UNlVERSiT DEPART!-, ENT C OFdxlIA ^LIFORNIA Engineering T.ilirary UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ENGINEERING BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA HANDBOOK OP COST DATA FOR CONTRACTORS AND ENGINEERS ' WORKS OF HALBERT P. GILLETTE. Gillette Handbook of Cost Data 1854 p., 4*4 x 7, fully ill., flex. Cost data on every con- ceivable civil engineering subject from cement sidewalks to railroad systems, with governing conditions, hours of labor and units of material, given in detail, so that costs under different conditions may be accurately determined. Gillette Handbook of Rock Excavation, Methods and Cost 825 p., 5x7^, fully ill., flex. A manual of the best modern practice in drilling and handling rock of all kinds under all conditions, illustrating latest machines and methods, with costs of actual work done. Gillette Earthwork and Its Cost 1100 p., 5x7^, fully ill., flex. A thorough treatise of the best modern practice in handling earth of all kinds. First discusses all types of excavating machinery and then shows how various kinds of earth work may be most efficiently accomplished. Gillette Handbook of Clearing and Grubbing 241 p., 4%x7 1 /i, ill., cloth. Methods and cost, hand grubbing; burning; blasting; horse and power clearing; heavy plows. Also valuable chapters on estimating and appraising and specifications. Dana Handbook of Construction Plant 702 p., 4% x 7, fully ill., flex. A complete manual on construction e'quipment giving prices, weights and, in many cases, cost of operation and maintenance. A few items are air compressors, barges, cable-ways, crushers, derricks, en- gines, mixers, pumps, shovels, tractors, trenching machines, wagons. Gillette and Dana Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data 1750 p., 4%x7, ill., flex. Gives net prices, shipping weights, etc., of machines and appliances, mechanical and electrical, together with costs of installation and operation. The costs are in such detail, with a resume of governing conditions, that they are invaluable aids in making estimates and operating existing plants. Rates of wages and prices of material units are stated so that a proper substitution may be made for times and communities where different conditions prevail. Gillette and Dana Cost Keeping and Management Engineering 350 p., 6x9, ill., cloth. Practically the first book on cost keeping for managers of engineering construction. The book presents also the fundamental principles of the science of engineering management. It is the first handbook to couple these two interrelated subjects. Gillette and Hill Concrete Construction; Methods and Cost 700 p., 6x9, fully ill., cloth. A treatise on concrete and reinforced concrete structures of every kind. Gillette and Thomas Handbook of Road Construction; Methods and Cost Over 800 p., 4% x 7, fully ill., flex. In preparation. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA FOR CONTRACTORS AND ENGINEERS A REFERENCE BOOK GIVING METHODS OF CON- STRUCTION AND ACTUAL COSTS OF MA- TERIALS AND LABOR ON NUMEROUS ENGINEERING WORKS BY HALBERT P. GILLETTE Consulting Engineer, Editor in 1 Chief, Engineering and Contracting Member American Society of Civil Engineers, Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, Etc. SECOND EDITION McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO., LTD. 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 1920 (Revised, 1918) Engineering Library COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY THE MYKON C. CLARK PUBLISHING Co. Reprinted, January, 1918 Reprinted, September, 1920 <&* N PREFACE TO 1918 REPRINT The war-begotten rise in wages and prices would have rendered most of the information in this book valueless had it been merely a book of prices devoid of details as to quantities of materials and amount of labor per unit, but, as pointed out in the preface to the first edition 12 years ago, this is not a price book; it is a cost data book. Prices are more or less ephemeral and local, whereas costs may be so pre- sented as to be longlived and national. As an illustration, take the cost of the cement walk, given on page 445. The number of men in the gang, their respective daily wages and the number of square feet laid per day, are given. Then follow the respective quantities of sand, stone and cement per 100 sq. ft. of walk, and the prices therefor. If, now, the present rates of wages and prices of materials in any given locality are substituted for those given here, it becomes a matter of simple arithmetic and a few moments spent in calculation to derive the present cost per square foot of walk of similar design. Throughout this book my plan has been so to present the details of organization of working gangs, time spent and amount of work ac- complished per day, as to enable the cost estimator to apply the data to his own conditions. There are instances where the details are not as complete as may be desired, but even in those cases a half loaf is better than none. Careless critics of published cost data often charge an author with defects of omission that the author himself regrets even more keenly than his critic. Unfortunately it is easier to perceive a barren spot in a corn field than to make corn grow on it. And in the field of cost data there always will be some barren places, for actual detail costs are not to be secured for every possible condition. However, if each critic of cost data will himself contribute his quota for publication, there will eventually be fewer critics as well as fewer bald spots in the literature of the subject, HALBERT P. GILLETTE. Chicago, Oct. 16, 1917. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION The first edition of this work contained the equivalent of about 250,000 words, while this edition contains more than a million. Its four-fold growth has been due not only to the filling of many gaps that formerly existed, but ta the addition of certain kinds of cost PREFACE 'dita th'at- interest- tagfneers only. In writing the first edition, I had primarily in mind the contractor, whose concern is to know the most economical method of construction and the unit costs in every detail. While every engineer should, and many do, take as keen an interest as the contractor in itemized unit costs, all engineers are called upon, at one time or another, to give approximate preliminary estimates of costs, and these must often be furnished before the structure has been designed. For example, a hydraulic engineer may be asked the probable cost of a filter plant for a city consuming a given amount of water. He should be able to state the cost of sand filter beds per acre, covered or uncovered, and the annual cost of operation per million gallons filtered. To illustrate again: A railway engineer finds that a high steel viaduct may be needed to cross a valley. He desires a rational formula by which the approximate weight of steel in such a viaduct can be computed, knowing the profile area. Or, if he plans a high timber trestle, he wants a method of approximating the number of feet board measure and the pounds of iron it will require. In brief, the engineer needs frequently to ascertain the number of units in a structure of a given class and size, as well as the unit costs; whereas the contractor is usually satisfied with data giving the item- ized unit costs under stated conditions. I have tried to supply both wants in this edition. During the last four years I have continued accumulating data on methods and costs, a large part of which have been published in Engineering-Contracting. When I began to make these data a feature of Engineering-Contracting, I received several letters expressing the hope that I should be able to continue the work of publishing such cost data, but at the same time voicing a fear that the good material would soon be exhausted. So long as men remain possessed of in- ventive faculties and of genius for organization, we need never fear that new and valuable cost data will be unobtainable. Management engineering is an infant science, and we shall see astonishing changes in methods of doing work, in machines used, and consequently in unit costs. This comparatively new study of engineering costs has not only had a pronounced effect upon methods of construction, but has already begun to work a change in designs of engineering structures. Specifications drawn by engineers who are ignorant of the items of actual unit costs are often absurd in their requirements. Hence, as a knowledge of costs spreads, we may confidently expect radical changes in designs and in specifications. These changes will result in entirely new cost data, so that a dearth of this sort of information is not to be expected from now on. I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to the files of the following periodicals and society transactions: Engineering-Contracting, Engineering News, Engineering Record, Railway Age-Gazette, Electric Railway Journal, Municipal Engineering Magazine, Municipal Journal and Engineer, Good Roads Magazine, Engineering Magazine, American Society of Civil Engineers, Western Society of Engineers, Association of Engineering Societies, Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Illinois Society of Engineers, Engineers' PREFACE vii Society of Western Pennsylvania, Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, New England Water Works Association, American Water Works Association, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association, American Association of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings, and the Institution of Civil Engineers. HALBERT P. GILLETTE. New York, March 14, 1910. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION Four years ago I announced in my little book, "Economics of Road Construction," that I had in preparation a handbook of cost data for engineers and contractors. At that time this handbook had been under way for eight years, and it seemed nearly ready for pub- lication; but other duties prevented a speedy finishing of the task. The delay, however, has been fortunate in that I have added very much to my knowledge of the general subject. In the meantime, two books have grown out of the original manuscript, namely, my books on earthwork and on rock excavation. The writing of these two books has better fitted me for the writing of this book, and has put me in touch with many engineers and contractors who have generously furnished additional cost data. So far as I know, this is the first book on engineering cost data ever published. There are "price books" written for house builders, but they are essentially what their name implies books on prices of materials and contract prices. This book differs from all such works, aside from the fact that it covers the whole field of civil engineering, in that it is a book in which costs are analyzed and discussed. A contract price is one thing, a contract cost is an entirely different thing, in spite of the common confusion of these terms. In order fully to understand any analysis of unit costs it is necessary to have a detailed description of the methods used in construction and opera- tion. Hence, although itemized cost data occupy many scores of pages in this book, there are many more scores of pages devoted to descriptions of how the work was done, the organization of the forces, and the machines used. The records, in all cases, are actual records taken from every available source of published information, from personal letters sent by engineers and contractors and from my own records. It is often said that cost data are of no value to an inexperienced man. Generally the men who make such statements are themselves possessed of few records of cost, or use this argument as an excuse for not making public such records as they do possess. The very secret- iveness of men having cost data which they refuse to make public, nullifies their statement that such data can be of no use to others. We also hear it argued that conditions vary so widely that grave errors occur when an attempt is made to apply published cost data. Vlll PREFACE Those who have not been trained to study the conditions affecting costs are likely to make serious blunders in any case; but, if this book is in even a slight degree what it aims to be, it will be of greatest benefit to just such men; for it will indicate to them how to analyze costs and how to study methods of performing work economically. Many of the erroneous ideas about the value of cost recording arise from a confusion of the term cost with the term price. This is not a handbook of prices, although many prices are given. I could have filled ten volumes with prices, and with summaries of costs written by engineers who have failed to state rates of wages and conditions under which the work was performed. But, a short time after publi- cation, all such matter is hardly worth the ink that it is printed with, since wages and prices are subject to constant change. The attention of contractors is called to the first part of the book in which systems of cost keeping are described. I have outlined what I believe to be some of the best systems of cost keeping. Samples of other record cards and methods than my own are shown; for my purpose has been to elucidate- principles, rather than to exploit pet theories as to business management and accounting. HALBERT P. GILLETTE. New York, Sept. 1, 1905. PREFACE TO THE 1920 ISSUE Although most of the matter in this book is ten years old, and in spite of the fact that construction wages and prices have more than doubled in the past five years, there is relatively little that I should be willing to eliminate were I to rewrite the book. The reasons for this desire to preserve practically all that this book contains are two-fold: First, the unit costs are so analyzed that they can be brought down to date merely by substituting present rates of wages and present prices for those given in the book. Second, very few methods of construction have changed; hence nearly all the methods de- scribed in this book are still applicable, and probably will remain applica- ble for many years to come. There is prevalent a belief that engineering or contracting methods that are more than about ten years old are out of date. Yet any engi- neer or contractor who has been in professional practice or in business for more than ten years, needs but to review the changes that have occurred in that time to assure himself that they have been relatively few. In spite of all our boasted progress, we progress very slowly. When I read the article by Elwood Morris on the methods and costs of moving earth with drag scrapers in 1840, I am impressed with the fact that even 80 years of "phenomenal progress" has not rendered obsolete such primitive methods. Furthermore, I find that the costs recorded by Morris hold true today, if proper allowance is made for changes in wages. The article by Morris is typical of hundreds that are as valuable today as the day they were written. Instead of preparing a new edition of this hand book, I have chosen to produce an entirely new book which will be a companion volume. The new book which is almost ready for the press, is the "Handbook of Civil Engineering and Contracting Cost Data." None of the matter in the new book is the same as in this book, although the general method of presentation and the scope are identical. HALBERT P. GILLETTE. July 10, 1920. CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION 1 SECTION I. Principles of Engineering Economics and Cost Keeping 7 Definitions. Compound Interest Tables. Sinking Fund Tables. Present Worth of Annuity. References and Cross- References. Identity of Machine and Engineering Struc- ture. Problem I. Which of Two New Machines (or Struc- tures) to Select. Problem II. When to Retire an Old Machine in Favor of an Improved or Larger One. The Life of a Machine or Structure and the Growth of Annual Repairs. Problem III. To Determine When Repairs Have Grown So Great as to Justify Renewal. Straight Line Formula of Depreciation. The Bastard Straight Line Formula of Depreciation. Sinking Fund Formula of Depreciation. The Unit Cost Deprecia- tion Formula. Physical Property Valuations. Going Concern Value. Commercial Valuations. How to Prepare Estimates and Bids. A Schedule of Items of Cost. Plant Expense. Cost of Superintendence and General Expense. Percentage to Allow for Contingencies. Percentage to Al- low for Profits. Causes of Underestimates. Indexing Con- tract Prices. Unbalanced Bids. Surety Company Bonds. Reasons Why Contract Work Is the Most Economic Method of Doing Public Work. Thomas Telford on the Day Labor System. The Opinions of Members of the Am. Soc. C. E. on the Day Labor System. The Metcalf and Eddy Report on the Day Labor System in Boston. Mr. S. Whinery's Report on the Day Labor System in Boston. Experience with Day Labor on the Chicago Main Drainage Canal and at Panama. Subletting Work and Purchasing Materials. Instructions to Superintendents and Foremen. The Ten Laws of Management. 1. The Law of Sub-Division of Duties. 2. The Law of Educational Supervision. 3. The Law of Co-Ordination. 4. The Law of Standard Perform- ance Based on Motion Timing. 5. The Law of Divorce of Planning from Performance. 6. The Law of Regular Unit Cost Reports. 7. The Law of Reward Increasing with In- creased Performance. 8. The Law of Prompt Reward. 9. The Law of Competition. 10. The Law of Managerial Dignity. Measuring the Output of Workmen. Units for Concrete Work. Two or More Units for the Same Class of Work. Uniformity of Units of Measurement. Units of Transportation. Recording Single Units. Record Cards ix x CONTENTS Attached to Each Piece of Work. Measurements of Length. Measurements of Area. Measurements of Vol- ume. Measurements of Weight. Functional Units of Measure. Key Units of Measure. Key Units on Draw- ings. Keys Marked on Separate Members. Conclu- sion. Cost Keeping. Cost Keeping Defined. Differences Between Cost Keeping and Bookkeeping. Time Keep- ing Defined. Daily Cost Reports, By Whom Made. Written Card vs. Punch Card Reports. Time Cards That Show Changes of Occupation. Individual Rec- ord Cards. Kind of Punches to Use. Size and Kind of Daily Report Cards. Foreman's Diary. Designing Punch Card Reports. Record Cards Accompanying Each Piece of Work. Store Keeper's Reports. Reports on Materials and Supplies. Cost Charts. Progress Charts. Methods of Payment in Proportion to Performance. Profit Sharing. Piece Rate System. The Bonus System. The Differential Piece Rate System. The Differential Bonus. Task Work with a Bonus. The Premium Plan. Principles Governing the Fixing of a Piece Rate or Bonus. Benefits of the Bonus System. Time Cards and Time Books. Recording Work by Minute Hand Observations. SECTION II. Earth Excavation 119 Magnitude of the Subject. Earth Measurement. Earth Shrinkage. Kinds of Earth. Definitions of Haul and Lead. Work of Teams. Cost of Plowing. Cost of Picking and Shoveling. Cost of Trimming, Rolling, Etc. Cost of Wheelbarrow Work. Cost by Wagons. Cost by Drag Scrapers. Cost by Wheel Scrapers. Cost by Fresno Scrapers. Cost by Elevating Graders. Steam Shovel Data. Hauling with Dinkeys. Summary of the Cost of Steam Shovel Work. Cost of Digging a Well or Cesspool. Cost of Trenching, Cross-References. Cost of Backfilling a Trench with a Scraper. Prices of Drainage Ditch Work. Cost of Boring Test Holes in Earth. Cost of Wash Bor- ings on a Canal Survey. Cost of Wash Drill Borings on a Canal Survey. Cost of Boring Test Holes. Cost of Testing for Bridge Foundations. Cost of Making Test Borings, 111., Etc. Cost of Test Borings with Wood Augers. Cost of Drilling Test. Holes with a Well Driller. Cost of Diamond Drilling, Cross-References. Cost of Sinking a Well. Ref- erences and Cross-References on Earthwork. SECTION III. Rock Excavation, Quarrying and Crushing. ... 171 Weight and Voids. Voids in Broken Stone and Gravel. Weight and Voids in Crushed Limestone. Settlement of Crushed Stone in Wagons. Weight of Crushed Stone in Wagons and Cars. The Per Cent of Voids in Railway Embankments. Voids in Rock Blasted under Water. Measurement of Rock. Kinds of Hand Drills. Cost nf Hammer Drilling-. Cost of Hand Drilling in Granite. Cost CONTENTS xi of Churn Drilling. Sizes of Air Drills. Data as to Rock Drills. Test of Air Consumption at the Rose Deep Mine. Tables of Air Consumption.- Steam Consumption. Gaso- line Air Compressors. Percentage of Lost Time in Drill- ing. Rule for Estimating Drilling per Shift. Rates of Drilling in Different Rocks. Cost of Drill Repairs. Cost of Operating Drills. Piece Rate and Bonus System in Drilling. Cost of Loading by Hand. Cost of Hand- ling Crushed Stone. Cost of Unloading Broken Stone with a Clamshell. Cost of Handling Broken Stone with a Derrick. Cost of Loading Blasted Rock with Steam Shovels. Cost of Hauling in Carts and Wagons. Open-Cut Excavation. Spacing Holes in Open- Cut Excavation. Cost of Excavating Sandstone and Shale. Summary of Open-Cut Data. Cost of Excavating Gneiss, New York City. Cost of Gneiss Excavation for Dams. Summary of Costs on Chicago Canal. -Trenching in Rock. Cost of Drilling and Blasting in Trenches. Cost of Quar- rying and Crushing Trap Rock. Cost of Crushing at Newton, Mass. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Quartz- ite. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Limestone for Ma- cadam. Price of Road Building Plant. Cost of Jaw Crusher Renewals. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Lime- stone, Missouri. Cost of Crushing and Hauling Cobble- stones. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Trap and Bal- lasting, D. L. & W. Ry. Cost of Quarrying, Crushing and Ballasting, and Life of Ballast. Cost of Crushing with City Plant, Boston. Data on Jaw Crushers. Data on Gyratory Crushers. Cost of Breaking Stone by Hand. -Diamond Drilling. Price of Diamonds. Water Required. Price of Diamond Drills. Cost of Diamond Drilling in Virginia. Cost of Diamond Drilling in Lehigh Valley. : Cost of Dia- mond Drilling on Croton Aqueduct. Cost of Hand Dia- mond Drilling in Arizona. Cost of Diamond Drilling in Pennsylvania. Consumption of Diamonds in Drilling, Ten- nessee. Cost of Diamond Drilling in British Columbia. Cost of Core Drilling with a Well Driller. Cost of Dia- mond Drilling and Wash Borings Near New York City. Rock Excavating Using Well Drills. Cost of an Artesian Well. Cost of Drilling Limestone with a Well Drill, for a Quarry. Cost of Drilling Rock with a Well Drill. Cost of Drilling Copper Ore with Well Drills. Cost of Tunnel- ing, Shaft Sinking and Mining, Cross-References. Cost of Subaqueous Rock Excavation. Cost of Chamber Blasting. SECTION IV. Roads, Pavements and Walks 258 Definitions. ^^Cross-References to Excavation and Rock Crushing. Units Used in Measuring Macadam. Items of Cost of Macadam. Quantity, of Stone and Binder Re- quired for Macadam. Cost of Loading Stone from Cars into Wagons. Cost of Loading Stone from Bins into Wagons. xu CONTENTS Cost of Hauling Stone in Wagons. Cost of Spreading Stone by Hand. Cost of Spreading Stone with a Leveler or Grader. Cost of Rolling. Cost of Sprinkling. Summary of Cost of Macadam. Estimating the Cost of Macadam, New York State. Prices Allowed for Extra Work on New York State Roads. Macadam Road Prices in Massa- chusetts. Per Cent of Engineering for Road Construction. Cost of Macadam Roads, New Jersey. Cost of a Lime- stone Macadam Road, Buffalo, N. Y. Cost of a Sandstone and Trap Macadam, Rochester, N. Y. Cost of Macadam Roads, Illinois. Data on Depreciation and Repairs of Steam Rollers. Cost of Steam Roller Repairs in Massa- chusetts. Cost of Scarifying Macadam by Hand. Cost of Scarifying with a Machine. Cost of Scarifying Macadam. Rhode Island. Cost of Resurfacing Old Limestone Ma cadam. Cost of Repairing Sandstone Macadam, Albion, N. Y. Cost of Resurfacing Macadam and Data on Com- pression of Broken Stone. Cost of Repairing Macadam in Ireland. Cost of Maintaining Macadam Roads, Massa- chusetts. Cost of Using Calcium Chloride as a Dust Pre- ventative. Cost of Tarring Macadam, Michigan. Cost of Tarring Macadam, Massachusetts. Cost of Tarring Ma- cadam, Tennessee. Cost of Oiling Macadam, Tennessee. Cost of Oiled Earth Road, Arkansas. Cost of Oiling Ma- cadam, New York State. Cost of Oiling Macadam, Kan- sas City, Mo. Cost of Tar Macadam, Massachusetts. Cost of Tar Macadam, Duluth, Minn. Cost of Asphalt Macadam, Redlands, Cal. Cost of Petrolithic Macadam. Cost of Petrolithic Road. Cost of Telford Roads, New Jersey. Cost of Sand-Clay Roads. Cost of Sand-Clay Road, Iowa. Cost of Cinder-Clay Road, Iowa. Cost of Burnt Clay Roads. Cost of Maintaining Earth Roads by Dragging. Cost of Making a Corduroy Road. Cost of Gravel Street, Michigan. Cross-References on Cost of Grading Roads. Cost of Grading a Road, New York. Cost of Grading a Road, Maryland. Cost of Grading a Road with a Road Machine, Michigan. Average Prices of Pavements in 100 Representative Cities, Together with Wages of Labor and Prices of Materials. Cost of Pavements in 50 Cities. Prices for Estimating Street Work. Cost of Unloading and Hauling Bricks. Gravity Conveyor for Handling Paving Bricks. Cost of Laying Bricks. Summary of Cost of Brick Pavement. Cost of Filling Joints of Brick Pave- ment. Number and Weight of Paving Brick per Sq. Yd. Cost of a Brick Pavement, Illinois. Cost of 80,000 Sq. Yds. of Brick Pavement, Iowa. Cost of Laying Brick Pavement, Indiana. Cost of Laying Brick Pavement, New York. Bricks Laid Per Man Per Day, Michigan. Cost of a Brick Pavement, Minneapolis. Cost of a Brick Pavement, Ten- nessee. Cost of a Brick Pavement, Maryland. Cost of Re- moving, Chipping Off Tar and Relaying Brick. Cost of CONTENTS Removing and Replacing a Brick Pavement. Cost of Lay- ing a Stone Block Pavement, St. Paul. Cost of Stone Block Pavement, Rochester, N. Y. Cost of Stone Block Pave- ment, Baltimore. Cost of Granite Block Pavement, New York City. Cost of Laying Block Pavement, New York City. Cost of Granite Block Pavement, Baltimore. Cost of Dressing Old Granite Blocks. Cost of Removing and Relaying a Cobblestone Pavement. Cost of Laying Asphalt Block Pavement, New York City. Cost of Asphalt Block Pavement, Baltimore. Cost of Creosoted Wood Block Pave- ment, Minneapolis. Labor Cost of Creosoted Wood Block Pavement, Seattle. Cost of Creosoted Wood Block Pave- ment, Massachusetts. Life of Wood Block Pavement. Cost of Asphalt Pavement in California. Cost of 77,200 Sq. Yds. of Asphalt Pavement. Cost of Asphalt Pave- ments, Winnipeg. Cost of Laying Asphalt Pavement. Cost of Asphalt Pavement, New York City. Cost of Patch- ing Asphalt, Indianapolis. High Cost of Patching Asphalt, New Orleans. Cost of Patching Asphalt, Marion, Ind. High Cost of Patching Asphalt, Brooklyn. Cost of Bitu- lithic and Asphalt Pavements and Repairs, Toronto. Cost of Repairs to Asphalt Pavements, Syracuse, N. Y. Cost of Repairs and Life of Asphalt, Washington, D. C. Cost of Repairing Asphalt Pavement in Various American Cities. Specific Gravity of Bitulithic and Asphalt Pavements. Cost of Asphalt Cross Walks. Cost of Mixing Concrete Base by Hand. Cost of Machine Mixing and Wagon Haul- ing. Cost of Mixing Concrete with a Continuous Mixer. Cost of Concrete Pavement, Windsor, Ont. Cost of Exca- vating a Concrete Base and Laying New Concrete. Cost of Excavating an Asphalt Pavement and Its Concrete Base. Amount of Materials for Cement Side Walks. Cost of Cement Walks. Cost of Cement Walk, San Francisco. Cost of Cement Walk, Toronto. Cost of Cement Walk, Forbes Hill Reservoir. Cost of Acid Finish on Cement Walks. Cost of Cement Curb and Walk, Indiana. Cost of Cement Curb, Iowa.: Cost of Cement Curb and Gutter. Cost of Cement Curb, Baltimore. Cost of Cement Curb and Gutter, Ontario. Cost of Setting Stone Curb. Cost of Cutting and Setting Granite Curb. Cost of Resetting Stone Curb. Recording Cost of Street Sprinkling. Cost of Street Sprinkling, Washington, D. C. Cost of Sprinkling Streets and Roads. Sprinkling Car Tracks. Amount of Water for Sprinkling Streets. Recording Cost of Street Sweeping. Cost of Street Sweeping in 35 Cities. Cost of Street Cleaning, Washington, D. C. Cost of Sweeping with a "Pick-up" Sweeper. Estimated Cost of Machine Sweep- ing. Estimated Cost of Flushing Streets. Cost of Street Sweeping, Minneapolis. Cost of Street Sweeping, Williams- port, Pa. Cost of Street Sweeping, Albany, N. Y. Cost of Street Flushing and Sweeping, St. Louis. xiv CONTENTS SECTION V. Stone Masonry 475 Definitions. Percentage of Mortar in Stone Masonry. Cost of Laying Masonry. Estimating the Cost of Stone Dressing. Data on Stone Sawing. Cost of Stone Dress- ing. Cost of Sandstone Piers for Bridge. Cost of Cutting Granite for a Dam. Cost of Cutting Granite, New York City. Cost of Quarrying, Cutting and Laying Granite. Cost of Plug Hole Drilling by Hand. Cost of Pneumatic Plug Drilling. Cost of Quarrying Granite. Cost of a Masonry Arch Bridge. Cost of Centers for a 30-ft. Arch. Cost of Arch Culverts and Abutments, Erie Canal. Cost of Lock Masonry, Erie Canal. Cost of Sweetwater Dam. Cost of a Granite Dam, Wyoming. Cost of Masonry, New Croton Dam. Cost of a Rubble Dam. Data on Laying Masonry with a Cableway. Cost of Masonry and Timber Crib Dam. Cost of Laying Masonry, Dunning' s Dam. Cost of Quarrying and Laying a Limestone Wall. Cost of Masonry Abutments. Cost of Laying Bridge Pier Masonry. Cost of Sodom Dam. Cost of Dams and Locks, Black Warrior River. Cost of Rock-Fill Dams. Cost of Cyclo- pean Masonry, Cross-References. Cost of Limestone and Sandstone Slope Walls. Cost of Granite Slope Wall. Cost of Laying a Limestone Slope Wall. Cost of Slope Wall, Upper White River. Cost of Riprap on River Bank. Cost of Riprap and Brush Mattress, Cross-References. Cost of Riprap in a Crib Dam. Cost of Riprap in Cribs. Cost of Riprap, Stone, Cross-References. Cost of Cleaning Ma- sonry with Acid. Cost of Excavating Masonry. Cost of Pointing Old Bridge Masonry. Cost of Lining Tunnel with Masonry. Cross-References on Masonry. SECTION VI. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Construc- tion 530 Definitions. Magnitude of the Subject and General Dis- cussion. Cost of Manufacturing Cement. Theory of the Quantity of Cement in Mortar and Concrete. Size and Weight of Barrels of Cement. Effect of Size of Sand Grains on Voids. Tables for Estimating the Cost of Con- crete and for Designing Reinforced Concrete Beams and Slabs. Percentage of Water in Mortar. Estimating the Cost of Steel in Reinforced Concrete. Cost of Sand. Cost of Washing Sand in Tank Washer. Cost of Washing Sand with a Hose. Washing Sand with Ejectors. Cost of Wash- ing Gravel. Cost of Making Concrete by Hand. Unload- ing the Materials from Cars. Cost of Loading the Ma- terials. Cost of Transporting the Materials. Cost of Mixing the Materials by Hand. Cost of Loading and Hauling Concrete. Cost of Dumping, Spreading and Ram- ming. Example of High Cost of Tamping. Cost of Rolling and Finishing Concrete Floors. Cost of Superintendence. Summary of Costs of Making Concrete by Hand. Cost of CONTENTS xv Mixing Concrete with Machines. Cost of Mixing with a Gravity Mixer. Cost of Forms. Cost of Fortification Work, California. Cost of Fortification Work. Cost of Breakwater, Buffalo. Cost of Locks, Upper White River. Cost of Locks, Coosa River. : Cost of Locks, Cascade Canal. Cost of Locks, Illinois and Mississippi Canal. Labor Cost of Retaining Walls. Cost of Retaining Walls, Chicago Canal. Cost of Retaining Wall. Cost of Retaining Walls, References. Cost of Filling Pier Cylinders with Concrete. Cost of Harbor Pier, Wisconsin. Rubble Concrete Data. Cost of the Boonton Dam, Cyclopean Masonry. Some English Data on Rubble Concrete. Cost of a Rubble Concrete Abutment. Cost of a Rubble Concrete Dam, Central States. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Fence Posts. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Telephone Poles. Cost of Poles. Bills of Materials and Cost of Poles. Cost of Re- inforced Concrete Piles for a Building. Cost of Piles for an Ocean Pier. Cost of Pile Dike. Cost of Raymond Piles. Cost of Rolled Concrete Piles. Cost of Simplex Piles. Cost of Concrete Oil Tank. Cost of Concrete Tanks, References. Cost of Small Cement Pipes. Cost of Cement and Concrete Pipes and Sewers, Cross-References. Cost of a Band Stand. Cost of Sylvester Wash and Sylvester Mortar. Cost of Waterproofing with Tar Felt and Asphalt. Cost of Waterproofing Batteries with Tar and Sand. Cost of Waterproofing Bridge Floors. Cost of Waterproofing, Cross-References. Cost of Removing Efflo- rescence with Acid. Cost of Bush-Hammering Concrete. Cross-References and References on Concrete. SECTION VII. Water Works 645. Definitions. Cost of Complete Water Works Systems. Average Cost of Constructing and Operating Water Works in Massachusetts. Prices of Cast-Iron Pipe. Weight of Cast-Iron Pipe. Lead for Joints. Items of Cost of Pipe Laying and Materials. Cost of Loading and Hauling Cast- iron Pipe. Trenches. Cost of Digging a 36-Mile Trench with a Machine. Trenching in Quicksand, Using a Ma- chine. Cost of Trenching, Corning, N. Y. Cost of Trench- ing, Great Falls, Mont. Cost of Trenching, Astoria, Ore. Cost of Trenching, Hilburn, N. Y. Cost of Pipe Laying, Providence, R. I. Cost of Laying 107,877 Ft. of Mains, Cleveland, O. Cost of Pipe Laid, Boston. Comparative Cost of Pipe Laying in New England Cities. Cost of Pipe Laying and Placing Hydrants, Atlantic City. Cost of Laying Pipe, Pennsylvania. Cost of Pipe Laid, Alliance, O. Cost of Pipe Laid and Service Connections, Porter- ville, Cal. An Unusually Expensive Piece of Work. Cost of a Pipe Line, Ohio. Cost of Main and Service Pipes Laid in a Southern City. Cost of Laying Wrought-Iron Pipe, Maryland. Cost of Taking Up an Old Pipe Line. xvi CONTENTS Cost of Constructing and Laying Cement Lined Pipe, Plymouth, Mass., and Portland, Me. Cost of Lining Iron Service Pipes with Cement. Cost of Setting Meters and Laying Service Pipes. Cost of Meters and Setting, Cleve- land, O. Cost of Setting Meters and Maintenance, Rochester, N. Y. Cost of Operating and Maintaining Meters, Reading, Pa. Cost of Placing Hydrants, Chicago. Cost of Concrete Vaults for Valves. Cost of Dipping Pipes. Cost of Cleaning Water Pipes, Pittsburg, Pa. Cost of Cleaning Pipes, St. John, N. B. Cost of Cleaning Pipe, Boston. Cost of Hydrant Maintenance in Winter. Cost of Thawing Water Pipes by Electricity. Cost of Stop Cock Box Repairs, Etc. Cost of Subaqueous Pipe Laying. Cost of Laying a Submerged Pipe Across Deal Lake, N. J. Cost of Laying Pipe Across the Susquehanna. Cost of Laying a Submerged Pipe, New Jersey to Ellis Island. Cost of Submerged Pipe Laying, Massachusetts. Cost of Laying Submerged Pipe, Vancouver. Cost of Laying Pipe Across the Willamette River. Cost of a Wood Stave Pipe Line, Denver. Cost of Wood Stave Pipe Line, Astoria, Ore. Estimated Cost of Wood Stave Pipe. Cost of Wood Stave Pipe Line, Atlantic City. Labor on Wood Stave Pipe, Ogden, Utah. Labor on Wood Stave Pipe, Lynch- burg. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Conduit. Cost of a Brick Conduit Weight of Steel Stand Pipes. Cost of a Standpipe, Quincy, 7 lass. Cost of Steel Standpipe Encased in Brick. Brick Casing Around Standpipe. Cost of a Steel Tank and Tower, Ames, la. Cost of Steel Tank and Tower, Porterville, Cal. Cost of Steel Tank and Tower, Fairhaven, Mass. Cost of Steel Tank and Tower, Provi- dence, R. I. Cost of Scraping and Painting a Stand Pipe. Weight of Wooden Tank and Steel Tower. Cost of a Wooden Tank, La Salle, 111. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Standpipe, Attleborough, Mass. Materials in a Reinforced Concrete Standpipe. Cost of a 12-in. Well, Portersville, Cal. Relative Cost of Water Works and Filters. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Ashland, Wis. Cost of Filter, Ber- wyn, Pa. Cost of Filter, Nyack, N. T. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Superior, Wis. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Washington, D. C. Cost of Filtering at Washington, Al- bany and Philadelphia. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Albany, N. T. Cost of Groined Arches and Forms on the Albany Filter Plant. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Law- rence, Mass. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Mt. Vernon, N. T. Cost of Filtering, Poughkeepsie. Cost of Ice Re- moval from Filters. Estimated Cost of Filters and Filter- ing, Cincinnati, O. Cost of Filtering and Ice Removal. Reading, Pa. Cost of Filtering, Brooklyn, N. T. Out- put of Sand Washers. Cost of Filter, Lambertville, N. J. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Roof for Filter, Indianapolis. Cost of Seven Mechanical Filters. Cost of Mechanical CONTENTS xvii Filter, Danville, 111. Cost of Mechanical Filter and Filter- ing, Norfolk, Va. Cost of Mechanical Filter and Filtering, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Cost of Mechanical Filter, Asbury Park, N. J. Cost of Mechanical Filter and Filtering, El- mira, N. Y. Cost of Water Softening. Cost of Concrete, Asphalt and Brick Lining of Reservoir. Cost of Lining a Reservoir with Asphalt. Cost of Lining a Reser- voir with Concrete. Cost of Concrete Reservoir Floor, Pittsburg. Cost of Reservoir, Forbes Hill, Mass. Cost of Concrete Lining and Plastering, Forbes Hill Reser- voir. Cost of Concrete Lined Reservoir, Clinton, 111. Cost of Covered Reservoirs of Various Sizes. Cost of Small Covered Reservoir, Portersville, Gal. Cost of a Covered Re- inforced Concrete Reservoir, Fort Meade, S. D. Cost of Concrete Reservoir, Pomona, Cal. Cost of Storage Reser- voir, Hagerstown, Md. Cost of a Wooden Covering for Reservoir, Quincy, 111. Cost of a Concrete Core Wall. Cost 6f Puddle. Cost of Sheeting and Bracing a Small Circular Reservoir. Cost of Dams Per Million Feet of Water Stored. Cross-References on Dams and Reser- voirs. Water Works Valuation and Plant Depreciation. Going Value of Water Works. Life of Cast-Iron Pipe. Life of Wrought-Iron Pipe. Life of Pipe, St. John, N. B. The Life of Pipe and Appraisal of Syracuse Water Works. Estimated Depreciation of Water Pipe, Los Angeles, Cal. SECTION VIII. Sewers 80fl General Considerations. Cost of Pumping Water from Trenches. Cost of Trenching with Trench Excavators. Cost of Excavation with Trench Machines. Cost of Trench Ex- cavation in Massachusetts, Using a Carson Machine. Cost of Excavating with a Potter Trench Machine. Cost of Excavating with a Trench Machine. Cost of Trenching by Cableways. Cost of Sewer Trench and Backfilling. Cost of Excavating Trench with Orange Peel Bucket. Cost of Sewer Trenching Using a Derrick. Sizes and Prices of Sewer Pipe. Cement Required for Sewer Pipe Joints. Cost of Laying Sewer Pipe. Diagram Giving Contract Prices of Sewers. Cost of Pipe Sewers, Atlantic, la. Cost of Pipe Sewers, Centerville, la. Cost of Pipe Sewers, Laurel, Miss. Estimated Cost o'f Pipe Sewers. Cost of Pipe Sewer in Quicksand. Cost of Pipe Sewers and Man- holes, Oskaloosa, la. Cost of Two Pipe Sewers. Cost of Pipe Sewer, Cordele, Ga. Cost of Pipe Sewer, Me- nasha, Wis. Cost of Pipe Sewer, Ithaca, N. Y. Cost of Pipe Sewers, Toronto. Brick Sewer Data. Cost of Large Brick Sewers, Denver. Cost of an Egg- Shaped Sewer, Springfield, Mass. Cost of a Large Brick Sewer, Gary, Ind. Cost of a Brick Sewer in Water- Soaked Land, Gary, Ind. Cost of 66-in. Brick Sewer, xvtii CONTENTS Gary, Ind. Cost of Rock Excavation in Trenches, St. Louis. Cost of Pipe and Brick Sewers, St. Louis. Cost of a Brick Sewer, Including Tunneling in Earth and Rock, St. Louis. Cost of Pipe and Brick Sewers and Manholes, St. Louis. Cost of a Brick Sewer and Tunneling, Syra- cuse. Cost of a Sewer Tunnel, Using a Hydraulic Shield, Chicago. Cost of a Sewer Tunnel, Using a Hydraulic Shield, Cleveland. Cost of a Sewer in Tunnel, Cleveland. Labor Cost of a Large Brick Sewer, Chicago. Cost of a Concrete and Brick Sewer. Cost of a Concrete Sewer. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Sewer, Cleveland. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Sewer, Wilmington, Del. Cost of Re- inforced Concrete Sewer, Kalamazoo, Mich. Cost of Rein- forced Concrete Sewer, South Bend, Ind. Cost of a Large Reinforced Concrete Sewer, St. Louis. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Sewer. Cost of Making Blocks for a Concrete Sewer. Cost of Concrete Sewer Blocks. Cost of Concrete Block Manholes. Diagram for Estimating Cost of Man- holes. A Device for Building Brick Manholes. Cost of a Concrete Manhole. Cost of Brick Manholes. Cost of Brick Manhole, Flush Tank and Laying Pipe Sewer. Cost of Making Cement Pipe. Cost of Cement Pipe Sewer (Egg-Shaped) and Manholes, Brooklyn, N. Y. Cost of Constructing Cement Pipe Sewer in Place. Cost of Clean- ing a Large Brick Sewer. Cost of Cleaning Sewers and Catch Basins. Cost of Sewage Purification, Providence, R. I. Cost of Sewage Disposal, 6 Cities. Estimated Cost of Sewage Filtering. Cost of Sewage Filters, Pawtucket, R. I. Cost of Sewage Filters, Waterloo, Ont. Cost of a Sewage Filter and Septic Tank, with Costs of Operation. Cost of Cleaning Sewers and Catch Basins. Cost of Flushing Sewers. SECTION IX. Timberwork 945 Definitions. Importance of Timberwork.-*-Measurement of Timberwork. Cubic Contents and Weight of Piles and Poles. Cost of Manufacturing Lumber. Prices of Yellow Pine for 14 Years. Life of Trestle and Bridge Timbers. Life of Treated and Untreated Fence Posts. Life of Creo- soted Ties. Cost of Treating Timber, Cross-References. Processes for Treatment of Timber and Costs. Cost of Creosoting and Life of Creosoted Timber. Cost of Creo- soting Ties. Cost of a Zinc Chloride Treating Plant. Ties Treated with Crude Asphaltic Oil. General Data on the Cost of Framing and Erecting Timber. Cost of Loading and Hauling Timber. Sawing, Boring and Adzing. Formu- las for Quantity of Materials in Trestles. Methods and Cost of Building a Railway Trestle. Cost of a Timber Viaduct. Cost of Wagon Road Trestles. Cost of Trestles, Cross-References. Estimated Prices of Howe Truss Bridges. Cost of 160-ft. Howe Truss Bridge and Cribs. CONTENTS xix Cost of Log Culverts. Materials Required for Timber Box Culverts. Cost of a Wooden Reservoir Roof on Iron Posts. Cost of Crib Dam. Cost of Timber . Cribs for Dams, Etc. Cost of Four Caissons. Cost of Two Small Scows. Cost of a Semi-Circular Flume. Cost of a Flume. Cost of Lock Gates. Cost of a Railway Box Car. Cost of Making Bodies for Dump Cars. Cost of Mak- ing Tool Boxes. Cost of Plank Roads. Piles. The Steam Hammer vs. the Drop Hammer. Cost of Making Piles. Life of Pile Driver Rope. Cost of Driving Piles with a Horse Driver. Cost of Driving Foundation Piles for a Building. Construction and Cost of a Small Pile Driver. Cost of Driving Piles for Wagon Road Trestles. Cost of Driving Piles for Trestle Renewals. Cost of Driving Piles for a Trestle, N. P. Ry. Cost of Pile Driving, O. & S. L. Ry. Cost of Pile Driving, C. & E. I. Ry. The Record for Rapid Pile Driving on the O. & M. R. R. Cost of Pile Trestle, Sheet Piles, Etc. Cost of a Pile Docking. Data on Driving Plumb and Batter Piles, N. Y. Docks. Cost of Pulling Piles, Driving Piles and Timberwork. Cost of Driving and Sawing Off Piles. Data on Driving with a Steam Hammer and Sawing Off Piles. Cost of Driving Piles for a Swing Bridge. Cost of Sawing Off 42-ft. Piles Under Water. Data on Sawing Off Burlington Bridge Pier Piles. Cost of Pulling and Driving Piles for a Guard Pier. Cost of Driving Foundation Piles and Sheet Piles. Cost of Pulling Piles. Cost of Blasting Piles. Cost of Driving and Pulling Test Piles. Cost of Driving Piles for Shore Protection. Cost of Driving Wak<3field Sheet Piles. Cost of Piling, Cross-References. Estimating Cost of Brush Revetment. Cost of Brush Mattress and Slope Wall, Missouri River. Cost of Brush Mattress and Revetment, Mississippi River. Cost of Brush Revetment Ballasted with Concrete. Cost of Brush Mattresses. Cost of Mat- tress and Slope Wall, M. K. & T. Ry, Cost of Brush Mattresses and Dikes. Cost of Clearing Land. Design of Stump Pullers. Cost of Removing Stumps. Cost of Clear- ing and Grubbing, Ohio. Cost of Blasting 3,500 Stumps. Cost of Blasting 1,100 Stumps. Cost of Clearing and Grub- bing by Blasting. Cost of Clearing and Grubbing for a Railway. Cost of Transporting Logs by River Driving and by Trains. Cost of Cordwood and Cost of a Wire Rope Tramway. Cost of Planting Trees, Washington, D. C. Cost of Tree Planting, Mass. Cost of Digging Holes and Planting Trees and Shrubs. SECTION X. Buildings 1069 Cost of Items of Buildings by Percentages. Cost of Buildings Per Cu. Ft. Cost of Miscellaneous Buildings. Cost of Concrete Buildings. Cubic Foot Costs of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Cost of Mill Buildings. Estimating xx CONTENTS Quantity of Lumber. Cost of Timberwork in Different Kinds of Buildings. Cost of Laying and Smoothing Floors. Cost of Placing Ceiling, Wainscoting and Siding. Cost of Shingling. Cost of Laying Base Boards. Cost of Placing Doors, Windows and Blinds. Cost of Making Stairs. Cost of Tin Roofing. Building Papers and Felts. Cost of Gravel Roofs. Cost of Slate Roofs. Brick Masonry Data. Cost of Laying Brick. Cost of Mortar. Cost of Brickwork in a Shop. Cost of Brickwork in Five Manufac- turing Buildings. Cost of Brick Chimneys. Cost of High Brick Stacks. Cost of Brickwork, Cross-References. Cost of Rubble Walls. Cost of Ashlar. Cost of Cut Stone Work. Cost of Wood Lathing. Cost of Metal Lathing. Cost of Plaster. Cost of Placing Tile Fire- Proofing. Cost of Terra Cotta Brick Fireproofing. Cost of Ornamental Terra Cotta Work. Cost of Combined Concrete and Tile Floors. Cost of Combination Concrete and Tile Floors in Three Buildings. Cost of Bitu- minous Concrete for a Mill Floor. Cost of Passenger Sta- tions. Cost of Four Frame Depots. Cost of 57 Frame Depots. Cost of 5 Frame Section Houses. Cost of Black- smith Shop, Barn and Telegraph Office. Cost of 40 Hand Car Houses. Cost of Six Tool Houses. Capacity and Cost of Ice Houses. Cost of 11 Ice Houses. Cost of Car Shops. Cost of Engine Roundhouses. Cost of Roundhouse, Coaling Station, Turntable, Etc. Cost of a Brick and Steel Building. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Building Construction. Cost of Re- inforced Concrete Factory. Cost of a House of Separately Molded Concrete Members. Cost of Two Reinforced Con- crete Buildings. Cost of Metal Forms for Concrete Build- ings. Cost of Concrete Buildings, References. Cost of Moving a Frame Dwelling. References on Buildings. SECTION XI. Railways 1174 Cross-References on Cost of Grading. Cross-References on Bridges, Culverts and Buildings. Cross-References on Telegraphs, Fences, Etc. Cost 0* Transporting Men, Tools and Supplies on Railroads for Grading. Cost of Three Short Single Track Tunnels. Cost of the Stampede Tun- nel. Cost of the Stampede Tunnel Lining. Wabash R. R. Tunnel Costs. Cost of Mount Wood and Top Mill Tun- nels. Cost of Hand Driven Tunnel, B. & O. Cost of the Busk Tunnel. Cost of a Double Track Tunnel, N. Y. Central. Cost of Tunnels, Alaska Central Ry. Cost of the New Raton Tunnel. Cost of Lining the Mullan Tunnel. Cost of Lining a 1,000-ft. Tunnel. Cost of Brick and Stone Lining. Weights and Prices of Rails. Prices of Rails Since 1876. Cost of Track Laying. Cost of Track Laying, M. St. P. & S. M. Cost of Track Laying, 50-lb. Rails. Cost of Track Laying, A. T. & S. P. Cost of Track Lay- CONTENTS xxi ing with Machines. Cost of Laying Narrow Gage Track. A Method of Unloading Rails. Cost of Renewing Rails, C. C. C. & St. L. Rail Relaying Gangs. Cost of Relaying Rails. Cost of Laying Side Tracks and Switches. Esti- mated Cost of Growing Tie Timber. A Cheap Way of Loading Ties. Cost of Burnettizing Timber and Ties. Cost of Burnettizing Ties, S. P. Ry. Cost of Creosoting Piles and Ties. Cost of Treating Ties with Zinc Chloride and Creosote, Galesburg, 111. Labor Cost of Renewing Ties. Life of Treated Ties. Estimated Life of Ties. Life of Ties as Affected by Weight of Rail. Prices of Ties and Labor Cost of Renewals. Average Price of Ties in America. Cost of Gravel Ballast. Cost of Gravel and Rock Ballast- ing Old Tracks. Cost of Gravel Ballasting. Cost of Ce- mented Gravel Ballast. Cost of Washing Gravel, Cost of Ballasting, Using Dump Cars. Cost of Rock Ballast. Prices of Frogs, Crossings, Etc. Cost of Track Scales. Cost of Water Tanks. Cost of Track Tank. Turntable Construction and Costs. Cost of Turntables. Cost of Snow Sheds. Cost of Snow Fences. Cost of Mail Cranes. Definitions of "Mile of Railway." Average Cost of Rail- ways in America. Cost of Railway Lines. Cost of a Mining Railway. Cost of a Logging Railway. Cost of a Branch Line, Texas. Cost of a Cheap Railway, Georgia. Report of H. P. Gillette to the Washington R. R. Com- mission on the Valuation of the Railways of Washington. Cost of the Great Northern Ry. in the State of Washing- ton. Cost of the Northern Pacific Ry. (1,645 Miles) in the State of Washington. Cost of the O. R. & N. (500 Miles) in the State of Washington. Appraised Value of the Railways of Wisconsin. Cost Per Mile of Railways in Wisconsin and Michigan. Appraised Value of the Rail- ways of Minnesota. Cost of 1,100 Miles of the C., M. & St. P. in South Dakota. Prices Used in Estimating the Cost of Railways in Texas. Itemized Cost of the Northern Pacific Ry. System as Estimated by Its Chief Engineer. Itemized Cost of the Great Northern Ry. System as Esti- mated by Its Chief Engineer. Contract Prices for Railway Work in the State of Washington. Weight and Cost of Steel in Brooklyn Elevated Railways. Cost of Elevated Railways in New York City. Cost of Tracklaying and Erecting Steel, New York Elevated Railways. Cost of Elevated Railways, Brooklyn and New York. Cost of Foundations, Boston Elevated Ry. Cost of Elevated Rail- way and Subway, Berlin. Cost of Excavation, New York Subway. Itemized Cost to the Contractors for Excavating, Concrete, Steelwork, Etc., New York Subway. Prices of Tools, Machines and Supplies, New York Subway. Cost of Excavating a Subway, Brooklyn, Long Island R. R. Cost of Cable Railways in Cities. Cost of Constructing and Operating Cable Railways, Kansas City. Cost of a Cable xxii CONTENTS Railway in an Eastern City. Cost of Operating Cable Railways, Chicago. Cost of Brickwork in Vaults of a Cable Railway. Cost of an Inclined Cable Railway for Hand- ling Freight Cars. Coist of a Rack Railway, Pike's Peak. Cost of Conduit Electric Street Railways. Cost of an Elec- tric Railway, Denver. Cost of an Electric Railway, Third Rail Line. Cost of Interurban Trolley Line. Cost of Third Rail and Trolley Lines Compared. Cost of Two Electric Railways. Cost of Steel Railway Track. Comparative Cost of Street Railway Track Built with Steel and with Wood Ties. Cost of Welding Rails by Thermit Process. Cost of Electrically Welding 3,087 Rails. Cost of Erecting Trolley Poles. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Trolley and Transmission Line Poles. First Cost and Cost of Operat- ing a Trolley Line. Cost of Power Plants for Electric Railways.^ Cost of Power Plant and Equipment of an Elec- tric Railway. Cost of a Street Railway Power Plant and Its Operation. Cost of Operating Street Railways. Power to Operate Street Cars. Cost of Operating an Elevated Railway. Power to Operate New York Elevated and Surface Cars. Weight and Power of Motor Cars. Cost of Maintenance of Motor Cars. Railway Operating Ex- penses, Etc. Life of Rails and Cost of Renewals. Curva- ture of Rails. Cost of Maintenance of Equipment in America. Cost of Maintenance of Equipment, N. P. Ry. Life of Railway Cars and Locomotives and Cost of Repairs, S. P. Ry. Percentage of Engines Laid Off for Repairs. Percentage of Freight Cars Laid Off for Repairs. Price of Locomotives. Cost of Shop Machinery. Cost of Stopping Trains. Cost of Handling Locomotives at Terminals. SECTION XII. Bridges and Culverts 147J Weight of Steel Bridges. Weights of Steel Bridges for Highway, Railway and Electric Railway Bridges. Weights of Standard Bridges, A. T. & S. F. Ry. Weights of Standard Bridges, N. P. Ry. Weights of Standard Bridges, 111. Central Ry. Tyrrell's Formulas for Weights of High- way, Railway and Electric Railway Bridges. Weight of a 465-ft. Highway Bridge. Weight of a 4 06-ft. Highway Bridge. Weight and Cost of a Highway Bridge, 120-ft. Spans. Weight of a 450-ft. Highway Swing Bridge. Weight of a 520-ft. Double Track Railway Swing Bridge. Weight of a 450-ft Double Track Swing Bridge. Weight of a 438-ft. Single Track Swing Bridge. Weight and Cost of a 334-ft. Four Track Swing Bridge. Weight of a 231-ft. Single Track Swing Bridge. Weight of a 216-ft. Double Track Swing Bridge. Weight and Cost of a 1,504-ft. Canti- lever Double Track Bridge. Weight and Cost of a 1,296-ft Cantilever Double Track Bridge. Weight and Cost of a 2,750-ft. Cantilever Double Track Bridge. Weight of a 1,380-ft. Cantilever Highway Bridge. Weight and Cost of CONTENTS xxiii Scherzer Highway and Railway Lift Bridges. Cost of Page Highway and Railway Lift Bridges. Cost of Ericson Trunnion Bascule Lift Bridges. Weight of an 840-ft. Span Arch Bridge. Weight and Cost of a 195-ft. Arch High- way Bridge. Weight of a 207-ft. Arch Railway Bridge. Weight and Cost of a 440-ft. Arch Railway Bridge. Cost of an Arch Highway Bridge. Weight of the Burlington Bridge, C. B. & Q. Ry. Weight of a 195-ft. Double Track Swing Bridge. Weight of a 583-ft. Span Railway Bridge and of a 323-ft. Swing Bridge. Weight of a 1,024-ft. Cantilever Highway Bridge. Estimating Cost of Steel Bridge Erection. Cost per Lin. Ft. and Per Sq. Ft. Most Economical Span. Life of Steel Railway Bridges. Amount of Work Done Per Man in a Large Bridge Works. Cost of Erecting Bridges, A. T. & S. F. Ry. Falsework for a Railway Bridge. Cost of a Steel Railway Bridge and Substructure. Cost of a Steel Railway Bridge of 155-ft. Span. Cost of a Steel Railway Bridge of 180-ft. Span. Cost of Two Steel Bridges of 180-ft. Span and One Plate Lattice Girder of 100-ft. Span. Cost of Erecting Pratt Truss Bridge. Cost of Three Plate Girder Bridges, 10 Spans. Cost of a Plate Girder Railway Bridge with Concrete Piers. Cost of Erecting Plate Girder Bridge. Cost of Bridge and Abutments. Cost of Plate Girder Bridge with Concrete Piers. Cost of Erecting a 236-ft. Draw Bridge. Cost of Howe Truss Bridges, Cross-References. Cost of a 150-ft. Howe Truss Railway Bridge. Cost of Two Howe Trjiss Bridges, 120-ft. and 130-ft. Spans. Cost of Six Crib Piers, Three Howe Truss Spans and One Steel Draw Span. Cost of the Frazer River Bridge. Estimates of the Cost of Combination and All-Steel Highway Bridges. Cost of a 300-ft. Highway Draw Bridge. Cost of a Steel Arch High- way Bridge. Estimated Cost of a Cantilever and of a Bridge. Cost of Three Plate Girder Bridges, 10 Spans. Cost Brooklyn Suspension Bridge. Cost of the Williamsburg Suspension Bridge. Cost of Caisson Foundations for the Williamsburg Bridge. Cost of Erecting Towers and End Spans of the Williamsburg Bridge. Cost of the Anchorage of the Williamsburg Bridge. Labor Cost of the Founda- tions of the City Island Bridge, New York. Cost of a Bridge Foundation Excavation and Cofferdam. Cost of Stone Masonry Bridge Piers and Abutments. Labor Cost of a Bridge Abutment. Cost of Concrete Foundations for a Railway Bridge. Cost of a Cofferdam and of a Concrete Pier on Piles. Cost of a Pneimiatic Caisson and Masonry Bridge Pier. Cost of Two Caissons and Bridge Piers. Cost of a Caisson, Arizona. Cost of a Caisson, Tennessee. Materials for a Caisson. Cost of Erecting Three Steel Viaducts and a New Formula for Computing the Weight of Viaducts. Cost of the Pecos Viaduct Cost of the Marent Viaduct. Cost of the Old Kinzua '"laduct. Cost of the xxiv CONTENTS New Kinzua Viaduct. Weight of a Steel Viaduct Data on Riveting a Viaduct. Cost of Concrete Pedestals for a Steel Viaduct. Cost of Abutments and Pedestal Piers, Lonesome Valley Viaduct. Cost of Paint. Weight and Surface Area of Steel Bridges. Cost of Painting a Howe Truss Bridge. Cost of Painting 6 Railway Bridges. Cost of Painting 6 Railway Bridges and 2 Viaducts. Cost of Painting 50 Plate Girder Bridges. Cost of Cleaning and Painting 10 Bridges. Cost of Painting 48 Bridges and 2 Viaducts. Cost of Cleaning and Painting 4 Bridges, St. Louis. Cost of Painting 2 Bridges. Cost of Painting Plate Girders, Truss Bridges and Trestles. Cost of Paint- ing, Cross-References. Cost of Bridge Abutments. Data on 32 Concrete and Masonry Highway, Railway and Elec- tric Railway Bridges, Including Yardage, Cost, Etc. Di- mensions and Cost of 45 Concrete Arch Bridges. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridge. Cost of Three Reinforced Concrete Bridges. Cost of Small Rein- forced Concrete Highway Bridges. Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete for an Arch Bridge. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridge. Cost of a Concrete Ribbed Arch Bridge. Cost of Centers of a 233-ft. Arch. Materials for Centers of a 50-ft. Arch. Data on a Concrete Viaduct. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Trestle. Yardage in Concrete Culverts. Cost of Reinforced Con- crete Culvert. Cost of 6 Arch Culverts and 6 Bridge Abutments. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Culvert. Cost of a Stone Arch Culvert. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Subways. Cost of a Masonry Box Culvert. Cost of Con- crete Culvert Pipe. Cost of Placing Cast-Iron Pipe Cul- verts. Cost of a Corrugated Metal Culvert. Cost of Tear- ing Down a Small Bridge. Cost of Moving a 6 5 -ft. Bridge. SECTION XIIL Steel and Iron Construction 171? Need of More Printed Data. Cross-References. Cost of Pneumatic Riveting. Pneumatic and Hand Riveting. Cost of Erecting Steel in New York Subway. Weight of the Eiffel Tower. Cost of Gas Pipe Hand Railing. Cost of Erecting a 160-Ft. Steel Stack. Cost of Iron Work. Cost of Shop Drawings for Steel Work. Cost of Sheeting a Foundation Pit with Steel Sheet Piling. Cost of Driving Steel Sheet Piling for Cut-Off Wall of a Dam. Cost of Sheet Piling for Cofferdam. Cost of Driving Steel Sheet Piling. Cost of Steel Sheet Piling in a Cofferdam and in Cais- sons. Cutting Off Steel Sheet Piles with the Electric Arc. Cost of Driving Steel Sheet Piling. Cost of Cleaning Steel by Sand Blast and Painting by Compressed Air. SECTION XIV. Engineering and Surveys 1745 Cost of Engineering. Engineering Charges for Services. Cost of Engineering on City Work. Cost of Engi- neering in Reservoir Construction. Rations for Men CONTENTS xxv Camping. Cost of Rations. U. S. Reclamation Service. Equipment for and Cost of Railroad Surveys. Cost of 2,000 Miles of Railway Surveys. Cost of a Railway Survey, Can- ada, Cost of Reconnaissance Survey for Railway in Alaska. Cost of Locating Two Railroad Lines in Michigan and Wisconsin. Cost of a Railroad Re-Survey, Canada. Cost of Re-Survey of Chicago & West Michigan Ry. Cost of Re-Survey of Detroit, Grand Rapids & Northern Ry. Cost of Railway Surveys. ^Cost of Transit Lines in Heavy Timber. Cost of Topographic Survey for 160- Acre Park. Cost of Topographic Survey of St. Louis. Cost of Stadia Survey, Baltimore. Cost of Topographic Survey, West- Chester Co.. N. Y. Cost of Topographic Survey Near Baltimore. Cost of Three Stadia Topographic Surveys. Cost of Surveys. Erie Canal. Cost of U. S. Deep Water- way Survey, New York. Cost of Government Topographic Surveys. Cost of Triangulation and Plane Table Surveys. Cost of Topographical Survey, Texas. Cost of Two Small Surveying Jobs. Cost of Level Survey for a Drainage Plan. Cost of Sounding Through Ice. SECTION XV. Miscellaneous Cost Data 177)1 Supplies and Plant Prices of Materials. Cost of Fences. Cost of Barbed Wire Fences. Cost of a Wire Fence. Cost of Digging Post Holes for a Fence. Cost of Digging Post and Pole Holes. Cost of Digging 600 Trolley Pole Holes. Weight of Ashes, Garbage, Etc. Cost of Gar- bage Reduction and Collection at Cleveland, O. Cost of Garbage Disposal, Milwaukee, Wis. Garbage Incineration, San Francisco. Cost of Removing Ashes. Cost of Tile Drains. Weight of Drain Tile. Prices of Tile Drains in Place. Cost of Digging a Trench and Laying Tile Drains. Cost of Farm Drainage. Cost of Tile Trenching with a Machine. Cost of Laying Small Gas Mains on Six Jobs. Cost of Laying Wrought Iron, Screw Joint Pipe for Com- pressed Air Mam. Cost of Maintaining Teams. Cost of Horse Maintenance. Cost of Maintaining Horses, New York City. Feed of Street Car Horses. Cost of Main- taining Farm Horses and Raising Hay and Oats in Minne- sota. Cost of Maintaining Mules. Shipping Contractors' Horses in Cars. Hauling Heavy Machinery in Wagons. Handling Teams with a Jerk Line. ^Coat of Plowing Farm Lands with a Steam Traction Engine. Cost of Traction Engine Haulage of Ore. Cost of Handling and Screening Cinders. Size, Weight and Price of Expanded Metal. Price of Mineral Wool. Cost of Sodding. A Device for Cutting Soil for Sodding. Painting Data. Cost of Paint- ing a Tin Roof. Unloading Coal from Cars with a Clam- shell. Cost of a 28-Mile Telegraph Line. Cost of a Telephone Line. Cost of Two Telephone Lines. Life of Telephone Line Equipment. Cost of Laying Electric Con- xxvi CONTENTS duits. Cost of Vitrified Conduits, Memphis. Cost of Brick Manholes for Electric Conduits. Methods and Cost of Laying Vitrified Conduits for Electric Wires. Cost of Pole Lines, Vitrified Conduits, Manholes, Etc. Labor Cost of an Electric Transmission Line. Cost of a Transmission Line for Interurban Electric Railways. Estimating the Horse- power of Contractors' Engines and Boilers. Cost of Cut- ting Cord Wood. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. INTRODUCTION. John Stuart Mill has said : "Without any formal instruction, the language in which we grow up teaches us all the common philosophy of the age." If it is even partially true that general knowledge is affected by words and expressions in common use, it is certainly undeniable that formal definitions of words have a much greater effect upon the scope of mental vision. When the formal definition is of a word that denotes a profession, the far-reaching consequence can hardly be estimated. No definition of any profession has had wider circula- tino and more general acceptance than the old one formulated by Tredgold and adopted in its infancy by the Institution of Civil Engineers : "Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man." Note the entire absence of any reference to economics in this definition. Engineering, when Tredgold lived, was in the stage of development when the common problem before an Engineer was not whether a thing could be done economically but whether it could be done at all. Then followed the reign of the mathematicians who took up engineering, just as in previous years mathematicians had seized upon astronomy as a delightful science in which to exer- cise their talents. But among mathematicians there has always been a liking for the ancient toast : "Here's to pure mathematics. May it never be of any use to anybody." So it was naturally to be expected that anything so "commercial" as saving money should not have appealed very strongly to the mathematicians who had taken up engineering. Nor did it. Nor has there been an entire escape to this day from the bondage of that early type of engineering. Tredgold's definition really fails to define, or limit, the word engi- neering. Under his definition any man who directs any of the great forces of nature for the use of men is an engineer. The farmer who utilizes that enormous force the sun's % heat for the "use and convenience of man," is an engineer. So, too, is the sailor who directs that other vast force, the wind, to the driving of his ship. In fact, there is no limit to the classes of men who fall within the literal wording of this definition. It is, therefore, a very unsatis- factory definition because of its vagueness. However, I object to it not so much upon the ground that it includes too much as upon the ground that it fails to include what it should, namely the funda- mental function of the modern engineer, which is to solve problems in economic production. I recall with what keen interest I first read that now historic work, Wellington's "Economic Theory of the Location of Railways.'' I was particularly struck with this opening paragraph: 2 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. "I.t would be well if engineering were less generally thought of, andjeveti' defined, an tne art of constructing. In a certain important sense it is rather the art of not constructing ; or, to define it rudely but not inaptly, it is the art of doing that well with one dollar, which any bungler can do with two after a fashion." Wellington made no attempt to give a complete definition of engi- neering, but he certainly was among the first, if not the first, to indicate the inherent weakness of such definitions as that of Tred- gold. Wellington has it to his lasting credit that he made a valiant effort to reduce railway location to an economic science. That he made many errors, or that he was not always even logical, detracts little from his eminent position as one of the greatest teachers of what engineering really is. Engineering is the conscious application of science to the problems of economic production. Under this definition, which may ultimately be regarded as too broad, I aim to include that part of engineering which relates to the scientific management of men, and the scientific development of methods of construction and operation, as well as the design of the most economic structures and machines for a given service. The word art does not appear in the definition, for it is obvious that in the application of scientific principles in the solution of any problem, what may be termed "art" must be exercised if the greatest success is to follow. Natural aptitude, practice and experience are the qualifications of every man who is a real artist in the execution of a task. These are the qualities that cannot be imparted by teaching. Since engineering in the modern sense of the term consists in solving problems in economic construction and operation, it should be apparent to all that cost data are of primary importance to every engineer. For, just as data on the resistance of materials to stress are essential in economizing the materials in a bridge, a building, or a machine, so data as to unit costs of construction, operation and maintenance are vitally valuable to every engineer who attempts to be an engineer in the modern meaning of the term. To my great surprise, the first edition of this Handbook of Cost Data was scarcely off the press before editorials and articles began to appear in certain engineering periodicals belittling the value of cost data. I had taken particular care, as I had thought, in pointing out the difference between the price of anything and its actual cost. Yet it was said by waiters that prices fluctuated so rapidly that cost records are of no particular value except for very short periods of time. Lest this confusion of terms shall continue to mislead, I purpose oriefly indicating again their meaning. The price of any article is the money paid for it by a consumer. It is the cost to the consumer, and in that sense of the word I use the term cost occasionally in this book, but never in such a way as to cause confusion, the meaning being always obvious by the context. The cost of any article is money paid by the producer for ma- terials, supplies, labor, etc., necessary in its production. His profit is the difference between this cost and the price he receives. INTRODUCTION. 8 Clearly, then, if we give the number of hours or days of labor of a stated class required to produce a unit of product, we have given its cost in terms that may be of permanent value, so long as the same methods of doing the work remain in vogue. In brief, we have given the cost in terms of the day's output of a man, and this is by no means a quantity subject to erratic fluctuations. In- deed, under equally good management such costs are often astonish- ingly stable. If anyone doubts this statement, I ask him to com- pare the data in my little book "The Economics of Road Construc- tion," written in 1900, with corresponding data in Aitken's "Road Making and Maintenance," published a few weeks after I had turned over my manuscript to my publishers. Aitken wrote of English methods and cost of building macadam roads. He used American rock drills and English steam rollers. I used machines and tools almost identical, and our respective unit costs were, on most items, nearly identical when reduced to the same unit rates of wages. It is the veriest nonsense to attribute to cost data an ephemeral or purely local value, because prices vary with supply and demand, or because local conditions differ more or less. Prices have nothing to do with the matter at all in making proper comparisons of cost data, since, if quantities of materials and quantities of labor are stated, the substitution of standard prices for materials and of standard wages for labor is a mere matter of common sense and the multiplication table. Fallacies, however, die with cat-like protraction. Hence, when the first published objections to the real and general value of pub- lished cost data were seemingly killed, I found them struggling to life again. In a recent paper before the American Society of Civil Engineers it was urged that, while cost data may be valuable they are of no great value except to the man who gathered the data! This same fallacy has also been repeated in two engineering journals, both editorially and in contributed articles. Were it not for the sources of these errors I should ignore them. But they seem to merit at least a passing notice. Cost data differ from other engineering data in no essential respect, except, perhaps, in this: Workmen who are underpaid, or poorly managed, or arrogant because of a false feeling of independ- ence, may not do a full day's work. When this is so, unit costs are necessarily high if measured in terms of the man-day. This con- dition, however, can be recorded, and, in fact, it records itself if we have other data for comparison. Cost data can be so reduced to items and accompanied by state- ments of conditions as to be of as much value to engineers and contractors as any other kind of data. Data of strengths, for ex- ample, are very misleading if unaccompanied by descriptions of the size of test pieces, chemical composition, and many other factors, which are entirely analogous to the "local conditions" that cause variations in cost data. By curious coincidence, one of the engi- neers who has most severely criticized cost data is the author of a 250-page book giving nothing but records of strength and elasticity tests of Portland cement and concrete. If cost data were subject tc 4 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. a tenth of the variation found in these cement strengths, well might we dispair of reducing the subject of cost estimating to a science. This last expression leads me to the real heart of the subject of this book, and the heart is not cost estimating at least it is not that per se. Important as the matter of estimating costs often is, the overshadowing value of cost data as a guide in reducing costs will be apparent to every engineer, contractor or manufacturer who has been long engaged as a producer of things for sale. Comparison of unit costs is the only scientific criterion by which to judge the economic merit of a structure, a machine, or a method of doing work. This fact is so self-evident that its meaning needs but to be understood to find full acceptance by everyone of open mind and unclouded brain. Yet, failure to formulate this law has led to some of the most astounding methods of designing and of selecting engi- neering structures. For example, in nearly every American treatise on highway construction will be found a method which the highway engineer is supposed to follow in selecting the type of pavement for a given street. The method consists in assigning percentages to each of the qualities that pavement has, as follows: Per cent. Low first cost 15 Low cost of maintenance 20 Ease of traction 10 Good foothold 5 Ease of cleaning 10 Noiseless 15 Healthfulness 10 Free from mud and dust 10 Comfortable to use 3 Non-absorbent of heat 2 Total 100 If a pavement possesses any one of these qualities to perfection, the full percentage assigned to each quality is credited to that pave- ment. The pavement showing the highest total percentage is the one to be selected. This looks somewhat scientific, with its tabula- tion of ratios, but it is not even scientific guesswork. As well choose a suit of clothes by assigning 10% to the buttons, 50% to the cloth and 40% to the style. Pseudo-science of this sort would never have gotten into the pages of engineering textbooks had there been a clear and complete definition of engineering in the minds of the authors. I need not stop to point out the scientific method of de- signing or selecting a pavement, for that will follow as a corollary to the criterion for economic design, given later. I wish here to emphasize the fact that no paper read before an engineering society, nor any article printed in an engineering peri- odical on the design of a machine or structure, is ideal in its char- acter unless it is accompanied by cost data. I would not be under- stood, however, as saying that the absence of cost data makes an article of this sort worthless. Far from it. But the absence of cost data weakens the article, for, without the accurate criterion that INTRODUCTION. 5 cost data and cost data only furnish, a nrecise judgment as to the economic merit of the machine or structure Is impossible. The same holds true of a method of doing work, and that is why I have chosen to link the words methods and cost in the subtitles of several of my books on construction. Often a cost is so nearly a function of the amounts of material required in a structure or machine that the dollar's mark need not appear at all simply the quantities of each kind of material per unit of product. This is particularly true of steel bridges. Pejhaps this fact accounts, in a measure, for the indifference of some bridge engineers to the importance of cost data. They fail to see that in other lines of engineering the quantity of materials is not always a function of the cost. But even in bridge work it is fatal to true economy to have eyes only for the amount of materials required for the structure. A study of the section on bridgework in this book will make evident this fact. In the operation of plants of given capacity and of stated class, cost data are invaluable as a criterion of the efficiency of machines, of men and of management. Unfortunately, most writers on this branch of cost data have hitherto recorded only the dollars and cents cost of the various items of operating expense. We often find, for example, that the item of fuel has cost so and so many dollars per year, or per horsepower-year, without a word as to the number of tons of fuel and the price per ton. We read that the wages of opera- tion totaled so and so, without finding a detailed statement of the organization of the operating crew and the rates of wages paid to each class of men. We are told that repairs cost so and so many dollars per year, but the first cost of the plant is omitted, so that we are unable to reduce the repairs to a percentage of the first cost ; nor is the age of the plant stated, so that, even if its first cost were given, we should be in doubt as to whether the plant had been long enough in use to reach a stage of average repairs. All such omissions, however, are not a fair indictment of cost data. A just criticism of imperfect cost data, or of imperfect records of the conditions to which they apply, is quite a different thing from an attempt to belittle the value of all cost data "except to the man who gathered them." Were it literally true that cost data are of worth only to the man who has seen the local conditions, we should, indeed, be in a sorry state. The civil engineer engaged in locating a railway, having never personally gathered any railway operating costs, would be compelled to ignore all such cost data in solving the various problems of location. Where, indeed, will this nonsense lead us, if we will be lead by it? Obviously to a point where no engineer will dare use any cost data at all, except his own meager pickings from his own little crab- apple tree of experience. The great and steadily greater growing efficiency of engineers is due to their use of all kinds of data cost data included gathered by all kinds of engineers. I expect to live to see the day when a knowledge of cost data and how to use them will be generally regarded by engineers as of 6 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. greater ifnportance even than a similar knowledge of the physical properties of materials. Finally, in this foreword, I would impress upon young engineers the importance of examining the definitions of all terms with care. I have indicated how a confusion as to the words price and cost haa often resulted in speaking of costs as not being stable when what was meant was the instability of prices. I have indicated how an ancient definition of the word engineering may have been a factor in leading many engineering educators to follow the old precedent too closely for the good of the students who, upon graduation, must change their conceptions of what are the most common and the most important engineering problems. In the following pages will be found a striking illustration of the errors that some engineers have made through confusing the words depreciation and repairs. I commend to all engineers the careful study of Mill's "System of Logic," and particularly his chapters on Definition and on Fallacies of Confusion. SECTION I. PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING ECONOMICS AND COST KEEPING. Definitions. Not only for the benefit of younger men and of foreign engineers does it seem wise to give the following definitions, but because there is not at present an entire uniformity among American engineers as regards the meaning of some of the terms. Amount. The principal plus accumulated interest. Amortisation. The extinction of a debt by means of a sinking fund, or the provision for the redemption of an investment in a plant, a mine, or the like, by means of a sinking fund. Betterment. An improvement. In railway parlance, any expendi- ture for "addition and improvement." Bid. To submit a contract price; the bidding price being the tender. Book Value. The value of a plant as recorded in the accounting books of a company. Often it represents the price paid for the plant and the franchise under which it operates. Often it is the esti- mated depreciated value. Bonus. A payment to a workman in addition to his hourly, daily or weekly wage. The bonus system is a modified piece rate system by which a workman receives a stipulated price (= bonus) for each unit of work done in excess of a stipulated minimum, in addition to his regular wage. Capitalize. To divide an annual operating or maintenance expense by a rate of interest. The quotient thus obtained is called the capitalized cost of the annual expense. Contingencies. Unforeseen expenses. Cost. The actual cost of materials, supplies, labor, etc., required to produce an article or to perform a service. Also frequently used to denote the price that a purchaser has paid. Cost of Reproduction. The present cost of a plant, or plant unit, regarded as reproduced new at present prices. Data. Facts, and particularly those that can be numerically ex- pressed. The word is the plural of datum, but so many writers use the word data with a singular verb that it seems likely to fol- low the precedent of such words as news. In Shakespeare's time, 7 8 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. news was used only in the plural ; now it is always singular. Demurrage. The amount paid a railway company for holding a car beyond a certain time. Depreciation. Decrease in value. It is preferable not to use the word to denote "repairs and renewals," but to use "maintenance" for that purpose. Depreciation is best used only to denote annual expense for the entire renewal of a plant unit. It will then be either the amount annually placed in a sinking fund, or the amount paid out of current income for plant renewals, renewals, in the lat- ter case, being regarded merely as repairs on a larger scale. Three formulas for depreciation are given in the following pages : ( 1 ) The straight line formula; (2) Sinking fund formula; (3) Unit cost of production formula. Equipment. In railway parlance, rolling stock, including locomo- tives and cars. Unfortunately the term has been latterly used to in- clude the power stations and electrical plant of electric railways. It will be well to discontinue the use of equipment in any sense but as relating to rolling stock. Fixed Charges. Often used to denote only the interest charges on the funded debt of plant, but more often used to include all ex- penses that go on whether a plant is in operation or not. Funded Debt. The bonds of a railway. Going Concern Value. The amount of money expended in build- Ing up a business, or the measure of increased value possessed by an old business over a similar business just started with a new plant. Maintenance Expense. The annual expense for repairs and en- tire renewals of plant units. Materials. The substances actually entering the construction of a machine or structure, as distinguished from supplies. This dis- tinction is not always made, but is desirable. Obsolescence. The state of going out of use through becoming obsolete. Operating Expense. In railway parlance this includes the ex- pense of operating and maintaining a railway plant. The operating ratio is the ratio of operating expense to gross earnings. In manu- facturing and contracting parlance, operating expense of^en does not include maintenance, which is classed as a distinct item, and includes repairs and renewals. Original Cost. The actual original cost of a plant, including ad- ditions and improvements, but not including profits resulting from the sale of the completed plant. COST KEEPING. 9 Overhead Charges. Generally used to include only office expenses and general miscellaneous expenses, the latter being so general that they can not be charged either against the office or field or shop, and are incurred in the maintenance of the business in general. Piece Rate. A rate paid to a workman for each unit, or piece, of work performed. When an increasing piece rate is paid as the num- ber of units of output increases, it is called a differential piece rate. Plant. The physical property used in production, including ma- chines, land, etc. Present Value. Depreciated value. Price. The market price, as distinguished from the actual cost to produce a structure, machine, or the like. Principal. The original sum upon which interest is calculated. Reciprocal. The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by that num- ber. The reciprocal of 20 is 1/20, or 0.05, or 5%. Salvage Value. The price that is realized from the sale of a de- preciated machine or structure. Shop Repairs. The repairs that a machine receives in a shop, as distinguished from repairs received in the field. Sinking Fund. A fund established for the ultimate payment of a debt, or for the redemption of an investment in a plant, mine, etc. An annual deposit is ordinarily made in the fund, and the fund in- creases by these deposits and by compound interest. Supplies. All items of material necessary to carry on work, but which are rapidly destroyed in the process of production ; e. g., coal, oil, rope, hose, etc. See Materials, above defined. Tender. To bid. Unbalanced Bid. A bid in which certain unit prices are above a fair price and other unit prices are below a fair price. Unit Cost. The total cost of producing a unit, such as a cubic yard of concrete. Unit interest cost is the total annual interest on a plant invest- ment divided by the total number of units of product. A plant unit is a single machine, or a single structure. Value. The worth of a thing. This may be its market price, or it may be a sum arrived at by estimating depreciated value, or it may be a sum determined by capitalizing annual net earnings, or it may be a sum determined by capitalizing annual saving in operating or maintenance expense. See Book Value, above. Compound Interest Tables. These are ordinarily given in two forms, as in Tables I and II. 10 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Let A .== amount, or accumulation of $1 and interest during n yeara r = rate of interest, payments made at the end of each year. n = number of years. Then (1) A = (l + r)*. Table I is calculated by formula (1). If the principal is $20, simply multiply the amount found in Table I by 20 ; and in like manner for any other principal. It is convenient to bear in mind that money at compound interest doubles itself in approximately the number of years obtained by dividing 72 by the rate of interest. This is not strictly accurate, as may be seen from Table I, but, for the rough and ready estimates that an engineer is often called upon to make, it will generally suffice. Table I is, for many engineering purposes, less convenient than Table II, which is also a compound interest table. The amounts given in Table II are the reciprocals of the corresponding amounts in Table I. Table II is useful in determining the present value or present justifiable expenditure to secure a return of $1 at the end of any number of years. To illustrate the use of Table II, suppose it to be probable that the traffic of a projected change of railway line will be double in ten years what it is at present. Suppose that present operating expenses can be reduced by an improved location of the line, and that the capitalized value of the saving in present operating expenses is $1. Then there is certainly economic warrant for spending that ?1, but how much may be now spent to save the other ?1 in operating expenses which will be effected by this improvement when traffic shall have doubled 10 years hence? Table II gives the answer; for if money can be borrowed at 5%, the table shows that f 0.61 4 may be spent now to secure a better- ment which will yield a capitalized value of $1 in reduced operating expenses 10 years hence. Therefore the total present justified expenditure becomes 51.614, of which $1 is the capitalized saving in present operating expense and $0.614 the capitalized saving in future operating expense when the traffic shall have doubled. As Wellington points out, this is the maximum justifiable expendi- ture to effect a future saving in operating expense ; for, unless there is assurance that earnings will be sufficient to pay the interest upon the increased obligations, danger exists of financial embarrassment which may result disastrously to the railway owners. COST KEEPING. 11 TABLE I. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLE. Amount of $1 Placed at Compound Interest for a Term of Years. 3 3% 4 5 6 8 10 Years. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. 1 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.08 1.10 2 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.17 1.21 3 1.09 1.11 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.26 1.33 4 , ... 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.22 1.26 1.36 1.46 5 . .. 1.16 1.19 1.22 1.28 1.34 1.47 1.61 6 ... 1.19 1.23 1.27 1.34 1.42 1.59 1.77 7 . .. 1.23 1.27 1.32 1.41 1.50 1.71 1.95 8 ... 1.27 1.32 1.37 1.48 1.59 1.85 2.14 9 ... 1.30 1.36 1.42 1.55 1.69 2.00 2.36 10 ... 1.34 1.41 1.48 1.63 1.79 2.16 2.59 11 ... 1.38 1.46 1.54 1.71 1.89 2.33 2.85 12 ... 1.43 1.51 1.60 1.80 2.01 2.52 3.14 13 . . . 1.47 1.56 1.67 1.89 2.13 2.72 3.45 14 ... 1.51 1.62 1.73 1.98 2.26 2.94 3.79 15 . . . 1.56 1.68 1.80 2.08 2.40 3.17 4.17 16 ... 1.60 1.73 1.87 2.18 2.54 3.43 4.60 17 ... 1.65 1.79 1.95 2.29 2.69 3.70 5.05 18 ... 1.70 1.86 2.03 2.41 2.85 4.00 5.55 19 ... 1.75 1.92 2.11 2.53 3.03 4.31 6.11 20 ... 1.81 1.99 2.19 2.65 3.21 4.66 6.72 21 ... 1.86 2.06 2.28 2.79 3.40 5.03 7.39 22 ... 1.92 2.13 2.37 2.93 3.60 5.44 8.13 23 ... 1.97 2.21 2.46 3.07 3.82 5.87 8.94 24 . .. 2.03 2.28 2.56 3.23 4.05 6.34 9.83 25 . .. 2.09 2.36 2.67 3.39 4.29 6.85 10.81 26 . .. 2.16 2.45 2.77 3.56 4.55 7.39 11.90 27 :. . .. 2.22 2.53 2.88 3.73 4.82 7.99 13.08 28 . .. 2.29 2.62 3.00 3.92 5.11 8.62 14.39 29 . .. 2.36 2.71 3.12 4.12 5.42 9.31 15.83 30 . .. 2.43 2.81 3.24 4.32 5.74 10.06 17.41 31 . . . 2.50 2.91 3.37 4.54 6.09 10.86 19.15 32.. . .. 2.58 3.01 3.51 4.76 6.45 11.74 21.06 33 . .. 2.65 3.11 3.65 5.00 6.84 12.67 23.17 34 . .. 2.73 3.22 3.79 5.25 7.25 13.69 25.48 35 . .. 2.81 3.33 3.95 5.52 7.68 14.78 28.03 36 . .. 2.90 3.45 4.10 5.79 8.15 15.96 30.83 37 . .. 2.99 3.57 4.27 6.08 8.63 17.24 33.91 38 . . . 3.07 3.70 4.44 6.39 9.15 18.62 37.30 39 ... 3.17 3.83 4.62 6.70 9.70 20.11 41.02 40 . .. 3.26 3.96 4.80 7.04 10.28 21.72 45.12 42 , .. 3.46 4.24 5.19 7.76 11.56 25.33 54.59 44 , . . 3.67 4.54 5.62 8.56 12.98 29.54 66.04 46 . . 3.90 4.87 6.07 9.43 14.59 34.46 79.90 48 . . 4.13 5.21 6.57 10.40 16.39 40.19 96.67 50 , .. 4.38 5.58 7.11 11.47 18.42 46.88 117.00 12 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE II. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLE. Giving Sums Which at Compound Interest Will Amount to $1 in a Given Number of Years. With Interest at 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 per per per per per per per Years. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. 1 971 .961 .952 .943 .935 .926 .909 2 943 .925 .907 .890 .873 .857 .827 3 915 .889 .864 .840 .816 .794 .751 4 888 .855 .823 .792 .763 .735 .683 5 863 .822 .783 .747 .713 .681 .621 6 837 .790 .746 .705 .666 .630 .565 7 813 .760 .711 .665 .623 .584 .513 8 .789 .731 .677 .627 .582 .540 .467 9 766 .703 .645 .592 .544 .500 .424 10 744 .676 .614 .558 .508 .463 .386 11 , ... .722 .650 .585 .527 .475 .429 .351 12 , ... .701 .625 .557 .497 .444 .397 .31U 13 ... .681 .601 .530 .469 .415 .368 .290 14 .661 .577 .505 .442 .388 .340 .264 15 . .. .642 .555 .481 .417 .362 .315 .240 16 .623 .534 .458 .394 .339 .292 .218 17 . .. .605 .513 .436 .371 .317 .270 .198 18 . .. .587 .494 .415 .350 .296 .250 .180 19 ... .570 .475 .396 .330 .276 .232 .164 20 .554 .456 .377 .312 .258 .215 .149 21 ... .537 .439 .359 .294 .241 .199 .135 22 ... .522 .422 .342 .277 .226 .184 .123 23 ... .507 .406 .326 .262 .211 .170 .112 24 ... .492 .390 .310 .247 .197 .158 .102 25 ... .478 .375 .295 .233 .184 .146 .092 26 ... .464 .361 .281 .220 .172 .135 .084 27 ... .450 .347 .268 .207 .161 .125 .076 28 ... .437 .333 .255 .196 .150 .116 .069 29 ... .424 .321 .243 .185 .141 .107 .063 30 ... .412 .308 .231 .174 .131 .099 .057 31 .400 .296 .220 .164 .123 .092 .052 32 ... .388 .285 .210 .155 .115 .085 .047 33 ... .377 .274 .200 .146 .107 .079 .043 34 ... .366 .264 .190 .138 .100 .073 .039 35 . . . .355 .253 .181 .130 .094 .068 .036 36 ... .345 .244 .173 .123 .087 .063 .032 37 . . . .335 .234 .164 .116 .082 .058 .029 38 ... .325 .225 .157 .109 .076 .054 .027 39 ... .316 .217 .149 .103 .071 .050 .024 40 ... .307 .208 .142 .097 .067 .046 .022 42 .289 .193 .129 .086 .058 .039 .018 44 ... .272 .178 .117 .077 .051 .034 .015 46 ... .257 .165 .106 .068 .044 .029 .013 48 . . . .242 .152 .096 .061 .039 .025 .010 50. . .228 .141 .087 .054 .034 .021 .009 COST KEEPING. 13 O O 3 OCOCONt- OJOOOOO-COrHOO OSCOO5t*m^ USOOrHCOt- -*(MOOOt>. <> < T* Tto as co m e & 0>30tot~o oo T< e>j * o t-t-ocomco C) vn^f <3> M rj< o m T< if e rH U5 rH rH (M CO N -f tO OO t- W > <>USOCO - 00>t-eO(M < O iff, (M t- 00 *" CO^MOiOO rfOiMOOt- OOO^OOCO OSlftlMOit- t-^WCOOOO M Clj TfCONrHrHrHrHOO OOOOO OOOOO O^OOOO eouscoo ooocotA^f ot-Mcot- o^osoooo iweooieo laio^^N O-^OIOL- OOIOC-TH CO TfOJOJiOrHCOOJOO OirHlrtOS^ OtOCOOOO Q-< ^-^COlMrH r-trHrHOO OOOOO OOOOO O <=> O O O O M ........ ........... .... ^ 00 << * <* 0C-010 rHOSlfl-^t- OCOt-tO** C- 00 O < t~ O OO M (M rH rHrHrHrHO OOOOO OOOOO O => O O O O ' IrtCOrHOOi OOt^tCKOkft in "*! Tfi ^ Tf rHrHrHrHO OOOOO .OOOOO O COC^rHC the identity of repairs and renewals in cases where a plant is being operated with a large number of plant units of different ages. A railway is a plant for manufacturing transportation, as Wel- lington has well put it. The principal plant elements are: 1. Roadbed. 2. Ballast. 3. Ties. 4. Rails. 5. Buildings. 6. Rolling stock, or equipment. 7. Repair shops and tools. Minor repairs of roadbed and track are being constantly made. COST KEEPING. 27 A bolt is renewed here, a spike there, a bit of ballast in another place all renewals of plant on a minor scale. About 10% of the wooden ties are replaced annually renewals again, though on a larger scale. About 5% of the rails are replaced annually still more renewals. About 4% of the cars and locomotives are entirely renewed annually renewals on a still larger scale. But from the worn-out track bolt to the worn-out locomotive, we have renewals of plant elements, varying in size and cost, it is true, but differing not one whit in the real character of the process. Evidently, then, after any large plant has been in use for a con- siderable period of years, there is no logical reason for distinguish- ing between minor renewals (called repairs) and major renewals (called renewals, or "entire renewals"). They are all one and the same thing in fact, differing only in degree. Accountants have preached for a century or more about the dire consequences of failure to provide sinking funds for the redemption of large plant elements at the expiration of their life. But the great majority of managers of railways, lighting companies, mills, factories and mines, have ignored the arguments of the accountants, and have gone right on without providing a fund for renewals, but regarding renewals as identically the same in nature as repairs. In this I conceive that they have been right. The managers and owners of plants have known, what accountants have ignored, that money is worth more to a company for use in extensions and betterments of plant than it could possibly bring by placing it in a sinking fund, since all sinking funds draw com- paratively small interest. This has undoubtedly been a strong actu- ating motive and a sound one with plant managers, but I am satisfied that the inherent reasonableness of regarding even large renewals as repairs must have appealed quite as strongly to the managers of large plants. Problem III. To Determine When Repairs Have Grown so Great as to Justify Renewal. The following discussion can be understood only after a study of the preceding paragraphs. This problem is one that seldom arises except in considering the repairs to such a structure as an asphalt pavement, for reasons previously given. If the rising "curve of annual repairs" is either a straight line or any curve which can be expressed as an equation, an accurate solution of the problem is possible by the use of the method about to be explained, aided by the application of differential calculus. An approximate solution is possible even without resort to the higher mathematics, as will be now shown. For simplicity of illustration, and not because it represents actual conditions, let. us first assume that repairs increase at a uniform rate. It should be clear that the problem consists in finding the minimum Quotient obtained by dividing the sum of the cost of the structure and the total repairs by the economic life in years. 3 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Let C = first cost of structure. R = total repairs during y years of steadily increasing repairs. Then when C + R is a minimum we have the period beyond which it is uneconomic to continue repairs. In other words: The average annual first cost plus the average annual repair coat must be a minimum. We need not consider the item of interest in first cost, for that is a constant that goes on forever, unaffected by the period of re- newal of the structure. To those acquainted with calculus this state- ment should be self-evidently true, and to those who are not familiar with the higher mathematics it should become self-evident if they will consider the item of annual interest as being entirely analogous Years yfe? Fig. 2. to an expense for sweeping a street, a cost that depends, it is true, upon the character and therefore the first cost of the pavement, but one having no bearing upon the question of w hen an old pavement shall be replaced by a new one of the same sort. Let us assume that the annual repairs rise steadily, at the rate of 4 cts. increase per year. Let us assume that the first cost of this asphalt is $1 per sq. yd., not including the concrete base which is permanent, and therefore should not enter the problem any more than should the cost of sweeping, or the annual interest on the investment Then we can show the "curve of repairs" as in Fig. 2. By a series of approximations, we can now determine when the value of --- is a minimum. Let us first assume 5 years. Then y y = 5. The total repairs during this five-year period can be readily COST KEEPING. 29 calculated by determining: the area of the triangle ABC, in Fig. 2, 20X5 which is =$0.50. 2 Hence we have C + R $1.0J + $0.50 = -;= |0.30, y 5 which is the average annual first cost of the pavement and its re- pairs for the 5-year period. If this seems high, let us try a 4-year period. Then we have R = $0.32., C + R $1.00 + $0.32 = = $0.33. y 4 Evidently, then, the economic period is not less than 5 years, and may be greater. Let us try 10 years. Then R = $2.00, C + R $1.00 + $2.00 = = $0.75. y 10 This is much higher than for the 5-year period. Let us try 7 years. Then B = $0.98. C + R $1. 00 + $0.98 _ V 7 Further tests will show that this is practically the minimum. It should be noted that the minimum is attained, in this case, when the total repairs for the period of rising repairs equals the first cost of the asphalt wearing coat. As a matter of fact, this is a law of general application wherever the curve of rising annual repairs is a straight line, that is wherever repairs increase annu- ally by any constant percentage. I will prove this generalization by the aid of calculus, but it can be demonstrated in the more roundabout and primitive way above used. In all cases, no matter what the curve of increasing repairs may be, the method of plotting the annual repairs and determining the area, to ascertain total repairs (R) will enable anyone to find when C + R is a minimum, by a series of approximations. For the engineer who is familiar with calculus the following method will afford a more direct solution of the problem. The prob- C + R lem is to determine when 1C -\ = u is a minimum, u being the y unit annual pavement cost. When repairs increase regularly each year, by a rate a, then the equation of a straight line x ay gives us the "curve of annual re- pairs." Since R is the area of a triangle whose base is y (see Fig. 2), xv R= , 2 But x = ay, ay 2 Hence R = . 30 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Substituting this value of R in the equation C + R 1C H ----- u, we have y C ay 1C + + = u. V 2 Differentiating, we see that 1C (the annual interest) disappears, as It is a constant, and we have Cdy ady ---- + " - du. y* 2 Solving for a minimum by placing du = o, we have 2C , a -v- This gives us the desired formula for determining the time C when it becomes economic to renew the entire pavement. If, as in the example above given, a = 4% of C, we have y- 7.07 years. Since the minimum average annual plant expense is attained when y = V" ay and since R = , we have 2 a 2C R = X = C. 2 a Hence : When annual repairs increase steadily by a constant ratio it ceases to be economic to retain a structure or machine in service after the aggregate repairs exceed the first cost of the structure or machine. Should the structure or machine have any salvage value, substi- tute the expression "first cost minus salvage value" in the fore- going criterion in place of the expression "first cost." As a further example, let us assume that the curve of annual COST KEEPING. 31 repairs is a parabola instead of a straight line, as indicated In Fig. 3. The area ABC gives us the total repairs, or R ; and for a para- bola this external area is xy J2 = . 3 Since the curve of the parabola is 2/a 2/ a = 2px, x = . 2p Hence 6p Our equation of condition is, as before. CM-_R_ y Hence y 6p Differentiating and placing du -- = o t we have dy C ydy -- 1 -- = o, y Substituting the values of p and C in this equation will give us the period of years during which it continues to be economic to pay the increasing cost of repairs. 2/ Since R = , and since y V 3pC, combining we have *" R = . 2 Hence : When annual repairs increase steadily according to the curve of a parabola, it ceases to be economic to retain a structure or machine in service after the aggregate repairs exceed half the first coat of the structure or machine. In the case of an asphalt or block pavement, annual repairs are usually very slight for a considerable term of years, the repairs often amounting to nothing at all. Let us assume that for K ye.ars there are no repairs and that then the repairs increase uniformly at the rate a for 2 years. Then the annual repairs (x) at any given year after the period of no repairs are given by this equation x = ae And the total repairs are , xz az 2 32 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The average unit cost (u) of repairs per year is _C + R ~ K + z K + z being the total life (y). az 2 Substituting for R its value we have As before, solve for a minimum by differentiating and placing the first differential coefficient equal to zero. To do this, let Then C az 2 u = -- 1 -- y 2y Cdy a S2yzdz z 2 dy \ du = 1 I I y' 2\ y* J lence (2yzdy z 2 dy \ V* / But, since K + * = y, dy = dz, hence Cdy a SZyzdy z 2 dy du = -- 1 -- du Then if we make =0, we have dy 2 2C z* + 2yz = -- a But u = K 4- *. hence 2C a 2C z* + 2Kz = a 2C K* + 2Kz + K* = -- h K* a I 2C = +1 v a a But z-\-K is the economic life (y) of the pavement, hence expressed in words this formula becomes : When a structure requires no repairs for a period of years (K), and then the repairs increase annually by a regular rate fa), the economic life (.in years) of the structure is equal to the square root of the sum of (I) twice the first cost (in dollars) of the structure divided by the rate (a) and (2) the square of the number of years (K) of no repairs. Thus if the period of no repairs (K) is* ten years, and if the repairs then start and increase steadily at the annual of rate (a) COST KEEPING. 33 of 0.04 (or 4%) of the first cost, and if the first cost (c) is $1, we have : Economic life ( + K) = J - + 100 = V^TTO = 12.25 Hence the economic life would be 12.25 years, or only 2*4 years after the 10 year period of no repairs has expired. In like manner formulas can be readily deduced for any other curves of repairs. Having now before us a mathematically correct method of solv- ing problems of this nature, it may be well to examine at least one of the incorrect solutions that have previously been published. In the following paragraphs will be found an erroneous method of attacking this problem. Fallacious Formula For Determining When Increasing Repairs Justify Resurfacing a Pavement. In 1906, Mr. George M. Tillson, Chief Engineer, Bureau of Highways, Brooklyn, New York City, read a paper* before the Mechanical and Engineering Section of the Franklin Institute, in which a method was given for solving a problem that often comes before highway engineers. Mr. Tillson said: "It is often desirable to know positively when, the cost of re- pairing a pavement has become so great that it would be econom- ical to relay the pavement. This can be determined by the same formula, as its result governs the cost of maintaining the pavement perpetually, so that when the annual repairs equal or exceed the perpetual annual cost, it is time to repave." R The formula to which he alludes is A + CI -\ = annual ex- pense, in which N N life of pavement in years. C = first cost per square yard. I = rate of interest. A = amount to be paid in each year to create a sinking fund tc equal C in N years. R = total cost of repairs. Mr. Tillson gives the following example: "Take for instance an asphalt pavement and let N equal 15 years, C equal $1.50, I equal 0.035, and R equal $0.40. Then A will equal 0.0807 and -tne equation becomes $0.0807 + 0.0525 + 0.0267 = $0.1599 ; or if the street be repaved it will cost annually $0.16 till It is renewed. Consequently if the life of asphalt be correctly as- sumed at 15 years, it should not be repaved until the annual cost approaches $0.16 per sq. yd. Assuming the life to be 20 instead of 15 years and applying the formula as before, the annual cost will be reduced to $0.1356 per yard. The author believes this is the true scientific way in which to determine when an asphalt pavement, from an economical standpoint, should be relaid." The problem that Mr. Tillson undertakes to solve Is when a pave- The paper was reprinted in full in Engineering-Contracting, July 17, 1907. 34 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ment should be relaid. Therefore the unknown quantity should be y, Ihe number of years of economic life ; but where does y appear in Mr. Tillson's equation? It really exists on both sides of the equation and is not transposed to one side before solving. If we study Mr. Tillson's method, we see that it amounts to this: His equation of condition is that when current repairs (r) for any given year equal "average annual cost," then it .is time to renew the pave- ment. But we have seen that his assumed average "annual ex- R pense is A + CI -\ -- . Now, calling the current repairs for any tfven year r, we have This is the equation that we are to solve. Where is y, the num- ber of years? If the repairs are increasing annually and that is one of the conditions of this problem r must be a function of y, so we have y on the left side of the equation. What is R? R is the total cost of repairs during the life y, so R is also a function of y. Hence the very thing we are trying to ascertain is assumed in the R expression - . Tet this is not the only place where it is assumed, for the amount to be paid annually into a sinking fund, A, is also a function of y. Hence one function of y is placed on the left side of the equation, and two functions of y and a constant are placed on the right side. We are then told that if we will juggle with the variable, y, until there is an equality, we have solved for y. Fur- ther comment on such misuse of mathematics appears to be unnecessary. Straight Line Formula of Depreciation. The most common way of determining the depreciated value of a machine, where ap- praisal of physical property is being made, is by the "straight line formula of depreciation." This consists simply in regarding each lost year of plant life as causing a depreciation propor- tionate to the entire loss of value at the end of its life. In other words, the rate of annual depreciation is 1 -r- the total number of years of life. Thus, when the average life of a railway tie is 10 3'ears, each year causes a depreciation of 1/10, or 10% of the first cost of the tie. At the end of 6 years it has lost 60%, and its de- preciated value is 40%. For some purposes of appraisal of present value of plant units, this method is, perhaps, satisfactory. Its simplicity appeals to all. But with increased knowledge as to life and cost of plant repairs, this simple method is likely to give way to the exact method of the Unit Cost Depreciation Formula (page 36). It should be remembered that where a plant contains a large number of similar plant units of varying age as in the case of all old railways the average annual renewals are' identically the same as the annual depreciation obtained by the straight line COST KEEPING. 35 formula. Thus if locomotives average a life of 25 years, annual depreciation by the straight line formula is 4%, and if the loco- motives are of equal value but of different ages, annual renewals will be exactly 4% of the cost new. As I have stated elsewhere, this condition makes it unnecessary to use a sinking fund table for determining depreciation, since re- newals Of entire plant units are regarded as identically the same as renewals of parts of each plant unit commonly called repairs. The Bastard Straight Line Formula of Depreciation. It is not an uncommon practice to "write off" a certain percentage for plant depreciation each year. When the amount written off is a fixed percentage of the first cost of the plant there is an application of the straight line formula of depreciation. However, it is the prac- tice among many accountants to "write off" each year a percent- age of the last year's "book value" of the plant. This produces a curve of "depreciated value of plant" that rapidly flattens out, and extends to infinity. There is certainly no logical defense possi- ble for this method of estimating depreciated values. Sinking Fund Formula of Depreciation. According to this method it is assumed that the total depreciation of a machine or structure at any given age is the amount already accumulated in a sinking fund established for its redemption at the end of its life. Table IV (page 15) gives the accumulation (a) of $1 for any number of years (n). Table III (page 13) gives the annual deposit (p) in a sinking fund to redeem $1 at the end of the life of the machine, that is at the end of N years. Hence the accumulation in n years of an annual deposit of d will be (16) A = dXa, d being taken for N years (life) from Table III, a being taken for years (age) from Table IV. But, as previously shown in explaining these two tables, 1 a = , d 1 d 1 being taken for n years from Table III. Hence, d (17) A = , d 1 d being taken for N years (life) from Table III, d 1 being taken for n years (age) from Table III. Equation (16) is the most convenient for general use, but it is well to remember that equation (17) is equally applicable. To illustrate by an example let us determine the depreciation of a railway tie 6 years of age, whose total life will be 10 years. If we assume a rate of interest of 4% we have by formula (17) and Table III d .0829 A = =) =55% nearly, . d 1 .1508 ~ "fcich is the percentage of depreciation or lost value. 36 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, Since the depreciation by this sinking fund formula is 55% of the first cost, the present value is 45%. By the straight line formula the depreciation is 60% and the present value is 40%. The same result (55% depreciation) is obtained with more ex- pedition by the use of equation (16) and' Tables III and IV. See pages 798 and 799 for depreciation curves calculated by the method just described. Rational or Unit Cost Depreciation Formula. It has been main- tained that depreciated value is " purely a matter of judgment " and that it can be arrived at either with or without the aid of formulas. That judgment plays an important part in estimating any value, depreciated or undepreciated, is true, but that judgment unaided by formulas can determine value is not true where the operating expense is a factor in the value. Given the choice between an old and a new plant unit, each capable of yielding the same service or output, the new plant unit would be selected unless the old plant unit were procurable at a price such that "fixed charges" on that price plus the annual operating expenses were equal to or less than the corresponding annual cost with the new plant unit. Any business man will grant the truth of this criterion the moment he understands it. Expressed as a formula it is: Rv + e = RC + E ............................. (1) In which R is the "fixed charge" rate (interest, etc.) ; v is the depreciated value of the old plant unit whose average annual oper- ating expenses are e; C is the first cost of an equivalent new plant unit and E its average annual operating expenses. From this equa- tion the following is derived : This is the simplest form of what may be termed the Rational Depreciation Formula, a more general form of which is the Unit Cost Depreciation Formula which we are about to deduce. This formula was first deduced in this " Handbook of Cost Data." Although all the data for the accurate application of the unit cost depreciation formula may not always be available, it is im- portant to appreciate that it is the only rational depreciation for- mula of perfect generality ; and that any other depreciation formula that may be used can be justified only on the ground that it gives results approximating those derivable from the use of the unit cost depreciation formula. The author makes no qualification whatso- ever in the foregoing statement, and he emphasizes it because there still remain many engineers who think that some such age-life formula as the " straight line formula " is quite as logical and fully as general in its application as any other. Yet no advocate of an age-life formula has yet been able to refute the following: COST KEEPING. 37 // it cannot be shown t that the substitiition of a new plant unit (or group of plant units) will decrease average operating expenses, then the value of the old plant unit is as great as the value of a new plant unit. Recently I had occasion to apply this generalization in the case of a water works reservoir that was 30 years old. It had suffered no natural depreciation except a small leak which could be repaired for about $100. The reservoir was of permanent construction, and it was adequate in capacity not only for present but for future needs. No larger reservoir would be built if a new one were built to-day. A stand pipe could not be economically substituted for it, and no other suitable reservoir site existed nearer to the city or more desirable because of greater pressure. I held that its age of 30 years had not the slightest bearing upon its depreciated value. My judgment as to its value would be unaffected were it 300 years old or 3 years old. The criterion of its value was en- tirely independent of its age. The criterion was the total annual cost of the most economical substitute for it, and by this test the 30- year-old reservoir, instead of being worth less than a new alterna- tive reservoir, was worth more. This added value is to be regarded as the value of the reservoir site. In the following discussion of the unit cost depreciation formula the term " old plant " will be used to designate the existing plant unit or group of units whose depreciated value is to be determined, and the term " new plant " will designate the most economic new plant unit having the same annual output as the old plant unit. Wherever the word " annual " occurs, it is intended to mean " equated annual " or true average annual. Where the word " an- nual " occurs in reference to the old plant, it relates to the average for the remaining years of its life, but where the word " annual " occurs in reference to the new plant, it relates to the average for its total economic life. Small letters relate to the old plant, and capital letters relate to the new plant. Let a Age of old plant in years. C First cost of the new plant. c = First cost of the old plant. D = Depreciation annuity rate for the total natural life. d Ditto for remaining natural life. E = Equated annual operating expenses (including taxes) dur- ing entire life of the new plant, inclusive of repairs and cost of natural depreciation, but exclusive of functional depreciation annuity. e Ditto for old plant during its remaining life. F = Functional depreciation annuity rate for new plant. / = Functional depreciation annuity rate for old plant. K Total equated annual cost during entire life of the new plant. lc = Total equated annual cost during remaining life of the old plant. N = Total life of new plant in years. n = Remaining life of old plant in years. R = Interest rate plus functional depreciation rate. r = Interest rate, including risk insurance and proprietary su- pervision not included in F, f, E. e. S = Salvage value of new plant. 38 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. s = Salvage value of old plant. . U Unit cost of product of new plant. u = Unit cost of product of old plant. i> = Depreciated value of old plant. Y = Number of units annual product with new plant. y = Ditto with old plant. Then we have : K V= y= k e+(v u = = - ................... (4) y y The old plant must have a depreciated value, v, such that the unit cost, u, of its product must equal the unit cost, U, of the product of the new plant. Were u more than U, it would be more profitable to buy the new plant. Were u less than U, it would be more profitable to buy the old plant. But a condition of equity exists only when it is as profitable to buy the old plant at the value, v, as to buy the new plant at the cost C. This condition of equity is satisfied when u U. Then +(v s)f + rv y \ = 1 r + fl Y y E +(C S) F + rC e fs 1 I (6) Equation (6) is the most general expression of the economic de- preciation formula, but it may be reduced to much simpler terms for ordinary use. Usually Y y, and S = s, or if these are not exactly equal the quality is so close that v is not appreciably affected by assuming- perfect equality. Also it often happens that F and / are equal or nearly so. Assuming these equalities, we have: E e e E v = C H = C (7) r + / R Equation (7) is the economic depreciation formula in a simplified but still very general form. Expressed verbally. Equation (7) is: Assuming equal gross income, equal annual output, equal salvage value and equal prospective functional life for new and old plant units, the depreciated value of an old plant unit is equal to the cost of a new plant unit of most economic design minus the capi- talized difference in their equated annual operating expenses during the prospective economic life. It will be noted that the rate of capitalization (R) is the sum of the interest rate (r) and the functional depreciation rate (/) when the operating expenses (e and E) do not include functional depre- ciation annuities. This is an important point, and one that is frequently overlooked in capitalizing incomes and expenses. COST KLEP1NG. 39 Formula for Accrued Natural Depreciation: When functional depreciation is non-existent, we have f = o, and then the depre- ciation formula, equation (7), becomes: (8) In this case C is the cost new of a plant unit of the same size and class as the old unit whose depreciated value is v. E is the equated annual operating expense, including the depreciation an- nuity required for a sinking fund to redeem the full wearing value (C S), during N years total natural life of the unit; and e is the equated annual operating expense, including the depreciation an- nuity required for a sinking fund to redeem the remaining wearing value (v s) during the remaining natural life of n years. If annual operating expenses other than depreciation are M, and are the same for a new as for an old plant unit, we have : E = D (C S)+ M (9) e = d (v sj+ M (10) Substituting in equation (8), and remembering that s = S, we have : r C d (v S ) + D ( C S) v = (11) r D + r v = S H (C S) (12) d + r Equation (12) gives identically the same results as the ordinary sinking fund formula for depreciation, which is: [H + r)a 1 I 1 I (C 8) (1 + r)N i J (13) That Equations (12) and (13) give identical results may be shown by the use of sinking fund tables in the solution of specific numerical examples. In view of the importance of the subject, a strict mathematical proof may be demanded by some engineers. Accordingly it is given herewith. Proof of Identity of Equations (12) and (13): n = N a .................................... (14) (15) (16) Substitute these values of D and d in Equation (12'). 40 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. (1 4. r )N 1 + r (1 + r)N-a 1 + r)N-a in . L (C S) .(17) Multiplying- both numerator and denominator by (1 + rjN-a we have : +r)N S) (1 -f r)o-| (C 1) (1 + r)N [(1 + r)a 1 - 1 (C S) (18) ( 1 -|- r ) N 1 J Since Equation (18) is the same as Equation (13), it follows that Equation (12) gives the same value for v as does Equation (13), which was to be proved. Hence the special case, Equation (12), of the rational depreciation formula, Equation (8), is seen to be another form of the sinking fund formula for depreciation. Hence the sinking fund formula is correctly applicable only where natural depreciation is involved and only where current repairs are uniform or absent. Inspections and Tests. In order to apply the " rational depre- ciation formula," it is usually necessary to inspect the plant units and it is often necessary to test some classes of them. These steps are taken in order to estimate the prospective operating expenses. Studies of the accounting- records may be of considerable aid in determining what the prospective costs of repairs will be by show- ing the amount, character, expense and dates of past repairs. Thus, a boiler whose flues have been recently renewed will obviously cause less prospective operating expense than one whose flues are old ; therefore it will have a higher depreciated value. Tests of the efficiency of a pump will indicate its fuel consump- tion as contrasted with a new pump. Inspection of the pump will disclose what parts are worn, and what the probable date of their renewal will be. With these factors known, and with a knowledge of efficiency and maintenance costs of modern pumps, the " rational depreciation formula " can be applied with considerable accuracy. Whereas merely to guess at the depreciated value after an inspec- tion is likely to yield results far from the truth. To apply an " age-life formula " is likely to result in even greater error. This is notably so in the case of buildings, reservoirs and other struc- tures that are practically everlasting if properly maintained. Criterion for Retiring Obsolete or Inadequate Plant. The general formula for depreciated value, Equation (5), may be used as a criterion for determining whether a plant unit has ceased to be economic and should be retired. The condition for such retirement COST KEEPING. 41 is that the depreciated value, v, shall be equal to or less than the salvage value, s; for if the depreciated value, v, has reached so low an amount that the plant has no greater value as an economic producing instrument than its salvage value, then it is worth more to its owner as merchandise than as a productive instrument. Hence if we let v = s and y Y, equation (5) becomes: E +(C S) F + rC e + r s (19) When the equality of (19) is destroyed because the left hand member of (19) is less than the right hand member, the old plant should be retired in favor of the new plant. How to Prepare Estimates and Bids. In estimating a unit price for any kind of work, contractors often place too much reliance on published prices for similar work. There are seven serious sources of error in so doing : ( 1 ) The conditions may vary greatly in places but a few miles apart ; ( 2 ) rates of wages often vary widely, being, for example, higher in large cities than in small cities or in the country ; ( 3 ) specifications and the interpretations of identical specification clauses by different engineers vary greatly ; ( 4 ) con- tractors inexperienced in the particular work in question often have bid prices altogether too low ; ( 5 ) the bidding prices may be pur- posely unbalanced, being too high on certain items and too low on others; (6) a unit price that is fair for a large job is generally too low for a small job; (7) a contractor already equipped with a plant can often afford to bid lower than the contractors not so equipped. While previous bidding prices should be used as a guide, they should never be relied upon implicitly if the work is of any con- siderable magnitude. Each item should be estimated in detail, and this estimating should be done systematically to avoid some serious omission. The cost of any item of work may be divided into five parts : 1. Development expenses. 2. Plant expense and supplies. 3. Materials. 4. Labor. 5. Superintendence and general expense (overhead charges). Development expense Includes the cost of making roads, deliver- ing and installing the plant, draining the site of the work, salaries of foremen and others on the idle list pending the beginning of work, and all expenses involved in getting ready to build the structure. On small jobs this item of development expense is often a very large percentage of the total cost ; and on large jobs it seldom can be neglected in estimating probable unit costs. Development expense has to be estimated for each particular job, by securing freight rates or estimates for carting, etc. In some cases it includes temporary road building, installing pipes for water supply, etc. Plant expense includes interest, repairs, depreciation and in- 42 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. surance on all tools, machines, buildings, stored materials, trestles, falsework ; and supplies include fuel, oil, etc. Materials include only such materials as actually go into the fin- ished structure, and the wastage of materials due to breakage in handling or sawing and shaping. The cost of materials includes freight and hauling to the site of work. Labor includes all skilled and common labor, except superintend- ents, clerks and office men. Superintendence and general expense includes foremen, man- agers, timekeepers, watchmen, bookkeepers, supply clerks, rents, taxes, traveling and entertaining expenses, stationery, etc. To the experinced contractor an enumeration of these items may seem unnecessary, but it is indeed surprising to see how often inex- perienced contractors err through failure to consider all of these items. Engineers, and not always young engineers, are prone to omit development and plant expenses, either in whole or in part, from their estimates of cost. Returning to the subject of deciding upon bidding prices, make it a practice always to check the quantities given in the bidding sheet as far as possible. If the contract is a large one, or the work is such that you cannot personally do all the checking, employ an engineer to do so. It is astonishing to note the number of errors, typographically or otherwise made, that creep into quantity sheets. An error of transposition is not uncommon ; thus, the engineer may have correctly determined that there are 3,000 cu. yds. of em- bankment and 1,200 cu. yds. of riprap, but in the bidding sheet the quantities may be transposed so as to read, 1,200 cu. yds. of embankment and 3,000 cu. yds. of riprap. In looking over the quantities, therefore, always ask yourself whether each quantity "looks about right," or not. A shrewd contractor will thus dis- cover errors that a whole staff of engineers have overlooked. Whenever you see a small, and what appears to be an arbitrary quantity, like 10 cu. yds. of concrete or 50 cu. yds. of rock ex- cavation, look carefully over the plans and specifications to dis- cover if possible where this quantity is shown in detail. If it can- not be found that the quantity has been actually measured, it is safe to assume that it has been guessed at, and that in conse- quence it may subsequently prove to be an under-estimate. Bid liberally on such items, but bid not too liberally. More contractors, otherwise shrewd, than one would expect to see make the error of bidding unreasonably high on such small items. The result some- times is that their bids are rejected because they are "unbalanced" ; or, if accepted, and later it is found that a larger quantity of the unbalanced item exists, the engineers may either change the plans or relet the work covering that item. Set it down that seldom is it good business policy to bid an unreasonably high price on any item even on public works contracts, and it never is wise to do so on private contracts. Even though the item is small, and the cost of putting up a plant to perform the work is large, still bid only a little higher price on the item than you would bid if it COST KEEPING. 43 Were many times larger, and distribute the estimated cost of plant over the other items. A Schedule of Items of Cost. In preparing an estimate of unit cost there is always danger of omitting some important item. To avoid such an omission I find it desirable to compare my estimates with a schedule of items, such as follows: 1. Cost of temporary roadways 2. Cost of right of way through farms, etc. 3. Cost of clearing and grubbing the site. 4. Cost of snow removal and draining the site. 5. Cost of the site. 6. Cost of sheds, barns, offices, etc. 7. Cost of delivering and installing plant. 8. Cost of supplies, including explosives, water, fuel, oil, etc. 9. Plant, interest, depreciation, and repairs. 10. Cost of shifting plant units from one point of attack to an- other, including lost time of workmen waiting during the shifting. 11. Cost of trestles, falsework, bracing, forms and temporary supports. 12. Quarry rent, sand pit rent, timber stumpage, etc. 13. Cost of materials f. o. b. for a unit of the structure, includ- ing wastage. 14. Freight on materials. 15. Cost of unloading, hauling and storing of materials. 16. Cost of delivery and re-handling materials until at the place to be used. 17. Labor of handling, shaping and placing materials, and all operating labor. 18. Foremen's salaries. 19. Salaries of watchmen, timekeepers, clerks, bookkeepers, etc. 20. Office and traveling expenses. 21. Interest on cash capital other than plant. 22. Taxes, licenses and insurance of property. 23. Insurance of workmen and the public against accident. 24. Premium paid to bondsmen or surety company for bond required. 25. Advertising, legal expense, charity. 26. Discount on warrants, notes or other paper payments for work done. 27. Riot protection and detective work. 28. Sanitation. 29. Housing plant during winter. 30. Providing waterproof garments. 31. Engineering. 32. Percentage added to materials and percentage added to labor, to cover contingencies. 33. Percentage for profit. Plant Expense. Plant expense is commonly underestimated. First it is necessary to consider the time limit allowed for the 44 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. work. Then a plant must be figured upon that will perform the work at least 20% within the time limit, making also liberal allow- ances for bad weather delays, as well as for delays in delivering and installing the plant, and delays due to breakdowns. Use with great caution the figures of output given in most cata- logs ; they are almost invariably based upon ideal conditions, and not infrequently are wholly deceptive. Even where the output of a machine is correctly stated, remember that such an output may not be possible in your case, due to inability to get materials to the machine or away from it. Consider always the limiting factor. A derrick, for example, may be able to handle 200 cu. yds. a day, but if it serves a few men working in a confined space, its actual output may not be 30 cu. yds. Time and again this self-evident fact has not been evident to the inexperienced man. To give another example, suppose the work is rock excavation. Do not guess at the number of rock-drills required ; but estimate the probable spacing of the drill holes in the given kind of rock and from this calculate the number of cubic yards of rock each drill will break daily on a basis of, say, 50 ft. of hole drilled per machine per shift. Knowing the time limit, compute the num- ber of drills required ; and, knowing the number of drills, com- pute the boiler power required. Guess at nothing. If you have no other data, secure, by letter, some estimates of output from the large and old manufacturing firms, whose estimates are frequently very close to the truth. Allow liberally for plant that is idle during shop repairs. On railways, for example, 8 to 12% of the total number of locomotives are constantly in the shop undergoing repairs. Having liberally estimated the size and kind of plant required, and having secured quotations on the plant, charge the full cost of the plant up to the job to be done, and determine how many cents per yard, or per other units involved, are thus chargeable to first cost of plant. This will give a maximum charge, and it is well to know the worst. But if the full cost of a plant is charged to a small job, some other contractor will probably get the work. Go, therefore, to a dealer in second-hand machinery, and ask him to name a fair price on a second-hand plant such as yours will be when you are through with it. If you can secure a tentative bid on the machinery, you will have a fairly reliable estimate of the sal- vage value. In most cases you can form some estimate of the sal- vage value, by finding what second-hand plants are selling for. If you are still afraid that your charge for depreciation will be so high as to lose the job, there is left just one safe way of estimating, namely, to secure a rental quotation. There are many firms who make a business of renting contracting plants, and such a plant as is wanted can usually be rented for a daily or monthly price that includes ordinary wear and tear. The longer the plant is to be used the lower the daily rate of rent, therefore be careful to secure a sliding scale lease. A hoisting engine and boiler may be rented for, say, $2 a day, if the period is to be 30 days ; but, for each added COST KEEPING. 45 30 days, there should be a reduction in the rate, down to, say, $1, beyond which no further reduction is given. The reason why such a sliding scale can be secured is briefly this: The season for contract work is usually limited ; road work, for example, is limited to the summer and fall months. Most of the contracts are awarded at an early date, so that if a plant remains unrented well into the season, the chance of renting it falls off rapidly. Periods of idleness between times of rental soon cut down the net income from a plant, yet interest on the investment goes on uninterruptedly. If these periods of idleness can be reduced the owner of a plant can afford to accept a lower per diem rate of rental, yet be a gainer at the end of the year. Then, too, there are some seasons when contractors and their plants are abundant, and work is scarce. The revenues from such plants are then correspondingly small. I have found that a roadmaking plant does not average 100 days actually worked per year. A 10-ton steam roller costs, say, $2,500 ; and, if interest is charged at 6% per annum, we have $150 to be distributed over 100 days not over 365 days, as many engineers have done. Depreciation, of course, does not go on as rapidly when a plant is idle as when working, provided the plant is properly housed and cared for ; but the housing and the care cost money. Moreover, many kinds of machines become obsolete in a few years, so that depreciation cannot be said wholly to cease while the plant is idle. All the annual repairs and depreciation and all the cost of hous- ing and caring for the plant should be distributed over the average number of days actually worked. If, on a 10-ton steam roller, the annual depreciation is $200, we have $200 -f- 100, or $2 per day worked; and if we add to this the $1.50 per day charged to in- terest, we have a total of $3.50 per day worked. Now, such a charge should be made by the contractor even where he uses his own roller. It may be asked why the interest, repairs and depreciation are distributed over the days actually worked. The answer is that the output of the plant is usually estimated as so and so many units per day, and that, in consequence, all costs should be reduced to the same basis. In such states as New York there are only about 8 months of the year, and about 21 or 22 days per month, suitable for economic outdoor work of the class of earth excavation. Weather records will enable any one to predict with reasonable accuracy the num- ber of working days per year in any locality. Cost of Superintendence and General Expense. The cost of fore- manship on contract work seldom exceeds 15% of the cost of labor, and it seldom runs much below 5%. If one must guess, perhaps 10% is a fair average. These percentages include the salaries of fore- men only. The salaries of general superintendents and office men, and all office expenses are preferably called "general expenses" or "fixed expenses." General expenses seldom amount to less than 4%, and on small, intermittent job work they may run much higher. 46 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In estimating supervision by the percentage method, care should be taken to exclude the cost of materials and to base the estimate upon the labor only. As an illustration : The General Expenses for the average American railway are 3.9% of the total expense of operation (including maintenance), distributed as follows: Per cent. Salaries of general officers 0.826 Salaries of clerks and attendants 1.372 General office expenses and supplies 0.263 Insurance 0.481 Law expenses 0.452 Stationery and printing (general office) 0.182 Other expenses 0.300 Total general expense 3.876 This does not include superintendence of "maintenance of way," or of "maintenance of equipment," nor . of "conducting transporta- tion." The first of these items is not reported separately, but we shall assume it to be the same as maintenance of equipment since the gross expense for maintenance of way is practically the same as for maintenance of equipment. Per cent. Maintenance of way (assumed) . . 0.561 Maintenance of equipment 0.561 Conducting transportation 1.776 2.898 This gives a total of practically 3% for superintendence and 39r more for general expense if we exclude "insurance" and "law ex- pense" from general expense. But this combined 6% is 6% of the gross operating and maintenance expense, only 60% of which is labor, the remaining 40% being for materials, supplies, etc. Hence, the percentage based on labor alone is 10% for general expense and superintendence, about equally divided between the two. For further study of these, see the Railway Section. For data on the expense of engineering supervision of public works, see the Surveying and Engineering Section. Throughout this book are numerous data on costs of supervi- sion, for which consult the index under Supervision. Also con- sult the index under General Expense. Percentage to Allow for Contingencies. After estimating the probable cost of every item of work as closely as possible, including superintendence and general expenses, a percentage should generally be added for contingencies. A very common allowance is 10% ; but no such rough guessing is indulged in by either a careful engi- neer or by an experienced contractor. Contingencies is an item used to insure against oversights and ignorance. On work where sub-contracts can be let at once for the materials, there is practically no risk taken on materials, hence there is no justification, on the part of the contractor, in making an allowance to cover contingencies on materials. The engineer who designs a structure may be justified in making such an allowance to cover possible bills for "extras," but not otherwise. On the other hand, it is often wise to make an allowance to cover pos- COST KEEPING. 47 sible inefficiency of laborers, or possible strikes, or possible rise in rates of wages ; for, after estimating the average cost of labor on a given structure, there is always some risk of exceeding the aver- age, for some unforeseen reason. On large jobs both the design- ing engineer and the contractor are justified in adding from 5 to 20% to estimated labor costs to cover contingencies. If the price of materials has been steadily rising, then a study should be made of price curves extending over several years in order that some rational allowance may be made for the probable rise in prices of materials before they can be sub-contracted for. If, on the other hand, prices are on the downward curve, a contractor may feel justified in bidding lower than he otherwise would. The best way to arrive at an allowance for contingencies is to keep a full record of the esti- mated cost of each item of work, and subsequently compare it with the actual cost. In this way it will be found that there is seldom a job on which every item of cost can be accurately predicted. Percentage to Allow for Profits The common method of adding uniformly 10 or 15% for profits is open to serious objections, among which are the following: (1) The percentage to add for profits on materials should usually be less than the percentage to add for profits on labor, particularly when profits and contingencies are lumped together ; ( 2 ) the time element and the size of the job should always be factors in considering profits, for profits are, strictly speaking, the salaries of the contractors; (3) the number of dollars' worth of contract work that can be secured and handled each average year must be considered, for the reason just given ; (4) the percentage for profits is often made to include interest on plant and on cash capital invested, and, if so, there is added rea- son for not using a uniform percentage like 15%. That there is need of calling attention to these elementary prin- ciples is apparent when one notes erroneous statements found in many text-books. On materials, such as brick, timber and steel, that can be bought by sub-contract immediately after the award of the main contract, one may estimate a low profit, say, 10 or 15% ; but on labor the profit should usually range from 15 to 25%, or even higher if con- tingencies are included in the percentage allowed for profits. On contract work that can be done only during a few months of the year, and especially on work requiring a large investment in plant, such for example as macadam road work, the percentage of profits must usually be above the average of the percentage on work that extends over a longer period. If engineers fully realized the importance of this fact they would be at more pains to award all highway contracts early in the spring of the year, so that a longer season would be available than is now the case. Causes of Underestimates. Engineers have been said to be men who can be relied upon in every respect save one ability to pre- dict the cost o work. The reasons why engineers' estimates have so often been unreliable may be enumerated as follows : 1. Students of engineering are seldom trained in the art of cost estimating, but left to acquire that art haphazard after graduation. 48 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 2. Articles descriptive of engineering structures seldom contain an analysis of the unit costs. 3. A subsurface survey is frequently not made; and, as a con- sequence, unexpected materials are encountered in excavating. 4. A study of the sources of local materials, their suitability for the work, and their unit cost delivered, is often 'not made; and, as a result, specifications are frequently drawn that cannot be lived up to except by importing materials at great expense. 5. The cost of clearing, and draining the work is often under- estimated, or ignored entirely. 6. The cost of temporary bracing, support, roadways and de- velopment expenses are frequently underestimated or omitted. 7. Delays due to bad weather, and delays incident to the shifting of plant from place to place are often not considered. 8. Interest and depreciation of plant, and the percentage for profits, are usually underestimated. 9. Inadequate allowance is made for superintendence and gen- eral expense. 10. The cost of inspection and engineering may be underesti- mated. 11. Legal expenses due to the abandonment of the work by a contractor, or due to suits brought by those who claim damages to life, limb or property, are generally not allowed for. 12. Changes in the alinement or in the design, made after con- tracts have been awarded, may result in large claims for extra compensation. 13. Omissions due to carelessness or ignorance of subordinates in the engineering staff may result in further claims for extras. 14. Rates of wages and prices of materials may rise; and, if the work is large, the work itself may be the cause of such increases. 15. When high wages are due to scarcity of men, an "independ- ence" is bred in the workmen which decreases their efficiency. 16. A large number of competent foremen frequently can not be secured for a large work, resulting in decreased efficiency of work- men. 17. If an estimate is based upon previous contract prices there is grave danger of error, due to change in conditions, unbalanced bids, etc. 18. If unit prices are estimated before the specifications are drawn, the specification requirements may be made such as greatly to increase the cost of important items. 19. Limiting competition by the drawing of unfair, or indefinite specifications, is a common cause of high bidding prices. Severe interpretation of indefinite clauses often causes failure of contract- ing firms, and the history of such failures operates to limit subse- quent competition, and raise prices. 20. Contractors may combine, especially where the work is let in very large contracts, and raise prices. Indexing Contract Prices. In order to fix a bidding price on the proposed work, if no actual records of similar work are available, it is customary to hunt up bidding prices on similar work, strike an COST KEEPING. 49 average, bid a little below the average and trust to luck. To make this process less of a gamble, it is wise to secure back vol- umes of engineering periodicals, and make a scrap book using the pages of the journal that relate to contract prices. Then as the scrap book should be indexed, a word as to indexing may be of as- sistance. There should be heads corresponding to the items usually found in bidding sheets, as follows: Asphalt Pavement, Ballast, Bolts and Spikes, Brick Masonry, Brick Sewers, Brick Paving, Bridges, Castings, Catch-basins, Cement, Clearing and Grubbing, Concrete, Curbs, Earth Excavation, Embankment, Flagging, Flush- tanks, Gravel, Gutter, Hydrants, Iron, Lampposts, Lead, Macadam, Manholes, Masonry (stone only, and not brick or concrete), Piles, Pipe Sewers, Puddle, Railing, Riprap, Rock Excavation, Sidewalks, Sodding, Specials, Steel, Stone, Timber, Tracklaying, Valves, Water Pipe, etc. As far as possible select headings that denote the kind of material used in the structure ; but where this cannot be done without confusion select the name of the structure as it ordinarily appears in bidding sheets. Do not, as a rule, use such headings as the following: Abutments, Filling, Dredged Material, Foundation, Vitrified Brick Paving, etc. An abutment often contains piling, concrete and cut stone masonry, and in using the index it may not occur to you to look under abutment when looking up prices on concrete. Having decided upon headings, cut up a lot of paper strips about an inch wide and four inches long, and proceed to go through the printed pages to be indexed. When a bid on Concrete is found, write on one of these slips, "Concrete, pavement foundation, p. 80." Throw the slips aside as the index entries are made ; and, after a volume has been indexed, assort the slips alphabetically, and have a typewritten index copied from them. Simple as this method is, the inexperienced man is not likely to think of it, and failing to think of it he will look upon the job of indexing as being so great a task that in "all probability no index will be made. Indexes pub- lished at the end of the year by the technical journals are, as a rule, of no value to the contractor ; furthermore, the current issues of construction news should be indexed as fast as received. Especial care should be taken to index classes of work that are out of the ordinary, for whenever bids must be submitted on similar work no better guide than previous contract prices is apt to be found. In recording bidding prices, it is well to record not only the lowest bid, but the average of all bids, stating the number of bidders. In judging the reasonableness of a bidding price, it is of great assistance to know the experience of the bidder on the particular class of . work in question. Hence a knowledge of the history of contractors H a decided aid. Care should be taken to examine not merely a contractor's bid upon the one item that is under consideration, but his bidding prices on all the items, to judge whether or not he may have un- balanced his bid to conceal his judgment as to a fair price for each item. 50 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Unbalanced Bids. A bid is said to be unbalanced when too high a price is purposely bid upon one or more items, accompanied by an offsetting low price on one or more of the remaining items. Thus, if a fair bidding- price for earth excavation is 25 cts. per cu. yd., and for rock, $1.00 per cu. yd., the following forms an ex- ample of a bid that is balanced, and one that is unbalanced : BALANCED BID. 1,000 cu. yds. rock, at $1.00 $1,000 20,000 cu. yds. earth, at $0.25 5,000 Total $6,000 UNBALANCED BID. 1.000 cu. yds. rock, at $2.00 $2,000 20,000 cu. yds. earth, at $0.20 4,000 Total $6,000 It will be seen that the total bid, $6,000, is the same in both cases. In the second case, however, the $2 bid on rock is alto- gether too high, and the 20-ct. bid on earth is too low, hence the bid is unbalanced. The objects of unbalancing bids may be three : (1) TQ secure an abnormally high profit on any item the yardage (or quantity) of which is likely to be increased after the contract has been awarded ; ( 2 ) to secure a large profit on the items of work that must be done first, thus skimming the cream of the con- tract in the very beginning ; ( 3 ) to conceal from engineers and from competitors what each item of work is actually worth. To prevent the unbalancing of bids, engineers resort to various expedients, among which are the following: (1) Insertion of a clause in the "invitation to bidders" warning them that an unbal- anced bid will cause the rejection of the bid; (2) requiring a lump- sum bid on the work; (3) publishing the engineer's schedule of items and an estimated price for each item, then requiring either (a) that each contractor shall bid a uniform percentage on all the items, or (b) that the contractor shall bid his own price on each item, no unit price being in excess of a certain percentage of the engineer's estimated unit price.. The first of these two methods is called the "percentage method of bidding." A fourth method of preventing unbalancing of bids on small items likely to be increased in quantity may be suggested. It would consist in naming a definite unit price that will be paid on each of the m minor items, and leaving the contractor free to bid his own prices on the other items. The greatest danger from an unbalanced bid lies in subsequent change of quantities. Suppose that in the above given example, ac- tual work discloses that a far greater quantity of rock exists than the 1,000 cu. yds. given in the bidding sheet. Suppose the actual quantities in the final estimate are reversed, and that there are 20,000 cu. yds. of rock and 1,000 cu.-yds. of earth. "We then have these results : BALANCED BID. 20.000 cu. yds. rock, at $1.00 $20,000 1,000 cu. yds. earth, at $0.25 250 Total $20,250 COST KEEPING. 51 UNBALANCED BID. 20,000 cu. yds. rock, at $2.00 $40,000 1,000 cu. yds. earth, at $0.20 200 Total .' $40,200 We see that if the unbalanced bid is accepted the work costs in the end almost twice as much as it would have cost had the bal- anced bid been accepted; yet the two bids were the same ($6,000), according to the preliminary estimate. It rarely happens that such an extreme case as this occurs in practice, although I have known several quite as bad. The prin- ciple, however, is best illustrated by an extreme example. It is common practice among paving contractors in many cities to unbalance their bids for the sake of concealing their estimates of actual worth ; as, for example, among asphalt paving companies. Bidding prices must, therefore, be looked upon with suspicion al- ways, especially when used as guides for estimating. An unbalanced bid is a two-edged sword. It may actually ruin the contractor who makes it, if it happens that he has erred and that the quantities on which he has bid too low are greatly increased, without a corresponding increase in the quantities on which he has bid high. Like all tricky practices, it is a dangerous one. Surety Company Bonds. It is becoming more and more the prac- tice to require contractors to furnish the bonds of a surety com- pany rather than the bonds of individuals for the faithful perform- ance of the work. This is not only good public policy, but it is in the best interests of contra'ctors themselves. No man should put in jeopardy tho property of his friends by asking them to go on his bonds for a contract. It matters not how sure he may be of himself and of his ability to execute the work at a profit, for he should bear in mind that a strike beyond his control may upset all calculations. Furthermore, a young con- tractor's own estimate of himself is apt to have an optimistic tint, to say the least. A surety company should be consulted, and it is well to go to such a company at first with only a small contract for which bondsmen are desired. Be prepared to give them in detail your experience and your financial resources, exaggerating neither ; for, in case of subsequent failure, criminal proceedings may be brought against a man who has misrepresented his resources. If you have but little cash capital, frankly say so, but be prepared to show in detail how you propose doing the work with the funds available. Suppose you expect to have a $5,400 earth work jpb to do; that you will have 12 weeks in which to do it, with two weeks margin for delays, etc. ; and that payments of 85 per cent of the estimated value of the work done are to be made monthly, and you purpose beginning the work the middle of the month. You estimate the work to cost $4,800, hence your weekly pay-roll will be $400 if the work is done in 12 weeks. You are to pay your men every two weeks, hence you need only $800 in cash to carry you until the first of the month, and as your contract calls for the monthly payment to be made the 10th day of the month, you can 52 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. count upon receiving $765 (85% of one-sixth of $5,400) in time to apply on the next pay roll. Your cash capital to start with is $1,800, or practically twice as much cash as will carry the work, in case there are no unforeseen delays, and in case you have not under- estimated its cost. If you are able to persuade the surety com- pany's representative that your estimate of actual cost of the work is reliable there should be no difficulty in securing their agreement to act as your bondsmen. Reasons Why Contract Work Is the Most Economic Method of Doing Public Work. There are two methods of doing public work: ( 1 ) The day labor, or government force, method ; and ( 2 ) the con- tract method. By the day labor method the government ("county, town, city, county, city or federal) hires the workmen and directs their work. The alleged advantages of this method are: 1. It saves the contractor's profits. 2. It insures better work. 3. It avoids lawsuits. 4. It permits beginning work without a complete survey or plans, and thus hastens completion. 5. It gives employment to local citizens and keeps all the money at home. As to the first alleged advantage there is an evident fallacy, for tha attitude is one of regarding a contractor's profit as something other than a recompense for his skilled services. A contractor's profit is his compensation for services nothing else. Hence when a contractor is dispensed with there must be a substitution of some one in his place to render the service of manager. It is often urged that since a government must supervise a contractor, to see that he does his work properly, it is really paying twice for supervision of the workmen. This, again, is fallacious for two reasons: (1) Supervision that is merely inspection is far cheaper than supervi- sion that consists in managing men ; ( 2 ) there should be inspection of work done by government' employes, and, in my opinion, there is- need of a much more rigorous and expensive inspection of their^ work than of work done by contract. Government employes are prone to depart from plans and specifications, often for the sole purpose of partly concealing the otherwise high costs that would become evident to all. It is the verdict, too, of practically all un- biased and experienced engineers that day labor work does not deliver as good quality of product as contract work. This answers argument 2. As to argument 3. avoidance of lawsuits, we have an advantage that is certainly well founded. It does, but the average cost of lawsuits is so small a fraction of the total cost of construction work done by contract as to be unworthy of serious consideration. Moreover lawsuits of this kind are almost invariably the result either of ambiguous specifications or of changing plans without equitable provision for payment arising from a change. The remedy for this condition is not an entire abandonment of the con- tract system. As well might a surgeon cut off a man's legs be- COST KEEPING. 53 cause he squints. Lawsuits are avoidable and are avoided by the best engineers, for they perfect their plans before securing bids, their specifications are so framed as to provide perfectly for any changes, and, finally, they never vitiate the written contract by departing one iota from its provisions. There are many so called "contractors' lawyers" in our larger cities, who are little else than skilled thieves in league with other thieves who get contracts. That these "contractors' lawyers" are able to make money for themselves and their clients is due almost entirely to the fact that engineers do not adhere rigorously to the specifications. For if a lawyer can prove that the specifications have been violated, even to no great extent, no contract exists, and there is ground for recovery of profits quantum meruita.s much as he deserved. This leads to expert testimony as to profits reason- ably to be expected, and this usually leads to a verdict that is a compromise between the two extremes of testimony. Railways and private corporations are not so frequently afflicted with lawsuits because their policy is not to award contracts to contractors of the kind above mentioned. Public officials should also be empowered to reject bids from contractors who have a record as litigants, as well as from contractors who can not show sufficient experience and financial resources. A remedy for an evil is always preferable to the wholesale execution of innocent and guilty alike. As to the alleged advantage of beginning work before plans are complete, I deny it to be an advantage. Innumerable increases in estimated cost of public work are due to this very thing beginning work in advance of the fullest study of conditions. Finally, as to employment of local citizens, this is precisely what a contractor does. But and mark well the difference a con- tractor does not make his organization an old men's home or an asylum for the afflicted. The place for such is not on a piece of construction where they not only take up valuable room but act as the worst sort of examples for the young, ambitious and capable workmen. Now let us consider briefly why the contract system of doing public work is advantageous : 1. The contractor is paid for his services by his profits, which is in strict accord with the fundamental law of management. (See page 74). 2. He is free to pay his superintendents according to his judg- ment of their worth, and all his employes according to the bonus' system. 3. The contractor is a manager appointed by no official, elected by no "voice of the people" (which is more often the voice of ignor- ance than "the voice of God"), selected by no civil service exami- nation. He has become a manager by virtue of the law of the survival of the fittest, as determined by strife for excellence. When this method of selection is to be improved upon by men, it may be well to consult the Deity who established it. 4. A "public servant" is a servant without a master. He may have a "boss" who acts as a proxy for the master, but the master, "4 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the owner of the house where is he? He is the butcher, the baker the candlestick maker, a thousand, a million, or, maybe, a hundred million of him scattered across all the acres between two seas. He never is seen by the servant, nor felt, nor heard. This master who foots the bills of those who boost the bills never approaches an indolent superintendent and lays a hand upon his shoulder, nor says: See here, my man, unless this ends, you end this. A contractor is a master, and the "servants" see and hear him. He is tangible ; no vague rich Uncle Sam off somewhere, but a living personality on the job ; not a genial personality, with lots of money to throw away, nor, on the other hand, a niggard. His aim is to pay proportionately to service rendered. He may be crude in his methods of doing so, but that at least is his method, which is infinitely more effective than any a government uses. 5. A contractor will experiment with labor saving devices. He will invent or he will encourage inventors by his aid. What gov- ernment ever bred inventors in its service? A government super- intendent may occasionally be so inventive by nature that not the most discouraging situations can stifle his ambition. But, as a rule, the government superintendent, having nothing to gain by success- ful application of an experimental machine or process, and having much to lose in case of failure probably his job adheres to the ancient motto : "It is better to be safe than sorry." 6. A contractor is not restricted to working his plant in one locality nor on one class of work. Hence he is frequently able to keep his plant and his men busy, in whole or in part, nearly all the time. In the Roads and Streets Section of this book the high cost of municipal i t ant and supervision expenses in New Orleans illus- trates the point very well. During the season when the teams can not work on paving, they are idle. So are all the "salaried men." A contractor would have kept" the teams at work hauling coal, or what not, for private concerns, if not in New Orleans, then else- where. But the municipality of New Orleans can not engage in private work, nor can it compete for public work in other munici- palities. 7. A contractor can usually buy machines, materials and sup- plies more cheaply than any government. The absence of red tape delays in getting "action," the certainty that no "graft" must be paid to officials, and other factors operate in a contractor's favor, to say nothing of the fact that he is usually a more skilled pur- chaser. 8. A contractor almost invariably does his work at less expense for "overhead charges." On the Panama Canal, which is being built by government forces, the item of General Administration alone amounts to 13 per cent (in 1909) of the total cost! And when we consider that the total cost is fully double what it would cost a contractor, we have some idea of the meaning of this ex- pense item. The following extracts from a few editorials of mine on this gen- eral subject of the inefficiency of the day labor system of doing COST KEEPING. 55 government work will be found to contain the opinions of several eminent engineers : Thomas Telford on the Day Labor System.* One of the greatest civil engineers of all time, and the greatest of his own time, was Thomas Telford, the inventor of the telford road, engineer of hun- dreds of large bridges and builder of numerous canals and docks. He was the first president (1820) of the Institution of Civil Engi- neers. Of all the monuments to Telford's hard, common sense and engi- neering skill none is greater than the "Rules for Repairing Roads," of which he is author. Rule 7 is entitled "Management of Labour," and reads as follows : 'All labor by day's wages ought, as far as possible, to be dis- continued. The surveyors should make out specifications of every kind of work that is to be performed in a given time. This should be let to contractors, and the surveyors should take care to see it completed according to the specifications before it is paid for. Attention to this rule is most essential, as in many cases not less than two-thirds the money expended by day labor is usually wasted." This rule was written a century ago, but time has not altered the nature of men nor the soundness of Telford's advice. It is interesting in this connection to record Telford's success in the building of nearly 1,000 miles of roads in Scotland by contract. He let 120 contracts for this work, Wiiich extended over a period of 18 years, and in that time there was not a single lawsuit arising from any of these contracts. The work was done with an economy unueard of before Telford's time, and it was small wonder that his fame spread beyond the British Isles and led to his being called as consulting engineer on numerous engineering projects in Europe. Telford had discovered or, rather, rediscovered the principle that workmen are far more efficient when in the employ of an indi- vidual or firm than when in the employ of a government, whether it be of county, town, city or state. His success as an engineer rested as much upon the application of this principle as upon his own genius as a designer of engineering structures. The Opinions of Members of the Am. Soc. C. E. on the Day Labor System. t In 1896 there appeared in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers a paper by Mr. W. W. Follett on tae "Cost of Sewer Construction, Denver, Colorado," in which were given data intended to prove the economy of day labor as compared with contract work. Doubtless the author was somewhat surprised to find not a single out and out supporter of his contention among all the members of the society who discussed his paper. On the other hand, the day labor system was unanimously condemned as a system to be applied in general to city work. Some of the * Abstract from an editorial in Engineering-Contracting, May 5, 1909. t Abstract of an editorial in Engineering-Contracting, June 2, 1909. ">ti HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. expressions of opinion are not without interest even now, coming as they do from men high in the profession. We quote : Most cities began their public works by the day labor plan, but have been forced to adopt the contract system in self defense. Foster CroweU, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Contract work is more desirable and cheaper as a rule than work by the day. Henry Goldmark, M. Am. Soc. C. E. The writer's experience has been that sewer work generally costa . a city less by contract than by day labor. William B. Landreth, M. Am. Soc. C. E. The tabulated results [given in Mr. Follett's article] as to cost do not show any striking gain over that of contract work in this case. This is one of a few instances where experiments of this kind have been successful. In probably seven cases out of ten the politi- cal tendencies of boards made up wholly of scheming politicians to give sinecures to political hangers on would have largely increased the cost of the work. Andrew Rosewater, M. Am. Soc. C. E. It is the writer's opinion that in most cities public work can be done to better advantage and at less cost by contract than by hired labor. G. T. Nelles, M. Am. Soc. C. E. We may add that Denver sewers, under discussion, were large brick sewers, and that each brick mason averaged 2,080 brick per 8 hour day, wages being $4, which is far and away better than the usual output on day labor construction, but less than half what many contractors secure from their brick layers on sewer work. It should also be pointed out that a strenuous effort was made by the city officials in this case to prove that day labor work would be the most economical for all sewer construction to be done in the future, and they were not only free to alter the specifica- tions to attain their end, but naturally prompted to do so by self interest. In discussing this feature of the case, Mr. G. T. Nelles, M. Am. Soc. C. E., said : "Another important factor in the cost of work done under proper supervision in this manner by cities is the fact that they do not enter Into a binding contract with themselves to do the work in a fixed manner and under rigid specifications, as is the case when work is done by contract. On the contrary, they are always at liberty to make such change in methods or materials as experience may prove to be beneficial and economical to the work. Under the con- tract system it is rarely possible to make such changes, no matter how desirable they may be, without raising a cry of fraud or violat- ing some of the terms of the contract. As a consequence when- ever there is a choice of materials or methods under the contract system, the most expensive to the contractor is usually adopted." We have italicized this last clause, for, unfortunately, it ex- presses the truth about the tendency on the part of many engineers to exact not merely the last pound of flesh, but to call for an avoirdupois pound, although the specifications might well be inter- preted to refer to a Troy pound. This particular feature of con- tract work is perhaps the one most worthy of careful consideration by the engineer who aims to secure low bids from reliable firms. COST KEEPING. 57 There is but one way of accomplishing this end namely : by pre- paring 1 specifications with as great care as is given to the work of making the drawings. Sewer specifications are, as a rule, par- ticularly weak in all that relates to the excavation of materials. Generally no soundings or test pits are made by the engineers and no classification of materials other than "earth" and "rock" is given. Not only is there no sub-surface survey, but there is not even a fair attempt in tne specifications to provide for payment based upon what may actually be encountered. Practically all the "changes" to which Mr. Nelles refers would be unnecessary were proper sub-surface surveys made in advance of making the design and drawing the specifications. Mr. Franklin Riffle, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 33 (1895), p. 590, says: "Some years ago, while connected with railroad construction on the Pacific coast, the writer took pains to compare the cost of com- pany work with the cost of contract work, and was somewhat sur- prised to discover that in nearly every case investigated the former exceeded the latter, the excess ranging from 25 to 100%. The re- cently constructed water works system of Portland, Oregon, fur- nishes an instructive example. * * - * There was considerable work done by day labor, under the mistaken idea that this method would ensure the most satisfactory results, but the cost of the work largely exceeded the estimate." The Metcalf and Eddy Report on the Day Labor System in Bos- ton. This report contains the results of the most exhaustive inves- tigation into the relative economy of the day labor and the contract systems ever published and is convincing in its demonstration of the economy of the contract system. The report is one made in 1909 to the Boston Finance Commission, important extracts from which were published in Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 25, 1909, and in faibsequent issues. I regard this investigation as the forerunner of many more of its kind to be made by consulting engineers for finance commissions in other cities. In fact I look to see such finance commissions become permanent institutions, whose function it shall be to investigate every department of a municipality, with a view to determining unit costs. Thus will the public be put in possession of unbiased facts about the economic or uneconomic conduct of the business of government. Mr. S. Whinery's Report on the Day Labor System in Boston.* On pages 139 to 142 of his report to the Boston Finance Commis- sion, Mr. Samuel Whinery says : "(1) The claim that a municipality can execute its public work at an actual cost as low as the same work can be done by a contractor and thus save the profit that the contractor is entitled to make may be true as an abstract theory, but experience has shown that it is not generally true in practice. It has in many cases been Abstract from Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 29, 1909. 58 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. found true In isolated instances or for short periods of time, but when the practice has been continued for a considerable period it is almost invariably the case that direct work becomes more expen- sive than contract work. The reasons for this are not difficult to find. * * * "(2) The claim that public work executed directly by the municipality Is more certain to be of good quality than if done by contr.'tct is not well founded. "It is a plausible proposition that municipal officers, having no personal financial interest in the results, will be actuated only by the desire to secure to the city the best quality of work, but ex- perience has not shown it to be true. There are motives other than the mere saving of money that may, and as a rule do, influence city officials to cut down the cost of public work done under their direct supervision to the lowest figure, with possible detriment to the quality of the work done. * * * "I have had good opportunity to observe in many cities the comparative quality of work done by the municipality direct and by contract, and I do not hesitate to say that, as a rule, the former is not usually superior to the latter. "(3) The claim that it is either better or more economical for the municipality to purchase and furnish contractors the supplies required for public work is not supported by the facts, * * * many of which are obvious. Nor is it true as a rule that a better quality of supplies is secured when purchased by the city than when they are purchased by contractors under proper city specifi- cations and subjected to proper inspection. "(4) The claim sometimes made that by doing its work directly the municipality can so provide for the employment and control of labor as to benefit the city at large or its dependent citizens is fallacious in practice. When public work is to be done the neces- sary labor must be employed either by the city or by the contrac- tor. For doing the same work the city can use no more labor than the contractor if the labor employed by each is equally efficient and equally well directed. If economical results are to be obtained, equal care and discrimination must be exercised in securing labor by the one as by the other. If it be said that the city may so manage the labor supply as to afford employment to indigent or inefficient laborers (whom no contractor would employ), who would otherwise have to be aided from the city treasury, it may be an- swered that the city can no more afford to employ that class of labor than the contractor, and that it is better and cheaper in the end to pension or otherwise care for the disabled or inefficient. Laborers belonging to these classes do not earn the wages paid them and a few of them scattered among strong and able workmen have a demoralizing effect upon the whole body by setting a low standard of accomplishment." Experience With Day Labor on the Chicago Main Drainage Canal and at Panama.* We now have the annual report of the Isthmian * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 4, 1907. COST KEEPING. 59 Canal Commission, teeming with arguments in favor of continuing the day labor system. We quote : "Omitting profits derived from subsistence and general stores and assuming the hours of labor the same in both cases, it stands to reason that the government, when warranted in making the neces- sary outlay for plant, can do work cheaper than a contractor, for no question of profits enters into the consideration." It does not stand to reason that any government can do work as cheaply as a private party. Indeed, to make such a claim is going contrary both to reason and to experience upon which all reasoning Is founded. The Isthmian Commission goes on to explain that on jobs of less magnitude than the Panama Canal it does pay to do the work by contract because in such cases the government has neither the plant nor the organization to do the work. In the case of Panama, however, the government has both. The grave fallacy In this argument lies in the assumption that it is economic to award contracts only because a suitable plant and an organized force of men can be secured quickly. These, it is true, are factors In favor of a contractor, but if they were the only factors, govern- ment contracting would have disappeared entirely fifty years ago. The government could well afford to own a sufficient plant to do all its construction work, and it would not take long to build up an organization to handle the plant. But plant and organization are merely the tools. Back of these tools must be a great incentive if work is to be done economically with this plant and this organiza- tion. Plant is nothing, organization is nothing, unless the brain that directs both is keenly bent upon saving every penny and en- tirely free to bring every resource to bear in effecting economy. It is this lack of sufficient incentive and of sufficient freedom of action that makes every government manager of work far inferior to the ordinary contractor. A government employe knows that his salary will go on regardless of the cost. Earth work may be costing the government 50 cts. a yard that would cost a contractor 30 cts., but Col. Goethals will draw his salary just the same, and so will every other employe clear down to the water boy. It is true that the chief engineer is actuated by the vague desire to make a "good recoid," but he is also well aware that his "record" can not be measured by any standard except the accomplishment of his two predecessors. The great desire to make wealth for himself is wholly absent. His brain is warmed t mild glow by the hope of being able to "make good," but there is no fire under his boiler that sets the steam valve popping. But granting him even a consider- able amount of feverish desire to "make good," we find him bound hand and foot, not by red tape but by the indifference of the vast majority of his employes. Why should his lieutenants sit up nights devising ways of reducing 'costs? Why should they go about jumping on the workers by day to sting them into action? The one act may break down health, they will tell you, and the other will surely make enemies of the men. What recompense will there be for these two losses? A share in the saving effected? No. A part- nership in the business? No. An increase in salary? No, for 60 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. governments do not pay on the scale of what a man saves but upon the scale of what he spends. There are no bonuses, no special salaries for excellence in service, no partnerships nothing but a mild hope that, if one does not die at the bottom, promotion to a higher rank will come some day as a result of death at the top. That is government work, and that is why a contractor's profit represents not additional cost to the government but merely a small fraction of the saving effected by a capable man driven by the fierce desire to make that saving as large as possible. To illustrate what happens even to a contractor when this in- centive is removed : On the Chicago Main Drainage Channel the firm of MacArthur Bros, was put in charge of excavating a section of glacial drift on a percentage basis. They furnished the plant and organization, but did not pay for the labor or supplies out of their own pockets. That was paid for by the Sanitary District, and MacArthur Bros, received 15% for use of plant and supervision. After a considerable amount of the earth had been excavated at a cost of 86% cts. per cubic yard, the Sanitary District gave up this day labor method in disgust. In a report on the work Chief Engi- neer Isham Randolph said : "This work may be regarded as an object lesson, clearly demonstrating from an economic standpoint the unwisdom of entering into any arrangement for carrying on the construction work of the Sanitary District by the direct employ- ment of labor." (Hill's "Chicago Main Drainage Channel," page 33.) We cite this case because the MacArthur Bros, are among the most competent contractors in the country, but even they could not combat the irresistible tendency of men to loaf the minute they know that a government Is going to foot the bill and not a con- tractor. Subletting Work and Purchasing Materials. There is seldom a contract that does not involve subcontracting, even when the origi- nal contract specially prohibits subcontracting. Every purchase o materials for which cash is not paid at once is a subcontract. The term subcontracting, however, is commonly applied to the awarding of a contract by the contractor, the subcontractor being one who undertakes to furnish the labor and materials necessary to perform a given portion of the original contract. Whether it be a purchase of materials or an award of a subcon- tract, there Is one thing the contractor should never neglect to do and thac is to attach a copy of the original specifications to his letter or to his subcontract. In his letter or his subcontract he should make definite reference to the attached specifications, stating that the materials or the work, or both, must conform to those specifications. Failure to do this may lead to serious misunder- standings and loss. For example, in ordering paving bricks from a manufacturer if the contractor fails to say that they must be subject to the inspection and tests of the engineer and if a large per- centage of the bricks are "culled" (rejected), the manufacturer may refuse to supply other bricks to replace the "culls." Another point that should never be overlooked is to have a written contract (an exchange of letters will suffice) for any mate- COST KEEPING. 01 rials or work involving a sum In excess of the sum specified in the Statute of Frauds of the state in which the material is purchased. In some states this sum is less than $100 and in others it is $500. Any verbal contract, no matter how many witnesses may be brought, is voi.lable if the sum involved is in excess of that prescribed in the Statute of Frauds. Once the materials ordered under verbal con- tiact have been delivered and accepted, the verbal contract as to pr'ce becomes binding. It is poor practice, in my judgment, to buy or rent anything by word of mouth, and foremen should be required to make all pur- chases by written order, keeping a carbon copy. All renting of tools or plant should be recorded in writing, by an exchange of letters or otherwise, so as to have the terms of the rental signed by both parties. I have had the verbal rental of a plow by a fore- man cost me $100 in lawyers' fees, etc. A fe-v suggestions regarding the subletting of work: Subletting should not be forbidden in the original contract. Repeated sub- lotting of the same part of a job may be, and often is, pernicious in its effect upon the quality of the work. One subletting often re- sults in lower cost of work, for a subcontractor who gives all his attention to a small job can usually get the workmen to do more work than a large contractor who has many things to attend to. The subcontractor is really a superintendent or foreman whose salary is paid in profits, and he has the best possible spur to secure the greatest possible economy. The letting of several independent contracts for the different parts of a structure often leads to delays and claims for extras due to delays. One independent contractor may purposely delay an- other. All this is avoided by awarding the whole structure to one contractor, who can usually manage several subcontractors much better than several independent contractors can be managed by an engineer. , On the other hand, it is not an uncommon mistake to let a con- tract too great in size to secure active competition from several contracting firms. One of the best managed large pieces of public work was the Chicago Main Drainage Canal, contracts for which were let in sections of moderate size, with the result that there were many able competitors who named low prices. Instructions to Superintendents and Foremen. Some of the most successful contracting firms have sets of rules and instructions printed for the use of foremen and others. Certain of the "rules" are inflexible and must be obeyed ; others are more in the nature of suggestions intended to guide the foreman in doing his work, handling his men, purchasing materials, and the like. Gilbreth's "Field System" is a book of rules used by him in managing his contract work. His "Bricklaying System" is another such book. I will give a list of instructions that is by no means exhaustive, but varied enough to give some hints as to the character of a set of instructions. Rules such as these can be mimeographed on <;2 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. small sheets of paper and bound together with clips, so that they can be carried in the pocket for reference. 1. When a foreman arrives at a place where he Is to have charge of work, he must notify the home office at once by postal card, giving the address of his boarding place and his office address. 2. A daily report must be sent to the home office on the blanks provided. If no work is being done, still a report must be sent In stating that fact and giving reasons for delays, etc. 3. Each foreman must keep a small diary in which to jot down ihe principal events of the day. Such a diary may be of great value m case of a law suit. 4. Each foreman must write all orders for materials, supplies, etc., in the book provided for the purpose, so that a carbon copy of every order will be kept. He must be careful to insert the day of the month. When a foreman wishes grading stakes or instruc- tions from engineers in charge of work, let him send a written order to the engineer stating exactly what is wanted. This precaution may save misunderstandings and delays, and the carbon copy of such an order is often useful to check the memory. The sooner a foreman learns to be methodical in such small matters, the sooner will he be fitted to handle larger matters. 5. No superintendent, walking boss, engineer, time keeper, or other employe of this firm is permitted to give an order direct to any workman, except in case of great emergency. Not even a member of this firm is exempt from this rule. The foreman in direct charge of a gang of men is the only man permitted to in- struct his men what to do. He is the officer in charge, and his superior officers must not intentionally or unintentionally degrade him in the eyes of his men by issuing orders over his head. 6. A foreman is not permitted to work with his men. He is em- ployed to use his wits, not his hands. Occasionally he must in- struct a man how to do his work, but he must teach the man and not attempt to take the man's place. It may take a foreman longer to teach a man than to do it himself ; nevertheless it is cheaper in the long run to teach the man. 7. Do not use laborers to do the work of masons or carpenters, but provide a sufficient number of laborers to assist the skilled workmen. A 15-ct. man can lift as many pounds of wood or stone as a 50-ct. man. Exercise your wits' in keeping each class of men busy at their particular class of work. 8. In rainy weather keep all steady pay men busy overhauling machines and tools, sharpening tools, branding tools, splicing ropes, etc. 9. Rush all percentage or force account work exactly as if it were part of the regular contract. The reputation of this firm is worth more money than can ever be made by "making work last." 10. Small jobs of extra work are usually taken on a basis of 20% profit on both materials and labor. This leaves but a small margin of profit after deducting general expenses. It is particularly de- sirable to work as many men as possible on a small job, so as to reduce the percentage of general expenses. COST KEEPING. 63 11. Keep the addresses of good workmen. 12. Do not be a "good fellow" with the men under you after working hours, or you will lose their respect. Remember the old adage, "Familiarity breeds contempt." 13. In case of any accident to a workman or to a spectator notify the home office at once by letter. If the accident is fatal, notify by telegraph or telephone. We are insured against such accidents, but by the terms of our policy we must notify the insurance company within 24 hours. 14. The best and cheapest Insurance against accidents is care. Provide barricades, warning notices and red lights wherever an excavation is made. Even a small hole unprotected may cause the loss of a life, for which the courts may hold this firm responsible. When a street is closed by barricades, do not permit an outsider to enter even at his own risk, for should an accident occur a law suit is certain to follow regardless of the rights involved. 15. Accept no orders for extra work except in writing, and for- ward such orders at once to the home office. 16. Fill in your expense account blank every Saturday night and send to the home office. 17. When plans are received indorse your name upon them, with the day of the month and year. Write on blueprints with a red pencil. 18. Avoid all controversy with an engineer or inspector. A small quarrel often leads to a big loss. Notify the home office in case of unfair or unreasonable orders. 19. When a car arrives, record its number and character of con- tents. Remember that a demurrage is charged on all car freight held more than 72 hours ; but on most roads demurarge is estimated by averaging. Thus, if one car is held 24 hours before unloading and another is held 96 hours, the average is (24+96)-=-2, or 60 hours. 20. Pile lumber with the boards slanting so that water will drain off. Lay as few boards or timbers directly on the ground as possi- ble. See that the top layer of boards is turned over occasionally to prevent warping. 21. Insure all lumber and timber work against fire. 22. Count and measure all sticks of lumber to check the bill. To calculate the number of feet board measure (ft. B. M.) in a sawed stick of timber, multiply the width in inches by the thickness in inches, divide this product by 12, and multiply the quotient by the length of the stick in feet. 23. See that all shipments of materials are counted or measured and recorded. 24. For convenience in estimating the weight of materials remem- ber the following : Cu . f t per ton Material. of 2,000 Ibs. Water ( 62 y a Ibs. per cu. ft. ) 32 Sand or gravel 20 Broken sandstone, limestone or granite 22 Broken trap-rock 20 Solid blocks of granite 12 Coal, broken 40 04 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Green white oak is heavier than water and weighs more than 5 Ibs. per ft. B. M. (there being 12 ft. B. M. per cu ft.). Green southern yellow pine weighs 4^5 Ibs. per ft. B. M. Kiln dried oak weighs 3% Ibs. per ft. B. M. and kiln dried yellow pine weighs 3 Ibs. per ft. B. M. In any case, by floating a block of wood in water and measuring the total depth of the block and the submerged depth, the weight can be calculated by simple proportion, thus: Depth of block submerged : Total depth of block : : The weight per it. B. M. : 5.2. Thus if the block is 6 ins. deep and 4 ins. are sub- merged when it floats, we have : 4:6::x:5.2. Whence we find that x is nearly 3% Ibs. per ft. B. M. Familiarize yourself with other rules useful in computing weights, etc. 25. On short hauls where dump wagons are not available provide extra wagons which can be loaded while the full wagons are going to the dump and returning. Extra wagons can usually be rented, and in some cases it will pay to buy them, for the lost team time soon eats up the price of a wagon. Extra wagons are especially useful where a small gang of men is unloading brick, stone or timber from a car onto the wagon. When a team comes up with an empty wagon, unhitch from the empty, hitch to the full wagon, and with a tail rope pull the empty wagon up to place as the full wagon moves ahead. 26. In erecting a derrick or pile driver remember that a gin pole or mast can often be used to advantage. Gin poles are not used as often as they should be for this kind .of work. 27. In erecting a trestle for falsework, frame and bolt the bents together on the ground, then up-end them. 28. Use round timber for legs of temporary trestles, for trench braces, and wherever struts are needed. Round timber can usually be bought for much less money than sawed stuff. 29. In buying brick consider the size of each brick ; bricks vary greatly in size. Large bricks are worth more per M than small ones. If 2x4x8-in. bricks are worth $6.50 per M, every % in. in- crease in the length adds 10 cts. per M to the value, and every in- crease of % in. in thickness adds 25 cts. per M. 30. In buying cement, consider the size of the barrel and the amount of cement paste that can be made with a barrel. There is a great variation in the product of different factories. 31. Buy cement in wooden barrels for use on small jobs that are liable to lag. Buy cement in cloth bags for most work. Pack the bags in bundles of 50, and ship to factory. Cement improves with age up to a certain point, if the air is not too damp. Use the oldest cement first. 32. Dynamite must never be thawed in any way except with a hot water thawer of the kind furnished by this firm. Never thaw in front of a fire, or on a hot stone removed from a fire, or by piling sticks on a boiler, or in an oven We know of fatal acci- dents due to each of these methods. There may be safe methods COST KEEPING. (tf other than the one above ordered, but we can not afford to experi- ment where lives are at stake. 