of public administration in
Japan which gives rise to greater discontent amongst
the people as a whole than that of justice.

It is at least some consolation that there is a very
strong feeling on the matter, and that strenuous efforts
are being made not only by politicians but by the
numerous Har Associations and by the more enlightened
amongst the occupants of the bench for a radical reform
of the codes and for a more liberal and humane adminis-
tration of the criminal procedure. 1

That a nation gets the government it deserves is
certainly untrue of Japan in this matter. The Japanese
are by no manner of means a race endowed with criminal
propensities. If the statistics of criminal administration
show- a percentage which appears to contradict this view,
il is largely due to the creation of crimes to suit the
code rather than the adaptation of a code to tit the
crimes. In a country where it is the tradition of ages
past that thc v end justifies the means, it is manifestly
absurd to catalogue fraud and false swearing as high
crimes and misdemeanours. Amongst a race where hari-
kiri is a recogiii/edly proper method of terminating the
weariness of existence, to ordain a penalty for unsuccessful
suicide is either a rcdndio ad absurd am or an oversight
on the part of the lawgivers. If it is murder to slab
another person to death, even in a country where the
educational authorities eulogi/e assassination for ;> liti^d

1 Cl. '"r'tifiin Weekly Gtizclli', February 27, 11)14.

326 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

jxirposes, why is it highly praiseworthy to tic yourself
to him or her with a scarf and then to push the composite
bundle over a cliff. If it is a felony of the gravest
for an Admiral to receive 40,000 for forwarding the
order for a battler-hip, why is it no crime at all for a
hou-eboy to receive 5 JKT cent, on all orders emanating
from the house. It is a misdemeanour for a contractor
to give a cheque for 500 to an official, but if the
money is converted into an ohjct d'art, and given at
New Year or the hon, it is legitimate. It is highly
improper for a newspaper correspondent to offer a couple
of shillings to the staff of the local telegraph office,
and he is liable to punishment. If, however, he places
the money in an envelope covering a letter to the chief
of the local telegraph office, asking that The money be
expended on tobacco or cakes, it may be accepted grate-
fully, and his messages will be exjwdited. A burglar,
in Japanese law, is one who enters a house by violence,
but if he enter with the aid of a ron/rirc within the
house, and is caught before he has left the house, then
no charge can be made against him. A prostitute who
<arrie,> on Ir-r bu-inr^s out-idi- of the yoshiwara is liable
to heavy pcnaltie-,. A gci^hu who secretly prostitutes
herself i-, liable to no jx-nalty whatsoever.

Kijually pu//lin.g as the definitions of crime are the
ruli--, of procedure and evidence, whilst most appalling
of all are the sentences \vhnh may be inflicted. Before,
however, di -Missing tin -M- points it will be well to ^ive
an outlini- of the judicial system.

Previous to iS~4 the Police Hureau. which controls
jxilif e affairs throughout the country, was attached to the
(udi< ial I >epartni'-in . In that yar the Bureau was trans-
ferred to tip' Hume Department, and has formed since
then probablv t!i- mo-t important administrative section
(if that d'-partnvnt .

'Ill-- ('hi-t of \'"\i< P.meau is n--|>on-ib!e, under the
Home Mini ter, for th-- administration of police affairs
throughout t!i" Krnpir-. l.\> <]>i in Tokyo, the p)lice
affair. .u<- man.ii'fd by th- ()o\ernor of ea> h prefecture.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 327

In Tokyo they arc confided to a sj>ccial Metropolitan
Police Office.

The duties of the jx)licc are to care- for the public
welfare, not only as against evildoers, hut also as against
fire, sickness, and immorality.

There are two capital hindrances to the satisfactory
working of the Japanese polite system. The first is
that by its association with the Home Office, it ha.-, been
reduced largely to a political weapon. Not only do
the governors change- with each cabinet, but a No the
Chief of the Police. Bureau, the Chief of the Metropolitan
Police, and the local Chiefs of Police. Their offices
arc rewards for j>olitical service, and an advantageous
step towards future advancement. This is typical in
the career of Viscount Oura, the present Home Minister,
who commenced as a policeman, and gradually rose to
cabinet rank as Home Minister, by a due subservience
to his political leaders in ///, ken, and State. It was
during the third and last Katsura Ministry, when Oura
was Home Minister, that the most enlightening example
was given of how not to use police. When the popular
agitation against Katsura was at its highest, reserves
were drafted in from the country : furious attempts were
made to intimidate the opposition M.P.'s, and when these
failed, police and gendarmerie were launched with drawn
sabres on the crowds peacefully gathered in the streets
to applaud the Seiyukwai members on their way to Parlia-
ment. It must be some satisfaction to Oura to remember
that his rival Home Minister, Hara, adopted a precisely
similar policy in analogous circumstances in the following
year, and with equally disastrous results.

In the provinces the police are often the arbiters of
elections. If tin- governor is Seiyukwai. it H a fore-
gone conclusion that Seiyukwai will jx>ll the majority.
In cases where the majority has appeared to be going
against the governor's party the police have time and
again been ordered to prevent opposition voters from
approaching the polling booths.

Indeed, so long as the local administration is on a

328 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

political footing, the l)allot will be a farce. Only when
governors and administrative officials are appointed for
a term of years and the franchise widely extended will
elections he free from coercion and hrihery. It stands
to reason that, if a governor and chief of police are
liahle to go out of o;ti :e it th-- election L;oes against
the party which nominated them, they will do ever\ tiling
humanly jx)ible to secure the success of their patrons.

The second objection to the [apane-e police system i->
one which jx'rmcates the whole judicial system on its
criminal >ide. The jx>lice have the power not only of
arrest, but also of detention and punishment.

The fX)lice system is not ba^ed on laws submitted to
Parliament. It re-ts on Imperial Ordinances issued in
accordance with Art. <; of the ( 'oiistitution, \\hereby the
jxtlice. may arrest persons and sei/e property, detaining
the former up to thirty-six hours, and the latter up to
thirty days. They may al>o impo-c line> not exceeding
N"-5 at a time, plus any expenses im urred. They ha\e,
in addition, unlimited control over public meeting,
associations, and societies ; over the- publication <>l all
newspapers, pamphlets, and books ; over all questions
an>iiiL, r between employers and employed, in addition to
all sanitary questions, including the al-' and pre-< Tiption
of all materia rnedii a aJid drug's. (It may be noted that
the Police Handbook i- over two inche^ thick.)

1 1 i> obviou> that the e\t ii -i\ c s ope of |. iln e authority,
(otiplcd to the pohti' al ba-i- of th'- u'holr -\stcin. make-
it a very jxnverful wea{>on in the hand- ol an t:n--i mpulou-
-tate-man. N- one who ha> wati hed the p< >lu email
stalking throu;.;h a country \i!!a:;e and notiied the
^rovellin^-i and bouini^s of the i ommon people tan doubl
the awe->ine terror in \\-hi li h |- i> h'-'d.

In addition to tin- regular poli
town a ton e of p-ndarmei ie, a'ta- h'-
fones. 1 h-- e aid and
wh'-n ne< e >ary, and in li

).'< oiii'- th'-Hi ehe-, th" J-ril

: i;pp!< III' Iit"d b\ the I loiii> Oll

SOCIAL CONDITIONS .529

Tin- criminal la\v is administered according to a uniform
code, with regulation-, promulgated by Imperial Ordi-
nance, dealing with Court procedure, the rule-, of evideix c,
hail, and court lees.

A criminal pursuit can he initiated hy either a private
person or the jmhlif authorities, hut in hoth cases it
passes through the hands of a Publn Procurator. Th'-
procuratorial system, as conducted in Japan, is the most
striking survival ol the Inquisition. It i-. the mm-
-^trained ahuse of the rights and privileges ol the Pro-
curator which is at the hottom ol the present wide agitation
1'or a reform en I'loc of the judii ial system, and lor the
introduction of trial hy jury. The procuratorial system
an Jupoiuiis is the exemplification of tlie annihilation of
personal rights.

In theory the Public Procurator is merely a prosecuting
attorney, counsel for the Treasury. In practice he is
investigator, prosecutor, and jud^e.

In (he ease of an inquiry hein^' opened into an atfair,
the Procurator instructs the police to make preliminary
inquiries. On their rc^irls he decides on such further
steps as he considers desirable. This i^eiierally takes
the form of summoning' persons concerned before him.
lie has no ri^ht whatsoever to order a person to be
arrested and brought before him, nor ha\i- the police
any rii^'ht to arrest any person, unless caught fla^rtinlc
dclicto, or unless they are provided with a warrant from
an KxaminiiiL;' .Ma;^i-trate. \r\crthelos, in at lea-t ;o
per cent, of the criminal cases in Japan the Procurator
takes the aho\'e steps.

< )n the arri\'al of (\\c suspect he is examined. That
is to say. the Procurator asks him questions, and in tip-
event of the suspect beinj^ accjuainied \vit!i law, and
refusing to ans\\-er. lie bullies and threatens hmi, ntten
usini;' alnir-ive lan^ua^e. and compul-orily iletamin^ him
without footl or tlrink. Be it noted that lv has no le-'al
ri;j,"lu whatsoever to do so. If the Procurator considers
he has or can make a case, he sends the suspected person
before an Exajninintr Magistrate, who iormailv orders

330 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

his arrest. The Examining Magistrate can commit an
accused person to prison, and can keep him there for
any period he likes on the sole condition that he examines
him once in ten days. The examination often consists of a
single question and answer, which in the case of a prison
of social position, is frequently an inquiry after his health.

During this preliminary trial the accused is refused
access to his papers and hooks ; he is not allowed
communication with his lawyers, and often not with his
friends ; he is not allowed to call witnesses nor to ask
to be confronted with witnesses. He is liable to be
examined for any length of time by the judge without
intervals for sleep, or for food or drink, or contrari-
wise never to be examined at all.

In addition to what is allowed, it is common for tin-
judges to threaten, coerce, bribe, and otherwise attempt
to influence accused person's statements. A practice
strictly against the law, but much in vogue, is to [x-nnit
the Procurator to be- present at examination by the Judge,
and even to examine accused persons himself. Physical
torture is no longer legal, but constantly occurs, whilst
mixed mental and physical torture is of e\eryday occur-
rence. I 'ndoubtedly Japanophiles and the members of
the Japan Societies over the world will turn up their
eyes and exclaim, " What a bar this nun is ! " The
evidence of the infliction of torture is too overwhelming
to be even disputed, not only in Korea and Formosa but
in Japan itself.

The most famous, because the most widely known,
case was the Korean conspiracy case, which dragged its
course from 1910 to io.iv A number of Korean < hits
turns, headed by Baron Yun--chi-ho, were arrested and
charged with a conspiracy to assassinate Count Terau hi.
Ciovcrnor-Cicneral of Korea. One hundred and nine out
of one hundred and twenty -seven were < onvti ted .UK!
sentenced to a total of -ev-ral hundred years' imprison
inent . Now the ni'-re < onvii (ion of a few stores of
native, was not sensational, but in tin- t ourse of the trial
allegations were made against American and British

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 331

missionaries of having incited the plot. The authorities
refused to charge the missionaries, who were thus unable
to refute the allegations in open court. WJien the defence
opened, allegations wen- made that the prisoners had
been cruelly ill-treated, and that the confession*, unctuously
displayed by the Procurators had Ix-en extracted by
torture. Never was am thing truer. It turned out that
the miserable Christians had been liendishly tortured for
days and weeks by the Japanese gendarmerie and police.
Renter's messages to London 'bluntly conveyed this infor-
mation, and the British Government, to its credit,
telegraphed to the Ambassador at Tokyo for a report
of the trial, and the Consul -General at Seoul furnished
the same. The concluding sentence of that report was :
' The whole trial was a travesty of Justice." A copy
ot this report was unofficially conveyed by the Ambas-
sador to Viscount Uchida. the- Foreign Minister, with an
intimation that Great Britain, in consenting to the annexa-
tion of Korea, had received an assurance from the
Japanese Government that Koreans would be fairly
treated, and unless this assurance was carried out at
the trial in Appeal, something very unpleasant was going
to happen. The result was that all except six were
acquitted, and these six had their sentences much reduced.
The Supreme Court reversed the latter part of this judg-
ment, and sent the case of the six for re-trial. The
Lower Court, however, re-imposed the sentences, and a
further appeal to the Supreme Court failed.

This case attained considerable notoriety, firstly on
account of the attitude of the Japanese authorities towards
Christians, which was a matter of deep interest to religious
bodies throughout the world, and secondly because of
a very pretty quarrel as to (he manner in which the case
was reported in the American press. It even became
an argument in the' abortive petition of the Sun newspaper
for the dissolution of the Associated Press under the
Sherman Law.

Another case of absorbing' interest was the Kotoku
High Treason Case in 1908. It was alleged that Kotoku

332 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

and his associates had formed a plot to murder the
Kmpt-ror. They were arrested, tried in secret before
a Sjnvial Commission, and executed. It is highly doubt-
ful whether there e\-er was a plot against the lite of
the Kmperor. Then- was undoubtedly a plot, hut it
was directed against the late Prince Katsura. It ua>
at a time when there was a j^reat deal of di-t (intent .
Katsiira, whilst a statesman of the greatest ability, had
an overweening belief in his own capacity. A public
trial would certainly have evoked a popular movement
a^aiiM him, and of sympathy for the accused, the more
so as the assassination of an unpopular statesman is
justified by many precedents in Japan. A charge of
hi^h treason was therefore framed up. and a speedy
and satisf.irtory end achieved by a commission of com-
placent judges and the executioner's sword. One of the
I rison officials told m*- that the only evidence of hi^h
treason was a very loosely-worded letter and a <on-
tession, the latter beiriL, r obtained by corporal punishment.

Other notable cases ot the recent application of torture
an- th" I-'onno-an con-piraei-s of i ^ i } and i>;'4- \\here
the treatment of the prisoners was so revolting!) cruel
that the Tokyo Barristers' Association sent over a special
rommi--ion. headed 1)\ Mr. M.i-u]iina, Lawyer to th"
Briti-h I - jn!)a-sv at Tokyo, and a Harri-ier of the Inner
'I emple. and of the New York State liar at Albam. to
in<|uiri- into thf allegation-. The re|iort of the ( ommission
full\- (onlirmed th<- truth of ih<- .ille^ation-. Anio'i-si
it> pa-sa-M-s the lollouin; may be quoted : " l-'our un
fortuiiat'- per on- ha\'e already been tortured to deaih,
and i i.'li! or rnn- out of every ten arre-i'-d have been
toMur<-d dunn;, r inij>n -onnient .

A \\ell j-ro\en i a-e of tojture of an old \\oman at
I f onirni'.a. in i't\~. re-nhed in a t'eiieial --ttil.e of th-
bar of that < ourt unril tlr- procurators and examining
judi'e . ' ( >in erne* 1 had been i cni' ivei 1 .

II.ii'i!\- a <la - . !>i e, m |. HI. m \\i;hoi:t a revelation

man, Nakaj'ina Ma -aki' hi. u a > om i< ted in Ma\ , I *> \ \.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 333

and sentence 1 to live years' imprisonment for burglary
on the evidence oi hi-, wife, taken in secret in preliminary
examination. Subsequently in May, 1914, anotlu-r nun
was arrested for quite a different crime, ;md confessed
spontaneously to the burglary. Inquiry was then made
as to the wife's alleged evidence. It w.is proved that
she had steadfastly denied her husband's K 11 '^- 1 he
Procurator had arrested her, had her detained in tin-
police cells below the court. These cells, which consist
ot three brick wall-; with iron bars, like a c.i-e, across
the front, open on to a public corridor. Here the poor
woman had been stripped stark-naked, although she was
enceinte, and locked up, to be ^a/ed and jeered at by
ever\ passer-by. Alter three days she had coniosed that
her husband mii;ht have committed the burglary.

After tin- real culprit had been convicted, her husband
was tried a^ain in the Court of Appeal and acquitted
for lack of evidence.

Nobody in Japan is ever properly acquitted. The
view of the courts is that procurator and jud^e alike
are public officials. If an accused person is declared
not g'tiilty, then it is obvious that somebody, Procurator
or Jud;^e, or both, has blundered. As a person \vho is
a public official ip^o facto cannot blunder, therefore, the
prisoner must be guilty, even if there is not siifticieni
evidence to sentence him. Thus is the ' face ' ot the
Procurator and ICxamining Judi^e saved.

In June, I gi }, Shima Sadiji. ai;ed eighteen, wa-
arrested and charged with ar-on at Xa^ova. I nder
pressure from the police he confessed, and \\as -enteiucd
to live years' penal servitude. In < 'c.obcr \o,u<> Shimpei
was arrested at Shid/.uoka tor arson, and eviilence wa>
found on him that he wa- guilty ot the Na^oya and other
cases. In January, I'M 4. lie was sentenced to penal
servitude for life. It was not until May, 1^14, that a
retrial of Shima Sadiji was ordered, when the previous
judgment was quashed lor lack ot evidence.

In February, 1014. three men were charged with rape
and robbery at Shid/uoka. Tortured under preliminary

334 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

examination, they were sent for trial. Before the public
hearing was o|*-ned the real culprits were identified and
arrested. The case of the three men first arrested was
adjourned sine die.