33. Never store dynamite, or acid, or gasoline in a tool box. The dynamite may be exploded ; the acid vapors will eat into ropes and rot them ; the gasoline vapors may explode or spilled gasoline may result in a fire. Use sand to put out a gasoline fire. Hemp rope is weakened not only by acid vapors, but by saturation with oil. All rope should be kept dry. 34. In using steam engines, steam drills and derricks, the follow- ing precautions should be observed : Daub grease over all bright parts before storing, also in wet weather. Oil the derricks, crushers, wire ropes, and all movable parts of machines every day. Cheap black grease is usually daubed on wire ropes ; but where the ropes are moving over sheaves almost continuously, provide an oil drip cup to feed oil, drop by drop, onto the moving rope. Do not permit men to wash their hands in the water barrel or tank that supplies water to a steam boiler, for the grease from their hands will cause "priming." Boiler flues are frequently "burned" because water is allowed to get too low in the boiler. Aside from the danger of a boiler explo- sion in such cases, there is the certain cost of repairs. See that the steam cocks are blown off several times daily, and do not rely upon the water glass. A lazy or ignorant fireman will pile on coal and then rest until it has burned low. See to it that a thin bed of fuel is kept steadily burning. On large boilers use an automatic pressure recording gage to make the firemen attend to their business properly. It will not only save coal, but result in greater output of engines and steam drills. Cylinders of engines and steam drills are frequently cracked in cold weather by suddenly letting in steam. To avoid this open drip cocks and cocks on steam chest and blow in steam for a few min- utes to warm up the cylinder before starting the machine. A broken cylinder may delay work for a week. Do not let a friction clutch get wet, for it may slip if it does. Lower the boom of each derrick at night, so that it can not be dropped by some one for fun or for spite. Lay down short logs at intervals to keep the hoisting rope clear of the ground. The foregoing will serve as examples of instructions and hints issued by a contractor. As they stand they possess the disadvan- tage of not being classified into instructions that must be obeyed and hints that may be followed. Each contracting firm will have certain plasses of work in which it specializes, and will find it advisable to prepare mimeographed or printed instructions not only of a general nature but of a special nature. Thus a firm engaged in building construction may give sketches of scaffolding and instructions as to its erection. A firm engaged in bridge building may prepare a set of rules to gipdo the foremen in coffer damming and in false work building, System is fast taking the place of the hit or miss style of (10 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ing work. A well prepared set of instructions to foremen is an essential part of any complete system of management. The Ten Laws of Management.* The managing of industrial en- terprises, such as construction work in the field, is still an art, and there are few who realize that it can be reduced to a truly scientific basis. Nevertheless there are certain underlying principles of effective management of men which may be expressed in the form of laws. Application of these laws leads invariably to a greater out- put on the part of workmen, and this invariability of result proves the scientific basis of the laws. The most important of them can be grouped under ten general headings, which are as follows : 1. The law of subdivision of duties. 2. The law of educational supervision. 3. The law of coordination. 4. The law of standard performance based on motion timing. 5. The law of divorce of planning from performance. 6. The law of regular unit cost reports. 7. The law of reward increasing with increased performance. 8. The law of prompt reward. 9. The law of competition. 10. The law of managerial dignity. Below are given the main characteristics of each : 1. The Law of Sub- Division of Duties. Men are gifted with fac- ulties and muscles that differ extremely. One man will excel at running a rock drill, another is better at lifting loads, a third is clever in the application of arithmetic, a fourth is a born teacher and so through 'the gamut of human occupation. Moreover, prac- tice serves to accentuate these inborn differences. It is clear, there- fore, that the fewer duties any one man has to perform, the easier it is to find men who can do the task well. But give a man many duties to perform and he is almost certain to do at least one of them poorly, if, indeed, all are not miserably attended to. Hence the following law of management : So organize the work as to give each man a minimum number of duties to perform. This law needs little emphasizing as to its general truth, but it is nevertheless ignored frequently by those who have not applied a scientific treatment to management. Thus a foreman is often charged with a multitude of duties. He is expected, for example, to watch the workmen and spur them to action when slothful, to teach his men how to do their work in a more economic fashion, to discover and remedy defects in the machines and tools employed, to plan the arrival of materials at the proper time and in the proper amount, to keep records of daily performance, etc., etc. Mr. Fred W. Taylor was the first, we believe, to urge the sub- division of the duties of foremen and to have what he calls "func- tional foremen." One foreman, for example, is the machinery and tool foreman. It is his sole duty to study the work done by ma- chines and tools, to effect improvements, to reduce delays, and to supervise repairs. *These ten laws of management were first published in "Cost Keeping nnd Management Engineering," by Gillette and Dana. COST KEEPING. 67 Another foreman is the gang foreman. His function is to organ- ize the gangs, to direct their operation, and to instruct them in the performance of their work. A material foreman is employed on large jobs. His function is to confer with other foremen and ascertain what materials, ma- chines and supplies will be needed. He orders the materials, ar- ranges for their shipment, and follows up the manufacturing and railway companies to secure prompt delivery. If necessary, he sends men to the factory, to the stone quarry, or to the freight yard to see to it that deliveries are made with dispatch. Such a man is often invaluable, for upon him may depend the entire progress of the work. According to the magnitude of the contract there may be different kinds of foremen, all coming in contact with the same men perhaps, but all performing different functions. Such an organization as this differs radically from a military organization, wherein each man reports to only one superior officer on all matters. Most industrial organizations today resemble military organ- izations, with their generals and intermediate officers, down to corporals, each man reporting to but one man higher in rank. There is little doubt that the present tendency in industrial organizations is to abandon the military system to a very large extent, and for the following reasons: A soldier has certain duties to perform, few in number and simple In kind. Hence the man directly in command can control the actions of his subordinates easily and effectively. Control moreover should come invariably from the same officer, to avoid any possibility of disastrous confusion and to insure the instant action of a body of men as one single mass. On the other hand, industrial operations do not possess the same simplicity, particular- ly where men are using machines, nor is there the necessity of action in mass. The military organization, therefore, should be modified to suit the conditions ; and one of these modifications is the introduction of two or more foremen in charge of certain functions or duties of the same men or groups of men. On contract work it is often impossible to subdivide the duties of men to as great an extent as can be done in large manufacturing establishments. The smaller the contract, the less the subdivision of duties possible. In such cases an approach to the ideal system of subdivision is secured not by employing different men for dif- ferent purposes "but by a systematic assignment of duties to the same men to be performed at specified hours of the day or days of the week. Thus a small gang of carpenters is engaged in building forms for concrete, in repairing wooden dump cars, and in framing and erecting trestle work. By timing the men and by planning their work upon the timing records and the requirements of the work this carpenter gang can be assigned certain hours or days for each class of work. Thus is avoided the intermittent and uncertain shifting of the gang from one class of work to another, involving not only a loss of time in frequent shifting but a loss of interest in work that is done piecemeal. Moreover a methodical 68 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. change of occupation permits a methodical record of the number of units of each class of work performed, and thus leads to the use of the bonus system of payment. 2. The Law of Educational Supervision. It is not alone sufficient to give instructions to workmen and foremen from time to time by word of mouth, but the gist of all" Important instructions should be reduced to written or printed form. Among contractors the pioneer observer of this law is Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth, whose "Field System" is a 200-page book of rules for his superintendents, fore- men and others to follow. His "Bricklaying System" is another set of rules for the guidance of his brick masons and foremen. Among manufacturers there are many examples of those who have prepared more or less elaborate sets of rules to be followed, but the most interesting of these compilations that have come to our attention is the one furnished to its salesmen by the National Cash Register Co. In this book are gathered a vast number of useful hints and practical suggestions and arguments to be used in selling National cash registers. Each possible objection that a prospective purchaser may raise is met with one or more specific answers. This company not only provides its salesmen with a text book but has a school for training salesmen. At regular intervals all the salesmen meet together and discuss their respective methods of selling cash registers. Any new suggestions that are good be- come subsequently a part of the book of instructions. Thus the combined wisdom of hundreds of salesmen is preserved and de- livered to every salesman that the company employs. This plan is followed also by many of the life insurance companies. Railway companies have long made it their practice to furnish their civil engineers with printed sets of rules for railway location, as ex- emplified in McHenry's "Railway Location." All these are forms of educational supervision, and some are very elaborate. The small contractor need not necessarily have a printed book of rules of his own making, but he can supplement some such book of rules and hints by a typewritten or mimeographed set of sheets containing the most important of his own instructions. In this manner the repetition of a costly blunder by a foreman or workman can be avoided by a special rule or hint, while a labor saving "trick" can be passed on to other men in the contractor's employ. In developing a system of educational supervision the greatest assistance can be obtained from articles in engineering and con- tracting periodicals, for there will be frequently recorded labor saving methods well worthy of trial by other contractors. In a long article it may be only a small hint that is worthy of being abstracted and placed among the hints for foremen. In preparing a set of rules and hints, take pains to distinguish sharply between what is a rule always to be followed and what is a hint to be followed optionally. It is well to have a set of rules, each with its specific number, and a separate set of hints, also numbered. The second law of management is briefly this: COST KEEPING. 69 Secure uniformity of procedure on the part of employes by pro- viding written or printed rules, supplemented by educational sug- gestions or hints to guide them in their work. 3. The Law of Co-ordination. So schedule the performance of each gang of men that they will work in perfect coordination with other gangs,, either adjacent or remote. Perfect coordination involves the working of each man to his capacity all the time. This necessitates not only the organization of gangs of just the right size but the prompt arrival of standard supplies and materials, and freedom from, breakdowns of plant. An examination of almost any piece of construction work in progress will disclose the fact that most of the men spend a con- siderable portion of their time waiting either for somebody else to do something or for materials to arrive, before they can proceed. The cause is improper coordination of the work. One gang may have too many men and therefore may be able to work considerably faster than another, and be continually catching up with it. They will then adopt a slower pace, keep seemingly busy, and manage to kill a large percentage of their working time. These delays are chargeable to lack of coordination, although a careless inspection of the work may seem to indicate that everything is going smooth- ly. A job can look smooth and at the same time be so badly co- ordinated as to be uneconomical. The necessary adjuncts to proper coordination of work are briefly as follows : 1. A carefully drawn schedule of performance. 2. Regular arrival of material and supplies. 3. Prompt and proper repairs to equipment. 4. The proper quality of supplies. The best method that has so far been devised for making things happen on time is first to prepare a time table, and then to live up to it as far as the interruptions of the weather and the limita- tions of human nature will permit. To prepare a time table properly it is necessary to know how fast work can be done under the conditions which are to govern it. At the best there will be a considerable variation to be accounted for by ignorance on the part of the planning department on the one hand and by the in- terference of the elements on the other. A form of chart, made on tracing cloth, with various symbols to indicate the kinds of work to be done, has been found very useful. As the work pro- gresses the performance can be checked off on the chart, and thus indicate whether the work is proceeding on time. Where the work is such as that of building construction and there is but little storage capacity for materials, it is best to have the chart prepared a considerable time in advance so that materials will arrive when they are needed and yet not so much in advance of the proper time as to require large storage capacity at the site of the work. 4. The Law of Standard Performance Based on Motion Timing. Nearly every operation performed by a workman involves several 70 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. motions, although at first sight it may often seem that there is but one. Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth has coined the term "motion study" to denote his method of observing the number and kind of motions made by a man a brick layer, for example in performing a given operation. His plan is to analyze the motions, assigning a name to each motion. His next step is to endeavor so to arrange the sup- ply of materials, the position of tools, etc., as to reduce the num- ber of motions and the distance of each motion to a minimum. TABLE VII. Cableway No. 2, Handling Concrete. Rl Tl Fl Process 40 ft 1908. Observj tions. 30 i- Min. time. 6.0 31.0 22.0 16.8 19.4 26.5 11.0 12.0 Ave. time. 10.5 47.3 30.8 61.7 23.7 37.2 42.9 73.2 Max. time. 17.3 63.0 44.7 140.4 29.3 64.5 96.0 234.0 Efficiency. Standard Per time. cent. 6.0 40.0 31.0 65.5 22.0 71.5 16.8 27.2 19.0 80.4 26.5 71.1 11.0 25.6 9.4 12.8 470 ft 33 123 ft .. . 37 ... 37 ... 36 36 Re Te Fe 123 ft.. 470 ft 40 ft .. . 35 28 1 Rl Tl Fl 'otals, 1,266 Process 40 ft. . ft. Cableway 1908. Observe tions. ... 18 144.7 327.3 TABLE VIII. No. 3, Handling i- Min. Ave. time. time. 8.0 13.6 35.5 39.3 25.0 39.4 20.0 62.5 19.0 28.5 30.0 46.6 18.0 29.1 38.0 75.6 689.2 Concrete. Max. time. 18.2 68.0 77.0 119.0 36.0 102.0 48.0 220.0 141.7 Efficiency. Standard Per time. cent. 6.0 44.1 31.0 78.0 22.0 55.9 16.8 26.9 19.0 66.8 26.5 56.9 11.0 37.8 9.4 12.4 470 ft ... 17 123 ft D ... 21 22 . .'. 22 Re Te Fe 123 ft . 470 ft 22 40 ft L 20 16 193.5 334.6 688.2 141.7 Mr. Fred W. Taylor was the first, we believe, to adopt the prac- tice of invariably studying each motion by the aid of a stop- watch. A large number of stop-watch observations not only give the average time of a motion, but, what is of far greater im- portance, they indicate what the minimum time for each motion may reasonably be expected to be. It then follows that the sum of these minimum times for the different motions represents a standard time of accomplishment of the entire process. Hence our law of motion timing : In the performance of every process the sum of the minimum times observed for each motion gives a standard of performance possible of attainment under sufficient incentive. Mr. Harrington Emerson calls this standard of excellence 100%, and has developed the plan of rating all actual performances in percentages. Thus if the standard time for drilling a 10-ft. hole in a certain rock were 60 minutes and, if the actual time were 90 minutes, this performance would be rated at 60-^-90=66.67%. COST KEEPING. 71 In establishing a standard time of performance, the first step is to ascertain the unit times upon the work as ordinarily performed. The next step is by study of the time elements and the local con- ditions to eliminate as many motions as possible and to reduce the time of others, either by shortening the path of motion or by accelerating the velocity of the motion. To illustrate by an example we give the following time study, which was made by Mr. Dana some time ago on some cableway work. Since this was done the Lidgerwood Mfg. Co. has completely redesigned its cableway engine and fall rope carriers and has introduced new features in control (notably in the Gatun cableways in Panama). Therefore, while the data are correct as history, they must not be taken as indicating the limit of present possibility. A considerable number of studies was made, but one only is given for purposes of illustration. (See Table VII, p. 70.) The first column gives the abbreviations of the processes, dis- tances, etc. ; the second gives the number of recorded observations on each process ; the third gives the minimum observed time in seconds for each process in that table ; the fourth gives the aver- age ; the fifth gives the maximum time ; the sixth gives the mini- mum of all the observed times for each process. While this is by no means the shortest possible time in which the process could be accomplished, it is the shortest one observed, and has here been taken to represent standard (100%) efficiency. By dividing the standard time by the average for each process the average effi- ciency as observed is obtained. This is shown in the seventh column. As a result of this time study, it was possible to make an esti- mate of the probable increase in efficiency that could be obtained by rebalancing the engines. A further improvement was discov- ered in the method used in signaling to the operator, and an esti- mate of the saving to be obtained in this manner was made. A further improvement in regard to the position of the operator was discovered. A collateral improvement was perceived in the line of altering the design of the towers, so that the cost per unit of han- dling materials could be reduced, and further suggestions of a con- fidential nature, which we are not at liberty to discuss here, were made. 5. The Law of Divorce of Planning From Performance. As a corollary to the law of the subdivision of duties, we have the law of divorce of planning from performance, first formulated by Mr. Taylor. According to the old style method of management, each foreman is left largely to his own resources in planning methods, in addition to his other functions. This multiplicity of duties can be properly performed only by a foreman possessed of a multiplicity of talents. rfSince- few men can comply with such a specification for brains, it follows that good foremen of the old style are rare indeed. The modern system of management consists, as far as possible, in tak- ing away from the foremen the function of planning the work, and 72 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. in providing 1 a department to do the planning. Under planning we include inventing, that is, the improvement of existing methods and machines. A common error in management is the assumption that the man on the job in direct charge of the work is the man best fitted to plan and improve. Nothing is further from the truth. Rare, in- deed, is the man possessed of a trained inventive faculty, and it requires such a faculty not only to develop new methods and ma- chines but to plan the use of any machine with greatest economy. Nearly every piece of contract work presents new 'conditions, and this solving of new economic problems is beyond the power of any but the trained and skilled economist. But even where the prob- lems remain identical, the necessity of a divorce of planning from performance exists, as we shall indicate. The brain is an organ that requires frequent exercise in doing the same thing before it becomes proficient enough not to suffer great fatigue. Thus, the man who is learning to ride a bicycle finds that half an hour's lesson has tired him more than ten hours' work at his accustomed occupation. Attempting to do something new is wearisome beyond measure, except to the mind whose training has been in solving new problems. Hence the ordinary man finds much fatigue and little pleasure in attempting to do his work in a fashion that differs at all from that to which he has long been accustomed. The mental inertia that resists a change in methods of performing work is almost beyond comprehension, and it is found not only in the lowest type of workman but in the highest. Repetition develops skill, and skill gives pleasure. To a strong man used to his work there is actual pleasure in mowing hay, as Tolstoi has admirably pictured in one of his novels. Conversely, fatigue merges into pain and is repulsive. In addition to these fundamental reasons why men adhere to precedent in their performance, there is the fear of ridicule in case of failure to succeed in any new attempt. The child learns to speak a foreign language more rapidly than an adult not only be- cause of a more "flexible tongue" but because it does not fear laughter at its blunders. Partial failure is expected of the child, and it is not ridiculed. But an adult seems witless if he does not immediately learn the new word and its pronunciation ; hence the laughter. So it is with every new performance. Furthermore, a serious mistake may lead to the loss of a position, thus adding another reason for sticking to the "good old way." Finally, there is no method so fruitful in effecting improvements in methods and machines as a study of the time required to per- form each movement or operation. A workman or foreman rarely studies his own work in this manner. Hence his experience, upon which he is wont to brag, is like the experience of the swallow building its nest an unchanging adherence to precedent, regardless of possibilities of improvement. It is a significant fact that nearly all the great inventions have been the pi'oduct of brains divorced from the actual performance COST KEEPING. 73 of the machines that they have invented. Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin, was a lawyer, and not even a southern planter. Smiles' "Self Help" is a volume full of instances of important in- ventions made by men remotely, if at all, connected with the class of industry in which their machines are used. Nothing, therefore, is more ridiculously illogical than the common belief that the "men behind the gun" are either capable of being the inventors of the gun or the ones most likely to improve it. Yet it is this illogical belief that prevents railway companies, manufacturers and con- tractors from making hundreds of radical economic improvements. Summing up, we have this law : For maximum economy of performance, the planning of methods of doing work should be the sole function of a manager who is not a workman himself nor in direct charge of the workmen. 6. The Law of Regular Unit Cost Reports. Having planned a method of performance, it becomes necessary to secure daily, week- ly and monthly reports of such completeness that a manager can tell, almost at a glance, what the actual and relative performances are. This systematic reporting is more fully treated under the head of cost keeping. The success of nearly all large corporations, such as the Standard Oil Company, is due, in large measure, to a system of regular reports that put the various managers in constant touch with the performance of the men under them.. Reports to be of much value must come at short, regular intervals, must be in the same form, and must show quantitative results that admit of in- stant comparison with previous reports. To. permit comparison there must be either similarity of conditions, or there must be a reduction to units that are themselves practically identical. For example, a weekly record of the number of yards of earth excavated and hauled at a given unit cost is usually of little or no value to the manager unless there is a further subdivision of units of cost. The cost of loading per cubic yard should be segregated from the cost of haul- ing, so that the cost of hauling can itself be expressed in the unit of the yard-mile or ton-mile hauled. The law of regular unit cost reports may be formulated as fol- lows : Report all costs in terms of units of such character that comparison becomes possible even under changing conditions, and let these reports be made daily if possible, weekly in any event, and with a monthly summary. It is in the adherence to the terms of this law that managers of contract work in the field will find their greatest difficulty. First, there is the difficulty of selecting suitable units upon which to re- port costs. In pavement work, the square yard is a convenient unit and the number of units is easily measured daily. But in rein- forced concrete building construction, there is needed not merely the cubic foot or cubic yard unit, but many others, some of which are not easily ascertained every day. For example, the pound of steel reinforcement is one unit upon wh4ch reports should be made, for the number of pounds of steel per cubic yard of concrete differs widely. The thousand feet board 74 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. measure in the forms is another necessary unit, and the square foot of concrete area covered by the forms is still another. Yet these and other units must be used to admit of any rational com- parison of performance from day to day and week to week. Furthermore, such units must be properly selected for the still more important purpose of paying the workmen according to any bonus system. In another chapter we discuss this problem of se- lecting units of measurement at considerable length, for upon such selection depends the success of contract work under the modern method of management. 7. The Law of Reward Increasing With Increased Performance. All payments for work should be proportionate to the work done. This is the fundamental law of economic production. When this law is ignored and it is partly ignored to-day on practically every .class of work the producer ceases to take keen interest in his work. Under the common wage system of payment, one brick mason receives as much as another, regardless of skill and energy. In- dividual incentive is lacking, save as it is supplied by fear of dis- charge. When laborers, working under the wage system, are put at the task of shoveling earth into a wagon, each man seeks to do as little as his neighbor, and the slowest becomes the pacemaker for the rest. Such ambition as any individual may possess is stifled by the knowledge that his increased output will never be known by his employer, and consequently never rewarded. Moreover, an ambitious man in such a gang is chided by his fellows who warn him not to set a "bad example" by working himself out of a job. The wage system is responsible in the first place for lack of suf- ficient incentive to good performance, but its vicious effects have been greatly augmented by the stupid actions of many labor unions, such as the restriction of daily output, the limiting of the number of apprentices, the demanding of wages that have no relation what- ever to the output of individuals, the refusal to work under fore- men who are not also members of the union, the refusal to do any sort of work except that prescribed by the union, and the like. In the long run, all such restriction of output, whether due to the lack of sufficient incentive, or to the rules of labor unions, or to the cus- toms of a country crystallized into caste such as exists in India, lead to a reward commensurate with the output. Summing up : The wage received becomes ultimately proportionate to the output. The high wages prevalent in America are due neither to labor unions, as some profess to suppose, nor to abundance of natural re- sources, but to the fact that in America labor unions have not thus far greatly restricted the output of individuals except in a few trades, and more particularly to the fact that they have not opposed the introduction of labor saving machinery. In addition, American managers are far in advance of all others In their recognition the fundamental law of management namely, that the rewai should be proportionate to the performance. Hampered though the have been by the wage system, American managers have been lil eral in their policy of payments for work performed. In recognitic of his share in the greater output of earth excavation, the steal COST KEEPING. 75 shovel enginemen in the United States receives $125.00 to $175.00 a month. Within the past decade still further strides have been made by American managers toward a more effective recognition of this fundamental law of proportionate rewards. Various systems of payment, known as the bonus system, the differential piece rate sys- tem, and the like, have come intj more general use, and even the old piece rate system has received a new lease of life, all tending wonderfully to stimulate the energy and wits of workmen, because they are in accord with the law of proportionate reward. 8. The Law of Prompt Reward. Any reward or punishment that* is remote in the time of its application has a relatively faint influence in determining the average man's conduct. To be most effective, the reward or punishment must follow swiftly upon the act. Hence a managerial policy that may be otherwise good is like- ly to fail if there is not a prompt reward for excellence. Most profit-sharing systems have failed, principally because of failure to recognize the necessity of prompt reward, as well as because of failure to recognize the necessity of individual incentive. The lower the scale of intelligence, the more prompt should be the reward. A common laborer should receive at least a statement of what he has earned every day. If, in the morning, he receives a card stating that he earned $2.10 the previous day, he will go at his task with a vim, hoping to do better. But if he does not know what he has earned until the end of a week, his imagination is not apt to be vivid enough to spur him to do his best. A daily or weekly statement of earnings, followed "by prompt pay- ment, is a stimulus essential in securing the maximum output of workmen. 9. The Law of Competition. The pleasure of a competitive game lies in conquering an opponent, and this follows logically from the fact that competitive games are an evolution from the primitive chase or battle. Work conducted as a competition becomes a game, and thus stimulates those engaged not only to strive with great en- ergy but to derive keen pleasure from the contest. The business man who continues to pile up millions, long after his wealth is suf- ficient to satisfy every possible want, does so from pure joy in the contest to excel others engaged in the same business. He is follow- ing the law of competitive work. By pitting one gang of workmen against another gang, the spirit of contest is easily aroused. But it is impossible to maintain this spirit indefinitely without following the seventh law of manage- ment of men na,mely, by making the reward proportionate to the performance. When, however, this seventh law of management is observed, an added spirit is given to men by pitting one gang against another. Thus, in laying concrete by hand for a pavement, the best method is to have two distinct gangs working side by side, each gang concreting from the center of the street to the curb. When this is done under a bonus system of payment, the output is aston- ishing Where competing workmen cannot see one another's output, a bul- 76 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. letin board should be used, whereon the number of units of work performed by each man or each gang of men should be posted. Convert work into a competitive game by organising competing gangs of men and "by posting their performance. 10. The Law of Managerial Dignity. That there should be any- thing like caste among managers seems, at first, repulsive to demo-' cratic principles of government, whether the government be politi- cal or industrial. Nevertheless, a study of the personality of the most successful managers usually discloses a characteristic of firm- ness coupled with a sort of austere dignity. The best manager is never "one of the boys." Managerial control reaches its acme of excellence in the arVny, and there we find class distinctions most scrupulously observed. The officers do not "mess" with the men, nor do they form close friendships with the soldiers in the ranks. Familiarity breeds contempt, or it breeds at least a feeling that the great man is not so great after all. All managers are under the constant fire of criticism of their subordinates, whether they realize it or not. The best shield that a manager can wear is dis- tance. His little foibles and all men have them may thus be kept concealed. It is essential that they be concealed, for men of less mental endowment, will always seize upon the little defects of greater men's character or attainment as evidence of lack of any real superiority. The eye of criticism is a microscope for human frailties. Being a microscope, it is wise to keep beyond its range, so that the whole character may be viewed by the naked eye in its true perspective. Discipline in an industrial army is as essential as in a military organization, and it is best secured by military methods. This in- volves : ( 1 ) The social separation of the officers from the men ; and (2) a sequence of responsibility from the man in the ranks to the highest officer. For every act on the work every man should be responsible to some particular man higher in authority. There should never be any doubt as to whom a man is responsible ; but it does not follow that a man should be responsible to only one person, except for cer- tain acts. As we have previously shown, an industrial organization may have several classes of foremen, to each of whom each work- man is responsible for certain acts. What we now emphasize is the importance of not dividing the responsibility for any particular act. A contractor, for example, should rarely give any orders to a work- man. All orders should come through the proper foreman. To do otherwise results not only in reducing the workman's respect for the foreman, but it frequently angers the foreman, who feels that he has lost dignity in the eyes of the workmen. It is often wise to change foremen from one gang to another, in order to preserve the class distinction between foremen and men. As foremen become acquainted with the men, they generally want to be regarded as good fellows, and will then permit infractions of rules and a general decrease in activity. Who has not noticeJ that COST KEEPING. 't'f short jobs usually move with a "snap" that is not always character- istic of longer jobs? We may sum up thus: Discipline is best secured by managerial dignity, and dignity is best preserved by social separation of managers from subordinates and by an invariable sequence of responsibility. Measuring the Output of Workmen.* Before men can be paid according to their performance it obviously is necessary to devise methods of measuring the number of units of work done, but it is not always so obvious what units to select nor how to measure them readily after the selection of units has been made. Indeed, this dif- ficulty accounts in large part for the slowness with which piece rate and bonus systems have been adopted. Subdivision of Units into Other Units. In engineering construc- tion the cubic yard is a very common unit upon which contract prices are based, but the cubic yard itself is frequently a very un- certain unit of performance, for it is a composite of other units. Thus, in rock excavation there are several distinct operations in- volved, which may be enumerated as follows: 1. Drilling. 2. Charging and firing (or blasting). 3. Breaking large chunks to suitable sizes. 4. Loading into cars, carts, skips, or the like. 5. Transporting. 6. Dumping. The important item of drilling depends largely upon the spac- ing of the drill holes, which varies in different kinds of rock, and in different kinds of excavation, trenches and tunnel's requiring close spacing. Clearly, then, the lineal foot of drill hole is a unit of work that must be adopted by the rock contractor in measuring the output of his drillers, and not the cubic yard. Transportation is largely a function of distance, hence the unit of transportation cost should be the ton (or yard) carried 100 ft. or 1 mile, and not the cubic yard without the factor of distance. Our first rule to be applied in seeking units that truly express the amount of work done is as follows : Divide the contract price units into sub-units, selecting the "foot-pound" of work as the sub-unit wherever possible. A foot-pound is the unit of work used in theoretical and applied mechanics. It is the amount of work required to lift 1 pound a height of 1 foot. All forms of work are capable theoretically of being expressed in foot-pounds, but it is often very difficult to do so in practice. For example, it is* not an easy matter to ascertain how many foot-pounds of work a man performs in shoveling earth into a wagon, for there is not only the number of foot-pounds in- volved in lifting the earth but in pushing the shovel into the earth, *The following pages relating to the measurement of the output of workmen have been abstracted from "Cost Keeping and Man- agement Engineering," by Gillette and Dana. 78 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In lifting the shovel, in lifting the upper part of his own body, and In overcoming the inertia of earth, shovel and body. However, the theoretical ideal unit is the foot-pound, and, in selecting the actual unit to be used, the effort should be made to secure a unit that is as closely equivalent to the foot-pound as possible. Thus, In drill- ing, there are certain units of work done by the drill in pulverizing the rock in the drill hole, and this work is quite closely represented by the number of lineal feet of drill hole in any given kind of rock. Hence the most practical unit of work in drilling is the foot of hole drilled. The second point to consider in selecting suitable units of work is the different processes involved. Each process on field contract work usually involves a different class of men. In rock excavation the six items above given usually involve six separate gangs of men. Although all contribute their part to the final contract unit upon which payment is received the cubic yard yet the work of each may be, and usually is, better measured in terms of some other unit. We already have seen that the lineal foot of drill hole and not the cubic yard is the unit to select for the. drilling gang. The pound of explosive charged in the drill holes is a good unit by which to measure the work done by the blasting gang. The cubic yard of rock usually is the only practical unit of breaking large rock chunks. So, too, the cubic yard becomes the unit for loading and for dumping, whereas the yard-mile, or ton-mile, is made the unit of transportation. Still further subdivisions of some of these six processes are often desirable, yielding still other units that more closely approximate the foot-pound unit. Therefore, our second rule is as follows : Since construction usu- ally is divided into processes, and since a separate gang usually performs each process, select sub-units based upon the work done by each gang. In order to apply this rule it frequently is necessary to reorgan- ize the work so that each process is performed by its special gang. Where the work is not of sufficient magnitude to keep distinct gangs busy on each separate process, it is still often possible to work the same gang a few hours at one process and then shift it to another process, instead of working the same men in a heterogen- eous fashion on two or more processes at the same time. Units for Concrete Work. The cost of a cubic yard of concrete varies between about $3.00 for cheap pavement sub-base to about $20.00 for certain parts of a reinforced concrete building. A hasty generalization drawn from such variations as this has led many an engineer to scout the usefulness of cost data, particularly such data as have not been gathered by the individual who attempts to draw conclusions from them. However, when the cubic yard of concrete is divided into proper sub-units of cost, it is astonishing to note the fading away of all seeming difficulties, either in esti- mating costs of concrete or in securing data upon which to judge the efficiency of workmen. The labor processes in concrete may be classified as follows: 1. Receiving and storing materials. COST KEEPING. 79 2. Delivering materials to the mixer (loading and hauling). 3. Mixing concrete. 4. Transporting concrete. 5. Placing concrete. 6. Ramming concrete. 7. Finishing the surface. 8. Framing the lumber for forms. 9. Erecting forms. 10. Shifting and cleaning forms. 11. Taking down forms. 12. Shaping the reinforcing steel. 13. Placing the reinforcing steel. Some of these processes may be still further subdivided, and fre- quently it is desirable to do so. While the cubic yard of concrete is usually a satisfactory unit for items one to six, it is clear that the square foot or square yard is a unit that must be used for item 7. Items 8 to 11 should be expressed in terms of the 1,000 ft. B. M. as the unit, and it is usually desirable also to use the square foot of concrete surface covered by forms vised as another unit for estimating the cost of work on forms. Items 12 and 13 should be expressed in terms of the pound of steel as the unit, since the num- ber of pounds of steel per cubic yard of concrete varies widely. Two or More Units for the Same Class of Work. As just indi- cated, it is frequently desirable to use more than one unit of meas- urement. The unit on which the contract price is based is usually a desirable one in which to express all items of cost. In addition to this, the cost of each item may be expressed in other units, such, for example, as the 1,000 ft. B. M. and the square foot of area for form work in concrete construction. Such units should be select- ed as will permit comparison not only of one day's work with an- other, but of one job with another, and frequently it is desirable to select units that may be used in .comparing two entirely different classes of work. Uniformity in Units of Measurement. The economic importance of uniformity in units of measurement cannot be over-estimated. To illustrate : The common unit of concrete work is the cubic yard, but it is customary to measure cement walks in square feet. Now tnis leads to many blunders, not only in estimating the cost of walks, but in effecting reductions in cost. Not only does the thick- ness of cement walks vary widely, but the proportion of cement to sand in each layer of the walk is variable. Therefore, to say that it takes so many barrels of cement to make 100 sq. ft. of walk means next to nothing unless the plans and specifications for the walk are also given. For purposes of accurate estimating it is necessary to prepare tables of cost of mortars and concretes in terms of the cubic yard ; then by remembering that 100 sq. ft. having a thickness of 1 inch are almost exactly 0.3 cu. yd., it is a simple matter to convert costs per cubic yard into costs per square foot. Not only in computing costs of cement walks,, and the like, but in 80 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. reducing costs, does it aid us to use the cubic y;ii 1 as the unit, for it enables us to make comparisons, and thereby discover ineffi- ciency of workers. Elsewhere in this book a case is cited where the labor cost of the face mortar for a concrete wall was out of all proportion to what it should have been. Had the contractor estimated the cost of this mortar in cubic yards, he would have discovered that it was excessive. The labor of mixing mortar should not be much greater than the labor of mixing con- crete per cubic yard, nor should the labor of conveying the mortar in wheelbarrows be greater. The labor of placing it in a thin layer is obviously greater than for placing concrete in thick layers ; but, in the case mentioned, the contractor was losing his money in mixing and conveying the mortar. He had not recognized the fact because he had not reduced the cost to dollars per cubic yard of mortar. In like manner, one may often see money wasted in making and delivering mortar to bricklayers and masons, because the cost of the mortar itself, in terms of the cubic yard of mortar (not of ma- sonry), has not been calculated. The cost of labor on forms and falsework should always be re- corded in terms of 1,000 ft. B. M., as the unit; for that is the common unit of timber work, and, being so, ready comparisons can be made only in dollars per M. ft. B. M. It is surprising how few managers of men have realized the value of reducing the cost of each item of work to units that are comparable ; and by this we mean units in terms of which entirely different classes of work may be compared. Thus, in a brick pave- ment there is grout used between the joints. This grout is a thin cement mortar, and it averages, let us say, 6 cents per sq. ft. of pavement. Now, what does it average per cubic yard of grout? Probably not one paving contractor in a thousand knows ; but, until he does know, he cannot compare the cost of grouting with the cost of other kinds of cement work. Many a time have- we had our eyes opened to unsuspected losses and inefficiencies only by reducing the costs of the elements of work to units comparable with the units of similar work in other fields. The ton is a very convenient unit to use when comparing the cost of loading and handling materials of all kinds. The ton of brick, the ton of gravel, the ton of timber, the ton of cast-iron pipe, are loaded upon wagons by hand at a cost differing not so much, one from the other, as might at first be supposed. When reliable data are not available for estimating the cost of handling any given material, by reducing it to tons an approximate estimate can usu- ally be made that will be satisfactory, at any rate far more reliable than a guess. Units of Transportation. On contract work, distances of trans- portation are usually so short that the percentage of time "lost" by cars, carts, etc., while being loaded, becomes a very large part of the total day's time. Hence the unit of transportation must not be simply a unit of weight, or of volume, transported a unit dis- tance. For example, a wagon may be loaded with earth in 4% COST KEEPING. 81 minutes, transported 100 ft., dumped and returned in l 1 /^ min- utes, or less: total, 6 minutes. Of this time less than 25% is spent in transporting the earth. On the other hand, if the haul is 6,000 ft., the time spent in transporting may be 93%. The cost per 100 ft. transported is almost four times as much in one case as in the other. Therefore, unless the hauls are so long that the time lost in loading and unloading is an insignificant part of the total time, it is essential to divide the work of transportation intc three elements: 1. Time lost loading. 2. Time lost transporting. 3. Time lost unloading. Often this third item is so small that it may be disregarded. On contract work it is often necessary to have a fourth item : 4. Time lost during the shifting of tracks, and other changes in plant location. In brief, the lost time, of whatsoever nature, must be deter- mined and deducted from the total time, before the number of units of transportation performance can be divided by the correct number of hours. Transportation, therefore, must be divided into two main units of cost : 1. Non-productive (lost time loading, dumping, shifting plant, etc.). 2. Productive. The total cost of the non-productive time is divided by the total number of yards or tons moved to get the unit non-productive cost of transportation. The productive cost of transportation is the ton-mile, the cubic yard-mile, the ton-station (station = 100 ft.), or the like. The distance of transportation is usually computed from a map, but it is often desirable to attach an odometer to one, if not ayl, of the wagons, locomotives or the like. Odometers of the kinds used on automobiles and bicycles can be advantageously used in a great many places on contract work, a few of which are as follows : On wagons, on wheel scrapers, on locomotives, on traction engines, on road rollers, on derricks (to record the number of swings), on hoisting engines, on cableway carriages, etc. Indeed, wherever a machine or tool has a revolv- ing or reciprocating part, an odometer or counter can be used to record 'the number of reciprocations or revolutions, and from the data so recorded the amount of work can often be calculated with great accuracy. Recording Single Units. There are many classes of work in which the only practicable unit to be used is the single or individ- ual unit itself ; thus, the telegraph pole erected, the pile driven, the door hung, etc. Obviously records of units of this sort are so read- ily made as to require almost no comment. A punch card is a convenient record of single units. Some con- tractors prefer a tally board on which each unit is marked or tal- 82 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. lied with a pencil. Others use a board like a cribbage board, having holes in which plugs are put to record the number of units. Still others give out tickets to the men for each unit of work delivered. Record Cards Attached to Each Piece of Work. In doing ma- chine-shop work it is often necessary to have one piece of metal pass through the hands of several different workers. For example, one man may drill holes of a certain size, another man may drill holes of another size, still another man may thread the holes, and so on. In such a case it is common practice, where careful cost records are kept, to provide a card that is attached to each piece or each lot of pieces. In blanks provided on the card, each worker enters his number, and the number of hours and minutes spent by him in doing a specified kind of work on the piece. A modified form of this method is to attach a card or a brass check to each piece, giving a serial number and letter to the piece. Each workman on the piece notes its number on his own record card, and opposite this number be enters the amount of time spent on the piece. While this method of recording output cannot be as frequently used in engineering contract work as in machine shop work, it should not be overlooked by the general contractor. It might well be applied to timber work where one gang of men bores the holes, another gang saws and a third gang "daps" or adzes the sticks, and so on. It is desirable always to assign different kinds of work to different men, not only because the time usually lost in changing tools may be saved, but because men become more expert when they do one class of work only. The record card facilitates the differentiation of labor into classes, and is, therefore, a great aid in increasing the output of a given number of men. Measurements of Length. For a great many kinds of contract work the lineal foot is the best unit to use. Track laying, fence building, pipe laying, setting curb, etc., come under this head. Many other classes of work are commonly measured only in terms of the lineal foot, when, to permit of true comparisons, some other unit or units should also be adopted. Sewer work, for ex- ample, is commonly recorded only / in terms of the lineal foot ; but the amount of excavation varies greatly per lineal foot in differ- ent sewers and often in the same sewer ; hence the excavation should be measured with the cubic yard as the unit. Tunnel excavation should also be reduced to the cubic yard standard. A contractor has no very definite idea whether the "mucking" (loading of cars) in a tunnel is being done economically or not until he has determined how many cubic yards each man is loading daily. Measurements of length are often best made by driving a line of stakes 100 ft. apart, calling each stake a "station." The start- ing point or station is called Station o. The next station, 100 ft. from the start, is Sta. 1; the next station, 200 ft. from the start, is Sta. 2 ; and so on. Hence the mark on any given station stake gives the number of hundreds of feet from the starting point. Points intermediate that is between any two stations COST KEEPING. 83 are called "pluses." Thus, a point 40 ft. in advance of Sta. 2 is called "two plus forty," ana is written Sta. 2 + 40, by which it is clear that it is 240 ft. from the start. Having driven a line of station stakes, properly marked with their station number, a foreman or timekeeper can quickly ascer- tain the station and plus at which the day's work has been com- pleted. In many instances, measurements of length are best made by counting the number of pipe lengths laid, or the number of rajl lengths. Measurements of Area. Paving, painting, roofing, plastering, and many other classes of construction work are best measured in terms of the square yard, square foot, or "square" (100 sq. ft.) as the unit. Since areas are usually measured with ease, it is noticeable that area work is generally done with much greater economy than mass work, which is usually more difficult to meas- ure and consequently not measured every day on most jobs. It is sometimes not easy to measure the number of thousand feet board measure in concrete forms, in which case it may be prefer- able to measure the area of concrete covered by the forms, from which, if desired, the amount of lumber can be calculated approxi- mately. Measurements of Volume. This class of measurements is usually the most difficult to make for purposes of daily output reports. Excavation, for example, is not easily measured, as a rule, except by a surveyor. Of massive masonry the same is true. Hence there are few contractors who know accurately how many cubic yards of this sort of work should be accredited each day to each gang Record should be kept of the number of car or wagon loads of excavated material ; but, to derive much benefit from such records, care must be taken to have cars and wagons of uniform size uni- formly loaded, or to keep record of the capacities of the different vehicles. Where daily measurements of volume are difficult to secure, some one or more of the following methods may be adopted. Measurements of Weight. Loaded cars or wagons can be weighed on track scales or on portable platform scales, and this can be profitably done far oftener than it is. Loaded skips and buckets can be weighed with spring balances attached to the hoisting rope of a derrick. It is sometimes very difficult to measure volumes of certain quantities in the field and it then becomes of advantage to weigh them. It is not easy to tell how much rock there is on a skip load without weighing the loaded skip either by placing it on scales or by putting a spring balance on the derrick. Spring balances of that character can be purchased of a capacity up to 2,600 Ibs. and costing about $150. Another form of rock measuring apparatus is in the nature of a balance, costing about $115. A great advantage of a spring balance on a derrick is that it takes no extra time for handling, and, while the first cost seems rather high, the information obtained on a large piece of work is well worth its cost. 84 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In a good many of the Hudson River Trap Rock Quarries the stone is handled in cars which are pushed along on the tracks for purposes of weighing and the men are paid for performance ac- cording to the weights on the cars. This is a very accurate and, where it is practicable, a highly satisfactory method of measuring output. This method has long been in use at coal mines where every car is numbered, and is weighed before dumping. On contract work, such as macadamizing, for example, each wagon load may be weighed, if the amount of the work warrants the purchase and use of platform scales. It is usually considered sufficiently exact, however, to measure the size of a few loads, and simply count the number of loads. However, loads often vary so greatly in size that this method of counting loads becomes very unsatisfactory. This holds true particularly of loads of quarried stone, of earth loaded by steam shovels, and the like. In such cases the contractor should seriously consider the advisability of weighing each load. One of the most difficult classes of construction work to measure daily is rubble masonry. Yet we have found two very satisfactory methods of recording the work done by each derrick gang. One way is to use wooden skips that are loaded at the quarry with stone, put upon cars and transported to the work. Each skip is provided with a clip for holding a brass check. The checks are numbered serially, and the weight of stone corresponding to each number is entered in a book ; for before delivery to the masonry derricks each skip is lifted by a derrick, placed on scales and weighed. It is sometimes preferable to provide a large spring balance for weighing, instead of using scales. The mason in charge of the derrick gang removes the brass check from the skip and keeps it, entering its number on a card which is turned over to the timekeeper at night, together with the brass checks. Thus it is possible quickly to ascertain the number of tons of rubble laid by each gang. Functional Units of Measure. Under this head we class all measurements of units that are functions of the desired units. Thus, in any given mixture of concrete, the number of barrels or bags of cement is a function of (i. e., it bears a definite relation to) the number of cubic yards of concrete. Hence a record of the amount of cement used each day will enable making a close approxi- mation to the number of cubic yards of concrete. In rubble or cyclopean masonry, a record of the number of buckets of mortar will enable making a close calculation of the yardage of masonry. If spalls are liberally used to reduce the amount of mortar, as they should be, then the number of buckets or skips of spalls should also be recorded. The number of gallons of paint used is ordinarily a fair criterion of the area of surface painted. By the use of packets for handling bricks, Gilbreth has de- veloped a system of measuring the work done by each bricklayer, for count is made of the empty packets stacked up by each mason. COST KEEPING. 85 Since each packet is loaded with a definite number of bricks, this gives an accurate record of each man's output. Stockpile Measurements. There are certain kinds of construction that are best measured indirectly by ascertaining what has been removed each day from the stock piles. Thus, in erecting a frame building, the different kinds and sizes of lumber can be piled in stock piles of regular size, easily meas- ured. Rolls of paper, bundles of shingles, etc., can be stored in such manner that a daily inventory of stock on hand is readily made. By subtracting the amount shown by the inventory at the end of each day from the amount on hand the previous day, an accurate record is obtained of materials that have gone into the building. Since a carpenter's work is usually best measured in terms of the 1,000 ft. B. M., the square of shingles, and the like, it is evident that stock pile measurements can be used to great ad- vantage in determining the number of units of certain kinds of work performed on a building. The measuring of material is greatly facilitated by using a standard method of handling. Gilbreth's rule for cement (see his "Field System") is to place the bags one on top of the other in piles of fifty. One of the most difficult of the materials to check regularly is the reinforcing steel for concrete. If this is handled in plain bars they can be weighed and wired in bundles of 100 Ibs., this being a suitable size for two men to carry. The bundles are, of course, nearly always more or less than 100 Ibs., and when the steel is wired it is a good plan to attach to each bundle a tag giving its weight, which tag can be left with the storekeeper for record as the bundles are removed to the work. The difficulty of obtaining these records is caused by the fact that the material is usually placed in a haphazard way wherever it happens to be most convenient for the men placing i without any systematic regard for its use on the work. Key Units of Measure. It is always desirable to relieve the foreman or timekeeper of the work of computing the number of units of work done daily, wherever such computation involves either many measurements or much labor in computing. A foreman can readily report the number of "stations" of road graded or macadam- ized, leaving to the office force the work of deducing the number of units of work performed. A further step in the same direction is the use of key letters and numbers to designate sections of work whose dimensions the fore- man may not know but which are recorded in the office, and from which the number of units of work performed can be readily ascer- tained. For convenience we call these units key units, since they are designated by key letters or numbers. Key Units on Drawings. Any given structure can usually be divided into "sections" identical in shape and character of work. Thus, in a concrete building, there are a number of columns of identical size, a number of beams also identical, a number of 80 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Identical floor slabs, and so on. To each of these "sections" a key letter or number, or a combination letter and number, may be assigned and written on the drawing. If numbers from 100 to 199 are reserved for "sections" on the first floor, and the letter C is used to denote columns, then C 100 will designate a particular kind of column on the first floor ; while C 200 will designate a corresponding column on the second floor : Having assigned keys to all "sections," the foreman or timekeeper is furnished with blueprints on which the "sections" with their re- spective keys are marked. In some instances it is preferable to furnish only a few large blueprints containing many "sections" on each print, but it Is usually desirable to supplement these large blue- prints with small ones Of notebook size, which, if preferred, can be punched and bound in a loose-leaf binder. The foreman or timekeeper reports daily the number of each class of "sections" built by each gang, using the proper key to desig- nate each "section." The office force, having computed the number of units of work in each section, is then able to record the total number of units of work done, with accuracy and with rapidity. If a full "section" is not completed, the foreman or timekeeper esti- mates the percentage completed, and reports accordingly. Keys Marked on Separate Members. On certain classes of work a modification of the above plan is preferable. Instead of pro- viding the foreman or timekeeper with drawings having keyed "sections," a key number or letter is painted, or otherwise marked, on each separate member of the structure before it is put into place. Thus, each block of cut stone is measured in the stock yard and a "key" is painted upon it. Then, when the foreman reports that block A 105 has been laid In the wall, the office force can determine its volume from the recorded measurements. The authors have found this to be the most satisfactory method of re- cording cut stone work, for it ie thus possible not merely to tell the total amount laid each day by several derrick gangs but to tell precisely what each gang has done, for each boss mason can be required to record the key number of every stone laid under his direction. The office work of computing the volume of each stone is Insignificant in amount if tables are used for computation, such as Nash's "Expeditious Measurer" ($2.00). These tables give the volume of any block, progressing in size by inches up to 4 ft. 9 in. x 6 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 1 in. The tables also give surface areas, pro- gressing by inches, up to 4 ft. 1 in. x 8 ft. 5 in. in size. Structural steel members can be marked with key letters ; so, too, can heavy timbers, moveable sections of forms and falsework, and many other classes of materials used in construction work. Conclusion. Upon the ingenuity of the management engineer .who devises ways of recording the daily output of work done rests the success or failure of any effort to introduce modern methods of management on complicated contract work. The prob- lem before him is often one to tax his ability almost to the elastic limit, for it is not sufficient to devise a method of measuring daily COST KEEPING. 87 output after a fashion. He must devise not only an accurate method but one that permits of application at the hands of men com- paratively unskilled mentally, and under the varying conditions that characterize field construction work. Many a contractor has given UP in. disgust his attempt to install a modern system of cost keep- Ing and has charged his failure to the folly of "new-fangled no- tions." Such failures are usually the outcome of trying to teach old dogs new tricks without so much as hiring a competent teacher. Eventually, it will be recognized that management engineering is a science not to be picked up and mastered at one reading of any article or book, but that it requires study extending over a con- siderable period of time. Cost Keeping. The following pages on cost keeping have been taken from "Cost Keeping and Management Engineering," by Gillette and Dana. In this brief summary here given it is obviously impossible to give more than general principles. For further eluci- dation of the subject by specific examples, the reader is referred to the book from which this abstract has been made. The two primary objects of cost keeping are : 1. To enable a manager to analyze unit costs with a view to securing the minimum cost possible of attainment under existing conditions. 2. To provide data upon which to base estimates of the probable cost of projected work. As a result of the analysis of unit costs, followed by a com- parison of the items with corresponding cost items of similar work previously done, a manager may discover : 1. Excessive use of materials in erecting a given structure. 2. Excessive use of supplies (coal, etc.) in operating a plant, whether due to ignorance, carelessness or theft. 3. Inefficiency of workmen. 4. Inefficiency of foremen. 5. Padded payrolls. 6. Excessive loss of time due to: (a) plant breakdowns, (b) plant shifting, (c) waiting for materials or supplies, etc. 7. Improper design of plant. Cost keeping also leads to the introduction of piece-rate or bonus systems of payment, which may, in fact, be said to be one of the ultimate objects of cost keeping. Cost keeping secures many incidental advantages, like the fol- lowing: 1. Fewer "bosses" are required on certain classes of work, fof the report card is a more persuasive stimulus than the eye of a taskmaster. 2. One skilled manager can direct many more men, and with much greater effectiveness than is possible where a cost keeping system does not exist. 3. Systematic analysis of costs leads inevitably to a study of reasons for differences in costs, and this study of reasons is the first step toward inventing new machines and new methods for reducing costs. 88 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost Keeping Defined. For the purpose of the discussions in this book, a distinction must be drawn between bookkeeping and cost keeping. Bookkeeping, as we treat it, is the process of recording com- mercial transactions for the purpose of showing debits and credits between different "accounts." These "accounts" may be individuals or firms, or they may be arbitrary accounts, the latter being an evo- lution in bookkeeping that came after individual accounts became so large or so complicated as to be insufficient to show the status of the business and the profits derived from any given transaction. Cost keeping, as we treat it, is the process of recording the num- ber of units of work and the number of units of materials entering into the production of any given structure, or into the perform- ance of any given operation. To these units of work or materials, actual or arbitrary wages or prices may or may not be assigned. The object of cost keeping is primarily to show the efficiency of per- formance ; hence actual money disbursements need not be recorded, as in bookkeeping. This distinction is vital, and will be discussed at greater length. Differences Between Cost Keeping and Bookkeeping Bookkeep- ing was first devised and subsequently developed by merchants. Cost keeping was devised and developed by engineers. The mer- chant is a student of profits ; the engineer is a student of costs. Although profits depend upon costs, there is a vast difference in the point of view of the merchant and the engineer. In the study of costs, as we have previously pointed out, the aim of the engineer is to reduce all costs to a unit basis, selecting such units as most closely conform to the theoretical unit of work the foot-pound. This study often necessitates the use of several differ- ent units for the same class of work. It necessitates the recording of conditions, and the making of measurements all of which is more or less foreign to the fundamental idea of bookkeeping. Yet, in groping toward methods of cost keeping, it has become the prac- tice of most contractors, manufacturers, railway companies, etc., to endeavor to develop a cost keeping system in the bookkeeping department. Hence we have to-day systems of bookkeeping that are wonderfully complex, and, withal, show very little that they attempt to show as to unit costs. Take, for example, the accounting department of an American railway. Here we find skilled accountants loaded up with a mass of work called for in distributing the costs to different accounts. Calculating machines that carry the cost of railway spikes out to the third decimal place are clicking away from morning to night. A prodigious amount of figuring is done so that scores of distribu- tions may be made, without the error of a cent in the balancing of accounts. Yet, with it all, what do these railway accounts show as to unit costs? Next to nothing worthy of the name of cost keeping. The authors have in their possession a mass of railway accounting records ; some of it of great value, but most of it valuable only to show bookkeeping gone mad. The accounting de- partment of the average railway has no true record of unit costs. COST KEEPING. 89 The average railway engineering department is even worse off, as shown by the ridiculous estimates often submitted. After a struc- ture is built, the auditor of the railway takes the superintendent of construction to account for having exceeded the engineer's esti- mate. The engineer is put on the rack and calls the superintend- ent inefficient which is usually true. The superintendent retorts, in his letter to the accounting department, that the engineer does not know how to estimate correctly which, also, is usually true. Figures, figures, figures, but not a single unit cost! This is typical of rail- way accounting costs to-day. We emphasize it because it is also typical of the accounting departments of many contracting firms. And we emphasize it again because it illustrates so well our con- tention that bookkeeping and cost keeping must be divorced if there is to be a simple, effective system of ascertaining the efficiency of workmen, and permit of such study of their performance as will result in greater efficiency. We shall now give in concise form some of the various reasons why cost keeping records should be kept entirely distinct from bookkeeping records. 1. Since the primary object of bookkeeping is to show debits and credits, all accounts must be summarized in one book the ledger. Since the primary object of cost keeping is to reduce costs, no book corresponding to a ledger is needed. Indeed it is often de- sirable to have cost records of different classes of work kept in different books, in different ways, by different men, in order to localize responsibility as well as to apply different units as stand- ards of comparison. 2. Cost keeping should partake of the nature of daily reports by which a superintendent can gage the daily performance, and ' discover inefficiency at once. Bookkeeping accounts may not be, and usually are not, posted promptly or completely until some time sub- sequent to any performance. 3. Bookkeeping records must balance to a penny. Cost keeping records need not be keot with mathematical precision, except in so far as bonus payments to workmen are involved. The object of cost keeping is to show efficiency, and this may usually be shown by approximations fully as well as by hair splitting exactness. Hence cost keeping records may be devised that will require far less clerical work than is necessary when mathematically accurate bookkeeping is used. 4. Bookkeeping Is a clerical function ; cost keeping is an engi- neering function. It is a rule of successful management not to ask one man to exercise many functions, particularly when they are diverse in nature. -An engineer is not interested in recording debits and credits, or In the rendering of bills functions of the bookkeeper. On the contrary, a bookkeeper knows nothing about construction methods and not only has little interest in construction costs, but lacks the necessary engineering training to interpret cost records and to devise methods of reducing costs. 5. A contractor who has an effective and simple system of bookkeeping naturally objects to a change to a more complex sys- 90 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. tern, such as is necessary when cost keeping is added to the book- keeper's duties. 6. When cost keeping is begun, it is well to start in a smal 1 way, taking some particular kind of work, like teaming, and apply- ing a system of daily reports. When this phase of the work hai been analyzed and organized, some other feature is taken up, an I so on, thus developing a cost keeping system gradually. Resist- ance to change is bound to be encountered, and the way to overcome it Is in this manner, a little at a time. Bookkeeping cannot be changed a little at a time. A new system of bookkoeping mean? an entire revision all at once, for accounts are interdependent. 7. Cost keeping records should state conditions, such as weather, distance of haul, etc., which are essential to interpretation of results. Sketches sho,wing design of structures should form part of per- manent cost records. Such things are entirely foreign to book- keeping, and, if placed upon bookkeeping records, simply serve to confuse them. 8. The bookkeeper enters bills for materials as they are re- ceived, crediting the firm that furnishes them. A barrel of spikes may be followed by a dozen picks on the bill. It is not the book- keeper's function to trace the spikes to their place in the work, and, when the work is finished, to ascertain the total number of barrels of spikes used in a particular structure. That is the func- tion of the cost keeper on the ground. The bookkeeper must show that John Smith Co. has been credited with the spikes. The cost keeper, on the other hand, cares nothing as to the particular firm credited. He is concerned only with the quantity of spikes and the use to which they have been put. It is hopelessly confusing to try to show in one set of records both credits, and unit costs. 9. In studying cost records to ascertain efficiency, it is often nec- essary to have several different units as standards. On reinforced concrete work, for example, the primary unit is the cubic yard, but there should be at least three other units, namely, the pound of steel (for comparing costs of handling and placing the steel rein- forcement), the thousand feet B. M. (for comparing costs of forms), and the square foot of exposed surface (not only for comparing costs of form work but costs of surface dressing). Cost records must be sufficiently detailed for these purposes, if not in every case, at least in some cases of concrete work. Bookkeeping records be- come hopeless of interpretation unless they are uniform, and, to be uniform, they must have few units of comparison. In brief, book- keeping is not flexible. To generalize further, cost keeping costs must be divided by units of work done, so as to secure unit costs for comparison, which is a process foreign to bookkeeping. 10. Since cost keeping has as its primary object the reduction of costs, since comparison of results secured by different men or different machines or different methods are necessary, it follows that standard wages and standard prices of materials must be used. It may happen that on one job the cement may be purchased at different times at prices ranging from $1.20 to $1.50 per barrel and that common laborers may receive from $1.50 to $1.75 a day. COST KEEPING. 91 In comparing unit costs a standard price of cement should be as- sumed, as $1.30 per barrel, and a common labor standard wage, as $1.50 per day Then comparisons become possible. A bookkeeper cannot assume any rate of wage or any price ; he must give the actual wage or price. A cost keeper usually finds it desirable to use standard wages or prices which approximate the average, or actually are the average. Time Keeping Defined. Time keeping, in its old fashioned sense, is a part of the bookkeeping system, and the timekeeper is charged with the task of ascertaining what time each man has worked during the day, week or month, according to the arrangement under which he is employed, and what amount of money is due him on pay-day. The timekeeper was not concerned with how much work a man did or on what process his time was spent, so long as the general distribution of the work was obtained. Of late years the timekeeper's distributions have become much more elaborate and now he is often charged with considerable cost keeping re- sponsibility. When he does cost keeping work, the records should ordinarily be kept on separate blanks from the time keeping. If a timekeeper, unaided, attempts to distribute the labor accord- ing to the work done, his records become complex and are rarely reliable, for, due to his going from place to place, he must rely upon what others (like foremen) tell him as to the performance of different men. In his attempt to balance th# statements made to him with the total time, he usually '"fudges" his distributed records. Daily Cost Reports, By Whom Made. Daily cost reports may be made by: (a) individual workmen, (b) foremen, or (c) time- keepers or by all three of these classes of employes. Individual workmen are not always competent to fill out reports properly, but, if the report is simple in form and relates to work done by "skilled workmen," it is usually possible to get very satis- factory results. Certainly, the individual report is to be encour- aged wherever it can be applied, for it heightens the individual's interest in his work. On field contract work the foreman is the man usualiy required to make the daily reports. His constant presence on the work enables him to make a more accurate report than a timekeeper can make, if the timekeeper is required to cover considerable territory, as is usually the case. In addition to his duty in keeping the time of the men for pur- poses of raying them properly, the timekeeper is often able to attend to filling out the daily cost reports, or one or more special time- keepers may be appointed for the special purpose of rendering daily cost reports. If the timekeeper is not able to be present constantly where a gang is at work, it is often wise to prepare certain blanks upon which he receives reports from the foreman of the gang, and, from this foreman reports and reports of individuals, combined with his own observations and measurements, the timekeeper is able to fill out the complete report. No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the best persons 92 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to whom report making- is to be entrusted. The character of the workmen, the size of the job, and other conditions govern the choice. Written Card vs. Punch Card Reports. Daily cost reports are best made on forms or blanks, and these forms are preferably cards In which the blank spaces are marked either in writing or by punch- ing holes with a conductor's punch. The written card possesses the following advantages over the punch card : 1. It is more flexible, because the punch card is limited in the scope of the record to what has been foreseen in the office plus what can be written in a small space reserved for remarks. The pad and pencil are not so limited. 2. A man can usually go ahead filling out blanks in a written card without any previous directions, while he has to have some instruction in the use of the punch. 3. Erasures are possible with pencil and pad but not with a punch card. This is not always an advantage on the side of the written card, however. The punch card possesses the following advantages over the writ- ten card : 1. By folding the card, or by superimposing one card on an- other, a duplicate record is secured without the use of the carbon paper necessary to secure duplicates with written cards. This dupli- cate record cannot be altered or erased, and one copy may be kept by the superintendent for his record in discussing the work with the home office, the other being sent in as a regular report to the proper department. 2. A dirty thumb can greatly interfere with the legibility of a written record. Moreover the average foreman or time keeper does not write a particularly clear hand. Punch card records are abso- lutely clear and legible. 3. It is sometimes expedient to have records from two or more men on the same card. By having no two punches alike on the job and having each man's punch charged to his name on the records it is possible to have a clear and complete record of who made the record without wasting time and space for signatures. 4. The hole made by the punch is usually less than one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and consequently a much larger number of facts can be recorded upon a small card by the punch than by writ- ing, the number of groups of facts, however, being somewhat limited. 5. To punch a hole in a card takes much less time than to make the average pencil record, especially where duplicate records are made. Where a time keeper has to keep track of a large number of men this is a very valuable feature. 6. A hole can be accurately punched while riding on a hand-car, wagon or locomotive, when the vibration would greatly distort a man's handwriting. 7. Punch cards can be made on blue print paper from a tracing, which is an advantage where a mimeograph is not available for making white cards to be filled in with pencil. COST KEEPING. 93 Time Cards that Show Changes of Occupation. In field contract ivork there is usually more or less change of occupation constantly occurring. A gang of workmen may be engaged in grading for a while and then may be shifted to track laying; or at least some individual in the gang may be thus shifted from one class of work to another. Hence it is usually desirable to have daily report cards arranged so as to record the exact amount of time spent by each individual on each class of work. This may be accomplished in either one of two ways : First, by having a separate card for each workman ; or, second, by having a gang card on which each work- man's name or number appears, and so arranged that his time may be placed opposite or under the tabulated class of work that he has performed. The individual card (a card for each workman) is often pref- erable when the bonus system, or its equivalent, is employed. On most contract work, however, the bonus system is not yet in opera- tion, and gang cards, filled in by the foreman, will serve the pur- pose of showing the total performance of the gang and the times spent by the various individuals on different work. There are several ways of recording the individual times spent by men work- ing in a gang, among which the following are typical. Each employee is given a number, and the numbers are arranged in a horizontal line across the top of a time sheet, as shown in Fig. 4. The different classes of work are printed in a column at the left, one line being assigned to each subclass. If team No. J works from 7 to 9 a. m. plowing, the record is made by the foreman, who writes 7-9 opposite "Plowing" and under No. 1 ; since this is 2 hours' work, the figure 2 is subsequently written directly below the 7-9. If team No. 1 is then transferred to work connected with rolling subgrade, and is thus engaged from 9 to 11 a. m., this fact is indi- cated, as shown, by writing 9-11 under No. 1 and opposite "Rolling Subgrade." Another method involves the use of "key letters" to indicate each class of work, the proper key letter being placed opposite the em- ployee's name and under the nearest half hour when he began doing the class of work represented by the key letter. Fig. 5 shows that employee No. 1, whose name is Smith, began work at 7 a. m., the key letter A being under 7, and that he was engaged in excavation, since A is the "key" for excavation. He continued on excavation until 10:30 a. m., when he began backfilling, as shown by the key letter C entered under 10 and in the lower square. The upper squares indicate the even hour, and the lower squares indicate the half hour. At 3 p. m. he was transferred to concrete work, as shown by the key letter F under 3, where it will be seen that the number of hours worked by each rnan on each class of work is recorded under a column headed with a combination of key letters that indi- cate the class of work. Wherever men are being frequently shifted from one class of work to another, some method of recording the time of shifting, at least to the nearest half hour, should be used, as outlined in the different ways above given. If a foreman does not make ,n imme- 94 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. diate record of such shifting, but relies upon his memory to fill in his report blanks at night, he is almost certain to make serious Slreet zv. is o r ty N. OF EMPLOYEE i t s Hl'< OHADLNQ Plowing 7-9 B BxcaTaUng Boiling Bubgrade % BABE Hauling * Loading Concrete Gravel n-i'i l Hauling * Loading Concrete Stone Htullog ft Loading Concrete Sand Laying Concrete Raullnc * Unloading Cement KICK Hauling ft Unloading i-t> $ Laying Brick i-o 1 Making Cnibloo 8-12 4 Hauling ft Loading Cuihlon Sand Onlllne BricJ. ^ Boiling Brick FILLEB Putting In Filler f Hauling ft Loading filler Sand Putting in Expansion Joints BBWBBAOE Putting In Sower* ft InleU Potting in Catch Bajdni Putting In Manholes AND Screening Bind CUBBING Hauling ft Loading Gravel or Stone Hauling ft Loading Sand Hauling and Unloading Cement lUSDBIES Hauling ft Loading filling Gravel or Sand Cleaning up Genera! MACADAM Boiling Stone Spreading Stone Total Honn 10 10 Bate Per Hoar J5 20 AH remark* BUM appear on the .tier ilde. p Fig. 4. Time Sheet. mistakes. Moreover, it is not unusual for a foreman to "fudge" the reports thus made, and even to falsify them grossly, for the pur- pose of showing a, seemingly high efficiency of the men on certain COST KEEPING. N) X M 1 -"BO sn< >H 1 -j O'H 1 X raa i i i o * qad !d o : fa W3U 00 r "i p : w waju r S : a Bn[dJ n S l r Q ' U II JV E a jj a a us i M BA3 a 1 i rrn L _ i <0 i 2* g w i SD .9 u< I BrS 2 X c S t> 2 j 'o % sa . c5 *> Rii'-Hil &? 1 Q S B g y o - -1 s E 0> .___ = is o CO 3 a | t- i i I H H i ^| o iiou x4j p J ni ^33ip V TO uoiinqm noi Bid *J * to | ^ 3 g g X / i a 1 I 1 | 1 IS II fcl 11 51 | See instructions I 1 \ i I i H* j 3 96 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. classes of work ; but, if a blank must be filled in during the prog- ress of the work, and not at night, a foreman risks discovery of any attempted deceit, since his record card may be examined at an unexpected time of the day. Gang Report Cards. These are usually made by the foreman in charge of the gang. If the aung is always engaged on the same class of work, it is not necessary for the foreman to keep a time record of each man's occupation, in the manner just described; for the foreman can fill in the daily report card from memory. In this case the timekeeper records each workman's name and hours of work, while the foreman concerns himself only with report- ing the total number of men engaged on each class of work and their day's performance. A gang report card should usually show most of the following things : 1. Number of contract. 2. Location of the job. 3. Character of the job. 4. Date of the report. 5. Kind of weather. 6. Name of the foreman. 7. Classification of work, or "key letters." 8. Total hours labor under each class. 9. Rates per hour. 10. Total pay. 11. Number of units of each class of work done. 12. Units of material and supplies used. 13. "Units of materials received. 14. Units of material in stock. 15. Delays, time and cause. 16. Time machines are actually working. 17. Kind of machine or tool used and its condition. 18. Remarks. Obviously there are many classes of work that do not require a daily statement containing all these 17 facts; but in preparinc a daily report card it is desirable to have this list at hand, to ma::o sure" that no omissions occur. The space reserved for "Remarks" is usually so small that it is rarely used. Special conditions that would naturally be recorde.1 under "Remarks" had better be recorded in a loose leaf diary kept by the foreman, of which more will be said later. In designing a gang report card, the most difficult feature is the classification. This, however, is greatly simplified if done accord- ing to the following system : 1. Select for the general class heads the items upon which the unit contract prices are based, such as excavation (cu. yds.), ma- cadam (sq. yds.), curb (lin. ft.). 2. Divide each of these pay items into the operations involved. Thus excavation involves (a) loosening, (b) loading, (c) trans- porting, and (d) dumping. 3. Divide each opei-ation into as many subheadings as there are COST KEEPING. 97 classes of workmen engaged upon it. Thus, the operation of loosen- ing earth may involve (a) teams plowing, and (b) men holding plow. Summing up we would have the following subclasses under the class Excavation : Excavation Loosening: Men holding plow. Teams plowing. Loading : Men shoveling. Transporting : Teams. Dumping : Men. The next thing to consider is whether the men are of the same class, receiving the same rates of wages ; for, if they are not, there must be a further subdivision. For example, on cement curb con- struction, the classification would be as follows: Curb- Trenching : Laborers. Placing cinders : Laborers. Mixing and placing : Laborers. Setting forms : Skilled laborers. Finishing: Skilled finishers. Helpers. There are many kinds of pay items, such as macadam, that often involve processes that are performed at widely separated places. Thus, quarrying and crushing are processes far removed from spreading, rolling and sprinkling the macadam. Whenever this is the case, it is usually unwise to attempt to show all the processes on one report card. A good general rule to follow is to group to- gether on the same report card only those processes that come directly and constantly under the eye of one foreman. Therefore one report card should show the quarrying and crushing, another should show the grading of the road ; and possibly the spreading, rolling and sprinkling of the macadam should also be placed upon the same card with the grading, but not unless the grading gang is to be always a very short distance in advance of the ma- cadamizing. The commonest mistake in designing report blanks is to endeavor to reduce the number of the blanks. It is far better to have more blanks and to distribute the work of reporting, for it not only sim- plifies the blanks, but, by giving each foreman less to report, greater accuracy is secured. In fact, there are many operations that can best be reported by the workmen themselves. Thus, to continue the illustration of the macadam road work, each of the teamsters haul- ing broken stone should carry an individual report card which is punched or marked by workmen at each end of the trip. We have said that the pay items should be analyzed according to the operation involved, but care must be taken not to select operations upon which men are engaged for but a few moments con- tinuously. To illustrate: In mixing concrete by hand, there are usually the following operations: (a) loading wheelbarrows, (b) 98 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. wheeling, (c) mixing, (d) loading, (e) transporting, (f) spreading and ramming. Some gangs are so organized that a few men are kept constantly busy loading wheelbarrows with sand and stone, while the rest of the gang spends a few minutes wheeling, a few more mixing, and so on. Clearly it would be foolish to subdivide the operations on the report cards where the organization is of this character, for most of the men are changing their operations so frequently that a foreman would have time left for doing nothing but to record their changes. We see that the designer of a report blank should know ap- proximately what the organization of the gang and what the methods of operation are to be, before he can design a report blank that will be concise, and complete, but with no superfluous headings. Since there are almost innumerable methods of doing work, it is obviously impossible to furnish a set of printed report cards that will exactly serve all cases, unless the classification headings used are very general. However, the designing of a report card is a comparatively simple matter once the organization and methods of doing the work are known, provided the foregoing system is used. ' A tentative report blank can be designed either by using some existing report card for similar work as a guide, or by referring to some book that gives, in detail, the costs of construction work similar to that for which the report blank is intended. From the items of cost given in published records, a classification can be prepared that will be of decided help in planning the report card. In order to economize space on a report blank, it is not always necessary to print the classes or subclasses in full. Abbreviations and key letters may be used. Sometimes the mere recording of the rate of wages opposite a class will show the subclass. Thus, under the class of "Forms" (building wooden forms for concrete) if a wage of 20 cts. per hour appears, also a wage of 35 cts. per hour, it will be understood that the latter refers to the carpenter, while the former refers to the carpenter's helper. Having decided upon the classification of operations and em- ployes, the next thing to determine is the character of the perform- ance report which is usually to be recorded on the same card. We have discussed the difficulties of reporting daily performance, and have indicated ways of overcoming the difficulties. It is evi- dent that a foreman or timekeeper should not be expected to report the number of units of each class of work performed if any con- siderable amount of difficult measurement is involved. Hence, It is usually futile to provide for a daily report of the number of cubic yards of earth excavated. On the other hand, the number of wagon loads, or car loads, may usually be reported, and the blank used for excavation should usually provide for such a report. If some of the excavated material is shoveled directly into the embankment or hauled by scrapers, while some is hauled by wagons, it will be futile to provide for a daily report of loads hauled. In such cases, it is often advisable to report merely the number of lineal feet of work done daily. Thus, in road work, where the excavation is shallow and mostly from ditches, the COST KEEPING. 99 report should show the station and plus up to whieh the grading is completed at the end of the day. It is then the function of the office force to determine the yardage from the office records. The amount of. concrete and cement work of all kinds can be reported with considerable accuracy by stating the number of bags of cement used during the day. The amount of supplies, like coal, used each day, can usually be reported if some system is devised for recording consumption or for readily inventorying the stock on hand each night. It Is generally wise to require coal to be measured in boxes or in wheelbarrows of uniform size, uniformly filled. Then each fire- man reports the number of cubic feet (or boxes) of coal used during the day. Empty dynamite boxes are often convenient for purposes of measurement, as they hold exactly % cu. ft. each. Individual Record Cards. Wherever individual workmen are paid by the bonus or price rate systems, it is usually best to pro- vide a separate record card for each workman, for it is difficult to make a compact record on one card that will show not only the occupations of a number of men, but the performance of each man. This is particularly true where the men are repeatedly shifted from one class of work to another. Where one man operates a machine, like a rock drill, it is usually wise to provide him with his own individual record card, upon which he is required to record his day's performance. A modification of this plan is to let the foreman carry the individual records of all the men, and fill in each card himself. The engineman on a dinky locomotive should be required to make and fill in a daily report, showing the number of train loads hauled, time lost, etc. A teamster should usually be required to carry a card whereon are recorded the times of arrival or departure at each end of each trip. A steam roller engineman should be required to fill in a card report showing number of lineal feet of road rolled, and the num- ber of miles traveled by the roller. The latter should be recorded by an odometer. Kind of Punches to Use. If punch card reports are to be used. . an ordinary conductor's punch will serve for small cards ; but it is generally desirable to have large cards, which necessitates the use of a special punch having a 2-in. reach. Such special punches are made by L. A. Sayre & Co., of Newark, N. J., and by other railroad supply concerns. Size and Kind of Daily Report Cards. It is usually desirable to have report cards of a size that will be suitable for filing in the standard card index files. A size that will be found satisfactory for general use is 5x7% ins. If reports are to be written and made out in duplicate, the report cards should be made up in pads of alternate thin and thick cards, so that a carbon paper may be inserted between a thin card and a thick one. 100 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. It is generally wise to have the cards tinted one color for the original and another color for the duplicate. It is also a good plan to designate the kind of report card by a key letter, or com- bination of letters, which may be stamped in red in one corner of the card. Thus the letter T may be used to designate the daily report card of teamsters. Instead of using mnemonic key letters, some contractors prefer to use different tints for different classes of report cards. This works well when there are only a few classes, but becomes confusing when there are many, and is worthless as a means of distinguishing cards at a glance when there are very many classes. Where a great deal of information must be crowded on one card, it is often desirable to orovide for writing the report on both Team Day ^.dkuJwvlfcZ. M^.l.im 6 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 7 8 + 9 10 II 12 I 2 3 4 5 6 Length of Haul Fig. 6. Punch Card For Teams. faces of the card. This is objectionable, however, because it makes It impracticable to produce a duplicate by the use of carbon paper. It is also inconvenient to examine such a card after it is placed tn a filing case. Foreman's Diary. The foreman or the superintendent should usually be required to keep a daily diary in which should be entered : 1. Verbal orders received from engineers and owners. 2. Verbal requests made to the engineers for grade stakes, etc. 3. Weather conditions. 4. Remarks as to hardness of digging, poor quality of materials and supplies, slowness of their delivery, general inefficiency of the men available, and such other conditions as bear upon the eco- COST KEEPING.' 101 nomic performance of the work but can .not, be snown ia the daily report. The ordinary field foreman will not keep a diary of much value unless its pages are inspected daily. This requires that it shall be a duplicate loose leaf diary, the original leaf being sent to the office with the daily cost report, and ihe duplicate, or carbon copy, being retained by the foreman and bound in a loose leaf binder. Designing Punch Card Reports. We have already enumerated the advantages of the punch card for certain kinds of daily reports. One of the earliest punch cards devised for this purpose is shown In Fig. 6, and was designed by one of the authors for recording the daily work done by each team in hauling broken stone for ma- cadam. Each teamster carries a card which he presents for punch- ing at each end of the trip. The diamond punch hole indicates that the loaded team left the crusher bin at 7 :05 a. m. The cross punch holes shows that it dumped its load on the road at 8:20 a. m. A new card is issued to each teamster each day ; but, if it is de- sired to provide one card that will serve for a full week, one is easily designed. A more elaborate form of individual punch card is shown in Fig. 7, and is designed to show the daily performance of each rock drill in great detail and in duplicate. Note that the upper half of the card is to be folded back on the lower half, so that the holes are punched in duplicate. The punch holes in tnis particular card show : 1. That the holes were spaced 4 ft. one way and 5 ft. the other. 2. That + bits were used. 3. That the drill was in good condition. 4. That the drill was No. 2. 5. That a 3-in. starting bit was used. 6. That 54 ft. of hole were drilled. 7. That there were 4 holes/ Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, whose depths were 15, 14, 13 and 12 ft., respectively. (Note: A hole, No. 0, is provided, in case a partly drilled hole of the previous day has to be completed, for, in that event, the num- ber of feet drilled to complete the hole is punched above hole No. 0.) 8. That the date was July 16. 9. That work besran at 7 :02 a. m.. and hole No. 1 was com- pleted at 9 :44 ; that work was stopped at 12 m. and begun again at 1 p. m. ; that hole No. 2 was finished at 1 :18 p. m., hole No. 3 at 2 :36, hole No. 4 at 4 :52. It is not usually necessary to record rock drill operations to the nearest even minute, as the nearest 5 minutes will ordinarily suffice ; but it is sometimes desirable to have the drillers record the time of starting one hole and of starting the next hole. In that case this card, which provides for a time record on 2-min. intervals, is more satisfactory than one designed for 5-min. intervals. Drillers are often very slow in shifting drills from one hole to the next, which is well shown up if the time of finishing one hole and of starting the next is punched. Punching two holes in the card in one 102 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. square (ptmchthg double), can be used to Indicate time of starting a hole, while punching one hole indicates its time of completion. Note that in designing punch cards, space can be economized by the arrangement shown in the upper left hand corner of Fig. 7 fr 9 > 9 5? 2? zSWprpew 6 Qo 1/8/02 jo 9fut VWd 0/0 <** 01 CH 01 01 O/ W c c PC C f i\z c +[f\9Wff\e\oo/ *u*L /es Dri/tect Tens 3\+ S\C>\7\8\9\o J)e.f>fh of Hole, (fee 2 2 2 10 10 10 10 33 33 v /Of A? 5- ^Spacing or /fo/e-s in reeT f\/na or Condition or On// B 4 9 10 DfVLL f?FCO/=?D Punch JJouS/e 4cst <& 2 d Jt \ I 1 c r- > | i b S! j P a H i s X t- I I j 2 3 | Q r 3 H 3 *s ^ d m * 10 t- X 05 rH 3 WI a? H (N CO T} VO co t- 00 05 O rH ! onqx x rH W CO * w CD t- 00 05 rH 3 | *P9^ Js T-( CO * 10 CD t- 00 05 O rH 8 60 eonx S(? rH M CO * kO CD t- 00 05 rH ri 1 now a? H M * IO CO t- 00 05 O rH fc I ung x rH C? CO * 10 CD t- 00 05 2 the dispute must be settled then and there, for on pay day no claims for extra time will be listened to. This does away entirely with pay day disputes, which is a very satisfactory feature. The 116 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. card also serves to check the timekeeper's records. Moreover, it makes "padding" of payrolls more difficult, and facilitates detective work if "padding" is suspected. The card also serves as a dis- charge slip ; for, when a man is discharged, the foreman punches the hours that he has worked and he also punches a hole through the word "discharged." When the man presents the card at the office he is paid; the card is kept as a voucher, and a hole is punched through the word "paid." Recording Work by Minute Hand Observations. It has often been said that short time observations prove nothing as to the efficiency of men or machines. This statement has been exceedingly misleading to those who have accepted it as a self-evident truth. When a short time observation does not include the common delays incident to shifting tools, to breakdowns, and the like, it may lead to a serious underestimate of the cost of work. On the other hand, when the so-called short time observation is made long enough to include the time spent in necessary rests, in moving machines, in repairs to plant, and the like, exceedingly valuable results may be obtained. When it is desired to find whether men are lazy, whether a foreman knows his business, whether the method of doing the work can be bettered, or whether the tool or machine is sus- ceptible of improvement, there is no method to be compared with the method of timing work with the minute hand of a watch. More- over, where it is desired to discover the effect on cost of varying the length of haul, of varying the kind of rock drilled, and the like, timing with the minute hand is the only satisfactory way of arriv- ing at definite conclusions. If a stop-watch is not available, an ordinary watch with a second hand will serve, and in many classes of work even the second hand can be dispensed with. An example will now be given to illustrate the method and value of a short time observation. Before beginning the record, set the minute hand so that it points an even minute when the second hand points at 60. Suppose it is desired to time the drilling of a hole in a seamy mica-schist, using a steam drill mounted on a tripod. At 9:37 a. m. the driller is set up and ready to begin drilling a hole and exactly 30 seconds later he turns on the steam ; then we begin our record : 9 :37 :30 Start. 9 :49 :20 Down. 9 :51 :20 Start. 10:00:40 Down. 10:03:40 Start. 10 :09 :40 Down. 10:13:00 Start. 10:14:40 Bit sticks. 10:24:40 After hammering the drill repeatedly, the driller is di- rected to. break up some cast iron and throw it into the drill hole. 10 : 32 : 30 Drilling begins* again. 10 :45 :00 Hole finished. 11 :15 :10 New hole started. COST KEEPING. 117 It will be seen that drilling started at 9:37:30, and that at 9 :49 :20 the full length of the feed screw was out, and that to drill farther a new bit had to be inserted. At 9:51:20 the new bit was in and drilling began again, after a delay of 2 mins. in changing bits. At 10:00:40 the second bit was down. Each successive bit, it should be stated, is usually 2 ft. longer than its predecessor. At 10:14:40 the bit sticks in the hole due to having run into a pocket of rotten rock. The observer might readily have predicted this sticking by noting the increased rapidity of penetration ; for it took nearly 12 mins. to drill the first 2 ft. of the hole, and only 6 mins. to drill the 2 ft. just prior to the sticking. After wasting 10 mins. abusing the drill the driller finally removed the bit (at the direc- tion of the observer), broke up a piece of cast-iron pipe into hazel nut sizes, and threw two handfuls of the iron into the bottom of the hole. Drilling was resumed at 10 :32 :30, and the last 2 ft. were completed at 10:45:00. At 11:15:10 the driller started another hole, having spent more than 30 mins. shifting the tripod and drill. What do we learn from this observation? First that the driller was slow in changing bits ; second, that he was very slow in shift- ing his tripod ; third, that the driller was ignorant ; fourth, that the foreman was equally so ; fifth, that fragments of cast iron com- pletely overcome sticking of bits in this rock. We know that the driller was slow, because other similar obser- vations have proved it possible to change short bits in much less time than 3 mins., and, since the driller has an easy time of it while turning the crank, he can work rapidly without exhausting himself when it comes to changing bits or shifting the machine. We know that both driller and foreman were ignorant, for broken Iron should have been provided ready to use in case of sticking of the bit. We conclude that it will pay to assign a man to measure up the footage of hole drilled by each driller every day, and to offer each driller a bonus for every foot of hole drilled in excess of a stipulated minimum. The foregoing is a record of fact and not of theory. On a large contract job I secured an increase of 45% in the daily footage of each drill by taking just such observations as the above. I have found it of great advantage to time in detail the work oi cableways, derricks, steam shovels, concrete mixers, dinkey locomo- tives, pile drivers and other machines used on contract work. Even the output of men working with hand tools can be profitably studied in the same way. The number of shovelfuls of earth may be timed under different conditions, with a view to ascertaining the effect of changed conditions, and the effect of using larger shovels. How- ever, the greatest gains from minute-hand timing occur when it is applied to machines operated by power rather than to hand work. It is desirable in nearly all cases not to let the workmen know that they are being timed. When men are working in the open air, an observer can often use the telescope of a transit or a pair of neld glasses to good advantage, u shop work, or underground, where the observer mv&t. be near tne men, a convenient way of timing any detail of wovk is by counting. One can soon learn to 118 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. count with regularity, and thus dispense with a second or minute hand. Other methods of ascertaining the time of doing work with- out being observed will occur to anyone who gives thought to the matter. SECTION II. EARTH EXCAVATION. Magnitude of the Subject. Probably no kind of engineering work involves as many varying factors as earth excavation. Not only is there a wide range of classes of earths but the tools for excavation are almost as varied as the conditions encountered. Taken as a whole, accurate estimating of the cost of earthwork is probably more difficult than estimating the cost of any other item of con- struction discussed in this book. Having already written one book on earthwork, and having another and much larger treatise in preparation, I shall give in this section only the very briefest sum- mary of some of the commoner methods of earth excavation and cost. In other sections of this book will be found supplementary data on earthwork, for which consult the -index under "Excavation, Earth." Earth Measurement. Earthwork is paid for by the cubic yard, and is usually measured "in place," that is, in the natural bank or pit before it has been loosened. The price paid usually includes the excavating, hauling and placing the earth in the embankment, and no extra price is paid for making the embankment in other words, the earth is paid for but once. Occasionally, in dike work, in building reservoir embankments, and wherever it is very difficult to measure the earth in place, it is specified that the earth shall be measured in the consolidated embankment. However, unless other- wise stated, all costs given in this book refer to measurements of earth in place. Many specifications for railroad work contain an "overhaul clause," which provides that for all earth hauled more than a cer- tain specified limit, the contractor shall be paid a certain amount per cubic yard, usually 1 ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. overhaul. The specified limit of "free haul" is sometimes 1,000 ft., sometimes 500 ft. Even in case of an overhaul, no additional payment is made for building the embankment, but only for the overhaul. Earth Shrinkage. Earth when first loosened and shoveled into a wagon swells, that is, it occupies more space than it did "in place" ; but, when placed in an embankment and rolled or pounded down, it shrinks, and this shrinkage is often so great that the earth occu- pies less space in the embankment than it did "in place." The fol- lowing is a summary, based upon data of actual tests given in my book on earthwork: 1. Taking extreme cases, earth swells when first loosened with 119 120 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. a shovel, so that after loosening it occupies 1 1/7 to 1% times as much space as it did before loosening ; in other words, loose earth is 14% to 50% more bulky than natural bank earth. 2. As an average, we may say that clean sand and gravel swell 1/7, or 14% to 15% ; loam, loamy sand or gravel swell 1/5, or 20% ; dense clay, and dense mixtures of gravel and clay, % to %, or 33% to 50%, ordinarily about 35% ; while unusually dense gravel and clay banks swell 50%. 3. Loose earth is compacted by several means ; (a) the puddling action of water, (b) the pounding of hoofs and wheels, (c) the jarring and compressive action of rolling artificially. 4. If the puddling action of rains is the only factor, a loose mass of earth will shrink slowly back to its original volume, but an embankment of loose earth will at the end of a year be still about 1/12, or 8%, greater than the cut it came from. 5. If the embankment is made with small one-horse carts, or wheel scrapers, at the end of the work it will occupy 5 to 10% less space than the cut from which the earth was taken, and in sub- sequent years will shrink about 2% more, often less than 2%. 6. If the embankment is made with wagons or dump cars, and made rapidly in dry weather without water, it will shrink about 3 c /o to 10% in the year following the completion of the work, and very little in subsequent 'years. 7. The height of the embankment appears to have little effect on its subsequent shrinkage. 8. By the proper mixing of clay or loam and gravel, followed by sprinkling and rolling in thin layers, a bank can be made weigh- ing 1% times as much as loose earth, or 133 Ibs. per cu. ft. 9. The bottoms of certain rivers, banks of cemented gravel, and hardpan, are more than ordinarily dense, and will occupy more space in the fill than in the cut unless rolled. Kinds of Earth. Earth may be divided into three classes as re- gards difficulty of excavation: (1) Easy earth; (2) average earth; and (3) tough earth. To the first class belong loam, sand, and ordinary gravel, which require little or no picking to loosen ready for shoveling. To the second class belong sands and gravels im- pregnated with an amount of clay or loam that binds the particles together, making it necessary to use a pick or a plow drawn by two horses to loosen the earth before shoveling. To the third class be- long the compact clays, the hardened crusts of old roads, and all earths so hard that one team of horses can pull a plow through the earth only with greatest difficulty, but that two teams of horses on one plow can loosen with comparative ease. This third class of earth passes by insensible degrees into what Is called "hardpan." Hardpan commonly means a very compact clay, or mixture of gravel or boulders with clay. Soft shales that can be plowed with a rooter plow are sometimes called hardpan. There are also certain gravels cemented with an iron oxide (iron rust) which are called hardpan. There are many local names applied to different kinds of earth. EARTH EXCAVATION. 121 "Adobe" is a name much used in Texas, Arizona, California and and neighboring states to denote any clay of which mud bricks, or adobes, might be made. "Gumbo" is a word used in the Mis- sissippi Valley to denote a black loam containing so much clay as to be exceedingly sticky when wet. "Marl" is, strictly speaking, a mix- ture of clay and pulverized limestone, but the term is often applied to clay soils containing only 1% to 2% of limestone dust, as, for ex- ample, the greensand marls of New Jersey. There are many local deposits of disintegrated minerals, which, when soapy in texture, are often called marl. In some cases these deposits are so greasy that, when saturated with water, slides and cave-ins occur when an attempt is made to excavate them. Quicksand is a term applied to any sand, or sandy material, which flows like molasses when the sand is saturated with water. In this book the rules for estimating costs, unless otherwise stated, relate to "average earth," as above defined. Definitions of Haul and Lead. "Lead" is a term used to denote the horizontal distance in a straight line from the center of mass of the pit to the center of mass of the dump. The pit, in this case, refers to the volume of earth to be excavated, and the dump refers to the embankment. The "lead" does not include the distance actu- ally traveled, including turnouts, etc., from pit to dump ; this actual distance traveled by the cars or wagons is called the "haul." The "haul" is then half the distance traveled by a car or wagon in making a round trip. Work of Teams. A "team," as used in this book, means a pair of horses and their driver. Even where the word driver is omitted in speaking of the cost of team work, the wages of the driver are always included under the word "team." A good average team is capable of traveling 20 miles in 10 hrs., going 10 miles loaded and returning 10 miles empty, over fairly hard earth roads. If the team is traveling constantly over soft ground, 15 miles is a good day's work. On the other hand, if the team is traveling over good gravel or macadam roads, or paved streets, it is possible to average 25 miles per 10-hr, day. These rates include the occasional stops made for rests, etc., and include the climbing of an occasional hill. When traveling at the rate of 2% miles an hour, which is the or- dinary walking gait of horses, the distance covered in 1 min. is 220 ft. Over good hard roads a team may trot with an empty wagon at the rate of 5 miles per hr., and thus make up for delays in load- ing and unloading, so as to cover the full 20 miles of daily work; but over soft ground a team should not trot. The loads that a team can haul (in addition to the weight of the wagon) over different kinds of roads are as follows: Earth, Short tons. cu. yds. Very poor earth road 1.0 0.8 Poor earth road 1.25 1.0 Good hard earth road 2.0 1.6 Good clean macadam road 3.0 2.4 It is not possible to haul much greater loads over an asphalt or 122 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. brick pavement than over a first-class, clean macadam. On all the kinds of roads to which the above averages apply, there may be occasional steep grades to ascend, and occasional bad spots to pass over. The pulling power of a horse averages about one-tenth of his weight when exerted steadily for 10 hrs. ; that is, a 1,200-lb. horse will exert an average pull of 120 Ibs. on the traces. But for a short space of time the horse can exert a pull (if he has a good foot- hold) equal to about four- tenths his weight, that is, four times his average all-day pull. This I have tested with teams, not only in ascending steep grades but in lifting the hammer of a horse- operated pile driver. Where teams are traveling long distances, it is customary to have two wagons keep together, so that one team can help the other up a steep hill by acting as a "snatch team." A "snatch team," or helping team, may often be kept busy to advantage in pulling heav- ily loaded teams out of a pit, or onto a soft embankment, or up a steep grade. Three-horse snatch teams are frequently used. A small hoisting engine may replace a snatch team to advantage in many places. By laying channel irons for rails up a steep hill, and having a hoisting engine at the top, very heavy loads can be assisted over bad roads. In this case, a boy mounted on a pony can drag the hoisting rope back to the foot of the hill ready for the next team. Plank roads can often be built to advantage for short dis- tances up steep grades, or over bad spots. In the far West it is customary for three or more teams to be hitched to a train of two or more wagons ; and, when a steep hill is to be ascended, to haul one wagon up at a time. This saves wages of drivers. In the last section of this book, Miscellaneous Costs, will be found further suggestions on hauling with teams, also costs of feeding and maintaining teams. Consult the index under Hauling, Teams. Cost of Plowing. A team on a plow will loosen 500 cu. yds. of loam, or 350 cu. yds. of loamy gravel, or 250 cu. yds. of fairly tough clay, per 10-hr, day. For "average earth," therefore assume 350 cu. yds. per day loosened by a team and driver and one man holding plow. With wages at $3.50 for team and driver, and $1.50 for laborer, the cost of plowing average earth is 1% cts. per cu. yd. In plowing very tough material with a pick-pointed plow, four horses and three men, estimate 180 cu. yds. plowed per day at a cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. For tough material there has recently been developed a "gang plow" of remarkable efficiency. It consists of a framework mount- ed on four small wheels, and equipped with five rooters or plows. These plows can be quickly set, by means of levers, to plow or cut to any desired depth. From 6 to 12 horses, or a traction engine, pull the gang plow, and it cuts five furrows at once. This gang plow is made by the Petrolithic Pavement Co., Los Angeles. Calif. Cost of Picking and Shoveling. When wages are $1.50 per .10-hr. EARTH EXCAVATION. 123 day, the cost of loosening earth with a pick (instead of a plow) ranges from 1 ct. per cu. yd. for very easy earth, to 11 cts. per cu. yd. for very stiff clay or cemented gravel ; for "average earth" the cost of picking is about 4 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of loosening with a pick and shoveling into wagons is as follows, wages being 15 cts. per hr. : Per cu. yd. Easy earth, light sand or loam 12 cts. Average earth 15 cts. Tough clay 20 cts. Hardpan 40 cts. The amount of earth that a man can load with a shovel varies with the character of the earth, the way it has been loosened, the size and shape of the shovel, etc. If a man is shoveling earth from the face of a cut that has been undermined and broken down with picks, he can readily load 18 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day, after the earth has been loosened. If he is shoveling plowed earth, where he must use more force in driving the shovel into the soil, he will easily load 14 cu. yds. of average earth in 10 hrs. If he is shoveling loose earth off boards upon which it has been dumped, he can load 25 .cu. yds. in 10 hrs., but it is not wise to count on more than 20 cu. yds. even under good foremanship. For data on the cost of trenching, the reader is referred to the sections on Sewers and on Water-works. Consult the index under "Excavating, Trenches." Cost of Trimming, Rolling, Etc. After earth has been dumped from carts or wagons, a man will spread in 6-in. layers by hand 75 cu. yds. in 10 hrs., at a cost of 2 cts. per cu. yd. A leveling scraper, or road machine, will spread large quantities of earth for % ct. to % ct. per cu. yd. With a leveling scraper operated by a team and driver and a helper, I have had 500 cu. yds. spread per day. A road machine, operated by 6 horses and 2 men, will spread 900 cu. yds. in 10 hrs. in 6-in. layers, earth having been dumped from patent dump-wagons. A man can thoroughly tamp 25 cu. yds., in 6-in. layers, per 10- hr, day at 6 cts. per cu. yd. Embankments can be consolidated with horse-drawn rollers for % to 1 ct. per cu. yd., wages of a team being $o.50 a day. I have one record of 4 cts. per cu. yd. (at the above wages), for rolling a reservoir embankment, but the work was not well handled. The cost of sprinkling embankments, if specified, is difficult to estimate because of the vagueness of specifications. However, more than 8 cu. ft. of water per cu. yd. of earth, is seldom required. On a large embankment three sprinkling carts, each drawn by ! three teams, with one driver, sprinkled 1,000 cu. yds. of earth per i day of 10 hrs., with short haul. Such carts each held 150 cu. ft. j of water weighing 4^ tons, which is an exceedingly large capacity. j A sprinkler of this size can be loaded from a tank in 15 mins., and i emptied in the same length of time. Knowing the length of haul I anu speed of team the cost of sprinkling is readily determined. In 124 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the case just given the cost was 2*4 cts. per cu. yd. of earth foi sprinkling and about 5 cu. ft. of water per cu. yd. were used. From several careful observations the writer has found that a gang of men under a good foreman will each trim the sod and humps off the hard surface of a cut to the depth of 1 or 1% ins. at the rate of 200 sq. ft. or 22 sq. yds. per hour, at a cost of 2/5 ct. per sq. yd. ; and where there was no sod to remove, the soil being sandy loam, the cost was one-half as much or % ct. per sq. yd. Massachusetts contractors bid almost uniformly 2y 2 cts. a sq. yd. for "surfacing" (wages 17 cts. per hour), which includes rolling the finished surface with steam roller. A roadway, including ditches, 36 ft. wide and a mile long, has 21,000 sq. yds. of surface, which at % ct. is $140, actual cost o* trimming. If the total excavation in a mile is 3,500 cu. yds- (which is about the average in N. Y. State), the cost of trimming, distributed over this 3,500 cu. yds., is 4 cts. per cu. yd. of excava- tion, a cost much greater than a mere guess would lead one to sup- pose. I have directed the scraping of a light growth of weeds and grass off the 4-ft. shoulder of a road by going once over it with a leveling scraper, at a rate of 200 sq. yds. per hour, or ten times faster than a man with a mattock would have done it ; making the actual cost about % ct. per sq. yd. where the team, driver and helpers' wages were 50 cts. per hour. Cost of Wheelbarrow Work. A man wheeling a barrow over run- plank can not be counted on to travel more than 15 miles per 10- hr, day. If the runway is level a load of 300 Ibs. or more may be wheeled in a barrow, but it is not safe to count upon more than 250 Ibs., or 1/10 cu. yd. of earth. This is for good level run- ways, but, as most wheelbarrow work involves ascending steep grades, estimate 1/14 to 1/15 cu. yd. per barrow load. With wages at 15 cts. per hr., the cost of wheeling earth in barrows is, there- fore, 5 cts. per cu. yd., per 100 ft. of haul, the haul being the dis- tance from pit to dump. If the runways were level, and the men worked hard, the cost might be reduced to 3 cts. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul. The cost of picking and loading has already been given, and may be assumed to be 15 cts. per cu. yd. A wheelbarrow is dumped in about % min., which is equivalent to a loss of nearly 4 mins. per cu. yd., where 15 barrow loads make a yard ; and this is equivalent to 1 ct. per cu. yd. for dumping the barrows. The time lost in changing barrows, etc., may easily add another 1 ct. per cu. yd. The rule for estimating the cost of loosening, loading and hauling average earth in barrows is as follows when wages are 15 cts. per hr. : Rule I. To a fixed cost of 17 cts. per cu. yd., add 5 cts. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. haul, when steep ascents must be made, or 3% cts. per 100 ft. when level. Cost by One- Horse Carts. Small two-wheeled carts drawn by one horse are often used on railway work. If the haul is level or slightly down hill and over a well compacted embankment, a horse EARTH EXCAVATION. 125 Will pull 0.6 cu. yd. per load; but over poor earth roads it is not safe to count upon more than 0.4 cu. yd. per load, if there are any steep grades to ascend. On short hauls of 300 ft. or less, one driver can tend to two carts by leading one to the dump while the other is being loaded. A gang of 4 or 5 men should load a cart with 0.4 cu. yd. in 3 mins., and it takes about 1 min. to dump a cart, so that 4 mins. of cart time are "lost" every round trip. If the wages of a horse are $1 per 10-hr, day, and the wages of a driver are $1.50 a day, the wages of a cart and half a driver are $1.75 a day. The 4 mins. "lost time" is therefore equivalent to 3 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of picking and loading average earth is about 15 cts. per cu. yd., as previously given. A dumpman can easily dump a cart load a minute, where he has no spreading to do ; but the material is seldom delivered fast enough. If we assume 150 cu. yds. deliv- ered to him in carts in 10 hrs., the cost is 1 ct. per cu. yd. for dump- man's wages. Hence the total fixed cost may be assumed as 15 4- 3 + 1 ct., or 19 cts. per cu. yd. If the cart load is 0.4 cu. yd., and wages are as above given, we have the following rule : Rule II. To a fixed cost of 19 cts. per cu. yd. add % ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul. If the material is plowed, and is shoveled easily, the fixed cost may become 14 cts. per cu. yd. instead of 19 cts. If the haul is long, one driver may still attend to two carts by taking them both together to the dump. There are occasions, how- ever, when one driver attends to only one cart ; in such cases the cost of hauling is 1 ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. In cities, where the carts travel over hard earth or gravel roads, a cart carrying % cu. yd. may be used. The cost of hauling is, then, Va ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. haul, wages of cart and driver being 25 cts. per hour. Cost by Wagons. There are three types of four-wheeled wagons commonly used by contractors: (1) The slat-bottom wagon; (2) the bottom-dump wagon ; and ( 3 ) the end-dump wagon. Any farmer's wagon can be made into a slat-bottom wagon by remov- ing the wagon box and replacing it with "slats" of 3 x 6-in. sticks for a bottom, and 2 x 12-in., or 2 x 16-in., planks for sides and ends. The bottom-dump, or "patent dump-wagon," has a bottom consist- ing of two doors that swing downward in dumping. The end-dump wagon dumps backward like a two-wheeled cart. The best makes of this type of wagon are provided with a geared device by which the dump-man slides the wagon box bodily back- ward over the axle of the rear wheels until it tips and dumps its load. The loads that are commonly hauled in a wagon by one team are given on page 121. To reduce the lost time in loading wagons a common expedient is to provide extra wagons which are loaded while the teams are on the road to and from the dump. A team can be changed from an empty wagon to a loaded wagon in 1 to 1% mins. Three horses should be used on each wagon far oftener than they 12C HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. are used on contract work, as nearly 50% more material can be hauled per load than with two horses. In the far West, one often sees two teams (four horses) hitched to a wagon, even on short haul work. One man aided by the driver can dump a slat-bottom wagon hold- ing 0.8 cu. yd. in 1^ mins., at a cost of 0.4 ct. per cu. yd. for the dumpman's time and 1 ct. per cu. yd. for lost time of team, wages being 15 cts. per hr. for dumpman, and 35 cts. per hr. for the team. It takes 3 mins. for these men to dump a large slat- bottom wagon holding 1^ cu. yds., where the driver removes the seat before dumping and replaces it afterward. So that in either case we see that the cost of dumping is about 1% cts. per cu. yd. If a binder chain is wound around the wagon box to hold the slats close together so that no earth will spill through onto a street pavement, it takes 5 mins. to dump the wagon. The time required to dump a drop-bottom wagon is practically nominal, and the driver dumps his own wagon. It takes about 1 min. for the dumpman and driver to dump an end-dump wagon. In loading wagons there are usually enough men provided in the pit to load 1 cu. yd. into a wagon in 4 or 5 mins. or less. This is equivalent to 2% to 3 cts. per cu. yd. for lost team time in the pit, which, added to the lost team time at the dump, gives us about 4 cts. per cu. yd. where slat-bottom wagons are used. The cost of the dumpman's time will never be much less than % ct. per cu. yd. ; and, if the material is not delivered rapidly, it may be much more. The cost of excavating and loading has been given in previous pages. We assume this cost to average 13 cts. per cu. ^d., where the earth is plowed, and add 5 cts. for lost team time and dump- ing, we have a fixed cost of 18 cts. per cu. yd. Then the cost of hauling will depend upon the size of the load, and, assuming wages of team at 35 cts. per hr., and speed of travel 2y 2 miles an hour While actually walking, we have the following rule : Rule III. To a fixed cost of 18 cts. per cu. yd., add y 2 ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. haul when the wagon load is 1 cu. yd. For other wagon loads use the following: Per cu. yd. per 100 ft. Load being 0.8 cu. yd., add 0.66 ct. Load being 1.0 cu. yd., add 0.53 ct. Load being 1.6 cu. yd., add 0.33 ct. Load being 2.0 cu. yds., add 0.26 ct. Load being 2.4 cu. yds., add 0.22 ct In round numbers, therefore, for a load of 1 cu. yd. we must add % ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. haul, or 28 cts. per cu. yd. per mile haul, wages of team being 35 cts. per hr. Cost by Drag Scrapers. A drag scraper, or slip scraper, is a steel scoop, not mounted on wheels, for scooping up and transport- ing earth short distances, and is drawn by a team. The ordinary No 2 drag scraper weighs 100 Ibs., and is listed in catalogues as holding 5 cu. ft. of earth. The actual average load, however, is about 1-9 to 1-7 cu. yd. place measure. In working drag scrapers on short leads there are usually three EARTH EXCAVATION. 127 teams traveling in a circle or ellipse of 150 ft. circumference. One man loads the scrapers in the pit as they go by, and each driver dumps his own scraper. When the gang is working properly, the actual speed of the teams is 2% miles an hour, or 220 ft. per min., while actually walking ; and the "lost time" in loading and dump- ing is % to y 2 min. per trip, or, say, 3y 2 mins. per cu. yd., which is equivalent to 2 cts. per cu. yd. for lost team time when team wages are 35 cts. per hr. The man loading can readily load 1,500 scrapers per day, or, say, 180 cu. yds., so that the cost of load- ing is about % ct. per cu. yd. The cost of plowing (see page 122) will average 1% cts. per cu. yd. As above stated, the teams travel in a circle, and, no matter how short the "lead," room must be allowed for turning and manoeuvering the teams ; this room is approximately 50 ft. at each end of the haul, so that we have 100 ft. of extra travel, or nearly % min. of time for each trip, in addition to the "lead." This % min. adds another 2 cts. per cu. yd. Summing up, we have- the following fixed cost, exclusive ot foreman's wages: Per cu. yd. Lost team time loading and dumping 2 cts. Wages of man loading % cts. Plowing 1 y% cts. Extra travel of team in turning, etc 2 cts. Total fixed cost 6 ^4 cts. If the average load is 1-7 cu. yd., hauled at a speed of 220 ft. per min., the cost of hauling is 4% cts. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of "lead." Note that this "lead" is measured on a straight line from center of pit to center of dump. The rule, then, is as follows for "average earth" when team wages are 35 cts. per hr. : Rule IV. To a fixed cost 0/6% cts. per cu. yd. add 4y 2 cts. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of "lead." This is approximately equivalent to 1 ct. added for each 25 ft. of "lead." Thus, if the "lead" is 25 ft, the cost of drag scraper work is 6 % + 1, or 7% cts. per cu. yd. The cost of foreman's wages is ordinarily about % ct. per cu. yd., and wear on scrapers, etc., will add another % ct. per cu. yd. The cost of excavating and hauling fairly stiff clay may easily be 30% more than the above costs for "average earth." Cost by Wheel Scrapers. The wheel scraper is a development of the drag scraper, being a steel scoop low hung between two wheels. The following are common sizes of wheelers : Capacity. Weight, Listed, Actual Struck Ibs. cu. ft. Measure, cu. ft. No. 1 340. 450 910 7% 9 No. 2 475500 1213 8% No. 2% 575 14 12 No. 3 625800 1617 15y 2 The "listed" capacity is the capacity given in catalogs. The "actual struck measure" capacity is the exact contents of the bowl when level full of loose earth, and it should be remembered that 128 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. about one-fifth of 20% should be deducted from this to get the actual struck capacity of earth measured "in place" before loosen- ing. Large wheelers, even in light soils, and small wheelers in tough soils, seldom leave the pit full of earth, but at the back end of the bowl there is usually a wedge-shaped unfilled space. I have found the average load, "place measure," carried by wheelers is as follows : No. 1 1/5 cu. yd. No. 2 % cu. yd. No. 2 % % cu yd. No. 3 .' 4/10 cu. yd. A snatch team, to assist in loading, is generally used with a No. 2 wheeler, and always with a No. 3 wheeler. On long hauls it is advisable to have men with shovels to heap the bowi full of earth, using a front gate on the wheeler to prevent loss of material in transit. The lightest No. 1 wheelers made are to be recommended where leads are very short and rises steep, that is, wherever drag scrapers are ordinarily used, for they move earth more economically than drags. Where soil is very stony, or full of roots, drag scrapers are to be preferred, since they are more easily and quickly loaded under such conditions. With wheelers, as with drag scrapers, add 50 ft. to the actual "lead" for turning and maneuvering the teams, equivalent to half -minute of team time each trip. Another half minute is lost in loading and dumping. The fixed costs for the three common sizes of wheelers are as follows for "average earth," when wages are 15 cts. per hr. for laborer and 35 cts. per hr. for team (with driver) : Cents per cu. yd. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Lost team time loading and dumping. ... 1.5 1.2 0.8 Wages of man loading 0.8 0.8 1.5 Plowing 1.5 1.5 1.5 Extra travel of team in turning, etc 1.5 1.2 0.7 Snatch team 1.5 1.5 Wages of man dumping Total, cts. per cu. yd 5.3 6.2 6.8 Size of load hauled, cu. yds 1/5 V 4/10 A snatch team is usually used with No. 2 wheelers, and in short- haul work there is usually a dump man also. In easy soils, I have had one snatch team assist in loading 300 cu. yds. per day, so that this item may be less than above estimated ; and under the same conditions another % ct. per cu. yd. or more may be saved in wages of men loading and dumping. There are usually two men required to load a No. 3 wheeler, which accounts for the higher cost of this item in the No. 3 column. The cost of wheeler work, based upon the foregoing data, is as follows: p, u l e y. To a fixed cost of 5% c. per cu. yd. for No. I EARTH EXCAVATION. 129 wheelers, or 6*4 cts. for No. 2 wheelers, or 6% cts: for No. 3 wheelers, add the following per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of "lead": 2% cts. for No. 1 wheelers; or 2 1/5 cts. for No. 2 wheelers; or 1% cts. /or No. 3 wheelers. The cost of foreman's wages and repair of wheelers will add about 1 ct. more per cu. yd. If the "lead" is 50 ft. and No. 1 wheelers are used, the cost is 5}i cts. + (1/2 X 2% cts.), or 6.7 cts. per cu. yd., exclusive of foreman's wages. Cost by Fresno Scrapers. The ordinary four-horse fresno scraper has a bowl 13 ins. high, 18 ins. wide and 5 ft. long, giving a struck measure capacity of slightly more than 8 cu. ft. ; but in almost any soil, except dry, running sand, the earth will heap up 6 or 8 ins. above the top of the bowl, and will extend quite a distance beyond the front of the bowl. One carefully measured fresno load of clayey earth contained 19 cu. ft. of loose earth, which compacted to 16^ cu. ft. when rammed in 4-in. layers in a box. Several other large loads gave almost the same results after being hauled 100 ft. over a level road. Mr. Geo. J. Specht has stated that on a down hill haul, loads will average 35 cu. ft. and occasionally run as high as 44 cu. ft. How- ever, this could only occur with light, damp soil and on a down hill pull where much material could be drifted ahead of the fresno scraper. I have never measured any loads of that size. On level hauls, or on uphill pulls, it is not ordinarily safe to count on more than % cu. yd. (measured in cut) per load, although under favorable conditions the average load may be 25 to 50 per cent greater, while under unfavorable conditions it may be 25 per cent less. If the delays in loading and dumping are excluded, the team can be counted upon to travel about 200 ft. per minute. It requires some room in which to maneuver scrapers of any kind, no matter what method of hauling the teams is adopted. Hence one must not measure the average distance in a straight line from center of the cut to the center of the fill, and call that the average haul, for that is the average "lead," which is considerably shorter than the actual haul. When the daily wage of a driver is ?1.50 and that of each of the four horses is $1, a total of $5.50 per fresno, the following rule will give the average cost of fresno work, not including plow- ing, trimming or supervision. Rule VI. To a fixed cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. add 1% cts. per 100 ft. of "lead." The fixed cost of 5 cts. includes traveling the extra distance in loading, etc., the slower speed in loading, the shifting of the gang to newly plowed ground, etc., and it includes 1 ct. for plowing the earth. The hauling cost of 1% cts. per 100 ft. is based upon a trav- eling speed of 200 ft. per minute (when not delayed by loading, dumping, etc.) and upon the assumption that the average load is 130 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. % cu. yd., Wages of four horses and driver being $6 per 10-hr, day. In applying the rule never assume a "lead" shorter than 50 ft. "Lead" in Cu. yds. per feet. f resno per day. 50 120 100 100 150 87 200 75 250 67 300 60 350 55 400 50 I have never measured any fresno loads that had been hauled as far as 400 ft., and I doubt very much whether fresno loads hauled tnat distance would average as much as % cu. yd., due to the loss that occurs en route. If the soil is not of a kind that heaps up and drifts well in front of the fresno, the average load will probably not exceed 9 cu. ft. or % cu. yd., particularly on long hauls. In which case the rule becomes : Rule VII. To a fixed cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. add 2% cts. for each 100 ft. of "lead." Then, for a 600-ft. "lead" the cost would be 5 -f (6 X 2%), or 21 cts. per cu. yd. This checks very closely with Mr. Walter N. Frick- stad's data for a 600-ft. haul with fresnos, as given in Engineer- ing-Contracting, Nov. 3, 1909. Based upon this last rule the cost of fresno work is as follows for different leads: "Lead" in Cts. per Cu. yds. per feet. cu yd. fresno per day. 50 5% 109 100 7 86 150 8^ 70 200 10 60 250 11% 52 300 13 46 400 16 37 500 19 31 600 22 28 Bear in mind that the above costs do not include cost of fore- man's wages, which ordinarily ranges from % to 1 ct. per cu. yd. Dressing roadbed and slopes will usually cost an additional % ct. per sq. yd. of surface trimmed. I have, assumed a 10-hr, working day, but it is my 'opinion that it makes little difference whether the day is 8 or 10 hrs. long, for the horses can be "crowded" harder on the shorter day, and thus cover the same mileage as on the longer day. I have assumed that each fresno is loaded as well as dumped by the driver. This is one of the great advantages of a fresno over a drag scraper. However, in tough soils it is generally wise to have one man with each string of fresnos to load them. A four-horse fresno scraper weighs about 275 Ibs. A rope should be tied to the end of the handle, so that the driver can jerk the rope E ART PI EXCAVATION. 131 and right the bowl when he gets back to the pit and is ready to load. The four horses are hitched abreast. The two outside horses have a "jockey stick," the ends of which are tied to their bits, and each horse's bridle is fastened to the adjoining horse's bridle by a short strap or rawhide string. Each of the two reins is divided into two lines, one line going to each horse's bridle, one of the lines from each rein going to one outside horse, and the other line to the sec- end outside horse from it. Thus the left hand rein pulls the left hand outside horse and the right hand inside horse, these two horses guiding the other two horses by the bit straps. The right hand rein controls the other two horses. Due to the fact that fresno scrapers can ordinarily be loaded by the drivers, it is not necessary to work several fresnos in a string. In fact when building an embankment from two ditches, one on each side, a common method of handling the fresnos is as follows: The driver loads the fresno in the ditch, drives up the embankment diagonally, dumps the load and continues right across the embank- ment and down into the ditch on the opposite side, where he loads again after turning around, and returns. When working in this fashion, some foremen require all the fresnos to move in unison, so that a glance will show that none is loafing. When handled thus, however, it is not possible to plow where the fresnos are working, so some time is always lost in moving the fresno gang to newly plowed ground. This lost time has been allowed for in the rule for cost above given. Fresno work is cheaper than drag scraper work under almost every condition that can be named. It is not easy to fix the limit of economic haul with fresnos as compared with wheeled scrapers, principally because the size of the fresno load varies greatly in different soils. It is quite commonly believed in California that for hauls beyond 200 to 250 ft. the wheeled scraper is preferable, but in tough soils or in dry sand the fresno loads may be so small that a wheeler can compete suc- cessfully on shorter hauls. On the other hand, in soft, damp soils that heap up and drift well in front of a fresno, the economic haul may considerably exceed 300 ft. The above conclusions are based upon the assumption that the wage of the driver equals the wage of two horses. Where horse feed is cheap and wages of men are high, it is clear that the fresno shows up more favorably, for it is one of the characteristics of fresno work that there are many horses and comparatively few men. In solving the problem of economic earthwork in any individual case, the first step should be to measure a number of average loads of earth as they are delivered at the dump by fresnos and by wheelers. Don't measure the loads in the ditch or pit, but on the dump, for much may be lost in transit. Shovel the load of earth into a wooden box and ram it in 4 to 6-in. layers. A little time spent in thus measuring the loads accurately will enable a close esti- mate to be made of the actual yardage moved per day per scraper of each class, provided a boy or man is assigned for a day to the 132 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. task of tallying every load moved by a typical fresno gang and by a typical wheeler gang. Considering the amount of money that is usually at stake, it is remarkable how often guesswork prevails where a little time spent in measuring a few loads and a day's tally of the loads would settle the matter definitely. Where a gang is moving only 1,000 cu. yds. daily, 1 ct. saved per yard means $10 a day. Yet even the most skilled foreman will find it next' to impossible to ascertain the difference of a cent a yard cost between a fresno gang and a wheeler gang merely by looking at them work. I am speaking now of work by these two types of scrapers where the length of haul is such that they are almost on a parity as regards cost. Of course there are hauls where there can be no doubt at all, where it is either the fresno "hands down," or where it is the wheeler "hands down." Cost by Elevating Graders. An elevation grader consists essen- tially of a four-wheeled truck provided with a plow which casts Its furrow upon an endless belt, which elevates the material and deposits it in wagons as fast as they are driven under the belt. For successful operation there must be few boulders or roots to stop the plow of the machine ; and there must be considerable room in which to turn the machine, and maneuver the teams going and coming, and the ground on which the grader is working must not be too hilly. The machine does not work to advantage in nar- row cuts, due to lack of room for wagons alongside. The machine is adapted to loading wagons on road work, but is especially suit- able for reservoir work and the like. The machine is used in prairie soils for digging ditches and conveying the material directly into the road, but the material must afterward be leveled with a leveling scraper or road machine ; and it would seem better prac- tice to use the road scraper entirely for this class of grading with- out resort to the elevating grader at all. Claims have been made that 1,000 cu. yds. in 10 hrs. are loaded by the grader. Under very favorable conditions this may be done, but I have never seen a daily average of more than 500 cu. yds. place measure loaded by a grader operating in easy soil. A grader costs about $1,000, and is hauled either by 10 or 12 horses or by a 25-hp. traction engine, the latter being usually the more economical in the long run. It requires 2 men to operate the grader, and, where horses are used, 2 or 3 men to drive the horses. Where a traction engine is used, 2 men operate the grader, 1 engineman operates the traction engine, and it is often necessary to keep a team busy part of the time hauling water for the engine, if water is not supplied by gravity or by pumps. The traction engine burns 0.6 to 0.7 ton, or 1,200 to 1,400 Ibs., per 10 hrs. To furnish steam there will be required not over 8 Ibs. of water per Ib. of coal, or 0.7 X 8 = 5.6 tons of water per day. The grader travels about 150 ft. per min. when hauled by an engine, and it takes 1% mins. to turn around at each end of its run, de- scribing a circle of about 50 ft. diameter in turning. It takes about 15 seconds to load a wagon with % cu. yd. of earth measured in EARTH EXCAVATION. 133 place, when the grader is traveling 150 ft. per min., so that the grader travels 40 ft. in loading a %-yd. wagon; then it stops for about 15 sees, until the next wagon comes up under the belt. If three-horse patent dump wagons are used and no other kind should be used with elevating graders the wagon load is 1*4 cu. yds., and the grader travels about 65 ft. to load a wagon. I have seen 700 two-horse wagons, holding % cu. yd. each, loaded per 10-hr, day; and, I am informed, that with good man- agement and an easy soil, 700 wagons, holding more than 1 cu. yd. each, can be loaded per 10-hr, day. With three-horse wagons the average 10-hr, day's output on the Chicago Drainage Canal was 500 cu. yds. of top soil. Mr. N. Adelbert Brown, C. E., of Rochester, informs me that an elevating grader was used by Thomas Holihan, in grading streets at Canandaigua, N. Y. The streets were 60 to 75 ft. wide be- tween property lines, and 36 ft. between curbs. A traction engine was used to haul the grader, and there was no trouble in turning the engine and grader between the walk lines, which was easily within 50 ft. of space. "The efficiency of the machine was not tested fully, due to a lack of teams; but, when teams were available, 50 wagon loads, of 1% cu. yds. each, were readily loaded in an hour. The machine was satisfactory in stone and gravel roads and stiff clay, but in light sand in some cases refused to elevate." This latter is true, however, of all elevating graders in any dry sand that will not turn a furrow. Fred. T. Ley & Co., of Springfield, Mass., inform me that ele- vating graders were used by them on electric railway work in central New York state, both with traction engines and with horses. They averaged 400 to 500 cu. yds. loaded into wagons per grader per day. No matter how short the lead, a team hauling earth from a grader must perform a large percentage of waste labor following the grader, and this is equivalent to adding about 400 ft. to the "lead." If 3 horses and a driver are worth $4.50 a day, and the load is 1*4 cu. yds., the cost of hauling is 0.6 ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul ; so that the waste distance traveled (400 ft. lead) adds 2% cts. per cu. yd. to the cost. With wages of single horses at $1, and men at $1.50, the fixed cost is as follows, with an output of 500 cu. yds. per 10 hrs. : Per cu. yd. Lost team time (400 ft. added to "lead") 2.5 cts. 10 horses on grader and 4 men 3.5 5 men on dump spreading 1.5 " Interest, repairs and depreciation, $5 per day.... 1.0 " Total 8.5 cts. The rule is: Rule VIII. To a fixed cost of S 1 /^ cts. add 6/10 ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of lead. It will take 6 three-horse wagons to handle the 500 cu. yds. per day where the lead is 500 ft. It is necessary to spread the earth on the dump to prevent stall- 134 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ing of the dump wagons, but by using a leveling scraper the cost of this item can be reduced to 1 ct. or less, instead of the \% cts. above given for hand work. A traction-engine outfit will reduce the cost of operating the grader somewhat below the above given figures, thus : Per day. % ton coal, at $3 $ 2.00 1 engineman 3.00 2 grader operators 5.00 Interest, repairs and depreciation of engine 3.50 Total, 500 cu. yds., at 2.7 cts $13.50 This 2.7 cts. per cu. yd., it will be seen, is 0.8 ct. less than where 10 horses and 4 men operate the grader. If it is necessary to pump water by hand and haul it far for the traction engine, the cost may easily be increased y a ct. per cu. yd., or more. In Engineering-Contracting, April, 1906, page 102, etc., there is an article by Mr. Daniel J. Hauer, giving costs of elevating grader work on 7 railroad jobs. The limitations of the grader for narrow thorough cuts are well shown. The average cost was as follows for an average "lead" of 800 ft., with an average daily output of 288 cu. yds. per elevating grader: Per cu. yd. Loading $0.100 Hauling 0.127 Dumping and spreading 0.029 Water boy 0.002 Foreman 0.010 Total $0.268 The wages of the grader operators were $1.50 per 10-hr, day; laborers, $1.50 ; two-horse team and driver, $4.60 ; three-horse team and driver, $6.25. The $0.268 does not include any allowance for interest, repairs and depreciation. This is probably as high a cost for elevating grader work as will be likely to occur with the same length of haul and the same rates of wages. Steam Shovel Data. The size of a steam shovel is usually denoted by the capacity of the dipper in cubic yards and the weight of the whole machine in tons ; both should be given, for in a hard material a smaller dipper is used than in soft material when work- ing with the same steam shovel. The following are some of the standard sizes : Weight, tons 35 45 55 65 75 90 Dipper, cu. yds 1% 1 % 1% 2 2 % 3 Coal in 10 hrs., tons % 1 1% 1% 2 2% Water in 10 hrs., gals 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 4,500 The price of shovels is approximately $130 per ton for the larger sizes, and $160 per ton for the 35-ton size. A shovel of any size is so designed that, when digging in average earth, it can average at least 3 dipperfuls per minute, when the dipper arm swings only 90. Shovels are built to run on standard gage track, and in operating a shovel it is customary to use rails in 5-ft. lengths, so that the shovel cuts 5 ft. into a face before it is EARTH EXCAVATION. 135 shifted ahead. The time required to shift ahead may average as low as 3 mins., and should never average more than 5 mins., but on poorly managed work I have often seen 10 mins. consumed in shift- ing the shovel ahead. "Traction shovels" weighing 26 tons, or less, may be had, and they do not require rails to run upon, but are provided with broad- tired traction wheels. Steam shovels of small size, mounted like a locomotive crane so that they can swing a full circle, are especially adapted for loading wagons in confined places. The width of the cut or "swath" excavated by a shovel varies from 18 ft. for the smallest shovels to 40 ft. for the largest. The height of the face of the cut is usually 15 to 30 ft. In tough material the face of the cut should not be higher than the dipper can reach, that is, 14 to 20 ft. Too high a face in treacherous, sliding material is to be avoided, for the shovel may be buried by a slide. The height of the face of the cut has a marked influence upon the output of a shovel. If the face is only 6 ft. high and 18 ft. wide, there are only 4 cu. yds. per lineal foot of cut, or 20 cu. yds. for every 5 lin. ft. of cut. A 1-yd. shovel would excavate this in, say, 10 mins. ; then, if 5 mins. were spent moving forward for the next "bite," there would be 15 mins. required to excavate 20 cu. yds., and one-third of the time would be spent in shifting the shovel. Shallow cuts are expensive not only on this account, but be- cause a full dipper cannot be averaged when the height of the face of the cut becomes much less than one and a half or two times the depth of the bucket. In addition to the lost time of shifting the shovel, there is more or less lost time switching cars up to the shovel. On "thorough cut" work this lost time of switching is greater than on "side cut" work. A "thorough cut" is practically a huge trench, in which the shovel is working at the face, so that only one or two cars can come up on the track alongside of the shovel, the car track being in the bottom of the cut. This method of attack should be avoided wherever possible. In "side cut" work a full train of cars can come alongside the shovel, one car being loaded after another until the train is loaded. There are frequently conditions that make it cheaper in the end to- use wagons instead of cars for hauling the earth away. In such cases never use a large dipper, for so much earth will spill over the sides of the wagon as to block the road and delay the movement of the wagons, even when a snatch team is used. A 1%-yd. bucket is as large as should be used for loading wagons. Hauling With Dinkeys. The ordinary "contractor's locomotive," or "dinkey," travels on a track of 3-ft. gage. The smallest size of dinkey commonly used weighs 8 short tons, and is listed as having a tractive pull of 2,900 Ibs. on a level track. Whether the actual tractive capacity is exactly 2,900 I do not know; but it must be approximately that, for any locomotive can exert a pull of 25% of the weight on its driving wheels even on clean rails. 136 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The loads that a dinkey can pull, however, are much over-estimated in catalogues, due to too low rolling resistances assumed for cars. It is said in some of the catalogues that the resistance to traction is 6 y 2 Ibs. . per short ton. This rate applies only to the best of standard gage railway tracks with heavy rails, well ballasted, and with heavy wheel loads. On a contractor's narrow gage, light rail track, the resistance to traction is probably not must less than 20 to 40 Ibs. per ton, and at the point where the cars are loaded it is doubtless more, due to the dirt on the rails. It requires almost twice as great a pull to start a car as to keep it in motion. The resistance due to gravity is 20 Ibs. per short ton per 1% of grade ; but, of course, the tractive power of a locomotive falls off 20 Ibs. for every ton of its own weight for each 1% of grade. Based upon these data, and upon the assumption that the resist- ance to "traction is 40 Ibs. per short ton, an 8-ton dinkey is capable of hauling the following loads, including the weight of the cars : Total tons. Level track 70 1% grade 46 2% grade 33 3% grade 26 4% grade 21 5% grade 17 6% grade 14 8% grade 10 Note. On a poor track not even as great loads as the above can be hauled. Due to the accidents that frequently occur from the breaking in two of trains on steep grades, and from the running away of engines, it is advisable to avoid using grades of more than 6%. When heavily loaded, a dinkey travels 5 miles per hr. on a straight track ; btit when lightly loaded, or on a down grade, it may run 9 miles an hour. The following are the average struck measure capacities of the dump, cars made by one firm (variations of weight of several hun- dred pounds occur, according to the make) : Capacity, cu. yds 1 1% 2 2 % 3 Weight, Ibs 1,700 2,000 2,300 2,800 3,500 A car seldom averages its struck capacity of earth measured "in place," even when the car is heaped full with a shovel ; for not only are there vacant places in the corners of the car, but the loose earth is 20% to 30% more bulky than earth "in place." The number of dinkeys required to keep a shovel busy can be estimated from the data given. On short hauls (1,000 ft. or less) one very often sees only one dinkey serving a 1%-yd. shovel. In such cases the dinkey is not heavily loaded, so that it can run fast, and by having enough men to dump a train of 6 cars in 2 or 3 mins. a fairly good daily output of the shovel can be secured. In dumping the cars, estimate on the basis of one 3-yd. car dumped by each man in 1% to 2 mins. The men work in groups of 2 or 3 in dumping the cars, and enough men are usually provided on the dump to dump a train in 3 mins. When two or more dinkeys are serving one shorel, and long EARTH EXCAVATION. 137 trains (12 cars) are being used, it would seem that very little lost shovel time would occur due to switching in an empty train ; but, even under favorable conditions, I find that \y z to 2 mins. per train are lost in switching. This is another reason why a shovel served by only one dinkey makes so good a showing on short-haul work. Still another reason is that at the time the shovel is shifting for- ward, the dinkey can often make its round trip ; and on shallow face work this shifting of tne shovel occurs frequently. The method of using a hoisting engine and cable to move the cars is quite common in railroad work, where the hauls are short, say 1,000 ft. or less. The track is laid on a rather steep grade, at least 3% from the pit to the dump, and the cars coast down by gravity usually in trains of 4 cars holding about 2 cu. yds. each. The hoisting engines pull the cars back with a wire rope. *A team of horses will have all it can do to pull a train of 4 such cars even on a slight down grade to the dump. As a matter of fact, a team that is working steadily cannot be counted on to pull more than two cars holding 3 cu. yds. each, on a level track of the kind ordinarily used in contract work. The 3-ft. gage track commonly used is laid with rails weighing 16 to 40 Ibs. per yard of single rail. A 30 or 35-lb. rail makes a track that is not easily kinked under the loads, even when ties are spaced 4 ft. centers. .A 6 X 6-in. tie, 5 ft. long, is the best size. I have tried 4 X 4-in. ties, but they are easily split by the spikes, and are not of much value after being used once ; whereas the 6 X 6-in. ties can be laid 4 to 6 times. After the rails and ties are delivered, and the roadway graded, such a track can be laid for $100 per mile, or ?2 per 100 ft., when wages are 15 cts. per hr. And the track can be torn up and loaded on wagons for $1 per 100 ft. ; there being 1 ton of 30-lb. rails and 375 ft. B. M. of 6 X 6-in X 5-ft. ties per 100 ft. of track. In railroad work it is usually necessary to build a trestle through which the cars are dumped in making the embankment. The trestles usually consist of two posts per bent, the posts being of round timber, capped with a squared stick, and sway braced with round timber saplings. In the section on Timberwork the reader will find data on the cost of trestlework. Summary of the Cost of Steam Shovel Work. As above stated, shovels are so designed that about 3 dipperfuls can be averaged per minute when actually loading cars ; but I find that even with well arranged tracks, and a good high face, the necessary delays of shift- ing the shovel ahead, switching the trains, moving the shovel back to start a new swath, etc., keep the shovel idle about half the time. Occasionally, under exceptionally favorable conditions, a shovel may average 6 or 6^ hrs. of actual shoveling per 10 -hr. day. The size of the dippers, as listed in catalogues, often refers to 1 dippers heaped full of loose earth. I find that the actual "place I measure" averages about 30% less than the listed capacity of a I dipper, for not every dipper goes out full, and even if it does the i earth is not as compact in the dipper as in place. 138 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. On the basis of 3 dippers loaded per minute of actual work, we have the following for dippers of different sizes : Dipper. Output in Cu. Yds. Nominal. Actual (average). Steady Shoveling. Yds. Yds. 1 hrs. 5 hrs. 1 0.7 1,260 630 iy a 1.0 1,800 900 2 1.4 2,520 1,260 2% 1.7 3,060 1,530 We see that where the shovel is actually shoveling 5 hrs. out of the 10 (and this is a good average), a 1-yd. dipper will load 630 cu. yds.; a 1%-yd. dipper, 900 cu. yds.; a 2% -yd. dipper, 1,530 cu. yds. These are not merely theoretical outputs, for I have monthly output records that show these averages for each 10-hr, shift. However, the track arrangement must be such that cars are promptly supplied to the shovel, if any such average as 900 cu. yds. per day per 1%-yd. dipper is to be maintained. Taking the 1%-yd. dipper as the common size, we may say that in "average earth," with cars promptly supplied, 900 cu. yds. are a fair 10-hr, day's work; but if only one dinkey is used, the lost time may easily be increased to such an extent that 650 cu. yds. become a good day's work in "average earth." In hardpan, or exceedingly tough clay, the output of a shovel may fall to about half the out- put in "average earth" ; that is, 450 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day with a 1%-yd. shovel. The size of shovel to select for any given work depends upon the yardage of earth in each cut not upon the total yardage in the contract. On very light cuts, such as street and road work, cellars, etc., a small shovel with a % to %-yd. dipper is usually most economic. Use a small 26-ton traction shovel, with 1-yd. dipper for small railway cuts, where moves from one cut to another will be frequent. Use a 55 to 65-ton shovel with 1% to 2 %-yd. dipper where cuts are heavy, and moves not very frequent. Use a 75 to 90-ton shovel, with 2% to 3 %-yd. dipper, on heavy cuts, where moves are infrequent. Of course a heavy shovel with a small dipper is necessary in hardpan and very tough material. The cost of operating a 55-ton shovel is ordinarily as follows, assuming 22 days worked during the month, and 6 months worked during the year, or 132 days actually worked per year: Per Day Shovel Crew: Worked. 1 engineman on shovel, at $125 per mo $ 5.70 1 craneman on shovel, at $90 per mo 4.10 1 fireman on shovel, at $65 per mo 3.00 6 pitmen, at $1.75 per 10-hr, day 10.50 1 night watchman, at $50 per mo 2.30 Total shovel crew $ 25.60 Coal for shovel, 1*4 tons, at $4, delivered $ &.00 Water 3.00 Oil and waste 2-50 Interest on $7,200 shovel at 6% per year -f- 132 days 3.25 Repairs on $7,200, 3% per mo. -=- 22 days 10.00 Depreciation on $7,200, 6% per year -4- 132 days 3.25 Total steam shovel crew, fuel, repairs, etc $ 50.6Q EARTH EXCAVATION. 139 Moving and housing shovel once during year, say, $500 -~ 132 days 4.00 Total charges on shovel $ 54.60 Train Crew: 2 enginemen (on 2 dinkeys), at $3 $ 6.00 2 trainmen, at $2 4.00 6 dumpmen, at $1.75 10.50 Total train crew $ 20.50 Coal for 2 dinkeys, 0.6 ton, at $4 $ 2.40 Water 1.50 Oil and waste 0.50 Interest on $8,000 (2 dinkeys and 24 cars), at 6% per year ^ 132 days 3.65 Repairs on $8,000, at 1%% per mo. H- 22 days 5.45 Depreciation on $8.000. at 8% per year -h 132 days 4.85' Total train crew, fuel, repairs, etc $ 38.85 Moving and housing locomotives and cars once during year, same as for shovel 4.00 Total charges of locomotives and cars $ 42.85 Track Crew and Track: 6 men grading and track shifting, at $1.75 $ 10.50 Interest on $2,250 (rails (35 Ibs. per yd.) and fastenings for 1 mile of track), at 6% -r- 132 days 1.00 Depreciation on $2,250, at 12% -f- 132 days 2.00 Interest on $750 (ties, at 30 cts. each, 2 miles track), at 6% -7- 132 days 0.35 Depreciation on $750 (ties), at 10% per mo. -f- 22 days.... 3.50 Total track crew and track $ 17.35 Supervision, Etc.: 1/2 superintendent, at $150 per mo $ 3.50 1 foreman, at $75 per mo 3.50 1 timekeeper, at $65 per mo 3.00 General management, office expenses, etc., 6% of daily pay- roll 4.00 Total supervision, etc $ 14.00 Grand total $128.80 Summarizing we have the following daily cost and cost per cu. yd. when the daily output is 1,000 cu. yds. (or 22,000 cu. yds. per month) : Per cu. yd. Per day. cts. Shovel expenses $ 54.60 6.46 Train expenses 42.85 4.29 Track expenses 17.35 1.73 Supervision, etc 14.00 1.40 Total $128.80 12.88 Tough material and unfavorable conditions frequently reduce the daily output to 600 cu. yds., and run the cost up to 21 cts. per cu. yd. The most variable of the four main items of daily expense is Track Expense. Often a large crew of men is kept busy grading for new tracks, although it is rare that more than 10 or 12 men are thus engaged for each shovel crew. The estimated percentages for repairs and depreciation are lib- 140 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. eral, but it must be remembered that repairs increase as the machines grow older, and that a high allowance should be made for depreciation to cover obsolescence, i. e., the "getting out of date" or behind the times. Depreciation of ties is especially rapid in contract work, due to the destruction that occurs from frequent track shifting. Depre- ciation of rails is also rapid, due to their becoming kinked. The foregoing itemization of cost should be taken merely to repre- sent a fairly typical example, but each particular case will have its varying conditions that must be considered. Where temporary trestles must be built to carry the cars out over proposed fills, as is common on railway work, the cost of the .trestles must be added to the above figures. The cost of trestle- work can be estimated from data civen in the section on Piling and Timberwork, bearing in mind, however, that much lighter timbers can be used for dinkey locomotives and trains than for standard railway tracks. It should also be remembered that round poles can usually be secured for the legs or posts of trestle bents, and that each bent usually has only two legs. The squared stringers, ties and caps can usually be recovered, but the posts, sills and sway braces are buried permanently in the fill. Cost of Digging a Well or Cesspool.* Circular wells or holes are often dug for water supply anl for cesspools around buildings. A well was dug on Long Island in a clay material with an occa- sional boulder. The material was stiff enough to stand up with- out shoring. The hole was 8 ft. in diameter and 24 ft. deep. For two days two men did the work, but, when a bucket had to be used, another man was added to the force. A three-legged derrick, with a crank on it, was used to hoist the bucket of earth. The excavation was made entirely with picks and shovels. There were 1,305 cu. ft. of material excavated, or about 48 cu. yds. A 10-hr, day was worked. The cost of the work was as follows : 2 men 2 days, at $1.50 $ 6.00 3 men 5 days, at $1.50 22.50 Total $28.50 This gives a cost of 60 cts. per cu. yd. for excavating and hoisting the material and dumping it on the ground by the side of the hole. This cost is quite reasonable for this work. Cost of Trenching, Cross- References. Data on this subject will be found in the following sections of this book : Waterworks, Sewers, and Miscellaneous Costs. Consult the index under Trenches. The Cost of Backfilling a Trench With a Scraper.f Fig. 1 shows a Doan Ditching Scraper for back filling trenches or ditches. To backfill a trench, a rope or chain about 20 ft. long is fastened to the cable chain on the scraper, and a team is hitched on to the eid of the rope. The team, of course, works on one side of the > 'ench. The scraper weighs only 75 Ibs., and can be dragged back *Enginering-Contracting, Oct. 28, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, January, 1906, p. 11. EARTH EXCAVATION. 141 oy one man, although some contractors prefer to have two men on the scraper, especially when the men are small. In 10 hrs. a team and driver and one man on the scraper back- filled 400 lin. ft. of trench 2 ft. wide by 7 ft. deep. This is more than 200 cu. yds. backfilled at a cost of 2y 2 cts. per cu. yd. With two men on the scraper, and working very hard, as much as 700 lin. ft. were backfilled in a day, which is equivalent to less than 2 cts. per cu. yd. In this case no tamping was required, but, even where tamping is called for, a scraper is much cheaper than a shovel for backfilling. While good work can be done with the ordinary drag scraper, it is not so good a tool for backfilling as that described above, for three reasons : First, because a Doan scraper is lighter ; second, be- cause a drag scraper is narrower ; and third, because a drag Fig. 1. Doan Scraper. scraper is not so quickly dumped. The Doan scraper is made of oak, shod with steel on the cutting edge. This cutting edge is 4 ft. long, which means a good wide swath cut at each forward pull. In addi- tion to its use for backfilling, the scraper is also suited for use in digging ditches, leveling embankments, etc. The scraper is made by the Sidney Steel Scraper Co., of Sidney, Ohio. Prices for Drainage Ditch Work.* The following figures on ditch construction in Minnesota were given by Mr. George A. Ralph, State Drainage Engineer, in a paper before the Minnesota Sur- * Engineering-Contracting, July 10, 1907. 142 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. veyors' and Engineers' Society. The figures are the average prices and are based on contract prices for work on which Mr. Ralph was engineer; they cover a period extending from 1886 to 1906: Slip scraper work : Per cu. yd. Not exceeding 6 ft in depth $0.10 Not exceeding 10 ft. in depth 012 Not exceeding 12 ft. in depth 0.14 Elevating grader work 0.08 Shovel work, 2 to 6 ft. deep 0.15 Shovel work, 2 to 10 ft. deep 20 Hayknife work. 2 to 4 ft. deep 0.12 Hand labor in timbered swamps 0.15 to 0.20 Good dredge work 0.08 Dredge work, unfavorable conditions 0.10 to 0.14 Capstan ditch, plow work 0.40 to 0.60 Cost of Boring Test Holes in Earth.* For the purpose of pros- pecting, testing foundation sites, well drilling, etc., it is often neces- sary to bore through sand, gravel, clay, etc. There are four com- mon methods of boring in earth : ( 1 ) By means of an earth auger ; (2) by a "churn drill; (3) by driving a pipe and washing out the earth inside the pipe with the aid of a force pump, called "wash boring"; and (4) by post hole diggers of various forms. Any of these methods (except the third) may be used either with or without a casing pipe to preserve the sides of the hole from crumbling in, and any kind of power may be used. In soil that crumbles readily a casing pipe is always necessary where the hole must be sunk to any considerable depth ; but by the exercise of a little ingenuity it is often possible to bore even in dry sand with- out using a casing pipe. We are indebted to Mr. J. M. Rudiger for the following hint, which will be found exceedingly useful in boring in sand up to depths of about 30 feet: Pour one or more barrels of water on the sand at the site of the proposed bore hole. The water will pass vertically downward, spreading no great distance laterally. In the sand thus made damp, an earth auger may be used to bore without any caving in of the sides. If the hole is to be used as a well, lower a casing pipe into it after water has been struck. Cost of Hand Auger Prospecting. Mr. Charles Catlett is author- ity for the following methods of prospecting for deposits of hema- tite in Virginia. The set of tools consists of a steel auger bit twisted into a spiral (4 turns) 2 ins. diam., the steel of the bit being ^4 in. thick and 13 ins. long and provided with a split point. This bit is welded to an 18-in. length of 1-in. wrought pipe having a screw threaded end. Another chopping bit for use in hard ma- terial is made of 1%-in. octagon steel with a 2-in. cutting edge, and is welded to a length of 1-in. wrought pipe. As many lengths of 1-in. wrought pipe are provided as necessary, with screw couplings. An iron handle, 2 ft. long, is provided with a central eye and with a set screw so that it can be fastened to the 1-in. pipe at any place. A 10-ft. length of 1^4 -in. pipe, threaded at each end for connection to the 1-in. pipe, is provided for use in giving weight to the pipe drill rods in chm-ning. The other tools are: A sand pump of 1 or 2 ft. of 1-in. pipe with a leather valve, and cord for lowering it ; * Engineering-Contracting, January, 1006, p. 11. EARTH EXCAVATION. 1-13 two pairs of pipe tongs; two monkey wrenches; 25-ft. tape; flat tile ; spring balance ; oil can ; water bucket, etc. In boring through soft material, the auger is rotated by two men, raised every few minutes, scraped clean, and the handle fastened higher up on the rods. In hardpan or rock the churn bit is used, and the sludge is removed either with the auger or with the sand pump. The greatest depth penetrated with this outfit was 80 ft. Up to a depth of 25 ft. two men suffice; from 25 to 35 ft, three men; 35 to 50 ft., three men, the third man standing on a rough timber frame 15 or 20 ft. high, so that the pipe need not be un jointed when raised. For depths of 50 ft. more the pipe is un jointed when raised. The following are progress records on eight holes : Through. Ft. Sand and clay ................................ 2 Yellow clay ................................. 6 Hematite ore ................................ 5 Clay and ore ................................. 3 Total ................................... 16 Time of 2 men. 1 hrs. fCost per ft, 18.7 cts v HOLE B. Through. Ft. Yellow clay ................................. 12 Black Hint .................................. Yellow clay .................................. 2 White sand .................. ............... 1 Sandstone ................................... 2 Total ............. ...................... 18 Time. 2 men, 5 hrs. tCost per ft, 8.3 cts. HOLE C. Through. Ft. Sand ........................................ 1 Shale ....................................... 4 Yellow clay and sand .......................... 9 Sandstone ................................... 5 Total .................................... 19 Time, 2 men. 8% hrs. t Cost per ft, 13.4 cts. HOLE D. Through. Ft. Yellow clay .................................. 11 Solid ore .................................... 8 Total ................................... 2Q Time. 2 men. 6 hrs. t Cost per ft, 6.9 cts. HOLE E. Through. Ft. Sand and gravel .............................. 1 Clay ........................................ 28 Total ................................... 29 Time. 2 men. 5 hrs. t Cost per ft., 5 cts. . t Assuming wages at 15 cts. per hour. 144 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. HOLE F. Through. Ft. Loose slide 3 Clay 7 Shale ore 6 Wash ore 24 Total 40 Time, 2 men, 11 hrs. ; 3 men, 4 hrs. t Cost per ft., 12.7 cts. HOLE G. Through Ft. Sand and drift* 19 Clay 33 Total 52 Time. 2 men, 15 hrs. : 3 men, 4 hrs. tCost per ft.. 12.1 cts. HOLE H. Through. Ft. Sand and drift 12 Clay 51 Total 63 Time, 2 men. 5 hrs. : 3 men. 25 hrs. tCost per ft, 20.2 cts. *Sandstone drift. fAssuming wages at 15 cts. per hour. Cost of Wash Borings on a Canal Survey. $ Mr. A. W. Saunders is author of the following: These data were obtained on a survey of 95 miles, covering the operations of a year. The line ran over a little rough country, two rivers and a lake. The land was not "rocky," though there were some stony plots of course. The equipment was complete in all its details, thus enabling an economic and thorough prosecution of the work, i. e., making test borings to locate the "rock line" or elevation of the rock in the earth, on a survey of a ship canal. Two parallel lines were run 500 to 1,500 ft. to the right and left of the main line. This necessitated a systematic and constant hustle to prevent a stalling of the work, for one machine often was on one side of a river and others scattered over a mile of ground. Fig. 2 is the Carpenter wash drill. The pump is to the left and rear of the hammer. This machine, equipped for 120 ft. of work with pump, 500 ft. of 1%-in. water pipe and all necessary acces- sories, will now cost $200. This machine is readily transported by hand through swamps, marshes or even rivers; and, with its tool box, makes but a small one-horse load. The illustration shows a machine rigged to put down deep holes (100 ft.). Fig. 3 shows method of pulling the pipe. Two 2-oz. sample bottles are shown (just below the fore- man's knee). The notes are recorded in his note book suitably ruled; samples of the borings are obtained, the bottles labeled and all sent into the office where the whole is plotted; the notes and samples are filed. ^Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 9, 1908. EARTH EXCAVATION. 145 Fig. 2. Wash Drill. Fig. 3. Pulling Pipe. 146 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Fig. 4 is the Sullivan earth drill. Water is forced through the drill rods down to the foot or "shoe" of the casing and then up In the casing bringing with it the material drilled through, a sample of which is thus obtained and its "condition" noted. This Fig. 4. Earth Drill. machine is not as easily moved as the other and trails along be- hind a wagon. It will cost $300 completely equipped for 100 ft. of work with 500 ft. of 1%-in. water pipe, pump, etc. A portable blacksmith or repair shop, 12x12x8 ft, equipped with pipe work- ing tools, forge, etc., is figured in with the cost given below. The total amount of work in one year's continuous work of 4 crews (increased to 8 crews for 5 months), was 750 holes aggregat- ing 33,711 ft. exclusive of water. The cost of the entire outfit (8 machines cpmplete, repair shop and tools) was considered sunk in the enterprise. The total cost was $21,862.12, or $230 per mile of survey, or 64.9 cts. per ft. of boring, divided as follows: Salaries and subsistence $18,593.46 Traveling expenses 189.48 Plant, tools, repairs 2,242.41 Explosives 508.32 Freight and express charges 129.17 Office expenses 199.28 $21,862.12 EARTH EXCAVATION. 147 This includes its share of the expense of the chief engineer, assist- ant engineer and other engineering work, as well as the plotting, etc. The actual cost of all borings, exclusive of the cost of the plant, re- pairs, superintending, freight, express, traveling and incidentals, was 48.7 cts. per ft. of boring, much of it through hard compact material. The scale of wages was: Assistant engineer, $150 per month; superintendent, $100 ; assistant superintendent, $60 ; foreman, $45 ; laborers, $30 ; all a monthly rate, with subsistence furnished. A teamster with a team received $90 per month and "found" himself and team. A regular crew consisted of a working foreman and 4 men. I used a Carpenter machine on the Wachusett Aqueduct, Massa- chusetts, and often obtained a sample of earth at a depth of 240 ft. in one-half day. On another job in New York state, a Carpenter, with some of my Massachusetts men, was 17 days on one hole, including lost time by reason of bad weather, breakages and 2 Sundays ; 55 half- pound sticks of dynamite were used blasting and blowing boulders out of the way. This was an unusual condition, yet I quote it, as I had to meet it and overcome it. It figures in with the cost. On water the machines are set up on rafts 17.5 x 24.5 ft. composed of timbers, planks and oil barrels and constructed so as to allow the raft to be moved away from the pipe should occasion require. There need be but little time lost during the winter. Greater care is necessary, however, to prevent the pumps and pipes from freezing at night. Comparing the working of the two types of machines, during one- quarter of the year (3 months), the Carpenter machine drove 21 holes to a total depth of 1,501.6 ft. at a total labor cost of $760.35, explosives and freight $22.69, which is equivalent to 52.1 ct. per ft. The Sullivan machine drove 22 holes in the same time to a total depth of 1,384.6 ft. at a labor cost of $687.04, explosives and freight $32.48, which is equivalent to 51.9 ct. per ft. Comparing these two same machines on a single hole each, we have: Carpenter. Sullivan. Loose material 0.0 to 42.6 0.0 to 53.3 Hard packed 42.6 to 72.0 52.3 to 74.5 Rock 72.0 to 73.8 74.5 to 75.8 Time boring (including 1 rainy day) .... 3.85 days 4.25 days Cost per foot 43.7 cts 45.8 cts Dynamite (40%) 3.5 Ibs. 5 Ibs. Electric exploders 7 5 Time removing drill rod 9 mins. 13 mins. Time removing casing 39 mins. 30 mins. Other comparisons might show advantage to the other machine. As our business was to locate the rock, I caused the men to drill into and blast upon it, thus making sure of it. The rock drills come along later, but are not subjects of this article. Neither of these machines is adapted to drilling in rock. They can drive the casing to the rock and no further. 148 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Wash Drill Borings on a Canal Survey.* In surveying in 1897-1900 the several possible routes for the proposed ship canal or deep waterway connecting the Great Lakes with Atlantic tide waters the character of the excavation was sought by making 25 diamond drill borings and some hundreds of wash drill borings along the various routes. In the following paragraphs we summarize from the scattered data in the report of the Board of Engineers such facts as are given regarding the methods and costs of making the wash borings. These figures are not so complete in detail as might be wished, but, with the omis- sions kept in mind, should prove a reasonably good guide for engi- neers about to undertake similar work. In presenting the records we shall take up the several routes separately. First, however, some of the features common to the work as a whole will be men- tioned. Organization. The organization of the boring parties on the several routes varied somewhat. Usually, however, they comprised for each route a superintendent having charge of all the boring gangs and one or more boring gangs composed of a foreman, three or four laborers, and a teamster with team and wagon. The wages paid are not given in the report, but for similarly organized gangs for diamond drill work they were as follows : Superintendent, $125 per month; foreman, $100 per month; laborers, $55 per month; teamster with team and wagon, $75 to $90 per month. It is fair to assume, since the time and location of the borings were the same and the work was done for the same employer, that about the same wages were paid to the wash boring gangs. Method of Borings. The boring process was the usual one of the method, but the outfits used varied considerably. Whatever the out- fit the process consisted in alternately "driving casing" and "drill- ing" until "bottom" was reached. Where obstructions were en- countered that could not be passed by drilling, they were removed by pulling the drill rod and lifting the casing 3 or 4 ft. and then firing a stick or two of dynamite at the bottom of the hole. Routes. In making the surveys, two routes were considered for getting from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. One was from Tonawanda via Lockport to Olcott and the other was from Lasalle below Tonawanda to Lewiston, both on the Niagara River. Two routes were also considered for getting from Lake Ontario to the Hudson River. One route was from Oswego via the Oswego River, Oneida Lake and the Mdhawk Valley to Norman's Kill on the Hudson, and the other was along the St. Lawrence River to Lake St. Francis, then up Lake Champlain and across country to the Hudson River. Tonawanda-Olcott and Lasalle-Lewiston Routes. The borings for these routes were taken on sections 1,500 ft. apart and were carried to rock or to a depth below tne bottom of the proposed 30-ft. chan- nel. On the Tonawanda-Olcott route the materials penetrated were sand and gravel and sand, clay and sand, hard clay and hardpan r * Engineering-Contracting, March 27, 1907. EARTH EXCAVATION. 149 and on the Lasalle-Lewiston route they were sand, gravel, clay and hardpan. The force maKing the borings consisted of one superin- tendent and three boring parties, each composed of a foreman, three laborers and a teamster with a team to haul water and move the machines from hole to hole. In all 404 holes were bored to an aggregate depth of 9,624 ft. The cost of the work was as follows: Item. Total. Per foot. Salaries $5,552.11 $0.5769 Traveling expenses 123.92 0.0128 Plant 649.05 0.0673 Explosives . 223.87 0.0232 Freight and express 0.70 Office expenses . . . 33.00 0.0034 $6,582.65 $0.6863 These figures do not include the cost of surveys locating the bore holes, but they do include the total cost of the plants which was considered sunk when the work was completed. Oswego-Mohawk Route, Western Division. The borings on the Western Division of the Oswego-Mohawk route extended from Os- wego to Rome and comprised the work in Peter Scott's swamp, Oneida Lake and Oswego River and Oswego Harbor. For the Oswego river and harbor work the machines were mounted on small flatboats with open wells at the center. The work on Oneida Lake was done through the ice. In all 750 holes were bored to an aggre- gate depth of 33,711 ft. and including the depth in water. The cost of the work was as follows: Item. Total. Per foot Salaries $19,645.96 $0.5827 Traveling expenses 219.75 0.0065 Plant 3,035.00 0.0900 Explosives 508.32 0.0091 Freight and express 203.77 0.0065 Office expenses 199.28 0.0059 Total $23,812.08 $0.7007 Oswego-Mohawk Route, Eastern Division. The work on this route comprised 290 soundings by hand with a steel rod and 1,562 actual borings, amounting together to 55,521 ft. aggregate depth. As indicating the character of the boring the following table is given : Earth ... 7,611 Sand 20,706 Clay 9,880 Blue clay 177 Gravel 2,815 Shale 161 Hardpan 100 Quicksand 1,529 Sand and gravel 2,728 Sand and clay 3,176 Clay and gravel 760 Sand and shale 262 Clay and shale 902 Gravel and stone 105 Gravel and boulder 177 Hardpan and boulder 87 Hardpan and stone 36 Sand and cobble ... 63 150 'HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Gravel and shale 292 Sand, gravel and stone 77 Sand, loam and mud 900 Sand, clay and gravel . . . . 