In 1906 two men were executed in connection with
a murder at Gumba. On January 23, 1913, the real
murderers were arrested, and it was shown that the two
dead men had been convicted on confessions extracted
under pressure.

I)r. Kgi, who, with Dr. Hanai, leads the Tokyo Bar,
wrote in The Japan Times : "In rny exjx-rience I find
that in five cases out of ten innocent |K-rsons are con-
demned, in one case the real culprit is acquitted, and in
the remaining 1 lour cases the culprits are punished, but
for accidental reasons."

A letter before me from another leading Tokyo
barrister says : " Condemnation in a Japanese Court by
no means indicates the giiilt of the accused."

These cases of torture, which I have given, are not
one hundredth part of the cases reported. Men and
women are beaten, starved, their limbs twisted, con-
strained, and even burned as sacrifices to procuratori.il
ambition. In a recent < a>e reported in Japan a woman
was so beaten as to have her lace swollen Ixjyoiul recog-
nition.

The record of th- 1 preliminary examination is no',
according to the rulings ot the Courts of Appeal, of any
judi i.il value whatsoever, whilst the preliminary judg-
ment lias b--n des< rilxnl in a ruling of the Court ol
Cassation as "merely the expression of the examining
judge's opinion."

'1 hat these rulings should be i> highly correct. The
re> ord in innumerable cases consists of extorted ton
fe-sions and evidence obtained by the Procurator'* and
Judge's bull) ing and threats. llou often, in a Japanese
< ourt, do \ on no! hear th-- following dialogue :

I'rt'^id-n^ Jud^i' i to a<u--il . In \o-.ir |>rrlimin.ii v

ex.lllllli.tt 1< ill \oll s.uil su .ill'l so

Accused. \ < I li.nl been -.o in.iiu uick- under

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 335

arrest, and the Judge said that if I said so I would be
set free.

It has boon repeatedly proved that Procurators and
Examining Judges, if they cannot get a witness to give
evidence of the kind they require, fabricate the evidence
themselves and put it on the record, and it has also been
proved that, when evidence favourable to the prisoner
is given it is suppressed from the record.

It will be argued that even if these tilings occur at
preliminary examination, they can be rectified at public-
trial. They cannot. The Procurator in charge of a
case dominates the whole proceedings. He sits with
the judges: he takes part in their consultations: he
can oppose any application for witnesses, and he can
and does request the court to cut short the arguments of
counsel. Judges in the District Courts are completely
under the control of the Procurator, because on the Pro-
curator-General depend the alternatives, promotion or
transfer, to some distant and unimportant district.

In the Session of the Diet last spring a petition was
presented by the Rikkcn Doshikai, embodying ninety-
four common abuses of the judicial system, and pointing
out the steps by which the procuratorial body has obtained
a complete ascendancy over the judicial body, making
the latter dependent on the former tor promotion or
office.

It is hardly necessary to state that the rules of evidence
obtain as little respect from a Japanese Court as the
rules of procedure.

During last year Dr. Oba, a judge of the Criminal
Court of Cassation, resigned his high office for the purpose
of leading a campaign for the better administration of
the Criminal Law. In a lecture before the Society for
the Study of Criminal Administration, he said : " The
present code is a national disgrace. There is no pro-
tection of personal rights against official authority, which
is too often guilty of unwarrantable abuse." He drew
attention to the fact that the code was drafted during
a summer holidav. and was never submitted to the scrutiny

336 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

of the Diet. He remarked on the premium it placed
on crime by the fall in the value of life, and the wide
discretion left to judges in the matter of sentences. " The
life ot a man," said Dr. ( >!>a. " is now of less value than
the life ot a do:; fifty years a^o. Attempts at murder
cannot be punished at all, whilst crimes of personal
\iolence tluctiiate be'.v.eell a police line and ten years'
penal senitude." For libel and for unlautu! arrest there
i> no punishment, but for fraud or roblvry sentence ma\
ran:;e from a nioirh to tuenty year-' imprisonment. lor
stealing a furo^hik: <a cotton handkerchief i one man
yoi twelve years, and another eighteen years for stealing;
live toul-, whilst thirteen vear> \\a> the price ot a tobacco
pouch ; but for fori;inL, documents and embex/ling a million
yen the din-dor-; of a bank ;^'et oil' with a nominal
sentence, with >usjH.'nsioii ot execution. A pickj)ocket
get-, about the same as a sand-baiter or highwayman.

Dr. Yokota. 1're-ident ot the ('otirt ot C.'assation. and
ilie highest iiulicial lunctionary in the land is no less
ondernna'.oiA than Dr. <>ba. He said : 'The manner
in uhich criminal investigations ,ire conducted are a posi-
ti\e blot on the name ot the- <ountry. 1 he annihilation ot
persiinal rights, th'- abu-e of authority, the u-e ot threats
and taNe detention, the inllictioii ot phv-i< al i>anis
-ii' ii barba!'<iUs practi-'c-s all bear v.rne- to il.c 1>\\
! e \ e j 1 1 1 our i r i ; 1 1 1 ; ; \ \ e k e r
nl N"ok"I:al.i.i, the Create t a:;thont\ 0:1 JajiaiK -< lau.
aid : 1 he jiri.i iliatoi -U- ecds 'it 'in- error-, (it iiie

|M)||ie, a:ni the |;i'lxe to tii^-e o| ihe procurator."

it il'i J'.sd.'/- U'-je Hid- vrndent. (\jrii ;i cd. and edu-
(aiiil tip". \\(.;ili !> able t> pin the pi i , ur aai - ;n their

pice all'i ke p tin 111 t h\;\ Ulltol 1 U ! l.i' el ]. ilie Iitollli

..! :!,. adniu.i '. i at:\ e -\-.:>m :n I-HJ u. ( uuli.-ed b\

the !';., ui'alor ,e!ir-ial tn I- ino\ e lioni i ;;n e al! (lie

':, m- ii, u!."i were bint nn leloini. 1 \\li.t; i<

tii- at )' 11:1:111- U "t men nt . du> a!l' :

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 537

found, pay them properly. Fancy a judge of the High
('ourt only getting C 300 per .iiinuin ! If government
officials arc properly paid the principal incentive to cor-
ruption will l>r removed. The sight of a judge holding
up two fingers to signify that lie will only give a favour-
able verdict in return for Y 2,000 is not edifying, not
was the bad language he used (in open court) when
he only got two hundred. 1

There is, among the judges on the criminal side, a
total absence of moral and intellectual qualifications.
Their verdicts show no relation between evidence and
judgment. As Mr. Walter Den ing has well said, they
have no idea of logic, and, in addition, their independence
is nominal, not real.

In relation to foreigners all proceedings should be-
most carefully watched by our diplomatic officials, and
an end should be put to the policy of subordinating the
rights and liberty of British subjects to the grand
diplomacy of Downing Street. In no sphere has the
Foreign Office shown less regard for its supposed principles
than in the manner in which it has sacrificed individuals,
whether it be in Japan, Mexico, or cKcwhere. In Japan,
in particular, no foreigner has a possibility of justice
or fair trial unless he receives the firmest support from
his government, and it is poor satisfaction for the victim
to receive unofficial letters that ' the Japanese officials
have been guilty of a gross breach of faith,' as Sir
Claude MacDonald wrote in connection with such a case
in 1913.

The principal additions to the Japanese Kmpire since
the career of expansion began are Formosa and Korea.
Their products are sugar, camphor, ginseng, and con-
spiracies, all of which are government monopolies.

The colonial administration has taken as its model
the German, following in this the example set in the
Diet, the police, the army, the law, and education in Japan
Proper. It may be that the- failure which has resulted
is due to its prototype, or it may be owing to Japanese
1 Official Cni-illt', Diet Proceeding, February, 191^.

338 JAl'AN AT THF CROSS ROADS

characteristics tln-rnvh-es. Anyhow, whichever it is, no
change is likely to result, for Mr. Sakata, Director of
tin- Commercial Bureau of the Foreign Ot'fice, who was
sent to Kiao-chou to report on tin- Cerman system.
cam<- back more enamoured of it than ever, and said
that Japan had much to learn from the (Germans m tin-
art of administer;!);-;' colonies. It is certainly true that
they have much to learn on the colonial question, but
whether they will learn it from the (iermans remains to
be -ecu. Kiao-chou \sa^ a handsomely suhsidi/ed com-
mercial agency, and apart from any military or naval
importain e \\h:c!i Korea and I ormo-a may ha\ c ;!n-
same definition exactly describes them also.

Whether or noi I-'ormo-a is a pa\in^ property is e\-
ireiii'-ly doubtful. Tin- Budget is < onducted on similar
lines to that o( Japan, and has tin- -aim- mystification about
it. I'robably th'- surplus should rank as a deficit. Korea,
anyhow, is franklv unprofitable. About both countries
it is difficult to ---I information, e\o-p; through i;o\crn-
niental sources, and that mu-t be regarded a> tainted.
In both ci'loni'-s I'n s ceiisoi -hip is \-ery strict. I'racti-
iail\- tin \\hole colonial administration is in the hands
of tin- C|).-hu clan. a'id tin- is par; ii ulat'ly the case in
K'.;-.t and K wantu;:i;'. uln<h are the military outposts
of |.i;.an f'ropi r. ! or th-- nM Japanese interests are
la!:;<l\ in th'- hand- o| -'-iir-nin lal coin erns. The South
Mail' liurian Kaibva\ hn-iall;. run- Kuantun;.^ and tin-
Manihunan Railway /one. I'he <>ne:;tal ( oloni/ation
Coni;iar:\ is su[>reme in KOI- a. \ i . hd-t th'- In a\ i!\ sijbsi-
di/'-d -a.'ar oinp.riies an I th'- < amphor monoj>ol\ manage
iii mi -maiia^e I-'oniin i. ll,>- t\'.n loiin-i ii'incriis \\ere
< 'alii: !. d in i in-', and aie lontrolled i-ntireh b\ the
Tok\o a'ltlmnri' <M tl;-- So:::h Man'huiian Raduax

It 1- UIlII'-i e -s,ir\ to Uilt'- here. e\i epl 'o a', that It ha-

;c.;;it K;> an e!!o:ni"U bu i;:e-s thn'U.dn* M Man<h.ni.i,
(o fb-- --.- hi ;o-i . 1 1 r\i-r \ oth'-r i oun'r\ , and b\ ! <t ; o\\ in.;
i !;-aj' niojic-. on :!. I c. ;,i!i niaiket i:i de.'ii-ntuie- it
!~ til-- l'-\'-i t''I [ajMln i- ad\ atii < nienl and mono|iol\
in N"ith ( 'Inna. and ha- ie entl\ had tiand<rred to it

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 339

the management of the Japanese interests in Shantung,
acquired by the capture of Tsingtau.

The Oriental Colonixation Company was created for
the pur|x)se of introducing Japanese into Korea to settle
on the land. It received a government sub-idy of
Y^oo.ooo per annum, until such time as a dividend ot
S per cent, is declared. Its programme at the outlet
was to transfer 100,000 Japanese annually to Korea, to
provide them with land, money, implement-, etc., and in
general to develop the country on much the same line-
as the South African Company developed Khode-ia. So
far the whole scheme has been a disastrous f.iilure, and
has only trans{x>rted less than 2,000 families. The land
acquired by the company has been obtained by forced
sales from the Korean owners, and has been foisted on
Japanese immigrants at profits of from 300 to 500
per cent. The property is extremely badly adminis-
tered, and the greatest dissatisfaction has been caused,
not only amongst the Koreans, but amongst the Japanese.
Instead of the company loaning cheap money, it charges
from S to 17! per cent., plus first-class expenses for
the company's officials engaged in the transaction. The
methods of the company may be gauged from its refusal
to loan more than 25 per cent, of the purchase value
of land bought from itself. The loaning department
costs Y.jo,ooo per annum in salaries, and has only
Yj>, 000,000 out on loan. The salaries and allowances
of the President, Vice-president, and tour Directors total
^'T^TV I H>r annum, which is Y 30,000 more than the
salaries of the ( iovernor-Cieneral and the live heads of
the Korean Administration. The officials are provided
with residences at the cost of the company, and the-e are
the most palatial in the country. The directors of the
company have the reputation of being capable of waiting
more money in a given time than any other body in the
Kmpirc. The high official- have a penchant for good
living, and their wining and dining is .spoken ot \\ith
bated breath. It is needless to remark tha: the lower
officials do not -hare in the luxuries, a cause ot misfeasance

340 JAPAN AT THK CROSS ROADS

and corruption. The President draws Y i S per day for
hotel expenses when travelling, lower ofViciaN V^.^o,
and a Cabinet Minister in Japan Vi2.'

That corruption is rid- throughout the colony i-- widely
alleged, anil the numerous cases which have come to light
confirm the statement. .When- there is .in 'inefficient and
jxjorly paid bureaucracy, with a defenceless race to
plunder, there must result the most unhappy conditions.
I have already referred to the famous Korean Conspiracy
ca-e. It provided abundant evidence of the tyranny
and cruelty exercised by the authorities over the natives.
A well-known missionary \\orking uj)-country told me :
You can have no idea of the reign of terror which
exists in parts of Korea. The polite ami gendarmerie
are absolutely supreme, and nobody dares to <|uestion
their authority. Men and wom'-n disappear from their
villages at night, and it is impossible to learn about
them. Sometimes they conu % bark as mysteriously, and
examination s< ( in shows that they have been under secret
detention, and often torture. Their lands and properties
are expropriated, and the compensation they ultimately
receive i^ far b'-Iow the true value."

hi Formosa tilings are no better. F.ver sjn, ,- i,X<j;
the authorities ha\e been engaged in sulxlumg the
aborigine-, and it does not speak highl\ for t!ie i olomal
admini-tiation that the \\oik i- not \et tompleted.
A- c'lrding to a s'ap ni< nt made by Mr. l\.i:ne\ ania. Su|>rr-
intendent -( ieneral ol l''ormo-a 1'nliie on (anuars i',
1015, the Imal operations again-t the abnrigines, as
planned in loio. were to >i>-\ Y I ^.000,000, and be
on< luded in t'u'e years. In th
s\hi'li h,i\e since
rn< n, and the -

money ha\ ing iieeii all r\peijded. The <)tii;ii .!>.,////.
i ommenting OM i''ormo<an inndition-., -aid : "As the
re ult Mt ii'-arl;. a!l tlr- money h.ixing bi-'-ri [><-nt. the
<Hi'..r:iin n'.-< ieneral ha- Iran tej:el :h.- \'. ork to the
\<>< al government-, pretending that thin- i- no: mu< h

' (..'/': Hi' A''/ '!. Align !, n^i : ; >.;/.:; I V:;,>n; l(. \\\ t '\\^\ .<), i<ji ;.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 341

left to do. Hut matters are not really like this, and the
alleged subjugation ha-> not taken place. The aborigines
are as dangerous as they ever were, and the country is as
inaccessible to us."

The pi. in now being followed is not one of subjuga-
tion, but of extermination. The savages are driven into
areas circumscribed by wires heavily charged with elec-
tricity. Tnx>ps are then passed into this area, and
shoot down the- aborigines, whilst any of the latter
who attempt to escape are killed by the electric
current.

The aboriginal campaign is certainly the most difficult
the Japanese government has ever undertaken, but when
it is remembered that the forces of the two parties are in
the proportion of 10,000 Japanese to 300 savages, it
is difficult to understand the non-success. This seems
to have arrived since the attempt to subjugate the mountain
tribes, who are devoted head-hunters and better fighters
than the lowlanders.

The treatment of the Formosnns by the Japanese is
similar to that of the Koreans. As Formosa is the
principal source of sugar-cane available to Japan, a
policy of land -expropriation has been conducted in the
interests of Japanese merchants and sugar mills. The
compensation paid is about 10 per cent, of the real
value of the land, and in cases where land itself is not
sei/.cd, the villages are forced to grow cane and sell
it to the mills at prices fixed by the authorities, which
are considerably below co>t, let alone market price.
I'nder such condition.- unreal i- bound to occur, and then
the police, the gendarmerie, and the petty officials get
their chance. A petition from Formosa to the Tokyo
Barristers' Association, said :

' The prevailing condition in Formosa is that the live-
and property of Formo-ans are wholly at the mercy of
policemen and other official- of the lovve-t grade. On
simple charges of gambling human lives have been lo-t
through torture. Torture i- inflicted not only on the
guilty, but equally terribly on the innocent. Over three

342 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

million Formosans are groaning under the vilest kind
of administration." The details of the cruelties inflicted
on the Formosans are simply too sickening, ami their
truth has been put on record by the report of the Tokyo
Barristers' Commission, to which I have previously
referred.

It is conditions such as the authorities have provoked
which give rise to the numerous so-called conspiracies
in lx)th Korea and Formosa, and which are opportunities
for the extermination of those who dare to protest against
official despotism. If a Korean makes a speech in a
public place it is sedition, and for his hearers con-
spiracy. If a Formosa!! refuses to sell his land it is
rebellion.

The following is an account of the conditions which
create the daily conspiracy in Formosa, and was written
by a foreign resident of the island for 1 he Japan
Ctifonicle.