1,843 Gravel and cobble 91 Mud 417 Rock 626 Total penetration, ft 55,521 Four types of machines were used on the work, two being manu- facturers machines, one a Pierce well boring machine and one a Sullivan wash drill, and two being home-made affairs. The first of these latter consisted of a simple tripod, with a pulley at the apex and a rope passing over the pulley and attached alternately to a wooden maul for driving casing and to the drill rod. The sec- ond of these home-made devices was more elaborate. It consisted of a frame like a small pile driver, that is, two leads with back braces mounted on base timbers. The leads were 15 ft. high and the dis- tance between the bottoms of the leads and back braces was 4 ft. The base extended 2 ft. in front of the leads. A pulley between the leads at the top and one set in brackets in front of it provided for handling the hammer and the drill rods. The hammer was of iron, with a hollow in the bottom for a wooden cushion. In operation the machine was guyed by two wire ropes. It could be loaded onto a two-horse wagon in 15 minutes and unloaded and set up in the same length of time. The boring gangs each consisted of a foreman, three or four laborers and a teamster and double team. A superintendent of borings had charge of all the gangs. The borings varied from a few feet to 190 ft. in depth. The cost of the work was as follows : Item. Total. Per ft. Salaries $26,470.80 $0.4769 Traveling expenses 687.62 0.0124 Plant, repairs and tools 2,287.03 0.0412 Explosives 182.20 0.0033 Freight and express 131.56 0.0027 Office expenses 398.08 0.0054 Total $30,057.29 $0.5419 Champion Route, Ogdensburg to Lake St. Francis. The borings along this route were made partly on land and partly in water* using a Sullivan machine. The division was as follows : Item. No. holes. Ft. depth. Sand borings 148 7,052 Water borings 151 2,123 Total - 299 9^175 The cost of the work was as follows: Item. Total. Per ft. Salaries $6,103.12 $0.6552 Traveling expenses 438.37 0.0477 Plant, repairs, tools 830.92 0.0905 Explosives 319.38 0.0347 Freight and express 72.54 0.0078 Office expenses 54.54 0.0059 Total $7,818.87 $0.8418 EARTH EXCAVATION. 151 Champlain Route, Hudson River Division. This line of borings began in Lake Champlain at Port Henry and ran to Whitehall, thence across country to Fort Edward on the Hudson River and thence down the river to the State Dam at Troy. From Troy to Fort Edward one party consisting of a foreman, three laborers and a teamster and 2 horses made the borings on land, and one party consisting of a foreman and three laborers made the borings in the river. At Fort Edward the river party was transferred to land, giving two land parties to Whitehall. For the river work a catamaran was used since it could be taken apart and carried around dams. On Lake Champlain the borings were made through the ice. As most of the work was done in cold weather it was necessary to house the machine to keep the pumps and water swivel from freezing. A small shanty was built on runners and hauled from hole to hole. It had trap doors in the floor and roof and contained a stove. With this arrangement boring was carried on successfully at 30 F. The materials penetrated on Lake Champlain were silt and sand and boring was very easy as is indi- cated by the fact that 20,169 lin. ft. of borings were made for $2,268, or 11.24 cts. per lin. ft. The itemized cost of the borings as a whole was as follows : Item. Total. Per ft. Salaries $6,288.23 $0.1083 Traveling expenses 156.49 0.0027 Plant, repairs, tools 561.27 0.0097 Explosives 40.74 0.0007 Freight and express 50.40 0.0008 Office expenses 74.12 0.0013 Total $7,171.25 $0.1235 The total aggregate depth of hole was 57,991 lin. ft. Hudson River Survey, Hudson to Troy, N. Y. The borings along this line were made with an outfit mounted on a catamaran and on scows ; silt, clay, coarse and fine sand, gravel and boulders were the materials penetrated. A 2%-in. casing and "B drill rods, 1 with X-bits were used. The drilling gang consisted of one foreman and three laborers. For removing obstructions 40% Atlas powder was used, from one-half stick to two sticks for a charge. To get some of the holes below the depth required for a 30-ft. channel or to rock required from 10 to 30 shots. In all 1,385 borings were made to an aggregate depth of 28,965 ft. The cost of the work was as follows: Item. Total. Per ft. Salaries $5,652.57 $0.1951 Traveling expenses 299.89 0.0104 Plant, repairs, tools 1,105.62 0.0381 Explosives 105.98 0.0037 Freight and express 68.63 0.0023 Office expenses 39.71 0.0011 Total $7,272.40 $0.2507 152 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Boring Test Holes.* In making test borings most ma- chines use water to wash up the material or to make the drilling easier, hence these borings are called "wash borings." The water changes some earths materially, softening some and washing away fine sands. For this reason wash borings are not always satisfac- tory, where samples of the earth are desired. A machine that will do this work without water, and, at the same time, takes a core, is of great value to engineers and contractors. Fig. 5 shows a light, inexpensive and portable machine that will do this work quite cheaply. Its operation is simple, and the general principle is as follows : The drilling is done with one of several tools adapted to the particular kind of material being drilled attached to the drilling rod. The tool and rod are operated inside the casing by the men oil the platform, who raise and drop them like a "churn" drill. The men on the ground rotate the casing, which has a sharp cut- ting shoe on the lower end. The casing, with its burden of plat- form and men, thus keeps cutting and sinking into the ground several inches ahead of the tool. A horse may be substituted for the men who rotate the casing. The material which enters the casing is drilled and forced into a sand pump at the same time. The pump is occasionally lifted out of the casing, emptied and the contents noted. Any material can be penetrated until the solid bed rock is reached. An accurate core Is obtained, and the exact nature of the ground drilled is readily shown. Four-inch pipe is generally used, with a special coupling that makes a perfectly flush joint ; that is, all of the couplings have the same outside diameter as the pipe, which makes it very easy either to sink or remove/ this casing. Instead of the 4-in. pipe or casing, 3-in. or even 2^ -in. casing can be used if desired, and it will make more rapid work, but of course would give a smaller core. After the hole is finished, the pipe is easily withdrawn because the' casing, having been constantly rotated, is always loose, both while sinking and removing. In estimating the cost of operating this drill there is little else to be calculated besides the labor, as the repairs constitute a small part of the operating expense. Of the laborers employed, one must be a foreman or driller, another an ordinary pipeman, and the bal- ance of the crew common laborers. When the casing or piping with its platform is rotated by a horse, instead of the men on the ground, it effects quite a saving in the cost by dispensing with three or four men. If the ground does not contain heavy boulders, and the holes are not over 35 of 40 ft. deep, six men will be sufficient, or three or four men and a horse ; the cost of this crew will gener- ally be not more than $15.00 per day. With the 4-in. size hole 50 ft. of hole per day have been drilled at a cost of 30 cts. per foot. Twenty-five to thirty feet of hole per * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 29, 1908. EARTH EXCAVATION. Fig. 5. Hand Drill. 154 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. day will be averaged through hard cemented gravel containing boulders. Mr. Thos. G. Ryan used one of these drills on Long Island put- ting down a number of holes through sand and gravel, with occa- sional strata of clay, and in some cases encountering large boulders. About 40 test borings were made, each hole averaging 59^ ft, the total lineal feet drilled being 2,454. The time consumed in this work was 73 days, working 9 hrs. per day. The cost given below includes the drilling, drawing the casing, and moving and setting up drill, thus covering a number of removals over a considerable perrod of time. The total cost of the work was : 1 foreman 73 days, at $4.00 $292.00 1 pipeman 73 days, at $3.00 219.00 3 laborers 73 days, at $1.50 each 328.50 1 horse 73 days, at $1.00 73.00 Depreciation, interest, renewals and incidentals.. 81.76 Total cost $994.26 The average work done each day was 33.6 ft, which gives the following unit cost: Per lin. ft. Foreman $0.119 Pipeman 0.089 Laborer 0.134 Horse 0.030 Interest, repairs, deprec., etc 0.033 Total $0~405 The machine is the Empire Hand Drill, made by the New York Engineering Co., 2 Rector St., New York City. In this article* we give the work of a hand drill used for prospecting in Colombia, South America. The drill was an Empire Hand Drill, manufactured by the New York Engineering Co. of New York. The work was done under the direction of Mr. Clar- ence R. Snow, during the autumn of 1908. The work was done with native peons or Indians, who had never seen machinery of any kind before. The country in which the holes were being sunk was covered with forest, the bush and under- growth in many places being very heavy. To move the drill from hole to hole a narrow path was cut through the undergrowth 6 or 7 ft. high. A small flat bottom boat was used to carry the drill across the river, there being consumed about half an hour to do this. As there are no roads in Colombia it would be almost impossible to work a steam drill, owing to the difficulty of moving it from place to place. Four men were used to turn the casing, and four men did the drilling, an additional man being used for cutting trails. The en- tire crew was used to draw the casing and move the drill from hole to hole. The following is a record of seven days' work. First Day. Carried outfit across river in boat and began hole No. 1. Made 14 ft. in top soil and 11 ft. in gravel by 5 p. m. Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 6, 1909. EARTH EXCAVATION. 155 Second Day. Finished hole No. 1, 2% ft. more to bed rock, total 27 Yz ft. Pulled casing and began hole No. 2, 100 ft. distant before noon, and sunk the hole 17 ft. deep to bed rock before 4 p. m. Pulled casing and moved to hole No. 3, drilling 9 ft. in overburden. Third Day. Finished hole No. 3, 24 ft. deep. Pulled casing and started hole No. 3 by 2 p. m. Passed through 12 ft. of over- burden and 10 ft. of sand and gravel by 5 p. m. Fourth Day. Finished hole No. 4, which was 28 ft. deep to bed rock. Pulled casing, cut trail and moved to hole No. 5, 300 ft. northeast of hole No. 4, and started new hole by noon. After drill- ing 17 ft. through overburden an old buried tree was struck, but the drill went through it easily. By 5 p. m. 22 ft. were made in this hole. Fifth Day. Finished jhole No. 5, 28 ft, and after pulling casing began hole No. 6. Got down 14 ft. in overburden and 9 ft. in gravel by 5 p. m. Sixth Day. Finished hole No. 6, going down 9 ft. more to bed rock. Moved outfit across the river and about a mile up the river, and at 2 :45 started hole No. 7. Made 6 ft. in overburden and 9 ft. in gravel by 5 p. m. Seventh Day. Finished hole No. 7, 29 ft., to bed rock, and moved 60 ft. north and sunK hole No. 8, 22 ft., to rock. Started hole No. 9, 50 ft. north, and made 6 ft. in top soil by 5 p. m. Thus in seven days of drilling 213% ft. were drilled, an average of 30% ft. per day. It will be noticed that as the men became ac- customed to the work, they improved a little each day. With the Empire drill an auger drill spoon is used that will cut through hard soils, roots and sunken logs and easily penetrates gravel. It picks up any material and brings it as a core to the surface with a minimum amount of disturbance of the material as It actually lies in the ground. Water, as a rule, is not used to assist in drilling, so the auger will pick up the finest particles of gold. If it is desired to use water in drilling it can be done. The casing is pulled by levers with a very simple device. With wages at $1 per day for the men the expenses were about $10 per day, allowing $1 for incidentals, the cost per foot was about 33 cts. With standard wages the cost per lin. ft. would have been about 47 cts. Cost of Testing for Bridge Foundations.* Mr. F. H. Bainbridge is author of the following: This article is confined to bridge foundations, although much of what follows is also applicable to foundations for buildings and hydraulic structures and preliminary examination for tunnel con- struction. Two methods of testing only are effective, an open pit or well for shallow foundations and the core drill for deep foundations. Sound- * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 25, 1908, reprint from "Mine and Quarry." 156 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ing with gas pipe or rods in shallow foundations and the com- mon well drill in deep foundations are not satisfactory. Fig. 6 shows two cross-sections of a stream at the same point, the dotted line being the line of supposed ledge rock as determined by a well drill operating a chopping bit ; and the full line, the correct loca- tion of the ledge rock, determined with a Sullivan "HN" diamond core drill. In general two sets of borings should be made for an important bridge crossing ; the first set, a number of borings on the center line of the proposed location, to determine whether the site is a favorable one, and, if favorable, to determine by approximate esti- mate the most economical location of the piers and the length of the spans. In a general way it may be assumed that the economical relation is reached when the cost of the substructure equals the cost of the superstructure ; but inasmuch ais the cost of the super- structure can be determined with considerable accuracy, while the cost of the substructure is involved in great uncertainty, the length of the spans selected should exceed that of the apparent econom- ical relation. The length of spans chosen may also be influenced by other than economical considerations, such as government require- ments, or the liability of ice to gorge against the bridge. Having made a tentative location of the piers, borings should be made at each pier, and in the case of pneumatic or open dredged caisson foundations, one boring snould be put down at each of the four corners of the caisson. The preliminary borings may often be dispensed with when there are well records on both sides of the river in the vicinity. These well records can almost always be found in the various state geo- logical reports, which can be had at any public library in the state. In case of the borings at Pierre, South Dakota, to be described later, the well records were so good that borings to determine the length of the spans were not necessary. In cases where pile foundations are feasible and the river bottom is firm enough to lay concrete on, no borings are necessary, the re- quired length of piling being best determined by driving experi- mental piles ; but where the river bottom is soft, as it is in most streams with a sluggish or reversing current, borings should be made, the softer material being taken out dry with a sawtooth bit. This is feasible in the hardest clay or the softer shales and gives a perfect knowledge of the material encountered. Unless dry cores are taken when feasible, a hard clay in every way suitable for a foundation may be overlooked and provision made for carrying the foundation farther down than necessary. In pneumatic work an accurate set of borings with a core drill Is of incalculable value. These advantages are : 1st. The final location of the caisson can be accurately deter- mined and cut stone and timber ordered without any waste or delay waiting for material for which no provision had been made. 2d. The contractor in bidding on the work knows exactly what material is to be encountered, and will make a lower bid when there EARTH EXCAVATION. 157 158 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Is no uncertainty. The difference in cost between handling in a caisson material which can be taken out through the blow pipe and material which must be locked out in buckets is very great. 3d. The piers can be located in the most economical position. Often a change of a few feet in locating a pier may make a differ- ence in cost of tens of thousands of dollars. 4th. Much can be learned as to the character of the foundation that cannot be learned from the interior of the caisson. In lime- stone formations subterranean caverns are common, and in both lime and sandstone formations overhanging subterranean cliffs are found. The existence of these can be determined with the drill, but cannot be learned from the interior of the caisson. Nearly the whole North American continent north of the Ohio River and east of the Missouri River has at various periods been covered with glacial drift ; in fact, the Ohio and Missouri Rivers were formed by glacial action. Below the recent alluvial deposits In a riverbed in this district will be found glacial deposits of sand, gravel, clay, till, or boulders, sometimes all together in a hetero- geneous mass. The extreme determined movement of the greatest glacial sheet was 1,500 miles. Boulders of granite from Canada and Minnesota were carried as far as Kansas and Missouri. One of the boulders in the river bed is therefore liable to be mistaken. for ledge rock. Usually the character of the ledge rock can be learned from state surveys and samples secured from the outcrops, which are located in these surveys. When a core is obtained which can be identified as the same as ledge rock it may or may not be the actual ledge. If the core is granite or some older formation than the ledge rock, it is certain that a boulder has been reached. More recent rocks sometimes exist as pockets in earlier forma- tions, so that a mere difference in the character of the rock from the bed rock is not conclusive evidence that bed rock has not been reached. When such a condition is liable to be found in any locality it will usually be mentioned in the state geological surveys. Boulders of granite and other hard rocks must be removed by placing sticks of dynamite at the bottom of the stand-pipe, with- drawing the pipe, and exploding with an electric battery. Boulders of softer rock can be cut up with the chopping bits and the casing driven through them. As boulders are usually separated by a matrix of sand or clay, the drop of the rods and the wash will show them as boulders and not bedrock in most cases, though this is not always conclusive, as pockets sometimes filled with sand are common in limestone ledges. No definite rules can be given to cover all cases, and it is best, especially where there is any uncertainty, to put down a hole at each of the four corners of a pier. Where the drill strikes first rotten or sap rock, gradually increasing in hardness until known ledge rock is reached, this is conclusive evidence of bed rock. It is best to take out very soft, rotten rock with a saw tooth bit working dry. Drill tests for foundations of the Chicago and Northwestern Rail- EARTH EXCAVATION. 159 way bridge across the Missouri River at Pierre, South Dakota, were begun in December, 1905. The drill used was a Sullivan Ma- chinery Company's "HN" diamond drill, operating 2-in. core bits ; 4 14 -in. stand-pipe and 3-in. casing, both with flush joints, were used. Borings at the sites of the river piers were made from the ice. In general four holes were put down at the site of each pier. On diagonally opposite corners holes were put down to about 90 ft. below low water, and on the other two corners to 60 ft. below low water. Thirty-three holes in all were put down, aggregating a length below the river bed or ground level of 2,379 ft., of which 1,456 ft. was in sand, gravel, and boulders, and 823 ft. in shale, with occasional small lenticular pieces of limestone. On the east or left bank heavy beds of glacial drifts were encoun- tered and there was some difficulty in putting down stand-pipe and casing. The boulders were broken up with dynamite. In shale, saw tooth bits were used entirely, the bortz bit being used only in the limestone pockets. The work of setting up the drill was started December 5, 1905, and the first boring started December 8, 1905, with one shift work- ing 10 hours. On January 17, 1906, a second shift working 10 hours was put on. Shale was found practically level over the entire cross-section at 42 ft. below water. There was apprehension upon encountering an underground flow of water in the upper strata of the shale, but in no case was this more than a few feet below the top of the shale. Caissons for the permanent piers penetrated the shale from 4 to- 6 ft. and the material encountered was accurately described in the record of the borings. The cost of the drilling, including 10 per cent for depreciation of plant and tools, was about $2,400, or about $1 per ft. In 1908 the Northwestern Railway began tests to locate suitable foundations for a new bridge over the Mississippi River at Clinton, Iowa. The same apparatus, tools, piping, etc., were used at Pierre, but the manner of working and the materials encountered were essentially different. These borings were started in April, and it became necessary to mount the drill on a scow. The scow was 15 ft. wide, 32 ft. long on the bottom and 3 7. ft. long on top, with a draft of 16 ins. when loaded. Experience in rough water showed that a scow 10 ft. longer on top with somewhat more rake to the ends would have been more serviceable. The tripod consisted of three pieces of Douglas fir, 5x8 ins. and 32 ft. long. An 8-in. wrought iron pipe near the center of the scow, bolted with a pipe flange to the bottom of the scow, made a well for passing the stand-pipe, 4% ins. in diameter, and the casing, 3 ins. in diameter. The materials encountered were in order as follows : Recent alluvial sands, glacial drift of gravel, sand and boulders, a shale consisting of sand with a clay matrix, and finally limestone bed rock. The upper stratum of bed rock was identified by fossils and general appearance as belonging to the Gower stage of the Niagara 160 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. series of Silurian rocks. This overlaid conformably rock of the Delaware stage of the same series. In the middle of the river the Gower rock and nearly 50 ft. of the Delaware rock had been en- tirely eroded. Great care was taken to ascertain the possible existence of subterranean pockets or overhanging cliffs in the rock. Only two of these pockets were found, however, both in the same boring, and these were only 1 and 6 ins. in depth. Both were filled with sand, consisting of about equal parts of quartz and dolomite sand. Some of the borings were carried down 30 to 40 ft. into the bed rock to determine the possible existence of these subterranean pockets. All the boulders encountered were such as could easily be broken with the chopping bit, and no dynamite was found necessary. To determine the consistency of the shale, cores were taken out with saw tooth bits working dry, showing perfectly the consistency of the material. The saw tooth bit or the chopping bit working with the pump gave no idea of what this material was, and without the expediency of the dry core an excellent foundation would have been overlooked, and a foundation sought 30 ft. lower. It is in- tended to use pneumatic caissons in all the piers except the shore piers. Borings in the limestone were made with a bortz bit when the water was still, and with the chopping bit taking occasional cores with the saw tooth bits. Fully 95 per cent of the boring in the limestone was made with the bortz bit. The work of mounting the drill was started April 2 and the first hole begun April 7. The work was finished June 6, working one shift of 10 hrs. per day. The aggregate length of casing put down was 692 ft. The aggregate length of casing driven through hard material was 406.5 ft. The aggregate length of borings in shale was 86 ft., and in limestone 226 ft. The cost was as follows: Labor $ 456.16 Coal 124.41 Depreciation of bortz, estimated. 200.00 Scow 287.24 Depreciation on tools, pipe, etc 200.00 $1,267.81 The scow still has a value which is somewhat uncertain. Omit- ting this credit, the cost amounted to $1.83 per ft. Costs of Making Test Borings, III., Etc.* Despite the wide use of test borings few engineers or contractors seem to have taken the trouble to amass data on the cost of making them, at least few such data can be found in print. The records which we give here are from scattered sources and are less complete than could be wished, but in default of better, they are of interest. The several prices of work of which costs are given were done with a No. 80 Pierce tubular well and test boring rig. This machine consists of a base on which sets four uprights serving as guides for the driving hammers and the pipe. In operation the base is set up * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 26. 1906. EARTH EXCAVATION. 16J level and the hammer is set on it. The four guides are then fas- tened in position. The whole machine is then laid over sidewise on the ground, the head casting is placed and the hoisting cable is con- nected up. The assembled machine is then lifted to a vertical posi- tion and is ready for work. The first section of pipe with the steel cutting shoe attached is then put in position by raising the ham- mer and attaching the pipe guide clamps. The pipe is then driven by raising and dropping the hammer exactly as in driving a pile. The pipe being driven, the upper part of the machine is slid rear- ward on the base so as to clear the pipe and a 2-in. discharge tee is screwed to the tap of the pipe. The drill with water discharge holes near the bottom and the hollow drill rod are inserted in the pipe and the top of the drill rod is connected by hose to a hand pump. One man then pumps water down the hollow drill rod while another churns the drill up and down to chip and loosen the mate- rial which is carried upward through the annular space between pipe and rod and discharged into a pail so that samples can be taken. A second joint of pipe is then screwed on and driven and the drilling and working out process is repeated. In this way by alternate drilling and driving the boring is carried to the required depth. The next step is to take out the pipe so that it can be used for a second hole; this is accomplished by means of a screw jack apparatus. With the No. 80 machine a 2-in. pipe in 5 ft. sections is used. The limit of drilling of this rig is considered to be about 125 ft, for deeper holes a heavier rig is employed. Illinois and Desplaines Rivers Survey. In making surveys, plans and estimates for a 14-ft. waterway from Lockport, 111., by the Desplaines, Illinois and Mississippi rivers to St. Louis, Mo., test borings were made along the route. From the official report of this work submitted to the U. S. Government and from additional data sent us by Mr. J. W. Woerman, of Peoria, 111., who was Assistant Engineer in charge of the work from Lockport, 111., to the mouth of the Illinois River, we have prepared the following description of the test boring work. On one of the quarter boats a well was cut through the rake at one end through which to operate the boring machine. A lOx 10-in. x 32 ft. spud was provided at each corner of the boat to hold it fast while drilling. An office and living quarters for the crew and a blacksmith shop were installed on the boat. The machine used to make the borings was a "Pierce test boring rig No. 80." It con- sisted essentially of a 2-in. outer pipe, or casing, and %-in. inner pipe or drill, with arrangements for forcing them into the ground. Water was forced down the smaller pipe, and came up again be- tween the two pipes, carrying with it, in suspension, the material from the bottom of the river. The casing was made of extra strong wrought iron pipe, screwed together in 5-ft. lengths as it was driven down by a 200-lb. hammer. The hammer had a maximum fall of 8 ft., and was kept in line over the casing by four iron guides. It was raised with a small hand winch. The drill was made of light wrought iron pipe, to the top of which was attached a 1^-in. hose connected with a steam deck pump on the towboat 162 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A hand pump, furnished with the boring machine, was used only when it was necessary to send the towboat away from the boring boat. The drill was churned up and down by hand, when the outer casing was not being driven, and the material which came up between the two pipes escaped through a tee connection at the top of the large pipe. Samples were taken frequently by catching por- tions of this mixture in pails and allowing it to settle. In order ta make the casing drive easily the drill was kept from 3 to 5 ft. in advance of the casing, and any change in material was noted as the drill entered it. The borings were made in or near the channel, to a depth of about 30 ft. below low water. This was done because, when the boring boat was anchored and the machine was in operation, it cost but very little more to go 30 ft. than to stop at the proposed depth of 14 ft., and the additional information may prove valuable at some future time. As a rule the borings were spaced about half a mile apart, but if rock was encountered, or if there was any other decided change in the character of the bottom, the holes were placed close enough together to define the limits of the material. The work of making borings in the river bed was completed on July 2, 1904, and the party disbanded. The materials penetrated were mud, sand, gravel, clay, shells, soapstone, coal and various mixtures of the above materials. When the boring reached bed rock it was necessary to stop. Bed rock was not struck very often, however, and when it was, additional bor- ings were made in the vicinity to be sure that the drill was not in a boulder instead. The boring party consisted of ten men who were furnished with quarters and subsistence which cost about $15 per month per man. The wages paid the members of the party were as follows: Rate 4 per month. 1 civil engineer in charge ..$125.00 1 pilot 75.00 1 steam engineer 75.00 1 fireman 50.00 1 cook 50.00 1 blacksmith 45.00 1 night watchman 35.00 3 laborers, at $35.00 105.00 10^ men $560.00 In addition to the above wages there were also charged against the work various other expenses as indicated in the following para- graph from the official report : "The cost of subsistence, while the men were on the quarter boats, has been charged to the various parties, according to the number of men in each party. When parties boai'ded away from the quarter boats, the amounts of their board bills were charged directly to that branch of the work upon which they were then engaged. The cost of the construction and equipment of the quarter boats, the cost of instruments, tools, office furniture, etc., was also charged pro rata to the various branches of the work. This was EARTH EXCAVATION. 163 done in order to make the total cost agree with the actual amount expended on the survey, but as this is not done usually, it should be taken into account in making comparisons with the cost of any other surveys. These items amounted to about $18,000, or more than one-tenth of the total amount expended. These articles are all in good condition and will give good service for many years to come. The cost figures given also include a portion of the ex- penses of the Chicago office, as well as all expenses connected with the Peoria office." With all the above charges included the cost of making test bor- ings on this survey was : Total cost $7,797.00 Cost, per hole 13.70 Cost, per lin. ft. of hole 0.62 Erie R. R. A record of four weeks' work, Nov. 7 to Nov. 28, inclusive, on the Erie R. R., gives the following figures: Superintendent, 18 half days, at $5 $ 45.00 Foreman, 19 days, at $2.50 47.50 Laborers, 41 days, at $2.00 82.00 Total $174.50 The total d,_,th of hole bored was 699.1 ft. The labor cost of making the borings was, therefore, 24.9 cts. per lineal foot of hole. The holes were bored through sandy red clay. New York Central & Hudson River R. R. Two test borings were made 90 ft. deep in one day in February, 1905, for some work being done by the New York Central & Hudson River R. R. The borings were made in one case through 3 ft. of frozen ground and in the other case through 3 ft. of ice, moving the machine 600 ft. from one hole to the other. Both borings were made in one day at a total labor cost of $5 or 2^ cts. per lineal foot of hole. Cost of Test Borings with Wood Augers.* Mr. A. C. D. Blanchard is author of the following: The borings enumerated below were made in the city of Toronto during the last year in order to find the character of the soil to a depth of from 30 to 70 ft. These borings were made in connec- tion with several works which were about to be built, and were taken in different parts of the city. The ground met with con- sisted chiefly of blue clay, although seven borings were made in wet, sandy clay, and four were made in filled ground. The aver- age length of holes is shown for each locality. The borings were all made with a 1%-in. carpenter's machine auger, welded to the end of a %-in. pipe. The %-in. pipe was cut in sections 6 ft. long, and each length was added as it became necessary. In the process of boring the auger was turned by two or three men with Stillson wrenches, at the surface. The heavier clay re- quired three men to turn the auger. After the auger had bored from 8 to 12 ins. It had to be removed from the hole and cleaned *A paper in Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 11, 1909. reprinted from "The Canadian Engineer." 104 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and then replaced in the hole, and continued for another auger length. Considerable time was thus lost in having to remove the auger and getting it back to its position again, especially after the hole became quite deep. Samples were taken from each boring and bottled. The force consisted of one recorder and three laborers each at $2 a day. The work was done at all seasons of the year, and no time was lost by any of the men. The cost of blacksmith work and teaming amounted to about 5 per cent of the total cost, and the cost of material, such as augers, wrenches and iron pipe, amounted to about 10 per cent. The following is a statement of the itemized cost of the work : ( 1 ) HEAVY BLUE CLAY : 1 INS. OF RED CLAY ON TOP. Number of holes 28 Total depth, ft 709 Average depth of hole, ft 25.3 Cost. Total. Per ft. Labor $199 $0.281 Materials and blacksmith 34 0.048 Total $233 $0.329 (2) MADE GROUND. Number of holes 4 Total depth, ft 90 Average depth of hole, ft 22.5 Cost. Total. Per ft. Labor $44 $0.488 Materials and blacksmith 5 0.066 Total $ 49 $0.554 (3) FINE, RUNNING, CLAYEY SAND. Number of holes 36 Total depth, ft 1,163 Average depth of hole, ft 32.3 Cost. Total. Per ft. Labor $293 $0.252 Materials and blacksmith 43 0.037 Total $336 $0~2~89 (4) HEAVY CLAY. Number of holes 7 Total depth, ft 152 Average depth of hole, ft 21.7 Cost. Total. Per ft. Labor $48 $0.315 Materials and blacksmith 9 0.059 Total $ 57 $0.347 (5) HEAVY BLUE CLAY. Number of holes 5 Total depth, ft 160 Average depth of holes 32 Cost. Total. Per ft. Labor $40 $0.250 Materials and blacksmith 6 0.038 Total $ 46 $0728? EARTH EXCAVATION. 165 Cost of Drilling Test Holes with' a Well Driller.* This drilling was done with a Star drilling machine (well drilling type) to test the site 'of a double track, steel trestle for concrete pedestal foun- dations. Seven holes were put down for a total depth of 190 ft. through clay and gravel to solid rock. The average depth of soil was 23 ft. and the average penetration into rock was 4 ft. The actual time consumed in drilling and moving from one hole, to another was 11% days and the total distance over which the drill was moved was 730 ft. The average time per foot of hole drilled, including moving, was 30 mins. The contractor furnished the drill and labor at cost plus 10 per cent on labor, and his bill was as follows : Rate. Driller, liy a days $3.50 Helper, 11% days 1.75 Teaming, 2.1 days 4.00 Labor, 10 days 1.75 Use of drill, 11 y a days 2.00 Coal, 45 bushels 08 4%-in. casing, 54% ft 35 Teaming 1 day for other parties 10% for supt. and use of tools as above Total $144.64 The above cost does not include any charge for inspection, as the regular inspector for the railroad company had to be on the ground to watch other work and could easily keep track of the drilling. For the above information we are indebted to H. M. Chapin, Resident Engineer, F. & C. R. R. Cost of Diamond Drilling, Cross- References. The foregoing data relate to costs of test borings through earth. For similar test bor- ings in rock, see the section on Rock Excavation, under Diamond Drilling. Cost of Sinking a Well. f Mr. Daniel J. Hauer is author of the following : The well was driven in a rolling country, where rock does not i occur. The materials through which it was sunk were stiff red clay and sand. A tidewater marsh adjoining the site of the well furnished a poor quality of water to start the sinking of the drill, the hydi-aulic method being used. All remarks made by the writer ; will be regarding driven wells. The distinction being made from open wells, large enough for a man to enter. These machines are generally mounted on wheels, with a mast i on one end. This mast is jointed about 6 ft. from the base, so 1 as to admit of it being lowered on to the bed of the machine, when it is necessary to move from one job to another. When the ma- chine is in use the mast is upright and is guyed and held in place by two brace rods or timbers bolted to it near the top. The bit used on such a machine is solid and "the string of tools" consisted of rods, one end being a socket and the other a bolt end, all * Engineering-Contracting, Mar. 4. 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, May 23, 1906. 166 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. threaded. The top piece has a "rope socket" on the upper end, used to attach it to the machine. With such a well boring apparatus, the hole must be cleaned when a depth of from 2 ft. to 5 ft. has been obtained. This necessitates removing the boring tools and pumping out the debris or "sludge" with a sand pump, all of which con- sumes a large amount of time, especially if the well is driven to a depth greater than 100 ft. The hydraulic method of driving wells obviates the use of the sand pump, and in wells of any depth, through soft material, is preferable to the other method. Driven wells are usually from 6 ins. to 16 ins. In diameter. A hole less than 6 ins. cannot be driven to any great depth as the tools would have to be so light as to run grave chances of break- ing them. Fifteen and sixteen-inch holes are the maximum at present, owing to the fact that these seem to be the sizes of the pipes for casing, that are made economically and are easily placed in the well. Many manufacturing plants are using twelve and fourteen-inch wella When the hydraulic method is used a square pyramidal derrick from 40 ft. to 70 ft. in height is erected. Timber is used for these structures by well drilling contractors, but the writer sees no reason why a tower, modeled after those used by prospectors in taking ore drillings, and made of steel, could not be used and taken down after each job and moved to a new site. Of course, the timber can be used more than once, but each time some of it is used up and all of it has to be renewed after several jobs. The life of a steel derrick, if kept painted, would be many years, and only the bolts would have to be renewed from time to time. The tools differ somewhat from those previously described. The bit is hollow, with a hole just above the cutting point on either side to allow the jet of water to enter the well. Instead of rods, pipes are used, and the rope socket has an attachment to which is fastened the hose, run from the pump to the drilling column. The well In this case was 8 ins. in diameter. The derrick was 50 ft. high. The first deck was 20 ft., while the three upper decks were each 10 ft. The head blocks carried a sheave. On one side of the derrick was a ladder. On the other side was fastened the windlass and gearing. The corner posts of the derrick were 4x6 in. timbers, while the braces were 2x8 in. and l-x!2 In. planks; the head blocks were 4x6. Twenty-five hundred feet board meas- ure of timber was used for the derrick and about 500 ft for a tool house and other needs. The outfit consisted of the following: An upright boiler and engine on separate bases, a steam duplex pump, two hand pumps, windlass and gearing, two hammers for driving well casing, ropes and blocks, drill points, hard rubber hose, wrenches of various kinds, pipe cutters and dies, and various small tools. Several tents for the workmen to live in while driving the well, and bedding and cooking utensils were also included in the outfit. The approximate value of this outfit, when new, was $2,000. Allowing 25 per. cent per year for interest and depreciation, and considering 100 work days as covering a season's work for an out- EARTH EXCAVATION. 167 fit, we have a daily plant charge of $5.00. This is small consid- ering the hard usage the plant undergoes. The boiler has all kinds cf water used in it, which quickly injures the tubes. The pumps also fare roughly from the pumping of water saturated with the debris from the well, the water being used over and over again. The continual handling of the pipe soon wears out the threads, necessitating cutting and making new threads, and so it is with other details of the outfit, all of which quickly takes money for renewals and repairs. As a large percentage of wells are driven in inaccessible parts of the country, a well driving contractor must carry with him every tool that any emergency may demand. In the work which the writer is describing five days were con- sumed by two men in erecting the derrick and setting up the plant. Then a length of 12-in. pipe was sunk to protect the mouth of the well, after which the well driving commenced. As stated above, water to start the work was used from an adjoining swamp. The first day's driving resulted in a depth of over 50 ft. and gave enough water to continue the work. The average depth obtained each day of actual driving was 20 ft., but the average for the total time consumed in working on the well was a fraction over I 11 ft. The well was sunk to a depth of 339 y 2 ft, when sufficient water was obtained to fulfil the terms of the contract. At 260 ft. ; a stratum of sand was struck and the well was cased up and tested, i but as the vein of sand was not over 3 ft, it did not give sufficient i water and the driving was continued. At a depth of 318 ft. sand was again encountered, and again the well was cased up and the strainer put in place and the well tested, the strainer being lo- cated at the depth given above. No effort was made to obtain the depth of this stratum of water bearing sand. Seventeen days were consumed in driving the well, and five days . in casing up, placing the strainer and testing. One day sufficed to dismantle the plant and haul it away. As the outfit was on the i. road two days, two additional days are included in the plant i: charge. Three and one-half tons of coal were used, there being a daily consumption of 320 Ibs. The cost of this, including haul- ing, was $5.25. The crew consisted of one experienced drill driver, who acted as foreman when the contractor was absent, and two laborers, both of whom had had some experience in driving artesian wells. The derrick was built and the machinery placed by the foreman and 'one laborer, the second laborer coming on the work only after i'the well driving began. At all critical stages of the work a member of the contracting firm took charge of the forces and worked with I the rest of the crew, doing whatever came to hand. In all he ! worked in this manner seven days. In the record of cost given an allowance of $3.50 is made for each of these days' work. The rates of wages or their equivalent for the other men were as Hows : Well driver $2.75 Laborers 2.00 The wages were paid weekly and included board ; but the figures 168 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. given show the daily cost for ten hours' work to the contractor, made up from a season's employment. All of the men were paid full time, and frequently were called to make over-time without additional pay. Well driving can be done during wet weather without serious inconvenience to the men, as they seldom stop except in steady downpours of rain. This is made possible by only a few men being employed ; with a large number, a few become dissatisfied and the whole force is stopped. The itemized cost of the well, for both labor and materials, except the strainer, was as follows: La & or: Erecting derrick and machinery $ 23.75 Driving well and casing 170.75 Pumping and testing well 12.25 Tearing down derrick, etc 6.75 Total labor ?213.50 Materials: 3 % tons of coal, at $5.25 $18.37 Pipe casing, 340 ft., at $0.86 292.40 Outer casing (second hand) 10.00 Derrick timber, 3,000 ft. B. M., at $25.00 75.00 Total materials $395.77 Miscellaneous: Transportation charges $100.00 Plant rental, 30 days, at $5.00.... 150.00 Superintendence and general expenses 50.00 Total miscellaneous $300.00 Grand total $909.27 The transportation charge is for both freight by train and haul- ing by wagons to and from the job, and is a little higher than usual. The figures giving a cost per lineal foot of well are as follows: Labor $0.63 Materials 1.16 Miscellaneous 0. 88 Total i $2.67 It is of interest to note that the cost of fuel, which is high ton, amounts to a fraction over 5 cts. per foot of driven well, whicl is a comparatively small cost. The full charge is made agaim this job for the derrick timber, although some of it had been us previously and all of it was hauled away to be used on another jol The boiler was fired by the man attending to the pumps or els the man running the windlass. The consumption of coal might been reduced somewhat by the boiler having a cheap house ov< It and the steam pipes being covered. On a single job like tl but little saving would be shown, but in a year or two the addi- tional cost would be more than saved. With a small boiler a hous could be constructed readily in sections and moved from job to jol The steam pipes could also be lagged and handled in the sanu manner. The writer feels confident that these are details wel EARTH EXCAVATION. 16!) Worth considering not only in well driving, but also on much other construction work. The contractor doing this work owns three such outfits, and in spite of the fact that three or four men can operate each plant, he states that it is exceedingly difficult to obtain men to put in charge of a plant ; men who can be relied upon to face any crisis in the work and handle it without a money loss. For these reasons he seldom runs but two machines, as he can give these his per- sonal attention and only keeps the third plant for an emergency. That is, to take a job from an old customer, that may go to a com- petitor, or land new work that is exceedingly desirable. Margins are so close that a single mistake of judgment may use up the entire profit of a job. After pumping this well, the sinking of which has just been de- ! scribed, for 24 hours the flow was tested and found to be 66 gallons per minute. The water level had only been reduced 20 ft. by | this pumping. The strainer was placed 340 ft. below the level of 1 the ground, the elevation of the latter being 5 ft. above mean low i tide. The strainer used was made from a piece of pipe plugged at one end and punched with holes, the dimensions of which were j y 2 in. x % in. The placing of the strainer and the variety of strainer used is a matter of vast importance and every detail regarding it should be specifically stated in a contract for a driven well. All too fre- quently this is not done, and the entire matter is left in the hands of the contractor, who only sees that the well comes up to the j required tests and that a strainer is properly placed in the well. f The kind he will use will be the style he is accustomed to, which may not be suitable for the well in question. Strainers, of which there are a number of styles patented and used, may be classed as either fine or coarse. The majority of the older patents are for fine strainers, that is, the openings are made so small as to admit of water entering the pipe and yet stop the finest sand. The slots are cut larger on the inside than on the outside of the pipe, so as to allow any grains of sand that may enter the opening to go into the strainer and not clog the hole. The openings in fine strainers are less than 1/50 in. in size. It is evident that with little corrosion or rust these holes will become closed and the entire well rendered useless. In the coarse strainers this will neither happen as often or as soon, hence they are pref- erable. The main objection to this class of strainers is that they will gradually fill with sand and thus stop the flow. This can be obviated. If the grains of sand were of equal size in water bear- ing sand, we would only need to have openings of such a size as to not admit the grains and the difficulty would be solved, but as a rule the grains of water bearing sand not only vary greatly in size, but also contain some gravel. When gravel is not carried by the sand some should be placed around the strainer by artificial means. Then the well should be pumped at a rapid rate for such a length of time as may be neces- 170 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. sary to draw in aH the fine sand that may ultimately be disturbed by the velocity of the water. When this is done and the sand cleaned out of the well, and the coarse strainer properly placed, no trouble should occur from this source. At times it may be found necessary to use air pressure to agitate the fine sand, as the pump- ing is going on, so as to facilitate the drawing in of the fine par- ticles. Trouble will only occur when the inflow of water is of such velocity as to carry the fine fluid with it. These operations are rather costly and it cannot be expected that the contractor will do them, unless they have been previously speci- fied, so that his price is made to cover them. The engineer should see to this. Many wells that have to be reworked only needed these things done when they were driven. The costs that have been given do not include any work of this nature. (For further data on well driving, see the index under Wells.) References and Cross- References on Earthwork. For cost data on dredging, hydraulicking earth, and costs by many other methods of excavation, the reader is referred to my book on earthwork. In various sections of this book will be found other data on earth- work costs, for which consult the index under "Excavation, Earth." ' . . SECTION III. I :.. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING AND CRUSHING. Weight and Voids. Civil engineers commonly measure rock ex- cavation by the cubic yard in place before loosening, whereas min- ing engineers generally use the ton of 2,000 pounds as the unit of rock and ore measurement. In view of this fact it would be well were the specific gravity of the rock given by every engineer who publishes data ori any particular kind of rock excavation or mining. Then, too, it often happens that broken rock is purchased by the ton even for civil engineering work, or by the cord of loosely piled i rubble for architectural work, thus emphasizing the importance of stating not only the specific gravity but the percentage of voids. The specific gravity of any material is the quotient found by dividing its weight by the weight of an equal bulk of water. Water, therefore, has a specific gravity of 1 ; a cubic foot of any sub- | stance like granite, having a specific gravity of 2.65, weighs 2.65 times as much as a cubic foot of water. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.355 Ibs., or practically 62.4 Ibs. ; hence a cubic foot of solid granite weighs, 62.4 X 2.65 = 165.3 Ibs. When any rock is crushed or broken into fragments of tolerably | uniform size it increases in bulk, and is found to have 35% to 55% I voids or inter-spaces, depending upon the uniformity of the frag- ments and their angularity. Rounded .fragments, like pebbles, pack more closely together than sharp-edged or angular fragments. A , tumbler full of bird shot has about 36% voids, and it is possible to hand-pack marbles of uniform size so that the voids are only 26%. Obviously, if small fragments of stone are mixed with large fragments, the voids are reduced. Pit sand ordinarily has 35% to i 40% voids. Hard broken stone from a rock crusher has about 35% voids If all sizes are mixed and slightly shaken down in a box ; whereas, If it is screened into several sizes, each size has about 45% to 48% voids. A soft and friable rock like shale breaks into fragments having a great range in size, from large chunks down to' dust ; and, as a consequence, such soft broken rocks have a much lower percentage of voids than the tougher rocks. The following table shows the swelling of rock upon breaking: Voids. 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% Cu. yds. broken rock from 1 cu. yd. solid rock 1.43 1.54 1.67 1.82 2.00 2.22 171 172 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Hard rock when blasted out in large chunks and thrown into cars or skips may ordinarily be assumed to have from 40% to 45% voids, hence 1 cu. yd. of hard solid rock ordinarily makes 1.67 to 1.82 cu. yds. of broken or crushed rock. Voids in Broken Stone and Gravel. The percentage of voids in loose, broken stone depends upon the character of the stone, upon whether it is broken by hand or in a crusher (probably also on the kind of crusher), and upon whether it is screened into different sizes, or the run of the crusher Is taken. Pure quartz weighs 165 Ibs. per cu. ft., hence broken quartz hav- ing 40% voids weighs 165 X 60%, or 99 Ibs. per cu. ft. Few gravels are entirely quartz, and many contain stone having a greater spe- cific gravity like some traps, or a less specific gravity like some shales and sandstones. TABLE I. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF STONE. (Condensed from Merrill's "Stones for Building.") Trap, Boston, Mass 2.78 " Duluth, Minn 2.80 to 3.00 " Jersey City, N. J 3.03 " Staten Island, N. Y 2.86 Gneiss, Madison Ave., N. Y 2.92 Granite, New London, Conn 2.66 Greenwich, Conn 2.84 Vinalhaven, Me 2.66 Quincy, Mass 2.66 Barre, Vt 2.65 Limestone, Joliet, 111 2.56 Quincy, 111 2.51 to 2.57 (Oolitic) Bedford, Ind 2.25 to 2.45 Marquette, Mich 2.34 Glens Falls, N. Y 2.70 Lake Champlain, N. Y 2.75 Sandstone, Portland, Conn 2.f Haverstraw, N. Y... 2.13 Medina, N. Y 2.41 Potsdam, N. Y. '. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 2.GO (grit) Berea, 2.12 The weight of a cubic foot of loose gravel or stone is therefore no accurate index of the percentage of voids unless the specific gravity Is known. Tables I and II show specific gravities of different minerals and rocks, and weights of broken stone corresponding to different per- centages of voids. It is rare that a gravel has less than 30 % or more than 45% voids. If the pebbles vary considerably in size, so that the small fit In between the large, the voids may be as low as 30% ; but if the pebbles are tolerably uniform the voids will approach 45%. Broken stone, being 1 angular, does not compact so readily as gravel, and shows a higher percentage of voids when the frag- ments are uniform in size and shoveled loosely into a box ; but the voids, even then, seldom exceed 52%. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 173 TABLE II. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COMMON MINERALS AND ROCKS. Apatite 2.92 3.25 Basalt 3.01 Calcite, CaCO 3 2.5 2.73 Cassiterite, SnO 2 6.4 7.1 Cerrusite, PbCo 3 6.466.48 Chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2 . . . 1 4.1 4.3 Coal, anthracite 1.3 1.84 Coal, bituminous 1.2 1.5 Diabase 2.6 3.03 Diorite 2.92 Dolomite, CaMg (CO 3 ) 2 2.82.9 Feldspar 2.44 2.78 Felsite 2.65 Galena, PbS 7.25 7.77 Garnet 3.15 4.31 Gneiss 2.622.92 Granite 2.552.86 Gypsum 2.3 3.28 Halite (salt), NaCl 2.1 2.56 Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 4.5 5.3 Hornblende 3.05 3.47 Limonite, Fe 3 O 4 (OH) 6 3.64.0 Limestone 2.35 2.97 Magnetite, Fe 3 O 4 4.9 5.2 Marble 2.082.85 Mica 2.75 3.1 Mica Schist , 2.5 2.9 Olivine 3.33 3.5 Porphyry 2.5 2.6 Pyrite, FeS 2 4.835.2 Quartz, SiO 2 2.5 2.8 Quartzite 2.62.7 Sandstone , 2.0 2.78 Medina 2.4 Ohio 2.2 Slaty 1.82 Shale 2.42.8 Slate 2.5 2.8 Sphalerite, ZnS 3.0 4.2 Stibnite, Sb 2 S 3 4.5 4.6 Syenite 2.27 2.65 Talc 2.56 2.8 Trap 2.6 3.0 174 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE III. Weight in Weight in Weight in Lbs. per cu, yd. when Specific Gravity. Lbs. per cu. ft. Lbs. per cu. yd. 30% 35% Voids are 40% 45% 50% 1.0 62.355 1,684 1,178 1,094 1,010 926 842 2.0 124.7 3,367 2,357 2,187 2,020 1,852 1,64 2,1 130.9 3.536 2.475 2,298 2,121 1,945 1,768 2.2 137.2 3.704 2.593 2.408 2.222 2,037 1,852 2.3 143.4 3,872 2,711 2,517 2,323 2,130 1,936 2.4 149.7 4,041 2,828 2,626 2,424 2,222 2,020 2.5 155.9 4,209 2,946 2,736 2,525 2,315 2,105 2.6 162.1 4,377 3,064 2,845 2,626 2,408 2,189 2.7 168.4 4,546 3,182 2,955 2,727 2,500 2,273 2.8 174.6 4,714 3,300 3,064 2,828 2,593 2,357 2.9 180.9 4,882 3,418 3,174 2,929 2,685 2,441 3.0 187.1 5,051 3,536 3,283 3,030 2,778 2,526 3.1 193.3 5,219 3,653 3,392 3,131 2,871 2,609 3.2 199.5 5,388 3,771 3,502 3,232 2,963 2,694 3.3 205.8 5,556 3,889 3,611 3,333 3,056 2,778 3.4 212.0 5,724 4,007 3,721 3,434 3,148 2,862 3.5 218.3 5,893 4,125 3,830 3,535 3,241 2,947 TABLE IV. VOIDS IN LOOSE BROKEN STONE. Per cent Authority. Voids. Sabin 49.0 Sabin 44.0 Wm. M. Black 46.5 J. J. R. Croes 47.5 Wm. M. Hall 48.0 Wm. M. Hall 50.0 Wm. Fuller 47.6 Geo. A. Kimball . 49.5 to 2Mj Remarks. Limestone, crusher run after screen- ing out %-in. and under. Limestone (1 part screenings mixed with 6 parts broken stone). Screened and washed. 2 ins. and under. Gneiss, after screening out ^4 -in. and under. S. B. Newberry 47.0 Chiefly about egg size. H. P. Boardman 39 to 42 Chicago limestone, crusher run. H. P. Boardman 4 8 to 5 2 Chicago limestone, screened into sizes. Green River limestone, 2y 2 ins. and smaller, dust screened out. Hudson River trap, 2^2 ins. and smaller, dust screened out. New Jersey trap, crusher run, 1/6 to 2.1 in. Roxbury conglomerate, ins. Limestone, ^ to 3 ins. Limestone, 2-in. size. Limestone, IVj-in. size. Stone, 1.6 to 2.4 ins. Stone, 0.8 to 1.6 in. Stone, 0.4 to 0.8 in. Bluestone, 89% being ins. Bluestone, 90% being 1/6 to in. Trap, hard, 1 to 2y 2 ins. Trap, hard, % to 1 in. Trap, hard, to 2^ ins. Trap, soft, % to 2 ins. Canton, 111. Buffalo limestone, crusher run, dust in. Crushed cobblestone, screened into sizes. Crushed limestone in sizes. Myron W. H. W. H Feret Feret Feret A \V s. _ Falk 48.0 Henby 43.0 Henby 46.0 53.4 51.7 52.1 Dow 45.3 to A. W. Dow 45.3 2% Itt Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor G. W. Emile and and and and Thompson Thompson Thompson Thompson Chandler ...... 40.0 Low .......... 39.0 54.5 54.5 45.0 51.2 C. M. Saville ........ 46.0 I. O. Baker .......... 43 to 47 A N Johnson ....... 41 to 51 Crushed limestone in sizes. W. E. -McClintock ____ 47.0 Crushed trap. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 175 The following records of actual tests will indicate the range of void percentages : Prof. S. B. Newberry gives the voids in Sandusky Bay gravel, & to %-in. size, as being 42.4% voids; }4 to 1/20-in. size, 35.9% voids. Mr. William M. Hall, M. Am. Soc. C. E., gives the following tests on mixtures of Green River, Ky., blue limestone and Ohio River washed gravel : Stone. Gravel. Voids in Mixture. 100% with 0% 48% 80 70 50 30 40 50 100 35 The stone passed a 2^ -in. screen and the dust was removed by a fine screen. The gravel passed a 1%-in. screen. The voids in mixtures of Hudson River trap rock and clean gravel, of the sizes just given for the Kentucky materials, were as follows : Trap. Gravel. , Voids in Mixture. 100% with 0% ' 50% 38^4 60 50 40 50 100 36 35 Mr. H. von Schon gives tests on a gravel having 34.1% voids as follows : Per cent. Retained on 1-in. ring 10.70 Retained on %-in. ring 23.65 Retained on No. 4 sieve 8.70 Retained on No. 10 sieve 17.14 Retained on No. 20 sieve 21.76 Retained on No. 30 sieve 6.49 Retained on No. 40 sieve 5.96 Passed No. 40 sieve 5.59 Passed 1 %-in. ring 100.00 Feret gives the following results of tests on mixtures of different sizes of pebbles, and mixtures of different sizes of stone (the stone and pebbles were not mixed together) : Voids in 1.6" 0.8" Round Broken 0.8" 0.4" Pebbles. Stone. Passing a ring of.. Held by a ring Parts . 2.4" 1.6" 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 40.0% 38.8 41.7 35.8 35.6 37.9 35.5 34.5 36.6 38.1 34.1 53.4% 51.7 52.1 50.5 47.1 49.5 47.8 49.2 49.4 48.6 17G HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. A. W. Dow gives the following tests on mixtures of broken stone and gravel at Washington, D. C. : Parts of Broken Bluestone Granolithic Coarse Average (92% ' (89% (90% being being being 3/10 to %") %to2^,") ^to2") 1 1 1 Parts of Gravel Average (90% being 1/6 toiy.") Small (90% being Voids. % to %") Percent. 45.3 45.3 39.5 29.3 1 35.5 1 36.7 Taylor and Thompson give the following : Ref. No. Stone. Size. 2%"tol' l"to W Hard trap Hard trap Hard trap 2^"toO Soft trap 2"to%" Soft trap %"to%" Gravel 2y 2 "toy 2 ' 54.5 54.5 45.0 51.2 51.2 36.5 c C S-S ftp - w cfi g; i 14.5 11.9 14.3 12.5 - s -. 35.7 44.6 43.1 27.4 gi s 1 . W fc dHO,> S3 OH S^ el 19.2 20.5 20.8 17.8 4 23.9 11.5 43.7 42.8 30.6 40.6 35.9 28.2 The stone was thrown into a measuring box and measured, then rammed in 6-in. layers. The variation in the last column for Nos. 4 and 5 was due to the breaking of the trap under the rammer. No. 3 was "crusher run" containing 44.4% of No. 1, 33.3% of No. 2, and 22% of screenings from %-in. down to dust. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were crushed in a gyratory crusher ; Nos. 4 and 5, in a jaw crusher. Mr. George W. Rafter gives the voids in clean limestone, broken (by hand?) to pass a 2% -in. ring, as 43% after being "slightly shaken," and 37^2% after being rammed. Mr. Desmond FitzGerald states that broken stone dropped 12 ft. into a car measured 7% less in volume after the fall. As originally pointed out in my "Rock Excavation," I have found that a wagon load of broken stone measures 10% less in volume after it has traveled a short distance, due to the shaking down. In buying broken stone by the cubic yard it is well to bear this fact in mind. Percentages of voids in sand are given in the section on Con- crete. Consult the index under "Sand, Voids." Sizes and Weight of Crushed Trap. Mr. William E. McClintock gives the following data relative to Massachusetts trap rock : The rock weighs 180.7 Ibs. per cu. ft. solid, or 4,879 Ibs. per cu. yd. solid, being very heavy. The crushed trap of the Mass. Broken Stone Co., at Salem, weighs 2,586 Ibs. per cu. yd., and has 47% ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 177 voids. A rotary screen is used 10 ft. long, 40 ins. diameter, with three sections 3 Ms ft., 3 ft. and 3 ft. long respectively, having cir- cular holes V 2 -in., iy 2 ins. and 3 ins. diameter. A bin holding 29 cu. yds. was used to measure the Mj-in. screenings which were after- ward weighed and found to average 2,605 Ibs. per cu. yd. A box holding 1 cu. yd. was packed full with wet screenings which weighed only 2.480 Ibs. The same box Hacked full of the same kind of screenings dry was found to hold 2,690 Ibs. A bin holding 90 cu. yds. of the 1%-in. stone averaged 2,423 Ibs. per cu. yd.; and a bin of the same size full of 3-in. stone, averaged 2,522 Ibs. per cu. yd. This 3-in. stone was again measured in cars, and found to average 2,531 Ibs. per cu. yd. To determine the percentages of the different sizes, 19 cu. yds. of broken stone were measured and found to run as follows : Per cent. i/a-in. trap 13.24 1 i/>-in. trap 23.89 3-in. trap 62.87 Total 100.00 The tailings over 3 ins. in size were re-crushed. Weight and Voids of Crushed Limestone.* In 1906 the State Highway Commission of Illinois had a series of tests made at the state stone crushing plants at Menard and Joliet to determine what should be called a cubic yard of crushed stone. The results of these tests are given by Mr. A. N. Johnson, State Engineer. In making the tests both cars and wagons were loaded in different ways and hauled different distances. The contents of each car or wagon were carefully measured and weighed, and on arrival at destination again measured, so that the variation in the density of the load due to method of loading, to size of material and to settlement, was determined. From the results of these tests it will be seen that the average weight of the wagon loads of limestone, including all sizes, was, at the start, very nearly 2,400 Ibs. per cubic yard, varying somewhat according to the method of loading, and that the weignt of a cubic yard in a wagon after it had been hauled a distance of one-half mile was a little over 2,600 Ibs. Also, that the weight of a cubic yard of stone, as loaded in the cars, is but a few pounds over 2,400 and after settlement 2,600 Ibs. As the weight of a cubic yard depends very considerably on the method of loading the car or wagon, and also as to the amount of settlement due to the length and character of the haul, the de- termination of what shall be the weight of a cubic yard is some- what arbitrary. In view of the results of these tests, the State Highway Commission has adopted 2,500 Ibs. as the weight of a cubic yard of crushed limestone at both the Menard and Joliet crushers. * Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 3 and 10, 1907. 178 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In the following tabulation is shown the weight per cubic yard of crushed limestone in carload lots and per cent of settlement in transportation, the haul in each instance being about 150 miles: Weight in Size Method pounds per cubic Per cent in inches. of loading. yard when shipped, of settlement. Screenings, 15 ft. drop 2,500 9.5 " 2,509 12.5 2,530 9.8 3 Wheelbarrows 2.476 3.4 2,320 8.2 15 ft. drop 2,528 9.5 Screenings, 8 ft. drop 2,520 0.0 2,520 2,730 8.3 2,610 12.5 2,680 8.3 1% " 2,570 1.4 2,210 13.9 2,360 8.7 2,300 13.6 2,180 7.4 " " 2,200 9.7 2,250 7.7 3 " 2,520 3.8 2,440 3.4 2,500 5.0 2,380 12.9 2,300 3.7 2,400 0.0 2,290 9.0 2,270 7.4 2.275 9.2 2,240 11.1 2,260 10.5 2,470 To determine the effect of manner of loading, other experi- ments were made. In some experiments a box measuring 2.8 cu. ft. was used. No difference in the results, however, due to the size of the box could be detected. In every instance the voids were de- termined by weighing the amount of water added to fill the box. The tabulation is as follows: Method of Per cent Size. Loading. of Voids. 3 in. 20-ft. drop 41.8 3 in. 15-ft drop 46.8 3 in. 15-ft. drop 47.2 3 in. shovels 48.7 1 Ms in. 20-ft. drop 42.5 1 % in. 15-ft. drop 468 1 Yy in. 15-ft. drop 46.8 1 V 2 in. shovels 50.5 % in. 20-ft. drop 39.4 % in. 15-ft. drop 42.7 >. 15-ft. drop 41.5 i. 15-ft. drop 41.8 i. shovels 45.2 n. shovels 44. $ i. . shovels 41. 1 i. shovels 40. ft i. shovels , , 41.0; ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 17v Settlement of Crushed Stone in Wagons.* The tests, the results of which are shown below, were made by the Illinois Highway Com- mission to determine the settlement of crushed stone in wagon loads for different hauls. The road over which the tests were made is a macadam road, not particularly smooth, but might be consid- ered as an average road surface. The wagon used was one with a dump bottom supported by chains, which were drawn as tight as possible, so as to reduce the sag to a minimum. It will be noticed that about 50 per cent of the settlement occurs within the first 100 ft., and 75 per cent of the settlement in the first 200 ft. Almost all of the settlement occurs during the first half mile, as the tests showed practically no additional settlement for distances beyond. Some of the wagons were loaded from the ground with shovels, others were loaded from bins, the stone having a 15-ft. drop, which compacted the stone a little more than where loaded with shovels so that there was somewhat less settlement. But at the end of a half mile the density was practically the same, whatever the method of loading. The density at the beginning and at the end of the haul can be compared by the weight of a given volume of crushed stone. For convenience, the weight of a cubic yard of the material at the beginning of the haul and at the end was computed from the known contents of a wagon. Table V shows the per cent of settlement of crushed limestone in wagon loads at the end of different lengths of hauls: Weight of Crushed Stone in Wagons and Cars. In Engineering- Contracting, Aug. 5, 1908, are given in detail the results of some very careful tests made by Prof. Ira O. Baker on the voids in broken limestone of various sizes and after various drops and lengths of haul in wagons and cars. The following is a very brief summary of the results. The following were the weights of broken stone per cubic yard in wagons and in cars, both at the crusher and after hauling a given distance : Wagon Loads. Car Loads. After a haul of *fa After mile a haul of Location of Size Wt. at or Wt. at 75 miles quarry. of stone. crusher, more, crusher, or more. Joliet % in. Scr. 2303 * 2533 2659 2905 Joliet % in Scr. 2652 2882 Joliet 2in.-%in. 2315 2480 2386 2592 Joliet 2ta.-%in. 2296 2516 Joliet 3 ,u.~2 in. 2361 2553 Chester % in. Scr. 2442 2797 2546 2850 Chester 2 in.-% in. 2344 2582 Chester 3 in. -2 in. 2367 2569 2348 2545 Kankakee. ... % in. Scr. 2430 2697 Kankakee l%in.-%4n. 2325 2546 ; Kankakee 2% in.- % in. 2260 2390 The limestone came from Chester, Joliet and Kankakee, 111., the specific gravity being 2.57, 2.71 and 2.61 respectively. There was * Engineering-Contracting, April 24. 1907. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. t-'O r-' Wl 00 to X en O cc t^ o 00 t CO CO 10 o -r CO * (M OO 1C C rH O Tt< CO O OS O TH CO CO 1C 1C CO 1C 0] 01 01 (01 : IM O CO r< Ol t-- o ^ ^ CO * 1C ; ; CO ; 00 _t- d : 00 1C CO ic r}5 -co i . r-l eo t- o co oo o oo 1C 1C . 1C ** -CO a) 50 r-i iH !i ^0 1C ^ I OS CO CO ; ; o co ; oo 1 2S OS 1C 1C '. . 10 * CO 1-1 ctio 01 g a o a o -3 a c a 4 a o > T3 a p 'S a o ;- 1/2 0-3 a a a ! ." o o o . . tlemer O H <> i N e^a m CXI r-i HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. compressor the manufacturers advise multiplying the quantities given in Table VII by the factors siren in Table VIII. TABLE VIII. Number of drills 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 70 Multiply value in Table V by 1 1.8 4.1 7.1 9.5 11.7 15.8 21.4 33.2 Tables similar to these are given by other manufacturers. In answer to letters of inquiry I have been informed that such tables are "based upon experience in a large number of mines." The actual drilling time, that is, the time when the drill is actu- ally striking blows, is seldom over 70%, and often not more than 40% of the length of the shift. Knowing the conditions of work, the reader will be able (with the aid of data given subsequently) to predict approximately the per cent, of actual drilling time. Then, if there are more than, say, 10 drills, he can multiply the air consumption of one drill (when actually drilling) by the per- centage of drilling time in the shift, and the product will be the average air consumption of each drill. If there are less than about 10 drills it will not be safe to figure so closely, because the fewer the drills operated from one compressor, the more likely is it that all or nearly all of them will be using air at the same time. The larger the number of drills, on the other hand, the more certain it is that some will be changing bits while others are drilling, and thus draw a steady, average amount of air from the compressor. Steam Consumption. When steam is piped directly from the boiler into a drill, practically the same number of cubic feet of steam are consumed as of cubic feet of compressed air. We may assume that a cubic foot of steam will do practically the same work in a drill as a cubic foot of compressed air at the same pressure, because neither the steam nor the air acts to any great extent expansively in a drill cylinder, due to the late cut off. This being so, 0.21 Ib. of steam is equivalent to 6 cu. ft. of free air, or 1 Ib. of steam is equivalent to nearly 30 cu. ft. of free air, or 1 cu. ft. of free air is equivalent to 0.035 Ibs. steam all at the same pressure of 75 Ibs. per sq. in. If a drill consumes at the rate of 100 cu. ft. of free air per min., it will consume 6,000 cu. ft. of free air in an hour. If it were using steam in its cylinder instead of air (at 75 Ibs. pressure), it would, therefore, consume 6,000X0.035 = 240 Ibs. of steam (at 75 Ibs. pressure) in an hour. When coal is burned under a boiler a large percentage of its heat passes up the chimney in the gases and is lost ; and in addition to this loss the boiler itself radiates heat constantly. The greater part of the loss occurs in the heat that goes up the chimney. In large, well-designed boilers, properly protected by asbestos or similar covering, the coal burned will develop steam to about 80% of the full heat value of the fuel ; the efficiency of the boiler and furnace is then 80%. In locomotive boilers, where forced draft is used, firing not of the best and boiler exposed to moving air, the efficiency ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 191 is often as low as 45%. The efficiency of a good boiler of moderate size (100 ho. ), well housed, is ordinarily about 75%. A small (20 hp.) boiler exposed to the wind has an efficiency of about 60% when not forced. If a small boiler is used to run one drill, the boiler must always have up enough steam to keep the drill running at nearly full capacity ; but when the drill is stopped, during the changing of bits, moving, etc., there is a waste of steam, because the period of stoppage is not long enough to permit the fireman to make any material change in the firing and in the draft. When a %-in. drill is operated by steam from a small boiler, about 600 Ibs. of coal are ordinarily required per 10-hr, shift. But if a number of drills are supplied from a large, well lagged boiler, through steam pipes that are also lagged with asbestos covering, it is possible to cut down the coal consumption to 300 Ibs. or less per drill per 10 hrs. Gasoline Air Compressors. Where not more than three or four drills are to be operated, probably no power can equal compressed air generated by gasoline. One pint of gasoline per hour per brake horsepower (B. HP.) of gasoline engine may be counted upon as the average consumption. It will require about 12 hp. to com- press air for each drill (3^4-in. size) ; hence 12 pints, or 1% gals., of gasoline will be required per hour per drill while actually drilling. Since gasoline air compressors are self-regulating, when the drill is not using air very little gasoline is burned by the gasoline engine driving the compressor. If the drill is actually drilling two-thirds of the working shift, we may safely count upon using about 1 gal. of gasoline per hour of shift per drill, or 8 gals, per shift of 8 hrs. long. If gasoline is worth 15 cts. per gal., delivered at the engine, one drill consumes only $1.20 worth of gasoline per shift of 8 hrs. A gasoline compressor possesses other very important economic ad- vantages over a small steam-driven plant. First, there is the saving in wages of firemen ; for, once started, a gasoline engine runs itself. Second, there is the saving in hauling or pumping of water and the hauling of fuel. Third, the cost of gasoline is often less than the cost of coal for operating a small plant. Percentage of Lost Time In Drilling. In operating machines of any kind the percentage of lost time is a factor that should receive the most careful consideration. The most serious loss of time in machine drilling is the time lost in changing bits and pumping out the hole; for, with a 2-ft. feed screw (which is the ordinary length), a new drill must be inserted for every 2 ft. of hole drilled. It takes from 4 to 16 mmutes to drill 2 ft. of hole, counting the actual time that the drill is striking, and it ordinarily takes from 2 to 5 minutes to change bits and pump out the hole. I have often timed the work, however, where 9 minutes were spent in drilling, followed by 9 minutes lost by lazy drillers in changing bits. Count- ing no other time losses, then, half the available time was lost in the operation of changing bits. When shallow holes (6 ft. or less), are to be drilled, the drill steel is light, and there is often little 192 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. or no sludge pumping to be done. In such cases it is possible for the driller and his helper to change bits in 1 minute, or even less when they are rushing the work. So far as the changing of bits is concerned, men should be made to work with a vim. When men have to exercise their muscles incessantly for 8 or 10 hrs. there is reason in taking a slow, steady gait, but in machine work, muscu- lar exercise is intermittent, and should be vigorous. Next in importance to the time lost in changing bits is the time lost in shifting the machine from hole to hole. To move a tripod from one hole to the next and set up again ready to drill seldom consumes less than 7 minutes, even when the two men are working rapidly, when the distance to move is short, and when the rock floor is level and soft. When, however, the rock floor is irregular and hard, requiring the vigorous use of gad and pick, not only in making holes for the tripod leg points to rest in, but requiring, also, some little time in squaring up a face for the bit to strike upon, the two men may consume from 30 to 45 minutes, shifting the machine and setting up, if they work deliberately. In such cases it is ad- visable to have laborers working ahead of the drillers preparing the face of the rock, leveling the site of the hole, removing loose rock, etc. One can see clearly what a grreat saving in time may thereby be effected; yet, this simple expedient is seldom adopted; but the driller and his helper are usually left to themselves in preparing the ground for each new set up. Excluding the time required to change bits for the new hole, we may say that two men can ordi- narily make a new set up with a tripod in 12 to 15 minutes, if they work rapidly. Rule for Estimating Feet Drilled Per Shift. We are now pos- sessed of sufficient data to enable us to formulate a rule whereby the number of feet drilled per shift, under given conditions, may be predicted. I will not go into the method that I used in deducing the following rule, which is strictly correct, for the method is one of simple arithmetic. The rule is: To find the number of feet of hole drilled per shift divide the total number of working minutes in the shift by the sum of the following Quantities: The number of minutes of actual drilling required to drill one foot of hole, plus the average number of minutes required to change bits divided by the length of the feed screw in feet, plus the average number of minutes required to shift the machine from hole to hole divided by the depth of the hole in feet. Suppose, for example, the shift is 10 hrs. long, that is, 600 mins. ; that it requires 5 mins. to drill 1 ft. of the rock ; that it requires 4 mins. to change bits and clean hole ; that the feed screw is 2 *t. long; that the machine can be shifted from hole to hole in 16 mini* ; and that each hole is 8 ft. deep. Then according to the rule M ' 4 16 have: The number of feet of hole per shift is 600-=- (5 -\ -j ) 2 R which is equivalent to 600 -=- 9, or 66% ft. drilled per 10-hr, shift. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 193 For those who can use simple algebraic formulas the above rule is much more compactly expressed in the following formula : B m s r-{ --- h f D N = number of feet drilled per shift. S length of working time of shift in minutes = 600 for a 10-hr. shift when no time is lost by blasts, breakdowns, etc. r = number of minutes of actual drilling required to drill 1 ft. of the rock. m number of minutes required to crank up, change drills, pump out hole and crank down. m 3 to 4 mins. ordinarily. f = length of feed screw, in feet, ranging from 1% ft. in "baby" drills to 21/2 ft. in largest drills, but ordinarily 2 ft. s = number of minutes required to shift machine from one hole to the next, including the time of chipping and starting the new hole, but not including the time of cranking up and cranking down. s ranges from 5 mins. for very rapid shifting on level rock, to 40 mins. for very slow shifting on irregular rock. D = depth of hole in feet. Even a casual study of the foregoing formula, or rule, must im- pres the practical man with the importance of the lost time elements in machine drilling ; consequently of the value of timing the opera- tion of changing bits and moving machines when the men do not know that they are being timed. Another feature that stands out strikingly is the reduced output of a drill working in a shallow hole. Let the reader solve a fe.w problems, assuming first an aver- age depth of hole of 16 ft. and finally an average depth of only 2 ft. (such as occurs often in the skimming work in road building), and he will never make the blunder of the contractor who "bid the same price for rock excavation on the 2-ft. deepening of the Erie Canal as had been bid for the 3 6 -ft. excavation on the Chicago Canal. If we assume that the shift is 10 hrs. long; that the rate of drill- ing is 1 ft. in 5 mins. ; that it takes 4 mins. to change bits and pump out the hole at each change of bits ; that the feed screw is 2 ft. long; and that it takes 15 mins. to shift from one hole to the next ; by applying the rule we obtain the following results : Depth of hole, ft ........ 1 2 3 5 10 15 20 Feet drilled in 10 hrs ..... 27 41 50 60 70 75 80 When drillers are lazy they may readily consume 8 mins. in changing bits and pumping out the hole each time. With all condi- tions the same as before, excepting that 8 mins. are consumed in changing bits, we have the following results: Depth of hole, ft ...... 1 2 3 5 10 15 20 Feet drilled in 10 hrs ..... 25 36 43 50 57 60 62 It will be seen that in deep hole drilling 20% decreased efficiency results from just a little laziness in changing bits, under the condi- 194 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. tions assumed ; and in softer rocks the percentage of decreased efficiency is much greater. Where the holes are shallow the time involved in shifting from one hole to the next becomes an important factor. Assuming that the conditions are the same as in the first instance, except that 30 mins. are consumed in shifting from one hole to the next, then we have the following results: Depth of hole, ft 1 2 3 5 10 15 20 Feet drilled in 10 hrs 16 27 35 46 60 67 70 Rates of Drilling in Different Rocks Unfortunately no published record exists showing rates of drilling in different kinds of rock with given air or steam pressures and given sizes of drill bits. Such scattering records as are to be found merely give the feet of hole drilled per shift. From data obtained by observation I have com- piled the following table for drilling with 3% -in. machines using air or steam at 70 Ibs. pressure, starting bit about 2% ins. and fin- ishing bit about 1 % ins. : Time to drill 1 ft. Soft sandstones, limestones, etc 3 mins. Medium, ditto 4 mins. Hard granites, hard sandstones, etc 5 mins Very hard traps, granites, etc 6 to 8 mins. Very soft shales, and other rocks that make sludge rapidly and when a water jet is not used 8 to 10 mins. That the inexperienced reader may have a good general conception of what constitutes a day's work under ordinary conditions the fol- lowing summary may be of benefit : In drilling vertical holes, with the drill on a tripod, the holes being from 10 to 20 ft. deep, shift 10 hrs. long, I have found that in the hard "granite" of the Adiron- dack Mountains, New York, 48 ft. is a fair 10-hr, day's work. In the granites of Maine and Massachusetts 45 to 50 ft. is a day's work. In New York City, where the rock is mica schist, deep holes are drilled at the rate of 60 to 70 ft. per 10-hr, shift by men willing to work, but 40 to 50 is nearer the average of union drillers. In the very hard trap rock of the Hudson River 40 ft. is considered a fair day's work. In the soft red sandstone of northern New Jersey 90 ft. are readily drilled per day wherever the rock is not so seamy as to cause lost time by the sticking' of the bit ; in fact, I have records showing 110 ft. per 10-hr, shift in this rock. In the hard lime- stone near Rochester my records show about 70 ft. per 10-hr, shift. In the limestone on the Chicago Drainage Canal 70 to 80 ft. was a 10-hr, day's work. In the hard syenite of Douglass Island, in open pit work, and where it is difficult to make set-ups, 36 ft. was the average per 10-hr, day. In the granites encountered in grading for the Grand Trunk Pacific R. R. in Canada, only 30 ft. were averaged per drill per day. In the limestone near Windmill Point, Ontario, 3% -in. drills average 75 ft. a day (holes 18 ft. deep) ; 2% -in. drills, 60 ft. a day, and "baby" drills, 37 ft. a day. The foregoing examples all apply to comparatively deep vertical holes, in open excavation. In tunnel work there is no reason why a drill should not do about the same work per shift, were there no delays in timbering, mucking, waiting for gases to clear, etc. Svlch delays, however, often reduce the drill footage very much. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 195 Cost of Sharpening Bits. One blacksmith (with a helper) will sharpen about 140 bits a day, and under ordinary conditions Will keep 5 to 7 drills supplied with sharp bits. On average rock a bit must be sharpened for every 2 ft. hole ; in very soft rock a bit for every 4 ft., and in very hard rock a bit for every l 1 /^ ft. of hole. On small jobs it is often necessary to have a blacksmith, even chough there is only one drill at work. In such cases, however, the blacksmith should be kept busy with other work. Cost of Drill Repairs Mr. Thomas Dennis, agent of the Adven- ture Consolidated Copper Co., Hancock, Mich., has kindly furnished the following data of the average monthly cost of keeping a drill in repair : Supplies for repairs $ 1.31 Machinist labor 8.45 Blacksmith labor 1.60 Total repair charge per month $11.36 The number of drills in the shop at any one time is about 15% of the total number. This low cost is based upon work where a large number of drills are used and well handled by the users. I- am indebted to Mr. Josiah Bond, mining engineer, for the state- ment that the cost of repairs averages 50 cts. per drill per shift in mines where a few drills are operated and renewal parts pur- chased from the manufacturers. In open cut work my experience is that 75 cts. per drill per shift is a fair allowance for renewals and repairs. In the gold mines of South Africa, where each drill works two shifts rer day. the cost of drill repairs is $300 per drill per year; while the first cost of a 3^4-in. drill with bar is $185, accord- ing to a recent report of the Government Mine Inspector. Mr. Josiah Bond, General Manager American Copper Mining Co., Somerville, N. J., wrote me as follows: "As to the matter of drill repairs, I can give you only a few figures. In using drills for years, I find I have accurate figures for drill repairs for only three years. These place the repairs per drill at $102.00, $100.50 and $93.76 per year. My opinion is that a drill used night and day for a year is sufficiently worn to make it good business to throw it away ; though if a drill is used by only one man, and he is made responsible for its condition, I think the life of a drill is at least three years (one shift). Of course, studs and side rods will have to be replaced occasionally, and other small re- pairs must be made. A well-made heavy bar or column should out- last four drills, and arms are probably strong enough to kill three drills. And the drill itself is the weak part ; as soon as the cylinder and piston are enough worn to make a day's work only 80 ft. instead of 120, or even 100 ft., it is clear that you are losing money by keeping it at work. I have always wanted two idle drills and one idle column and arm, etc., for five working drills. From my practice, which has been a pretty hard one, developing with low- priced labor, I should estimate a stoping drill to cost, including re- pairs and its own life, about 50 cts. per shift. "Where an operation is large enough to warrant the erection of a m HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. machine shop, sufficiently equipped to make all parts of drills, this cost can probably be cut in two ; and in old mines, even without this, where the work is more regular, a saving can be made, be- cause breakages do not occur so often. My practice has been without the luxury of a good shop, and all repairs are purchased, with the exception of a few of the simple parts, like side rods, etc. "Much depends on the care given a drill, and the rock to be drilled makes a great difference also, but the above figures are, I should hope, outside prices ; but in my work, drills have always been a secondary consideration." The following table gives the cost of repairing 25 drills for 11 months in 1905, at the Wabana Iron Mines, Nova Scotia:* Total Amt. per drill Month of repairs. per month. January $ 68.32 $2.86 February 85.53 3.576 March 165.10 6.007 April 33.92 1.21 May 46.98 1.86 June 49.41 1.98 July 110.89 4.49 August 316.81 13.50 September 140.62 5.20 October 259.60 10.66 November 204.75 7.80 Total and av $1,481.93 $5.40 In addition to this add $1.75 per day for labor or 7 cts. per drill per day, or $2 per month, making a total of $7.40 per drill per month. The average cost of repairs was $5.40 per month per drill (drills worked one shift only each day), not including the cost of labor of repairing. It takes all of one man's time, at $1.75 per day, keep- ing the drills in repair, or practically $2.00 per month per drill. The parts used in making repairs are all bought of the manufac- turers. We see that the total cost of drill repairs has been about $7.40 per drill per month, or 30 cts. per drill per 10-hr, day, which is a very moderate cost, and speaks well not only for the make of the drills, but for the care given to them. Cost of Operating Drills. When operating a single C3i4-in.) drill supplied by steam from a small portable boiler, I find the cost is usually as follows for a 10-hr, shift: 1 drill runner ? 3.00 1 drill helper 1- < 5 1 fireman V H/; 660 Ibs. of coal (0.3 ton at $3) 90 Water, if hauled, say ' 5 Hauling and sharpening 30 bits (incl. new steel) at 4 cts.. 1.20 Repairs to drill and hose renewals 75 Total per 10 hrs $10.35 The foregoing is merely an example, based, however, upon sev- eral different jobs; but in each case the accessibility of a black- smith, the nearness to water, the price of coal delivered at the *See Engineering-Contracting, February 1. 1906, p. 42. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 197 boiler, etc., must be determined before an accurate estimate can be made. If 4 drills, for example, are to be operated from the same boiler, the fuel bill will be somewhat reduced even if the pipes are not covered with asbestos, and of course the wages of the fireman will be distributed over 4 drills. It will then pay to have a black- smith at hand. If 10 or more drills are run by steam from a central boiler, and if the main pipes are lagged, the fuel should not much exceed 300 Ibs. per drill per 10-hr, shift. By the rules previously given a fairly close estimate can be made of the number of feet of hole that each drill should average. If 60 ft., for example, are to be a fair day's work in limestone or sandstone, we have $10.35 -f- 60 17 cts. per ft. as the cost, exclusive of superintendence, plant installation and plant rental. If a central compressor or steam plant supplies power for, say, 15 drills, we may estimate the cost of operating each drill as follows : 1 drill runner $3.00 I drill helper 1.75 1-15 fireman at $2.25 15 1-15 compressor man at $3 20 300 Ibs. coal (water nominal) at $3 ton 45 Sharpening bits, 30 at 3 cts 90. Repairs to drill, hose, etc 75 Total for 60 ft. of hole at 12 cts $7.20 If the cost of each drill and 1/15 part of the compressor plant is $1,400, and if 15% of this is assumed as the annual fixed charge, we have $210 to be divided by the number of working shifts per annum. This ordinarily gives about $1 per drill per shift, or 1% cts. per ft. of hole drilled. In my book "Rock Excavation Methods and Cost" will be found detailed data on the cost of drilling blast-holes with well-drillers of the "Cyclone" type. The holes were 3 ins. diam. X 24 ft. deep in sandstone and cost 12% cts. per ft. to drill. Other data on drilling with well drillers will be found in this handbook, page 253. Piece Rate and Bonus System in Drilling. The original "hole contract system" was a piece rate system, whereby the driller was paid for his work according to the number of lineal feet of hole drilled. I have modified the original system by paying the drillers a daily wage plus a bonus for each lineal foot in excess of a stjpu- lated minimum. See Section I of this book. Cost of Loading by Hand. Where a laborer has merely to pick up and cast one-man stone into a jaw crusher, I have had men average 34 cu. yds. of loose stone handled per man per 10-hr, shift, which is equivalent to about 20 cu. yds. of solid rock. This, I be- lieve, marks the maximum that may be done, day in and day out, by a good worker, where the stone has scarcely to be lifted off the floor to toss it into the jaws. Every stone, however, was handled and not shoved or slid into the crusher. On the Chicago Canal the average output per man per 10-hr, shift was about 7 cu. yds. loaded into dump cars, and this included some sledging. The average per man loading into the low skips used on the cableways, involving very little sledging, was about 108 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 10 cu. yds. of solid rock per man per 10-hr, shift. The best day's record was 16.6 cu. yds. per man loading into skips. In loading cars about 5 men out of the force of 36 loaders were kept busy sledging the rock ; but with the cableways not only was it easier to roll large rocks' into the skips (or "scale pans"), but very large rocks were lifted with grab hooks and chains and carried to the dump without sledging. In loading wagons with stone readily lifted by one man, the wagon having high sides, I have found that a man will readily average 10 cu. yds. solid, which is equivalent to 17 cu. yds. loose measure per day of 10 hrs. The same man will throw the stone out of the wagon twice as fast as he will load it, and this does not mean dumping the wagon, but handling each stone separately. In loading a wagon having a stone-rack, and no sides, two men, pass- ing stone up to the driver, who cords the stone on the rack, will load 1 cu. yd. solid stone in 13 mins. when working rapidly, but this is too high an average to be maintained steadily for a full day. A. driver will unload 1 cu. yd. solid (or 1.7 cu. yd. loose) from such a stone-rack, by rolling the stone off, in 7 mins. if he hurries, but he may take 20 mins. if he loafs. A man will readily load a wheelbarrow with stone already sledged and ready for the crusher at the rate of 12 cu. yds, solid (or 21 cu. yds. loose) in 10 hrs. Cost of Handling Crushed Stone. In- handling stone after it has been crushed to 2%-in. size, or smaller, a shovel is used, and the output of a man depends very largely upon whether he is shoveling stone that lies upon smooth boards or upon the ground. I have often had 6 good shovelers unload a canal boat holding 120 cu. yds. loose measure of crushed trap rock (2-in. size) in 9 hrs., but after breaking through to the floor the shoveling was comparatively easy ; this is 20 cu. yds. loose (or 12 cu. yds. solid) per man per day shoveled into skips. In shoveling from flat cars into wagons the same rate can be attained, but in shoveling from a hopper-bottom car, where there is at no time a smooth floor along which to force the shovel, an output of 14 cu. yds. loose measure (or 8 cu. yds. solid) is a fair 10-hr, day's work. In shoveling broken stone off the ground into wagons it is not safe to count upon much more than 12 cu. yds. loose measure (or 7 cu. yds. solid) per man per 10 hrs. A careful manager will, if possible, pro- vide a smooth platform, preferably faced with sheet iron, upon which to dump any stone that is to be re-handled by shovelers. Small stone, % in. or less in diameter, is easily penetrated by a shovel and need not be dumped upon a platform. A clamshell bucket operated by a locomotive crane, or derrick, is doubtless the most economic method of loading broken stone from cars or stock piles, where the quantity to be handled warrants the in- stallation. Cost of Unloading Broken Stone With a Clamshell Bucket.*^ Knoineering-Contracting, Oct. 3, 1906. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 199 novel expedient for increasing the power of a derrick was prac- ticed recently in an extensive piece of concrete work involving the unloading of broken stone from vessels into wagons. The work in question was retaining wall work on track improvements on the New York Central & Hudson River R. R., at Ossining, N. Y. Scows brought broken stone to an adjacent wharf and the plan was to unload the stone into wagons, using a stiff leg derrick equipped with a clamshell bucket. The derrick at hand was an ordinary affair, with 10 x 10-in. mast, 8 x 8-in. stiff legs, and a 40-ft. boom, operated by a 5 x 10-in. National double drum hoisting engine, capable of handling a 3,000-lb. load with the ordinary single line rigging. As the clamshell weighed 2,500 Ibs. empty and fully 4,700 Ibs. when loaded with broken stone, some expedient was necessary to carry out the plan. The problem was finally worked out as follows : The bucket was suspended from the boom by a chain of just suffi- cient length to allow it to open and close. The end of the hoisting line was also fastened to the end of the boom and run over a single block attached to the closing wheel on the bucket, then through the sheave of the boom and thence to the engine drum, making a double line which gave the engine sufficient power. The loss of speed resulting was of little moment. The stone was unloaded directly into wagons so that the hoisting distance was very small, and the time consumed in swinging was greater than the time nec- essary to hoist. The result was that there was practically no re- duction of speed of operation. The hoisting was done, of course, by raising and lowering the boom, using the second drum of the engine. The derrick was operated by an engineman and a helper and handled regularly 100 cu. yds. per day. In addition to the derrick work there were 24 hrs. labor on a 500 cu. yd. boat load cleaning out the stone that could not be reached by the bucket. The labor cost of unloading vessels into wagons, using the apparatus de- scribed, can then be itemized as follows: One engineman, at $2.50 2.5 cts. per cu. yd. One helper, at $1.50 1.5 cts. per cu. yd. Labor, cleaning 0.7 ct. per cu. yd. Total labor cost 4.7 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of fuel would not add more than 1% ct. per cu. yd., making a total of about 5% cts., to which should be added cost of erecting and removing the plant, and plant maintenance. The total cost of the derrick fitted as described was $1,500. The work in connection with which the derrick was used is being done ;by Ford & Waldo, Engineers and Contractors, Park Row Building, New York, N. Y.. and the double line rigging was devised by them. Unloading Scows With a Clamshell. In building the masonry i anchorage for the Manhattan Bridge, Mr. Gustav Kaufman used a 1% cu. yd. Hay ward clamshell bucket operated by a 50-hp. electric | motor, and unloaded 600 cu. yds of broken stone per day from scows, jln addition to the operator of the clamshell bucket, about 8 men 200 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. were kept busy trimming up the stone in the scow not handled by the bucket. The clamshell bucket dumped into a 10 cu. yd. hopper provided with a shaking chute which fed the stone onto a Robins belt conveyor. Careful timing showed that the bucket made 11/9 scoops per minute, averaging 0.9 cu. yd. per scoop. Tests showed that it required 20 hp. while loading, 42 hp. while lifting, 42 hp. while swinging loaded, and 20 hp. while swinging back empty. But if we assume a constant average expenditure of 30 hp., we have about 24 kw., or 240 kw. hrs. per day. Based upon these data we would have the following approximate cost: Per cu. yd. Per day. Cts. 1 operator $ 3.00 $0.5 240 K.- W. hrs. electricity at 4 cts 9.60 1.6 8 laborers at $1.75 14.00 2.4 Total $26.60 4.5 Another % ct. per cu. yd. would cover the plant interest and maintenance. Cost of Handling Broken Stone With a Derrick. Where crushed stone must be handled with a derrick, as in unloading boats, I have found the following to be about the best that can be done per day : Per day. 6 shovelers, at $1.50 $ 9.00 1 hooker on 1.50 2 tagmen (swinging the boom) 3.00 1 dumpman 1.50 1 water boy 1.00 1 team on derrick 3.50 1 foreman 3.00 120 cu. yds. (loose) at 19 cts. = $22.50 It commonly costs about 25 cts. per cu. yd. (loose measure) to unload a boat of broken stone using skips holding 18 cu. ft. each, and a team on the derrick for raising them. Where any great amount of such work is to be done, however, a hoisting engine and a derrick provided with a bull-wheel should be used. The follow- ing shows the cost of unloading flat cars containing broken stone (2-in. size), using a derrick with a bull-wheel for "slewing" the boom: 5 shovelers, at $1.50 $ 7.50 1 dumpman 1.50 1 engineman 2.50 Va ton coal at $3 1.50 100 cu. yds. (loose) at 13 cts. = $13.00 In this case a stiff-leg derrick, 40-ft boom, with a bull-wheel, operated by a double cylinder (7x10) engine, handled self-right- ing steel buckets holding 20 cu. ft. each. Water for the engine was delivered in a pipe. The engineman was the foreman. In neither of the two cases just cited is the cost of installing the derrick included, nor is the interest and depreciation of plant in- -\ eluded. It takes 6 men and a foreman one day to dismantle and , move a stiff-leg derrick a short distance (100 or 200 ft.), and one , ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 201 more day to set it up again, or $26 for the two days' work. This includes moving the engine and the stones used to hold the stiff legs down; and it applies to a slow gang of workmen. A guy derrick with a 50 or 60-ft. boom swung by a bull-wheel and a hoisting engine will often prove the cheapest device for load- ing cars with blasted rock. If the derrick is handling skips loaded with stone, the following is a fair average of the time elements in handling each skip load : Changing from empty to loaded skip 35 sees. Swinging (half circle) 20 sees. Dumping skip 15 sees. Swing back 20 Total 90 sees. If there were no delays, it would be possible to handle 400 skip loads in 10 hrs. Usually, however, the loaders will cause more or less delay, so that it is safer to count upon what they will average rather than upon what the derrick can do. One derrick cannot serve a very long face, and the number of men that can be worked to ad- vantage in a given space is always limited ; hence I repeat that with a good derrick provided with a bull-wheel the derrick can ordinarily handle more stone than can be delivered to it by the men. The economic size of the skip load is entirely dependent upon the size of the hoisting engine, but a common size skip measures 5 x 6 ft. x 14 ins. deep. Where much work is to be done a con- tractor should never try to get along with a derrick not provided witfra bull-wheel for "slewing" the boom, for the wages of two tag- men would soon pay for a new outfit. Cost of Loading Blasted Rock With Steam Shovels. A contractor who has never had experience In handling hard rock with steam shovels is almost certain to overestimate the probable output of a shovel loading rock. This is due very largely to the common tendency to think of all rock as being a material that differs only to moderate degree in hardness. On the Chicago Drainage Canal, two i 55-ton shovels, each working two 10-hr, shifts a day for four | months, averaged 296 cu. yds. per shovel per shift of solid rock (limestone) loaded into cars, although it is stated that one day 1 one of the shovels loaded 600 cu. yds. of rock in 10 hrs. The lime- stone on the Chicago Canal did not break up into small pieces upon blasting (a condition that is essential to economic steam shovel > work in rock), but it came out in large chunks, much of which had ] to be lifted with chains, instead of being scooped up by the dipper. When each separate rock must be "chained out" in this way, a i steam shovel is really no better than a derrick, and is, in fact, not so good. On a large contract near New York City, where the rock is a tough mica schist that breaks out in large chunks even with close spacing of holes, a 65-ton shovel with a 2*4-cu. yd. dipper averaged jj for several weeks about 280 cu. yds. of solid rock loaded in cars. j; Part of this rock was loaded with the dipper and part was chained. On the Jerome Park Reservoir excavation in New York City the I -><>_> HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. rock is also a tough mica schist that blasts out in slabs even with heavy blasting. I am informed by Mr. R. C. Hunt, manager for Mr. John B. McDonald, contractor, that their 70-ton shovels loaded only 300 cu. yds. of solid rock per 10-hr, shift. Mr. Hunt says: "This was in the gneiss rock (mica schist) of this vicinity. The fibrous nature of Manhattan and adjacent rocks causes it to break in such large and awkward shapes that the shovel cannot do itself justice. I therefore abandoned the use of shovels in the rock cuts and find that I can handle the rock with derricks more eco- nomically." In thorough cut work on the Wabash Railroad, one 42-ton shovel loaded 240 cu. yds. of sandstone (solid measure) into dump cars in 10 hrs., as an average of a year's work; but about 10% of the working time was lost in breakdowns, etc. In shale, or any friable rock that breaks up into pieces which readily enter the dipper, the output of a steam shovel is far greater than in hard rock such as we have been citing. Through the kind- ness of Mr. George Nauman, assistant engineer, Pennsylvania Rail- road, I am able to give the output of several shovels working more than a year, in shale near Enola, Pa. Each shovel worked two 10-hr, shifts per day, six days in the week. In cut No. 1 there were nearly 2,000,000 cu. yds., of which 85% was rock. Of this rock a little was very hard limestone, some was blue shale nearly as hard, and most of it was red shale, somewhat softer. Ex- cluding the first two months, the average output of each shovel .per month of doubt-shift work was nearly 31,000 cu. yds., equivalent to 15,500 cu. yds. single-shift work. There were, on an average, four shovels at work, averaging 60 tons weight per shovel. The best month's output was 47,300 cu. yds. per shovel in August, 1903, and the poorest month (after work was well started) was 20,800 cu. yds. per shovel in February, 1904, working double shifts. For costs of operating a steam shovel see the section on Earth Excavation. Cost of Handling in Carts and Wagons. Since a cubic yard of loose broken stone weighs about as much as a cubic yard of earth measured in place ; and since, ordinarily, 1 cu. yd. of solid rock becomes 1.7 cu. yds. when broken, we may say that a team will haul about 60% as many cubic yards of solid rock per day as of earth. In other words, if the roads are such that 1 cu. yd. of packed (not loose) earth would make a fair wagon load for two horses, then O.G cu. yd. of solid rock would be a fair load. On page 121 the sizes of loads of earth that teams can haul are discussed, and it is only necessary to multiply the earth load as given there by 6/10 (or 60%) to find the equivalent load of solid rock. Open -Cut Excavation. This includes all rock excavation in open cuts (except trenches), where no special care is used to quarry the stone in certain sizes for masonry, but where explosives are used freely to break out the rock in sizes that can be handled with the appliances available. Spacing Holes in Open-Cut Excavation. A common rule is to ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. '203 place the row of vertical drill holes a distance back from the face equal to the depth of the drill hole, and to place the drill holes a distance apart in the row equal to their depth. Another rule is to place the row of holes back from the face a distance equal to three- fourths their depth, and the same distance apart in the row. In stratified rock of medium hardness these rules may be followed in making the first experiments, but they will lead to serious error if applied to dense granitic rocks. In the limestone on the Chicago Canal, not much of which was loaded with steam shovels, the holes were usually 12 ft. deep and placed in rows about 8 ft. back of the face and 8 ft. apart. These holes were charged with 40% dyna- mite. In a railway cut through sandstone the holes were 20 ft. deep, 18 ft. back from the face and 14 ft. apart in the row. These holes were "sprung" three times, and each hole charged with 200 Ibs. of black powder. In granite quarried for rubble for dam work, I have had to place the holes 4 % to 5 ft. back of the face and the same distance apart, the holes being 12 ft. deep, about 2 Ibs. of 60% dynamite being charged in each hole. On railway work in the Rocky Mountains about the same spacing was found necessary in granitic rock that was to be broken up into chunks that a steam shovel could handle. In pit mining at the Treadwell Mine, Alaska, ihe holes are drilled 12 ft. deep, in rows 2^ ft. apart, the holes being 6 ft. apart in each row and staggered. This requires drilling 1.7 ft. of hole per cu. yd. It is obviously impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule for the spacing of drill holes. In stratified rock that is friable, and in traps that are full of natural joints and seams, it is often possible to space the holes a distance apart somewhat greater than their depth, and still break the rock to comparatively small sizes upon blasting. In tough granite, gneiss, syenite and in trap where joints are few and far between, the holes may have to be spaced 3 to 8 ft. apart, regardless of their depth, for with wider spacing the blocks of stone thrown down by blasting will be too large to handle with ordinary appliances. The mica schist, or gneiss, of Manhattan Island is a good example of rock that requires close spacing of holes regardless of depth. I have seen holes in it 20 ft. deep and only 4 ft. apart. The effect of spacing of holes upon the cost of excavation is best shown by tabulation of the feet of hole drilled per cubic yard exca- vated, as shown below : Distance apart of holes, ft.. 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Cu. yds. per ft. of hole 04 .08 .15 .23 .33 .45 .59 .75 .93 Ft. of hole per cu. yd 27.0 12.0 G.8 4.3 3.0 2.2 1.7 1.33 1.08 Distance apart of holes, ft.. 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 Cu. yds. per ft. of hole 1.33 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.70 5.32 7.25 9.52 12.05 Ft. of hole per CU. yd 75 .56 .42 .33 .27 .19 .14 .11 .08 204 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Since in shallow excavations the holes can seldom be much further apart than 1 to 1% times their depth, we see that the cost of drilling per cubic yard increases very rapidly the shallower the excavation. Thus an excavation 2 ft. deep, with holes 2 ft. apart, requires 4.3 ft. of. drill hole per cubic yard, as against 0.42 ft. of hole per cu. yd. in a deeper excavation where drill holes are 8 ft. apart. Failure to consider this fact ruined one contractor on the Erie Canal deepening, where rock excavation was only 2 ft. deep. Furthermore, the cost of drilling a foot of hole is much increased where frequent shifting of the drill tripod is necessary. By observing carefully the appearance of rocks in different locali- ties it is possible in a short time to become tolerably proficient in the art of estimating the probable distance apart that holes must be drilled for the best effect with given charges of given kind of explosive ; and with this end in view a young man should avail himself of every opportunity of studying prevailing practice in spacing drill holes in different localities. Cost of Excavating . Sandstone and Shale. In excavating shales and sandstones of the coal measures of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Vir- ginia, etc., I find that holes are usually 20 to 24 ft. deep, and spaced 12 to 18 ft. apart. On an average we may say that for every cubic yard of solid rock there is 0.1 lin. ft. of drill hole, when cuts are very wide, covering large areas of ground ; but in thorough cuts for railroads it is not safe to count upon much less than 0.2 ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. The holes are almost invariably "sprung" with 40% dynamite to create chambers at the bottom of the holes, and then charged with black powder. As low as 1/50 Ib. of dynamite per cu. yd. may be used for springing holes in shale, and as high as % Ib. per cu. yd. in sandstone that is to be very heavily loaded. I should put the average at 1/20 Ib. of dynamite per cu. yd. of shale, and 1/10 Ib. per cu. yd. of sandstone. In gran- ite % Ib. per cu. yd. is common. A very common charge is 8 kegs (200 Ibs.) of black powder per hole, or about 1 Ib. per cu. yd. in side cuts, and 1% to 2 Ibs. per cu. yd. in thorough cuts, although as high as 3 Ibs. per cu. yd. have been used in thorough cuts in sandstone where special effort was made to break up the rock to small sizes for steam shovel work. The drilling of the deep holes costs not far from 40 cts. per lin. ft. where drilling is done by hand with wages at 15 cts. an hour, and it may be as low as 12 cts. a lin. ft. if well drillers are used. Soda powder costs about 5 cts. per Ib., and 40% dynamite 12 cts. per Ib. We have, therefore, the following: Cts. per cu. yd. Drilling 1/10 ft. to 2/10 ft. at 40 cts 4.0 to 8.0 Dynamite 1/20 Ib. to 1/10 Ib 0.6 to 1.2 Powder, 1 Ib. to 2 Ibs 5.0 to 10.0 Total for loosening the rock 96 to 19.2 The rock is commonly loaded with steam shovels, and it is not safe to count upon more than 500 cu. yds. of shale, or 250 cu. yds. of sandstone per shovel per 10-hr, shift. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 205 Summary of Open Cut Data. The two cost items that the inex- perienced man should seek first to inform himself upon, are: (1) The number of feet of hole drilled per cubic yard in difterent kinds of rock; and (2) the number of pounds of explosive required per cu. yd. under varying conditions. Below I have given a sum- mary of these items as applying to open cut work discussed in this book : the table does not apply to trenching, tunneling or other narrow work. Two examples are given for sandstones and two for shales, such as occur in the coal measures of Pennsylvania. In a thorough cut on railroad work, we have conditions that approach trench work, requiring more feet of hole and more powder than in open side cuts ; hence the difference between Examples 5 and 6, 7 and 8. It will be observed that the large amount of drilling in Example 2 is due to the shallowness of the face or lift, and in Examples 9 to 12 it is due to the toughness of the rock. I shall greatly appreciate further contributions of similar data from my readers, for use in future editions. The greater the number of records, such a3 those in this table, the better will read- ers be able to judge the range and the average for each class of rock. Per Cubic Yard. ~ 5 s s a I.- I 2 "S M-M ^ aj 'g l * o| Vl II A CL *>* HH g 1 ta ,Q UH Kind of Rock. Q h d 3 1. .. 12 .40 ... .75 40% Limestone, Chicago Canal. 2. . . 6 1.00 .7 40% Limestone, for crushing. 3. .. 20 ... .37 50% Limestone, for cement. 4. . . IB .43 26 50% Limestone (holes sprung). 5... 20 .10 1.0 .1 40% Sandstone, side cut. 6... 20 .20 2.0 .2 40% Sandstone, thorough cut. 7.. . 24 .08 .7 .03 40% Shale, soft, side cut. 8.. . 24 .20 1.5 .10 40% Shale, hard, thorough cut. 9... 16 1.36 .20 60% Granite, for rubble. 10.. . 12 1.33 .60 40% Gneiss, New York City. 11. . . 14 .63 .50 40% Gneiss, New York City. 12. .. 12 1.70. ... .67 40% Syenite, Treadwell mine. 13. . . 12i/ 2 .32 .44 52% Magnetic iron ore. 14. .. 14 .35 .20 75% Trap, seamy. 15. . . 16 1.00 .70 40% Trap, massive. 16... 25 .10 .80 50% Granite, Grand Trunk Pa- cific (hales sprung, half the dynamite being used in springing). By applying the preceding data as to unit costs of drilling, blasting, loading and hauling, it will be seen that rock excavation in open cuts ranges from about $0.50 to $1.50 per cu. yd., the lower price being for shales and sandstones and the higher price for cer- 206 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. tain granites and traps where holes are close spaced. It is a very common assumption that rock can be profitably excavated in open cuts at a contract price of $1 per cu. yd., but it will be seen that each case requires special study. Cost of Excavating Gneiss, New York City. I am indebted to Mr. John J. Hopper, civil engineer and contractor, for the follow- ing data. The work involved the excavation of 29,295 cu. yds. of gneiss (or mica schist) at One Hundred and Twenty-seventh street, New YOIK City. The drilling of the main holes was done with four 3 Ms -in. Inger oil steam drills, and two "baby drills" were used for drilling block holes. The average height of the lifts was 12 to 15 ft., and the cut ranged from 2 to 63 ft. deep. Hand drillers and sledgers received $2 per 10-hr, day ; laborers handling stone and loading wagons received. $1.50 ; one of the machine drillers re- ceived $3, and the rest of the drillers received $2.75 a day. The baby drills were used only on the largest pieces thrown down by the blast ; the ordinary sized stone from the blast was broken up by hand-drilled holes and by sledges to sizes suitable for build- ing rubble foundation walls. A good deal of the stone was piled up during the winter until it could be sold. The drilling part of the plant cost $1,800; the boilers, derricks, hoists, etc., cost $1,080; 40% dynamite, costing 20 cts. per lb., was used. There were 18,433 lin. ft. of main holes drilled (not including block holes) in exca- vating 29,295 cu. yds. of solid rock. The total cost of the work, including the plant, cartage, sledging, etc., was $52,635. The item- ized cost was as follows : Cts. per cu. yd. Foremen and timekeepers 8.0 Engineers and drillers 10.9 Sledgers 38.3 Derrickmen and helpers 9.6 Labor, loading, etc 24.7 Hand drillers 11.7 Blacksmith and helper 5.3 Hauling away in wagons 40.5 Explosives 9.8 Coal, coke, oil, etc 6.0 Repairs to drills 1.0 Repairs to boilers, derricks, etc 1.2 Total per cu. yd $1.67 Mr. Hopper informs me that in sound rock where 20-ft. holes could be drilled, a drill would average 70 ft. in 10 hrs. ; but in snallow drilling the drills would frequently not average over 25 ft. each. This is about as high a cost as need occur in open cut rock work of any kind, when wages are as above given. See the section on Railways for cost of excavating gneiss for the New York Subway. Cost of Gneiss Excavation for Dams. Mr. J. Waldo Smith is authority for the statement that on several dam jobs done under his direction, near New York City, it had cost the contractors $1.65 ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 207 per cu. yd. to excavate gneiss in open cuts, when wages of com- mon laborers were $1.65 cts. per 10-hr, day. At Catena it had cost the contractors $3.50 per cu. yd. to excavate gneiss in the founda- tion for the dam, where no blasting was allowed. At Boontown, N. J., under similar conditions, it had cost $3.30 per cu. yd. Summary of Costs on Chicago Canal. The summary in Table X has been compiled by Mr. W. G. Potter. Common laborers in all cases receiving $1.50 for 10 hrs. work, all delays of 1 hr. or more being docked. Wages paid the other classes of men are given in my "Rock Excavation." The tabulated costs do not include shop repairs, but do include field repairs. The drilling item appears not to include the cost of drill sharpening. Plant interest and depreci- ation are not included either a very important item where such expensive machines are used. Explosives include caps and dyna- mite, 12 ets. per Ib. for the 40% dynamite being assumed to cover the cost of explosives. General expenses include superintendence, watchmen and incidentals. TABLE X. COST IN CENTS PER Cu. YD. (SOLID). bo w X .,- 9 A *-> x ft 3 o 3 o UQHOkUkQ EH Brown Cantilever ..... 3.9 4.1 8.0 3.2 1.0 3.6 14.6 0.0 38.3 Ladgerwood Cableway. .3.7 3.8 8.4 2.7 1.0 3.6 15.6 0.0 38.8 Hullett-McMyler Der- rick ................ 3.9 4.0 7.4 2.5 1.8 5.3 18.3 0.0- 43.2 Hullett Conveyor ..... 4.1 3.7 8.5 3.8 1.2 6.2 21.4 0.0 48.9 Car Hoist No. 1 ...... 3.7 3.9 9.1 2.7 0.8 3.1 24.8 5.1 53.1 Car Hotst No. 2 ....... 3.9 3.6 8.9 3.2 0.9 1.2-22.9 2.3 47.1 Car Hoist No. 3 ....... 4.0 5.010.7 3.1 1.2 1.2 26.4 4.8 56.5 The descriptions of each of the foregoing machines and methods of excavating and transporting the rock (limestone) are given in my book on "Rock Excavation." The detailed cost of chan- neling per square foot is also given there. Trenching in Rock. This is a subject upon which practically nothing has ever been written. In consequence there is probably no class of rock work that is so often mismanaged ; and, as a further consequence of the prevailing ignorance, engineers' estimates of cost are often far too low and occasionally as far too high. In city specifications for sewer trenching in rock it is customary to pay the contractor only for rock excavated within specified "neat lines." If he excavates beyond the "neat lines" he does so at his own expense. In sewer work the most common practice is to specify that payment will be made for a trench 12 ins. wider than the outside diameter of the sewer pipe, and 6 ins. deeper than the bottom of the pipe when the pipe is laid to grade. The most ra- tional specification that I have seen for general use in rock trench- ing is as follows: "All trenches in rock excavation will be esti- 208 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. mated 2 ft. wider than the external diameter of the pipe and 6 ins. below the sewer grade." Different rocks vary greatly in the way the sides and bottom shear off upon blasting. The sides of trenches in soft rocks can be cut off clean when the blast holes are properly loaded ; but tough granites, traps, etc., leave jagged walls, ( generally involving excavation beyond the "neat lines" specified. In excavating thin bedded, horizontally stratified rocks the drill holes seldom need to go much, if any, below the neat lines ; that is, 6 ins. below the bottom of the pipe. But in excavating thick bedded and tough limestones and the like, it is generally necessary to drill 12 ins. below the bottom of the pipe. In tough granites, traps, etc., it is often necessary to drill at least 18 ins. below grade in order to leave no knobs or projections after blasting that would require breaking off with bull points and sledges. Obviously the shallower the trench the greater is the importance of making due allowance for this extra drilling. The common practice in placing drill holes is to put down holes in pairs, one hole on each side of the proposed trench ; and, if the trench is wide, one or more holes are drilled between these two side holes. However, it is not always necessary to drill the two holes (one on each side) ; but in narrow trench work, such as for a 12-in. water pipe, one hole in the middle of the trench will usu- ally Drove sufficient if it is made of large enough diameter to hold a heavy charge of dynamite. For example, in trenching for a 12-in. water pipe in New Jersey trap rock, holes were drilled in the center of the, trench, 6 ft. deep, and 2 ft. apart. The result was a great saving in the cost of drilling per cubic yard. Cost of Drilling and Blasting in Trenches. Next to tunneling there is no class of rock excavation requiring so much drilling per cubic yard as does trench excavation. In granites, if shallow holes are drilled by hand, the holes are frequently spaced not more than 1% ft. apart. If in a very narrow trench 1V 2 ft. wide two holes are drilled in a row, one on each side of the trench, and if the rows are iy 2 ft. apart, we have two holes drilled in a square IMs ft. on a side ; that is, for every 2 14 cu. ft. of rock we must drill 2 ft. of hole, or 24 ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. If the cost of drilling is 25 cts. a foot, we have $0.25X24 $6 per cu. yd. as the cost of drilling alone. It is seldom, however, that such narrow trench- ing is done. Trenches for small pipes are usually 2 % to 3 ft. wide ; two holes are usually drilled in a row, and rows are usually about 3 ft. apart. A trench 3 ft. wide with two holes in a row, and rows 3 ft. apart, requires 6 ft. of drilling per cubic yard. With drilling costing 50 cts. per ft., as it often does where hand drills are used in granite, the cost is then $3 per cu. yd. for drilling alone. Unless the job is too small to pay for installing a plant, hand drilling should never be used in trench work, because the drilling forms such a very large part of the cost. In a trench 6 ft. wide in hard New Jersey trap rock three holes were drilled in a row, one close to each side and one in the middle, ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 209 and the rows were 3 ft. apart, thus requiring 4% ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. of excavation. The drilling was done with steam drills at a cost of 30 cts. per lin. ft., for the holes were only % ft. deep, the rock was hard, and the men slow, about 35 ft. being the day's work per drill. The contractor had to drill 1% ft. below grade in this rock to insure having no projecting knobs of rock. While it cost $1.35 per cu. yd. to drill the 3V 2 ft. for which pay- ment was made, to this must be added nearly 30%, or $0.40 per cu. yd., to cover the cost of drilling the extra 1 ft. for which no payment was received, making the total cost of drilling $1.75 per cu. yd. of pay material. About 2 Ibs. of 40% dynamite were charged in each hole, making about 2.6 Ibs. of dynamite per cu. yd. of pay material. The explosives thus added another $0.40 per cu. yd., making a total of $2.15 per cu. yd. for drilling and blasting. In the same trap rock, where the trench was 8 ft. wide and 12 ft. deep, there were three holes in a row and rows were 4 ft. apart, requiring 2.53 ft. of hole per cu. yd. of pay excavation, plus 0.21 ft. of hole per cu. yd. of pay material to cover the cost of drilling the last 1 ft. of hole below the "neat line." Each drill averaged 45 ft. of hole in 10 hrs., and the cost was 23 cts. per ft. of hole; hence $0.23 X 2.74 = $0.63 per cu. yd. was the cost of drilling. About 4 Ibs. of 40% dynamite were charged in each hole, or 1.1 Ibs. per cu. yd. of pay material, making the total cost 80 cts. per cu. yd. for drilling and blasting. A comparison of this cost of 80 cts. with the $2.15 above given brings out strikingly the fact that each problem of trench work must be considered in detail by itself. In a city where the contractor must fire comparatively small shots in order to avoid accidents to buildings and suits for dam- ages arising from "disturbing the peace," it is seldom possible to space the holes more than 3 or at most 4 ft. apart. In trenching in soft sandstone in Newark, N. J., where the trench was 14 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep, there were five holes in a row (the distance between holes being 3% ft.) and rows were 4 ft. apart, making 2.4 ft. of hole per cu. yd. Each hole was charged with 4.12 Ibs. of 40% dynamite, making practically 1 Ib. per cu. yd. About half the dynamite was charged at the bottom of each hole, then tamp- ing was put in, and the other half was charged up to about 2% ft. below the mouth of the hole. Each steam drill averaged 90 ft. of hole per 10 hrs.. making the cost of drilling: 10 cts, per ft. of hole, or 24 cts. per cu. yd. Including the cost of dynamite and the placing of timbers over each blast, the cost of drilling and blasting was 40 cts. per cu. yd. This is probably as low a cost for break- ing rock in a wide trench as can be counted upon under favorable conditions. In this rock there was no necessity of drilling below grade. The cost of throwing rock out of shallow trenches or of loading it into buckets to be raised by the engine of a derrick, a locomotive crane or a cableway, is somewhat greater than the cost of handling rock in open cuts. A fair day's work for one man is 6 cu. yds. 210 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of rock handled, when there is little sledging ; but the output may be only 4 cu. yds. where there is a large amount of sledging to be done. If cableways or derricks are used for hoisting the rock, bear in mind that they will be idle most of the time, for the drilling limits the output. With a given number of drill? to a cable way, estimate the number of cubic yards of TOCK that the drills will break per day and divide this yardage into the daily cost of operating the cable- way. Thus, in a trench 6 ft. wide, if the holes are 3 ft. apart, each cubic yard of rock requires 4 1 /-. ft. of hole, and each drill will break 13% cu. yds. per day where 60 ft. of hole is a day's work. With four drills per cableway the daily output is 4 X 13% = 53% cu. yds. The cableway would be capable of handling several times this out- put were it not limited by the drilling. Notwithstanding that all this seems self-evident, I .have known more than one contractor to overlook the fact that the cost of handling rock from trenches is very much greater than in open cuts where holes are farther apart and where a few drills can keep a cableway busy. I am indebted to Mr. F. I. Winslow for the following data on trench work in Boston, Mass. : For house sewer trenches, con- tractors are allowed 3 ft. width, and trenches for water pipe (16 ins. or less), 2% ft. width. The rock is granite, and the drill holes are usually 3 ft. apart drilled along the center of the trench, but staggered a little off center. On small jobs hammer drills are used, one man holding and two striking. For a hole 10 ft. deep the starting bit is 2% ins. and the finishing bit is 1*4 ins. diam. A drilling gang of three men averages 8 to 10 ft. of hole in 10 hrs., although in very soft rock 20 ft. may be drilled in 10 hrs. In a trench 10 ft. deep, the rock is usually excavated in two 5-ft. benches, but some contractors drill the full 10 ft. and take it out in one 10-ft. bench. Forcite containing 75% nitroglycerin is com- monly used, l /2 to 3 sticks being charged in a hole. Force account records for granite trenching, on jobs of less than 100 c_u. yds. each, show that the average cost during the past 15 years has been $3.80 per cu. yd., including excavating and piling up the rock along- side the trench. The wages paid hand-drillers were $1.75 per 10-hr. day; and to laborers, $1.40 per day. I am indebted to the Harrison Construction Co., of Newark, N. J., for the following information : In a sandstone trench about 6 ft. wide the holes were spaced about 3 ft. apart, thus requiring 4V6 ft. of hole per cu. yd. In seamy rock, shallow holes 4 to 6 ft. deep were drilled, and from 2 to 3 sticks of 50% dynamite were charged, each stick being 1% X 8 ins. This is equivalent to 0.55 Ib. per cu. yd. Where the rock was solid, the holes were drilled 8 to 10 ft. deep and the dynamite charge doubled. Consult the sections on Water Works and on Sewers for further data on trenching. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Trap. The following data relate to quarrying New Jersey trap rock and crushing it in gyratory crushers. The quarry face was 12 to 18 ft. high. The output of the following gang was 200 cu. yds. of crushed stone per 10-hr. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 211 day, each cubic yard of crusher run product weighing 2,700 Ibs., no piece being more than 2 ins. diameter. The weight of a solid cubic yard of this trap was 4,500 Ibs., so that the voids in the crushed stone were 40%. Drill holes were spaced about 5 ft. apart. Per day. Per cu. yd. 3 drillers at $2.75 $ 8.25 $0.041 3 helpers at $1.75 5.25 0.026 10 men barring out and sledging 15.00 0.075 14 men loading carts 21.00 0.105 4 cart horses 6.00 0.030 2 cart drivers 3.00 0.015 2 men dumping carts and feeding crusher... 3.00 0.015 1 fireman for drill boiler 2.50 0.013 1 engineman for crusher 3.00 0.015 1 blacksmith 3.00 0.015 1 blacksmith helper 2.00 0.010 1 foreman 5.00 0.025 2 tons coal at $3.50 7.00 035 150 Ibs. 40% dynamite at 15 cts 22.50 0.113 Total $106.50 $0.533 Interest, depreciation and repairs would add about $8 or $10 more per day, or 4 to 5 cts. per cu. yd., making a total of about 58 cts. per cu. yd. There was no earth stripping. The stone was loaded into one-horse dump carts, the driver tak- ing one cart to the crusher while the other cart was being loaded. The haul was 100 ft. The carts were dumped into an inclined chute feeding into a No. 5 Gates gyratory crusher. The stone was ele- vated by a bucket elevator and screened. All stone larger than 2 -in. was returned through a chute to a small No. 3 Gates crusher to be re-crushed. I should add that the trap rock was much seamed, so that upon blasting it was broken into tolerably small chunks, so that the cost of sledging was not high considering the small size of the crusher. Cost of Crushing at Newton, Mass. A. F. Noyes, City Engineer of Newton, Mass., gives the following cost data for the year 1891, on four jobs of crushing stone and cobbles for macadam. On jobs A and B the stone was quarried and crushed ; on jobs C and D cobblestones were crushed. A 9 X 15-in. Farrel-Marsondon crusher was used, stone being fed in by two laborers. A rotary screen having %, 1 and 2% -in. openings delivered the stone into bins hav- ing four compartments, the last receiving the "tailings" which had failed to pass through the screen. The broken stone was measured in carts as they left the bin, but several cart loads were weighed, giving the following weights per cubic foot of broken stone : Size y 2 -in. 1-in 2 % -ins. Tailings. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Greenish trap rock, "A" 95.8 84.3 88.3 91.0 Conglomerate, "B" 101.0 87.7 94.4 Cobblestones, "C" and "D" 102.5 98.0 99.6 A one-horse cant held 26 to 28 cu. ft. (average 1 cu. yd.)' of broken stone; a two-horse cart. 40 to 42 cu. ft., at the crusher. 212 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Hours run A. 412 B. 144 C. 101 D. 198 Short tons per hour 9 11 2 15 7 12 1 Cu. yds. per hour . 7 7 8 9 11 8 9 Per cent of tailings 31 8 29 3 17 5 20 5 Per cent of 2%-in. stone ;. Per cent of 1-in. stone .51.3 .10.2 51.9 57.0 55.1 Per cent of %-in stone or dust 6 7 18 8 25 5 23 4 nh Explosives, coal for drill and repairs A. .$0.084 B. $0.018 C. D. Labor steam drilling . 0.092 Labor hand drilling 0.249 Sharpening tools . 069 023 Sledging stone for crusher 279 420 Loading carts 098 127 $0 144 Carting to crusher . 0.072 062 $0 314* 098 Feeding crusher 053 053 033 065 Engineer of crusher 031 038 029 036 Coal for crusher ... . 079 050 047 044 Repairs to crusher . 041 Oil Moving portable crusher 023 019 Watchman ($175 a day ) 053 022 030 Total cost per cu. yd $0.898 Total cost per short ton 0.745 $1.116 $0.445 $0.44} 0.885 0.330 0.372 "Loading and hauling in wheelbarrows. NOTE. "A" was trap rock ; "B" was conglomerate rock ; "C" and "D" were trap and granite cobblestones. Common laborers on jobs "A" and "D" were paid $1.75 Der 9-hr, day: on jobs "B" and "C," $1.50 per 9-hr, day ; two-horse cart and driver, $5 per day ; blacksmith. $2.50 : engineer on crusher. $2 on job "A," $2.25 on "B." $2.00 on "C." $2.50 on "D" ; steam driller received $3, and helper $1.75 a day; foreman, $3 a day. Coal was $5.25 per short ton. Forcite powder 11% cts. per Ib. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Quartzite. Mr. W. G. Kirchoffer gives the following data on the cost of quarrying and crushing quartzite for macadam, in 1903, at Baraboo, Wis. The plant was a municipal plant operated by day labor, and the costs were some- what, higher than under contract work. The crusher was a No. 3 Austin jaw crusher, 12 x 16-in. opening. Three sizes of screen holes In the rotary screen were used: %-in., 1%-in. and 2% -in. The first cost of the plant was as follows, in 1901 : Crusher . . . Bins Steam drill Small tools 900 108 218 108 The output of the crusher by years has been : Year 1901. 1902. Total output, cu. yds 1,920 3,700 $1,334 1903. 4,883 88 In Days worked 47 Output per day, cu. yds 41 the year 1901, about 10% of the stone was screened out anc ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 213 thrown away. The wages paid per 10-hr, day were: Laborers, $1.50 ; quarrymen, $1.75 ; drill-runner, $2 ; engineman and engine, $3.50. The stone was measured in wagons built to hold just iy a cu. yds., by weight, 3,900 Ibs., and the following costs for 1903 are based upon wagon measurement of the stone : Per cu. yd. Quarry rent $0.0207 Labor quarrying, including foreman 0.3200 Labor crushing 0.1980 Tools 0.0148 Dies for crusher 0.0636 Dynamite (60% at 25 cts. per lb.), caps and fuse 0.0910 Rent of engine and wages of engineman 0.0635 Fuel for engine, $4.60 per ton. 0.0477 Oil and waste : 0.0033 Hauling water and supplies 0.0499 Supplies 0.0137 Superintendent of crusher 0.0476 Depreciation of plant 0.0736 Total $1.0074 The cost of hauling 2% miles to the street was 50 cts. per cu. yd., wages of team and driver being $3 a day. The cost of the macadam pavement, including stone, hauling, grading, spreading stone, claying and rolling, has been a little less than 50 cts. per sq. yd. The macadam was 8 ins. thick at the center and 6 ins. at the gutters, measured after rolling. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Limestone for Macadam. The cost of operating a small quarry, and crushing with a portable or semi-portable crusher is obviously much higher than where a large plant is used. For some time to come the greater part of road- metal crushing will be done with small plants, under conditions such as I am about to describe, and at costs not far differing from those that will be given. In quarrying limestone, where the face of the quarry was only 5 to 6 ft. high, and where the amount of stripping was small, one steam drill was used. This drill received its steam from the same boiler that supplied the crusher engine. The drill averaged 60 ft. of hole drilled per 10-hr, day, but was poorly handled and frequently laid off for repairs. The cost of quarrying and crushing was as follows: Quarry. 1 driller $ 2.50 1 helper - 1.50 1 man stripping 1.50 4 men quarrying 6.00 1 blacksmith 2.50 % ton coal at $3 1.00 Repairs to drill 60 Hose, drill steel and interest on plant 90 24 Ibs. dynamite 3.60 Total . ..$20.10 ?14 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Crusher. 1 engineman $ 2.50 2 men feeding crusher 3.50 6 men wheeling 9.00 1 bin man 1.50 1 genei'al foreman 3.00 % ton coal at $3 1.00 1 gallon oil 25 Repairs to crusher 1.50 Repairs to engine and boiler 1.00 Interest on plant 1.00 Total $24.25 Summary Per day. Per cu. yd. Quarrying $20.10 $0.34 Crushing 24.25 0.41 Total for 60 cu. yds $43.85 $0.75 The "4 men quarrying" barred out and sledged the stone to sizes that would enter a 9 x 16 in. jaw crusher. The "6 men wheeling" delivered the stone in wheelbarrows to the crusher platform, the run plank being never longer than 150 ft. Two men fed the stone into the crusher, and a binman helped load the wagons from the bin, and kept tally of the loads. The stone was measured loose in the wagons, and it was found that the average load was 1% cu. yds., weighing 2,400 Ibs. per cu. yd. There were 40 wagon loads, or 60 cu. yds. crushed per 10-hr, day, although on some days as high as 75 cu. yds. were crushed. The stone was screened through a rotary screen, 9 ft. long, having three sizes of openings, %-in., lM.-in. and 2V 2 -in. The output was 16% of the smallest size, 24% of the middle size, and 60% of tne large size. All tailings over 2% ins. in size were re-crushed. It will be noted that the interest on the plant is quite an im- portant item. This is due to the fact that, year in and year out, a quarrying and crushing plant for roadwork seldom averages more than 100 days actually worked per year, and the total charge for interest must be distributed over these 100 days, and not over 300 days as is so commonly and erroneously done. The cost of stripping the earth off the rock is often considerably in excess of the above given cost, and each case must be estimated separately. Quarry rental or royalty is usually not in excess of 5 cts. per cu. yd., and frequently much less. The dynamite used was 40%, and the cost of electric exploders is included in the cost given. Where a higher quarry face is used the cost of drilling and the cost of explosives per cu. yd. is less. Exclusive of quarry rent and heavy stripping costs, a road con- tractor should be able to quarry and crush limestone or sandstone for not more than 75 cts. per cu. yd., or 62 cts. per ton of 2,000 Ibs., wages and conditions being as above given. The labor cost of erecting bins and installing a 9x16 jaw crusher, elevator, etc., averages about $75, including hauling the plant two or three miles, and dismantling the plant when work is finished. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 215 The first cost of a quarrying, crushing and macadam road build- ing plant is given in following paragraph. Price of Road Building Plant. The following gives the first cost of a typical portable plant for quarrying and crushing rock, grad- ing, hauling and building a macadam road : Crusher Plant 1 .law crusher (9x15 in.), with rotary screen. .$1,100 Portable bins 200 Engine to drive crusher (15 HP.) . 200 Boiler on wheels (20 HP.) 600 Total crusher plant $2,100 Quarry Plant 2 steam drills at $250 $ 500 Steam pipe, waterpipe, etc 150 Quarry and blacksmith tools 150 Steam boiler (15 HP.) 400 Total quarry plant $1,200 Road Plant 6 dumo waerons for hauling stone at $125....$ 750 6 dump wagons for grading at $125 750 2 leveling scrapers at $100 200 12 wheel scrapers at $50 600 12 drag scrapers, shovels, picks, etc 150 1 steam roller 2,500 2 sprinkling wagons at $300 600 Gasolene pump and portable water tank 500 Total road plant $5,850 Grand total $9,150 Cost of Jaw Crusher Renewals. Mr. Thomas Aitken gives the following data as to costs in England, for a 9 x 16-in. jaw crusher (Baxter) whose first cost complete was $1,500. The crusher aver- aged 66 long tons of trap per 10-hr, day. Life First Cost per in tons cost of long ton, crushed. part. cents. Upper jaws (reversible) 8,000 $11 0.13 Lower jaws (reversible) 4,000 11 0.26 Top rotary screen (plates *4 in.).. 24, 000 30 0.12 Lower rotary screens 48,000 23 0.04 Elevator belt (5 ply; 26 ft. long), plates, etc 32,000 60 0.18 Elevator buckets (25) 8,000 10 0.12 Toggles and bearings, etc 8,000 14 0.16 Total 1.01 This crusher has a capacity of 80 tons (of 2,240 Ibs.) per day, is mounted on wheels, and has two short rotary screens (one above the other) mounted on the same framework with the crusher itself, and it carries a very small bin, also on the same frame. The machine is entirely self-contained, and thus is readily portable Our American practice is to have large separate bins (sometimes on wheels), and consequently a much longer elevator. While the first cost of our American crushers of the same size is also about $1,500 complete, our repair parts will average nearly double the cost given by Mr. Aitken for English conditions. 21 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Aitken states that 1 hp. (nominal) for each ton crushed per hour will drive the Baxter crusher, but it is noteworthy that he gives a coal consumption of 720 Ibs. per day, which indicates far more than 8 hp. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Limestone, Missouri.* Mr. Cur- tis Hill gives the following relative to work done by contract in 1908 for the Missouri Highway Department. The stone was a hard, bluish gray limestone. Two quarries were opened up near the road, and a total of 13,000 cu. yds. of crushed stone produced. Quarrying Cost per cu yd. Foreman and timekeeper, at $0.40 $0.056 Drillers (hand), at 17y 2 .018 Drillers (steam), at 17% .031 Laborers, at 17 y 2 .224 Teams, at 35 . .021 Powder, Ibs. at .10 .059 Caps, at 10 .002 Fuse, ft., at 01 Watchman, at 15 .017 Water boy, at 10 .012 Quarry rent, at .030 Total quarrying $0.472 Crushing-^ Foreman and timekeeper 40 .064 Laborers 17% .121 Engine and engineman 40 .067 Watchman 15 .007 Total crushing $0.259 Grand total $0.731 This does not include plant interest, repairs and depreciation, nor insurance of men. The stone was screened through three sizes of hole, %, 1% and 3-in. The crusher was a portable jaw crusher, and its output was 65 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day. The organization was about as follows: 1 quarry foreman. 1 steam driller. 1 hand driller (% time). 8 laborers, quarry. 1 team (.y 2 time). 1 water boy. 1 watchman. 1 crusher foreman. 4 laborers at crusher. 1 engineman on crusher. Cost of Crushing and Hauling Cobblestones.t Mr. W. A. Gillette is author of the following: It may be of interest to builders of macadam roads or crushers ^Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 4, 1909. t Engineering-Contracting, April 28. 1909. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 217 of stone to know how cheaply the work can be done with a good small plant and when the supervision of the plant is intelligently administered. My experience in the above class of work leads me to believe that few plants of a capacity similar to the one which shows the output I will give below are giving such satisfactory results. The plant in question is owned by the City of Ventura, Cal., and the rock is used in the construction of petrolithic macadam. The engineering of the entire work has been done by J. B. Waud, and Mr. James M. Montgomery is the contractor. Mr. Montgomery has an exceptionally fine lot of stock, and the or- ganization of his work is about as near perfection as it could be. While looking over the work at Ventura the writer took occasion to make an inquiry regarding the cost per cubic yard for stone delivered on the street. This question was brought about from the fact that the work was being done at an exceptionally low cost, and it was hard to understand just why the cost was so much less than that of other similar construction. I was told that the cost of the rock delivered on the street was something less than 50 cts. per cu. yd. It hardly seemed possible, when it was known that the average haul from the crusher to the work was about a mile, while the tough cobbles which are being crushed are gathered on the ocean beach and hauled in 1%-cu. yd. dump wagons to the crusher, a distance of about 1,500 ft., two teams with two wagons and drivers being used for this purpose. Eight laborers are used to load the cobbles into the wagons ; three men and the foreman do the work at the crusher and bins. The power to operate the crusher is electricity. Five teams and drivers with dump wagons holding 2 cu. yds. each haul the crushed stone to the streets. On this particular day all of the crushed stone was hauled ,% mile and the screenings were hauled 1*4 mileo. The wagons were heaped up so that they reached the street more than full. A good part of this haul was over very rough roads, so the Tock was well settled in the wagon boxes. The wages paid are as follows : Two-horse team, wagon and driver, $4.50 for 9 hrs. ( Foreman, $4 per day. Laborers, $2 per day. The following is an itemized statement of the 9-hr, day's work : One foreman, at $4.00 per day $ 4.00 Eleven laborers, at $2.00 per day 22.00 Two teams hauling cobbles to crusher, at $4.50 per day 9.00 Five teams hauling crushed stone to street, at $4.50 per day. . 22.50 Electric power, 67 kw. hours, at 3 cts 2.00 Engine oil 1.00 Total $60.50 The total output for a large day's run was 132 cu. yds., as meas- ured in the wagon boxes at a cost of $60.50, or 45.8 cts. per cu. yd. 218 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. delivered on the street, exclusive of plant interest and depreciation. The plant cost $3,000. It consists of a No. 3 Austin gyratory crusher, having two 8Msx24-in. openings, driven by an electric motor. Where the rock was crushed so that all of it would pass through a 2-in. ring the average output was 90 cu. yds. per 9-hr, day, or 67 cts. per cu. yd. for labor, hauling and power. The cost of interest and maintenance of plant is not included. Cost of Quarrying and Crushing Trap, and Ballasting, D., L. & W. Ry.* Mr. Lincoln Bush is author of the following: Early in 1905 the D. L. & W. Ry. Co. acquired by purchase near Boonton, N. J., a granite quarry and crusher plant, together with other equipment in the way of cars, machinery, etc., that were utilized by a contractor in connection with the construction of a large masonry dam for a reservoir. This work having been com- pleted by the contractor, the Lackawanna Railroad Company ac- quired about 3 miles of railroad running from its main line to the quarry plant, together with about 56 acres of ground, tracks at Crusher plant, etc. In adapting this plant to our use and re- arranging the tracks and crusher layout to meet our requirements, we expended at the outstart $21,904.33, and sold from the con- tractor's outfit certain equipment not required by us, which sale netted us $18,159.31, making the net cost to us of the quarry and plant at the time we started operating the crusher $26,245.02. The material obtained from this crusher plant is a very good quality of New Jersey granite, weighing 2,795 Ibs. per cu. yd. of crushed stone. The quarry was well opened up when we acquired it from the contractor, and the face of the quarry has a depth of from 20 to 60 ft. and a length of about 2,200 ft. The stripping on top of the quarry will average about 2% ft. The crusher machinery was manufactured by the Allis-Chalmers Co., and consists of one No. 8 and one No. 6 crusher, with a large bucket conveyor for conveying the broken stone from the crusher to the screens. There is one large 48-in. diameter screen, consisting of three sections, each 4 ft. in length, with ringings from % in. to 2 y% ins. in diameter and a dust jacket for separating the ma- terials. Materials which pass through the %-in. ringing are not used for track ballast. The ballast product is conveyed on a Robins belt conveyor and deposited into a system of bins ; the finer material and dust pass directly over the dust jacket into the dust bin. The percentage of fine materials, i. e., dust and ^-in. stuff, runs from 12% to 14% of the total output. The grades of tracks at the crusher plant are so arranged as to handle the cars after being placed by gravity. There is a powder magazine located on the property which has a storage capacity for about 10 tons of powder and explosives *Enginetring-Contracting, March 24, 1909. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 219 There is also a water system for the boilers and a sprinkling plant to keep down the dust. The maximum grade of the track connecting our main line with the quarry is 3 % ascending to the quarry, and in handling our bal- last we have been utilizing a locomotive which will handle 14 empty Rodger ballast cars up this 3% grade. The larger part of the stone is handled from the quarry to the crusher plant by means of a derrick system, the face of the quarry being located quite close to the crusher plant. We have Bin use 6 large derricks with 90-ft. masts, which, with 6 hoisting engines operated in connection with the derrick system, handle the :i stone in large stone boxes. The stone is quarried from the top of the face by a stepping system. To pass into the No. 6 crusher the stone has to be broken up in .sizes from 16-in. to 20-in. The breaking of the material is done jwith a system of block hole drills, placing holes from 6 ins. to S12 ins. apart, depending upon the size of the stone to be broken. jWe use from 3 to 6 block hole drills per day in breaking up the jiarger stone and some of the smaller stones are sledged instead of being block holed. In addition to the derrick system at this plant we also have a car system, by means of which cars are loaded with stone from the quarry are dropped by gravity to the crusher. These cars have from 12 to 16 cu. yds. capacity, and when the cars reach the crusher plants are dumped by one of the derricks. The bot- tom of these cars is constructed of wood and metal, with a chain attached, and the false bottom of the car is picked up on one end by the derrick, and the stone dumped by this means without manual handling. After the cars have been dumped at the crusher they are returned to the quarry by a haulage system, operated by a hoisting engine. The stripping from the top of the quarry is dis- posed of by piling it back from the face of the quarry. In operating the quarry and crusher we have employed an aver- age of 125 men, including rock men, drill men, engineers, me- chanical men and laborers required at the quarry and crusher. We employ two blacksmiths for handling the drill work and a pipefitter for taking care of the steam-pipe system and steam drills. One mechanical foreman with the necessary help has charge of the crushing plant and one general foreman has charge of the quarry. One engineer handles the engine in the crusher plant and one fire- man does the firing. We utilize a 150-hp. boiler for generating steam for the drills, and in addition to this we have two 150-hp. boilers for furnishing the balance of power for the derricks and at the crushers. We started, operating the quarry and crusher plant in May, 1905. The plant was shut down on January 15, 1906, and operations re- sumed in March, 1906. The detailed statements of the cost of quarrying and crushing stone at this plant have been carefully kept and are reliable as to the cost as well as to output. The cost includes the quarrying and crushing, and includes the material | loaded on cars at the bins. 220 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The costs were as follows: w 03 . . 'd - "B^ Month o *v o^oj "ggj fc-S and Year. ^ g^ o -|| 3 > oo 1,2 o| o < o- 2 u o ^ May, 1905 6,637 246 46.2 8.9 55.1 June, 1905 7,048 271 50.6 7.6 58.2 July, 1905 6,267 241 55.9 6.6 62.5 August, 1905.... 8,722 323 51.1 5.3 56.4 September, 1905. 7,017 270 55.2 6.6 61.8 October, 1905... 6,321 243 56 7.2 63.2 November, 1905. 6,219 235 47.9 5.8 65.1 December, 1905. 5,882 249 57.5 7.6 53.7 January, 1906... 3,233 269 39.2 6.3 45.5 April, 1906 7,516 301 51.5 6.7 66 May, 1906 11,594 429 40 5 50 June, 1906 10,622 409 47 5 52 July, 1906 10,894 436 45.5 6 52.5 August, 1906 10,183 377 49 6 55 Average 307 49 6.5 55.5 The average cost for the four months of May to August, 1906 was as follows: Per cu. yd. Quarrying : cts. Labor 38.4 Supplies 6.6 Total quarrying 45.0 Crushing : Labor 3.5 Supplies 2.5 Total crushing 6.0 Grand total 51.0 These costs do not include interest and depreciation of plant, but do include all other items, even to current repairs. We have used the crushed stone from this plant at various points along our line on the Morris and Essex Divisions, and during the present season we put on a ballast gang for ballasting a 4*6- mile section of double track located between Hopatcong and Wharton, N. J. In handling the ballast on this 4 1 / 2 -mile section we had an aver- age of 31 laborers at 14 cts. per hour per hay of 10 hrs. and one foreman at $75 per month. In addition to the regular ballast gang we had 8 section laborers on the 4% -mile section that were em- ployed in digging out, changing ties, placing drain tile and filling for changes in alignment and easement curves. The amount of ballast used on the 4% -mile section of double track was 28,458 cu. yds., or an average of 6,324 cu. yds. per mile of double track. The average distance which the ballast was hauled from the crusher to the section ballasted was 13 miles. On the 4 1/2 -mile section of track ballasted there was a total length of curve line of 1.56 miles and a total length of tangent ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 221 of 2.94 miles. We used in this work 24 Rodger ballast cars, and in figuring the cost of transportation the cars were placed at a value of $600 each. Our records show a cost of 5^j cts. per cu. yd., covering transportation charges, interest on the Rodger- ballast cars valued at $600 each at 5%, plus interest at 5% on the net investment of the quarry and crusher plant. The cost for quarrying, crushing and loading cars at the crushing plant was 55 cts. per cu. yd. ; the cost of placing ballast under track, includ- ing lining, surfacing and dressing, was 20% cts. per cu. yd., making a total cost per cubic yard of the ballast in the track of 81 cts. for the 4^-mile section above described. On the west end of our Buffalo Division we have an accurate rec- 6rd of the cost of 27,120 cu. yds. of crushed limestone ballast put in on a stretch of double track during the season of 1906. For this work we purchased the crushed stone delivered 'to us in our own Rodger ballast cars at an average cost of $0.6017 per cu. yd., and received an average of 222 cu. yds. per day, the quarry being lo- cated on our own lines. Thirty Rodger ballast cars were used for this work and the average haul was 13.4 miles. The ringing used in preparing this ballast was from % in. to 2% ins. diameter and the stone weighed 2,410 Ibs. to the yard. As above stated, we received on an average 222 cu. yds. per day, and a larger quantity per day would have reduced the cost per yard somewhat. In com- paring this cost with the cost of ballasting with materials obtained from the Boonton crusher plant, it will be noted that the ballast on cars from the Boonton plant cost practically 5 cts. per cu. yd. less than the material used on the Buffalo Division. The work on the Buffalo Division cost a total of 88.1 cts. per cu. yd., in track, which cost incluued t,ie material, engine service, labor, tie renewals and spacing, and interest on ballast car equipment. Cost of Quarrying, Crushing and Ballasting, and Life of Ballast.* From tests of trap and other rocks, it is seen that a material saving can be effected by the use of trap for ballast purposes. Less stone will be required to maintain the track, and it can be used in smaller sizes, as its higher percentage of hardness and toughness will insure less breaking under traffic and tamping. Figures taken from comparison of line and surface in trap with that in stone whose quality is about the same as limestone, show that line and surface cost approximately $20 less per mile in trap than in limestone. Cost of Plant. From published figures, the cost of building a plant of 1,000 tons daily capacity, and its cost of operation to quarry, is as follows : Capacity, 1,000 tons daily 300,000 tons annually 900 cu. yds. trap per 10-hr, day 270,000 cu. yds. annually Crushers, 4, 250-ton Farrel, at $1,250 $ 5,000 Engines, 4, 60-hp., 14x12, at $500 2,000 Foundations 100 Belting, 13-in., 200 ft., at $2.75 550 * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 1, 1909, abstract of a report to the Am. Ry. Eng. and Mn. of Way Assoc. 222 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Boilers, 2, 200-hp. and setting 7,5( Steam fittings 4,OC Boiler house 2,5C Engine house 1,50 Stack 2,OC Scales, 60-ft, including foundations and timber 1,22 Bins 6C Elevators with latforms, 4, at $1,500 (for tailings) 6,0t Pump for water supply, 5,500 gals, per hour 2C Tank, 50,000 gals 1,20 Steam drills, with tripods connecting hose, 20, at $215 4,90 Screens, rotary, 54-in., 4, at $950 3,80 Small tools, forges, bars, wedges, hammers, etc 1,20 Derrick, small stiff leg 15 Total $44,42 Contingencies, 8% 3,55 $7 Land, 50 acres, at $150 per acre 7^50 Cable railway and dump cars for haul to crusher, this being a varying item as quarry is worked 5,00 Total cost of quarry $60,47 COST OF OPERATION OF QUARRY PLANT. Capacity, 270,000 Cu. Yds. Per Annum. 18 drillers, at $3 per day, 300 days $ 16,201 18 helpers, at $1.75 per day, 300 days 9,45 3 blacksmiths, at $3 per day, 300 days 2,70i 50 bar sledgers, at 31.75 per day, 300 days 26.251 60 car loaders, at $1.75 per day, 300 days'. 31,50, 8 crusher men, at $1.75 per day ,300 days 4,20 1 quarry boss, at $5 per day, 300 days. . '. 1,50 1 fireman, at $2.50 per day, 300 days... . 75 1 engineer, at $3 per day, 300 days 90 4 bin men, at $1.75 per day, 300 days 2,10 : 1 scale man, at $2 per day, 300 days 60 1 carpenter, at $3 per day, 300 days . 90 10 laborers, at $1.75 per day, 300 days 5,25i 1 clerk, at $750 per year. 75 Fuel, 2,700 tons of coal, at $2.70 7,29: Oil, waste, etc 50 Dynamite, .7 Ib. per cu. yd., 270.000 cu. yds. 189,000 Ibs., at 15 cts Drill reoairs 1 machinist, at $4 1 helper, at $2.50 Supplies at $1.25 per month per drill Blacksmiths included above Total $141,41 4% on first cost of plant $2,418 10% depreciation on machinery, except crushers.. 2,160 16% % depreciation on crushers 833 5,41- $146^2": Contingencies, 8% ll,75i $158,57:: This shows a cost per yard of 59 cts. With this figure, the estimated saving shown from the use o; trap rock (Gabbro) over limestone now used, from Martinsburij quarry, on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in a 16-mile section, double track, or 32 miles of single track, based on changing th( ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 223 entire ballast in a five-year period, and using 2,200 cu. yds. of trap rock per mile, 8-in. under the tie, would be as follows: febbro- Quarrying $0.60 Placing in track .15 Average haul, 18 miles, at .001 02 Total estimated cost per cu. yd $0.77 Limestone Quarrying .. $0.5 Screenings, 33% 18 Placing in track 15 Average haul, 98 miles, at .001 10 Total actual cost per cu. yd $0.98 SUMMARY. Limestone, 14,080 cu. yds., at 98 cts $13,798.40 Sabbro, 14,080 cu. yds., at 77 cts 10,841.60 Saving per year during ballasting, due to use of trap rock $ 2,956.80 As to saving in maintenance 300 cu. yds. of trap rock per mile per year will maintain track as efficiently as 400 cu. yds. of lime- stone. J2 miles single track X 400 cu. yds. limestone X 98 cts $12,544 32 miles single track X 300 cu. yds. trap rock X 77 cts 7,392 Saving per year due to use of trap rock after track is fully ballasted $ 5,152 Saving in line and surface, 32 miles, at $20 640 Total saving per year after track is fully ballasted $ 5,792 The saving in maintenance labor during ballasting would be : 1st year 2d year, 6.4 miles X $20 $128 3d year, 12.8 miles X 20 256 4th year, 19.2 miles X 20 384 5th year, 25.6 miles X 20 512 Total five years labor saving during ballasting (maintenance) $ 1,280.00 Five years savins in first cost, due to use of trap rock. . 14,784.00 Total five years saving during ballasting $16,064.00 Average saving per year during ballasting 3,212.80 Saving per year after fifth year 5,792.00 These figures give an idea of the savings which may be effected by going into such questions thoroughly, and getting accurate data. Such comparisons may be worked up for stone, gravel and cinder, and estimate made which will show a railroad management how far they are justified in going into such economies. [There is clearly an error in the assumption that it will take anything like 300 or 400 cu. yds. of stone yearly to maintain a mile of ballasted track. See the section on Railways for cost of maintenance of way.] Cost of Crushing with City Plant, Boston. In Engineering -Con- tracting, Aug. 11, 1909, is a long abstract from the Metcalf & Eddy freport to the Boston Finance Commission, of which the following Is only a meager abstract : I The crusher plant occupies an area of 570,000 sq. ft., pur- 224 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. chased in 1882 for $30,000 and having an assessed value in 1! of $79,800. The tract is used in part for other than quarry and crushing purposes. The plant consists mainly of a 30 x 13 Farrel crusher, a 72 x 16-in. Atlas engine, a 66-in. x 17-ft. tubu boiler, the usual elevators, bins, extra parts and tools, and of th large and one baby steam drills. The estimated cost of the pi Was $16,653; interest was calculated at 4% and depreciation 6.75% annually, which gives an amount of $1,791, which in costs following was applied on a monthly basis. "*The charge steam drills is based on a rental of 50 cts. per working day. Force Employed. The force employed, with wages, was in g eral as follows : Labor at Ledge : Per day. 1 sub-foreman, at $3.50 $ 3.50 1 blacksmith, at $3 3.00 1 blacksmith's helper, at $2.25 2.25 3 steam drillers, at $2.25 6.75 3 steam drillers' helpers, at $2.25 6.75 10 stone breakers, at $2.25 22.50 5 hand drillers, at $2.25 11.25 1 powderman, at $2.25 2.25 9 loaders, at $2.25 20.25 Total $ 78.50 Labor at Crusher: 1 engineer, at $3.50 $ 3.50 1 fireman, at $3.25 3.25 1 weigher, at $3.50 350 1 oiler, at $2.25 2.25 3 feeders, at $2.25 6.75 1 pitman, at $2.25 2.25 Total $ 21.50 Teaming : 6 single teams, at $3.50 $ 21.00 Total $121.00 The force consisted largely of men who were in some deg skilled in rock work. The majority of the men were young and were vigorous and skijled to such an extent that the force a; whole was skillful and efficient. There was a marked lack interest on the part of some of the employes, which undoubte had its effect in reducing the amount of work done considera below the amount which would be done under contract conditio; on the other hand it should be stated that some of the men t< a lively interest in the work and did their full duty. In this connection it should be noted that the capacity of the b being only about 400 tons, they were sufficient only for about : days output of the crusher as it was operated. The normal cap Ity of the crusher is claimed by the manufacturers to be ab< 250 tons per day, while the maximum output for any one c during this test was 225 tons. During three weeks in July, three drills were operated, but t was found to be inadvisable becavise the force of laborers v unable to handle the rock as fast as it was blown out. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 22: ; The duration of this test was from May 28 to September 10, 1908, inclusive. The work accomplished during the test may be sum- marized as follows: Work Done: Stripping removed (a large part of the stripping had been done prior to the beginning of this test and is not included herein) 384 tons Holes drilled (2%-in. diameter) by steam drill 4,160.1 ft. Unbroken stone on hand at beginning of test none Unbroken stone on hand at expiration of test (esti- mated) 200 tons Broken stone ready for crusher at expiration of test . . none Broken stone on hand at expiration of test none Total output of crushed stone during test: Dust 1,970 tons (22%) Stone 6,983 tons (78%) Total 8,953 tons Total Cost Labor: cost. per ton. Supervision (foreman) : Quarrying and breaking, 90%...: $ 253.58 $0.028 Crushing, 10% 28.17 0.003 Buildings 93.36 0.010 Installing drilling plant 77.21 0.009 Removing and storing drilling plant 18.00 0.002 Operating drills 453.95 0.051 Furnishing steam for operating steam drills 114.16 0.013 Cleaning rock for drills and moving same 100.66 0.011 Blacksmith on ledge tools and pipe fittings 382.57 0.043 Blasting and care of explosives 182.29 0.020 Breaking stone 1,362.42 0.152 Hand drilling (block holes) 515.55 0.058 wading stone 1,010.87 0.113 Removing and loading stripping 124.00 0.014 Weighing stone 181.57 0.020 Weighing stripping 19.67 0.002 "eeding crusher 331.61 0.037 Crusher operation (engineer, fireman, oiler and Pitman) 539.74 0.060 rusher repairs 55.54 0.006 Absent with pay 27.58 0.003 Holidays 705.75 0.079 Teaming: Buildings 4.50 0.001 Drilling plant 3.00 0.000 lauling stone to crusher 929.28 0.104 Hauling stripping 111.47 0.012 Hauling product to pile 281.15 0.031 Total labor and teaming $7,907.65 $0.882 Material, Rental, Interest and Depreciation: Cost per ton Ledge Rock : Cost, on output. Blacksmith's coal, 1.32 tons $ 5.54 $0.001 Jattery repairs 4.86 0.001 Dynamite, 75%, 1V 2 in., 1,060 Ibs 214.60 0.024 Dynamite, 75%, 1^4 in., 641 Ibs 129.80 0.015 Dynamite, fiO%, 1V 4 in., 356 Ibs 63.22 0.007 ilack powder, 6 Ibs 0.66 Connecting wire, 50 ft 0.28 Electric fuses. 389 : 8 ft. long, 49 2.13 10 ft. long, 19 0.92 12 ft. long, 257 13.67 0.005 14 ft. long, 64 3.71 226 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Material, Rental, Interest and Depreciation (Cont'd): Cost per t Ledge Rock : Cost, on outpui Cotton fuse, 3,522 ft 10.15 Percussion caps, 1,183 8.88 Stone dust for tamping holes, 3 tons 3.00 Cylinder oil, 20 gals 6.32 Machine oil, 40 gals 0.64 0.0 Waste, 22 Ibs 1.65 Steaming coal, 30 tons 126.11 00 Rental of small tools (at $0.05 per man per day) 1,815 man days (excluding blacksmith and helper) at $0.05 90.75 o.O Rental and repairs of steam drills (including piping, hose, etc.), 153 drill days, at $0.50 76.50 no Buildings 38.51 u.o Crusher : Steaming coal, 30 tons 126.10 OJi Cylinder oil, 14 V 2 gals 5.28 Machine oil, 126 gals 22.17 O.qJ Waste, 51 Ibs .' . . 3.81 Sal soda, 48 Ibs 0.36 Rosin, 1 Ib 0.04 ( : Belt lacing, 300 ft 4.50 Sheet steel (11% ins. by 1& ins.), 14 ft 6.00 u. Crusher plates (two new, over half worn), at $211.80, less 50% 105.90 O.C Rubber belting installed (new), $89.12, less 90% 8.91 O.I! Rental on small tools (at $0.05 per man per day), 250 man days (exclusive engineer, fire- man, oiler and weigher), at $0.05 12.50 0.11 Interest and depreciation on plant, three mos., at $149.25 447.75 O.JO Adjusting scales 4.76 O.jl Total material, rental, etc $1,550.51 $0. Labor and teaming 7,907.65 O.L' *Total charged to output $9,458.16 $]. < Permanent repairs : Repairs to scales 68.44 0. 8 Total cost of test $9,526.60 *Does not include estimated cost of stripping done prior to - ginning of test, amounting to $223.83, and does not include cost- 1 quarrying 200 tons of stone remaining unbroken at end of tt amounting to $50. The report states that large stone contractors in the vicinity Boston sell stone f. o. b. cars at about one-half the above gi cost with city forces. Yet this test was made with the full un< standing that it was to be a crucial test of the city forces. Data on Jaw Crushers. The size of jaw crushers is comnu denoted by the size of opening through which the stone passes to " jaws. A 9 x 15-in. crusher is one having an opening 9 ins. \ I- by 15 ins. long; which is the common size for portable plants, move such a crusher a few miles from one location to anot set up the bins, etc., preparatory to crushing, costs about |E, according to the author's experience. The main part of this - consists in tearing down and rebuilding the bins, mounting i ( rotary screen and adjusting the bucket elevator. There are sev makes of portable bins on wheels now in the market, and > "D" Gates gyratory crusher : Size Weight HP. for Diameter of each of Tons crusher, at top receiving crusher, per hr. to elevator out to out. opening. Ibs. 2 1/2 -in. size. and screen. 3 ft. 6 ins. 5X18 ins. 5,500 4 to 8 8 to 10 3 ft. 10 ins. 6 X 21 ins. 8,000 6 to 12 12 to 15 4 ft. 6 ins. 7 X 22 ins. 14,000 10 to 20 20 to 25 6 ft. 8 ins. 8X27 ins. 21,000 15 to 30 25 to 30 7 ft. 10 ins. 10 X 30 ins, 30,000 25 to 40 30 to 40 8 ft. 7 ins. 11 X 36 ins. 42,000 30 to 60 40 to 60 10 ft. 8 ins. 14 X 45 ins. 63,000 75 to 125 75 to 125 11 ft. 18 X 63 ins. 94,000 125 to 200 100 to 150 ROCK EXCAl'ATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 221 these the cost of moving should be much reduced. A large bin capacity, however, is desirable to "tide over" any irregularities in the hauling and in the operation of the crusher itself. Bins should always be used to save the cost of shoveling the broken stone into wagons. Data on Gyratory Crusher. The gyratory crusher is now largely used on large permanent plants. The following are the sizes of the style Size. No. i 2 3 4 5 6 ?y a 8 The output is given in tons of 2,000 Ibs. per hour of rock crushed to pass a 2^ -in ring. In the section on Concrete will be found the cost of crushing with a No. 7 Gates crusher for a retaining wall on the Chicago Canal. The first cost of the crusher was $12,000. Its output averaged 210 cu. yds. per 10 hr. day. The crusher was capable of a much greater output, for we have already recorded a 200 cu. yd. daily output with a No. 5 Gates (see page ), which is itself not a big record. In large crushing plants the general practice is to have one large gyratory crusher that receives the big chunks of rock, and a smaller gyratory, or a jaw, crusher that re-crushes all that does not pass through a 2 Ms or 3 in. screen. The following data of output were published in Engineering- Contracting, July 21, 1909, and relate to limestone. The Lake Shore Stone Co., Belgium, Wis., have a plant consist- ing of a No. 9 Gates crusher and a No. 6 Austin, and their average output of all sizes of stone up to 2% ins. is 600 cu. yds. per 10 hrs., with a maximum output of 750 cu. yds. The stone is fed to the crusher from a hopper by one man. Stone is delivered to the hop- per by cars, 44 menacing engaged in loading these cars. The stone is a very hard dolomitic limestone. The Elk Cement & Lime Co., Petoskey, Mich., have a plant of one No. 5 Austin and a No. 3 Gates. They break 450 tons per 10 hr. day, the maximum output being 500 cu. yds. Two men feed the crusher. No crushed stone is larger than 2*& ins., hard limestone. Holmes and Kunneke, Columbus, O., run a No. 3 Austin. The output is 80 to 120 cu. yds. per 10 hr. day, no stone being over 2 ins. in size. Two men feed the crusher. The rock is hard lime- stone. A No. 8 Gates gyratory crusher having a hopper 11 ft. in diame- ter, operating at a speed of 140 gyrations per minute, and having a total weight of 45 tons, was installed in 1896 at the quarries of the 228 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Pittsburg Limestone Co., Newcastle, Pa. Mr. Geo. W. Johnson, president of the company, states that in 14 mos. the output was 556,000 long tons of limestone crushed for blast furnaces. The best month's work was 47,472 tons in August, 1896, the average of the 14 mos. being slightly less than 40,000 tons per month. During the 14 mos. only 14 days were lost. The best day's work was 2,250 long tons in 10 hrs. I have been unable to secure a statement as to the size of the broken stone, but stone crushed for a blast furnace is larger than for macadam, ballast or concrete, usually being about 6 ins. diameter. Cost of Breaking Stone by Hand. I have found that in breaking limestone, a good 10 hrs. work for a skilled man is 3 cu. yds. broken to 2 -in. sizes, but 2 cu. yds. are all that an inexperienced man can break. Aitken states that in England a good hand-breaker can produce 3 to 4 cu. yds. of ordinary macadam per day "out of such material as flints, the harder limestones, field stones and river gravel." He says that 2 to 2^ cu. yds. of brittle whinstone, or % to 1% cu. yds. of basalt, granite and the tougher kinds of whinstone, consti- tute a good day's work. In Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 15, 1909, the results are given of a test (in England) with different kinds of hammers used to break quartzite. It was found that chisel hammers produced 28% less fines (under 1% in. size) than round hammers, the percentage of fines with the chisel hammers being only 5 % % of the total of 500 tons broken, as compared with lVz% with round hammers. Diamond Drilling. For determining the nature of bridge founda- tions, the character of proposed canal or railway excavations and for prospecting for mineral deposits, the diamond drill is an in- valuable machine. The bit of a diamond drill consists of a number of diamonds mounted on the end of a hollow tube. This bit is rotat- ed by hand, steam, air or electric power, while at the same time wafer is pumped down the hollow drill rods and passes up outside of the rods, carrying away the rock dust made by the grinding of the diamonds against the rock. The bit cuts an annular channel, leav- ing a core of rock inside the core barrel. When the drill has pene- trated the rock a distance of 6 to 10 ft, the drill rods are raised and the act of raising them breaks off the rock core, which is brought to the surface in the core barrel and kept for examination. The diamonds are preferably black diamonds, known in the trade as "carbons" : but where the rock is soft, white diamonds, known as "bortz," may be used. Sometimes both kinds are used in one bit. A bit usually has 6 to 8 carbons weighing 1 to 1% carats each. Small stones are not economical because after a carbon has been worn down so that it weighs less than about % carat it cannot be reset. In selecting carbons reject those showing a cokey structure, also those having thin, sharp edges. Carbons having straight edges with sides forming an obtuse angle of 95 to 140 are most dur- able. The cleavage should be tested with a pair of hand pincers. Old stones that have been used are to be preferred since a poor ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 229 stone will break in use, and no test is so satisfactory as the test of usage. The carbons selected for a bit should be quite uniform in size. When diamond drilling was first introduced into this country it was predicted that it would be used exclusively for drilling blast holes, and in fact diamond drills were used on the Sutro tunnel for a while, and in sinking one or two shafts by the "long hole" method, which involved drilling holes several hundred feet deep, filling them with sand, then removing the sand for about 8 ft., charging with powder, firing, and so on. The development of machine drills using steel bits and the steady rise in price of carbons have together shown these early predictions to have been fathered by hope rather than by reason. The following cost data on diamond drilling have been abstract- ed from my book on "Rock Excavation" : The sizes of holes and cores are as follows: Hole, diam. in ins ....1% 1% 2 2% 3 9/18 Core, diam. in ins 15/16 1 3/16 1 7/16 2 2% Price of Diamonds. In 1873 the price of carbons per carat was $8 to $12. I am indebted to the Standard Diamond Drill Co., of Chicago, and to the Yawger-Lexow Co., of New York, for the fol- lowing statements as to the average cost of carbons per carat from 1895 to 1903: 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. $36 $50 $60 $55 $50 $45 $50 $18.50 $28 $35.50 $35.50 $36 $51.50 $48.50 $47 It will be noted that these firms do not agree very closely as to prices prior to th year 1900. The American Diamond Rock Drill Co., of New York, quoted $52 per carat for best selected carbons and $16 per carat for best selected borts in November, 1902. There is no import duty on carbons in the United States, Canada or Mexico. Water Required. In boring a 2-in. hole where the progress is abtfut 10 ft. per 10-hr, shift, from 100 to 125 gals, of water are required to wash out the sludge formed in drilling, provided the water is used but once. In cases where the water is expensive it is customary to collect the return water in a settling tank and use it over and over ; and, unless a large amount of water escapes through crevices, 30 or 40 gals, per shift will be consumed by evap- oration and leakage. Price of Diamond Drills. A hand power drill that can be used to bore a 1%-in. hole (giving a 15-16-in. core) up to a depth of 350 ft. ; or a 2%-in. hole (giving a 2-in. core) up to a depth of 250 ft, will cost approximately $850 f. o. b. New York or Chicago. This includes 300 ft. of pipe, 6 carats of carbons, all tools, etc., neces- sary. The machine alone weighs 330 Ibs., and can be divided into packages weighing 40 Ibs. ; but the whole outfit packed for shipment weighs 2,800 Ibs. If it is desired to run this drill by horse power, $60 additional will purchase the horse power equipment. A hand power plant capable of drilling 50 per cent deeper than the above costs about $1,400. 230 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A steam power plant that can be used to bore a 1%-in. hole 800 ft. deep, or a 2%-in. hole (2-in. core) 500 ft. deep, costs about $2,400, including the 8 hp. boiler on wheels ; the drill itself cost- ing $1,100, the boiler $400; 1 set of carbons (9 carats), $450, and the balance for sundries. The drill itself weighs 600 Ibs., but the full outfit packed for shipping weighs 10,000 Ibs. A steam power plant that can be used to bore a 1%-in. hole 1,500 feet, or a 2%-in. hole 1,000 feet, can be purchased for $4,600; of which $2,400 is for the drill, $500 for the 15 hp. boiler on wheels, $600 for 12 carats of carbons and the balance for rods and sun- dries. This outfit weighs 20,000 Ibs. Cost of Diamond Drilling in Virginia. There is a great deal to be found in print relative to the cost of diamond drilling, but un- fortunately the records as published are in such form as to be of far less value than they should be. By this I mean that any record of any kind of drilling to be of great value should give : (1 ) The rate of penetrating a given kind of rock when the drill is actually cutting ; ( 2 ) the speed, power and weight of the machine ; ( 3 ) the time lost in raising the drill to change bits, remove cores, or the like ; ( 4 ) the time required to shift from one hole to the next ; ( 5 ) the average time lost in repairs, breakdowns, etc. ; ( 6 ) the diameter and depth of hole; (7) the time consumed in driving and pulling casing. No record in print contains all these factors. Strangely enough, one of the earliest printed accounts contains more of these factors than any subsequent record. I refer to an admir- able paper by O. J. Heinrich, in Trans. Am. Inst. Min., Eng., 1874, from which I have abstracted the following: The diamond drill crew consisted of three men, two to run the drill and one to help raise the drill rods, beside a foreman. The shift was 12 hrs. long, and the following was tne cost of operating a shift : Foreman, or boring master $2.50 Mechanic, or engineer 2.00 Assistant 1.50 Laborer 1.00 Total labor $7.00 The coal consumed was 10 Ibs. per hp. per hr. For holes up to 1,000 ft. deep an 8-hp. engine was used, the drill rods weighing 4,500 Ibs. ; but up to a 1,500-ft. hole a 12 hp. engine was used, with rods weighing 7.000 Ibs. The drill had a 2-in. bit, on which were mounted never less than 12 carbons, better 16. The drill rods were raised after every l\i ft. of drilling. The drilling was done in Ches- terfield county, Va., prospecting for coal, in 1873. The cost of ope- rating per shift is given as follows: Labor $ 6.50 1/3 ton coal at $3 1.00 Oil 0.50 Diamonds and repairs 1 1-00 Interest and depreciation 1.92 Total per day $20.92 ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 231 The orice of carbons was $10 cer kt. Rates of wages were also much lower then, and it should be noted that the allowance for interest and depreciation is too low for- a plant costing $7,200, as it is stated this 8 hp. plant cost. Depth of hole in earth and rock .......... 419 850 1,142 Depth bored in rock .................... 396 826 1,118 No. of 12-hr, shifts actually boring ...... 13.88 44.41 59.29 No. of 12-hr, shifts raising rods .......... 15.87 59.34 116.46 No. of 12-hr, shifts incidentals .......... 3.25 15.25 68.25 No. of 12-hr, shifts total ................ 33.00 119.00 224.00 Ft. progress per hr. while boring ........ 2.37 1.55 1.57* Ft. progress per hr., average ............ 0.998 0.578 0.308 Cost of labor, per ft .................... $0.36 $0.59 $1.02 Cost of fuel ($3 ton) per ft ............. $0.53 $0.14 $0.17 Cost of all other items, incl. materials and blacksmithing ........................ $1.29 $1.43 $2.05 Interest ............................... $0.16 $0.27 $0.38 Total cost per f t. . . ..................... $1.86 $2.43 $3.62 From the data given by Mr. Heinrich I have prepared the fol- lowing formulas to be used in computing the number of hours re- quired to drill a hole of given depth. Let T = Total number of minutes required to bore the hole. n = total depth of hole in feet. I = length of each coupling rod =10 ft. in this case. t = the number of minutes required to bore 1 ft. of the hole. In the formation given by Heinrich t = 19 mins. per ft. of hole up to a depth of 300 ft., to which add 5 mins. per ft. for each 100 ft. of increased depth. r = time in minutes required to raise and lower the rods includ- ing 2 mins. to uncouple and couple up. r=7 mins. for hole up to 300 ft plus % min. for each additional 100 ft. s = number of lengths of coupling rod. The time consumed in actual boring in feet is obviously nt. The time consumed in raising and lowering the drill rods is the sum of an arithmetical series in which s = the number of terms and r = the common difference; hence the sum is %s (2r+[s 1]) r, which reduces to - . The total time is therefore : 2 (1 + s) T = nt + s -- r 2 n S=: I n (l + n) T = nt-\ 2 I* If 1 = 10 n (10 + n) r 200 n 2 r = nt-\ --- , nearly. 200 232 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. For holes of the following depths we have Ft. Ft. Ft. n = 400 . 800 1,200 t (minutes) = 24 44 64 r (minutes) =71/3 8 2/3 10 T (minutes) = 14,300 63,000 148,800 T (hours) = 240 1,050 2,480 On Heinrich's work about 10% more time than the above was required to cover losses from delays arising from various causes. The point that is strikingly brought out by Heinrich's records is the rapid falling off in the rate of speed of drilling each foot of hole with increased depth. The cause is obvious, however, for the longer the line of drill rods the greater the friction of the rods upon the sides of the drill hole, and consequently the slower their revo- lution with an engine of limited horse power. The increased weight of the rods with increased depth also reduced the rate of speed with which they are hoisted by the engine ; and this is a very important factor in adding to the labor and fuel cost of drilling deep holes. Heinrich's estimates of the time required to drill holes, including all 10% allowances for delays, are as follows: 400-ft. hole 288 hours 800-ft. hole 960 hours 1,200-ft. hole 2,616 hours It will be observed that these times check fairly well with the times obtained by applying the formula that I have given ; but it should be added that the constants in the formula need further veri- fication by other observers. The material penetrated in the 800-ft. hole was : Hard silicious sandstone 210 ft. Medium ,silicious sandstone 262 ft. Argillaceous .sandstone and slate 237 ft. Limestone 18 ft. Total 827 ft. Heinrich's estimates of time, and my own formula based thereon, assume a uniform sandstone throughout in the three holes. Had the rock been uniform throughout, the cost would have been : 400-ft. hole, at $1.26 $ 504 800-ft. hole, at 2.10 1,680 1,200-ft. hole, at 4.00 4,800 Cost of Diamond Drilling in Lehigh Valley. Mr. L. A. Riley is authority for the following work done in 1876: Two machines be- longing to the Lehigh Valley Coal Co. were used. A No. 2 drill with 16 hp. boiler and 1,000 ft. of 2-in. rod cost $3.000. \r>iich with diamonds, etc., came to $5,000 ; the weight being 3,500 Ibs. Carbons cost $9 per carat, and borts cost $11. Five diamonds weighing 18 carats were used per bit, drilling a 2-in. hole and bringing u a 1^-in. core. There were 24 holes, aggregating 9,902 ft, the deepest being 900 ft. The average rate of drill*ng these holes was 19 ft. per day per machine, at an average cost of $2.22 per ft. The rock was a very hard sandstone and conglom- erate. The force on each drill was one foreman, one engineer a*** one fireman. The average cost per ft. of hole was : ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 233 Labor $1.15 Diamonds 66 Supplies and repairs 41 Total $2.22 The cost of the 900-ft. hole (the deepest) was $1.95 per ft., which indicates that with a powerful (16 hp.) engine there is no such great increase in cost per ft. with increased depth as Heinrich found with an 8 hp. engine. The 16-hp. plant used by Riley was capable of drilling a 2,000-ft. hole. Note especially that both Riley and Heinrich paid less than $10 a carat for carbons and that Riley does not say what proportion of carbons to borts were used. Cost of Diamond Drilling on Croton Aqueduct. Mr. J. P. Carson, gives the following: Fourteen holes, total, 2,084 ft. were drilled in the year 1895. Actual days worked : 189 days Moving drill 15 days Idle 18 days Holidays and Sundays 39 days Total 261 days Daily progress. Cost Feet. per ft. 847 ft. hard gneiss 11 to 12 $3.97 814 ft. decomposed gneiss 23.1 to 28 1.15 572 ft. clay, gravel and boulders 6.7 to 9 4.07 351 ft. clay and gravel 25 ..... 2,084ft. Average 10.2 $2.91 Crew, 1 foreman at $125 mo. ; 1 assistant foreman at $70 ; 4 men at $65. Wages, 8.1 mos. $3,785 Team moving 80 66.7 tons coal (189 days) 360 Supplies, Diamond Drill Co 472 Foundry 291 Lumber, rope, etc 53 Interest on $6,000 plant at 12% 8.1 mos 486 Renewing diamonds 250 Diamond bit lost 300 Total, 204 days $6,077 Average per day $29.79 Average per ft $ 2.91 Note that the item of interest is evidently intended to include de- preciation, but, if so, it is altogether too low. Cost of Hand Diamond Drilling in Arizona. Mr. J. B. Lippincott gives the following data on diamond drilling at the Gila River Dam site, Arizona, in 1899. The machinery was in two distinct parts, (1) the ha'nd pile driver for sinking casing pipe to bed rock; (2) the diamond drill. The hammer, made by the Pierce Well Co., 120 Liberty street, New York, is in sections, so that its weight can be varied up to 190 pounds; it is raised by a hand winch, and tripped by nippers; maximum drop 11% ft. A tool-steel head is screwed into the top of the pipe and receives the blow. The pipe is Sy 2 , 2% and 2 in., extra heavy, screw pipe, 5 ft. sections, with extra heavy couplings, which have beveled edges. When the casing has reached bed rock, the sand inside is removed by using a chopping 234 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. bit and a water jet. The bit is screwed to a %-in. pipe through which water is pumped by a hand pump, the water passing out through holes in the bit, thus bringing the sand to the top of the casing. In this manner a casing pipe 130 ft. deep can be cleaned of sand and gravel. If a boulder is struck, after the diamond drill has penetrated it, four or five sticks of dynamite are lowered and dis- charged, shattering the boulder so that the casing can be driven down. The diamond drill was made by the American Diamond Rock Drill Co., New York City. One inch core bits were usually employed. The drill was operated by hand power, six men being employed on this work as well as on driving the casing. The drill will penetrate 200 ft. into rock, and will make 6 to 8 ft. per day in hard rock and 10 to 15 ft. per day in soft rock. The plant complete costs $1,000, including two diamond bits worth $200 each, set with six 1- carat diamonds each. Two machines were used. The pipe cost $600 and freight, $100. Cost of operation per month, foreman $150 6 laborers at $1.50 for 28 days 234 1 cook 45 $ 429 240 rations at 60 cts 144 Total labor for one month $573 Total repairs, pipe and lumber for one party for 10 months. .$ 500 Team, feed, etc 350 Moving 670 Sundry incidentals 430 Supervision 350 Total supplies, etc., for 10 mos $2,300 Total labor, 10 mos 5,730 Total $8,030 Total number of feet sunk 3,254 Cost per ft $ 2.46 52 holes, cost per hole $154.42 Total Depths Penetrated. Earth, ft. Rock, ft. Total, ft. The Buttes 1,621.2 196.0 1,817.2 Queen Creek 357.8 55.6 413.4 Riverside 729.8 40.2 770.0 Dykes 80.0 0.0 80.0 San Carlos 143.2 30.4 173.6 2,932.0 322.2 3,254.2 A month's time of one party was lost due to continual breaking of the casing pipe under the hammer. Note that 90% of the' drill- ing did not involve the use of diamonds but consisted in driving through the earth covering overlying the rock. This is characteris- tic, however, of testing dam sites. Cost of Diamond Drilling in Pennsylvania.* Mr. E. E. White is author of the following: * Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 21, 1909, reprinted from "Engi- neering and Mining Journal." ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 235 The following notes on progress and cost of drilling in the coal measures of Greene county, Pa., were taken from April 20, to July 13, 1908. I was on the ground practically all of the time, represent- ing the company who had optioned the coal, and so had a chance to obtain correct figures on the progress of drilling. The costs are not as accurate, but are essentially correct. The cost of superintendence and carbons is estimated. The super- intendent, C. C. Hoover, of the Birdsboro Steel Foundry & Machine Co., which concern took the contract for drilling, was on the ground only one day. As he was looking after about half a dozen other drills, the estimated cost for superintendence is liberal. The cost for carbons would have been much less but for the fact that 2}4 carats were broken at a depth of 21 ft. in the first hole, probably by a piece of steel in the hole. This bore was abandoned and an- other started 2 ft. away. The drill only worked a day shift, and was run by two men, the drillman, H. N. Wighaman, and a fireman. Bits were set in the company's shop, not in the field. The hours in the progress table refer to the drill, that is, to two men, except in the case of hours setting bits. The drill had a hydraulic feed and a double-core barrel, taking a 2^ -in. core. The outfit, with one good diamond bit, is furnished by the Birdsboro Steel Foundry & Machine Co., of Birdsboro, Pa., for about $3,500. Considerable trouble was experienced with the boiler on the first two holes, which was accountable for a large part of the hours' de- lay on these holes, shown by the progress table. The boiler was of the upright type, set behind the machine on the heavy wagon frame. There were no stay bolts, and the flues frequently had to be rolled every three or four days after the first week, and finally were rolled every day for three days in succession. After stay bolts were put in, the flues were not rolled again on the job. Except for the boiler and a troublesome donkey pump which supplied the water tank, the outfit was excellent. The delay on the last hole was most- ly waiting for water, which had to be pumped a little over a quarter of a mile. The expense of pumping on the last hole is not included, as it was borne by the owners of the coal. The contract read that water should be furnished within 100 ft. of each hole. The cost of moving on and off the ground is not included, as it would be variable, ac- cording to the distance and means of transportation. The distance moved between holes averaged about a mile by road. It was open country with good roads, so that moving was not expensive. The core obtained was practically complete, both of rock and coal. The surface was from 6 to 19 ft. deep, averaging 9 ft. 9 ins. It was clay, with no boulders, and was drilled out with a mud bit. The table showing rates of drilling in different kinds of rock is the average of many observations on the five holes. The rate is. 236 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of course, dependent largely upon the drillman and how much pres> sure he cares to put upon the bit. Both cost and progress tables are from the time the drill reached the ground until ready to leave : BITS USED. Estimated Distance Carbon Drilled. Wear. Mud-bit 48 ft. 7 in. Diamond bit No. 1 (carbons broken by steel?) 2 % carats Diamond bit No. 2 (hole No. 1) 369 ft. 8 in. % carat Diamond bit No. 3 (hole No. 2) 339 ft. in. i/o carat Diamond bit No. 4 (holes Nos. 3, 4).. 500 ft. 1 in. % carat Diamond bit No. 5 (hole No. 5) 562ft. Sin. % carat 1,820ft. in. 4 ^4 carats RATF, OF BORING. Ft. per Hour Kind of Rock. Actual Cutting. Shale 7.05 Fire clay ' 7.10 Limestone 7.20 Sandstone 9.35 Coal 15.15 COST TABLR. Cost. Cost per ft. Drillman $ 307.70 $0.169 Fireman 192.31 0.106 Blank bits 5.00 0.003 Setting bits 10.00 0.005 Carbons (4^4 carats, at $90) 382.50 0.210 Fuel (1,050 bus. coal) 67.17 0.037 Oil and waste 11.00 0.006 Repairs 24.85 0.014 Moving 36.00 0.020 Superintendence 200.00 0.110 Total working cost $1,236.53 $0.680 Depreciation of outfit (20% on $2,000 for 3 mos.*) 100.00 0.055 Total costs exclusive of freight and haul- ing on drill and wages and expenses of drillmen to and from Greene county $1,336.53 $0.735 *The outfit exclusive of the bit is worth about $2,000. Table XI shows the time and progress of drilling. Mr. Hoover, of the Birdsboro Steel Foundry & Machine Co., makes the total cost $1.13 per foot, but I think that figure must be rather high. Four holes put down by the same company in Raleigh coun- ty, West Virginia, are said to have cost $2.90 per foot. Consumption of Diamonds in Diamond Drilling, Tennessee. The cost of carbons and borts consumed in boring 39 underground holes at the Burra Burra and London mines, Ducktown, Tenn., is shown in Table XII. The holes were drilled in 1907 with two Sullivan ma- chines of the "S" type, and all but three holes, aggregating 284 ft., ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING ETC. C o oo co ctf bo o . I I CJ IO CO I OO rH Iffl . o o I o us o I us j2 o o o I o ^ o I evj O <-; 00 o' rH j ,_; _ US Tf< CO t- s o i- s US ^ {H o o os ,2 SI E n * ~ -1 vr ) ! 06 CO a 5 > CC > > (M a- L- r" < ^co 2 id | ; ; ; H ft 92 -t p * ^j ft 3 o> be ^ w be * > >o ^j .S o a o ^ w I to * * b. lowering | ^ b; moving, S s to JH "^ " -2 t S ^ St.* s H, _c "^ (H i a 1^1 | Oil 3 S 1^8 1 w 3 ^ S as - n S o 3 - d ,-j o 2 EH 11 HH f^j HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. O5 rt< IO O ;_, O CO .j oo oo t- ^ o PlQ rH CO 10 K r- P- O O O e ** ^t-* id ^ ^' ^ tA CO 10 -^o * t- <^<-*< r$ T>< IO t- rH OO g c c I ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 239 were horizontal across the formation. The core was 15/16 in. diam- eter and the holes iy a ins. in diameter. The highest cost per foot was $3.66, in a horizontal hole started in the footwall and drilled to a depth of only 8 ft, consuming 1.61/64 k. of $15 borts. Executing this hole, which penetrated very hard blue quartz, the highest cost for a hole drilled with borts was $0.8338 per ft. This hole was drilled in the footwall of the Burra Burra mine to a depth of 52 ft., 37 ft. being in hard silicious vein material and 15 ft. in country rock; 2.57/64 k. of $15 borts were consumed in boring it. The lowest cost per foot was $0.0321, and was obtained from a horizontal hole bored to a depth of 190 ft. in the hanging wall of the Burra Burra mine. This hole penetrated 10 ft. of vein ma- terial at its mouth, and the remainder cut through soft mica schist so thinly foliated that there were but few pieces of core recovered more than % in. thick. The stone consumption was only 39/64 k. of $10 borts. Cost Using Carbons. The highest cost of a hole drilled with car- bons was $1.155 per ft. This hole was drilled in the footwall of the London mine to a depth of 9" ft and penetrated 22 ft. of vein and 70 ft. of country rock. The loss in stones was 1% k. at $85. The lowest cost with carbons was $0.0718 per ft., from a hole in the footwall of the London mine which penetrated 30 ft. of vein and 44 ft. of country rock. The stone consumption for the hole was 1/16 k., at $85. Cost Using Borts. The stone consumption given in the tables does not take into account the loss from scrap borts in the drilling. This loss was: 4.58/64 k. at $15, $73.59; 5.57/64 k. at $10, $58.90; total, 10.51/64 k., $i<$2.49. The above amount distributed to the 2,948 ft. drilled wholly and in part with bo.-ts gives an additional cost of about 4% cts. per ft. for holes drilled with these stones. There was no loss in carbon scrap, this loss occurring usually when the stones have worn too small to be utilized in a bit. Summarizing and leaving out of the calculations those holes where both borts and carbons were used, the costs with borts were for 2,7ol ft. drilled, 687.12, or the cost per foot, $0.247. The addi- tional loss for scrap, which amo* d to $0.045 per ft, brings the cost up to $0.292 per ft. This is considerably less than the carbon cost of $0.5090, given in the table. Adaptability of Each Stone. Borts may be profitably used in drilling soft ground, but in hard material they are useless, as the stones, all of which contain flaws, will shatter when encountering hard rock. It is doubtful if borts could have been used with cheaper results in drilling the 840 ft. that were drilled with carbons. Some of this ground they would not have cut without great waste. Where part carbon and part borts were used, the carbons were sub- stituted for the borts when it was found that the borts would not stand the work. In some formations, where there are strata or zones of varying degrees of hardness, bits set with carbons might alternately be 240 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. used with those set with borts, but the bits could not very well be set in advance owing to the varying gage of the hole. Cost of Diamond Drilling in British Columbia.* Mr. Frederick Keffer is author of the following: Two years ago I contributed to the Institute a paper on the re- sults of diamond drilling as carried on at the mines of the British Columbia Copper Company, Limited during 1905. That paper gave some details as to costs, and the period covered was but S l / 2 months. Since that year drilling has been carried on more or less continuously in the mines of the company, and the results of this work, so far as progress and costs are concerned, are given in detail in the following tables. Table XIII gives the monthly results of work as well as the year- ly totals. It is, of course, important to know the general character of the rock drilled in order to institute comparisons with other localities. In the narrow limits of this table it is not possible to give details as to rocks, but as nearly as possible the rocks com- prise diorites, compact garnetites and certain very hard and silicious eruptives occurring in Summit camp. The medium hard rocks in- clude all ores, and, in Deadwood camp, much of the greenstone coun- try. The soft rocks are the limestones porphyries and serpentines. Of all rocks drilled the garnetites proved much the most severe in diamond consumption, as is illustrated by the work from May to August, 1907, which was mainly conducted in garnetite with some silicious limestones. Eight hours constitute a shift underground, and nine hours on the surface. On Sundays no work is done apart from repairs to ma- chinery. In May, 1906, the labor was contracted as an experiment, but was abandoned as being unsatisfactory. The employes were, normally, a runner and a setter. Extra help was required at times for blasting places for good set ups, for laying pipe lines, moving plant, etc. In August, 1907, two shifts were em- ployed. In June and July of that year the increase in labor costs is mainly on account of the long pipe lines required. The power consumed is taken as being equivalent to that re- quired for a 3}4 -in. machine drill, that is to say, about 20 hp. When drilling at a mine, where for example 15 machines are used on each shift, the diamond drill is charged with 1/31 of the total power costs it being in this instance run on one shift only. Where steam power is used either directly or through a steam driven air compressor, the costs are much increased. Where, as in some cases, an isolated 24-hp. boiler was used, the power costs are still higher, as an engineer has to be provided as well as a team to haul wood. Tools, repairs, etc., include these items as well as all small mis- cellaneous expenses. The increasing cost of diamonds ($80 per * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908 ; abstract of a paper be- fore the Canadian Mining Institute, with additional data furnished by the author. ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 241 I > -^ iCOOSt^-OrHCOt^-CO CO fO -M.^ _?_i""? OOOC- CO C; >; ^ " H ^0 per 10-hr, day. To this must be added the fixed cost of lost team time, above given at 1 to 7 cts. per cu. yd. If the earth roads are level and in good condition, a load of 2 cu. yds. may be hauled. If the haul is over a good macadam road, 3 cu. yds., or 3.7 tons may be hauled, but it often happens that specifications foolishly pro- hibit any hauling over macadam before the rolling has been com- pleted, in which case the contractor must usually begin construc- tion at a point faf from his stone supply and build the road back toward the stone supply, thus hauling over earth the entire distance, and doubling the cost of hauling. In estimating the average length of haul on roadwork, bear in mind that the haul is never constant, and that at times the work will be too great for 5 teams, for example, but not enough to keep 6 teams fully busy. After estimating the cost by the above rules, for the actual average haul, I consider it fair to add about 15% to cover the added cost due to variable haul, and the added cost of team time due to delays at the crusher. For discussion of the general subject of hauling, including trac- tion engine hauling, see the last section of this book. Cost of Spreading Stone By Hand. When the stone is dumped in comparatively small piles on the subgrade, one man will spread 25 cu. yds. of the coarse broken stone in 10 hrs., at a cost of 6 cts. per cu. yd. when wages are $1.50. This is my own record (12 years ago) for several thousand yards of stone delivered in slat-bottom wagons. Subsequently I developed the method of machine spreading, described hereafter, which greatly reduced the cost. The following records confirm my own, all being recorded In re- cent issues (1907 to 1909) of Engineering-Contracting. Mr. Curtis Hill states that each man averaged 28 cu. yds. per day, in Missouri. Mr. A. N. Johnson states that spreading 44,000 cu. yds. cost 8 cts. per cu. yd. He gives the wages on about half the jobs, indicating an average of about $2.00 a day for the whole work, which would mean that 25 cu. yds. were spread per man per day. Mr. W. W. Crosby gives records for negro labor in Maryland, showing an average of 22 cu. yds. per man per day ; wages were $1.00 for 10 hrs. The foregoing show what may be accomplished with energetic workmen, but there are numerous instances where the cost of spread- ing has been three times as high. For example, Mr. John McNeal states that the average cost was 2y 2 cts. per sq. yd. for spreading stone by city day labor on 14,000 sq. yds., in Easton, Pa., the mac- adam being 6 ins. thick after rolling. This is equivalent to 15 cts. per cu. yd. of consolidated macadam, or 24 cts. per cu. yd. of loose stone; and, as wages were $2.00 per 10-hr, day, each man spread only a little more than 8 cu. yds. of loose stone per day. 270 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. However, a high cost of spreading is not of itself evidence ot inefficiency. It frequently happens that engineers foolishly require all stone to be dumped upon platforms alongside the road, whence it is shoveled onto the road. In such cases, a man will not shovel and spread more than about 12 cu. yds. per day. According to the common method of building a macadam road, the coarse stone is dumped in piles upon the subgrade, and spread with shovels and rakes. The screenings, however, are dumped in piles on the earth shoulders, and not on the subgrade. Then they are shoveled onto the coarser stone after it has been spread and well packed by rolling. This shoveling and spreading of the screenings costs much more per cubic yard of screenings than it costs to spread the coarse stone. A man will spread about 10 cu. yds. of screen- ings per 10-hr, day, making the cost 15 cts. per cu. yd. when wages are $1.50. Screenings cannot be spread with a leveler. Cost of Spreading Stone With a Leveler or Grader. Twelve years ago I hit upon the idea of using a grader for spreading broken stone. The "grader," or "leveler," as it has been recently called, was of the type shown in Fig. 1, excepting that the rooters or teeth Fig. 1. Leveler for Spreading Stone. Fig. 2. Leveler for Spreading Stone. were removed, as they are useful only in loosening hard earth on a subgrade that is being leveled. Fig. 2 shows another "leveler." A "leveler" is a light machine having a steel blade about 5 ft. long, mounted in a frame, and capable of being raised or lowered. One team pulls the machine, and a man operates it, thus making the cost of operation $5.00 per 10-hr, day when team and driver are $3.50 and ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 271 operator $1.50. At these wages it costs only 1 ct. per cu. yd. to spread the coarse broken stone, for 50 cu. yds. can readily be spread per hour from small piles dumped on the subgrade. However, the spreading thus done by the "leveler" is not as true to surface as is necessary before rolling, so the layer of stone must be gone over by a man using a potato-hook for a rake. This final haiid leveling adds another 1 ct. per cu. yd., making the total cost 2 cts. per cu. yd. for spreading the coarse stone. The screenings cannot be spread satisfactorily with the machine, but they constitute only a small percentage of the macadam. I have known contractors who have attempted to improve on this method by using a large "road machine," but never 'with as satis- factory results. The four to six horses on a road machine add un- necessarily to the cost for this light work of spreading stone. More- over, a road machine is not turned around so easily and quickly, and the turning around is apt to tear up the subgrade. Due to the speed at which a leveler works, it is unnecessary to have a team constantly hitched to it. I prefer to unhitch a team from the sprinkler wagon at intervals during the day, for a few minutes at a time, and hitch it to the leveler. For the best results at the lowest cost, dump the broken stone on the subgrade in as small piles as possible. Never dump the stone on the earth shoulders at the side of the road. There are now several firms who make these "levelers," among them being: C. N. Carpenter Supply Co., Canton, Ohio; The Baker Mfg. Co., 725 Fisher Bldg., Chicago; The Ohio Road Mchy. Co., Oberlin, Ohio. Cost of Rolling. Based upon my own records of cost of main- taining and operating steam rollers (10-ton), which now extend over a period of 13 years, the following is the cost per day actually worked : Per day. Engineman $3.50 0.35 ton (700 Ibs.) coal at $4 delivered 1.40 Oil, etc f 0.25 800 gals. (3}4 tons) water pumped and hauled 1 mile 1.00 Interest, 6% of $2,500 -=- 100 days 1.50 Current repairs, and renewals, 5% of $2,500-4-100 days 1.25 Depreciation (life 25 yrs. ; sinking fund, 3% compound), 2.75% of $2,5004-100 days 0.70 Total $9.60 It will be noted that I have assumed only 100 days per annum actually worked by a roller. In the northern half of America the road building season is not long enough to permit working much more than this; but it will sometimes happen that work is started early enough to enable at least 120 days to be worked, after de- ducting time lost on account of rains, etc. Further data on depreciation and repairs of rollers will be found in subsequent pages. Having established an approximate cost of $10 per day worked. 272 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. for operating and maintaining a roller, the next step is to determine the fair average yardage of macadam compacted per day. A roller can be counted upon to compact all the stone crushed by a 9x1 6 -in. jaw crusher, where the crusher is working on hard quarry stone and averaging about 65 cu. yds. of loose broken stone and screenings per 10 hr.. day. These 65 cu. yds. of loose stone will make 40 cu. yds. of compacted macadam, or 240 sq. yds. of macadam 6 ins. thick. Hence the cost of rolling is about 15 cts. per cu. yd. of loose stone (including screenings), or 25 cts. per cu. yd. of compacted macadam, or 4^4 cts. per sq. yd. of compacted macadam 6 ins. thick. This cost includes the ordinary steam rolling given to the subgrade before spreading the broken stone. If the subgrade is very compact, or if new macadam is being laid on old macadam, a roller is capable of consolidating 50% more than the above given amount. On the ordinary soil, even after rolling it with a corrugated roller or a steam roller, the broken stone does not come to rest quickly under rolling, but waves under the roller for a long time. If the subgrade has been tamped with a rolling tamper, however, the average soil is so compacted that the broken stone is not driven into it, and the amount of steam rolling of the macadam is very greatly reduced. One of my records shows that in 72 working days of 8 hrs. each, a 10-ton roller compacted 4,000 cu. yds. (24,000 sq. yds.) of 6-in. macadam, the subgrade being a compact gravelly soil. This is equivalent to 55 cu. yds. of compact macadam, or 330 sq. yds., per 8 hr. day, or nearly 7 cu. yds. or 42 sq. yds. per hr. This is a rapid rate, but is still far below the rate that I secured in resurfacing an old macadam that had been thoroughly broken up with picks, namely, 300 sq. yds. per hr., details of which are given on page 288. In rolling 6-in. macadam at Hudson, N. Y., Mr. H. K. Bishop found that 60 cu. yds. of compacted macadam, or 360 sq. yds., was the average 8-hr, day's work of a 10-ton roller, which is equivalent to 45 sq. yds. per hr. Mr. F. G. Cudworth states that in resurfacing an old macadam, 3.9 ins. of loose trap rock and 2.1 ins. of screenings were spread and rolled, the 10-ton roller averaging 472 sq. yds. per 10 hr. day. Mr. W. C. Foster states that, in resurfacing an old macadam, a 12-ton roller averaged 314 sq. yds. of 6-in. macadam per 10 hr. day. The three following records are taken from recent issues of Engineering-Contracting. Mr. Curtis Hill states that in building a new 7-in. macadam road in Missouri, 65 cu. yds. of loose stone (the full output of the crusher) were rolled per day. Mr. John. McNeal states that in building new 6-in. macadam streets at Easton, Pa., a 12-ton roller averaged 200 sq. yds. per day, although on one street the average was 270 sq. yds. per day. The work was done by day labor, which accounts for the low aver- age. Mr. W. W. Crosby states that in building a new 6-in. macadam ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 273 road in Maryland, 300 sq. yds. were rolled per day of 10 hrs., less than 0.2 ton of coal being used by the roller. If macadam is to be of thickness greater than 6 ins. (measured after rolling) , it is usually built in two layers. It is evident that the top layer will require less rolling than the lower layer. Cost of Sprinkling. The amount of water used per cubic yard of macadam is exceedingly variable, depending largely upon the near- ness of the water supply and the whim of the inspector. If the haul for the water is short, it is usually economy to use an abundance of water, for water washes the screenings into the voids of the coarse stone ("puddles"), and reduces the amount of rolling necessary to jar the screenings into the voids. I have used as low as 30 gals, per cu. yd. of compacted 6-in. macadam, which is equivalent to 5 gals, per sq. yd. ; and I have used as high as 120 gals, per cu. yd., or 20 grals per sq. yd. of 6-in. macadam. It is usually safe to esti- mate on not more than 10 gals, per sq. yd. of 6-in. macadam, or 60 gals, per cu. yd. of compacted macadam. The following records are taken from recent issues of Engineering- Contracting. Mr. A. L. Valentine states that in building a 6-in. macadam road near Seattle, 9.3 gals, were used per sq. yd. Mr. W. W. Crosby states that 20 gals, per sq. yd. were used on a 6-in. macadam road in Maryland. Mr. John McNeal states that, in one case, 16.8 gals, were used per sq. yd. of 6-in. macadam, and that, in another case, 16 gals, were used per sq. yd. of 10-in. macadam street. In road building it is usually necessary to pump the water by hand, or with a small gasolene pump, from a creek, river or well. In 10 hrs. one man, with a hand pump, will raise 7,500 gals, of water to a height of 16 ft. into a tank from which it can be drawn off into the sprinkling wagon. Hence by working 3 hrs. a day, a man can furnish 2,400 gals, of water for 240 sq. yds. of 6-in. mac- adam. If wages are 15 cts. per hr., the cost of pumping to a height of 16 ft. is 1-50 ct. per gallon, or 1-5 ct. (one-fifth cent) per sq. yd. of 6-in. pavement where 10 gals, are used per sq. yd., or a trifle more than 1 ct. per cu. yd. of macadam. On ordinary roads, unless there is^a very steep pull from the creek or river bed, a sprinkling wagon holding 450 gals, (or 1.9 tons) of water can readily be hauled by a team. The team time required to load the sprinkler from a tank and discharge its contents on the road is ordinarily about 20 mins., costing 12 cts. for the 450 gals, when team is $3.50 per 10-hr, day. With a traveling speed of 2% miles per hr., the cost of hauling is 28 cts. per tank (450 gals.) per mile of haul from water supply to point of delivery. Hence, to a fixed cost of 12 cts. per tank (for team item loading and discharging the water), add 28 cts. per tank per mile of haul. With a haul of 1 mile the cost is, therefore, 40 cts. per tank of 450 gals., or less than 1-10 ct. (one-tenth cent) per gallon. If 10 gals, are used per sq. yd. of 6-in. macadam, the cost of hauling 274 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. water the first mile is, therefore, 1 ct. per sq. yd., or 6 cts. per cu. yd. of compacted macadam ; and each subsequent mile costs 4 cts. per cu. yd. of macadam. It generally happens, however, that when the haul is a mile, or less, a sprinkling wagon is kept going continuously, regardless of the amount of water used. In that case, if wages of team and driver are $3.50 per 10-hr, day, and interest, depreciation and re- pairs of the sprinkling wagon are $0.50 per day, the daily cost of $4.00 must be 'divided by the amount of macadam compacted by the roller, or 40 cu. yds., making a cost of 10 cts. per cu. yd., or 1.7 cts. per sq. yd. of 6 -in. macadam, regardless of how short the haul is. In California, where the hauls for water are apt to be long, it is not unusual to see tank wagons holding 900 gals, or more, hauled by six horses. See page 322. Summary of Cost of Macadam. Based upon the foregoing rates of wages, etc., the following summary, Table I, is given : TABLE I. COST OF MACADAM. Item. ( 1 1.3 cu. yds. (1.62 tons) coarse stone f. o. h. rft rs at SO. 7 5 Per lu. yd. &0.975 0.225 1.000 0.108 Per sq. yd. (6-in.). $0.163 0.037 0.167 018 Per ton (2,000 Ibs..) $0.488 0.112 0.500 0.054 0.032 0.160 0.039 0.022 0.125 0.050 0.025 0.044 0.656 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 0.3 cu. yds. (0.38 tons) screenings, f. o. b cars at $ 7 5 2 tons (1.6 cu. yds.) freight at $0.50 1.6 cu. yds. loaded into wagons at $0.08. . 1.6 cu. yds. lost team time loading at $0.04 1.6 cu. yds. hauled (1 mile) at $0.20. 1.3 cu. yds. spread by hand at $0.06. 0.3 cu. yds. spread by hand at $0.15. Rolling, $10 -=- 40 cu. yds. macadam. Sprinkling, $4^-40 cu. yds. macadam. Foreman, % of $4.00 -f- 40 cu. yds. ma- cadam 0.064 0.320 0.078 0.045 0.250 0.100 0.050 0.088 0.112 0.011 0.053 0.013 0.008 0.042 0.017 0.008 0.015 0.017 Night watchman ($1.50), water boy ($0.75), and V 2 of timekeeper ( % of $250)- $350 40 cu yds . . General supervision, office expense, in- surance, etc., at 8% of items 4 to 12 inclusive Grand total $3.415 $0.569 $1.707 The cost per cu. yd. relates to a cubic yard of macadam packed in place, and not per cu. yd. of loose stone. The cost per sq. yd. is for macadam 6 ins. thick after rolling, and is, therefore, exactly one-sixth of the cost per cu. yd. The cost per ton is for a ton of 2,000 Ibs. of stone having a speci- fic gravity of 2.7, weighing 4,546 Ibs. per cu. yd. solid (or 2,500 Ibs. per cu. yd. loose broken stone having 45% voids) and assuming that the completed macadam weighs 4,000 Ibs. (2 tons) per cu. yd. of completed macadam, which is equivalent to a macadam having only ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 275 a little more than 10% voids after rolling and binding. Codrington states, in the Encyclopedia Brittanica, that a piece of old macadam contained only 5% voids, as determined by careful weighing. In considering each item, refer to the previous discussion. If the stone is quarried near the road, item 3 (freight) will not exist ; and item 4 (loading wagons) will be reduced to 1 ct. per cu. yd. of macadam; also item 5 (lost team time) will be reduced. If the haul is 2 miles, item 6 will be exactly doubled ; on the other hand, if the hauling can be done over a macadam road, this cost per mile can be cut in two, and it can be still further reduced if a traction engine is used. If the coarse stone is spread with a "leveler," as it always should be, item 7 (spreading) will be exactly one- third as much as given; but item 8 will not be affected. If the subgrade is naturally hard, or has been compacted with a rolling tamper having projected teeth or tampers, item 9 (rolling) may be reduced 30% or more. If the haul of water for sprinkling is less than a mile, or if the sprinkler is not kept constantly busy, item 10 can be materially reduced. Item 11 (foreman) is given on the basis of half the foreman's time being charged to the macadam, the other half being charged to grading ; and the same being true of the timekeeper's time in item 12. Item 13 (general supervision, etc.) is rated at 8% of all costs, except the cost of broken stone delivered on cars, for it is here as- sumed that the stone is purchased. If wages of laborers and teams are greater than $1.50 and $3.50 per 10-hr, day, the above costs should be increased in direct ratio to the increased wage. Estimating the Cost of Macadam, New York State.* For esti- mating a fair bidding price on the macadam used in New York State road construction, Mr. Henry A. Van Alstyne, has prepared the following data: The actual cost of the crushed stone in bins is estimated at 85 cts. per cu. yd., measured loose. The cost of hauling this stone from the bins to the road is estimated at 35 cts. per cu. yd. (loose meas- use) per mile of haul. The cost of spreading, rolling and sprinkling the broken stone is estimated at 30 cts. per cu. yd. of loose measure. It is estimated that it takes 1% cu. yd. of stone to make 1 cu. yd. of stone compacted under the roller ; and that it takes % cu. yd. of screenings to bind this stone. Hence in estimating the cost of a cubic yard of loose broken stone we have : Per cu. yd. Crushed stone in bins $0.85 Hauling, 1% miles at $0.35 0.60 Spreading, rolling, etc 0.3o Total (loose measure) $1.75 * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 1, 1906. 276 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Based upon this method we have the following table of the cost of broken stone or screenings placed in the road : Haul, miles. . 1.85 1.95 2.05 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2 - 70 2.80 2.90 3.00 3.10 Then the cost of a cubic yard of solid macadam is estimated as follows, assuming a haul of 1 % miles : Per cu. yd. macadam. 1.33 cu. yds. broken stone at $1.75 ........... $233 0.5 cu. yds. screenings at $1.75 ............. ... 0.88 Total . S3 21 Add 20% for profit ; o!64 Contract price $3.85 This is practically $3.90, and it is so entered in the following table : Contract Price for Macadam with Screenings Binder. Price per sq. yd. Haul, miles. Price per cu. yd. per inch of thickness. Cts. 1% . $3.90 10.8 2 4.10 11.4 2% 4.30 12.0 2 V 4.50 12.5 2% 4.70 13.1 3 4.90 13.6 11 5.10 5.25 14.1 14.6 3% 5.45 15.1 4 5.65 15.7 4^4 5.85 16.2 4y 2 6.05 16.8 4% 6.25 17.3 5 6.45 17.9 The above is based upon the use of stone screenings for the bind- er, as required for the middle and top course of macadam, which are usually 3 ins. thick (2 ins. middle course and 1 in. top course). But for the bottom course, which is usually 3 ins. thick, the specifi- cations permit the use of sand as a binder instead of screenings. This sand is estimated at $1 per cu. yd., loose measure, including loading, hauling, spreading, profit, etc., or 83 cts. per cu. yd. without ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 277 the 20% profit. Hence, for a haul of 1% miles, we have the fol- lowing for the bottom course: Per cu. yd. macadam. 1.33 cu. yds. broken stone at ?1.75 $2.33 0.5 cu. yds. sand filler at $0.83 . 0.42 Total $2.75 Add 20% profit 0.55 Contract price . . . $3.30 Based upon this method of calculation we have the following as the cost of the bottom course for different lengths of haul : Contract Price for Macadam With Sand Binder. Price per sq. yd. per inch of Haul, Price per thickness. Miles. cu. yd. Cts. 1% $3.35 9.3 2 3.50 9.7 2% 3.65 10.1 2y 2 3.80 10.5 2% 3.95 10.9 3 4.10 11.4 3^4 4.20 11.6 3y 2 4.35 12.0 3% 4.50 j * . ; 12.5 4 4.65 12.9 4^4 4.80 13.3 4V 2 4.95 13.8 4% 5.05 14.0 o 5.20 14.4 The foregoing data are based upon the assumption that loose broken stone costs 85 cts. per cu. yd. in the crusher bins. If the stone is delivered on cars the cost often is higher, and to this cost must also be added 15 cts. per cu. yd. of loose stone for shoveling the stone from the cars into wagons. The rates of wages paid by contractors in New York State road- work are usually $1.50 per 8-hour day for common laborers, and $4 to $4.50 per day for team and driver. Prices Allowed for Extra Work on New York State Roads.* A good many of our readers will be interested in two features of the latest specifications for macadam and gravel roads built by the State of New York. One feature is the method adopted to prevent unbalancing of bids, and the other feature is the specifying of unit prices which the contractor must accept for extra work. The State Engineer's estimate of the quantities of every kind of work specified is given in detail, but the contractor is required to bid a lump sum for the road complete. This, of course, prevents unbalancing of bids. Then, to avoid disputes or law suits in case any or all of the quantities are increased or diminished the follow- ing clause is inserted in the contract : "And in consideration of the acceptance of the foregoing pro- posal we hereby agree to accept the following named unit prices * Engineer ing-Contracting, Aug. 1, 1906. 278 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. (Table II) for any increase or deduction which may be made by the State Engineer for changes made under the provisions of the specifications for said improvement." It should be added that for ordinary conditions the State Engineer estimates a minimum price of macadam with a sand binder (bot- tom course) at $3.25 per cu. yd. ; and for the other courses (mid- dle and top), $3.90 per cu. yd. including binder. Very complete specifications for this road work have been pre- pared by Henry A. Van Alstyne, State Engineer, Albany, N. Y. Engineers engaged in road construction will find much valuable in- formation embodied in these specifications. Macadam Road Prices in Massachusetts.* Some interesting data in the construction of macadam roads in Massachusetts are given in a recent bulletin prepared by Austin B. Fletcher, secretary Massa- chusetts Highway Commission, and issued by the U. S. Office of Pub- lic Roads. According to this the average costs (by contract) to the state of Massachusetts of broken stone in place on state highways constructed in 1906 were as follows: For a road made of imported stone (trap rock), 6 in. deep at center and 4 in. deep at sides, the cost per ton in place was $1.956 ; the cost per square yard in place was $0.6245 and the cost per mile was $5,496. One ton of stone made 3.13 sq. yds. of macadam. For a road made of imported stone (trap rock) 4 ins. deep throughout, the cost per ton in place was $2.025 ; the cost per square yard in place was $0.5393 and the cost per mile was $4,746. One ton of stone made 3.76 sq. yds. of mac- adam. For a road made of local stone 6 ins. deep at center and 4 ins. deep at sides, the cost per- ton in place was $1.396 ; the cost per square yard in place was $0.4201 and the cost per mile was $3.696. One ton of stone made 3.32 sq. yds. of macadam. For a road made of local stone 4 ins. deep throughout, the cost per ton in place was $1.583 ; the cost per square yard in place was $0.3*931 and the cost per mile was $3,459. One ton of broken stone made 4.03 sq. yds. of macadam. The above costs per mile are equated on the basis of a road 15 ft. wide. The average contract prices for the several con- struction items exclusive of macadam were as follows : Excavation per cu. yd. $0.435 Borrow per cu. yd 0.562 Ledge excavation per cu. yd 1.78 Cement concrete masonry, cu. yd 8.85 Shaping road for broken stone per sq. yd 0.028 Vitrified 18-in. clay pipe, in place, per lin. ft 1.57 Vitrified 12-in. clay pipe, in place, per lin. ft 0.766 Vitrified 10-in. clay pipe, in place, per lin. ft 0.643 Vitrified 8-in. clay pipe, in place, per lin. ft 0.570 Iron water pipe, 12 in., in place, per lin. ft 2.20 Iron water pipe, 18 in., in place, per lin. ft 3.75 Stone filling for V drains, in place, per cu. yd.. . 0.827 Guard rail, in place, per lin. ft 0.277 Catch basins, in place (including catch basin frames and grates) , each 35.74 Setting stone bounds 1.85 The pric^ for. cement concrete masonry does not include the ce- * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 16, 19~ ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 2" 9 TABLE II. PRICES FOR ROAD WORK. The following are unit prices for the items named, in place, com- plete : Excavation of earth, or embankment rolled in place, per cu. yd.? 0.40 Excavation of rock, per cu. yd 1.26 Second-class Portland cement concrete, in place complete ( 1 : 2 1/2 : 5 ) , per cu. yd 8.00 Third-class Portland cement concrete, or third-class masonry, in Portland cement mortar, in place complete ( 1 : 3 : 6 ) , per cu. yd 6.00 Third-class masonry laid dry, in place complete (rubble), per cu. yd 3.50 Pointing old masonry, per sq. yd 0.20 Rip-rap, in place complete, per cu. yd 1.50 Telford base, in place complete (6-in. to 8-in. thick), per sq. yd 0.75 Stone paving, in place complete (8-in. thick), per sq. yd.... 0.75 Cobble gutters, in place complete, per sq. yd 0.50 6-in. stone flagging, in place complete (for covering box cul- verts), per sq. ft 0.30 Expanded metal, 6-in. mesh (or 3 16-in.) gauge, in place complete, per sq. ft 0.10 Guard rail, in place complete (posts 7-ft. long, 8 e to e), per lin. ft . . . . . 0.20 Rustic guard rail, in place complete, per lin. ft 0.15 Bridge rail, in place complete, per lin. ft 0.50 1^-in. pipe rail, in place complete (for masonry bridges), per lin. ft 1.00 12-in. cast iron pipe, laid in place complete, per lin. ft 2.50 18-in. cast iron pipe, laid in place complete, per lin. ft 3.50 6-in. vitrified pipe, laid in place complete, per lin. ft 0.30 12-in. vitrified pipe, laid in place confplete, per lin. ft 0.60 18-in. vitrified pipe, laid in place complete, per lin. ft 1.10 24-in. vitrified pipe, laid in place complete, per lin ft 2.00 30-in. vitrified pipe, laid in place complete, per lin. ft 3.75 Relaying old pipe found in road, per lin. ft 0.15 Steel beams, channels and structural shapes, spikes and nails and cast iron, per Ib 0.05 Oak timber and plank, in place complete, per 1,000 ft. B. M. . . 40.00 Hemlock timber and plank, in place complete, per 1,000 ft. B. M ....7. ......I 30.00 Yellow pine timber and plank, in place complete, per 1,000 ft. B. M 40.00 Guide boards, each 6.00 Road signs, each 4.00 Prices for the Following Items to Be Inserted by Bidder. Broken stone macadam of the kind prescribed in these specifi- cations, for bottom course, including filler, and rolled in place complete, per cu. yd Broken stone macadam of the kind prescribed in these specifi- cations, for middle course, including binder, and rolled in place complete, per cu. yd Broken stone macadam of the kind prescribed in these specifi- cations, for top course, including binder, and. rolled in place complete, per cu. yd -~~ %-in. broken stone of the kind prescribed in these specifica- tions, in piles, loose measurement, per cu. yd -- Gravel or shale, rolled in place, per cu. yd '?80 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ment or the steel reinforcement, which may be estimated at about $3 additional. The average wages per 9-hour day for part of 1906 and for an 8-hour day for the remainder of the year were as fol- lows : Ordinary labor $1.75 to $2.00 Crusher and roller engineers 3.00 to 3.50 Foreman 3.00 to 5.00 1-horse wagon and driver 3.00 to 4.00 2-horse wagon and driver 4.50 to 5.50 Contract Prices for Road Work in Massachusetts.* The following averages of contract prices on state road work during 1907 have been taken from the 15th annual report of the Massachusetts High- way Commission. The prices are the averages for 64 contracts: Excavation, all kinds, per cu. yd $0.52 Borrow, per cu. yd 0.64 Ledge rock excavation, per cu. yd 1.95 Concrete masonry, per cu. yd. Shaping, per sq. yd 0.03 Broken stone, local, per ton, in place 1.64 Broken stone, traprock, per ton, in place...... 2.20 Pipe culverts, per lin. ft. : 12-in. vitrified clay, in place : . 0.80 18-in. vitrified clay, in place 1.66 12-in iron, in place 2.34 18-in. iron, in place 3.57 Fencing, per lin. ft 0.30 Ledge excavation covers only such ledge rock as requires blast- ing for its removal, and boulders of % cu. yd. or more in volume. Concrete masonry is composed of 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand and 5 parts broken stone t>r gravel. For the pipe culverts noth- ing but selected fine material, free from large stone, shall be placed under and about the pipe, and all material under and about the pipe shall be tamped in place by a thin tamping bar. Fencing consists of chestnut or cedar posts not less than 6 ins. in diameter spaced 8 ft. apart and set 3 ft. in the ground and 3% ft. above. The top rail is 4 ins. square and the side rail of 2x6-in. spruce. Wages in Massachusetts in 1907, per 8-hour day, were about as follows: Common labor, $1.75 to $2.25; team with driver, $4.50 to $5. Per Cent of Engineering for Road Construction-! During 1905 and 1006 there were built in New Castle County, Delaware, 7.48 miles of macadam road and 2.9 miles of gravel road. The per cent of engi- neering expenses on these roads varied from 2 per cent to 3.7 per cent, the average being 2.2 per cent. In Madison County, Tennessee, 24*4 miles of macadam roads were built at a cost of $115,681.71. The cost of engineering, superintend- ence and surveys was $7,016.35, or about 6 per cent of the total amount expended. In Pennsylvania the average cost of inspection on roads built for the State Highway Department has been 3 per cent of the cost * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 26, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 23, 1908, and Apr. 28, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 281 of the road and, the average of engineering expenses has been 2 per cent, or a total of 5%. In New Jersey, during 1908, a total of 146 miles macadam and gravel roads were built. Engineering and inspection averaged about 5.7%, of which 3.2% was for engineering and 2.5% for supervisor's salary, the supervisor being appointed by each county to oversee and direct the work. Cost of Macadam Roads, New Jersey. The following is a very brief summary of a table of quantities and bidding prices for 47 different macadam, gravel and Telford roads, which was given in Engineering-Contracting, April 28, 1909. There were 146 miles of these New Jersey state roads built In 1908, the following being about the average cost of a macadam road 6 ins. thick (after rolling) and 14 ft. wide: Per mile. 8,210 sq. yds. macadam at 65 cts $5,337 4,100 cu. yds. earth excav. at 34 cts 1,394 Engineering (3.2%) 214 Supervisor's salary ( 2.5 % ) 167 Total $7,112 About as many roads were built 8 ins. thick as 6 ins., at an added cost of about 20 cts. per sq. yd. for the 8-in. roads. Cost of a Limestone Macadam Road, Buffalo, N. Y. The following data apply to a limestone macadam road 6 ins. thick and 12 ft. wide, built by contract near Buffalo, N. Y., in 1898. The earth was a tough clay and ditches nearly 3 ft. deep were dug along both sides of the road. The cost of digging the ditches was nearly half th total cost of grading. The following was the cost of one mile of grading, including ditching and surfacing, in comparatively level country, the amount of excavation being about 4,600 cu. yds. (the graded road was 22 ft. wide between ditches) : Labor at $1.50 per 10-hr, day $ 670 Teams at $3.50 per 10-hr, day 226 Foreman at $2.50 per 10-hr, day 97 Waterboy at $1.00 per 10-hr, day 17 Total per mile $1,010 This is equivalent to about 22 cts. per cu. yd. There were stretches of this road where ditches already existed, and the only grading required was to plow up the old surface, shape the trench to receive the macadam, and make the earth shoulders 5 ft. wide on each side of the macadam. Such stretches of grading cost $320 a mile. The macadam was 6 ins. thick after rolling and 12 ft. wide. It was laid in two courses: (1) a foundation course of 1% to 2^ -in. limestone, 4 ins. thick after rolling; and (2) a top course of % to 1^4 -in. limestone, 2 ins. thick after rolling. Both courses were bound with limestone screenings. As an average of 3% miles of road, it was found that loose stone spread to a depth of 6 ins. was rolled down with a 10-ton roller to an apparent thickness of 4 ins., but without doubt about 1 in. of stone was pushed into the subgrade and lost so far as the final measurement was con- 282 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cerned. It therefore took 1% cu. yds. of loose (1% to 2% -in.) stone (measured in cars or wagons) to make 1 cu. yd. of rolled founda- tion course. For the top course it took a thickness of 2.8 ins. of loose (% to li/i-in.) stone to give the required 2-in. thick- ness after rolling. This indicates also a further pushing of the foundation stone into the clay below, for all measurements of thick- ness were made with a level, and not. by digging holes through the finished macadam. The average of these two courses was 1.46 cu. yds. of loose stone (not including screenings) to make 1 cu. yd. of rolled stone, but it took a trifle over ^ cu. yd. of limestone screenings (from size of dust up to ^-in.) to bind each cubic yard of rolled macadam. We have, therefore : Loose stone 1.46 cu. yds. Screenings 0.34 cu. yd. Total 1.80 cu. yds. This means that it required 1.8 cu. yds. of screenings and loose stone (measured in wagons) to make 1 cu. yd. of rolled macadam. The cost of each cubic yard of macadam was as follows : Stone and screenings, f. o. b., 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.70 $1.26 Freight, 25 cts. ton, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.28 0.50 Unloading cars into wagons, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.11 0.20 Hauling % mile, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.28 0.50 Spreading, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.08 0.14 Sprinkling 0.19 Rolling, including rolling subgrade 0.24 Total per cu. yd. of macadam $3.03 Laborers received $1.50, and teams (with drivers) $3.50 per 10-hr, day. Cost of a Sandstone and Trap Macadam, Rochester, N. Y Near Rochester, N. Y., a macadam road 16 ft. wide and 6 ins. thick was built by contract, on a sandy soil. The bottom 4 ins. of the ma- cadam were of sandstone bound with limestone screenings. The top 2 ins. were of trap rock bound with limestone screenings. The sand- stone was fieldstone obtained mostly from old stone fences near the road. Wages of common laborers were 15 cts. an hour; teams, 35 cts. The cost of sandstone crushed and delivered on the road was as follows per cubic yard measured in the wagons : Cu. yd. Paid farmers for fences $0.10 Loading, hauling % mile, and crushing 0.80 Hauling 1 mile and spreading 0.35 Total $1.25 The limestone screenings, used as a binder, were imported on canal boats, and delivered on the road cost as follows per cubic vard measured in the wagons: Cu. yd. Screenings delivered on boats $1.50 Unloading into wagons with derrick 0.25 Hauling 2 miles 0.30 Spreading on road u - 1! > Total . .".$2.25 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 283 The cost of the trap rock was the same as for the limestone screenings. The cost of the 4-in. sandstone base was as follows: Cu. yd. 1.4 cu. yds. sandstone, at $1.25 $1.75 )cu. yd. limestone screenings, at $2.25 0.75 lling and sprinkling 0.08 Rol Total (measured in place) $2.58 The cost of the 2 -in. trap wearing coat was as follows: 1.4 cu. yds. trap, at $2.25 $3.15 Vs cu. yd. screenings, at $2.25 0.75 Rolling and sprinkling 0.52 Total (measured in place) $4.42 The 10-ton roller pushed much of the stone into the sandy sub- grade, which accounts in part for the fact that it took 1.4 cu. yds. of loose stone to make 1 cu. yd. of rolled macadam. No very accu- rate record was kept of the amount of screenings used, but the amount stated is not far from correct. It will be noted that rolling the 4-in. lower course cost only 8 cts. per cu. yd. as compared with 52 cts. per cu. yd. for the 2 -in. top course. This is due to the fact that the lower course was hastily rolled. Strictly speaking these two courses should not be treated separately in discussing the cost of rolling. The cost of rolling and sprinkling the two courses tvas 24 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of Experimental Macadam Roads, Illinois.* Mr. A. N. John- son gives the following regarding 12 experimental macadam roads (13.76 miles) built in Illinois in 1907 and 1908. The work .was done by day labor. Each road was made 12 ft. wide, and two layers of loose broken stone were laid to an aggregate depth of about 10 ins., which would be equivalent to a little more than 6 ins. of compacted macadam. Limestone, weighing about 2,500 Itas. per cu. yd., was used, costing about $1.25 per cu. yd. on cars at the destination. The cost of 44,000 cu. yds. of loose broken stone was as follows per cubic yard (loose measure) : Per cu. yd. Per Labor. . (loose). cent. Unloading stone from car $0.10 10.1 Hauling stone 0.32 34.0 Spreading stone 0.08 8.5 Rolling and sprinkling 0.11 Total labor on stone $0.61 64.1 Excavation of earth 0.12 12.4 Shaping roadbed 0.08 Trimming shoulders 0.05 5.3 Supt., watchman and incidentals 0.09 9.9 Total labor $0.95 100.0 Stone, f. o. b. cars, say 1-25 Grand total ?2.20 It is not stated whether interest and depreciation of steam roller are included, but apparently not. Average rates of wages are not given for these 44,000 cu. yds., but wages on 8 different jobs in ^Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 18, 1908. 284 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 1908 (involving 25,000 cu. yds. of stone) are given, and average $2.10 per day ; team (with driver) averaged $4-20. The 1%-in. size stone was used for the bottom layer, and the 3-in. stone, bonded with screenings, was used for the top layer, re- versing the usual practice. Irregular shipments of stone and bad weather caused delays that added considerably to the cost. If the above given costs per cu. yd. of stone (loose measure) be multiplied by 0.3, the approximate cost per sq. yd. will be obtained. The shaping of roadbed averaged 2.4 cts. per sq. yd. of ma- cadam, although on one job it cost only 1.8 cts. although the wages were $2.50 a day. The trimming of shoulders cost 1.5 cts. per sq. yd. of macadam. The total cost per mile of macadam road, 12 ft. wide, 10 Ins. thick before compacting (about 5 ins. afterward), was about $5,90U, the haul of stone averaging 1 to 1% miles. Data on Depreciation and Repairs of Steam Road Rollers.* Steam road rollers were first built in England about 1865, and it is to England that we naturally look for the most complete records of the cost of repairs and the life of these machines. The English author, Thomas Aitken, has kept careful records for a. period of more than 20 years, and his data are especially valu- able not only to English but to American road builders. Aitken gives the following table of first cost of English rollers : 15-ton roller, single cylinder $2,300 12-ton roller, single cylinder 2,000 10-ton roller, single cylinder 1,875 Aitken puts the life of a roller at not less than 25 years. He estimates 8,000 tons of stone consolidated by a 15-ton roller each year. Aitken gives the following cost of repairs on a 15-ton roller, which he regards as typical : "Up to the fourteenth year the repairs were comparatively trifling, with the exception of a pair of new driving wheels and re- pairing the fire-box and tubes, etc. These latter, and including sundry repairs, amounted, on an average, to $55 per annum. It was then found necessary to have a new fire-box and general overhaul of all the working parts. This cost $850, and the engine should, it is anticipated, be capable, with ordinary repairs, to run for a period equal to a life of 25 years at least." Aitken puts the total cost of renewals and repairs of a $2,300 roller at $105 a year during a life of 25 years, which is nearly 5 per cent of the first cost each year. To this must be added a percent- age to cover depreciation, that is to provide a sinking fund suffi- cient to buy a new roller at the end of 25 years. If such a sinking fund draws 3 per cent compound interest, it requires that about 2.75 * Engineering-Contracting, April 7, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 285 per cent of the first cost of the roller be set aside annually to amount to the full first cost of the roller in 25 years. This 2.75 per cent depreciation fund allowance if added to the 5 per cent for repairs and renewals, gives a total of nearly 8 per cent per annum. Aitken says that this is equivalent to 83 cts. per working day. Since 8 per cent of $2,300 is $184, if we divide the $184 by $0.83, we find that Aitken apparently figures on 221 working days in the year, which is almost double the number of days commonly worked by a roller in the northern part of the United States. (See Engi- neering-Contracting, May 23, 1906, July 3, 1907 (p. 7), June 10, 1908 (p. 358), for data as to the number of days worked in Massa- chusetts, and the cost of roller repairs.) Aitkin says that his esti- mate relates to a roller used in macadam repair work, "practically in steam all the year, except when under repairs or stopped by frost during winter months." There is a seeming discrepancy in his figures, for he rates a 15- ton roller as capable of compacting at least 64 tons of macadam per day of 9 hours, if not interfered with by traffic. Elsewhere he estimates the "useful effect of one roller at 8,000 tons of macadam per annum," from which it would appear that less than 150 full days would be worked, or that delays due to traffic would cause a serious loss of time. The writer's experience is that 75 tons of macadam can be com- pacted per 10-hour day, and that a contractor can usually count on about 100 to 110 days' actual work, which gives a total of some 8,000 tons (including screenings) compacted each season by a 10-ton roller. Regarding the repairing of the driving wheels, Aitken says: "The renewal of the driving and front wheels, especially the former, is an expensive item, and what was considered at one time impracticable can now be carried out, that is, plating the worn-out rims. This results in considerable saving, and the wear of the metal forming the rims is considerably less than in the original wheels. It should be stated, however, that the wheels for renewal of rims should not be worn too thin, as, in such cases, the renewal is not so satisfactory. The process is to fit steel plates on the old rims and rivet the two together, and, apart from a few of these becom- ing loose, which can be remedied by counter-sunk bolts, the arrange- ment is in every way successful. The gripe or 'bite' of these steel- plated wheels is as good as that of the original cast-iron ones, and the wear is much more uniform." Aitken goes on to state that the wear of these steel-plated rims is 0.02 in. for every 1,000 tons of macadam consolidated, and that the cost of repairing the driving wheels by this method is $200 as against $250 for a complete set of new wheels, and that "experi- ence shows that the life of those renewed with steel plates is nearly doubled." There seems to be enough merit in this method of repairing the driving wheels to warrant the manufacturer's making them with removable steel plate rims in the first place. If the plates were of 280 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. manganese steel the life would probably be three to four times as long as when made of ordinary steel. Aitken states the cast-iron driving wheels of a 15-ton roller lasted 7 years, during which time they consolidated 60,000 tons of macadam. Cost of Road Roller Repairs in Massachusetts During 1908.* The Massachusetts Highway Commission had under its control 18 steam road rollers. The rollers were used 1,126 14 days on town work, in 32 different towns. They were also used 557% days on state high- way repair work, on 65 different roads ; 290 days by towns contract- ing for the building of state roads, including the small town roads ; 162 days by private contractors on state highway contracts, and one roller was used eight days at the State Farm at Bridgewater. The total number of days' work during the year was 2,144 an average of 119 days for each roller. The total cost of such main- tenance for the year was $2,046. Of this amount $1,000 was paid for practically rebuilding one of the rollers which had been in active use since 1896 ; and $1,046 was expended for the ordinary repairs. Including the expense of supervision and inspection of the rollers, the average cost of such ordinary repairs during 1908 was 90.8 cts. per day for each roller in use. A comparison of the above figures with those of the years 1906 and 1907 is given below: 1906. 1907. 1908. Number of rollers 16 16 18 Total days worked 1,719V, 1,808 2,144 Av. days per roller 107y 2 113 119 Av. cost ordinary repairs per roller day. ?0.98& $0.99% $0.90 4/5 In Engineering-Contracting, May 23, 1906, it is stated the Massa- chusetts Highway Commission had 16 rollers during 1905, that they averaged 90.3 days worked per roller, and that the cost of ordinary repairs was $1.12 per roller per day worked. Cost of Scarifying Macadam By Hand. Mr. Thomas Aitken is authority for the following English data: When a macadam surface is to be picked, or scarified, by hand, soak the crust with water to soften it, unless it is the intention to screen the old materials. The depth to which the macadam is loos- ened by picks is usually about 2% ins. One man will loosen at the following rate per day : Sq. yds. Soft macadam 33 Hard macadam 20 Very hard (steam rolled) macadam 12 to 15 Cost of Scarifying With a Machine. A scarifier is a heavy har- row for ripping up old macadam preparatory to resurfacing it. See Fig. 3. A scarifier is pulled by a steam roller, and it usually requires two men to operate the scarifier. According to Thomas Aitken, a scari- fier with 3 teeth, spaced 6 ins. apart, will break up old macadam Engineerino-Contracfina. May 5, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 287 to a depth of 4 ins. at the rate of 3,000 sq. yds. per 10-hr, day, if not interrupted by traffic. He gives one record of 650 cu. yds. per hr., scarified to a depth of 3 ins., using a 15-ton roller to pull it But, allowing for interruptions from traffic that ordinarily occur on a country road, he gives 1,500 to 2,000 sq. yds. per 10-hr, day. He states that each set of teeth will scarify only 150 sq. yds. before requiring sharpening, and that it costs 15 to 30 cts. to sharpen the set of 3 teeth, at which rate it costs 0.1 to 0.2 ct. per sq. yd. for sharpening the teeth. This would give a cost of $3 to $6 per day for sharpening teeth where 3,000 sq. yds. are scarified daily. The following paragraph gives some American data. Cost of Scarifying Macadam, Rhode Island.* In breaking up the crust of an old macadam road preparatory to mixing it with tar or asphaltic oil, a scarifier drawn by a steam roller is cheaper than the use of "picks" in the rear wheels of the roller. Fig. 3. Scarifier. This is well illustrated by the following costs of scarifying which ive been furnished to us by Mr. Arthur H. Blanchard, assistant engineer of the State Board of Public Roads, Providence, R. I. An old macadam road at Tiverton, R. I., was scarified to a depth of 3 or 4 ins. at a cost of 0.7 ct. per sq. yd. The steam roller and scarifier were rented. The price paid for the steam roller, including fuel and wages of engineman, was $10 per day of 10 hours, which is a reasonable price. The price paid for the use of the scarifier was $5 a day, which is reasonable when due allowance is made for the cost of sharpening its teeth. Two laborers, at $2.50 each per * Engineering-Contracting: Oct. 28, .1908. 288 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 10-hour day, operated the scarifier. Therefore the daily cost was as follows: Per day. Roller, including engineman $10.00 Scarifier : 5.00 2 laborers, at $2.50 5.00 Total $20.00 The average 10-hr, day's work was 2,738 sq. yds. scarified, hence the cost per square yard was: Cts., per sq. yd. Roller, including engineman $0.36 Scarifier 0.18 Laborers 0.18 Total $0.72 It may be well to add that the practice of using "picks" in the rear wheels of a steam roller is not to be commended, for the re- sulting shocks to the whole machine, and particularly to the boiler, are injurious. Boiler tubes quickly become loosened and leak badly under this severe service, if the picks are used in the roller for a considerable length of time. Cost of Resurfacing Old Limestone Macadam. The data were taken from my time books and can be relied upon as being well within the probable cost of similar work done by contract under a good foreman. It will be noted that the cost of operating the roller is estimated at $10 per day. This includes interest and de- preciation, as well as fuel and engineman's wages. The road was worn unevenly, but as it still had sufficient metal left, very little new metal was added. The roller used was a 12-ton Buffalo Pitts, provided with steel picks on the rear wheels. It required 80 hours of rolling with the picks in to break up the crust of a surface 19,400 sq. yds. in area, 2,400 sq. yds. being loosened per 10-hr, day. The crust was ex- ceedingly hard and at times the picks rode upon the surface with- out sinking in, so that a lighter roller would probably have been far less efficient. In fact a 10-ton roller had been used a few years previous for the same purpose at more than double the expense per sq. yd., I am told. The picks simply open up cracks in the crust to a depth of about 4 ins. and it is necessary to follow the roller with a gang of laborers using hand picks to complete the loosening process. The labor of loosening and spreading anew the metal was 1,880 man- hours, or a trifle more than 10 sq. yds. per man-hour. About 60% of this time was spent in picking and 40% in respreading with shovels and potato hooks. After the material had been respread, a short section was drenched with a sprinkling cart, water being put on in such abun- dance that when the roller came upon the metal, the screenings which had settled to the bottom in the spreading process were floated up into the interstices. The roller and sprinkling cart were engaged only 63 hours in this process, 3,000 sq. yds. being rolled per 10-hr, day ; an exceptionally fast rate. The rapidity of rolling was ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 289 due to four factors : 1. The great abundance of water used, the water haul being very short. 2. The unyielding foundation (Tel- ford) beneath. 3. The abundance of screenings and fine dust, the road not having been swept for some time. 4. The great weight of the roller, which was run at a high rate of speed. I am not pre- pared to say that longer rolling would not have secured a harder surface, but I doubt very much whether it would. The metal, I should add, was hard limestone. . Summing up we find the cost of resurfacing this road per sq. yd. to have been as follows: Cts., per sq. yd. Picking with roller, at $1 per hour 0.40 Picking by hand labor at 20 cts. per hour 1.20 Respreading by hand labor, at 20 cts. per hour. . . . 0.80 Rolling with roller, at $1 per hour 0.33 Sprinkling with cart, at 40 cts. per hour 0.13 Foreman, 143 hours, at 30 cts., for 19,400 sq. yds.. 0.44 Total 3.30 At this rate a macadam road 16 ft. wide can be resurfaced for little more than $300 a mile. The frequency with which such re- surfacing is necessary will, of course, depend upon several factors, chief of which are the amount of traffic and the quality of road metal. I should say that five years would not be far from the average for a country road built of hard limestone. Unless the road has had an excess of metal used in its construction, new metal should be added at the time of resurfacing to replace that worn out. I am unable to see how any system of continuous repair, with its puttering work here and there, can be as economical as work done in the manner above described. I would not be understood, however, as favoring an entire neglect of the road between repair periods. At times of heavy rains and snows, ditches and culverts need atten- tion and there should be someone whose duty it is to look after such matters. What I do question is the economy of having a man con- tinuously at work putting in patches upon the road. Low as the above costs are, much lower costs are attainable, using a scarifier, as previously described, or using a harrow, as described In the next paragraph. Cost of Repairing Sandstone Macadam, Albion, N. Y Using the method that I am about to describe, Mr. P. J. Stock succeeded in picking, resurfacing and rolling a stretch of sandstone macadam 18 ft. wide by 1,000 ft. long in two 10-hr, days; one day in spiking up the old surface with the picks in the steam roller and one day in rerolling. As the surface was loosened to a depth of about 4 ins., it will be seen that over 200 cu. yds., or 1,800 sq. yds., of macadam were compacted by the 15-ton roller h? 10 hrs. The point to which I wish to call attention is not so much the extraordinary rapidity of the rolling as the very ingenious method devised by Mr. Stock for completing the loosening of the macadam after cracking 'it up with i the roller spikes. For this purpose Mr. Stock built a heavy harrow, 290 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. similar to those used on farms, Fig. 4, showing its detail design. By turning the harrow upside down it rides on the runners shown in the figure, and is thus transported when not in use. A heavy team of horses is used to drag the sharp-pointed harrow over the ma- cadam after it has been loosened as much as possible with the spikes of the steam roller. The spikes in the harrow not only corn- Side Elevcx+ion. Fig. 4. Harrow for Scarifying. plete the breaking-up of the crust as well as could be done by men using picks, but in addition the spikes spread the loosened stone, filling up all low places. The total cost of resurfacing was : Cts., per sq. yd. Roller and engineer at $1 per hour picking 0.5 Roller and engineer at $1 per hour re-rolling 0.5 Sprinkling, with cart, 40 cts. an hour (1 day) 0.2 Harrowing, team and driver 30 cts. an hr. (2 days) 0.3 Total 1.5 At this rate a macadam road 16 ft. wide and a mile long can be resurfaced for less than $140. The cost of resurfacing has, there- ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS., 291 fore, been only $30 per mile per annum, since resurfacing has been necessary only once every 5 yrs. It will be noted that the cost of picking (with roller) and harrow- ing was 0.8 ct. per sq. yd. In addition to the labor item there were some 75 cu. yds. of stone furnished, which it was estimated would bring the road up to its original crown. The stone cost about $60, delivered, and was spread by two men in two days at a cost of $6. By using a "leveler" the item of spreading could have been reduced to $1.50. For new materials we have, therefore, a trifle over $60 per mile per annum, making a total of about $90 per mile per annum for labor and material for resurfacing a Medina sandstone road. Of course, the loss of material by wear was not accurately measured, but it was less rather than more than the amount put on for repairs. At this rate, the annual vertical wear was about 0.2-in. over the whole surface. This was a main traveled street, where farmers' teams enter the village. Cost of Resurfacing Macadam and Data on Compression of Broken Stone. Mr. F. G. Cudworth gives the following data. An old macadam road was resurfaced with trap rock to the depth of 3 ins. after rolling with a 10-ton steam roller. It required 3.9 ins. .of loose trap and 2.1 ins. of screenings to make the 3 ins. of compacted macadam, according to Mr. Cudworth, but there must have been an error in his estimate of the final thickness of the resurfacing (and it is a very easy matter to- err in measuring rolled macadam). Possibly he did not measure the thickness of loose screenings left on the macadam, for 2.1 ins. of screenings is more than sufficient to fill the voids in 3 ins. of compacted stone. The steam roller aver- aged 472 sq. yds. or 40 cu. yds. of macadam per 10 hrs., at a cost of 2% cts. per sq. yd. for rolling and sprinkling. The cost of rolling . and sprinkling was distributed as follows, and it should be noted that it does not include any allowance for rent of roller. On the other hand it is rare that a fireman is employed in addition to the engineman, and it is not always that the full wages of a night watchman are charged to the roller : Engineman $ 3.00 Fireman 1.50 Coal and oil 4.00 Sprinkler 3.00 Watchman 1.50 , Total per day $13.00 The total cost of resurfacing was as follows, not including cost of stone : Cts. per sq. yd. Scraping and sweeping 2.00 Picking up old surface 1.50 Spreading stone 2.00 Rolling and sprinkling 2.77 Total per sq. yd 8.27 As will be seen by comparison with data previously given, this 292 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cost of 8.27 cts. per sq. yd. is inordinately high, and shows both lack of good management and of knowledge of how to do such work economically. Mr. W. C. Foster gives the following data : It was found that 7.38 ins. of loose trap rock on an old macadam pavement were rolled down to a thickness of 6 ins. under a 12-ton roller, a ratio of 1^4 cu. yds. of loose stone to 1 cu. yd. rolled. It was found in another case that 5.67 ins. of loose trap were rolled down to 4 ins., a ratio 1.42 to 1. The stone in both cases was trap, 1% to 2^4-in. size. It was found that 1 cu. yd. of blue limestone screenings, suf- ficient to cover the rolled trap to a depth of 1.7 ins. over 21 sq. yds., was sufficient to bind 21 sq. yds. of 4-in. or 6-in. macadam. The loose stone and the screenings were measured in cars. I do not think that 5.67 ins. of loose trap can possibly be rolled down to 4 ins., furthermore I am sure that it takes more screenings to bind a 6-in. macadam than a 4-in. macadam. Mr. Foster says that in this work a 12-ton roller averaged 314 sq. yds., or 52 cu. yds., of 6-in. macadam per 10-hr, day. Cost of Repairing Macadam in Ireland. In Engineering-Contract- ing, Sept. 2, 1908, there is an excellent article on the methods of scarifying and rolling macadam roads in Ireland, also some costs, by Mr. E. A. Hackett. A brief abstract of the costs is as follows : Common laborers, per day ?0.52 Foremen, per week 6.00 One horse cart and driver, per day 1.25 Engineman on roller, per day 1.25 Flagman and timekeeper, per day 0.87 Coal costs $5.50 per long ton at the railway station, and a 15-ton roller consumes one-third ton per day. Mr. Hackett states that in Tipperary county there are 1,500 miles of macadam roads, of which 300 miles are main roads. The population is 90,000, and the area of the county is 1,000 sq. miles. The traffic is not severe, practically all in one horse carts carrying loads of 1 to 1 % tons on a pair of wheels. From his data it can be" deduced that the cost of repairing a macadam road 16 ft. wide is about $260 per mile per annum, there being 0.12 cu. yd. of broken stone used per sq. yd. of road for each resurfacing every five years, which is equivalent to 1,120 cu. yds. of stone per mile every five years, or 224 cu. yds. per mile per annum. Since the steam roller averaged about 50 cu. yds. of loose stone compacted per day, it is a simple matter to estimate the cost of such repairs under American conditions as to wages. All the stone was quarried and broken by hand, and the following was the cost per cu. yd. loose measure, wages being as above given: Per cu. yd. Surface damage to quarries $0.04 g uarrying and breaking 0.46 auling 0.15 Spreading, watering and sweeping 0.12 Recarting stones, removing scarified materials. ... 0.10 Rolling 0.17 Contingencies and profit 0.10 Total . 11.14 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 293 It is noteworthy that, in spite of the fact that wages were about one-third what they are in America, the unit cost of this work is almost as great as it is in America. Mr. Hackett is strongly in favor of this intermittent system of repairs, instead of the old continuous or "patching system." He is also in favor of a 15-ton roller, and states that it will do 50% more work than a 10-ton roller, due to its wider tires. Cost of Maintaining Macadam Roads, Massachusetts. The an- nual reports of the Massachusetts Highway Commission show that the cost of "ordinary repairs" of macadam roads, whose age ranges from 1 to 15 years, averages about $100 per mile per year, excluding the cost of resurfacing. A small per cent of the macadam roads are now being resurfaced annually, this work being classed as ex- traordinary repairs. From data thus far obtained it is estimated that the maximum cost of all repairs ordinary and extraordinary will not exceed $200 per mile, unless the destruction occasioned by automobiles shall materially increase the cost of maintenance. The standard Massachusetts road is macadamized 15 ft. wide. Cost of Repairing Macadam in Massachusetts. Che repairing on 550 miles of macadam roads averaged less than $100 per mile for the year 1904, although the first of these roads was 10 years old. But this does not include any general resurfacing. In the report for 1902 data on the cost of repairing three heavily traveled roads leading into cities are given. Road. Leicester West Fit Beverly None of these roads had been repaired since the day it was built. The Leicester road leads into Worcester, and is much more heavily traveled than ordinary country roads. During 1905 the commission caused to be repaired 580.7 miles of roads, the average cost being $96.07 per mile. A total of IS 1 /^ miles of road was resurfaced with broken stone; the cost of doing this is shown in the table below. In Table III it is assumed that a cubic yard of stone weighs 1*4 tons, and that the loose broken stone shrinks 33 per cent under the compacting force of the roller. The high rate of wear shown in Auburn and Hadley is due to strengthening the road, when resurfacing, by an increased depth of broken stone ; the high rate of wear in Quincy and Chelsea is due to heavy traffic ; in Sturbridge, to a poor grade of stone used in i the original construction. In the case of Marion and Rochester, the original road was macadamized by those towns in 1896. In Haaiey, $932 was used for side drains and in strengthening the road. Age, yrs. 6 Length. 3,150 Width. 24 Per sq. yd. per year, cts. 5.17 Tons stone per sq. yd. per yr. .03 Cost per ton in place. $1 70 chburg.. 7 2,200 2,150 15 18 5.15 5.20 .023 .03 2.23 1.80 294 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE III. COSTS OF RESURFACING 14 MACADAM ROADS DURING 1905. 5 "S- .Sc o ^ ftft BJ w o * S S-S3 * S H $ 2* ~ K Town or City. ^ W ^H oj g w ft i I I IB S ji Auburn* ........ '95-6-7 10,168 15 .03 5.62 $149 Chicopeef ....... '97-8-9 3,550 15 .02 4.40 2.04 Chelseat ........ '01 3,053 24 .11 18.32 1 60 Beverlyt ......... '95 3,025 18 .01 3.22 2.09 Great Barringtonf '94-6 9,368 15 .01 247 2 24 Hadleyt ......... '94 2,788 15 .04 9.29 l'?8 Marion* .......... '93 782 15 .01 2.98 1.75 North Adamsj... '94-6 9,000 15 .01 2.90 2.09 Pittsfleldt ....... '94-8 6,842 15 .01 2.31 2.14 Sturbridge* ...... '97 3,094 15 .03 4.85 1.50 Quincyf ......... '99 2,606 30 .03 7.09 2.20 Rochester* ...... '03 3,345 15 .02 4.17 1.75 Townsendt ..... '96-7-8 3,700 15 .01 3.31 1.91 Westportt ...... '94 3,015 18 .02 5.19 2.35 Local stone used. tTrap rock used. Cost of Calcium Chloride as a Dust Preventative.* During: the summer of 1907, the U. S. Office of Public Roads undertook a series of tests to determine the value of calcium chloride as a dust pre- ventative. These tests were made on the portion of the macadam driveway in the Agricultural Department Grounds, in Washington, D. C. The roadway on which the test was made is built of trap rock, held in position by a soft limestone binder. The screenings of this binder pulverized rapidly under traffic, forming a light dust which passing vehicles continually raised into the air. It was then car- tied away by the wind. In this way the road was becoming stripped of its binding material. In preparation for the treatment all dust, and dirt were scraped from the surface of the roadway. A solution was prepared by mixing 300 Ibs. of commercial calcium chloride (granular, contain- ing 75 per cent calcium chloride and 25 per cent moisture) with 300 gals, of water in an ordinary street sprinkler, care being taken to agitate the liquid thoroughly before applying it to insure a Uniform solution. It was then applied from one sprinkling head, and the sprinkler passed slowly back and forth over the road to facilitate the complete absorption of the solution. Each application con- sisted of 600 gals, over an area of 1,582 sq. yds., or 0.38 per sq. yd. The first application was made July 13, 1907, followed by a similar Jne July 15, to increase the efficacy of the treatment. The effect of the first two treatments was marked. No auxiliary sprinkling Was necessary for some time, the light rains falling at intervals Engineering-Contracting, July 1, 1903. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 295 supplying all the moisture required. The untreated portions of the driveway lying parallel to 12th and 14th streets, were sprinkled daily and vehicles raised a perceptible dust, although the traffic over these wings was much less heavy than that on the treated portions. During this time the appearance of the roadway varied per- ceptibly in color according to the moisture in the road surface, ranging from a light gray when dry to a peculiar grayish brown when moist. The brown shades were deepest over the portions trav- ersed by the wheels of vehicles. The texture of the road surface was completely changed after the application of the calcium chloride. Before treatment, raveling was excessive in spots and the whole surface "seemed loosely knit together. After the application on July 15 this condition changed and the road surface became smooth, compact and resilient. The third treatment was given Aug. 3, as certain points exposed to the most severe wear were showing signs of raveling. The phe- nomena following this treatment were not unlike those attending the first set of applicatiohs and repeated themselves as later applications were made, though no further treatments were given until the con- dition of the roadway seemed to demand it. Such auxiliary sprink- ling a? was necessary consisted in the application of about 0.2 gal. of water per square yard at a time. The accompanying table shows the cost of applications. The calcium was donated by a manufacturing chemical company of Baltimore, Md., and is charged at the rate of $16 per ton, f. o. b. cars at Baltimore. A freight charge of 13 cts. per hundredweight is added to place the material on the ground. This makes the total cost of the calcium chloride $18.60 per ton. Total. Per sq. yd. 600 Ibs. calcium chloride $5.586 $0.00352 3 men, 1 % hours , 0.675 .00042 1 horse sprinkling wagon, 1% hours 0.525 .00033 Total (1,582 sq. yds.) $6.~786 $0.00427 Total cost of five applications was $33.90, or $0.0235 per square yard. Labor was paid 15 cts. per hour and 35 cts. per hour was paid for the sprinkling wagon. The specific gravity of these solutions ranged from 1.053 to 1.060. Some variation was unavoidable, as the calcium chloride in some of the barrels had absorbed a large amount of moisture from the atmosphere. In such cases the actual percentage of the chemical to 300 Ibs. was less than where little or no moisture had been absorbed. At the time of the last application several hundred pounds of the salt remained unused. This was divided as nearly as possible into two parts, to be applied to the two wings of the driveway lying parallel to 12th and 14th streets. The east wing received a treat- ment of 0.28 gal. per sq. yd. of a solution the specific gravity of which was 1.145 and the west wing a similar application of a solu- tion having a specific gravity of 1.121. No further sprinkling was 296 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. found necessary for the remainder of the season upon \hese branches of the main driveway. Cost of Tarring Macadam, Michigan.* Mr. Charles R. Wright- man gives the following relative to 16,620 sq. yds. of work done in Eouth Haven, Mich. The local gas company furnished the tar. The plant consisted of a roofer's tar kettle which held about 150 gals, of tar; six gal- vanized sprinkling cans, each of which held 14 quarts; the sprinklers- were removed and a flat spout with %-in. opening 6 ins. long, put in place of the sprinklers ; one dozen fiber stable brooms. The kettle was set up about midway in the first block of Center street, which was a new macadam street, 50 ft. wide, from which travel had been excluded, and which had been allowed ten days to dry. Two barrels of tar were placed in the kettle and brought to the boiling point, then it was drawn into the sprinklers, Fig. 5, two of which were carried by each of three men and poured with a Fig. 5. Tar Spreader and Curb Protector. sweeping motion from side to side, each man covering about one- third of the width of the street, thus carrying a straight face of tar up the street. Working on the tarred surface and closely following the sprinklers, was a man with a fiber broom who smoothed out the thick spots and rubbed the tar in wherever dust or depression pre- vented a good contact. Immediately following, came two men, who with scoops, uniformly covered the tar with limestone screenings or "crushed stone sand" to the depth of from % in. to % in., which was then immediately rolled with a 10-ton steam roller (weight not essential), and the street then thrown open to traffic. The results of this work are that the street Is free from stone dust and is dry in an incredibly short time after rains, and I have Engineering-Contracting, May 8, 1907. ROADS, PArEMENTS, WALKS. 297 noticed that snow melts and runs off much faster than it does on brick streets and that a few hours of thaw clears the street so there is nothing to freeze when night and a lower temperature conies on. We now treat the macadam before throwing it open to traffic, as we found on Dyckman avenue, which had been in use about three months, that the mud and dirt interfered seriously and we did not get as good adhesions on this etreet. In this case the surface was first swept clean with steel brooms and all spots of scale or drop- pings, scraped off with a scraper made by straightening the shank of a garden hoe until the blade was in line with the handle. While it was a decided improvement to this street, the results were not as satisfactory as on the new surfaces, and, if possible, I would break up and remetal a street before applying tar. In heating, we found it best to put tar into the kettle with buckets about as fast as it was drawn off into the spreading cans, thus doing away with the necessity of spreaders waiting for "hot stuff." The kettle should be on wheels so that it could be moved without drawing off 'the tar and extinguishing the fires, as was necessary with the kettle which we used. On about 1,000 sq. yds. of the work, torpedo sand was used for surfacing in place of limestone screenings. The results were favor- able but not as satisfactory as when screenings were used, it being found that it was very hard to get the sand dry enough properly to take up the free tar ; but I believe if good, sharp torpedo sand, free from moisture, could be obtained, the results would be satis- factory. The unrefined tar which was used on this work is a very active irritant and will draw a blister in short order. In order to obviate this, men handling 'tar should keep their hands and faces well smeared with fresh lard. On the above work, we used about 15 Ibs. In order to keep from smearing the curb stone with tar, I had made two sheet iron guards, Fig. 5, taking a piece of heavy gal- vanized iron, 16 ins. wide and 8 ft. long, bent in the middle to a right angle and provided with a strap handle on top. This was laid on the curb with one leg of the angle perpendicular and against the face of the curb, the other lying on and projecting over the top. The spreaders moved it along each time a can full of tar was spread. This eliminated the unsightly splotches. Some judgment has to be exercised on the work of spreading tar. Apply more where the surface is open or not "puttied," and less where surface is hard and close. Good intelligent men should be employed as spreaders as much of the economy in tar is dependent on them. Too much screenings is preferable to too little, and, after rolling, the surplus may be swept up and used again. A close watch must be kept on the kettle as unrefined tar is highly inflammable, and, after it starts to boil, will climb over the top of the kettle very quickly. In case of fire, sand should be thrown into the kettle until the fire is smothered. 208 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. The gang was as follows per day of 10 hrs. : Per day. 1 kettleman (acts as foreman) $ 2.25 2 barrel men, at $2.25 4.50 3 men sprinkling tar, at $2.25 6.75 1 man brooming tar, at $1.75 1.75 2 men spreading screenings, at $1.75 3.50 1 team hauling tar and screenings 3.50 Total $22.25 The team hauled tar, wood and screenings and moved kettle from place to place. At times it became necessary to put on an extra team to keep the work supplied with screenings, but ordinarily one team took care of the whole work. This gang averaged about 1,500 sq. yds. (700 gals, tar) per day, and the cost was as follows : Labor: Per sq. yd. Kettleman $0.0015 Barrelmen 0.0030 Men sprinkling tar 0.0045 Man brooming tar 0.0012 Men spreading screenings 0.0023 Team 0.0023 Total labor $0.0148 Materials: 0.466 gals, tar, at 3 cts $0.0140 0.0175 cu. yd. screenings, at 90 cts 0.0158 Total materials $0.0298 Grand total $0.0446 In addition to the above, the city roller was used a total of 15 hrs., and, if we assume $1 per hr. for the roller, the cost of rolling was less than 0.1 ct. per sq. yd., which, added to the above 4.5 cts., gives a total of 4.6 cts. With a portable kettle, a saving of 20 per cent on labor would have been effected, by doing away with the time lost by all hands in moving the kettle. Being so well pleased with tar on macadam, Mayor C. E. Abell authorized an experiment on clay. Accordingly, Chambers street, which is a porous yellow clay street, having a width of 40 ft. be- tween wood curbs, was shaped up with a road grader, making a crown of about 20 ins. and rolled with the 10-ton steam roller. Tar and screenings were applied in the same manner as on the macadam streets, and the results have been surprising. This street, which has been practically impassable every spring and fall, is now perfectly dry and smooth, and a passerby would suppose it was macadamized. In two or three places where light, uncompacted dust was on the surface, the tar and stone covering has been broken, but otherwise it is in perfect condition, shedding the water nicely, and bids fair to be a good hard road for some time. The cost of the tar and stone was practically the same as on macadam, but in doing this work, we have learned that the preparation is the essential point. The yoad should be shaped and carefully smoothed by rolling and wetting until no loose or dry powdered clay remains ; and, just the reverse ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 299 from macadam which must be perfectly dry, the clay should be slightly moist, as the hot tar on dry, powdered clay rolls up into minute balls and does not spread out as it should in a film or sheet. In every Instance, the tar should be as near the boiling point as possible, when applied to the street. Cost of Tarring Macadam, Massachusetts.* The following data relate to some experimental road treatments made last year by the Metropolitan Park Commission on roadways at Revere Beach Parkway, Massachusetts. The experiments were made with a spe- cially prepared coal tar known as Tarvia, and a total length of 3 % miles of roadway was treated with this material, the work being done by day labor under the supervision of the Engineering Depart- ment of the commission. The work was begun Aug. 25, 1906, and was completed Sept. 29, a total of 67,434 sq. yds. of roadway having been treated at a cost of $4,494. The force employed consisted of one foreman and seven laborers. A street sweeper, a sand sprinkler, a double team and one steam roller were used in the work. The Tarvia was delivered in tank wagons, and the cost of hauling same was paid by the commission. The same men were used for the various operations of cleaning the road, spreading the Tarvia and covering with screenings. The detailed costs of the work are given by Mr. John R. Rablin as follows: Materials: Per sq. yd. Tarvia, 0.4 gals .- $0.0262 Stone screenings, 0.015 tons 0.0184 Total materials $0.0446 Labor: Preparing roadway $0.0086 Applying Tarvia 0.0057 Applying screenings 0.0062 Rolling 0.0047 Total $0.0252 Grand total $0.0698 Thus a new smooth surface was formed over the bare stone, which seems to be holding well ; the dust nuisance was abated, and in time of wet weather the roadways were entirely free from mud. Regarding the permanency of the results obtained Mr. Rablin writes us that the work which was done last fall has proved very satis- factory, and the commission is now treating other roads. In a sub- sequent issue if Engineering-Contracting (Dec. 18, 1907), Mr. Rablin states that about half of the above yardage was treated again with Tarvia, due to the fact that it had begun to show signs of wear. In 1907, about 90,000 additional sq. yds. of roadway were treated with Tarvia, the average cost being as follows : Per sq. yd. Tarvia, 0.45 gal $0.0316 Stone screenings, 0.016 tons 0.0219 Labor . ... 0.0196 Total $0.07.,! > Engineering-Contracting, June 12, 1907. 300 HANDBOOK OP COST DAT. I. The organization and wages were as follows: Per day. 1 foreman $ 2.75 1 double team (2 horses and driver) 5.00 1 single team (1 horse and driver) 3.50 7 laborers cleaning road, at $2 14.00 5 laborers spreading tar, at $2 10.00 3 laborers spreading screenings, at $2 6.00 Total $41.25 1 steam roller, assumed at 10.00 Total $51.25 I have assumed the $10 daily rate for the steam roller (includ- ing coal, engineman, etc.), for Mr. Rablin does not state its rate. Since the average cost of labor was 1.96 cts. per sq. yd., we infer that about 2,600 sq. yds. were treated per day, for $51. 25 -=-$0.0196 = 2610. If this inference is correct, we have the following item- ized cost of the labor : Per sq. yd. Foreman $0.0011 Teams, sweeping, sprinkling sand, etc. 0.0033 Laborers cleaning road 0.0053 Laborers spreading tar 0.0038 Laborers spreading screenings 0.0023 Rolling 0.0038 Total $0.0196 It will be noted that the above contains no item for cost of heating the tar nor for hauling it. Cost of Tarring Macadam, Jackson, Tenn.* Mr. Logan Waller Page, Director, Office of Public Roads, gives the following data of work done under Mr. Samuel Lancaster's direction. The macadam streets in the business center of Jackson were built originally of the hard silicious rock known as novaculite. About May, 1905, after fifteen years of wear repair of these -streets became necessary. The old surface was first swept clean with a horse sweeper. This was done because tar will not penetrate a road surface which is covered with dust and loose materials. Next, the surface was loosened by means of spikes placed in the wheels of a 10-ton steam roller, the street reshaped, and new material added where needed. The road was then sprinkled, rolled, bonded and finished to form a hard, compact, even surface, and allowed to dry thoroughly before either tar or oil was applied, for these substances cannot penetrate a moist road surface. The best results are obtained when the work is done in hot, dry weather, and accordingly the tar was first applied in August. Other sections of streets and roads were built of new material; entirely and according to well-known principles of macadam con- struction, but no tar or oil was put on them until after they hau * Engineering-Contracting, July 4, 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 301 been subjected to traffic. Sections of country roads which had been built for periods of from one to two years were also treated with tar and oil. The tar used was a by-product from the manufacture of coke and was practically free from moisture. It was received at the railway station in standard steel tanks of about 8,000 gals, capac- ity. A portable boiler was connected with the steam coils of these tank cars to heat the tar and keep it hot, thus saving time in bringing it to the temperature desired for spreading on the road. It was then taken from the tank cars and poured into a cylindrical tank wagon of 500 gals, capacity by means of a hand-lever pump. This portable tank had a small fire box under one end with a flue running directly beneath the tank to a smokestack at the other end. A fire was kept in the fire-box and the tar brought to a temperature which generally reached 210 P., but when placed on the road it was reduced to a temperature of from 160 to 190 F. The hottest tar produced the best results. A horizontal pipe with an adjustable, longitudinal slot, attached to the rear of the wagon and extending down close to the surface of the road, was first used to spread the tar, but this became clogged and did not give an even flow. It was therefore abandoned, and in place of it a piece of four-ply 1^-in. rubber Jiose was at- tached to the wagon. This hose had a nozzle of 1-in. pipe, slightly flattened at the end to produce a broad stream, and was 'provided with a valve for controlling the flow. The tar was spread with this hose over a radius of about 15 ft. of road surface. Laborers, with street cleaners' brooms of bamboo fiber, followed the tank and swept the surplus tar ahead. They spread it as evenly and quickly as possible, and in a layer only thick enough to cover the surface. One side of the street was finished at a time, and bar- ricades placed to keep off the traffic until the tar had had time to soak into the surface. The time allowed for this process wa.s varied from a few hours to several days. From the results ob- tained it can be stated that, under a hot sun, with the road surface thoroughly compact, clean, and dry, and with the tar heated almost to the boiling point and applied as described above, the road will absorb practically all of it in eight or ten hours. A light coat of clean sand, screenings, or the clean particles swept from the surface of the road, may then be spread as evenly as possible and rolled in with a steam roller. These different top layers were applied to various sections, and in one case the road was left to dry without spreading anything except the hot tar. In another instance sand was applied to the tar within two hours, which resulted in the absorption of the tar by the sand and lessened its penetration of the road surface. It was necessary to remove this sand-tar mixture, which peeled up under traffic. A sufficient amount of tar, however, had penetrated the surface of the road to make it waterproof, and after more than seven months of service this section of street is in good condition. In spreading the coat of material for drying the surface of the 302 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. road and absorbing the surplus tar, only enough should be used to cover it lightly, as, after rolling, this surplus material will be washed or blown away, or it may be removed with street sweepers and the surface left smooth and clean.. After more than seven months, including the winter season of 1905-6, the tarred streets and roads are still in excellent condition. They are hard, smooth and resemble asphalt, except that they show a more gritty surface. The tar forms a part of the surface proper and is in perfect bond with the macadam. Sections cut from the streets show that the tar has penetrated from 1 to 2 inches, and the fine black lines seen in the interstices between the individual stones show that the mechanical bond has been reinforced by the pene- tration of the tar. The tar is a matrix into which the stones of the surface are set, forming a conglomerate or concrete. A second coating applied a year after the first would require much less tar than the first, as the interstices of the rock would then be filled with tar. On five different sections, having a total of 13,235 sq. yds., the average cost of the labor was about as follows : Per sq. yd. Labor, sweeping, at $1.25 per 10-hr, day $0.0014 Filling tank, heating tar, and hauling to the road 0.0012 Labor, applying tar 0.0030 Labor, applying sand or screenings 0.0030 Total labor $0.0086 The total labor was, therefore, less than 1 ct. per sq. yd. Negro labor was used, at $1.25 for 10 hrs., and teams were paid $3 per day. The average quantity of tar was 0.45 gal. per sq. yd. The labor cost of heating, hauling and applying the tar was 0.42 ct. per sq. yd., as above given, or practically 1 ct per gal. of tar, ex- clusive of the labor of sweeping and of applying sand ; but, includ- ing those two items of labor, the labor cost was practically 2 cts. per gal. of tar. Cost of Oiling Macadam, Jackson, Tenn.* Mr. Logan Waller Page gives the following. (For comparative data on tarring ma- cadam at the same place and time, see page 300.) Seven tank cars of oil, given by some Texas and Louisiana com- panies, were used at Jackson. It varied in quality from a light, crude oil to a heavy, viscous residue from the refineries. Over 7 miles of country road and several city streets were treated. At first, some of the lighter crude oils were applied with the same tank wagon that was used for the tar. Hose and broomd were used to spread the oil, and practically the same process was followed as with the tar. The oil soaked into the macadam very quickly and left no coating on top. It caused the light covering of sand which was applied to pack down and gave the road a darK color. ^Engineering-Contracting, July 4, 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 303 It was soon noticed that the preliminary sweeping was unneces- sary, as the roads were practically free from dust, and oil and would penetrate the surface. The removal of detritus was a loss to the road, which had to be replaced by sand to prevent excessive wear on the stone. It was later found that it was much cheaper to use an ordinary street sprinkler than the tank wagon, and in this case spreading the oil with brooms was unnecessary. The crude oil was used cold, and the cost of applying it with the different methods used is given below. On a city street 8,266 sq. yds. were treated at the rate of 0.48 of a gal. of oil per sq. yd. with the use of the tank wagon and hose. The cost of labor per square yard was as follows : Per sq. yd. Sweeping street $0.0011 Filling tank and hauling 0.0008 Oiling street 0.0024 Spreading sand 0.0014 Total $0.0057 On a country road 2,000 gals, were spread, covering 5,206 sq. yds., at a rate of 0.38 of a gal. per sq. yd. The average haul was 1 mile. Only the manure was removed before oiling. The cost of labor averaged $0.0033 per sq. yd. It took 9 men 30 mins. to spread 500 gals., or one tank load, and the 18-ft. road was covered at the rate of 1,860 ft. per hour. It took 28 mins. to fill the tank with oil. With an ordinary street sprinkler, one man and team spread one load of 600 gals, of oil in 15 mins. The sprinkler thus spread 600 gals, in one-half the time that it took 9 men, with the tank wagon, to spread 500 gals. The heavy residual oils were so thick when cold that they would not run through a 2-in. fire hose attached to the rear of the tank wagon, and it was necessary to pump the oil upon the road. The pump with which the tank was charged was used for this operation. Only one tank wagon (500 gals.) of the heavy oil was applied cold. It formed a thick, sticky mass on the top of the road that rolled about under pressure and seemed to have an unlimited capacity for absorbing the sand which was spread upon it. The street had to be cleared of the greater part of this mass of oil and sand within a short time. After this experience the oil was heated In the tank car by steam, and better results followed. It still ran slowly through the hose and nozzle, and it was found cheaper to take off the hose and allow the oil to flow from the outlet of the tank wagon directly upon the road, where the men swept it over the surface with brooms. An air pump was tried, to increase the flow of the tank wagon by pressure, but the tank was not tight enough to prevent the escape of air, and this experiment was unsuccessful. Twenty-four hours after the application of the residual oil it was covered with sand or limestone screenings, and in four days it was 304 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. firm enough to bear traffic without showing any wheel tracks. It shed the water well in a violent rain storm. The following was the labor cost per square yard of putting residual oil on city streets with the use of the tank wagon. Ap- proximately 0.71 gal. of oil was used per square yard: Per sq. yd. Sweeping street $0.0010 Heating, loading and hauling 0.0017 Oiling street 0.0029 Spreading sand 0.0022 Total $0.0078 Excellent results can be secured by the use of this heavy residual oil if it can be applied to the surface of the road at a tempera- ture approaching the boiling point. The medium grade of oil, which was tried next, is classed by the refiners as "steamer oil." It was heavy enough to leave a slight coating on the surface, which made a very compact covering with the dust of the road. Only the heavy matter was removed from the surface of the road before applying the oil. It was heated by steam in the car, but was not hot when it reached the road. It was not safe to build a fire in the tank wagon, and the best road surface was obtained where the oil was at the highest temperature. Some method of heating the oil safely on the road would greatly improve the result. This could be accomplished with a steam trac- tion engine having steam coils connected with the tank, the engine hauling and heating the tank while spreading the oil. Most of this oil was applied with the street sprinkler, and it sprayed readily when hot. In applying the greater part of the oil on the country roads the following men and equipment were used : Per day. 1 foreman $ 2.00 6 laborers, at $1.25 7.50 1 tank wagon 3.00 1 street sprinkler 3.00 2 firemen, at $1.50 3.00 1 ton coal 4.00 Total $22.50 This force spread 3 tank wagons and 3 sprinkler tank loads, or 3,300 gals, per day, making the cost 0.7 ct. per gal. The 6 laborers (negroes) pumped the oil at the car and worked on the road, It will be noted that it required about 0.6 Ib. coal to heat 1 gal. of oil. No sweeping was done on the country roads except to remove manure and to spread the oil where it was inclined to puddle. No sand or other material was applied to the road after oiling. More than seven months have now elapsed since the work was done. The light crude oil has produced little if any permanent re- sults. The roads where it was applied are but slightly changed, and some dust arises on them from traffic. The only apparent re- sult is a slightly darker color on the "shoulders" of the road, and ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 305 but little difference can be noticed between this and other sections of the road which were not treated. This oil was too volatile for the purpose, and where it has to be shipped for any distance does not justify the expense of using it. The medium "steamer oil" from Texas has given good results. There is a thin surface coat of dust packed down that protects the stone from the grind and pounding of traffic. This effect is very noticeable in driving over it. The harsh grinding noise of the wheels, which is pronounced on the novaculite surface, disappears at once, and there is decided relief in driving upon it. It is prac- tically noiseless. This coating is perhaps one-eighth of an inch thick, and is not a concrete, but compacted dust, which is made to cohere by the oil with which it is saturated. This road does not wash or "pick up," and the wear on the rock is much decreased. Cost of Oiled Earth Street, Arkansas.* Mr. Frank H. Wright gives the following: The street in question (Helena, Ark.) was about 700 ft. long and was oiled for a width of 40 ft. The soil was a soluble yellow clay, and in heavy rainstorms there had always been much washing of the gutters and in the wagon tracks on the crown. Preparatory to oiling, the street was thoroughly plowed twice for a width of 40 ft, the amount used for traffic, a small-pointed Avery plow with a steel beam being used. After plowing, a disc harrow was thoroughly applied, after which a toothed harrow was used until the street was like ashes. One team with a driver- was used in this preliminary work, but a shaker was used with the plow. The plowing and harrowing consumed about two days. The oil was brought to the street by a team carrying three 5 2 -gal. barrels. To get the oil from the tank car a small lever pump was bolted to the floor timber of the car at the side of the tank, and a connection made to the inside of the tank by a siphon made of 2-in. wrought iron pipe and fittings. The driver with one man to pump was able to leave the street, go to the car and fill the three barrels and return exactly in 30 mins. In applying the oil, a strip about 15 ft. wide was taken on each side of the street, the street not being closed to traffic, and three men, each equipped with a 2-gal. sprinkling can, with the spra^ removed, poured the oil on the pulverized surface. Each man worked hi his own section, about 20 ft. long, the driver filling the sprinkler? by pumping from the barrels with a tin oil pump. A load of coarse sand was dropped about every 50 ft. on the oiled strip, and, during the absence of the wagon in refilling the bar- rels, this sand was spread by the men in the same manner that sand Is applied over a newly grouted brick pavement. After one side had been oiled and sanded, a strip on the other side was treated in a like manner, and the center strip was again plowed and harrowed, having become compacted by traffic. After the center strip had been treated the whole strip was gone over * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 21, 1906. 306 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. with a toothed harrow, and was then oiled and sanded a second time, but was not harrowed again. The work was done in the first week of July and until recently there had been comparatively little dust and no mud, nor had there been any more washing where formerly it was excessive after a hard rain. There have been several hard rains this summer, one coming soon after the street was treated. In applying the oil it took the three men exactly one hour to dispose of the three 52-gal. barrels of oil over a surface of 15 ft. x 100 ft., or 1,500 sq. ft. One man scattered with a shovel one wagon- load of sand (about 24 cu. ft.) over an area of 50 ft. x 60 ft., or 3,000 sq. ft, in 15 mins. The_ gang was as follows : Per day. 1 foreman, at $1.50 $ 1.50 2 teams, at $3.00 6.00 3 labqrers, at $1.25 3.75 Total ?11.25 It took this gang 3*4 days to oil 3,110 sq. yds., the cost being as follows : Per sq. yd. Laborers, at $1.25 per day $0.0054 Teams, at $3.00 per day 0.0068 Foreman, at $1.50 per day O.Q017 Total labor $0.0130 0.8 gals, oil, at 3 cts 0.0241 0.011 loads (24 cu. ft.) sand at 75 cts 0.0084 Grand total $0.0463 Since a team and driver and one man to pump the oil could pump and deliver 6 bbls., or 312 gals, per hr., this item of cost was 0.14 ct. per gal. Since it took 3 men 2 hrs. to spread the 6 bbls., or 312 gals., the cost of spreading the oil was 0.24 ct. per gal., making a total of 0.38 ct. per gal., even with this crude way of spreading the oil with 2-gal. sprinkling cans. Cost of Oiling Macadam, New York State.* Mr. Arnold G. Chap- man gives the following description of oiling certain New York state roads in 1906. An ordinary 600-gal. steel tank on wheels was equipped with an "oil distributor" or sprinkler of the kind that has been devel- oped in California for distributing heavy oils. The characteristic features of this type of sprinkler are that the oil is distributed directly downward upon the road surface and that the width of the application may be regulated from 18 ins. to 6 ft., as can also the amount of oil applied, by the manipulation of levers by the op- erator, who sits in the rear of the tank. From his position the operator can adapt the flow of oil both as to quantity and width, as the condition of the road may demand. To unload the oil from the 6,000-gal. U. T. L. cars, in which it * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 307 was received, a diaphragm pump was used, fastened to the dome of the car. By means of an iron chute the oil was conveyed from the pump to the sprinkler tank. This method was rather cumber- some and unhandy and entailed the loss of too much time in setting up the pump and in unloading the oil, but it was the best and cheapest available at that time. However, it can be greatly im- proved upon when the oiling is undertaken on more than an ex- perimental basis. The oil used was that known as the Raglan oil, obtained through the Standard Oil Co., from their wells at Salt Lick, Ky., at a cost of 4.78 cts. per gal., f. o. b. at the various places where used. This is a crude oil, being black and heavy, due to the presence of asphalt, of which the producers claim a 30% to 35% base. When cold, the flow of oil is slow and sluggish, but when warm it flows with a reasonable degree of rapidity. On the several sections of road treated the methods of applica- tion varied, some being sanded, others swept, and some treated, as left by the traffic. While the oil was being applied, traffic was not suspended, but the people chose the sides of the road not oiled, for a few days until the oil had been taken up by the surface and did not have a tendency to adhere to the vehicle tires and to be thrown upon the garments of the people riding or on vehicles. From ob- servation during the experiments it was noted that the best results were obtained when the surface of the road was warm and dry and the day was also clear and warm. About 18,700 gals, were applied to 8 different macadam and gravel roads, having an aggregate of 13% miles, having an aggre- gate width of 10 ft., making an average of about 1,400 gals, per mile, or nearly 0.24 gals, per sq. yd. The average haul was 1% miles. Ordinarily the gang was one team (with driver) and one laborer to pump oil and to operate the levers of the oil distributor when sprinkling. The average labor cost per gallon was as follows, team receiving $4 per 8-hr, day, and laborer, $1.75 : Per gal. 0.006 hr. team, at $0.50 $0.0030 0.007 hr. laborer, at $0.22 0.0015 Total $0.0045 To this cost of approximately % ct. per gal. should be added the cost of supervision, and of plant charges. The average cost per sq. yd. was as follows (excluding super- vision) : Per sq. yd. 0.24 gal. oil, at 4.78 cts $0.0115 Labor, 0.24 gals, spread, at 0.45 ct 0.0011 Total $0.0126 At 1% cts. per sq. yd., a mile of road 10 ft. wide was oiled for $75, "not including supervision nor plant charges. One stretch of gravel road 2.1 miles long and 8 ft. wide was oiled 308 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. with 3,400 gals, in 2 days at the following cost, although the oil was hauled an average of 2 ^ miles : 0.0048 hrs. team, at $0.50 .................... $0.0024 0.0048 hrs. pumpman, at $0.22 ................ 0.0010 Total ....................... / .......... $0.0034 The cost per sq. yd. was : Per sq. yd. 26 gal. oil, at 4.78 cts ....................... $0.0124 Labor, 0.26 gal. spread, at 0.34 ct ............ 0.0009 Total .................................. $0.0133 The item of supervision (including traveling expense) is given in none of the above summaries of cost, for it was exceedingly high (about 0.6 ct. per gal., or twice what the actual spreading cost), due to the fact that a state engineer accompanied the gang and traveled from road to road at an expense that would not ordi- narily be called for except in cases of experimental work like this. Cost of Oiling Macadam, Kansas City, Mo.* Mr. W. H. Dunn gives the following relative to oiling 375,400 sq. yds. of park roads (macadam) in 1907. During the year most of the roads were given two treatments of residuum oil from the Kansas field. The price of the oil was 77 cts. per bbl. of 42 gals., or 1.84 cts. per gal. The first treatment with oil, during May, June and July, cost as follows : Per sq. yd. 0.32 gal. oil, at 1.S4 cts ....................... $0.0059 Labor and screenings ........................ 0.0089 Total .................................. $0.0148 This is a trifle less than l l / 2 cts. per sq. yd. The second oiling was done in August, September and November, covering 260,000 sq. yds. in addition to the 375,400 that had been oiled in the early summer, and the cost was as follows : Per sq. yd. 0.25 gal. oil, at 1.74 cts ...................... $0.0044 Supplies, repairs and screenings .............. 0.0008 Labor ................. . ................... 0.0030 Total $0.0082 The limestone screenings formed a considerable part of the cost of the first oiling, but a very small part of the cost of the second oiling. It will be noted that the two oilings cost about 2% cts. per q. yd. for keeping down the dust during the year. No sprinkling TitJi water was necessary after a road had once been oiled. Dur- ing the previous year, the cost of sprinkling 585,000 sq. yds. (in- cluding asphalt and creosoted blocks) with water had been 2.4 cts. per sq. yd. The methods of unloading the oil, preparing roadway, spreading, were as follows : Two steel receiving tanks, of 8,000 gals, capacity, were erected a'. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 22, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 309 a total cost of $741.99, connected with a 4-in. pipe-line from re- ceiving tank to the side track, permitting of unloading tank cars by gravity, the receiving tanks being also established at such an ele- vation as to permit loading the sprinkling carts by gravity from the receiving tanks. Two portable boilers were purchased at $67.50 each, for the purpose of heating the oil in tanks and in sprinkling carts. When the macadam was absolutely dry and hard, the entire surface of the roadway was swept clean of dirt and screenings. The sweepings were left along the edge of the gutter for protection to the cement work, then the oil was applied from the sprinkling- 'carts. To the regular sprinkling-carts was attached a tin trough, perforated with ^-in. holes, to obtain an even distribution of the oil. The entire surface of the roadway was then flooded with oil and thoroughly broomed in, after which the sweepings from the gutter, with sufficient limestone screenings to form a slight dressing, were cast over the oil and thoroughly rolled with a steam roller. The organization of the gang used in applying the oil was simply teams for ordinary city sprinkling wagons, usually from three to four teams, depending on the length of haul from the distributing plant, and from eight to ten ordinary laborers about equally divided between sweeping the screenings to the gutters ahead of the oiling and spreading the oil with brooms and casting the sweepings back over the oil after it was spread. Cost of Tar Macadam, Massachusetts.* Mr. Arthur H. Blanch- ard gives data upon which the following is based, relative to experi- mental work done by the Massachusetts Highway Commission in 1908. Three methods of construction were used, which may be termed (1) the mixing method, (2) the grouting or penetration method, and (3) the Gladwell system. By the Mixing Method. With the exception of the addition of tar, the method of construction used was similar to that employed in the building of an ordinary macadam road. After the subgrade had been thoroughly rolled, the No. 1 broken stone (varying in size from 1*4 to 2y 2 ins. in their longest dimen- sions) was spread to a depth of 6 ins. and rolled to 4 ins. [Note. While the statement is made that a 6-in. layer was rolled to 4 ins., no such compression as this is possible.] Tar, which had been heated in an ordinary tar kettle to the boiling point, was then sprinkled on the rolled surface by means of dippers. The No. 2 stone (varying in size from % to 1% ins. in their longest dimensions) was next deposited on dumping boards and thoroughly mixed with hot tar with the aid of rakes and shovels. This mixture was applied on the No. 1 course to a depth of 3 ins. and rolled to 2 ins. A thin coat of dust, which would pass through %-in. mesh was then spread on the surface and then rolled into the No. 2 course 'Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. 310 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to fill up the voids and to provide a smooth surface. The work was carried on only when the broken stone was dry. The stone was granite and hornblende schist. The work was done in May. Tar from the Providence Gas Works, and having a specific grav- ity of 1.25, was used, and its cost delivered on the road was: Per bbl. 52 gals, tar $2.75 Freight, 26 miles 0.62 Haul, averaging 2,000 ft 013 Barrel 0.75 Total $4.25 Deducting rebate of $0.75 per bbl. and adding return freight of $0.19, net deduction .0.55 52 gals., at 7.4 cts $3.70 About the same number of square yards of 6-in. tar-macadam road was built per 10 hr. day as is built of ordinary macadam, namely, 233 sq. yds., using a 10-ton steam roller and the ordinary macadam gang with the following extra men : Per day. 2 tar men, at $1.75 $3.50 3 laborers mixing and placing, at $1.50 4.50 Total extra labor, 233 sq. yds., at 3.5 cts $8.00 Therefore, the added cost of this 6-in. tar macadam over ordi- nary 6-in. macadam was as follows : Per sq. yd. Extra labor (as above given) $0.035 Fuel for melting tar and interest and depreci- ation of tools 0.005 !% gals, tar, at 7.4 cts., delivered 0.093 Total $0.133 Deduct saving of water cart for sprinkling ($4 per day) 0.013 Net increased cost due to use of tar $0.120 On another stretch of road built the previous year, 1.15 gals, of tar were used per sq. yd., but the cost per gallon was greater due to the fact that the barrels were not returned. The tar in that case was hauled 6% miles at a cost of 50 cts. per bbl. of tar for hauling. The difference in cost of the tar-macadam without the tar on the No. 1 course and with that tar (about 1/5 gal. per square yard) spread on the No. 1 course, was not appreciable. It is believed that the painting of the No. 1 course with tar is not necessary. In common with all methods of construction, with the single excep- tion of the Gladwell system, it is necessary, in order to secure a maximum penetration of the broken stone by the tar, and adequate incorporation of the tar in the macadam, to allow the No. 2 course to remain without rolling and sanding for from 1 to 3 days, depend- ing on the climatic conditions. It was found to be inadvisable to roll the tarred surface during the warm part of the day, as there was a tendency for the No. 2 course to shift if the tar was soft. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 311 Tarvia-macadam constructed by the mixing method appeared to be a fac-simile of the tar-macadam made with tar distilled for 3 hours on the road. It is believed that it is primarily a question of economics whether it is preferable to take gas-house coal-tar direct from the work and distill it on the road, or purchase distilled coal- tar, in the form of Tarvia, for example. It should be borne in mind, also, that tar distilled at permanent works will give a more uniform product. By the Grouting Method. The macadam was constructed by spreading 6 ins. of clean, dry No. 1 rock on the rolled subgrade and rolling the same to 4 ins. On the No. 1 course was then spread 2% to 3 ins. of clean, dry No. 2 rock, which was lightly rolled. The tar, which had been heated in the regular tar kettles, was next poured on the surface of the No. 2 course and allowed to pene- trate. The depth of penetration varied from 1 to 2% Ins., de- pending on the size of the stone comprising the upper course and the amount of rolling the surface had received. Trap rock chip screenings were then spread to a depth of % to % in. and thor- oughly rolled. In the construction of the tar-macadam by the grouting or pene- tration method, the tar was spread over the surface by dippers. This method was very unsatisfactory, an unequal application being the result. In order to procure an efficient road, more tar was applied in patching, the original application of 1.25 gallons being thus increased to 1.87 gallons. If this method is to be used, pour- ing pots with fan-shaped spouts, or a fan-nozzle connected with a hose from a tank-wagon, should be used, or preferably a spreading machine similar to the Laissailly or Aitken. Even with a machine of the most approved type, and with the stone heated either be- fore or after deposition, it is doubtful if the tar-macadam surface thus constructed would be as uniformly bound together as when laid by the mixing method. The average rate of progress tarring this section was 389 sq. yds. per day, with two tar men ami one common laborer. The cost was as follows : Per sq. yd. 1.87 gals, tar delivered, at 7.4 cts $0.138 Labor (2 tar men and 1 laborer) 0.013 Fuel and plant interest, etc 0.005 Total $0.156 Deduct saving water sprinkling 0.013 Total extra cost $0.143 This 14.3 cts. per sq. yd. is to be added to the cost of ordinary 6- in. macadam. The grouting method is particularly applicable to the resurfac- ing of old macadam, which can first be loosened to a depth of 3 or 4 ins., with a scarifier (at a cost of 0.7 ct. per sq. yd.) and then grouted with about 1% gals, per sq. yd. and rolled. By the Gladwell System. In the construction of tar-macadam by the Gladwell system, the bituminous mastic, consisting of tar and stone chips varying in size from . % to % in. in their longest 312 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. dimensions, was mixed in a regular mortar box. This mixture was spread to a depth of % in. on the No. 1 course of stone, and the No. 2 course of broken stone was then laid upon it. A coating of tar was spread on the surface, and, after screenings had been applied, the section was thoroughly rolled with a steam roller. The upward penetration of the tar was not measurable, and the sur- face coat did not penetrate more than 1% in. In order to procure satisfactory results, it will be necessary to have the No. 1 course so thoroughly compacted as to hold a semi-fluid mixture ; the stone composing the No. 2 course should be larger than that generally used, and should be well heated, and, finally, it will be necessary to use a light asphalt roller in order to draw the fluid mixture gradu- ally to the surface, and not attempt to crush the No. 2 course into the binder. Under no circumstances is it believed that the method will prove as efficacious or economical as either the mixing or pene- tration methods of construction. The rate of progress of this class of work was slow, and would average 156 sq. yds. per day. The labor item was high, two tar men and four common laborers being required, making the labor cost $0.06 per square yard. The tar, 1 gallon per square yard in the mastic and 1.25 gallons on the sur- face, cost $0.167 per square yard. Summarizing we have the fol- lowing cost : Per sq. yd. 2.25 gals, tar, at 7.4 cts . $0.167 Labor (2 tar men and 4 laborers) 0.061 Fuel and plant interest, etc 0.005 Total $0.233 Deduct saving water sprinkling 0.013 Total extra cost $0.220 This 22 cts. per sq. yd. must be added to the cost of ordinary 6-in. macadam. Cost of Tar Macadam, Duluth, Minn. Mr. K K. Coe gives the following: Duluth began laying tar macadam in 1902, and it in- creased so rapidly in popularity that 90% of the total pavement laid in 1906 was tar macadam (71,500 sq. yds.). The pavement is 8 ins. thick, consisting of a tar grouted macadam base 6 ins. thick, covered with 2 ins. of tar macadam that has been mixed in a ma- chine. This 6-in. base is composed of crushed rock % to 2^ -in. in size, and is rolled with a steam roller. Then hot tar is spread over the base, 1 gal. per sq. yd., by means of large sprinkling cans, the spout of the can being flared and measuring *X>x8 ins. This tar is drawn from a tank wagon, and is spread immediately in advance of the spreading of the 2-in. wearing coat of tar mac- adam (or tar concrete). This wearing coat is mixed in a port- able mixing plant owned by the city. The plant has a capacity of 1,000 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing coat per day ; its shipping weight is 18 tons and it is easily hauled to any part of the city by a steam roller. The plant was built by the Toledo Construction & Supply Co. of Detroit, and cost the city $10,300. It is rented to ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 313 the contractors at $20 a day, straight time, the city furnishing the engineman. As many as 1,300 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing coat have been mixed by this plant in a day. The stone for the wearing coat is first heated in this plant to 175 to 200 F., which is the same temperature that the tar receives. The stone is graded in size to reduce the voids to about 7%. When the voids are filled, however, and the stone coated with tar, the particles of stone are separated, so that 11% by bulk of tar is necessary. The following is one of the successful batches: 344 Ibs. stone passing 1%-in. screen and caught on 1-in. 152 Ibs. stone passing 1-in. screen and caught on %-in. 175 Ibs. stone passing %-in. screen and caught on %-in. 275 Ibs. stone passing %-in. screen and includ. fine dust. 54 Ibs. tar. 1,020 Ibs. total. Usually 6 or 7 batches of 800 Ibs. make a wagonload, bottom dump wagons being used. Plant foremen are tempted to use an excess of ' tar, to make a batch appear mixed before it really is, and thus make a bigger day's run. Tar from the Duluth tar plant is used ; it is a by-product of the coke ovens and is very uniform. The liquid tar for the base is hauled in steel tank wagons, which are provided with small furnaces to keep the tar melted. The mixed material for the 2-in. wearing coat is dumped from the dump wagons onto a sectional platform, shoveled to place, raked out smooth, and immediately rolled with a 15-ton roller. This course is 2 ins. thick after rolling. When rolled smooth and com- pact, a flush coat of tar (5 Ibs. per sq. yd.) is spread, to seal all surface voids. Formerly a "squeegee" (like a rubber window cleaner) was used for this flush coat spreading, but it was found preferable to use a special cart mounted on two small wheels and with a box 18 ins. square x 12 ins. deep. Behind the cart is a piece of heavy rubber belting set on edge, 8 ins. wide and 3 ft. long, bent to an arc of 60. Some 7 gals, of fluid tar are poured into the box, in the bottom of which is a 1-in. hole, with a tapering iron plug which is operated by a lever from the drawbar, so that the man who draws the cart can manipulate the plug and deliver a small amount of tar directly in front of the rubber belt, or '"squeegee." Finally the surface is covered with a thin layer of hot rock, beech nut size, and rolled. The following are the materials required per sq. yd. of 2-in. wear- ing coat and 6-in. base: 0.3 cu. yd. crushed rock and screenings and 3 to 3V gals, tar, including waste. The average contract price in 1906 was $1.23 per sq. yd., which includes everything but grading, and includes a 5-yr. guarantee. 314 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The gang required to mix and lay the 2-in. wearing coat is as follows : Plant Force: I foreman. 1 engineman. 1 fireman. 1 mixer man. 1 weigh man. 1 feeder. 3 to 6 shovelers (according to location of pile of stone). 2 teams hauling tar. 1 watchman. Street Force: 1 foreman. 3 men spreading tar binder on base. 8 shovelers. 3 rakers. 1 engineman on steam roller. 1 tar heater. 1 man on squeegee cart. 2 men spreading surface screenings. 1 watchman. 1 water boy. 3 to 6 teams according to length of haul. Cost of Asphalt Macadam, Redlands, Calif. Mr. C. C. Brown gives the following: During 1906, the city of Redlands, Calif., built 6 miles (100,000 sq. yds.) of asphalt macadam at a cost of 60 cts. per sq. yd., by contract. The city owns a crushing plant, and sells the rock to the contractor at $1 per ton, f. o. b. cars. It is hauled 5 miles by rail. It requires 1^4 cu. yds. of crushed rock (meas- ured in the cars after the 5 -mile haul) to make 1 cu. yd. of the finished pavement, including the sand and the asphalt. The crushed granite is spread in two layers, the bottom layer composed of stones l 1 /^ to 3 ins. in size, the top layer, % to l^ ins. It is then filled with granite screenings. Each course is rolled, water being freely used while the screenings are being rolled in. As soon as the water dries out, heavy asphaltic oil (75% asphalt) at a temperature of 150 F., is sprinkled over the macadam, about 2 gals, per sq. yd., or even more. Excavations of the macadam show that the oil has penetrated % to % the way down. The street is then thrown open, and several weeks of traffic iron it out into a smooth pavement. If any ruts appear broken stone ( V> to 1 in.) is placed on the macadam and covered with the asphaltic oil. The asphaltic oil, or liquid asphalt, is applied from a tank wagon hauled by 4 horses. The tank is equipped with a "Glover oiler" (now known as a petrolithic oiler, made by the Petrolithic Pave- ment Co. of Los Angeles, Calif.). The "oiler," or "distributor," is a cylinder having a series of openings, "the flow being nicely con- trolled by a set of levers manipulated by a man on the wagon. who regulates the flow according to the speed of the team." ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. Four tanks, of 800 gals, each, or 3,200 gals., are distributed per day of 8 hrs., when the haul is two miles' each way. The heating is done at the unloading tank by steam, which is also used to facili- tate unloading the tank car. The oil costs $1 per 40-gal. barrel, including the freight, which is 33 cts. per bbl. Cost of Petrolithic Macadam. Mr. J. C. Black, in an article in the California Journal of Technology, Oct. 8, 1908 (reprinted in Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 11, 1908), gave the following: I have inserted an illustration of the rolling tamper and the gang plow, and have assumed wages and prices. Petrolithic pavement originated in southern California some eight years ago, and since that time has given such great satisfaction that it is now to be found in many parts of the United States, and is even securing a foothold in foreign countries. Petrolithic pavement consists of a compacted mass of earth, crushed rock or gravel and asphaltic oil, although, since the lighter oils in which asphaltum is dissolved do not remain permanently in the pavement, but disappear (mainly by evaporation) within a few months after its completion, we may properly call it a mixture of earth, rock and asphalt. The rock is intended to act as a wearing coat, and hence is kept mainly near the surface. How- ever, it is not the composition, but the manner in which it is treated, that constitutes the most important and characteristic fea- ture of a petrolithic pavement, for this Is the only method in which the entire material of the street is tamped into a compact mass of uniform density. After the road has been brought approximately to grade and is properly crowned, the surface is broken to a depth of 6 to 9 ins., by plowing or otherwise, and then pulverized by farm cultivators and harrows or other machinery. The application of water, often in quantities amounting to several gallons to the square yard of surface covered, usually greatly expedites the pulverization. After the ground is reduced to a sufficiently fine condition, oil is applied at the rate of three-fourths of one gallon to each square yard of surface and is cultivated in. Another application of oil equal to the first is then made and cultivated, after which the ground is plowed 6 ins. deep, a gang plow, Fig. 6, generally being most satisfactory for this work. The plowing should be such as will thoroughly turn the furrow, and It will generally bring to the surface a small amount of soil which has been untouched by the oil. A slight amount of cultivating or harrowing serves to work out the ridges left by the plow, and the third application of oil, amounting to one gallon to the yard, is then made and culti- vated in. After this it is advisable to put on the road grader, and it is the writer's experience that a liberal use of it Is effort well spent. It will be observed that up to the present stage all the work on the road has been done along longitudinal lines applying the oil and plowing must of necessity be so carried on, and while cultivating 310 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and harrowing may be done zig-zag fashion, it is generally more satisfactory to work in a straight line. While this work results in a fairly uniform mixture of soil and oil, there Is a certain tendency toward the formation of streaks, and it is in the correction of this that the great benefit of the road grader as a mixing device Fig. 6. Petrolithic Gang Plow. becomes apparent. The soil is in a very loose and finely divided condition, so that with the grader blade et at an angle, a deep cut may be made, and by thus shifting the material from side to side a number of times, the streaks may be entirely removed. The road is now brought back to grade, and a petrolithic rolling tamper, Fig. 7, is set to work. This tamper consists of a roller Fig. 7. Petrolithic Rolling Tamper. about 3 ft. in diameter, the surface of which is studded with iron teeth or feet 9 ins. long and terminating in a slightly rounded sur- face of about 4 sq. ins. area. The total weight of the machine is between 4,800 Ibs. and 5,000 Ibs., and as there are 10 or 11 ft. in a row, the weight on each is approximately 450 Ibs., or over 100 Ibs. to the square inch of surface. The device is patented, and is for sale by the Petrolithic Pavement Co. of Los Angeles. It is drawn ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 317 by four horses, from four to six being required, according to con- ditions. As it passes over the loose material of the street, the feet sink to a depth of 6 or 8 ins., and being flat ended each one leaves a small, compact mass of earth and oil at the place it struck. In order to secure uniform results and prevent the too rapid tamp- ing, a cultivator must be used in connection with the tamper. The cultivator should be adjusted at first to work to approximately the same depth as the tamper, but after two or three trips over the ground, should be raised a notch. After this it should be raised from time to time, but never more than a single notch at a setting, and care should always be taken to avoid too great haste and con- sequent imperfect tamping. It will be observed that this process builds the pavement "from the bottom up," so to speak, thereby producing a dense mass for the full thickness. When the road has been tamped so that 2 or 3 ins. of loose ma- terial remain on the surface, the tamper should be taken off and the surface smoothed with a road grader or drag. After this, a 2 or 3-in. layer of 1^-in. gravel or crushed rock should be spread upon the road and cultivated so as to mix it with the earth. The rock may be spread by hand, in which case, dumping should begin at the end of the road where the wagons arrive, so that they may travel over it instead of over the loose earth, or it may be dumped in a single line down the center of the road, and then spread with the grader. In point of cost, one method offers little advantage over the others. The hand spreading usually gives more uniform results. After the rock is spread and cultivated, the last coat of oil, amounting to one gallon to the square yard, is applied, and the ground again cultivated. It should then be plowed as deeply as possible without disturbing the tamping already done. A few trips of the cultivator will smooth out the surface, and the tamper may again be set to work. When only a small amount of loose material (say an inch) remains, the cultivator may be taken off altogether, and the surface given a light treatment with a grader or drag before the tamper finishes its work. A smooth roller will improve the appearance of the newly com- pleted road, but will add little to its efficiency or durability. The use of water from time to time during the work is a neces- sity, but because of varying conditions of weather and variety of soils, fixed rules for its use are impossible. In general it will be found that sandy soils must be kept wet from start to finish of work, while clay or adobe requires comparatively 'little water, and that mainly during the tamping process. If too much water is used on soil of this nature, the almost inevitable result will be clogging of machinery and consequent delays. For applying water, the oil wagons will be found entirely satisfactory. It is needless to remark that the details of building a petrolithic pavement may be varied considerably, and that good results can be obtained in several ways. In fact, as in many other lines, there are no two pieces of work which can be conducted in exactly the same 318 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. manner. Some of those who have been most successful with this form of construction prefer to put the rock on the road before any tamping has been done. This is cultivated, and after the final coat of oil has been applied is plowed under. It might be thought that this would result in the rock being distributed through so great a thickness of soil that its value as a wearing surface would be lost, but the fact is that even when plowed under as much as 6 ins. the cultivation rapidly brings it to the top. If it is attempted to mix it with too small a quantity of soil, a large amount of rock will remain loose on the surface, and must be removed entirely from the street. Most of the older petrolithic roads of southern California were built without the use of any rock or gravel, and the satisfaction they have given proves that where the price of rock is high and the keeping down of expenses imperative an excellent pavement may be built of nothing but the natural material of the street mixed with oil. As to the character of soil in which petrolithic pavement may successfully be built, almost anything will do, provided it is free from a large amount of alkali or other ingredient which will cause decomposition of the oil. In sand the adhesive qualities of the oil will hold the particles together and make possible a good road, where otherwise some expensive paving material would be neces- sary. No soil gives better results than adobe (clay), although it is hard to work, and consequently may slightly increase the cost. Between the extremes of sand and adobe equal satisfaction will be found. The greater the amount of asphalt in the oil, the better, and the specifications of the city of Los Angeles require a minimum of 70 per cent. Natural oils having this amount of asphalt are difficult to obtain, but the Sunset District produces some which run from 75 to 80 per cent or even more. These are used exclusively for road oils, and can generally be had at a reasonable price, say 50 cts. per bbl. of 42 gals. Refinery products or residuums are frequently used, and these prove satisfactory when -the quality of the asphalt contained in them is unimpaired. The objection to their use arises from the fact that an overheated or burned asphalt lacks the ad- hesive qualities necessary in a good road oil. A special and ex- pensive test is necessary to determine whether overheating has taken place, and as it should be applied to every carload, besides causing delay, it will form quite an item of expense. Care should be taken to get an oil comparatively free from water and sedi- ment, many specifications requiring the rejection of all oil con- taining more than 2 per cent of such foreign matter. It is commonly required that the oil be applied to the road at a temperature of not less than 150 F., and some oils, because of their viscosity, cannot be easily handled at a lower temperature. Although there are still some advocates of the use of cold oil, the general opinion is "the hotter the better." For heating the oil a portable boiler of some sort is generally ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 319 used. The oil may be heated in the cars in which it is delivered, which are usually equipped with steam pipes for this purpose, or It may be run into a tank or pit in which a steam coil has been set. In soil of a clayey nature, a pit without lining may be used, as the oil will penetrate the ground only a few inches. An oil pump with the necessary valves and connections for unloading from car and loading into wagons, will complete the heating establishment. Oil tank wagons are built of various capacities, the common sizes holding from 800 to 1,000 gals. The distributors, of which there are several good designs, are attached to the rear of the tank, and spread the oil for a width of 6 or 7 ft. Some are divided into three or four sections, so that a narrower strip may be covered if desired. The oil holds its heat well, and if conditions demand, the heating plant may be situated several miles from the work and still allow of the delivery of oil at the required temperature. Warm weather is desirable for carrying on the work, as when it is cold the oil tends to drag or form into chunks, with resulting irregularities and soft spots in the finished roadway. The road may be opened for traffic as soon as the tamping is finished. A complete outfit for building petrolithic pavement will be about as follows, though, of course, the magnitude of the work will de- termine the number of pieces of machinery necessary. It is often possible to rent a portion of the plant, and some cities have their own outfits, which they are prepared to rent to contractors, gener- ally at so much a block : 1 portable steam boiler, with fittings. 1 oil pump and connections. 1 pit or tank of not less than 10,000 gals, capacity, and fitted with steam heating coils. 1 oil wagon and distributor. 1 road grader. 1 road drag (home made). 3 dump wagons, for rock. 1 rooter plow. 1 gang plow. 3 cultivators. 2 rolling tampers. . The operating gang is as follows : 1 foreman. 1 grader man and oil wagon operator. 1 fireman. 7 "teamsters. 3 laborers. 35 horses or mules. The accompanying figures give an average of the amount of labor and material per sq. yd. on several streets, all of which were in clay or adobe soil. In sandy soil more tamping and more water are required, but the preliminary work is much easier. The amount of work necessary varies widely, and depends entirely on local con- ditions, but by substituting rates of wages and costs of materials 320 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. in this table an approximation to the cost of doing the work may be obtained. Proper allowance must, of course, be made for inter- est and depreciation or for rental of plant. Plowing and Pulverising: Per sq. yd. 0.004 hr. rooter plow, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 $00032 0.004 hr. cultivator, 4 horses and driver, at $0.60 0.0016 0.002 hr. tamper, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 0.0016 Oiling: 0.0018 hr. fireman, heating oil, at $0.20 0.0036 0.007 hr. oil wagon, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 0.0056 0.004 hr. oil wagon operator, at $0.20 0.0008 0.0015 hr. hand labor, at $0.20 0.0003 Mixing Oil and Soil: 0.0015 hr. rooter plow, 6 horses and driver, $0.80 0.0012 0.0027 hr. gang plow, 4 horses and driver, at $0.60 0.0016 0.022 hr. cultivator, 4 horses and driver, at $0.60 0132 0.007 hr. hand labor, at $0.20 0.0014 Watering: 0.005 hr. water wagon, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 0.0040 Handling and Hauling Crushed Rock: 0.042 hr. labor, loading into wagons, at $0.20 0.0084 0.056 hr. wagon hauling, 2 horses and driver, at $0.40 0.0224 0.009 hr. labor, spreading rock, at $0.20 0.0018 Grading: 0.005 hr. road machine, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 0.0040 0.005 hr. man operating machine, at $0.20 0.0010 0.001 hr. road drag, 4 horses and driver, at $0.60 0.0006 Tamping: 0.023 hr. rolling tamper, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 0.0184 0.011 hr. cultivator, 4. horses and driver, at $0.60 0.0066 Smooth Rolling: 0.003 hr. roller, 6 horses and driver, at $0.80 0.0024 Miscellaneous: 0.009 hr. labor removing large stones, etc., at $0.20 0.0018 0.0015 hr. wagon, 2 horses and driver, at $0.40 0.0006 Superintendence: 0.019 hr. foreman, at $0.40 0.0076 Total labor $0.1137 Materials: 3.50 gals, asphaltic oil, at $0.02 .' $0.0700 0.09 gals, oil for fuel (heating), at $0.02 0.0018 5.50 gals, water for sprinkling, at $0.0002 0.0011 0.083 cu. yds. crushed rock, at $1.00 0.0083 Grand total, labor and materials $0.1949 It will be noted that the three items of loosening the soil and re- compacting it with the rolling tamper total as follows : Per sq yd. Pulverizing the soil $0.0064 Grading 0.0056 Tamping (excluding cultivating) 0.0184 Total $0.0304 This cost of 3 cts per sq. yd. shows what it would cost to break up, shape with a road machine and tamp the subgrade of a road or street with a rolling tamper, preparatory to laying any sort of pavement. Practically the same price is charged by Massachusetts contractors for "shaping" the subgrade of -macadam roads, usinjr ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 321 only the old-fashioned and inferior methods. Each rolling tamper compacted 400 sq. yds. per day of 9 hrs. It will be noticed that the labor item of oiling totals a trifle more than 1 ct. per sq. yd. (0.3 ct. per gal. of oil), excluding the cost of the fuel oil used in heating the other oil, the cost of which is given (under Materials) at 0.18 ct. per sq. yd., making a total of 1.18 cts. per sq. yd. Since 3% gals, of oil were used per sq. yd., this is equivalent to % ct. per gal. for heating, pumping, hauling and sprinkling the oil on the road. It will be noted that the crushed rock was spread on to a thick- ness of 3 ins., measured loose, and that when expressed as a cost per cu. yd. of loose rock instead of per sq. yd., we have the following : Per cu. yd. Loading wagons $0.108 Hauling 0.269 Spreading 0.022 Total $0.399 It will be noted that the superintendence cost 17 per cent of the total labor. It will be noticed that the price assumed for the asphaltic oil (2 cts. per gal.) is low about one-quarter what it costs in most places outside of California. None of the foregoing costs include an allowance for interest, depreciation and repairs of plant, nor cost of installing and remov- ing plant. Cost of Petrolithic Road. The method of construction was simi- lar to the work just described, except that the broken stone was omitted, and the road was built of the natural soil mixed with asphaltic oil. It was tamped with a petrolithic rolling tamper. The wages actually paid were as follows per day of 9 hrs. : Laborer or driver $2.50 Horse, without driver 1.00 Foreman 3.00 The cost was as follows, excluding installation of plant and in- terest, depreciation and repairs: Cts. per sq yd. Preliminary team work 0.26 Plowing with rooter plow 0.32 Pulverizing soil 0.34 Sprinkling water 0.27 Leveling with road machine 0.14 Cultivating 0.27 Mixing oil and soil with cultivator 1.06 Sprinkling water 0.20 Tamping with rolling tamper 1.50 Final leveling 0.20 Foreman 0.64 Total labor 5.20 Oil, 3 gals, at 2% cts. delivered on the road 7.50 Grand total 12.70 It will be noted that the labor items do not include heating and 322 UAXDBOOK OF COST DATA. hauling the oil to the road, for this cost is included in the price of 2 burnt clay 1 to 12 ins. in depth, which, when rolled down and compacted, forms a road surface of from 6 to 8 ins. in thickness. If properly burned, the material should be entirely changed in character, and when it is wet it should have no tendency to form mud. When the material is sufficiently cooled the roadbed should be brought to a high crown before rolling, in order to allow for the compacting of the material. This can best be done with a road grader. After this the rolling should be begun and continued until the roadbed is smooth and hard. The finished croWn should have a slope of at least % in. to the foot. The main advantages of burning a road over its entire length are that the cost of transporting clay is avoided and that the sub- grade of the road is burned as well as the material above. In giving the cost of burnt-clay construction Mr. Spoon states that it is, of course, impossible to give the cost of a burnt-clay road which will apply to the same work in all sections of the country. Although this form of construction in the South up to the present time has been successful, it cannot as' yet be said to ha ' e passed the experimental stage. The items of cost of the experimental road 300 ft. long, as constructed at Clarksdale, Miss., are as follows: 30% cords of wood, at $1.30 per cord $39.65 20 loads of bark, chips, etc 6.00 Labor at $1.25 per day and teams at $3 per day. ... 38.30 Total cost of 300 feet $83.95 Total cost per mile at this rate $1,478.40 Since the above road was built numerous sections of burnt-clay road have been constructed in that locality, and up to the present time only favorable reports regarding them have been received. 330 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Maintaining Earth Roads by Dragging.* In a recently issued Farmers' Bulletin, Mr. D. Ward King gives some data on the cost of maintenance of earth roads by dragging. He states that the most elaborate form of split log drag will cost but a few dollars for material and labor, while one man and team can operate it suc- cessfully under all usual conditions. Mr. King gives the following figures as showing the cost of maintaining ordinary country roads per mile per year without a drag. They were obtained in Kansas by Prof. W. C. Hoad, of the University of Kansas, in 1906, and were taken from the official records of the counties : Crawford County $52 Douglas County 38 Franklin County 34 Johnson County 48 Neosho County 40 Saline County 43 The average cost is $42.50 per mile per year, and Mr. King states that it may safely be said that the cost of dragging would be trifling in comparison. In the Report of Highway Commissioner of Maine in 1906 it is stated that the least expense per mile for dragging was about $1.50 ; the greatest a little over $6 ; the aver- age expense per mile for 5% miles a little less than $3. One town- ship in Iowa experimented with the drag on 28 miles of highway for a year. The township paid for the making of the drags and hired men to use them. The total expense, including the original cost of the drags, for the year averaged $2.40 per mile. A neighbor- hood of farmers in Ray County, Mo., employed one of their number to drag a 5 -mile stretch. He received compensation at the rate of $3 per day. When the end of the year came and a settlement was made, the cost for the year was found to be $1.66 per mile. The road is a tough clay. Prof. William Robertson, of the Minne- sota Agricultural Station, after a year's experience in dragging a main road made entirely of gumbo without any sand or gravel, and which during the past year has shown no defects either by rutting or development of soft places, fixes the cost of the work at not to .exceed $5 per mile. Cost of Making a Corduroy Road.t The old-fashioned corduroy road is still used frequently by contractors where it is necessary to cross a swampy piece of ground with a temporary roadway. Such a road is frequently made of split cedar sticks, about as large as fence posts, cut in 8-ft. lengths, and laid in a close row on the ground. Then earth is shoveled onto the sticks to even up the hollows. A good axman can cut down, saw, split and lay the cedar for a corduroy road at the rate of 40 to 50 lin. ft. (2y 2 to 3 rods) per day. Hence if he receives $2 a day, it costs 4 to 5 cts. per lin. ft. of road, or $200 to $250 per mile. The foregoing is based on some records of work done under the direction of the managing editor of Engineering-Contracting. * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 6, 1907. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 331 Cost of Gravel Roads, Indiana.* Mr. Chas. C. Hufflne, county engineer of Clinton County, Ind., has given us the following data on the construction of gravel roads in that county : Per cu. yd. Cost of gravel at pit $0.10 Stripping pit 0.05 Hauling 0.30 Dumping and spreading 0.03 Shoveling 0.10 Miscellaneous . . . 0.05 Total $0.63 As about 1,800 cu. yds. of gravel are required per mile of road, the cost will be $1,134. In addition Mr. Huffine estimates the cost of grading the roadbed at $200 and the cost of bridges and culverts at $200, making the total cost per mile $1,534. The above estimate is for bank gravel. The majority of roads built in Clinton County, however, have been made from gravel taken from wet pits, making an additional expense of 25 cts. per cubic yard for dipping or 10 cts. per cubic yard for pumping water, depending on the method by Which the gravel is taken out. This would increase the cost of the road $450 or $180 per mile, respectively. The above are about the average cost of gravel roads in Clinton County for the past five years. The contract prices for these roads have varied from $1,750 to $2,100 per mile. The specifications for the con- struction of a gravel road in the above county require the road- bed to be graded to a width of 24 ft. and the gravel surfacing to be placed to a width of 9 ft. The gravel is required to be placed 15 ins. deep at the middle and 9 ins. at the side. Common labor in Indiana is paid about 13% cts. per hour, and about 30 cts. per hour is paid for a two-horse team and driver. Cost of Gravel Street, Michigan. Mr. A. W. Saunders gives the following: The gravel was often very wet, puddled in fact; 87 cu. yds. of gravel made 90 lin. ft. of street 6 ins. thick on the center line and 4 ins. thick at the gutter, and 25 ft. wide. The gravel was unloaded from a lighter, 10 men doing the work. Six men in a 10-hr, day loaded 124 cu. yds. on six teams, using eight wagons. Kach round trip of team averaged 45 mins. a total of 68 trips being made in a 10-hr, day. The cost per cubic yard measured loose was as follows: Per cu. yd. Gravel $0.850 Unloading, at $1.75 per day 150 Hauling, at $4.50 per day 257 Spreading, at $1.75 per day 087 Superintendence and depreciation 021 Total $1.365 Cross Reference on Cost of Grading Roads. The reader Is re ferred to the section on Earth Excavation and Embankment for the discussion of .grading costs. * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 18, 1907. 332 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Grading a Road, New York.- A stiff clay was ditched and graded for a New York state macadam road near Buffalo, at the following cost per cu. yd. : Per cu. yd. Plowing $0.05 Loading into wagons 0.1 2^ Hauling 1,000 ft 0.05 % Spreading 0.05 Foreman, supt., timekeeper and water boy 0.05 Total $0.33 The work was done by contract, and wages were $1.50 for com- mon laborers, $4.50 for teams, per 8-hr. day. The clay was loosened with a rooter plow and was hauled in patent dump wagons. This cost is a safe figure for stiff material hauled not more than 1,000 ft. The cost of grading 2% miles of road under conditions essen- tially as above, except that the material was a gravelly soil, was 28 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of Grading a Road, Maryland. Mr. W. W. Crosby gives the following : Grading a road for a 6 -in. macadam pavement 14 ft. wide, the whole roadbed being 24 ft. wide, cost 39.6 cts. per cu. yd., not in- cluding the cost of "shaping," which was y 2 ct. per sq. yd., which is equivalent to adding 4.2 cts. per cu. yd. to the grading cost. The road averaged 1,700 cu. yds. per mile. Work was done by day labor, negro labor at 10 cts. per hr., and team at 40 cts. Cost of Grading Road With Road Machine, Michigan. Mr. Frank F. Rogers gives the following data on work done at Port Huron, Mich. : A street was to be macadamized with a strip of macadam 9 ft. wide and about 5 ins. thick after rolling. The earth was sand and sandy loam overlying clay. The side ditches had already been made, and the street was already well turnpiked (crowned), so that the grading consisted merely in preparing a bed for the macadam and in making earth shoulders to hold the stone. For this purpose a common road machine was used, first to cut off the high places and fill the hollows by setting the blade at right angles with the center line of the street. Then, to form the shoulders and cut the crown of the subgrade, the blade was set at a slight angle so as to crowd enough earth to one side of the 9-ft. strip, forming first one shoulder, then the other. Stakes were set 1 ft. outside the 9-ft. strip to give line in operating the grader. The edges of the shoulders were afterward trimmed by hand with a shovel while the subgrade was being rolled with a steam roller. The grading cost $85 per mile in this soft sandy soil, where no ditching or turnpiking was done. On another stretch of road, in sand, it was necessary to break up, re-grade, and trim the ditches to line, as well -as to make the shoulders for the 9-ft. macadam. This cost about $360 per mile. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 333 Two teams, a driver for each team and another man to operate the grader were used. Bach team and driver received $3.50 for 10 hrs. and the other man received $1.50. Average Prices of Pavements in 100 Representative Cities, To- gether With the Wages of Labor and Prices of Paving Materials.*- In our issue of March 27,1907, we printed a number of tables show- ing the character and cost of paving work done In 1906, in a num- ber of representative American cities. In the present issue we present somewhat similar data on the paving work done in 1907 in 100 cities of the United States. No attempt was made to get com- plete statistics of the United States; the purpose, rather, 'was to select cities in various sections of the country on the assumption that their practice and activity would represent with approximate accuracy the practice and activity of these sections as a whole. Perhaps the most interesting of the tables is Table IV, showing the wages of labor and the prices of materials. It will be noted from this that the 8-hr, day does not prevail in all of the cities reporting. Practically all of the Eastern states have an 8-hr, day, while in the Middle West the 10-hr, day seems to be the more common. The rates of wages of labor vary, being lowest in the South and highest in the West. In the New England cities the wages of common labor averaged $2.00 per day, while in the Middle West the average was $1.75. The cost of the various paving materials taken in combination with the cost of labor are interest- ing in as much as they show in a measure the reason for the vari- ation in the cost of the pavement given in the other tables. Tables V to X, giving the cost of the various kinds of pavement, should be of general interest, although it is evident that no per- fectly just comparison can be made without going far deeper into local conditions than the data sent us would permit. In these tables the average price per square yard includes grading, unless stated otherwise. Cost of Paving in 50 American Cities. t Tables XI to XIII show the construction and cost of street paving in about 50 representa- tive American cities. These figures were collected by the Committee on Roads and Pavements of the Illinois Society of Engineers and Surveyors and were reported at the annual convention held last week. The records cover macadam, asphalt and brick and block pavements and give the materials used, thickness and cost. The costs given are, of course, costs to the cities and not costs to the contractors. No very accurate general conclusions can be drawn from these records, and in fact this was not the purpose of their collection; they show individual records of city paving work and for this are deserving of careful study. Mr. A. N. Johnson, State Engineer, Illinois, was chairman of the committee, making the report from which the tables are taken. * Engineering-Contracting, April 1, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 3, 1909. 334 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. +2 : -o o ; ; ; -o -o i . d. -:: -^ ::::::::::::: -^ > : : : $ fI :;:: ;s : ; ::!::::: : : ::-;:::: - : - : g|g 5 ? s w W M O H rf^S" 9 -OOlrtOOOO -O -OOOO 'tfjOOO " 'O ' O O O O O -4 ^ j- 1 .So N . c ; t T c ^ c ; . . * . l ^ < R c ! c j ' c ~: c ! r i .. ^* e ** a >>**" M ' g u .. .^ ^.^i^COU^lOOOt^-Olrt 'OOOOOlftOlrt vo WO ^OOOlrtloJVoo WJn rH CO C O Cl^ OO r-5 fi 5fe' b J3 o tiooooomoo "ftowooooo :! -o . ...^^SA. ^ . .TfOOOOOOWOlrt -^ -t- .^v^mi-^oo^rin g j^ 3 I ICON COT-!rHe k t-lftOplflO -(MOO fi" " ' s u o2rf^^^^ IM ''~' T ^'~' rH ' cs ' r ^ e> ' r ^ T ^ <:< '' ?c ' 1 ^ 1 ^'~*'~' r ^'~* 1 ~' ' r ^ c< ' r ^ r ^ e< 5< ' p ^'-* 3 to rf W C ^ t-iOOO OJOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOiOO .OO5OOOO5 -OO> ?|g - 3 - ^l^iiiiiiiMiniMiiiiiiniiiN;::; ! !s i^s H -^3 .;; ; -r 1 c - c/T.K^. 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PRICES is - fsl |1 o 2^ J4 M ~ || ;3|t. |h < 5 r* ? ^0"^" " X j a < H ^lal gliU ^ * O^OO^^O^CO^ CO - o E 'o- "c rt Qig jj C .91 2 c W ^ ooo O a -a-o 2 a CQ *^ *O < C pt-ii-HhHC/2 ^ c2 || s * * j- , | s 3 s s 1"?* ^ ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 34? i?L- <35iO 00 (D l^- CO O CO O OOOOiDO5iMC<3" 'OO _^ '5 OO C^J (--( CTfCOi f^CO^YT 5000 ^T M C ^^ pT^ SiicteS^ 0003< ^ ^ " 1* w ^1 S - -- o c i co T*< T o cooo o c 00 0-*0 CD ^H 5CO -H T-I e^i a S3 C I 1 3 A * | || -a 111 8 I- 111 :1"H1 l-lll 1 'C CC^ C -, o>a>cd.rt H HH H PQ OPQ H CQO > Binder Thickness and Character 53 !l" stt 'ig i N i ^5 * SB -g S| -Me-^s.ti w *S S 'S^.in ?!&" = t s ^P I. l^g | i .11.11 le rK^'y^r^P j^lgi eij^ 5DtOCO C> Tti CO CO C if} U5 O ) ODO O j o' 11 05 Bg 5 ^C , , , 3 , 5 S , , , , g W g fe ! 1 < CJ Report From. ^2, , s r ^^ ^o S' PCM -IOOO 00 Kind o Materia s +j 1 i?q I i I < CO IM rt i-H O CO 5O 1 SO al . sa IM C< ^ * O Tf ^ HNfOH" HcC Broken stone, at $1.87 per cu. yd 0.35% Labor hauling stone and making concrete 0.15% Total concrete $0.68 Sand cushion 0.07 62 paving bricks, at $18.20 per M 1.13 1-25 bbl. pitch, at $5.25 0.21 Sand used in pitching 0.01 Labor paving and pitching 0.15 Total $2.^5 Grading and removing old material 0.23 Grand total $2.58 The cost of curbs distributed over the pavement added 10 cts. more per sq. yd. Common laborers were used to lay the bricks, at $1.25 to $1.50 per day of 8 hrs. The mortar for concrete was mixed 1 : 2, and enough mortar used to fill the voids in the stone. It took 1.36 bbls. of Louisville cement per cubic yard of concrete. On three other jobs of about the same size, the costs were prac- tically the same as above. On one street Hallwood blocks were used, requiring 50 blocks per sq. yd., and 1 bbl. of pitch for every 25 sq. yds. On one job, where Virginia paving bricks were used 56 bricks were required per sq. yd., and the labor cost of laying the brick and pitching the joints was 11 cts. per sq. yd. It will be noted that the cost of materials was unusually high, and that the labor was not efficient. Cost of Brick Pavement, Baltimore, Md. In Engineering-Con- tracting, Aug. 18, 1909, was published an article giving the costs of various kinds of pavements laid in 1908 by forces in the employ of the city of Baltimore. I give the following excerpts merely to show the enormously high costs that invariably occur when such work is done by city day labor instead of by contract. In laying one brick pavement, the labor of mixing and placing the 6-in. concrete base was $0.217 per sq. yd., or $1.30 per cu. yd. of concrete. It never costs a capable contractor more than half this, even when he does not use a concrete mixer, and I have known many contractors to mix and lay concrete for 5 cts. per sq. yd., 6 ins. thick, or 30 cts. per cu. yd., when a machine mixer was used, as recorded subsequently in this book. In laying the bricks for this same street, the labor cost $0.342 per sq. yd. This does not include $0.09(3 per sq. yd. for hauling the brick. Brick blocks were used, averaging about 40 per sq. yd., and costing $25 per M, or $1.00 per sq. yd. On another street (8,400 sq. yds.) the "vitrified brick paving, labor and materials" cost $1.56 per sq. yd. Since brick cost $1 per sq. yd. and paving sand cost $0.65 per cu. yd., it is evident that the labor item of laying the brick was even greater than on the other street above given. The $1.56 does not include the 6-in. con* ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 367 crete base, which cost $0.676 per sq. yd., nor the excavation, which cost $0.099 per sq. yd. Almost as bad an example of the inefficiency of the day labor system is given in the next paragraph. Cost of Removing, Chipping Off Tar and Relaying Brick. It is frequently desirable to know what the cost will be of taking up, cleaning old brick and relaying. A gang of men, working leisurely, "by the day for the city," accomplished the following in Rochester, N. Y. Each laborer chipped the tar off 500 to 700 bricks in eight hours. Replacing a strip of pavement 4 ft. wide over a sewer re- quired a gang of 17 men, employed as follows, after the pavement had been removed and concrete relaid: Wages for Cost per 8 hrs. sq. yd. 3 men toothing or chipping out bats $ 4.50 $0.08 6 pavers 15.00 .25 2 men furnishing brick 3.00 .05 2 men ramming, etc 3.00 .05 4 men melting and pouring tar 6.00 .10 Total $31.50 $0.53 The average per 8-hr, day by the above gang was 60 sq. yds., the best day's work being 70 sq. yds. It seems almost incredible that the cost of such repaving was 53 cts. a sq. yd., but it well illustrates the inefficiency of day labor for a city. Cost of Chipping Tar Off Bricks. When a brick pavement with tar joints is taken up, the tar must be chipped off the old bricks before re-laying them. This is usually done with a hatchet, after cooling the bricks in a bucket or tub of water. As an average of a good many thousand brick thus cleaned, I found that one laborer, working deliberately, could be counted upon to clean 60 bricks per hour. With wages at 15 cts. per hr., this is equivalent to $2.50 per M for cleaning the bricks. Cost of Removing and Replacing a Brick Pavement. Mr. C. D. Barstow gives the following relative to removing a strip of brick pavement 3 ft. wide and 373 ft. long, preparatory to digging a trench. The pavement was laid on a concrete base 7% ins. thick. The laborers were negroes, and the work was done in 1892 in a Southern city. Laborers received $1.25 per 10 hrs., and white foreman received $3. The cost was as follows per sq. yd. : Removing brick and concrete: Cts. per sq. yd. Laborer, at $1.25 7.0 Foreman, at $3.00 1.2 Total : 8.2 Relaying concrete: Laborer, at $1.25 7.9 Relaying brick: Laborer, at $1.25 4.5 Bricklayers, at $2.00 6.5 Bricklayers' helpers, $1.75 JJ.8 Total relaying brick , 13.8 368 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Materials: 14 new brick, at 1% cts 21.0 0.12 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00. 12.0 0.15 bbl. cement for concrete, at $1.20 18.0 Total materials 51.0 Summary: Removing brick and concrete 8.2 Relaying concrete 7.9 Relaying brick 13.8 Materials 51.0 Grand total 80.9 Cost of Laying a Stone Block Pavement, St. Paul.* While gran- ite block pavement is much less popular now than it was a few years ago, it is not likely that stone block pavements will disap- pear from use entirely for many years to come. This is particu- larly true of cities where sandstone of good quality is available for pavements. The Medina sandstone of central New York is a justly popular pavement for business streets. This sandstone is extremely dense and tough, having been partly metamorphosed until it is almost a quartzite. A very similar sandstone is found in Minne- sota and is extensively used in St. Paul and Minneapolis. Neither the Medina sandstone nor the Minnesota sandstone is open to the objection that may be raised against granite or trap rock blocks on the score of slipperiness. Both granite and trap rock wear smooth and glassy under traffic, and the corners of the blocks become rounded. But the sandstones just mentioned always remain gritty and never wear smooth, nor do the corners of blocks become rounded. In fact, when the joints are filled with Portland cement grout, a good sandstone pavement appears like one block of solid stone after it has been in use a while ; yet it offers an excellent foothold for horses in spite of the apparent absence of joints. These facts are stated in justification of an article on a class of pavement which has been called out of date. It is alto- gether likely that New York City itself, which has tried and is still trying so many experiments with paving materials, will some day give Medina sandstone the trial that it deserves as a pavement for heavy traffic. On the steep streets of Tacoma, Wash., sandstone block pave- ments are being laid, but the sandstone does not appear to be of as good a quality as Medina sandstone. Nevertheless it seems worth a trial, for asphalt is too slippery for such steep grades as are en- countered in certain of the Tacoma streets. Whatever may be the ultimate history of -stone block pavements, it is evident that, many city engineers and contractors will have to estimate the cost of laying such pavements, and for their benefit the following data are offered : In the work to be described a base of Portland cement concrete * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 3, 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 369 (1:3:6) was laid in the usual manner, anJ a sand cushion spread over the concrete. The sandstone blocks were hauled in wagons and tossed out into the street, instead of being piled on the side- walk along the curb, as is often done. A considerable saving in the cost of laying is effected by throwing the stone blocks upon the concrete in advance of the paving gang, and a somewhat larger saving would be possible if dump wagons were used. If the street is about 40 ft. wide, the stone blocks are preferably piled in four long piles parallel with the curbs, as shown in Fig. 9. No attempt is made to stack the blocks u>p regularly, but they are merely tossed out of the wagons. A space is left between the piles so that strings can be stretched to guide the pavers in laying the blocks to grade. To insure laying the pavement with the proper crown, three sight rods were made. Two of them were like T squares, made of a wooden leg % x 2 ins. with a crosspiece at the top. The other sight rod was made so as to telescope, as shown in Fig. 10, and had a leg about 1 in. square that was provided with a groove on one side for a distance 2 ft. below the crosshead. In this groove a 2-ft. rule was set, thus countersinking the rule so that its face was flush with the face of the leg. When this sight rod is extended so that the upper half of the 2-ft. rule is visible, the length of the rod is 4 ft., which is precisely the length of each of the other two sight rods. Before using the rods, a red or blue chalk line is struck with a chalked string on the face of each curb exactly at the fin- ished grade of the pavement. Then at intervals along the curbs, paving blocks, B x , B 5 , B 6 and BI O , are temporarily set so that their upper faces are at grade. A sight rod is then held on each of the blocks, B! and B 5 , at each curb, and the telescopic sight rod is held on a block, B 2 , one-quarter of the distance across the street, as shown in Fig. 10. The telescopic leg of this sight rod is lowered enough to give the drop that secures the exact crown to the pave- ment shown in the specified cross-section, and the rod is clamped with the thumb screw. The paving block, B 2 , is then raised or low- ered until the tops of the three sight rods are exactly on line. Then paving blocks B 3 and B 4 , are likewise put on grade ; strings are then stretched from these blocks back to surface of the com- pleted pavement. With these three strings to guide them, the pavers can readily lay the pavement exactly to grade. It is ob- vious that where paving materials are piled up in the street, it would be impracticable to use a straight edge from curb to curb, hence the necessity of some such method as the one just described. On this particular piece of work each stone block averaged Gx6x9i/2 ins. and weighed nearly 30 Ibs. A wagon load averaged 200 blocks, or 3 tons. Slat bottom wagons were used. This load was hauled over hard earth roads for much of the distance, and over the sand cushion on the concrete base. The blocks were delivered in gondola cars, and unloaded from the cars into the wagon by. two men, assisted by the driver. About half a wagon load (100 blocks) were tossed from the car into the 370 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. III BK> BIO '(>"- - -H Plan of Pavement, B* ^J-5 jj- ^Concrete Bo-si Cross Section. Fig. 9. Method of Laying Stone Blocks. ROAD'S, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 371 wagon box, the driver and the two men standing in the car. Then the driver would get into the wagon and pile up the rest of the blocks with some regularity as fast as the two men would pass them out to him. When the men were tossing the blocks into the wagon, each man averaged 14 blocks per minute when all he had to do was to stoop to pick up a block, but when it became neces- sary to walk to the opposite side of the car to get the blocks, each man would pick up and deliver only 7 blocks per minute. Under the latter condition the two men in the car would hardly keep the driver busy stacking up blocks in the wagon, yet a short-sighted foreman would have had one man in the wagon to each man in the car. With wagons coming along at regular intervals, the two men aided by the driver would load a wagon every 10 minutes. In unloading the wagon on the street, one man and the driver consume about 5 minutes, each man tossing out 20 blocks per min- ute. To allow for slight delays in waiting for other wagons, etc., about 20 minutes should be taken as the average time consumed Thumb Screw Ji. fr. Rule Countersunk Fig. 10. Telescopic Sight Rod. in loading and unloading the 200 blocks in each wagon. With wages of laborers at 20 cts. per hour, and team with driver at 45 cts. per hour, the fixed cost of loading and unloading (including lost team time) is 35 cts. per wagon load, or $1.75 per 1,000 pav- ing blocks. The rule for determining the cost of loading, unload- ing and hauling is, therefore, as follows : To a fixed cost of $1.75 per 1,000 blocks, add $1.80 per mile of dis- tance between the car and the point of delivery on the street. Since it takes about 20 of these paving blocks per square yard, we must divide the above figures by 50 to get the cost per square for loading and hauling. Then we have this rule : To a fixed cost of 3 l / 2 cts. per square yard, add 3^ cts. more per square yard for each mile of distance between the car and the point of delivery on the street. The above cost of hauling is based on team wages of 45 cts. per hour, a speed of 2% miles per hour, and a 3-ton load. The paving gang engaged in laying the stone blocks consisted of 3 skilled pavers and a helper, whose principal duty was to deliver sand wherever the sand cushion was not sufficiently thick. Each of the 3 pavers was paid 5 cts. per sq. yd. for laying the blocks. Con- sequently the work was rapidly done. There were no men engaged in ramming the blocks, but occasionally one of the pavers would 372 .. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. spend a few minutes ramming. Each of the three pavers averaged 70 sq. yds. per day of 10 hours, or 7 sq. yds. per hour, although as much as 85 sq. yds. per paver were laid in one day. The joints between the blocks were grouted with Portland cement mortar mixed in the proportion of one bag of cement (1 cu. ft.) to one wheelbarrow of sand. The sand was not measured, but probably averaged about 2 cu. ft. to the wheelbarrow. The grout was mixed in a sheet iron tub, shaped somewhat like a long bath- tub, about 18 ins. deep, 30 ins. wide, and 6 ft. long, provided with wooden strips (2x6 ins.) bolted to each side of the tub and pro- jecting beyond the ends to serve as handles. The grouting gang was organized as follows : 1 man wheeling sand. 1 man carrying cement. 1 man carrying water. 3 men mixing grout with hoes. 2 men sweeping grout into joints. These men averaged a batch of grout (about 2^4 cu. ft.) every 3 minutes, and a batch covered about 4 sq. yds. Hence a barrel of cement would cover about 16 sq. yds. With wages at 20 cts. per hour for laborers, the labor cost of grouting was 2 cts. per sq. yd. With sand at $1.00 per cu. yd. delivered, the cost of sand for grout- ing was 2 cts. per sq. yd. ; and, with cement at $1.60 per bbl., the cost of cement for grouting was 10 cts. per sq. yd. After the grouting was completed a thin coat of sand was spread over the entire pavement, about 200 sq. yds. being covered by 1 cu. yd. of sand. Summing up we have : Cts. per sq. yd. Loading and unloading blocks 3% Hauling blocks 1 mile 3 y 2 Laying blocks, pavers, at 35 cts. per hr. . . 5 Laying blocks, helper, at 20 cts. per hr 1 Labor, grouting, wages, at 20 cts. per hr 2 Total labor 15 Add 10% for foreman, etc l % Total 16 % Material for grout : 1-16 bbl. cement, at $1.60 . . . 10 1-50 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 2 1-200 cu. yd. sand (cover), at $1 % Total 12 % The above does not include the concrete base nor the sand cusn- ion between the base and the stone blocks. Cost of Stone Block Pavement, Rochester, N. Y. We have first to consider the dimensions of the blocks. When made of granite, they are split with wedges to tolerably uniform sizes ; but when of stratified rock, like Medina sandstone, a carload of blocks will show wide variation in size of individual stone. In depth, of course, the blocks must be quite uniform, and 6 ins. depth is usually specified. In New York City 4 ins. is specified as the maximum ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 373 width of granite blocks, and it may be assumed as a certainty that they will not be found less than the maximum allowed, since to split them of less width out of granite would add ma- terially to the cost per square yard. In Rochester, N. Y., 5% ins. is specified maximum width for Medina blocks but, due to the thin stratification of the stone, they frequently come 3 ins. in width. The maximum length specified is usually 12 ins., the minimum 8 ins. Granite blocks which are quite uniform in size are sold by the 1,000, and sometimes by the square yard, laid. Medina blocks vary so in size that they are sold by the square yard. Joints are ordinarily about y 2 -in. wide, and are filled first with gravel or sand, into which hot tar is poured. In New York City hot gravel is first poured in to the depth of 2 ins. and hot tar poured upon it till voids are filled ; then another 2-in. layer of gravel and tar is added, and so on until the joint is full. By this method one-third to half the volume of the joints is tar. In Rochester the Medina sandstone joints are first filled clear to the surface with hot sand (damp sand will not run) ; then men with pointed wire pins like a surveyor's "stick-pin," used in chaining, force the sand down or pick it out if there is an excess, until the surface of the sand is 1% to 2 ins. below the surface of the block pavement. Hot tar is then poured in and fills the upper 2 ins. of the joint without penetrating to the bottom. This method gives as good satisfaction, apparently, as the New York method. In order to economize tar, which is quite an item, I would sug- gest a combination of the two methods; that is, first fill the joint with sand to within 2 ins. of the surface, then fill the upper 2 ins. with hot pea gravel (screened) and pour in tar. Cement grout is used as a joint filler in some cities. With blocks 3y 2 xl2x6 ins., there are 26 per sq. yd. where joints are %-in. and the area of joints is 13% of the total area, and the volume of joint filler is nearly 0.6 cu. ft. per sq. yd. of pavement. If tar is worth 10 cts. a gallon, or 75 cts. a cu. ft., and one-third the volume of the joint is tar, the cost for tar alone will be 0.6x^x75 15 cts. per sq. yd. of pavement, or 1% gals. Due to the fact that only one man helped the drivers load their wagons from the car, and only one man helped unload the wagons at the curb, the cost of loading and hauling was so excessive as not to be typical of what can be accomplished under good manage- ment, even where extra wagons are not used. Therefore, in the following summary of costs of this Rochester pavement I shall . give the same costs for loading and hauling that appear on page 371. The wagon load in the Rochester work averaged 2.7 tons. After the blocks were stacked up at the sides of the street they were laid out on edge in the street in advance of the pavers, and assorted into sizes of uniform thickness, which laborers using wheelbarrows did at a cost of about 3 cts. a sq. yd. Two skilled pavers, with one laborer as a helper to supply stone, formed a gang. A paver laid 5 to 8 sq. yds. an hour ; 6 sq. yds. per hr., or 374 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 60 sq. yds. per 10-hr, day, may be taken as an average for safe estimating, which, with pavers' wages at 30 cts. an hour and labor at 15 cts., makes cost of laying 6 cts. per sq. yd. Following the pavers, come a gang of 3 men ramming and rais- ing sunken stone, 1 screening sand for joints, 2 heating sand and tar, 1 wheeling sand for joints, 1 sweeping sand into joints, 7 pok- ing sand down into joints and digging out excess, 5 filling upper 2 ins. of joints with tar, making a gang of 20 men following the pavers, and with wages at 15 cts. an hour, such a gang covering 60 yds. an hour, or 60 sq. yds. per day, makes the cost of ram- ming and filling joints 6 cts. a sq. yd. Summing up, we have for the total labor cost: Per sq. yd. Loading and unloading $0.035 Hauling 1 mile 0.035 Distributing blocks 0.030 Laying 0.060 Filling joints 0.060 Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr., 30 sq. yds 0.013 2 water and errands boys 0.007 Total labor $0.240 Cost of Medina block pavement : Per sq. yd. % cu. yd. street excavation : $0.15 6-in. concrete foundation 0.50 1-18 cu. yd. sand cushion in place, at $1.08 0.06 Medina block (6-in.) f. o. b. Albion, N. Y 1.15 Freight to Rochester 0.07 Unloading, hauling and laying 0.24 1.5 gals, tar at 10 cts. a gal 0.15 1-50 cu. yd. sand for joints 0.02 Total $2.34 Add for contractor's profit 0.26 Total contract price $2.60 In paving four streets with Medina sandstone blocks, at Roches- ter, N. Y., the average amount of joint filler was 1.4 gallons of paving pitch per sq yd. The foregoing cost data apply to work done over large areas with fairly well organized gangs ; but on small areas, such as pav- ing gutters 3 ft. wide, I have had pavers average only 3% sq. yds. per hour per paver, each paver securing his own blocks from piles along the curb. By comparison with the cost of similar work done at St. Paul, described previously, it will be seen that this Rochester work was not as economically done. It should be noted, however, that in St. Paul a cement grout filler was used, while in Rochester the joint filler was tar. Cost of Stone Block Pavement, Baltimore, Md.* In 1908 there were 1,517 sq. yds. of Medina sandstone blocks laid by day labor forces for the city, replacing old wood blocks. Wood blocks were removed from the tracks on Fayette St. from "Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 18, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 375 Calvert to Charles streets, and also on Calvert street from Balti- more to Lexington street, and were replaced with Medina sand- stone. The joints of the pavement were poured with Warren's Puritan brand block filler and followed with a covering of hot gravel. The itemized cost of the work was as follows : Per sq. yd. Blocks $2.350 0.0325 cu. yd. stone dust, at $1.20 0.039 0.02 cu. yd. screened gravel, at $1.90 0.038 41.9 Ibs. filler, at $1 per cwt 0.419 1.3 Ibs. coal, at $4 ton.* 0.003 Hauling 0.094 Labor 0.354 Total (1,517 sq. yds.) $3.297 This high cost is characteristic of all the work done by the city forces in Baltimore. Cost of Granite Block Pavement, New York. MT. G. W. Tillson, in "Street Pavements and Paving Materials," p. 204, gives the fol- lowing data on the cost of granite block pavement in New York City in 1899. The day was 10 hrs. long: Concrete gang : Per day. 1 foreman $ 3.00 8 mixers on two boards, at $1.25 10.00 4 wheeling stone and sand, at $1.25 5.00 1 carrying cement and supplying water, at $1.25.... 1.25 1 ramming, at $1.25 1.25 Total, 240 sq. yds. (40 cu. yds.), at 8.6 cts $20.50 The concrete is shoveled direct from the mixing boards to place. Cost 1:2:4 concrete : Per cu. yd. 1H bbls. natural cement, at $0.90 $1.20 0.95 cu. yd. stone, at $1.25 1.19 0.37 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 0.37 Labor - 0.51 Total $3.27 With concrete 6 ins. thick this is equivalent to 54.6 cts. per sq. yd. for the concrete foundation. The granite blocks were laid two days later with the following gang: Per day. 10 pavers, at $4.50 $ 45.00 5 rammers, at $3.50 17.50 6 chuckers, at $1.50 9.00 20 laborers, at $1.25 25.00 2 foremen, at $3.50 7.00 Total, 650 sq. yds., at 16 cts $103.50 This is equivalent to 65 sq. yds. per paver per day. Per sq. yd. Labor laying blocks, as above given $0.16 22% granite blocks, at $55 per M 1.24 3 % gals, paving pitch, at 7 cts 0.24 1% cu. ft. gravel for joints, at $1.95 per cu. yd... 0.10 l 1 ^ cu. ft. sand for cushion, at $1.00 per cu. yd 0.06 1 sq. yd. concrete, as above given 0.55 Total ... ..T5? 376 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A gang laying granite block pavement on a 7-in. bed of sand was as follows: Per day. 4 pavers, at $4.50 $18.00 2 rammers, at $3.50 7.00 3 chuckers, at $1.50 4.50 3 laborers, at $1.25 3.75 Total, 280 sq. yds., at 12 cts $33.25 This is equivalent to 70 sq. yds. per paver per day. Per sq. yd. Labor $0.12 24 granite blocks, at $55 per M, delivered 1.32 0.2 cu. yd. sand, at $1 0.20 Total $1.64 Apparently the labor cost of melting and pouring the pitch filler is included in work done by the 20 laborers. Cost of Laying Granite Block Pavement, New York.* The work was done in 1905 at 96th street. The paving was done by contract and was commenced Oct. 23, and finished Dec. 20 of the same year. The work consisted of laying 5,167 sq. yds. of granite block pave- ment on a 6-in. concrete base. The blocks used were 12 in. x 3y a in. x 7 in., and 116,250 of them were laid. The total number of lineal feet of joints that had to be tarred was 161,975. In unloading and piling stone on the sidewalks the material was handled by the laborers by hand, the distance over which the stone was carried being but a few feet. It was found that each laborer unloaded and piled 1,390 blocks, or 62 sq. yds., per day. The following was the labor cost, it being estimated that 22.5 blocks make 1 sq. yd. : Unloading and Piling Blocks: Per sq. yd 0.016 day labor, at $1.75 $0.028 0.0006 day foreman, at $3.50 0.002 Total $0.030 Excavating Old Pavement and 6 Ins. Earth: 0.077 day labor, at $1.75 $0.135 0.0054 day foreman, at $3.50 0.019 Total .$0.154 Mixing and Laying Concrete Base: 0.128 day labor, at 1.75 $0.225 0.008 day foreman, at $3.50 0.028 Total $0.253 Paving and Tarring Joints: 0.021 days pavers, at $4.00 . $0.084 0.0175 days pavers' helper, at $2.00 0.035 0.0042 days rammers, at $4.00 0.025 0.0017 days spreading sand cushion, at $1.75 0.003 0.013 days filling joints with gravel, at $1.75 0.023 0.004 days pouring tar into joints, at $1.75 0.007 0.007 days tending tar and gravel kettles, at $1.75. . 0.012 0.002 days foreman, at $5.50 0.013 Total . $0.200 * Engineering-Contracting, June 20, 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 377 It will be noted none of this work was done economically. The labor on the concrete, for example, was double what is commonly required under good management. Each paver laid only 1,066 blocks, or 47% sq. yds. per day, which is an equally miserable showing. Cost of Granite Block Pavement, Baltimore, Md.* This work in- volved laying 12,500 sq. yds. of granite block pavement on Light St., Baltimore, during Aug. 8 to Dec. 8, 1908. The work was not done by contract, but by city forces working by the day. The excessively high cost of the labor per sq. yd. adds another ex- ample to the invariable rule that it is cheaper to do such work by contract. It is stated that during the 4 mos. one week was lost on account of bad weather and three weeks on account of the failure of the blocks to arrive on time. During a large part of the time, two 8-hr, shifts were worked daily. The Belgian blocks were quar- ried in Maine and shipped to Baltimore by boat, the first boat arriving Aug. 24.-r. There were 24y? blocks per sq. yd., the price being $68.50 per M delivered on the line of the work. The cost of the 6-in. concrete base was as follows, the mixture being 1:3%: 6% : Per cu. yd. Per sq. yd. Gravel, 1 cu. yd $1.10 $0.183 Sand, 1/2 cu. yd., at $0.72 0.36 .060 Cement, 4 bags 1.285 0.214 Total materials $2.745 $0.457 Tabor 0.786 0.131 Grand total $3.531 $0.588 It is stated that an engineman, at $2.50 per 8 hrs., and 13 labor- ers, at $1.67, operated a % cu. yd. mixer (part of the time using a Ransome and part of the time using a Smith mixer), and the average 8 hrs. run was 333 sq. yds., or 56 cu. yds. ; but the ex- ceedingly high cost of $0.786 per cu. yd. for labor could not have occurred had the output averaged even the 56 cu. yds. The average organization of the paving gang and the wagefc paid were as follows: Per 8 hrs. 1 foreman, at $4.00 $ 4.00 6 pavers, at $4.00 24.00 2 rammers, at $3.00 6.00 4 carts (including horse, cart and driver), at $2.50. 10.00 7 pourers, at $1.75 12.25 16 laborers, at $1.66% 26.62 2 stone cutters, at $4.00 8.00 Total $90.87 Special efforts were made to keep this gang constantly em- ployed, and absolutely no time was lost by it other than delays * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 22, 1909. 378 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. occasioned by bad weather and failure of blocks to arrive on time. The concrete base at all times was kept well in advance of the pavers, experience having shown that the laborers would do better and quicker work when they could see an abundance of it ahead and no interruption. The average day's work complete for this gang was 267 sq. yds. or 44% sq. yds. to the paver. This makes the cost 34 cts. per sq. yd., and does not include hauling the blocks from the boat to the street. This 34 cts. per sq. yd. is just about three times what it would cost a competent contractor, as will be seen by comparison with records above given. It should be noted that the joints were filled with gravel and pitch, and that the labor of the 7 "pourers," being $12.25 per day, as above given,, amounted to 4.6 cts. per sq. yd. It is stated, how- ever, that the total labor cost of pouring was 5.75 cts. per sq. yd., from which it would appear that about 2 laborers (of the 16) were used to open barrels and keep the fires going, etc. Coal, at $4 per ton, was used to melt the pitch and heat the gravel, and this wood cost % ct per sq. yd. Of pavement. The tar kettle had a capacity of 2 tons, and was mounted on wheels. The gravel heater, also on wheels, had a capacity of 32 cu. ft. of gravel, but did not meet the requirements, so that two un- mounted sheet iron pans (3% x7 ft.) were also used. It is stated that prior to the use of this tar kettle and the gravel heater, fuel (wood, at $5 per cord) had cost 1% ct. per sq. yd. Summarizing the cost, we have: Materials: Per sq. yd. 24% granite blocks delivered on street, at $68 per M ...... $1.6900 083 cu. yds. stone dust for cushion (instead of sand), ' at $1.05 .............................................. 0.0875 0.039 cu. yds. gravel for joints, at $1.80 .................. 0.0700 48 rbs. tar for joints, at $0.01 ............................ 0.4800 1*4 Ibs. coal for heating tar and gravel, at $4.00 per ton. . . . 0.0025 Total materials ................. , ................ $2.3300 Labor: Heating and pouring filler and gravel ..................... $0.0575 Other labor laying blocks ................................ 0.2675 Total -. $2.6550 Concrete base (6-in.) as above given 0.5880 Grand total $3.2430 This does not Include removing an old pavement and grading. The very high cost of the tar filler per sq. yd. is noteworthy. If ft weighed 10 Ibs. per gal., then there were 4.8 gals, per sq. yd., an altogether unnecessary amount. After the final pouring of the tar (Warren's Puritan filler), the pavement was covered with hot gravel. Cost of Dressing Old Granite Blocks, Baltimore, Md.* Before lay- * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 22, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 379 ing a new granite pavement on Light St., Baltimore, 6,500 sq. yds. of old granite blocks were taken up and relaid by city forces. The cost of laying the new blocks is given on page 377. The following costs relate only to the dressing of the old blocks and relaying them. The costs were exceedingly high, due to the fact that the work was done by city forces. Each man dressing old granite blocks averaged 253 blocks per 8-hr, day, and the cost was $13.16 per M, which indicates that the stonecutters received less than $3.30 per day. When relaid the labor cost was as follows: Per sq. yd. Dressing and laying old blocks $0.4325 Heating and pouring filler and gravel 0.0575 Total labor $0.4900 For rates of wages and organization of the gang engaged in laying, see page 377. Cost of Taking Up and Relaying a Cobble Stone Pavement.* In repairing pavements, the costs of labor vary greatly, owing to the fact that the repair work is done in small patches and there is much time lost in the moving of tools from place to place as well as the time the men consume in moving. Records of these costs are exceedingly difficult to obtain, but we are fortunate in being able to give the cost of doing a repairing job that involved enough work to keep a repair gang busy for a day, so that some idea of the cost of the various labor items can be calculated. The wages paid were as follows for an 8-hr, day: Foreman $4.50 Laborers 1.66 Pavers 5.30 Rammers 3.90 2-horse wagon and driver 5.00 Cart and driver 3.50 The work consisted of cobble stone paving, between the curb and a street car track, being 10 ft. wide and 104 ft. long. A 10-in. gutter of flag stones was laid 15 ins. from the curb; the inter- vening 15 ins. being laid with cobbles. In all there were 115.55 sq. yds. of paving, 9.55 sq. yds. of this being in the gutter, and 14.55 sq. yds. being between the gutter and the curb. The system of carrying on the work was for three laborers to loosen the cobbles with bars, being followed by three laborers with picks, who piled the stones within reach of the pavers and kept the ground beneath the paving loosened with their picks. A wagon hauled ashes from the city stock pile to be used beneath the new paving, and it also hauled some cobbles from the yard that were needed. One laborer spread the ashes for the pavers. One paver set the gutter and paved between the curb and the gutter. The curbing was not disturbed. This paver laid 24 sq. yds, * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 2, 1907. 380 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. in the day, more than one-third of it being gutter. The othei three pavers did the rest of the laying, doing not quite 31 sq. yds apiece. Two rammers rammed 106 sq. yds. of paving, being the entire amount less the gutter. The man who spread the ashes followed the rammers spreading sand over the work. The carl hauled the sand. At the close of the day the 7 laborers cleaned up in a few minutes. The varJous labor items cost as follows : Tearing up and handling stone: 3 laborers with bars $4.98 3 laborers with picks 4.98 $ 9.96 Paving' 1 laborer on ashes and sand $ 1.66 4 pavers 21.20 2 rammers 7.80 30.66 Hauling materials: Cart sand $3.50 Wagon for ashes and stone 5.00 8.50 Superintendence 4.50 Grand total $53.62 The cost per sq. yd. was : Tearing up and handling stone $0.086 Paving 265 Superintendence 040 Hauling materials 073 Total cost per sq. yd $0.464 The cobble stones averaged about 8 ins. deep, hence the cost of tearing them up and stacking them was nearly 40 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of Laying Asphalt Block Pavement, New York.* In the up- per part of New York City asphalt block pavements have been in use for many years and have steadily grown in popularity, particu- larly for residence streets. Formerly it was the custom to lay the blocks on edge, following the precedent of stone block and brick pavement construction ; but within recent years the asphalt blocks have been laid flatwise, thus forming a wearing coat of asphalt blocks 3 ins. thick, each block being 3x5x12 ins. The old theory that a block pavement of any kind should be made of blocks set on edge is thus utterly overthrown, and it is not unreasonable to expect to see the time when paving bricks will also be laid flatwise, thus effecting a great economy in material. About five years ago the managing editor of this journal wrote an article setting forth the reasons why paving bricks of larger size, known as "blocks," should be laid flatwise instead of edgewise, but conserva- tism among city engineers is so strong that, so far as we know, not a single city has adopted the plan of laying paving brick flatwise. Coming now to the method of laying asphalt blocks in New York City, we find another departure from precedent in that the ven- erable "sand cushion" has been abandoned. Of course a base of * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 26, 1906, ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 381 concrete is provided in the usual manner, but, instead of laying a sand cushion on this base, it is now the practice to spread a thin coat of cement mortar on which the asphalt blocks are laid. This mortar coat is y 2 in. thick, made of 1 part cement to 4 parts sand. It is mixed dry and wheeled onto the concrete in barrows, roughly spread with shovels and rakes and then leveled off with a wooden straight edge. To insure perfect leveling and the desired thick- ness of mortar, strips of wood % in. thick are laid at intervals of about 10 ft. Then two men shove a straight edge over these strips until the dry mortar is spread evenly. After this a man with a hose sprinkles the mortar until it is quite damp and ready to receive the asphalt blocks. No attempt is made to bed the asphalt blocks down into the mor- tar, but they are merely laid firmly and given a rap with a hammer. In order to keep the courses of blocks in perfect line, a man with an ax follows the pavers and shoves over any parts of courses that are crooked by prying the blocks along with the ax bla,de shoved into the joint. The blocks are loaded in wagons from boats or cars, hauled to the site of the work in advance of the concreting, and stacked in piles on the sidewalk along the curb. Asphalt blocks are not as tough as stone or brick and must be handled more carefully. In loading, as well as in unloading, one man tosses blocks to another man who stacks them up in the wagon, or on the sidewalk. About 300 blocks make a wagon load, and as each block weighs 18 Ibs., a load is approximately 2.7 tons. In loading the blocks from gondola cars into wagons, it takes two men in the car to deliver blocks to one man in the wagon, who piles them up. With four men in the car and two men on the wagon (including the driver as one of these two men), 300 blocks are easily loaded in 10 minutes, even when the men in the car have to walk several steps to get each block. But when the blocks are merely picked up and tossed to the men in the wagon, these six men will load 300 blocks in 7% mins. If the teams are in sufficient number for one team to arrive at the car every 10 mins., the 5 men (and the driver) load 1,800 blocks per hour. With wages of laborers at 20 cts. an hour, and team with driver at 45 cts., the cost of loading (including lost team time) is 80 cts. per 1,000 blocks, or 1.7 cts. per sq. yd. Then the hauling costs $1.20 per 1,000 blocks per mile of haul from car to place of unloading, when 300 blocks form a load, speed of travel being 2 % miles an hour. In unloading the wagon the driver and another man in the wagon toss blocks to two men on the sidewalk, who pile them up. These men unload 300 blocks in 7% mins. without difficulty, but allowing 10 mins. for unloading, so as to include waits for wagons; we have a cost of 60 cts. for unloading each 1,000 blocks including the lost time of the team. Hence, to estimate the cost of handling and hauling, with wages as above given, use the following rule : To a fixed cost of $U t O per M for loading and unloading (in- cluding lost team time), add $1.20 per M for each mile of haul. 382 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The organization of the gang laying the pavement (exclusive of the gang laying the concrete base), is as follows: Per hour. 4 pavers laying blocks, at 40 cts $ \ QQ 16 men carrying blocks, at 20 cts 3 20 1 man lining up blocks, at 20 cts '20 2 men splitting blocks, at 30 cts .*.'!!! '60 1 man laying strips for straight edge, at 30 cts... '30 7 men mixing mortar, at 20 cts 1*40 6 men wheeling and spreading mortar, at 20 cts... l 20 2 men raking mortar, at 20 cts '40 2 men leveling mortar with straight edge, at 20 cts.. '40 1 man sweeping sand into joints, at 20 cts '20 1 foreman, at 50 cts [59 42 men, total, 160 sq. yds., at 6^ cts $10~00 This is equivalent to 40 blocks per paver per hr., or 360 per day. This gang worked 9 hrs. daily, and when engaged in laying blocks averaged 180 to 200 sq. yds. per hr. There was no loafing on the part of the men who carried the blocks to the pavers, nor on the part of the pavers. But the 17 meiv mixing, wheeling and spreading mortar averaged only 23 cu. yds. of mortar placed per day, which is not a very good record. The asphalt blocks were carried, two at a time, by hand, and were not delivered in wheelbarrows. They were laid to break joint by 4 ins., and this left a good deal of work to be done at the curbs in cutting at least two blocks to fill out each course. The two men splitting blocks for this purpose were unable to keep up with the paving gang. Hence, at intervals, the whole gang stopped paving and went back to assist in splitting blocks to close the courses, and to fill the joints of the blocks with sand. No cement is mixed with this sand filler, but loads of dry sand are hauled onto the pavement, dumped, spread, and swept into the joints. A cubic yard of sand fills the joints of about 200 sq. yds. of block pavement. The time required to spread the sand filler and fill out the courses, when included with the time actually spent in laying reduced the average output to 160 sq. yds. per hour, making a cost of 6% cts. per sq. yd. for laying the mortar and blocks and filling the joints with sand. Wages actually paid were somewhat lower than those above given, being $1.50 for 9 hours for laborers and $2.50 to $3.00 for pavers. The pavers did not belong to a union. It will be noted that each of the 4 pavers averaged 45 sq. yds. per hour when not engaged in cutting and fitting blocks at the end of courses, and, as a matter of fact, on the best day each paver averaged 55 sq. yds. per hour, or 495 sq. yds. per day. To the contractor who has been used to laying stone block pave- ment only, these records may seem erroneous. Even the brick paving contractor may be inclined to doubt theii accuracy. It should be remembered, however, that one asphalt block covers 5x12, or 60 sq. ins. of surface, and that it takes only 21 asphalt blocks per square yard, as compared with two or three times that number of paving bricks or blocks. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 383 The time consumed in selecting stone blocks and in bedding them in the sand cushion materially reduces the output of the pavers compared with asphalt block work. Cost of Asphalt Block Pavement, Baltimore.* This work was done in 1908 by city day labor forces, and, as is usual in such cases, the cost was high. An 8-hr, day was worked, wages being as given on page 377. Nearly 30,000 sq. yds. were laid in 1908, some of it on a con- crete base, of which the following is a typical cost where the con- crete was 6 ins. thick, the stone dust cushion being 1 in. thick, and the asphalt block wearing coat being 3 ins. thick. The blocks were 3x5x12 ins. Per sq. yd. 1-6 cu. yd. concrete base, at $3.60 $0.600 0.07 cu. yd. stone dust, at $1.20 0.084 20.7 asphalt blocks, at $65 per M 1.340 Labor laying blocks 0.220 Total $2.244 Cost of Creosoted Wood Block Pavement, Minneapolis.* Minne- apolis was among the first cities in the United States to lay creo- soted wood block pavement to any extent. At the end of 1902 the city had over 200,000 sq. yds. of this type of pavement, and since then this yardage has been largely increased. Minneapolis was also probably the first city to use blocks made of Norway pine and tamarack to any considerable amount. The following figures show the actual average detailed cost of about 145,000 sq. yds. of pavement constructed in various parts of Minneapolis in 1908. The figures were obtained from pay rolls, bills of materials and estimates and are the actual cost for labor and materials for constructing the pavement. The average unit cost per square yard for the 145,000 sq. yds, of creosoted wood block pavement was as follows : Per sq. yd. Removing old cedar paving $0.0270 Grading 0.1320 Concrete base (labor and materials) 0.5226 Cushion sand, at $0.60 per cu. yd 0.0200 Creosoted paving blocks (f. o. b. Mpls.) 1.3900 Hauling blocks 0.0450 Laying blocks . . . 0.0590 Hauling cement 0.0090 Paving pitch filler, at 5.7 cts. per gal 0.0570 Hauling pitch for filler 0.0100 Labor on filler 0.0120 Asphalt filler along St. R. R. tracks 0.0029 Headers (plant) * 0.0030 Sand on finished paving '. 0.0100 Tools 0.0200 Rolling 0.0100 Cleaning up finished street 0.0050 Miscellaneous materials 0.0030 Miscellaneous labor 0.0100 Total $2.3475 * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 18, 1909. 384 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Summarizing the labor items of laying the wood block pave- ment, we have: Per sq. yd. Laying blocks $0.0590 Labor on pitch filler 0.0120 Rolling 0.0100 Cleaning up 0.0050 Total $0.0860 Hauling blocks 0.0450 Miscellaneous labor 0.0100 Grand total $0.1410 This does not include labor of removing old pavement and grading. The organization and wages of the gang directly engaged in laying the blocks were about as follows : Per day. 6 pavers, at $2.50 $15.00 6 helpers setting up blocks, at $2 12.00 7 wheelers, at $2 14.00 4 sand cushion men and sweepers, at $2 8.00 2 sand cushion men and sweepers, at $2.25.... 4.50 2 sand cushion men and sweepers, at $2.50 5.00 1 grader, at $2.25 2.25 1 water boy, at $1.20 1.20 Total (1,050 sq. yds.) $61.95 This gang averaged about 1,050 sq. yds. per 8-hr, day for the full season's work. This included waits for material at times and delays for other causes. Some days the gang laid as high as 1,400 sq. yds. The detailed cost of the concrete base was as follows : Per sq. yd. Crushed limestone, at $1.65 per cu. yd $0.2186 Sand, at $0.60 per cu. yd 0.0374 Cement, at $1.12 per bbl 0.1122 Labor 0.1303 Street railway concrete 0.0241 Total $0.5226 The above figures include, of course, a number of items peculiar to the city, which might not obtain in another community. For instance, the first item removing old blocks (cedar) happens only in a few streets, but yet amounts in total to enough materially to affect the cost price and must be considered. Also in the detailed cost of the concrete, there is included an item for street railway concrete. This item would not appear elsewhere, but is a very con- siderable one in Minneapolis. The street railway company main- tains paving from the outer edge of the rails in one track to the outer edge of the rail in the other track, and does not include the ties extending beyond the rail, iy 2 ft. in each case, and for con- venience to them and to the city, the railway company puts in the concrete base from the rail to end of the tie at the same time it puts ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 385 in the concrete for the tracks, the city paying the company for it. This constitutes the item of "street railway concrete." An item of "headers" also is included. This is a 4 x 10-in. plank set on edge at the returns on unpaved streets to protect the edge of the new paving. The cost varies in different localities in the city, there being as much as 25 cts. per square yard difference. This is due to difference in length of hauls for materials, difference in the grading and from other local conditions. The concrete is mixed by hand. It is 5 ins. thick and is mixed in the proportion of 1:3:7. The stone used in 1908 was a crushed limestone, costing on an average $1.65 per cu. yd., on the basis of $1 per cu. yd. at the crusher, the city doing the hauling. The cement cost $1.12 per barrel f. o. b. Minneapolis, and the mason sand for concrete cost on an average 60 cts. per cu. yd. The filler used in the work was distilled from coal tar and was furnished by the Barrett Manufacturing Co. It was brought on the streets in hot tanks. The season's work averaged about 10 Ibs. of pitch filler to the square yard of finished pavement. This is a little less than one gallon to the yard. The sand cushion was 1 in. thick and the fine sand used cost on an average 60 cts. per cu. yd. The blocks used were Norway pine and tamarack, 4 ins. thick, and were treated with 16 Ibs. of oil to the cubic foot. Common labor was paid at the rate of $2 per day, teams were paid $4 per day, block layers $2.50 per day, and a few special men from $2.25 to $2.50 per day. An 8-hr, day was worked. All the work was done by force account under the direction of B. H. Durham, street engineer, to whom we are indebted for the above information. Labor Cost of Creosoted Wood Block Pavement at Seattle.* The following data abstracted from the "Pacific Builder and Engineer" show the labor cost of constructing some creosoted wood block pave- ment on 4th Ave. in Seattle. The blocks had a cross-section of 3x4x8 ins. and were made from selected Western Washington fir stock. They were treated by the Pacific Creosoting Co. at its Eagle Harbor works. The sub-base for the pavement consisted of 6 ins. of concrete, on which was placed a 1-in. cushion of cement and sand mixed 1 : 3, spread and sprinkled. During one day's work 322 sq. yds. of the pavement were laid, the organization of the gang and wages being as follows : Per day. 16 laborers, at $2 per day $32.00 1 paver, at $5 per day 5.00 Superintendent, at $5 per day 5.00 Total, 322 sq. yds., at $0.1203 $42.00 * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 4, 1909. 386 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This gang mixed the grout, spread it and laid the blocks at the following cost : Per sq. yd. Laborers $0.0993 Total $0.1303 The concrete base cost 90 cts. per sq. yd. by contract. Sand cost $1.25 per cu. yd. delivered, and cement was $2.25 per bbl. deliv- ered. About 4,000 sq. yds. of pavement was constructed. It should be noted that there was an unnecessarily large number of laborers (16) to one paver. Cost of Creosoted Wood Block Pavement, Holyoke, Mass.* The following work was done in 1906, by day labor, under the super- vision of Mr. James L. Tighe, city engineer. About 5,500 sq. yds. of wood blocks were laid on a 5-in. concrete base, the concrete being a 1:3:6 mixture. The 1-in. cushion coat was a 1 : 7 mixture. An 8-hr, day was worked. The organization of the gang for excavating, concreting and paving with blocks was as follows : Excavation: Per day. 1 steam roller and engineman hauling plow $ 10.00 4 men on plow, at $2.00 8.00 20 men loading earth, at $2.00 40.00 4 teams hauling (% mi.), at $4.00 16.00 2 men finishing subgrade, at $2.00 4.00 Total excavation $ 78.00 Hauling Stone and Sand: 6 men loading stone from cars, at $2.00 $ 12.00 2 teams hauling stone, at $4.00 8.00 3 men loading sand in pit, at $2.00 6.00 2 teams hauling sand (0.8 mi.), at $4.00 8.00 Total hauling broken stone and sand $ 34.00 Mixing Concrete: 20 men mixing and placing by hand, at $2.00 $ 40.00 Paving: 4 men mixing and placing cement cushion, at $2.00..$ 8.00 2 pavers laying blocks, at $2.00 4.00 6 pavers' tenders, at $2.00 12.00 1 man spreading sand over pavement, at $2.00.... 2.00 Total paving $ 26.00 Supervision: 2 foremen, at $3.10 $ 6.20 1 superintendent 5.00 Total supervision $ 11-20 Grand total labor $189.20 *Engineering-Contracting, May 13, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 38? This gang excavated earth and laid 300 sq. yds. per 8-hr, day, hence the labor cost was : Per sq. yd. Excavation $0.260 Hauling broken stone and sand 0.113 Mixing and placing 5-in. concrete 0.133 Paving 0.087 Supervision J).037^ Total $0.630 The cost of the concrete materials was about as follows : Per sq. yd. 0.14 cu. yd. broken stone for concrete, at $1.20 $0.17 0.07 cu. yd. sand (pit royalty), at $0.10 0.01 0.14 bbl. cement for concrete, at $1.67 0.24 Total materials for concrete $0.42 We have the following cost: Materials for Wearing Coat: Per sq. yd. 54 creosoted blocks, at $3.95 $2.140 0.03 bbl. cement for mortar cushion, at $1.67 0.050 0.03 cu. yds. sand for mortar cushion, at $0.55 0.017 Total materials for wearing coat $2.207 Labor on Wearing Coat: Men on cement cushion $0.027 Pavers laying wood blocks 0.013 Pavers' tenders 0.040 Man spreading sand over blocks 0.007 Supervision, 6% of labor 0.005 Total labor on wearing coat $0.092 Concrete Base: Materials for 5-in. concrete base $0.420 Labor on concrete base, incl. 6% for supervision. ... $0.140 Total, excluding grading $2.859 Grading, incl. 6% for supervision 0.276 Grand total $3.135 Life of Wood Block Pavement.* Mr. William Weaver gives the following English data: Wood paving has received my special attention since 1872, when it came into extended use. In Kensington, May, 1882, I had laid experimental areas of creo- soted wood blocks, respectively 3 ins., 4 ins. and 5 ins. deep, jointed in different ways, and as the result of careful observation, I advised my board to lay 4-in. creosoted deal blocks in Sydney place, an omnibus route leading from Fulham road to South Kensington sta- tion. These blocks were laid close, and grouted first with pitch and then with Portland cement, the work being carried out in November, 1889, and the blocks lasted until June, 1901, when the road was repaved in a similar manner. The conclusion at which I have arrived, after my experiments initiated in 1882, was that creosoted deal furnished the most * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 15, 1909, 388 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. suitable and economical road pavement ; further, that 5-in. blocks lasted as long as 6-in., and that 4-in. creosoted blocks answered all the requirements of roads where the traffic is not excessive. In order to understand that a 5-in. will last as long as 6-in. paving, it must be borne in mind that wood paving must be renewed as soon as its general surface ceases to drain itself ; and this happens when the blocks forming the haunches of the road are reduced between 1 in. and 2 ins. in depth, the channel or watercourse mean- while not being exposed to similar traffic, suffer no diminution of depth. The above conclusions are fully borne out by Table XIV of in- stances, extracted from my annual reports, which furnishes details of 304,220 yds. of 5-in. and 137,164 yds. of 4-in. wood paving laid in Kensington since 1887. In connection with that list, an instructive comparison is fur- nished by the history of the wood laid in the Hammersmith road in continuation westward of the area laid in Kensington ; at the same time (May, 1886), Hammersmith laid down 6-in. plain deal blocks which lasted a little over six years, being replaced in July, 1892, with 5-in. jarrah blocks. After eight years the jarrah blocks were reversed and rebedded in July, 1900, and replaced with 5-in. creosoted deal in July, 1903. The 5-in. creosoted deal adjoining in Kensington, laid in May, 1886, lasted until September, 1901, equal to the combined lives (less two years) of the plain deal with jarrah together. Further, with regard to the above schedule, I may add that all the roads enumerated are omnibus routes, but the traffic on each, of course, varies in severity. In conclusion, I would point out that by reducing the depth of the wood (each inch of reduction means over a shilling per yard saved), and, further, by about doubling the life of the wood by creosoting, wood paving need no longer be considered an expensive luxury, but must be regarded as a sanitary and economical substi- tute for macadam, where costing over 8d. per yard annually to maintain. At the same time it must not be lost sight of that such substitution has a tendency to increase the rateable value of the abutting property, owing to the improved appearance, cleanliness and quietude of the road. Cost of Asphalt Pavement in California.* Through the kindness of Mr. Charles Kirby Fox, C. E., we are enabled to give the costs of two asphalt paving jobs in a Southern California city. The first piece of work was done under a Vrooman act con- tract, the contract price being $1.89 per sq. yd. It consisted of the construction of pavement on two blocks of street. The street was 48 ft. wide, had 2% ft. concrete gutters, a rise of 6 ins. to 8 ins. and a grade of 1 per cent. It drained well and there were no water holes. The pavement consisted of a 5-in., 1:3:6 concrete base, a 1-in. binder course and a 2-in. asphalt wearing surface. * Engineering-Contracting, April 1, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 38* JS e -< 13' ^"8. S -S3 -S O N-H ft TJ2 Oj rrj rrj C 0> 03 'W^ 5 S <^ S$ g c-a-o ^ - - -COX3* ci--- 05 To-r **5 ^ s OS^Si g I rrt M o o o 0-P.o- G s d c fl d d c c c c c Is P> CO is O S S S S .0 *J I E wo 390 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Grading. The grading ctfst $0.1233 per sq. yd. and was done by the following organization : Per day. 1 foreman, at $5 $ 5.00 1 timekeeper, at $3 3.00 1 engineman, at $3, part time on steam roller and part time on plowing 3.00 2 teams plowing, at $4 12.00 6 teams hauling, at $4 24.00 14 laborers shoveling, at $2 28.00 Total, 610 sq. yds $75.00 Concrete Base. The 5-in. concrete base was made of a 1 : 3 : mixture. On Job No. 2 it was found, however, that these propor- tions did not work well, as all the voids were not filled, and tlwt a 1:3:5 or 1:4:6 mixture made a better concrete. The concrete was hand mixed on two 7 x 7-f t. boards, in the following manner : First, the sand and cement were dumped on the board and hoed across and wet ; then the stone was dumped on the mortar and the whole mess pulled back and forth across the boards and set on the ground in about the place it was to occupy. In the meantime the other board was being filled up and the operation repeated, the first board being pulled a little forward and refilled. The concrete secured was fair. The cost of mixing and placing the concrete was as follows : Per cu. yd. Per sq. yd. 0.93 bbl. cement, at $2.50 $2.28 $0.316 0.45 cu. yd. sand, at $0.80 0.31 0.043 0.9 cu. yd. stone, at $2.00 1.80 0.250 Tools and water 0.12 0.016 Labor and superintendence 1.20 0.166 Total $5.71 $0.791 The wages and organization of the gang engaged in mixing and placing the concrete base were as follows: Per day. 1 superintendent, at $5 $ 5.00 1 timekeeper, at $3. . . . . 3.00 2 laborers, at $2, wheeling sand 4.00 3 laborers, at $2, wheeling stone 6.00 6 laborers, at $2, mixing 12.00 1 laborer, at $2, tending water. 2.00 2 laborers, at $2, leveling and spreading 4.00 1 laborer, at $2, tamping 2.00 Total, 31.7 cu. yds., at $1.20 $38.00 The tools used were as follows: Two 7 x 7-ft. mixing boards, 7 wheelbarrows, 12 picks, 12 shovels, 6 hoes, 300 ft. of hose, 1 tamper, 12 lanterns and 1 tool box. Binder. The 1-in. binder course cost as follows : Per sq. yd. Asphalt, at $20 per ton $0.063 Binder stone, at $2 per cu. yd 0.081 Labor and plant 0.045 'total . $0.189 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 391 The 2-in. asphalt wearing surface was mixed in a plant having a capacity of 8 cu. ft. The tools used in connection with the wearing surface work consisted of a 2y 2 -ton (30-in.) roller, a 300-lb. hand roller, a fire pot, 2 Watson wagons, 2 smoothers, 6 tampers, 6 shovels, 2 dirt picks, 6 asphalt picks, 3 rakes, 5 brooms and 4 wheelbarrows. The cost of the 2-in. asphalt wearing surface was as follows: Per sq. yd. Asphalt, at $20 per ton $0.198 Sand, at $1 per cu. yd 0.045 Dust, at $10 per ton 0.090 Labor 0.090 Plant 0.198 Total $0.621 The high plant charge of 19.8 cts. was due in part to the mixing plant. This occupied two cars. In addition the job was very small, consisting of two 330-ft. by 46-ft. blocks. The wages and organization of the gang engaged in the wearing surface work were as follows : Per day. Superintendent, at $5 $ 5.00 Timekeeper, at $3 3.00 1 engineman, at $3.50 , 3.50 1 mixer, at $3 ' 3.00 1 mixer helper, at $2.50 2.50 1 mixer dipper, at $2.50 2.50 2 men shoveling to heater, at $2.00 4.00 3 men wheeling, at $2 6.00 2 teams hauling to streets, at $4 8.00 2 rakers, at $3 : 6.00 3 shovelers, at $2.50 7.50 1 smoother, at $2.00.... 2.00 1 tamper, at $2.10 2.10 2 roller men, at $2.50 5.00 1 engineman on roller, at $3.50 3.50 1 man sweeping, at $2 2.00 Total $65/60 The second piece of work was done in the fall of 1907 by private contract, at a contract price of $1.89 per sq. yd. The work con- sisted of the construction of pavement on five blocks of streets and four alleys. The streets were 48 ft. wide, had a rise of 6 ins., and a grade of 1 per cent ; they had no gutters. The alleys were 20 ft. wide and had a grade of 0.4 per cent to 1 per cent. The alley that had a 1 per cent grade drained well, but those where grade was less had to be ironed out. The alleys had no gutters. Experience in the city where this pavement was laid has shown that if the gutters fall more than % In. to the foot they can be m,ade to drain by using the straight edge. If the fall is less than % in. there will be water holes. Where the gutter has to be raked it was found advisable to have double the fall per foot. The pavement consisted of 4-in., 1:3:6 concrete base, a 1-in. binder course and a 2-in. wearing surface. 392 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Grading. The grading was done by another contractor and cost 10.099 per square yard, the work being done by the following force: Per day. 1 foreman, at $3 $ 3 00 % timekeeper, at $3 1.50 1 engineman, at $3, part time on steam roller and part time plowing 3.00 2 teams plowing, at $4 g!oo 8 teams hauling dirt away, at $4 32.00 18 laborers shoveling, at $2 36!oo Total $83.50 Concrete Base. The concrete base was laid by the contractor who did the grading. The concrete was mixed in a Ransome mixer, a 3 cu. ft. barrow of sand being dumped into the mixer first, then 1 cu. ft. of loose cement and finally two ban-ows of stone. After sev- eral turns of the mixer the mass was discharged and taken in scoops by the laborers and put in place. Two laborers spread the mixture, two laborers leveled it, and two more laborers tamped it. The mixture was as wet as It could be without the mortar running from the stone. Each wheelbarrow man had two helpers. The gang usually consisted of 28 men; 42 men were the most that could be used to advantage. The concrete on this job was better than that on the first job. The cost of the 4-in. concrete base was as follows : Per cu. yd. Per sq. yd. 0.95 bbl. cement, at $3.00 $2.85 $3.16 0.45 cu. yd. sand, at $0.80 0.31 0.034 0.91 cu. yd. stone, at $2.00 1.82 0.202 Labor and superintendence 0.974 0.108 Rent of machine, repairs, oil... 0.246 0.027 Total . .$6.2(T $0.687 The stone used in the concrete was hauled from cars about % mile distant, the cost of unloading and hauling being as follows: Per cu. yd. Foreman, at $3 $0.03 Laborers, at $2 15 Teams, at $4 19 Total $0.37 This cost is included in the $2 in the table. The wages and organization of the force engaged in mixing and placing the concrete base were as follows: Per day. 1 foreman, at $100 per month $ 4.00 1 engineman on mixer, at $3.50 3.50 1 handyman, at $2.50 2.50 1 team, at $4 4.00 1 laborer tending mixer discharge, at $2 2.00 2 laborers carry and measure cement, at $2.... 4.00 1 laborer at $2 wheeling sand, and 1 laborer at $2 helping 4.00 2 laborers at $2 wheeling stone, and 2 laborers at $2 helping 8.00 2 laborers dumping concrete, at $2 4.00 2 laborers tamping, at $2 4.00 9 laborers taking concrete from machine, at $2. . 18.00 Total, 60 cu. yds $58.00 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 393 These concrete men evidently worked with no energy, as is shown by their miserably small output with a good plant. The plant used consisted of a Ransome concrete mixer with 6 h.p. gasoline engine mounted on wheels, one 1 cu. ft. cement box, four 3 cu. ft. wheelbarrows, 29 scoops, 12 short-handled shovels, 18 long- handled shovels, 12 picks, 400 ft. of hose, three tampers, 12 lanterns and one tool box. Binder. The stone used in the binder had the dust screened out and was passed through a 1% in. screen. It was found, however, that this did not leave enough fine stuff, pea size or thereabouts, so screenings from the sand were taken and from this was screened out all particles above 1 in. in size. One part of these screenings was mixed with two parts of broken stone and heated to 200 F. Four cubic feet of this was mixed with 27 Ibs. of melted asphalt, making a strong binder. The cost of the binder was $0.171 per square yard. The wearing surface was mixed in batches of the proportion of 4 cu. ft. of sand, heated to about 300 F.. 30 Ibs. of cold dust, and 50 Ibs. of melted asphalt. These were mixed very thoroughly, usual- ly taking 1% minutes to the batch. The mixture usually arrived on the street at about 280 F. It was found that a 4 cu. ft. batch would lay about 20 sq. ft. of 2 in. surface. The cost of the wearing sur- face was $0.549 per square yard. The wages and organization of the force engaged in preparing and laying the binder and the wearing surface were as follows: Per day. Superintendent, at $120 per month $ 5.00 1 engineman. at $3.50 3.50 1 mixer, at $3.00 3.00 1 mixer helper, at $2.50 2.50 1 heater, at $2.50 2.50 1 man shoveling sand and 1 man shoveling marble dust, at $2.50 2.50 1 scraper team, at $4.00 4.00 2 teams hauling to street, at $4.50 9.00 1 engineman on roller, at $3.50 3.50 2 rakers, at $3.00 6.00 2 shovelers, at $2.50 5.00 2 hand roller men, at $2.50 5.00 2 tampers, at $2.50 5.00 Total $56.50 The plant used consisted of a 4 cu. ft. mixer, a 5 ton (38 in.) roller, a 500 Ib. hand roller, a fire pot, 3 Watson wagons and teams, a scraper, 3 rakes, 3 shovels, 2 tampers, 3 smoothers, 1 asphalt pick and 2 brooms. Summary. A summary of the costs of the two jobs is as follows : Job 1. Job 2. Per sq. yd. Per sq. yd. Grading $0.123 $0.099 Concrete 0.791 0.687 Binder 0.189 0.171 Surface 0.621 0.549 Office, collection and general expense estimated 0.180 0.180 Total . .$1.904 $1.686 394 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Job 2 had more material and better workmanship per unit than Job 1. It was better managed, especially in the asphalt department. Job 1 had an asphalt mixer requiring two cars to move, while on Job 2 the mixer required but one car, but it cost more to move the latter. The small plant was the most economical. On concrete work the lost time of steady pay men when they were not mixing amounted to about 10 cts. per cubic yard; usually, however, wheri these men were not mixing they were engaged on other work. Cost of 77,200 Square Yards Asphalt Pavement.* Mr. F. E. Puffer gives the following: The cost of laying 77,208 sq. yds. of asphalt pavement in an east- ern city, which was a season's work, was as follows : The price paid for common labor was $1.5 a day, and $5 a day for team and driver. Total Grading street: Per sq. yd. Per sq. yd. Sundries 10.021 Labor 0.204 Teams ($5 a day) 0.087 $0.312 Concrete base (6-in.): 0.173 bbl. natural cement, at $0.83 $0.144 0.055 cu. yd. sand delivered, at $0.98. . . . 0.054 0.176 cu. yd. stone delivered, at $1.62 0.285 Sundries 0.015 Labor laying 0.094 Labor, general 0.001 $0.593 Binder (1% ins.): Materials $0.188 Fuel 0.016 Tools and sundries 0.001 Labor, yard (mixing, etc.) 0.026 Labor, laying 0.023 Labor, general 0.001 Teams, hauling ($5 a day) 0.024 $0.279 Surface (2-in.): Materials $0.645 Fuel 0.022 Tools and sundries 0.054 Labor, yard (mixing, etc.) 0.053 Labor, laying 0.047 Labor, general 0.028 Teams, hauling 0.035 $0.884 General expense: Salaries $0.018 Rent and expenses 0.014 Plant, etc 0.025 $0.057 Grand total $2.125 The exact proportions of the materials used in the binder and in the surface coats are not available, but the prices paid for materials and supplies were as follows : Binder stone, per cu. yd $ 1.00 Asphalt, per ton 50.75 Petroleum residuum, per gal 07% Sand, per cu. yd. . 65 Pulverized limestone, per ton 3.50 Coal (anthracite) used in dryers, per ton 3.00 Coal (soft) used under boilers, per ton 2.85 Wood to heat, asphalt tanks, per cord. 4.00 * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 5, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 395 It will be noted that the cost of the asphalt was much higher than it is at present, the present price being about $30 a ton. Since there are about 4 Ibs. of asphalt per sq. yd. of binder, and about 19 Ibs. per sq. yd. of surface coat, the difference of $20 a ton (or 1 ct. per Ib. of asphalt) would reduce the above given costs by 4 cts. per sq. yd. of binder and 19 cts. per sq. yd. of surface coat. An old plant having a value of about $22,000 was used. The plant repairs amounted to $1,525, or 2 cts. per sq. yd., which is unusually low. Ordinary plant charges are about 7 % cts. per sq. yd. where a modern plant is used, but in such cases the labor cost is lower than in this case. I have made no allowance for interest on and depreciation of plant. The fallacy of attempting to estimate .the cost of asphalt pave- ments from a single day's operation is clearly shown by comparing the records of costs on different jobs extending over considerable periods of time. Marked differences of cost occur, arising partly from variations in local conditions, and partly from the varying efficiency of the workers, and partly from the exactions of the inspector. The following are the costs of three different streets, showing how costs vary. Contract A was performed under favorable weather conditions on a suburban street, close to the source of supply of concrete ma- terials and far from the paving plant. The cost was a little below the season's average above given: CONTRACT A. (3,284 sq. yds.) Total Grading street: Per sq. yd. Per sq. yd. Sundries $0.019 Labor 0.123 Teams 0.089 $0.231 Concrete base (6-in.): Natural cement, at $9.866 per bbl $0.138 Sand, at $0.92 per cu. yd 0.051 Stone, at $1.77 per cu. yd 0.295 Sundries 0.015 Labor 0.093 $0.592 Binder (iy 2 -in.): Materials $0.192 Fuel 0.011 Tools and sundries 0.002 Labor, yard 0.024 Labor, laying 0.024 Teams hauling 0.024 $0.277 Surface (2-in.): Materials $0.673 Fuel 0.026 Tools and sundries 0.055 Labor, yard 0.047 Labor, laying 0.042 Labor, general 0.029 Teams hauling 0.035 $0.907 General expense $0.042 $0.042 Grand total.. $2.049 396 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Contract B was the last contract of the season. Weather was unfavorable but not severe. Length of haul was less than the aver- age for the season. The forces, except asphalt, were somewhat demoralized by the fact that the job would soon end. The cost was naturally high. CONTRACT B. (5,278 sq. yds.) Grading street: Per sq. yd. Persq^yd. Sundries $0.021 Labor 0.138 Teams 0.129 $0.288 Concrete base (6-in.): Cement, at $0.845 per bbl 50.142 Sand, at $1.18 per cu. yd 0.063 Stone, at $1-93 per cu. yd 0.321 Tools an'l sundries 0.015 Labor 0.104 $0.645 Binder (1%-in.): Materials $0.195 Fuel 0.011 Labor, yard 0.030 Labor, laying 0.025 Teams hauling 0.025 $0.287 Surface (2-in.): Material $0.666 Fuel : 0.023 Tools and sundries 0.056 Labor, yard 0.041 Labor, laying 0.053 Labor, general 0.029 Teams hauling 0.035 $0.903 General expense $0.057 $0.057 Grand total $2.180 Contract C varies from the others in having a 1-in. binder and a 1 1/2 -in. surface specified. As a matter of fact, however, the asphalt was laid thicker than specified, due to the fact that the men had not been used to laying any light pavement that year. The work was located near the paving plant, also near the source of supply of cement, etc. The weather was good. The cost was naturally low. CONTRACT C. (2,404 sq. yds.) Grading street: Per sq. yd. Sundries $0.021 Labor 0.110 Teams 0.091 Concrete base (6-inJ: Cement, at $0.876 per bbl $0.151 Sand, at $0.71 per cu. yd 0.039 Stone 0.205 Tools and sundries 0.016 Labor 0.069- Total Per sq. y<5 $0.222 $0.480 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. CONTRACT C (CONTINUED). (2,404 sq. yds.) Binder (1-in): Per sq. yd. Per sq. yd. Materials $0.152 Fuel 0.009 Sundries 0.001 Labor, yard 0.027 Labor, laying 0.020 Teams hauling 0.005 $0.215 Surface (iy 2 -in.): Materials $0.495 Fuel 0.019 Tools and sundries 0.042 Labor, yard 0.043 Labor, laying 0.062 Labor, general 0.022 Teams hauling 0.007 $0.690 General expense $0.057 $0.057 Grand total $1.664 Cost of Asphalt Pavements at Winnipeg. The following data are given by H. N. Ruttan, City Engineer of Winnipeg, Manitoto, on the cost of laying asphalt with a municipally owned plant. In 1899, the city purchased a second-hand stationary plant for $12,322, and made the following additions : New 10-ton roller $ 3,500 New sheds, etc 733 Tools bought 1899 . 262 Tools bought 1900 121 Maintenance 1899 568 Maintenance 1900 1,048 $ 6,232 Second-hand plant 12,322 Total $18,554 The maintenance items consisted largely in repairs to the second- hand plant necessary to put it in first-class condition. The plant includes 2 asphalt melting tanks, sand drum, cold and hot sand ele- vators, millstone for grinding limestone, storage tank for hot asphalt, storage bins for ground limestone and hot sand, mixer of 7 cu. ft. capacity, 60-hp. boiler, 30-hp. engine, air compressor and receiver, 5-ton roller, 10-ton roller, and accessories. The force required tn operate the mixing plant was as follows : 1 superintendent $ 8.00 1 engineman 3.00 2 firemen 4.00 2 asphalt melters 4.00 1 asphalt dipper and mixer 2.00 1 measurer of sand and limestone 2.00 2 sand and limestone shovelers 2.00 1 record keeper 4.00 1 man for odd jobs 2.00 Total labor for 9 hrs $31.00 I have assumed the above rates of wages, but it is stated that the 398 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. total cost of operating was $40 a uay, which doubtless Includes the cost of 1% or 2 tons of coal. It Is stated that, in 1900 the prices of materials and labor were as follows, on cars : Asphalt, per short ton ........................ $36.00 Portland cement, per bbl ....................... 3.65 Sand, per cu. yd ............................... 1.35 Broken stone, per cu. yd ....................... 1.10 Common labor is said to have been 17% to 20 cts. per hr. ; teams, 40 cts. per hr. Asphalt pavement, consisting- of 1%-in. binder and 2-in. wearing surface, laid on a 4% -in. Portland cement concrete foundation, cost $2.04 per sq. yd. for materials and labor. The concrete foundation cost $0.74 per sq. yd., leaving $1.30 per sq. yd. for the asphalt and the grading. It will be noticed that interest and depreciation are not included. The plant has a capacity of 1,000 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing surface, or 1,500 sq. yds. of 1%-in. binder, which is equivalent to saying that it has a capacity of about 60 cu. yds. of asphalt, measured in the street, per day of 9 hrs. In 1899*the city laid 45,800 sq. yds. ; in 1900, it laid 22,000 sq. yds. If we assume 30,000 sq. yds. as a fair average for a term of 10 years, the plant would pay for itself by charging 6 cts. per sq. yd. for plant, and it would be occupied about 60 days of actual work per year. But we should not lose sight of the fact that the services of an expert to run the plant could not be secured on the basis of a few dollars a day for only a small fraction of the year. Indeed the cost of an expert's annual salary alone might very easily run up the cost an amount equivalent to 10 cts. per sq. yd. Since the above was written I have secured the following addi- tional data for the year 1903. The plant has been enlarged and its estimated value is now $21,082. The charges against this plant for the year 1903 were as follows: Maintenance and repairs ...................... $2,297 % cost of new tools. ... ...................... 236 4% interest on $21,082 ........................ 843 5% depreciation on $21,082 .................... 1,054 Lost taxes .................................. 100 Total plant charge, 65,381 sq. yds. at 6.93 cts.. $4,530 In 1903 there were laid 65,381 sq. yds., so that the charge for plant was 6.93 cts. per sq. yd. The soil is clay and upon it la spread 3 ins. of sand and gravel before laying the concrete base. The cost of the pavement in 1903, including grading, was as follows; Per sq. yd. Grading, including cross-drains .................. $0.15 Sand, 3-in. foundation .......................... 0.15 Concrete, 4 % ins. thick ............. . .......... 0.65 Binder coat ................................... 0.28 Surface coat .................................. 0.60 Plant charges ................................. U- Total . ... .......................... $1.90 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 399 The prices paid for materials, f. o. b. Winnipeg, in 1903, were as follows : Portland cement, per bbl $ 2.96 Broken stone, per cu. yd 1.30 Sand and gravel, per cu. yd 1.00 Crushed granite, per cu. yd 5.00 Asphalt, per ton 26.37 Maltha, per imp. gal 0.12 Common labor, per 9-hr, day $1.80 to 2.25 Skilled labor, per 9-hr, day 2.70 Foremen $3.00 to 4.00 Superintending chemist (for 5 or 6 mos.) 8.00 Mr. Ruttan informs me that a 2-in. surface coat (Bermudez) costs as follows at the mixer : Per sq. yd. 0.06 cu. yd. (135 Ibs.) sand, at $1.35 $0.081 21 Ibs. dust, at $2.60 per ton 0.027 3.5 Ibs. oil, at iy 2 cts 0.048 15 Ibs. Bermudez (gross), at 1.93 cts 0.291 Labor at the mixing plant 0.048 Fuel (wood) 0.018 Total, at the mixer $0.517 This gives a weight of 117 Ibs. per cu. ft. Cost of Laying Asphalt Pavement. The following shows the labor cost of laying asphalt on a concrete base at Rochester, N. Y. A binder coat, %-in. thick, was first laid; then a wearing, or sur- face coat iy% ins. thick; making a total of 2 ins. The gang consist- ed of 16 men, working part of the time on the "binder" and part of the time on the "surface coat," as follows : Binder gang. Surfacing gang. 4 barrow loaders. 4 shovelers. 4 barrow wheelers. 5 rakers. 2 rakers. 2 tampers. 2 tampers. 2 smoothers. 1 wagon unloader. 1 cement spreader. 1 tar melter. 1 iron heater. 1 iron heater. 1 foreman. 1 foreman. 16 men. 16 men. The binder gang averaged 2,250 sq. yds. (=31 cu. yds.) in 10 hrs. of %-in. binder coat laid, although they frequently laid 390 sq. yds. in an hour. The surfacing gang averaged 1,800 sq. yds. (= 75 cu. yds.) of 1%-in. surface coat in 10 hrs., although they frequently laid 260 sq. yds. in an hour. There were two asphalt steam rollers con- stantly at work, with this gang of 16 men. In laying several thou- sand yards of this 2-in. asphalt pavement, I found the average labor cost to be as follows, the gang laying 1,000 sq. yds. per day : 15 laborers, at $1.50 $2250 1 foreman, at $4.00 4.00 2 roller engineers, at $3.00 6.00 Fuel for rollers 2.50 Total for 1,000 sq. yds. of 2-in. asphalt, at 3% cts.. .$35.00 This is equivalent to 3% cts. per sq. yd. for laying and rolling, or 63 cts. per cu. yd. The haul from the mixer to the street was 3 miles, and ach 400 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. team made 4 trips daily, averaging only 1 % cu. yds. of loose ma- terial per load. It took 2% cu. yds. of loose material in the wagons to make 2 cu. yds. packed by the roller, or a shrinkage of 25%. The wagons were slat-bottom wagons, and it took about 8 mins. to dump a wagon, but fully as much more time was lost waiting for other wagons, turning around, etc., which time was made up by trotting back. There were 17 teams kept busy, at |3 per day each, making the cost 5 cts. per sq. yd. for hauling the asphalt 3 miles. Cost of Asphalt Pavement, New York.* In the following tabula- tion is given the labor cost to the contractor of laying 8,900 sq. yds. of asphalt pavement on Broadway, from 110th street to 119th street, west side, New York. The work was done in November, 1904. The wages paid were on the basis of an 8-hr. day. The concrete founda- tion for the asphalt pavement was 5 ins. thick and was composed of 1 part of cement, 3 parts of sand and 6 parts of broken stone. In preparing the concrete for the foundation a Foote mixer was used. The inefficiency of the concrete workmen is well shown by the fol- lowing cost : Concrete: Per so vd 0.008 day foreman, at $3.75 $003 0.162 day laborers, at $1.50 '243 0.008 day teams, at $5.00 '.'. '04 0.008 day steam engine, at $3.50 '. . [ ]o28 Total concrete labor, per sq. yd $034 Binder: 0.0004 day foreman, at $4.00 $0.0016 0.0008 day engineman, at $4.00 - 0032 0.0063 day labor, spreading, at $1.75.. Oil 0.0009 day labor, ramming, at $2.25 002 Total binder, per sq. yd $0.018 Wearing surface: 0.0005 day foreman, at $4.00, $0.002 0.0040 day laborers, at $1.75 007 0.0010 day engineman, at $4.00 004 0.0070 day labor, spreading, at $1.75 012 0.0008 day labor, raking, at $2.50 002 0.0009 day labor, ramming, at $2.25 002 0.0016 day labor, ironing, at $2.50 004 Total surface coat, per sq. yd $0.033 The binder was 1 in. thick, and the surface coat was l 1 /^ ins. thick, making a total of 2 y 2 ins. of asphalt. It will be seen that the laying cost of laying this asphalt was 1.8 cts+ 3.3 cts. = 4.1 cts. per sq. yd. Cost of Patching Asphalt, Indianapolis, Ind.f Mr. S. R. Murray gives the data upon which the following is based. Work on the municipal repair plant of Indianapolis, Ind., waa begun on April 16, 1908, and on June 16, 1908, the first asphalt mix- ture was turned out. The plant was made by Werthington & Berner and has a capacity of 1,200 sq. yds. of 2-in. asphalt. The total cost of the plant, one 5-ton steam asphalt roller, four dump wagons, fire wagons, office building, roller, stone dust and tool sheds and all tools * Engineering-Contracting, May 16, 1906. ^Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 27, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 401 necessary to carry on the work, amounted to $20,557.68. This also includes the cost of grading off the yard for plant, putting brick driveway under mixer and cement floor around cold sand elevator. The plant itself cost $15,525. Between June 16 and Dec. 31, the following was the plant output: Boxes. Surface mixture ' 16,691 Binder 1,730 Total 18,421 A "box" was 9 cu. ft. of mixed material measured at the plant. Hence the total output was 165,789 cu. ft. of surface and binder, measured before rolling. With this there were laid : Sq. yds. Surface, or wearing coat 92,472 Binder 7 11,271 It will be seen that each box (9 cu. ft.) of surface mixture made 5.54 sq. yds. of wearing surface, indicating that the wearing surface measured 2.17 ins. thick before rolling. If it was compressed 33% under the roller, the thickness was reduced to 1.45 ins. If it was compressed 16%% (a common assumption) the thickness was re- duced to 1.8 ins. The total cost of 82,908 sq. yds. of wearing surface (without any binder) laid in repairing 50 different streets was $51,900, or $0.625 per sq. yd. for all expenses, including interest, at 5%, on the $20,600 plant for 6^ mos., and depreciation at 5% for 6% mos. This $0.625 per sq. yd. is equivalent to $3.46 per box of 9 cu. ft., or $0.39 per cu. ft. The work was done on the same basis as other city work, 8 hrs. per day, and was performed under the most favorable conditions, as a great many of the repairs were large and close together. Only one day was lost account of rain, and four days lost waiting for material. Only seven hours were lost on account of the plant not being ready when called upon ; two hours on account of the breaking of a driv- ing pinion and five hours for replacing brick work in the furnace under the sand drier. This, it will be noted, is a very small loss of time when it is considered that the plant turned out 18,421 boxes in all. Maltha California asphalt was used for the most part on the re- pair work ; but on account of the West Michigan St. being under guarantee and specifications calling for this material, Trinidad Pitch Lake asphalt was used in its resurface, which involved 9,500 sq. yds. Petroleum residuum was used as a flux and the very best of ma- terial and workmanship were used throughout. The cost of materials used in the plant was as follows. California asphalt, $23 per ton. ' Trinidad asphalt, $29 per ton. Limestone dust, $3 per ton. Residuum oil, average 5 cts. per gal. Sand, 90 cts. per cu. yd. Common labor was paid 20 cts. per hour, skilled asphalf men re' 402 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ceived $2.50 per 8-hr, day, teams were paid for at rate of $3.50 per day, roller engineers received $3.50 per day, and foremen received $4 per day. High Cost of Patching Asphalt, New Orleans.* The total amount of asphalt pavement in New Orleans, maintenance of which by its constructors had expired prior to Jan, 1, 1908, was 549,749 sq. yds. Of this amount 398,536 sq. yds. is to be maintained by the city, and 151,213 sq. yds. by the New Orleans Ry. & Light Co. In order to care for this pavement the city decided to erect a plant, and accordingly in 1904 asked bids for furnishing and erecting a repair plant. The specifications under which bids were asked gave the fullest latitude to bidders in designing the arrangement of the plant and in selecting the machinery, apparatus, fixtures, etc. It was required, however, that the plant be operated with coal as a Fig. 12. Asphalt Plant. fuel, and that it be capable of turning out each 10-hr, working day not less than 1,000 sq. yds. of binder when laid iy 2 ins. thick after compression on the street, or 1,000 sq. yds. of pitch asphalt wearing surface when laid 2 ins. thick after compression. The Warren Bros. Asphalt Paving Co., of Cambridge, Mass., was the only bidder, and on Dec. 5, 1905, its bid was accepted. The plant was accepted by the city on Aug. 21, 1906. A report on the operation of the plant for the year ending Aug. 31, 1907, has just been made by Mr. W. J. Hardee, City Engineer, and from this report has been taken the matter in this article. The plant, Fig. 12, was erected in a lot of ground 175 ft. x 260 ft, owned by the city and formerly employed for garbage disposal pur- poses. The plant, furnished and erected by the Warren Bros. Asphalt Paving Co., covers about 1,500 sq. ft. of ground and con- sists of a building formed of concrete foundation, brick walls and floors and roof of steel beams, expanded metal and cinder concrete. The boiler and engine section is 1 story high ; the dryer section and the asphalt melting tanks section are each 2 stories high, and the central or tower section, containing the sand bin, the mineral dust bin, and the mixer, is 3 stories,, or 32 ft. high. The boiler and * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 5, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 403 engine, the dryer, and the asphalt melting tanks each have a sub- stantial foundation of concrete, independent of the foundation of the buildings. The hot sand, or stone bin, and the mixer, together with their auxiliary apparatus, are carried on a conical-shaped steel frame, 4-legged tower erected just within the building and resting on pier concrete foundations independent of building foundations. The cost of the plant and the appurtenant structures was as follows : Demolition of old garbage plant buildings $ 475 Asphalt plant Warren Bros. Asphalt Paving Co.'s contract, $16,862.50 ; city alterations and additions, $2,736.50 19,599 Yard fences and gates 859 Switch tracks . . 1,189 Yard pavements and drains 6,721 Tower tank and filter 1,330 Water pipes and outlets 1,015 Warehouse and platform 1,471 Asphalt shed ^ . . .. '. . 289 Blacksmith shop and equipment 222 Stable, rolling pen and wagon shed : 5,311 Stone crusher and storage bin - 1,966 Yard material bins 332 Office and store room building 5,509 Landing bins and roads 1,432 Lighting 352 General cleaning of premises 298 Total , ..$48,365 Note. No allowance is made for* value of the land. The live stock consist of 17 mules and 3 horses; the mules are used in wagons and carts and the horses in buggies. The rolling stock consists of 10 Watson (2-cu. yd.) asphalt dump wagons; 8 (1-cu. yd.) single-mule dump carts; 2 Tennessee 4-wheel wagons with capacity of 4,000 Ibs. each; 1 (4-wheel) float dray, 5 -in. tires, with capacity of 6 tons ; and 1 single-horse storm buggy. Each wagon and cart is equipped with a canvas (tarpaulin) cover. In addition to 134 tools of various kinds necessary to operate the plant furnished by the Warren Bros. Asphalt Paving Co., the plant is equipped with the following : 1 Fairbanks platform scales mount- ed on rollers for weighing materials; 1 (4-wheel) 3 ft. 10 in. by 2 ft. 10 in. Fairbanks wagon hand truck; 12 iron frame and bed wheel- barrows; 6 short-handle shovels; 12 long-handle shovels; 10 axes; 6 picks ; 8 crowbars ; 8 sledgehammers, assorted sizes ; and a num- ber of small tools of various kinds. The street tools consist of the following: 2 large-size tool boxes; 18 wooden street barriers; 1 Universal 8 -ton steam asphalt roller; 1 Universal 3%-ton steam asphalt roller; 1 1,000-lb. iron hand asphalt roller; 1 (4-wheel) fire wagon for heating, tamping and smoothing irons; 1 (2-wheel) 100-gal. mixing kettle; 18 asphalt tamping irons; 15 asphalt smoothing irons; 66 asphalt axes; 107 picks; 18 mattocks; 102 long-handle shovels; 40 short-handle shovels; 24 iron frame and bed wheelbarrows; 6 axes; 200 lin. ft. of 1-in. diameter wire wrapped rubber hose ; 6 sledgehammers , 8 404 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. chisels of various sizes; 10 crowbars; and a number of small tools of various kinds. The testing laboratory, opepated in connection with the plant, is equipped with cement testing apparatus, oil tester, brick tester, etc. The cost of this equipment may be summarized as follows : Live stock, harness and stable equipment $ 6,197 Rolling stock and equipment 3,180 Plant tools 837 Street tools 5,492 Office furniture 447 Laboratory equipment 1,490 Total $17,644 Soon after the plant was placed in operation the city ordered it to do a considerable amount of work not originally contemplated. This included the repairing of streets other than those paved with asphalt, and accordingly the following additional equipment was purchased : Pioneer 7-ton steam road roller $1,113 Champion steel road grading machine 150 Austin 700-gal. capacity road sprinkler 396 Rolling stock 1,027 Railroad plows with extra points 39 Wheel scrapers 140 Harness 139 Live stock 1,700 Total ?4~704 For the plow and grading machine mules 17*6 hands high and weighing about 1,600 Ibs. were secured. Summarizing, the total cost of the plant and equipment is seen to be as follows : Structures and their equipment $48,365 Equipment 17,673 Additional equipment 4,704 Total cost $70,583 The largest day's run made by the asphalt plant was on June 24, 1907, when surfacing (new pavement) the Esplanade-Claiborne Ave. intersection. In 9 hrs. 205 boxes, gross, of "wearing surface" mix- ture were turned out ; 3 Watson wagons hauled this material from the plant to where it was laid, a distance of a little more than 2 miles; and this material completed 1,020 sq. yds. of pavement in- tended to be 2 ins. in thickness. The cost of the fuel and labor, including wages of plant foreman, employed in preparing the "wear- ing surface" mixture ; the wages of wagon drivers and the care and feed of the teams ; and the labor, including foreman, roller men and fuel, in laying this "naptha coat" and "wearing surface" amounted in all to $127.23, or 12.47 cts. per sq. yd. The repair plant force worked every working day of the year when it did not rain. The asphalt plant worked 141 days and turned out 9,883 boxes, or 88,947 cu. ft. of wearing surface mix- ture. It was estimated that a 9 cu. ft. box would lay 5 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing surface, assuming that the loose material compresses 16%% under the roller. On this assumption 49,415 sq. yds. of 2-in. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 405 wearing surface would have been laid. As a matter of fact, only 44,300 sq. yds. were laid, due to using a greater thickness than 2 ins. This greater thickness was necessitated because no "binder" coat was laid to replace any of the old binder removed from the street. Instead of a binder coat, the concrete was "painted" with a "naphtha coat." Naphtha binder was not only much cheaper, but Mr. Hardee con- siders it also much more substantial and durable. Naphtha coat is formed of vaporized gasoline and asphalt mixed in equal propor- tions ; it is put on the concrete foundation, when the same is perfectly dry, by hand, with brushes, just as paint would be applied, and to the least possible thickness ; it is practically impervious to moisture and prevents the moisture that is commonly ever present in the concrete foundation of our pavements from attacking, through capillary attraction, the base of the asphalt "wearing surface" and rotting it ; additionally, the "naphtha coat" effects a strong union of the concrete foundation and the asphalt "wearing surface" and pre- vents the latter from being displaced in warm weather, as is so fre- quently the case in old pavements in which gravel "binder" has been employed. In repairing old pavements, where the combined thick- ness of the "binder" and "wearing surface" was considerably more than 2 ins., concrete was generally added to the original concrete foundation. From time to time such laborers, additional assistant foremen and other employes, as were required, were hired by the day. When operations were first commenced nearly all the plant and street employes were negroes, but as fast as white men who could satis- factorily do the work were found, the negroes were displaced ; within a few months six negroes only remained and these were engaged at the plant on a class of work for which white men were not well fitted. Teamsters and some of the laborers were paid at the rate of $1.75 per day ; but the large majority were paid at the rate of $2 per 10-hr, day. Pavers, stone .workers and brick masons were paid from $2.50 to $4 per 8-hr. day. The following is a list of the permanent employes: Annual wage. Superintendent $ 2,500 Secretary .' 1,800 Stenographer 720 Street foreman 1,500 Assistant street foreman 1,200 Yard foreman 1,500 Engineman , 1,500 Fireman 780 Steam roller engineman 1,380 Blacksmith 1,080 Yard clerk 720 Messenger 600 Hostler 720 - Night watchman 720 Veterinary 180 Chemist, % of $1,800 900 Chemist helper, % of $720 360 Total , $18,160 40fi HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. For reasons that are not made at all clear in his report, Mr. W. J. Hardee, City Engineer, deducts the following salaries tronj the above, and puts them in an account that he designates by the very ambiguous phrase "Special Charges": Chemist . $ 720 Chemist helper 310 Engineman , 1,450 Fireman 725 Total salaries in "Special Charges" $3,205 Deducting this $3,205 from the annual salaries of $18,160, we have left $14,955, which somehow becomes $15,674 when recorded in the "Annual Employes' Salaries." Then. the account of "Special Charges" contains the following: Salaries (as above given) $ 3,205 % laborer's wages at the plant 8 092 342 tons coal at the plant, at $2.84 972 Supplies at the plant 606 Wood at the plant 76 Gas and laboratory supplies 16 Damaged cement 100 Total "Special Charges" $13,067 Then under an account designated as "General Charges" is placed the $15,674 of "annual employes' salaries," also "one-half day labor- ers' wages at the plant" ; but, unless the purpose is to confuse the analyst of these costs, there appears to be no sound reason for separating the "plant labor" into two halves, as is thus done. The following is the statement of "General Charges" : Annual employes' salaries $15,673.96 i One half day laborer's wages at plant 8,092 35 Live stock feed 3 032 76 Electric lighting 831.76 Electricity for crusher 133.35 Water at plant 30o!oo Water on street 163.50 Blacksmith's supplies 87.52 Office supplies 436.00 Stable supplies .. . 309.30 Horseshoeing 494.70 Extra teams 1,629.10 Car fare and incidental expenses 570.90 Lost and worn-out tools 265!80 Lost live stock 270.00 Total "General Charges" $31,790.99 The cost of 300 cu. yds. of concrete and 35,905 sq. yds. of "wear- Ing surface" supposed to be 2 ins. thick, was as follows per sq. yd. of 2-in. asphalt wearing surface: Total. Per sq. yd. Materials $15,279 $0.425 Special Charges (prorated) 6,761 0.189 . General Charges (pro rated) 11,090 0.309 Other labor 7,177 0.200 Total, Repairs to Asphalt $40,307 $1.123 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 407 As I shall show presently, there is no valid excuse for prorating the "Special Charges" or the "General Charges" in this manner. In addition to the above given repairs, 8,400 sq. yds. of new asphalt pavement, on a 6-in. concrete base, were laid, and excavation made for the same, at the following cost : Total. Per sq. yd. Materials (asphalt and concrete materials) $12,130 $1.444 Special Charges (pro rated) 6,305 0.750 General Charges (prorated) 10,342 1.231 Other labor 8,812 1.050 Total, New Pavement. $37,589 $.4.475 This is "saving the contractor's profits" with a vengeance. A cost of $4.48 per sq. yd. of 2-in. asphalt on a 6-in concrete base, is approximately three times what it would cost any capable con- tractor. Bear in mind, also, that the $4.48 does not include any allowance for plant interest and depreciation. Finally, in addition to the asphalt repairs and the new asphalt pavement above given, there was a considerable amount of "Mis- cellaneous Improvements," such as curb setting, repairing with crushed stone, grading, filling, and the like, the total cost of which was : Materials $13,854 General Charges (pro rated) 10,364 Other labor 7,129 Total, Miscellaneous Improvements $31,347 Analysis of the above costs -discloses how the "special charges" and the "general charges" were prorated, namely, according to the cost of the materials used on the three classes of work, i. e., on (1) repairs, (2) new pavement, and (3) miscellaneous. A more absurd distribution could not be imagined, for here is an expensive ($70,000) asphalt plant, with 34% of its "general charges" prorated to curb setting, grading, etc. ! Were this not done, the costs of the asphalt repairing and new pavement would show up even higher than they do in the above tabulations. I have arranged the cost of materials and supplies used during the year, under five heads, as follows : Asphalt Materials and Supplies: 465.99 tons asphalt, at $18.50 $ 8,561 125,527 Ibs. fluxing oil, at 7% cts 940 6,753 gals, naphtha, at 15 cts 1,019 3,900 cu. yds. sand, at $1.27 4,953 321 tons mineral dust, at $5.50 1,764 389 tons coal, at $2.84 1,105 90 cords wood 563 Total asphalt materials $18,905 Concrete Materials: 1,936 bbls. cement, at $2.04 $ 3,944 700 cu. yds. sand, at $1.27 889 564 cu. yds. gravel, at $2.27 1,272 696 cu. yds. brickbats (for crushing), at $1.48 1,032 Total concrete materials. =. $ 7,137 408 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Miscellaneous Materials: 3,178 cu. yds. clay gravel, at $1.50 $ 4,786 3,618 cu. yds. lake shells, at $1.46 5.304 3,200 new granite blocks, at 7 cts 227 4,600 old granite blocks, at 4 cts 184 9,000 new building brick 98 8,500 old building brick 25 32,924 Ibs. cast iron 1,289 3,026 lin. ft. drain pipe 979 Total $12,892 Office Supplies: Laboratory $ 24 Office 436 Engineer 606 Total supplies $ 1,066 Stable: 122,172 Ibs. oats, at 1% cts $ 1,820 6,600 Ibs. bran, at 1 ct 66 39 % tons hay, at $24.72 983 Stable supplies $309, blacksmith $87 396 Total stable $ 3,265 Grand total $43,265 These prices are all for materials delivered at the plant. The foregoing distribution, under the five heads, may be slightly in error. The sand, for example, is given as 4,600 cu. yds., without statement as to its use. About 1,400 cu. yds. of new concrete base were laid, which would require about 700 cu. yds. of sand, and I have, therefore, distributed it in that manner, although there was a certain small, but unstated, amount of concrete laid on old con- crete base to bring it up to grade. This distribution of the cost of materials shows conclusively the absurdity of prorating the "General Charges" and "Special Charges" according to the cost of materials. A glance at the items under "Miscellaneous Materials" proves that no appreciable part of the cost of operating a $70,000 asphalt plant should be properly prorated to "Miscellaneous Improvements," as was done. It is true that a rock crusher (which crushed only 1,143 cu. yds. of stone and brick- bats during the year) and a road machine, and a few tools (worth about $2,000, exclusive of mules) were used on tne "Miscellaneous Improvements" ; but so insignificant was the plant necessary for that work that it is manifestly wrong to prorate any asphalt plant charges or any asphalt plant operating expense to these "Miscel- laneous Improvements." I have been at some pains to point out these details, for it is a very common practice for managers of municipally operated plants to conceal the true costs of operation by prorating charges in this fashion. The following is my own analysis of the year's operating expense, which errs, if at all, on the side of liberality toward the managers of this municipal plant. I shall not Include the cost of the grading nor of the concrete for the new pavement laid, but confine the summary only to the cost of asphalt repairs, giving total costs, and cost per "box" (9 cu. ft.) of wearing surface, there being 9,883 boxes (88,947 cu. ft.), equiva- lent to 49,415 sq. yds. 2 ins. thick after rolling: ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 409 Per box. Total. (9cu. ft.) Salaried employes $18,160 $1.838 Laborers' wages at plant 16,184 1.637 Feeding Stock, Etc.: Feed for regular teams $ 3,033 Blacksmith supplies 88 Stable supplies 309 Horse shoeing 495 Lost live stock 270 Extra teams hired 1,629 Total, feeding stock, etc $ 5,824 $0.589 Street Labor, Teamsters, Etc. On 35,900 sq. yds. repairs $ 7,177 On 8,400 sq. yds. new 2-in. surface (estimated) 1,780 Total street labor, teamsters, etc $ 8,957 $0.907 Office Expense, Etc.: Engineers' supplies $ 606 Office supplies 436 Laboratory supplies 24 Total office expense, etc $ 1,064 $0.107 Asphalt Materials and Supplies: 465.99 tons asphalt, at $18.50 $ 8,561 125,527 Ibs. fluxing oil, at 7y 2 cts 940 6,753 gals, naphtha, at 15 cts 1 019 3,900 cu. yds. sand, at $1.27 4,953 321 tons mineral dust, at $5.50 1,764 389 tons coal, at $2.84 1,105 90 cords wood 563 Total asphalt materials and supplies $18,905 $1.914 Miscellaneous Plant Expense: Electric lighting $ 332 Water 300 Lost tools, etc 266 Total miscellaneous plant expense $ 898 $0.091 Plant Charges: Interest, 5% of $65,000 $ 3,250 Depreciation, etc., 10% of $65,000. . .' 6,500 Total plant charges...... $ 9,750 $0.987 Grand total $79,724 $8.070 Note. I have made no allowance for "ground rental." Upon Mr. Hardee's assumption that a "box" of wearing coat will lay 5 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing coat, we have simply to divide all the above items of "cost per box" by 5, to arrive at the cost per sq. yd., which summed up is as follows : Per sq. yd. Salaried employes $0.368 Laborers' wages at plant 0.327 Feeding stock, etc 0.118 Street labor, teamsters, etc 0.181 Office expenses, etc 0.021 Asphalt materials and supplies 0.383 Miscellaneous plant expense 0.018 Plant charges 0.198 Total $1.614 410 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The item of plant charges (interest, depreciation and repairs) does not appear in the report of the city engineer, although such an item should always appear, nor is there any allowance for interest on the ground occupied, although it certainly had value. I have as- sumed the conventional 5% interest and 10% depreciation and repairs on $65.000 plant (omitting about $5,000 of plant used on "Miscel- laneous Improvements"). It should be noted that the first cost of this plant is unusually high. A small part of the item of "Feeding Stock, Etc.," should unques- tionably be charged to "Miscellaneous Improvements" and to haul- ing materials for concrete, but I am unable to segregate the amount, which is inconsiderable anyway. The item of "Street Labor, Teamsters, Etc.," is exact for the 35,900 sq. yds. of repairs, but the report gave no details that would enable one to arrive at the corresponding cost for the 8,400 sq. yds. of asphalt laid on the new concrete base, so I have prorated it at the same cost as for the 35,900 sq. yds. of repairs, namely at 20 cts. per sq. yd. This cannot be far wrong, and, in any event, the new pavement was less than 20% of the total wearing coat. We have in this work the highest cost of 2-in. asphalt wearing coat of which I have any knowledge. It even exceeds the cost .of Brooklyn municipal work. It forms, indeed, an object lesson of the gigantic folly of doing public work with a municipal plant instead of by contract. Note especially the fact that my analysis of the true cost of this repair work shows $1.61 per sq. yd., as contrasted with the $1.12 (which, even at that, was an enormously high cost). By improper prorating of "general and special expenses" and by entire omission of any plant interest and depreciation charges, ground rental, etc., it is an easy matter always to give an appearance of lower unit costs than actually exist. In Engineering-Contracting, April 7, 1909, is given an abstract of Mr. W. J. Hardee's report for the year 1908, relating to this same plant. The following is a brief summary : Repairs of asphalt pavements $ 27,545.59 New asphalt pavements. 14,409.33 Other kinds of new pavements 23,445.84 Miscellaneous improvements 74,398.91 Total $139,799.67 The repair work consisted of the construction of 2,640 sq. yds. of naphtha coat and 24,081 sq. yds. of asphalt wearing surface, the cost per square yard of wearing surface being as follows: Total. Per sq. yd. Materials $8,831 $0.367- Labor 6,778 0.281 Proportion special charges 3,153 0.131 Proportion general charges 8,784 0.364 Total .$27,546 $1.143 It will be noted that the same misleading method of prorating "special and general charges" was used, and that the unit cost of these repairs exceeded the cost of work done the previous year. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 411 The new asphalt pavement work consisted in the construction of r,550 sq. yds. of pavement, the work including 14,580 cu. ft. of con- crete, 7,500 sq. yds. naphtha coat and 7,500 sq. yds. 2-in. wearing surface. The gross cost of this was $14,409 or about $1.90 per sq. yd. The other new pavement work consisted in the construction of vitrified brick and gravel roadways, the total cost of the work being $23,445.84. The largest item of work was for miscellaneous improve- ments, these consisting of graveling roads, constructing oyster shell pavement, grading, etc. The total cost of these miscellaneous im- provements was $74,398. The output of the plant was 86,004 cu. ft. (9,778 boxes) wearing surface mixture, which was employed in new pavements and repair of old pavements. The crusher operated in connection with the asphalt plant crushed 7,834 cu. yds. of old stone at an average cost for labor and electricity of 51.4 cts. per cu. yd. The stone was furnished free of charge. The cost per cubic yard in the previous year was 46.66 cts. Including feed, hostler and stable boy's wages, veterinary's salary, shoeing, medicine, etc., it cost an average of 76 cts. per head per day to feed and care for the live stock, as against 64.9 cts. for the year ending Aug. 31, 1907. In the^ first annual report the cost of the plant including equip- ment is given as $70,583. Additions to the plant costing $4,261 were made in the second year, bringing the total investment for plant and equipment up to $74,844. The asphalt cost $19 per ton de- livered. Cost of Patching Asphalt, Marion, Ind.* Mr. T. E. Petrie gives the following: The accompanying data relate to repair work in the city of Mar- ion, Ind., throughout the month of September, 1908. This is a very good average of the season's work, after the. force was thoroughly organized and all equipment put into service. A city of the size of Marion could not afford a plant costing up- wards of $20,000, which would possibly remain idle eleven months out of the year ; so we had to look for a smaller and less expensive repair plant. We have in our city 6.64 miles of asphalt streets, or 123,486 sq. yds. The first street was constructed in 1899 and the last in 1902. While we have some excellent asphalt streets, some are much below the average. We found in past experience that to rely on the asphalt companies to do our repair work, it was neces- sary that our streets should become quite bad before any com- pany would agree to come in to do our repair work, as the repair yardage was so small that it would not pay them to move their plant to our city, so we could expect them once in two or possibly three years, even though the street was under guarantee. In the spring of 1908, even though two of our streets were yet under guarantee, our Board of Public Works came to an agreement with the Barber Asphalt Co. that the city should take care of all streets under guarantee and that the Barber Asphalt Co. would re- linquish all retainer claims that they held against the city. * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 10, 1909. 412 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In the meantime three of our streets became quite bad, so we began to look about for some relief, and finally purchased one of Hooke's largest combined asphalt plants and a carload of asphalt. To this plant was added another pan and a 700-lb. hand roller. The cost of the plant was as follows: Combined fire wagon and asphalt heater $465 Freight 42 Extra pan 43 Hand roller 65 Hand cart 10 Total cost of plant $625 Depreciation on the plant was figured on the basis of 60 days' use for the season, This, at 10 per cent, amounted to $62.50 or $25.72 for the 25 days for which the cost records are given. We began work July 20, 1908, and finished or rather run out of material, Nov. 28th. While not working quite all ttie time we laid 4,142 sq. yds. of patch work. Great care was taken about the work and it is almost impossible to detect many places where patches were made. We used the Acme asphalt, which came already fluxed, and three grades of sand, so as to obtain as nearly a standard mix as possible, as well as to make the mixture as dense as possible. We used Portland cement as a filler, instead of stone dust, which caused the price per sq. yd. to run up somewhat higher than it would have had stone dust been used. We had two experienced men in the gang and paid them 25 cts. per hour, all other men were paid 20 cts. per hour. A one-horse dump cart was used for hauling material from stock room to plant, also hauling prepared material to street, and cuttings or old asphalt away, usually hauling same on some nearby street as repairing ma- terial. The cart man was paid 27% cts. per hour. The full repair gang consisting of 8 men, 3 out on the street and 5 at the plant, and 1 horse cart and driver. Orders were given to work until the pans were cleaned and filled with sand at the end of each day's work, ready for fire the next morning. Four-foot wood was generally used- for firing, costing $5.50 per cord, yet some shorter wood was used, costing $1.75 per cord. The Portland cement cost $1.40 per barrel ; sand cost $0.75 at the plant and the asphalt cost $30 per ton f. o. b. Marion. During the 25 working days in September a total of 1,308 sq. yds. of asphalt pavement of an average depth of 2 ins. was laid, there being 2,742 cu. ft. of asphalt mixture used, costing 41 cts. per cu. ft. laid. The itemized cost was as follows: Ti Total. Per sq. yd. Labor $ 483.64 $0.3697 Asphalt (including freight), at $30 ton 340.34 .2602 Sand, at $0.75 70.12 .0536 Cement (instead of dust) 98.17 .0750 Fuel 72.93 .0557 Cartage, 30 tons asphalt 11.22 .0086 Interest, 6% 15.00 .0114 Depreciation, 10% 25.72 .0120 Total . ..$1,117.14 $0.8538 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 413 Last season was an excellent one to do repair work, on account of there being but little rain. The sand was kept as dry as pos- sible, and therefore was covered at night, and at daytime in case of rain. This materially assisted in the progress of the work as well as in the saving of much fuel. The plant was located at some convenient point, near where con- siderable patching was to be done and care was taken not to move the plant too frequently, as this expense will cause the price per square yard to rise quite rapidly. We were able to get out eight batches per day, providing everything worked well. It is intended to enlarge the mixing pans before beginning work this season, and by so doing it is hoped to increase the output fully 25 per cent, and by using stone dust instead of Portland cement for filler, to cut the price down to at least $0.75 per sq. yd. or perhaps lower. There has been nothing allowed for superintendence of the work as either the city engineer or his assistant will have time to see that work is going on as it should. However, last season I gave this work quite considerable attention, measuring all patches made, as I desired to know just what it was costing per square yard. I do not anticipate that we will have as much repair work in the next two seasons as we had last season. Cost of Patching Asphalt, Marion, Ind.* In 1908 the city of Marion, Ind., had 6.64 miles of asphalt streets or a total of 123,486 sq. yds. of that kind of pavement. In that year the city took over the maintenance of all of the asphalt paved streets and pur- chased one of Hooke's largest combined asphalt plants for the work. To this plant was added another pan and a 700-lb. hand roller. The cost of the plant in 1908 was as follows: Combined fire wagon and asphalt heater $465 - Freight 42 Extra pan . 43 Hand roller 65 Hand cart 10 Total $625 In 1908 a total of 4,142 sq. yds. of patch work was laid. Fur- ther details of that year's work are given in our issue of Feb. 10, 1909. Before beginning work in 1909 a new bottom was put in the Hooke pan, and it was also enlarged so that a batch of 16 5/6 cu. ft. of loose mixture was turned out for the 1909 work, instead of 14% cu. ft. as in 1908. This should have increased the output as well as decreased the labor cost. Owing, however, to the fact that a different brand of fluxed asphalt was used in 1909, which, for the same amount of mixture, took about 25% more asphalt, the * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 15, 1909. 414 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. material expense was increased, and also the labor cost as it took considerably longer to mix a batch. In the 1909 work stone dust was used as a filler, whereas in 1908 Portland cement was used for this purpose. In this year's work the Portland cement was used as a top covering only. The working force consisted of the following: Plant : 1 man at 25 cts. per hr. 4 men at 20 cts. per hr. Street : 1 man at 25 cts. per hr. 2 men at 20 cts. per hr. A one-horse dump cart was used for hauling material from stock room to plant, also for hauling prepared material to street and cuttings or old asphalt away. The driver was paid 27% cts. per hr. This was the same gang as in the 1908 work with the ex- ception of one man. The men, however, were not as energetic to push the work, as they were in the previous year and this brought up the labor cost. In, addition the patches were smaller in the 1909 work and this also caused the labor cost to increase, as when many small patches were made in succession the gang at the plant would be compelled to hold back waiting on the men on the street to prepare places to receive the material. The working season in 1909 was 33 days, and in that time the gang placed 1,451.5 sq. yds. of patches of an average depth of 2 ina This is an average of about 44 sq. yds. of patchwork per day. A total of 2,828.1 cu. ft. of loose mixture was produced in the season of 33 days or an average of 85.5 cu. ft. per day. This would be an average of about five patches per day, there being 16 5/6 cu. ft. to a patch. As 2,828.1 cu. ft. of loose mixture made 1,451.5 sq. yds. of compacted 2-in. patches, there was about 1.95 cu. ft. of loose mixture per square yard of 2-in. compacted asphalt. This is 1.3 cu. ft. of loose mixture compacted down to 1 cu. ft. For fuel cord wood was used, 16.8 cords being used for this pur- pose. As the season covered 33 days the average amount of wood consumed per day would be about V 2 cord. As there was an aver- age of five batches per day there was about 0.1 of a cord of wood used per batch. The cost of the various materials used in the work in 19 C 9 was as follows : Asphalt, including freight, per ton $28.714 Sand at plant, per cu. yd 0.7o Cement, per bbl 1-40 Stone dust, including freight and .drayage, per ton * Cordwood for fuel, per cord 4.50 Interest on the plant investment was figured at 6% per annum, or $37.38 for the year. Depreciation on the plant was figured at 109A per annum, or $62.50 per year. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 415 The itemized cost of materials in the asphalt surface was as follows : Per sq.Td. 2 ins. thick. 27.17 Ibs. fluxed asphalt, at 1.43 cts $0.388 14.47 Ibs. stone dust, at .176 cts 025 .069 cu. yds. sand, at 75 cts 052 .0033 bbls. cement, at $1.40.. 005 Total materials for surface $0.470 Labor, at 20 and 25 cts $0.426 Wood, 16.8 cords, at $4.50 * .052 Cartage of asphalt 005 Interest on plant 026 Depreciation on plant 043 Grand total $1.022 The average cost per cubic foot material and labor was 52^ cts. A comparison of the 1908 costs and the 1909 costs may be of In- terest and accordingly we have abstracted the costs from the former year as given in our issue of Feb. 10, 1909. The costs for 1908 are for 25 working days in September, during which 1,308 sq. yds. of asphalt of an average depth of 2 ins. was laid. The costs in the two years were as follows : 1908. 1909. Per sq. yd. Per sq. yd. Labor $0.3697 $0.426 Asphalt 2602 .388 Sand 0536 .052 Cement 0750 .005 Stone dust .025 Fuel 0557 .052 Cartage 0086 .005 Interest 0114 .026 Depreciation 019& .043 Total $0.8537 $T.~022 In the 1908 work the asphalt, including freight, cost $30 per ton, and wood cost $5.59 per cord. With these exceptions the prices for material and labor are the same as in 1909. Portland cement was used for a filler in 1908, whereas stone dust was used in 1909. In the figures for the 1908 work the depreciation was figured for the 25 days in September only on the basis of 60 days' use for the season; while in the 1909 costs the depreciation is for the entire season. All of the work was done under the direction of T. E. Petrie, city engineer. High Cost of Patching Asphalt, Brooklyn, N. Y. In Engineering- Contracting, May 27, 1908, a complete description is given of the municipal asphalt plant in Brooklyn, which was placed in opera- tion, June 13, 1907. The plant was constructed by the Warren Asphalt Paving Co. A 60 h.p. Babcock and Wilcox boiler, and a 56 h.p. engine (Erie Engine Works) and a 9 h.p. engine (Sturde- vant Blower Works), furnish the power. Without going further 416 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. into details of design, the following summary gives the cost of the plant : Contract price $22,485.00 Engine and boiler foundations, piles, etc 509.54 Office and sheds 712.00 Fire ext'ing 150.00 Oil tank 365.00 Extra parts machinery 411.76 Office furniture and equipment 174.28 Electrical work, wiring, lights, annunciators. . 58.80 Four asphalt rollers 6,156.00 Twelve asphalt trucks at 4,920.00 Tools and gang equipment 2,000.45 Miscellaneous 337.35 Total .$38,280JL~8 Fixed Charges. Interest on payments on above at 5% $ 897.10 Depreciations on plant at 10% (6^ months) on $37,892.08 2,052.49 Rent of plant grounds, $1,440 per year, 7 mos. 840.00 Total per annum $ 3,789.59 The plant was in operation 6% mos., in 1907, beginning June 13, 1907, and there were 134 working days out of 202. The output of the plant was 6,951 boxes of wearing surface mix- ture and 1,524 boxes of binder, total 8,475 boxes. Each of these boxes held 9 cu. ft. of the mixed product, as measured at the plant. It was found that, during the hauling in wagons from the plant to the street, the wearing surface mixture consolidates and looses about 3% of its volume, but the binder mixture does not consolidate ap- preciably. The average wagon load is 8 boxes, or 72 cu. ft. of mixture, and . the average distance from the plant to the point of repairs was 4.14 miles. Observations on 35 loads showed a traveling speed of only 2.15 miles per hr. A team and wagon cost $6 per 8 hr. day. The cost of hauling, as given below, includes all delays at the plant and on the street, as well as the cost of hauling the old asphalt from the street to the dump, but it does not include the cost of hauling any materials to the plant, for all prices of materials include de- livery at the plant. The wages for an 8 hr. day were : Plant foreman $6.00 Foreman 4.00 Rakers 2.50 Tampers 2.50 Smoothers 2.00 Laborers 2.00 Team (with driver) 6.00 In making a box of wearing coat 0.3 cu. yd. of net measure of sand was used, but allowing for losses in the yard, shrinkage on drying, etc., 0.4 cu. yd. of sand were bought. According to the statement of total weight of stone dust used, there were 84 Ibs. per box, but, according to the cost per box, at $3.50 per ton, it would appear that 63 Ibs. were used. No record was kept of the number of square yards repaired, the ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 417 "box" (9 cu. ft.) being the unit of record. For purposes of com- parison, however. I have assumed that a 9 cu. ft. box of wearing surface would make 5 sq. yds. of wearing surface measuring 2 ins. chick after rolling. If 9 cu. ft. of loose wearing surface shrinks 1/6, or 16%%, under the roller, we have 7% cu. ft. of compacted wearing surface, which will make exactly 5 sq. yds. 2 ins. thick. However, careful measurements on 27 sq. yds., made in 1905 by Mr. John C. Sheridan, Chief Engineer of the Bureau of Highways of Brooklyn, showed the following: "When the concrete foundation was completed ordinates were taken every few feet from a line stretched from curb to curb. These sections were taken about 2 l / 2 ft. apart. After the 1-in. binder was laid, measurements were made from the line over the same points, and after the 2-in. wearing surface was laid, similar meas- urements were taken at the identical points, the material having previously been measured in the truck. It was found that there was a shrinkage of 21% per cent from the loose measure in the truck to the measurement compacted in place, and that there was a shrink- age of 33 per cent from the plant measurement to the measurement compacted in place. This was on the wearing surface ; the shrink- age in binder was not determined."* If we were to assume the greater shrinkage indicated by this ex- periment, instead of the 16%% shrinkage from the measurement at the plant, we should get a very much smaller yardage of 2-in. pave- ment, and a correspondingly higher cost. I prefer, therefore, to give the benefit of the doubt to the managers of the Brooklyn muni- cipal plant, by assuming that a 9 cu. ft. box will make 5 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing coat. The following costs per box, are as I have deduced them from the annual report for 1907, and the costs per sq. yd. are based upon the assumption just stated. COST OF WEARING SURFACE. Per Per box. sq. yd. (9cu. ft.) (2-in.) Materials: 0.4 cu. yd. gross (0.3 cu. yd. net) sand at $0.75. .$0.299 $0.060 63 Ibs. stone dust at $3.50 ton 0.110 0.022 13 Ibs., or 1.63 gals, flux at 6% cts. per gal 0.121 0.024 91 Ibs. asphalt at $24.80 ton 1.127 0.225 Total materials $1.657 $0.331 Supplies: 0.037 tons soft coal for plant at $4.00 per ton $0.148 $0.030 0.0056 tons hard coal for rollers at $5.50 0.031 0.006 Oil and waste 0.030 0.006 0.008 cords wood for street fire wagon at $11.34. . . . 0.091 0.018 Miscellaneous supplies 0.030 0.006 11 & Total supplies $0.330 $0.066 ^Engineering-Contracting, May 19, 1909. 418 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. COST OF WEARING SURFACE (CONTINUED). Per Per box. sq. yd. Plant Charges: (9cu. ft.) (2 in.) Rent $0.099 $0.020 Dump privileges 0.018 0.004 Interest on plant, 5% per yr 0.106 0.021 Depreciation, 10% per yr 0.242 0.048 Repairs to plant 0.091 0.018 Repairs to tools 0.024 0.005 Total plant charges $0.580 $0.116 Labor: Plant labor (including foreman) $1.438 $0.288 Hauling, 4.14 miles .' 0.934 0.187 Street labor (including foreman) 2.356 0.471 Superintendent ($1,363 for 6% mos.) 0.161 0.032 Total labor $4.889 $0.978 Grand total $7.456 $1.491 Attention should be called to the fact that this plant is new, and that repair costs are therefore smaller than they will be later on. There is apparently nothing included for chemist's salary, etc. Nevertheless, the cost of $7.45 per "box," or $1.49 per sq. yd. of 2- in. surface, is enormously high. Note particularly the tremendous- ly high cost of each of the labor items, except the superintendent. Here is a cost of almost $1.00 per sq. yd. for labor alone on a 2-in. wearing surface ! Compare this with records given elsewhere in this book. Even the outrageously high cost of similar municipal work at New Orleans is outdone by this municipal asphalt repairing in Brooklyn. (See page 402.) However, they are both typical of municipally-operated plants. The cost of the binder was as follows : COST OF BINDER. Per box Materials: (9cu. ft.) 0.385 cu. yds. stone at $1.45 $0.558 0.46 gals, flux at 7% cts. per gal 0.034 25.5 Ibs. asphalt at $24.80 per ton 0.312 Total materials $0.904 Supplies (same as for wearing surface) $0.33 Plant charges (same as for wearing surface) 0.580 Labor (same as for wearing surface) 4.889 Grand total $6.703 Table XV shows the output and cost by months: Cost of Bltulithic and Asphalt Pavements and Repairs, Toronto.* Mr. C. H. Rust, City Engineer of Toronto, is authority for the following : Most of the streets in Toronto are of a uniform width of 66 ft., and the width of the roadway has been fixed as follows: In busi- * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 17, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. rH CM r-l rH CM CM rH rH gfi -CMt*-O^t*OO 5 UOin-TjcMoqooo ^ o ^ S^.'*" 3 '*' ^ a j rH^oieosia* ^ SS MOCOTHOOCX) Hi ^gco^co-^oseooi^ R H 0," H -2 * o c^ A moooooo m ^ "Q .Mooooinm U U> fl O- eM"'rH r H'' ^::-:: : h C ti .'SO HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ness districts, where the traffic is fairly heavy, or where a double line of street car tracks exist, the width between curbs is 42 ft.; on residential streets the rule is to have the streets 24 ft. between curbs, and in a few cases this has been reduced to 18 ft, but the writer is not in favor of this. By reducing the width of these streets to the above dimensions, a considerable saving has been effected to the property owners, and also a very large saving in the general city taxes by reducing the maintenance, street cleaning, watering, etc. Asphalt pavements have been in use in Toronto for the past 20 years, and have given general satisfaction. The first pavement laid was of Trinidad Pitch Lake, and several streets constructed of this material have been in use 16 or 17 years before the surface required to be renewed. A few years ago California asphalt was introduced and the pavements constructed of it have shown splen- did wearing qualities, and may be expected to give as good satis- faction as the earlier pavements. Texas asphalt has only been used in Toronto for the last two years. The analysis, however, shows up as well as that of any other type of asphalt and may be expected to stand the wear and tear of general traffic equally as well as the others. This class of pavement is easily cleaned, quickly laid and re- paired, and at the present prices is the most economical and satis- factory pavement which can be laid. Formerly two types were used, namely light and heavy, but ex- perience has led to dividing this into three classes, light, medium and heavy. The light calls for 4 ins. of concrete with 2 ins. of asphalt ; medium for 5 ins. of concrete, 1 in. binder and 2 ins. sur- face, the heavy having 6 ins. of concrete, 1 in. binder and 2 ins. of surface. The price at the present time for light asphalt is $1.45 per sq. yd. ; medium, $1.75 per sq. yd., and heavy, $2.00 per sq. yd. In 1907 the city purchased an asphalt plant with a capacity of 1,500 sq. yds. per day of 8 hrs., and since then not only have some streets been constructed, but all the repairs have been made to pavements which are out of guarantee. The cost of material and wages in paving work are as follows : Material: Asphalt, per net ton, f. o. b. Toronto $21.95 Screened gravel, per cu. yd., delivered on street 1.60 Pit gravel, per cu. yd., delivered on street 1.05 Sand for asphalt, per cu. yd., at plant 84 Cement, per bbl., carload lots 1.29 Crushed limestone, per ton, on cars 1.28 Limestone rubble, per ton, on cars 1.10 Crushed granite, per ton, on cars 1.60 Limestone dust for asphalt mixture, per ton, in bags of 90 Ibs., on cars 5.60 Granite blocks, per 1,000 67.00 Paving blocks (brick), per 1,000 -. 24.50 Paving bricks, per 1,000 18.00 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 421 Wages: Laborers, per day of 9 hrs . , % 2.00 Pavers, per hr ... .25 to . Concrete finishers, per hr 25 to .35 Asphalt rakers, per hr 25 Carters (single team), per hr 35 Teamsters (double team), per hr 55 5-9 Roller engineer, per hr 25 Foremen, per day $3.00 to 4.00 The cost of cement curbs and sidewalks at Toronto is not re- printed here, but may be found in Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 17, 1909. Plant Burden. The charges for the plant during the year 1909 were as follows: Sinking Fund on Investment: Cost of plant, $33,522, at 7% (rate for 20 yrs.) $ 2.346.54 Rental of site, one-half of $1,000 '500.00 Taxes 309.00 Miscellaneous Services: Phone 15.50 Railway siding 60.17 Insurance (fire) 842.00 Depreciation (a) building, (b) machinery, 5% of $33,522 1,676.10 Fuel: 18,000 batches at this year's average cost, .06 cts. for fuel 1,080.00 Heat and light in winter 40.00 Management: % of salary of chemist 300.00 Fixed Charges: Foreman 1,014.00 Watchman, summer and winter 608.30 Timekeeper 315.00 Engineer -. . . . 577.50 Roller 255.00 Repairs 500.00 Total $10,439.11 Note. At full capacity the plant develops 38,000 batches in the season of 150 days. An estimate of 18,000 batches as safe, which gives a cost of 58 cts. per batch, burden. If binder is used as well as surface, it makes the cost per batch 75 cts. There are 6 sq. yds. of 2-in. surface to the batch, hence the plant burden is nearly 10 cts. per sq. yd. of 2-in. surface coat. Cost of Repairs. The following was the cost of resurfacing 8,117 sq. yds. during theanonth of June, 1909, with a 2-in. surface coat : Materials: Per sq. yd. 0.18 batch asphalt mixture, at $2.12 $0.380 0.18 batch plant burden (as above), at $0.58... 0.104 0.2 Ibs. stone dust, at $0.30 per cwt 1 0.17 Ibs. asphalt cement, at $1.25 V 0.006 0.006 cords wood, at $5.11 J Total materials $0.490 Labor on Street: Laying $0.082 Carting 0.044 Rolling, 0.023 hrs, at $1.40 0.032 Total labor on street.. ..$0.158 422 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Miscellaneous Charges: Office expense $0.005 Engineering, 3% 0.020 Tools, 1 % : 0.007 Total miscellaneous $0.032 Grand total $0.680 Note that the item "Labor" includes only street labor, and that "asphalt mixture" and "plant burden" includes materials and labor at the plant. Cost of a Light Asphalt Pavement. A light asphalt pavement, 18 ft. wide and 544 ft. long, was laid on Broadway, Toronto. It was begun May 27 and completed June 19, 1909. The 2-in. asphalt surface occupied 950 sq. yds. (after deducting the cement gutter area). The cost was as follows: Per sq. yd. Grading $0.359 Concrete Foundation (4-in.) 0.577 Asphalt Surface: 0.158 batch 'asphalt mixture, at $2.70 0.427 Stone dust, asp. cement and wood 0.004 Carting asphalt mixture 0.033 Labor on street 0.017 Rolling, 0.005 hrs., at $1.40 0.007 Total asphalt surface $0.488 Miscellaneous charges $0.100 Grand total $1.524 The labor on the concrete foundation, exclusive -of carting the materials, was only 9 cts. per sq. yd. Note that the $2.70 per batch of "asphalt mixture" includes labor at the plant and plant burden, as well as materials. Cost of Medium Asphalt Pavement. An asphalt pavement (1,651 sq. yds.) consisting of a 5-in. concrete base, 1-in. binder, and 2-in. surface was laid on Sackville St., Toronto, at the following cost: Per sq. yd. Grading: tn-nr Labor Rolling, at $1.40 per hr _ Total grading $0.203 Concrete Foundation $0.666 S o!o95 'batch binder, at $1.98 'SHIS 0.17 batch asphalt top, at $2.70 , 0.450 Stone dust, cement and wood O-Wo Carting J-jJJJ Labor on street J J.043 Rolling, 0.011 hrs., at $1.40 _0.01. Total asphalt $0.732 Miscellaneous |t?f Grand total $ 1 - 610 The labor on the concrete cost 8 cts. per sq. yd., exclusive of carting. Cost of Bitulithic Pavement. On Alhambra Ave., Toronto, for a distance of 304 ft., a bitulithic pavement was laid on 4-in. con- crete, 719 sq. yds., at the following cost: ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 423 Per sq. yd. Grading $0.252 Concrete Foundation 0.592 Bitulithic Surface: Bitulithic materials $1.150 Carting 0.093 Labor on street 0.050 Rolling S 015 Total bitulithic $1.308 Miscellaneous Charges $0.170 Grand total $2.322 Cost of Repairs to Asphalt Pavements, Syracuse, N. Y.* Valu- able data on the amount and cost of repairs of asphalt pavements at Syracuse, N. Y., are given in his annual report by City Enginee/ H. C. Allen. In addition to the data on life and cost, the report presents a plan, which will interest city engineers, for determining when repairs should cease and the pavement be resurfaced. We quote Mr. Allen's report as follows: The first asphalt pavements in Syracuse, N. Y., were laid in 1889, 20 years ago. Since that time more or less of this kind of pavement has been laid each year, excepting 1891 and 1892, until at present there are about 625,000 sq. yds., outside of the railroad strip and exclusive of asphaltina. In 1902, the Department of Public Works commenced to repair systematically all asphalt pavements out of guarantee and to make a record of the amount of work done and its cost. Following is a table showing the total number of square yards of asphalt pavement out of guarantee, and the total cost of repair* each year from 1902 to 1908, both inclusive. Total Repairs Total Year. Sq. Yds. Sq. Yds. Cost. 1902 154,498 1,414 $ 2,656.40 1903 241,125 2,710 4,586.46 1904 381,180 5,617 9,628.37 1905 396,814 9,308 13,275.43 1906 450,427 14,958 19,447.43 1907 457,152 17,574 24,092.24 1908 494,391 17,821 24,028.03 Totals 69,402 $97,714.36 The total amount of asphalt pavement required was 69,402 sq. yds., and the cost $97,714.36, or $1.41 per sq. yd. of patching. Be- sides this, there has been a large amount of asphaltina pavement repaired. The laying of asphaltina ceased in 1899 and it has al- ways been kept in repair with asphalt. During the past two or three years it has been observed that the older asphalt pavements, those laid in 1895 and previous thereto, were fast reaching a condition impracticable to repair, and a time when a new surface must be laid. It was also noticeable that the * Engineering-Contracting, Mar. 3, 1909. 424 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. greater part of the cost of repairs was upon these old pavements. Because of these observed facts, and the constantly increasing an- nual charge for repairs, a study and analysis of the records were undertaken with a view to recommending a policy on the part of the Department of Public Works with reference to the mainten- ance of this class of pavements. According to the provisions of the Charter, the cost of paving streets has been paid by the owners of abutting property and, after the expiration of the guaranty period, the Department of Public Works has made the necessary repairs. The analysis above referred to show that the cost per square yard per year for repairs to asphalt increases in an increasing ratio. This ratio has been estimated from experience with the pavements in this city as follows : Cost Per Sq. Yd. Total Cost to Year of the Per Yr. at $1.41 Date Each Yr. Pavement Life. Per Sq. Yd. Sq. Yd. 6th $0.003 $0.003 7th .011 .014 8th .014 .028 9th .028 .056 10th .035 .091 llth .056 .147 12th .085 .232 13th .127 .359 14th .169 .528 It is apparent from these figures as well as from the contempla- tion of the increasing actual cost from year to year, that the re- pairs to asphalt pavements by the Department of Public Works can not go on indefinitely without involving the resurfacing of en- tire pavements. The Charter provides that the resurfacing of street pavements shall be done at the expense of the owners of abutting property, and the problem here to be solved is the determination of the time at which the Department of Public Works shall cease making re- pairs, and leave the pavement to be resurfaced in the manner pro- vided by law. Several suggestions have been made, one that a pavement having once been laid, the city shall keep it in repair for a certain period of years, say, until it is 15 years old ; another that a pavement shall be kept in repair by the city until a certain per- centage of its area shall have been repaired. Objection is found to the first proposition in that the lives of pave- ments vary with their location and the volume of traffic to which they are subjected. Some of the asphalt pavements are found to have had as low as 1 per cent of the total surface repaired and to be still in fair condition at the end of 12 years, while others not so favorably located and sustaining heavy traffic have had more than 50 per cent of the total surface repaired in the same period, and are not capable of further repairs. It is evident that a hard and fast rule that all asphalt pavements must be resurfaced at the end of 15 years of life will not operate in an equitable ana con- sistent manner, for the reason that in some cases the condition of the pavement, due principally to its use, will require resurfacing at an earlier period, and in others the rule will require the destrue- ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 425 tiou and replacement of a pavement which still has in it the ability to render service for a longer period. The proposition that the city keep an asphalt pavement in repair until such a time as a certain percentage of its total area has been repaired seems to meet the requirements of the situation in a more practical and equitable manner. The study of the information contained in the record of repairs shows that after the tenth year of life, the amount of repairs per square yard per year increases at a much more rapid rate than in previous years. The results obtained by taking the mean or aver- age of the quantity of repairs to pavements which have reached the age considered is as follows : Year. Amount of Repairs. Sq. Yds. llth Year Per Sq. Yd., Per Year 04 12th Year Per Sq. Yd., Per Year. . 06 13th Year Per Sq. Yd., Per Year 09 14th Year Per Sq. Yd., Per Year 12 Total repairs 0.31 Average from 6th to 10th year inclusive 0.065 Total for 14 years 0.375 It is also to be observed that in the majority of pavements the general condition at the time repairs to the extent of 37% per cent have been made is such as to render furtker repairs impracticable, and resurfacing necessary. Taking the average of all pavements of this kind, it is found that at the end of the 14 years of life the percentage t>f 37% per cent of the total area has been repaired, the extremes being such streets as North and South Salina, which reach the limit in 11 years, and others such as Davis and Fitch streets which have not required 5 per cent repairs in 12 or 13 years. It is therefore recommended that it be the policy of the De- partment of Public Works to keep up the repairs to asphalt pave- ments until such time as the total repairs thereon have reached 37% per cent of the total area; that having made repairs to that extent upon any pavement it be abandoned for further repairs, and reported to the Common Council as a proper object for resurfacing. It should be noted in connection with this discussion and the gen- eral one of the participation by the city at large in the cost of pavements, that by paying the cost of repairs until the time the percentage of total surface above commended has been reached, the city at large participates in the cost of the pavement during the period of its life to the extent of about 53 cts. per square yard or about 30 per cent of the total cost of the perishable portion of the pavement. [For a correct mathematical discussion of problems of this nature, consult Section I of this book.] If it is thought to be advisable that the general scheme of paving assessment now in force should be changed by Charter amend-, ment, so that the city at large is made to participate in a portion of the original cost of a pavement, it is suggested that it would be an equitable arrangement in making such assessments to consider that 426 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the streets crossed by any proposed pavement are city property fronting the improvement, and to charge the cost of the pave- ment to this property at the same rate per foot front as other property along the line is called upon to pay. Cost of Repairs and Life of Asphalt, Washington, D. C. Capt. H. C. Newcomer gives the following: On July 1, 1903, there were 2,886,786 sq. yds. of sheet asphalt pavements, on 2,425,732 sq. yds. of which the 5 yr. guarantee had expired. The following is the number of sq. yds. of given age above 5 yrs. : Age, Years. Sq. Yds. Age, Years. Sq. Yds. 5 97,642 19 60,967 6 99,967 20 108,385 7 81,497 21 95,762 8 109,128 22 106,439 9 105,693 23 126,657 10 101,296 24 66,949 11 130,745 25 35,417 12 209,632 26 21,869 13 202,134 27 15,041 14 165,746 28 30,682 15 59,668 29 1,642 16 97.607 30 23,254 17 70,841 31 7,330 18 45,154 .. Total 2,277,144 The average age. of the above is 14.8 years. The average age of the areas patched during the fiscal year ending July 1, 1903, was 21 years. The patching is done by contract, and is not paid for by the sq. yd., but by the cubic foot of mixed materials measured in the cart, the price being as follows : Per cu. ft. Asphalt surface $0.49 Asphalt binder 0.25 The standard pavement has a 6-in. concrete base, a 1%-in. binder course and a 1%-in. wearing surface total 3 ins. of asphalt meas- ured after rolling. The contract price for a standard asphalt pavement is $1.59 per sq. yd., the pavement having a 6-in. base (1 part Portland cement, i parts sand, 5 parts gravel and 5 parts broken stone), on which is laid 2 ins. of binder and 2% ins. of asphalt surface, both meas- ured before compression. The cost of repairs during the year of 1903 was 2.8 cts. per sq. yd. for pavement of all ages, being distributed thus: Age of Pavements, Cost Repairs Years. Per Sq. Yd. 5 to 10 1.65 cts. 10 to 15 3.37 cts. 15 to 20 3.78 cts. 20 to 25 2.8 cts. This relates only to patching and does not include any entire renewals of worn out pavements. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 42V Cost of Repairing Asphalt Pavement in Various American Cities.* The committee appointed by the Municipal Engineers of the City of New York to investigate the cost of repairing asphalt pavement has submitted a report of their work, from which we take the following data. A blank prepared by the committee was sent to 20 of the leading cities in the country which have the largest amount of asphalt pavements, with the request that it be filled out in detail. The object was not only to ascertain the actual cost and method of repairing asphalt pavements, but if possible to deter- mine the cost of repairs according to the age of the pavements. Only eight of the cities replying have kept their records in such shape that this could be obtained and the results are embodied in the accompanying table. The figures in Table XVI are all for the year 1905 except Washington, which is for the year ending June 30, 1905. Although not being able to furnish just what was desired, the following cities gave information regarding their methods: In Philadelphia there are about 25 miles of asphalt out of guar- antee and it is stated they all required resurfacing entire. The prices for resurfacing in patches of 100 sq. yds. or less for 1906 are $1.19 per sq. yd., patches between 100 and 500 sq. yds. $1.17 per sq. yd., for surfaces from 500 to 1,000 sq. yds., $1.11 per sq. yd., for over 1,000 sq. yds. $1.07 per sq. yd. It is said the amount expended per year depended upon the annual appropriation rather than the need of the streets. In Minneapolis the area repaired last year was wholly in streets under guarantee where the contractor had failed to live up to his agreement. They were made at a cost of $1.65 per sq. yd. The to- tal yardage laid under this agreement was 4,525 sq. yds., but no statement was made as to the total area of the streets as repaired. In Omaha the repairs are made by a municipal asphalt plant, and while no statement was made of the cost by the age of the pavements, the total of 5.8% of the entire yardage repaired was re- laid. This would mean at a cost of 82 cts. per sq. yd., an average of 4% cts. over the entire area. In Kansas City the method of repairs is such that the following quotation is made from a letter of the Engineer : "We have repaired since 1903, when the first repairing of asphalt pavements out of maintenance was begun, 41 miles of streets, amounting to 88,000 sq. yds., costing $124,277.65. The cost of this work has been $1.50 per square yard until within the last year, when the Economic Asphalt Repair Co. came into the field with their Surface Heater. Since then the price has been cut to 90 cts. per square yard. Previous to this time all repairing work was done by the Barber Asphalt Paving Co., and the method used was to cut out all worn asphalt and replace by new. This latter method was very unsatisfactory, leaving the street in a lumpy condition, and in a short while after this work was done a bad place or hole was "Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 19, 1906. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. t* -MNM CCOTfXtOf05iOit-COl. r - LC P -J -000 ICSrHiHOiHNCO^rHT-lJji; Tf- < g ^ _; .^j ** o . -ocas ; o 05 o o ' -j, ^ . r- ryj JQ t- .OOr-l -OllOi-llO l/S "* D'rQ 0_ -eOrH . -O5CCO -CO >> 10 i'-n't^-' ! ' *cq 0500*0' *T-H rH 10 U5 10 CC i-l CO ^< Tt< 00 . '. t- 1- tH t- t- CO N ^"lO iDtT^oJ"^ . . . IM iH rH kO IO IM t- LO COr-< i-H g^ -O00500t-icri00ocoo^a5> oj o w* I . . . "^ "^ . ^ . . . . ^ ^ w 3 C ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 429 likely to develop alongside the place repaired. It is also very diffi- cult under this method to get a good joint. These repair contracts are for two years they agreeing to keep the street in condition during the two years of their contract and tax bills being issued for the work done on the street at the middle and end of the period of their contract. This has resulted in the work being in a state of continual repair, tax bills being issued at the end of each year, at the end of the period of the contract the street being in a little bet- ter condition than when started." In New York City, Borough of Manhattan, it is reported, in 1904, 265,000 sq. yds. were maintained at a cost of $201,167.38, or prac- tically an average of 76 cts. per sq. yd.; in 1905, 460,882 sq. yds., at a cost of $161,800.90, or an average of 34 cts. per sq. yd. ; in 1906 there will be maintained 760,091 sq. yds., at an estimated cost of $216,235, or 28^ cts. per sq. yd. The figures of Manhattan are very much more than for any other city. This is probably due, it is con- sidered, to the heavy traffic of the Manhattan streets and the fact that many streets have been paved with asphalt where that ma- terial does not make an economic pavement. [I do not concur with this conclusion at all. The City of New York is one of the most extravagant cities in the world, as well as one that has suffered most from "graft."] Specific Gravity of Bitulithic and Asphalt Pavements. Mr. J. W. Howard states that the specific gravity of a sample of bitulithic pavement in Baltimore was 2.69, as compared with 2.96, which was the specific gravity of the broken stone used in its construction, the pavement being only 9% less dense than the stone. He states that asphalt pavements have a specific gravity of 1.90 to 2.24, as com- pared with 2.60 or 2.70, which is the density of the sand and lime- stone dust used in their construction, indicating that the pave- ment averages about 20% less dense than the minerals of which it is made. Cost of Asphalt Cross Walks. Mr. H. B. R. Craig gives the data upon which the following is based : In Kingston, Canada, the crossing of macadam streets are made of asphalt, which has been found to have a life of 10 to 20 years. A small plant, costing only $100, is used. It consists of a 40-gal. asphalt boiler, a sand heater (100 sq. ft. of surface), and a mixing board of the same size. The sand heater is a ^-in. sheet iron plate resting on four brick walls 2 ft. high and 1 ft. thick, enclosing an oven. The fuel (wood) is fed through a hole in the wall. The following is the gang: Per day. 3 men heating asphalt and sand and mixing, at $1.50 $ 4.50 1 cart hauling to the street. 2.25 2 men laying and finishing the asphalt surface 3.00 Total, 300 sq. ft., at 3.25 cts $ 9.75 2 men preparing the foundation, at $1.50 3.00 Grand total, 300 sq. ft, at 4.25 cts $12.75 430 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following was the cost of 15,000 sq. ft. of asphalt crossings laid in 1905 : Per sq. ft. Materials: Cts. Stone 0.267 Asphalt, at 1.57 cts. per Ib 3.690 Cement, at $1.70 per bbl 0.080 ' Tarred gravel, at 75 cts. per cu. yd 0.510 Sand, at 90 cts. per cu. yd 0.630 Fuel (very cheap) 0.110 Hardware 0.015 Total materials 5.302 Labor: Boiling asphalt, heating sand, etc 1.250 Carting 1.088 Laying and finishing surface 0.917 Preparing foundation 1.020 Total labor . .4.275 Grand total 9.577 The fuel was old wood and its cost was merely the cost of hauling it. The method of construction is as follows : The macadam is shaped to the desired cross-section, and a load or two of tarred gravel is spread across the street. The asphalt mixture is laid on this foundation to a thickness of 2 ins. It is well tamped along the edges and rolled with a 2-man roller. The tamper and roller must be oiled to prevent the mixture from adhering. A thin coating of cement is sprinkled over the surface and wetted down, about 1 Ib. of cement for every 10 sq. ft. The surface mixture is made by heating 270 Ibs. of Acme asphalt to 300 F. and maintaining that temperature for 2 hrs., constantly stirring. Twenty bushels of medium coarse sand (screened through %-in. screen) are heated to drive off moisture. The asphalt and sand are mixed by hand on a mixing board. Asphalt walks are similarly constructed on a base of 4 ins. of tarred gravel laid on rammed cinders. Cost of Mixing Concrete Base By Hand. The ordinary labor cost of concrete foundations is 0.4 to 0.5 of a 10-hr, day's wages per cubic yard of concrete, although occasionally it may be as low as 0.3 of a day where two mixing gangs are worked side by side under separate foremen, and under an exacting contractor. In such a case, the rivalry between the two mixing gangs where the progress of the work can be seen at a glance, as in laying pavement foundations, will insure a saving of at least 25% in the labor item. The follow- ing, taken from my note-books and time-books, indicates the ordi- nary cost of concrete mixing and laying: Case I. Laying 6-in. pavement foundation. Stone delivered and dumped upon 2-in. plank laid to receive it. If dumped directly upon the ground it costs half as much again to shovel it up. Sand and stone were dumped along the street, so that the haul in wheelbar- rows to mixing board. was about 40 ft. Two gangs of men worked ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 431 under separate foremen, and each gang averaged 4.5 cu. yds. con- crete per hour. The labor cost was as follows for 45 cu. yds. per gang: Per day. Per cu. yd. 4 men filling barrows with stone and sand ready for the mixers, wages 15 cts. per hr $ 6.00 $0.13 10 men, wheeling, mixing and shoveling to place (3 or 4 steps), wages 15 cts. per hr . 15.00 0.33 2 men ramming, wages 15 cts. per hr 3.00 0.07 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hr. and 1 water boy, 5 cts. , 3.50 0.08 Total $27.50 $0.61 Case II. Sometimes it is desirable to know every minute detail of cost, for which purpose I give the following : Per cu. yd. Day's labor. Cost. 3 men loading stones into barrows.. .06 - $0.09 1 man loading sand into barrows .02 0.03 2 men ramming .04 0.06 1 foreman and 1 water boy equivalent to .035 0.05 (wheeling sand and cemen,t to mix. board .02 0.03 [wheeling stone to mixing board .026 0.04 9 men i mixing mortar .013 0.02 mixing stone and mortar .049 0.07 [placing concrete (walking 15 ft.) .072 0.11 Total 335 $0.50 In one respect this is not a perfectly fair example (although it represents ordinary practice), for the mortar was only turned over once in mixing instead of three times, and the stone was turned only twice instead of three or four times. Water was used in great abundance, and by its puddling action probably secured a very fair mixture of cement and sand, and in that way secured a better mix- ture than would be expected from the small amount of labor ex- pended in actual mixing. About 9 cts. more per cu. yd. spent in mixing would have secured a perfect concrete without trusting to the water. Case III. Two gangs (34 men) working under separate foremen averaged 600 sq. yds., or 100 cu. yds. of concrete per 10-hr, day for a season. This is equivalent to 3 cu. yds. per man per day. The stone and sand were wheeled to the mixing board in barrows, mixed and shoveled to place. Each gang was organized as follows : Per day. Per cu. yd. 4 men loading barrows $ 6.00 $0.12 9 men mixing and placing 13.50 0.27 2 men tamping 3.00 0.06 1 foreman 2.50 0.05 Total $25.00 $0.50 These men worked with great rapidity. The above cost of 50 cts. per cu. yd. is about as low as any contractor can reasonably expect to mix and place concrete by hand in pavement work. Case IV. Two gangs of men, 34 in all, working side by side on 432 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. separate mixing boards, averaged 720 sq. yds., or 120 cu. yds., per 10-hr, day. Each gang was organized as follows: Per day. Per cu. yd. 6 men loading and wheeling $ 9.00 $0.15 8 men mixing and placing 12.00 0.20 2 men tamping 3.00 0.05 1 foreman 3.00 0.05 Total $27.00 $0.45 Instead of shoveling the concrete from the mixing board into place, the mixers loaded it into barrows and wheeled it to place. The men worked with great rapidity. Case V. Mr. Alfred F. Harley is authority for the following: In laying concrete foundations for street pavement in New Orleans, a day's work, in running three mixing boards, covering the full width of the street, averaged 900 sq. yds., 6 ins. thick, or 150 cu. yds. with a gang of 40 men. With wages assumed to be 15cts. per hr. the labor cost was : Cts. per cu. yd. 6 men wheeling broken stone 6 3 men wheeling sand 3 1 man wheeling cement 1 2 men opening cement 2 7 men dry mixing 7 8 men taking concrete off 8 3 men tamping 3 3 men grading concrete 3 1 man attending run planks 1 3 water boys 1 2 extra men and 3 foreman 4 Total labor cost 39 cts. Case VI. The following cost of a concrete base for pavements at Toronto has been abstracted from a report (1892) of the City Engineer, Mr. Granville C. Cunningham. The concrete was 1:2%: 7% Portland; 2,430 cu. yds. were laid, the thickness being 6 ins. ; at the following cost per cu. yd. : 0.77 bbl. cement, at $2.78 ^ $2.14 0.76 cu. yd. stone, at $1.91 1.45 0.27 cu.' yd. sand and gravel, at $0.80 0.22 Labor (15 cts. per hour) 1.03 Total $4.84 Judging by the low percentage of stone in so lean a mixture as the above, the concrete was not fully 6 ins. thick as assumed by Mr. Cunningham. Note that the labor cost was iy 2 to 2 times what it would have been under a good contractor. It is also noteworthy that Portland cement was used. Until quite recently natural cement has been used almost exclusively in pave- ment foundations in America. A natural cement concrete is usually made 1:2:5, the cement being measured loose, so that about 1.15 bbls. of cement are required per cubic yard of concrete. A suffi- ciently good Portland cement concrete can be made with % bbl. cement per cubic yard ; and, if the mixing is well done in a me- chanical mixer, it is safe to make concrete for pavement founda- ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 433 tions 6 ins. thick using not more than % bbl. of Portland cement per cubic yard. Case VII. Mr. Charles Apple gives the following data on the cost of a 6-in. concrete foundation for a brick pavement at Champaign, 111. The concrete was 3:3:3, natural cement, mixed by hand. The material was brought to the .steel mixing plate from piles 30 to 60 ft. away. Cost per cu. yd. 1.2 bbls. cement, at $0.50 $0.600 0.6 cu. yd. sand and gravel, at $1 0.600 0.6 cu. yd. broken stone, at $1.40 0.840 6 men turning with shovels, at $2 0.080 4 men throwing into place, at $2 0.053 2 men handling cement, at $1.75 0.023 1 man wetting with hose, at $1.75 0.012 2 men tamping, at $1.75 0.023 1 man leveling, at $1.75 0.012 6 men wheeling stone, at $1.75 0.070 4 men wheeling gravel, at $1.75 0.047 1 foreman, at $4 0.027 Total per cu. yd $2.387 The cost of mixing and placing this concrete was only 35 cts. per cu. yd., a gang of 26 men and 1 foreman placing 150 cu. yds., or 900 sq. yds., per day. I do not believe these figures of Mr. Apple to be trustworthy, for reasons given on page 3 60. Cost of Machine Mixing and Wagon Hauling. Mr. G. D. Fisher. Asst. Engr., The Laclede Gas Light Co., St. Louis, has given the following data on the mixing, delivering and placing of Portland cement concrete for a pavement base 6 ins. thick. The gravel was dumped from wagons into a large hopper, raised by a bucket elevator into bins, and drawn off through gates into receiving hoppers on the charging platform where the cement was added. The receiving hoppers discharged into the mixers, which discharged the mixed concrete into a loading car that dumped into wagons, which delivered it on the street where wanted. The long- est haul in wagons was 30 mins., but careful tests showed that the concrete had hardened well. The wagons were patent dump wagons of the drop-bottom type. Mr. Fisher says : "You may consider the following figures a fair average of the plant referred to, working to its capacity. To these amounts, how- ever, must be added the interest on the investment, the cost of wrecking the plant and the depreciation of the same, superintend- ence, and the pay roll that must be maintained in wet weather. I am assuming the street as already brought to grade and rolled. "With labor at $1.75 per day of 10 hrs., teams at $4, engineer and foremen at $3, and engine at $5 per day, concrete mixed and put in place by the above method costs : Per cu. yd. To mix $0.12 to $0.15 To deliver to street 0.10 to 0.14 To spread and tamp in place 0.08 to 0.11 Total ^0.30 to $0.49 434 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. "The mixers are No. 2% Smith, sold by the Contractors' Supply and Equipment Co., Chicago, 111., and a %-yd. Cube, sold by Munici- pal Engineering & Contracting Co., Chicago. "The Smith mixer will deliver 40 thoroughly mixed batches per hour under favorable conditions. "The above figures are on the basis of a batch every 2 minutes, which is easily maintained by using the loading car, as by this means there will be no delay in the operation of the plant owing to the irregularity of the arrival of the teams. "My experience leads me to believe that a better efficiency can be obtained by using mixers of 1 cu. yd. capacity." Cost of Mixing Concrete for a Pavement Base Using a Contin- uous Mixer.* Of all the concrete annually laid as the base for pavements, only a small percentage is mixed with mechanical mix- ers. But this condition of affairs will disappear with great rapidity as contractors learn what a very large saving is possible where machinery of the proper type is used. In the work about to be described a Foote mixer was used. This mixer is manufactured by the Foote Mfg. Co., Nunda, N. Y., and sold by the W. H. Wilcox Co., Binghamton, N. Y., and is of the con- tinuous type. It is provided with an automatic measuring device, by means of which any desired proportion of cement, sand and stone is delivered to the mixing trough. The mixer is mounted on trucks. and the hoppers that receive the sand and stone are comparatively low down. The sand is wheeled in barrows up a run plank and dumped into a hopper on one side of the mixer, and in like manner the gravel or broken stone is delivered into a hopper on the other side. The cement is delivered in bags or buckets to a man who dumps it into a cement hopper directly over the mixer. As above stated, the measuring of the materials is done auto- matically and in a very simple manner by the machine itself, so that all the operator needs attend to is to see that the men keep the hop- pers comparatively full. On one job visited by a member of our editorial staff, the sand was delivered from the stock pile by a team hitched to a drag scraper, and was dumped alongside the mixer where two men shov- eled it into the hopper. On the same job the concrete was hauled away from the mixer in Brigg's concrete carts, made by the J. E. Briggs Co., of Waterloo, la. The contractor was very enthusiastic about these carts. He said that with a gang of 30 men and 2 to 4 horses hauling concrete in Briggs' carts, he averaged 1,200 sq. yds. or 600 cu. yds. per day of 10 hrs. "With wages of laborers at 15 cts. per hour, and a single horse at the same rate, the cost of labor was 26 cts. per cu. yd., or less than 4% cts. per sq. yd. of concrete base 6 ins. thick. The coal was a nominal item, and did not add 1 ct. per cu. yd. to the cost. In this case the mixer was set up on a side street, and the concrete was hauled in the carts for a distance of a block each way from the mixer. At first, 4 carts were used, but as 'Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 10, 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 435 the concrete approached the mixer, less hauling was required, and finally only 2 carts were used. The Briggs cart is provided with an ingenious dumping device that is operated by the driver, who does not leave the horse's head to dump the cart. As is customary with all one-horse carts on short haul work, the driver leads the horse. The cart dumps from the bottom and spreads the load in a layer about 8 or 9 ins. thick, so that no greater amount of spreading with shovels is necessary than where the concrete is delivered in wheelbarrows. Another feature about the cart that is worthy of mention is the fact that no appreciable amount 'of the material leaks out, even when the con- crete is mixed very wet. It takes about 20 seconds for a cart to back up and get its load and about 5 seconds to dump and spread the load. On another job where wheelbarrows were used for conveying the concrete, the gang was organized as follows: 8 men loading and wheeling gravel in barrows. 2 men assisting in loading gravel into barrows. 1 man dumping barrows into hopper. 3 men loading and wheeling sand. 1 man dumping barrows into hopper. 7 men wheeling concrete in barrows. . 3 men spreading concrete. 2 men tamping concrete. 1 man opening cement and filling buckets. 1 man pouring cement into hopper. 1 man operating mixer. 1 man shoveling up concrete spilled at outlet of mixer in loading barrows. 1 engineman. 32 Total. In dumping the wheelbarrows into the hopper, one man assisted the barrow men at each of the two side hoppers. The wheelbarrow loads of concrete were very small, probably not more than 1 cu. ft. and were wheeled only a short distance over the dirt. The mixer was moved forward at frequent intervals, the stock piles of sand and gravel being continuous piles dumped in advance along the street, sand on one side, gravel on the other side of the street. Portland cement concrete was used in the proportion of 1:3:6. The average day's output of this gang was 150 cu. yds., or 900 sq. yds., in 8 hrs. ; but on the best day's work the output was 200 cu. yds., or 1,200 sq. yds., in 8 hrs., which is a remarkable record for 32 men and a mixer working only 8 hrs. When one remembers that an excellent day's work is 3 cu. yds. of concrete per man, where no mixer is used, and that 2 to 2% cu. yds. is a more common record for hand work on streets, we realize that concrete mixers are bound to become universally used on street work in the very near future, for a mixer practically doubles the output of every man, if the work is properly handled with a mixer adapted to the purpose. Cost of Concrete Pavement, Windsor, Ont.* Concrete pavement 'Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 20, 1907. 436 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. is constructed in all essential respects like cement sidewalk. The subsoil is crowned and rolled hard, then drains are placed under the curbs ; if necessary to secure good drainage a subbase of gravel, cinders or broken stone 4 to 8 ins. thick is laid and compacted by rolling. The foundation being thus prepared a base of concrete 4 to 5 ins. thick is laid and on this a wearing surface 2 to 3 ins thick. In constructing concrete pavement at Windsor, Ont., the street is first excavated to the proper grade and crown and rolled with a 15-ton roller. Tile drains are then placed directly under the curb line and a 6 x 16-in. curb is constructed, using 1:2:4 concrete faced with 1 : 2 mortar. Including the 3-in. tile drain this curb costs the city by contract 38 cts. per lin. ft. The pavement is then con- structed between finished curbs. The fine profile of the subgrade is obtained by stretching strings from curb to curb, measuring down the required depth and trim- ming off the excess material. The concrete base is then laid 4 ins. thick. A 1:3:7 Portland cement concrete is used, the broken stone ranging from % in. to 3 ins. in size, and it is well tamped. This concrete is mixed by hand and as each batch is placed the wear- ing surface is put on and finished. The two layers are placed within 10 mins. of each other, the purpose being to secure a monolithic or one-piece slab. The top layer consists of 2 ins. of 1:2:4 Portland cement and screened gravel, } in. to 1 in., concrete. This layer is put on rather wet, floated with a wooden float and troweled with a steel trowel while still wet. Some 20,500 sq. yds. of this construc- tion have been used and cost the city by contract : Per sq. yd. Bottom 4-in. layer 1:3:7 concrete $0.57 Top 2-in. layer 1:2:4 concrete 0.32 Excavation Total $0.99 This construction was varied on other streets for the purpose of experiment. In one cafc;e a 4-in. base of 1:3:7 stone concrete was covered with 2 ins. of 1:2:2 gravel concrete. In other cases the construction was: 4-in. base of 1:3:7 stone concrete; 1 1/2 -in. middle layer of 1:2:4 gravel concrete and %-in. top layer of 1 : 2 sand mortar. All these constructions have been satisfactory ; the pavement is not slippery. The cost to the city by contract for the three-layer construction has in two cases been as follows: Church St., 8,000 sq. yds. : Per sq. yd. 4-in. base 1:3:7 concrete $0.57 1%-in. 1:2:4 and %-in. 1 : 2 mixture 0.32 Excavation 0.10 Total ?0.99 Albert and Wyandotte Sts., 400 sq. yds. : Per sq..yd. 4-in. base 1:3:7 concrete $0.66 li/2-in. 1 :2 :4 and i/ 2 -rn. l :2 mixture 0.39 Excavation 0.10 Total ? 1 . 1 5 ROADS, PArEMENTS, WALKS. 437 The cost of materials and rates of wages were about as follows : Portland cement f. o. b. cars Windsor, per bbl $2.05 River sand, excellent quality, per cu. yd 1.15 River gravel, screened, per cu. yd 1.25 Crushed limestone, ^ to 3 ins., per ton 1.15 Labor, per day fl.75 to 2.00 At these prevailing prices the contractor got a fair profit at the contract price of $1.15 ; at 99 cts., any profit is questionable, ac- cording to City Engineer George S. Hanes, who gives us the above records. Expansion joints are located from 20 to 80 ft. apart and are filled with tar. Mr. Hanes writes that a large amount of this pavement will be built during 1908. Cost of Excavating Concrete Base (Street Railway) and Laying New Concrete.* In the spring of 1906 the United Railways Com- pany, of St. Louis, Mo., undertook the reconstruction of six miles of its tracks on Olive St., in St. Louis. The reconstruction of these tracks is described by Mr. Richard McCulloch as follows: Excavating Old Concrete Foundation. In order to build the track it was necessary to make an excavation 21 ins. in depth in a con- crete which had been setting for 18 years, and which experience in whatever excavations had been made had shown to be extremely hard. The method adopted for excavating tl\e concrete was by blasting with small charges of dynamite, the object being to make these charges strong enough to shatter the concrete so that it could be taken out in large pieces, but not heavy enough to do other damage. Holes were drilled 7 to 8 ins. deep in the concrete, 10 ins. from the center of each rail, and 24 ins. apart, four holes coming between each pair of yokes. (The Olive St. line was at one time a cable road, a double cable track having been built for a dis- tance of 3% miles. In this construction a girder rail was laid on cast-iron yokes weighing 300 Ibs. each, set in concrete 4 ft. apart. These yokes were 48 ins. in depth and inclosed a conduit for the cable 38 ins. in depth. In subsequent reconstructions when the road was converted into an electric line these yokes were left in place and the electric cars operated over the cable roadbed without change.) The hole was so located that the bottom of the hole was a little below the center of gravity of the section of concrete to be removed. For drilling the holes there were used No. 2 Little Jap drills made by the Ingersoll-Rand Co., operated by compressed air at 90 Ibs. pressure. This tool drills a 1.25-in. hole. A dry hole was drilled, the exhaust air from the hollow drill steel blowing the dust from the hole and keeping it clean. Common labor was used to run the drills and very little mechanical trouble was experienced. Three cars were fitted up, one for each gang, each car being equipped with a motor-driven air compressor, water for cooling the compressors being obtained from the fire plugs along the route. The air compres- sors were taken temporarily from those in use in the repair shops, no special machines being bought for the purpose. Electricity for * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 5, 1906. 496 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. operating the air compressor motors was taken from the trolley wire over the tracks. The car was moved along as the holes were drilled, air being conveyed from the car to the drills through a flexible hose. Two drills were operated normally from each car. One ol' the air compressors was exceptionally large and at times operated four drills. The total number of holes drilled in the reconstruction of the track was 31,000. The total feet of hole drilled was 20,700 ft. The fol- lowing figures give the average performance of the best one of the drilling outfits, which operated from two to three drills : Depth of hole 8 ins. Number of holes per hour per drill 30 Feet of hole drilled per hour per drill 20.3 Labor cost per foot of hole drilled $0.027 Labor cost of drilling per cu. yd. blasted $0.085 Drilling cost per lin. ft. of track $0.017 Drilling cost per mile of track $89. 7G In these figures there is no charge for electric power or for de- preciation of machinery. For blasting, a 0.1-lb. charge of 40 per cent dynamite was used in each hole. A fulminating cap was used to explode the charge, and 12 holes were shot at one time by an electric firing machine. The dynamite was furnished from the factory in 0.1-lb. packages, and all the preparation necessary on the work was to insert the ful- minating cap in the dynamite, tamp the charge into the hole and connect wires to the firing machine. In order to prevent any dam- age being done by flying rocks at the time of the explosion, each blasting gang was supplied with a cover car, which was merely a flat car with a heavy bottom and side boards. When a charge was to be fired, this car was run over the 12 holes and the side boards let down, so that the charge was entirely covered. This work was re- markably free from accidents. There were no personal accident claims whatever, and the total amount paid out for property dam- ages for the whole six miles of construction was $685. Most of this was for glass broken by the shock of explosion. There was no glass broken by flying particles. The men doing this work, few of whom had ever done blasting before, soon became very expeditious in handling the dynamite, and the work advanced rapidly. The report made by the firing of the 12 holes was no greater than that made by giant firecrackers. For the drilling and blasting the old rail had been left in place to carry the aim compressor car and the cover car. After the blasting, this rail was removed and the concrete excavated to the required depth. In most cases the cable yokes had been broken by the force of the blast. Where these yokes had not been broken, they were knocked out by blows from pieces of rail. The efficacy of the blasting depended largely upon the proper location of the hole. Where the holes had been drilled close to the middle of the concrete block, so that the dynamite charge was exploded a little below the center of gravity of the section, the concrete was well shattered and could be picked out in large pieces. Where the hole had been located too close to either side of the concrete block, however, the ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS 439 charge would blow out at one side and a large mass of solid con- crete 'would be left intact on the other side. The total estimated quantity of concrete blasted was 6,558 cu. yds., or 0.2 cu. yds. of concrete per lineal foot of track. The cost of the dynamite deliv- ered in 0.1-lb. packages was 13 cts. per Ib. The exploders cost $0.0255 each. The following data represent the average work of the three gangs working on the westbound track between 14th St. and Boyle Ave. : Cost of dynamic charge per hole $0.013 Cost of exploder per hole $0.0255 Four holes blasted in each 4 ft. of track : Lin. ft. of track blasted per hour 138 Cu. yds. of concrete blasted per hour 27.6 Cu yds. of concrete blasted per Ib of dynamite .... 2 Labor cost per cu. yd. blasted $0.076 Cost dynamite and exploders per cu. yd. blasted... $0.192 Cost labor and material per cu. yd. blasted $0.268 Cost blasting per lin. ft. of track $0.054 Cost blasting per mile of track $285.12 Cost drilling and blasting per cu. yd $0.353 Cost drilling and blasting per lin. ft. of track $0.071 Cost drilling and blasting per mile of track $374.88 When the excavation was completed, the ties were placed in the trench, the rail spiked down, the tie rods pulled up to gage and temporary fishplates put on the joints. Work trains were then run on this track and the excavated material hauled away. The exca- vated material in this job amounted to 11.410 cu. yds., or 0.348 cu. yd. per lineal foot of track. The United Railways Company pur- chased a sink hole and completely filled it with excavated material. All excavated material and all new material with the exception of the cement used in this work was handled on cars, no teams being used at all. It would have been impossible to do the work in the time occupied had wagons and teams been depended upon. The ties were of hewn cypress, 6 ins. x 8 ins., in sections, and 7 ft. long, and were spaced 2 ft. between centers. Tie plates were used under the rail, each alternate tie plate being a brace plate. The rail used weighed 112 Ibs. per yard and was furnished in 60-ft. lengths. Mixing and Placing New Concrete. After the excavated ma- terial had been hauled away and the street cleaned up, the track was lined and surfaced by means of wooden blocks and wedges placed beneath the ties. Concrete was then tamped beneath and around the ties, the concrete being deposited in the track from a concrete mixing machine running on the rails. The concrete used was composed of a mixture by volume of 1 part of Portland cement, 2 l / 2 ' parts of river sand and 6% parts of crushed limestone n>ck. The cost (delivered) of the materials composing this concrete Was as follows : = $0.0285 per cu. ft. = 0.77 per cu. yd. = 0.025 per cu. ft. = 0.675 per cu. yd. Portland cement $1.70 per barrel = 0.425 per sack. For the track work, 7.36 cu. ft, or 0.273 cu. yd., were required per "Jrushed rock $2.85 per square Sand $2.50 per square 440 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. lineal foot of track, l 1 ^ sacks of cement per lineal foot of track, or 1,650 bbls. of cement per mile of track, were used in this work. The value of the cement, rock and sand used was $0.108 per cu. ft. of concrete, or $2.92 per cu. yd. of concrete. The material for the concrete was distributed on the street beside the tracks in advance of the machine, the sand being first deposited, then the crushed rock piled on that, and finally the cement sacks emptied on top of this pile. The materials were shoveled from this pile into the concrete mixing machine without any attempt at hand mixing on the street. Great care was taken in the delivery of materials on the street to have exactly the proper quantity of sand, rock and cement, so that there would be enough for the ballasting of the track to the proper height and that none would be left over. Each car was marked with its capacity in cubic feet, and each receiver was furnished with a table by which he could easily esti- mate the number of lineal feet of track over which the load should be distributed. The concrete mixing machines were designed and built in the shops of the United Rys. Co. Three machines were used in this work, one for each gang. The machine is composed of a Drake continuous worm mixer, fed by a chain dragging in a cast-iron trough. The trough is 36 ft. long, so that there is room for fourteen men to shovel into it. Water is sprayed into the worm after the materials are mixed dry. This water was obtained from the fire plugs along the route. In the first machine built, the Drake mixer was 8 ft. long. In the two newer machines the mixer was 10 ft. long. Both the conveyor and the mixer Were motor driven, current being obtained for this purpose from the trolley wire overhead. Two types of machines were used, one in which the conveyor trough was straight and 45 in. above the rail, and the other in which the conveyor trough was lowered back of the mixer, being 25 in. above the rail. The latter type had the advantage of not requiring such a lift in shoveling, but the trough is so low that a motor truck cannot be placed underneath it. In the high machine the mixer is moved forward by a standard motor truck under the conveyor. In the low machine the mixer is moved by a ratchet and gear on the truck underneath the mixer. A crew of 27 men is required to work each machine, and under average conditions concrete for 80 lin. ft. of single track, amounting to 22 cu. yds., can be discharged per hour. The following figures give the average performance of the three machines in concreting the westbound track from 14th St. to Boyle Ave. : Number men employed at machine Number men shoveling into machine Lin. ft. track concreted per hour 80.95 Cu. ft. concrete discharged per hour . 595.79 Cu. yd. concrete discharged per hour 22.06 Labor cost concrete per lin. ft. of track $0.071 Labor cost concrete per cu. yd $0-.26 Cost of materials composing concrete per lin. ft. of track $0.791 Cost of materials composing concrete per cu. yd.. . . $2.92 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 441 Total cost of concrete (labor and material) per lin. ft. of track $0.862 Total cost of concrete (labor and material) per cu. yd $3.18 Total cost of concrete (labor and material) per mile of single track $4,551.36 In these figures there is no charge for electric power or for de- preciation. The section between 14th St. and Boyle Ave. (5.51 miles long) was divided into three sections, and three foremen, with independent gangs, were put on each section. Work was carried on day and night. The Olive St. line is a double-track road, and during con- struction one track was kept open for traffic in one direction. Cars going in the opposite direction were sent by another route. The work was begun April 30, 1906, and the cars were turned back on the street, exactly six weeks having elapsed since ground was broken. Of this time two weeks were allowed for the setting of the concrete, so that the entire work, with the exception of pav- ing, was done in four weeks, an average of 1,040 lin. ft. of single track per day. The cost of this 5% miles of track was about $170,- 500. For the entire work, after allowing for scrap material from the old track, the average cost per mile was about $27,000. Cost of Excavating an Asphalt Pavement and Its Concrete Base.* In relaying a street car track it was necessary to excavate the I pavement between the rails, and for two feet outside the rails. .The pavement was asphalt 2% ins. thick laid on a concrete base 9 I ins. thick. The concrete was made with natural cement and was consequently by no means as difficult to excavate as it would have been if Portland cement had been used. In taking up the asphalt between the tracks it was found that the progress depended very much upon the temperature of the day. On cool days when the asphalt was brittle and the men worked i rapidly, it was possible for three men to excavate 4,800 sq. ft. be- , tween the tracks in 10 hours. This is equivalent to nearly 180 sq. j yds. per man per day. Of course, it was not necessary to cut the isphalt loose from the rails on each side, so the work consisted nerely in prying up the asphalt with crow bars and breaking it vith a sledge. Two men pried the asphalt up, while a third man i ised the sledge, and cast the pieces aside ready to be hauled away. During most of the time, however, the asphalt was hot enough luot to be brittle, and had to be cut up with a grub ax. In that i ase two men would pry up the asphalt, using picks, while the third I nan would cut off a strip iy 2 ft. wide and as long as the distance etween the tracks. Then he would cut this strip in two pieces with lie grub ax. In the meantime the two men with, the picks would | e prying up some more of the asphalt. These three men worked t ery deliberately and averaged 1,700 sq. ft. per day. This is * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 19, 1906. I .*,, 442 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. equivalent to 63 sq. yds., or 4*4 cu. yds. per man per day. Wages were $1.75, hence the cost of excavating the asphalt was 2% cts. per sq. yd., or 40 cts. per cu. yd. This does not include the cost of loading and hauling it away. In excavating the strip 1 ft. wide outside the rails, it was, of course, necessary to cut through the asphalt along a line parallel with the rail and 1 ft. away. To do this cutting a chisel having a bit 3 ins. wide and provided with a handle, was held by one man while a second man struck it with a sledge. These two men, when working rapidly, would cut 1,200 lin. ft. in 10 hours; hence one man cut 600 lin. ft., thus loosening 600 sq. ft. of asphalt ready to be pried up. A third man would pry up the asphalt with a pick and cut it off in sections, and he averaged 600 sq. ft. a day, working very deliberately. Hence the average output of each of the three men was 300 sq. ft., or 33 sq. yds., per man per day, cut out, pried up, and cast aside. This is equivalent to a little more than 2% cu. yds. per man per day, and the cost was 75 cts. per cu. yd., or 5% cts. per sq. yd. As above stated, the concrete was 9 ins. thick and was made with natural cement. It was loosened with picks, usually without great difficulty, and was shoveled aside ready to be hauled away. Each laborer averaged 3 cu. yds., or 12 sq. yds. per day. Hence the was practically 60 cts. per cu. yd., or 15 cts. per sq. yd. To thi should be added the cost of loading into wagons, which was 16 cts per cu. yd., or 4 cts. per sq. yd. The cost of hauling depends upoi distance to be hauled, and can be easily estimated for any giv conditions. Amount of Materials Required for Cement Sidewalk Construction. The great majority of cement sidewalks come within the rani of 3 ins. to 7 ins. in thickness ; the most common base mixtures 1:2:5 and 1 : 3 : 6 and the most common finishing mixtures ai 1:1, 1:1% and 1 : 2. The accompanying tables have been cc puted to give by simple arithmetic, the volume of concrete, and tl quantities of cement, sand and stone required per 100 sq. ft. of sid< walk, ranging from 3 ins. to 7 ins. thick and constructed of tl above named mixtures. Table XVII gives separately the volui of base concrete and of surfacing mortar in 100 sq. ft. of walk the different thicknesses ; Table XVIII gives for each of the thic nesses and mixtures named the amount of cement, sand and stor required per 100 sq. ft. The tables have been, calculated on the assumption that tl cement being measured loose as is usual in sidewalk work a bar rel of cement measures 4.4 cu. ft. For finishing mortar the voi< in the sand amount to 45 per cent; for base concrete the voids ar assumed to be 40 per cent for sand and 45 per cent for broken stc On these assumptions according to the theory of proportioning ar the tables of mortar given in the section on Concrete, tl Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 4, 1908, and Jan. 13, 1909. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 443 1 02 p H ci I 72* -3 3* OS ro d d O (M d t- d t^ d oo d 00 LO rf LO d d fe H * O O ONCRE 7 6 w 3 d t~- o d OS d rH CO T-i t- OS 10 t- rH rH <2 O M 72 L- 00 co "* r^ i T3 7 C-l 00 O j^. CO OS o i c r*> rH C\J CO CO ^ ^ o rH ^ ci in 3 d d 5 T-H O m O B 7 i 3 (M 1C t- 00 Ci eg 1C oo o | i o d d rH T-H r 1 rH C* B g r-T CO CO Ci US CI 00 10 iH O^ p j ? OS CO 00 CO t~ CM I i P^ o e-i co co tf f- 1 ^ o o O H rH H 1 I 0) 2 H rH e-i LC co 00 co co o co 02 fa d d rH rH ^H eg eg fi j H M 73 7} . i O 2 .S > K^ ^^ rH ^-' ^ 03 fe c m ^ y' o W 72 I s 00 CO M OO U5 as N co co - O aj H i 3 oo 0! CO t- rH g fa i ,0 i J 2 X 1" 4)" c o 7J 'a 1C oo Ci o t- CO LO p M 3 T-H T_ rH rH H to co 444 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. amount of materials per cubic yard of mortar and of concrete are as follows: Mortar proportions: 1:1 1:1% 1:2 Barrels of cement 3.94 3.34 2.90 Cubic yards of sand 0.6 0.8 0.9 Concrete proportions: 1:2:5 1:3:6 Barrels cement 1.16 0.90 Cubic yards sand 0.38 0.44 Cubic yards stone 0.95 0.88 Table XVIII has been computed from the above quantities and those given in Table XVII; thus for a 3-in. base (Table XVII) 0.93 cu. yd. of concrete is required per 100 sq. ft. ; if the base be a 1:2:5 mixture, then the Cement = 0.93 cu. yd. X 1.16 bbl. = 1.08 bbl. Sand= 0.93 cu. yd. X 0.38 cu. yd. = 0.35 cu. yd. Stone = 0.93 cu. yd. X 0.95 cu yd. = 0.88 cu. yd. The final results are the quantities given in Table XVIII, and the other quantities given in this table are obtained in a similar manner. TABLE XVII. SHOWING VOLUME OF CONCRETE BASE AND MORTAR WEARING SURFACE PER 100 SQ. FT. OF CEMENT WALK OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES. Concrete Base. Mortar Wearing Surface. Thickness, Volume, Thickness, Volume, ins. cu. yds. ins. cu. yds. 2y 2 0.77 1/2 0.155 3 0.93 % 0.232 3V 2 1.08 1 0.309 4 1.24 1% 0.386 41/2 1.39 11/2 0.464 5 1.55 1% 0.541 6 1.87 2 0.618 Note. 100 sq. ft. of walk 1 in. thick has a volume of 0.309 cu. yd. To get the volume in a walk of any thickness, multiply 0.309 by the thickness of the walk in inches, e. g., 0.309 cu. yd. X 6 ins. = 1.87 cu. yd. Table XVIIT is used in estimating as follows: Problem : Find the amount of cement, sand and stone required for 1,000 ft. of sidewalk, 5 ft. wide; base 4 ins. thick of 1 : 2 : 5 concrete ; wearing surface 1 in. thick of 1 : 1 1 / 2 mortar. From Table XVIII we have: Cement. Sand. Stone. Per 100 sq. ft. bbls. cu. yds. cu. yds. Base, 4 ins 1.43 0.47 1.18 Wearing surface 1 in 1.03 0.247 Total per 100 sq. ft. .. 2.46 0.717 1.18 50* 50 50 Total per 5,000 sq. ft 123.00 35.850 59.00 *1,000 X 5 = 5,000 -h 100 = 50. Cost of Cement Walks. The cost of cement walks is commonly estimated in cents per square foot, including the necessary excava- tion and the cinder or gravel foundation. The excavation usually costs about 13 cts. per cu. yd., and if the earth is loaded into wagons the loading costs another 10 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 15 cts. per hr. The cost of carting depends upon the length of haul, and may be estimated from data given on page 121. If the total ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 445 cost of excavation is 27 cts. per cu. yd., and if the excavation is 12 ins. deep we have a cost of 1 ct. per sq. ft. for excavation alone. Usually the excavation is not so deep, and often the earth from the excavation can be sold for filling lots. The base of the walk is often made 3 ins. thick, of 1 : 3 : 6 con- crete, and the top wearing coat is often made 1 in. thick of 1 : IJfc mortar. The cement is invariably Portland. Such a walk is frequently laid on a foundation of gravel or cin- ders 4 ins. thick. And by using the table on page 443, we can estimate the quan- tity of cement required for any given mixture. As the average of a number of small jobs, my records show the following costs per sq. ft. of 4-in. walk such as just described : Cts. per sq. ft. Excavating 8 ins. deep 0.65 Gravel for 4-in. foundation, at $1.00 per cu. yd ..1.20 0.018 bbl. cement, at $2.00 3.60 0.009 cu. yd. broken stone, at $1.50 1.35 0.006 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 .0.60 Labor making walk 1.60 Total 9.00 This is 9 cts. per sq. ft. of finished walk. The gangs that built the walk were usually 2 masons at $2.50 each per 10-hr, day with 2 I laborers at $1.50 each. Such a gang averaged 500 sq. ft. of walk | per day. Cost of Cement Walk.* The following notes, based on actual ex- ij perience, relative to the cost of a walk, are taken from a pamphlet ' prepared by Mr. C. W. Boynton and published by the Universal Portland Cement Co. Experience has shown that a gang of six men can lay between 600 and 800 sq. ft. of walk in a day of 10 hrs. and 700 sq. ft. is considered as a day's work in arriving at the figures (given below. This estimate is based on a 6-ft. walk having a 4-in. base, consisting of 1 part cement, 2 % parts sand and 5 parts crushed I stone, covered with a %-in. top of 1 part cement and iy 2 parts sand. i The stone ranged in size from ^4 -in. to %-in. and contained 48% voids. A good grade of lake sand passing a ^4 -in. screen was used. The sand contained 36% voids. The mixing was done by hand, and ;he cost of materials includes delivery on the work. The costs were is follows: Labor: One finisher at $5 per day $ 5.00 Five laborers at $2 per day 10.00 Total, 700 sq. ft. at 2.14 cts $15.00 Materials: Cement, 2.5 bbls. at $2.00 $ 5.00 Stone, 1.11 cu. yds. at $1.50 1.66 Sand, .77 cu. yds. at $1.00 77 Cinders, 2.7 cu. yds. at 50c 1.35 Total cost materials for 100 sq. ft. at 8.78 cts $ 8.78 Total labor and materials, per sq. ft, 10.92 cts. 1 * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 26, 1908. 440 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. It should be noted that this estimate provides for a walk where an excavation for the sub-base was necessary. Cost of Cement Walks in Iowa. Mr. L. L. Bingham sent out letters to a large number of sidewalk contractors in Iowa asking for data of co;st. The following was the average cost per square foot as given in the replies : Cts. per sq. ft. Cement, at $2 per bbl 3.6 Sand and gravel 1.5 Labor, at $2.30 per day (average) 2.2 Incidentals, estimated 0.7 Total per sq. ft 8.0 This applies to a walk 4 ins. thick, and Includes grading in some cases, while in other cases it does not. Mr. Bingham writes me that in this respect the replies were unsatisfactory. He also says that the average wages paid were $2.30 per man per day. It will be noted that a barrel of cement makes 55% sq. ft. of walk, or it takes 1.8 bbls. per 100 sq. ft. The average contract price for a 4-in. walk was 11% cts. per q. ft. Cost of Cement Walk, San Francisco. Mr. George P. Wetmore, of the contracting firm of Gushing & Wetmore, San Francisco, gives the following: The foundations of cement walks in the residence district of San Francisco are 2 % ins. thick, made of 1:2:6 concrete, the stone not exceeding 1 in. in size. The wearing coat is % in. thick, made of 1 part cement to 1 part screened beach gravel. The cement is measured loose, 4.7 cu. ft. per bbl. The foundation is usually laid in sections 10 ft. long; the width of sidewalks is usually 15 ft. The top coat is placed immediately, leveled with a straight edge and gone over with trowels till fairly smooth. After the initial set and first troweling, it is left until quite stiff, when it is troweled again and polished a process called "hard finishing." The hard finish makes the surface less slippery. The surface is then covered with sand, and watered each day for 8 or 10 days. The contract price Is 9 to 10 cts. per sq. ft. for a 3 -in. walk ; 12 to 14 cts. for a 4-in. walk having a wearing coat % to 1 in. thick. A gang of 3 or 4 men averages 150 to 175 sq. ft. per man per day of 9 hrs. Prices and wages are as follows: Cement, per bbl $2.50 Crushed rock, per cu. yd 1.75 Gravel and sand for foundation, per cu. yd 1.40 Gravel for top finish, per cu. yd 1.75 Finisher wages, best, per hr 0.40 Finisher helper, best, per hr 0.25 Laborer, best, per hr. 0.20 Cost of Cement Sidewalks, Toronto, Ont.* A considerable part of the public improvement work of Toronto, Ont., is done by day labor under the supervision of the city engineer. In the following article is given the actual unit costs of the construction of 4% -in. con- crete sidewalks, 4 ft. and 6 ft. wide, built by day labor. Engineering-Contracting. Aug. 29. 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 447 The sidewalks have a 4 -in. foundation of coarse gravel or soft coal cinders, thoroughly consolidated by pounding or rolling, upon which is placed a 3*4 -in. layer of concrete, composed of 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts of clean, sharp, coarse sand, and 5 parts of approved furnace slag, broken stone or screened gravel. The wearing surface is 1 in. thick and is composed of 1 part Portland cement, 1 part of clean, sharp, coarse sand and 3 parts of screened pea gravel, crushed granite, quartzite or suitable hard limestone. COST OF 6 -FT. SIDEWALK. Per sq. ft. Labor 5.59 cts. 0.016 bbls. cement, at $1.54 2.49 cts. 0.027 cu. yds. gravel, at $0.80 2.21 cts. 0.0046 cu. yds. sand, at $0.80 .' 0.37 cts. Water . 0.05 cts. Total 10.71 cts. COST OF 4 -FT SIDEWALK. Per sq. ft. Labor 6.73 cts. 0.0204 bbls. cement, at $1.54 3.15 cts. 0.0206 cu. yds. gravel, at $0.80 1.65 cts. 0.0049 cu. yds. sand, at $0.80 0.39 cts. Water . 0.07 cts. Total 11.93 cts. The rates of wages and the number of men employed were as follows : 1 foreman $3.50 per day. 1 finisher 0.30 per hour. I helper 0.22 per hour. 15 laborers 0.20 per hour. We are indebted to Mr. C. H. Rust, City Engineer of Toronto, Out., for the above information. Note how these labor costs are double what it costs a capable COP tractor to do the same class of work. Cost of a Cement Walk, Forbes Hill Reservoir. Mr. C. M. Savill* M. Am. Soc. C. E., gives the following data relating to 6,250 sq. ft, of cement walk built by contract : Per Per Stone foundation cu. yd. sq. ft. Broken stone for 12-in. foundation $0.40 $0.015 Labor placing same, 15 cts. per hr 1.50 0.056 Total $1.90 To. 071 Concrete base (4V 2 ins. thick). 1.22 bbls. cement per cu. yd., at $1.53.. $1.87 $0.026 0.50 cu. yd. sand per cu. yd., at $1.02.. 0.51 0.007 0.84 cu. yd. stone per cu. yd., at $1.57.. 1.32 0.019 Labor (6 laborers and 1 team) 3.48 0.050 Total (for 90 cu. yds.) $7.18 $0.102 Top finish (1 in. thick). 4 bbls. per cu. yd., at $1.53 $6.12 $0.019 0.8 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 0.80 0.002 Lampblack 0.29 0.001 Labor (2 walk masons and 1 helper)... 6.36 0.016 Total ..$13.57 $0.038 Grand total . . .$0.211 448 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This walk was 6 ft. wide laid on a 12-in. foundation of broken stone. On top of this foundation was the concrete base, 5 ins. thick in the middle and 4 ins. thick at the sides. This base was surfaced with a top granolithic finish about 1 in. thick. It is difficult to account for the high labor cost ($1.50) of placing the 12-in. stone foundation except on the supposition that the stones were broken by hand. The work on the concrete base was unusually expensive, for no apparent reason except inefficiency of the men. The two masons received $2.25 each per day, and their helper $1.50, and they averaged 360 sq. ft. per day, or 60 lin. ft. of walk 6 ft. wide, which is equivalent to 1% cts. per sq. ft. Atlas cement was used, and in measuring was assumed to be 3.7 cu. ft. per bbl. It is perhaps useless to comment on the extravagantly large amount of stone used in the foundation. Cost of Acid Finish on Cement Walk.* In making 86,650 sq. ft. of cement walks (25 ft. wide), the South Park Commission of Chi- cago did the work by day labor (in 1908) at the following cost: Per sq. ft. Cts. Cement, at $1.35 per bbl ................ ' ........ 3.46 Sand and broken stone ......................... 4.70 Forms ........................................ 0.39 Labor ........................................ 3.70 Superintendence and tools (10% of above) ...... 1.22 Total ..................................... 13.47 Grading and filling with cinders ................. 4.73 Finishing surface with acid ..................... 1.67 Grand total ............................... 20.17 The cement walk was 5 ins. thick (a 4-in. base of 1:2:4 concrete and a 1-in. surface of 1 : 2 Ms), resting on 12 ins. of cinders. In spite of the fact that a machine mixer was used, the labor and super- intendence on the cement work cost the very high sum of 4.92 cts. per sq. ft., which did not include the labor on the acid finish nor on the grading and cinders. This furnishes another example of an ill- advised attempt to "save the contractor's profits." The cost of finishing 29,395 sq. ft. of the surface by acid was as follows : Per sq. ft. Total. Cts. 10,800 Ibs. (60 carboys) muriatic acid, at 1% cts ......................... $135.00 0.46 36 deck brushes, at 50 cts ............. 18.00 0.06 Labor .............................. 290.00 1.00 Add 10% for superintendence .......... 44.00 0.15 Total ........................... ssroo 67 * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 9, 1908. ROADS, PAr EVENTS, WALKS. 449 Cost of Cement Curb and Sidewalks, Gary, Ind.* Mr. E. M. Scheflow gives the following: The improvement of Madison St. at Gary, Ind., from the south line of the Wabash R. R. to the north line of the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago R. R., a distance of 3,800 ft., has been recently com- pleted. The improvement consisted of brick pavement (see page 364 for cost), concrete curbs 5 ins. x 18 ins., with 5 ft. radii at street intersections and cement sidewalk 5% ft. wide. The grading was all done during the winter while the ground was frozen and all the material was hauled at that time. These costs do not include grading. Cost of Placing Curb. The mixture for curbs was 1:3:5 Port- land cement, torpedo sand and broken limestone, with a facing 1% ins. thick composed of 1 : 1 : S of Portland cement, sand and granu- lated granite. The concrete was mixed dry by hand and then mixed wet in a worm screw mixer operated by a gasoline engine. Wooden forms were used. The labor cost was as follows : Total. Per lin. ft. Laborers, mixing, 128 days, at $2.00 $256.00 $0.0351 Laborers, wheeling and tamping, 127 days, at $2 254.00 0.0348 Finishers, 51 days, at $5.50 280.50 0.0383 Form setters, 80 days, at $3 240.00 0.0330 Total, 7,268 lin. ft $1,030.50 $0.1412 Labor Cost of Laying Sidewalks. The sidewalk was laid with a concrete foundation 3% ins. thick of the same proportions as that given for curbs and a wearing surface % in. thick composed of five parts of Portland cement to seven parts of sand. The labor cost was as follows, the same method of mixing the concrete being used as for curbs : Total. Per sq. ft. Laborers, mixing, 117 days, at $2 ( $234.00 $0.0060 Laborers, wheeling, spreading and tamping, 142 days, at $2 284.00 Finishers, 47 days, at $5.50 v^fc. ...'... 258.50 Form setters, 37 days, at $3 111.00 Total, 38,930 sq. ft... $887.50 $0.022! Cost of Cement Curb, lowa.t Data were given by Mr. M. G. Hall, in "Engineering News," April 2, 1908, relating to cement curb work. We have rearranged and analyzed the costs as follows. (For com- ments on the brick paving laid at the same time and place, see page 361.) The cement curb material was mixed, 1 of cement to 3 of sand, in a %-cu. yd. Smith mixer. The average cost of the three jobs, A, B and C, reduced to the same rates of wages, is given below. Job A was 2,000 lin. ft.; B was 10,000 lin. ft; C was 20,000 lin. ft. The * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 14, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, June 2?., 1909. 450 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cu$b measured 5x18 ins. and was backed with cinders as shown in Fig. 13. The following costs are in cents per lin. ft. : Trenchmen, 20c per hr 3.44 Form setters,, 35c per hr 2.74 Filling cinders, 20c per hr 0.47 Wheelers, 20c per hr 0.58 Shovelers (concrete), 20c per hr Tampers, 20c per hr 0.24 Finishers, 35c per hr 0.42 Men on mixer, 22c per hr 0.99 Removing forms, 20c per hr 0.48 Backfilling, 20c per hr 0.78 Miscellaneous, 20c per hr 0.72 Water boy, lOc per hr 0.33 Team and driver, 40c per hr 3.86 Concrete wagon, 40c per hr , Foreman, 35c per hr 2.28 Total labor 17.33 Cement, at $1.40 bbl 7.65 Sand, at $1.05 ton 3.45 Cinders 2.00 Total materials 13.10 Grand total . .30.43 Job- B 3.50 4.03 0.62 0.68 0.37 0.70 1.34 0.24 0.64 1.00 0.31 3.71 i'.so 18.62 7.76 3.51 2.00 13.28 31.89 Since it takes 43 lin. ft. of 5 x 18-in. curb to make 1 cu. yd., the above items must be multiplied by 43 to reduce to a cubic yard .basis. Omitting the items of trenching, backfilling and handling . 13. Cement Curb. cinders, we see that the labor on Job C cost 7.4 cts. per lin. ft., which is equivalent to $3.18 per cu. yd. Of cement curb. The other two jobs were considerably more expensive, particularly in the items trenching and teaming. None of the three was economically handled, as may be seen by comparison with the costs given on page 451, where the labor cost about half as much per cubic yard as on Job C, and far less than half as much as on Jobs A and B. I would call attention to the fact that curbs often differ consider- ably in cross-section, and the labor of mixing and placing the con- crete therefore differs materially when compared in terms of the ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 451 lineal foot as the unit. Hence all costs should also be reduced to the cubic yard basis also. When this is done, a contractor will fre- quently find that his work is not being handled with the expedition that it should be ; for comparison with the cubic yard cost of other jobs of similar character may disclose to the contractor a weakness of management or laziness of men on his own job. This is well exemplified in the above costs recorded by Mr. Hall. Cost of Cement Curb.* The concrete curb shown in Fig. 14 was built at an average labor cost of 6 cts. per lin. ft. The labor force employed on the work was as follows : Per day. 8 laborers, at $1.75 $14.00 1 finisher, at $3.00 3.00 1 working foreman, sit $4.00 4.00 Total, 350 lin. ft., at 6 cts $21.00 This force averaged 350 lin. ft. of curb per day of 10 hrs. For the body of the curb, 1% yds. gravel and 7 sacks of Portland cement in ~LT "LT Fig. 14. Cement Curb. a batch would make 60 lin. ft. of curb. For the outside finish a batch was made of 18 pails of screened gravel mixed with 4 sacks (12 pails) of Portland cement The cost of the materials was as follows, not including the out- side cement finish : Per lin. ft. 0.03 cu. yd. gravel, at $1.25 $0.0375 0.03 bbl. cement, at $2.40 0.0720 Total $0.1075 For the above information we are indebted to Mr. A. W. Saunders, of Johnstown, Pa. Cost of Cement Curb and Gutter. The following costs were re- corded by Mr. Charles Apple, and relate to work done at Champaign, 111., in 1903. The work was done by contract, at 45 cts. per lin. ft. of the curb and gutter shown in Fig. 15. The concrete curb and gutter was built in a trench as shown in the it. The earth was removed from this trench with pick and shovel a rate of 1 cu. yd. per man per hour. The concrete work was lilt in alternate sections, 7 ft. in length. A continuous line of inks was set on edge to form the front and back of the concrete * Engineering-Contracting, June 10, 1908. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. curb and gutter ; and wood partitions, staked into place, were used The cost of the work was as follows : COST OF CURB AND GUTTER. No. of Lin. ft. Total men. per day. wages. Opening trench, 18 x 30-in 2 Placing and tamping cinders 2 Setting forms : Boss setter 1 Assistant setter 1 Laborer 1 144 350 $3.50 3.50 3.00 2.00 1.75 Cost per 100 ft. $2.43 1.00 Total setting forms 3 100 $6.75 $1.75 5.25 7.00 3.50 1.75 4.00 3.00 ._. .50 550 $26~75 $1.69 . $0.50 1.50 2.00 1.00 0.50 1.14 0.88 1.14 $ 7.64 $12.76 $15.42 3.75 2.50 3.50 1.00 $26.17 $38.93 Mixing and placing concrete : 1 \Vheelers 3 Mixing concrete 4 2 I Finishing : Foreman and boss finisher 1 1 \Vater boy 1 Total making concrete Total for labor per 100 ft.. . 14 : Materials for 100 lin. ft. : Quant . 8% bl ity. Price. )ls. $1.85 Is. .50 Is. 1.00 Is. 1.40 Is. 1.00 7.5 y< . . 2.5 y< 2.5 yc Sand . . 1.0 y< Total for material per 100 ft Tntal for material and labor ner 100 ft.. m '$&$!$. : The curb measured 6 ins. thick by 24 ins. high, or 1 cu. ft. per lin. ft., and the concrete was mixed 1 : 2% : o. Since the labor cost 50 cts. per lin ft, this is equivalent to $13.50 per cu. yd. ! So far as I know, this breaks all records for high cost of cement curb work. *Of course the "contractors' profits" were saved. 454 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Cement Curb and Gutter, Ottawa, Ont.* The method and cost of constructing 1,326 ft. of cement curb and gutter at Ot- tawit, Ont., are given in some detail by Mr. G. H. Richardson, As- sistant City Engineer. We have remodeled the description and re- arranged the figures of cost in the following paragraphs. The concrete curb was built before doing any work on the road- way, and the first task was the excavation of a trench 2y 2 ft. wide and averaging 1 ft. 8 ins. in depth through light red sand. On the bottom of this trench there was placed a foundation of stone spalls 8 ins. thick ; in width this foundation reached from 3 ins. back of the curb (:o 6 ins. beyond the front of the water table. The curb was made 5 ins. thick and ran from 10 ins. to 5*4 ins. in height, and the water table was 14 ins. wide and '4 ins. thick, with a fall of iy* ins. from front to back. The concrete used was a mixture of 1 of Portland cement, 3 of sand, 3 of %-in. screened limestone, and 4 of 2-in. stone. It was deposited in forms and tamped to bring the water to the face and then smoothed with a light troweling of stiff mortar. The forms were constructed by first setting pickets and nailing to them a back board 2 ins. thick and 12 ins. wide and a front board 2 ins. thick and 6 ins. wide. The concrete for the water table was deposited in this form in sections and brought to surface by straight edge riding on wooden strips nailed across the form and properly set to slope, etc. After the water table had been troweled down and brushed a 1 x 10-in. board was set to mold the front face of the curb. This board was sustained by small "knee frames" made of three pieces of 1 x 2-in. stuff, one conforming to the slope of the water table and long enough to extend beyond the front of the 2x6- in. front board, a second standing plumb and bearing against the 1 x 10-in. face board, and the third forming a small corner brace between the two former to hold them in their proper relative posi- tions. The 1 x 10-in. face board, etc., was separated from the 2x12- in, back board by a 5-in. block at each end, and then braced by the knee frames every 3 or 4 ft. In this way it was possible to bring this IxlO-in. board into perfect line by moving the knee braces in or out, and when correct nailing them to the 2 x 6-in. front board. The 1 x 10-iii. face board being in position and braced and lined, the curb material was thoroughly tamped in, and when ready was troweled and brushed on the top, a small round being worked onto the top front corner with the trowel. Expansion joints were provided for by building into the curb every 12 ft., a piece of %-in. boiler plate, which was afterward withdrawn and the joint filled with sand and faced over. As soon as the concrete had set sufficiently the face board was taken down and face of curb finished and brushed, the fillet between curb and water table being finished to 2% ins. radius. Circular curb and gutter of samo construction was built at each corner, %-in. bass- wood being used for forms, instead of 2 x 1-in. lumber. * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 13, 190' 1 ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 455 In addition to the actual construction of curb and gutter the cost given below includes the cleaning up of the street, spreading or re- moval of all surplus material from excavation, and the extension of all sidewalks out to the curbs at the corners. It was also neces- sary to maintain a watchman on this work, which duty, under ordi- nary circumstances, would be done by the general watchman. The total length built was 1,326 ft., of which 1,209 ft. is straight and 117 ft. curved to a 12 -ft. radius. The rates of wages paid were $2 for horse and cart, $1.65 for watchman, and an average of $1.90 per day for labor, including foreman ; all for nine hours' work per day. The working force con- sisted of 1 foreman, 1 finisher, 1 handy man, 4 concrete men, and 3 laborers, total 10 men. The labor cost of the work was as follows: Per lin. ft. Labor: Total. Cts. Excavation and setting boards $ &S.90 0.7 Laying stone foundation 43.30 3.3 Concreting 61.30 4.6 Finishing 45.15 3.4 Carting 9.85 0.76 Watchman 25.00 1.89 Clearing up 13.60 1.04 Extras (sidewalk extensions) 17.23 1.31 Total $304.33 23.00 The cost of materials for curb and foundation were as follows: Per lin. ft. Materials: Total. Cts. 171.112 tons spalls $102.93 7.76 42 tons 2-in. stone 41.16 3.09 30.8 tons %-in. stone 42.57 3.21 33,000 Ibs. cement 161.70 12.19 24 cu. yds. sand 19.20 1.45 Total $367.56 27.70 The cost of supplies and tools was as follows : Supplies, Etc.: Total. 1,000 ft. B. M. 2 x 12 boards charged off. . . $ 9.25 500 ft. B. M. 2x6 boards charged off 4.12 1,000 ft. B. M. 1 x 10 boards charged off 14.25 %-in. basswood 4.30 % keg 3-in. nails 1.42 V 2 keg 4-in. nails 1.43 Pickets 3.25, Tools charged off 3.15 Total $41.17 This total, when divided by 1,326 lin. ft of curb, gives the cost per ;al foot as about 3 cts. We can now summarize as follows : Item. Total. Per lin. ft. P. C. of total. Labor $304.33 $0.23 43 Material 367.56 .28 51 Supplies 41.17 .03 6 Total $713.06 $0.54 100 As indicated above, on more extensive work the costs of carting, iman, cleaning up, and extras would be avoided. They cost 4Gt> HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. on this work 5 cts. and the work could therefore be done for 49 cts. if no such charges were included. On such work also the charge for supplies would be lower per foot and on any future work the labor cost could be materially lowered, this curb having been somewhat of an experiment as to method of construction. It is thought that with no charges for carting, cleaning, watchman, and extras, and with the experience obtained, this curb could be built for about 46 cts. The proportions adopted and the method of construction fol- lowed, produce a very strong, dense, homogeneous curb and gutter. Cost of Setting . Stone Curbs. After the trench has been dug and foundation prepared, a mason and a helper will set 225 lin. ft. of stone curb in 10 hrs. If the mason receives 35 cts. per hr., and his helper receives 20 cts. per hr., the placing of the curb costs 2V(j cts. per lin. ft. This cost is based upon the work of laying several thousand feet of dressed Medina sandstone curb, 24 ins. deep, and does not Include any dressing of the stone. The men were not very efficient. Cost of Cutting and Setting Granite Curb, N. Y.* The work was done by a contractor on a New York City street, and involved the dressing and setting of 1,560 lin. ft. of granite curb. Each curb cutter cut 28^ lin. ft. of curb per day, and each curb setter set 184 lin. ft. per day. The labor cost was as follows : Per lin. ft. 0.0352 day curb cutter, at $4.00 $0.141 0.0058 day curb setter, at $4.00 0.023 0.0120 day curb setter's helper, at $2.00 0.024 Total $0.188 These men were very inefficient or poorly managed. Cost of Resetting Curb, N. Y.f On Broadway, between 110th and 119th street, 2,253 lin. ft. of stone curb was set in 1904. Of this only 500 ft. was new curb, the rest being old curb that was taken up, dressed and reset. The work was done by a contractor, whose men worked an 8-hr, day, and the actual costs were as fol- lows : Excavation: Rate per day. Per lin. ft. Foreman $3.75 $0.004 Laborers 1.50 .020 Total per lin. ft Concrete: Rate per day. Foreman $3.75 Laborers 1.50 Total per lin. ft Setting and Dressing Curbs: Rate per day. Stonecutters $5.00 Curb setters 4.00 Curb setters' help 2.50 Total per lin. ft $0.167 Engineering-Contracting, June 20, 1906. ^Engineering-Contracting, May 16, 1906. ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 457 It should be noted that in the table the excavation under curb is for the taking up of the old curb and making excavation for new curb. The concrete for the curb foundation required twenty-nine loads of stone costing $72, sixteen loads of sand at a total cost of $35, and 160 bags of cement at a total cost of $64. The total cost of the ma- terial for the curb foundation amounted to $171. Recording Cost of Street Sprinkling. No record of the cost of street sprinkling is entirely satisfactory unless it shows : 1. The average daily wage of team and driver on the sprinkling wagon. 2. Number of miles of street of given width kept sprinkled each day by each sprinkling wagon. 3. Number of gallons of water averaged per day per square yard of street, of given kind of pavement, during the sprinkling season (usually Apr. 1 to Oct. 31 in the North). 4. Number of days that sprinkling was done during the year. 5. Cost per sq. yd. for the year for (a) water and (b) team time sprinkling it. , Contracts have often been let on the basis of a given price per 1,000 sq. yds. for sprinkling during the dry season. This form of contract is objectionable in that disputes are very apt to arise over the inspection of the work. What seems sufficient sprinkling to the contractor may seem quite insufficient to the inspector. I am strong- ly in favor of doing all sprinkling by contract, but the contract should be based, not upon the number of square yards sprinkled a Stated number of times daily for a stated number of days, but upon the number of gallons sprinkled from a nozzle of specified kind. This involves metering the sources of water supply, which, however, is an expense of slight consequence. The cost of sprinkling depends primarily upon the amount of water loaded into the tank, hauled and spread upon the street ; hence the gallon is the proper unit of cost. Obviously, however, the kind of sprinkler or nozzle from which the water flows should be specified, so that too much water will not be put upon the street at one time and place. Such a contract is flexible as to the number of sprinklings de- . pending on the weather and is exact as to its payment in pro- portion to work done. Nor can it fail .to be far cheaper, in the long run, than any attempt to do 'the sprinkling by day labor forces work- ing for the city. Cost of Street Sprinkling, Washington, D. C.* About 40 miles of streets and roads in the District of Columbia are sprinkled each day upon which weather conditions were such as to render it neces- sary. The District owns its own sprinklers and teams and hires the drivers. In all 19 sprinklers are used, four on the heavily traveled * 'Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 4, 1907. 458 HANDBOOK OF C O.ST DAT. I. car-track paved streets, and 15 on macadam and dirt streets or roads. Each sprinkler is required to cover two miles of territory from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m., at least three times each day. The sprinklers are 2-horse wagons, and have a capacity of 450 gallons each. On the average, it is necessary to fill the tanks about every SVi squares, or a distance in one direction of 1,750 ft. The dimension of the spray nozzle on the inside is 4% ins. in di- ameter, and the holes through which the water flows vary from 2/32 ins. to 4/32 ins. and cover a diameter of 2y a ins. The water is supplied free of charge, and drivers are paid $1.75 per day, in addition to which it is estimated that the cost of main- taining the 2 horses, repairs, etc., is about $1.25 per day, or a total of $3.00 for each day per wagon for each day upon which work is performed. The cost of the sprinkling for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1907, was as follows: Drivers ? 4,621.27 Forage, pro rata 4,863.77 Horseshoes and nails, pro rata 218.55 Incidental expenses, pro rata 419.13 Miscellaneous expenses, pro rata 830.46 Wages of extra laborers 1,289.13 Total, 40 miles, at $306.. $12,242.31 The total number of days worked was 195. The cost of maintaining and operating each sprinkler for the fiscal year was about $644, or $3.30 per sprinkler per day worked. Since each sprinkler covered 2 miles of street, or about 37,5"00 sq. yds. daily, the total cost of sprinkling (exclusive of the cost of the water) was $644 -f 37,500 sq. yds. = 1.72 cts. per sq. yd. per season (of 195 days), for sprinkling three times daily. Cost of Sprinkling Streets and Roads. Mr. J. J. R. Croes says that to keep down the dust in Central Park, N. Y., from April 1 to Oct. 31 (7 mos.), about 100 cu. ft. (750 gals.) of water were used daily per 1,000 sq. yds. of macadam, the greatest amount on any one day being 157 cu. ft. per 1,000 sq. yds. Carts holding 41 cu. ft. of water were used. From the above it appears that about 160 gals, of water were used per sq. yd. of macadam during the 7 mos. Mr. E. P. North states that to keep down the dust on an earth road, water applied twice daily, there were 143 cu. ft. (1,070 gals.) of water used daily per 1,000 sq. yds. .A sprinkling cart holding 60 cu. ft. covered 850 sq. yds., or about % gal. per sq. yd. Mr. E. W. Howe gives the cost of sprinkling park (macadam) roads. The road was sprinkled 10 times daily to keep the dust down, a sprinkler with fine holes being used. Per mile per year. 1,170,000 gals, water, at 16 cts. per 1,000 gals $187 Teams . 533 Total . ?720 ROADS, PAVEMENTS WALKS. -ir>!i Unfortunately the width of these park roads is not given, so that it is impossible to arrive at the amount of water or cost per sq. yd. Amount of Water for Sprinkling Streets, Indianapolis and Minneapolis. Mr. F. A. W. Davis gives the following. In Indian- apolis, during the year of 1892, from Apr. 1 to Oct. 31 (7 mos. ), 14,900,000 sq. ft. of streets were sprinkled, using 7.1 gals, per sq. ft., or 64 gals, per sq. yd., for the season. The water was metered and paid for at 8 cts. per 1,000 gals, (or $80 per 1,000,000 gals.). Hence the water cost $0.005, or % ct. per sq. yd., or about % mill per sq. ft. The sprinkling was done by contract, the prices ranging from $38 to $48 per 10,000 sq. ft., which is equivalent to 3.4 ct. to 4.3 ct. per sq. yd., for the season. The streets were sprinkled 3 to 4 times daily. Hence these contract prices were high. During 1893 there were 8 gals, used per sq. ft., or 72 gals, per sq. yd. It is stated that in Minneapolis, during 1893, each team on a sprinkling cart averaged 7,100 lin. ft. of street sprinkled per day, which is nearly 1.4 miles of street, there being 150 carts employed in sprinkling 207 miles of street. During two of the driest months of summer, 10,000,000 gals, were vised per day, which is nearly 50,000 gals, per mile per day. The width of streets is not stated, but if they averaged 32 ft., there were 2.67 gals, of water per sq. yd. per day, during the two driest months. Sprinkling Car Tracks. The cost of sprinkling the street car tracks of the Detroit United Railway of Detroit, Mich., amounts to $4,123 per season; the company has eight sprinkling cars in opera- tion, fhe cost for each car per year thus being $511. Two of the cars have tanks of a capacity of 3,670 gallons each, and six cars have a tank capacity of 3,702 gallons each. A car having a tank capacity of 3,702 gallons sprinkles at one filling 3.3 miles of track to a width of 8 ft. The rate per hour is 10% miles. Recording Cost of Street Sweeping. Very rarely does an annual report on municipal street sweeping contain the data in form that admits of comparison with other cities. Sweeping cost data should be so compiled as to show the following: 1. The organization of the workmen, the numbers in each class, and their respective daily wages. 2. The average daily wage. 3. The number of days worked by the average workman during the fiscal year. 4. If possible, the average number of times all streets were swept during the year. 5. The cost of this sweeping per sq. yd. of street per year. 6. The cost per 1,000 sq. yds. for one sweeping. 7. The number of loads and cu. yds. of sweepings removed. It is further desirable, where there are several different kinds of ivements, to give the unit costs of sweeping each class. 460 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Where machines are used, their kind and number, as well as the methods of doing the work should be stated. A common cost of sweeping is about 20 cts. per 1,000 sq. yds. swept once. Hence if a street is swept 3 times a week, or 156 times a year, the cost is 3.12 cts. per sq. yd. per year for sweeping. It is commonly believed that street cleaning can not be well done by contract, due to the difficulty of specifying exactly what is wanted and of determining by inspection whether the contract is be- ing lived up to. This is undoubtedly true where the attempt is made to contract at a given price per sq. yd. of street per year. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated in Washington, D. C., and elsewhere, that much of the difficulty vanishes when a contract is made on the basis of 1,000 sq. yds. swept once. Then, if, say, 3 sweepings a week does not give satisfactory cleanliness, the number of sweepings can be increased and paid for at the contract price of, say, 20 cts. per 1,000 sq. yds. swept once. Under such a contract, the contractor should be required to work his men in fairly large gangs, and under the general direction of the city's representative. Under the "patrol system" of sweeping, each street cleaner is assigned a certain length of street to keep clean. This is a fairly satisfactory method where work is done by day labor by the city ; but it is not an economic method, nor one to be gen- erally used. The German method of having men work in large gangs is far more economic. It possesses the very important advan- tage of enabling one to know exactly how many times each street has been actually swept over each week, and thus makes it possible to determine what it has cost per 1,000 sq. yds. for each sweeping. As this is the only unit of cost of sweeping that admits of a rational comparison of the cost in different cities, or of the cost in different sections of the same city, it is obviously of the utmost importance to adopt the "gang system" -and abandon the "patrol system" of sweeping. Cost of Street Sweeping in 35 Cities. In January, 1900, Mr. Andrew Rosewater, City Engineer of Omaha, Neb., collected the data shown in Table XIX. It will be noted that he secured the actual costs for the year 1898; and that the costs for 1899 were estimated, but probably close to actual. It is unfortunate that the data were not secured to show how many times the average street was swept in each city, for then we could have determined what it cost per 1,000 sq. yds. swept once. Excluding New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Pittsburg, the 31 remaining cities have 3,670 miles of paved streets with an area ofj 71,439,091 sq. yds. Hence the average width of pavement is 33% ft., which is equivalent to 3.7 sq. yds. per lin. ft. of street, or 19,500 sq. yds. per mile. The estimated cost of cleaning these 31 cities in 3899 was $2,305,895 (including Newark and Minneapolis on the basis of 1898). This is equivalent to 3.23 cts. per sq. yd. of pavement for the year, or $32.30 per 1,000 sq. yds. Assuming that the pavements of Chicago, Philadelphia and Pitts- ROADS, PAVEMENTS WALKS. 