'The other day I called on a Formosan friend. He
\sas mourning, like many others nowadays, the fact that
lie was forced to sell the bulk of his land and houses.
True, he got the full fa-c value for his land, as noted
in hi- deeds, but he did not wish to sell and had to.
That was hi-, grievance. He also told me of some
curious practices which he asserted to be facts. lie
had a piece of land which was needed tor more or
le-s official purposes. The authorities fixed the price
at Yi.~o per tsuho. and ordered him to clear away
his belongings. Ills next neighbour, a fapaiicse. got
Y ; p-T t^nho for land exact lv similar. Anoiher item,
lie -aid : " A |apa:;e-e bu\s land iiom a Formosa!!
,i' -a'. \ 40. lie registers ;he price on the dee. I at ten

01 tWenr, tune, the amount. in a -hurt time the e\pei led

happen-. Ill-- authorities inform him In- laud i- needed

fol oll.c lal purposes and request him to tale the price
ii i i

.it whi<!l lie J -, Willing' to sell. lie leplle- that. a It Is

fro hi>rn> r-nh!i('i> t h>- i> williu.; to -,a< ntn hi- piopeitv
.it (!] la- e vahl'- ot lu> deed-., \\ith a verv hill-' abided

.1 Jlitele.f oil 1m IlloIleV, seeing lie ha-. li<'t had tlllie to

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

earn anvll.in K on ">" !**> "I* 1 " 1 - , '!'' "7 ,!,';
Io or live hundred y,n for property whu ' - "

M, I

! Not only M,, I

a publ,c-,,>mu,l nun anxious fur ll,- vlfar,
districi and tin- nation." . . ,

!!- fa,n<H,s ,,,nspira,-y uf ' Kolt ;; n July.

, ...,. as follows. The ,-xiK-Jili ..... W"- ;
c, are acco,npani,.l l,> ->!. '--'- h

, .

ho.lird iiu-ii Ix-twvrn tin- a^'- "' - ? "" .'.

,,,!,<, station, ami il- ..'.. f . '' f" I."-M
; - , for he p.t of bearer This man rccciv,-.

who

toruiR'il and imprisoned.

Thc whole basis of Japam, -

Colo , lic s are considere.l onl> as o,,n ,s. ,..--

""" ' ;

344 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

domination by the destruction of nationalities. Justice
is injustice, administration is maladministration, authority
is tyranny. The reforms that Japan has initiated are
merely spectacular, and the wrongs she has committed
cannot be expiated by the elegance of her official build-
ings and the construction of a few railroads and tele-
graphs. The colonies by Rescript of the Meiji Tenno
ought to enjoy the same rights and privileges as Japan
Proper, but the mo^t thorough work the Colonial Office
has yet accomplished has been the stultification of that
Rescript. The Asahi, commenting on colonial adminis-
tration, said : " The Japanese authorities have disgrace-
fully neglected their duties. They are wolves and tigers,
taking advantage of their official position to outrageously
destroy the rights of the people subjected to them."
The //// Sliimpo said : " Nothing can more quickly
lose Japan her prestige than a continuance ot
the savagery which disgraces our administration in
Formosa."

Count Okuma might well forget the 500,000,000 in
India and think of the 3,000.000 in Formosa groaning
under Japanese oppression. Hut, as Dr. Sawayanagi
has pointed out, it is the most lamentable ol Japanese
i harat teri-tii - that thcyha\e "no moral courage to help
those who are down, or to siipjMirt those who are oppressed,
though they have the physical courage to kick the we.tk
and the defenceless."

As to th" < oloni/ing ability of the individual Japanese
it is of doubtful qualitv. A> a solution of the population
problem, the coloni/alion of extra-Japanese possessions
is a f.iilurr. 1 lie Japanese dors not want to ;;o awav
to stay away. He wants only to make money and then
to return hum'-. l.e>s than ioo.<>oo have gone to Korea,
.i'id le-s than >.oo'> to I'onnosa. 1 hey are unable to
make t hein-el\, e , a hom<- fiom home, and the\ arc in
i ap.ible ot th-- haul pioiiei'i ing work whih <ol<ni-'.
inu^t endure. ('Innate-, that aie too hoi are unbearable,
ami ( ti'dei (Innate, m-ulN-i ai >\<-. In the Hokkaido there

room for another ;. ooo.ooo, but r\rn the bounties

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 345

offered to immigrants thither fail to attract. The mental
attitude of the Japanese to the subject races invariably
takes the form of lordship, and not of assimilation, and
it is a rarity for a Japanese to develop an adaptability to
the point of marriage with other races.

CHAPTKR KIGI1T
RELIGION

IF I refer shortly to the problem of religion in Japan,
it is not because I have the slightest claim to be an
expert on religious matter-, but because during' the period
covered by my stay in that country a peculiar interest
arose in the religious question, owing to the Conference
of the Three Religions called by the Home Office in

1912.

The reader who has had the patience to [XTuse these
chapters so far will have noted that at the time of the
accession of tin- Saiunji Cabinet the conditions of the
masses were very deplorable. whilst on the other hand
the aristocratic and comnienial cla>-es were rapidly fall-
ing vi'tim- to egoism, arrogance, and extravagance. It
was out ol this -ta'e of affair-, that the Kotoku plot arose.

The ( onspiracy o! K<>;oku and hi^ fellow- ga\e the < abmet
and the <ienr< a very s<\ere shuck, and more Japonictt,
failing to n-cogni/e that the blame to a great extent,
at .ill events. u.is really on their own shoulders. they
ascribed it to a degeneration <>\ moral \irtue amongst
the nation. Ju-t a> they ieni|.oti/ed with the etor.onu
di-tres-, by rec omni'-nding the n \i\al of tlie \momi\a
dot 1 1 me -, -o the\ sought to P in-ta'e inoi a I it y by a re\ i\ al

that \ i- i n:n! 1 1 irata, then .Ministci i-l I lonii- Atlaii >, is-ued
^ rei mstrii'tion :hat the xihool ilnldien -hn'iM be

ottl I. til', MTldUi 'e 1 t'i the .|l!l!ie, and i'e made tn \\ o I -hip

tli>- goih on iivd I-- !i\al- throughout the year.

\\iie'liei 01 not tin-, re.'imi-iit n| religion \sa^ un< on

RELIGION 347

stitutional, as was alleged by the Christian communities,
there is no doubt that it was perfectly futile as a measure
to check immorality or to deepen patriotic feeling.
Ostentation, corruption, sexual immorality, were the visible
signs of a deterioration in public manners which had
reached a point which even Japanese writers, who are
by no means squeamish, hesitated to describe.

When a few months later the Katsura Cabinet resigned
and Marquis Saionji came into jxnver, official circles
were still perturbed and looking around for some means
of salvation from the dangerous thoughts which were
spreading in the country. Marquis Saionji is by no
means imbued with the theory of the Imperial divinity
nor with Neo-Shinto. It is doubtful if any Japanese
statesman is, but the Mikado-worship and its corollaries
are utilized by them as a convenient cover for their own
political manoeuvres, and its danger arises from the in-
ability of the common people to distinguish between what
the statesmen believe and what they appear to Ix-lieve.
Nevertheless he recognized, probably under influence from
higher quarters, the necessity of doing something to im-
prove moral conditions, and accordingly agreed to a
proposal of Mr. Tokonami, the Vice-Minister for Home
Affairs, who had just returned from a trip abroad, during
which he had been much struck by the connection between
religion and education. His scheme, which was remark-
ably ingenious, was to utilixe the three great religions
of Japan Shinto, Buddhism, and Christianity to influ-
ence and improve the civil conditions of the country.
For the purpose a conference of the three religions was
to be called, so that the various sects might be able
to discuss the matter and clear away all misunderstandings
before a cut-and-dried scheme \\as laid before the l)iet .
The following was the official pronouncement issued by
the Vice-Minister in January, 1912. and was produc-
tive of no small debate both within and without tin-
country :

( i ) That it i> desirable to effect the union of Religion
and the State, and elevate the dignitv of religion, and

343 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

cultivate in the people at largo a spirit of respect towards
religion.

" In their excessive zeal for the substitution of all
existing institutions by new ones the people of the Re-
storation clays unavoidably committed the error of destroy-
ing ' both gem and stone.' Not a few Buddhist temples
\sere thus destroyed, and since then the general respect
and veneration for the Shinto deities and the Buddha has
markedly deteriorated. Christianity, too, in those days
was an object of not a little dislike or prejudice, and
had but a small share of public attention, but its
propaganda is now being freely carried on. The mere
reflection upon these facts persuades one that now, more
than ever, it is urgent to vest in religion more power
and dignity than it has hitherto had. It si-ems to me that
the cultivation of the national ethics can only be perfected
by the co-operation of education and religion, but at
present secular education alone forms the means of teach-
ing morality. .Without the association iof morality* with
its sources, such as (iods Buddha, or Heaven, it will
be impossible to expect the .steady development of fair
and equitable ideas among the people. If it is desired
to strengthen the basis of popular morality, it is essential
that religion and education should go hand in hand. h
is therefore hoped to e!ie<t the union of the tuo, so that
they may as-ist ea> h other in promoting the cause <>t
(xjpular edu< ation. .Such, ilien, i- the reason of m\ earnest
ui-di for the union of State and Iv'hgion.