4fll burg also averaged 33% ft. wide, the cost of cleaning the four large cities was: Per sq yd. Cts. New York 18.0 Chicago 2.8 Philadelphia -3.1 Pitcsburg 3.8 The shameful record of New York is well seen by this contrast. There has been no improvement in New York since 1899. In fact the unit costs of cleaning have risen. In 1906 the boroughs of Man- hattan and the Bronx, had 635 miles of paved streets, 12,366,000 sq. yds. and a population of 2,516,502. The cost of street sweeping alone was $1,566,482, or 12.7 cts. per sq. yd. The cost of carting all the refuse, ashes, garbage, and street sweepings, was $1,211,899. This material was carried away in scows and deposited in dumps at a- cost of $775,249, making a total of nearly $2,000,000, of which at least 17% should be charged against the street sweepings, or $340,000, as that was their relative number of cart loads. This is equivalent to 2.8 cts. per sq. yd. of pavement. Administration ex- penses added 6%, or another 1.0 ct. per sq. yd., making a total of 16.5 cts., without any allowance for interest and depreciation on the plant (horses, carts, etc.), or for rents and miscellanies, which were fully 2 cts. more per sq. yd. The city accounts are so kept that complete unit costs are almost impossible to secure from the annual reports. Political misrule is written all over these New York City cost records. Cost of Street Cleaning, Washington, D. C.* The street cleaning work of Washington covers an area of 7,686,936 sq. yds. Of this amount 1,745,452 sq. yds. of paved streets are cleaned by hand patrol work; 3,245,297 sq. yds. of paved streets are cleaned by machine sweeping; 1,734,400 sq. yds. are unpaved streets; and 961,737 sq. yds. are public alleys, paved and unpaved. The hand patrol work is done by municipal forces, a summary of the work done by them during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1907, ; being as follows : b Number of days worked 281 Number of men employed 189 to 215 Area cleaned, sq. yds 497,811,216 Area cleaned, miles 22,330 Debris removed, cu. yds 39,952 Bags of paper removed 56,292 From this it is evidont that since 1,745,452 sq. yds. of street iviivolved sweeping an area of 497,811,216 sq. yds., these streets must jiave been swept 285 times during the year, or not quite once every Jay. The cost of the work was as follows for each sweeping : Per 1,000 Total. sq. yds. Labor $82,336.91 $0.165 Materials, etc 8,338.14 .017 Total $90,675.05 $0.182 ^Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 27, 1907. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. , H';UOQQOUQQUUUQUUQPQQ s .00000 -o O ooo .U5lTiTjOrH oo -jsioaoooooaiot- -ooooOrH O t-O'MOOOlO^fOCO O LO O O OO t- so )cTim " 10 w- gC.b t-OrHa5X)Tj4OOrHOCOrHrHOt-OOOC a; oi * 10 -M oo t- co t>. to I-H o t- o os o oo TJ< t- r-i oo . w M Lfl 'O rtx: * . flOOOCO^OOrHOOOOOO > ^"S L^, hjn a Mooooio-^ooooooooo-^' rt w r *^ C *'* o"'M''io''^i>rrH'?OT-To'o'ai'oo5'io"'io" ^ 35'fe-yS'S (Ht>.COflC>lrHiOT.^lfO 03 -p O Oa>> I oo'l.S^MQ oowt-eo or-to^ioooooai S? fe^^r.'S OLOOOOCOOOOOO .:: S jj * S5 S OrHOMOOCOOOOS C !^ ^ ^ W S MOO t>. 5j ^ co 'OO'O* J ^- w >> c ?3 c 4) P ^ -o .S 6 d ^ C c*j <" IfOOOrHrHrHMOOrHS^^TH M'^ 2 ^ bC ' C * 'c .-2 U ^ g ^OOrfO^OlOlOOOOOC^St^ fi bC "^*-' i ^5 ^? titl ?? 05, o OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ? C^ DOOOOOOOOOOOOOO r J2 ooooooooooooooo " -*- 1 IC'M'M'MTHTHOOOnoOt-t-CcSS -2 "S ') ^S" 1-1 rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 4 jSjg J ^ of 1 one-horse sprinkling cart 104.00 12 hand brooms at $0.65 . . 7.80 6 shovels at $0.75 4.50 2 horses for sweeper 600.00 V, horse for % sprinkler 150.00 2 1/2 sets of harness at $25 62.50 Total outfit ?1, 203.80 Annual plant charges: Interest on $1,203.80 at-4% $ 48.15 Repairs and depreciation on tools, at 20%.... 90.76 Depreciation on horses, at 15% 112.50 Total, 310 days at $0.81 I 251.41 Operating expenses: Per day. Maintenance of 2% horses at $1.35 ? Rent, storage of sweeper Wages, 1 sweeper driver J.1* Wages, 1/2 sprinkler driver . . ... . 1.09 Wages, 6 gutter sweepers, at $2.19 13.14 Plant charges 15,000 gals, water at $90 per million Total, 70,000 sq. yds. at 31.7 cts. per 1,000 sq. yds ? 22 - 16 ROADS, PAVEMENTS WALKS. 469 This is estimated for an 8-hr, day in New York City, and for an asphalt pavement. It does not include loading the sweepings into carts and carting away. Estimated Cost of Flushing Streets. In the Parsons-Hering- Whinery report, above mentioned, the cost of flushing Nev/ York streets with a horse and with a machine are estimated as follows: Using a 2% -in. fire hose with a 1^4 -in. nozzle, under a pressure of 40 Ibs. per sq. in., 235 gals, per min. are discharged, and 4,000 to 10,000 sq. yds. are washed per hour. Assuming an average of 6,000 sq. yds. per hr., and that the water jet is operating 80% of the time, there would be 1.88 gals, used per sq. yd. The cost of one outfit is: 100 ft. of 2i/2-in. hose at $1.10 $110.00 1 fire nozzle 12.50 6 brooms 3.90 $126.40 Annual plant charges: Interest on $126.40 at 4% $ 5.06 Repairs and depreciation 150% 189.60 Total, 310 days at $0.63. . ,-j .! AM i $194.66 Operating expense: Per day. 3 men at $2.19 $ 6.57 90,000 gals, water at $90 per million 8.10 Plant charges 0.63 Total, 48,000 sq. yds. at 31.9 cts. per M $15.30 It was estimated that as rapid and as thorough work could ably be secured with a 1-in. special nozzle (on a 2-in. hose), throw- ing a fan-shaped jet, and with 30 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure. Under such conditions, the cost of flushing was estimated thus : Per day. 2 men at $2.19 $ 4.38 57,600 gals, of water at $90 per million 5.18 Plant charges 0.48 Total, 40,000 sq. yds. at 25.1 cts. per M $10.04 Street flushing with special wagons was estimated as follows. The wagon has a tank with two airtight compartments, one holding water (600 gals.) and the other holding compressed air, the two being connected above the water line. When the water tank is filled with a%ose, air is compressed in the air compartment. In flushing the water is forced out at a pressure of about 35 Ibs. per sq. ih. through a special nozzle. Cost of one outfit: One flushing wagon $1,000.00 6 hand brooms at $0.65 3.90 3 shovels at $0.75 2.25 2 horses at $300 600.00 2 sets harness at $25 ~ 50.00 Total $1,656.15 Annual plant charges: Interest on $1,656.15 at 4% $ 66.25 Repairs and depreciation on tools at 14% 147.86 Depreciation on horses at 15% 90.00 Total, 310 days at $0.98 $ 304.11 470 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Operating expenses: Per day. 1 driver $ 2.19 y a day helper 1.09 Maintenance 2 horses at $1.35 2.70 4 men collecting dirt in grutters at $2.00 8.00 Rent, storage of plant 0.20 Plant charges 0.98 56,000 gals, water at $90 per million 5.04 Total 28,000 sq. yds. at 72.1 cts. per M...$ 20.20 Cost of Street Sweeping, Minneapolis.* The asphalt pavement of the city of Minneapolis, Minn., is swept by hand, using the Ross scraper according to the block system. Each man has from two to five blocks to keep clean. The sweepings are deposited in galvanized iron cans placed at street corners, from which they are removed by teams. The asphalt pavement is also swept by machine at night, and flushed whenever necessary. The wages paid per day are as follows: Teams, $4; men, $1.50 to $2. According to the annual report of the city engineer, the cost of hand sweeping for 1906, 21 men being employed, was $16,049, or 8.69 cts. per sq. yd, per year. The cost of cleaning, machine sweeping and washing was $9,276, or 5.02 cts. per sq. yd. per year. A total of 11.65 miles of 27-ft. roadway cost per mile per year for cleaning, $796 ; for sweeping, $1,378, or a total of $2,174. In all 184,528 sq. yds. of asphalt pavement were cleaned and swept. The cost of cleaning and sweeping the other paved (not asphalt) streets was $43,014, or 3.33 cts. per sq. yd. This cost is for a yardage of 1,290,930 sq. yds., and does not include macadam and asphalt pavement. The cost of cleaning was 1.47 cts. per sq. yd., and the cost of sweeping was 1.86 cts. per sq. yd. During 1899. there were 200,000 sq. yds. of asphalt pavement cleaned by hand by the block system. The sweepings were put into cans, from which they were collected by teams. The gang was 31 men at $1.75 and 5 teams at $3.50. The cost was: Per sq. yd. Per jj^ar. Cts. Machine sweeping and washing 1.45 Hand sweeping 5.74 Total 7.19 Cost of Street Sweeping, Williamsport, Pa.f Mr. James F. Fisher, City Engineer of Williamsport, Pa., in his report for 1907, gives the cost of sweeping the streets by machines. The work is done by employes of city engineer's department, the force used and the wages paid being as follows : * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 29, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908. ROADS, PAVEMENTS WALKS. 471 One team on sprinkler $ 4.50 One team on sweeper 4.50 Two one horse pick up wagons 5.50 Four men 10 hrs. at ?1.65 6.60 Total for one day. $21.10 Int. and depreciation of outfit 1.00 $22.10 The one dollar added covers interest at 6% per annum and de- preciation of the plant at 20% per year, divided by 200 working lays, which is the length of the season in Williamsport. Each day this force sweeps parts of seven streets aggregating 62,000 sq. yds. This gives a cost per 1,000 sq. yds. for cleaning by machine sweeping of 35.6 cts. The city has 206,875 sq. yds. of im- proved pavements, which would cost $73.65 to clean daily, or $14,730 for a season of 200 working days, which is equivalent to 7.1 cts. per sq. yd. per year. This enormously high cost shows the usual low efficiency of men working by the day for a city. Cost of Sweeping, Rochester, N. Y. Mr. Edwin A. Fisher gives the following cost of sweeping for Rochester, N. Y., in 1901 : No. times Per sq. yd. swept. for year. Asphalt streets 99 3.71 cts. Brick 60 2.69 cts. Medina stone block 101 5.27 cts. It will be noted that, at this rate, each sweeping cost : Per 1,000 sq. yds. Asphalt streets 37 cts. Brick 47 cts. Medina stone block 52 cts. These high costs show poor efficiency of workmen. These streets were sprinkled at a cost of 2.21 cts. per sq. yd., or $350 per mile, during the year. Cost of Street Sweeping, Albany, N. Y.* The street cleaning of Albany, N. Y., is effected by three methods : Machine sweeping of improved streets ; hand cleaning of cobblestone streets and alleys and hand cleaning in the business district. All of the work is done by city forces, and the city owns the sweeping machines and street sprinklers and hiring necessary teams and drivers. In the principal business districts the asphalt pavements (173,000 sq. yds. ) are kept cleaned and waste paper picked up. The follow- ing regular gang is employed for this work, the wages being $1.75 per day : 2 men cleaning granite cross-walks $ 3.50 3 men cleaning asphalt 5.25 2 men picking up waste paper 3.50 Total daily expense $12.25 This is equivalent to an annual expense of $4,100, or nearly 2.4 cts. per sq. yd., not including the additional cost of sweeping streets with machines. ^Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 4, 1907. 472 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cobblestone pavements, of which there is a total area of 229,229 sq. yds., are cleaned by hand hoes or broom, at the follow- ing daily expense : 1 foreman, at $2.35 $ 2.35 10 men, at $1.75 17.50 1 horse and driver for sprinkler, at $3.50 3.50 Total $24.35 The pavements are cleaned for a period of eight months at a total cost of about $4,800, or 2.1 cts. per sq. yd. per year. The principal part of the street cleaning work Is effected by machine sweeping, the areas and kinds of pavement covered being as follows: Sq. yds. Granite block pavements 560,623 Vitrified brick pavement 458,733 Sheet asphalt 173,094 Asphalt block 14,500 Total 1,206,950 This area is swept twice a week during eight months of the year, or from about April 1 to December 1. The force engaged in machine sweeping consists of four gangs, each under a foreman, and made up of 1 street sprinkler, 2 machine sweepers and 12 men. Each gang has its regular district to cover day or night as the case may be. The sweeping is done in the usual manner, the pavements first being lightly sprinkled with water to lay the dust and then swept with the machines, the dirt being pushed by the latter from the center of the street to each of the gutters. The men then sweep the dirt into piles along the gutters at intervals of about 25 ft. Ma- chine cleaning in the business district is done only at night. The daily labor cost of sweeping and collecting the dirt in piles is as follows : 8 teams and drivers for 8 sweeping machines, at $5 $ 40.00 4 teams and drivers for 4 sprinklers at $5 20.00 4 foremen, at $2.35 9.40 48 men, at $1.75 84.00 Total daily labor cost $153.40 The above force is employed about eight months, the total yearly expense for labor being about $32,000. The cost of repairs to sweep- ing machines and sprinklers, cost of new brooms and refitting old brooms and other incidentals amounts to about $4,000 per year, making a total cost of sweeping the dirt into piles amount to about $36,000. As the total amount of pavement swept over each amounts to about 85,000,000 sq. yds., the cost of sweeping the dirt into piles is about 42 cts. per 1,000 sq. yds. for each sweeping. This does not include the cost of shoveling the dirt from the piles into wagons and conveying it to dumps or other places where it is used for filling. This work is done by contract, the price for 1907 being $11,500. There are 8 public dumps, which receive street dirt, ashes, etc., ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 4T and are cared for by 9 men at an expense of $15.75 per day, or abou, $5,000 per year. Since the 1,206,950 sq. yds. involve 85,000,000 sq. yds. of sweeping yearly, each street is swept about 70 times during the year. Summing up we have the following cost of sweeping 1,206,950 sq. yds., not including the 229,229 sq. yds. of cobblestone pavement: Per sq. yd. Per yea, ""<" Laborers cleaning business streets $ 4,100 0.34 Gangs with' street sweeping machines 32,000 2.65 Repairs to sweeping machines, etc 4,000 0.33 Loading and hauling dirt to dumps (by contract) 11,500 0.95 Spreading dirt and ashes at dumps 5,000 0.42 Total $56,600 4.69 It should be remembered that the first item, "laborers cleaning business streets," costs 2.4 cts. per sq. yd. of business street cleaned, which becomes 0.34 ct. per sq. yd. of entire area of city streets. Since the 8 machine sweepers sweep 85,000,000 sq. yds. in the working season (8 mos. ), each machine covers 10,600,000 sq. yds. in the 210 working days, or 50,000 sq. yds. per day, at a cost of 38.4 cts. per 1,000 sq. yds. swept once. This is for labor alone, and, as will be seen from the tabulation of wages above given, more than 50% of this cost is for the wages of the laborers who sweep the dirt into piles in the gutters ready to haul away, there being 6 such men to each machine sweeper. This is an exceedingly high cost, but it does not include the excessive cost of repairs, etc., which is $500 per year for each machine sweeper (plus half a sprinkler*), etc., or nearly $2.50 per working day, thus adding nearly 5 cts. per 1,000 sq. yds. swept. Summing up we have the following total cost for sweeping 1,000 sq. yds. each time : Per 1,000 sq. yds, Cts. Gang with street sweeper 36.4 Repairs to sweeper, etc 4.7 Loading and hauling dirt (by contract) 13.6 Spreading dirr and ashes 6.0 Total 60.7 All of the last item is not properly chargeable to sweeping, since it involves spreading ashes also. In excuse for these exceedingly high costs it has been said that a large part of the pavement is granite blocks and that the Albany streets are in many cases very steep, or hilly. This excuse is in- adequate, for not half the streets are granite, and far less than half are steep. The true excuse is the general inefficiency of men work- ing by the day for any municipality. Cost of Street Flushing and Sweeping, St. Louis, Mo.* The street cleaning of St. Louis is done by the day labor plan, six day * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 15, 1908. 474 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. gangs and four night gangs being employed in the work. A gang comprises the following: 5 flushing machines at $6.00 $30.00 4 dirt wagons at $4.50 18.00 6 laborers at $1.50 . . . 9.00 1 inspector at $3.00 3.00 Total $60.00 From 20 to 35 gals, of water are used for each square (100 sq. ft.) of flushing, or 2 to 3 gals, per sq. yd. The average cost to the city per great square (10,000 sq. ft.) for one flushing of the pavements in the business and residence districts is $1.10, or $1 per 1,000 sq. yds. This estimate is based upon the number of squares flushed per month, without regard to the paving material, or where the streets cleaned are located. It is possible to flush an asphalt pavement in the residential district for $0.75 per great square, or $0.70 per 1,000 sq. yds. ; while the granite block pavements in the busmess district, where the delays are caused by traffic, may cost $1.35 per great square, or $1.22 per 1,000 sq. yds. The average cost for machine broom sweeping is about $0.50 per great square, or $0.45 per 1,000 sq. yds., these machines being used on the brick pavements except where the streets are very dirty. The block patrol system of cleaning is also employed. In this, one man is given about five city blocks to clean, the average length ot block being 300 ft. With wages at $1.50 and the width of road- way assumed at 36 ft., 5^ great squares are cleaned each day at a cost of $0.28 per great square, or $0.25 per 1,000 sq. yds. The sys- tem of street sprinkling aids very much the cleaning of streets by the block system, as all of the paved streets are sprinkled from one to four times per day, the cost thereof being charged as a special tax against the property fronting the street sprinkled, the average rate for the year amounting to about $0.04 per front foot. The total mileage of hard pavements is as follows : Miles. Asphalt 45.42 Bituminous macadam 24.46 Vitrified brick 96.19 Granite blocks 63.48 Wood blocks 2.50 Total 232.05 In addition, 134 miles of improved alleys are cleaned from the ap- propriation for street cleaning. It will be noted that all these costs are exceedingly high. Life of Sweeping Machines. In Berlin the life of horse-drawn sweeping machines (rotary brooms) has been about 20 years. A rotary broom lasts only 21 days when used every night; a machine requires 17 brooms yearly, and works 7 hrs. daily. SECTION V. STONE MASONRY. Definitions. Consult Section VI, on Concrete, for definitions not found in this section. Abutment. The foundation or substructure of a bridge. Abut- ments are built on the banks of a stream ; piers are built in the stream itself. Apron. A covering over the earth or rock below the spillway of a dam. Arch Culvert. A culvert with an arched roof. Arch Masonry. That portion of the masonry in the arch ring only, or between the intrados and the extrados. Ashlar. First-class squared stone masonry dressed so that its joints do not much exceed %-in. in thickness. Axed. Dressed so as to cover the surface of a stone with chisel marks which are nearly or quite parallel. Back. The rear face of a wall. Backing. The rough backing masonry of a wall faced with a higher class of masonry. The earth deposited back of a wall or arch is sometimes miscalled backing instead of backfilling or lining. Barrel. The under surface of an arch. See Soffit. Bat. A part of a brick or stone. Batter. The backward slope of the face of a wall. A 1-in. batter means that the face of the wall departs from a plumb line at the rate of 1 in. in every foot of rise. Beds. Or bed joints, the horizontal joints of masonry. See also "Natural bed." Belt Course. A projecting course of masonry immediately under the coping ; a belt course is often called a corbel course. Its object is to give a better appearance to a wall. Bench Wall. The wall or abutment supporting an arch. Blind Header. A header that extends only a short distance back into a wall instead of extending to the full depth specified; blind headers are also called "bob-tails." Block Rubble. Large blocks of building stone as they come from the quarry. See Rubble. Bond. The arrangement of stones so as to overlap or "break joints." Box Culvert. A culvert having a waterway of rectangular cross- section. 475 476 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Breast Wall A wall built against the face of an excavation to prevent its caving down ; also called a face wall. Bridge Seat. See Pedestal. Broken Range Masonry. Masonry in which the bed joints are parallel but not continuous. Build. A vertical joint. Bulkhead. A head wall at the end of a culvert, and perpen- dicular to the axis of the culvert. See Head Wall. Bush Hammer. To dress stone with a hammer having a number of pyramidal cutting teeth on its striking face. Buttress. A vertical piece of masonry projecting from the face of a retaining wall to strengthen it. Centers. The temporary structure that supports an arch during its construction. (Also called Centering.) Chisel Draft. A narrow plane surface cut with a pitching chisel along the outer edges of the face of an ashlar stone, usually cut the width of the chisel. Classes. Different kinds of masonry specified, usually, first, sec- ond and third class ; the first class being the most expensive. What is "firsc class" according to one engineer may be "second class" according to another. Closer. A narrow stone used to finish a course of masonry. Coping. The top course of stones on a wall, usually made of large flat stones which are laid so as to project a few inches over the face of the wall. A projecting coping relieves the wall of a "bobtailed" appearance. Course. A horizontal layer or tier of stones. "Coursed masonry" is built up in courses. Course Bed. Stone, brick or other building material in position, upon which other material is to be laid. Cover-Stones. The flat stones forming the roof of a box culvert. Cramp. A bar of metal having the two ends bent at right angles to the bar for insertion into holes drilled in adjoining blocks of stone. Crandall. A stone dressing hammer, consisting of a steel bar with a slot in one end holding 10 double-headed points of steel O/i-in. square x 9 ins. long), producing an effect like fine pointing. Crown. The top of an arch at its highest point. Cull. A rejected stone or brick. Culvert. A waterway under a road, canal or railroad embank- ment. Cut-Stone. A stone that is carefully "dressed" or shaped with tools. Cut-Water. The upper wedge-shaped end of a bridge pier. Cyclopean Masonry. Masonry made of huge stones, usually bed- ded in concrete. Damp-Course. A waterproofed course or bed joint in a wall, usu- ally just above the surface of the ground ; its purpose being to pre- vent the rise of water in the pores of the stone and mortar due to capillary action. STOXE M.1SOXRY. 477 Depth. The width of a stone measured perpendicularly to the face of the wall ; the distance that a face stone extends Into the wall. Dimension Stone. Stone dressed to exactly specified dimensions. Dirt Wall. See "Mud Wall." Dog Holes. Shallow holes drilled in a stone to afford a bite for the "dogs," or hooks, used in lifting the stone with a derrick. Dowel. A short steel pin Inserted part way into the adjoining faces of two blocks of stone. Draft Line. See "Chisel Draft." Drafted Stones. Stones on which the face is surrounded by a draft, the space inside the draft being left rough. Dress. To cut or shape a stone with tools. Drove. Dressed on the face so as to have a series of small paral- lel ridges and valleys. Dry Wall. A stone wall built without mortar. Efflorescence. A white crust that often forms on the face of ma- sonry, due to the leaching of soluble salts out of the mortar ; often called "whitewash." Expansion Joint. A vertical joint or space to allow for tempera- ture changes. Extrados. Tne curve that bounds the outer extremities of the joints between the arch stones, or voussoirs. Face. The front surface of a wall. Face Stones. The stones forming the front of a wall. Face Wall. See "Breast Wall." Fine Pointed. Dressed by fine point to smoother finish than by rough point. Flush. (Adj.) Having the surface even or level with an adjacent surface. (Verb.) (1) To fill. (2) To bring to a level. (3) To force water to the surface of mortar or concrete by compacting or ramming. Footing Courses. The bottom or foundation courses, which usu- ally project beyond the "neat work" of an abutment. Foundation. (1) That, oortion of a structure, usually below the surface of the ground, which distributes the pressure upon its sup- port. (2) Also applied to the natural support itself; rock, clay, etc. Foundation Bed. The surface on which a structure rests. Frost Batter. A batter occasionally given to the rear of a wall near its top to prevent the dislocation of the top course of stones upon the formation of frost in the ground. Full-Centered. An arch that is a full semi-circle, or half circle. Groin. The curved intersection of two arches meeting at an angle. Grout. A thin watery mortar which is poured into the joints after the stones have been laid. Haunch. The part of an arch between the crown and the skew- back. Header. A stone laid with its longest dimension perpendicular to tnti face of the wall. 478 HAXDB.OOK OF COST DATA. Head Wall. An end wall, or bulkhead, of a culvert. Hollow Quoin. The vertical semi-circular groove in the masonry into which nts the "quoin post," or hinge post, of a canal lock gate. Jntrados. The inner circle of an arch. Joint. The space between adjacent stones ; sometimes the word joint is used to denote the vertical joints only, in distinction from the "beds" or bed joints. Joints are usually hlled with mortar. Keystone The center stone at the crown of an arch. Lagging. The sheeting plank placed upon the ribs of arch centers. Length. The longest dimension of a stone. Leveler. A small rectangular stone, not less than 4 to 6 ins. thick,, used in broken range work to complete the bed for a stone in the course above and give it proper bond. Sometimes called jumper or dutchman. Lewis Hole. A wedge-shaped hole in a biock of stone, made for the purpose of lifting the block by the aid of a lewis. Lining. The gravel or broken stone filling back of a slope wall or retaining wall, for the purpose of drainage and to protect the earth from wash. Lock. Any soecial device or method of construction used to secure a bond in the work. Mortar. A mixture of sand with cement (or lime) and water. A 1 : 2 (one to two) mortar contains 1 part cement and 2 parts sand. Mud-Wall. A small parapet or retaining wall built on top of a bridge abutment to prevent the earth backfill from sliding or wash- ing down upon the coping. Natural Bed. A laminated or stratified stone is laid in its "nat- ural bed," or "quarry bed," when its laminations are horizontal or are perpendicular to the load that they carry. Granite has no "natural bed." Neat Mortar. Mortar made without sand. Neat Work. That part of an abutment above the footing courses, which is generally equivalent to saying, that part above the sur- face of the ground or water. Nigged. Hewed with a pick. Niggerheads. Rounded cobble stones. Parapet. The "mud-wall" of a bridge abutment ; the "bulkhead" of a culvert ; the spandrel wall at each end of an arch bridge or culvert, but more properly the extension of the spandrel wall above the crown of the arch ; a low guard wall rising above the surface of a roadway or walk to prevent pedestrians or vehicles from leav- ing the roadway or walk. Patent Hammer. A double-faced hammer so formed as to hold at each face a set of wide thin chisels for giving a finish to a stone surface. Paving. Regularly placed stone or brick forming a floor. Pedestals. Or pedestal blocks, are stone blocks on top of an abutment coping ; the pedestal blocks receive the weight of the bridge, and are often called "bridge seats" ; the term pedestal is STONE MASONRY. 479 also applied to a small masonry pier upon which the post or sill of a trestle rests. Perch. 16 Ms cu. ft. In most parts of the United States; in some places 22 cu. ft. ; and rarely 24%, which was the old-fashioned perch. Pier. A masonry structure built to support a bridge, between the abutments ; a column supporting two sequent arches. See "Abutment." Pilaster. A sauare cillar projecting: from the face of a wall to the extent of one-quarter to one-third its breadth. Pinner. A spall or small stone used to wedge up a stone and give* it better bearing. Pitch-Line. A well defined, straight line cut along the edge of a. quarry-faced stone, but not as wide as a chisel draft. Pitched-Face. A face roughly dressed with a pitching chisel. Plug and Feathered. Split with plug and feathers ; the plug being a small wedge of steel driven between two pieces of half-round steel, called feathers, which bear against the sides of the drill hole. Pointing. A superior class of mortar used to fill the joints in the face of a masonry wall for a depth of 1 to 3 ins. Quarry Faced. A rough face of stone, only the larger projections having been knocked off with a hammer. Quoin. See "Hollow Quoin." Raising Stone. See "Pedestal." Ramp Wall. The wing of an abutment, often called a ramp. Random. Not coursed. Range Masonry. Masonry in which the various courses are laid up with continuous horizontal beds. Ranged. Laid in a course of -the same thickness for its full length ; broken ranged masonry is laid in courses not of uniform thickness throughout each course. Retaining Wall. A wall that receives the horizontal thrust of earth back of it ; on canal work such walls are called "vertical walls" to distinguish them from slope walls. Ring-Stones. The voussoirs that form the end faces of an arch, as distinguished from the "sheeting stones" that form the body of the arch. Rip-rap. Large stones thrown in at random to protect earth from scour by currents or waves ; occasionally called "random stones." The term "hand placed rip-rap" is sometimes used to denote rough slope wall, but slope wall is a preferable term. Rise. The thickness (or vertical height) of a stone, measured from its lower bed to its upper bed. Do not confuse the "rise" with the "denth." The rise of an arch is the vertical distance from the spring line to the under face of the keystone. Rock-faced. See "Quarry- faced." Rock-fill Dam. A dam made of dry masonry ; a rubble dam in Which no mortar is used. Rubble. Masonry made of stones that have not been dressed, 480 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. or if dressed at all, have been only roughly shaped WilL a .lammer, or "scabbled." Scabbled. Hammer dressed. Sheeting. The stones forming an arch. See "Ring-Stonen." Skew Arch. An arch the Diane of whose ring-stone face:? forma an angle of less than 90 with the axis of the barrel. If the sheet- ing stones are all cut skewed, the arch is a "true skew" ; but if only the faces of the ring-stones are cut on a skew, while all th>3 other sheeting stones are cut with end joints perpendicular to uie bed joints, the arch is called a "false skew." Skewbacks. The course of stones against which the springer stones of an arch abut. Slope Wall. A pavement of scabbled stones laid upon an earth slope to protect it from wash. If the stones are not scabbled, the terms rip-rap, or hand-laid rip-rap, are more appropriate. Soffit. The under surface of an arch. Span. The shortest distance between the spring lines of an arch. Spandrel. The triangular area bounded by the extrados of an arch, a horizontal line tangent to the extrados at the crown and a vertical line through the springing. A spandrel wall is a wall built on the extrados and filling the spandrel area ; it is often mis- called a parapet wall. Spandrel filling is the earth filling between the spandrel walls. Spall. A fragment of stone, or stone chip. Springers. The lowest course of arch stones, the course resting on the skewbacks. Springing. Or spring line, the inner edge of the skewbacks, or the lower edge of the springers. Squared-Stone Masonry. Masonry in which the stones are roueh- ly squared and roughly dressed on beds and sides. Starlings. The two ends of a pier. Stretcher. A stone laid so that its longest face forms part of tl?o face of a wall. Voussoir. An arch stone. Wing. A spur wall at the end of a bridge abutment ; also called a ramp. Note. Other definitions will be found at the beginning of the sec- tion on Concrete. Percentage of Mortar in Stone Masonry. Published tables giving the percentages of mortar in different kinds of masonry have been very misleading not only because they have been based upon meager data, but because the factors that cause variations in mortar percentages have not been discussed. There are two wajB of estimating the amount of cement required per cubic yard of masonry: (1) By estimating the percentage of mortar in the cubic yard of masonry, and then using a mortar table like that on page 253. (2) By tabulating the different kinds of masonry and giving the fractions of a barrel of cement required for a cubic yard of each kind of masonry, when the mortar is a 1 : J mixture, also when it is a 1 : 3 mixture these two being the com- STONE MASONRY. 481 mon mixtures. Each method possesses its advantages, but the first is the safest because proper allowance can be made for variations in the size of cement barrel. A great many masonry walls consist of a "facing" of ashlar, or squared stone cut to lay close joints, and a "backing" of more or less irregular rubble stones. Obviously, if the wall is a thin one, the percentage of backing is much smaller than if the wall is thick. So that it would be desirable always to keep separate records of the amount of mortar used for the backing and for the ashlar. In prac- tice, however, it is usually impracticable to keep separate records. The final record usually gives only the amount of- cement per cubic yard of the whole wall. However, in making close estimates of probable cost it is well to keep the two classes of masonry distinct. Knowing the average size of cut stone blocks and the thickness of joints specified, we can estimate the per cent of mortar for the face stone with considerable accuracy. Suppose the cut stone is to be in courses 12 ins. high, and dressed to lay %-in. joints for 12 ins. back of the face. We can assume that the length of each face stone will not be far from 1% times its thickness, or 18 ins. in this case. Hence each cut. stone will contain 1x1x1%, or 1% cu. ft. Each stone must have one end and one bed mortared to a thickness of % in., hence we have: I X 1V 2 X ( % -j- 12), or 0.04 cu. ft. of mor- tar for the end; and 1 X 1% X (%-j-12), or 0.06 cu. ft. of mor- tar for the bed; making a total of 0.1 cu. ft. of mortar for the end and bed of each stone. But as each stone contains 1.5 cu. ft., we see that 0.1 -r- 1.5 gives us 7% (nearly) of mortar for the cut stone. Obviously the larger the individual stones the less is the per- centage of mortar. Stones 18 ins. high, 30 ins. long, and dressed to lay %-in. joints for 18 ins. back of the face, require 4^% of mortar. The mortar required for the back of the stone is apparently omitted in applying the above method, but it is not omitted in the final account, since it is included in the rubble backing to a con- sideration of which we now pass. Rubble is a term having wide variations in meaning, but in gen- eral it may be said to apply to masonry built of undressed stones just as they come from the quarry. Now, if the quarry is lime- stone or sandstone yielding flat-bedded stones, the rubble may be laid with bed joints as close as the joints of well-dressed granite ashlar. On the other hand, if the quarry is granite or rock that when blasted yields chunks of irregular shape, the rubble becomes a sort of giant concrete and requires a large percentage of mortar to fill its voids. In any kind of rubble the percentage of mortar can be consider- ably reduced by packing spalls into the vertical joints between' adjacent stones. As Portland cement mortar seldom costs less than $5 per cu. yd., and as spalls usually cost but a few cents per cu. yd., no pains should be spared to use as many spalls as the joints will hold. If no spalls are used, and if the rubble is made of irregular stones, 482 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. about 35% of the rubble masonry is mortar. If the rubble is matk of flat-bedded sandstone or limestone, it may contain as low as 15% mortar, but more often will average 20 to 25%. The following are records of the actual amounts of mortar used in different masonry structures : (1) The Medina sandstone retaining walls on the Erie Canal averaged about 10 ft. high and were faced with hammer-dressed stones and backed with flat-bedded rubble. About 22% of the wall was mortar. The mortar was 1 : 2, and it required about 0.63 bbl. cement per cu. yd. of wall. A barrel was counted as holding 3.8 cu. ft. 02) Mr. A. J. Wiley states that in the Crow Creek Dam, near Cheyenne, Wyo., there are 14,420 cu. yds. of rubble masonry, of which 34%% was mortar. About 80 % of this mortar was 1 Port- land cement to 4 sand : the rest was 1 to 3. Each barrel was counted as 4 cu. ft., and 8.844 bbls. were used, or 0.62 bbl. per cu. yd. (3) The Cheesman Dam is of rubble, with one ashlar face, and is said to contain 28% mortar. (4) The Cheat River Bridge, on the B. & O. R. R.. near Uniontown, Pa., has five piers and two abutments. The masonry is a first-class sandstone facing with a rubble backing of heavy stones, and the mortar was 1 of Louisville (natural) cement to 2 of sand. There were 3.710 cu. yds. of masonry, which required 1,500 bbls. of cement (shipped in bags), or 0.4 bbl. per cu. yd. (5) The masonry locks on the Great Kanawha River, West Virginia, were built of sandstone obtained at Lottes, W. Va. Face stones were cut to lay %-in. bed- joints and 1-in. vertical joints Backing bed-joints were 1 in. The mortar was 1 part Rosendale cement (Hoffman brand), to 2 parts sand. It required 0.36 bbl. per cu. yd. of masonry. (6) A curved masonry dam. 82 ft. high, built at Remscheid, Germany, is made of slate having a specific gravity of 2.7. The masonry, laid in trass mortar, weighs 4,015 Ibs. per cu. yd. Owing to the irregular form of the stones the mortar was 38% of the masonry. (7) The Holyoke Dam, 30 ft. high, is of rubble masonry with a cut granite face. The mortar was 1 Portland cement to 2 sand, and it is stated that 0.87 bbl. of cement was required per cubic yard of rubble masonry. (8) Masonry in bridge piers, at Van Buren, Arkansas River, was for the most part of white limestone. In 10 piers there were 4,500 cu. yds. of masonry, which averaged 0.57 bbl. natural cement per cu. yd. The beds and joints were 1 : 2 mortar, and a 1 : 1 grout was also used. (9) The limestone masonry for the Sault Ste. Marie locks (U. S. Government) amounted to 80.876 cu. yds., of which 23% was cut stone, 60% backing and 17% mortar. The cut stone blocks average 1.3 cu. yds. each, and were dressed to lay %-in. vertical joints for 18 ins. back of the face, and the bed joints were dressed to % in. STONE MASONRY, 483 the full depth of the stone. In cutting the stone there was a wastage of 26^% of stone. The mortar was 1:1, and it required 0.29 bbl. of Portland cement per cu. yd. of cut stone, 1.21 bbls. of natural cement per cu. yd. of backing, and 0.78 bbl. per cu. yd. of the wall, including cut stone and backing. The backing stones each averaged 8 sq. ft. bed area, and no bed-joint was greater than 1 in. ; and no vertical joint exceeded 4 ins., the average being 2 ins. This is remarkably close jointing for backing, and was un- questionably very expensive to secure. (10) The Lanchensee Dam, Germany, was made of graywacke rubble (stones % to % cu. yd. each) ; 35% of the dam was mortar. A force of 45 masons. 12 helpers, 27 laborers and 4 foremen worked on the dam, and 110 men at the quarry. They averaged 120 cu. yds. of masonry per day. the best day's work being 196 cu. yds. Eight locomotive cranes running on trestles took the stone from the cars. The work was done by day labor for the German Government. (11) The Sweetwater Dam, California, was built of a granitic rubble that was quarried in irregular chunks. Mortar was 1 : 3, proportioned by barrels, and it required 0.86 bbl. cement per cu. yd. of rubble masonry. Cost of Laying Masonry. According to my experience on numer- ous small culvert bulkheads made of limestone or sandstone rubble, one mason with a helper to mix mortar and "get stone" will lay 4 to 5 cu. yds. per 8-hr. day. If mason's wages are $3 and helper's $1.50 this makes the cost average $1 per cu. yd. for laying. No derrick is used in such work the stone being one-man or two-man stone. Moreover, the stone requires little or no hammer-dressing on the part of the mason. In laying dry slope-walls (12 or 15 ins. thick) where stone of the same kind as the above is used, requiring very little hammer- dressing, a slope- wall mason will lay 5 to 7 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day, and I have had a man lay as high as 12 cu. yds. per day. One laborer to about 2 or 3 slope-wall masons is required, to furnish them with stone. A common laborer will lay about half as many yards of slope-wall stone as a skilled mason, so there is little or no economy in using unskilled labor in laying the stone that must be laid to a line and occasionally dressed with a hammer. On a highway arch bridge of 30-ft. span, with a barrel 20 ft. long, there were 50 cu. yds. of cut stone sheeting, 30 cu. yds. of cut stone facing in the abutments and walls, and 190 cu. yds. of lime- stone rubble in the abutments and walls. The masonry was laid by a mason and 3 laborers, two of the laborers operating a hand power derrick and getting stone for the mason, while the third labor- er made mortar and also assisted in getting stone. This gang worked without a foreman and were very slow, since they averaged only 3 cu. yds. per 8-hr. day. With mason's wages at $3 and laborers' at |1.50, the cost of laying the masonry was $2.50 per cu. yd. This Included the erecting of two small derricks on opposite sides of the stream, but did not include erecting: the centers for the arch. On page 206. the cost of laying the masonry of an arch bridge, similar 484 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to this one is given in detail; it being $1.35 per cu. yd., which shows how easy it is to reduce the cost of laying where the men are better organized. The common mistake made in organizing forces for laying stone with hand operated derricks is in having too many laborers to one mason, who is unable to keep them busy. If the mason must hammer-dress the stone to a great extent, as is often required by inspectors on granite rubble arches, the cost of laying (including this hammer dressing) may amount to $3.50 per cu. yd. It is difficult to be definite in the matter of costs of hammer-dressed granite rubble, because inspectors vary so ex- tremely in their interpretation of specifications. If no hammer- dressing is required (and none should be required for backing laid in cement mortar), the cost of laying granite rubble need not exceed the cost of laying limestone or sandstone rubble, say $1 per cu. yd., wages being as above given. In tearing down and relaying an old masonry retaining wall (9 ft. high), the author employed 16 laborers and 2 masons under a foreman. A stiff -leg derrick having 30-ft. boom, and operated by hand, was used to handle the heaviest stones. Much of the back- ing was laid by hand by the laborers. This gang averaged 36 cu. yds. of masonry laid per 10-hr, day, at a, cost of $30, exclusive of foreman's wages, or less than 85 cts. per cu. yd. It cost 75 cts. per cu. yd. to tear down the wall before relaying it. For laying any considerable quantity of masonry, never use a hand-operated derrick. A horse-whim forms cheaper power than two men on a winch. But in either case the lost time of swinging, or slewing, the boom cannot be avoided. The men (usually two) who swing the boom are called "tag men," because they pull the boom back and forth with "tag ropes." The wages of these men form a surprisingly large part of the cost of laying stone where a derrick is used which is not provided with a "bull-wheel" for swinging the boom. The engineman controls the swinging of the boom where a bull- wheel is used, and can make a swing of 90 in 15 to 20 seconds. To show how rapidly stone may be handled with a 60-ft. boom derrick, the following record will'serve: Seconds. Hooking on to skip 35 Swinging boom 90 20 Dumping skip 15 Swinging back 90 20 Total 90 This is equivalent to 400 skip loads in 10 hrs. ; and, were the material supplied and removed fast enough, the derrick could readily maintain this output for 10 hrs., handling 1 cu. yd. of rubble in each skip load. Obviously in masonry work, where a bull-wheel derrick is used, the limiting factor is the amount of stone the masons can handle per day. Much of the derrick time is spent in the put- tering work necessary in carefully placing large stones in the wall. Now, where tag-rope men are used instead of a bull-wheel, prac- STONE MASONRY. 485 tically all their time is wasted, as they spend so little of the day doing active work. Further data on the cost of laying masonry will be found on sub- sequent pages. Estimating the Cost of Stone Dressing. Stone may be divided into two classes : (1) Stone stratified in beds of a thickness not much exceeding 30 ins. ; and (2) stone that is either unstratified, or occurs in beds of such thickness that the blocks must be split with plugs and feathers to secure sizes which can be handled with a derrick. Many sandstones and limestones occur in thin strata or layers, and, after the use of a little black powder to "shake up" the ledge, it is possible to quarry blocks with wedges and bars. These blocks will often be as smooth as a floor on the bed-joints, but may be quite irregular on trie vertical joints. However, either by hammering, or by plug and feathering, the vertical joints can be squared up at slight expense ready for further dressing if required by the specifi- cations. On the other hand, all granites and many thick-bedded limestones and sandstones, break out in such irregular shapes that it often happens that every face must be plug and feathered before the block is roughly squared up ready to be dressed by the stonecutters. Obviously the dressing of the beds of such stones is far more ex- pensive than the dressing of the beds of smoothly stratified stones. Besides differences in hardness, we see that the shape of the stones as they come from the quarry is a very important factor in the cost of dressing. Another factor of scarcely less importance is the size of the blocks of stone. It is generally possible to quarry granites in blocks of any desired size, the limit being fixed by the strength of the derricks and other machinery used. A very common size of granite blocks dressed ready to lay in the wall is 18 ins. rise x 40 ins. length x 24 to 30 ins. depth. And as every block of granite must be plug and feathered to size before dressing, it is just as cheap to make coursed ashlar as random range ashlar. On the other hand, stratified rocks like sandstone usually occur in layers of different thickness, and it may be impossible to secure enough stone for courses of a specified rise without wasting a large part of the quarry product. An engineer should never specify any given "rise" for the courses (except in granite), until he has examined the quarries and is sure that they will yield the product specified. But engineers often fail to do this, and the contractor must be careful not to be equally foolish in failing to examine the stone available. Stone is often so seamy or so orittle that it can be quarried only in small chunks. Now it is obvious that the smaller the chunk 'the greater the area that must be dressed per cubic yard ; but how greatly this factor affects the cost of dressing is seldom consid- ered. To illustrate, let us assume that blocks for ashlar are each 12 ins. rise x 24 ins. long x 18 ins. deep. Each block then contains 486 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 3 cu. ft., and has 6 sq. ft. of bed joints and 3 sq. ft. of end joints, or 9 sq. ft. of joints to be dressed. Let us now take an ashlar block 18 ins. rise x 36 ins. long x 24 ins. deep. This block contains 9 cu. ft., and has 12 sq. ft. of bed joints and 6 sq. ft. of end joints, or 18 so., ft. of joints to be dressed. With the smaller block we have 9x9, or 81 sq. ft. of joints to be dressed for every cubic yard ; whereas with the larger block we have 3x12, or 36 sq. ft. to be dressed for every cubic yard. In other words the cost of dressing ashlar of the 3-cu. ft. blocks is more than twice as expensive per cubic yard as the cost of dressing the 9-cu. ft. blocks. It is apparent, therefore, that all records of the cost of dressing stone should be expressed in terms of the square feet actually dressed, and then the data can be applied to blocks of any given size to obtain the cost of dressing per cubic yard. This method of esti- mating costs will often lead a contractor to import his stone a long distance by rail rather than attempt to dress the small-sized stones from local quarries. It is customary among contractors and stonecutters to speak of so and so many "square feet" of stone dressed per day, meaning not the number of square feet of beds and joints dressed, but the square feet of "face." For example a stone is 1% ft. rise x 3 ft. long x 2 ft. deep. This stone when laid lengthwise in the face of a wall will show a face area of 4^ sq. ft., and the stone cutter is said to have dressed 4^ sq. ft. As a matter of fact he has dressed 12 sq. ft. of bed joints, and 6 sq. ft. of end joints, beside plugging off or hammering the face of the stone, and cutting the drafts if specified. In my early work I was misled by this method of estimating stone dressing in terms of the square feet of face. It is a method that should be abandoned. Data of the actual cost of stone dressing will be given in subse- quent pages. Data on Stone Sawing. There is little on this subject in print, but in almost any large city stone saws may be seen at work, and a rough estimate can be made of the cost of stone sawing. To tell how many inches deeo a saw cuts in a day, examine a slab of stone newly cut in the yard. It will be noted that there are rust lines on the face of the slab. The distance between these lines indicates the depth cut in a day, for when the saws are idle at night, the rust forms. For cutting stone into thin slabs, it is common practice to run two "gangs" of saws, of 15 saws in a "gang" driven by a small engine. As nearly as I have been able to estimate by observation and in- quiry, the daily cost of operating a "two-gang" plant is as follows per 9-hr, day in New York City : 1 gangman $ 4.00 1 helper 3.00 2 cu. yds. sand, at $3 6.00 % ton coal, at $6 3.00 Total per day $16.00 STONE MASONRY. 487 Working in Tennessee marble each saw cuts about 6 ins. deep per day, therefore, if the block is 6 ft. long, the 30 saws cut 90 sq. ft. per day of 9 hrs. The cost of sawing slabs, therefore, ap- proximates 17 cts. per sq. ft. The saw cuts a kerf %-in. wide. I am told that with wages of polisher at $3.50, slabs can be pol- ished by hand at 6 cts. per sq. ft. ; but where the polishing is done by machine the cost is about 2% cts. per sq. ft. Wages of stone yard men in New York City are about a third higher than in most other American cities. Mr. R. J. Cooke states that the rates of sawing different kinds of stone are as follows : Depth cut in 10 hrs., ins. Granite, Addison, Me. (shot) 10 Granite, Chester, Mass, (sand) 12 Granite, Red Beach, Me. (shot) 7% Bluestone, Hudson River (sand) 8 Marble, Carara, Italy (sand) 15 Marble, Tennessee (sand) 9 Marble, Tate, Ga. (sand) 6 Marble, Tate, Ga. (sand) 12 Marble, Gouverneur, N. Y. (sand) . . . 12 Marble, W. Rutland, Vt. (sand) 20 Marble, Proctor, Vt. (sand) 15 Limestone, New Point, Ind. (sand) 10 Limestone, New Point, Ind. (sand) 15 r Oolitic limestone, Bedford, Ind. (sand) 40 Oolitic limestone, Bedford, Ind. (sand) 70 Magnesian limestone, Lemont, 111. (sand) 36 Sandstone, N. Amherst, O. (sand) 40 Sandstone, Clarksville, O. (sand) 36 Brownstone, Portland, Conn, (shot) 20 Brownstone, Hummelston, Pa. (shot) 25 The Young & Farrell Diamond Stone Sawing Co., of Chicago, classifies stone into soft, medium and hard ; soft includes sand- stones ; medium includes limestones, and hard includes marbles and granites.' They say (1890) the cost of sawing per sq. ft. is: Soft, 8 to 10 cts. ; medium, 13 to 17 cts. ; hard, 25 to 30 cts. ; all on the basis of 4-in. sawing or two cuts to the cubic foot. With wages of i stone cutters at 50 cts. an hour, the cost of hand dressing the same ! classes of stones is given as follows per square foot: Soft, 25 to 30 cts. ; medium, 40 to 45 cts. ; and hard, 75 to 80 cts. ; all clear face work. Cost of Stone Dressing. In addition to the data just given, The Syenite Granite Co., of Graniteville, Mo., say (1890) that the cost of hand dressing 36,000 cu. ft. of granite to ^-in. joints was 20 cts. | per sq. ft, not including blacksmithing, handling, etc., which was 6 cts. more per sq. ft. This stone was granite cut to lay in 24 to ' 30-in. courses for the Merchants' Bridge, St. Louis, and it was delivered for $1.15 per cu. ft. The Kankakee Stone & Lime Co. say (1890) that, with wages at $3 a day, the cost of dressing limestone (bush-hammered or drove- work) is 25 ct.s. Der so. ft. Cost of Cutting Limestone and Sandstone. In dressing Medina 488 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. sandstone, a stonecutter will dress enough stone in 9 hrs. to lay 12 sq. ft. of face in a wall having courses that average 15 ins. rise, which is equivalent to about 0.9 cu. yd. of face stone per day, or 30 sq. ft. of beds and joints cut to lay %-in. joints for at least 12 ins. back of the face. The face is rock- faced, and is plugged off by the stonecutter. In dressing limestone for arch sheeting, the author made the mis- take of using a quarry whose product was all small and gnarled stones. Each stone after dressing averaged only 11 ins. thick, 22 ins. long, and 18 ins. deep, or about 0.1 cu. yd. per stone, so that to secure 1 cu. yd. of this cut-stone required the dressing of 80 sq. ft. of beds and joints. Each stonecutter averaged 36 sq. ft. of beds and joints (dressed to lay %-in.) per 9-hr, day, or 1 cu. yd. in 2^4 days. These cutters received 40 cts. per hour. Cost of Sandstone Bridge Piers. The cost of cutting 246 cu. yds. sandstone to %-in. joints for bridge piers was $2.65 per cu. yd. ; the cutting of the stones for the nose of the pier cost $3 per cu. yd. The wages of cutters were 38 cts. per hr. The cost of loading the stone, train service, sand, cement and laying the masonry was $3.60 per cu. yd. About % bbl. of Port- land cement costing $2.40 per bbl. was used per cu. yd. of masonry. The cost of quarrying the stone was $1.65 per cu. yd. The total cost of the pier masonry was $9 per cu. yd. For the foregoing data I am indebted to Mr. C. R. Nehr. Cost of Cutting Granite for a Dam. In building a dam in the northern part of New York state, the author used a granitic rock. The face stones were cut to lay in courses with beds and joints % in. thick. Each cut stone was quarry-faced and averaged 1% ft. rise x 3 ft. long x 2 ft. deep, or about % cu. yd. A stonecutter averaged one such stone per 8-hr day, or 18 sq. ft. of beds and end joints dressed per day. A blacksmith, at $2.50, and a helper, at fl;50, sharpened the points and plug drills for 8 stonecutters. The cost of cutting this face stone was as follows : Per cu. yd. Stone cutters, at $4 per 8 hrs $12.00 Blacksmithing 1.20 Labor bankering stones and plugging off faces. . . 1.80 Sheds and tools 0.80 Superintendence 1.20 Total $17.00 On a small portion of the work the stone was dressed to lay %-in. joints, which added $6 per cu. yd. to the cost. Cost of Cutting Granite, New York City. Mr. Wm. W. Maclay gives the cost of cutting 2,065 cu. yds. of granite by a force of 40 stonecutters working for the New York Department of Docks, during 1873 to 1875. The working: day was 8 hrs. The following: table gives the average day's work of a stonecutter working for the Dock Department as compared with work done for contractors in New York: STONE MASONRY. 489 Sq. ft. per 8-hr. day. For Dock For Con- Cutting Granite. Dept. tractors. Dressing beds and joints ( *4 in.) 13.5 16.0 Pointed work with 1%-in. chisel draft all around 8.5 10.0 Pean-hammered 6.0 7.25 6-cut patent hammered 5.25 6.15 8-cut patent hammered 4.25 5.00 It will be noted that the men working for the Dock Department did about 15% less work daily than is said to have been the average under contractors. In doing this dock work there were 1,524 cu. yds. of dimension stones cut into headers and stretchers. The headers averaged 2 ft. on the face by 3 ft. deep ; and the stretchers averaged 6 ft. long on the face by 3 ft. deep; the rise being 20, 22 and 26 ins. for the dif- ferent courses. The stones were cut to lay %-in. beds and joints, the faces being pointed work with a 1^-in. chisel draft all around. The cost of this cutting was as follows : Per cu. yd. Per cent. Cutting (4.53 days) $13.22 48 Labor rolling stones 8.26 30 Sharpening tools 4.13 15 Superintendence 1.38 5 New tools and timber for rolling stones 0.28 1 Interest on sheds, derrick, and railroad 0.28 1 Total $27755 100 In addition to this work there were 310 cu. yds. of coping cut to lay }4 -in joints, pointed on the face and with a chisel draft, 8-cut patent-hammered on the top, and with a round of 3% -in. radius. The coping stones were 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 2y 2 ft. rise. The cost of cutting this coping was as follows : Per cu. yd. Per cent. Cutting (6.26 days) |18.27 48 Labor rolling stones 11.42 30 Sharpening tools 5.71 15 Superintendence 1.90 5 New tools and timber 0.38 1 Interest on sheds, etc 0.38 1 Total $38~06 100 It would appear from the above that the stonecutters received $3 for 8 hrs., but Mr. Maclay states that the pay was $4 for 8 hrs. If so there is some error in the other items, which I have calculated from the percentages given by him. It is difficult to understand how the "labor of rolling stones" could have been 30% of the total cost of cutting, unless the laborers assisted in plug and feathering the stones preparatory to cutting. The cost of tool sharpening (15%) was also very high Certainly these two items were much higher than they would have been under a contractor. Mr. J. J. R. Croes states that in cutting granite for the gate-houses of the Croton Reservoir at 86th St., New York, in 1861-2, the least day's work was fixed at 15 sq. ft. of beds and joints. This included the cutting of a chisel draft around the face of the stone, the cost of Which was about one-fourth as much as cutting a square foot of 490 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. joint, making the actual least day's work equivalent to 17.7 sq. ft. of beds and joints cut. With wages of stonecutters assumed at $3 per day, from the percentages given by Mr. Croes, I have calculated the cost of cutting to have been as follows per square foot : Per sq. ft. Cutting ( 15 sq. ft. per day) $0.200 Sharpening tools 0.022 Labor moving stone in yards 0.020 Drillers plugging off rough faces 0.008 Superintendence 0.016 Sheds and tools 0.014 Total $0.280 The cost of all the items other than the wages of stone cutters was 40% of the wages of the stonecutters, or 8 cts. per sq. ft. Cost of Quarrying, Cutting and Laying Granite. Mr. J. J. R. Croes gives the following data relative to work done on the Boyd's Corner Dam. near New York City : The stone is a gneiss that is about as difficult to quarry as granite. The face stone for the dam average 1.8 ft. rise, 3.6 ft. long and 2.7 ft. deep, and were cut to lay %-in. joints. In quarrying the dimen- sion stone, plug and feathers were used to split the stone to size ready for cutting. The cost of quarrying and plug and feathering 4,000 cu. yds. of dimension stone ready for cutting was as follows: Days(10hr.) Cost per per cu. yd. Foreman, at $3 0.114 Drillers, at $2 0.917 Laborers, at $1.50 0.429 Blacksmiths, at $2.50 0.102 Tool boys, at $0.50 0.108 Labor loading teams, at $1.50. ..... 0.284 Total (not including explosives and teaming) $3.55 The work was done by contract in 1867-8. The rates of wages were not given by Mr. Croes, but Mr. John B. McDonald has been kind enough to give me most of the rates of wages as nearly as he can remember. The length of haul from quarry to stone yard was about a mile, and Mr. McDonald states that oxen were used. The cost of "teams" is given by Mr. Croes, as 0.62 team day per cu. yd., which indicates that a good deal of stone boat work was done, or else that there is an error in this item. The cost of quarrying 3,400 cu. yds. of rubble stone for this same dam vas as follows: Days per Cost per cu. yd. cu. yd. Foremen, at $3 0.041 $0.12 Drillers at $2 0.339 0.68 Laborers, at $1.50 0.140 0.21 Blacksmiths, at $2.50 0.036 0.09 Tool boy, at $0.50 0.035 0.02 Labor, loading teams, at $1.50.... 0.077 0.12 Teams, at $4 0.141 0.56 Total labor $1.80 It is presumable that both the dimension stone and the rubble stone were measured in the dam. STONE MASONRY. 491 The masonry was called "rubble range'" a term that deceived most of the Contractors, for the specifications in fact called for stones cut to lay in courses with %-in. bed joints. During 3^ years of work there were 5,200 cu. yds. of this "rubble range" cut, requiring the dressing of 6.373 sq. ft. Each stone averaged 1.8 ft. rise, 3.6 ft. long, and 2.7 ft. deep, or 0.65 cu. yd. per stone. Each stonecutter averaged 18.7 sq. ft. of bed joints dressed per day, so that it took 1.57 days to dress each cubic yard of "rubble range" stone. The ashlar stones were called "dimension cut-stone masonry" and were cut to lay }4-in. joints both on bed and end joints, and the faces were pean hammered. The lowest bid on this ashlar was $30 per cu. yd., but another contractor, who had previously done the same kind of work, bid $60 per cu. yd. It took 9 days' work of a stonecutter to dress each cubic yard of this ashlar. The coping was laid in two courses ; one course of stones 12-in. rise, 30-in. bed, and 3%-ft. length; the other course, 24-in. rise, 48-in. bed, and 2%-ft. length. The top was pean hammered, and the face was left rough with a chisel draft around it. The beds and joints were cut to lay %-in. It took a stonecutter 6.1 days to dress each cubic yard of this ashlar. The cost of laying the masonry in the dam was as follows, wages being assumed to be approximately what they are now (not what they were in 1875) : Mason at $3.00 A $0 36 B $0.36 c $0.25 D $0.32 Laborers, at $1.50 0.28 0.28 0.22 0.23 Mortar mixers at $1 50 15 12 11 0.15 Derrick and carmen at $1 50 . 49 51 0.36 0.39 0.18 0.20 Teams from yard, at $3.50 0.35 0.20 0.20 0.39 Laborers loading teams, at $1.50.... 0.28 0.33 0.33 0.13 Total $1.91 $1.80 $1.65 $1.81 Columns A and B relate to work done in 1868 and 1869 when the stone was hoisted by hand; A was a lift of 5 ft., B was a lift of 10 to 20 ft. Columns C and D relate to work done in 1869 and 1870, when the hoisting was done by engines; C being a lift of 20 to 30 ft. ; D being a lift of 30 to 50 ft. It will be noted that each mason laid from 8% to 12% cu. yds. per day. Each engine ap- parently served two masons, but it is not stated whether each mason had a separate derrick or both worked with one derrick. The stones were laid in inclined or sloping courses, which made it hard to keep them in place as a rap of a hammer would cause sliding. It will be noted that the cost of loading and hauling the stone from the stone yard to the dam is included in the above costs of laying. This cost of loading and .hauling is not properly a part of the cost of laying. The mortar was a 1 : 2 mixture, natural cement, and it required 498 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 0.3 bbl. of cement 0.093 cu. yd. sand, and 0.89 cu. yd. of stone per cu. yd. of dam masonry. In other words, only 11% of the masonry was mortar. Cost of Plug Drilling by Hand. By timing a number of masons at work splitting granite blocks 24 to 30 ins. thick, I found that each man drilled each hole (%-in. diam. x 2% ins. deep) in a trifle less than 5 mins., by striking about 200 blows. It took about 1 min. for placing and striking each set of plug and feathers. A block 30 ins. long, with four plug holes, was drilled and split with the plugs and feathers in 24 mins., on an average. At this rate, a good workman can drill and plug 80 holes in 8 hrs., but it is not safe to count upon so large an average. Cost of Pneumatic Plug Drilling. For drilling plug holes in gran- ite certainly no tool is as economic as the pneumatic plug drill. Horizontal as well as vertical holes can be rapidly drilled. The ordinary plug drill, according to the manufacturers, consumes 15 cu. ft. of free air per min. at 70 Ibs, pressure. At the Wachusett Dam I found that a workman averaged one hole (%-in. diam. x 3 ins.) drilled in 1% mins., including the time of shifting from hole to hole, but not including the time of driving the plugs. About 250 plug holes are counted a fair day's work for a plug drill where the driller does not drive the plugs himself. Cost of Quarrying Granite. Cost data relating to the quarrying of granite dimension stone are extremely hard to secure. I have been able to find only one writer, Mr. J. J. R. Croes, who has pub- lished anything on the subject. Mr. Croes' records, together with mine, will at least form a basis for approximate estimates of cost of granite quarrying. My data apply to quarrying three-dimension stone in a sheet quarry on the coast of Maine. The total number of men engaged was, cm the average: 6 enginemen, 6 steam drillers, 6 drill helpers, 3 blacksmiths, 3 helpers, 5 tool and water boys, 38 quarrymen, 47 laborers, 2 foremen and 1 superintendent. This force quarried and loaded on boats about 1,400 cu. yds. of rough granite blocks. The stone was loaded by derricks onto cars from which it was unloaded into boats ready for shipment. The following cost includes everything except interest and depreciation of plant, and development expenses: Cost per cu yd. Enginemen, at $2 a day (of 9 hrs.) $0.20 Steam drillers, at $2.00 0.20 Drill helpers, at $1.50 0.15 Blacksmiths, at $2.75 0.14 Blacksmiths' helpers, at $1.75 0.09 Tool and water boys, at $1 0.16 Quarrymen, at $1.75 1.09 Laborers, at $1.50 1.15 Foremen, at $3.00 0.15 Superintendent, at $8 0.20 Coal, at $5 ton 0.45 Explosives 0.25 Other supplies 0.30 Total $4.53 STONE MASONRY. 493 On the best month's work, when a larger force was being op- erated, the cost of all labor, superintendence and supplies, was reduced to a little below $4 per cu. yd., but the above $4.50 per cu. yd. may be taken as a fair average of several months' work. To this should be added the charges for plant rental, quarry rental (if any), stripping (if any), and freight charges to destination. The freight rate by boat from Maine to New York is about $1 a ton, but as rough granite blocks are always measured on their least dimensions, the freight charges when $1 per ton amount to about $2.70 per cu. yd. of three-dimension stone in the rough. The ex- plosives used were black powder, costing $2.25 a keg (25 Ibs.), and dynamite for channeling, costing 15 cts. a Ib. The sheet from which this granite was quarried averaged about 6^ ft. thick, and was nearly flat. The stone was loosened in lone blocks by Knox blasting with black powder, and was split up into sizes by plug and feathering ; both hand drills and pneumatic plug drills being used for this purpose. The stone, as before stated, was three-dimension stone. To auarry random stone (not rubble) in this quarry cost about $3.50 per cu. yd. If granite is blasted out in all shapes and sizes, to be used for rubble or for concrete, the cost of quarrying is far less than the above and is approximately the same as quarrying trap rock, pro- vided the two kinds of rock are equally seamy or jointed. Traps, however, are usually much more seamy than granites ; hence the drill holes in trap can usually be spaced much farther apart than in granite having few seams. Cost of a Masonry Arch Bridge. This arch bridge had a span of 30 ft., and its barrel was 60 ft. long. The masonry was lime- stone laid in Portland cement mortar. There were 365 cu. yds. of. masonry distributed as follows: Cu. yds. Arch sheeting 112 Bench walls (or abutments) 165 Backing above arch 17 Backing above haunch 38 JWing walls 21 Parapet walls t 7 Coping 5 Total 365 The arch sheeting masonry was dressed to lay %-m. joints, and the cost of these 112 cu. yds. was as follows: Cu. yd. Quarrying rough blocks $ 1.00 Plug and feathering into blocks 0.85 Hauling and loading onto car 0.75 Freight 1.05 Unloading from car and hauling 1 mile 0.70 Cutting 4.55 Laying 1.35 Mortar 1.50 Centers 2.20 Total $13.95 494 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This sheeting was cut to lay an arch 18 ins. thick, each block averaging 12x18x28 ins. in size, or about % cu. yd. The blocks were small, but the quarry did not yield large material Quarrymen were paid 30 cts. per hr. and helpers 17 % cts. per hr. The un- loading from cars onto wagons cost 35 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 15 cts. per hr. ; and the hauling 1 mile cost 35 cts. per cu. yd., teams being 40 cts. per hr. The stonecutters were paid 35 cts. per hr., and their work cost $4-25 per cu. yd. ; the sharpening of cutters' tools cost 15 cts. more per cu. yd. ; and the help of laborers occasionally in bunkering a stone cost another 15 cts. per cu. yd. ; making a total of $4.55 for cutting the stone after it had been plug and feathered roughly into blocks. The small size of the blocks made this cost high. The stone was laid by a hand-power derrick, the cost of laying being in detail as follows: Per cu. yd. Masons, at 30 cts. per hr , $0.80 Helpers, at 15 cts. per hr 0.45 Team on stone boat, 40 cts. per hr 0.10 Total cost of laying $1.35 Each mason had 1*4 helpers and laid 3 cu. yds. in 8 hrs. This was the average of all the 365 cu. yds. of masonry; the cost of lay- ing each kind was not kept separately. The mortar was 1 : 3 Portland cement, allowing 4.5 cu. ft. per bbl. ; it took 2 bbls. of cement and 0.9 cu. yd. sand to make 1 cu. yd. mortar; and the cost of these materials was $4.50 per cu. yd. of mortar. It took ^ cu. yd. of mortar for each of the 365 cu. yds. of masonry ; no attempt was made to determine the amount of mortar for each kind of masonry. The cost of the ashlar facing in the abutments and wing walls was the same per cubic yard as the arch sheeting after deducting the $2.20 for centers, that is $11.75 per cu. yd. ; and there were about 50 cu. yds. of this in the bridge. The cost of the rubble backing in the abutments, haunch, etc., of which there were nearly 200 cu. yds., was as follows: Per cu. yd. Rubble sandstone delivered at bridge $1.20 Vs cu. yd. mortar, at $4.50 1.50 Laying 1.35 Total $I(J5 This rubble was a local sandstone, but the ashlar was a lime- stone imported by rail. The foregoing costs do not include foreman's salary and general expenses, which amounted to 15% of the total cost of the bridge. In addition to the 365 cu. yds. of stone masonry there were 65 cu. yds. of concrete foundations laid on a hard clay. There was no coffer- damming. The cost of the work was higher than it would have been under a better foreman. Cost of Centers for 30-ft. Arch. Centers for a masonry arch of STONE MASONRY. 495 30-ft. span and having a barrel 60 ft. long were made of hemlock. There were 21 arch ribs or centers spaced 3 ft. apart and lagged with hemlock 2 ins. thick by 6 ins. wide. Each center was made of two thicknesses of 2 x 12-in. plank cut in section 6 ft. long and spiked together, breaking joints. The ribs were cut to the curve of the arch at a saw mill. The following was the bill of timber in each center : Ft. B. M. 6 2-in. x 12-in. x 12-ft. curved ribs 144 4 2-in. x 6-in. x 16-ft. ties 64 1 2-in. x 6-in. x 10-ft. splices 10 1 2-in. x 6-in. x 10-ft. post 10 2 2-in. x 6-in. x 16-ft. struts 32 Total per bent 260 22 centers at 260 ft. B. M 5,720 Lagging 2 ins. x 33 ft. x 60 ft 3,960 Total 9,680 The machine work at the mill cost $20, and the carpenter work of framing the centers was $7.75 for carpenters at 22^ cts. per hr. and $9.25 for carpenters' helpers at 15 cts. per hr., making a total of $37. This is equivalent to $6.50 per M when distributed over the 5,720 ft. B. M. in the centers. The cost of erecting the centers with the aid of a hand-power derrick together with the cost of placing the lagging was $24, all this work being done by laborers at 15 cts. cer hr. This $24 distributed over all the 9,712 ft B. M. is $2.56 per M. The cost of removing the centers after completion of the work was $10, wages being 15 cts. per hr., or $1.05 per M. The total cost of the centers was: 9,712 ft. B. M. hemlock, at $16 $155.51 132 oak wedges, at 10 cts 13.20 230 Ibs. wire nails, at 3^ cts 8.05 Machine work at mill 20.00 Work framing centers 17.00 Work erecting centers 24.00 Work tearing down centers. 10.00 Total $247.76 It will be noted that the millwork and labor cost $71, which is equivalent to $7.30 per M distributed over the 9,712 ft. B. M. There were 112 cu. yds. of masonry in the arch alone, so that the cost i of the centers distributed over the arch sheeting was $2.20 per cu. yd. But there were 250 cu. yds. of masonry, all told, in the arch, the abutments, parapet and wing walls. The short posts support- 'ing the centers rested on hard clay. ! Cost of Arch Culverts and Abutments, Erie Canal. In 1840 con- 3 tracts were let for enlarging the Erie Canal. The courts later de~ i clared the law making the appropriation unconstitutional and the i New York State Legislature directed that the contracts be canceled '.and that contractors be paid their prospective profits. The 12 engi- neers in charge of the work submitted the following estimates of the ! actual cost. The stone in masonry was limestone from the lower t'Mohawk valley. Masons and stonecutters were paid $2.25 per day 4H HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of 11 hrs. worked, laborers $1. The cost of masonry in arch cul- verts and bridges was as follows: Face stone : Per cu. yd. Quarrying, 1 cu. yd. per man day $2.25 Cutting, 1.3 cu. yds. per man day 2.25 Laying, 0.7 cu. yd. per man day* 1.25 Mortar 0.75 Total, not including hauling $6.50 Note: The cost of quarrying includes sharpening drills, fore- men, etc. Backing (rubble) : Quarrying, 2 cu. yds. per man day $1.00 Laying, 1.75 cu. yds. per man day 1.00 Mortar 1.25 Total, not including hauling $3.25 Arch sheeting: Quarrying, 1 cu. yd. per man day $2.25 Cutting, 0.88 cu. yd. per man day 3.25 Laying, 0.7 cu. yd. per man day 1.25 Mortar 1.00 Total, not including hauling, or centers $7.75 Ring and Coping: Quarrying, 0.6 cu. yd. per man day $ 3.40 Cutting, 0.55 cu. yd. per man day 5.00 Laying, 0.58 cu. yd. per man day 3.00 Mortar 0.50 Total, not including hauling $11.90 The cost of hauling stone 1 mile from quarry to canal was 50 cts. per cu. yd.. 7 round trips being made per day by a team haul- ing % cu. yd. of stone, as measured in the work. The centers for arch culverts of 4 to 8-ft. span were estimated to cost 50 cts. per cu. yd. of arch masonry. For spans of 10 to 15 ft. the centers cost 75 cts. per cu. yd. of arch masonry. Timber stringers covered with 2 or 3-in. plank were largely used for foundations and floors of culverts. The cost of placing such timber was $4 per M. Cost of Lock Masonry, Erie Canal. The following is a continua- tion of the data just given : The masonry for locks was dressed as follows: Cut stone face, %-in. joints; hammer dressed backing, 1-in. joints. Wages were as above given. Lock face stone : Quarrying, 0.67 cu. yd. per man day $ 3.00 Cutting, 0.50 cu. yd. per man day 5.50 Laying, 3.00 cu. yds. per man day 0.83 Mortar 0.50 Machinery 0.25 Total, not including hauling $10.08 STONE MASONRY. 497 Lock backing (1-in. joints) : 8uarrying, 1 cu. yd. per man day $2.00 utting, 1.8 cu. yds. per man day 1.50 Laying, 4 cu. yds. per man day 0.62 Mortar 0.75 Machinery 0.25 Total, not including hauling $5.12 The average cost of lock masonry, including face and backing, vvas $1.70 per cu. yd., exclusive of transportation which was $2.75 per cu. yd. The cost of a masonry aqueduct consisting of masonry piers, arches and spandrels, was as follows: To lay masonry : Per day. 1 mason $2.25 2 tenders, at $1 2.00 y 2 stone cutter, at $2.40 1.20 Total, 5.9 cu. yds. laid, at $0.92 per cu. yd... $5. 45 To lay arch masonry : Per day. 1 mason $ 2.25 2 tenders 2.00 1 stone cutter 2.50 Total, 8.95 cu. yds. laid at $0.76 per cu. yd.. .$ 6.75 To lay spandrel masonry : Per day. 1 mason $ 2.25 2 tenders 2.00 1 % stone cutters . . . 4.00 Total, 8.26 cu. yds. laid at $1 per cu. yd....$ 8.25 The total cost of aqueduct masonry, per cubic yard, excluding the cost of laying just given, was as follows: Per cu. yd. Quarrying $ 2.25 Transportation 2.00 Cutting 2.25 Mortar 1.00 Machinery 0.25 Total, not including laying $ 7.75 Approximately $0.90 per cu. yd. should be added to this $7.75 to include cost of laying the masonry. Cost of Sweetwater Dam. James D. Schuyler gives the following data on the Sweetwater Dam, California: The dam is 46 ft. thick at the base, 12 ft. at the top, and 90 ft. high. It is built as an arch with a radius of 222 ft. on line of face at the top. The stone was a rnetamorphic (or igneous?) rock with no well-defined cleav- age, breaking out in irregular masses. Its weight ranged from 175 to 200 Ibs. per cu. ft. And the average weight of the masonry was estimated to be 164 Ibs. per cu. ft. The mortar was a 1 : 3, proportioned by barrels, mixed in a Ransome mixer. The mixer was given 3 or 4* turns after charging it with sand and cement, then the water was admitted during the next 3 or 4 revolutions ; 8 to 10 revolutions made a thorough mixture, requiring 2 to 3 mina. A tramway for delivering the mortar was carried around the face of the dam, on a bracket trestle held by bolts driven into 498 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. holes drilled in the face of the dam masonry. A grade of 3 ft. in 40 at the end of the tramway next to the mixer was sufficient to give the mortar car an impetus that would carry it to the farthest end of the dam. By using this mechanical mixer and tramway a force of 5 men and a horse did the work formerly done by 4 mortar mixers and 14 hod carriers. The box of mortar was lifted from the car by a derrick and delivered to the masons. The stone was quarried from a cliff 100 ft. high situated 800 ft. below the dam. It was hauled in wagons rigged with platforms on a level with the rear wheels. The quarry derricks were simple shear-legs, slightly inclined. All stones smaller than 500 Ibs. were loaded on stone boats, 4 ft. square, made of 3-in. plank with a bot- tom of boiler plate and provided with chains at the corners. The shear-leg derricks were used to hoist the stone boats and deposit their loads on the wagons. Stone boats cost $30 each, and several sets of them were worn out on the job. A single stone, weighing 3 tons or more, was readily lifted by the shear-legs, and lowered upon a wagon driven underneath. All hoisting was done by horse power. Four derricks were used on the dam, masts being 30 to 38 ft. long, and booms 26 to 32 ft. A fifth derrick, with a 50-ft. mast and a 45-ft. boom, proved far more efficient than the others. The work was completed Apr. 7, 1888, after 16 mos. The masonry was rubble throughout, amounting to 20,507 cu. yds., of which 19,269 cu. yds. were in the dam proper; 0.86 bbl. of cement was used per cubic yard of masonry. The cost of the dam was as follows: 17,562 bbls. cement $ 63,111 Hauling cement 8,614 Lumber 2,408 Iron work 4,916 Powder and miscellaneous supplies 3,230 Pipes, gates, etc 5,152 Plant, tools, etc 6,237 Total for materials and plant $ 93,668 Labor, common and skilled $ 93,591 Foremen 6,866 Teams 19,696 Engineering 10,555 Clerical work 654 Earthwork (by contract) 7,666 Miscellaneous expenses 1,377 Total for labor $140,405 Total for materials, etc 93,668 Grand total $234,073 Common laborers were paid $2 to $2.50 a day; masons, $4 to ?5 ; carpenters, $3.50 to $4 ; blacksmiths, $4 ; teams with drivers, ?5 ; machinists, $7 to $8 ; foremen, 4 to $6. Workmen were scarce and independent on account of the "boom" in California. The work cost 20 to 25% more than it would have cost under normal con- ditions. The itemized cost of 11,322 cu. yds. of the masonry laid from May 1 to Dec, 31, 1887, was as follows per cubic yard: STONE MASONRY. 498 Percentage Per cu. yd. of total. Quarrying stone (labor) '. .? 0.425 4.829 Loading stone 0.523 5.933 Hauling stone 0.420 4.758 Hoisting stone 0.577 6.550 Loading and hauling sand ". 0.345 3.915 Cement, at $4-20 per bbl 3.427 38.900 Mixing and delivering mortar 0.239 2.710 Masons 0.797 9.050 Helpers 0.186 2.109 Excavating foundations 0.303 3.444 Making and repairing roads 0.118 1.336 Blacksmithing (labor) 0.163 1.854 Carpentry 0.097 1.104 Rope 0.104 1.186 Tools 0.046 .524 Steel 0.014 .155 Blacksmith coal 0.009 .109 Blocks and sheaves 0.011 .13i Powder 0.086 .974 Lumber 0.195 2.220 . Wetting masonry 0.048 0.542 Foremen 0.332 3.774 Engineering and superintendence... 0.343 3.891 Total ? 8.808 100.000 Cost of a Granite Dam, Cheyenne, Wyo. Mr. A. J. Wiley gives the following data on a dam for the Granite Springs Reservoir, Cheyenne. The work was done by contract, April 20, 1903, to June 21. 1904. From 'NOV. 20. 1903. to April 11, 1904. work was closed down on account of cold weather. The extreme height of the dam is 96 ft., and the length of the crest is 410 f t. ; the thickness at the base is 56 ft, and on the top it is 10 ft. It contains 14,222 cu. yds. of granite rubble masonry laid in 1:4 Portland mortar, except for the face of stones where 1 :3 mortar was used. The mortar constituted 35.2% of the dam; and 0.61 bbl. cement was used per cubic yard of masonry. The mortar was mixed with a Smith mixer, in batches of % cu; yd., and the mixer output was 6 cu. yds. per hr. The mortar was dumped into buckets and carried on cars running on a trestle built along the up-stream face of the dam. .Derricks on 'top of the dam hoisted the mortar buckets. The stone was a gabbro, quarried about 100 ft below the dam. It was devoid of cleavage and was blasted out in large masses from an open face 20 to 40 ft. high. The drilling was done by hand. For each cubic yard of rock there were used 0.35 Ib. of dynamite and 1.05 Ibs. of black powder. The stones averaged 2 cu. yds., but pieces containing 5 cu. yds. were used. Rocks breaking smaller than 3 cu. yds. were used as they were blasted out of the quarry, and larger masses were split up by plug and featner into roughly rectangular shapes. The best shaped stones were used for face stones, the ordinary rough rocks were used in the body of the dam, and the smaller pieces made the spalls. The rock was taken from the quarry by a guyed derrick with 40-ft. boom, and loaded upon platform cars. The track was laid upon such a grade that the loaded cars ran alone and the empties were 500 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. pushed back by hand. The trestle which carried the track was supported by the steps on -the down-stream side of the dam. Upon the top of the dam were located two guyed derricks with 40-ft. booms similar to the quarry derrick. Each of the three derricks was operated by a 10-ton hoisting engine located in an engine house near the south end of the dam. The derricks on top of the dam took the rock from the cars on the lower side of the dam and set them in the masonry. They also took the mortar buckets from the cars on the up-stream side of the dam and dumped them where needed on top of the dam. Spalls were brought upon the dam in skips, holding about a cubic yard each, and kept in the skips until used. The mortar was usually dumped in half-yard batches in a convenient depres- sion of the masonry, and was distributed with long-handled, round- pointed shovels. The up-stream face was laid with the joints in the true plane of the face. No objection was made to having the convexity of a stone project beyond this plane, but no stones with concave faces were permitted in the face of the dam. The upper 20 ft. of the down-stream face were laid in the same manner, but the rest of the down-stream face was laid in rough steps with half the step inside and half outside the theoretical plane of this face. The stones in both these faces were laid to break joint and were well bonded into the body of the dam. In the body of the dam but little attention was paid to the bond of the work, the irregular stones insuring this without effort, but every precaution was taken to insure the filling of voids. To this end the mortar was used very wet, even sloppy, and the chief rule observed was that there should first be placed a large excess of mortar of which the largest possible percentage was to be displaced by rock. In setting the large rock, a bed was prepared with spalls and mortar, and then a considerable excess of mortar was placed on the bed. The rock was then slowly lowered and settled on the bed by working it with bars. The excess mortar would ooze from under the rock which would then float upon an even layer of mortar, filling all the spaces under it. During this operation the inspector, either stand- ing upon the rock or having his hand upon it, can tell if the rock is riding or rocking, and, if necessary, has the rock raised and the bed readjusted. The large rocks were set as close as possible to each other without being in contact, the intervening spaces being filled with mortar and spalls. In this work the masons were not permitted to sandwich the spalls between layers of mortar, but were required first to fill the space with wet mortar in which the spalls were submerged, displacing as much as possible of the mortal- While it was the intention to have the masonry brought up in horizontal benches extending the full length of the dam, the exigencies of the work prevented this and the middle portion of the dam was completed first, stepping off toward each end. The average rate of progress was 60 cu. yds. of masonry per day of ten hours. The best monthly rate was 2,370 rn. yds. during July, STONE MASONRY. 501 1903, averaging 83 cu. yds. for a ten-hour day, or 41.5 yds. of masonry per ten-hour day for a single derrick, including the time lost in moving and resetting derricks. During this month the average daily force employed was as follows: In the quarry, 21.3 men, 1 % engine runners, and one derrick ; in screening and haul- ing sand, 3.2 teams with drivers, and 3.2 men; in mixing and delivering mortar, 3 men ; in laying masonry, 3.5 masons, 6.5 helpers, 2% engine runners, and 2 derricks. The following were the average wages paid per 10-hr, day: Quarrymen, $2.50 ; masons, $5.00 ; masons' helpers, $2.25 to $2.50 ; engine runners, $3.00 ; common labor, $2.25. The actual cost of -the masonry was as follows: Per cu. yd. 0.652 cu. yd. solid rock, $1.96 $ 1.28 0.348 cu. yd. mortar (not incl. cement), at $1.93. 0.67 0.613 bbl. cement, at $3.58, delivered 2.19 .Labor laying 1 cu. yd 1.11 Total $ 5.25 The solid rock was quarried and delivered for $1.96 per cu. yd. (solid), itemized as follows: Per cu. yd. Quarrying and Delivering: (solid). Common labor $ 1.06 Engine runners 0.14 Coal, $6 per ton 0.08 Blacksmithing 0.13 Steel 0.04 Explosives 0.15 Interest and dep. on plant ($1,644) 0.18 General expenses 0.18 Total per cu. yd. (solid) $ 1.96 This is equivalent to $1.28 per cu. yd. measured in the dam. The cost of securing the sand and mixing the mortar was as fol- lows per cu. yd. of mortar : Per cu. yd. Labor digging and hauling (teams) sand $ 1.10 Blacksmithing, sand pit < 0.13 General expense, sand pit 0.19 Labor mixing and delivering 0.30 Fuel, $6 per ton 0.04 Interest and depreciation on plant ($620) 0.12 General expense 0.05 Total per cu. yd. mortar $ 1.93 The cost of laying the masonry was as follows per cu. yd. of masonry : Per cu. yd Labor, masons and helpers $ 0.50 Engine runners 0.18 Fuel, $6 per ton 0.10 Blacksmithing 0.02 Interest and depreciation on plant ($3,000) 0.22 General expense 0.09 Total ...$ 1.11 The interest and depreciation on the plant was assumed to he 502 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 50% of the first cost of the plant. The fuel was estimated on the basis of 5 Ibs. of coal per horse-power hour of actual working time for the nominal horse-power of the engines. As a matter of fact, a large amount of cord wood was used instead of coal. Cost of Masonry, New Croton Dam. This dam was built of gneiss' (a granitic rock), and the average cost to the contractor during the years 1897 to 1905 was about as follows for the rubble masonry : Per cu. yd. 0.95 bbl. cement, at $1.85 $1.75 Quarrying % cu. yd. solid stone, at $1.50 1.00 Sand, % cu. yd., at $0.90. 0.30 Labor laying masonry O.yO Pumping , 0.10 Plant, roads, etc 0.60 General expense, 2% estimated 0.10 Total $4.75 In quarrying about 25% of the rock was wasted. In laying the masonry cableways were used for about half the yardage, and steel towers with derricks were used for the other half. Some of the face stone was dressed. The rough pointing of 38.000 eq. ft. cost $0.60 per sq. ft. The 6-cut ax work on 84,000 sq. ft. cost $1.20 per sq. "ft Cost of a Rubble Dam. This dam was built in 1898 by contract, under the direction of Mr. George W. Rafter, across the Indian River, Hamilton County, N. Y. The main dam was 7 ft. wide on top, 47 ft high, 33 ft wide on bottom, and 400 ft. long. The face masonry was dressed to lay 1%-in. joints. The backing was large irregular rubble stones laid in beds of 1:3% mortar, and the vertical joints filled with 1 : 3 % : 7 % concrete. No attempt was made to keep separate accounts of the face masonry and the back- ing, but it was estimated that 27% of the dam was mortar. The stone was a pink synetic granite, quarried 500 ft from one end. of the dam. There was no difficulty in quarrying regular blocks for the face. The sand was loaded upon a scow holding 30 cu. yds. and hauled 2 miles down the river. A foreman and 6 men, by using a windlass, rope and sail, handled the scow. They loaded and delivered 720 cu. yds. of sand and 180 cords of wood per month, at a cost of about $310. Wages of common laborers were $1 a day and board, and it is probable that the board cost $0.50 per man per day. The plant to build the dam cost $10,340. The actual cost of the Cam to the contractor was: Labor clearing 35 miles of margins, 1,160 acres. $13, 000 Hauling cement and supplies 22 miles 6,836 Freight, cement and supplies 960 Barn account (teams owned by contractor) .... 725 Stone, cement and other materials 18,830 Labor (not including clearing) 31,218 General expense 9,6G I STONE MASONRY. 503 Interest 1,150 Insurance 1,235 Depreciation of plant, est. 33% 3,450 Total , $87,005 The "general expense" includes coffer-damming and pumping, erecting and wrecking the plant, etc. The time occupied in doing the work was 7 months. In July and August, when the work was well under way, the cost of the masonry was very low, and aver-aged as follows : Per cu. yd. Quarrying face stone (not incl. backing) $0.35 Labor laying masonry 0.53 Labor pointing masonry 0.15 Mixing mortar and concrete, and crushing 0.20 Cement 2.00 Sand 0.15 General expense and superintendence 0.27 Total $3.65 In addition to this there was the cost of quarrying the stone for the backing ; but this stone was paid for as excavation, so it is not included above. During July and August this excavation cost 46 cts. per cu. yd. It will be noted that the accounts were not well kept, for no statement is given of the proportion of backing to face stone. The quarrying of the face stone doubtless cost several dollars per cubic yard of the face stone, although it amounted to only $0.35 per cu. yd. when distributed over all the masonry. Nor is it stated what the dressing cost From measurements on a drawing of the cross- section of the main dam. I estimate that it runs 29 cu. yds. of masonry Der lin. ft. of which about 30% is face stone, if we allow a deoth of 2% ft of face stone extending into the dam: but in the lower third of the dam, where there is great breadth, the face stone would not be more than 20% of the total masonry, and at the bottom only 15%. Hence if the work in July and August was In the lower part of the dam, as it doubtless was, we must multiply the $0.35, above .given, by at least 5 to secure an approximate estimate of the cost of quarrying a cubic yard of face stone. In- deed, it is likely that the cost of face stone was more than 5 times $0.35 per cu. yd. I have gone into these details for the purpose of showing how little value there often is in published cost records, because of the failure of engineers to keep their cost records properly. The wages of quarrymen and masons are not given. Data on Laying Masonry With a Cableway. Mr. Spencer Miller gives the following data on the use of cableways for laying ma- sonry. The Basin Creek Dam for the water-works of Butte, Mont, is 120 ft high and 300 ft. long, designed by Mr. Chester B. Davis. A cableway 892 ft. between towers, spanned the dam and the quarry. No derricks were used on the dam, for, by using a snubbing post and a horse, the stones could be swung where desired. 504 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In 16 days a gang of 86 men quarried and laid 1,430 cu. yds. of masonry. This gang included 6 masons, quarrymen, firemen and all laborers about the dam and camp. These six masons averaged 15 cu. yds. of masonry each per day. At Rochester, N. Y., two cableways, side by side and 60 ft. apart, were used to erect a stone arch bridge 630 ft. long and towers 50 ft high. A 30-hp., 8& X 10-in., engine was used for each cableway. Stones were laid between the cableways by hitch- ing the hoisting lines of both cableways to the same stone. To lay the masonry piers a frame was used which straddled the piers and on top of which a traveler was used to place the stone as fast as it was delivered by the cableway. After a pier was completed the framework and traveler were lifted by the cableways to the site of the next pier, in less than 10 minutes. The centers for the arches were lifted into place by the cableways. This highway bridge contained 2,200 cu. yds. of masonry in piers and arches, 2,278 cu. yds. arch sheeting, 2,660 cu. yds. concrete spandrel back- ing, and 310,000 Ibs. of iron work; 350 M of lumber were used in the centers. Cost of Masonry and Timber Crib Dam. Mr. Maurice S. Parker gives data on the Black Eagle Falls Dam, Missouri River, Great Falls, Mont. The work was done by day labor (Apr. 15, 1890, to Jan. 6, 1891) under Mr. Parker's supervision, wages being as fob lows: Common labor, $2; stone masons, $4; carpenters, $3.50', quarrymen, $2.25 ; stone cutters, $4.50 ; quarry foremen, $3.50 ; mason foremen. $5; stone cutter foremen, $5; carpenter fore- men, $5. The stone was a red sandstone weighing 160 to 170 Ibs. (some specimens 178 Ibs.) per cu. ft, and was quarried from the bed of the river, the average haul being 500 ft on push cars. The stone occurs in vertical strata 1 to 4 ft. thick, the bedding planes making an angle of 45 with the current. Timber was delivered near the gate chambers. Cement used was Milwaukee and Buffalo mixed 1 :2. Portland cement was used in freezing weather and gave per- fect satisfaction, being now as hard as stone. The following table gives the cost of the labor in construction, including all handling of materials after unloading from cars: Cost of labor. 4,600 cu. yds. first class rubble, at $6.56 $30 438 1,500 cu. yds. cut stone masonry, at $16.40 24,600 5,000 cu. yds. dry stone filling in cribs, at $2.10 10*500 10,000 cu. yds. excav., half rock, half earth, at $1.07.. 10*700 1,200 M timber in cribs, at $10.85 13^020 100 M timber in gates and chambers, at $33.72 Engineering expenses, 12 mos 5,900 Total cost of labor $98,530 The expense of false work of all kinds, such as cofferdams, tram- ways, etc., amounted to 5% of the total cost and is divided propor- tionately between the classes of work above given. The cost of labor on timber In gates and chambers includes the cost of placing all irons and gearing. The total cost of the dam was $175,000, STONE MASONRY. 505 Including materials, labor and salaries. About 20% of the rubble was broken range faced. The cut-stone masonry was laid with close beds and joints. The minimum flow of the river is 4,000 cu. ft per sec. The average depth of water was 2 ft. when work was begun, but it was very swift as the rapids at the site of the dam had a fall of 2 ft. in a 100 ft. During June floods the depth was 6 ft. The crib dam is 745 ft. long, and the canal and gates occupy an addi- tional width of 95 ft. The average height of the dam is 14 ft., resting on a ledge of sandstone. The longitudinal timbers of the crib are spaced 8 ft. c. to. c. The bottom timbers were cut to fit the rock, bedded in cement mortar and drift bolted to plugs of wood driven into holes drilled in the ledge rock. The work was begun on the north side of the river, a sheer dam being first built to divert the stream from the dam site. This sheer dam consisted of wooden horses placed 8 ft. apart, with stringers of 4-in. plank. A facing of 2-in. tongue and grooved planks was placed on the up-stream legs of the horses, and a row of sand-filled bags placed at the toe of the planks. There was a little leakage, and the leakage water was diverted by a second row of sand bags parallel with the first row, and a short distance down stream. This sheer dam withstood a flood 6 ft. deep. On the south side of the river, which was deeper and swifter, it was necessary to sink small triangular stone-filled cribs to sup- port the wooden horses for the sheer dam. These cribs were of 4-in. plank with 6-in. posts, each holding 1 cu. yd. of stone, and were placed 8 ft. apart, each crib supporting a horse. At times the depth of water against this sheer dam was 15 ft., but the leakage was easily cleared with hand pumps. To close the long gap between the two ends of the dam, wooden horses were placed 8 ft. apart with a foot walk of 4-in. plank on top, and heavy timbers to hold the horses down. From this tem- porary bridge a second tier of horse bents was placed (8 ft. c. to c.) on the up-stream side, connected with 4-in. stringers and sheeted with 4-in. plank. The dam was intended to break the force of the current, which it did admirably. The leakage was taken care of in sections by small sheer dams built of matched plank, and by the use of sand bags. Every 48 ft., an opening of 14 ft. was left in the crib dam which was used as a temporary sluiceway when the cofferdam was removed. These gaps were subsequently closed with planks, and the cribwork with its stone filling built in. Cost of Laying Masonry, Dunning's Dam. Mr. E. Sherman Gould is authority for the following data on The Dunning's Dam near Scranton, Pa, The dam is masonry on a concrete foundation, built by contract. The stone for the masonry was a conglomerate laid in swimming beds of mortar. On one occasion one foreman, 8 masons and about 9 helpers laid nearly 500 cu. yds. of rubble in 76 hrs., using a double drum engine and derrick. This is equivalent to 8.2 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day per mason. On another occasion, another foreman, 7 masons and 8 or 9 helpers laid 375 cu. yds. 506 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. in 7 days, or 7.6 cu. yds. per mason per day. This was very rapid work in both cases. Cost of Quarrying and Laying a Limestone Wall. Mr. James W. Beardsley is authority for the following data on the cost of quarry- ing and laying limestone for retaining walls on the Chicago Canal. The contractors selected parts of the canal where the limestone occurred in strata and were uniform, so that the beds of the stone quarried required no dressing. The stone was laid in courses averaging about 15 ins. thick, the better stone beine selected for the face of the wall. Guy derricks having a capacity of 6 to 10 tons, boom 40 to 60 ft. long, operated by a hoisting engine, were used for loading the stone. Black powder was used to shake up the ledges and the stone was then barred and wedged out. The cost per cu. yd. is the average of 93,500 cu. yds., measured in retaining walls. The mortar was only 13*4% of the wall, indicat- ing an unusually even bedded stone that squared up well. The cost does not include general superintendence, installation of plant, plant rental, powder, material for repairs, and cost arising from delays. Mr. Beardsley has evidently divided the number of working days credited to each class of men by the total number of days worked on the job, which results in giving fractions of days labor in the following typical force: Per cu. yd. Quarry force: masonry. 1 foreman, at $3.50 $0.078 2.11 derrickmen, at $1'.50 0.075 8.42 quarrymen, at $1.65 312 1.10 enginemen, at $2.25 0.052 2.28 laborers, at $1.50 080 0.33 waterboy, at $1.00 0.007 0.27 blacksmith, at $2.5*0 0.013 0.18 blacksmith's help, at $1.75 007 0.36 drill runner, at $2.00 0.023 0.07 drill helper, at $1.50 0.002 0.04 watchman, at $1.50 0.001 0.29 team, at $3.50 028 1.12 derricks, at $1.25 0.040 0.36 drill, at $1.25 0.015 Total quarry force $0.733 Wall force: 1 foreman, at $4.25 . $0113 4.20 masons, at $3.50 0.354 1.46 masons' helpers, at $1.50. o 058 1.81 mortar mixers, at $1.50 0.073 0.66 mortar laborer, at $1.50 . 027 1.82 hod carriers, at $1.50 073 1.77 derrickmen, at $1.50 o'071 1 engineman, at $2.25 054 1.62 laborers, at $1.50 o'065 0.45 waterboy, at $1.00 009 0.86 team, at $3.50 (K078 0.20 carpenters, etc., at $2.50 010 1.59 derricks, at $1.50 o.'042 Total wall farce $1.027 STONE MASONRY. 50V This wall force of 16 men laid 37 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day, each mason averaging 8.8 cu. yds. The rates for derricks, etc., apply to the cost of fuel, at $2 a ton. The wall derricks were stiff -legs, having booms 40 ft. long, and were moved on a track parallel with the wall. Work was done between Sept., 1894, and Oct., 1896, with a plant having a total value of $30,200. The total cost of the masonry was as follows: Quarry force : $0.73 Wall force 1.03 Sand, at $1.35 per cu. yd 0.13 Cement, at 60 cts. per bbl 0.24 Total $2.13 Cost of a Masonry Wall, Including Excavation.* The work was done in September. 1896. and consisted of the construction of a retaining wall at the round house of the Detroit, Lansing and Northern R. R.. at Grand Rapids, Mich. The contractor furnished the labor only, the material being furnished by the railroad com- Fig. 1. Masonry Abutment. pany. The wall was built in the shape shown in Fig. 1, as it was desired to utilize it as the foundation for a future extension of the round house. Excavation. The excavation was nearly all stiff clay with stone and small boulders, thus making hard digging. Almost all of the excavated matter was handled twice, cast out on the ground and then loaded on flat cars. The time given for excavation includes, perhaps, six or eigrht dollars' worth of time spent in moving cars. In all of the work the contractor was considered as a foreman and was allowed 40 cents per hour for the time he himself actually worked. In all of the cases the foremen hours are for the hours during which actual work was done by them. That is to say, the foreman not only acted as overseer, but also did actual work, exca- vating, laying stone, etc. ' The cost of the excavation work was as follows: Foreman, 33 hours, at 40 cts. per hour $13.20 Foreman, 104 hours, at 22% cts. per hour 23.40 Laborer, 285 hours, at 12y 2 cts. per hour 35.63 Total $72.23 * Engineering-Contracting, May 30, 1906, 508 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A total of 168.1 cubic yards was excavated at a cost of $0.43 per yard. The contract price at which the work was let was $0.25. Back Filling. In back filling the earth was wheeled from the flat cars and placed back of the wall. A small amount of earth was cast in directly from the bank. The cost of this work was as follows: Foreman, 4 hours, at 40 cts. per hour $1.60 Foreman, 11 hours, at 22% cts. per hour 2.48 Laborer, 52 hours, at 12% cts. per hour 6.50 Total f 10.58 The back filling: amounted to 63 4/10 cu. yds., and this was done at a cost of $0.17 per cubic yard. The contract price was $0.25 per cubic yard. Concrete. The proportions for the concrete were 1:2%:5, Akron (natural) cement being used. All conditions were favorable for fair work. It was found that 1 cu. yd. of concrete was equivalent to 29.8 cu. ft. of material, composed of 3.6 cu. ft. cement (1 1/10 bbl.), 8.4 cu. ft. sand (2 7/10 bbl.) and 17.8 cu. ft. broken stone (5V 2 bbl.). The cost of 15% cu. yds. of concrete was as follows: Foreman, 14 hours, at 40 cts. per hour $ 5.60 Foreman, 20 hours, at 22% cts. per hour 4.50 Laborer, 49 hours, at 12% cts. per hour 6.11 Mason, 2 hours, at 35 cts. per hour .70 Total $16.91 A total of 15% cu. yds. concrete was prepared at a cost of $1.09 per cubic yard; the contract price was $1.00 per cubic yard. Stone Laying. In the stone laying, Petoskey limestone was used. The limestone weighed, according to car weights, 5.9 tons per cord, equal to 93 Ibs. per cubic foot of piled stone. Conditions were fair for good work. It was here found that 1 cu. yd. rubble masonry required 0.25 cord stone. 0.22 cu. yds. sand and 0.54 bbl. cement. Akron (natural) cement, one barrel containing 3% cu. ft., was used and the mortar was mixed in the proportions of 1:3. In the force account sriven below the foreman laid stone, and all other foreman hours are for actual work. The cost of laying the 82.2 cu. yds. of rubble is shown in the following table: Foreman, 78 hours, at 40 cts. per hour $31.20 .Foreman, 80 hours, at 22% cts. per hour 18.11 Mason, 41 hours, at 35 cts. per hour 14.52 Laborer, 168 hours, at 12% cts. per hour 21.00 Total .TsTii A total of 82.2 cu. yds. of wall was built, the labor cost per cubic yard being $1.03; the contract price was at $1.25 per cubic yard. If the full cost of the plant is charged to the work, another 32 cts. per cu. yd. must be added for plant STONE MASONRY. 509 The mortar was mixed 1:1, and Louisville (natural) cement Was used, each bag being called 2 cu. ft. The wall averaged 24 ft. high, and was 4 ft wide for the upper 8 ft., then it widened to 12 ft. at the base. It was laid in courses 12 to 18 ins. thick. Cost of Laying Bridge Pier Masonry. Mr. Gustave Kaufman gives the following data on the abutments and piers of a highway bridge across the Ohio River at Cincinnati. The total length of the bridge is 2.966 ft. with a 2 4 -ft. roadway and two 7 -ft. side- walks. There are two abutments, nine masonry piers, of which four piers are founded on limestone, and five on piles. There are 28 pedestals for the steel viaduct approaches. The center span of the bridge has a clear height of 102 ft above low water. Work on the substructure was begun May 1, 1890, and floods caused many delays, so that the bridge was not opened till Aug., 1891. Louisville cement was used throughout, except Portland cement for pointing. Piers Nos. 1. 2. 3 and 9 are Ohio River freestone, with a backing of freestone. Where pile foundations were used, the heads of piles were imbedded in 3 to 4% ft of concrete foun- dation. Piers 4 to 8, inclusive, are of Berea sandstone with a backing, or hearting, of concrete, up to the belt course, above which the masonry is Ohio River freestone entirely. The dimensions of the piers are shown in Table I. TABLE I. DIMENSIONS OHIO RIVER PIERS. Remarks.* Square shaft. Circular shaft Square shaft. Note. Pier No. 3, height includes caisson. The coping of all piers was Bedford oolitic limestone 18 ins. thick, except for piers 5 and 6 which had a 24-in. coping. There were 2,173 cu. yds. of masonry in the ramps on both sides of the river. The masonry was laid with the help of derrick scows, and the cost of laying the 280 cu. yds. above the starling course was $1.25 per cu. yd., including the cost of sand and cement. The cost of laying the sub-coping and coping was $1.45 per cu. yd., including sand and cement The cost of laying masonry and concrete, courses 5 to 21, was $1.30 per cu. yd., including sand and cement. These costs do not include cofferdams. Wages were as follows, per 10-hr, day: Common labor. $1.50; masons. $3.25; stone cutters, $3.50; enginemen, $2.00 ; foreman, $4.00. The face stones were laid alternate headers and stretchers, stones being not less than 3% ft long, dressed to %-in. bed joints and Size Height Size at Cubic Pier. Under Over Base of Yards No. Coping. Feet All. Feet. Shaft. Feet. Masonry. 1 5X 30 26.2 6.4 X 31.4 146.2 2 5 X 30 39.4 7.6 X 32.6 271.7 3 6 X 30 47.0 9.1 X 33.1 393.9 4 9 X 34 74.0 13.8 X 49.5 1,432.9 5 10 X 34 112.8 17.3 X 53.7 2,357.6 6 10 X 34 104.1 17.8 X 54.2 2,475.6 7 9X 34 93.4 16.0 X 51.8 1,974.1 8 7 X 32 87.1 13.4 X 46.8 1,393.3 9 7 X 32 37.3 9.6X 34.6 330.1 510 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. %-in. vertical joints for at least 12 ins. back of the face. The width of each stone was 1^ times the depth of the course. The cost of laying Pier 5 was $0.73 per cu. yd., courses 1 to 37 ; and |1.11 per cu. yd., courses 38 to 54; and $1.10 per cu. yd., courses 55 to 56; the cost of sand and cement is included in all cases. See Tables II and III. Cost of Sodom Dam. Mr. Walter McCulloch gives the following data on the Sodom Dam. on the east branch of the Croton River, N. Y. The dam is 500 ft long at the coping, 240 ft. long at top of foundation, 53 ft. thick at foundation. 12 ft. thick under coping, and 78 ft. high above ground line. Work was begun Feb. 22, 1888, and completed Oct. 29, 1892. The contractor paid laborers $1.25 a day, and masons, $3.50. There were 35,887 cu. yds. of masonry of all classes. Of this 23,600 cu. yds. were rubble laid in 1 : 2 Portland mortar, 6,300 cu. yds. rubble in 1 : 3 mortar, 780 cu. yds. of granite dimension stone masonry, 4,300 cu. yds. limestone face masonry, and 530 cu. yds. of brick masonry. The face masonry and brickwork were laid in 1 : 2 Portland mortar. The rubble was quarried IVi miles from the dam and hauled on double team trucks carrying 1 to iy 2 cu yds. per load, making 6 to 8 trips a day. The rock was a hard, close-grained gneiss of irregular cleavage. The face stones (4.300 cu. yds.) were quarried at a limestone quarry 7 miles away and delivered on cars of the N. Y. & N. E. R. R. These stones were cut for 30-in. courses, stretchers being 3% ft. long, and headers 4 ft. long. Dimension stones (780 cu. yds.) were granite from Wilmington, Del. Cement cost from $2.31 to $2.51 per bbl. The cost of the rubble stone delivered on the work from the quarry was $1.97 per cu. yd., including 5 cts. quarry royalty. Rubble stone and spalls from the excavation waste banks cost $0.67 per cu. yd. The average cost of rubble stone was $1.26. The actual cost of rubble masonry in 1 : 2 mortar was $4.45 per cu. yd. The actual cost of limestone for face work was $9.75 per cu. yd., including 15 cts. quarry royalty, but not including laying and mor- tar. The cost of dimension granite on the work, including dressing, was $30.08 cer cu. yd. The cost of the coffer-damming and other work is not given. A cableway spanned the dam, 2-in. cable, 7 Ibs. per ft., 667-ft. span, sag 25 ft. under 10-ton load. The cableway plant cost $3,800. After four months' use the cable, under a load of only 6 tons, broke 50 ft. from one tower, at a place where stone and cement skips were taken UP. A new cable was installed, the towers raised 10 ft. so as to give it more sag, and it served till the end of the work. The cableway anchors were oak deadmen, 2 ft. diameter by 10 ft. long, in trenches in rock 6 ft. deep. The masonry was laid with fixed derricks and with a traveling derrick on a 30-ft. trestle run- ning upon a track of 36-ft. gage. The best month's work was 3,000 cu. yds. laid with 12 masons and three derricks; the average prog- ress was 1,700 cu. yds. per month. The Giant Portland cement came in duck bags of 100 Ibs. each (93 Ibs. net), four to the barrel. The Union natural cement came in 100-lb. bags (96 Ibs. net), three STONE MASONRY. AM ~ o Slj 512 HANDBOOK Ob COS'l DATA. 1-1 1-1 G> v rt) iH ni rH O O > w is s . '-"-' ^ fe ,, _ KT ^^ CJOS >5>;^ >dw >>rH>OiHM Z S 2fl 3 rH^ rf J j; 10 "3 ~ * L I $J;Su3t~moso?oco I . ^ O -U i-l OS iH W O OS -CO | * _i M S3 -* as ^ us 10 * -o j 3 ^ e ^^ ev ' t^ rt coi-Hi-J - . 6. OiOO^Oi-l^^ <0 C t~ O C Ol OO O O **" Oq I " * rT ITJ x'^Joocoooot-oot^co | r g MgOlOOOOr-irtiOt-iH f O M I .|1_;_1 : : I s g : : : f : : I ! . 1 '. I ! ! I ! i "^ ::: :1 | ::" :i ol ofl 15 o o -->(-> 03 O2 ^C^O^Oj-lOCrH O HO^WWHHH o STONE MASONRY. 515 05COOOt~rH .0000000 C- ocoo -^ I . g-~ COO>CO .^ . . . . . . | . ^ Ctf COCo'co" CO 'rH I ifl 3 osoj I C' t! CO rH ^J OiCOCqOirHCOCOOOOOOO OO T-HOlCOLOrHCO OOOOOO M M 'f3 r 5 t ~ 0r " 100 MOOOCOOJOO -.. s o I ^ g a 3 .^iicococDcocoot- I 5f us ^* Q'-4-iLOLO^t"-^c>o * * ) **tco ^ C irt in co eo CD co co ^ coco'co' M 3 U51T5 o Q^ PQ s*' oj C5 OO rH ^J< LO OO U5 -OOOOO I OS _- >^ 8? .2 00<^^OiOOrHOO -00000 | gj "g^ S dt-^aJco-I . pjc3 3 Di N cooinM't- c ~S .HH^^ TtirHlCrHTtiTH . Q O ** a2 rJ S^ - r M rrttfOOOOt^Ot-OSiM ^J PH /^'-WCOCOCOCOCDIMO I ' tlt-l H fl NN^eo^wio ;:;;;;! : ^^ g rt COCOrH rH ) = cu. ft. of mortar per bbl. Therefore : 27 27 1.1 n s + (p 0.9 n s v) p -{-n s (1.1 0.9 v.) N being the number of barrels of cement per cu. yd. of mortar. When the mortar is made so lean that there is not enough cement paste to fill the voids in the sand, the formula becomes 27 1.1 n s A similar line of reasoning will give us a rational formula for determining the quantity of cement in concrete ; but there is one point of difference between sand and gravel (or broken stone), namely, that the gravel does not swell materially in volume when mixed with water. However, a certain amount of water is required to wet the surface of the pebbles, and this water reduces the avail- able voids, that is, the voids that can be filled by the mortar. With this, in mind, the following deduction is clear, using the nomen- clature and symbols above given : nflr = cu. ft. of dry gravel (or stone). ng V = cu. f t. of voids in dry gravel. 0.9 n# V = cu. ft. of "available voids" in the wet gravel. p + n s (1.1 0.9 v) 0.09 ng V = excess of mortar over the avail- able voids in the wet gravel. ng + p + n s (1.1 0.9 v) 0.9 ngV = cu. ft. of concrete from 1 bbl. cement. 27 p+n a (1.1 0.9 vl + ng (1 0.9 F) N beinsr the number of barrels of cement required to make 1 cu. yd. of concrete. This formula is rational and perfectly general. Other experi- menters may find it desirable to. use constants slightly different from the 1.1 and the 0.9, for fine sands swell more than coarse sands, and hold more water. The reader must bear in mind that when the voids in the sand 538 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. exceed the cement paste, and when the available voids in the gravel (or stone) exceed the mortar, the formula becomes : 27 ng These formulas give the amounts of cement in mortars and con- cretes compacted in place. Tables I to IV are based upon the fore- going theory, and will be found to check satisfactorily with actual tests. TABLE I. BARRELS OF PORTLAND CEMENT PER CUBIC YARD OF MORTAR. (Voids in sand being 35%, and 1 bbl. cement yielding 3.65 cu. ft. of cement paste.) Proportion of Cement to Sand. 1 to 1 1 to 1 % 1 to 2 1 to 2 y 2 1 to 3 1 to 4 Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Barrel specified to be 3.5 cu. ft. 4. 22 3.49 2.97 2.57 2.28 1.76 " 3.8 " .4.09 3.33 2.81 2.45 2.16 1.62 " 4.0 " .4.00 3.24 2.73 2.36 2.08 1.54 " 4.4 " .3.81 3.07 2.57 2.27 2.00 1.40 Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. mortar 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 TABLE II. BARRELS OF PORTLAND CEMENT PER CUBIC YARD OF MORTAR. (Voids in sand being 45%, and 1 bbl. cement yielding 3.4 cu. ft. of cement paste.) Proportion of Cement to Sand. 1 to 1 1 to 1 % 1 to 2 1 to 2 % 1 to 3 1 to 4 Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Barrel specified to be 3.5 cu. ft. 4.62 3.80 3.25 2.84 2.35 1.76 " 3.8 " .4.32 3.61 3.10 2.72 2.16 1.62 " 4.0 " .4.19 3.46 3.00 2.64 . 2.05 1.54 " 4.4 " .3.94 3.34 2.90 2.57 1.86 1.40 Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. mortar 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 In using these tables remember that the proportion of cement to sand is by volume, and not by weight. If the specifications state that a barrel of cement shall be considered to hold 4 cu. ft., for ex- ample, and that the mortar shall be 1 part cement to 2 parts sand, then 1 barrel of cement is mixed with 8 cu. ft. of sand, regardless of what is the actual size of the barrel, and Tegardles of how much cement paste can be made with a barrel of cement. If the specifica- tions fail to state what the size of a barrel will be, then the con- tractor is left to guess. If the specifications call for proportions by weight, assume a Portland barrel to contain 380 Ibs. of cement, and test the actual weight of a cubic foot of the sand to be used. Sand varies ex- tremely in weight, due both to the variation in the per cent of voids, and to the variation in the kind of minerals of which the sand is composed. A quartz sand having 35% voids weighs 107 Ibs. per cu. ft.; but a quartz sand having 45% voids weighs only 91 Ibs. per cu. ft. If the weight of the sand must be guessed at, assume 100 Ibs. per cu. ft. If the specifications require a mixture of 1 cement to 2 of sand by weight, we will have 380 Ibs. (or i bbl.) of cement mixed with 2X380. or 760 Ibs. of sand; and if the sand weighs 90 Ibs. per cu. ft., we shall have 760 4- 90, or 8.44 cu. ft, of sand to CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 539 every barrel of cement. In order to use the tables above given, we may specify our own size of barrel ; let us .say 4 cu. ft. ; then 8.44 ~- 4 gives 2.11 parts of sand by volume to 1 part of cement. With- out material error we may call this a 1 to 2 mortar, and use the tables, remembering that our barrel is now- "specified to be" 4 cu. ft. If we have a brand of cement that yields 3.4 cu. ft. of paste per bbl., and sand having 45% voids, we find that approximately 3 bbls. of cement per cu. yd. of mortar will be required. It should be evident from the foregoing discussions that no table can be made, and no rule can be formulated that will yield accu- rate results unless the brand of cement is tested and the percent- age of voids in the sand determined. This being so the sensible plan is to use the tables merely as a rough guide, and, where the quantity of cement to be used is very large, to make a few batches of mortar using the available brands of cement and sand in the proportions specified. Ten dollars spent in this way may save a thousand, even on a comparatively small job, by showing what cement and sand to select. TABLE III. INGREDIENTS IN 1 CUBIC YARD OP CONCRETE. (Sand voids, 40% ; stone voids, 45% ; Portland cement barrel yield- ing 3.65 cu. ft. paste. Barrel specified to be 3.8 cu. ft.) Proportions by Volume. 1:2:4 1:2:5 1:2:6 1:2^:5 1:2%:6 1:3:4 Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 1.46 1.30 1.18 1.13 1.00 1.25 Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. concrete 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.40 0.35 053 Cu. yds. stone per cu. yd. concrete 0.82 0.90 1.00 0.80 0.84 0.71 Proportions by Volume 1:3:5 1:3:6 1:3:7 1:4:7 1:4:8 1:4:9 Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 1.13 1.05 0.96 0.82 0.77 0.73 Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. concrete 0.48 0.44 0.40 0.46 0.43 0.41 Cu. yds. stone per cu. yd. concrete 0.80 0.88 0.93 0.80 0.86 0.92 Note. This table is to be used where cement is measured packed in the barrel for the ordinary barrel holds 3.8 cu. ft. It will be seen that the above table can be condensed into the following rule: Add together the number of parts and divide this sum into ten, the quotient will be approximately the number of barrels of ce- ment per cubic yard. Thus for a 1:2:5 concrete, the sum of the parts is 1 + 2 + 5, which is 8 ; then 10 -7- 8 is 1.25 bbls., which is approximately equal to the 1.30 bbls. given in the table. Neither this rule nor this table is applicable if a different size of cement barrel is specified, or if the voids in the sand or stone differ materially from 40% and 45% respectively. There are such inumerable combinations of varying voids, and varying sizes of barrel, that the author does not deem it worth while to give other tables. 540 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE IV. INGREDIENTS IN 1 CUBIC YARD OF CONCRETE. (Sand voids, 40% ; stone voids, 45% ; Portland cement barrel yield- ing 3.65 cu. ft. of paste. Barrel specified to be 4.4 cu. ft.) Proportions by Volume. 1:2:4 1:2:5 1:2:6 1:2%:5 I:2y 2 :6 1:3:4 Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete .. 1.30 1.16 1.00 1.07 0.96 1.08 Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. concrete 0.42 0.38 0.33 0.44 0.40 0.53 Cu. yds. stone per cu. yd. concrete 0.84 0.95 1.00 0.88 0.95 0.71 Proportions by Volume. 1:3:5 1:3:6 1:3:7 1:4:7 1:4:8 1:4:9 Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 0.96 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.68 0.64 Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. concrete 0.47 0.44 0.40 0.49 0.44 0.42 Cu. yds. stone per cu. yd. concrete 0.78 0.88 0.93 0.86 0.88 0.95 NOTE. This table is to be used when the cement is measured loose, after dumping it into a box for under such conditions a barrel of cement yields 4.4 cu. ft. of loose cement. CEMENT PER CUBIC YARD OF MORTAR BY TEST. According to tests by Sabin. by Fuller (in Taylor and Thompson) and by H. P. Boardman, the following results were obtained : Neat. 1:1. 1 : 2. 1 : 3. 1:4. 1:5. 1:6. 1:7. 1:8. Authority. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Bbls. Sabin 7.40 4.17 2.84 2.06 1.62 1.33 1.14 W. G. Fuller... 8.02 4.58 3.09' 2.30 1.80 1.48 1.23 1.11 1.00 H. P. Boardman 7.40 4.50 3.18 2.35 The proportions were by barrels of cement to barrels of sand, and Sabin called a 380-lb. barrel 3.65 cu. ft., whereas Fuller called a 380-lb. barrel 3.80 cu. ft. ; and Boardman called a 380 Ib. barrel 3.5 cu. ft. Sabin used a sand having 38% voids; Fuller used a sand having 45% voids; and Boardman used a sand having 38% voids. It will be seen that the cement used by Sabin yielded 3.65 cu. ft. of cement paste per bbl. (i. e. 27 -j- 7.4), whereas the (Atlas) cement used by Fuller yielded 3.4 cu. ft. of cement paste oer bbl. Sabin found that a barrel of cement measured 4.37 cu. ft. when dumped and measured loose. Mr. Boardman states a barrel (280 Ibs., net) of Lehigh Portland cement yields 3.65 cu. ft. of cement paste; and that a barrel (265 Ibs., net) of Louisville natural cement yields 3.0 cu. ft. of cement paste. Mr. J. J. R. Croes, M. Am. Soc. C. E., states that 1 bbl. of Rosen- dale cement and 2 bbls. of sand (8 cu. ft.) make 9.7 cu. ft. of mortar, the extreme variations from this average being 7%. The Size and Weight of Barrels of Cement. A barrel of Port- land cement contains 380 Ibs. of cement, and the barrel itself weighs 20 Ibs. more. The size of the barrel varies considerably, due to the difference in weight per struck bushel, and to the differ- ence in compressing the cement in the barrel. A light burned Port- land cement weighs 100 Ibs. per struck bushel; a heavy burned cement weighs 118 to 125 Ibs. per struck bushel. The number of cubic feet of packed Portland cement in a barrel ranges from 3 to 3%. English Portland cement barrels contain 3% to 3% cu. ft. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 541 packed. There are usually four bags (cloth sacks) of cement to the barrel, and each bag itself weighs 1% Ibs. The natural cements are lighter than Portland. The Western ce- ments, such as Louisville, Akron and Utica weigh 265 Ibs. per bbl., and the barrel weighs 15 Ibs. more. A barrel of Louisville cement = 3% cu. ft, packed. The Rosendale cements of New York and Pennsylvania weigh 300 Ibs. per bbl. and the barrel weighs 20 Ibs. more. There are usually three bags of natural cement to the barrel. When cement is ordered in cloth sacks, there is a charge made of 10 cts. per sack, but on return of the sacks a credit of 8 to 10 cts. per sack is allowed. Cement ordered in wooden barrels costs 10 cts. more per bbl. than in bulk. Cement ordered in paper bags costs 5 cts. more per bbl. than in bulk. Hence it is that nearly all cement used in large quantities is ordered in cloth sacks which are returned. When a barrel of cement is dumped out and shoveled into a box it measures much more than when packed in the barrel, ordinarily from 20 to 30% more. I have measured a number of barrels of English Portland cement, which is still much used on the Pacific Coast of America, and find that a barrel having a capacity of 3% cu. ft. between heads will yield 4.5 cu. ft. of cement measured dry and loose in a box. I have found brands of American Portland cement that yield 4.65 cu. ft. when measured loose in a box. The variation is considerable, as is seen in the following table, com- piled from data given by Mr. Howard Carson, M. Am. Soc. C. E. : (2) (3) ( 1 ) Actual Volume Brand Capacity contents when of of of packed dumped Increase Portland bbl. bbl. loose. in cement. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. bulk. Giant 3.5 3.35 4.17 25% Atlas 3.45 3.21 3.75 18% Saylor's 3.25 3.15 4.05 30% Alsen (German) 3.22 3.16 4.19 33% Dyckerhoff (German) 3.12 3.03 4.00 33% Some engineers require the contractor to measure the sand and stone in the same sized barrel that the cement comes in ; then 1 part of sand or stone usually means 3% cu. ft. Other engineers permit both heads of the barrel to be knocked out, for convenience in measuring the sand and stone ; then a barrel means about 3 % cu. ft. Still other engineers permit the contractor to measure his cement in a box loose; then a barrel usually means from 4 to 4.5 cu. ft. Since most of the cement now used is shipped in bags and since four bags of Portland cement make a barrel, it is the custom among most engineers to call a bag 1 cu. ft., even though it may yield a little more cement. Still other engineers prefer to specify that a Portland barrel shall be called 3.8 cu. ft., which is equiva- lent to 100 Ibs. of cement per cu. ft. It is desirable that engineers and architects adopt some uniform practice in this matter, for now a contractor is often unable to estimate the quantity of cement required for any specified mix- ture because the size of the barrel is not specified. 542 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. There have been advocates of proportioning parts by weight, but, aside from the fact that it is seldom convenient to weigh the ingredients of every batch, there is no gain in such a departure from long-standing precedent. Sand and gravel and stone are by no means constant in specific gravity, as advocates of weighing seem to suppose. Effect of Moisture on Voids in Sand. Few engineers and fewer contractors realize how greatly the volume of sand is affected by the presence of varying percentages of moisture in the sand. A dry, loose sand that has 45% voids if mixed with 5% (by weight) of water will swell (unless tamped) to such an extent that its voids may be 57%. The same sand if saturated with more water until it becomes a thin paste, may show only 37V% voids after the sand has settled. The following tests by Feret show the effect that water has upon sand: Two kinds of sand were used, a very fine sand and a coarse sand. They were measured in a box that held 2 cu. ft. and was 8 ins. deep, the sand being shoveled into the box, but not tamped or shaken. After measuring and weighing the dry sand, 0.5% (by weight) of water was added, the sand was mixed and shoveled into the box again and weighed. This was repeated with varying percentages of water, up to 10%, with the following results: Per cent of water in sand. 0% 0.5% 1% 2% 3% 5% 10% Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Weight per cu. yd. of fine sand and water 3,457 2,206 2,085 2,044 2,037 2,035 2,133 Weight per cu. yd. of coarse sand and water. 2,551 2,466 2,380 2,122 2,058 2,070 2,200 It will be noted that the weight of mixed sand and water is given ; but, to ascertain the exact weight of dry sand in the mix- ture, divide the weight given in the table by 100% plus the given tabular per cent ; thus, the weight of dry fine sand mixed with 5% of water is 2,035 -H 1.05 = 1,938 Ibs. per cu. yd. It will also be noted that when the water exceeds 3 to 5%, the weight of the mix- ture increases, showing that a larger percentage of water com- pacts the sand. The voids in the dry fine sand were 45%, and in the sand with 5% moisture they were 56.7%. It is well known that pouring water onto loose, dry sand com- pacts it. By mixing fine sand and water to a thin paste, pouring it into a pail and allowing it to settle, it was found that the sand occupied 11% less space than when measured dry in a box. The voids in fine sand, having a specific gravity of 2.65, were deter- mined by measurements in a quart measure, and found to be as follows : Voids. Sand, not packed 44 % % Sand, shaken to refusal 35 % Sand, saturated with water 37 ^ % Mr. H. P. Boardman made some experiments with Chicago sand having 34 to 40% voids when dry, by adding water to the sand. The results were as follows: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 543 Water added, % by weight 2 46 8 10 Resulting increase in volume.. 17.6 22 19.5 16.6 15.6 However, a very moderate amount of shaking would reduce this increase in volume by % to %. Effect of Size of Sand Grains on Voids. If in any given volume of sand all the grains were of the same shape and of uniform size, the percentage of voids would be the same regardless of the size of the grains. This is equivalent to saying that the finest birdshot has the same percentage of voids as the coarsest buckshot. Nat- ural sand grains, unless they have been sorted by screening, are apt to vary greatly in size, large and small being intermixed. It is this that causes such wide discrepancies in published data as to the percentage of voids in dry bank sands. We may divide sand Into three sizes, for convenience. The largest size (L) being sand that will pass a sieve of 5 meshes per lineal inch, but will not pass a sieve of 15 meshes per lineal inch; the medium size (M) being sand that will pass a 15-mesh sieve, but will not pass a sieve of 50 meshes per lineal inch; and the fine size (F) being sand tnat will ass a 50-mesh sieve. If we mix varying proportions of the large, medium and fine (L, M and P), we find that we get the densest mixture, with the least voids, when we have an L6, MO, F4 mixture, that is, 6 parts large size, no parts medium, and 4 parts fine size. With a dry sand whose grains have a specific gravity of 2.65, if we weigh a cubic yard of either the fine, or the medium, or the large size, we find a weight of 2,190 Ibs. per cu. yd., which is equivalent to 51% voids. If we mix the three different sizes in varying proportions, we find, as above stated, that an L6, MO, F4 mixture is densest, and it weighs 2,840 Ibs. per cu. yd. shoveled into a dry box. This is equivalent to 36% voids. We can get a denser mixture, with a lower percentage of voids, if we mix about equal parts of sand and clean gravel. It will be noted that the common statement that the densest mixture is obtained by a mixture of gradually increasing sizes of grains is erroneous. There must be enough difference in the sizes of grains to provide voids so large that the smaller grains will enter them and not wedge the larger grains apart. The shape of the grains has a rery pronounced effect upon the percentage of voids, rounded grains having less voids than angular grains. Using sand having a granulometric composition of L5, M3, F2, measured in a quart measure, the following results were obtained by Feret: Voids. Unshaken. Shaken. Natural sand, rounded grains 35.9% 25.6% Crushed quartzite angular grains 42.1 27.4 Crushed shells, flat grains 44.3 31.8 Residue of quartzite, flat grains 47.5 34.6 The measure was shaken until no further settlement could be produced. Mr. William B. Fuller made the following tests: A dry sand, having 34% voids shrank 9.6% in volume upon thorough tamping, 544 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. until it had 27% voids. The same sand moistened with 6% water, and loose, had 44% voids, which was reduced to 31% by ramming. The same sand saturated with water had 33% voids, and by thorough ramming its volume was reduced 8 % % , until the sand had only 26V 2 % voids. TABLE V. SIZES OF SAND GRAINS. Held by a Sieve. No jo A. 35.3% No 20 32.1 No 30 14.6 No 40 No 50 9.6 No 100 4.9 No 200 2.0 B. 12.8 49.0 5.7 2.3 4.2% 12.5 44.4 E. 53 Voids 33% 39% 41.7% 31% Note. A is a "fine gravel" (containing 8% clay) used at Phila- delphia. B. Delaware River sand. C. St. Mary's River sand. D, Green River, Ky., sand, "clean and sharp." TABLE VI. VOIDS IN SAND. Locality. Authority. Voids. Remarks. Ohio River W. M. Hall 31% Washed Sandusky, O C. E. Sherman 40% Lake Franklin Co., O.... C. E. Sherman 40% Bank Sandusky Bay, O. . . S. B. Newberry 32.3% St. Louis, Mo H. H. Henby 34.3% Miss. River Sault Ste. Marie H. von Schon 41.7% River Chicago, 111 H. P. Boardman 34 to 40% Philadelphia, Pa 39 % Del. River Mass. Coast 31 to 34% Boston, Mass Geo. A. Kimball 33% Clean Cow Bay, L. I Myron S. Falk 40%% Little Falls, N. J. . . W. B. Fuller 45.6% Canton, 111 G. W. Chandler 30% Clean Voids and Weight of Broken Stone and Gravel Data as to these will be found in Section III, Rock Excavation. Consult the index under "Broken Stone," also under "Gravel." Tables for Estimating the Cost of Concrete and for Designing Reinforced Concrete Beams and Slabs." Tables of cost and crush- ing strength of concrete mixtures, when compiled from reliable t t i *J4$a It U Si J Fig. 1. data, have a very useful purpose in figuring on concrete work. In our issue of Feb. 19. 1908, we published a table of this character long used by a prominent Eastern contractor. Another table of * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 26, 1908. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 545 xiui g:%s:i uo 6fe>s- P8SBQ S8}8JOUOO JO ^ coast- jo : 8 333 l , WSJ c^ SI R '- 1 _. C- -cS > P 'gSh fi&afc * O ooooooooo i.3 S M 1 o o pqcc ^.M^tOOOON tl^^5>^COl-l005 g** ^S co e rt wa t "S S^d"P^ '"O- ~ IS23 3 -g^s : 13 l^g"* 'iqa -ui9o PQ P l ,3 S " ' euo;s 'H 546 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. similar scope is given here (Table VII). This table has been com- piled by Mr. H. J. Fixmer, Assistant Engineer, Board of Local Im- provements, Chicago, 111., from various and it is believed trustworthy sources. The cost column, while necessarily based on given con- stants, shows relative costs of different mixtures which are fairly true for all cases. These costs, in connection with the ratio of strength figures, show almost at a glance the economy of the selected mixtures. Table VIII is used in designing slabs and girders. Attention is called to the fact that the value h is used and that the value d-h is the selected thickness of the fireproofing only. In other words the depth of the beam is the value h plus the thickness required for fire- proofing. The value fc 500 Ibs. is practically the universal build- Ing code allowance. The value fs of course varies with the percent- age of steel used. A little study of the table shows the advantage of using not less than 1%% of steel for reinforcing. For purposes of comparison the following data as to brickwork are useful : Crushing strength Cost per Ibs. per sq. in. cu. ft. First-class brickwork in cement mortar 834 $0.44 Good brick in cement mortar 486 0.35 Ordinary brick in lime mortar 347 0.26 1,000 brick = 40 cu. ft. when laid. Percentage of Water Required in Mortar A good rule by which to determine the percentage of water by weight for any given mix- ture of mortar is as follows : Multiply the parts of sand by 8, add 24 to the product and divide the total by the sum of the parts of sand and cement. Example: Required percentage of water for a mortar of 1 cement to 3 sand: SOLUTION. 1 cement =24% 3 sand X 8% =24% 4 parts at 12% =48% Hence the water should be 12% of the combined weight of the cement and sand. For a 1 : 1 mortar, the rule gives 16% water. For 1 : 2 mortar the rule gives 13%% water. For a 1:6 mor- tar the rule gives 10.3% water. Incidentally, it may be added, the percentages of water obtained by this rule give a mortar that has the greatest adhesion to steel rods (see Falk's "Cements, Mortars and Concretes," page 61). About 23 gals of water are required per cu. yd. of 1 : 3 : 6 concrete. Estimating the Cost of Steel in Reinforced Concrete. In re- inforced concrete the amount of steel is usually expressed in per- centages of the volume of concrete. Thus 1% of steel means that one one-hundredth part of the volume of reinforced concrete is steel. In a cubic yard of reinforced concrete there is 1% of 27 cu. ft, or 0.27 cu. It. of steel, if the reinforcement is 1%. A cubic- foot of steel weighs 490 Ibs., but for all practical purposes we can call it 500 Ibs. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 54? sr OOrHTHffOTj o T*** . 2 ^ ."S-2r n -2 *J [> G I o 5C-* -~>n readily be shoved along a plank floor Incidentally I mas vtad rm^ broken stone delivered in hopper- bottom cars ean be shoveled with difficulty as compared with shoveling in flat-bottom cars; the ratio being about 14 cu. yds. per man per day from hopper-bottom cars as compared with 20 cu. y^ from flat cars. On the other hand, the hopper-bottom coal car CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 553 should always be chosen where it can be dumped through a trestle. If the amount of work to be done will justify the expense a trestle may be built. Often, however, there is a railroad embankment which can be dug away for a short distance and stringers placed to support the track. Then the cars can be dumped into the hole thus made, and the material shoveled out and down the slope. Many foremen for railway companies waste hundreds of dollars by shoveling the materials from freight cars out upon the earth often upon the side of an embankment where shoveling is very difficult. In many cases it would have paid well to have unloaded the cars by the aid of a stiff-leg derrick and iron buckets or skips loaded by the shovelers in the cars ; these skips being dumped upon a well-made platform. In other cases chutes lined with sheet iron would have served to deliver the stone upon a plank flooring at the foot of the embankment, just as coal is delivered into a cellar. Damp sand will not slide down a chute on. a slope of iy 2 to 1, but coarse broken stone, if given a start when cast, with the shovel, will slide on an iron-shod slope of 3 or 4 to 1. If the material is delivered in wagons it seldom is necessary to have large stock piles provided the wagons come direct from the sand pit and the quarry. Cost of Loading the Materials. A man who is a willing worker can readily load 20 cu. yds. of sand into a barrow or cart in 10 hrs., but under poor foremen, or when laborers are scarce, it is not safe to count upon more than 15 cu. yds. a day, or, say, 10 cts. per cu. yd. for loading. Practically the same figures hold true of broken stone shoveled off a good plank floor ; but, if the stone is shoveled off the ground, estimate 15 cu. yds. a day under good management, or 12 cu. yds. a day under poor management. Since in a cubic yard of concrete there are ordinarily about 1 cu. yd. of broken stone and about 0.4 cu. yd. of sand, the cost of loading the materials into wheelbarrows and carts is as follows, wages being 15 cts. per hour: 1 cu. yd. stone loaded for 11 cts. 0.4 cu. yd. sand loaded for 4 cts. 1 cu. yd. concrete loaded for 15 cts. The cement can be loaded with more ease than the other materials, whether it is in barrels or in bags, and the cost of loading it into barrows or carts will be not over 2 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete, thus making a total of 17 cts. per cu. yd. for loading the concrete ma- terials into barrows or carts. Cost of Transporting the Materials. The most common way of transporting the materials from stock, piles to the mixing board is in wheelbarrows over plank runways. A wheelbarrow is usually load- ed with 2 sacks of Portland cement (200 Ibs.), or with 2 cu. ft. of stone or of sand, if a steep rise must be made to reach the mixing platform ; but, if the run is level, 300 Ibs. of cement, or 3 cu. ft. of sand or stone is a common wheelbarrow load. A man wheeling a barrow travels at the rate of about 200 ft. per minute, going and coming, and loses % minute each trip dumping the load, fixing run 554 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. planks, etc. An active man will do 20 or 25% more work than this, while a very lazy man may do 20% less. With wages at 15 ;ts. per hour, the cost of wheeling the materials for 1 cu. yd. of concrete may be obtained by the following rule : To a fixed cost of 4 cts. (for lust time) add 1 ct. for every 20 ft. of distance from stock pile to mixing board if there is a steep rise in the runway, but if the runway is level add 1 ct. for every 30 ft. distance of haul. Since loading the barrows costs 17 cts. per cu. yd. the total fixed cost is 4 + 17 cts. or 21 cts. per cu. yd., to wnich is added 1 ct. for every 20 or 30 ft. of haul, according to the character of the runway. I have frequently seen small stock piles located as close as pos- sible to mixing boards, so that wheelbarrows were not used, the materials being carried in shovels direct to the mixing boards. On work of any considerable size this is a very foolish plan, as we can readily see. It takes from 100 to 150 shovelfuls of stone to make 1 cu. yd. It therefore costs at the rate of 50 cts. per cu. yd. to carry it 100 ft. and return empty handed, for in walking short dis- tances the men travel very slowly about 150 ft. per minute. From this it appears that it costs more to walk even half a dozen paces with stone carried in shovels than to wheel it in barrows. Of course, by using large coal scoops the cost of carrying material in shovels could be reduced to one-half or one-third the cost with ordi- nary shovels ; but scoops are never used in mixing concrete. Another mistake that is very commonly made by foremen is to provide no plank runways from the stock pile to the mixing board, but instead to run the wheelbarrows over the ground. This is bad enough even in dry weather over a very hard packed earth path, but after a rain or on a soft pathway it means a great loss of efficiency. Had I not seen this error committed repeatedly, I should not mention it, for it would seem that no foreman could be so short- sighted as not to provide a few planks for runways. Where the runway must rise to the mixing board, give it a slope or grade seldom steeper than 1 in 8, and if possible flatter. Make a runway on a trestle at least 18 ins. wide, so that men will be in no danger of falling. See to it, also that the planks are so well sup- ported that they do not spring down when walked over, for a springy plank makes hard wheeling. If the planks are so long between the "horses" or "bents" used to support them, that they spring badly, it is usually a simple matter to nail a cleat across the underside of the planks and stand an upright strut underneath to support and stiffen the plank. Materials may be hauled in one-horse dump-carts for all distances more than 50 ft. (from stock pile to mixing board) at a cost less than for wheelbarrow hauling. A cart should be loaded in 4 mins. and dumped in about 1 min., making 5 mins. lost time each round trip. It should travel at a speed of not less than 200 ft. per min., although it is not unusual to see variations of 15 or 20%, one way or another, from this average, depending upon the management of the work. A one-horse cart will readily carry enough stone and CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 555 sand to make l /2 cu. yd. of concrete, if the roads are fairly hard and level; and a horse can pull this load up a 10% (rise of 1 ft. in 10 ft.) planked roadway provided with cleats to give a foothold. If a horse, cart and driver can be hired for 30 cts. per hour, the cost of hauling the materials for 1 cu. yd. of concrete is given by the following rule : To a fixed cost of 5 cts. (for lost time at both ends of haul) add 1 ct. for every 100 ft. of distance from stock pile to mixing board. Where carts are used it is possible to locate the stock piles several hundred feet from the mixing boards without adding ma- terially to the cost of the concrete. It is well, however, to have the stock piles in sight of the foreman at the mixing board, so as to in- sure promptness of delivery. Cost of Mixing the Materials. This element of cost depends upon the number of times that the materials are turned over With shovels. I have seen street paving work where the' inspection was so lax that the contractor was required to turn over the mass of Band, cement and stone only three times before shoveling it into place. On the other hand, the contractor is rarely required to turn over the cement and sand more than three times dry and three times wet to make the mortar, and then turn over the mortar and stone three times. A willing workman, under a good foreman, will turn over mortar at the rate of 30 cu. yds. in 10 hrs., lifting each shovelful and casting it into a pile. This means a cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. of mortar for each turn ; but as there is seldom more than 0.4 cu. yd. of mortar per cu. yd. of concrete, we have a cost of 2 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete for each turn that is given to the mortar. So if the mortar is given 6 turns before adding the stone, we have 2 cts. X 6 which is 12 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete for mixing the mortar. Then if the mortar and stone are turned three times we have 5 cts. X 3, or 15 cts. more for mixing, thus making a total of 27 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing the concrete, wages being 15 cts. per hr. I recall seeing one specification that called for 6 turns of the mor- tar dry and 3 turns wet. Under such a specification the cost of mixing the mortar would be 50% more than I have assumed in the example just given. Specifications for hand mixing should always state the number of turns that will be required, but frequently they do not, thus leaving the contractor to guess at the probable require- ments of the inspector. In such a case it is a good plan to use hoes instead of shovels for mixing the mortar, because in this way a good mortar can be mixed with much greater rapidity than when an in- spector insists on 6 to 9 turns with shovels, as frequently happens when specifications are ambiguous. As above stated, it often happens that on city pavement work, two turns of the mortar, followed by two turns of the mortar and stone, are considered sufficient. In such a case the cost of mixing the mortar is 2 cts. X 2, or 4 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete ; to which is added 5 cts. X 2, or 10 cts., for mixing the mortar and stone, making in all 14 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete. When concrete is mixed very wet, or sloppy, this amount of mixing appears to g/ve good results. 556 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Where a given number of turns of concrete is specified, disputes often occur between inspectors and foremen as to whether shoveling into wheelbarrows constitutes a "turn" or not, and whether any sub- sequent shoveling in getting the concrete to its final resting place constitutes a "turn." It seems but fair to count each handling with the shovel as a turn, no matter when or where it occurs, but in- spectors will not always look upon it in that light. The foregoing costs of mixing apply to work done by diligent men ; but easy-going men will make the cost 25 to 50% greater. I have seen this latter class of men most frequently on day labor work for cities, railways and other companies and corporations who'se foremen have little or no incentive to secure a fair day's work from the men. Cost of Loading and Hauling Concrete. The cost of loading con- crete, after it is mixed, is less than the cost of loading the materials separately before mixing, .because while the weight is greater (due to the added water), the bulk or volume of the concrete is much less than the volume of the ingredients before mixing. Moreover a smooth mixing board, and the presence of the foreman, secures more rapid work. In shoveling any material a large part of the work consists in forcing the shovel into, or under, the mass to be lifted. With wages at 15 cts. per hour, the cost of loading concrete into bar- rows or buckets should not exceed 12 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of wheeling it after loading is practically the 'same as for wheeling the dry ingredients, as given by the rule on page 272. The cost per cubic yard of loading and wheeling is therefore given by this rule : To a fixed cost of 16 cts. (for loading and lost time) add 1 ct. for every 30 ft. of level haul. If the concrete must be elevated, a gallows frame, or a mast with a pulley block at the top, a team of horses and a rope for hoisting the skip load of concrete, can often be used to advantage. Another method, well worthy of more frequent use, consists in wheeling the barrows of concrete to a gallows frame where they are raised by a horse, and when wheeled to place. In building railway abutments, culverts, and the like, it is often desirable to locate the mixing board on high ground, perhaps at some little distance from the forms. If this can be done, the use of der- ricks may be avoided as above suggested or by building a light pole trestle from the mixing board to the forms. The concrete can then be wheeled in barrows and dumped into the forms. If the mixing board can be located on ground as high as the top of the concrete structure is to be, obviously a trestle will enable the men to wheel on a level runway. Such a trestle can be built very cheaply, espe- cially where second-hand lumber, or lumber that can be used subse- quently for forms is available. A pole trestle whose bents are made entirely of round sticks cut from the forest is a very cheap structure, If a foreman knows how to throw it together and up-end the bents after they are made. I have put up such trestles for 25 cts. per lin. ft. of trestle, including all labor of cutting the round timber, erecting It, and placing a plank flooring 4 ft. wide on top. The stringers and CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 557 flooring plank were used later for forms, and their cost is not in- cluded. A trestle 100 ft. long can thus be built at less cost than hauling, erecting and taking down a derrick ; and once the trestle is up it saves the cost of operating a derrick. Concrete made with Portland cement (but not with natural ce- ment) can be hauled long distances in a cart or wagon before it begins to harden. This fact should be taken advantage of by con- tractors far oftener than it is. I am inclined to think that the extensive use of natural cement, which sets too quickly to admit of hauling far, has blinded contractors to the possibilities of saving money by hauling Portland cement concrete long distances. Since a cart is readily hauled at a speed of 200 ft. a minute, where there are no long steep hills, it is evident that in G 1 /^ minutes a cart can travel a quarter of a mile; in 13 minutes, half a mile; and in 26 min- utes, a mile. Portland cement does not begin to set for 30 minutes ; hence it may be hauled a mile after mixing it. The cost of hauling concrete with one-horse dump-carts is practically the same as the cost of hauling its dry ingredients. Cost of Dumping, Spreading and Ramming. The cost of dump- ing wheelbarrows and carts is included in the rules of cost already given, excepting that in some cases it is necessary to add the wages of a man at the dump who assists the cart drivers or the barrow men. Thus in dumping concrete from barrows into a deep trench or pit, it is usually advisable to dump into a galvanized iron hopper provided with an iron pipe chute. One man can readily dump all the barrows that can be filled from a concrete mixer in a day, say 150 cu. yds. At this rate of output the cost of dumping would be only 1 ct. per cu. yd., but if one man were required to dump the output of a small gang of men, say 25 cu. yds., the cost of dumping would be 6 cts. per cu. yd. Concrete dumped through a chute requires very little work to spread it in 6-in. layers ; and, in fact, concrete that can be dumped from wheelbarrows, which do not all dump in one place, can be spread very cheaply ; for not more than half the pile dumped from the barrow needs to be moved, and then moved merely by pushing with a shovel. Since the spreader also rams the concrete, it is diffi- cult to separate these two items. As nearly as I have been able to estimate this item of spreading "dry" concrete dumped from wheel- barrows in street paving work, the cost is 5 cts. per cu. yd. If, on the other hand, nearly all the concrete must be handled by the spreaders, as in spreading concrete dumped from carts, the cost is fully double, or 10 cts. per cu. yd. And if the spreader has to walk even 3 or 4 paces to place the concrete after shoveling it up, the cost of spreading will be 15 cts. per cu. yd. For this reason it is apparent that carts are not as economical as wheelbarrows for hauling concrete up to about 200 ft., due to the added cost of spreading material delivered by carts. The preceding discussion of spreading is based upon the assump- tion that the concrete is not so wet that it will run. Obviously 558 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. where concrete is made of small stones and contains an excess of water, it will run so readily as to require little or no spreading. The cost of ramming concrete depends almost entirely upon its flryness and upon the number of cubic yards delivered to the ram- mers. Concrete that is mixed with very little water requires long and hard ramming to flush the water to the surface. The yardage delivered to the rammers is another factor, because if only a few men are engaged in mixing they will not be able to deliver enough concrete to keep the rammers properly busy, yet the rammers by slow though continuous pounding may be keeping up an appearance of working. Then, again, I have noticed that the slower the con- crete is delivered the more particular the average inspector be- comes. Concrete made "sloppy" requires no ramming at all, and very little spading. I have had men do very thorough ramming of moderately dry concrete for 15 cts. per cu. yd., where the rammers had no spread- ing to do, the material being delivered in shovels. It is rare indeed that spreading and ramming can be made to cost more than 40 cts. per cu. yd., under the most foolish inspection, yet one instance is re- corded below of even higher cost. If engineers specify a dry concrete and "thorough ramming" they would do well also to specify what the word "thorough" is to mean, using language that can be expressed in cents per cubic yard. It is a common thing, for example, to see a sewer trench specification in which one tamper is required for each two men shoveling the back- fill into the trench ; and some such specific requirement should be made in a concrete specification if close estimates from reliable contractors are desired. Surely no engineer will claim that this is too unimportant a matter for consideration when it is known that ramming can easily be made to cost as high as 40 cts. per cu. yd., depending largely upon the whim of the inspector. Example of High Cost of Tamping. Mr. Herman Conrow is authority for the following data : 1 foreman, 9 men mixing, 1 ram- ming, averaged 15 cu. yds. a day, or only 1% cu. yds. per man per day, when laying wet concrete. When laying dry concrete the same gang averaged only 8 cu. yds. a day, there being 4 men ramming. With foreman at $2 and laborers at $1.50 a day, the cost was $2.12 per cu. yd. for labor on the dry concrete as against $1.13 per cu. yd. for the wet concrete. Three turnings of the stone with a wet mortar effected a better mixture than four turnings with a dry mortar. The ramming of the wet concrete cost 10 cts. per cu. yd., whereas the ramming of the dry concrete cost 75 cts. per cu. yd. I think this is the highest cost on record for ramming. It is evident, how- ever, that the men were under a poor foreman, for an output of only 15 cu. yds. per day with 10 men is very low for ordinary con- ditions. Moreover, the high cost of ramming indicates either poor management or the most foolish inspection requirements. Cost of Rolling and Finishing Concrete Floors. I am indebted to Mr. Ernest L. Ransome for the following: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 559 When concrete floors are built directly on the ground, there is no necessity of having a concrete as rich in cement as when the floor spans an opening. A mixture of 1 part Portland cement, 4 parts sand and 8 parts gravel or broken stone is strong enough, and this requires less than three-quarters of a barrel of cement per cubic yard. If hand mixing is used, more cement is needed, but we are assuming that the materials are thoroughly mixed. Actual tests have demonstrated that more cement is required with hand mixing than with machine mixing. The concrete should be spread in a layer 3 to 5 ins. thick, depend- ing upon the nature of the subsoil and the loads the floor will have to support. Then the concrete should be rolled, for rolling is more effective than tamping and costs far less. The first attempts at rolling were unsuccessful because a roller of too great weight was used. Mr. Ransome discovered that a light roller should be used for the first rolling, followed by rolling with a heavier roller, and finishing with a roller still heavier. The Ransome Concrete Machy. Co., of Dunellen, N. J., makes rollers of three sizes to be used successively, weighing: No. 1, 290 Ibs. ; No. 2, 375 Ibs. ; No. 3, 645 Ibs. One laborer will readily roll 7,500 sq. ft. in a 9-hr. day. If the floor is 4 ins. thick, this is equivalent to nearly 100 cu. yds. With wages at $1.50 a day, the cost is 0.2 ct. per sq. ft., or 1^ cts. per cu. yd. for the rolling. An interesting fact about rolling concrete is this : The water is flushed to the surface and may even run off in a thin stream, but the water is perfectly clear, carrying no cement in suspension. Where- as, when concrete is tamped, the water is milky, due to the cement that is flushed to the surface. After the concrete is rolled, a finishing coat of mortar is applied. Most contractors have finished floors with a coating of cement mortar immediately following the laying of the body of the floor. There are several objections to this practice. In the first place, should a heavy rain fall before the floor is roofed over, the surface will be damaged. This objection, however, is not so serious as another. Scaffolding placed on green concrete mars its surface, and, in addition to this, drippings of mortar and concrete from above spoil the surface. Moreover, it is very difficult to put a finishing coat on reinforced concrete floors when they are still soft. To escape these objections Mr. Ransome invented "Ransomite," which is a liquid that causes new concrete to adhere to old. The body of a con- crete floor is built, as above described, and the finishing coat is not put on until the scaffolding and forms are removed from above. Then the floor is given a wash of "Ransomite," at a cost of approxi- mately % ct. per sq. ft. for material and labor. Upon the floor is spread a layer of cement mortar % to 1 in. thick, the mortar being 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand. A skilled finisher at $4 a day, with a helper at $2.50, will finish 500 sq. ft. of floor in a day. Considerably more than 1,000 sq. ft 560 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. a day have been finished by a skillful and willing man, but, assum- ing only 500 sq. ft. a day, the cost of finishing is about 1% cts. per sq. ft. For further data on finishing floors, see the part of the section on Roads and Pavements where costs of cement walks are given. Cost of Superintendence. This item is obviously dependent upon the yardage of concrete handled under one foreman and the daily wages of the foreman. If a foreman receives $3 a day and is boss- ing a job where only 12 cu. yds. are placed daily, we have a cost of 25 cts. per cu. yd. for superintendence. If the same foreman is handling a gang of 20 men whose output is 50 cu. yds., the super- intendence item is only 6 cts. per cu. yd. If the same foreman is handling a concrete-mixing plant having a daily output of 150 cu. yds., the cost of superintendence is but 2 cts. per cu. yd. I have given these elementary examples simply because figures are more impressive than generalities, and because it is so common a sight to see money wasted by running too small a gang of men under one foreman. Of all classes, of contract work, none is more readily estimated day by day than concrete work, not only because it is usually built in regular shapes whose volumes are easily ascertained at the end of each day, bftt because a record of the bags, or barrels, or batches gives a ready method of computing the output of each gang. For this reason small gangs of concrete workers need no foreman at all, provided one of the workers is given command and required to keep tally of the batches. If the efficiency of a gang of 6 men were to fall off, say, 15%, by virtue of having no regular non-working foreman in charge, the loss would be only $1.35 a day a loss that would be more than counterbalanced by the saving of a foreman's wages. In- deed, the efficiency of a gang of men would have to fall off 25%, or more, before it would pay to put a foreman in charge. I know by experience that in many cases the efficiency will not fall off at all, provided the gang knows that its daily progress is being recorded, and that prompt discharge will follow laziness. Indeed, I have more than once had the efficiency increased by leaving a small gang to themselves in command of one of the workers who was required to punch a hole in a card for every batch. To reduce the cost of superintendence there is no surer method than to work two gangs of 18 to 20 men, side by side, each gang under a separate foreman who is striving to make a better showing than his competitor. This is done with marked advantage in street paving, and could be done elsewhere oftener than it is. In addition to the cost of a foreman in direct charge of the labor- ers, there is always a percentage of the cost of general superintend- ence and office expenses to be added. In some cases a general superintendent is put in charge of one or two foremen ; and, if he is a high-salaried man, the cost of superintendence becomes a very appreciable item. Summary of Costs of Making Concrete by Hand. Having thus CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 561 analyzed the costs of making and placing concrete, we can under- stand why it is that printed records of costs vary so greatly. More- over, we are enabled to estimate the labor cost with far more accu- racy than we can guess it ; for by studying the requirements of the specifications, and the local conditions governing the placing of stock piles, mixing boards, etc., we can estimate each item with consid- erable accuracy. My purpose, however, has not been solely to show how to predict the labor cost, but also to indicate to contractors and their foremen some of the many possibilities of reducing the cost of work once the contract has been secured. I have found that an analysis of costs, such as above given, is the most effective way of discovering unnecessary "leaks," and of opening one's eyes to the possibilities of effecting economies in any given case. To indicate the method of summarizing the costs of making con- crete by hand, let us assume that the concrete is to be put into a deep foundation requiring wheeling a distance of 30 ft. ; that the stock piles are on plank 60 ft. distant from the mixing board ; that the specifications call for 6 turns of gravel concrete thoroughly rammed in 6-in. layers ; and that a good sized gang of, say, 16 men (at $1.50 a day each) is to work under a foreman receiving $2.70 a day. We then have the following summary by applying the rules already given : * Per cu. yd. concrete. Loading sand, stone and cement $ .17 Wheeling 60 ft. in barrows (4 + 2 cts. ) 06 Mixing concrete, 6 turns at 5 cts 30 Loading concrete into barrows 12 Wheeling 30 ft. (4 + 1 ct.) 05 Dumping barrows (1 man helping barrowman) . . .05 Spreading and heavy ramming 15 Total cost of labor $ .90 Foreman at $2.70 a day 10 Grand total $1.00 To estimate the daily output of this gang of 16 laborers proceed thus: Divide the daily wages of all the 16 men, expressed in cents, by the labor cost of the concrete in cents, the quotient will be the cubic yards output of .the gang. , Thus, 2,400 -j- 90 is 27 cu. yds. in this case. In street paving work where no man is needed to help dump the wheelbarrows, and where it is usually possible to shovel concrete direct from the mixing board into place, and where half as much ramming as above assumed is usually satisfactory, we see that the last four labor items instead of amounting to 12 + 5 + 5 + 15, or 37 cts., amount only to one-half of the last item, % of 15 cts., or 7 Ms cts. This makes the total labor cost only 60 cts. instead of 90 cts. If we divide 2,400 cts. (the total day's wages of 16 men) by 60 cts. (the labor cost per cu. yd.), we have 40 which is the cubic yards out- put of the 16 men. This greater output of the 16 men reduces the cost of superintendence to 7 cts. per cu. yd. 562 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Mixing Concrete With Machine Care must be taken not to confuse the cost of mixing concrete with the cost of delivering ma- terials to the mixer and conveying the concrete away from the mixer. A study of the various costs given on subsequent pages will show that the cost of mixing alone is only a small part of the total cost of making concrete. If all the materials are delivered to the machine in wheelbarrows, and if the concrete is conveyed away in wheelbarrows, the cost of making concrete, even with machine mixers, is high. On the other hand, where the materials are fed from bins by gravity into the mixer, and where the concrete is hauled away in cars, the cost of making the concrete may be very low. There are three types of mixers : (1 ) Batch mixers ; ( 2 ) continu- ous mixers ; ( 3 ) gravity mixers. Cube mixers, double-cone mixers, and drum mixers are batch mixers in which a charge is rotated for 10 or 15 turns and then discharged all at once. The con- tinuous mixers have paddles or plows that stir up the materials as fast as they are delivered, a continuous stream of concrete being discharged. In one type of gravity mixer the falling materials strike baffle plates which perform the mixing. In the more common type (the Hains), the materials pass through three funnel-shaped hop- pers, the hour glass action causing the mixing. Batch mixers are commonly made in three sizes, ^-yd., %-yd. and 1-yd. It is generally considered sufficient to give the mixer 10 or 15 turns, occupying 1 to 1% mins., after charging it with a batch; but as some time is consumed in charging and discharging, etc., it is safe to count on only one batch every 3 mins., or 200 batches in 10 hrs. If each batch is %-yd., the daily output is 100 cu. yds. ; if the batch is 1 yd., the daily output is 200 cu. yds. Where the work is well organized, and no delays occur in deliver- ing the materials to the mixer, a batch every 2 mins., or 300 batches in 10 hrs., will be averaged ; and there are a few records of 1 batch every 1% mins., and even less. Not more than 12 hp. are required to run a %-yd. mixer. Where materials are delivered from bins or skips, 2 men will charge a %-yd. mixer and 1 man will attend to dumping it,- and a gasoline engine consuming 10 gals, of gasoline per 10-hr, day at 12% cts. per gal., will represent the full cost of labor and fuel for mixing 200 cu. yds. If the 2 men are paid $1.50 each, and 1 man at $1.75, the cost of labor and fuel is only $6.00, or 3 cts. per cu. yd. It is not in the mixing, therefore, that the money is consumed, but in conveying ma- terials to and from the mixer, in ramming the concrete, in installing the plant for mixing and conveying, and in interest and depreciation charges. For tables of sizes, weights, capacities, etc., of mixers made by 11 different manufacturers, see Gillette and Hill's "Concrete Construc- tion," p. 660. etc. A batch mixer will, in general, require the following engine power: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 563 HP. % cu. yd. batch mixer 7 % cu. yd. batch mixer 10 , % cu. yd. batch mixer 14 1 cu. yd. batch mixer. 20 It is wise to provide a boiler power about 50% in excess of the engine power. The weights of batch mixers, with and without engine and boiler, seldom exceed the following: Size of batch, cu. yd % % % 1 Weight of mixer on skids, Ibs 3,500 3,800 6,000 0,700 Ditto with engine and boiler, Ibs 7,000 7,500 12,000 13,500 Prices vary considerably, but, for purposes of estimating, assume about 10 cts. per Ib. The above sizes of "batches" are based not upon the loose meas- ure of the materials, but of the concrete rammed in place. Cost of Mixing With a Gravity Mixer. Mr. G. B. Ashcroft states that a small gravity mixer of the Hains type was used in the build- ing of a dock for The William Skinner Ship-Building & Dry Dock Co., of Baltimore, Md. It consisted of two conical hoppers, one above the other, and above these were four small pyramidal hop- pers for measuring the sand and stone, and above these were small bins. One man at each conical hopper tending the gates, and two men at the pyramidal hoppers (4 men in all) constituted the gang on the mixer. A scow load of sand and another of broken stone were hauled alongside the bulkhead on which the mixer stood, and a clamshell bucket dredge was used to load the sand and stone from the scows into the bins of the mixer. Each batch was 25 cu. ft. of 1:2:5 concrete rammed into place. The record for 10 hrs. was 110 batches, making about 35 cts. per cu. yd. as the labor cost. Wages of common laborers were $1.50. The concrete was run directly into place through chutes ; and the mixer was moved from place to place by means of the dredge boom. On the Cedar Grove Reservoir, built for Newark, N. J., a large gravity mixer of the Hains type was used. The best day's output was 403 cu. yds. ; the average output during the best month was 302 cu. yds. ; and the. average of the whole job was 225 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day. The stone, sand and cement were all raised by 'bucket elevators' to the top of the high wooden tower that supported the bins and the mixer. There were 10 men operating the mixer, so that (exclusive of power, interest and depreciation) the labor cost of mixing averaged only 7 cts. per cu. yd. ; and during one month it was as low as 5 cts. per cu. yd. This does not include delivering the materials to the men at the mixer, nor does it include conveying the concrete away and placing it. The work was done by contract. On the Pittsburg filter construction in 1906, a Hains mixer was used, and its output was 500 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day. Cost of Forms. It is a common practice to record the cost of forms or molds in cents per cubic yard of concrete, giving separately the cost of lumber and labor. This should be done, but the analysis of the cost of forms should always be carried a step farther. The 564 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. records should be so kept as to show the first cost per M (i. e., 1,000 ft. B. M.) of lumber, the number of times the lumber is used, the labor cost of erecting, and the labor cost of taking down the forms each time all expressed in M ft. B. M. Thus only is it possible to compare the cost of forms on different kinds of concrete work, and thus only can accurate predictions be made of the cost of forms for concrete work having dimensions differing from work previously done. It is well also to make record of the number of square feet of exposed concrete surface to which the forms were applied. There are three ways, therefore, of recording the cost of forms: (1) In cents per cubic yard of concrete; (2) in cents per square foot of concrete face to which forms are applied ; and ( 3 ) in dollars per M ft. B. M. of lumber used in all three cases keeping the cost of ma- terials and labor separate. Furthermore, it is well to make a sketch of the construction of the forms, and attach the sketch to the record of cost. In estimating the probable cost of forms I find the following method most reliable : First, after ascertaining the time limit within which the work must be completed, determine the number of cubic- yards of concrete that must be laid each day, after allowing liberally for delays. Knowing the number of cubic yards, estimate the num- ber of thousand feet board measure of forms required to encase the concrete to be placed in a day. This will give the minimum amount of lumber required, for it is never permissible to move the forms until the concrete has hardened over night, except when concrete is in a small arch, as in a sewer. This brings us to a very important question in economics. Thousands of words have been written on the advantages and disadvantages of using "Wet" or "dry" con- crete, but I have never seen mention of one of the most forceful ob- jections to the use of concrete mixed so wet that it is sloppy. I refer to the slowness with which such concrete hardens. Obviously, the more slowly it hardens, the longer must the forms be left in place ; and the longer the forms are left in place the more lumber will be required ; the more the lumber, the greater the cost of forms per cubic yard of concrete. A concrete mixed "dry," and rammed, will harden over night, so that in retaining wall construction it is safe to remove the forms the next morning ; but, where the concrete has been mixed "sloppy," I have seen whole sections of wall fall out upon the removal of forms twelve hours after placing, the concrete. In cold weather the setting is further delayed, and in very cold weather it may cease entirely unless proper precautions are taken. Specifications relating to sloppy concrete usually provide that wall forms shall not be moved within 48 hrs. after placing the concrete; but in hot weather it is often safe to remove the forms in 24 hrs. or less. Forms for concrete arches or beams must obviously be left in place longer than in wall work, because of the tendency to fall by rupture across the arch or beam. Forms for small circular arches, like sewers, may be removed in 18 to 24 hrs. if dry concrete is used; but in 24 to 48 hrs. if wet concrete is used. Forms for large arch CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 565 culverts and arch bridges are seldom taken down in less than 14 days, and it is often specified that they must not be struck for 28 days after placing the last of the concrete. This last requirement is probably necessary where the backfilling over the arch is put on at once ; but, except in the case of arches of great span, there appears to be no sufficient reason for keeping the centers so long under the arch, provided they can be used elsewhere. Indeed, I am inclined to think that a week's time is ample for arches having a span of 40 ft. or less, provided no filling is placed on the arch. In fact, a study of the compressive strength tests given in Falk's "Cements, Mortars and Concretes," pages 128, 131, etc., shows that the difference of compressive strength between 7 -day and 28-day Portland cement mortar and concrete is often less than 25%, and averages about 50%; and that in any case concrete a week old is amply strong enough to hold its own weight in an arch of moderate size. Progressive set- tlement of the abutments might in some cases be given as a reason for leaving centers a long time in place, but abutments founded on rock or on piles do not show progressive settlement after the striking of centers, unless the subsequent jarring of trains causes the piles to go down. Forms supporting concrete-steel floors and beams are usually left in a place at least a week. The consideration of the time element in the use of forms is es- sential in making an accurate forecast of the quantity of lumber that will be required in any given case. A few additional sugges- tions will not, therefore, be out of place. Often the uprights of studs used to hold the sheeting plank are also used as legs for a trestle to support a track or runway over which the concrete is transported. In such a case the amount of timber in the forms is considerably more than would be indicated by considering merely the length of time that the forms must stand be- fore removal; for, so long as the uprights stand, it is impossible to remove the sheeting plank where ordinary kinds of forms are used. I have seen many instances of unnecessary expenditure of money for forms due to neglect to consider this fact. Bear in mind, therefore, that it may be cheaper to provide a movable derrick, or to use a cableway for delivering the concrete, rather than to use the up- rights of the forms as posts for a trestle. I have found it cheaper, as a rule, to build the coping of retaining walls after finishing the wall itself. One of the reasons for this is that a projecting coping is apt to fall, due to its own weight, if the forms are not left in place longer than it is necessary to leave the forms for the wall below the coping. This leads us to the subject of building forms in panels that can be shifted from place to place without tearing the forms to pieces and building them up again. When panels can be used, it is evi- dent that the cost of labor and lumber for forms may be reduced to a few cents per cubic yard of concrete. Examples of low cost of sewer work where the forms are thus shifted in sections will be found on 566 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. subsequent pages. Even high retaining walls may thus be built with movable forms. There are few classes of concrete work where, at the expense of a little thought in designing movable forms, a great expense in lum- ber may not be saved. Having estimated the quantity of lumber required for any given concrete job, and the number of times that it can be used, the labor cost of framing, erecting and taking down the forms may be calcu- lated thus: With carpenters' wages at 25 cts. per hour, and laborers' wages at 15 cts. per hour, working 1 laborer to 2 carpenters, my records show that ordinary forms for walls, arches, etc., can be framed and erected for $6 per M ft. B. M., when men are working for a contractor. The forms can be carefully torn apart, taken down and moved a short distance, for $1.50 per M; making the total labor cost $7.50 per -M for each time that the forms are built up and torn down. Where the forms are built in panels and are not ripped apart and nailed together again at every move, there is only the cost of moving them each time after they have once been built, and this may not exceed 50 cts. per M for each move. Moreover forms used in panels last much longer since the lumber is not in- jured by being repeatedly torn apart. Retaining walls, bridge piers and abutments, etc., are commonly provided with forms consisting of 2-in. plank laid in horizontal courses against upright studs. The studs may be of 4 x 6-in. stuff spaced 2 % ft. centers, or 3 x 6-in. spaced 2 ft. centers. In either case the lumber in the studs is about 40% as much as the lumber in the 2-in. sheeting plank. Hence there are 2 ft. B. M. of plank and 0.8 ft. B. M. of studs, or a total of 2.8 ft. B. M. for each square foot of surface area of concrete. If telegraph wire is used to hold the studs from spreading (No. 9 wire weighing 0.06 Ib. per ft.), no other lumber is required ; but in some designs of forms there are inclined braces against the stud, frequently containing more lumber than the studs themselves. Ordinarily the same forms are used several times, so that the 2.8 ft. B. M. per sq. ft. does not then mean per sq. ft. of concrete, but of forms, and must be divided by the number of times it is used to estimate the lumber per sq. ft. of concrete surface. Thus, if the forms are used 4 times, we have 2. 8 -r 4 = 0.7 ft. B. M. per sq. ft. of concrete surface. If lumber costs $25 per M, the cost of 2.8 ft. B. M. is 7 cts. It can usually be framed and erected for $8 per M, or 2^4 cts. per sq. ft. of forms containing 2.8 ft. B. M. Hence if the lumber is used 4 times, we have 7 -=- 4 1 % cts., cost of lumber per sq. ft. of con- crete, plus 2^4 cts. per sq. ft. for labor if each time it is taken down and erected costs $8 per M, or a total of 4 cts. per sq. ft. of con- crete surface, or 36 cts. per sq. yd. Hence if the wall is 3 ft. thick and requires forms on two faces (front and rear) it will cost 2 X 36 cts. = 72 cts. for forms per cu. yd. of concrete. If it is 6 ft. thick, it will cost 36 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete. If the same sizes of lum- ber were used for a wall only 1 ft. thick, the cost would be $0.36 X CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 567 S = $1.08 por cu. yd. Based upon the above assumptions as' to amount and cost of lumber, number of times used (4), etc., we have the following rule : To ascertain the cost of forms per cubic yard of wall, divide $2.16 bi/ the thickness of the wall in feet. This rule can be expressed in a more general form as follows : To ascertain the cost of forms per cubic yard of wall, divide $3.80 by the product of the thickness of wall in feet and the number of times the forms are used, to estimate the cost of lumber, and to this add the cost of labor determined by dividing $1.20 by the thickness of the wall in feet. In the case of a 3 -ft. wall where forms are used 4 times, this rule would give us : $3.80 ^ (3 X 4) = $0.32 for lumber, to which add $1.20 -^ 3 = $0.40 for labor, making a total of $0.72 per cu. yd. For any other price and amount of lumber for forms, a similar rule can readily be made. Such a rule shows very clearly the rea- son why thin concrete walls where form lumber is used only once or twice cost so much per cubic yard. Thus, if a wall were only 1 ft. thick and lumber were used but once, the above rule would give us a cost of $5 per cu. yd. for forms alone. For further data on the cost of forms see particularly the sections on Buildings, Bridges, and Sewers. Consult the index under "Con- crete, Forms." Cost of Fortification Work at Fort Point, Cal. Mr. George H. Mendell gives the following data: The work was the construction of fortifications at Fort Point, near San Francisco. The following experiments were made : -Experiment- No. 1 No 2 No. 3 cu. ft. cu. ft. cu. ft. 1 bbl. Portland cement measured loose 4.42 4.58 4.5* Water added 2.00 1.75 1.92 Volume of stiff paste resulting 4.00 3.80 3.82 Moist sand added 10.12 11.40 13.50 Water added 2.00 2.50 2.00 Volume of mortar resulting. 10.12t 12.30 14.00 Gravel added$ 36.50 36.90 Volume of loose concrete 45.25 43.23 Volume of concrete tamped in place 37.50 *This barrel measured 3% cu. ft. packed. fThere is some doubt as to the accuracy of this measurement, for it was recorded as 9.12 cu. ft. although it was probably 10.12. JThis gravel in experiment No. 1, was in %-in. sizes down to birdshot ; in experiment No. 2 it was the size of beans and smaller. There was a con si ft Arable rwrcentage of what should be called sand in the gravel, probably In making the concrete all materials were measured loose and a barrel of cement was assumed to measure 4% cu. ft. The propor- tions of a batch were 1:3:8; the 8 being 8X4%, or 36 cu. ft. of stone and gravel. In making a mass of concrete 60 ft. long, 40 ft. 568 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. wide and 30 ft. high, a careful record was kept of the cost of sev- eral weeks' work, measuring 1,825 cu. yds. in place : Cost, per cu. yd. 0.73 bbl. cement at $2.50 $1.82 0.83 cu. yd. stone 1.40 ; 0.26 cu. yd. gravel 35 0.31 cu. yd. sand 29 Water 04 Crushing stone,* mixing and placing concrete 80 Total , $4.70 *While it is not definitely stated I infer from what is said that the labor of crushing was about 15 cts. Wages were $2 per day of 8 hrs. for laborers, and $4 for foremen. The cost of timbering and incidental expenses is not included, other than the pay of the men and the foreman. The total volume of all the loose materials, exclusive of the water, was 2,767 cu. yds. before mixing; after mixing, and measured in cars holding 20 cu. ft. each, the volume was 2,433 cu. ft. ; after being rammed in place the volume was 1,825 cu. yds. The shrinkage of the concrete under the ramming was therefore 25%. A number of experiments were made on single carloads which showed that a carload of 20 cu. ft. of loose concrete made 15 to 15^ cu. ft. compacted in place. The stone was quarried at Angel Island, and delivered on the wharf in sizes suitable for a Gates crusher, hauled in wagons to the crusher, which delivered it to the mixer, into which all the ingredi- ents were fed from hoppers automatically. The mixer was of the cylindrical continuous type, and there was difficulty in delivering the materials to it automatically and in the desired proportions. The concrete was delivered by the mixer into cars holding 20 cu. ft. When a car was filled, the door of the mixer was closed for a minute, during which minute another car was put in place, the concrete in the meantime accumulating in the mixer. The cars were pushed by men to the place of deposit, a variable distance of 300 to 600 ft., and discharged through a trestle having an extreme height of 30 ft., gradually diminishing to 4 ft. The concrete was then shoveled into wheelbarrows and wheeled 20 to 40 ft. During the month of August, 1892, concrete was mixed by hand by a gang of 20 men under 1 foreman. The average 8-hr, output was 45 cu. yds. of concrete at a cost of $1 per cu. yd. for mixing and placing, wages being $2 a day. A batch consisted of 4 bbls. of cement and 144 cu. ft. of gravel and stone, giving 144 cu. ft. of concrete. The materials were piled conveniently around the mixing platform. The stone and gravel were delivered in barrows and spread to an even thickness on the platform. Upon this the sand was wheeled and spread with a straight edge. The cement, also leveled, formed the top layer. Water was added in the turning. The materials were turned twice with shovels, being well dispersed In turning. A third turning resulted from shoveling the concrete into wheelbarrows, and a fourth turning in distributing the concrete. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 569 There was no ascent and the distances were short in wheeling the concrete, and the men were a picked lot. Cost of Fortification Work. Mr. L. R. Grabill is authority for the following cost data: The work was upon fortifications built in 1899 for the U. S. Government, and was done by contract, working 8 hrs. per day. The following is the average for 9,000 cu. yds. : Per day. Per cu. yd. 6 laborers wheeling materials to board $ 7.50 $0.16 8 laborers mixing 10.00 .21 8 laborers wheeling away 10.00 .21 6 laborers placing and ramming 7.50 . .16 1 pumpman 1.25 .02 1 water boy . . 1.00 .02 1 foreman 2.00 .04 Total, 48 cu. yds. a day . .$39.25 $0.82 Each batch contained % cu. yd. of 1:2-2:3 concrete, and was turned four times. The cost of mixing 4,000 cu. yds. in a machine mixer by day labor (not by contract) was as follows: Per day. Per cu. yd. 32 laborers $40.00 $0.34 1 pumpman 1.25 .01 1 teamster and horse 2.00 .02 2 water boys 2.00 .02 1 engineman 1.70 .02 1 derrick tender 1.50 .01 1 fireman 1.50 .01 1 foreman 2.88 .03 Fuel (cement barrels largely) 1.25 .01 Total, 118 cu. yds. per day $54.08 $0.47 The average 8-hr, day's work was 168 batches of 0.7 cu. yd. each. The best day's work was 200 batches. Seven revolutions of the 4-ft. cubical mixer were sufficient. A 12-hp. engine operated the mixer and served also to hoist the material cars up the incline to the mixer. These cars were loaded through trap doors in a bin contain- ing the materials, then the cement was placed upon the load. The material cars moved up one incline, dumped, and passed down an- other incline on the opposite side. The concrete was dumped into an iron bucket resting on a car, hauled to one of the two boom der- ricks. These derricks had 80-ft. booms and were swung by bull- wheels. This plant cost about $5,000. The concrete was rammed in 6-in. layers in all cases ; and it was found advisable to have one rammer to every 20 batches deposited per day, in addition to the spreaders. Cost of Concrete Breakwater, Buffalo, N. Y. Mr. Emile Low gives the following data on the cost of making concrete by contract for the Buffalo Breakwater, in 1902 : A 5-ft. cubical mixer was mounted on a scow and run by a 9 x 12-in. horizontal engine. The concrete was 1:2:1:4 cement, sand, gravel and stone. The voids in the sand and gravel were 27%, in the unscreened limestone, 39%. A bag of cement was assumed to be 0.9 cu. ft. The materials were 570 ILIXDBOOK OF COST DATA. stored in canal boats alongside. The sand was loaded by 3 shovelers into wheelbarrows holding 3.6 cu. ft. each, and wheeled in tandem to a steel charging bucket. Two more barrows, each holding 2.7 cu. ft. of gravel, were loaded and also dumped into the charging bucket ; then 6 bags of cement ( 1 % bbls. ) were emptied into the bucket. Another bucket was loaded with 21.6 cu. ft. of stone by 8 shovelers. These two buckets were hoisted by a derrick, in rapid succession, and dumped into the mixer. The dump man also attended to supplying water. A charging man started the mixer. The con- crete was dumped from the mixer into a skip on a car below, by 2 men who pushed the car out where another derrick on the mixer scow hoisted it to the wall. There were 2 tagmen on each derrick to swing the booms, one paying out a tag rope while the other hauled in. A parapet wall,' containing 841 cu. yds., was built in 46 hrs. actual work, 18.2 cu. yds. being placed per hour, each batch containing 1.07 cu. yds. of rammed concrete. A parapet deck, con- taining 1,720 cu. yds., was built in 88 hrs., or 19% cu. yds. per hr., each batch being 1.08 cu. yd. The labor cost of making this con- crete (common labor being $1.75 per 10 hrs.) was as follows: Concrete. Cost, per Cost, per Loading gang: 10-hr, day. cu. yd. 1 assistant foreman $ 2.00 $0.011 3 cement handlers 5.25 0.029 3 sand shovelers 5.25 0.029 2 gravel shovelers . 3.50 0.020 8 stone shovelers 14.00 0.076 1 hooker-on 1.75 0.010 Mixer gang: 1 dumpman 1.75 0.010 1 charging man 1.75 0.010 2 car men 3.50 0.020 2 enginemen, at $3.25 6.50 0.035 4 tag men, at $2.00 8.00 0.044 1 fireman 2.00 0.011 Wall gang : 1 signalman 1.75 0.010 1 dumper 1.75 0.010 6 shovelers. at $2.00 12.00 0.065 4 rammers 7.00 0.038 1 foreman : 4.00 0.022 Total (182 cu. yds. per day) $81.75 $0.450 This cost of 45 cts. per cu. yd. does not include fuel, forms or plant rental. Cost of Concrete Lock, Upper White River.* Maj. Graham . D. Fitch gives the following: A lock (No. 1) was built on the Upper White River, at one end of a dam. The lock was built inside a cofferdam, the cost of which is given elsewhere (see index under Cofferdam). Wages of com- mon laborers were $1.50 per 8-hr. day. Work was done by Govern- ment forces. * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908. p. 27!t. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 571 The locks are of concrete masonry, 175 ft. long, between hollow quoins. The height of the lock walls is 15 ft. above the upper miter sill, 29 ft. above the lower sill and 30 ft. above the lock floor. Being founded on solid rock, each wall acts separately, and the design is that of a retaining wall. The land wall is slightly stronger than the river wall, but its top is narrow. Opposite the chamber it is stepped in the rear with 1-ft. offsets every 3Va ft., while the river wall is battered. Both walls are 14% ft. thick at the bottom. At the top the thickness of the river wall is 6 ft., and of the land Wall is 4 ft. 9 ins. The ends of the lock walls are necessarily thicker than the side walls of the chamber, as they must not only support the pressure from the gates but also provide work room for the lock tenders. The thickness of the lock walls at the heels of the gates was accordingly made 16 ft. The walls are in conformity with the usual practice, without batter inside. The available length of the lock chamber is 147 ft. and the width is 36 ft. The length of the wall below tl/e lower quoin is 25 ft. and above the upper quoin 37. The total length of the lock is 237 ft. The hollow quoins are shaped directly in the concrete, a form being used as for any other special surface. The shape is that of an arc of the same radius as the heel of the gate, namely, 10 ins. ; they are 110 degrees in length, with tangents at either end 6 ins. long. The gate recesses are 22 ft. long and 2 ft. deep. The miter walls are without batter. Part of the lower miter wall is prolonged downstream to the lower end of the lock, so as to protect the tail bay from being scoured out by the discharge from the culverts. The upper coffer wall, the function of which is to support a simple movable dam across the head of the lock when the upper gates or valves need repairing, has its sill 1 ft. below the upper miter sill. In coffering the head bay this sill forms the lower support for the needles used, the top support being a trussed beam, the ends of Which rest in slots in the main walls at such an elevation that the trussed beam will be as low as possible without being immersed at ordinary low-water stages. A similar arrangement of slot and sill is provided for coffering the tail bay. With the object of pre- venting the water from cutting behind the land wall, its upper and lower end is, in each lock, provided with a wing wall running per- pendicularly back into the bank far enough to join the rocky bluff which is from 20 to 30 ft. in the rear. The thickness of these walls is 4 ft. 9 ins. on top, increasing downward by offsets until rock foundation is reached. There are two filling culverts each 3 ft. 3 ins. by 7 ft., which are placed in the gate recesses to keep them from filling with mud ; these culverts discharge into a large cross culvert in the upper miter Wall and thence through 8 small lateral openings into the lock cham- ber, thus dividing the water into small streams emptying near the lock floor so as to cause little disturbance to boats. For emptying the lock there are two side culverts, each 4 by 5 ft., which puss around the heels of the lower gates entering near the gate re- 572 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cess and discharging below the miter wall into the tail bay, thus serving to prevent deposits there. The forms used in the concrete work on the lock were of the usual type, namely, plank or lagging laid horizontally and held rigidly by outside posts, solidly braced to the ground so as to prevent the ram- ming from springing them. Yellow pine lumber was used. The lag- ging was 2 ins. thick and 12 ins. wide, and was dressed on all four sides. The posts were 4 x 6-in. scantling, spaced 4 ft. apart and were supported at about 8-ft. intervals by inclined braces of 4 x 6-in. scantling. The forms were built in separate alternate sections, the lagging for each section being carried to the full height before con- creting was started in that section, and the concreting for each section of wall being completed before another section was toegun, as the work was in two 8-hr, shifts, the sections are not monoliths. These posts of the forms were tied together at the top of two rows of %-in. or %-in. round iron tie-rods. Forms were left in position from four to five days after concreting was completed. Cost of Forms. The cost of the forms was as follows : FORMS. Materials : Unit Cost. Total. Per M ft. Lumber, 159 M ft $11.40 $1,818 $11.40 Iron and nails 360 2.26 Labor : Inspecting lumber, 15.6 M .3897 6 .04 Hauling lumber 78 .49 Erecting, etc 159 M f t 15.29 2 430 15.29 Total $2 514 $15.72 Grand total (159 M ft.).., $4,692 $29.38 The total labor time in days in erecting, etc., was 1,218% days, and the work done per man per day was 130.5 ft. B. M. Mixing. The concrete mixer was a 4-ft. cubical box of %-in. riv- eted steel securely fastened at diagonally opposite corners to a 3-in. steel shaft bored for abou\ half its length with a 1-in. hole for the admission of water. Near one corner was a 15 x 20-in. hinged door for the admission of the dry materials. The mixer was operated by a center crank engine with 6 x 7-in. cylinder and was located on the bank approximately opposite the center of the lock. The concrete was placed by derricks. A Y track led from the mixer parallel to and about 18 ft. back of the land wall to within easy reach of two stiff-leg derricks, so located as to command the entire lock wall. The mixer charge was dumped into skips, which were taken from the cars by derricks and the concrete deposited in place in the lock walls. Upon the completion of the land wall the derricks were placed on this wall, where they commanded the river wall. The con- crete was placed in layers 10 ins. thick. In the concrete work Portland cement only was used, the brands being Lehigh and Alpha. The cement varied in price from $1.82 to CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 573 $2.70 per barrel delivered on cars at Birds Point, Mo. ; from there it was transported as far as Newport, Ark., over a land-grant rail- road, and from Newport to Batesville, the freight charges were ap- proximately 11 cts. per barrel. The sand used was a coarse, sharp, clean sand from the Arkansas River, near Little Rock, and cost 33 cts. per cubic yard delivered at Little Rock. To this sum should be added 26 cts. for freight and 38 cts. for hauling from the Bates- ville depot to the lock site. The gravel used was dredged by hired labor, from the river near the works ; it consisted of a mixture of pebbles of all sizes with about 19% sand. It was not washed, as bars were found where the gravel contained only clean sand. This river gravel contained usually from 17 to 21% of voids. It cost delivered in bin, including all charges, 35 cts. per cu. yd. The stone used was a sandstone, the so-called bluestone of Cabin Creek, Arkansas, which, tested at Water- town Arsenal, had shown an ultimate strength of 17,700 to 19,700 Ibs. per sq. in. It cost 70 cts. per cu. yd. at Cabin Creek ; the freight charges amounted to 25 cts. per cu. yd. and the hauling from the depot to the works 60 cts. a cu. yd. All stone was broken into frag- ments small enough to pass through a 2-in. ring. The voids aver- aged 51%. The stone was required to be screened, though the run of the crusher would have been preferable. The proportions of the mix varied, the concrete being richer in the foundations, on exposed surfaces, and when gravel was used. It was the intention to use crushed stone concrete for a depth of 4 ft. on all exposed surfaces and gravel concrete elsewhere, but in the construction of this lock, owing to the irregularity of the delivery of the stone, gravel concrete was used whenever necessary to avoid stopping the work. Three mixtures were used in the walls, depend- ing upon the supply of materials on hand, viz. : 1 part cement, 2 % sand, and 6 % gravel ; 1 part cement, 3 sand, 6 % gravel ; 1 part cement, 3 sand, 4 gravel and 2 broken stone. Less sand was used with the straight gravel mixture than with the broken stone because of the large per cent of sand contained in the river gravel. The amount of water had to be varied frequently. It was regulated by judgment, according to the appearance of the mortar. The cost of mixing and placing the concrete for the lock, was as follows : Per cu. yd. Unit Con- Materials. Cost. Total, crete. Cement, Lehigh, 4,051 bbls.. $2.45 $ 9,925 $1.12 Cement, Lehigh, 841 bbls 1.97 1,657 .18 Cement, Alpha, 4,992 bbls 2.20 10,982 1.24 Crushed stone, 2,256 cu. yds 70 1,579 .17 Crushed stone, 92 cu. yds 3.25 299 .03 Sand, 3,096 cu. yds 35 1,022 .11 Gravel, 12.9 cu. yds 50 6 Fuel 537 .06 Illuminating oils 314 .03 Total materials.. ..^26,322 $2.94 :,7t HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Per cu. yd. Unit Con- Labor. Cost. Total, crete. Mixer frame $ 153 $0.017 Insp. of cement, 9,884 bbls... $0.022 223 0.025 Inspect'n of crushed stone, 2,348 cu. yds 101 238 .026 Insp. of sand, 3,096 cu. yds 069 212 .024 Storing cement, 2,500 bbls 079 199 .021 Hauling cement, 9,690 bbls 08 775 .086 Hauling crushed stone, 2,078 cu. yds 60 1,247 .140 Hauling sand, 3,053 cu. yds 38 1,160 .130 Dredging gravel, 6,125 cu. yds 105 646 .072 Unloading gravel for hand mixed concrete, 385 cu. yds 181 70 .008 Hoisting gravel for machine mixed concrete, 5,025 cu. yds. 473 2,378 .266 Mixing and placing machine mixed concrete, 7,858 cu. yds 568 4,464 .499 Mixing and placing hand mixed concrete, 1,081 cu. yds 1.83 1,981 .221 Tamping machine mixed concrete, 7,858 cu yds 328 2,581 .288 Tamping hand mixed concrete, 1,081 cu. yds. .443 479 .053 Finishing top of lock wall, 548 cu. yds 104 57 .006 Total labor $16,864 $1.88 Grand total, 8,939 cu. yds. concrete $43,186 $4.83 Cost of concrete, including forms $5.36 per cu. yd. Some of the labor items can be further summarized as follows : Work Work Labor done done time in per man bbls. days, per day. bbls. Inspection of cement 9,884 736/8 139.21 Storing cement 2,500 94 5/8 26.32 cu. yds. cu. yds. Inspection of crushed stone 2,348 71 21.15 Inspection of sand 3,096 111 23.63 Dredging gravel 6,125 306 2/8 20 Unloading gravel for hand mixed concrete. . 385 41 9.39 Hoisting gravel for machine mixed concrete 5,025 1,308 3.84 Mixing and placing machine mixed concrete 7,858 2,384 3/8 3.29 Mixing and placing hand mixed concrete. . . 1,081 1,103 4/8 .98 Tamping machine mixed concrete 7,858 1,420 1/8 5.53 Tamping hand mixed concrete 1,081 283 3.82 Finishing top of lock wall 548 295/8 18.27 Valves, Ladders, Etc. The valves in the culverts previously mentioned, are butterfly or balanced valves of steel plates and angles turning on vertical shafts. There are two valves to each filling culvert because the valves had to be of low height in order to remain submerged during low water. They are 3 ft. 2 ins. by 3 ft. 2 ins. in size. The wicket is set in a cast iron frame bolted to the concrete and is protected from debris by a movable screen sliding vertically in guides bolted to the walls. The valve operating gear, which is set in a covered recess in the coping, consists of a gear sector keyed to the top of the valve shaft and geared with a pinion turned by a rachet wrench and wheel. Two recessed ladders are placed in each chamber wall of the lock. The cost of the valves, ladders, etc., was' as follows: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 575 Materials. Unit Cost. Total. New valves and foundry work on same, 2 $267.00 $ 534 Iron, wrought, 5.397 Ibs .06 324 Iron, cast, 7,737 Ibs .045 348 Steel, 6,976 Ibs 065 543 Total materials $1,749 Labor. Hauling, iron, etc ... $16 Placing 20,110 Ibs $0.02 406 Total labor , $ 422 Grand total 2,171 Summary of Lock Work: Unit Total. Cost. Clearing site (4 acres) $ 204 $51.00 Cofferdam (462 lin. ft.) 8,487 18.37 Excavation (3,635 cu. yds.) 5,758 1.58 Forms (159 M. ft.) 4,692 29.38 Concrete (8,939 cu. yds.) 43,186 4.83 Gates and sills 5,569 .... Valves, ladders, etc 2,171 .... Filling behind land wall (4,262 cu. yds.) 3,441 .805 Grading and paving same (1,916 sq. yds.) 1,553 .810 Excavating upper approach. . . . 388 .... Excavating lower approach 182 .... Upper land crib (30 M. ft.) 1,713 57.10 Lower land crib (9.3 M. ft.) 806 86.66 Lower river crib (46.2 M. ft.) 2,804 60.69 Upper river crib (47.6 M. ft.) 2,761 58.00 Total $84,715 For the cost of the lock gates, see the section on Timberwork and Piling. Consult the index under "Timberwork, Lock Gates." Cost of Concrete Locks, Coosa River, Ala. Mr. Charles Firth gives the following on the concrete locks on the Coosa River, Ala, Lock No. 31 has a length of 322 ft. between hollow quoins and a length of 420 ft. over all, with a width of 52 ft. in the clear. The lock walls are 34.7 ft. high and 16 ft. thick at the base The total quantity of concrete was 20,000 cu. yds., requiring 21,500 bbls. of cement, half Atlas and half Alsen's. It was mixed 1 :3 :5y 2 , the stone being crushed mica-schist. Two mechanical 4-ft. cube mixers were used, being driven by a 10 X 16 engine. Each batch consisted of 3 cu. ft. cement, 9 cu. ft. sand and 16% cu. ft. stone, and was turned 4 times before and 6 times after adding the water, at a speed not exceeding 8 revolutions per minute. The top floor of the mixing house had a storage capacity of 2,000 bbls. of cement. The sand and stone were delivered in side dump-cars. The concrete was delivered into bottom-dump cars. The average output of these two mixers was 200 cu. yds. in 8 hrs., or 100 cu. yds. per mixer, but it was limited by the means of placing the concrete. Each batch of concrete measured 24 cu. ft. in the car, but it shrank 20% when rammed in place, so that it required 34 cu. ft. of concrete in the cars to make 1 cu. yd. in place. The concrete was mixed quite dry and rammed in 6 to 8-in. layers, using 30-lb. iron rammers having a square face 6 ins. on a side. On all exposed surfaces a 1 :3 mortar was placed ?.s the work progressed, making a thickness of 6 ins. of mortar. To 576 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. do this 2 X 12-in. planks were placed 4 ins away from the forms, being kept at that distance by 2 X 4-in. strips of wood. After the backing concrete was in place and partly rammed, these planks were removed and the 6-in. space filled with mortar. The walls were carried up in lifts, each lift being completed all around the dock before the next was commenced. The first was 10.7 ft. high ;' each succeeding lift was 6 ft., except the last which was 4.5 ft., exclusive of the 18-in. coping. The coping was 5 ft. wide and made in separate blocks 3 ft. long, which were placed after the walls were completed. The coping was 1:2:3 concrete, faced with 1 :1 mortar, and was cast in blocks face down, its edges being rounded to a 3-in. radius. The sides of the molds for these blocks were removed 3 days after making, and 10 days later the blocks were stacked away. In building the forms 6 X 8-in. posts 24 ft. long were set up on the inside of the lock in line, 5 ft. 7 ins. apart ; and a similar row of posts 12 ft. long was set up outside of the lock. The posts were capped with 6 X 8-in. caps which supported the track stringers for the concrete cars. Each line of posts was sheeted with 3 X 10-in. plank dressed on all sides, and the posts were well braced with inclined struts. After the first lift was completed, the back row of posts was lifted onto the offset on the back of the wall by the reduced width of the next lift; but the long posts on the front face were not moved, the caps being simply unbolted from them and fastened near the top of the posts. The sheeting plank was of course moved up. No tie bolts were built into the concrete wall, which made the bracing of the forms rather elaborate as the wall grew higher. The bottom-dump concrete cars were dumped onto wooden plat- forms inside the forms, as it was found that even a slight drop caused the larger stones to separate and roll to the outer edges. These stones were shoveled back into the pile, and then the concrete was placed with shovels. The doors of the cars were hung at the sides, and upon dumping they would strike the stringers carrying the track, thus jarring the forms and frequently throwing them out of line. A better method would have been to have hinged the doors at each end of the car. It was found advisable to have plenty of head room at the end of each lift, otherwise the spread- ing and ramming were not properly done. During the year ending June, 1895, there were only 90 days when work was carried on uninterrupted by floods. The total quantity of concrete placed that year was 8,710 cu. yds., the work being done by day laborers for the Government (not by contract). Negroes at $1 per 8-hr, day were employed. The cost per cubic yard of I:3:5y 2 concrete Was as follows : 1 bbl. cement . .$2.48 0.88 cu. yd. stone, at $0.76. . 67 0.36 cu. yd. sand at $0.34 12 Mixing, placing and ramming 88 Staging and forms ;. .42 Total, per cu. yd M . $4.57 CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 577 Had wages been $1.50 per day the cost would have been $1.32 per cu. yd. instead of 88 cts. for mixing. Cost of Locks, Cascade Canal. In Gillette and Hill's "Concrete Construction," Chapter XI, on "Fortifications, Locks, Dams and Breakwaters," the methods of building and detailed costs are given. It will suffice here to state that the cost was $8 per cu. yd. for machine mixed concrete,, and $9 for hand mixed concrete, of which cost $5.50 was for materials, and $1.70 for plant and superin- tendence. Cost of Locks, III. and Miss. Canal. In Gillette and Hill's "Con- crete Construction, pp. 196 to 197; a detailed illustrated description is given of the forms, plant, and methods of building these locks. The cost of two of the locks was $9 per cu. yd., of which $2 to $2.40 was labor and carpenter work. Cube mixers were used. For detailed costs consult the above reference. Labor Cost of Retaining Walls. In canal excavation, in subway work in cities, and the like, it is often necessary to dig trenches and build retaining walls in the trenches* before excavating the core of earth between the walls. The following example of this class of work is taken from some records that I have : A Smith mixer was used, the concrete being delivered where wanted by a Lambert cableway of 400 ft. span. The broken stone and sand were delivered near the work in hopper-bottom cars which were dumped through a trestle onto a plank floor. Men loaded the material into one- horse dump carts which hauled it 900 ft. to the mixer platform. This platform was 24 X 24 ft. square, and 5 ft high, with a planked approach 40 ft. long and contained 7,500 ft. B. M. The stone and sand were dumped at the mouth of the mixer and shoveled in by 4 men. Eight men, working in pairs, loaded the broken stone into the carts, and 2 men loaded the sand. Each cart Was loaded with about 70 shovelfuls of stone on top of which 35 shovel- fuls of sand were thrown. It took 3 to 5 mins. to load on the stone and 1 min. to load the sand. The carts traveled very slowly, about 150 ft. a minute in fact, all the men on the job, including the cart drivers, were slow. After mixing, the concrete was dumped into iron buckets holding 14 cu. ft. water measure, making about % cu. yd. in a batch. The buckets were hooked on to the cableway and conveyed where wanted in the wall. Steam for running the mixer was taken from the same boiler that supplied the cableway engine. The average output of this plant was 100 cu. yds. of concrete per 10-hr, day, although on many days the output was 125 cu. yds., or 250 batches. The cost of mixing and placing was as follows, on a basis of 100 cu. yds. per day: Per day. Per cu. yd. 8 men loading stone into carts $ 12.00 $ .12 2 men loading sand into carts 3.00 .03 1 cart hauling cement 3.00 .03 8 carts hauling stone and sand 24.00 .24 4 men loading mixer 6.00 .06 1 man dumping mixer 1.50 .01 2 men handling buckets at mixer 3.00 .03 6 men dumping buckets and ramming 9.00 .09 12 men making forms at $2.50 30.00 .30 578 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 1 cable engineman 3.00 1 fireman 2.00 1 foreman 6.00 1 water-boy 1.00 1 ton coal for cableway and mixer. . . 4.00 Total $107.50 $1.07 In addition to this cost of $1.07 per cu. yd. there was the cost of moving the whole plant for every 350 ft.' of wall. This required 2 days, at a cost of $100, and as there were about 1,000 cu. yds. of concrete in 350 ft. of wall 16 ft. high, the cost of moving the plant was 10 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete, bringing the total cost of mixing and placing up to 87 cts. per cu. yd. As above stated, the whole gang was slow. The labor cost of making the forms was high, for such simple and heavy work, costing $10 per M. of lumber placed each day. The forms were 2-in. sheeting plank held by 4 X 6-in. upright studs 2% ft. apart, which were braced against the sides of the trench. The face of the forms was dressed lumber and all cracks were carefully puttied and sandpapered. The above costs relate only to the massive part of the wall and not the cost of putting in the facing mortar, which was excessively high. The face mortar was 2 ins. thick, and about 3 % cu. yds. of it were placed each day with a force of 8 men! Two of these men mixed the mortar, 2 men wheeled it in barrows to the wall, 2 men lowered it in buckets, and 2 men put it in place on the face of the wall. If we distribute this labor cost on the face mortar over the 100 cu. yds. of concrete laid each day, we have another 12 cts. per cu. yd. ; but a better way is to regard this work as a separate item, 'and estimate it as square feet of facing work. In that case these 8 men did 500 sq. ft. of facing work per day at a cost of nearly 2% cts. per sq. ft. for labor. The building of a wall similar to the one just described was done by another gang as follows : The stone and sand were deliv- ered in flat cars provided with side boards. In a stone car 5 men were kept busy shoveling stone into iron dump buckets having a capacity of 20 cu. ft. water measure. Each bucket was filled about two-thirds full of stone, then it was picked up by a derrick and swung over to the next car which contained sand, where two men filled the remaining third of the bucket with sand. The bucket was then lifted and swung by the derrick over to the platform of the mixer where it was dumped and its contents shoveled by four men into the mixer, cement being added by these men. The mixer was dumped by two men, loading iron buckets holding about % cu. yd. of concrete each, which was the size of each batch. A second derrick picked up the concrete bucket and swung it over to a plat- form where it was dumped by one man; then ten men loaded the concrete into wheelbarrows and wheeled it along a runway to the wall. One man assisted each barrow in dumping into a hopper on the top of a sheet-iron pipe which delivered the concrete. The two derricks were stiff-leg derricks with 40-ft. booms, provided CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 579 with bull- wheels, and operated by double cylinder (7 X 10-in.) engines of 18 hp. each. About 1 ton of coal was burned daily under the boiler supplying steam to these two hoisting engines. The output of this plant was 200 batches or 100 cu. yds. of concrete per 10-hr, day, when materials were promptly supplied by the railroad ; but delays in delivering cars ran the average output down to 80 cu. yds. per day. On the basis of 100 cu. yds. daily output, the cost of mixing and placing the concrete was as follows : Per day. Per cu. yd. 5 men loading stone $ 7.50 $0.07 % 2 men loading sand 3.00 .03 4 men charging mixer 6.00 .06 2 men loading concrete into buckets... 3.00 .03 1 man -dumping concrete from buckets. . 1.50 .01% 10 men loading and wheeling concrete. . i5.00 .15 1 man dumping wheelbarrows 1.50 .01 % 3 men spreading and ramming 4.50 .04 Vj 2 enginemen 5.00 .05 1 fireman 2.00 .02 1 water-boy. 1.00 .01 1 foreman 6.00 .06 10 men making forms 25.00 .25 1 ton coal 4.00 .04 Total $85.00 $0.85 In addition there were 8 men engaged in mixing and placing the 2-in. facing of mortar as stated above. Cost of Retaining Walls, Chicago Drainage Canal. Mr. James W. Beardsley gives the following data on 20,000 lin. ft. of concrete wall, built by contract. The work was let in two sections, Sees. 14 and 15, which will be considered separately. In both cases a 1:1^:4 natural cement concrete was used, and it was faced with 1 :3 Port- land mortar 3 ins. thick, also coped with the same 3 ins. thick. The average height of the wall was 10 ft. on Sec. 14, and 22 ft. on Sec. 15, the thickness at the base being half the height. On Sec. 14, the stone for the concrete was obtained from the spoil bank of the canal, loaded into wheelbarrows and wheeled about 100 ft. to the crusher ; some was hauled in wagons. An Austin jaw crusher was used, and it discharged the stone into bins from which it was fed into a Sooysmith mixer. The crusher and the mixer were mounted on a flat car. Bucket elevators were used to raise the stone, sand and cement from their bins to the mixer ; the buckets were made of such size as to give the proper proportions of in- gredients, as they all traveled at the same speed. Only two laborers were required to look after the elevators. The sand and cement were hauled by teams and dumped into the receiving bins. There were 23,568 cu. yds. on Sec. 14, and the cost was as follows: Typical Wages per Cost per General force. force. 10 hrs. cu. yd. Superintendent .1.0 $5.00 $0.026 Blacksmith 1.1 2.75 0.016 Timekeeper 0.5 2.50 0.007 Watchman 0.6 2.00 0.007 Waterboys 3.9 1.00 0.022 580 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Wall force. Foreman 0.9 Laborers 8.6 Tampers 2.3 Mixer force. Foreman 1.2 Enginemen 1.8 Laborers 6.7 Pump runner 1.0 Mixing machines 1.7 Timber force. Foreman 0.6 Carpenters 4.7 Laborers 1.2 Helpers 5.3 Hauling force. Laborers . . . 2.6 Teams 6.3 Crushing force. Foreman 0.5 Engineman 1.7 Laborers 3.5 Austin crushers 1.7 Loading stone. Foreman 1.7 Laborers 32.9 Total for crushing, mixing and placing $0.975 The daily costs charged to the mixers and crushers include the cost of coal, at $2 a ton, and the cost of oil. The gang "loading stone" apparently did a good deal of sledging of large Stones, and they also wheeled a large part of it in barrows to the crusher. The plant cost $9,600, distributed as follows: 2 jaw crushers $3,000 2 mixers 3 000 Track . 1,260 Lumber 500 Pipe 840 Sheds 400 Pumps 600 2.50 1.50 1.75 0.013 0.073 0.022 2.50 2.50 1.50 2.00 1.25 0.017 0.025 0.057 0.010 0.012 2.50 2.50 1.50 2.50 0.008 0.057 0.010 0.075 1.75 3.25 0.026 0.116 $2.50 2.50 1.50 1.20 $0.007 0.023 0.032 0.011 2.50 1.50 0.023 0.280 ?. . , .$0.975 Total $9,600 If this first cost of the plant were distributed over the 23,658 cu. yds. of concrete it would amount to 41 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of the concrete was as follows : Per cu. yd. Utica cement, at $0.65 per bbl .- $0.863 Portland cement, at $2.25 per bbl 305 Sand, at $1.3.5 per cu. yd 0.465 Stone and labor, as above given 0.975 Total .$2.608 First cost of plant. $0.407 On Sec. 15 the conditions were much the same as on Sec. 14, just described, except that the limestone was quarried from the bed of the canal, and was crushed in a stationary crusher, No. 7 Gates. The stone was hauled 1,000 ft. to the crusher on cars drawn by a CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 581 cable from a hoisting engine. The output of this crusher averaged 210 cu. .yds. per day of 10 hrs. The crushed stone was hauled in dump cars, drawn by a locomotive, to the mixers. Spiral screw mixers mounted on flat cars were used, and they delivered the concrete to belt conveyors which delivered the concrete into the forms. the forms on Sec. 15 (and on Sec. 14 as well) consisted of upright posts set 8 ft. apart and 9 ins. in front of the wall, held at the toe by iron dowels driven into holes in the rock, and held to the rear posts by the rods. The plank sheeting was made up in panels 2 ft. wide and 16 ft. long, and was held up temporarily by loose rings which passed around the posts which were gripped by the friction of the rings. These panels were brought to proper line and held in place by wooden wedges. After the concrete had set 24 hrs. the wedges were struck, the panels removed and scraped clean ready to be used again. The cost of quarrying and crushing the stone, and mixing the concrete on Sec. 15 was as follows: Typical Wages per Cost per General force. force. 10 hrs. cu. yd. Superintendent 1.0 $5.00 $0.024 Blacksmith 0.9 2.75 0.011 Teams 1.7 3.00 0.025 Waterboy 4.5 1.00 0.022 Wall force. Foreman 1.1 2.50 0.010 Laborers 14.4 1.50 0.105 Tampers 0.1 1.75 0.001 Mixer force. Foreman 2.1 2.50 0.026 Enginemen 2.1 2.50 0.022 Laborers 23.1 1.50 0.180 Mixing machines 2.1 1.25 0.022 Timber force. Carpenters 0.8 3.00 0.013 Laborers 0.7 1.50 0.005 Helpers 10.2 2.50 0.125 Hauling force. Foreman 0.7 2.50 0.009 Enginemen 1.4 2.50 0.019 Fireman 0.4 1.75 0.003 Brakeman 2.2 2.00 0.018 Teams 0.4 3.25 0.007 Laborers 1.5 1.50 0.010 Locomotives 1.4 2.25 0.015 Crushing force. Foreman 1.0 2.50 0.014 Enginemen 1.0 2.50 0.014 Laborers 11.1 1.50 0.081 Firemen 1.0 1.75 0.008 Gyratory crusher 1.0 2.25 0.011 Quarry force. Foreman 1.2 2.50 0.012 Laborers 19.0 1.50 0.140 Drillers 1.8 2.00 0.017 Drill helpers 1.8 1.50 0.013 Machine drills 1.8 1.25 0.011 Total . $0.993 582 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The first cost of the plant for this work on Sec. 15 was $25,420, distributed as follows: 1 crusher, No. 7 Gates $12,000 Use of locomotive 2,200 Cars and track 5,300 3 mixers 3,000 Lumber 1,200 Pipe 720 Small tools 1,000 Total $25,420 This $25,420 distributed over the 44,811 cu. yds. of concrete amounts to 57 cts. per cu. yd. It will be noted that 2 mixers were kept busy. Their average output was 100 cu. yds. each per day, which is the same as for the mixers on Sec. 14. The total cost of concrete on Sec. 15 was as follows: Per cu. yd. Labor quarrying, crushing and mixing $0.991 Explosives 0.083 Utica cement, at $0.60 per bbl 0.930 Portland cement, at $2.25 per bbl 0.180 Sand, at $1.35 per cu. yd . 0.476 Total $2.660 First cost of plant $0.567 It is not strictly correct to charge the full first cost of the plant to the work as it possessed considerable salvage value at the end. For the purpose of comparing Sees. 14 and 15 the following sum- mary is given of the cost per cubic yard of concrete : Sec. 14. Sec. 15. General force $0.078 $0.082 Wall force 0.108 0.116 Mixing force 0.121 0.250 Timbering force 0.150 0.140 Hauling force ; 0.142 0.081 Crushing force 0.073 0.12S Quarry force 0.303 0.275 Cement, natural 0.863 0.930 Cement, Portland 0.305 0.180 Sand 0.465 0.476 Plant (full cost) 0.407 0.567 Total $3.015 $3.225 It should be remembered that on Sec. 14 there was no drilling and blasting of the rock, but that the "quarry force" not only loaded but hauled the stone to the crusher. The cost of mixing on Sec. 15 is higher than on Sec. 14 because the materials Were dumped on platforms and shoveled into the mixer, instead of being discharged from bins into the mixer as on Sec. 14. Cost of a Retaining Wall. For building a retaining wall 7 ft. high, forms were made and placed by a carpenter and helper at $8 per M., wages being 35 cts. and 20 cts. an hour, respectively. Con- crete materials were dumped from wagons alongside the mixing board. Ramming was unusually thorough. Foreman expense was CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 583 high, due to small number in gang ; 2 cu. yds. were laid per hour by the gang. Per day. Per cu. yd. ' 7 mixers, 15 cts. per hr $10.50 $0.53 2 rammers, 15 cts. per hr 3.00 0.15 1 foreman, 30 cts. per hr., and 1 water boy, 5 cts 3.50 0.17 Total labor $17.00 $0.85 The total cost was as follows per cubic yard : Per cu. yd. 0.8 bbls. Portland cement, at $2 $1.60 Sand 0.30 Gravel 0.70 Labor mixing and placing 0.85 Lumber for forms, at $16 per M 0.56 Labor on forms, at $8 per M 0.28 Total, per cu. yd $4.29 The sheathing plank for the forms was 2-in. hemlock. Cost of Retaining Walls, Reference. Different methods of building walls, designs of forms, plant, etc., together with costs are given in "Concrete Construction," by Gillette and Hill. Cost of Filling Pier Cylinders With Concrete. In this case the gravel and sand forming the concrete were wheeled in barrows a distance of 100 ft. to the mixing-board at the foot of steel pier cylinders, into which concrete was dumped after, raising it 20 ft. in wooden skips. Two cu. yds. concrete laid per hour by the gang. Per day. Per cu. yd. 6 men wheeling materials and mixing, 15 cts. per hr $ 9.00 $0.45 2 men dumping skips and ramming, 15 cts. per hr 3.00 0.15 1 team and driver, at 40 cts. per hr. . . . 4.00 0.20 1 foreman, at 30 cts. per hr 3.00 0.15 Total $19.00 $0.95 Had the job been larger, more men would have been employed to reduce the fixed expense of team time, for a team can readily raise 10 cu. yds. an hour, using a mast, or ginpole, with block and tackle. The foreman worked on the mixing-board himself. The concrete was perfectly mixed. The men worked with great energy. Cost of Concrete Harbor Pier, Superior Entry, Wis. For cuts showing cross-section of this pier, the forms used in its construc- tion, and bucket used in depositing concrete under water, see Gillette and Hill's "Concrete Construction." The pier is 3,023 ft. long at Superior Entry, Wis. The work was done by day labor for the Government, under the direction of Mr. Clarence Coleman, U. S. Assistant Engineer. About 80% of the concrete was deposited in molds under water, according to a plan devised in 1902 by Maj. D. D. Gaillard, Corps of Engineers. The molds consisted of bottomless boxes, built in four pieces, two sides and two end pieces, held together by 1*4 -in. turn- buckle tie-rods. Cast-iron weights were attached to the molds to 584 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. overcome the buoyancy of the timber. The concrete was built in place, in two tiers of blocks, the lower tier resting directly on piles and entirely under water. The upper tier of blocks was almost entirely above water. A pile trestle was built on each side of the proposed pier, and a traveler for raising and lowering the molds, spanned the gap between the two trestles. After the mold for a block of concrete had been placed on the bottom, it was filled with concrete lowered in a bucket with a drop bottom. Twelve of these buckets were used, and were hauled from the mixer on cars to a locomotive crane, which lifted each bucket from the car and lowered it to place. The locomotive crane was elevated on a gantry frame so that a train of cars on the same trestle could pass directly under it without interference. This enabled two of these locomotive .cranes to work on the same trestle. Each concrete bucket was provided with two 12-oz. canvas cur- tains or covers each 3X4 ft., quilted with 110 pieces of 1/16 X 1 X 3-in. sheet-lead. The curtains were fastened, one to each side of the top of the bucket, and were folded over the concrete so as to cover it completely and protect it from wash while being lowered through the water. Occasionally, when an opportunity occurred to allow the top of the concrete in a bucket to be examined after being lowered and raised through 23 ft. of water, the concrete was invariably found in good condition. Discoloration of the water from cement was seldom noticed during the descent of the bucket. The concrete for this subaqueous work was mixed quite wet. The pebbles for the concrete were delivered by contract, and were unloaded from the scows by means of a clam-shell bucket into a hopper. This hopper fed the pebbles on to an endless conveyor which delivered them to a rotary screen. Inside this screen water was discharged under a pressure from a 4-in. pipe, to wash the pebbles. From the screen the pebbles passed through a chute into 4 -yd. cars, which were hauled up an incline to a height of 65 ft. by means of a hoisting engine. The cars were dumped auto- matically, forming a stock pile. Under the stock pile was a double gallery or tunnel, provided with eight chutes through the roof ; and from these chutes the cars were loaded and hauled by a hoist- ing engine up an inclined trestle to the bins above the concrete mixer. A system of electric bell signals was used in handling these cars. The sand was handled from the stock pile in the same manner. The cement was loaded in bags on a car at the warehouse, hauled to the mixer and elevated by a sprocket-chain elevator. Chutes from the bins delivered the materials into the concrete mixer which was of the modified cubical type revolving on trunnions about an axial line through diagonal corners of the cube (made by the Municipal Engineering and Contracting Co., Chicago, 111.). It was driven by a 7 X 10-in. vertical single engine with boiler. The mixer demonstrated its ability to turn out a batch of perfectly mixed concrete every 1% mins. It discharged into a hopper, pro- vided with a cut-off chute, which discharged into the concrete CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 585 buckets on the cars. Four buckets of concrete were hauled in a train by a locomotive to their destination. There were two locomo- tives and 23 cars. In the operation of this plant 55 men were employed, 43 being engaged on actual concrete work and 12 building molds and ap- pliances for future work. The work was done by day labor for the Government, and the cost of operation was as follows for one typical week when, in 6 days of 8 hours each, the output was 1,383 cu. yds., or an average of 230 cu. yds. per day. The output on one day was considerably below the average on account of an accident to plant but this may be considered as typical. Pebbles from stock pile to mixer. Per cu. yd. 4 laborers, at $2 $0.0348 1 engineman, at $3 0.0131 Coal, oil and waste, at $1.03 0.0043 Sand from stock pile to mixer. 5 laborers, at $2 -. 0.0434 1 engineman, at $2.50 , 0.0109 Coal, oil and waste, at $0.82 0.0035 Cemenffrom warehouse to mixer. 5 laborers, at $2 0.0434 Mixing concrete. 1 engineman, at $2.50 0.0109 1 mechanic, at $2.50 0.0108 Coal, oil and waste, at $1.29 0.0056 Transporting concrete. 4 laborers, at $2 0.0348 1 engineman, at $3 0.0130 Coal, oil and waste, at $0.66 0.0028 Depositing concrete in molds. 4 laborers, at $2 0.0348 1 engineman, at $3 ' 0.0130 1 rigger, at $3 0.0130 Coal, oil and waste, at $1.18 0.0051 Assembling, transporting, setting and remov- ing molds. 4 laborers, at $2 0.0347 1 engineman, at $3.25 0.0141 1 carpenter, at $3 0.0130 1 mechanic, at $2.50 0.0109 Coal, oil and waste, at $1.39 0.0060 Care of tracks. 1 laborer, at $2 0.0086 1 mechanic, at $2.50 0.0109 Supplying coal. 3 laborers, at $2 0.0260 Blacksmith work. 1 laborer, at $2 0.0086 1 blacksmith, at $3.25 0.0141 Water boy, at $0.75 0.0032 Total per cu. yd $0.4473 Add 75% of the cost of administration 0.1388 Total labor per cu. yd.% $0.5861 580 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The total cost of each cubic yard of concrete in place is estimated to be as follows: Per cu. yd. Ten-elevenths cu. yd. pebbles, at $1.085 $0.9864 Ten-twenty-seconds cu. yd. sand, at $0.00 0.0000 1.26 bbls. cement, at $1.77 2.2302 Labor, as above given 0.5861 Cost of plant distributed over total average. ... 0.8400 Total yardage $4.6427 It will be noticed that the sand cost nothing, as it was dredged from the trench in which the pier was built, and paid for as dredging. The cost of the plant was distributed over the South Pier work and over the proposed North Pier work, on the basis of only 20% salvage value after the completion of both piers. It is said, however, that 80% is too high an allowance for the probable depreciation. The cost of the trestles was included in the cost of the plant. The Washington fir used in the trestles cost $16 per M. delivered in the yard. The cost of framing and placing the timberwork (exclu- sive of the piles) was $3.25 per M. The cost of the plant was as follows : Machinery $30,055.98 Piles and pile driving 13,963.00 Lumber for trestles and molds 12,094.26 Iron and castings 7,572.36 Labor on plant. . 15,760.40 Total $79,446.00 The item of "labor on plant" includes all work in building trestles, laying track, building molds, mold traveler and all appurtenances for performing the work. The cost of plant per cu. yd. of concrete was estimated thus : First cost $79,446 20% depreciation during use on South Pier 15,889 Estimated increase in size of plant for use on North Pier 3,972 Total for both piers $99,307 Salvage value of plant 20% 19,861 Net $79,446 $79,446-7-94,000 cu. yds. = $0.84 per cu. yd. The proportions of the subaqueous concrete were 1 :2.5 :5 by volume, or 1 :2.73 :5.78 by weight, cement being assumed to weigh 100 Ibs. per cu. ft. The proportions of the superaqueous concrete were 1:3.12:6.25 by volume, or 1:3.41:7.22 by weight. The dry sand weighed 109.2 Ibs. per cu. ft., the voids being 35.1%. The peb- bles weighed 115.5 Ibs. per cu. ft, the voids being 31%. As above stated, the molds were bottomless boxes built in four pieces, two sides and two ends, held together by tie-rods. The 1^4 -in. turnbuckle tie-rods passed through the ends of beams that bore against the outside of the mold. These tie-rods had eyes at each end, in which rods with wedge shaped ends were inserted. The mold was erected on the trestle by the locomotive crane, and CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 587 was then lifted by the mold traveler, carried and lowered to place. The largest one of these molds, with its cast-iron ballast, weighed 40 tons. When it was desired to remove a mold, after the concrete block had hardened, the nuts on the wedge-ended rods were turned,- thus pulling the wedge end from the eye of the tie-rod, and releasing the sides of the mold from the ends. The locomotive crane then raised the sides and ends separately and assembled them ready to be lowered again for the next block. The time required to remove one of these 40-ton molds, reassemble and set it again rarely exceeded 60 mins., and had been accomplished in 45 mins. As already stated, the concrete was built in alternate blocks ; then the intermediate blocks were built, the ends of the concrete blocks just built serving as end molds for the new blocks. The two sides of the mold (without the end pieces) were assembled by the aid of templates, and were bolted together by tie-rods. To hold the sides apart when the templates were removed, it was necessary to surround each of the six tie-rods with a box of 1-in. plank. These boxes measured 4 ins. square on the inside; and were left buried in the concrete.. Their purpose was to act as horizontal struts to hold the sides of the mold apart, and to permit removal of the tie- rods after the concrete block had been built. The removal of these rods was accomplished by withdrawing the wedge-ended rods. The mold traveler deserves a brief description. It was provided with a four-drum engine, and the drums were actuated by a worm gear which was positive in its movement in lowering as well as in raising. The drums act independently or together, as desired. The hoisting speed was 6 ft. per min., and the traveling speed, 100 ft. per min. The load was suspended on four hooks, depending by double blocks and %-in. wire ropes from four trolleys suspended from the truss, which allowed lateral adjustment of the mold. The difficulty of using so broad a gage as 31 ft, on a curve having a radius of 563 ft., was overcome by using a differential gear in the driving shaft of the propelling gear, thus compensating for the greater distance traveled by the wheels on the outer rail. The whole machine was carried on six trucks having two double-flanged wheels each. The four forward trucks were swiveled on steel bed plates with 3-in. king bolts. The two rear trucks were fixed to the chord and had idler wheels, which slid on their axles so as to accommodate themselves to the curve. Rubble Concrete Data. By some engineers it is believed that rubble concrete, particularly for dam construction, is a very new form of masonry. In Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1875, Mr. J. J. R. Croes describes work on the Boyd's Corner Dam on the Croton River, near Isew York. This work was begun in 1867, and for a time rubble concrete was used, but was finally discontinued, due to the impres- sion that it might not be water-tight. In those days "sloppy" con- crete would not have been allowed, which probably accounts for the difficulty of getting a water-tight rubble concrete. The specifications called for a dry concrete that had to be thoroughly rammed in be- tween the rubble stones ; and, to give room for this ramming, the 588 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. contractor was not permitted to lay any two stones closer together than 12 ins. As a result, not more than 33% of the masonry was rubble stones, the rest being the concrete between the stones. Mr. Croes states that most of the bidders erred in assuming that 66% to 75% of the masonry would be rubble stones. The form of the rubble stones as they come from the quarry should be considered. Stones that have flat beds, like many sand- stones and limestones, can be laid upon layers of "dry" concrete, and can have their vertical joints readily filled with concrete rammed into place. But granites and other stones that break out irregularly, can not be well bedded in concrete unless it is made so soft as to be "sloppy." In thin retaining walls, small, irregular stones may be forced into concrete by jumping upon them, men wearing rubber boots. When stones come out flat bedded, if it is desired to economize cement, make the bed joints of ordinary mortar (not concrete) and fill the vertical joints with, concrete. Generally it is an absurd practice to break up large blocks of stone in a crusher for the purpose of making the whole of a heavy wall of concrete, since rubble concrete requires not only less cement but effects a saving in crushing. There are exceptions, however. For example, the anchorages of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City were specified to be of rubble concrete, doubtless because the designer believed this sort of masonry to be cheaper than concrete. In this case an economic mistake was made, for all the rubble stone must be quarried up the Hudson River, loaded into scows, unloaded onto cars, and finally unloaded and delivered by derricks. This repeated handling of large, irregular rubble stones is so expensive that it more than offsets the cost of crushing, as well as the extra cost of cement in plain concrete. Crushed stone can be unloaded from boats by means of clam-shell buckets at a low cost (see data in the section on Rock Excavation). It can be trans- ported on a belt conveyor, elevated in a bucket conveyor, mixed With sand and cement, and delivered to the work, all with very little manual labor where the installation of a very efficient plant is justified by the magnitude of the job. Large rubble stones, on the other hand, can not be handled so cheaply nor with as great rapidity as crushed stone. Each particular piece of work, therefore, must be treated as a separate problem in engineering economics ; for no unqualified generalization as to the relative cheapness of this or that kind of masonry is to be relied upon. In the construction of a dry dock at the Charleston Navy Yard, rubble concrete was used. The rubble stones averaged about % cu. yd. each, and were spaced about 18 ins. apart. About 67% of the masonry was 1:2:5 concrete, leaving 33% of rubble stones. The Spier Falls Dam on the upper Hudson River is of cyclopean masonry, the rubble stones being very large pieces of granite, which are bedded in 1:2%:5 concrete. At the time of my visit to the dam, it was estimated that about 33% of the masonry was CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 589 concrete. 1 have recently been informed by Mr. C. E. Parsons, the chief engineer, that about 1 bbl. of cement was. used in each cubic yard of masonry. This high percentage of cement may be accounted for by the fact that there was a good deal of plain rubble laid in 1 : 2 cement mortar, no accurate record of which was kept. At the time of my visit, three Ransome mixers were being used, two for con- crete and one for mortar. Each concrete mixer averaged 200 batches in 10 hrs., of 23 cu. ft. of concrete per batch. I am inclined to think, from inspection of the masonry during the time it was being laid, that about 40% of the dam was rubble stones and the remaining 60% was concrete and mortar. The stones and concrete were delivered by cableways to stiff-leg derricks, which deposited the material in the dam. There were two laborers to each mason em- ployed in placing the materials, wages being 15 cts. and 35 cts. per hr. respectively. The labor cost of placing the materials was 60 cts. per cu. yd. of masonry. Mr. Parsons states that the 155,000 cu. yds. of cyclopean masonry actually cost $5.71 per cu. yd., exclusive of the plant depreciation, and that calling the plant depreciation 40% of its first cost, it would add 10% to the cost of the masonry, or 57 cts. per cu. yd., making a total of $6.28 per cu. yd. This does not include the cofferdam. For a rubble concrete dam across the Chattahoochee, 17 miles north of Atlanta, Ga., the stone was a local gneiss that came out of the quarry in large slabs with parallel beds, some stones containing 4 cu. yds. each. About 40% of the dam was of this rubble and 60% of concrete between the rubble stones. The concrete was a 1:2^:5 mixture. The breakwater at Marquette, Mich., was built of rubble concrete, the rubble stones amounting to 27% of the volume of the breakwater masonry. The Hemet Dam, California, is built of granite rubble concrete, the concrete being a 1:3:6 mixture. The face stones of the dam were laid in mortar. There were 31,100 cu. yds. of masonry, which required 20,000 bbls. of cement, or 0.64 bbl. per cu. yd. The cement was hauled 23 miles over roads having grades of 18% in places, the total ascent being 3,350 ft. The cost of hauling was $1 to $1.50 per bbl. The sand was conveyed 400 ft. from the river to the dam by an endless double-rope carrier provided with V-shaped buckets spaced 20 ft. apart, the rise of the conveyor being 125 ft. in the 400 ft. This was a simple and inexpensive conveyor. The Boonton Dam, Boonton, N. J., is of cyclopean masonry, that is, of large rubble stones bedded in concrete. The concrete was made so wet that when the stones were dropped into it the concrete flowed into every crevice. The granite rubble stones measured from 1 to 2 % cu. yds. each. The materials were all delivered on cars, from which they were delivered to the dam by derricks provided with bull- wheels. On the dam were 4 laborers and 1 mason to each derrick, and this gang dumped concrete and joggled the rubble stones into it. A derrick lias laid as much as 125 cu. yds. of masonry in 10 hrs. 590 HANDBOOK OI<' COST DATA. With 35 derricks, 20 of which were aying masonry and 15 either passing materials to -the other derricks, or being moved, as much as 21,000 cu. yds. of masonry were laid in one month. The amount of cement per cubic yard of masonry was 0.68 bbl., the cyclopean stone occupying 45 to 50% of the volume of the dam. Cost of the Boonton Dam, Cyclopean Masonry. In the preceding paragraph the character of this masonry is given. Mr. E. L. Harri- son informs me that the rock was syenitic granite, "not quite so hard to quarry as trap rock." About 50% was concrete, mixed 1:9, and 0.68 bbl. cement was required per cu. yd. of the masonry, at $1.50 per bbl. Wages of common laborers were $1.55 per 10-hr, day, and the cost to the contractor would have been $4 per eu. yd. had he furnished the cement. Mr. J. Waldo Smith has stated that 45% of the dam was cyclopean stone and that the cost to the contractor was $3.23 per cu. yd. ex- clusive of cement. If we add $1.05 for cement, we have $4.28 per cu. yd. Some English Data on Rubble Concrete. The following is an ab- stract of an article from London "Engineering" : Railway work, under Mr. John Strain, in Scotland and Spain, involved the building of abutments, piers and arches of rubble concrete. The concrete was made of 1 part cement to 5 parts of ballast, the ballast consist- ing of broken stone or slag and sand mixed in proportions determined by experiment. The materials were mixed by turning with shovels 4 times dry, then 4 times more during the addition of water through a rose nozzle. A bed of concrete 6 ins. thick was first- laid, and on this a layer of rubble stones, no two stones being nearer together than 3 ins., nor nearer the forms than 3 ins. The stones were rammed and probed around with a trowel to leave no spaces. Over each layer of rubble, concrete was spread to a depth of 6 ins. The forms or molds for piers for a viaduct were simply large open boxes, the four sides of which could be taken apart. The depth of the boxes was uniform, and they were numbered from the top down, so that, knowing the height of a given pier,' the proper box for the base could be selected. As each box was filled, the next one smaller in size was swung into place with a derrick. The following bridge piers for the Tharsis & Calanas Ry. were built : Length Height of of Cu. Yds. Weeks Bridge. Piers. No. of in to Name. Ft. Ft. Spans. Piers. Build. Tamujoso River 435 28 12 1.737 14V 2 Oraque 423 31 11 1,590 15 Cascabelero 480 30 to 80 10 2,680 21 No. 16 294 28 to 50 7 1,046 Tiesa 165 16 to 23 8 420 It is stated that the construction of some of these piers in ordi- nary masonry would have taken four times as long. The rock available for rubble did not yield large blocks, consequently the percentage of pure concrete in the piers was large, averaging 70%. In one case, where the stones were smaller than usual, the percentage CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 591 of concrete was 76^%. In other work the percentage has been as low as 55%, and in still other work where a rubble face work was used the percentage of concrete has been 40.%. In these piers the average quantities of materials per cubic yard of rubble concrete were : 448 Ibs. (0.178 cu. yd.) cement. 0.36 cu. yd. sand. 0.68 cu. yd. broken stone (measured loose in piles). 0.30 cu. yd. rubble (measured solid). Several railway bridge piers and abutments in Scotland are cited. In one of these, large rubble stones of irregular size and weighing 2 tons each were set inside the forms, 3 ins. away from the plank and 3 ins. from one another. The gang to each derrick was: 1 derrickman and 1 boy, 1 mason and 10 laborers, and about one- quarter of the time of 1 carpenter and his helper raising the forms. For bridges of 400 cu. yds., the progress was 12 to 15 cu. yds. per day. The forms were left in place 10 days. To chip off a few inches from the face of a concrete abutment that was too far out, required the work of 1 quarryman 5 days per cu. yd. of solid concrete chipped off. Concrete was used for a skew arch over the River Dochart, on the Killin Ry., Scotland. There were 5 arches, each of 30 ft. span on the square or 42 ft. on the skew, the skew being 45. The piers were of rubble concrete. The concrete in the arch was wheeled 300 ft. on a trestle, and dumped onto the centers. It was rammed in 6-in. layers, which were laid corresponding to the courses of arch stones. As the layers approached the crown of the arch, some difficulty was experienced in keeping the surfaces perpendicular. Each arch was completed in a day. In a paper by John W. Steven, in Proc. Inst. C. E., the following is given : Rubble Per Cent Concrete Concrete of Rubble per per in Rubble cu. yd. cu. yd. Concrete. Ardrossan Harbor $6.00 $5.00 20.0 Irvine Branch 7.00 3.68 63.6 Calanas & Tharsis Ry 7.08 3.43 30.3 Cost of a Rubble Concrete Abutment. Mr. Emmet Steece gives the cost of 278 cu. yds. rubble concrete in a bridge abutment at Burlington, la., as follows: Per cu. yd. 0.82 bbl. Saylor's Portland at $2.60 $2.14 0.22 cu. yd. sand, at $1 0.22 0.52 cu. yd. broken stone, at $0.94 0.49 0.38 cu. yd. rubble stones, at $0.63 0.24 Water 0.07 Labor (15 cts. per hr. ) 1.19 Foreman 0.09 Total ..$4.44 592 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The concrete was 1:2^:4%, laid in 4-in. layers, on which wen laid large rubble stones spaced about 6 ins. apart. Concrete was rammed into the spaces between the rubble, which was then covered with another 4-in. layer of concrete, and so on. A force of 28 men and a foreman averaged nearly 40 cu. yds. of rubble concrete per day. The cost of lumber for the forms is not included. The abut- ment was 3 ft. wide at top, 9 ft. at the base and 30 ft. high. Cost of a Rubble Concrete Dam in the Central States.* This article describes the earthwork and concrete construction incident to a hydro-electric development in the middle West. Although neither the name of the contractor nor the locality of the work can be given, it will serve all statistical purposes to state that the work was located within 200 miles of Chicago in a small country town, whose population was made up almost entirely of those employed on the construction, but one whose railroad facilities were all that could be desired. The river is one of the upper tributaries of the Mis- sissippi, draining over 1,200 square miles of densely wooded forest land, flowing through a series of broad marshes and swift rapids, deep cut in the narrow valleys, until it empties into the mother stream. At the chosen site there is an average depth of 6 ft. and flow of 600 cu. ft. per second, which will impound a reservoir with an area of 650 acres and a maximum .depth of 50 ft., 10 ft. of which is available, as the river here narrows down from a wide marsh plain to a deep rocky channel, making an ideal spot for water storage. The dam is a structure of cyclopean masonry, having a spillway of 490 ft. flanked on each side b'y abutments of the same material and earth dikes extending 1,500 and 2,800 ft. from each end. The dam itself has a maximum height of 49 ft. and a width of base of 49 ft., its section being of a standard "ogee" type. The earth dikes have an extreme height of 31 ft., side slopes of 2 to 1, 4-ft. berms, and are made impervious by concrete core walls founded on bedrock. These have a thickness of 2 ft. at the top and a batter of 12 on 1 on each side. The preliminary construction work, consisting of the erection of a camp for the working force of 400 men and the clearing of the dam site, was commenced April 10, but it was not until the follow- ing June that the organization was complete and the work well under way, the first concrete being laid July 9. The actual work of har- nessing the river was accomplished by building above the dam loca- tion a timber rock-filled cofferdam, 500x150 ft., with a maximum height of 16 ft., the natural bank forming one side, thereby divert- ing the water into the east half of the river channel and allowing the excavation to be carried in the dry to bedrock. Concrete mixing plants were erected on each side of the river, con- taining three No. 4 Ransome mixers. An excellent granite quarry was opened up on the east side of the river, where a crushing plant Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1008. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 593 of considerable capacity was erected, the broken stone being carried from there to the bins of the mixing plants by construction trains of Western dump cars. Sand and gravel were obtained from a nearby borrow pit with drag scrapers, screened and brought to the bins in dump-car trains. Cement was kept in an adjacent store- house and wheeled by hand to chutes immediately above the mixers. The mixture was in 1 cu. yd. batches in the proportions of 1:2%: 5, using Atlas Portland cement. About 150 cu. yds. is the average daily output of each mixer. The concrete was delivered in 1 cu. yd. tipping buckets and placed in the forms by means of push cars and 5-ton, 60-ft. boom, guyed derricks, operated by Lidger- wood and American double-drum engines, which were the limiting factors in the daily progress. Plum stones up to 1 cu. yd. in vol- ume were bedded in the concrete and formed about 25% of its mass. Lifts of 3 to 8 ft. a day were secured, care being taken in filling the forms to complete a horizontal course over the whole surface. Successive fills were bonded together by the use of large stones im- bedded so as to project half way above the surface of the lower course and lock with the subsequent layer. The forms were built of 2-in. dressed pine planks, braced with 4 x 6-in. studding, spaced 3 ft. apart on centers and stiffened With 6 x 8-in. horizontal waling pieces attached every 4 ft. The forms were anchored with heavy iron wire, or %-in. band iron, and were not interchangeable, being knocked down as each section was stripped, and rebuilt for the next. The dam was constructed in alternate sections, 40 ft. long, bonded together with vertical keys, 3 ft. apart in the clear and terminating 2 ft. below the upper surface. Upon reaching the center, the end cofferdams were removed and rebuilt across the east channel, send- ing the water through five 10 x 10-ft. sluiceways left temporarily in the structure. The excavation was then pushed forward in the east channel, and on Dec. 3 the last bucket of concrete was" placed in the closing sluices. The earth dikes were filled by drag and wheel scrapers drawn by Missouri mules, the former being used for all hauls under 200 ft The corewalls were first constructed on bedrock, the concrete being wheeled in barrows an average of 200 ft. from construction train to forms. Care was taken to bring no unnecessary stress on the walls by maintaining the fill at equal heights on each side of the core. Clay puddle and riprap protect the sides from erosion. The plant and construction costs were as follows: Camp. The camp consisted of the following buildings : Floor Area, Sq. Ft. 8 dormitories for 283 men 15,000 2 mess halls for 80 men 3,000 3 individual shacks for 3 men 864 1 storehouse 1,136 1 machine shop 900 1 blacksmith shop : 100 Total floor area 21,000 594 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of constructing these buildings was as follows: 1 tern. Cost. 158,000 ft. B. M. of lumber at $22.50 $3,575 15 carpenters 48 days at $3 2,160 30 000 sq. ft. tar paper at $0.0225 675 Nails 145 Total 21,000 sq. ft. at $0.31 $6.555 Interest and depreciation 5,500 The cost per square foot of building was as follows : Per sq. ft. Per cent. Lumber $0.17 Labor 0.10 32 Roofing and hardware 0.14 Total $0.31 100 The carpenter work cost $13.70 per 1,000 ft. B. M., which is a high cost. Hand and Gravel. The excavation and screening of the sand and gravel required th.e following plant: One screening plant, 6 wheel scrapers, 7 spans of mules and harnesses, 6 living tents, 2 mule tents, % dinkey engine, 6 Western dump cars and % mile of track. The investment cost of the plant was $11,500 ; the daily plant charge was as follows for 165 days: Per day. Interest and depreciation, $5,000 $30.30 Coal for boiler 2.00 Coal for % dinkey 0.50 Oil for engine 0.40 . Oil for % dinkey '. 0.10 Feed and care of mules 7.50 Total $40.80 Broken Stone. The plant for quarrying and crushing the broken stone was as follows : One No. 5 Austin crusher, 1 hoisting engine and boiler, 1 60-ft. derrick, 4 steam drills, 6 scale boxes, 1,200 ft. track, % dinkey engine, 6 Western dump cars, 1 blacksmith's shop and 1 winch. The investment cost was $13,000 ; the daily plant charges were as follows for 170 days: Per day. Interest and depreciation, $5,500 $32.30 Coal for boilers 5.50 Coal for % dinkey 1.00 Oil for engines 0.30 Oil for dinkey 0.20 Explosives 22.50 Total $61.80 Mixing. The mixing plant consisted of 2 mixing plants (3 No. 4 Ransome mixers, 1 cu. yd. batch), 3 cement trucks, 700 ft. of track with trestle, 2 cement houses, 1 sand chute and 2 sand cars. The investment cost of the plant was $7,900 ; the daily plant charges were "as follows for 168 days: Item. Per day. Interest and depreciation, $2,900 $17.20 Coal 2.10 Oil 0.15 Total, 180 cu. yds., at $0.10 . .$19.45 CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. oo Placing. The plant required for placing concrete was as follows? Six hoisting engines and boilers, 7 derricks, 9 tipping buckets, 800 ft. of track, 6 flat cars, 500 ft. of trestle, 1 dinkey, 4 Western dump cars, 15 wheelbarrows and 18 shovels. The investment cost was $18,000 and the daily plant charge was as follows: Item. Per day. Interest and depreciation, $5,600 $31.75 Coal 5.00 Oil 1.00 Total, 180 cu. yda, at $0.21 $37~75 n Wages. The wages paid labor were as follows : Class. Per day. Foremen $3.00 to $5.00 Engineers $2.25 to $3.50 Firemen $1.75 to $2.75 Tagmen $2.00 Carpenters $2.00 to $3.50 Rivermen $.00 Electricians $3.00 Riggers $2.50 to $3.50 Mechanics $2.75 to $3.50 Cooks $2.00 Laborers $1.75 to $2.25 Water boys $1.50 Main Dam and Concrete. The cost in place of the 30,000 cu. yds. of rubble concrete in the main dam inclusive of labor and plant charges was as -follows : Stone Skilled Foremen. Laborers 3 8 . Laborers. 6 Cost Per cu. yd. $1.26 Sand 1 2 10 0.46 2.31 3 25 1 62 Mixing 32 0.58 Placing 3 11 46 0.69 Total . . $5.92 Referring to the forms, the cost of material per foot board meas- ure was : Perft.B. M. Lumber $0.022 Nails 0.001 Wire . 0.005 Total $0.028 The forms were used three times and the average cost of forms per square foot of surface covered was 24 cts., which is a very high cost. Concrete Corewall, East Dike. This corewall averaged 11.2 ft. in height, contained 2,893 cu. yds., and took 78 days, including Sun- days and idle days, to build with a force of 5 foremen, 10 skilled laborers and 80 laborers. Sectional forms 4 x 12 ft. of 1-in. boards and 2 x 6-in. studding, were used. The concrete was delivered to trestle running 1,000 ft. by train. The cost of the corewall was as follows : 596 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Item. Total. 3,350 bbls. cement, at $2.31 $ 6,675 964 cu. yds. sand and gravel, at 75 cts 725 1,928 cu. yds. broken stone, at $1.08 2,082 Mixing concrete (2,983 cu. yds., at 42 cts.) 1,215 Placing concrete (2,893 cu. yds., at $1.01) 2,947 22,400 sq. ft. forms, at 43 cts 1,232 Total $14,876 1,450 cu. yds. excavation, at 98 cts 1,424 Grand total $16,300 The cost per cubic yard of concrete work proper was thus $5.14 and the cost including excavation was $5.66 per cu. yd. Earthwork. The cost of the earthwork in the dikes was as follows : East dike: Volume, 21,900 cu. yds., sandy loam; force, 2 foremen, 44 laborers, 60 mules; lead, 600 ft.; plant, No. 2 wheel scrapers; unit cost, 28 cts. t per cu. yd. West dike: 8,900 cu. yds., sandy loam; force, 1 foreman, 14 laborers, 20 mules ; lead, 60 ft. ; plant, drag scrapers ; unit cost, 26 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of Concrete Fence Post. Mr. J. A. Mitchell gives the fol- lowing : Fence posts need not contain more than 0.6 cu. ft. of concrete, if the posts are made tapering. They should be reinforced with gal- vanized wire, for the metal is so close to the surface of the con- crete that it is likely to rust. Two men will make 100 such posts per day, or 2.22 cu. yds.; while three good men have made 200 posts per day, or about 1.5 cu. yds. per man. A double mold for making two parts is used, and should be collapsible, so that it can be removed in 24 to 48 hrs. Wooden molds that have been in use three years are still in service. Such posts can be made for 11 to 12y 2 cts. each, which is equivalent to about $5.40 per cu. yd., prices being as follows: Cement, per bbl $1.50 Gravel, per cu. yd 0.40 Galvanized wire, per Ib 02 % Wages, per day 1.50 Mixtures of 1 : 3 and 1 : "4 are best. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Telephone Poles.* The possibilities for reinforced concrete poles in transmission line work have re- cently been very carefully investigated by the Richmond (Ind. ) Home Telephone Co., which has constructed a line across the White- water River, using poles ranging from 45 to 55 ft. in height of the construction shown by Fig. 2, invented by Mr. Wm. M. Bailey, Vice- President and General Manager of the company. The following account of these investigations and of the studies made by the American Concrete Pole Co., Richmond, Ind., which has been organ- ized to market the poles, has been compiled from information given us by Mr. Bailey. For poles 30 ft. long and under, the molding is done horizontally * Engineering-Contracting, March 11, 1908. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 59r on the ground and the pole erected when hard like a wooden pole ; for poles over 30 ft. long the molding is done in forms set vertical in the pole hole. The following figures, Table IX, are given as the cost without royalty of concrete poles molded as described. These costs are for poles erected excluding the material cost of steps but in- Fig. 2. Concrete Telephone Pole. eluding labor cost of setting steps, and they are based on the fol- lowing wages and prices : Foreman, per day f 3.00 Laborers, per day 1.75 Cement, per barrel 2.00 Stone, gravel or sand, per cu. yd 1.00 For sake of comparison, the cost of cedar poles has been added to the table ; these costs include poles, unloading, dressing, gaining, roofing, boring, hauling and setting. All figures are as furnished by Mr. Bailey. Regarding the methods of constructing concrete poles, Mr. Bailey says : "All of the larger concrete poles (that is, poles over 30 ft. In height), are built upright in position ready for use, the forms being set perpendicularly over the hole in which the pole is to be placed, the hole having been dug to conform with the size pole prior to the Betting of form ; thus when the concrete is poured in at the top of form, the hole is entirely filled and the concrete knit firmly to the 59* HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. is I 00000000 TH r \Js. \l ~-l-Stress=JOOO/b$ \ I 6 e fi P*^? 1 tf f p j H ! 1 0= |, .^ Vj ! f 1 j. 1 *-7'0'to of Tract ^ ^ :9 ^,._- j I ^_ , h vS^ ' ' '^li^v J Vi E,ll vo . ^i i x . , o D. 1 : L Ground Fig. 5. Concrete Trolley Pole. CONCRE TE CONS TR UCTI OX. 60V '^ "^\ 1 u F w2^ o J 1 ^ q^?^'o" D ^ 1 D O o ! I *~ ] o a ill 1! hi a a ull 'i $* aoaa aaaa .- I/- 1 '.'i';; | j -t Hi Cnq.-Contr L g%* j Fig. 6. . r " IbJ f "\ i VO , a , ^ a ^ a D ^ i u n ^*-20'^ / Q 1 T --,-1 vi ^5^f a i $ ^W-w'o* o . HJi 1st L il q^-^'0' D q$'W0' a 1 ! j$ ^ *P 11*' '| T 1^ Q a a a a a Q J' * W zontr ^ ^/ ai-rf __ _. J ^ ir- -M i; jj"*-jiiKi x .JHIVM. wiiuvi Fig. 7. . ,-i mio> , "^TT ^ "n HwWe 1 /^5 "^ *U|5n^ a a D ( | . f lit/)* Q fe 1 J q/'-f4'^ a { j 4U % 1 \ i a a a a i c //wn 1 * a a a a a a j ^ ! vw -^* J Enq.-Contr I /p* . J Fig. 8. riG8 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. BILL OF MATERIAL, FIG. 8. Item. Lbs. 4 pcs. i/ 2 -in. x 32-ft. twisted steel bar 108.8 8 pcs. %-in. x 24-ft. twisted steel bar 163.2 8 pcs. %-in. x 16-ft. twisted steel bar 61.2 20 pcs., total weight of steel 333.2 Concrete, 15.1 cu. ft 1,960.0 Approximate weight pole 2,293.2 Surface area steel 9,546 sq. in. area steel 4.125 sq. in. Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago Ry. In 1906 this company erected 53 poles for a mile of telegraph line near Maples, Ind. The general construction of these poles is shown by Fig. 9. They ranged in height from 25 to 34 ft. The 2 5 -ft. pole shown by Fig. 9 was 8 ins. square at the butt and 6 ins. square at the top, the corners being chamfered to a face 2 ins. wide, so that above ground the pole was octagonal. The poles were set 4 ft. into the ground, and packed around with stone screenings. Some of the poles were erected within five days after molding. Marshall Concrete Pole. The following is a description of a test pole mode by Mr. Wallace Marshall, Lafayette Engineering Co., Lafayette, Ind. "In November, 1905, I made a box form of three sides, having the top open, for a test pole. It was 35 ft. long. The lower 5 ft. was 10 ins. square; commencing at that point it tapered on all sides to 5 ins. at the top. From the 5-ft. point I put a triangular piece In each corner of the form of about iy 2 ins. wide at the bottom and 1 in. at the top to chamfer the corners of the pole. At proper places of a standard line pole for line bracket, cross-arms and telephone box I bored holes through the forms, put machine bolts through it and let them extend about 2 ins. in the forms, screwing the nuts the full length of thread. In the top of the form, which was brought to a round point, I placed a 1%-in. pin in the center to leave a hole or an insulator pin. I then filled the form with concrete mixed by hand consisting of 1 part of cement to 6 parts ordinary gravel, except a facing of about % in. of cement and sand 1 to 3. After covering the bottom of the form about 1% ins. I laid in the large end two %-in Thatcher bars 25 ft. long, and in the top part two %-in. Thatcher bars, lapping them about 4 ft. I left them in the form six days. At the expiration of 30 days we tested it as follows: Wo planted it firmly in the ground 5 ft. deep. At 25 ft. distance we planted a large cedar telephone pole. At the level of 21 ft. from the ground we fastened a wire cable from- one pole to the other, which is about the height of a trolley wire. In the center of this cable we suspended a barrel. Into this barrel we loaded steel rivets gradually and watched results. The two poles began to bend as the load was applied. When the two were deflected about 21 ins. each toward the other I observed a small check come in the concrete pole about 10 ft from the ground, and simultaneously checks appeared from the cable to the ground. We immediately stopped loading, took off the ballast, weighted it and calculated the horizontal strain and found It to be 975 Ibs. The maximum moment would be at the ground, CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 4- - la ij -1 \ - 3* - J -t . 1 Enq.-Conlr. Fig. 9. Concrete Telegraph Pole. Roll. A roll of clay placed temporarily around a pipe to retain the molten lead poured into the joint. Runner. Same as ranger. Service Pipe. A short lateral pipe of small diameter, usually of wrought iron or lead, extending from a "main" to a house, store, or the like. Sheeting, or Sheathing. Plank used to face the sides of a trench to prevent its caving in. When the planks are sharpened and driven, they are called sheet piles. Shoring. Braces used temporarily to support any structure while excavating near it. Also used to designate the braces and rangers in a trench, for which it is preferable to use the term bracing. Skeleton Bracing. A system of braces and rangers, without any sheeting ; or merely a system of braces abutting against short lengths of plank. Specials. Bends, branches, tees, crosses, reducers, and all sim- ilar castings, other than the regular 12 ft. lengths of pipe, are called specials, and are sold (by the pound) at a higher price than the regular pipe. Spigot End. The small end of a cast iron pipe as distinguished from the bell end. Stand Pipe. A high, vertical pipe of large diameter holding a supply of water. Ton. Cast iron pipe is sold by the ton of 2,000 Ibs. Pig iron is sold by the ton of 2,240 Ibs. Yarn. Same as packing. Cost of Complete Water Works Systems. For purposes of rough preliminary estimates of cost, and more frequently for purposes of comparison and generalization, an engineer often wishes to know the approximate first cost of a complete waterworks system for a city or town of given size. Table I is taken from a report by Mr. Paul Hansen, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E., Assistant Engineer Ohio State Board of Health, and printed in Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 15, 1909. The author has the following to say about the table : "The matter that most interests the taxpayer in connection with the installation of public water supplies is cost, and to this end I have prepared a table giving unit costs for construction and opera- tion. These figures are necessarily very general, as they cover a wide range of conditions. They, however, are suggestive and give an approximate idea of expenditures involved." Average Cost of Constructing and Operating Water Works in Massachusetts. Mr. Freeman C. Coffin gives the following costs of constructing and operating 39 water works systems in Mass., for the. year 1893. The systems were all owned by the municipalities, and in every case the water was pumped. Total cost of operation, including an allowance of 4% for interest on the first cost of the water works system, and 1%% for depreciation, averaged $115 per million gallons; the minimum cost being $65 in one city; and the maximum cost being $257. The average per capita cost was $2.58 344 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA- 9m _ ** u * -sn uosaed -led sasuadxe Suiye -aedo S8SU8d 9TTtcn una iarf u5ooeo s8S -}B.i8do ~Blt 5 -d^o aad sesuad ^ b> -xa S " i -B n u u ^ o m oo 1-1 r- oo eo t- o O ^.^""SS fe -ITB l"BW 8SBJ9AV o J-i ^f OOOlrt 5OOOO ooi-HOiaiecioajo Suisn uosaad 5 u ~ <^ d 06 oo d eo S aad ^soo E O Q ^ aad ^soo I u p , OOOOOOOO 05 "B^td.'BO us '^ LO < ..- Q) 1 jsoo bio) 9BJAv V;g55gs || t ...-...: 8 I ...'... > co eo oo co b- o JlO O-i! )*< lOt^O li-lT-Hr-ieO5-<t^t^OJOO ' *.!. os ^ ftae. \-ttL G~ c-oooo j oso o M. f^hj ^ ^ dd -< -_J' . .1.. O *J U w H 4 S tn NO, H OS (M OJOO rH OO O3OO 00 O rHt> 00 W S I Ife o I os ~ 10 rH os |d>. > X! CO K -o '% B8li?jj 1 1 irrg * I Orrj 003 WATER-WORKS. 661 pipes were laid with the axis of the pipe 5 ft. below the surface. The pipes were usually placed in the trench by a hand operated derrick spanning the trench. In practically all cases the streets were macadamized. Just how many feet of each kind of pipe were laid is not stated ; but there were not less than the following amounts : 12-in. pipe 15,500 ft. 16-in. pipe 44,600 ft. 20-in. pipe 21,200 ft. 24-in. pipe 19,600 ft. 30-in. pipe 7,200 ft. 36-in. pipe : 36,800 ft. 48-in. pipe . 97,900 ft. The first item in Table III of $30 per ton for pipe was calcu- lated by adding 12% to the actual cost of $26.80 per ton, this 12% being added to cover incidentals. These incidentals are as fol- lows, by percentages : Per cent. Small pipes for blow-offs and connections.... 1% Special castings .......... -.;... 4 % . Valves 5 Miscellaneous materials 1 Total percentages to be added to the cost per short ton of straight pipe 12 The cost of teaming on 21 contracts previous to 1898 was 26 cts. per ton per mile, the average haul being 2.4 miles from the pipe yards ; but, in order to be liberal, 30 cts. per ton per mile for a 2% -mile haul is assumed as an average; wages of two-horse team and driver being 45 cts. per hr. The lead is estimated at 5 cts. per lb., and each joint requires about as many pounds of lead as 2 times the diameter of the pipe In inches, according to Mr. Saville, but other authorities do not agree with him. The column headed "miscellaneous expenses" is based upon actual experience, and includes cost of tools, insurance of men, lumber, yarn, and incidental expenses. The tools depreciate about 50% on any contract. It was estimated that 4% of the cost of laying the pipe should be added to cover the cost of tools. The cost of accident insurance was 3% of the pay roll. The contract- or's bond cost %% of the bond. Incidental expenses were about 1% of the pay roll. It was estimated that these three items amounted to 3.2% of the cost of laying the pipe. The cost of lum- ber, yarn, etc., averaged 2.8% of the cost of hauling and laying. Hen^e, the total cost of "miscellaneous expenses" was 4% + 3.2%-f- 2.8%, which is 10% of the cost of laying the pipe. The word "lay- ing" is here used to include the cost of hauling the pipe, the cost of lead, the cost of trenching and backfilling, and the cost of placing the pipe in the trench and calking it. The column headed "labor" includes the cost of trenching in earth (there was very little rock), and the cost of placing the HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 1 la coot OS CO l> .OtM OS CO COCO tot^ II ooto osr~ OS CO 3j | * 1-1 1-1 rH^H ~ s .OCD co cooo coco OCO oo co ooco coos CM CM 55 COCO S2 a s 00 00 00 oo 00 oo oo ^H^H r-HO "~"~ l i-l CM -i 3 <2 oo oo 00 II oo 00 00 OtO coco ss 100 t^oo OtO CM CM too t^-co CM CM too CM CO coco sj| 00 oo oo oo 00 00 oo 00 oo oo oo oo o-^ go oo CM CM 00 coco 00 00 00 OO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ss oo ss ^1 8 OO 00 00 00 00 00 00 oo 00 00 oo |S CM CO 00 00 oo 00 oo oo 00 oo 00 00 oo CO OS 00 00 00 OtO CM OO oo to5 oo OtO 050 T-ICO oo too coos CM CO 00 too oo JH 2% CO to ss go ,-iCM ooo JO JO t-CO gg 10 CO T-HCO 00 *-H CO CM cooo CO-.* 2S a S-< I-*"" 1 ^.CN rHCM tMtM $ 12 as 00 000 00 oco CMO Is 2 CO CM 00 too 00 coco 00 00 CM CM OSt~ 00 -H t>. 00 00 2 1 "o 1 2 ^ c/5 * * CM t CO 00 T ? r CO CO CM 00 to WATER-WORKS. 663 pipe in the trench and calking it. Wages paid for labor were as follows : Foreman .$100.00 per month Sub-foreman 3.00 per day Calkers and yarners 2.50 Laborers, 1st class 1.75 Laborers, 2d class 1.60 Double team and driver 0.45 per hour Single team and driver 0.30 A considerable amount of extra work was done by force ac- count on 38 miles of the pipe lines, averaging 12 cts. per ft. of line, due to obstructions encountered causing changes of loca- tion, etc. , Cost of Laying Main Water Pipe in Boston, Mass., 1878-1907.* The gradual increasing average labor cost of laying water pipe /30V 1000 Fig. 4. Effect of Length of Job on Cost. in Boston is made the subject of one of the reports prepared by Metcalf & Eddy, consulting civil engineers to the Boston Finance Commission. Nearly all the pipe laid was 8-in. pipe ; but some 6-in. and 10-in. pipe is included and a little 12-in. pipe. Since, however, this range in sizes involves substantially no change in trench dimensions the cost per foot should be directly comparable. The average labor costs per lineal foot of laying water pipe, taken from the city engineer's records for the years 1878 to 1907, in- clusive, are given in Table IV. These are the figures on which the engineers' computations which follow are based. It will be seen from the table that, during the period covered, wages advanced, the hours of labor decreased and the labor per- formed per hour also advanced. Figure 4 shows the general relation of the cost per foot to the * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 18, 1909. 664 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. (w oo s) Qf f . Ti ! c ! t> . -'~- t ^^^^2j JO m3U9J *AB ^^MCO :cocococococococoMfroeocococo^ioiOM -t*-t--t*rHO5 r-l rH rH C-7 T-H rH rH rH rH rH rH ^ 'SqoC oj-^ww ioo^Tiooooooo-<* *!*< m co oo O '0000 00 i 3o>ar |r . o 3 -AB Sunnduioo uipa -pnpui 9dtd jo s - o -uioo jo _sanoq UQJJJ -^ OO t>- OO b- 00 OO < o I s 0) 0) OOOOOlOOOO --> ooooot-ooo >i-G o o w X C-- 1 O 4_> S ^ o WATER-WORKS. 663 ginning of the period to 59.3 cts. at the end, or from 18 per cent to 88 per cent more than the cost in Cambridge. Metcalf & Eddy show that from the foregoing information it can only be concluded that under labor conditions as they exist in other neighboring cities, a fair average labor cost for pipe laying work, reduced to the uniform basis of $2 per day and 60 hours per week, would be about 42 cts. per foot, with 50 cts. as a maximum. Of course individual pieces of work would often exceed the aver- age and others would frequently fall considerably below it. As against these fair costs, this work cost the city of Boston, on the same basis of hours and wages, about 70 cts. per foot for the three years prior to July, 1907. or from 10 to 70 per cent in excess of its reasonable cost. Reduced to the basis of hours and wages, at the time of the report (i. e., 44 hours per week and $2.25 per day), the fair aver- age labor cost as estimated upon the basis of cost in other cities would be 63.7 cts. per foot, with 76.6 cts. as a reasonable maximum, against which the average cost for the previous 2% years (on the same basis) was equivalent to $1.081 per foot, an excess of 44.2 cts. per foot, or 69 per cent, over the fair average cost. It is difficult to estimate the total excess cost resulting from this inefficiency of labor. The lengths of pipe laid from which the average costs were computed including only those jobs on which there were no special difficulties which might render them not comparable with other jobs, and including no rock excavation constitute but a small part of the total pipe of these sizes (6 to 12 ins.) actually laid. It is probable that on the jobs involving special difficulties, where the actual labor costs must have been greater, the excess over a reasonable cost was also larger ; and on contract jobs, which have usually been done at a less cost than the day labor jobs, the excess over a reasonable cost would be less. The total length of 6-in. to 12-in. pipe laid in the year 1906-7, as stated in the last annual report of the Boston Water Department, was 57,949 ft. If the excess labor cost on all of this may properly be taken as 44.2 cts. per foot on the $2.25 per day basis, equiva- lent to 39.2 cts. on the $2 per day basis, then the city actually paid $22,000 more than it should have done for labor alone, in laying pipe of 6-in. to 12-in. diameter in 1907. The total length of main pipes laid in the year 1906-7 was 71,307 ft. Since the inefficiency of labor is not confined to work upon small sizes of pipe, and is experienced in some degree upon the contract work as well as upon that done by day labor, the engi- neers estimate that this inefficiency resulted in a total excess of cost of pipe laying, for labor alone, amounting to something like $20,000, and possibly much more, for the year ending January 31, 1907. Cost of Water Pipe Laying and Placing Hydrants at Atlantic City. Mr. Kenneth Allen gives the following data relative to the laying of pipe at Atlantic City, N. J., in 1905. The work was done by the Water Department. A 4-in. pipe line, 5,000 ft long, 670 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. was laid in a trench 40 ins. deep, in sand requiring no shoring or pumping. The average force employed was as follows: Per 8 hr. Day. Trenching and back filling: 10 men at $1.50 .......................... $15.00 % foreman at $2.00 ..................... 1.00 Total, 292 lin. ft. at 5.5 cts ............ $16.00 Pipe Laying: 4 pipe handlers at $1.75 ................. $ 7.00 2 calkers at $2.50 ....................... 5.00 1 lead man at $2.00 ..................... 2.00 % foreman at $2.00 ..................... 1.00 Total, 292 lin. ft. at 5.1 cts .......... .$15.00 The total cost per lineal foot of 4-in. pipe was: Cts. per ft. 19.66 Ibs. cast iron pipe at 1.11 cts ........ 21.59 Specials, at 2 % cts. per Ib ................. 1.69 Valves and boxes ........................ 6.26 0.45 Ibs. lead at 4.9 cts. per ton ........ 2.22 0.024 Ibs. Jute, 5V 2 cts. per ton .......... 0.13 0.28 Ibs. coke ........................... 0.08 Hauling at 75 cts. per ton ................ 0.80 Trenching, as above detailed ............. 5.50 Pipe laying, as above detailed ............ 5.10 Watchman ............................... 0.60 Superintendence ........ . ................ 1.25 Total .............................. 45.22 The average cost of setting 10 hydrants (4 in.) was as follows per hydrant: Material ................................. $3.26 3 days (24 hrs.) at $1.50 ................ 4.58 Total ................................ $7.76 The following was the cost of 4,300 ft. of 8-in. pipe: Per. ft. 46.5 Ibs. pipe at $22 ton.. ____ . ..... $0.511 1.04 Ibs. lead at 4.9 cts ................... 0.054 Jute at 5% cts ........................... 0.023 Specials, valves, hauling, etc .............. 0.217 Labor . . 0.299 Total $1.095 The following was the cost of 3,200 ft. of 10-in. pipe: Per ft 68.7 Ibs. pipe $0.762 2.04 Ibs. lead 0.098 Jute 0.046 Specials, valves, hauling, etc 0.124 Labor 0.560 Total , ..$1.590 WATER-WORKS. 671 The following was the cost of 3,600 ft. of 12 -in. pipe: Per ft. 84.3 ibs. pipe ...$0.936 2.77 Ibs. lead 0.123 Jute 0.043 Specials, valves, hauling, etc 0.273 Labor 0.790 Total $2.165 It will be noted that the labor cost for the 8, 10 and 12-in. pipe was abnormally high, said to be due to expensive crossings of other pipe lines and to the presence of adjacent gas pipes, etc., which had to be cared for. Cost of Laying a 14-In. Pipe Line, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.* The work consisted of laying 750 ft. of 14 in. bell and spigot pipe at Wilkes-Barre, Pa., in October, 1905. The work was done by company labor and the digging was easy. The pipe was distribut- ed with a truck on a narrow gage track along the trench. The pipes were placed in the trench by a hand-operated derrick spanning the trench. The cost of the pipe line was as follows: Materials : Total. Per ft 62 pieces 14-inch pipe, 77,773 Ibs $ 937.16 $1.25 6 pieces 14-inch bends, 2,852 Ibs 74.87 10 Freight on pipe and bends 50.39 .067 1,421 Ibs. lead at $0.05 72.05 .096 68 Ibs. hemp at $0.09 6.12 .008 Total cost of material $1,140.59 $1.521 Labor : Total. Per ft. Excavating and distributing pipe, 64 days at $1.74 $ 111.36 $0.148 Laying and calking, 213/9 days at $1.74 37.12 .050 Covering over, 122/9 days at $1.74 23.01 Covering over, 2 days at $1.79 3.58 .035 Superintendence and engineering 12.20 .016 $ 187.27 $0.249 Total cost of material and labor $1,327.86 $1.770 For the above information we are indebted to Mr. Douglas Bunt- Ing, Chief Engineer, Lehigh & Wilkes-Barre Coal Co. Cost of Water Pipe Laid at Alliance, O. Mr. L. L. Tribus gives the following costs of work done in 1894, the material being loam and clay excavated to such a depth that 4 ft. of earth would be left on top of each class of pipe after backfilling: Size of pipe in ins 46 8 10 12 Wt. of pipe, Ibs. per ft... 19 30y 2 44 62 79 Lbs. special per ft 0.4 0.76 1.1 1.55 1.9 Lbs. lead per ft 0.4 0.66 1.0 1.25 1.5 Lbs. yarn per ft 0.02 0.025 0.05 0.08 0.1 Total length in ft 2,890 9,760 1,860 3,320 2,930 ^Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 7, 1906. 672 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost Per Lin. . . . 4 Foot. 6 Laid. 8 10 12 ...$0.2360 $0 .3780 $0.5350 $0.7470 $0.9400 Specials and valves. ... .0120 ... .0056 .0189 .0078 .0268 .0110 .0374 .0145 .0470 .0190 .0020 .0330 .0500 .0630 .0750 Yarn ... .0014 .0018 .0035 .0056 .0070 .1240 .1210 .1287 .1480 .1902 ... .0370 .0346 .0313 .0542 .0463 Total $0.4360 $0.5951 $0.7863 $1.0697 $1.3245 This work was done by laborers and men employed by the water company and does not include cost of superintendence. The 4-ft. cover over the pipe was in some cases exceeded. The digging was comparatively easy with little ground water to bother. Mr. Tribus informs me that the wages paid were: Laborers, $1.25; pipe han- dlers/ $1.50 ; and calkers, $2.25, per 10 -hour day. Cost of Water Pipe and Service Connections at Porterville, Cal. Mr. P. E. Harroun gives the following data on laying 4, 6, 8 and 10-in. water pipe and making service connections, at Porterville, Cal., in 1904. The work was done by company labor, and the workmen were very inefficient. All trenches were iy 2 ft. wide and 3% ft. deep in a heavy adobe (clay), except for short stretches in sand as hereafter noted. The streets were not paved, but cov- ered with 4 ins. of hard rolled clay and gravel which required a 4-horse plow to break through. In backfilling, a "go devil" was used to throw the material into the trench wherever practicable, and water from street hydrants was used to consolidate the back fill. Cost of 4-in. water pipe line (2,846 ft. long, of which 900 ft. were in sand) : Per ft. Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0.070 Two horses trenching, at 15 cts. per hr 0.001 Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr. . . . Yarners, at 22 % cts. per hr Labor pouring lead, at 20 cts. per hr Calkers, at 25 cts. per hr 0.010 0.005 0.004 0.008 Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.011 Two horses backfilling, at 15 cts. per hr 0.004 Distribution of materials, at 60 cts. per ton 0.005 Miscellaneous labor 0.004 Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.017 Timekeeper 0.002 Total cost of laying per ft $0 J 56 The cost of materials for this 4-in. pipe line was as follows: Per ft. Pipe (2,820 ft, 30 short tons), $44.40 $0.461 Specials (4,462 Ibs.), at 3% cts 0.051 Valves (9), at $9.40 0.030 Hydrants (5), at $28.60 0.050 Lead (2,010 Ibs.), at 5.3 cts 0.038 Yarn (105 Ibs.), at 5.4 cts 0.002 Tools 0.015 Miscellaneous 0.006 Total materials per ft $0.653 WATER-WORKS. 673 Cost of 6-in. water pipe line (838 ft. long, of which 300 ft. were in sand) : Per ft. Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0.075 Two horses trenching, at 15 cts. per hr 0.001 Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.017 Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.013 Yarners, at 22% cts. per hr 0.005 Labor pouring, at 20 cts. per hr 0.007 Calkers, at 25 cts. per hr 0.010 Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.012 Two horses backfilling, at 15 cts. per hr 0.004 Miscellaneous 0.005 Distribution of materials, at 60 cts. ton 0.012 Foreman* at 40 cts. per hr 0.018 Timekeeper 0.002 Total cost of laying per ft $0.181 The cost of materials for this 6-in. pipe line was as follows: Per ft Pipe (816 ft, 13.12 tons), at $43.40 per ton $0.679 Specials (1,420 Ibs.), at 3*4 cts . 0.055 Valves (10), at $15.65 0.187 Hydrants (9), at $29.85 0.320 Lead (804 Ibs.), at 5.3 cts 0.052 Yarn (42 Ibs.), at 5.4 cts 0.003 Tools 0.016 General 0.011) Total materials per ft $1.322 Cost of 8-in. water pipe line (2,558 ft long, of which 806 ft. were in sand) : Per ft. Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0.071 Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.016 Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.016 Yarners, at 22% cts. per hr 0.006 Labor pouring, at 20 cts. per hr 0.006 Calkers, at 25 cts. per hr 0.013 Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.012 Two horses backfilling, at 15 cts. per hr 0.004 Miscellaneous 0.004 Distributing materials, at 60 cts. per hr 0.016 Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.017 Timekeeper 0.002 Total cost of laying per ft $0.183 The cost of materials for this 8-in. pipe line was as follows: Per ft Pipe (2,512 ft, 57.61 tons), at $43.40 $0.978 Specials (4,056 Ibs.), at 3& cts 0.052 Valves (5), at $24 0.047 Lead (3,618 Ibs.), at 5.3 cts 0.076 Yarn (189 Ibs.), at 5.4 cts 0.004 Tools 0.01ft Miscellaneous 0.00! Total materials per ft $1.1S< 674 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of 10-in. water pipe line (124 ft. of pipe, 14 ft. ef specials; total, 138 ft.) : Per ft. Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0.174 Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.022 Labor yarning, at 20 cts. per hr 0.002 Labor pouring, at 20 cts. per hr 0.002 Labor calking, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr.' 0.060 Labor miscellaneous, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 Distribution of materials, at 60 cts. ton 0.020 Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.016 Timekeeper 0.002 Total labor per ft $0.343 The cost of materials for this 10-in. pipe line was as follows: Per ft. Pipe (124 ft. 3.74 tons), at $43.40 $1.179 Specials (603 Ibs.), at 3% cts 0.178 Valves (1), at $34.60 0.251 Lead (268 Ibs.), at 5.3 cts 0.105 Yarn (14 Ibs.), at 5.4 cts 0.005 Tools , 0.015 Miscellaneous 0.009 Total materials per ft $1.742 Cost of service connections (%-in. screw pipe): Each. Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0.613 Tapping and making, at 40 cts. per hr 1.003 Tapping and helper, at 20 cts. per hr 0.289 Backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.206 Total labor per connection $2.111 The cost of materials for each service connection was as follows: Each. Goosenecks and cocks ..$2.48 Fittings 0.40 Tools ($68) t.88 Tapping machine ($81) 1.03 Total materials and tools per connection $4.79 It will be noted that the full cost of the tools and tapping ma- chine is charged to these 78 connections, making the cost of each unusually high. Assuming, as above stated, that the trenches averaged 1% ft. wide and Z% ft. deep, the cost per cubic yard of trench work was as follows: Cents. Digging trench 38 Digging bell-holes . 8 V a Backfilling g% Total per cu. yd ,55 An Unusually Expensive Piece of Work. "G. S. W. '88" in The Technic of 1896, gives the following, the material in all cases being clay: Wages of laborers 15 cts., pipe handlers 16 to 17% cts., fore- man 20 cts. per hour ; depth of trench, 4 to 5% f t. : WATER-WORKS. 675 Example A Size of pipe, ins 24 Length of pipe, ft . 2,550 Excavation, cu. yds 2,710 Surplus earth,* cu. yds. . 1,300 Cost of excavation per ft. .$0.2725 Cost of pipe laying, per ft .2480 Cost of bell holes, per ft.. .1500 Cost of backfilling, per ft ,1790 Cost of ramming, per ft. . .792?t Cost of tile, hose work, per ft. . . Cost of loading excess earth, ft 0895 Cost of carting excess earth, ft 0636 Total labor cost per ft $1.7953 Cost of excavation, cu. yd. 0.2562 Cost of backfilling, cu. yd. 0.1684 Cost of ramming cu. yd.. 0.7461f Cost of tile, hose work, cu. yd Swelling of material on loosening 44% B 24 2,200 1,963 862 $0.333 .182 .128 ' .191 .107$ .074 .046 .055 $1.116$ 0.373 0.216 C 12-16 6,241 3,441 1,033 $0.2061 .2089 .0954 .1228 .2896t .0358 .0635 $1.0318|1 .3736 .2226 .5434f D 10 8,969 4,508 $6.2416 .0939 .0098 .1360 .1322f .0200 .0025 .0046 $0.6433 .4807 .2706 .8618t 0.084 30. to 44 1/ 2 %* 20% *This surplus earth was hauled away in wagons, after filling the trenches and leaving a 4-in. crown to provide for settlement. 1,400 feet of this trench was backfilled without ramming, using water instead ; ramming, however, was much more effective in compacting the clay. fRammed dry in 4-in. layers. JRammed wet; the portion that was rammed dry cost $1.40 per ft. total. 1 1 This total does not check with the items, so there must be an error somewhere. With labor at $1.25 for 8 hours and material clay as before, streets paved with wood. "G. S. W." also gives the following: Example E. F. G. H. Size of pipe in ins 12 12 10 8 Depth of trench, ft 5 5 5 5 Length of trench, ft 1,048 2,475 2,592 2,049 Cost of excavation, per ft $0.186 $0.134 $0.1920 $0.1442 pipe laying, per ft 257 .162 .1218 .0678 backfilling, per ft 450 .390 .3949 .3632 hauling surplus, per ft 014 .011 .0101 .0194 Total labor cost per ft $0.907 $0.697 $0.7188 $0.5746 The two most striking features in the foregoing data are (1) the enormous swelling of the clay upon loosening and casting it out of the trenches, and (2) the extraordinary high cost of ramming the clay in backfilling. It is difficult to explain either of these items except upon the assumption that the loosened clay dried out when exposed to the sun and air, forming hard rock-like clods which no amount of ramming seems to have consolidated effectually. Adding water as in Example B seems to have had no very good effect in consolidating the backfill, although it was less expensive than ramming. But it is a well-known fact that water makes dry clay swell, and it does not cause layers of hard lumpy clay to 676 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. settle in a trench except as a result of weeks of slow seepage of rains. It will be noted that all this work was extraordinarily expensive. jven the pipe laying cost double the usual amount. We may infer that this work was not done by contract but by day labor for a municipality or a company, and that the foreman did not secure "a day's work" from the men which is so often the case in municipal day-labor work. Cost of a 6- in. Pipe Line in Ohio. Mr. E. H. Cowan has given me the following data: A 6-in. pipe line, 1% miles long, was laid in an Ohio city by contract, the cost per foot of pipe line to the contractor being as follows: Per ft. 33.74 Ibs. of 6-in. pipe, at $24 per short ton $0.405 0.67 Ib. of specials, at 2% cts. per Ib 0.018 Hydrant connections, 4-in 0008 Hydrants, $26 each 0.066 Gates ($12.60 each) and gate boxes ($3.09 each) 0.054 0.74 Ib. lead, 4% cts. per Ib 0.033 0.07 Ib. jute packing, 3% cts. per Ib 0.003 Labor, 18% to 26 cts. per ft. averaging 0.211 Teaming, 49 y 2 cts. per short ton 0.009 Miscellaneous items 0.008 Total $o~8l5 The working force was as follows: 1 foreman, at $2.50 per 10-hr, day $ 2.50 2 sub-foremen, at $2.00 4.00 9 men in pipe gang (including 2 calkers), at $1.75 15.75 32 laborers digging trench, at $1.50 48.00 12 laborers backfilling, at $1.50 18.00 1 waterboy, at $1.00 1.00 Total, 423 lin. ft., at $0.211 $89.25 At times the back filling gang was engaged in trench digging. Trenches were 5 ft. 2 ins. deep. The digging ranged from the easiest spading to the hardest picking, the average being "average earth." Could the contractor have been present all the time, the cost might have been less. The backfilling was done by hand, and it was not rammed, but the trench was flushed with water. No material was hauled away. The work was done in August and September, 1903, and there was very little rain. It was not neces- sary to brace the trench except at a few spots. Cost of Water Main and Service Pipe Laid in a Southern City. Mr. C. D. Barstow gives cost of shallow trenching and pipe lay- ing in a southern city, where negro laborers were used. From the data given by him I have compiled the following tables of cost : For the most part the trenches were 15 ins. wide at bottom and 20 ins. at top, and 3 ft. deep. Some trenching was done using a team on a drag scraper, 20 ins. wide; then the trench was made 3 ft. wide at top. Using teams was more economical, as may be seen by comparing C with D in the foregoing table. After a rain, however, the scrapers could not be used to advantage. In using a plow for loosening the earth, several feet of chain are fastened to the end of the plow beam, and one or more men ride the beam ; in WATER-WORKS. 677 this way plowing may be done in a trench 4 ft. deep, one horse walking on one side and one on the other side of the trench. A blacksmith was kept busy sharpening about 60 picks a day. There was a night watchman. The pipe was distributed by contract at 34 cts. per ton. TABLE OF COST OF TRENCHING AND PIPELAYING IN THE SOUTH. Wages per 10-hr, day for negro laborers, $1.25 ; for calkers, $1.75 ; for white foremen, $3.00 ; for teams, $3.25 ; for horse ridden by boy, $1.50. Job A. B. c. D. B. F. Pipe, ins 10 1 6 8 10 8 8 Length, ft 11,000 6,000 6,215 11,352 2,636 21,856 Width trench ft 2 Depth trench, ft 3.5 3 3 3 3 3 Material a 4 8 No. laborers digging 33 30 40 31 45 46 No. teams plowing 3% 5 2V 2 Team time, cts. per ft 0.80 0.62 0.60 Labor, digging, cts. ft 6.66 2.74 5.19 2.68 2.12 4.00 Foreman, digging, cts. ft .... Labor, pipelaying, cts. ft 0.50 2.04 0.23 0.31 0.63 0.21 0.77 0.12 0.94 0.20 1.12 Foreman, pipelaying, cts. ft. 0.39 0.17 0.21 0.18 0.24 Bell hole digging, cts. ft Bell hole digging, foreman, 2.70 .... 0.77 0.98 0.93 1.16 cts. per ft 0.27 0.16 0.21 0.18 0.18 Calking, cts. per ft 1.30 0.52 0.64 0.63 0.75 Backfill and tamp : Labor, cts., per ft 4.32 s l.OO 5 1.018 2.09 1.42* 0.95 9 Foreman, cts. per ft 0.36 0.22 0.22 0.32 0.18 0.18 Team,* cts. per ft 0.36 0.41 Horse ridden by boy, cts. ft. . 0.07 0.09 Total cost, cts. per ft 18.54 4.19 9.46 8.91 7.41 9.79 *Backfill with drag scraper. drenching in an old street, 1,200 ft. in very muddy ground. Two rainy spells in 18 days of work. Then 10-in. pipe was laid for 3,440 ft.; then 4,038 ft. of 12-in. pipe were laid for 1^4 cts. per ft. less than it cost for the 10-in. pipe; then 3,270 ft. of 8-in. pipe were laid for 2*4 cts. per ft. less than it cost for the 10-in. 2 Cemented clay and gravel requiring hard picking. Frequent rains. 3 The backfilling and tamping were done most thoroughly, a stretch of 2,550 ft. requiring 3 days for 30 men. < 03 . CO Joeg i-H rH 02 P rH d rH rH C<5 rH C coco p^ O int- t- os -^ co co rH in egc-ooosc-OL oo os in t- co ^ fi co rH m rf eg o co o 2 co eg I-H in I-H 06 TJ< co U 9- ,_f ,-4 w ooasegcooooo +-> aseg ^f oooscoo >> in eg CD d t^ I-H co as H 6 '*' H ^ & ^cd ^^ | v^'oo eg as in eg o o eg as in oo co o_ fo TJH eg t^ in co to as in t- co oo eg t- oooooooo < oj t~ as t oo eg in o o H S l-o c^ ^ ^ ^ d * o in as co as f w ^ rj in rt< in m m co I-H co K rH eg cocoTt< s/9 " rH* iH ^^ co o oo co in ^ ^ t- in eg rH * o oo ) 1 eg -o-*i oomooo U aJ ooco ft egoo s : co co co co 06 in * in o co co eg as eg i-H in as os eg NO ! 4 ^ T*< rH oo rH eg co m as CQ t& eo eg ^ g'^^rHrH ^ ^ M . ^ eg t- co oo o o tM t- CO CO CO O O i-H 5 4 9 3 I H > J q q i< oj egoo oooinasas 1-5 CO i-H ^ rH rH 00 rH 00 ^3 os eg o co eg oo -*f co "3 dco CD rH incgco"i-H 43 in oo Tt< eg o eg m in 02 co T-H iH eg co c- as t- e ^" co co 43 ti eg I-H c- 1- T-I as co o ry-.j oocoas oooooooo fa _ O - g oo eg O . ooo O ' AX M & ^ ^ 00^ H 4J 5 ^4-5 ^^ t- rH 05 CO * rH rH eg TJ< rt< eg rH -f rH * CD as eg oo in o 06 in* ^ "^ 06 eg o in co co in * in e-i <*i o rH oo eg in oo eg t- co o in I-H I-H as o T*I in * co as egoinininooo Q oooooooo osasasaiasasasas as as ooooooo as as as as as os a> WATER-WORKS. 683 cement for lining is mixed by hand in mixing boxes, and there are two men to mix for the two men who line. As the pipe lies on the horses it is lined for its whole length and half way up each side. Then the cement is allowed to set, after which the pipe is rolled over and the remaining half lined. After the cement has been smoothly spread about ^-in. thick, on the inside of the pipe, and irregularities which appear are corrected by the use of the "nigger- head," which is a stiff brush on the end of a long handle. This brush in the hands of a skillful workman can bring the interior of the cement pipes to a very smooth surface. At this point it may be well to describe the operation of lining the smaller sizes of pipe. The shells having been punched, rolled and riveted, and rings put in in precisely the same manner as pre- viously described, are stood upright on an elevator which descends into a pit. In this pit is the cone, so-called, which has an external diameter equal to the internal diameter of the shell when lined in other Words, about an inch smaller in diameter than the shell placed and held directly over it on the elevator. The cone revolves on a vertical axis and cement mixed by machinery is put in at the top of the shell as it stands on the elevator over the cone. The top of the cone, extending for a few inches into the bottom of the shell, holds the cement from falling through into the pit. The elevator holding the shell is then lowered and the cone revolving at the same time spreads the cement smoothly and uniformly on the inside of the shell. The next operation is filling and grouting the pipe. The shells are stood on end around the edge of a platform which is about 6 ft. above the floor. A clamp is placed around the bottom of the shell about 8 ins. from the lower end, and the jacket lowered from above fits into the clamp at the bottom. The jacket is kept sym- metrical with the shell at the bottom by means of this clamp, and at the top by means of four wedges. The grout is merely a mixture of neat cement and water, mixed to such a consistency that it will pour readily, and is mixed by machinery in a cylindrical mixer which has four paddles. After being thoroughly mixed, the grout is poured into a metal bucket which is suspended by a chain with a wheel and is carried on a track around the platform. The grout is poured from the bucket between the shell and jacket of the pipe that has been stood around the edge of the platform. After the grout has been poured, the pipes are allowed to set twelve hours, when the cement is usually hard enough to permit of handling them. The pipes are then loaded upon a truck, taken to the yard, cleaned, and painted with a coal-tar paint. After staying in the yard about two weeks they are sufficiently hard to permit of being loaded upon a wagon and carted to the trench. Tables VI and VII show respectively the cost of making and laying the largest cement-lined pipes which have been ma at Plymouth. Town labor, only, is used, and $2 is the wage pa, or a working day of eight hours, for each laborer. The foreman re- ceives $3. The pipe-making gang numbers about 16 men, but only 4 are 684 HAXDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE VIII. COST OF BUILDING 60,221 FT. 24-lN. WROUGHT IRON CEMENT-LINED SUPPLY PIPE IN 1878-9. Rights of way, land damages, etc $ 1,579.14 Cast-iron pipe, special, castings, valves, etc 5,024.08 Wrought-iron sheets for pipe : 441,502 Ibs. at 2.43 cts... $10,728.50 1,449,562 Ibs. at 2.30 cts 33,339.92 44,068.42 Making pipes 9 ft. long: 1,593 pieces at $2.15 and 5,073 pieces at $2.00 13,570.95 Making joint rings, inside rings and special rings : 7,061 rings, weighing 646,310 Ibs., at 1.95 cts., ap- proximately, per Ib 12,615.14 Total labor, 24,775 days, at $1.28, approximate average; day labor being paid from $1 to $1.25 ; foremen, $3.50 '. ... 31,807.11 Cement, 20,621 bbls. Rosendale 20,180.50 Freight, cartage, etc 4,148.91 Engineering, incidentals and miscellaneous expenses, amounting to 8.32 per cent, approximately 10,919.67 $143,913.92 Deduct land damages 1,579.14 Net amount $142,334.78 Cost per foot $2.36 Equivalent cost per foot for year 1908 (estimated) .... $3.02 TABLE IX. COST OF BUILDING 18,450 FT. 26-lN. WROUGHT-IRON CEMENT-LINED PIPE. Per Ib., cts. Wrought-iron sheets, No. 12, Bir- mingham gage, 635,679 Ibs., at.. 3.32 Trimming, rolling, riveting and fin- ishing 2,066 pipe 9 ft. long, at $2.50, equivalent to 0.78 Rings 0.90 Total, 1875-6 Total, 1908 Cement (Rosendale), 74,071 $1.36 and $1.53% per bbl Contract for laying Valves Specials Lumber Contract work . 5.0 4.4 bbls., at Total Cost per foot (including 11.4 per cent for engineering and contingencies) Actual cost in 1875-6. $21,230 5,020 5,590 10,170 28,310 237 85 608 141 $71,391 $3.87 Equivalent prices as of 1908. $18,670 4,430 4,920 7,500 42,465 237 85 1,074 150 $79,531 $4.31 kept on the regular gang and the others are hired as they are needed. Portland, Me. In the years 1868-9 the Portland Water Co. laid a 20-in. wrought-iron cement-lined supply main, about 15.2 miles long, from Sebago Lake to the city of Portland. Data as to the cost of this main are unfortunately lacking. In the years 1875-9, however, a second wrought-iron cement- WATER-WORKS. 685 TABLE X. ESTIMATE OF COST OF REPRODUCING CEMENT-LINED PIPE IN PORTLAND. Cw Ctf C -jj 3 3 C tJo- || H 26-in. Cost of sheets, per lb.. $0.0342 $0.0275 Cost of cement, per bbl 1.40 Cost of joint castings per lb 0.0280 Cost of making pipe, per lb 0.00756 Weight per ft., Ibs 37.0 Bbls. cement per foot.. 0.405 Weight joint rings, lb..71.0 Weight joint rings, per ft 8.3 Cost per linear foot of: Sheets $1.26 Making pipe 0.28 Joint castings 0.23 Cement 0.57 Gates, valves, etc 0.05 Labor and laying.... 1.48* Sum ,$3.87 1.00 0.0275 0.0125 $1.02 0.46 0.23 0.40 0.04 2.22 $4.37 Total actual cost, in- cluding all special obstacles, engineer- ing and contingen- cies $3.86 Ratio of total cost to sum of items above given 1.00 Total estimated cost, including engineering and contingencies Fair value to use is estimate on which 14% for engineer- ing and contingen- cies is to be added $4.37 3.85 | 24-in. 20.-in. $0.0233 $0.0275 $0.0275 0.98 0.0195 0.00718 31.4 0.342 91.0 10.7 $0.73 0.23 0.21 0.33 0.08 0.53 $2.11 1.00 0.0275 0.0125 $0.86 0.39 0.29 0.34 0.07 0.80 $2.75 1.00 0.0275 0.0125 21.0 0.310 70.0 8.2 $0.58 0.26 0.23 0.31 0.06 1.25 $2.69 $2.39 1.13 $1.06 $3.10 2.85 2.72 2.50 *The contract price at ordinary depths of cut, and exclusive of rock, was 70 cts. per lin. ft. The difference, 78 cts. per ft., repre- sents the additional allowances for extra depth and for rock and for tunnel, and for all contingencies because of the character of the ground. These additional costs would naturally be somewhat higher on the 26-in. line than on the 24-in. line, and the route of the 20-in. line covers substantially the same space as that occupied by both the 26-in. and 24-in. lines. 686 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. lined supply main was laid from the lake to the city. The upper portion of this, approximately 3^ miles in length, was 26 ins. in diameter ; the lower portion, approximately 11.4 miles in length, 24 ins. diameter. The actual cost of this compound main was. fortunately developed from the books of the company and is given in Tables VIII and IX, as some of the unit costs to be derived therefrom are interesting and valuable. It should be stated that the static pressures upon this supply main are approximately as follows : 4 miles, under 40 Ibs. per sq. in. 2.7 miles, under 40 60 Ibs. per sq. in. 4.9 miles, under 60 80 Ibs. per sq. in. 2.3 miles, under 80 100 Ibs. per sq. in. 0.9 miles, under 100120 Ibs. per sq. in. The main is stated ,to have been built with a factor of safety of approximately 3, out the computation of the factor of safety under several assumed heads indicates that the actual factor of safety is probably not in excess of 1.5 at the points of maximum pressure, assuming always static pressures, and ignoring alike the decrease in pressure due to friction and the increase in pressure due to water hammer or other causes. The cost of this 26-in. pipe line was excessive, owing to deep cut work, a considerable amount of which was in quicksand. Mr. Allen Hazen, who was one of the engineers retained by the Water District in the valuation of the Portland waterworks, made the interesting analysis of these items of cost given in Table X. Cost of Lining Iron Service Pipes With Cement. Mr. Fayette F. Forbes gives the following relative to lining wrought iron serv- ice pipes with cement. The pipe is bought in short lengths, 16 ft., and is 1 to 2 ins. diam. before lining. The lining reduces the diam- eter a little less than ^ in. Such pipes have given perfect satis- faction for 25 years in Brookline, Mass. In 1900 the cost of lining a 1-in. pipe was 1% cts. per ft. ; a 2-in. pipe, 3 cts. per ft. A gang of 6 men will line 4,000 to 5,000 ft. of 1-in. pipe per day. The gang is as follows: 1 man mixing cement. 1 man filling press and overseeing. 1 man working pipes to the press and from the press to the con- ing frames. 2 men (one at each end of pipe) doing the coning. In 1898 the cost of labor and cement for lining 9,000 ft. of 1-in. and 3,000 ft. of 2-in. pipe was as follows: Labor : Preparing pipes $65.79 Cementing 66.65 Grouting 22.66 Reaming 39.98 Materials : 23 bbls. natural cement at $1.10 25.30 Coal for heating shop 6.00 Grand total . . .$226738 WATER-WORKS. 687 Which gives 1.5 cts. per ft. for lining the 1-in. pipe, and 3.03 ct& per ft. for the 2-in. pipe. A barrel of cement will line and ground the following lengths : 1-in. pipe, 700 ft. 1^4 -in. pipe, 500 ft. 2-in. pipe, 300 ft. Extreme care must be used to get uniformly good results. The following methods are best : Use wrought iron pipe in 16 ft. lengths. Straighten all bent pipes. Remove couplings, turn them around and screw on the other end, to avoid trouble in putting lengths to- gether. Examine for defective welds. Run a cutting tool through pipe 'to remove scale, dirt, and projections of iron from the welds. Use American natural cement for lining (Portland is too heavy), and use it neat. Sift all cement to remove pieces of unground rock, wood, paper, etc. Use cement quickly after wetting. One man mixes cement and water, preparing only enough for 6 pipes at a time, and constantly working it over to keep at right thickness. If any of the batch is left over, throw it away. The pipes are filled full of the cement mortar, using a press made by the Union Water Meter Co., of Worcester, Mass., who also make the cones and other tools. Cones are passed through the pipe twice, and the cement that is pushed out is used in the next pipe, except that from the last pipe filled by the batch of cement, which is thrown away. While the cone is being drawn through, the pipe is slowly revolved to keep the cone as nearly in the center of the pipe as possible. However, results are satisfactory even if the lining is quite uneven in thickness. The cones are washed after each pipe is lined. Before the cones are drawn through, a piece of pipe 12 to 18 ins. long is screwed to each end of the pipe to be lined, to en- sure a perfect lining at the ends. After the pipes have been lined 3 to 5 days, until the cement is quite hard, a thin grout of cement is run through them, by elevating one end of the pipe and pouring the grout in. A rubber cone is then drawn through, leaving a smooth, impervious lining. The ends of the pipe are then reamed out to fit the composition ferrules, and the threads are cleaned. Ferrules are made of best steam metal, %-in. diam. on the inside (for a 1-in. pipe). Double ferrules are used where pipes are screwed together, and single ferrules for connections at the main. These pipes can be bent without damage to the lining, if care is used. Cost of Setting Meters and Laying Service Pipes.* Mr. W. H. Shillinglaw gives the cost of setting water meters during 1908 by the Water Works Department, Brandon, Manitoba, as follows : Crown meters % in. % in. 1 in. 1% in. No. of meters set 499 20 5 2 Cost of labor $295.85 $20.55 $5.97 $2.60 Cost per meter 0.593 1.02 1.20 1.30 Cost of materials 145.73 10.24 1.84 Cost per meter 0.282 0.51 0.37 Total cost per meter 0.875 1.53 1.57 * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 20, 1909. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. These meters were all set in basements by day labor by city em- ployes. The cost for %-in. meters varied fiom 20 cts. to $2 for labor. A large number of these meters were installed on old serv- ices and entailed considerable alteration in service pipes and addi- tional expense. The cost of setting meters on new services varied from 20 cts. to 50 cts. for labor. The cost of laying water service pipes during 1908 was as fol- lows : % inch. % No. of services 92 No. of feet laid 3,051 Cost of labor $1,030.73 $ Cost per ft 0.34 Cost per service 11.38 Cost of supplies 857.38 Cost per service 9.32 Average length of service, feet 33 These services were laid in 10-ft. trenches in sand, inch. 7 290 96.69 0.333 13.81 121.90 17.41 41 gravel, some dry and a considerable number very wet and requiring pump- CITY ENGINEER'S OFFICE. installing. . . I beg to report the following . . . . ... New Service . . Brandon, June 23, 1908. labor and material used in for Premises repairing No . . ,16th... . . Street for Mr..... . Installed by . . . .Giddings & Wymi Walker in . . . Ser. No 1162 Labor 131 hrs. at 25 % 3 .37 59 hrs. at 17 $ $ 10\.32 Length of trench 44 it. Materials 44 ft. in. J lead pipe $ 6 .16 ft. in. lead pipe ft. in. iron pipe ft. in. iron pipe / Jin. Corp'n Cocks .99 / J in. Kerb Cocks 1 .85 1 Service Box 1\.87 in. Unions in. Elbows in Check Valve * in. Lead Pipe 6 Ibs. per yd. in. Lead Pipe 10 Ibs. per yd. I 24\.56 Signed Wm. Smith, Per R.M.... Foreman. Fig. 6. Blank for Reporting Cost of Setting Water Meters. WATER-WORKS. 689 ing. Refilling was well rammed. The cost of labor includes mak- ing up service, tapping main, etc. All work was done by day labor by city employes. The cost of labor varied from 26 to 50 cts. per lin. ft. The %-in. services were all made up for two Mj-in. branches to serve two premises. The form employed for reporting costs is shown in Fig. 6 ; this form was used for both services and meters, the foreman simply filled in the proper words. Cost of Meters and Setting, Cleveland, O. Mr. Edward W. Bemis gives the following relative to the cost of setting %-in. Trident meters in Cleveland, Ohio, during 1903. Some 20,000 meters of this size had been set during 1902 to 1903 inclusive. A %-in. meter costs $6.50, and the cost of setting 13,400 meters in 1903 averaged $6.87, making a total cost of $13.37. These meters were set as follows : 857 meters in brick vaults. 3,174 meters in basement settings. 9,378 meters in sewer pipe settings. The cost of these different types of settings was as follows: Sewer Pipe Setting. 4 ft. of 15 in. sewer pipe $1.46 Frost cover 0.18 Ring and cover 1.42 2 ells 0.12 2 couplings 0.08 7 ft. of %-in. pipe 0.35 Labor 4.01 Total .$7.62 Basement Setting. Brick $0.12 Cement 0.05 Cover 0.30 Fittings 0.25 Labor .... 3.23 Total $3.95- Brick Vault Setting. 350 brick $2.45 1% sacks cement 0.38 2 couplings 0.08 2 ells 0.12 1 nipple 0.06 1 union 0.24 1 ring and cover 3.21 Labor 2.92 Total $9.46 One meter reader is employed for every 1,000 meters, and he is accompanied by a laborer, when reading meters, to turn off the water where there appears to be waste, while the meter reader waits at the meter to detect running water. Each meter is read every 6 weeks from Mar. 1 to Dec. 1. The cost of operation per meter was as follows in 1903 : Interest and depreciation, estimated at 8% of $13.37 $1.07 Reading meters and clerical work 1.10 Total $2.27 690 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, The prices of meters were: %-in. meter $6.5G %-in. meter 9.45 1-in. meter 13.50 The gang for basement setting is composed of 4 meter setters (at 27% cts. per hr.), and 4 laborers (at 21 cts. per hr.), and a horse and vehicle with driver (at 30 cts.), under a foreman (at 42 cts.). These men work in pairs, 2 men at each meter, and set a meter in 4 hrs. on the average, the range being 1 to 6 hrs., depending on the arrangement of the plumbing, etc. The opposition of plumbers to the use of laborers and meter setters was overcome by employ- ing plumbers to wipe all lead joints. The cost of setting meters in 1907 was as follows: No. set. Av. cost. j-in. meter in basement 2,929 $ 4.22 s-in. meter on sewer pipe....... 1 5.00 i. meter in brick vault 4,368 13.47 i. meter in basement 14 6.44 _.-in. meter in brick vault 9 18.01 L-in. meter in basement 50 7.13 1-in. meter in brick vault 37 15.71 1%-in. meter in basement 10 7.94 1%-in. meter in brick vault 10 24.42 2-in. meter in basement 6 9.96 2-in. meter in brick vault. 27 21.97 3-in. meter in basement 3 30.71 3-in. meter in brick vault 10 31.36 4-in. meter in basement 2 23.83 4-in. meter in brick vault 8 46.78 6-in. meter in brick vault 1 58.01 Cost of Setting Meters and Maintenance, Rochester, N. Y. Mr. George W. Rafter gives the following relative to the cost of set- ting and resetting meters and their maintenance in Rochester, N. Y. The cost of setting 11,500 new meters, during 1893 to 1905, averaged $3.24 per meter, although there were many years when the average was $2.25 or less. The cost includes the proportion- ate part" of the salary of superintendent and meter clerk, and, as the average was only 800 new meters set per year, this element of cost would naturally form a large percentage of the total. About once in 12 years a meter has to be removed and repairs made. The cost of removing, repairing and resetting 11.000 met- ers averaged $4-80 per meter, which is equivalent to about 40 cts. per year per meter. This does not include the cost of current maintenance and inspection of meters in place, which averaged 37 cts. per meter per year for 12 years, although during the last 6 years it averaged only 14 cts. per meter per year, the year of 1904 being only 9 cts. per meter. The first cost of each meter appears to have been about $10. From this it appears that repairs and resetting have averaged 7.7% (77 cts.) of the first cost of each meter per year. During the year 1905, there were 36,100 meters in use In Albany, Kansas City, Lowell, and Rochester, and 4,100, or 11%, of these were removed, repaired and reset. WATER-WORKS. 691 Cost of Operating and Maintaining Meters, Reading, Pa.* The cost of operating and maintaining the meter system of Reading, Pa., for the fiscal year ending April, 1908, was $3,568.12, for an average of 2,012 meters in service. This is at the rate of $1.77 per meter per year; in the preceding fiscal year the rate was $1.75 per meter. The unit costs for the several sub-divisions of operation and maintenance are given by Mr. Emil L. Nuebling, superintendent and engineer of water works, as follows: Repairs $0.878 Clerical service 553 Reading 193 Delivering bills 087 General test 039 Sundry work 015 Stationery, etc 009 Total $1.774 The cost of repairs increased 84 per cent over the previous year, due principally to extensive repairs to large meters. All other costs were lowered considerably. Cost of Placing Hydrants, Chicago.t The standard hydrant adopted by the city of Chicago is the Creiger ; it constitutes about 80 per cent of the total number of hydrants in use in that city. These hydrants are made by the city at its own shops. The fol- lowing data relate to the placing of several double hydrants of the above type, the work being done in 1906 by city forces. The costs include excavating for the connection with the main, excavating for the hydrant base, placing hydrant, backfilling, and making the connections. The trench as a usual thing averaged about 5 ft. in depth. The wages of labor per 8-hour day and cost of materials were as follows: Per day. Assistant foreman $3.62 Timekeeper 3.50 Calker 3.00 Laborers 2.50 Double teams were hired at the rate of $4.50 per day. Single teams were usually furnished by the city and charged for at the rate of $1 per day. The prices paid for materials were as follows: Pipe, 6 in 49c per lin. ft. Lead 6 %c per Ib. Gaskets 5c-per Ib. Coal 14 c per Ib. Special castings 2^c per Ib. The coal was used in the furnace for melting the lead for the joints. Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 21, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Am-il 24. 1907. )2 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, Hydrant at Commercial Ave., N. E., and 83d PI. : Labor : Total. 1 Assistant foreman $ 3.62 % Timekeeper 87 2 Calkers 6.00 6 Laborers 15.00 I Single team 1.00 Total labor $26.42 Material : Pipe, 12 ft. of 6 in $ 5.88 50 Ibs. lead 3.25 Gaskets 10 Coal, 50 Ibs 12 Specials, 220 Ibs 5.50 Total material ..$14.85 Grand total $41.27 The excavation was in clay, which was hard digging. Hydrant at 21st St., between Blue Island and Ashland Aves.: Labor : Total. Assistant foreman $ 3.62 Calker 3.00 II Laborers 27.50 Total labor $34.12 Material : Pipe, 14 ft. 6 in $ 6.86 Lead, 90 Ibs 5.85 Gaskets 25 Coal, 100 Ibs 25 Specials, 237 Ibs 5.92 Total material $19.13 Grand total $53.25 The excavation was in clay, and was hard digging. Hydrant at Rosemont Ave., 140 ft. south of Clark: Labor : Total. Assistant foreman $ 3.62 *4 Timekeeper 87 2 Calkers 6.00 5 Laborers 12.50 Double team 4.50 Total labor $27.49 Material : Pipe, 32 ft. 6 in $15.68 Lead, 70 Ibs 4.55 Gaskets .15 Coal, 25 Ibs 06 Total material $20.44 Grand total $47.93 The excavation was in sand, which was easy digging. Hydrant at northeast corner 24th PI. and Stewart Ave.; Labor : Total 2 Calkers $6.00 6 Laborers 15.00 % single team .50 Total labor $21, 50 WATER-WORKS. 698 Material : Pipe, 38 ft. 8 in $18.62 Leau, 180 Ibs 11.70 Gaskets 50 Coal, 150 Ibs 37 Specials, 543 Ibs 13.57 Total material $66.26 Grand total $87.76 The excavation was in clay, which was hard digging. Hydrant at Winona and Winchester Ave. : Labor : TotaL % Timekeeper $ 0.87 Calker 3.00 3 Laborers 7.50 Va Single team 50 Total labor $11.87 Material : Pipe, 5 ft. 6 in $ 2.45 Lead, 30 Ibs. 1.95 Gaskets 05 Coal, 25 Ibs 06 Specials, 290 Ibs 7.25 Total material $11.76 Grand total $23.63 The excavation was in sand, and was easy digging. Cost of Concrete Vaults for Valves.* Mr. Carroll Beale gives the following : The system of concrete construction for valve casing founda- tions described and illustrated here has been in successful opera- tion in the District of Columbia for nearly a year. The founda- tion, Fig. 7, consists of concrete rings 3 ft. in diameter, 8 ins. and 4 ins. high, 3 ins. thick and reinforced with 16-gage expanded metal. These rings have proven to be not only more economical than the old brick construction, but the department is now enabled to build a foundation in fiv minutes, whereas with the brick con- struction one whole day wa ta required by a bricklayer and his force to construct a foundation 4 ft. deep. To illustrate the economy of these rings, take for example a masonry foundation 4 ft. deep of brick. This required the services of a bricklayer and force one day of eight hours. The bricklayer's force account and material used were as follows: 1 bricklayer at $5 per day $ 5.00 2 laborers at $1.75 per day 3.50 Cart and driver $2.25 per day 2.25 420 red brick at $9 per M 3.78 % bbls. of Portland cement at $1.79 1.31 % cu. yd. sand at $1.20 ^0.40 Total , $16.24 Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 18, 1908. 6i>4 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. For a 4-ft. foundation of concrete, six 8-in. rings are required. These rings in place cost 50 cts. each ; therefore the cost would be $3, as against $16.24 for the brick construction. It is therefore demonstrated that the cost of the concrete foundation is less than 20 per cent the cost of the old brick construction, not taking into consideration the time lost by the bricklayer in moving about the city. The ring, 8 ins. high, cares for a height formerly occupied by Grade . -T JP Gacje Expanded Metal Concrete Rinqs .61 o Wrier Mam Fig. 7. Concrete Vault. 6 sq. ft of brickwork 9 ins. thick, or 72 brick, which at $9 per M is equal to 65 cts., so it may readily be seen that the cost of these rings is less than the cost of the brick alone without mortar and without labor, which last item amounted to ?10.75 per day current expense. An itemized cost of the rings is as follows: 0.0767 bbl. of cement = 1/13 bbl. 0.048 cu. yd. gravel = 1/20 yd. 0.024 cu. yd. sand = 1/40 yd. WATER-WORKS. 695 The cost of one ring therefore is: Cts. Concrete 25 Labor " Steel 16 Total 48 Placing Total for ring in place 50 -i np ill Elevation on C~C Use at B. 4 Req. Fig. 8. Cast Iron Forms. To sum up the relative merits of the brick and concrete con- struction the use of concrete saves the department a current ex- pense of $10.75 per day, avoids the delays attending brick construc- tion, is as readily removed as the brick, and is much stronger. These rings are made in the cast-iron forms shown by Fig. 8, on a smooth platform, and one man is able to make four 8-in. rings in one hour. As illustrative of the economy in reinforced concrete vault con- struction, the accompanying drawings, Figs. 9 to 11, and Table XI, give examples of the types of vaults now being constructed in the HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. District of Columbia. Three of these vaults, 5 ft. 10 ins. by 5 ft. 6 ins. by 11 ft. 7 ins., 5 ft. 9 ins. by 5 ft. by 9 ft., and 6 ft. 2 ins. by 8 ft. 10 ins. by 6 ft., have just been completed at New Jersey Ave. and B St., just north of the United States Capitol, at a cost of $50 each, excluding the cost of the lumber which will be reused. The roofs of these vaults have an ultimate strength of about 3,500 Ibs. per sq. ft., and the flat construction permits of at least 2 ft. more Cnq-Contr Fig. 9. Concrete Vault for Horizontal Valve. This last is a very important item where the mains are shallow head room than can possibly be had where a brick arch is used, and where every inch of head room counts. The vaults may be constructed for approximately one-third the cost of the brick vaults and have a much greater factor of safety than the old brick vaults using 13-in. walls. The drawings and tables explain fully the method of construction without further description. Cost of Dipping Pipes. In a very interesting article by Thomas WATER-WORKS. 697 INFORCED N, D. C. TIE WA MENSIONS AND QU HORIZONTAL VAL Horizont in W 'UOI^BA jo -spX 'no ^ABJQJO'SpA '1 -SPA ' -uo D jo -SPA "no 'SUl ' 'jo Su .9 sui 'joo-g uispo-g ^.j 'apisuj P D t^ O5 ?O OO O'IM * O W ^O'OJ 1 '^rriveo 10 "3 Ifl CO t the conduit, one on each end, and two, back to back, in the mid- dle of each 16 ft. length. These angles were 2x3, with the 2-in. WATER-WORKS. 721 side on the conduit, and the 3-in. side of the angle had small lugs bolted on it at intervals, to receive the 2x12 plank, which was slipped down on the outside of the conduit, as it was raised in height. The angles were held from kicking out at the bottom by stakes driven into the ground, and held together at the top by a Ms -in. tie-rod. "The conduit was 10 ins. thick, save at the bottom, where it was 12 ins. The reason for the 12 ins. at the bottom was that the forms had to have a firm foundation to rest on, in order to put all the weight required by the conduit on them in one day or at one time, without settling. We therefore excavated the conduit to grade the entire length, and deposited a 4-in. layer of concrete to level and grade over the entire length of the conduit line. This gave us a good, firm foundation, true and accurate to work from, and this is the secret of the good work which was done on these conduits. If you examine them, you will say that they are one of the neatest jobs of concrete in this line that has been built, especi- ally with regard to the inside, which is true, level and absolutely smooth. [The author can confirm this statement.] When the con- duit is filled with water, it falls off with absolutely no point where water stands in the conduit owing to its being out or the proper amount of concrete not being deposited. "The centers were placed jn their entirety on a new length of conduit to be built, resting upon four piles of brick, frwo at each end as shown. The first concrete was placed in the forms at the point marked X and the next concrete was dropped in through a trap door cut in the roof of the conduit form at the point marked Y. This material was dropped in to form the invert, and this portion was shaped by hand with trowels and screened to the exact radius of the conduit. The concrete was then placed continuously up the sides, and boards were dropped in the angles which I have men- tioned, and which served as outside form holders till the limit was reached at the top, where it was impossible to get the concrete in under the planking and thoroughly tamped. At this point the top was formed by hand and with screeds. "Each 16-ft. length of this concrete was made with opposite ends male and female respectively, that is, we had a small form which allowed the concrete to step down at one end to 3 ins. in thickness for 8 ins. back from the end of the section, and on the other end of the section it allowed it to step down to 3 ins. in thick- ness in exactly the opposite way, making a scarf joint. Thia was not done at every 16 ft. length, unless only 16 ft. were placed in one day. We usually placed 48 ft. a day at one end of the conduit with one gang of men. This was allowed to set 24 hours, and, whatever length of conduit was undertaken in a day, was absolute- ly completed, rain or shine, and the gang next day resumed opera- tions at the other end of the conduit on another 48 ft. length. This was completed, no matter what the weather conditions were, and, towards the close of this day the forms placed on the preceding day were being drawn and moved ahead. 722 HANDBOOK OF COST DAT 4. "The method used in moving these forms ahead for another day's work is probably one of the secrets of the low cost of this work, and it is one which we have never seen employed before. The bolt at A, Fis. 20. was taken out, and the tie brace B thrown up. We had hooks at the points C. A turnbuckle was thrown in, catch- ing these hooks, and given several sharp turns, causing the entire form to spring downward and inwards, which gave it just enough clearance to be carried forward, without doing any more striking of forms than pulling the bolt at A. This method of pulling the forms worked absolutely satisfactorily, and never gave any trouble, and we were able to move the forms very late in the day and get them all set for next day's work, giving all the concrete practical- ly 24 hours' set, as we always started concreting in the morning at the furthest end of the form set up and at the greatest distance from the old concrete possible in the 48 ft. length, as the furthest form had, of course, to be moved first, it being impossible to pass one form through the other. "Six 16-ft. sections of these forms were built, and three were used each day on each end, as shown by the diagram MN, Fig. 20, which gives the day of the month for the completion of each of seven 48-ft. sections. "A gang of men simply shifted on alternate days from end to end of the conduit, although several sections were in progress at one time ; and of course, finally, when a junction was made between any division, saV of 1,000 ft., to another 1,000 ft., one small form was left in at this junction inside of the conduit, and had to be taken down and taken out the entire length of the conduit. "The centers for a 16-ft. length of this conduit cost complete for labor and material, $18.30, but they were used over and over again ; and, after this conduit was completed, they were taken away for use at other points, so that the cost is hardly appreci- able, and the only charge to centers that we made after the first cost of building the centers, was on account of moving them daily. Part of this conduit was built double (two 6-ft. conduits) and part single, the only difference being that, where the double conduit was built, two forms were placed side by side, and not so much was undertaken in one day. "These conduits, when completed and dried out, rung exactly like a 60-in. cast-iron pipe, when any one walked through them or stamped on the bottom." Mr. Woollard gives the .following analysis of the cost per cubic yard of the concrete-steel conduit above described: Per cu. yd. 1.3 bbl. cement $1.43 10 cu. ft. sand 0.35 25 cu. ft. stone 1.10 26 sq. ft. expanded metal, at 3 cts 0.78 Loading and hauling materials 2,000 ft. to the mixing board (team at $4.50) 0.50 Labor mixing, placing, and ramming 1.38 Labor moving forms 0.60 Total . $6.14 WATER-WORKS. 723 Wages were 17% cts. per hr. for laborers and 50 cts. per hr. for foremen. The concrete was 1 : 2 : 5, a barrel being assumed to be 3.8 cu. ft. The concrete was mixed by hand on platforms along- side the conduit. The cost of placing and ramming was high, on account of the expanded metal, the small space in which to tamp, and to the' screeding cost. When forms were moved they were scraped and brushed with soft soap before being used again. From Mr. Morris R. Sherrard, Engr. and Supt. Dept. of Water, Newark, N. J., I have received the following Qata which differ slight- ly from those given by Mr. Woollard. The differences may be ex- plained by the fact that the cost records were made at different times. Mr. Sherrerd states (Sept. 26, 1904) that each batch con- tains 4 cu. ft. of cement, 8 cu. ft. of sand, and 20 cu. ft. of stone, making 22 cu. ft. of concrete in place. One bag of cement is as- sumed to hold 1 cu, ft. He adds that a 10-hr, day's work for a gang is 63 lin. ft. of single 5-ft. conduit containing 47.4 cu. yds. of concrete and 1,260 sq. ft. of expanded metal. This is equivalent to % cu. yd. of concrete per lin. ft. The total cost of material for one complete set of forms 64 ft. long was $160 ; and there were 7 of these sets required to keep two gangs of men busy, each gang building 63 lin. ft. of conduit a day. Since the total length of the conduit was 3,850 ft, the first cost of the material in the forms was 18 cts. per lin. ft. Cost of Labor on 5-ft. Conduit : Per day. Per cu. yd. 1 foreman on concrete $ 3.35 $0.07 1 water boy 0.75 0.01 11 men mixing at $1.75 19.25 0.39 5 men mixing at $1.50 7.50 0.16 4 men loading stone at $1.40 5.60 0.12 4 men wheeling stone at $1.40 5.60 0.12 2 men loading sand at $1.40 2.80 0.06 2 men wheeling sand at $1.40 2.80 0.06 1 man placing concrete at $1.75 1.75 0.04 6 men placing concrete at $1.50 9.00 0.19 2 men supplying water at $1.50 3.00 0.06 1 man placing expanded metal at $2 2.00 0.04 1 man placing expanded metal at $1.50 1.50 0.03 Total labor on concrete $64.90 $1.35 Cost of Labor Moving Forms : Per day. Per cu. yd. 4 carpenters placing forms $13.00 $0.27 2 .helpers placing forms 4.00 0.08 1 carpenter putting up boards for outside forms 2.75 0.06 1 helper putting up boards for outside forms. . . . 2.25 0.05 2 helpers putting up boards for outside forms. 3.50 0.07 1 team hauling lumber 4.50 0.09 1 helper hauling lumber 1.75 0.04 Total labor moving forms $31.75 $0.66 It will be noted that -it required two men to bend and place the 700 Ibs., or 1,260 sq. ft, of expanded metal required for 63 lin. ft of conduit per day, which is equivalent to 0.5 ct per lb., or 0.3 ct^ per sq. ft., for the labor of shaping, placing and fastening the metal. Reference to Other Concrete Conduits, In the section on Sewen? 724 HANDBOOK OF COS1 DATA. Will be found more data on reinforced concrete conduits. See also Gillette and Hill's "Concrete Construction Methods and Cost." Cost of Brick Conduit. A conduit of horseshoe shape, 7y 2 ft. in diameter, was built with a brick arch 8 ins. thick and a con- crete invert lined with brick 4 ins. thick. The following relates to the brickwork. Work was done by contract, in 1884, in Massachu- setts. Mr. Henry A. Carter gives the cost of 960 M of brickwork was as follows: Labor: Foreman, 39 days, at $5.00 $ 195.00 Laborers, 320 days, at $1.25 400.00 Laborers, 1,752 days, at $1.50 2,628.00 Masons, 753 days, at $4.90 3,601.50 Carpenters, 4 days, at $2.50 10.00 Horse and car, 90 days, at $3.15 283.50 Miscellaneous labor 23.75 Materials: Brick, 960,000, at $8.40 per M 9,024.00 Cement, 315 bbls. Portland, at $3.20 1,00800 Cement, 1,681 bbls. natural, at $1.26 2,118.06 Sand, 571 cu. yds., at $1.20 685.20 Plant: Boiler, 15 days, at $1.00 15.00 Pumps, 101 days, at $0.25 25.25 Cars and tools 79.00 Forms and centers 304.00 Coal, 12 tons, at $6.00 72.00 Office building 57.00 Total $20,529.26 General expense, timekeeper, watchman, etc. 1,038.36 Grand total $21,567.62 These 960 M of brick made 1,600 cu. yds. of masonry, or 570 bricks per cu. yd. About 5% were culled and rejected. It took 1.23 bbls. of cement per cu. yd. Masons each averaged 1,250 bricks per day, which was a poor average for men paid such high wages. The cost per cubic yard of this brick masonry was : Per cu. yd. Masons laying, at 49 cts. per hr $" 2.38 Laborers tending, including unloading, etc., 15 cts. per hr 2.07 Brick, 570 at $8.40 per M 5.59 Sand, 0.35 cu. yd., at $1.20 0.42 Cement, 1.23 bbls 1.55 Forms 0.19 General expense and miscellaneous 1.05 Total per cu. yd $13.25 The cost of 2,500 cu. yds. of concrete in the foundation and in- vert was as follows: Labor: Per cu. yd. Foreman, at $2.75 $0.16 Laborers, 20 at $1.65 1.22 Carpenters, 2 at $2.25 0.15 Horse and car, at $3.15 0.15 Miscellaneous labor 0.01 Total labor . .'.$1.69 WATER-WORKS. 725 Materials for concrete $3.34 Lumber for forms 0.05 Cement shed 0.04 Tools, pumping, etc 0.09 Grand total $5.21 Weight of Iron or Steel Stand Pipes. With iron or steel assumed to have a safe tensile stress of 12,500 Ibs. per sq. in., assuming that single riveted joints have 66% of the strength of the solid sheet and that double riveted joints have 75%, each sheet to build 5 ft. Table XIII was calculated by Mr. A. H. Rowland in 1886. TABLE XIII. 1' 3* |* gc lif y i 5 147.0 6 211.5 7 287.9 8 376.0 9 475.9 10 587.5 12 846.1 14 1, 151.5 15 1, 325.9 16 1, 504.0 18 1, 903.6 20 2, 350.0 22 2, 843.5 25 3, 672.0 27% 4, 442.7 30 5, 304.0 33 6, 398.2 35 7, 197.0 40 9, 400.0 45 11, 897.0 50 14, 688.0 0.1455 0.1494 0.1455 0.1554 0.1500 0.1525 0.1670 0.1940 0.2080 0.1989 0.2192 0.2218 0.2440 0.2425 0.2681 0.2496 0.2754 0.2917 0.3332 0.3127 0.3465 105 90 75 70 60 55 50 50 50 45 40 40 40 35 35 30 30 30 30 25 25 g*fe w 2 C 65 55 50s 45 40 35 30 30 30 25 25 25 25 20 20 20 20 15 15 10 10 IS* .>rf 0.0069 0.0083 0.0097 0.0111 0.0125 0.0139 0.0167 0.0194 0.0208 0.0221 0.0249 0.0277 0.0305 0.0347 0.0383 0,0418 0.0459 0.0486 0.0555 0.0625 0.0693 From this table the details of any iron stand pipe can be deter- mined and tabulated. Then from such a tabulation calculate the weight of the metal as follows : Figure the superficial area of the stand pipe of given diameter for a ring 5 ft. in height, multiply this by the weight of a square foot of metal of the thickness of each ring, add them all together and add the weight of the bottom, and then add 10% for laps and rivets. Cost of a Standpipe, Quincy, Mass. Mr. C. M. Saville gives the following r-elative to a 300,000 gal. steel standpipe built in 1900, at QuiBcy, Mass. The pipe is 30 ft. diam. and 64 ft. high. The lowest plates are 9/16 in. thick, and the top plates are % in. thick. The bottom is of % in. plates. The bottom or floor plates and the first course were assembled and riveted, resting on rivet kegs directly 726 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, over their final location in the concrete foundation, and then low- ered to place with hydraulic jacks. In erecting, the contractor used inside and outside platforms swung from the top of the last plates set up, and for hoisting the plates he used a gin pole bolted to seams in this course. This pole was of such a length that a block at its top was 9 ft. above the top of the plate to which the pole was bolted. The hand winch was located on the ground. Riveting and calking were done with pneumatic machines, a 12 HP. Clayton air compressor (a larger compressor should have been used) and 25 HP. boiler being used. For calking a thick edged tool was required, as it made a better joint than a thin edged tool. The side plates were first set up with bolts, and, when all were in place, the riveting was begun at the top and worked down, except in the case of the lowest two or three courses, when riveting kept pace with erection. The space between the bottom of the pipe and the concrete foundation was filled with neat cement grout, by means of a force pump, through grooves left for the purpose in the concrete foundation. During this process, 6 ft. of water were put into the standpipe to prevent its being lifted. The actual cost (to the contractor) of the labor on the stand- pipe was nearly 0.9 ct. per lb., as follows: Per lb. Assembling plates $0.33 Riveting 0.42 Calking 0.10 Painting 0.40 Total $0.89 The contractor's plant cost about $1,600. The gang employed was: 1 foreman at $3.50. 1 calker at $3.00. 1 riveter at $2.50. 1 engineman at $2.50. 2 heaters at $2.00. 3 helpers at $1.80. The contract price for the standpipe was 3.8 cts. per lb The ac- tual cost to the contractor was 3.88 cts. per lb., as follows: Materials : 55-tons steel plates at $50 $2,750.00 1 ton L, iron at $107 107.00 70 kegs rivets at $2.75 192.50 Bolts used in erection 10.00 Moving materials to and from shope and cars 250.00 Freight and materials 180.00 Total $3,489.50 Labor : Assembling plates $ 383.33 Riveting 488 38 Calking 111.95 Painting 47.36 Total $1,031.02 WATER-WORKS. 727 Since the total weight of the standpipe was 116,450 Ibs., the cost per pound was : Materials 2.99 cts. Labor 0.89 cts. Total 3.88 cts. The steel standpipe rests on a concrete foundation and is sur- rounded by a masonry tower. At contract prices the total cost was as follows : Foundation : 1,355 cu. yds. excavation $ 514.90 284 cu. yds. concrete (48 ft. diam. X 5 ft. thick) : 1,704.00 Grouting under standpipe 133.26 Total, foundation $ 2,352.16 Standpipe 4,529.72 Masonry tower 24,790.00 Pipe connections 339.37 Grand total $32,011.25 The masonry tower is 77 ft. high, 4% ft. thick at the base, 3y 2 ft. thick at a point 10 ft. above the base, 2 ft. thick at the top. The following are principal items in the tower : 925 cu. yds. rubble masonry (granite). 275 cu. yds. dimension stone (granite). 14 tons iron and steel work. 90 sq. yds. granolithic observation roof. The so-called rubble was laid in courses with %-in. joints at the face. Between the tower and the standpipe the contractor erected a staging. Across me top of the standpipe were placed two pairs of 4 x 12-in. timbers, 30 ft. long and trussed with 1*4 -in. rods. These timbers rested partly on the standpipe and partly on the staging. A platform was laid on these timbers and a guy derrick with a 20 ft. mast and a 30-ft. boom was mounted on the platform. Cost of Steel Stand Pipe Encased in Brick. Mr. Edward Flad gives the following data relative to a standpipe built in 1895 at St. Charles, Mo. The tank is 25 ft. diam., 70 ft. high, and holds 250,000 gals. It is of steel plates (% to % in. thick) encased in brick, a space of 2 ft. being left between the brick and the steel. It rests on a foundation of natural cement concrete 5 ft. thick. The .roof is of steel covered with slate. There are six horizontal circular girders riveted to the steel casing, to provide for wind pressure, acting like the stiffeners of a plate girder. The brick work is 9 ins. thick for the upper 30 ft. and 13 ins. thick for the lower 40 ft., and bears upon the circular girders just referred to. Eight brick pilasters (30 ft. high) were built for architectural effect, brick arches join- ing the tops of the pilasters. There is a steel cornice with a hand rail around the top. A light scaffold was built inside the tank, and a cage swung on the outside, the plates being raised by a gin pole. A forge was placed on the cage and rivets were driven from the inside. After the iron work was in place, the brick casing was built from a scaffold. 728 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The work was done by contract at the following prices : Steel $4,450 Brick casing 2,807 _ Foundation 678 Total $7,935 Brick Casing Around Stand Pipe. Mr. W. J. Laing gives the following data relative to a brick casing built in 1898 around an iron standpipe to prevent ice formation. The iron standpipe is 25 ft. diam. and 90 ft. high. It rests on a concrete pedestal 62 ft. high, 7 ft. of which is below ground level. This pedestal contains 1,200 cu. yds. concrete. The top of the standpipe is 145 ft. above ground level. The masonry casing around the standpipe is 162 ft. high, and contains 1,275 tons of broken stone, 13 cars of cement, 500,000 brick, and 5,000 Ibs. of iron. It required 45,000 ft. B. M. of staging, and 16 men were three months building the casing. Cost of a Steel Tank and Tower, Ames, la. Mr. A. Marston gives the following relative to 162,000 gallon water tank mounted on a steel tower 110 ft. high, built at Ames, la., in 1897. The steel work is 24 ft. diam. x 40 ft. high (excluding the height of a hemi- spherical bottom). The curved roof is of galvanized iron on a steel frame work. The tank is supported by a tower composed of 8 Z-bar columns (12 in.) resting on 8 concrete pedestals. Bach ped- estal is 10 ft. square at the base, and 4 ft. square on top, capped with stone 18 ins. thick. The height of each pedestal is 7 ft. be- low the stone cap, and each contains nearly 19 cu. yds. of con- crete. The contract price for the foundations was $1,150. The contract price for the steel tank and tower was $8,966, making a total of $10,116. Cost of Steel Tank and Tower, Porterville, Calif. Mr. Phifip E. Harroun gives the following data relative to a 75,000 gal. tank on a tower, built in 1904 for the waterworks at Porterville, Calif. The tank is of steel, 20 ft. diam. x 25 ft. high, plates being *4 to 5/16 in., and has a hemi-spherical bottom. The tower has four legs 108 ft. long, resting on concrete pedestals. The foundation work was done by day labor at 20 cts. per hr. The tower and tank wers erected by contract. The cost was: 157 cu. yds. excav. at 64% cts... ..$ 101.74 52 eu. yds. backfill at 12^4 cts 6.40 105 cu. yds. loaded and hauled % miles at 20 % 21.35 104.7 cu. yds. concrete (-materials at $5.86, and labor at $1.88). at $7.74 810.53 65 cu. ft. granite capstones 231.55 78,532 Ibs. steel, towr and tank, in place at 0.066 5,191.00 102 ft. screw pipe, 10 in. riser 69.23 Miscellaneous 19.51 Total . $6Y6loJsi Cost of Steel Tank and Tower, Fairhaven, Mass. An elevafed water tank was built at Fairhaven, Mass., In 1593. Its capacity is 383,000 gals, and its cost was $19,000. The ste.el tank is 35 ft. diam. x 50 ft. high, with a conical bottom, and is supported by 12 steel posts, 97 ft. high, surmounted by a ginder 3 ft. high, tote? WATER-WORKS. 729 100 ft. Each post rests on a masonry pedestal 9 X 9 ft. at the base 6X6 ft. at the top, 5 y 2 ft. high, capped with a 4 X 4 ft. stone 1 ^ ft. thick. Cost of Steel Tank and Tower, Providence, R. I. Mr. F. M. Bow- man gives the following relative to a steel water tank and tower built in 1904 for East Providence, R. I. The cost was a little less than $100,000. The tower is 135 ft. high from base of column to base of tank; the steel tank is 50 ft. diam. X 70 ft. high, and holds 1,000,000 gals. The foundations are of concrete resting on solid rock. Cost of Scraping and Painting a Stand Pipe. Mr. Byron I. Cook says that it is practice to scrape and paint the interior of a stand pipe every two years. An old flat file, ground to a chisel edge, is used for scraping, and it costs less than 0.1 ct. (1 mill) per square yard for scraping. He prefers novices to regular paint- ers. The cost of painting with two coats of Durable Metal Coating was: 1 Paint $0.049 per sq. yd. v Labor 0.042 per sq. yd. Total $0.091 per sq. yd. The outside of the pipe is not painted oftener than once in five years, with Dixon graphite paint. Weight of Wooden Tank and Steel Tower. A steel tower 80 ft. high and supporting a wooden water tank 28 ft. diam. X 22 ft. high (100,000 gals) weighed 100,000 Ibs. This weight of steel includ- ed 25,000 Ibs. of steel I beams (24 ins.) forming part of the plat- form on which the tank rested. Brick arches between these I beams formed the platform. The dead load was as follows: Lbs. Tank 25,000 Water 830,000 Platform (brick) 70,000 Platform steel J beams 25,000 Tower 75,000 Total ..1,025,000 Cost of a Wooden Water Tank, La Salle, III.* The following figures of cost of constructing a wooden water tank are given by Mr. C. H. Nicolet, of La Salle, 111. The tank was built to replace a tank which failed on March 29, 1905, because of the rusting and bursting of the iron bands or hoops. This old tank was 30 ft. in diameter and 24 ft. high, and was mounted on a circular stone tower 77 ft. high. It was built of Louisiana red gulf cypress, the stairs and bottom being 3 ins. thick and the hoops 3/16 X 6 ins. and 14 X 6 ins., with the usual spacing. The new tank was of the same dimensions and type, but with changes in details. The grade of the lumber was raised by limiting the amount of bright sap on any one edge to ' 1 % ins. T^his change increased the cost of the wood Work about 1-1%. The mdst Important change, however, was * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 26, 1906, 730 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. in the style of band used. Round rods were used. There were 29 hoops of 1% in. diameter and six at the top 1 in. in diameter, all of mild steel. They were spaced 5 ins. apart on centers at the bot- tom and varying up to- 21 ins. at the top. The hoops were made of three 30-ft. rods with a short filling piece, this being the limit- ing length obtainable from stock. The rods were bent to the proper curve before being placed. The joints were made by means of malleable iron lugs of the type commonly used in built-up stave pipe in the West. The cost of the tank as described was as fol- lows: Materials : Tank complete at mill (wood work only) "Tank grade".. $ 698.00 Added for raising grade of lumber 76.00 Freight 39.00 $ 813.00 Rods, 1% in. round 10,046 Ibs. Rods, 1 in. round 1,734 Ibs. 11,780 Ibs. 11,780 Ibs., at $1.85 Chicago 217.95 Lugs, 116 iy 8 -in. at 43y 2 c $41.76 Lugs, 24 1-in. at 36c 8.64 50.40 Total materials $1,081.35 Labor : Machinists and helpers threading and bending rods, grind- ing lugs, etc., 214 hours $ 45.00 Carpenters and helpers, removing debris of old tank and erecting new tank and roof; also painting, 907 hours. . . . 200.00 Laborers mainly removing debris of old tank 10.00 Total labor $ 255.00 Grand total $1,336.35 It will be noticed that the labor of putting on the roof is in- cluded above, but not the material. This consisted of a flat cover made of 1% in. tongued and grooved plank resting on 2 X 12 in. joists tops flush with top of tank, supported on two trucks with cup!., and two 6X6 in. posts, each set on tank bottom. Cost of Concrete Standpipes.* Mr. George H. Snell, Mr. Frank A. Barbour, and Mr. Leonard C. Wason give the following data relative to a reinforced concrete standpipe built in 1904 at Attleborough, Mass. The standpipe is 50 ft. diam. x 100 ft. high, and holds 1,500,- 000 gals. The experience, gained with a former standpipe of iron indicated that a steel pipe would have a life of only 20 years, because the water contained carbon dioxide (CO-;). Two tons of rust had been removed annually from a wrought-iron standpipe 30 ft. in diam. x.125 ft. high. The bid on a steel standpipe, 50 ft. x 100 ft, was $37,135. The bid of the Aberthaw Construction Co. on the reinforced concrete standpipe and gate house was $34,000, which was accepted. The concrete wall is 18 ins. thick at the bottom and 8 ins. thick at the top. The bottom is of concrete 1 ft. thick, and the concrete foundation, 18 ins. thick, rests on hardpan 7 ft. below the ground *Engineering-Cqntracting, Dec. 26. 1906. WATER-WORKS. 731 level. The concrete foundation is of 1 : 3 : 6 concrete. The walls are of 1:2:4 concrete, reinforced with round steel rods (0.40 carbon). Rods of riiilder steel would have been better, for it was difficult to bend them so that they would hold their shape, on account of their springiness. Twisted steel rods could not be bent in true planes and had to be abandoned. The rods were pulled through a tire bender around a curved form by a steam engine. The rods were in 56%-ft. lengths, and were spliced by overlapping 30 ins., using three Crosby guy-rope clips without which it would have been very difficult to secure a satisfactory splice. It was at first attempted to support these hoops, or rings, with vertical rods of twisted steel, but, due to lack of rigidity of these rods, 4-in. channels were sub- stituted, spaced 11 ft. apart. It would have been better had the channels been closer. Holes were punched through the flanges of the channels at proper intervals, and %-in. pins inserted to sup- port the hoops or rings as in Fig. 21. Up to a height of 60 ft. there were two rings of 1%-in. bars spaced 3% to 8 ins. vertically. There were 2% ins. of concrete outside of the outer ring, and 4 ins. between the two rings. From 60 to 81 ft. there was but one ring, Fig. 21. spaced as shown in Fig. 22. Above 81 ft. the diameter was re- duced to 1% ins. The labor of bending and placing the steel actually cost $9 per ton, or 0.45 ct. per Ib. The Crosby clips cost 37 cts. each. The cost of the 1:2:4 concrete in the walls was as follows : Per cu. yd. Cement $ 4.80 Sand and stone 3.90 Mixing concrete 0.40 Placing concrete 2.f " Forms, labor and lumber 480 Ibs. steel, assumed at 2 cts Bending and placing 480 Ibs., at 0.45 4 Crosbv clips, at 0.37 fowl $27~19 There are 770 cu. yds. in the walls, which, at $27.19, gives an actual cost of $20,936. This does not include the cost of plastering and waterproofing. 2.65 9.60 2.16 1.48 732 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Fig. 22. Reinforced Concrete Standpipe. WATER-WORKS. 733 There are nearly 90 ou. yds. in the floor, which are included in the 770 cu. yds. above given. There are about 280 cu. yds. of 1:3:6 concrete in the foundation. The standpipe has an ornamental concrete cornice and a dome* shaped roof of Guastavino tile. A timber tower 60 ft. high was erected inside the standpipe and a derrick with a 40-ft. boom was mounted on the tower, the derrick being operated by an engine on the ground. When the standpipe had reached a height of 60 ft, the height of the tower was in- creased to 110 ft. and the derrick raised. The cost of this tower and of raising the derrick was $1,700, which is equivalent to $2.20 per cu. yd. This is charged against the item of forms and of placing concrete. The plant included a Sturtevant roll jaw crusher, bucket elevator and rotary screen, and a Smith mixer. The floor and a section of wall 2^ ft. high were molded in one operation, after which the wall was built up in sections 1% ft. high. The reinforcing was first built up to a height of 7^ ft. and then the forms were placed. The forms were made in sections 11 ft. long. The lagging of the outside forms was boards nailed vertically to wooden ribs. The lagging of the inside forms was boards placed, one at a time, horizontally, as the wall was built up, so that the concrete was always easily accessible. The sections of forms were locked together by iron clamps. Two sets of forms were used, so that one set was left in place while the other was being raised and made ready to receive the concrete. The batter of the outside of the tank increased the difficulty of the work, for they had to be adjusted from time to time to provide for the decreasing circum- ference. It is questionable whether the cost of this adjusting did not exceed the saving of concrete effected by the use of a batter. Fig. 23 shows the timber tower and the standpipe partly built. Fig. 22 shows the design of the standpipe. Since the wall was built in sections 7% ft. high, great care was taken to secure a perfect joint between the sections. At the top of each concrete section a groove was formed by a 2 x 3-in. strip of beveled wood. When this was removed, the top surface was well scrubbed with water and coated with neat cement. This joint proved very effective. The operation of placing steel and raising forms for a new section took three days, so that the concrete sur- face was quite hard when concreting was resumed. The concrete was dumped on platforms on the tower and shoveled into the forms. Care was taken not to make the concrete so wet that spading and ramming would drive the stone to the bottom and leave porous spots. The mixture must not be more wet than will enable the mortar to support the broken stone. Atlas Portland cement was used throughout. After the wall had reached a height of 20 ft., the tank was filled 734 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. with water, and it was kept filled, as the work progressed, to the elevation of the bottom of the lowest set of forms. Considerable leakage developed at first, but this gradually grew insignificant, although the waterproof coat had not yet been placed. At no time was more than 1 to 2 per cent of the exterior surface wet by leak- age. During the winter some of the concrete scaled off near the bottom on the outside, apparently due to cavities outside the steel reinforcement, probably caused by a slight moving of the forms i?ig. 23. Erecting Concrete Standpipe. when the concrete was being placed. Repairs were made by digging around the outside rows of steel reinforcement, putting on iron clips (% x % in.) of iron bolted through, and then forcing cement into the cavities around the clips by throwing it a distance of 4 ft. against the wall. Expanded metal was then fastened to the clips, and covered with cement plaster, and then more expanded metal was put on over this and plastered. The inside of the tank was plastered after roughening the sur- face of the concrete with a pick. The plastering seemed to have WATER-WORKS, 735 little effect in absolutely stopping the leakage. The lower 25 ft. were subsequently given 5 more coats of plaster without entirely stopping leakage. Finally the surface was treated by the Sylvester process, as follows: Thoroughly dissolve % Ib. pure Castile olive oil soap to each gal- lon of water. Thoroughly dissolve 1 Ib. of pure alum in 8 gals, of water. Thoroughly clean the wall and dry it. Apply the soap solu- tion boiling hot, with a flat brush, taking care not to form a froth. Wait 24 hours so that the solution will become dry and hard upon the walls, then apply the alum solution in the same way, at a tem- perature of 60 to 70 F. Wait 24 hours, and repeat with alternate coats of soap and alum. In 1870 this process was used successfully to waterproof brick walls on the Croton reservoir, 4 coats of each solution being suffi- cient ; 1 Ib. of soap covered 37 sq. ft., and 1 Ib. of alum cov- ered 95 sq. ft. After applying four coats of each solution to the concrete stand- pipe, up to a height of 35 ft, water was admitted to a height of 100 ft., and only four leaks developed. Then four more coats were applied to this 35-ft. section, and above that only four coats were used. It was found, by tests at the Watertown Arsenal, that three Crosby clips developed the full tensile strength of the iy 2 -in. re- inforcing rods. The design of this tank and further details are given in "Concrete Construction" by Gillette and Hill. Materials In a Reinforced Concrete Stand Pipe. Mr. J. L. H. Barr gives the following relative to an 81-ft. standpipe of reinforced concrete built in 1903 at Milford, Ohio. The outside diameter is 15% ft. The shell is 9 ins. thick for the lower 30 ft, 7 ins. thick for the next 25 ft, and 5 ins. thick for the remaining 26 ft The concrete foundation is octagonal, 20 ft diam- eter of inscribed circle, and 6 ft thick. The shell is made of 1:3 mortar (no stone) reinforced with 1 x 1 x %-in. T bars. The ver- tical bars are 18 ins. c. to c. ; the horizontal bars are spaced 6 to the foot for the lower 30 ft., 5 to the foot for the next 25 ft, and 4 to the foot for the remaining 26 ft The forms were 3-ft. staves (1% x 3 ins.) nailed to circular ribs (4x4 in. ) , the topmast rib extending 1 in. above the tops of the staves so as to form a rabbit to receive the next form. Three sets of forms were used, each 3 ft. high. Each set consisted of an inner and an outer form, each divided into 8 segments for ease of handling. This standpipe required: 68 cu. yds. gravel containing 40% sand (for base). 90 cu. yds. sand (for shell). 270 bbls. cement. 25,000 Ibs. steel. 736 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. There would appear to be Insufficient steel in the horizontal rings, since the tensile stress at the bottom is nearly 22,000 Ibs. per SQ. in. The amount of gravel for the base or foundation appears to be approximately correct, since it would be about 70 cu. yds. of con- crete; but the amount of sand appears to be overestimated, as the shell would contain but 60 cu. yds. The base inside the shell was covered with 1 : 3 mortar 6 ins. deep, which would require about 3 cu. yds. It is stated that the contract price for this standpipe was $200 less than the lowest bid for a steel standpipe. Cost of 12-in. Well, Portersville, Calif. Mr. Philip E. Harroun gives the following cost of 12-in. well, 216 ft. deep, driven in 1904 at Portersville, Cal. The material penetrated was clay. The con- tract price for drilling the well and driving the casing was $2 per lin. ft. The well had a double casing, the inner casing being No. 14 gage, and the outer being No. 16 gage, in 2-ft. lengths. The casing cost $1 per ft. thus making the total cost $3 per ft. Various inci- dentals added $50 to the cost of the well. Relative Cost of Waterworks and of Filters. When it is gener- ally known that it costs about $100 to produce a million gallons of water in the average city, and less than $10 to purify it by filtra- tion including plant interest and depreciation in both cases there is certain to be far less hesitancy about incurring the expense of providing filter plants. Somehow the impression prevails that pump- ing water and delivering it through pipes is very cheap, and that filtering is exceedingly expensive, whereas it costs ten times as much to supply water as it does to filter it under ordinary condi- tions. The expensive system of piping that underlies the streets of a city costs about $35 per capita of population, whereas a slow sand filter plant capable of supplying 100 gals? per capita per day costs only $3.50 per capita, and a mechanical filter plant costs less than $2.70 per capita. In other words, by an expenditure of about 10% more than the first cost of a piping and pumping system for a city of less than 100,000 population a filter plant can be added to the existing water supply system. It is true that the cost of operating a filter plant is not corre- spondingly small, but it is a relatively small item nevertheless. As will be seen from the data subsequently given, the principal cost of operating a sand filter is the scraping and cleaning the sand, and replacing it on the filter bed. Year by year, improved methods have been develop^ lor washing and handling the sand, and the end of this development is by no means reached yet. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Ashland, Wis. Mr. William Wheeler gives the following relative to a slow sand filter built in 1895 at Ashland, Wis. This was the first sand filter plant in America to be covered with masonry. The 3 filter beds have an area of % acre. They are so located on the lake shore that it was necessary to WATER-WORKS. 737 build a pile bulkhead around three sides of the filter beds. The walls are of concrete and brick, 3 ft. thick at the bottom and 2 ft. at the top. The beds are roofed with groined elliptical brick arches (15% ft. span), resting on brick pillars, and backed with concrete. Two courses of brick laid flat form the arch rings (6 ins. thick). The floor is of concrete only 3 ins. thick. It is below the lake level, which necessitated building a cofferdam during con- struction. The sand beds are 4 ft. thick resting on 9 ins. of gravel. The work of construction was entirely by day labor. The cost was as follows: 470 lin. ft. cofferdam (not with earth filling) $ 1,720 Handling water 493 6,943 cu. yds. earth excavation 3,233 340,400 bricks, laid in walls 6,237 45,000 bricks, laid in piers 827 349,550 bricks, laid in roof arches 6,755 Centers for roof arches (labor and materials) 1,157 37 manholes 724 House over effluent chamber and sump well 627 1,000 cu. yds. concrete 5,977 Vitrified collecting pipes, laid 116 Cast-iron collecting pipes, laid 639 Cast-iron supplying pipes, laid 725 Pipe, pipe connections, pump, etc 729 880 cu. yds. gravel in filter beds 1,949 3,385 cu. yds. sand in filter beds 4,201 Sundries 2,268 Engineering and superintendence 1,800 Total $40,178 This is equivalent to about $80,000 per acre, but, had it not been for the difficult conditions and winter work, the cost would have been $5,000 less, or $70,000 per acre, including pump well, sump well, effluent chamber, piping and housing. A further reduction of 10 to 15 per cent in cost could be effected where building stone and suitable sand and gravel were near at hand. This plant filtered 1,100,000 gals, per day, or at the rate of 2,200,000 gals, per acre per day. It required 10 scrapings of sand per year, removing 610 cu. yds. of sand, which was equivalent to 1.52 cu. yds. of sand scraped per million gallons. The cost of this scraping was 62 cts. per million gallons, or 40 cts. per cu. yd. of sand, the cost of scraping a bed of one-sixth acre being as follows : 3 men scraping, % day, at $1.50 $2.25 2 men wheeling in filter, % day, at $1.50 1.50 1 man tending bucket at bottom, ^ day, at $1.50 0.75 2 men load and dump at bottom, % day, at $1.50 1.50 1 man wheeling away at top 0.75 1 single team to hoist bucket 2.50 Tools and sundries 0.50 Total for 1/6 acre ... 8.58 There were 21 cu. yds. of sand (plus the mud) removed at each cleaning of a bed, making the cost 40 cts. per cu. yd. The dirty sand was not washed, but new. clean sand was delivered by contract and placed for $1 per cu. yd. Hence the cost of scraping sand and of replacing with new sand cost $1.40 per cu. yd. of sand scraped, 738 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. or $213 per million gallons. Adding 13 cts. to this for superin- tendence, etc., the total cost of filtering was $2.26 per million gals. At 5 per cent interest on the first cost of the plant, the capital charges are $5.05 per million gallons, making a total of $7.31 per million gallons. Cost of Filter, Berwyn, Pa. Mr. J. W. Ledoux gives the fol- lowing data relative to a small ( y 2 acre) sand filter plant built in 1898 at Berwyn, Pa. It has a nominal filtering capacity of 1,500,- 000 gals, per day. The filters are built in 3 compartments (not roofed) each having 7,500 sq. ft. effective filtering area, or about 85 ft. square. A vertical section through the filter beds shows 30 ins. of sand, 6 ins. of gravel, 3 ins. of concrete floor and 8 ins. of puddle. The main drains are 12-in. vit. sewer pipe ; the laterals are 4-in. tile, spaced 6 ft. apart, set in depressions in the concrete. The side walls are of rubble, outside of which is the embankment. The cost, including a $2,000 gate house and accessories, was as follows: 6,7715 cu. yds. excavation, at $0.241 $ 1,630.80 528.3 cu. yds. stone masonry, filter basin, at $5.541 2,927.31 2.4 cu. yds. brick masonry, filter basin, at $9.16 21.98 304.5 cu. yds. concrete, filter basin, at $6.153 1,873.43 2,432 sq. yds. plastering and forming gutters, at $0.243... 591.60 3,200 lin. ft. 4-in. tile drain, in place, at $0.065 207.20 246 lin. ft. 12-in. collecting drain, at $0.654 160.80 286 lin. ft. 12-in. clean-out drain, at $1.198 342.64 281 lin. ft. 12-in. cast-iron inlet and outlet pipes, at $1.571 441.57 200 lin. ft. 14-in. cast-iron filter discharge, at $2.192 438.36 542 cu. yds. puddle, at $0.709 384.63 655.55 tons gravel in filter bottom, at $2.115 1,386.62 2,696.83 tons sand in filter bottom, at $1.639 4,420.10 97.2 cu. yds. stone masonry, gate house, at $7.234 703.07 10.75 cu. yds. brick masonry, gate house, at $7.38 79.33 125.3 cu. yds. excavation and back fill, gate house, at $0.985 123.43 Roofing (slate), woodwork and painting, gate house 210.81 9,584 Ibs. flange pipe (12-in.), gaskets, etc., at $0.031 296.26 Registering and weir apparatus 272.45 Valves (6 to 12-in.), with boxes and band wheels 254.69 Superintendence and engineering 729.00 Incidentals 1,000.00 Total $ 1 8,535.59 Since the filter bed has a total area of 22,500 sq. ft, the cost was about 82 cts. per sq. ft. (including cost of the gate house), or $35,700 per acre. This cost is equivalent to $12,000 per million gallons of daily capacity. The "superintendence and engineering" was 4 per cent of the total cost. Cost of Filter, Nyack, N. Y. Mr. G. N. Houston gives the fol- lowing relative to a slow sand filter plant built in 1899 at Nyack, N. Y. The filter beds are not roofed. There are two beds 74 x 116 ft. each, having a combined filtering area-of 0.38 acre. The maximum consumption of water at Nyack was 630,000 gals, per day, which would require a filtering capacity of 3,300,000 gals, per acre per day, if only one bed were used, but, in practice, both beds are used except when one is being cleaned. The raw water is drawn by gravity from a nearby creek. The filter is located in a swamp, WATERWORKS. 739 adjacent to the crek, which made its construction expensive. In order to deliver the creek water by gravity to the filter, it was nec- essary to excavate for the filter beds to a depth of 10 ft. The ma- terial was a wet tenacious clay whose banks would crack and slip, so Chat it was necessary to support the side walls on piles. The clay was spaded out in chunks that were lifted by hand into wagons. Temporary plank roads had to be laid. Sheet piles were driven all around the filter beds and left in place. Bents of bearing piles were driven underneath the retaining walls, capped and floored with plank. On this pile foundation, which cost $3 per lin. ft. of wall, was built a small concreted retaining wall for a height of 3 ft. 8 ins., the top of this wall being about the same elevation as the top of the sand in the filter bed. The earth slope above the retaining wall was paved with 8 ins. of concrete and vitrified brick for a length of about 6 ft. measured up the 1% to 1 slope. The division wall was also supported on a pile foundation, and was of concrete up to the level of the surface of the filter sand, and above that it was of vitrified brick 2 ft. thick. The work was done by contract at the following cost to the village: Excavation (10y 2 ft. deep and about 7,000 cu. yds.) $ 5,270 Grading and soiling 1,500 Sheet piles, 66,000 ft. B. M., at $50 3,300 Bearing piles, 352, at $4.42 1,558 Hemlock caps and floor 838 Yellow pine caps and floor * 465 Concrete floor, 10y 2 ins. thick ($1.50 per sq. yd.) 2,738 Concrete walls, 430 cu. yds., at $4.40 1,892 Concrete slope paving 484 Brick slope paving, 13.45 cu. yds., at $8.40 113 Blue-stone curb 250 Vitrified pipe drains (about 1,400 lin. ft. of 6-in. and 230 ft. of 15-in.) 347 Gravel (12 ins.) and sand (36 ins.), 2,570 cu. yds., at $2.15. 5,524 House over regulating chamber 150 Pipe laying 58 Miscellaneous 250 Total $24,737 Engineering ($3,644) and inspection ($713) 4,357 Total, 0.38 acres, at $76,553 ; $29,094 This is an unusually high cost, due to the conditions above given, and to the fact that the work was dragged along, which made the expense of engineering and inspection high. The price of filter gravel and sand was high, as it was brought by scow from Long Island. The above costs include a clear water well 25 ft. in diameter, with side walls 12 ft. high, and a dome-shaped roof of concrete. The plank "floor" includes not only the floor laid on the bearing piles, but a 1-in. hemlock floor laid over the entire bottom of the filter bed on which the concrete was placed. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Superior, Wis. Mr. R. D. Chase gives the following data relative to a sand filter and aeration plant built in 1899 for Superior, Wis., to remove the iron from water from 740 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. driven wells. There are 3 filter beds, each 67 x 108 ft., and with these in operation there is 0.5 acre filtering area, with a capacity of 5,000,000 gals, daily, or 10,000,000 gals, per acre per day. This rapid rate of filtration is justified because there is no mud or bacteria. The pure water reservoir is 39 x 108 ft. The floor, sides and i-oof are of concrete, the piers supporting the roof being of brick 20 ins. square and 12 ft. high. The floor is of inverted groined arches, and the roof is of groined arches, 12 ft. span and 2% ft. rise, 6 ins. thick at the crown. The roof is covered with 2 ft. of earth. The excavation was red clay, expensive to handle, the actual cost being 55 cts. per cu. yd. Each filter bed has 20 manholes, 3 ft. diam., 3 ft. high, of concrete 8 ins. thick, with double covers of steel plates. The outside walls of the filter beds are 2% ft. thick at the top, and 3 % ft. thick at the base. The construction of the pure water reservoir is similar to that of the filters, and the reservoir has a capacity of 300,000 gals. The main underdrains are 20-in. tile, laid in concrete beneath the floor. The lateral drains are of 6-in. tile, 12 ft. apart. The gravel was dredged from the lake. Under normal conditions 4 ft. of water is kept on top of the sand. The outside dimensions of the 3 filter beds and the pure water reservoir, all under one roof, are 116 ft. x 255 ft. The construction was done by day labor, working under a con- tractor who was paid a percentage for supervision. Laborers were inefficient, yet received $2 a day. The actual cost was as follows : Filters and pure water reservoirs: 14,000 cu. yds. excavation, at $0.55+ $ 7,630 2,000 cu. yds. backfill (roof, etc.), at $0.30+ 600 3,000 cu. yds. concrete, at $7.85+ 23,500 Arch centering 1,910 120 cu. yds. brickwork, at $10.00 1,200 Tile pipe 860 600 cu. yds. filter gravel, in place, at $4.95 2,970 1,600 cu. yds. filter gravel, in place, at $3.04 4,864 800 cu. yds. filter gravel, in place, at $0.97 776 Aerator 470 Miscellaneous charges 2,350 Engineering and percentage to contractor 9,204 Total $56,334 Land 6,280 Iron pipe, pump, pump house, etc 26,870 Grand total $89,484 Since the total area was 116 x zo& = 29,580 sq. ft. (0.68 acre), the excavation must have averaged about 13 ft. deep. It will be noted that the filter gravel was exceedingly expensive, as was most of the filter sand. The sand for one bed, however, was obtained without dredging and at a cost of only 97 cts. per eu. yd. WATER-WORKS. 741 The cost of cleaning a filter bed is as follows: 5 men scraping, 3 hrs., at 20 eta $ 3.00 1 team hoisting, 2 hrs., at 40 cts 0.80 5 men hoisting, 2 hrs., at 20 cts 2.00 5 men smoothing, 2 hrs., at 20 cts 2.00 Total, labor, 10 cu. yds., at $0.78 $ 7.80 10 cu. yds. new sand to be replaced, at $1 10.00 Grand total, 10 cu. yds., at $1.78 $17.80 About 12,000,000 gals, are filtered through each bed (0.25 acre) between scrapings, so that 0.83 cu. yd. of sand is scraped per mil- lion gallons, and the cost per million gallons is : Labor scraping and removing sand $0.65 Clean sand replaced 0.83 Total $1.48 The dirty aand is hoisted in tugs by a team, a tripod with a block and tackle being placed temporarily over each manhole during hoisting. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Washington, D. C. Mr. Allen Hazen and Mr. E. D. Hardy give the following data : This is a slow sand filtration plant treating 70,000,000 gals, daily, and its cost was $3,356,300 (including $619,900 for land), or $47,950 per million gallons daily capacity. Assuming interest and depreci- ation at 5 per cent per annum, the capital charge is $7 per million gallons, for an average of 67,000,000 gals, per day, and the operat- ing expense is about $2 per million gallons, making a total of $9 per million gallons filtered. The summarized cost of the plant is as follows: Pumping station, etc $ 183,600 29 filters, 29 acres, at $75,758 2,197,000 Filtered water reservoir 150,000 Lower gate house and pipe line 24,300 Land 619,900 Engineering and clerical 181,500 Total, 29 acres, at $115,735 $3,356,300 Total, exclusive of land 2,736,400 The detail cost was as follows: Pumping Station : Intake, with gates and building ... $ 11,500 Venturi meters, 72-in. and 54-in 5,000 Electric lighting, engines, etc 7,000 Four 200-hp. boilers, in place 14,800 Four Roney stokers 4,100 Two Green fuel economizers, in place 5,100 Three 36-in. centrifugal pumps and engines 42,000 Two sand-washer pumps 8,100 Piping, valves, etc 13,100 Coal, oil and running tests 3,500 Traveling crane 1,600 Chimney (with foundation) 5,800 Building (with foundation and well) 51,000 Total, pumping station $183,600 742 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Twenty-nine Filters : 862,700 cu. yds. excavation, at 30 cts $ 258,800 299,500 cu. yds. filling, at 30 cts 89,900 Sodding and seeding slopes 7,300 Roads and drains outside of filters 16,200 Concrete tunnel under First St 3,100 Concrete (including cement) : 36,563 cu. yds., floors, at $6.75 246,800 19,038 cu. yds., walls, at $7.35 139,900 6,964 cu. yds., piers, at $8.25 57,500 34,920 cu. yds., roof (vaulted), at $8.75 305,500 Ramps leading to tops of filters 6,800 Court paving 43,000 7,900 ft. Central underdrains, at $1.65 13,000 Interior drainage system, 29 filters, at $500 14,500 Drainage of roofs, 29 filters, at $266 7,700 Materials placed in concrete, 29 filters, at $200 5,800 157,725 cu. yds. filter sand, at $2.65 418,000 36,500 cu. yds. filter gravel, at $2.75 100,400 Cast-iron pipe and specials 117,000 Steel rising main and concrete backing 76,800 Pressure pipe system 2,600 Sand-washer pipe system 24,000 Sand washers, 19 washers and 8 ejectors 4,800 Elevated sand bins, 29, capacity 250 cu. yds. each 60,800 Exterior drainage system 25,300 Venturi meters and indicating apparatus 11,400 Sluice gates and gate valves 19,900 Regulator houses 27,300 Office and laboratory 19,700 Shelter house for workmen 4,800 Water and gas lines to buildings 11,200 Electric lighting for courts and filters 41,900 Cleaning up and miscellaneous 11,600 Total, filters, 29 acres, at $75,758 $2,197,000 Filtered Water Reservoir: 83,500 cu. yds. excavation, at 30 cts $ 25,100 18,000 cu. yds. filling, at 30 cts 5,400 15,290 cu. yds. concrete, at $7.60 116,000 Gate house superstructure 3,500 Total, reservoir . $150,000 Lower Gate House: Pipelines $ 6,000 Gate house 18,300 Total, gate house $ 24,300 Engineering and Clerical : General plans $ 36,000 Surveying 32,000 Field office force 21,000 Main office force 67,000 Watchmen 4,500 Temporary office 1,000 Total engineering $181,500 The engineering was 6.65 per cent of the total cost of construc- tion, which is a high percentage on so large a contract. This Washington filter plant is similar to the Albany plant, bur WATER-WORKS. 743 it cost 65 per cent more per acre, due principally to the higher con- tract prices, especially the price for filter sand which cost $2.65 per cu. yd. at Washington as compared with $1 per cu. yd. at Albany. It was anticipated by the Washington contractors that the cost of producing filter sand of specified cleanliness would be far greater than it really was. Cost of Filtering at Washington, Albany and Philadelphia. Mr. J. A. Vogleson gave the following table of cost of cleaning filter sand per cubic yard : Wa ( shington Albany ;i906). (1899-1901). $0.05 $0.13 0.16 0.25 0.05 0.30 0.13 0.25 $0.39 $0.93 $1.50 $1.50 $0.60 $1.66 Belmont (1905). $0.21 0.23 0.30 0.25 $0.80 $1.75 $1.25 Upper Roxboro' (1905). $0.18 0.22 0.09 0.30 $0.79 $1.75 $0.63 Removing , Washing Replacing ... Total, per cu. Rate of wages, pe Cost, per million yd r 8 hrs. gals. . . The low cost of cleaning Washington filters is due to the method used. After scraping the sand into piles, it is shoveled into an ejector and carried through a hose to a 4-in. pipe, and thence to the sand washers, and thence through pipes to the sand bins, from which it is drawn off into carts and dumped through the roof of the filter into a rotatable chute which discharges it where desired. The cost of 30 cts. per cu. yd. for "replacing" the sand at Upper Roxboro, Philadelphia, is the contract price, the work being done with wheelbarrows. Before the. replacing was done by contract, it cost the city 52 cts. per cu. yd. by day labor, thus furnishing an- other one of the numberless examples of the greater efficiency of contract labor. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Albany, N. Y. Mr. Allen Hazen describes the slow sand filter plant built at Albany, N. Y., in 1898- 1899, giving the following data: The plant has a capacity of 14,700,000 gals, per day, and its first cost was $500,000, including the pumping plant. There are 8 filter beds of 0.7 acre filtering area each (121 x 258-ft. bed), and with one bed out of use for the purpose of being cleaned the yield of the 7 beds is 14,700,000 gals, daily, or 3,000,000 gals, per acre of bed in active service. The water is pumped from the Hudson River into a 5-acre (14,600,000-gal.) sedimentation basin (380 x 600 ft.), 9 ft. deep, the 2 centrifugal pumps having a total capacity of 24,000,000 gals, per 24 hrs. against a lift of 24 ft. Half of the pumping plant is capable of supplying the ordinary consumption. The clean water reservoir holds only 600,000 gals., being very small because the old distributing reservoirs are used to store the filtered water after it is pumped from the clear water reservoir. 744 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of this plant, in round numbers, was as follows : Sedimentation basin $ 60,000 Clear water reservoir 9,000 Filters (at $45,600 per acre) 255,000 Pumping station 50,000 Conduit from filter to pumping station 87,000 Engineering, laboratory equipment, etc 31,000 Total $492,000 Land 8,000 Grand total $500,000 This is equivalent to nearly $35,000 per million gallons of daily capacity. Strictly speaking, the conduit from the filter to the pump- ing station should not be included, and, if its cost ($87,000) is de- ducted, we have a cost of about $30,000 per million gallons of daily capacity. The plant was built by contract, and the following is a more de- tailed statement of the cost to the city: Filters, Sedimentation Basin and Pure Water Reservoir : Preliminary draining $ 1,956.71 70,672 cu. yds. excavation, at $0.308 21,761.64 16,040 cu. yds. rolled embankment, at $0.52 8,340 80 22,851 cu. yds. silt and loam filling, at $0.15 .. 3,427-65 23,439 cu. yds. general filling, road, at $0.18 4,219.02 12,550 cu. yds. puddle, at $0.715 8,973.25 1,775 cu. yds. gravel lining, at $0.85 1,508.75 2,257 sq. yds. split stone lining, at $0.82 1,850.74 11,737 cu. yds. concrete in floors, at $2.31 27,112.47 7,792 cu. yds. concrete in roof vaulting, at $3.85 29,999.20 3,147 cu. yds. all other concrete, at $2.13 6,703.11 4,382 cu. yds. brick work, at $8.125 35,603.75 31,715 bbls. Portland cement, at $1.935 61,368.53 7,281 cu. yds. filter gravel, at $1.05 7,645.05 36,488 cu. yds. filter sand, at $1.00 36,488.00 Cast-iron pipes and specials 21,841.25 Gates and valves 6,714.23 672 filter manhole covers, at $4.40 2,956.80 8 sand-run fixtures, at $407.50 3.260.00 8 regulator houses, at $862.24 6,897.92 1 office and laboratory 4,881.00 Vitrified brick paving 2,158.00 Iron fence about court 1,704.00 Extra work and minor items 9,692.01 Total $324,217.20 The excavation averaged 4 ft. deep. The 6-in. vitrified drains were placed 14 ft. apart. The main vitrified drains (12 to 30 ins.) were placed beneath the concrete floor, being bedded in concrete. The price for concrete does not include the Portland cement, which is a separate item. The concrete was mixed 1:3:5, a barrel being 3.8 cu. ft., and required 1.26 bbls. cement per cu. yd. The actual cost of the concrete is given on p. 748. The floor of the filter was of concrete, built in the form of in- verted grained arches to distribute the pressure over the subsoil. The roof was of concrete, groined arches (6 ins. thick at crown, span 12 ft., rise 2y 2 ft), supported by brick piers 21 ins. square by WA TER-WORKS. 745 9% ft. high. The outside walls were of concrete lined with 8 ins. of brick, and the division walls were of brick. The gravel and sand were dredged from the river with a dipper dredge having a daily capacity of 500 cu. yds., but the average out- put was 300 cu. yds. The sand was pumped into a stock pile. According to Mr. W. B. Fuller the cost of roofing the filter was about 30 per cent of the total cost of the filters, or $13,700 per acre, or 31^ cts. per sq. ft. This includes not only the brick piers and earth covering over the roof, but the extra thickness of the floor necessary to carry the added load. The cost of one section of concrete floor, brick piers and concrete roof, 13 ft. 8 ins. square (187 sq. ft), at contract prices was: 4.85 cu. yds. floor, at $4.75 $23.04 1.24 cu. yds. brick, at $9.67 11.99 5.40 cu. yds. roof, at $6.30 34.02 Total, 187 sq. ft, at 36.9 cts $69.05 This gives an average thickness of 7 ins. of concrete in the floor. Deducting the cost of the floor, we have left 25 cts. per sq. ft. as the cost of the piers and the roof. This does not include the cost of the 2 -ft. earth fill over the concrete roof, which added about 10 cts. per sq. ft, the price of the silt fill being only 15 cts. per cu. yd. This roof was entirely effective in preventing freezing.' A reinforced concrete roof was considered, but was not adopted because the city water board objected to anything "experimental." The cost of operating the filter plant from September 5 to De- cember 25, 1899 (118 days), was $1.67 per million gallons, for 12,500,000 gals, per day. The following was the ordinary force of men : Per day. 10 laborers, at $1.50 for 8 hrs $15.00 1 foreman 2.75 1 watchman 1.50 Total labor $19.25 1 chemist 3.00 Total $22.25 The cost of pumping was $2.52 per million gals., the following being the daily cost: 3 engineers, at $2.48 $7.44 3 firemen, at $1.98 5.94 3 tons coal, at $2.72 8.16 1 laborer, at $1.50 1.50 9 gals, engine oil, at $0.09 0.81 2 gals, cylinder oil, at $0.11 0.22 5 gals, kerosene, at $0.10 0.50 , 5 Ibs. waste, at $0.07 0.35 Steam packing, sheet rubber, soap, soda, maps, cloths, etc 6.58 Total $31.50 Neither of the above costs for filtering or pumping include in- terest, depreciation and repairs. 746 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The amount of sand scraped and cleaned was 0.7 cu. yds. per mil- lion gallons. The labor cost was as follows per cubic yard : 1.44 hrs. of man scraping, at 18% cts $0.270 2.63 hrs. of man wheeling, at 18% cts 0.493 2.44 hrs. of man washing, at 18% cts 0.458 1.92 hrs. of man refilling, at 18% cts 0.360 .8.43 Total $1.581 This is equivalent to $1.19 per million gallons, exclusive of fore- man's time, cost of wash water, etc. The volume of water for wash- ing the sand was about 13 times the volume of the sand. About % in. of sand (not including the mud) was scraped off at each ecraping, requiring 76 hrs. of a man's time to scrape an acre. The sand was wheeled out in barrows averaging only 1 cu. ft. per barrow load, the average haul being 300 ft. from point of loading to the sand washer. The filters yielded 66,600,000,000 gals, per acre be- tween scrapings. The sand is washed in sand washers of the ejector type, there being 5 ejectors in each sand washer through which the dirty sand must pass. Mr. Geo. I. Bailey gives the following relative to the cost of filtering through slow sand filters at Albany, N. Y., and at .Law- rence, Mass., both being for the year 1899: Albany Lawrence (3,817 million (1,170 million gals. ) gals. ) Ice cutting and snow .... $1.91 Scraping sand $0.25 Scraping and replacing sand .... 3.18 Wheeling out 0.50 Washing sand 0.59 1.25 Conveying sand .... 1.31 Refilling 0.39 Incidentals 0.20 0.43 Repairing elevator and tools.... .... 0.11 Cleaning basin 0.06 Total $1.99 $8.19 Interest and depreciation are not included, nor is pumping. The Lawrence plant makes a miserable showing. Scraping and replac- ing includes scraping the beds, wheeling to a roadway, and carry- ing the sand back from the washing machine and spreading on the beds. Conveying sand means loading and transporting it (470 ft.) from the roadway to the washing machine. Wages were 25 cts. per hr. The Albany plant was operated 319 days (July 26, 1899, to July 1, 1900), giving nearly 12,000,000 gals, per day. Labor was paid 18% cts. per hr. The daily average was 2,630,000 gals, per acre. The average run was 65,500,000 gals, per acre between cleanings. There were 5,200 cu. yds. of sand and mud wheeled out (yielding 3,687 cu. yds. washed sand), and 3,500 cu. yds. of washed sand wheeled back. Each barrow wheeled out contained 2 cu. ft. (71,702 wheelbarrow loads), and each barrow wheeled back contained 1.6 cu. ft (59,590- barrow loads). Hence there were practically 1 cu. WATER-WORKS. 