' < 2 i That it is also de-iiai>le to render more intimate
the relation- between ih'- varjou-, schools of religionists,
and < re. ite out ot them a (on e that uill a--i-t the piogre
of the nation.

Nou. I .mi of opinion that th>' fundament.il [>im< iple,

of ih'- \.IIloll, religions ale es, rill I.I II V idelitl'.ll ; bill

-ei in: 1 th.it \\li.it .IP- nowadays regarded .{ - niot.il juin

l| !e . .lie i on -|. lei << \ m dlltelilit lights ol . I\(II dltieielit

inlet pi i-t,it ion s, atiording to tim^ and pl.t* <. .nnl ih.it
the inti-i jMi-t.ii ion - .in- undergoing ion t.m; e\nlut!on,
it uould -<-m advisable for .Shinioi-ni and l>uddhi in

RKUGION 349

to Occidentali/e themselves a little. l : [*>n the restora-
tion of the Imperial Family to power, we abandoned the
policy of seclusion and hostility to foreign nations,
adopting instead the policy of the ' open door ' and
progressivcncss, and carried out thoroughgoing reforms
of all sorts throughout the Kmpire, drawing near to the
countries of Kurope in material matters at least, and
striving to adapt ourselves to the spirit of the world
in general, with the result that we have made progress
by rapid strides. This example should be followed by
Shintoism and Buddhism in striving to come abreast of
the progress of the modern world. It is also to be hoped
that Christianity, discarding its policy of confining itself
to a certain sphere as if it were a sort of colony in a
foreign country, will "aim at greater success by adapting
itself to our national Constitution, and being careful lo
harmoni/e itself with the popular sentiments and customs.
Some might raise objection to this plan, saying that
it would deprive the three great religions of their dis-
tinctive features. But Christianity adapts itself well in
Hngland, Germany, America, etc., to the peculiarities
of the people in whose country it finds itself. What
reason, then, is there for the apprehension that the Kuro-
peanization of Shintoism and Buddhism or the Japoniza-
tion of Christianity will prevent them from developing
their characteristics as the modern religions of Japan?
" It is my most earnest wi^h to ?>ee the harmonization
of the ideas and belief's of the Occident and of Japan
thus effected in our spiritual world. It is with tin-
object of enjoying the benefits of the civilization of the
Occidental countries that we have early pursued the policy
of the ' open door,' and progress in our politics and
economy, and a similar result, I am persuaded, is capable
of realization in the spiritual world. It is of special
importance for our countrymen, who belong to a different
race from Occidental people'-, to pay due attention to
this matter. It is true that the terms Yellow and White
races are no more than superficial marks of distinction ;
still, too much care cannot be taken in harmonizing the

350 JAI'AN AT THK CROSS ROADS

differences of sentiments arising out of this dissimilarity
in colour. And how much more care should be taken
to avoid differences of this kind in spiritual matters !
The right way of conduct is one and the same everywhere,
but if we desire to participate in the civili/ation of the
world, and enjoy its benefits together with other coun-
tries, we can no more afford to stand alone in spiritual
matters than in |*>litical and economic affairs. I con-
sider it one of the grea'.est missions of religionists,
therefore, to co-ojx-rate with one another in promoting
the cause of the State and their religion. In short, \
hop- to see religion acquire still greater authority and
dignity, and a tendency arise among the people in general
to respect religion, .so that it may contribute towards
the elevation of popular morality, and that Japan may
also contribute towards, the peace and civili/ation of tin-
world in spiritual affairs as well. The matter, however,
is liable to arouse the misunderstanding 1 of the public,
while there is no saying 1 that it may not even cause
misunderstanding among the religionists themselves. It
is for this reason that I de-ire the establishment of a
full mirua! understanding among all i o:;cerned before the
scheme is finally put into effect. Indeed, what I have
done s<> far is to attempt to establish <<>nn-cnon among
ihe various ects and religionists with this end in view."
Shinto is the oldest religion in Japan, and although
it fell into disreput-- -'tier the in: rodu> lion of Buddhism,
and in parti' ular afier the establishment of the Shogunate,
it has always ri-m.ii:ied assoi i.t'e.l uith the Imp-Tial < 'ourt

A- [minted (Hit e|se\\ here, the Restoration mo\eniellt \\as

fo-tered by the Shinto pri' -N with the definite object of
uj--.cn ing the |)re(lominance of the Buddhists, and ob-
taining for th'-ni-ehes die n. lies and g!or\ \\hich the
Shog:iM, h.id l,i\i ln'l on the latter. Its code "I ethits i
in parti' u'ar the attention paid to ancc tor wor>!np, made
it e-peciall\ attraitive \ the leader-, of th<- !\e -torat ion.
a it foini'-d an e\i IN-nt nmial ba-is fi.r the jdilitnal
end uhl'h they had i r l view, the I e >u > It at :: I ot the
liiijTial authoiit\. \\h-n the Restoration had been

KKLIGION 351

accomplished, Buddhism was disestablished and Shinto
took its place, being acknowledged a-, the national religion.
The Japanese statesmen soon rcali/ed, however, that
Shinto had no real hold on the people, and Buddhism,
though not restored to its former predominance, was
officially nvogni/ed, and is to-day without doubt Un-
popular religion of the country. Shinto labours under
the difficulty that it is not, and never can be, a live
religion. In these days of progress and science and
inquiry something more is required than a blind obeisance
to the dead past. Japan may or may not have, attained
her present jx>sition by the Imperial virtues, but she
certainly docs not owe it to the worship of tin- gods
suggested by Viscount Ilirata's secret memorandum to
the school teachers. If religion is to be an inspiration
to progress, rather than a lip-service to patriotism, then
Japan must find something more inspiring than the rites
of Shinto, which neither appeal to the gladness of the eye
nor the agility of the brain.

Buddhism was first taught to Japan by envoys sent by
the King of Pakche in return for military assistance
against his more powerful neighbours. The Japanese
version of Buddhism is not pure, but a mixture of Korean
and Chinese. In its early days Buddhists underwent a
similar persecution to the Christians under leyasu, and
for similar reasons, because they mixed in politics. Never-
theless, they withstood all these tribulations, and from
the sixth to the seventeenth century Buddhism flourished
and was indeed the predominant religion. That Buddhism
should have spread throughout the world as it has is
not surprising. Its high philosophy, its beautiful art,
its spirituality and its founder's saintly lite were all
jxiwerful appeals to converts, whil-t its doctrine of
mendicancy had something compelling in Oriental coun-
tries, where throughout the ages the- masses have always
been faced with want. In Japan, in addition, it had a
powerful aid to proselytisin in tlv patronage of the
Shoguns.

As Buddhism spread in Japan it deteriorated, and

352 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

few would have been able to reconcile it with the creed
of its founder. Tim was the complaint of the critics of
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They alleged,
and it appears with truth, that every tenet of Buddhism
was violated, and from a religion of jx>verty, mendicancy,
and individualism it had become one of hierarchies, riches,
and influence.

The fall of Buddhism after the Restoration did some-
thing to check these evils, but of recent years they
have been revived, and have passed even their old limits.
The Nishi-Hongwanji scandals of i<;i4, scandals the
discovery of which had been postponed for a few years
by an ingenious course of fraud and forgery, gave
Buddhist Japan a shock from which it will not easily
recover. The revelations of the Lord Abbot's extrava-
gances, his palace on Rokkosan, his imjxirted furniture.
In- gardens, his motors, his travels, his explorations, .ill
paid for from temple fund-, read almost like a tale
from the Arabian \:^fi(s. ll\^ family relationship t<
the Imperial Hou-e, In- is brother-in-law to the pie-em
Kmpre-s, caused his per-onal connection \\ith the muddle
in the tt-mple finances to be hushed up, but his ultimate
responsibility for the deficit o( Y i ^.ooo.ooo, and for
the immoralities and crimes of his monk- necessitated
his retirement into private, life.

Buddhi-m. therefore, at the present time is at a low
ebb, at lea>t as regards the more official sects. The
people .ire indi-poM-'l to give their money to temples
v.here it will be frittered away in extravagant orgies
or embe//|ed without apology by the monk-, a- in the
case ot the At-uta Temple at N.igoya. < Vrtain other
-(<(-, however, as the I'enrikyo and the /en. are reap-
ing the beneh; (if the e\i]> iif then better-boin con-
temporaries, an<l the extraordinary |>ro;.;re-- made by
the - lnim!)ler .m<l less (Mentation- Ixxiie- and the great
urn- donated to th< m. mo-tly in odeiing- from the
lower ( la--e-, are uitne^s [ the hold \\hiih religion

(.III lia\e nil til'' people, e\ell t||O!I-||, tlUllv sj)e.lkillg,

the |a|ian<--e are not a reh.'ioiis folk.

RELIGION 353

Confucianism was introduced into Japan by the
Tokuga\vas, but never arrived at the dignity of being
considered a religion. At first it was of a Buddhistic
flavour, but later became strongly mixed with politics,,
and the study of philosophy to which it led had much
to do with the mental training, which prepared the way
for the Restoration. It never attained the hall-mark
of popularity, and was mostly confined to the upper
classes and the literati. It produced some brilliant
scholars, and it was entirely characteristic of the Japanese
that they did and do claim that the only pure Confucianism
is that which was practised in Japan during the latter
half of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nine-
teenth century.

Christianity was introduced into the country by the
Jesuits in the seventeenth century. Owing to the inter-
vention of the priests in politics it was sternly repressed
until after the reopening of the country. Since then
the work of conversion has been persistently undertaken,
but it must be confessed that the results have been far
from good. Over two millions sterling has been spent,
and over two thousand missionaries have been employed
in the work, but the number of professing Christians
is very small. Of the individual churches the Greek
has obtained by far the greatest success, especially when
it is remembered that the Greek congregations are the
results of one man's labour. The late Archbishop Nicolai
was, until within a few years of his death, the only priest of
his church in the country, but he had secured 37,000
converts, nearly all of whom remained faithful. AYjth'
Protestant missions the result is very different, and in
only too many cases Christianity is a means to an
end, a knowledge of English, and the pupil reverts to
the gods of his country as soon as he has learnt
sufficient.

AVhilst it would be untrue to say that the Japanese
authorities disapprove of Christianity, it must be admitted
that the religion lies under serious disabilities, which
can hardl be avoided in a countr where reliion has

354 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

mostly the character of an abstract and impersonal code
of morals.

The following summary from an article in the Shinjin,
by Dr. Ebina, a leading Japanese Christian, reproduced
from The Japan Mail review of current religious litera-
ture is of considerable interest in this connection.

" Considering the amount of organization that exists
and tin.' number of people preaching Christianity, one
would be led to supjxjse that it should be making very
rapid progress in the country ; bir. this is not so. It
advances very slowly, principally on account of the
numerous hindrances to its acceptance to be found in
the Japanese mind, and those which have come frurn
W.esteni sources. To take the hindrances arising from
the Japanese mental constitution first, it is true to' say
that both the strong points and the weak points in
the Japanc-c character militate again.-t the 1 -pread of
Christianity.

Now, undoubtedly patriotism is a valuable asset to
us as a nation, and without it we should not occupy the.
position in the world we do to-day. Hut this patriotism
is accompanied by a spirit of self-sufficiency, self-con-
ceit, insularity, narrow-mindedness, and anti-foreign feel-
ing. There arc not a few Japanese who imagine that we
are the most patriotic jx-ople in the world. This whole
state of mind is a serious hindrance in the way ol the
acceptance of a comparatively new foreign religion like
Christianity. Tin- mass of the Japanese are not conscious
that there is anything wanting in their mental make-up.
They look with supreme satisfaction on what they have
inherited from their ancestors, and national v.inity leads
than to think that whatever has conn; from abroad has
been immensely improved by the Japanese, who have
ini[x>r'ed or adopted it. They say that Jap;uiese Con-
fuciani-m is infinitely superior to Chinese Confucianism.
and that Indian Buddhism is nowhere compared to
Japanese Buddhism. Even tine art. they contend, never
underwent elaeuhep- such development as has been wit-
nessed in Japan. There are those who go as far as

RELIGION 355

to say that Japan has even improved on the constitutional
government known in the \Vfcst. This state of supreme
satisfaction, with what they have, is a great obstacle
to the acceptance of Christianity on the part of a great
many of our people.

" To turn to the other class of hindrances to the spread
of Christianity, there is no denying that it is well known
to our reading people that Christianity no longer occupies
the place of pre-eminence in Western lands which it
filled for so many centuries. Formerly the prevailing
morality was Christian morality. Neither education,
politics, philosophy, nor science were entirely free from
Christian control, but to-day all things have changed,
and from Christianity's controlling the whole of society,
it has come to exercise authority over only a very small
section of it. (Scki/i wa shakwai no zcmbu wo tdji
shite otta Kirisutokyo ga ima ya shakwai no ichi s/iubu
ni kyokugcn sararcn to sum kciku ga mi y lira.) It has
been separated from literature, it has Ixien separated
from education, it has been separated from science, and
thus it stands alone to-day in a somewhat perilous position,
from which it needs extrication.

" Despite their natural hostility to things foreign, our
Japanese people warmly welcome the anti-Christian
thought which is imported from abroad. So it comes
to this, that we have external iniluences and mental pro-
clivities, prejudices and weaknesses, added to a large
amount of traditional superstition, all combining to hinder
the progress of Christianity in this country. Christianity
needs to supply itself with the very best weapons, and
to use them most vigorously in order to overcome all
the formidable obstacles to its prevalence, on which we
have touched above."

No Japanese, until quite recent times, has paid attention
to the metaphysics of religions. In Buddhism, Shinto,
and Confucianism, as practised in Japan, there is only
a vague conception of God, and no concrete idea of
either the creation or the hereafter. To the Japanese all
religions are merely moral maxims, and they have no

356 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

interest in the theology which lies behind them. Religion
for them is not connected with a future state, but only,
with advancement in the present. The attitude of the
Japanese towards religion is exactly that of a young
friend of mine, who was going up for a scholarship
at ,\\>stminster School. He stopped for the period of
the examination at an hotel in Victoria Street. The first
morning, before breakfast, he announced his intention of
attending early service at the Abbey. " .\VIhy, Ralph,
what's the matter?-' said his mother, very astonished.
" Mother," he replied, " you know the exam, begins to-
day and one ought to leave no stone unturned 1 " I
treasure a postcard from the top of Fuji from a Japanese
friend as follows : "I thank you sincerely for correct-
ing my brother's English essay. I have come up to
pray for his success, and together I hope we shall have
achieved it."

I remember once at school a heated discussion as to
whether it was right to pray for a free-wheel bicycle.
A Japanese always prays for material, not moral benefits.
A burglar or a murderer generally visits a shrine before
setting out on his nefarious exploits. There are plenty
of shrines in Japan which survive only from their con-
nection with (fci^fm, prostitutes, and criminals, who evince
a particular faith in th' gods enshrined there, and accord-
ingly make liberal donations out of their earnings ami
takings in tin- hope of favours to come.

I think it will be dear from this that Christianity
must present inherent diniculties for Japanese. Again,
these latter arc essentially a light-hearted pt-ople, and
they like their religion to be of a rather siijwrlicial
character, and certainly do not wajit any creed which'
may tend to solemnity or sanctimoniousness. Religious
observances ^hould be of a festive, not of a solemn,
nature.

Captain Brinkley writes: " Religion does not over-
shadow the daily life of the Japanese. The gl<x)iny
fanatic i> unknown. Confessions of sin, rep-ntan<e in
sarkcloth aiid a^he-. --o], n m and protracted arts of

RELIGION 357

worship, the terrors of an eternity of tortures, these things
scarcely enter into the layman's existence. The festival
may indeed be called the popular form of worship in
Japan " (History of Japan}.

The feature of all religions in Japan is the acceptance
of their maxims and the rejection of their doctrines.
Buddhism appealed directly to the masses, on account
of the excellence of its morals, but its supernatural ism
never created any interest, and was quickly relegated to
the storehouses of legend. Confucianism, confined as it
was to the gentry and the scholar, was quickly converted
into a superior, code of ethics, easy to understand and
easy to follow. Shinto, the official religion, was in the
same manner transformed into a creed of patriotism.
The history of religion in Japan has been, to a great
extent, a process of selection and harmonization. In
religion strictly so-called the Japanese are frankly
agnostic. Sceptics to the marrow, they have no use for
the complicated theology which is associated with all
creeds. They want the results, but not the causes. Pure
Christianity, whilst they approve in principle of its ethics,
cannot meet with full acceptance because its very source
sets up a divinity greater than the Emperor. Christianity
without Christ would be to them a very acceptable belief.

It stands to reason that if only the ethics evolved by.
religion are recognized, there is very little difference
between any religions. If Shinto, Confucianism, Budd-
hism, and Christianity all preach loyalty, patriotism,
honesty, and morality, there is not much to choose between
them, provided their theology is left out. In the same
way new religions can be created with case, and accepted
with liberality by State and people, as has been done
in the case of Tcnrikyo, Hotoku, and other beliefs. It
is this doctrinal elasticity which has permitted the
numerous attempts at harmonization of religions. As I
have remarked earlier, compromise is a prominent charac-
teristic of the Japanese. They compromise in social,
financial, and political matters with great facility, so
long as ' face ' is not lost. It is the same with religion.

358 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

There have been numerous attempts to harmonize religion,
Buddhism with Confucianism, Shinto with Confucianism,
Buddhism with Shinto and Confucianism, and now in
the twentieth century we have had an official attempt to
harmonize Buddhism, Shinto, and Christianity. At the
time when Mr. Tokonami's proposal was made, I tele-
graphed home a summary of the same, and, commenting
on it, I pointed out that in most of her adoptions from
abroad Japan had managed to set up a variety of her
own, and in the event of the adoption of Christianity, we
might look forward to a variety of Christianity adapted
to suit local requirements. Nothing that has hapjx'ned
since has caused me to alter that opinion.

In one respect the Great \V;ir has removed a serious
Japanese objection to Christianity. They have always
argued that Christianity was not consistent with patriotism,
and they have now seen and gladly acknowledge the
reverse. Although Christianity breeds individualism, in-
dividualism is as capable of as great patriotism as State-
worship.

Signs have by no means been lacking of the elasticity
of the doctrines of th<- Japane-e Christians. They made no
protest against the erection of a shrine to the Meiji Tenno ;
they approved of the suicide of General Nogi, and they
were most satisfactorily anti-American during the crisis
of the California!! question. On the other hand, Japanese
are perturbed by the extraordinary equanimity with which
foreign missionaries, especially Americans, renegade on
their own country in moments of political tension, and
they argue that if this is due to the influence of their
belief, Christianity cannot prove a satisfactory religion
for Japan to adopt.

It would be interesting to know the real cause of
Mr. Tokonami's proposal. I imagine, and the general
opinion in Japan was in agreement, that there was a
political motive in the background. The country had
advanced too quickly, too materially, and the Vice-
Minister was preaching an Oriental version of
Matthew xvi. 20 : " For what is a man profited

RELIGION 359

if he shall gain the whole world and Jose his soul? "
It is clear from the official pronouncement that some
form of religion was regarded as necessary to the pro-
gress of the nation, but what form was a matter of com-
plete indifference. To propose an amalgam of the three
religions was the true Japanese touch to the whole affair.

(Juitc apart from the doctrinal side of the cjuestion,
the scheme was interesting as a slight indication that
some of the authorities at least recognized the limitations
of Emperor-worship ; and with those limitations the
futility of official interference with ethical codes. Yet
it was typical of the bureaucratic and conservative atti-
tude that this indication of failure was signalized by
yet another attempt at dominating public opinion.

The Three Religion Conference failed. It was the object
of attack from all sides. Commenting on the proposal
the Osaka Asa/ii said.:

' This latest scheme of the Home Office has none of
our approval from any point of view. In Japan the great
change of government at the time of the Restoration
.was the signal for the separation of education and re-
ligion, and the basis of our national ethics, our object of
education was clearly set forth in the Imperial Rescript
on Education, so that with proper 'men in the educational
profession we should be in a position to reap better or
more effective results than even European nations in
the cultivation of national morality. Recently, however,
all sorts of new ideas have been swallowed by our
countrymen with indiscriminate eagerness, with the result
that even the so-called dangerous thoughts were imported,
and the minds of some people were misguided. But
it is open to the gravest doubt whether the appearance
of such people is altogether attributable to the blunder
of the educationists, for it is contended in some quarters
that the erroneous policy of the governing class was
primarily responsible for the unfortunate phenomenon.

41 The project of the Home Office to utilize religion
for purposes of education is practically an endeavour
to make the world more backward by two or three

360 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

centuries. The idea inay meet with the approval of
some in our educational world, suffering, as it is, from
a sort of nervous debility, or among 1 modern religionists,
who are soaked in corruption through and through. But
neither true educationists nor religionists who have sincere
faith in their creeds, will ever welcome such a plan.
Besides, the impracticability of the harmonious union of
different religious creeds or sects is amply proved by
historical facts. The adoption and utilization for edu-
cational purposes of the common features of different
religions can be no more than a subject for academic
discussion, for religion will vanish when the various creeds
are purged of their distinctive doctrinal characteristics
in order to amalgamate their common f ram res."

The scheme did not receive any strong support officially,
and it was conveniently explained that the Vi<-c-Mini-ter
represented nobody but him-elf. The proposal to intro-
duee religion into education rai-ed a s:or:n of opposition,
in which the Christian communities showed themselves
by no me, uis backward. The Department s'.ernly denied
that tli-Te was any intention to transfer the control of
religion- from the Home '< Miice to the Department of
Kdu< ation, but the official nature of the denial was clear
enough wh<-n six months later the Bureau of Religions
was so transferred. Although the opposition to the Horn-'
Oilio- -ehenv was siitiicient to kill it. the idea wa- good.
It-, opponents, whilst osteiisi!)lv baling their objections
on public grounds, really were inspired by fictional
interests. There is no jealousy so bitter as that ol
religion-, bodie^. and no language so strong as that ol
religion , controversy.

The attitude of the Christian mis-ionaries was suin-
ti!.an/ed in the following statement, issued by l)r. hnbrie,
Bi-hop I lank and Mr. ( lalen Fidier :

' The public anno'iix '-ni'-nt that i: i the purpo-r n f
the Vi e Miniver o| llonie Al'iaifs to hold a conference
of rejre ,e;itatr.e, of Shiiitoi-ni, Buddhi-m. and <'hristi-
anity ha - au .ik'-n.-. 1 \\ijf intere-t. It . oul 1 ii"t 1" o'her-
\vi-r. But atnon:' th-- -lateiiient- th.it li.i\ - e at'i"'-red in

RELIGION 361

th'c press, there are some which have been written without
a clear knowledge of what is intended ; and, in order to
prevent possible misunderstanding 1 , the Vice-Ministcr has
sanctioned the publication of the following statement.

' (i) U*he primary intention in holding the Conference
is to direct attention to religion as a necessary means
to the highest spiritual and moral welfare of both the
individual and the nation. For a number of years this
matter has not been given the importance that properly
belongs to it ; and the primary purjx>se of the Conference
is to reassert that importance.

' (2) No attempt is intended to unite the adherents
of the several religions in one bodyt; still less to establish
a new religion. Shintoism, Buddhism, and Christianity
are all religions ; but in certain important particulars
each differs from the others, and the religious convictions
of the adherents of each should be respected without
interference. It may, however, be confidently presumed
that Shintoists, Buddhists, and Christians alike will
cordially recognize a responsibility to act as fellow-
labourers for the advancement of the spiritual and moral
interests of the nation to the utmost of their ability.

' (3) Shintoism and Buddhism have long had a recog-
nized place as religions of the Japanese people. Christi-
anity should also be accorded a similar place."

The support of the scheme, on terms, by the Christian
missionaries, was sufficient to ensure the opposition of the
Buddhists, and so the matter was withdrawn. But in
certain essentials there can be no doubt that Mr. Tokonami
was right, and especially in the view that no State am
prosper without religion. 1 1 is corollary that no religion
can prosper without the State does not follow.

For the moment the future religion of Japan is a
matter in abeyance. That it will eventually lie a modified
form of Christianity, blended with Buddhism and Shinto,
I do not doubt. But the time of its creation is yet
far off.

The decision in favour of the new religion may be
expected when the existing Emperor worship, with its

362 JAPAN AT THE CROSS ROADS

dependence on officialdom, has irretrievably broken down-;
when the present state of temporizing is ended, and
Japan finds herself ready to part company with Asia
in religious matters, and to exchange her present system
of centralization for one of self-government and indi-
vidualism. It will certainly be a scientific and simple
form of Christianity, for science and Christianity are
equally new to Japan, and the latter lias the more to
recommend it, whilst the perplexities and complications
of .Western theology are far too deep for the Japanese
brain to grapple. A nation which has deliberately shelved
metaphysics and the abstruse problems of Eastern beliefs
is in no way ready to surmount the even harder obstacles
of Christianity. i\\3ien that time comes we may look
forward with confidence to Japan demanding the right
to proselytize for her own blend of Christianity in the
same way as she has demanded from China the right
to preach Japanese Buddhism in the Republic. 1

1 With regard to this demand it is interesting to note that the
Buddhist Conference in 1912 put forward a demand to the government
for the obtaining of the privilege, and that the Foreign Office expressed
approbation on the ground that the missionaries of Christianity were
invariably political agents as much as religious ones. A serious
objection to the Japanese propaganda is not only its doctrinal diverga-
tion from Chinese Buddhism but its approbation of assassination for
political purposes.

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