747 yd. of washed sand per million gallons, and the above costs pei million gallons at Albany are also practically the costs per cubic yard of sand handled. The following is the cost for the 319 days at Albany (add 15 per cent for a full year's cost of wages, etc., but also add 15 per cent to the amount filtered) : Labor. .' $5,107.62 Superintendence 1,392.68 Tools and supplies 377.75 Half the cost of miscellanies 304.75 Wash water for sand at 1 ct. per 100 cu. ft 209.06 Total, at $1.94 per million gals $7,391.76 (Add 5 cts. per million gals, for cleaning sedimentation basin.) Pumping : Engineers and firemen $4,258.65 Laborers 387.00 Coal and supplies 3,497.84 Oil, packing, etc 799.06 Half cost of miscellanies 304.75 Total, at $2.42 per million gals. . $9,247.30 Laboratory : Chemist $ 999.96 Laborer 69.38 Laboratory supplies 245.15 Total, at $0.34 per million gals $1,314.49 Total cost per million gals., incl. pumping, but not incl. capital charges $ 4.75 Mr. John H. Gregory gives the following relative to the Albany filter plant operation, during 1899 to 1900, covering a period of 500 days. Scraping required 0.69 hrs. labor per cu. yd., or 13 cts. per cu. yd. of sand. There were 1.23 cu. yds. of sand scraped (to a depth of 0.66 in.) per million gallons, so that the cost of scraping was 16 cts. per million gallons. This covers only the labor cost of scraping the dirty sand into piles. Wheeling out the sand includes shoveling it into barrows, wheel- ing it 250 ft., and raking and screeding the filter bed. Its cost was 1.29 hrs. labor, or 25 cts., per cu. yd. ; and, since there were 1.23 cu. yds. per million gals., the cost of wheeling was 30 cts. per mil- lion gallons. The raking and screeding of the bed consumed about 25 per cent of the time of the men engaged in shoveling and wheel- ing, one man raking and screeding 11,000 sq. ft. per day. Washing the sand includes handling the dirty sand from the storage piles to the sand washer, attendance on the washer, and removing the washed sand to a storage pile. The ejector type of washer was used. The cost was 1.57 hrs. labor, or 30 cts. per cu. yd. of sand, or 27 cts. per million gallons filtered. Refilling filter beds with clean sand includes removal from stor- age piles to filter bed, loosening the top layer of sand about 6 ins. deep, and leveling the new sand. Its cost was 1.31 hrs. labor, or 25 cts. per cu. yd., or 22 cts. per million gallons. 748 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. George I. Bailey gives the cost of filtering at Albany, for the year 1900: Labor $ 6,131.63 Incidentals 574.92 Lost time 451.32 Superintendence ' 2,161.43 Supplies 552.25 Supplies, miscel 604.84 Wash water 226.92 Total ,;. $10,703.31 Per million Hours. Total. gals. Scraping 5,481 $1,532.70 $0.24 Wheeling out 10,238 2,863.20 0.45 Refilling 7,437 2,081.66 0.32 Incidentals... 3,009 841.25 0.13 Lost time 2,365 662.10 0.10 Washing 8,923 2,722.40 0.42 Total 37,453 $10,703.31 $1.66 The equiv. cost per cu. yd. of sand was : Wheeling out $0.36 Refilling 0.37 Washing 0.48 Wages are $1.50 per 8-hr. day. The round trip is 500 ft. from the filter bed to the storage piles. In scraping, a long-handled shovel with a blade 12 ins. wide enables a man to scrape more than 100 sq. yds. per hr. It was found that one run plank 14 ins. wide gives better service than two 10 to 12-in. planks, and it takes half as long to place the single plank. The wheels of the ordinary wheelbarrows were readjusted so as not to put so much weight on the arms of the men in ascending grades. The men shovel the dirty sand from the storage pile into a mov- able hopper, whence the sand is carried by a current of water through a pipe to the washer, thus saving wheeling it to the washer. Men wheel the sand away from the washer. The average run is 26 days between scrapings, or 70,000,000 gals, per acre, 12% parts of water to 1 part of sand are used in washing, costing 4 cts. per cu. yd. of sand. Cost of Groined Arches and Forms on the Albany Filter Plant. The following data are given by Mr. Allen Hazen and Mr. Wil- liam B. Fuller. The concrete was mixed in 5-ft. cubical mixers in batches of 1.6 cu. yds. at the rate of 200 cu. yds. per mixer day. One barrel of cement, 380 Ibs. net, assumed to be 3.8 cu. ft., was mixed with three volumes of sand weighing 90 Ibs. per cu. ft., and five volumes of gravel weighing 100 Ibs. per cu. ft. and having 40% voids. On the average 1.26 bbls. of cement were required per cu. yd. The conveying plant consisted of two trestles (each 900 ft. long) 730 ft. apart, supporting four cableways. The cables were attached to carriages, which ran on I-beams on the top of the trestles. Rope drives were used to shift the cableways along the trestle. Three-ton loads were handled in each skip. The installa- WATER-WORKS. 749 tion of this plant was slow, and its carrying capacity was less than expected. It was found best to deliver the skips of concrete to the cableway on small railway track, although the original plan had been to move the cableways horizontally along the trestle at the same time that the skip was traveling. The cost of mixing and placing the concrete was as follows: Per cu yd. Measuring, mixing and loading $0.20 Transporting by rail and cables 0.12 Laying and tamping floors and walls, including setting forms 0.22 Total $0.54 The cost of laying and tamping the concrete on the vaulting was 14 cts. per cu. yd. The vaulting is a groined arch 6 ins. thick at the crown and 2y 2 ft. thick at the piers. The lumber of the centering for the vaulting was spruce for the ribs and posts, and 1-in. hemlock for the lagging. The centering was all cut by machinery, the ribs put together to a template, and the lagging sawed to proper bevels and lengths. The centers were made so that they could be taken down in sections and used again. The cost of centering was as follows : Labor on centers covering 62,560 sq. ft. : Foreman, 435 hrs. at 35 cts $ 152.25 Carpenters, 4,873 hrs. at 22y 2 cts 1,096.42 Laborers, 3,447 hrs. at 15 cts 517.05 Painters, 577 hrs. at 15 cts 86.55 Teaming, 324 hrs. at 40 cts 121.60 Total labor building centers 313 M at $6.37.$1,973.87 Materials for centers covering 62,560 sq. ft. : 313,000 ft. B. M. lumber, at $18.20 $5,700.00 3,700 Ibs. nails, at 3 cts 111.00 8 bbls. tar, at $3 24.00 Total $5,835.00 These centers covered two filters, each having an area of 121% x 258 ft. There were six more filters of the same size, for which the same centers were used. The cost of taking down, moving and putting up these centers (313 M) three times was as follows: Foreman, 2,359 hrs. at 35 cts $ 825.65 Carpenters, 12,766 hrs. at 22 % cts. 2,872.35 Laborers, 24,062 hrs. at 15 cts.... 3,609.30 Team, 430 hrs. at 40 cts 172.00 3,000 ft. B. M. lumber, at $20 60.00 3,000 Ibs. nails, at 3 cts 90.00 Total cost moving centers to cover 196,660 sq. ft $7,629.30 The cost of moving the centers each time was $8.10 per M, show- ing that they were practically rebuilt; for the first building of the centers, as above shown, cost only $6.37 per M. In other words, the centers were not designed so as to be moved in sections as they should have been. Although the centers were used four times in all, the lumber was in fit condition for further use. The cost of the labor and lumber for the building and moving of these cen- 750 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ters for the 8 filter beds, having a total area of 259,220 sq. ft., was $15,438, or 6 cts. per sq. ft. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Lawrence, Mass. Mr. Morris Knowles and Mr. Charles G. Hyde give the following data relative to the slow sand filter plant built in 1892 at Lawrence, Mass. The plant was built by day labor and cost $80,000. It consists of 25 filter beds, having a total filtering area of 2.36 acres, so that the cost of the plant was $34,000 per acre. The raw water enters the filter from the Merrimac River by gravity. The filters are not roofed, although, as will be seen later on, the cost of roofing is abun- dantly .justified by the cost of ice removal. Between the years 1897 and 1900, inclusive, the beds were scraped 15 times yearly. The average depth of sand removed at each scrap- ing was % in., making a total of about 3,500 cu. yds. of sand yearly over the entire surface. About 1,200,000,000 gals, per year, or 3,500,000 gals, per day, were filtered during this period, which is equivalent to only 1,400,000 gals, per acre per day, or about half what a modern slow sand filter delivers. Nearly 3 cu. yds. of sand were scraped per million gallons filtered, which is far in excess of amount ordinarily scraped. The cost per million gallons for the year 1900, which was typical, was as follows: Scraping sand $1.75 Sanding: 1.02 Conveying sand 1.16 Washing sand 1.25 Removing snow and ice 1.92 General 0.60 Total $7.70 Add (5% of $80,000) -i- 2,100 mill, gals 1.90 Total $9.60 The capital charge of $1.90 per million gallons is none too high, and takes into consideration no charge for "special repairs." In this year of 1900, 3,000 cu. yds. of sand were scraped off In filtering 2,100 million gals., or 2.48 cu. yds. per million gallons, hence the above figures of cost per million gallons if divided by 2.48 will give the cost per cubic yard of sand handled, or: Scraping $0.70 Conveying 0.46 Washing 0.50 Sanding 0.40 Total per cu. yd $2.06 Scraping includes not only scraping off the dirty sand and throw- ing it into small piles, but loading and wheeling (75 to 150 ft.) in barrows to a temporary dump just inside the filter bed. It also includes smoothing the beds after cleaning. Conveying including loading the dirty sand from the temporary dumps into carts and hauling and depositing in a permanent dump near the washer. Washing includes screening dirty sand, washing and transporting to the stock pile of clean sand. WATER-WORKS. 751 Sanding includes cost of loading and wheeling in the clean washed Band and spreading it. Wages of laborers were $2 per 9-hr. day. The sand washer consists of 4 hoppers. The sand drops to the bottom of each hopper, where it strikes a horizontal jet of water and is carried into a pipe that leads up into the next hopper. The water required is about 10 times the volume of sand, or 270 cu. ft. of water per cu. yd. of sand. Four men attend to screening and wheeling to the washer, washing and taking the sand away in dump cars; they can thus wash 21 cu. yds. of sand daily at a cost of $8 for labor, or 38 cts. per cu. yd., but delays due to shifting of the washer, etc., and cost of repairs make a total cost of 50 cts. per cu. yd. Mr. M. F. Collins, superintendent of the plant, states that the average depth to which the sand is scraped is greater for an un- roofed filter than for one that is roofed, due to the fact that when there is any snow on the filter bed the men usually scrape too deep with their shovels, and when the bed is frozen slightly they neces- sarily must take off an excess of sand to get below the frost. Pos- sibly this accounts largely for the abnormally great amount of sand scraped at Lawrence ; possibly the method of scraping is itself not what it should be. Mr. John H. Gregor> gives the following additional information for 1900. The cost per million gals, was as follows, labor being sep- arated from materials, supplies, etc., and from superintendence: Scraping (labor) $1.50 Conveying (labor) 1.02 Washing (labor) 0.94 Sanding (labor) 0.90 Removal of snow and ice (labor) 1.56 General (labor) 0.38 Superintendence 0.91 Materials, supplies, etc 0.52 Total $7^73 He states that 1.94 cu. yds. were scraped per million gals, filtered^ requiring 3.53 hrs. labor per cu. yd., or 77 cts. per cu. yd., wages being $2 for 9 hrs., average thickness scraped being Vz in. He states that 3,000 cu. yds. were washed in 1900, at a cost of 38 cts. per cu! yd. for labor, requiring 1.72 hrs. labor per cu. yd. He states that 3,400 cu. yds. of clean sand were put on, at a cost of 32 cts. per cu. yd. for labor, or 1.47 hrs. labor per cu. yd. From the year 1896 to 1900, inclusive, the average cost of snow and ice removal was $2.20 per million gals., or nearly $1,100 per acre per annum. Since an acre could be roofed for about $15,000, It is evident that It would be much cheaper to pay interest on a roof. However, the Lawrence filters show about half the ordinary output of water per acre attained by well designed beds, so that if their filtering capacity per acre were doubled, the cost of snow and ice removal would be $1.10 per million gals. Cost of Filter and Filtering, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. A slow sand filter was built at Mt. Vernon, N. Y., in 1894, at a cost of about $25,000. The area of the filter beds is 1.1 acres, and about 1,900,000 gals, 752 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ?vere filtered per day. The average cost of filtering during th years 1897 to 1900 was as follows per million gals.: Scraping and removing sand $1.63 Washing sand 0.58 Replacing sand 0.58 Removing ice 0.42 Miscellaneous 0.10 Total $3.31 6% interest on filter plant ($1,500 -=- 680 million gals.) 2.20 Grand total $5.51 An average of 1,300 cu. yds. of sand was cleaned per year (there being about 15 scrapings a year), or nearly 2 cu. yds., cleaned per million gals. Hence by taking half of the above figures we have the cost of cleaning the sand per cubic yard, or a total of nearly $1.40 per cu. yd. The scraping is done with shovels, the sand being removed in wheelbarrows. The sand washers are like those used at Albany (hoppers with ejectors). It is estimated that 12,000 gala, of water are used to wash each cubic yard of sand. Cost of Filtering, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Mr. Charles E. Fowler gives the following relative to the operation of the Poughkeepsie filter in 1900. The sand is not scraped into heaps, but is shoveled direct into barrows. The back of a rake is used to level the surface after scraping. It takes 23 men 2 days of 8 hrs. each to scrape 1H acres, wages $1.50 a day, cost $49 per acre. This includes wheeling to the corners of the filter bed, throwing up to top of coping and trimming back the pile. The sand is stored and washed in October and replaced all at one time (16 days). Washing costs 32 cts. per cu. yd., and replac- ing costs 26 cts. per cu. yd., for a total of 910 cu. yds. The total number of scrapings per year is not stated, but if there were 15 the cost was $1.20 per cu. yd. for scraping, added to $0.58 for washing and replacing; total $1.78 per cu. yd. (Mr. Gregory gives the cost of scraping at $1.30 per million gals, in 1900.) The cost of ice removal varied from $146 to $613 a year, and aver- aged $364 for four years prior to 1901, or $273 per year per acre. To remove a 16-in. layer of ice in 1901 cost $408 per acre of filter- Ing area, wages being $1.50 per 8-hr. day. The ice was sawed in parallel lines in one direction and broken by chisels in the other direction. The cakes were floated to a run at the side of the basin and pulled up by men with pikes. The water level was about 1 ft. below the top of the coping. The cakes were then pushed on nearly horizontal runs to the place of deposit, which costs about half of the total cost of ice removal. The cost of ice removal was 94 cts. per million gals, filtered that year, and there was only this one re- moval. Cost of Washing Filter Sand, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Mr. Charles E. Fowler gives the following relative to sand washing at the Poughkeepsie filters in 1897. With two hoppers, and an upwarfl water jet in each, the cost of washing the sand was 24 cts. per eu WATER-WORKS. 753 yd., laborers being paid 18 cts. per hr. The sand was delivered through a pipe to a tank 130 ft. away, and, after the remaining silt had flowed over the top of this tank, the sand was drawn off through a valve. Fifty cu. yds. of sand were washed per 10-hr, day, requiring 18 cu. ft. of water to each cu. ft. of sand, the water costing 3 cts. per cu. yd. of sand. Cost Ice Removal From Filters. Mr. John H. Gregory gives the following costs of snow and ice removal from filter beds per million gallons : Lawrence (average 1896 to 1900) ^....$2.20 Poughkeepsie (average 1898 to 1900) 0.48 Mt. Vernon (average 1897 to 1900) 0.28 Estimated Cost of Filters and Filtering, Cincinnati, O. Mr. George W. Fuller made the following comparative estimates of the cost of slow sand filtering and mechanical filtering for the city of Cincinnati, O., in 1899. A year's work with an experimental plant, of 100,000 gals, daily capacity, preceded the estimate. The plant designed for Cincinnati is to have a daily capacity of 80,000,000 gals. The estimated cost includes no allowance for cost of land, and covers only the expense from the time the water is discharged Into the subsiding basins until it leaves the clear water reservoir by gravity. The clear water reservoir is to hold 20,000,000 gals. The settling reservoirs are to hold 320,000,000 (48 hrs. subsidence or 96 hrs. capacity). The rate is to be 3,000,000 gals, per acre per day in the slow sand filter, and 125,000,000 in the mechanical filter. The following are the estimated first costs per million gallons daily capacity : Filter Plant. Slow sand. Mechanical. Reservoirs $16,000 $16,000 Pipe connections 500 500 Filter beds, chemical devices, piping, labora- tory, etc. 16,667 7,500 Clear water reservoir 1,250 1,250 Coagulating and supplementary subsiding reservoir (20,000,000 gals.) 1,500 Total cost per million daily gals . . $34,417 $26,750 Interest and sinking fund (5% per year) per million gals $4.72 $3.67 The cost of operation of the slow sand filter plant is estimated thus: Pear year. 1 superintendent $ 4,000 1 assistant superintendent 2,400 2 analysts, at $1,500 3,000 3 assistants, clerks and janitor, at $600 1,800 1 night watchman '. 720 3 reservoir attendants, at $720 2,160 3 filter attendants, at $720 2,160 1 storekeeper 720 5 chemical attendants for 6 mos. each year, at $360 1,800 Extra labor 1,500 Total, 29,200 million gals., at $0.72 $20,860 754 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cest per million gallons is estimated thus: Salaries (as above given) $ 0.72 Ice removal, etc 0.30 Scraping 20 times a year, 325 man-hrs. per scraping, at 20 cts. per hr 1.19 Washing sand, 1.75 cu. yds., at 40 cts 0.70 Replacing sand, 1.75 cu. yds., at 20 cts 0.35 Sulphate of alumina, 0.95 gr. per gal., at 1.4 cts. per Ib 1.90 Repairs, 0.5% cost per yr 0.47 Total operating expense $ 5.63 Capital charges (as above) 4.72 Grand total. $10.35 The estimated cost of salaries for a mechanical filter plant of the same capacity is as follows: 15 attendants for filters and chemical devices, at $720 $10,800 3 firemen, at $720 2,160 1 mechanic 1,440 3 engineers, at $1,440 4,320 1 superintendent 4,000 1 assistant superintendent 2,400 2 analysts 3,000 3 assistants, clerks, etc 1,800 1 night watchman 720 3 reservoir attendants 2,160 Extra labor 1,500 Total, 29,200 million gals., at $1.17 $34,300 The estimated cost of operating the mechanical filter plant is as follows per million gallons: Salaries (as above) $1.17 Wash water, 5% of filtered water, at $15 per million gals 0.75 Coal for power and light 0.15 Sulphate of alumina, 1.6 grs. per gal., at 1.4 cts. per Ib 3.20 Repairs and replacements, machinery and chemical devices, 10% per yr. on $2,500 0.69 Other repairs, 0.5% of first cost per yr 0.33 Total operating expense $6.29 Capital charges (as above) 3.67 Grand total $9.96 For the turbid water of the Ohio River at Cincinnati, Mr. Fuller recommended a mechanical filter plant. Cost of Filtering and Ice Removal, Reading, Pa.* The water supply of Reading, Pa., is obtained by gravity systems and by pumping. Two of the gravity supplies the Antietam supply and the Egelman supply are filtered. Mr. Emil L. Neubling, Superin- tendent and Engineer of Waterworks, gives data for the fiscal year ending April 6, 1908. Antietam Filters. The Antietam supply is obtained from a drain- age area of 5.44 square miles. The storage reservoir capacity is 101,000,000 gallons. During the year this supply was treated with copper sulphate in order to remove the organism anabaena and to lighten the work of scraping at the Antietam filters. Two treat- * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 28, 1908. WATER-WORKS. 755 ments were given and the effect upon the operation of the filters was to reduce the total number of scrapings from 62 in the previous year to 48 during the past year. The Antietam niters consist of three open sand beds, 108x144 ft each, the capacity of each bed being 1,750,000 gallons per day. The filters were put into service on May 11, 1905. The total cost of operation and maintenance was $3,909.46 or $474.76 less than the previous year. Owing to the decreased efficiency of labor the cost of refilling the beds was 42 per cent higher per cubic yard than during the previous year. The cost of washing sand, however, was very materially reduced on account of placing the filter keeper in charge of the washing, thereby saving the services of an engineer. The cost of washing sand was reduced 11 cts. per cu. yd. During February and March, 1908, 835 cu. yds. of ice was re- moved from the filter. The mean thickness of the ice was 4.35 ins., and the greatest average thickness was 5.3 ins. in Feb- ruary, when three beds were cleared. In March one bed was cleared, the average thickness of ice being 1.5 ins. The cost of re- moving the ice was as follows: Total. Per cu. yd. Labor, 238 hours ............. . ............... $51.69 $0.062 Superintendence .............................. 6.80 .007 Supplies ...................................... 90 .001 Total ......... . ....................... $59.39 $0.070 It will be noticed common labor was paid about 21 cts. per hour. The 'cost of scraping and wheeling out sand was as follows, 1,818 cu. yds. being removed : Total. Per cu. yd. Labor, 3,589% hours ............. . .. ......... $711.77 $0.391 Superintendence ............................. 38.82 .021 Supplies .................................... 70.29 .039 Sulphate treatment ...................... '. . . . 42.77 .024 Total ...... . ..................... ' ..... $863.65 $0.475 The cost of washing sand, 1,831 cu. yds. being washed, was as follows : Total. Per cu. yd. Labor, 1,539% hours ............... . ......... $282.38 $0.154 Superintendence ......................... : . . . 30.43 .017 Supplies and repairs. .*. . . ^ .................. 794.49 .433 Total ............................... $1,107.30 $0.604 The cost of refilling the beds was as follows, 1,921 cu. yds. of sand being used for refilling : Total. Per cu. yd. Labor, 4,838 hours .......................... $917.95 $0.478 Superintendence ........................... . . 37.03 .020 Supplies .................................... 18.36 .010 Total ................................ $973.34 The total number of gallons of water filtered during the year was 1,182,557,923. The average quantity of water filtered between scrapings was 73,909,870 gallons or at the rate of 69,626,123 gallons per acre. The average quantity of water filtered per day was 756 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 3,231,033 gallons, or at the rate of 3,043,765 gallons per day per acre. The cost of filtering water per million gallons was as follows : Per Total, million gals. Removing ice $ 59.39 $0.050 Scraping and wheeling out sand 863.65 .730 Washing sand H 1,107.30 .936 Refilling beds 973.34 .823 Care of grounds 513.86 .434 Analyses 37.38 .030 Watching 150.09 .130 Operation and general maintenance 204.45 .180 Total $3,909.46 $3.313 The cost of filtering water per million gallons, excluding analyses and care of grounds was $2.84. Engelman Filters. The Engelman supply has a drainage area of 0.6 square miles and a storage reservoir capacity of 6,900,000 gal- lons. The Engelman filter consists of two open sand beds, 40 x 55 ft. each ; the capacity of each bed is 250,000 gals, per day. The filters were put into service on July 11, 1903. On account of not washing sand and refilling beds during the year, the cost of operation was considerably less than for the pre- vious year. The unit cost of scraping and wheeling out sand was 3 cts. per cubic yard more than for the previous year, and the cost of ice removal 2 cts. per cubic yard less. A total of 147 cu. yds. of ice was removed from these filters, the mean thickness of the ice being 3.6 ins. The greatest thickness was 5.2 ins. in February, 1908. The cost of removing ice was 10 cts. per cubic yard, the work requiring 67 hours labor at a total cost of $11.05. The cost of scraping and wheeling out sand was as follows : Total. Labor, 450V 2 hours $82.82 Superintendence 1.70 Total $84.52 A total of 122 cu. yds. of sand was removed, the cost per cubic yard being $0.69. The total number of gallons of wafer filtered during the year was 79,784,796. The average quantity of water filtered between scrapings was 4,693,234 gallons, or at the rate of 48,675,541 gallons per acre. The average quantity of water filtered per day was 217,- 992 gallons, or at the rate of 2,260,888 gallons per acre per day. The cost of filtering the water per million gallons was as follows : Per Total, million gals. Removing ice $ 14.05 $0.177 Scraping and wheeling out sand 82.82 1.038 Operation and general maintenance.... 109.56 1.373 Analyses 31.10 .391 Care of grounds 45.25 .567 Total . $284~48 ?3:546 WATER-WORKS. 757 The cost of filtering water per million gallons, exclusive of cost of analyses and care of grounds was $2.61. Cost of Filtering, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mr. I. M. de Varona gives the following data relative to 4 filter plants in Brooklyn, 2 mechanical and 2 slow sand filters. The mechanical filter plant at Baiseleys Is of the gravity type and has a normal capacity of 5,000,000 gals, per day. It has circular wooden tanks ; air is used to agitate the sand during washing. The mechanical filter plant at Springfield is similar to that at Baiseleys, but its normal capacity is only 3,000,000 gals, per day, For the 12 mos. of 1905 the cost of operating these plants was as follows : Baiseleys. Springfield. Inspection $ 484.80 $ 462.79 Operation 4,714.08 3,182.91 Laboratory 443.68 409.23 Repairs 507.78 232.53 Interest and sinking fund. 3,218.64 2,366.28 Total $9,363.98 $6,653.74 Million gals, filtered 1,435.5 694.6 Cost per million gals $6.53 $9.58 The Forest Stream slow sand filter plant has two sand beds hav- ing a daily capacity of 6,000,000 gals., the area of the bottom of the beds being 2 acres. The beds have no covering and have no impervious bottom, nor side walls. Collecting pipes are laid below the ground water level, so there is practically no loss of water by this form of construction. The bed is underlaid by gravel, and the 6-in. underdrains are 12^ ft., c. to c. The Hempstead slow sand filter plant is similar to the Forest Stream plant, but the two beds have an area of only 0.9 acre and a daily capacity of 3,000,000 gals. The cost of operating these plants during 1905 was as follows: Forest Stream. Hempstead. Inspection $ 348.91 $ 214.76 Laboratory 335.12 419.26 Labor and materials 710.00 239.47 Interest only 1,058.40 330.00 Total $2,452.43 $1,203.49 Million gals, filtered 1,075.3 416.8 Cost per million gals $2.28 $2.89 At Hempstead a new method of cleaning the beds was used, which consists in washing the beds instead of scraping them. The cost of this cleaning by washing was 40 cts. per million gals, instead of $1 by scraping. The beds are divided into channels 20 ft. wide, by means of boards set vertically, extending 8 ins. above the sur- face and 6 ins. below the bottom of the sand. The boards are laid to within ^5 ft. of tee ends of the beds, and boards can be placed across the ends of the channel ways so as to cause a flow of water through any desired c&annel way. When the bed is ready to be cleaned it is drained so that only 4 or 5 ins. of water are left on the bed, and waste pipe gate is opened ; then a gate on the pipe 758 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. between the two beds is opened to allow the raw water in the ad- joining bed to flow into the bed to be cleaned. The velocity of the water as regulated so that it will not quite carry the sand. Men with rakes stir up the surface of the bed, so that the dirt is carried away in suspension. The men work from the head of the bed toward the outlet. When one channel is cleaned, stop planks are placed across its end, and a second channel is cleaned. One bed (0.45 acres) is cleaned by 8 men in 4 hrs., using 250,000 gals, of water. The quantity of water filtered between cleanings is about 25% less when the beds are washed instead of scraped. At the Forest Stream plant, 60,000,000 gals, are filtered between scrapings. Output of Sand Washers.* In a sand filtration plant the sand is, in a way, the most important part of the filters. It is important, therefore, to secure the best sand that can be reasonably obtained. The following method of securing and preparing filter sand was used in the construction of the water filtration plant of Washing- ton, D. C.. and was described by Mr. Allen Hazen and Mr. E. D. Hardy, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1906. The contractor furnished sand from a bank at Laurel, Md., on the main line of the Baltimore & Ohio .R. R., half way to Baltimore. This bank was probably of tertiary origin, and consisted of layers of clay and sand. The sand in the sand layers was of good quality, except that more or less clay was distributed through it. The layers of clay ranged in thickness from a few inches to several feet, and the mixture was such that it was not possible to take the sand with- out the clay. The method of securing and preparing filter sand of the requisite cleanliness and of the quality specified was as follows: The sand was excavated from the bank with steam shovels, taking the mixed material, to a depth often reaching 20 ft. The material obtained in this way consisted mostly of sand, but large and small lumps of clay were always mixed with it, and the top soil was not separated. The proportion of the material which could not form part of the filter sand was rather large. The sand was loaded on cars, which carried it on temporary tracks to the screening and washing plant built close to the main line of the Baltimore & Ohio R. R. The material was first dumped from the cars through a coarse grating which separated many of the largest lumps of clay. It then passed through a revolving screen, with holes about 2 ins. in diameter, which removed further quantities of clay in lumps. It was then taken by a link-belt elevator to the top of a timber trestle, and discharged into a revolving screen, with round holes having af size of separation of about 4 mm. Water jets played upon this 1 screen and facilitated the passage of sand through it, while much fine gravel and some additional lumps of clay were removed. The specifications provided that the sand must be free from particles more than 5 mm. in diameter, and the screen secured this result. The material passing through the screen consisted of the sand, to- 'Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 20, 1907. WATER-WORKS. 759 gether with a large quantity of clay, partly pulverized and partly in lumps, all carried by a considerable quantity of water. The mixture then passed to a series of pug-mills. The revolving arms in these broke up and pulverized the remaining clay lumps. This treatment was necessary for a material containing clay in lumps, but would be unnecessary for sand not containing such material. The pug-mills incidentally served to separate a portion of the clay from the sand, for an excess of water entered them, and ex- tremely dirty water was constantly wasting over their tops, while the sand was drawn out from points near the bottoms in much the same way as it was subsequently drawn from the sand washers. The mixture of sand, clay and water leaving the pug-mills next passed to the washers. These washers, Fig. 24, consisted of three long, narrow boxes with bottoms having slopes of 1 in 6 to the point of discharge. The boxes were 16 ft. long, 24 in. wide and 18 In. ^ deep at the upper end. There were four pipes, perforated for their" entire length, in the bottom of each box, the holes opening directly downward. Water was forced through these pipes at a rate of about 1 cu. ft. per min. per sq. ft. of box area. This water went upward and overflowed into a trough running lengthwise of the box at the top. The mixed materials entered this box at the upper end, flowed through it, and were discharged at the lower end from the bottom. There were, therefore, two movements in each box ; first, a movement of wash-water upward from the bottom of the box to the top and out through the waste overflow ; and second, a for- ward movement of sand from one end of the box to the other. The upward movement of water, starting from the whole area of the bottom and overflowing from most of the area of the top, kept the sand in a semi-suspended state and practically in the condition of quicksand. Under these conditions the larger particles of sand rapidly sank to the bottom while the finer particles were carried to the top. The sand at the bottom was in contact with the clean water as it first entered the box, while, by controlling the quantities of sand let in and drawn out, the finer particles could be forced to the top and out through the waste overflow to any desired extent. The level of the sand in the box was usually carried not more than about 6 in. below the surface of the water. As the sand in the box was in the state of quicksand, it was pos- sible to draw it out, through a gate placed just above the bottom at the lower end of the washer, in the form of a fluid containing very little water. Generally, 10 parts of the mixture drawn from the outlet contained 9 parts of solid sand. The mixture fell into a large hopper, from which a gate allowed it to flow from time to time into cars on a side-track below, often without further separa- tion of water, except as it gradually drained out through the cracks in the hopper and in the bottoms of the cars. In general, it was found that 1 cu. yd. of sand per hour could be washed for each square foot of box area, and sometimes a larger quantity was passed. 760 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ttr= - 7 ~n ' pr =H & ' n r ". U U / ^TJ , WATER-WORKS. 761 A washing box of this character was first designed by one of the Writers for use in preparing filter sand at Yonkers, N. Y. The same type of box was used in preparing all the sand placed in the filters at Providence, R. I., and has also been used elsewhere. The separation of the clay from the sand in such large quantities and so cheaply was an achievement which would hardly have been regarded as possible at the time the contract for filter sand was made, and the use of this process cheapened the sand washing very greatly, the actual cost to the contractor being far below the con- tract price. Although exact figures are not at hand, it appears that the vol- ume of water used in washing the sand was not more than five or six times that of the sand. The. wash-water was obtained from a small creek nearby, and was pumped through a 10-in. pipe. After rains the water in this creek was quite turbid, but this turbidity did not interfere materially with the washing, or with the quality of the sand produced. In a working day of 10 hours more than 900 cu. yds. of filter sand were frequently produced, and, had it been possible to handle the sand at the filters more rapidly, the .plant could have worked at night, with a greatly increased output. The specifications provided that the filtering sand should be en- tirely free from clay. The specification had proved sufficient in securing sand from river deposits and from sand banks of glacial origin. It did not prove satisfactory in the case of this sand, as tlie raw material contained large quantities of clay. The clay stuck to the particles of sand on drying, and the ordinary mechan- ical analysis, by sifting the material in a dry state, was inadequate to show its presence or amount. It becomes apparent at once that a method of measuring the amount of clay in the sand must be found and used, and definite limits set to the amount of clay that could be present, which should be substantially equivalent to the requirements of the specifications. The method adopted of determining the amount of clay was as follows: A weighed quantity of sand, usually 25 g. but less if there was considerable clay in it, and more if there was but lit- tlewas agitated for some minutes with several times its volume of water. The sand for this purpose was taken directly from the washers and was not dried, as drying increased the difficulty of getting the clay in suspension. If the sand had dried before test- ing, It was necessary to keep it moist and agitate it for some time to get all the clay loose. When this was accomplished the mixture was made up to a volume of 1 liter in a graduated, glass. This was allowed to stand for 1 min. The turbidity of the supernatant fluid was then taken by observing the depth below the surface that a platinum wire could be seen, by the method of the U. S. Geologi- cal Survey. These observations were taken in the graduated glass for con- venience. This was not strictly in accordance with the official in- structions, but it was more convenient, and the comparative re- 762 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. suits were good. Jackson's turbidimeter was used with good results for night work, but the rod was preferred by the inspectors when it could be used. The turbidity of the water thus found was multi- plied by the ratio of the volume of the mixture to the weight of sand taken. That is to say, for the quantities above stated it was multiplied by 40. The figures thus represent approximately the turbidity in the sand in parts per million by weight. One part of clay by weight actually produces about two parts of turbidity, be- cause the particles of clay are much finer than the particles of standard turbidity, but this matter is overlooked, and the results are expressed as standard turbidity in parts per million. To get the actual weight of the clay, therefore, the figures should be divid- ed by two. It was decided after study that a reasonable interpretation of the specification, expressed in terms of turbidity, was represented by 4,000 parts per million, and this limit was rigidly insisted upon. Generally, the sand contained less than 3,000 and frequently less than 2,000 turbidity, the last figure corresponding to less than 0.1 per cent of actual clay by weight in the sand as delivered. That this result could be regularly secured from a bank where a consid- erable percentage of the total material was clay is, the writers think, a very remarkable result, indicating both an excellent ap- paratus and most efficient management, on the part of the con- tractor, and by the sand inspectors. Part of the sand-washing plant was duplicated. This was done before the full capacity of the part first built was realized. It was intended to insure against delay in case of accident and to allow an increased output, but the first part did so well that the second part was used hardly enough to test it. The sand was taken in cars to an elevated siding near the filters, and dumped into hoppers. These hoppers were provided with sand-gates, and carts were driven underneath and loaded from them. These carts were taken over the roofs of the filters, and the sand was dumped through the manholes. Chutes were arranged under the manholes, upon which the sand fell. This broke the force of the fall which, otherwise, might have compacted the sand to an undesirable extent, and also threw it to a considerable dis- tance horizontally. The chutes were revolved, and in this way most of the filter sand was placed directly where it was wanted without further handling. It was necessary to place only a small part of it with shovels. This method of placing the sand in the filters is so simple and cheap that it has been adopted for regular use in replacing the washed sand in the filters. The sand settled, on an average, about 5 per cent when it was wet and the filters were placed in service. The average depth of the sand in the filters after settling was 38 ins., but different filters were filled to differen-t depths, so that when sand is re- placed frpm the washers in the filters it will go first to the filters having initially the least sand, and a regular regime is thus estab- lished from the start. WATER-WORKS. 763 Cost of Filter, Lambertville, N. J. Mr. Churchill Hungerford gives the following relative to a small slow sand filter at Lambert- ville, N. J., built in 1876. There are two filter beds, each 60x100 ft, giving a total of 0.28 acre, and the cost was $5,600, or at the rate of $20,000 per acre. They were built in clay and not lined with concrete, but the side slopes and bottom were riprapped with stone. A puddle trench 4 ft. wide runs beneath all the embank- ments, averaging about 10 ft. deep. The basins are 9 ft. deep. A 12-in. vitrified pipe runs the entire length of each basin, on one side, and is fed by 4-in. vitrified pipes spaced 2 ft. c. to c. Gravel was placed around and over the pipes, and a layer of sand 2% ft. thick. The filter delivers 225,000 gals, per day, but has a much greater capacity. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Roof for Filter, Indianapolis. Mr. William Curtis Mabee gives the following data relative to the cost of covering 4.8 acres of filter beds with a reinforced concrete roof resting on steel beams and cast-iron posts, built in 1905, for the Indianapolis Water Co., by day labor. The filter beds had been in operation for a year or more, but ice and algae had caused so much trouble that it was decided to roof them, disturbing the filter sand as little as possible. The roofing cost 35^ cts. per sq. ft., including 2 ft. of cinders and a concrete parapet wall all around the roof to hold the cinders. The concrete for the roof was mixed 1:2:4, and amounts to 0.017 cu. yd. per sq. ft. The roof is a continuous slab 3 ins. thick, reinforced with }4 -in. corrugated rods spaced 3 ins. c. to c. in parallel lines, and with cross rods of the same size spaced similarly. The roof slab is supported by concrete girders, 8 ins. wide, with a depth of 10 ins. below the roof slab, and spaced 6 ft. 9 ins. c. to c. Each girder is designed as a continuous beam, reinforced with four %-in. corrugated rods, each bar being so bent that for three-quarters of its length it is near the bottom of the beam, and then passes along the top of the beam and over the supporting I-beam for about a quarter span ; hence each bar has a length of about 1 *4 times the length of the beam. These reinforced concrete beams are sup- ported by steel I-beams. The I-beams are 18-in. (55 lb.), spaced 19^ ft. c. to c., and are embedded in concrete 10 ins. thick. The I-beams are spliced at the quarter point of the span. The I-beams are supported by 7-in. cast-iron columns spaced 20 ft. c. to c., filled with concrete. The columns rest on concrete pedestals, the top of which is 6 ins. above the surface of the filter sand. The excavation for these columns was accomplished by the aid of light steel cylinders that were sunk through 4 ft. of filter material, and then filled with concrete. The cast-iron columns are 11*4 to 12 ft. long. Being only 7 ins. diam. and spaced 20 ft. apart, there is a gain of more than 1 per cent in the effective filtering area under the roof, as compared with the ordinary brick columns 20 ins. square and spaced 14 ft. c. to c. The use of cinders instead of earth effects a decided saving in the amount of material required for the roof, and the cinders, in 764 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. this case, cost no more than earth. The roof was designed to support the cinders and such water as they would hold. A factor of safety of 3 was adopted for the roof reinforcement, based upon 50,000 Ibs. per sq. in. elastic limit of steel, and using 1 per cent reinforcement. The iron, steel and concrete were handled by a movable cableway spanning the filter beds. The centering was supported from the steel I-beams, by U-bolts, and was left in place 10 to 14 days, or until the concrete would ring under a hammer when struck lightly. Cost of Seven Mechanical Filters. Table XIV gives the first cost of 7 mechanical filter plants of the Jewell type: TABLE XIV. When Locality. finished. Terre Haute, Ind 1891 Chattanooga, Tenn. ... 1893 Burlington, la 1894 Ottumwa, la 1895 Danville, Pa 1895 Lexington. Ky 1895 Cedar Rapids, la 1896 Capacity per day, gals. 4,000,000 3,000,000 3,500,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 2 000 000 Cost without buildings or clear reservoir. $30,000 30,000 33,000 13,500 6,000 Cost- with buildings and clear reservoir. $45,000 (1) 32,000 (2) 75,000 (3) 21,500 (4) 14,000 (5) 27 000 (6) 4,000,000 32,000 47,000 (7) Total 19,500,000 $261,500 Notes. (1) The buildings cost $5,000 and the clear water reser- voir cost $10,000. (2) There is no clear water reservoir. (3) The clear water reservoir holds 500,000 gals. (4) The settling tanks are combined with the filtering tanks, be- ing below the filtering material. The 6 filters are housed in a brick building, 41 x 95 ft. (5) Extra pumps, $1,000; clear water reservoir of 90,000 gals, (roofed), $7,000; it is not clear whether a building is included in the $14,000. (6) The clear water reservoir holds 330,000 gals. (7) Brick building, 40x140 ft., clear water reservoir beneath. The cost includes two 3,000,000-gal. low service pumps. Cost of Mechanical Filter, Danville, III. A mechanical filter plant built at Danville, 111., in 1903, cost $75,000 for buildings, filters, coagulating basins, clear water reservoir, and the operating ma- chinery. The capacity of the plant is 6,000,000 gals, per day. The filter beds have. a capacity of 125,000,000 gals, per acre per day. The coagulant is lime and sulphate of iron specified not to cost more than $1.10 per million gallons when the water has "average turbidity." Cost of Mechanical Filter and of Filtering, Norfolk, Va. Mr. Ed- mund B. Weston gives the following relative to a mechanical filter plant built in 1899 at Norfolk, Va. The plant has a capacity of 8,000,000 gals, per day. There are 16 filters, each 15 ft. in diam- eter. At a rate of 127.000,000 gals, per acre per day, each filter has a daily capacity of 500,000 gals. The cost of the filter plant, ex- clusive of a 5,000,000-gal. subsiding reservoir and a 1,000,000-gal. clear water reservoir, was as follows : WATER-WORKS. 765 Filter buildings and foundations. . $23,342 Filters and auxiliaries 74,083 Pump for supplying filters 1,690 Electric light equipment, etc 693 Total $ 99,808 Work upon subsiding reservoir including drainage pump.. 4,690 Total $104,498 The subsiding reservoir was already in existence, being an old reservoir. The cost of operation during the month of March. 1900, which was typical, was as follows, per million gallons : Labor $1.13 Coal at $3 per ton 0.86 Clearing subsiding reservoir 0.08 1.95 grains of sulphate of alumina per gal., at 1.2 cts. per Ib. . . 3.40 Total $5.47 Additional labor if pumping station were not adjacent to filter building 0.33 Total $5.80 This does not include interest, depreciation and repairs, which \t is safe to say, would amount to at least $3 per million gallons, if the cost of the subsiding reservoir and clear water reservoir q.re included. Cost of Mechanical Filter and of Filtering, Walkes-Barre, Pa. A mechanical filter plant (of the Jewell type) was built in 1895 at Wilkes-Barre, Pa. The cost was $122,400, including a brick building having 11,200 ft. floor area. There are 20 filter tanks, having a combined area of 2,260 sq. ft., and a daily capacity of 10,000,000 gals. There are two 50-hp. boilers, a 10 x 10 x 12-in. pump for raising filtered water for washing the filters, a 15-hp. engine for driving the sand agitators, a 6 x 10 x 12-in. air com- pressor for agitating the solution in the coagulant tank, and a dynamo for lighting. Sulphate of alumina is used as a coagulant, the maximum being % gr. per gal. The cost of operation per day was : 2 engineers, at $2.15 $ 4.30 2 foremen, at $1.75 , 3.50 2 laborers, at $1.50 3.00 Coal 0.78 Hauling coal 0.75 250 Ibs. alum (for 7,000,000 gals.), at 1.75 cts 3.82 Total, 7,000,000 gals, at $2.31 $16.15 In 1896 the labor and fuel cost of filtering 9,000,000 gals, per day was reduced to the following daily cost : 2 engineers, at $2.15 ..$4.30 2 washers, at $1.62 y 2 3.25 Fuel 1.30 Oil, Waste, etc 0.11 Total $8.96 7(10 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This is $1 per million gals, exclusive of the coagulent and of interest and' depreciation of plant. The first cost of the plant was $12,200 per million gals, of daily capacity. Cost of Mechanical Filter, Asbury Park, N. J. A mechanical filter (Continental) was built in 1894 at Asbury Park, N. J., for removing the iron from artesian well water. Its capacity is 2,000,- 000 gals, per day, and its cost was $20,000, not including a brick building 45x45 ft. (2,025 sq. ft.), estimated to cost $1,500. This does not include a 12-ft. standpipe 125 ft. high, which receives the clear water. About 10 per cent of the total pumpage is used for washing the filters. Cost of Mechanical Filter and Filtering, Elmira, N. Y. Mr. J. M. Divens states that the mechanical filter plant at Elmira, N. Y., has a capacity of 6 million gals, daily, and its cost was $66,000, including building. The cost of filtering, $2.80 per million gals., to which $0.70 should be added for interest and depreciation ; total, $3.50. Cost of Water Softening. Mr. W. B. Gerrish gives the follow- ing relative to a water softening plant built in 1905 at Oberlin, O. The plant cost $12,000, and treats 165,000 gals, per day. The water is softened by the use of lime and soda. From 6 to 17 grains of lime and 2 to 6 grains of soda are used per gallon. The two (7x7 f t. ) pressure filters are washed twice a week. The cost of treatment averages as follows per million gallons : Chemicals $10 Labor, interest and depreciation 15 Total $25 Cost of Concrete, Asphalt and Brick Reservoir Lining. Mr. Ar- thur L. Adams gives the following data on the Astoria (Ore.) City Water Works: The reservoir bottom is lined with 6 ins. of con- crete (laid with expansion joints), %-in. of cement mortar, one coat of liquid asphalt, and one harder asphalt coat. The lining of the slopes is the same except that a layer of brick laid flat, after dipping each brick in hot asphalt, was laid on the concrete. The bricks were laid on an asphalt coating and given a final asphalt coat. The actual cost per sq. ft. was : Slope. Per sq. ft. ' Bottom. Per sq. ft. 6-in. concrete .$0.1187 6-in. concrete $0.1031 1st coat asphalt 0.0100 Cement mortar finish... 0.0113 Brick in asphalt 0.0889 1st coat asphalt 0.0077 2d coat asphalt 0.0131 2d coat asphalt 0.0082 Chinking crevices with asphalt* . 0.0030 Ironing 0.0035 Total $0.2372 Total $0.1303 *These crevices developed near the top of the slope, due to sliding of the brick slope. The detailed cost of this lining work was as follows: The concrete was composed of basalt rock, quarried and crushed WATER-WORKS. 767 near the work, of river gravel, sand and imported Portland cement. One cubic yard of concrete contained 0.9 cu. yd. stone, 0.5 cu. yd. gravel, 0.1 cu. yd. sand and 1 bbl. cement. There were 603 cu. yds. of concrete on slopes and 678 cu. yds. on the bottom. The work was well managed, each man averaging 1.84 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day, mixed and placed on the slopes, and 2.35 cu. yds. on the bottom. The men were Italians. The rock was quarried and crushed and delivered at the work (800 ft. haul) for 95 cts. per cu. yd. Sand and gravel were bought at 86% cts. per cu. yd., and cement at $2.45 per bbl. All mixing was done by hand. There were three gangs of mixers, 6 men in a gang, supplied with materials by 9 wheel- barrow men (5 on rock, 3 on gravel and sand and 1 on cement). The 18 mixers placed the concrete for 6 men to rake and ram. Beside this force of 33 men, there were: 1 helper at the cement, 1 man tending water, 1 man sprinkling concrete already laid, 1 water-boy and 1 foreman. The gravel, sand and cement were mixed dry, then mixed wet, and stone added ; the concrete was then turned three times, and once more when deposited. On the slopes a rough finishing coat of mortar was applied by taking a little mortar from the next batch. The concrete was mixed with very little water. By raking the coarse rock down the slopes and by using a straight edge before ramming, even slopes were secured. On the bottom the %-in. mortar (1:2) coat was applied by two finishers using smoothing trowels, and they were served by 4 men mixing and carrying the mortar. On the slopes the concrete was placed in sheets 10 ft. wide from top to bottom ; and on the bottom it was laid in squares, 20 ft. on a side ; 2 x 6-in. planks being used to hold the free sides of the concrete. When a new square was laid adjoining an old square, the 2x6 pieces were removed, and replaced by a piece of % x 4-in. weather boarding. Two weeks later these %-in. strips were re- moved so that the grooves could be run full of asphalt. The %-in. strips should be beveled and laid with the wide edge up, or they will be removed with difficulty. The labor cost of concreting was $1.07 per cu. yd. on the slopes and 67 cts. on the bottom, wages being 15 cts. an hour. Two grades of Alcatraz asphalt were used: the L and the XXX, or paving brand. The L grade is a natural liquid asphalt, and the XXX grade is the product of refining the natural rock asphalt with about 20 per cent of the liquid as a flux ; they are sold in barrels holding 400 Ibs. No asphalt was placed on the con- crete until it had been in place two weeks and was dry on the sur- face. On the bottom of the reservoir the first coat applied was the L grade, the second coat was the XXX grade. On the slopes none of the L grade was used, because of its tendency to creep ; moreover the harder asphalt when at the proper temperature runs readily and fills all crevices. The only advantage of the L grade is that it will adhere to a damp surface where the XXX will not. 768 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. For best results all work should be done in the dry summer months. All dust must be carefully swept off the concrete as it prevents bonding with the asphalt. The asphalt applied with mops made of twine, was delivered in sheet-iron buckets by attendants who carried it from two melting kettles holding 3,000 Ibs. each. The bricks used on the slopes were half vitrified and half com- mon, due to inability to get the full number of vitrified bricks. They were submerged in a bucket of hot asphalt and placed on the slope with iron tongs ; a common laborer, after a little practice, readily averaged 2,300 bricks laid in 10 hrs. A push joint was made. To secure close joints and consequent economy in asphalt, the asphalt must be kept hot enough to run like water. The asphalt finishing coat followed the brick laying as closely as possible, to avoid delays due to rain-water standing in open joints. The slope was ironed with hot irons to improve the ap- pearance. Overheating of the irons is apt to injure the asphalt. During hot weather the brick slid on the slope somewhat by closing up thick joints laid in colder weather ; but all motion ceased in a few weeks. The advantage of asphalt lies in retarding the pas- sage of water through brick or concrete ; it does not exclude water, for an asphalt coated brick submerged in water will eventu- ally absorb as much water as an uncoated brick. Cost of First Asphalt Coat on Concrete Slopes (29,637 sq. ft.). Total Cost per Labor : cost. sq. ft. Building sheds $ 5.00 $0.00017 Spreading, 91 hours at 20 cts 18.20 0.00061 Boiling, 91 1/2 hours at 15 cts 13.72 0.00046 Helpers, 73% hours at 15 cts 11.02 0.00037 Sweeping, 49 % hours at 15 cts 7.43 0.00025 Materials : Asphalt, 19,243 Ibs. at $0.1225 235.73 0.00795 Fuel, 1 cord wood at $2.50 2.50 0.00009 Hauling 9.6 tons asphalt at $0.47 4.50 0.00015 Totals $298.10 $0.01005 Cost of Asphalt Finishing Coat on Slopes (29,637 sq. ft). Total Cost per Labor : cost. sq. ft. Building sheds . $ 5.00 $0.00017 Spreading, 95% hours at 15 cts 14.36 0.00049 Boiling, 73^4 hours at 15 cts 10.99 0.00037 Helpers, 144% hours at 15 cts 21.68 0.00073 Sweeping, 20 hours at 15 cts 3.00 0.00010 Foreman, 60 hours at 25 cts 15.00 0.00051 Materials : Asphalt, 25,230 Ibs. at $0.01225 309.07 0.01042 Fuel, 1 cord 2.50 0.00008 Hauling, 12.6 tons at $0.47 5.92 0.00020 Totals $387.52 $0.01307 Cost of Ironing Asphalt Slope (29,637 sq. ft). Total Cost per Labor : cost. sq. ft. Ironers, 295.5 hours at 15 cts $ 44.33 $0.00150 Heaters, 75 hours at 15 cts 11.25 0.00038 Helpers and sweeping, 34 % hrs. at 15 cts 5.18 0.00017 Foreman, 49 V 2 hours at 25 cts 12.37 0.00042 WATER-WORKS. 769 Materials : Irons, 20 at $1.50.. 30.00 0.00101 Fuel, 1 cord at $2.50 2.50 0.00008 Totals $105.63 $0.00356 Cost of First Asphalt Coat on Concrete Bottom (34,454 sq. ft.). Total Cost per Labor : cost. sq. ft. Building sheds, 25 hours at 20 cts $ 5.00 $0.00015 Spreading, 38 hours at 20 cts 7.60 0.00022 Boiling, 37 hours at 15 cts 5.55 0.00016 Helpers, 43 hours at 15 cts 6.45 0.00019 Sweeping, 44 hours at 15 cts 6.60 0.00019 Materials : Asphalt, 18,490 Ibs. at $0.01225 226.50 0.00658 Fuel, 1 cord 2.50 0.00012 Hauling, 9.25 tons at $0.47 4.35 0.00007 Totals $264.55 $0.00768 Cost of Second Asphalt Coat on Bottom (34,454 sq. ft.) Total Cost per Labor : cost. sq. ft. Building sheds $ 5.00 ' $0.00015 Spreading, 35 hours at 15 cts 5.25 0.00015 Boiling, 30 hours at 15 cts 4.50 0.00013 Helpers, 52% hours at 15 cts 7.88 0.00023 Sweeping, 44% hours at 15 cts 6.68 0.00020 Foreman, 17% hours at 25 cts 4.38 0.00013 Materials : Asphalt, 19,591 Ibs. at $0.01225 239.99 0.00702 Fuel, 1 cord at $2.50 2.50 0.00007 Hauling, 9.8 tons at $0.47 4.61 0.00013 Totals $280.79 $0.00821 Cost of Laying Brick on Slopes (132,000 Bricks Dipped, in Asphalt and Laid Flat; 29,637 sq. ft). Total Cost per Labor : cost. M. Unloading brick from barge, 290 hrs. at 15 cts; foreman, 22 hrs. at 25 cts $ 49.00 $ 0.37122 Hauling and storing, 160 hrs. at 35 cts. and 140 hrs. at 55 cts 152.43 1.15473 Laying, 561 hrs. at 15 cts. 84.15 0.63750 Attendance, 1,341 hrs. at 15 cts 201.15 1.52387 Boiling asphalt, 220 hrs. at 15 cts 33.00 0.24500 Foreman, 96 hrs. at 25 cts , 24.00 0.18180 Materials : Brick, 132 M at $7.00 924.00 7.00000 Asphalt, 93,372 Ibs. at $0.01225 1,143.81 8.66516 Asphalt haul, 46.7 tons at $0.47 * 21.95 0.16628 Totals $2,633.49 $19.95055 Cost of Lining a Reservoir With Asphalt. In Trans. Am. Soc. C. B., 1892, Vol. 27, p. 629, Mr. James D. Schuyler discusses the use of California asphalt for lining two reservoirs of the Citizens' Water Co., at Denver, Colo. 77(1 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The earth slopes of a reservoir were first sprinkled and rolled with a 5 -ton slope roller, operated by a hoisting engine mounted on rails on top of the embankment. Slopes were 1% to 1, and depth of water was 20 ft. Beginning at the bottom the asphalt was laid on the earth slopes in horizontal strips 10 ft. wide, 1% ins. thick, spread with hot rakes, tamped with hot tampers, and ironed with hot smoothing irons. Asphalt was hauled 2% miles and delivered at a temperature of 250. While the asphalt sheet was still warm, anchor spikes, of % x 1-in. strap iron 8 ins. long, were driven through the asphalt into the bank in rows 1 ft. apart. Every other row was driven flush, the alternate rows being temporarily left projecting 1% ins., to serve as a rest for 2 x 4-in. strips of lumber, forming steps for the workmen. When the finishing coat came to be applied these spikes were driven in flush. The bottom was coated with asphalt 1 in. thick, and after tamping was rolled with a cold 5-ton steam roller. The finishing coat of refined Trinidad asphalt, fluxed with residuum oil, was poured on hot from buckets and ironed with smoothers heated to cherry red. When first applied the irons produced a yellow smoke, and had to be moved rapidly, but thus only could a good bond be secured with the first coat. The cost of asphalting a reservoir having a bottom area of 87,300 sq. ft. and a side-slope area of 65,300 sq. ft., or a total of 152,600 sq. ft., was as follows: 1,304 tons, 20% asphalt mastic, 80% sand, at $12 $15,648.00 15 tons, 15% asphalt mastic, 85% sand, at $10 58000 86.21 tons liquid asphalt fluxed with oil, at $40 3,448.40 Fuel for heating irons and for steam roller 276.02 Lights 3600 Tools 179.75 Pegirons, material and labor of cutting and dipping in asphalt 650.00 Labor 1,921.50 Use of roller 6 days 60.00 Total for 152,600 sq. ft, at 14.94 cts. per sq. ft $22,799.67 Mr. Schuyler informs me that, as nearly as he can remember, men were paid $1.75 per 10-hr, day, although possibly the rate was $2 a day. . . The second reservoir was lined in a manner similar to the first, just described. The total area of bottom and slopes was 143,670 sq. ft., which required 1,156 short tons of the asphalt and sand mix- ture for the first coat; and as this mixture weighed 127 Ibs. per cu. ft. after compression, the average thickness was 1.53 ins., re- quiring 16 Ibs. per sq. ft. The finishing coat was % to %-in. thick, and required 1.24 Ibs. of asphalt per sq. ft. The cost of lining this reservoir was as follows : Cts. per sq. ft. Materials for first coat 8.98 Materials for second coat 2.48 Labor, fuel, spikes, etc 1.99 Total cost of both coats 13.45 WATER-WORKS. 771 In preparing the mastic for the flrst coat 78% of La Patera asphalt and 22% of Las Conchas flux were boiled together in open kettles for 12 hrs., at 250 to 300, with frequent stirring. Then 20% (by weight) of this mastic was mixed with 80% of sand heated to 300, a cylinder with strong paddles being used for the mixing, which took about 2 mins. The charge was dumped into a cart, hauled to the reservoir and dumped upon a wooden platform, and thence taken in hot scoops, spread and raked. Hot rollers were then used, and they were superior to tamping and ironing. These rollers were made from sections of cast iron pipe, turned smooth on the outside, and fitted inside with a hanging basket in which a fire was maintained. For the bottom rolling a 30-in. pipe was used ; for the slopes a 14-in. pipe, Dulled with a %-in. wire cable passing over a pulley at the top of the slope, was used. Asphalt as a reservoir lining possesses several advantages: It will not crack even when there is considerable settlement of the embankment. If cracks do occur it is easily patched, the new material uniting perfectly with the old. To prevent earth from crumbling and rolling down upon the partly completed asphalt, it is often wise to plaster the earth with a mortar of sand, cement and lime to a thickness of nearly 1 in., which will cost about % ct. per sq. ft. On this should be spread a thin coat of liquid asphalt as a binder, which would have the additional advantage of protecting the asphalt from ground water. To prevent accumulated ground water from forcing off the asphalt lining, when the water in a reservoir is drawn down, it is often necessary to provide broken stone drains back of the lining. These drains may be led to a receiving well connected with the reservoir by pipes provided with valves opening automatically into the reservoir. Ice, 18 ins. thick, has been frozen fast to the asphalt lining all around, and the water lowered and raised again 3 or 4 ft. with- out damaging the lining in the least. I am informed (September, 1904) by Mr. Geo. S. Prince, Asst. Ch. Engr. the Denver Union Water Co., that this asphalt lining has not been durable. "It has run considerably on the slopes and this has resulted in the cracking and disintegrating of the asphalt so that considerable expense has been involved in keeping it in any- thing like serviceable condition and we would not consider using it again in this connection, preferring rather to employ concrete linings." Cost of Lining a Reservoir With Concrete. Mr. G. L. Christian gives the following: In laying 3,000 cu. yds. of 1:3:6 concrete, 6 ins. deep, over the bottom of a reservoir, the wages paid were: Foreman, $2.50 ; laborers, $1.35, and teams, $4 a day. The cost of blasting the rock is not included, but the cost of loading, haul- ing and crushing is included : 772 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Per cu. yd. Sand $ -37 Natural cement 1.10 Loading and hauling stone to crusher 25 Labor at crusher, at $1.35 a day 20 Rent of crusher 01 Coal for crusher 05 Hauling stone from crusher 15 Foreman of concrete gang 05 Laborers concreting, at $1.35 50 Teams concreting, at $4 08 Total $2.76 9% for supt., timekeeper, office help, etc 24 Total $3.00 The concrete was mixed very wet. Cost of a Concrete Reservoir Floor at Pittsburg, Pa. Mr. E'mile Low gives the following data : The floor of the Highland Ave. Reservoir at Pittsburg, Pa., was covered in 1884 to a depth of 5 ins. with concrete, laid on a clay puddle foundation. The concrete mortar was made of 1 bbl. natural cement to 2 bbls. sand, mixed to a thin grout in wooden boxes stand- ing on legs. Five barrels of stone (standstone) were spread on a platform of 2-in. plank, 10 x 16 ft., and the grout was poured over it, the whole mass being then turned over three times with shovels, then deposited to the depth of 5 ins. and rammed. The stone was quarried and hauled 20 miles by rail, then unloaded into small cars and hauled % mile to the reservoir. The sand was obtained in the reservoir limits, and cost merely the work of excavation, or 1^4 cts. per bushel. The following was the cost of two days' work : 27 laborers, 2 days, at $1.25 $72.90 1 foreman, 2 days, at $2.50 5.00 Total, 101 cu. yds., at 77 cts $77.90 During one month the labor cost was: Total cost. 642 days, laborers at $1.35 $866.70 17 days, water-boy, at 60 cts 10.20 22 days, foreman, at $2.50 55.00 Total, 1,302 cu. yds., at 71 % cts $931.90 During another month 1,425 cu. yds. were laid at 95 cts. per cu. yd., wages being $1.25 a day. The average cost of the 7,680 cu. yds. of 1:2:5 concrete was: Per cu. yd. Quarrying stone $ .45 Transporting stone 50 Breaking stone (2%-in. ring) 35 IVs bbl. natural cement 1.80 8 bu. sand 10 Water 05 Labor (wages $1.25 a day), mixing and laying 75 Incidentals . 05 Total $4.05 The contract price was $6 per cu. yd. WATER-WORKS. 773 Cost of Reservoir, Forbes Hill, Mass. Mr. C. M. Saville gives the following relative to a small reservoir (Forbes Hill) at Quincy, Mass., holding 5,000,000 gals. The bottom is 100x280 ft., and the sides slope 1 to 1%. The lining is concrete. The excavated earth was used to build the banks, which are 17 ft. wide on top. The cost, at contract prices, was as follows : 30,100 cu. yds. earth excavation, at $0.38 $11,438 Rock excavation, at $2.50 52 2,337 cu. yds. concrete, at $5.25 to $8 15,045 6,822 sq. yds. plastering, at $0.25 1,706 695 sq. yds. granolithic walk, at $0.21 1,313 Seeding 21 Railing . . 425 Miscellaneous extras 462 Total $30,462 For detailed cost of the concrete lining and plastering, see the following section. The gate chamber cost $7,765. Cost of Concrete Lining and Plastering a Reservoir, Forbes Hill, Mass. Mr. C. M. Saville is authority for the following cost data on the Forbes Hill Reservoir, Quincy, Mass., built by contract in 1900-1901. Common laborers were paid $1.50 per 10-hr, day. There were four classes of concrete used, and their itemized costs were as follows : Class "A" ; Concrete 1 : 2% : 4. 1.35 bbl. Portland cement, at $2.23 $3.01 0.46 cu. yd. sand, at $1.13 52 0.74 cu. yd. stone, at $1.13 84 25 ft. B. M. lumber for forms, at $20.00 per M. . .50 Labor, on forms 59 Labor, mixing and placing 1.15 Labor, general expenses 20 Total (279 cu. yds.) per cu. yd.. $6.81 Class "B" ; Concrete 1:3:6. 1.07 bbl. Portland cement, at $2.23 ......$2.39 0.44 cu. yd. sand, at $1.13 50 0.88 cu. yd. stone, at $1.13 99 6V 2 ft. B. M. lumber for forms, at $20.00 per M. . .13 Labor, on forms 21 Labor, mixing and placing 97 Labor, general expenses 15 Total (284 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $5.34 Class "C" ; Concrete 1:2:5. 1.25 bbl. natural cement, at $1.08 $1.35 0.34 cu. yd. sand, at $1.02 35 0.86 cu. yd. stone, at $1.57 1.35 4 % ft. B. M. lumber, at $20.00 per M 09 Labor, on forms 10 Labor, mixing and placing 1.17 Labor, general expenses 08 Total (400 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $4.49 774 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Class "D" ; Concrete 1 : 2% : 6%. 1.08 bbl. Portland cement, at $1.53 $1.65 0.37 cu. yd. sand, at $1.02 38 0.96 cu. yd. stone, at $1.57 1.51 1 ft. B. M. lumber, at $20.00 per M 02 Labor, on forms 12 Labor, mixing and placing 1.21 Labor, general expenses 18 Total (615 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $5.07 Class "E" ; Concrete 1:2%: 4. 1.37 bbl. Portland cement, at $1-53 $2.09 0.47 cu. yd. sand, at $1.02 48 0.75 cu. yd. stone, at $1.57 1.1T 12% ft. B. M. lumber in forms, at $20.00 per M. . . .25 Labor, on forms 26 Labor, mixing and placing 1.53 Labor, general expenses 15 Total (1,222 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $5.93 In all cases the lumber was used more than once, so that the cost of the labor on the forms cannot be computed per M ft. B. M. Class "A" was used for walls and floors of gate vault and gatf chamber, and for cut-off walls. Class "B" was used for the foundations of a standpipe. Class "C," the only natural cement concrete on the work, was used for the lower layer of the bottom of the reservoir. Then came a layer of Portland cement plaster %-in. thick, on which was placed the top layer of Portland cement concrete, Class "E." The slopes of the reservoir were lined in a similar manner, except that Class "D" was substituted for Class "C." The upper layer of concrete was laid in 10 ft. squares, alternate squares being laid and allowed to harden, and then the other squares were laid. The cement was mostly Atlas, delivered in bags, four of which made a barrel, and assumed to be 3.7 cu. ft. All concrete, except on the sides, was made rather wet, and was kept wet for a week. The cost of laying with the ordinary concrete gang was as follows, wages being $.1.50 per 10-hr, day: Cost per cu. yd. 2 men measuring materials $ .15 2 men mixing mortar 15 3 men turning concrete (3 times) 22 3 men wheeling concrete 23 1 man placing concrete 07 2 men ramming concrete 15 1 sub-foreman ($2.50) 13 Total (20 cu. yds. per day) $1.10 In addition to this gang there were 3 plasterers and 3 helpers working on the slopes. The %-in. layer of plaster between the con- crete layers was put down in strips 4 ft. wide and finished similar to the surface of a granolithic walk. This plaster was mostly 1 : 2 mortar with finishing surface of 1:4. Strips of coarse burlap soaked in water were used to keep this layer wet and cool ; in spite WATER-WORKS. 775 of which some cracks appeared. This plastering gang averaged 2,100 sq. ft. per day, the cost being as follows for %-in. plaster: -Cost per 100 sq. ft. Sq. yd. Cu. yd. Cement, at $1.53 per bbl $1.15 $U.103 $7.42 Sand, at $1.02 13 0.012 .86 Burlap . ! 02 0.002 .14 Labor 92 0.083 6.00 Totals $2.22 $0.200 $14.42 Although plastering work is usually measured in square yards, I have computed it in areas of 100 sq. ft, and in cubic yards for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that it took more than 5 bbls. of cement per cu. yd. of this 1 : 2 mortar, and that it cost $6 per cu. yd. for the labor. Returning again to the concrete, the stone was cobbles picked out of the hardpan excavated to make embankments. It was washed before crushing, and had to be gathered up from scat- tered piles, which accounts in part for the high cost. It was crushed with a 9 x 15 Farrel crusher operated by a 12-hp. engine. The crusher was rated at 125 tons a day, but averaged only about 40 tons. The bin had a capacity of 30 cu. yds., divided into three compartments, one for stone less than 1 % ins. diameter, one for stone between 1% and 2% ins., and the third for stone over 2% ins. which had to be recrushed. The stone had about 46% voids and weighed 95 Ibs. per cu. ft. Cost of a Concrete Lined Reservoir, Canton, III. Mr. G. W. Chandler gives the following relative to a small reservoir built in 1901 at Canton, 111. The reservoir has a capacity of 1,140,000 gals., and cost $7,900. It is 80 x 160 ft., and 13 ft. deep, 7 ft. being ex- cavation, and carries 12 ft. of water. The concrete bottom is 10 ins. thick, including %-in. coat of cement mortar. The footings and copings of the side walls are of concrete, but the walls are of brick. Concrete was mixed 1:3%: 7%. The cement was 0.9 cu. ft. per 95-lb. sack. The cost of the concrete was: Per cu. yd. 0.856 bbl. cement, at $2.50 $2.14 0.857 cu. yd. broken stone, at $2.17 1.86 10.1 bu. sand (100 Ibs. per bu.), at 5% cts 0.58 Labor, at 19 cts. per hr '. . . 0.80 Total $5.38 . ' No. 1 paving bricks (at $6.50 per M) were laid in 1: 2% cement mortar for the walls, which were 30 ins. thick at the base and 13 ins. at the top. The concrete footing was 36 ins. wide x 2 ft. thick. The coping was 6 ins. thick. There were brick pilasters 20 ft. c. to c. Cost of Covered Reservoirs of Various Sizes. Mr. Freeman C. Coffin gives the following relative to a covered reservoir built by contract in 1898 at Wellesley, Mass. The reservoir is circular. 82 ft. diam., 15 ft. deep, and its capacity is 600,000 gals. The floor is lined with concrete, 4 ins. thick ; the roof* is of concrete (groined arches) resting on brick pillars. The walls are 15 ft. high from 776 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. floor to spring line, 2 ft. thick for 5 ft. below the spring line and 3.33 ft. thick at the base. The roof arches have a 12 ft. clear span, 2% -ft. rise, and are 6 ins. thick at the crown. The earth covering on the roof is 2 % ft. thick at the walls and 3 ft. thick at the center. The centers used in building the concrete roof cost the contractor 22^ cts. per sq. ft. if used only once. He attempted to use them several times, but the braces against some of the brick piers were carelessly removed after a portion of the centers had been taken down, and the lateral thrust of the concrete arches overthrew the piers and caused a loss of part of the roof. The cost of the reser- voir to the city was $10,415. Some of the items were as follows : 3,446 cu. yds. earth excavation. 310 cu. yds. rubble masonry. 503 cu. yds. concrete masonry. 61 cu. yds. brick masonry. 143 cu. yds. gravel on roof. 439 cu. yds. loam on roof. A steel ring was embedded in the circular wall. The weight re- quired for such a steel ring is given by the following formula : W= 0.912 D2. D being the diameter of reservoir in feet, and W being the total weight in pounds, including an allowance of 25% for splicing and rivets. In Table XV, Mr. Coffin gives the estimated cost of covered reser- voiis built with economic dimensions, and of the same general de- sign as the one at Wellesley, Mass. TABLE XV. COST OF COVERED RESERVOIRS. Square Reservoirs. Capacity Round Reservoirs.- Gallons. Diam. Depth. Cost. 250,000 60 12 $ 4,700 500,000 75 16 7,800 750,000 88 17 10,500 1,000,000 98 18 12,900 1,250,000 1,500,000 106 115 % 19 1/2 19 15,200 17,600 1,750,000 120 21 20,000 2,000,000 125 22 22,000 2,500,000 134 24 26,200 3,000,000 144 25 30,200 4,000,000 166 * 25* 37,900 5,000,000 186 * 25* 45,600 Side. 54.5 69.5 79.5 88.5 99.5 106.0 111.5 118.5 130.0 142.5 153.5 165* Depth. 11 14 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 20 23 25' Cost. $ 4,800 8,100 11,000 13,600 16,000 18,400 21,700 22,900 27,300 31,500 39,500 47,400 * These are not exactly the most economic dimensions. The above estimates are based upon the following unit prices: Earth excavation, per cu. yd .............................. $ 0.50 Concrete walls, floors and pier foundations ................. 6.00 Concrete roof, per cu. yd .................................. 6.50 ..... 13.00 0.25 ...... 0.15 1.00 0.05 0.15 Brickwork in piers, per cu. yd. Plastering walls, per sq. yd , Plastering floor, per sq. yd Gravel on roof arches, per cu. yd. Steel ring, per Ib Centers, per sq. ft. of reservoir area WATER-WORKS. 777 Cost of Small Covered Reservoir, Portersville, Calif. Mr. Phillip E. Harrows gives the following data relative to a 100,000-gal. reser- voir built in 1904 for the waterworks at Portersville, Cal. The work was done by day labor, at 20 cts. per hr. The reser- voir is 50 ft. diam., 7 ft. deep, lined with 4 ins. of concrete on the bottom and 12 ins. on the sides. It is roofed with 2 x 10-in. stringers, 4 ft. apart, supporting iy 2 -in. plank. The ends of the stringers rested on the concrete walls and on an 8 x 10-in. girder which ran across the center of the reservoir and was supported on a pier at the center. The excavated material was a heavy clay, loaded with picks and shovels into wagons. The excavation aver- aged 4 ft. deep, and the embankment was 4 ft. high. The cost was as follows: 330 cu. yds. excavation, at 58.6 cts $ 191.08 300 cu. yds. hauled % mi., at 20.4 cts 63.98 75 cu. yds. concrete (labor, $3.03, and materials, $5.31), at $8.34 624.74 35 squares plaster finish at $2.92 102.45 4,000 ft. B. M. roof, at $45.49 181.96 Trimming outer slopes 18.70 Total $1,172.91 The plaster labor cost $0.57 per square on the bottom and $1.12 on the vertical sides. The roof labor cost $12.43 per M, wages of carpenters being $3 to $4.37. Cost of a Covered Reinforced Concrete Reservoir. In Gillette and Hill's "Concrete Construction Methods and Cost," pp. 589 to 597, the design of a small, square, covered reservoir (30x31 ft.) is given, together with detailed costs and methods of construction, of which the following is a very brief abstract. The reservoir is 12 ft. deep and holds 75,000 gals. There were 580 cu. yds. of earth exca- vation and 83 cu. yds. of concrete. The cost of the concrete was : IVs bbls. cement, at $1.12 $ 1.49 1 cu. yd. stone 1.86 V 2 cu. yd. sand 0.60 Steel for reinforcement 4.76 Forms, 100 ft. B. M., at $18.30 1.85 Labor on forms 2.41 Labor on concrete and steel 2.65 Total $15.62 The excavation cost the contractor 90 cts. per cu. yd. The total cost of the reservoir to the contractor was $2,362, but it leaked so badly that he was subsequently compelled to excavate all around and build a brick wall (1 brick thick) a few inches from the concrete and fill in between with rich cement mortar. This additional and unexpected work cost $1,240 for labor and materials. Cost of a Covered Reinforced Concrete Reservoir, Fort Meade, S. D.* Mr. Samuel H. Lea gives the following: The construction of a 500,000-gallon reinforced concrete reservoir 'Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 27, 1907. 778 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. at Fort Meade, S. D., while not comprising any features of unusual interest, was, nevertheless, an interesting work from an engineering as well as an economical point of view. The writer, who was in direct charge of the work, believes that an analysis of the various items of cost and a brief description of the methods employed will be of interest to engineers and others interested in concrete work. The general design of the structure was furnished by the Quartermaster-General, U. S. Army, and the details of reinforcement were worked out by the firms offering bids. The successful bidder submitted a design embodying the use of expanded metal and cor- rugated bars, this form of reinforcement being furnished by the Sec-Hon A-B Fig. 25. Reinforced Concrete Reservoir. St. Louis Expanded Metal Fireproofiing Co., of St. Louis, Mo. As shown in Fig. 25, the reservoir comprises two compartments of equal size, divided by a partition wall. Each compartment is 50 x 60 ft, inside dimensions, with rounded corners. The roof is a flat slab, 3 ins. thick, resting upon girders, these girders being supported by columns of a square cross-section. Reinforcement. The reinforcement is rather heavy, especially for the walls. As the latter are thin, the metal reinforcement occupies u relatively large portion of the wall space. The reinforcement con- sists of corrugated bars for the footings, floor, walls, columns, beams and roof girders, and expanded metal for the roof slab. The bars were of four different sizes: Va-in., %-in., %-in. and 1-in., and of different lengths, varying according to the location where used. In WATER-WORKS. 779 the floor the reinforcement consisted of %-in. bars laid crosswise in two layers and spaced 12 ins. apart in each' layer. In the walls the reinforcement was placed close to both inner and outer faces. Near the inner face a row of upright, %-in. bars, spaced 12 ins. between centers, extended the entire length of enclosing and partition walls. Horizontal Vj-in. bars, 24 ins. between centers, were placed against these uprights. Near the outer wall face %-in. upright bars were used, spaced 9 ins. between centers ; and the horizontal reinforce- ment was of i^-in. bars, 24 ins. between centers. In the footings two layers of %-in. bars were used. These were laid crosswise and spaced 6 ins. apart in each layer. Concrete. The specifications required broken stone of hard con- sistency, not larger than 9, %-in. cube, and clean, sharp sand, the composition of the concrete to be one cement to two sand and four stone. These proportions were used throughout the work. Colo- rado Portland cement was used for the greater part of the work. Towards the finish a carload of lola, Kansas, Portland cement was used. Both cements showed up well under frequent tests and gave excellent results in the work. The sand was obtained from a pit about three miles distant ; it was of medium quality and fairly clean. The stone used was obtained partly from a limestone quarry situated at some distance from the reservoir site ; but the greater 'portion of the supply was obtained from boulders found on the surface in the vicinity. Excavation. The reservoir was built so that about half of its height was below the natural level of the ground. The excavation was made in coarse gravel mixed with some sand and clay, the material being handled with teams and scrapers. The force em- ployed in excavating consisted usually of four or six teams and about the same number of men in addition to the drivers. The men were paid |2.50 per 10-hour day and the wage for team and driver was $5 per day. A portion of the material was removed by drag scrapers, but the bulk of the excavation, consisting of com- pact gravel mixed with small boulders, required the use of wagons. The material was loosened by plow for scraper work for the upper portion of the excavation. It was found later, however, that better headway could be made by loosening the material with picks and shoveling it into wagon by hand. The total volume of material ex- cavated was 2,275 cu. yds. at a cost of $1,114.75, or 49 cts. per cu. yd., divided as follows: Per cu. yd. Loosening and loading 20 cts. Hauling and depositing 25 cts. Supervision, tools, etc 4 cts. Total 49 cts. After the excavation was completed the bottom of the pit was compacted with a heavy roller, then the excavations for wall and column footings were carefully made by hand. Concrete Work. The concrete was mixed by hand on a movable platform ; its composition is given above. 780 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A concrete gang consisted of four men who were each paid $2.75 per day. They wheeled the materials from the supply piles to the mixing platform, mixed the concrete and deposited it in place. During the construction of the footings and floor two concrete gangs were employed, but after the walls were started one gang only was required for concrete work ; the other gang was then put to work assisting the carpenters. The sand and stone were wheeled to the platform in iron wheel- barrows of 2^ cu. ft. capacity. The cement was in ^4-bbl. sacks and each sack was taken as 1 cu. ft. Each batch of concrete con- tained the following quantity of material : 2 ^ sacks of cement 2 % cu. ft. 2 wheelbarrows of sand 5 cu. f t. 4 wheelbarrows of stone 10 cu. ft. The quantities of sand and stone were adjusted so as to form the proper proportion for making a dense concrete. From time to time as the work progressed, experiments were made by the writer to de- termine the percentage of voids both in the sand and the crushed stone ; and, in this way, uniformity in composition was secured for the concrete. The mixture was made quite wet in order to insure a free flow around the reinforcing bars. On account of the narrow space inside the forms and the number of reinforcing bars therein care was taken to cause the mixture to be well distributed through- out. The wet concrete was well spaded in an effort to secure a smooth surface next to the forms. This was generally accom- plished, but some rough places which showed after the removal of the forms required patching up. In constructing the footings some concrete was first deposited in place and the metal reinforcement was embedded therein. For the floor reinforcement the lower bars were carefully embedded in the concrete after it had been brought to a suitable height ; the upper bars were then placed crosswise upon the lower ones and kept in position until the remainder of the concrete had been deposited around and over them. In the wall footings a depression or groove, several inches deep, was left under the wall space for its entire length. This insured a good bond between the wall proper and the footing. The concrete floor in each compartment was built in one con- tinuous operation, the object being to secure a practically monolithic construction. The lower reinforcing bars in the floor were em- bedded at the proper depth in the fresh concrete and the upper bars were then placed crosswise upon the lower ones ; the two sets were then wired together at a sufficient number of places to pre- vent displacement while the remaining concrete was being deposited I around and over them. Placing Reinforcement. The reinforcement for the walls and col- umns was erected in place upon the footings and formed a steel skeleton around which the forms were erected. The upright bars in the walls were held together and at the proper distance apart by means of templets consisting of wooden strips in which holes were bored at suitable intervals to receive the bars. These templets WATER-WORKS. 781 were maintained in a horizontal position and were moved upward as the concrete advanced in height. The horizontal reinforcing bars were wired in place to the upright bars ; they were placed in posi- tion ahead of the concreting as the wall was built up. The corrugated bars in beam and girders were placed in position in the forms and held up by blocks which were removed as the forms were filled with concrete. The expanded metal reinforcement for the roof slab was placed so as to be close to the lower face of the slab, but far enough up to be entirely enveloped in the concrete. Form Construction. The wall forms were made of 2-in. planks, surfaced on the inner side and placed horizontally on edge. They were held in place by 4 x 4-in. posts spaced at intervals of about 4 ft., in pairs on opposite sides of the wall. The posts were firmly braced on the outside ; they were prevented from spreading by con- necting wires passing through the wall space between the edges of adjacent planks. At the rounded corners of the reservoir the pairs of posts were spaced about two feet apart and the curve was made by springing thin boards into place to fit the curve and nailing them to the posts. The posts were high enough to reach to the top of the wall ; the siding was built up one plank at a time as the concrete work progressed. Column forms were made of 2-in. planks on end, extending from floor to girder. Three sides were enclosed and one side was left open to receive the concrete ; this side was closed up as the concreting advanced in height. The beam and girder forms were open troughs of the required dimensions, made of 2-in. plank, surfaced on inner faces. The form of centering for the roof slab consisted of a smooth, tight floor of 2-in. planks, extending between the open tops of column, beam and girder forms over the entire area between enclosing walls of the reservoir. The centering and the beam and girder forms were supported by 6 x 6-in. posts resting upon the floor below. The regular carpenter gang consisted of a foreman carpenter at $5 per day, a carpenter at $3.50 per day, and two helpers at $2.75 per day. During the early concrete work of making footings and floor, where forms were not required, the carpenter force was em- ployed in erecting the steel skeleton for the walls. The upright bars were placed in position and secured by temporary wooden stays ex- tending from the upper portion of bars to the surface of ground outside of excavation. These stays were removed after concreting had advanced to a sufficient height to hold the steel securely in place. Cost of Concrete Work. The wages paid the concrete gang which mixed and placed all the concrete and the carpenter gang which constructed and erected the forms and placed the reinforcement have been given above. The costs of construction materials on the site were : Cement, per barrel ? 2.57 Sand, per cu. yd 1.80 Stone, per cu. yd 3.15 Lumber, per M ft. B. M 27.50 <82 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The quantities in the completed concrete structure were as follows : Cu. yds. Total volume of concrete in reservoir 704.71 Total volume of steel reinforcement in reservoir. 5.57 Total volume of material in completed structure. 710.28 Volume of material in structure exclusive of roof slab 648.35 Volume of material in roof slab 61.93 Total ' 710.28 The cost of the structure per cubic yard of concrete, exclusive of the roof slab, was as follows : Item. Per cu. yd. Crushed stone % 3.168 Sand 842 Cement 3.859 Reinforcement 4.959 Labor, mixing and placing concrete 1.721 Forms, labor and material 2.960 Total $17.509 In constructing the roof slab the expanded metal reinforcement raised the unit cost. For this portion of the work the costs were : Item. Per cu. yd. Expanded metal reinforcement $ 5.241 Other items, same as above 12.556 Total ?17.791 Plastering and Waterproofing. According to the requirements of the specifications the floor and the inside surface of reservoir walls were covered with a coating of cement mortar composed of one part Portland cement and one part sand. The wall plastering was from % in. to %-in. thick; it was applied in two coats. The floor finish was laid in alternate strips about 1 in. thick and 3 ft. wide. After the strips first laid had hardened the remaining strips were laid, the edges being grouted to insure tight joints. The outside of walls and roof was covered with a coating of tar which was heated in an open kettle to a temperature of about 360 F. and then applied with a brush or mop. The cost of wall and floor plastering was 44.4 cts. per square yard, itemized as follows: Cement '. 26.4 cts. Sand 2.6 cts. Labor 15.4 cts. Total 44.4 cts. The cost of outside waterproofiing was 4 cts. per square yard, dis- tributed as follows : Material 2.5 cts. Labor 1.5 cts. Total 4.0 cts. Backfilling. The entire structure, after completion, was covered with earth to a depth of 2 ft. above the roof, sloping on all sides to the natural surface of the ground. The earth composing thH fill was handled by means of teams and scrapers ; this method WATER-WORKS. 783 caused the material to be compacted firmly in place and at the same time afforded a good test of the rigidity and strength of the roof. The backfill gang consisted of four teams and from four to six laborers in addition to the drivers. Drag scrapers were used to move the material from the spoil banks and place it over and around the reservoir. Part of the material was side dumped from runways and shoveled to place between the walls of reservoir and sides of excavation. This material was carefully tamped and compacted as the filling progressed. The wage of team and driver was $5 per day, and for laborers for this work, $2.50 per day of ten hours. The amount of backfilling was 2,039 cu. yds. and its cost was 30 cts. per cubic yard, distributed as follows : Loosening and loading materials. . , 12 cts. Hauling and depositing 17 cts. Supervision, tools, etc 1 ct. Total 30 cts. Summary of Costs. The total cost of the completed reservoir, ex- clusive of pipe connections with water mains, was $15,068.76. The cost of the various items was distributed as follows : Main structure, 648.35 cu. yds., at $17.509. .$11,351.96 Roof slab, 61.93 cu. yds., at $17.91 1,101.79 Ventilators, doors, stepping irons, etc 164.08 Plastering, 1,517 sq. yds., at 44.4 cts 673.08 Waterproofing, 1,285 sq. yds., at 4 cts 51.40 Excavation, 2,275 cu. yds., at 49 cts 1,114.75 Back fill, 2,039 cu. yds., at 30 cts 611.70 Total $15,068.76 While some of the cost items are apparently high when com- pared with the cost of similar work in other places, it should be remembered that the isolated locality and the local conditions were unfavorable for low cost. Owing to the isolated location of the reservoir with respect to large markets and also to local sources of supply the cost of material and labor was quite high. All con- struction material, except some of the stone for crushing, had to be hauled over a mountain road from 3 to 4 miles to the top of the hill selected for the reservoir site. Labor was scarce and commanded a wage of $2.50 per day for ordinary work; the laborers mixing concrete were paid $2.75 per day. Another source of considerable expense was the high cost of lumber and carpenter work on the forms. On account of the thinness of the walls and roof, the cost of lumber and labor required per cubic yard of concrete was consid- erable. A part of the lumber was used the second time in forms, but it was found impracticable to delay the work by waiting, for the concrete to harden before beginning the new portions of the walls. This lumber was sold after the completion of the work, but the sal- vage was inconsiderable, amounting to less than 10 per cent of the original cost. The writer kept a record of cost of the various items of material and labor entering into the construction of tnis reservoir. This 784 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. record was verified by comparison with the vouchers and pay rolls of the contractor and was made as complete and accurate as pos- sible. From these data the above statements of construction cost have been compiled. Cost of Concrete Reservoir, Pomona, Cal.* Mr. Charles Kirby Fox gives the following: The concrete reservoir herein described was erected in the sum- mer of 1904 on Point Lookout, Ganesha Park, Pomona, Cal. It was designed by Mr. Geo. P. Robinson, City Engineer, and Mr. Albert Simmons had the contract. The writer was . in direct charge of construction. The reservoir is oval in form (Fig. 26), being 77.7 ft. by 40.7 ft. over all. It is 12 ft. deep and the floor has a slight slope to the 4O7' Enq-Ccmfr Fig. 26. Concrete Reservoir. sluice box. Iron ladders are placed in each of the quarter points. The inlet and overflow pipes are near the top of the walls, the dis- charge pipe is 12 ins. above the bottom of the reservoir and the sluice pipe is set in a bowl 3 ft. in diameter and 4 ins. deep. It is the lowest part of the reservoir. The walls (Fig. 27) are 12 ft. high. They were designed to be 6 ins. thick at the top and 15 ins. thick a,t the bottom and to be connected with the bottom of the reservoir with a 12-in. radius. The bottom is 4 ins. thick. Before the walls were started it was decided to add a 6 x 30-in. ring to the outside of the top, making the 'Engineering-Contracting, April 15, 1908. WATER-WORKS. 785 top 12 ins. wide. The joint connecting the walls with the bottom was put in about 12 ins. from the inside edge of the radius. Around the sluices and inlet and outlet pipes a larger mass of concrete was used. The finish was ^-in. thick and was water- proofed. The contract price of the reservoir was $1,625.00 Extra concrete in ring, 8.3 cu. yds 60.90 Extra valve, screws, etc 16.00 $1,701.90 Include valve box changed $ 25.00 Cost of reservoir 1,726.90 Excavation. The greater part of the excavation of the oval, about 77 x 40 ft., and the tunnel was done by the city by force account. I EIrtcj.-Cc>nt-r: Fig. 27. Concrete Reservoir Wall. have no records of the costs of this part of the work. The con- tractor trimmed down the sides and bottom of the reservoir, in all about 5,000 sq. ft., at a cost of $71.60, or l 1 /^ cts. per sq. ft. Pipes, Valves, Etc. The pipes, valves, etc., as provided in the specifications cost $455.52 and the extra valve sets installed cost $16. The laying of the pipe cost $9.70. The tunnel excavation to get down to grade cost $52.38, making a total of $533.60. This includes 5 6-in. Ludlow valves, 270 lin. ft. of heavy 6-in. cast-iron pipe and 80 ft. of 6-in. vitrified pipe, all installed. Cleaning Up The contractor mixed the concrete for the walls ou the floor of the reservoir and to clean out his old concrete cost him $22.25. The final clean up cost him $7.0^, making a total cost for cleaning' up of $29,25. 786 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Concrete. The concrete was specified to be 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts gravel (pea size to 2-in. ring). As put in, a cement barrel was filled and emptied six times with the bin run of sand and gravel and four sacks of cement (1 bbl.) were emptied on top of it ; it was then turned wet. The costs per cu. yd. were : Per cu. yd. Labor $1.09 Cement, 1.08 bbl., at $3, delivered 3.23 tnd and gravel, at $1 0.93 ater (had to be pumped) 0.34 Forms, labor and lumber : 0.76 Total . . $6.35 The wages paid labor were $1.75 and $2 per day, foreman mason $4 per day. Carpenters were paid 43 cts. per hour and lumber cost $33 per M ft. B. M. A 9 -hour day was worked. Finish. The %-in. finish was specified to be 1 : 1, but that did not work well, so we increased the amount of sand. It was water- proofed. It was mixed very thoroughly with 35 Ibs. alum at 6 cts. per lb., and then the water, containing 35 Ibs. good potash soap per cubic yard of mortar was added. The finish cost : Per cu. yd. Materials $14.45 Labor, mixing and applying 11.90 Total $26.35 On the finishing there were two masons at $4 plastering and enough laborers to keep them supplied with mortar. The com- pleted floor cost 9 cts per sq. ft. Summary of costs: Cement, at $3 per bbl $ 481.50 Sand, at $1 per cu. yd... 113.30 Soap and alum, at 6 cts. per lb 21.00 Water 43.00 Timber 30.00 Labor and superintendence 361.35 Pipe laying (contract price) 533.60 Total $1,583.75 The reservoir has now been in use 3 % years and has given excel- lent satisfaction. Only a few hair cracks have appeared on the surface and none of the plaster has scaled off. Cost of Storage Reservoir, Hagerstown, Md.* In 1902-3 the water supply of Hagerstown, Md., was improved by the construc- tion of a storage reservoir to impound the waters of the two streams known as Warner's Hollow Creek and Raven Rock Creek. The works were designed and constructed by the American Pipe Manu- facturing Co., of Philadelphia, Pa., Mr. J. W. Ledoux, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Chief Engineer. Earth Dam and Accessories. The general construction of the earth dam is shown by the section of Fig. 28. Owing to scarcity of * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 10, 1906. WATER-WORKS. 787 1.905.0 Wafer Surface. El. 901.0 Section along Blow-off Pi pe . El.905.0 */&* -Puddle ' Wall "S/f " 'Discharge Drain Section alon9 Discharge Main Puddle Wa/l 1.905.0 "J&* El.901.0 - ^/p"4(/xi//ary Section along Auxiliary Main Fig. 28. Sections of Earth Dam. -Puddle Wall 788 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. available material only the upstream half of the dam and the puddle walls were made of selected material ; the downstream half of the dam was made of earth and loose rock. The main puddle wall varied from 5 to 10 ft. in width and from 6 to 20 ft. in depth, and contained 1,602 cu. yds. of material ; the secondary puddle wall was narrower and shallower, containing only 712 cu. yds. of material. Both slopes of the dam are riprapped and it is pierced by a 30-in. cast-iron pipe blow-off and two 12-in. cast-iron supply mains. There was also some 1,286 cu. yds. of 3^-ft. thick dry rubble retaining wall built in connection with the dam work. The costs of these several items of the dam work are given from figures furnished by Mr. Tedoux, as follows : Daw. There were 93,200 cu. yds. of embankment built at a total cost of $60,532, or $0.65 per cu. yd. The several items of cost were as follows : Items. Per cu. yd. Foreman $0.0243 Hauling 0.2694 Labor 0.2252 Sprinkling 0.0144 Picking stones 0.0192 Trimming slopes 0.0080 Tools, blacksmithing, powder, etc. 0.0479 Superintendence and engineering 0.0354 Protecting for winter 0.0056 Total $0.6494 Rip-rap. The embankment slopes were rip-rapped with stones of % cu. ft. or less, placed by hand to fairly uniform thickness, after which broken stone of 3 or 4-in. sizes were spread on top and trimmed to an even slope. Altogether 3,844 cu. yds. of rip-rap stone and 1,882 cu. yds. of broken stone were placed at a cost of $5,059.69, or $0.884 per cu. yd. Puddle Walls. The two puddle walls aggregated 2,314 cu. yds. of puddle, the main wall having 1,602 cu. yds. and the secondary wall 712 cu. yds. The puddle was deposited loose and then flooded with water and tramped oy men with rubber boots. When the top of the puddle reached a tevel about 3 ft. from the natural surface of the ground the amount of water was diminished to just enough to permit the clay to be tamped with rammers weighing about 20 Ibs. The cost of the puddle walls was as follows: No. 1. Per cu. yd. 1,602 cu. yds. excavation $1.02 Placing puddle 0.60 Tools, etc 0.48 Total $2.10 No. 2. 712 cu. yds. excavation $0.98 Placing puddle 0.80 Crushed stone in puddle 0.26 Pumping, tools, etc . . 0.40 Total , ..$2.44 WATER-WORKS. 789 Masonry Walls. -The cost of these was: Total. Per cu. yd. Masonry cut-off walls, 52 cu. yds $ 262.34 $5.04 Dry retaining wall, 1,286 cu. yds $1,601.53 $1.245 Gate House. The gate house cost $951.76, made up of the fol- lowing items : Concrete, 2y 2 cu. yds $ 13.20 $5.28 Rubble masonry, 15 cu. yds 93.41 6.23 Broken range masonry, 24 cu. yds 534.07 23.07 Red tile roof, complete 311.08 Total $951.76 Blow-Off Pipe. The 30-in. cast-iron blow-off pipe through the dam cost $1,761.79, or $5.76 per lin. ft., made up of the following items : Items. Per lin. ft. Pipe $4.00 Excavation 0.36 Filling 0.23 Freight, hauling and laying 1.17 Total $5.76 Spillway. The spillway contained 1,224 cu. yds. of 1:3:5 con- crete masonry. Its total cost was $9,820.43, made up of the follow- ing items : Concrete $6,457.72 Top lining of 1-in. yellow pine 918.05 Excavation 1,830.90 Rip-rap on slopes above walls 78.44 Timber, crib at foot 535.32 Total $9,820.43 The concrete work, 1,224 cu. yds., cost $5.25 per cu. yd., made up -as follows: Item. Per cu yd. Cement, 4.82 bags $1,795 Sand 0.860 Stone 1.081 Labor 0.971 Tools, forms, etc 0.541 Total $5*248 Raven Rock Creek Intake. To bring the water from Raven Rock Creek to the main storage reservoir a masonry intake dam was con- structed on that stream, and from this dam a 30-in. terra cotta pipe line was constructed to the storage reservoir. The cost of the intake dam was $3,223.89. The itemized cost of the masonry work was: Item. Per cu. yd. Excavation, 145 cu. yds $ 0.92 Rubble masonry, 158 cu. yds 12.45 Concrete coping, 14 cu. yds 13.21 The 30-in. pipe line is composed of extra heavy terra cotta pipe, with deep bells corrugated on the inside, furnished by A. N. Pierson, 790 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. New York, N. T. It was 2,244 ft. long and cost, complete, $8,932.05. The itemized cost per foot was as follows: Item. Perlin. ft. Pipe $2.486 Cement for joints 0.057 Jute for joints 0.068 Trench, tools, etc. . 1.370 Total $3.981 Grubbing and Clearing. The reservoir area of 15.1 acres had all trees and brush cleared off and all stumps grubbed up. The trees were generally removed by blasting. A force of about 20 men was worked, their wages being $1.50 per day. No record was kept of the area cleared per day, but the cost of clearing and grubbing \.g given as $107,13 per acre. The costs of two floodwood racks wer $30.74 and $21.66; both were constructed as follows: Two heavy logs were laid horizontally across stream, one about 3 ft. above the bottom of the stream and the other about 8 ft. above the bottom and parallel to the first, but upstream, so as to make a slope of about 1 on 1. To these two logs were spiked 6-in. timbers reaching down to the bed of the stream. The transverse logs were supported against the roots of trees and all the timber was rough stuff, such as could be obtained on the site chestnut, oak or spruce. While the work was in progress water was supplied by means of 1,776 ft. of rectangular trough, composed of three 12-in. posts nailed together and laid at a grade of 1 per cent. Considerable trestling was necessary. This trough cost $303.93, or 17.1 cts. per lin. ft. Cost of a Wooden Covering for Reservoir, Quincy, III. Mr. Don R. Gwinn gives the following: The reservoir was 415 x 317 ft. at top, 26 ft. deep, inside slopes l 1 /^ to 1. A vegetable growth had given much trouble, so the reservoir was roofed over in 1898 at a cost of 4 cts. per sq. ft, the price of lumber being at that time only $15 per M. There were 260,000 ft. B. M. used (or 2 ft. B. M. per sq. ft.), and 38 kegs of nails at $1.85 per keg. The pedestal piers or foundations for the posts were of brick ($7 per M), 21 ins. sq. at the base, 16 ins. at the top, 18 ins. high and capped with a limestone slab 12 x 12 x 6 ins. (43 cts. per cap). A % x 3-in. dowel pin was let into each cap 1% ins. The posts were 6 x 6-in. x 22 ft., spaced 14 ft. in one "direction and 18 ft. in the other. They were capped with 6 x 6-in. caps, or girders, 18 ft. long. On these caps were laid 2 x 6-in. joists or string- ers 14 ft. long spaced 4 ft. c. to c. ; and on the stringers were laid 1-in. roofing boards (1 x 10 in. x 16 ft.)-. These boards were laid north and south to exclude sunlight from the cracks as much as possible. Two posts and a cap were framed and fastened together on the ground, and sway braced with two braces of 2x6, and then up- ended. Joists were then shoved out from the completed part of the roof, and laid flat upon the caps ; two joists being thus laid upon, ' and nailed to, each end of the cap, to serve as walking planks for the workmen. The joists were then spaced properly by means of WATER-WORKS. 791 gages, and then braced with 2 x 4-in. "bridging." White pine was used throughout, all the dimension stuff being No. 1, and the roof- ing boards No. 2. Of the total surface of the roof, 25% is trap doors. In the section on Timberwork will be found further data on the cost of wooden coverings for reservoir. See the index under "Tim- berwork, reservoir roof." Cost of a Reservoir Embankment. The Tabeaud Dam in Cali- fornia is an earth embankment 100 ft. high, containing 370,000 cu. yds. of embankment. Mr. Burr Bassell is authority for the fol- lowing : The dam was built by contract in 1901, the contract price being 40 cts. per cu. yd. During the months of August, September and October more than 2,000 cu. yds. were built per working day (53,000 cu. yds. per month). Mr. Bassell states that the maximum force was 233 men and 416 horses and mules. Fresno scrapers were used to load wagons through "traps." There were 4 horses on each fresno and 4 horses on each wagon. Assuming $1.50 per day for laborers and $1.00 per day for horses, we have a daily cost of $716, or nearly 36 cts. per cu. yd., the output being 2,000 cu! yds. per day. The wagons, tools, etc. (exclusive of horses) were worth about $16,000. Allowing 3% per month for interest, depreciation and repairs, the daily plant charge would be about $20, or 1 ct. per cu. yd. Allowing 5% for general supervision and overhead charges, we have nearly 2 cts. more per cu. yd., or a total cost of 39 cts. per cu. yd. The average haul was % mile. The earth (a clay mixed with gravel) was spread in 6-in. layers, sprinkled and rolled. To spread the 2,000 cu. yds. of embankment daily, there were 3 road graders operated by 6 horses and 2 men on each grader. There were 2 rollers, each operated by 6 horses and one driver. There were 2 harrows, and, while Mr. Bassell does not so state, presumably 4 horses and a driver to each harrow. At $1.50 per 10 hr. day for each man and $1 for each horse, we have following cost : Per cu. yd. Cts. Spreading 1.5 Sprinkling 0.8 Harrowing 0.6 Rolling 0.8 Total 3.7 Loading and hauling 32.3 General expense (estimated) 2.0 Plant charge (estimated) 1.0 Total 39.0 Test pits dug in this dam showed a. weight of 133 Ibs. per cu. ft. of compacted earth. The above given yardage relates to the yardage in the embank- ment, not in the barrow pits. The rates of wages are merely assumed for illustration. It is probable that laborers received $2. per .day at that time and place. 792 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of a Concrete Core Wall.* This article covers the construc- tion of 2,184 ft. of core wall, being a portion of a wall which will ultimately be 2% miles long. This wall was built along the toe on the pool sides of a rock-fill dam in a trench excavated to solid rock. The face of the wall has a batter of 3y 2 in 12 and the back conforms to the face of the side of the trench below water and is practically vertical above water, being 2 ft. wide on top. Level with the top a 6-in. concrete apron extends back 20 ft. over the top of the rock-fill dam. The wall varies in height from 10 to 21 ft. It was built of 1 : 5 gravel concrete and is reinforced as follows : A longitudinal line of old steel bars was placed in the center of the wall 6 ins. below the top. Over this horizontal bar were hooked vertical bars spaced 5 ft. apart. This reinforcement was used principally to anchor down any pieces of the wall top which might break away. Forms. As fast as the dipper dredge opened the footing trench to rock, 2 -in. holes 10 ft. apart were drilled into the ledge. Uprights of 6x8 in. timbers having 2-in. rods 5 ft. long bolted to the bottoms were erected by inserting the rods in the drilled holes and bracing the tops back to posts set into the rock-fill dam. The uprights were set to the inclination of the face of the wall. Waling pieces, 6x6 ins. x 16 ft. were connected several end to end by bevel joints, with one bolt in each so the joint would be flexible. The several lengths of waling pieces were thus connected inside the uprights. A vertical plank was then bolted to the waling near a joint, and by it the joint was pushed down under water 3 ft., and a second waling was bolted to the plank at the surface of the water. Other planks were then bolted to the first waling at the joints on each side of the joint first sunk, and these joints were in turn pushed down 3 ft., permitting the second waling to be bolted to the planks. In this manner one waling after another was added at 3-ft. intervals until the first waling had been pushed down to rock. The walings were not fastened to the uprights, as the up-thrust of the water pushing them against the slant of the uprights held them fast. The lagging consisted of vertical 2 x 12-in. planks, set close in- side the walings ; these planks were nailed to the topmost waling, but were not fastened to the lower walings. The forms were built around curves without alterations, as the one-bolt waling joints gave considerable flexibility. Ordinarily, the wall was concreted in alternate 30 to 50-ft. sections. The forms were built continuously in advance, and torn down behind as fast as the concrete set. At the ends of sections of wall, transverse bulkheads were built inside the form and bonding recess forms fastened to them. To remove the forms the braces from the tops of the uprights were unbolted and the whole form was pushed away from the wall and taken apart. As the forms were not nailed, except at one point, as noted above, the lumber was but lit- tle damaged, and, with the addition of a small amount of lagging, * Engineering-Contracting, Mar. 10, 1909. WATER-WORKS. 79? there is enough lumber remaining from the form-work for the first 2,184 ft. of wall to build the remainder of the wall. The form lumber was used from three to four times on the portion of the wall that is now completed. Concreting. The concrete mixing and handling plant was mount- ed on an 18% x 100 ft. barge. On one end of the barge was a *4 cu. yd. Chicago concrete mixer with a gravel supply bin mounted overhead. On the opposite end of the barge a stiff-leg derrick, operated by a bull wheel, was erected. This derrick handled the gravel from stock barges moored alongside to the supply bin over the mixer, and also handled the concrete, from the mixer into the forms. A wooden bottom dump bucket was used to deposit the concrete under water and did the work successfully up to a depth of 17 ft. Wages and Cost. The gang for forms consisted of 2 carpenters and from 2 to 6 helpers and a drill boat crew setting uprights ; and the gang for concreting of 14 men, including foreman, derrickman. mixerman, etc. The wages paid were as follows : Drillmen, per month $ 60 Foreman, per month 75 Overseer, per month 125 Carpenters, per day 2.50 Laborers, per day $1 to $1.25 All men were subsisted in addition to regular wages, which was considered equivalent to 50 cts. per day per man additional. The prices of materials were as follows: Coal, per ton $ 2.20 Corrugated bars 2.85 Round bars 1.80 Cement, per bbl., f. o. b. Moline 1.14 Gravel, per cu. yd. on barge, towing extra 0.65 Lumber, per M. ft, B. M 26.50 The cost of the work was as follows : Item. Total. Per cu. yd. Preliminary expense $ 9,074.30 $2.0441 Supt. and office 1,798.30 0.4051 Excavation 467.50 0.1053 Totals $11,340.10 $2.5545 Concrete work: Forms Materials $ 2,575.30 $0.0351 Labor 940.06 0.2117 Drilling 168.10 0.0379 Coal for drills 94.57 0.0213 Totals $ 3,778.03 $0.8060 Concrete materials Cement $ 7,059.48 $1.5901 Cement handling 169.11 0.0381 Cement testing .,. . 130.68 0.0294 Gravel 2,847.85 0.6415 Reinforcement 104.08 0.0235 Towing 945.78 0.2131 Towing, coal for 378.28 0.0852 Totals .$11,635.26 $2.6210 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mixing and placing concrete : Labor $ 2,054.60 $0.4628 Coal 283.71 0.0639 Totals $ 2,338.31 $0.5267 Back filling $ 203.64 $0.0459 Subsistence 1,327.32 0.2991 Plant repairs 298.66 0.0673 Totals $ 1,829.62 ?0.4123 Grand total (4,339.1 cu. yds.) $30,721.32 $6.9205 Regarding these items it needs to be noted that the $9,074.30 for preliminary expenses includes a large number of miscellaneous items, including new machinery, erection of plant, etc., charged out In full. To compare the work with a contract job the engi- neer suggests taking this item at about $5,000, which represents about a 20 per cent depreciation charge on all plant used. It should be noted also that all form lumber is charged in full against this ?,178 ft. of wall, yet, as stated above, it is enough to build the re- mainder of the wall and should ultimately be charged against the total yardage. In the same way most of the items constituting pre- liminary charges must be distributed over a large yardage in addi- tion to that of the wall already built. The wall was built by day labor, under the direction of J. B. Bassett, M. Am. Soc. C. E., IT. S. Assistant Engineer, Rock Island, 111. We are indebted to Mr. Bassett for the data from which this analysis of costs has been prepared. The dam was a portion of the Mississippi improvement -work at Moline, 111. Cost of Puddle. Puddle is a mixture of gravel and clay which is wet and rammed or rolled into place. Many engineers use the clay as they would a mortar to fill the voids in the gravel. A few engi- neers use the gravel merely to insure the crumbling of the sides and roof of any incipient hole in the puddle so as to fill it up. Fanning gives the following proportions measured loose : Cu. yd. Coarse gravel 1.00 Fine gravel 0.35 Sand 0.15 Clay 0.20 Total loose* 1.70 This when mixed, he says, will make 1.3 cu. yds., and when thor- oughly rammed 1.25 cu. yds. Another mixture given is : Cu. yd. Gravel J.OO Sand 0.35 Clay 025 Total " 1.60 This when mixed and spread makes 1.16 cu. yds., and when rammed 1.1 cu. yd. When clay is not available, very fine sand and a little loam can be used to fill the voids in gravel. Where puddle is used to v cover WATER-WORKS. 796 a large area, like the bottom of a reservoir, the gravel is first spread in a layer about 3 ins. thick, the clay is spread over the gravel, and the sand over the clay in their proper proportions. Then an ordi- nary harrow is dragged by a team back and forth until mixing is complete. Water is next sprinkled over in amount sufficient to cause the mass to knead like stiff dough under a 2*6 -ton rolling tamper or under a 2 -ton sectional roller. Such a puddle is as heavy as concrete and resists abrasion almost as well. With labor at $1.50 and teams at $3.50, the cost is about as follows: Per cu. yd. Spreading by hand . 8 cts. Harrowing 5 cts. Sprinkling 2 cts. Rolling 5 cts. Total 20 cts. An exacting engineer, however, can readily double this cost, bring- ing it to 40 cts. per cu. yd., which is about what it costs to spread, sprinkle and roll a cu. yd. of macadam road. Where puddle is used in confined places, like trenches, it must be mixed like concrete and rammed to place, the cost then being 30 to 50 cts. per cu. yd. On the Erie Canal, in 1896, with wages at $1.50 for 10 hrs., the contract prices for mixing and laying puddle ranged from 20 to 60 cts. per cu. yd., the average price being 35 cts. per cu. yd., exclusive of the materials. Cost of Sheeting and Bracing a Small Circular Reservoir. Mr. George A. Rogers gives the following relative to the cost of sheeting and bracing a circular pit excavated for a reservoir at Kinston, N. C., in 1905: The reservoir is 60 ft. inside diam., 20 ft. deep, and holds 15 ft. of water, or 350,000 gals. The sides and bottom are lined with brick, of which 200,000 were required. The brick side walls are 12 ins. thick at the top and 36 ins. at the bottom. The bottom lining is 6 ins. thick, being three layers of brick laid flatwise. The first 5 ft. were excavated with drag scrapers ; below that the material was a running sand which was loaded by hand into skips. The sheeting was 2x8 ins. x 18 ft., plank dressed on three sides. It was held by three rings (70 ft. diameter) of rangers (8x8-in) encircling the pit ; which were held in line by 8 x 8-in. posts, 4 ft. long, spaced 5 ft. apart and bolted to the rangers. The rangers were 12 ft. long, mitered at the ends and with joints bolted. The cost of this timber work was as follows: 10.000 ft. B. M., at $10 $100.00 Iron 30.00 6 days carpenter, at $2.50 15.00 12 days helper, at $1.00 12.00 Total $157.00 This labor cost includes framing and assembling the rings and braces, but not the driving of the sheeting. There were about 6,000 ft. B. M. of rangers and braces, so that this framing and erecting cost $4.50 per M. 796 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A ditch was dug all around the inside of the sheeting to lead the ground water to a sump whence it was raised by a plusometer at the rate of 450 gals, per min. By this style of circular ring bracing, not only was very little timber required (4 ft. B. M. per cu. yd. of pit enclosed by sheeting), but the pit was left entirely open. Cost of Dams Per Million Feet of Water Stored. It is not un- usual for hydraulic engineers to compare the cost of small reser- voirs in terms of the cost per million gallons of water stored, and, in like manner, to compare large reservoirs or dams in terms of the cost per million cubic feet of water stored. The cost of small arti- ficial reservoirs, made by throwing up banks of earth excavated from the interior, can be compared in this way with some rough degree of accuracy, but a little consideration shows how absurd it is thus to compare large reservoirs made by building a dam across a natural valley. How much water a dam will impound depends far less upon the size, and therefore upon the cost, of the dam than upon the topography of the valley above the dam. The fol- lowing tabulation brings out this fact very clearly : Cost per Height Masonry 1,000,000 cu. ft Dam. ft. cu. yds. Cost. stored. New Croton, N. Y 297 833,000 ?7,600,000 ?1,900 Wachusett, Mass 207 280,000 2,000.000 238 Roosevelt, Ariz 280 350,000 3,850,000 63 Shoshone, Wyo 308 69,000 1,000,000 50 Pathfinder, Wyo 210 53,000 1,000,000 23 Cross References on Dams and Reservoirs. The following sec- tions of this book contain data on dams : Earth Excavation and Embankment, Stone Masonry, Concrete Construction. Consul the index under Dams and under Reservoirs. Waterworks Valuation and Plant Depreciation A very com' plete discussion of this subject by Leonard Metcalf is given in Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 16 and 23, 1908, and Jan. 6 and 13, 1909. Mr. Metcalf gives also an excellent compendium of legal de- cisions and a very full bibliography of articles bearing upon valu- ations. Figs. 29 and 30 give the depreciated value when estimated by the sinking fund formula of depreciation, for a discussion of which consult Section I, of this book. See the index under Depreciation. Table XVI gives the life and annual contributions to the sinking fund to cover depreciation. "Going Value" of Waterworks. A discussion of this subject by John W. Alvord, with data and illustrative diagrams, will be found in Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 4, 1909. A discussion of the subject by Chas. B. Burdick is also given in Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 23, 1907. Life of Cast Iron Water Pipe. Regarding the life of cast iron water pipe, Mr. John W. Alvord says: WATER-WORKS. 797 "It is generally conceded that cast iron pipe of hard, light-gray, close-grained iron of even texture, properly coated with good preservative's, laid in ordinary soils and conveying water of average quality, has a life that we have as yet no reliable data to deter- mine, because a sufficient amount of it has not, as yet, lived its life, and we can only approximate what a fair average may be. The uncoated pipe first laid in England and this country about 100 years ago (1803) are every now and then taken up and exam- TABLE XVI. Annual contribution to De- preciation Account or Sink- ing Fund in per cent of cost. General approximate results. 75 40 50 30 At 5 % annual rate sinking fund. Per cent. 0.4777-0.0383 2.0952-0.8278 0.8278-0.4777 3.0243-0.4777 0.4777-0.1322 Per cent. - Va -1 3.0243-0.8278 3 - 2.0952-0.4777 2 - 3.0243-1.5051 3 -2 4.6342-1.5051 5 -2 3.0243-1.5051 3 -2 0.8278-0.4777 1 0.8278-0.4777 1 - 3.0243-1.5051 4 -2 4.6342-2.0952 5 -3 6.2825-4.2270 6 -4 3.0243-1.5051 4 -2 tern) . . . . 1 % to Useful life. Years.* Reservoirs 50-100 Standpipes 25- 40 Masonry buildings 40- 50 Wooden buildings 20-50 Cast-iron pipe of large diameter 50- Cast-iron pipe of small diameter 20- Steel pipe 25- Wood-stave pipe 20- Wrought-iron service pipe. 15- 30 Meters 20- 30 Hydrants 40- 50 Gates 40- 50 Pumping and auxiliary machinery 20- 30 Steam engines 15- 25 Boilers 12- 16 Electrical machinery 20- 30 Average for entire plant (gravity system) 1% to V 2 % Average for entire plant (pumping system) 2% to iy a % 'Except where subject to heavy deposit of silt. ined with the result that while always found to be filled with the result of oxidation and tuberculation to a serious degree the actual body of the iron, although somewhat brittle, does not seem to have been seriously diminished in thickness." "The coating process of Dr. Angus Smith was first introduced into this country in 1858, and by 1869 the method of coating by coal tar varnish was generally adopted, with great resulting benefit, pre- serving the life and carrying capacity of the cast iron pipe in a manner and to an extent which, as has been before said, is still to be determined by future observations." Life of Pipe Wrought Iron Pipe, Lowell, Mass. In the Proceed- ings of the American Water Works Association, 1894, page 181 et seq., are given some data as to the corrosion of iron and steel. An instance is cited of a wrought iron pipe, y$ in. thick, laid at the Merrimack Co.'s Mills, Lowell, Mass., in 1845. A piece was cut 798 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 8 g 8 WATEK WORKS. S 8 799 g 8 8 38 V noninuinoov pan.1 Sai^ujg 800 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. out in 1887, and it was evident that the pipe was good for another 40 years. The outside and inside of the pipe had originally been coated with coal tar. The conditions of soil and water were ex- ceptionally favorable. Life of Pipe in Salty Soil. In the Proceedings of the American Waterworks Association, 1899, page 103, Mr. S. Tomlinson says that a 32-in. cast iron pipe, laid in an embankment across land washed by the ocean tides, was badly corroded in 10 years, and after 30 years is unfit for further use, in many places the iron Demg con- verted to oxide y 2 to % in. in thickness, leaving a mere shell of solid iron. In the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain), Vol. 143 (1901), p. 259, Mr. William Wark says that wrought iron service pipes lasted only 7 years at Hay, whereas such pipes were still in good condition after 27 years' service at Bath- hurst. The soil at Hay is of a light sandy nature, containing large quantities of salt. The soil at Bathhurst is of a rotten granita nature. Cast iron water mains at Hay show no signs of injury, but wrought iron gas mains lasted only 11 years. Life of Pipe, St. Jchn, N. B. Mr. Gilbert Murdoch gave, in 1892, the following relative to the life of cast iron pipe at St. John, N. B. : A 4-in cast iron pipe, 33 yrs. old, buried in marsh mud, burst un- der a pressure of 65 Ibs. per sq. in. The outside of the pipe had undergone a softening at the break, which was along some air cells in the body of the shell. A 6 -in pipe, 52 yrs. old, in soft, slaty rock failed. The pipe was as easily cut as plumbago. A 2 4-in. pipe, 36 yrs. old, in well drained, gravelly brick-clay, failed. The Life of Pipe and Appraisal of Syracuse Waterworks. Mr. Stephen E. Babcock gives the following relative to the life of cast iron pipe. In 1891, in the city of Syracuse, N. Y., condemnation proceedings were undertaken preliminary to the purchase of the waterworks owned by a private company. The engineering experts for the water company dug up sections of pipe and tested it in the presence of the court. Uncoated cast iron pipe that had been laid 40 years was found to be apparently as perfect as when first laid; it had become coated neatly and uniformly with a coating not ex- ceeding l/64th of an inch thick. It stood a pressure of 700 Ibs. per sq. in. The water is unusually hard. Cement lined pipe (with a wrought iron core) was also dug up and tested, sizes being 4 to 10-in. It stood 300 Ibs. per sq. in., and where the cement was re- moved the iron appeared as perfect as when laid in 1862. The experts for the city claimed that practically no value should be assigned to existing 4 in. and 6 in. pipes, as they were too small. In rebutal it was shown that the mileage of pipes of these sizes was as follows in different cities: WATER-WORKS. 801 Per cent Syracuse, N. Y 62 Rochester, N. Y 70 Waltham, Mass 81 Fitchburgh, Mass 76 Erie, Pa , 90 Washington, D. C 85 Schenectady, N. Y 87 Cincinnati, 66 Binghamton, N. Y 74 Port Huron, Mich 75 As the reservoir had been built many years beiore, all records of the amount of excavation, etc., had been lost. The experts for the water company submitted evidence to show what similar reser- voirs had cost per million gallons of storage capacity, as being the only rational means of arriving at the value of this reservoir whose capacity was known. Estimated Depreciation of Water Pipe, Los Angeles, Calif In estimating the depreciation of water pipes in Los Angeles, Calif., a board of four engineers (Jas. D. Schuyler, A. L. Adams, A. H. Koebig and J. P. Lippincott) adopted the following rates of annual depreciation, for purposes of appraisal of present value: Cast iron pipe in good soil , 1.25 Cast iron pipe in poor soil 2.00 Sheet iron pipe in good soil 4.00 Sheet iron pipe in poor soil 6.77 Wrought iron pipe in good soil ' 3.33 Wrought iron pipe in poor soil 5.71 These depreciations were applied to the cost of the pipe in place (including pipe, lead, labor of laying, removing and replacing pave- ment, etc.) Soils ranging from salty shales and alkaline adobe (clay) to heavy clay were classed as "poor," and the balance as "good." After deducting the above depreciation from the first cost, a further depreciation, called internal depreciation due to tubercu- lation, was calculated on those depreciated values and deduced therefrom. The annual internal depreciation was estimated as fol- lows : Per cent. Per year. Cast iron pipe, 4 in. and over 0.6 Cast iron pipe, 3 in. for less than 10-yrs. of age. ..2.0 Cast iron pipe, 3 in. for over 10 yrs. of age 1.0 Sheet iron and steel 0.75 Wrought iron, under 4 ins., for less than 10 yrs. of age .2.00 Wrought iron, under 4 ins., for over 10 yrs. of age.. 1.00 Wrought iron, 4 ins 150 SECTION VIII. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. General Considerations. Trenches for sewers are usually much deeper than trenches for water pipes, because it is generally desir- able to have a sewer deep enough to drain cellars and basements. In cities a common depth of trench is 8 to 11 ft. If the depth is more than about 6 ft., even in narrow trench work, men will be required on the surface to shovel the earth back from the edge of the trench after it has been cast up. in such cases always cast the earth onto plank, for reasons given in Section 2 on Earthwork. When the depth much exceeds 8 ft., it is advisable to cast the earth out of the trench in stages, using platforms about 6 ft. apart^-or less if the earth is sloppy. Bear in mind that where the trench is a wide one, there is much handling of the earth after it reaches the surface, both, in stacking it up in pile and in moving it back into the trench ("backfilling") after the sewer has been laid. In large sewer construction there is more excavation than backfill, and the excess must be loaded and carted away. Each case must be estimated separately, which can be done with the data given in Section 2 on Earthwork, and with the data in this section and in the previous section on Waterworks. Deep trenching is beset with so many difficulties, such as the handling of unexpected bodies of water, the caving of banks even when well sheeted, and the like, that liberal estimates of cost should always be made. Then $7 to $10 a day should ordinarily be added for rental of a trench machine, for even where owned by the con- tractor a liberal allowance must be made for wear and tear and interest, since so much of the time the machine is ordinarily idle. The cost of the sheeting plank and bracing must be added, also that of pumping, if the soil is wet. In many localities glacial boulders are likely to be encountered, greatly delaying work and adding to the cost. Accidents to men are frequent so much so in -some cities that ac- cident insurance companies absolutely refuse to insure a sewer contractor's men. Aocident insurance is seldom less than 1% of the pay roll, even on safe work, and on sewer work it often runs up to several per cent. Cost of Sheeting at Peoria, III. On a trench 13 ft. wide X 45 ft. deep, at Peoria, 111., sheeting in 16-ft. lengths cost as follows for labor : 802 CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 803 2 men on top, at $2 $4 2 men setting sheeting, at $2.50 5 8 men driving sheeting, at $1.50 12 8 men pulling sheeting, at $1.50 12 2 men moving lumber ahead, at $1.50 3 Total daily wages of gang $36 This gang sheeted 12 lin. ft. of trench per day at a cost of $3 per lin. ft., all work being by hand ; this is equivalent to 6% cts. per lin. ft. of trench for each foot of depth. If 2-in. sheet plank were used, there were 192 ft. B. M. of sheet plank per lin. ft. of trench and probably 38 ft. B. M. of stringers and braces, say 230 ft. B. M. per lin. ft. From which we see that driving and pulling sheeting, including bracing, cost for labor about $13 per M (=1,000 ft. B. M.) at the rate of wages above given, which is a high cost. The cost of exactly the same kind of work, using an Adams' trench machine with steam power for driving and pulling the sheet- ing, was as follows: 2 timber men on top, at $2 $4.00 2 men setting, at $2.50 $5.00 1 man operating driver 2.00 2 helpers, at $1.50 3.00 1 man pulling 2.00 2 helpers, at $1.50 3.00 1 engineer 2.00 1 man moving lumber ahead 1.50 Coal, oil, steam hose and repairs 2.50 Total $25.00 Twelve lineal feet of trench, 45 ft. deep, were timbered per day at this cost of $25, or at $2.08 per lin. ft., which is practically % the cost by hand above given, and in addition the wear of the sheet plank was less than with hand driving. The following cost of sheeting is for hand work, trench being 12 ft. wide X 35 ft. deep: 2 timber men on top, at $2 $4.00 1 man setting 2.50 6 men driving, at $1.50 9.00 4 men pulling, at $1.50 6.00 1 man moving lumber 1.50 Total $23.00 At this cost, 13 lin. ft. of trench were sheeted per day, or at the rate of $1.77 per lin. ft. Smaller trenches, 8 ft. to 16 ft. deep in sand, cost from 10 to 25 cts. per lin. ft. for labor of sheeting with 2 x 7-in. hemlock. String- ers in trenches 35 ft. or more deep were 8x8 ins. yellow pine, with 6 x 8-in. white pine braces. In trenches of less depth 6 x 6-in. hem- lock stringers and braces were useu. The above costs do not in- clude wear and tear on timber. Some sewer contractors figure on using hemlock sheeting about 4 times, with hand-driving, before it is worn out. 804 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Pumping water From Trenches. The cost of pumping water from trenches is given by Mr. Eliot C. Clarke as follows for three kinds of wet trenches, namely, "slightly wet," "quite wet" and "very wet." In a "slightly wet" trench one hand pump was used. In a "quite wet" trench one steam pump and a line of 8-in. pipe was used, sumps or wells being 500 ft. apart; the rent of this plant is rated at $3 a day ; the engineman $2.50 a day ; the price of fuel is not given. In a "very wet" trench two steam pumps and wells every 250 ft were used; three englnemen. The cost of pumping per lineal foot of trench was as follows : Depth of trench, ft 5 10 15 20 25 Slightly wet, cost per ft $0.06 $0.07 $0.10 $0.12 $0.18 Quite wet, cost per ft... 0.71 0.73 0.76 1.04 1.27 Very wet, cost per ft 1.17 1.19 1.26 1.64 2.26 Cost of Trenching With Trench Excavators. Mr. Ernest McCul- lough gives the following data relating to work done by the "Chicago Trench Excavator" a machine made by the Municipal Engineering and Contracting Co. The machine consists of an endless chain provided with cutters and scrapers which deliver the earth onto a traveling belt, the ex- cavators and conveyors being carried by a four-wheeled traction engine, which furnishes the power. These machines are rented or sold to contractors. In laying 7% miles of pipe sewers at Marshfield, Wis., the dally cost of operating the machine and laying pipe was as follows : Operator of trench digger $ 3.00 Engineman of trench digger 2.75 Fireman of trench digger 2.25 Man trimming bottom of trench 2.25 2 men bracing trench with plank 4.00 2 pipe layers, at $2.50 5.00 2 men furnishing pipe and mortar 4.00 2 men tamping earth around pipe 4.00 1 man shoveling earth down to the tampers. 2.00 2 teams and drivers scraping backfill 7.50 4 men holding the scrapers 8.00 Total labor per 10-hr, day $44.75 About %-ton of coal was used daily. The trench was 27 ins. wide and averaged 7 ft. deep. The best day's run was 850 Hn. ft. of trench, or 500 cu. yds. in 10 hrs., in dry clay containing no stones. On another day nearly 500 ft. were run in spite of many stops to blast out boulders. A fair average was 400 to 500 lin. ft., or 300 cu. yds., per day. Due to the jarring of the ground by the machine it is necessary to brace the trench. (I am informed by Mr. McCullough that records of 650 cu. yd& per day have recently been made with this machine.) SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 805 These trench excavators are made in four sizes to excavate from 14 ins. to 60 ins. in width and up to 20 ft. in depth. As confirming these data of Mr. McCullough's, the following records given by Mr. B. Ewing are of value : In the summer of 1904, many miles of pipe sewers were built at Wheaton, 111., by con- tract. Two Chicago Excavators were used, cutting a trench 2*& ft. wide, 7 to 18 ft. deep. One machine would excavate 750 lin. ft. of trench 7 ft. deep through hard clay mixed with small stones, in a 10-hr, day. In cutting trenches 15 to 18 ft., a machine would average 150 to 200 lin. ft. per day, depending upon how much bracing was necessary. See page 651 for data on the cost of trenching with a Buckeye Traction Ditcher. Cost of Excavating With Trench Machines. A trench machine, as the term is here used, does not mean an earth digger, but an earth conveyor. The Carson trench machine is a good example of the type. It consists essentially of a single rail track on which a trolley travels, being hauled back and forth by the cables of a hoisting engine. The trolley carries the bucket into which the earth or rock has been loaded by hand. The single rail track is sup- ported at intervals by a light trestle made of bents that are A- shaped. The legs of the A-bents are provided with wheels at the bottom riding on a track straddling the trench, and the whole trestle can be moved forward in 5 to 10 mins., from time to time, as the work advances, without taking the trestle apart, unless a curve has to be rounded. These A-bents are of 6 x 8-in. spruce, 20 ft. high and have a spread of 18 ft. at the bottom. The trestle is 288 ft. long, and buckets of 1 cu. yd. each are handled. The crew and the cost of operation are the same as for a cableway. Mr. A. W. Byrne states that in completing one 4,000-ft. section of the Metropolitan sewer system, at Boston, he used the follow- ing force : 1 engineman $ 3.00 1 lockman 2.00 1 dumper 1.50 8 shovelers, at ?1.75 14.00 2 bracers, at $2.50 5.00 2 tenders, at $2.00 4.00 4 plank drivers, at $2.00 8.00 2 men cutting down planks, at $2.00 4.08 8 men pulling planks, etc,, at $1.75 14.00 Total $55.50 The force working in a trench 9 ft. wide x 20 to 30 ft. deep aver- aged 64 lin. ft. a week in "boiling sand," the pressure of which would break 6 x 8-in. stringers 2y 2 ft. apart, and 192 ft. a week in gravel and coarse sand, which is equivalent to 70 to 110 cu. yds a day in the running sand, and 200 cu. yds. in good ground, or at a cost ranging from 80 to 25 cts. cu. yd. A steam pump running at a cost of $10 a day was also required, and about %-ton of coaJ 806 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. was used by the trench machine. The work mentioned was done after the trench machine was set up, and the gang well organized. Another contractor states that it took him two days to dismantle a machine, move it 1,000 ft. and set up again. The Adams trench machine consists of a series of wrought-iron fl- shaped bents, the lower feet of the fl being provided with wheels running on rails laid each side of the trench. These n bents car- ried two rails, on each side, beneath the top of the bent, and a car ran along these rails ; this car is pulled back and forth by cables from a hoisting engine at one end of the trench; and the same engine raises buckets up to the car where they are gripped. Work- ing in sand at Peoria, 111., the following was the cost in a trench 13 ft. wide x 45 ft. deep : r rttiw Per day. 18 men loading buckets, at $1.50 $27.00 1 man operating bucket car 2.00 1 foreman 3.00 1 engineman 2.50 1 waterboy 50 Coal, oil, etc 1.00 Total per day $36.00 This force excavated 284 buckets of 1 1/9 cu. yds. each, of 316 cu. yds., daily at a cost of 11.4 cts. per cu. yd., as the average of 1 month. The same gang operating in a trench, 12 ft. wide x 33 ft. deep, averaged 288 buckets a day, at a cost of 12.5 cts. per cu. yd. Most of the excavated material was dumped directly from the buckets as backfill into the trench where the sewer was completed. A Moore Hoister and Conveyor, which differed only in having the bucket car travel on top of the bent, instead of below, required one more man handling the buckets, making the daily force account $38. In a trench 12 ft. wide x 35 ft. deep the Moore machine daily averaged 286 buckets of 1 cu. yd. each, at a cost of 13.3 cts. per cu. yd. These records for Adams and Moore machines show unusually low costs. They should not be taken as averages, but rather as show- ing the very best that can be done under favorable conditions. Mr. A. D. Thompson is my authority for these cost records. The cost of sheeting these trenches is given on pages 435 and 436. Cost of Trench Excavation in Massachusetts, Using a Carson Machine. Mr. H. H. Carter gives the following account of work done by contract in Massachusetts in 1884: A trench 2,100 ft. long, 9V 2 ft. deep and 20 ft. wide was dug for a conduit along the shore of a pond and about 30 ft. away from the water's edge. The water in the pond was 8 ft. higher than the bottom of the trench, but most of the water that entered the trench seeped in from the side farthest away from the pond. The water was handled by two Pulsometer Steam Pumps. A large quantity flowed in at some places. All water was pumped from sumps located ahead of the SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 807 laying of the brick conduit. No underdrains were left under the finished conduit. The material excavated was variable. The greater part of the conduit was built on a hard, coarse sand and gravel bottom ; but for several hundred feet quicksand was en- countered in the bottom. A Carson trench machine was used for 10 weeks. The total excavation was 15,100 cu. yds., or 7.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of trench. The backfill amounted to only 1.5 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of trench. The itemized cost was as follows for 2,100 ft., or 15,100 cu. yds. : Total. Per cu. yd. Foreman, 66 days, at $4.00 $ 264.001 $0.044 Foreman, 159 days, at $2.50 397. 50J Engineman, 123 days, at $2.50 307.50 0.020 Fireman, 147 days, at $1.75 257.25 0.016 $3.00 282.001 Pumpman, 56 days, at $1.75 98.00 J Pumpman, 94 days, at $3.00 282.001 0.026 Laborer, 2,400 days, at $1.25 3,000.00 0.200 Laborer, 2,200 days, at $1.50 3,300.00 0.220 Bracer, 366 days, at $1.75 640.50 0.042 Carpenter, 7 days, at $2.00 14.00 0.001 Horse and cart, 88 days, at $4.00... 352.00 0.023 Horse and cart, 10 days, at $3.15 31.50 0.002 Scraper, 71 days, at $5.00 355.00 0.024 Carson machine, 10 weeks, at $45.00...... 450.00 0.030 Engines, 103 days, at $2.00 206.00 0.014 Boiler, 129 days, at $1.00 129.00 0.009 Pumps (two), 199 days, at $0.80.., .. 159.20 0.011 Derricks, 72 days, at $1.00 72.00 0.005 Tools .-. 71.00 0.005 Coal, 80 tons, at $6.00 480.00 0.032 Sheeting, loss on, at $14 per M 200.00 0.013 Iron, at 3 cts. per Ib 15.00 0.001 Miscellaneous 26.00 0.002 Total $11,107.45 $0.740 The backfilling and embankment cost is included in the above cost of 74 cts. per cu. yd. of trench excavation. Properly it should be separated, as follows: Per lin. ft. Excavating trench $3.20 Bracing trench, labor 0.30 Bracing trench, lumber 0.10 Pumping trench 0.45 Backfilling 0.71 Embankment 0.69 Miscellaneous ; . 0.28 Total, per lin. ft $5.73 Deducting the backfilling and embankment, we have left $4.33 per lin. ft., or 60 cts. per cu. yd. of trench. The backfilling itself cost 18 cts. per cu. yd. backfilled. This same trench work was extended across a pond that had been filled with an embankment of gravel and sand from a trestle. The trench was excavated in the center of this embankment, and was 18 ft. wide, with sheet piles on both sides, and its bottom was 6 ft. below the level of the pond. The water was handled by two pul- someters and one Andrews pump. The trench was 1,550 ft. long, 808 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. containing 8,070 cu. yds. and took 125 days to excavate. The item- ized cost was as follows: Total. Per cu. yd. Foreman, 35 days, at $3.50 % 122.50 $0.015 Foreman, 150 days, at $2.50 375.00 0.047 Engineman, 146 days, at $2.50 465.00 0.058 Pumpman, 286 days, at $1.75 500.50 0.062 Laborer, 400 days, at $1.65 680.00 0.085 Laborer, 460 days, at $1.50 690.00 0.086 Laborer, 2,500 days, at $1.25 3,125.00 0.383 Bracer, 255 days, at $1.75 446.25 0.056 Horse and cart, 12 days, at $3.15 37.80 0.004 Engines, 125 days, at $2.00 250.00 0.031 Boiler, 125 days, at $1.00 125.00 0.015 Pulsometers, 223 days, at $0.80 178.40 0.022 Pump (Andrews), 67 days, at $2.00 134.00 0.017 Derricks, 125 days, at $1.00 125.00 0.015 Tools 57.00 0.007 Coal, 52 tons, at $6.00 312.00 0.039 Spruce, 49 M left in, at $14.00 686.00 0.086 Miscellaneous 35.00 0.004 Total (1,550 lin. ft.) $8,344.45 $1.032 This cost of $1.03 per cu. yd. includes some but not all of the backfilling. The cost per lin. ft. was distributed as follows: Per lin. ft Excavating $3.25 Bracing, labor 0.29 Bracing, lumber 0.45 Pumping 0.72 Backfilling and embankment 0.66 Total $5.37 Deducting the backfilling we have $4.71 per lin. ft, which is equivalent to 90 cts. per cu. yd. of trench. The backfilling itself cost 19 cts. per cu. yd. backfilled. The contractor's price was less than half .what the work cost him, but it appears evident that he did not manage his work very well. Cost of Excavating With a Potter Trench Machine. The follow- ing data were published in Engineering-Contracting, April, 1906, and January 28, 1908. Fig. 1 shows a Potter trench machine, made by the Potter Mfg. Co., Indianapolis, Ind. The machine consists of a track supported by bents that span the trench. On this track travels a. carriage having drums for hoisting the buckets of earth from the trench. The track is ordinarily 270 ft. long, the hoisting engine being located at one end. Two men ride on the carriage to handle the buckets. Buckets loaded by hand are lifted from the trench by the machine and carried back and dumped on the com- pleted sewer for backfill. Certain sections of an intercepting sewer were built by day labor in Chicago, during 1901-1903. A Potter trench machine 370 ft. long was used. An ordinary double drum hoisting engine was placed at the front end of the machine: By means of two cables and" a series of drum sheaves, the engine hoisted the bucket and moved the carrier along the trackway as required. The entire ma- SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. chine, including the engine, was supported on track on each side of the trench. After the track was built, 5 mins. was ample time in which to move the whole machine 48 ft., that amount of trench being worked at a time. The Potter trench machine was used to remove the clay and about 2 ft. of overlying sand. In the excavation six %-yd. buckets were used, four in the trench and two on the carrier. Two empty buckets were placed in ad- joining sections and two full ones removed on each trip. The trench machine crew consisted of the following : One hoisting engineman, one fireman, and two carrier men. The number OL bottom men or diggers ranged from 17 to 21, depending on the Pipe Hr Wff-:*~: r 'Yellow Sand:- /7WJJ7/}Wy'/ys7yys/s/'/r> Very fart Blue Clay Fig 1. Trench Machine. kind and amount of excavation. In addition, the track supporting the machine was built by a gang of timber men, whose other duties were the removal of braces, and miscellaneous work. The rates of wages of the trench machine crew were as follows: Rate. Total. 1 foreman $4.00 $ 4.00 2 enginemen 4.80 9.60 1 fireman 2.75 2.75 2 carrier men 3.75 7.50 17 bottom men 3.25 55.25 Total daily labor cost $78.10 Note that the wages of laborers were very high. One ton of coal, costing $2.90, per day was used; adding this to 810 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the total labor cost and we get $81. About 190 cu. yds. were excavated each day, so the cost, per cu. yd., was 40.2 cts. per cu. yd., exclusive of plant rental, and cost of laying track. During 1906, there were 2,440 lin. ft. of concrete sewer (5^ ft. diam. ) built by contract for the city of South Bend, Ind. The section of the city through which this sewer was built was flat and marshy. The material, in consequence of this, was loose black soil for a depth of about 4 . ft. Then sand and gravel were encountered, and for the last 4 or 5 ft. of the trench this material was water soaked. This made pumping necessary in the excava- tion work and also during the progress of the concrete construction. The trench was 10% ft. wide, and 18 ft. was the average depth. This gave 7 cu. yds. of excavation per lin. ft. of trench. Shoring of the sides of the trench was necessary. The first 2 or 3 ft. of the trench was excavated either by men casting the material from the trench or was plowed and moved with scrapers. After this much excavation was done a Potter trench machine, manufactured by the Potter Manufacturing Co., Indianapolis, Ind., vsas installed and used for all the work of excavation and for handling the concrete. The trench machine was used to excavate from 5 to 6 cu. yds. per lin. ft., but, as no separate record was kept of the first excava- tion done, the entire cost of the excavation is figured as done with the machine. It is stated that the carriage that handled the buckets could make a round trip in one minute, including the time of lowering and hoisting the buckets. The following data were furnished by "Mr. W. A. Morris, Asst. City Engineer of South Bend. On the work described it was the custom to keep about 200 ft. of the trench open at one time. The material was taken from in front of the sewer and dumped on the completed portion. The excavation on top was dry, but as it neared the bottom, as pre- viously stated, water was encountered. The following system of drainage was used. The water came from the gravel and sand. A sub-drain pipe was laid of second class and cull pipe, the bot- tom of this being laid 30 ins. below the grade of the invert of the sewer. The joints were loosely caulked with tufts of sod in order to prevent the fine sand from entering the pipe. Clean gravel of medium size covered the pipe. This permitted water to enter the pipe, through which it flowed to a sump at the lower end of the new work. This sump was 18 ins. below the grade of the drain pipe, and the water was pumped from the sump by a 6-in. rotary pump over a dam into the old portion of the work. This drained the bottom of the trench so that the concrete was readily laid, and by keeping the pump going continually, allowed the concrete to set without being injured by the water rising in the trench. This pumping and drainage work is included in the cost of excavation but a part of it could properly have been charged against the concrete work. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 811 The wages paid for a 10-hr, day were as follows: Engineer on trench machine $3.00 Fireman on trench machine 1.65 Engineer for pumping 2.00 Fireman 2.50 Carpenter 2.50 Laborers 1.85 The cost of the various work per lin. ft. of trench was as follows : Pipe for sub-drain $0.33 Labor laying this pipe 0.35 Pumping water 0.45 Excavation and backfilling 2.80 Setting and pulling shoring 1.04 Allowance for tools and gen. ex 25 Total per lin. ft $5.22 With 7 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of trench this makes a cost per cu. yd. of excavation for each of the above items as follows: Pipe for sub-drain . . . $0.047 Labor laying this pipe 0.050 Pumping water 0.065 Excavation and backfilling 0.400 Shoring 0.150 Tools and general expenses 0.035 Total per cu. yd $0.747 The drainage, it will be noticed, cost a little more than 20 per cent of the total. The cost of excavation and back filling, and of shoring and filling the street piles for a trench as deep as this is quite reasonable. Cost of Excavating With Potter Trenching Machine for 16-ft. Sewer.* The final section of the conduit work proper for the Law- rence avenue sewer at Chicago, 111., includes the construction of 1,160 lin. ft. of 5-ring, 16 ft. diameter brick conduit from the north branch of the Chicago river to the section completed in 1901 oy Farley & Green. The sewer will empty in the north branch, which is being dredged to a width of 90 ft. ultimately this width will be increased to 180 ft. The excavation was done by the open cut method, the width of the trench being 21 ft. and the average depth being 30.5 ft. The materials encountered in the excavation consist of a top layer of black soil, then come about 15 ft. of soft blue clay, 6 to 8 ft. of stiff blue clay, 1 ft. of sandy loam and about 2 ft. of hard blue clay. This latter was so hard in places that its removal was facilitated by "shooting." The first 16 to 18 ft. of excavatior was done with the aid of skips and a derrick of the Kearnes type, having a 5 5 -ft. boom and equipped with a 7x10 double drum hoisting engine. The derrick is so arranged that the boom can swing in a half circle on either side of the trench. The framework carrying the turntables span- ning the trench rests on shoe timbers, these in turn resting on rollers. A runway is built ahead of these rollers, and the derrick * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 9, 1907. 512 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. is pulled ahead by means of ropes wound round the nigger head of the engine and single and double blocks. The skips are of 1 cu. yd. capacity, were filled by hand shoveling, lifted by the derrick and swung to one side of the trench, the spoil being used for filling low places, or later for completing the backfilling. As the excava- tion proceeds, a 2-in. plank sheeting is placed and carried down to a depth of about 14 ft, 8xlO-in. timber spaced 20 ft. centers being used for bracing. A Potter trenching machine followed the derrick and skips, and was used in carrying down the excavation to the required depth. Six % cu. yd. capacity buckets are used with this machine, there always being four buckets in the trench being filled, while the remainder are being carried back on the carriage and dumped on the completed brick work. The hardest part of the excavation was done with this machine, the clay being sticky and tenacious and coming away in hard lumps. An average of 175 to 200 cu. yds. was excavated each day with this machine. The wages per 8-hour day and number of men employed in ex- cavating with the Potter trenching machine were about as follows : Per day. Total. Engineer $6.00 | 6.00 Fireman 2.50 2.50 1 man on carriage 2.50 2.50 1 man on carriage 3.25 3.25 20 bottom men 2.75 55.00 1 man on dump 2.75 2.75 Foreman 3.50 3.50 Total $75.50 One-half ton of coal was. consumed each day by the machine, allowing $2.50 for this and assuming that the rent of the machine was $125 per month ($4.80 per day) the total cost per 8-hour day would be $82.80. On the basis that 175 cu. yds. of material was excavated each day, the cost would be about 47 cts. per cubic yard. The bricklayers follow the trenching machine, six masons work- ing to a shift. About 1,700 brick were used per foot of sewer, the average rate of progress being 16 ft. of sewer completed per day. This means that one bricklayer puts in place 4,500 brick per day, at a cost for his labor, in the wages at $6 per 8 hours, of $1.33 per thousand of brick, or about $2.65 per cubic yard of masonry. This, of course, does not include bricklayers' helpers, cost of materials or centers. The work, which was completed recently, was done by the American Engineering & Construction Co. of Chicago, of which Mr. W. A. Shaw is president. Cost of Excavating With Trench Machine. In Engineering Con- tracting, April, 1906, the method of excavating a sewer in Chicago with a Potter trench machine is illustrated and described. The machine was 370 ft. long, and was moved forward 48 ft. at a time, only 5 minutes being required to make a move. The crew digging and operating the machine was : SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 813 Per day, 1 foreman $ 4.00 2 enginemen at $4.80 ' 9.60 1 fireman 2.75 2 carrier men at $3.75 7.50 17 bottom men at $3.25 55.25 Total labor $78.10 1 ton coal.. 2.90 Total, 190 cu. yds. at 40.2 cts $81.00 Note that the laborers were paid very high wages. They were working for the city. Cost of Trenching by Cableways. A cableway consists essentially of a main cable suspended between two towers, and serving as a track for the trolley carrying the loaded bucket, which is pulled back and forth by small cables from a stationary hoisting engine. The following data will give a good idea of what can be done with a cableway. Parallel with a railroad track a trench 14 ft. wide by 18 ft. deep was dug in earth slightly more compact than "average." A Lam- bert cableway with towers 400 ft. apart was used, and it delivered the buckets to a chute that discharged into railroad cars alongside. The writer's record of cost was as follows: Per day. 30 men loading buckets, at $1.50 $45.00 1 signalman (signaling engineman), at $1.75 1.75 1 man hooking buckets to cable's trolley, at $1.75 1.75 1 man dumping buckets, at $1.75 1.75 4 men driving sheet plank and bracing, at $1.50 6.00 5 men spreading earth in cars and moving cars, at $1.50 7.50 1 engineman 3.00 1 fireman 1.75 1 waterboy 1.00 1 foreman 4.00 Total $73~io The output was 260 buckets in 10 hrs., each bucket holding 1% cu. yds. of loose earth, which was probably not much more than 1 cu. yd. measured in cut. Th'e wages and coal amounted to $76 a day. Hence, not including the cost of timber sheeting, nor the hauling and unloading of cars, the cost of excavation was about 30 cts. per cu. yd. There was no backfilling, as the trench was for a retaining wall. When the bucket was traveling 360 ft. from pit to dump, the following time was required for each round trip : Seconds. Raising bucket 15 Moving bucket 360 ft '. 35 Dumping bucket 25 Returning bucket 35 Lowering bucket 15 Changing buckets 15 Total . .140 814 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Almost 5 sees, could be saved on each of these six items if every- thing went well, but with the ordinary slight delays the above is a fair average for each round trip tnat is 2% mins. A cable- way may be used to advantage in pulling sheet planking, and one 2 x 10-in. plank buried 16 ft. in the earth can be pulled in 1 min., thus making the cost of timber removal merely nominal. In pull- ing the plank use a -piece of 1 x 3-in. iron bent into a U-shape and with a ring welded to one leg of the U. It clings to the plank even though it is not held by a set screw or the like. To move one of these cableways takes a gang of 15 men three Says if they are "green" at the work, two days if they are used to it The anchorage for the main cable is made by digging a trench 5 or 6 ft. deep and 16 ft, long, in which a log 16 or 18 ins. in diam- eter and 15 ft. long is laid, and the cable carried around its center. A short narrow trench leads off from the main trench so as to give a clear way for the cable to pass to the top of the tower. The main trench is filled with stones carefully laid over the log, and on top of the ground over the log is built a pile of stones 6 ft. high x 12 x 12 ft. To move all this rock for the anchors, to move the engine, towers, cables, etc., and set up again will seldom cost less than $50, and frequently costs $75, to say nothing of the lost time. If this cost is added to the cost of excavating the earth in a trench 370 ft. long, it will amount to several cents per cu. yd. Thus if the trench is only 6 ft. wide x 9 ft. deep, there will be 740 cu. yds. in 370 ft. of trench, and if it costs $74 to move the cableway, we have 10 cents per cu. yd. of trenching chargeable to the cableway mov- ing, besides the cost of excavation and backfill. For deeper and wider trenches this cost of moving, being distributed over a greater yardage, becomes a comparatively small item. Each case must be treated as a separate problem, in ascertaining the cost. The following data have been obtained from The Carson Trench Machine Co., of Charlestown, Boston, Mass., makers of the Carson- Lidgerwood cableway much used on the Rapid Transit Subway New York City: Two A- shaped bents or towers, 20 to 35 ft. high, and 200 to 300 ft. apart, support the 1%-in. cable along which the bucket travels. A hoisting engine at one end with two 7 x 10-in. cylinders and capable of lifting 5,000 Ibs., raises and transports the buckets at a speed of 440 ft. a minute, or 5 miles an hour. Aside from the men required to fill the buckets, the force re- quired consists of an engineman, a fireman, a signalman, and a dumpman ; and % to %-ton of coal is daily consumed. On a sewer in Orange, N. J., 44 buckets (1 cu. yd.) were handled per hour on an average, 60 being the maximum. The output depends upon the number of men digging, and the character of the material, but 250 cu. yds. a day may be taken as a good output. SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 815 The following coots are given in letters to the Carson Trench Machine Co. Mr. Frank P. Davis, C. E., gives the following for a sewer in Washington, D. C. : Width of trench, 18 f t. ; depth at which cable- way began work, 15 f t. ; distance of travel of 1 cu. yd. bucket, 150 f t. ; number of trips per hour, 35 ; hours per day, 8 ; material, cemented gravel. Cost : Engineman $ 2.00 Fireman 1.25 Signalman 1.00 2 dumpers, at $1 2.00 Coal, oil and waste 1.50 Interest and maintenance (estimated).... 7.00 $14V7? 30 men picking and shoveling 30.00 Total for 280 cu. yds $44.75 Cost of picking, shoveling, hoisting 15 ft. and conveying 150 ?t. to wagons, 16 cts. cu. yd. (Note that the wages were very low.) Bracing and sheeting was going on at the same time ; the men did not enow they were being timed. James Pilkington, of New York, says: "I have excavated and re- filled 250 cu. yds. in 10 hours at an expense of 15 cts. per yard. For rock excavation the cableway has no equal. I have taken the machine down and moved 250 ft, and put up, and was in working order in three hours and fifty minutes." This is unusually fast and indicates that Mr. Pilkington did not raise his towers by "main force and awkwardness." Cost of Sewer Trench and Back Filling. The city of Holyoke, Mass., built a system of sewers during 1908. The main sewers are 39 ins. and 54 ins. These are built of concrete blocks, there being 1,233 lin. ft. of them. The sewers were built by contract, but the excavation and backfilling was done by day labor, under the dir^c- tion of the city engineer. One trench was dug 14 ft. deep and about 4% ft. wide, through sand and clay. The material was thrown om the side of the trench and used for backfilling. The following wages were paid for an 8-hr, day: Foreman $3.50 Laborers 2.00 There were excavated from this trench 2y s cu. yds. per lin. ft. The cost per cu. yd. was $1.21, giving a cost per lin. ft. of $2.82. The second trench was 14 ft. deep and about 6 ft. wide, the ma- terial being the same, mainly sand and clay. There were 3.11 cu. yds. of excavation per lin. ft. The cost of excavating and back- filling this trench was $1.25 per cu. yd., making a cost per lin. ft. of $3.90. All the excavation and backfilling was done by hand. These high costs show how inefficient is the day laborer when working in the employ of a city instead of a contractor. 816 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Excavating Trench With Orange Peel Bucket. In En- gineering-Contracting, April, 1906, a detailed description is given of the plant and methods used in building a large sewer in Chicago by city forces. For part of the work a 1 cu. yd. orange peel bucket was used. A traveling derrick, on rollers, was used. It was designed to swing in a full circle. The crew was : Per day. 1 engineman $ 4.80 1 fireman 2.50 1 signal man 3.25 1 powder man 3.25 2 laborers at $3.25 6.50 Total per day $20.30 Under ordinary conditions, the orange-peel bucket excavated about 450 cu. yds. a day, all earth being dumped on a spoil bank at one side. On the assumption that 450 cu. yds. were excavated per day, the labor cost was 4.5 cts. per cu. yd. About 50 Ibs. of dynamite and % ton of coal were used each eight-hour day. The cost of the dynamite was $7.50 and the coal cost $3 per ton, making the total cost for dynamite and coal $9.75. The total cost per day for excavating thus was $30.05 ; and the cost per cubic yard was 6.6 cts., exclusive of the wear and tear on the machine. In this excavation the swinging derrick with the orange-peel bucket could be worked to better advantage than a steam shovel, inasmuch as it could work between the braces, which were 11 ft. centers. The bracing was placed as the excavation proceeded, and when the trench excavation was completed, the braces were all in place. By the use of the derrick the excavated material could be deposited far enough from the trench so as not to necessitate rehandling. In the case of a steam shovel it would have been necessary first to put in a temporary bracing, and a permanent bracing afterwards. Also, the boom of a steam shovel would not be long enough to deposit the excavated matter the necessary distance from the trench. Cost of Sewer Trenching Using a Derrick.* The trenching was done for a trunk sewer constructed at Big Rapids, Mich. The trench was 4 ft. wide and varied from 14 ft. 2 ins. to 17 ft. 3 ins. deep. A 15-in. pipe sewer was laid in the trench. A length of 1,000 ft. of sewer was constructed. The material was gravel and boulders. As much as 3 cords of stone in 400 ft. of trench were removed, many of the boulders required a 3,000-lb. chain fall to handle them. In addition most of the stone lay from 12 to 16 ft. deep, which made it very difficult to handle them between the braces. The gravel was treacherous and hard to hold, requiring two and sometimes three sections of sheeting and three and four stringers to hold it. * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 8, 1909. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS, 817 The first 4 to 6 ft. of the trench was excavated by means of a slush scraper fitted with inside ears and bail so that it would cut vertical sides without the use of shovel or pick. A team and driver at $3.75 per day did all this digging 1 and also all filling. The gang employed and the wages per day were as follows: Item. Per day. 1 foreman at $2 $ 2.00 1 scraper team and driver at $3.75 3.75 1 man holding scraper at $1.50 1.50 1 man dumping scraper at $1.50 1.50 2 men pulling sheeting and carrying it ahead at $1.50 3.00 1 man setting top section of sheeting at $1.50. . . 1.50 1 man tending derrick at $1.50 1.50 1 horse and driver on haul line at $2.50 2.50 4 men filling 2 buckets at $1.50 6.00 1 man laying pipe at $2 2.00 1 pipelayer's helper at $1.50 1.50 Total $26.75 This gang completed from 46 to 54 ft. of sewer per day; this gives a labor cost of 58.2 cts. to 49.5 cts. per lin. ft. of sewer. The derrick used on this work was a No. 1 Parker derrick made by the Parker Hoist & Machine Co., Chicago, 111. Regarding the service of this derrick the contractor, Mr. D. J. Shafer, Big Rapids, Mich., says: "In speaking of the derrick I can say that it reduced the cost of my ditch from 78 cts. per lin. ft. to 59 cts. per lin. ft. As soon as I put the derrick on the job I cut my crew from 26 and 28 men down to 16 men and dug more trench with much more ease than I did with the 28 men. The buckets held about 1/6 cu. yd. and with common work and 4 men filling buckets, 1 man dumping buckets, 1 man on the machine, with 1 man and horse, would handle 61 to 68 buckets of dirt every hour for 10 hours each day. In regard to moving the derrick, will say it never took us over 7 mins. to pull up stakes, move ahead 16 to 32 ft. and stake down and ready to lift dirt from the ditch. We moved the derrick two and three times a day." Sizes and Prices of Sewer Pipe. The manufacturers of vitrified sewer pipe east of the Illinois-Indiana line adopted, December 19, 1901, the standard weights and list prices given in Tables I, II and III. The western manufacturers use weights and list prices shown in Table IV. On the Pacific Coast and in parts of the Northwest and South- west some strictly local lists are used occasionally. The standard length is 2 ft. for pipes up to and including 24-in. pipe. The standard length is 2% ft. for 27-in. to 36-in. pipe. The size of the pipe is designated by its inside diameter. It will be noted that the list prices vary almost exactly with the weight of the pipe. Up to 18 diam. the Western price list follows closely the formula : List price = 0.4d 2 + 15. 818 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE I. PRICES AND WEIGHTS OF STANDARD SEWER PIPE. Size, inches. 2 & 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. Straight pipe per foot $0.16 $0.20 $0.25 $0.30 $0.50 $0.60 Elbows and curves, each.. 0.50 0.65 0.85 1.10 2.00 2.40 Ys and Ts, inlets smaller than 15 ins each 0.72 0.90 1.13 1.35 2.25 2.76 Traps each 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.50 6.50 7.50 Weight, per ft., Ibs 7 9 12 15 23 28 Size, inches. 10. 12. 15. 18. 20. 21. Straight pipe, per foot $0.75 $1.00 Elbows and curves, each.. 3.00 4.00 $1.35 $1.70 5.40 6.80 $2.25 $2.50 9.00 10.00 Ys or Ts, inlets smaller than 15 ins each 3.40 4.50 6.10 7.65 10.13 11.25 Traps each 9 00 15 00 22 00 .... Weight per ft Ibs 35 43 60 85 100 120 Size, inches. 22. 24. 27. 30. 33. 36. Straight pipe per foot ... $275 $325 $4.25 $5.50 $6.25 $7 00 Elbows and curves, each.. 11. 00 13.00 20.00 27.50 30.00 32.50 Ys or Ts, inlets smaller than 15 ins each . . . 12.38 14.63 21.25 27.50 31 25 35 00 Weight, per ft., Ibs 130 140 224 252 310 350 TABLE II. DIMENSIONS OP SEWER PIPE. Standard Pipe. Size of Thick- Depth of Cement Weight Pipe. ness. Socket. Space. per ft. in. in. in. in. Ibs. 2 7/16 IMs 14 6 3 Ms 1 % i^ 7 4 % 1 % &L 9 5 % 1% % 12 6 % 1% % 15 8 % 2 % 23 9 13/16 2 % 28 10 % 2V 8 &L 33 12 1 2% Mi 45 15 1% 2 y a % 65 18 1% 2% Mi 75 2\> 1 % 3 M 95 21 iy a 3 Mi 110 22 1% 3 Mi 125 24 1% 3% Mi 145 Special Deep Socket Pipe. Size of Thick- Depth of Cement Weight Pipe. ness. Socket. Space. per ft. in. in. in. in. Ibs. 4 % 2 Ms 10 5 % 2 Mi % 13 6 % 2y 2 % 17 8 % 2 % % 25 10 % 2% % 35 12 1 3 % 48 15 1% 3 % 70 18 1% 3% % 80 20 1% 8% % 100 24 1% 4 % 150 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 813 TABLE III. DIMENSIONS OF DOUBLE STRENGTH SEWER PIPE. Standard Socket. Size of Thick- Depth of Cement Weight Pipe. ness. Socket. Space. per ft. in. in. in. in. Ibs. 15 1% 2% y a 80 18 1% 2y 2 y a 100 20 1% 2% y a 125 21 1% 3 y a 138 22 1% 3 Va 155 24 2 3% y 2 200 27 2^4 4 % 260 30 21/2 4 % 300 33 2% 5 1% 340 36 2% . 5 1% 380 TABLE IV. WESTERN PRICE LIST OF STANDARD VITRIFIED PIPE. H ~3 $0.15 |0.50 |0.60 ?1-70 $0.90 4 .20 .60 .80 2.10 1.20 5 .25 .75 1.00 2.50 1.50 6 .30 1.00 1.20 2.90 1.80 7 .35 1.25 1.40 3.50 2.10 8 .45 1.65 1.80 4.50 2.70 9 .50 1.75 2.00 5.00 3.00 10 .60 2.10 2.40 6.00 3.60 12 .75 2.75 3.00 8.50 4.50 15 1.00 3.75 4.00 ........ 18 1.50 4.75 6.00 ........ 20 1.75 5.75 7.00 ........ 21 2.00 6.75 8.00 ........ 24 2.50 8.00 10.00 ........ 27 3.25 16.25 16.25 ........ 30 4.00 20.00 20.00 33 5.00 25.00 25.00 ........ 36 6.00 30.00 30.00 ____ ;. . . Sizes 3-in. to 6-in., inclusive, in 2-ft. lengths. Sizes 8-in. to 18-in., inclusive, in 2% -ft. lengths. Sizes 27-in. to 36-in., inclusive, in 3-ft. lengths. *Both P Traps and Running Traps are made with or without hand holes. tDouble Branches, both T and Y above 12-in. marde only to order. Branches, Increasers, Decreasers, Slants, 27 to 36-in. are 3 ft. tong. Large discounts from these prices are given. The present (August, 1909) discount for Eastern Pennsylvania is as follows: Standard Pipe Per cent off. 3-in. to 24-in., inc ....................... 79 27-in. and 30-in ......................... 71 33-in. and 36-in ......................... 66 Double Strength 15-in ................................... 74 18-in ................................... 73 20-in. to 24-in ............................ 72 27-in. and 30-in ...... . ......... ......... 63 33-in. and 36-in ......................... 58 820 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. No. 2 Pipe 3-in. to 24-in., inc 81 27-in. and 30-in 76 33-in. and 36-in 71 All pipe and branches in 2 y 2 ft. or 3 ft. lengths to take 2 per cent less discount than above, except 27 in. and over. Deep and Wide Sockets on Standard Pipe 4-in. to 24-in., inclusive, 2 per cent less than schedule discount. No extra charge is made for Deep and Wide Sockets on Double Strength Pipe 15-in. to 24-in. inclusive. Sizes 27-in. to 36-in., inclusive, are made only in Deep and Wide and no extra charge is made for same. On First Quality Pipe, 1 per cent less discount than the above for allowing breakage and inspection at railroad point of delivery. Freight allowed on car lots to points where the rate on Sewer Pipe from Akron, Ohio, is more than 14 cts. and does not exceed 16 cts. per cwt. Terms: 30 days or 2 per cent off net bills, after all deductions have been made, for cash in 1.5 days from date of shipment. Break- age (if any) in transit, at risk of purchaser. (Patton Clay Mfg. Co., Patton, Pa.) Discounts from Western List, St. Louis, delivery (Evens & How- ard Fire Brick Co., St. Louis), August, 1909, are: . Standard Pipe Per-cent. 3-in to 6-in 77 Ms 8-in. to 12-in 75 15-in. and 18-in 70 20-in. to 24-in 65 27-in. to 30-in 62^ 33-in. to 36-in 60 Double Strength 12-in 70 15-in. and 18-in 65 20-in. to 24-in 60 27-in. and 30-in 5714 33-in. to 36-in 55 Cement Required for Sewer Pipe Joints. There are two kinds of sewer pipe: (1) The standard pipe with shallow joints; and (2) the special deep-socket pipe with wide and deep joints. The dimensions of these two kinds of joints are given in Tables II and III. Unless otherwise specified, the standard pipe with shallow joints is used ; but rr> Q ny engineers prefer the deep-socket pipe, and, specify it. If the mortar is tilled in the pipe joint and cut off vertically, flush with the face of the bell, the joint is called a "flush joint." If the mortar is also plastered on the outside, and beveled on a 1 to 1 slope from the outer edge of the bell to the body of the entering pipe, the joint is called an "overfilled joint" or a "beveled joint." The amount of mortar required for each of these kinds of joints is given in Tables V and VI. I have made no allowance for the space in the joint occupied by gasket or yarn. For discussion of the amount of cement per cubic yard of mortar see page 538. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 821 TABLE V. CEMENT REQUIRED TO LAY 100 FT. OF STANDARD SEWER PIPE. (2-ft. Lengths.) Size of pipe, ins. ... 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 15. 18. 20. 24. Cu. yds. mortar :* Flush joints 009 .013 .014 .018 .025 .040 .050 .055 .066 Overfilled joints .. .020 .036 .058 .072 .087 .116 .160 .260 .310 Bbls. cement (1 to Flush^joSits . . . .036 .052 .056 .072 .100 .160 .200 .220 .260 Overfilled -joints. . .080 .144 .232 .288 .348 .464 .640 1.04 1.24 Bbls. cement (1 to Flush^jofnts'. . . .027 .039 .042 .054 .075 .120 .150 .165 .195 Overfilled joints.. .060 .108 .174 .216 .261 .348 .480 .780 .930 TABLE VI. CEMENT REQUIRED TO LAY 100 FT. OF SPECIAL DEEP SOCKET PIPE. (2-ft. Lengths.) Size of pipe, ins. ... 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 15. 18. 20. 24. Cu. yds. mortar:* Flush joints 035 .050 .060 .075 .090 .130 .145 .170 .260 Overfilled joints.. .065 .100 .140 .170 .200 .300 .340 .440 .600 Bbls. cement (1 to 1 mortar) : Flush joints 140 .200 .240 .300 .360 .520 .580 .680 1.04 Overfilled joints.. .260 .400 .560 .680 .800 1.20 1.36 1.76 2.40 Bbls. cement (1 to 2 mortar) : Flush joints 105 .150 .180 .225 .270 .390 .435 .510 .780 Overfilled joints.. .195 .300 .420 .510 .600 .900 1.02 1.32 1.80 *The number of barrels of cement required to make 1 cu. yd. of mortar is given on page 538. I have assumed 4 bbls. per cu. yd. for 1 to 1 mortar, and 3 bbls. per cu. yd. for 1 to 2 mortar. To calculate the cost of cement per lineal foot of pipe line mul- tiply the fraction of a barrel of cement .(given in Tables V and VI) by the prices of cement in dollars per barrel. Thus, if cement is $2 per bbl., and the mortar is mixed 1 part cement to 1 part sand, and deep-socket pipe is to be used with overfilled joints, we find, from Table VI, that a 6-in. pipe requires 0.4 bbl. cement, multiplying this 0.4 by 2, gives 0.8 ct. per lin. ft. as the cost of cement, when cement is $2 per bbl. Under these same conditions the cost of cement per lin. ft., for different sizes of pipe, is as follows : Size of pipe, ins 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 20 24 Cement, per ft, cts 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 2.4 2.7 3.5 4.8 Cost of Hauling Sewer Pipe. The weight of sewer pipe is given in Table I, and if 2 tons (4,000 Ibs.) are hauled per wagon load, a wagon will carry the following amounts of pipe at the costs given : Size of pipe, ins 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 20 24 Lin. ft. per wagon.. 444 260 174 114 92 66 46 40 28 Cost of hauling, cts. per lin. ft, per mile 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.6 The cost of hauling is based upon wages of $3.50 a day for team and driver, and 16 miles traveled per day. It is assumed that enough men are provided at both ends of the haul to load and unload the wagon rapidly enough to leave the team time to cover its 16 miles, or that extra wagons are provided for each team. The 822 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cost of hauling 12-in. pipe, it will be seen, is %-ct. per lin. ft. per mile. This does not include the cost of loading and unloading the pipe, which is practically as much more as the cost of hauling it one mile. Thus for 12-in. pipe, the cost of loading and unloading is %-ct. per lin. ft., and to this must be added the cost of hauling at the rate of %-ct. per lin. ft. per mile of distance from the freight yard to the sewer. In other words, to calculate the cost of loading and hauling pipe, determine the actual number of miles from the freight yard to the sewer and add 1 mile (to cover the cost of load- ing and unloading), then multiply by the cost of hauling given in the table. For example, if the actual haul is 1% miles, then, by the rule, add 1 mile, which makes 2^ miles. If the pipe is 10-in. pipe, the table gives us 0.4 ct. per ft. per mile, which multiplied by the 2% miles gives 1 ct. per ft. Cost of Laying Sewer Pipe. This will depend largely upon whether each pipe layer is provided with one or with two helpers to mix mortar and supply materials. As will be seen from cases subsequently given, two helpers to each pipe layer do not ordinarily increase the output sufficiently to justify the extra cost. Pipe laid in a trench dug in rock, or in quicksand, usually costs twice as much for the labor of laying as in ordinary earth. When a pipe layer receives $2.25 and his helper receives $1.75 a day, the following costs per lineal foot are easily attainable under good management, and where no rock or quicksand are encountered : Size of pipe, ins 46 8 10 12 18 20 24 30 36 Cts. per lin. ft 1 1% 2 2y 2 3 Sy 2 4 4y 2 5 6 As will be seen from records given later on, the costs of pipe laying are frequently two or three times the above figures, but any contractor who finds his costs running higher than the above, had better investigate his management. By giving the men a bonus for every foot laid in excess of a given number of feet laid each day the costs of pipe laying may be reduced considerably below the above given figures. Of course the cost of trenching and backfilling is not included in the above costs. Diagram Giving Contract Prices of Sewers. The diagram, Fig. 2, is one that I have prepared from data given by Mr. G. M. Warren, based upon contract prices for about 60 miles of sewer work in Newton, Mass., and covering a period of four years, 1891-1895. The wages of common laborers were $1.50 for 10 hrs. The prices for trenching include excavating, sheeting and back- filling in earth ; and do not relate to work in rock or quicksand. The price of 1 ct. per inch of diameter of pipe per lin. ft. laid, includes hauling of pipe, labor of laying, and cement for joints. The price of pipe is 70% off the list price given in Table I, plus 20% to cover the cost of branches which are placed 25 ft. apart. For example, the list price of 12-in. pipe is $1.00 ; and with 70% discount the price becomes 30 cts. Now, 20% of 30 cts. is 6 cts., which approximately covers the extra cost of branches spaced 25 ft. apart, so that the total cost of the pipe for a 12-in. pipe line is 30 cts. plus 6 cts., or 36 cts. To this is added 12 cts. (1 ct. for SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. c Trend Trench n tt Lay if of Dk Pipe L Gos-h ontract for Pipe Se res for&'fv ig Pipe, err xmeter per rf 70% off 20%iv co\ of Branc/n Kn< wer ?4" ^;^ C / / ^/ ///7 ZA5/- f er ?s. :es s. t 4 0.50, 7.75 .^ .25 oer, a/ F Prlc / oei to 70 e, w > 'CL h /-. t '.y< t ? 1. i 1 y 4.25 y / 4.00 I / y 375 350 y^- \ / 3.25 $ u. 3.00 2.75 g c / / s / - ^y / X- / ^ L -7 ^ J - / = - /- 5 ^ ' / 2.50 J 2.25 | ~Vj 2 f y 1 - ^-j ^ /- yt- t-f ^xi ^ -^ /- y fi -V -^ IE /'^V J ^~ J A /f 2 *- -/ 1 ^ -7 V- -7 ^ 1.75 ^ 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 3. V ?( ^- -\>c -X ^ ^ *-p ^v > / / / / / _^ _ ^ <*-^ -^ /j ^ x^- ^-t r f sA [7, / / / -^ **- -7 *-? ' ^ / K V ^- ^ ^ 5 10 15 20 25 Depth in Feet. Fig. 2. Contract Prices of Pipe Sewen 824 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. each 12 ins. of diameter) to cover the price af "laying," making a total of 48 cts., exclusive of trenching. The first 8 ft. in depth of trench are dug at a price of 50 cts. per cu. yd. The next 6 ft. below are dug at a price of 50 cts. per cu. yd., and the price for each succeeding 6-ft. lift is 25 cts. higher per cu. yd. than the pre- ceding lift. This is based upon the assumption that trench machines are not used, and that the earth is raised in 6-ft. lifts. To show how to use the diagram, an example will serve. Sup- pose it is desired to know the contract price for a 12-in. sewer in a trench 15 ft. deep. Start at the bottom of the diagram on the line marked 15, and follow the line up until it meets the sloping line marked 12". Then starting from this intersection, follow the straight line across the page to the right until the side of the dia- gram is reached, when it will be seen that the intersection is just one division above $1.50 ; and, as each division is equal to 5 cts., the price is $1.55 for a 12-in. pipe in a 15-ft. trench. This price includes contractor's profits. Cost of Pipe Sewers at Atlantic, la In Engineering-Contracting, May 15, 1907, appeared the first of a series of articles on the cost of pipe sewers, the data for which were gathered by Mr. M. A. Hall, the engineer in charge of the work. Mr. Hall had the inspectors report daily the organization of the forces working under the vari- ous contractors, and the amount of work accomplished. With the exception of the item of cement used in filling the pipe joints, it is believed that these records of cost are very reliable. The first of this series of articles related to sewer work at Atlantic, Iowa. The data, as originally published in Engineering-Contracting, were so voluminous that I have made a great condensation, but I believe that, in the condensed form here given, the costs are more avail- able for use, and that nothing of great importance has been omitted. The excavation was, for the most part, a clay not difficult to spade, and requiring little or no bracing and practically no pump- ing. The "bottom men" shoveled the earth out of the trench and the "top men" shoveled as much of it back from the edge as was necessary. The backfilling was done, for the most part, by a team and drag scraper, and there was no ramming. Table VII gives the costs at Atlantic, la. To the labor costs, Mr. Hall thinks 10% should be added for overhead charges and in- cidentals, to cover office expenses, hauling tools, moving materials from place to . place so as to use up odds and ends, etc. The contractor was his own foreman and handled his men well. The weather was good, the work being done between April and October, 1904. A 10-hr, day was worked. Natural cement (Louis- ville) was used. It will be noted that the excavation for the 20-in. sewer cost less not only per lin. ft. but per cu. yd. than for any of the others. This is due largely to the fact that the trench was shallow, also to the fact that the earth was a heavy, black soil, very easily spaded. On a short job of 15 -in. sewer, 360 ft. long, where the trench was 24 ins. wide and 12.6 ft. deep, in clay that was good spading, the cost was as follows for excavation : SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 825 Per lin. ft. Bottom men $0.299 Top men 0.104 Scaffold men 0.045 Bracing men 0.005 . Total $0.453 This is equivalent to 34.8 cts. per cu. yd. The backfilling cost 2.8 cts. per cu. yd. additional. The costs in Table VII are averages of several jobs. The mini- mum costs of pipe laying on the best of these jobs were as follows per lineal foot: 8-in. 10-in. 12-in. 15-in. Pipe layers, at 22% cts $0.009 $0.006 $0.011 $0.015 Helpers, at 17 % cts 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.009 Total $0.016 $0.013 $0.019 $0.024 By dividing the pipe layers' hourly wage (22% cts.) by the costs per lineal foot, we find the total number of feet laid per hour per pipe layer; thus, 22 %-^ 0.9 = 25 ft. of 8-in. pipe laid per hr. per pipe layer, or 250 ft. per 10-hr, day. In this manner the following table was calculated : 8-in. pipe, 250 ft. per day per pipe layer 10-in. pipe, 375 ft. per day per pipe layer 12-in. pipe, 205 ft. per day per pipe layer 15-in. pipe, 150 ft. per day per pipe layer It will be noted that the 10-in. pipe was laid with abnormal ra- pidity in this particular case. On another job, 10-in. pipe was laid at the rate of 250 ft. per day. TABLE VII. COST OF PIPE SEWERS, ATLANTIC, IOWA. Wage per hr., cts. Pipe, vitrified Hauling, team and driver '30 Hauling, man help- ing 17Y 2 Cement and sand. . . . Pipe layers 22% Pipe layers' helpers. 17% Trenching : Bottom men .... 17% Top men 17% Scaffolding men.. 17% Bracing men .... 17% Backfilling : Men shoveling... 17% Team on scraper. 30 Man hold, scraper 17% Waterboy 10 Foreman 30 8-in. ;0.135 10-in. $0.200 12-in. $0.250 15-in. $0.330 18-in. $0.450 20-in. $0.550 0.006 0.003 0.010 0.006 0.005 0.023 0.003 0.006 0.012 0.010 0.001 0.006 0.014 0.014 0.004 0.005 0.015 0.010 0.002 0.010 0.015 0.010 0.001 0.015 0.030 0.021 0.011 0.010 0.018 0.015 0.150 0.013 0.130 0.027 0.002 0.002 0.153 0.014 0.001 0.002 0.125 0.023 0.011 0.001 0.188 0.059 0.012 0.012 0.078 0.004 0.013 0.013 0.008 0.005 0.015 0.010 0.008 0.005 0.006 0.022 0.008 0.010 0.006 0.005 0.018 0.010 0.009 0.005 0.005 0.022 0.035 0.017 0.010 0.011 0.046 0.029 0.005 0.003 0.008 0.022 Grand total Total length sewer, ft. . . Depth of trench, f t. Width of trench, ins Cu. yds. per lin. ft Trenching, cts. per cu. yd. Backfill, cts. per cu. yd. . Ft. of pipe per bbl. cement $0.389 $0.450 $0.517 $0.584 $0.912 $0.776 2,850 2,560 3,650 1,125 1,850 2,550 10.0 8.2 9.3 9.2 9.6 5.4 26 30 30 34 35 36 0.82 0.77 0.87 0.95 1.06 0.6 21.0 22.0 19.0 16.8 27.2 13.7 4.0 3.2 2.8 2.7 6.2 6.1 275 425 260 160 100 170 826 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Pipe Sewers at Centerville, Iowa. In Engineering-Con- tracting, June 12, Aug. 21, Sept. 18 and Oct. 16, 1907, voluminous tables were published giving the cost of pipe sewers at Centerville, Iowa, the data for which were gathered by Mr. M. A. Hall. The work was done by contract on 161 different jobs, covering more than ten miles of sewer. The average cost of pipe laying, not in- cluding trenching, was as follows: 8-in. pipe, 5.0 cts. per lin. ft. (average of 83 jobs). 10-in. pipe, 7.3 cts. per lin. ft. (average of 27 jobs). 12-in. pipe, 7.5 cts. per lin. ft. (average of 41 jobs). 15-in. pipe, 6.7 cts. per lin. ft. (average of 10 jobs). Apparently none of this work was as well handled as that at Atlantic, Iowa, the data for which have been previously given. Average costs on work so simple as pipe laying, and where no plant Is required, often indicate nothing but poor management or lazi- ness. For this reason the following minimum costs of work done at Centerville are of more value, as they show what can readily be accomplished : 8-in. 10-in. 12-in. 15-in. Pipe layers, at 30 cts $0.010 $0.017 $0.019 $0.016 Helpers, at 17y 2 cts 0.012 0.018 0.011 0.020 Total $0.022 $0.035 $0.030 $0.036 Even these minimum costs at Centerville are greater than the average costs of pipe laying given above for the work at Atlantic, Iowa. At Atlantic the contractor usually had only one helper to each pipe layer, whereas on this work at Centerville there were usually two helpers to each pipe layer. The wages of the pipe layers at Centerville were nearly 40% higher than at Atlantic, but the helpers received the same wages in both places. Based upon the above table of minimum cost, the following is the number of lineal feet laid per 10-hr, day by a pipe layer: 8-in. pipe, 300 lin. ft. per pipe layer. 10-in. pipe, 177 lin. ft. per pipe layer. 12-in. pipe, 158 lin. ft. per pipe layer. 15-in. pipe, 188 lin. ft. per pipe layer. A considerable part (15%) of the work done at Centerville in- volved trenching in hardpan and hard shale, and there was a little quicksand and some wet weather that caused the banks to cave. All these increased not only the cost of excavating, but also the cost of pipe laying. On the various jobs where the excavation was entirely in shale and hardpan, the cost of laying was 50% more than the average costs above given; so that for 10 and 12-in. pipe the cost of pipe laying was about 11 cts. per lin. ft. Where quicksand, or a trench soaked from rain, was encoun- tered the cost of pipe laying was similarly increased, that is about 50% above the average cost. The trenching averaged a cost of 40 cts. per cu. yd. for excava- tion and 4 cts. per cu. yd. for backfilling, except in shale and hard- pan, where the cost was about 70 cts. per cu. yd. for excavation. About 15% of the excavation was shale that could be picked and hardpan. The rest was mostly clay and gumbo, requiring prac- SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 827 tically no sheeting. The trenches averaged about 9 ft. deep. The width of the trenches was the same as at Atlantic, above given. Wages averaged 18 cts. per hr. It will be noted that the trenching at Centerville cost practically twice as much per cubic yard as at Atlantic. In view of the fact that the pipe laying also cost twice as much, it would seem that the workmen at Centerville were about half as efficient as those under the contractor at Atlantic. Foreman's and waterboy's wages are not included in the above given costs for labor of trenching and pipe laying. Foreman re- ceived 35 cts. per hr., and Waterboys 12% cts. per hr. Their com- bined wages amounted to about 10% of the labor cost of trenching, backfilling and pipe laying. This shows that there were one fore- man and one waterboy to 25 workmen. Cost of Pipe Sewers at Laurel, Miss. In Engineering-Contracting, July 24, 1907, the cost of 3 miles of pipe sewers on each of 43 sec- tions was given. The data were secured by Mr. M. A. Hall in the manner previously described under the paragraph relating to sewer work at Atlantic, Iowa. Negroes were employed and the work was done under inefficient foremen, except on 6 of the sections. The working day was 10 to 11 hrs. long. Common laborers received $1.25 to $1.50 a day, and foremen received $3 to $4 per day. The excavation was mostly clay, and the average cost of exca- vation was 30% cts. per cu. yd., wages being assumed to average 12% cts. per hr. The backfill was largely done by hand, although teams and scrapers were used on many of the sections. The back- fill averaged about 6 cts. per cu. yd. The following were the costs on a few of the sections that showed the lowest costs : Per cu. yd. Excavation of trench 6.3 ft. deep, 1.62 hrs., at 12% cts 20.2 Backfill ditto, 0.3 hr. man at 12% cts. plus 0.06 hr. team and driver at 30 cts 5.6 Excav. of trench 7.6 ft. deep, 1.80 hrs., at 12% cts 22.5 Backfill ditto, 0.24 hr. man, at 12% cts., plus 0.04 team and driver, at 30 cts 7.2 Excav. of trench 7.7 ft. deep, 2.07 hrs., at 12% cts 26.0 Backfill ditto, 0.12 hr. man, at 12% cts., plus 0.03 hr. team, and driver, at 30 cts 2.4 The average costs of pipe laying were as follows per lin. ft, wages being assumed to be 20 cts. for pipe layers and 12% cts. for helpers : 8-in. 10-in. 12-in. 18-in. 20-in. Pipe layer, at 20 cts $0.010 $0.012 $0.011 $0.015 $0.012 Helper, at 12% cts 0.013 0.012 0.018 0.026 0.022 Total $0.023 $0.024 ?9~029 $(U)41 $0.034 Number of sections 31 3 2 5 2 There were, ordinarily, two helpers to each pipe layer. For comparison with the above averages, the following minimum costs of pipe laying on certain sections are given : 8-in. 10-in. 12-in. 18-in. 20-in. Pipelayer, at 20 cts $0.005 $0.010 $0.009 $0008 $0012 Helper, at 12% cts 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.022 Total $0.013 $0.022 $0.024 $oTo26 $0034 828 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. That these minimum costs vary so slightly from the average costs on sections other than for the 8-in. pipe is due to the fact that there were so few sections where sizes larger than 8-in. were laid. Estimated Cost of Pipe Sewers. In Engineering-Contracting t April 1, 1908, the Table VII A was published. The estimated costs given in this table are said to be based upon the actual costs of 51 miles of sewers built in five cities where the physical condi- tions were similar to those at Clinton, Iowa, as compiled by Mr. Charles P. Chase, city engineer of Clinton. The table gives the estimated cost per lin. ft., not including the cost of excavation, nor foremanship and incidentals. I have omitted the item of "foreman" from the above table. Foreman's salary usually amounts to 5 to 10% of the labor not 5 to 10% of the labor and materials. I have also omitted an item of "interest and incidentals," which Mr. Chase estimates at 10% of the total cost of labor and materials. Interest on money invested is a very small item where the con- tractor receives monthly payments, and a percentage for "inci- dentals" should apply only to the labor. Mr. Chase calls the total of the above items a "constant," and to this "constant" he adds the cost of trenching, which is the "variable." There is an error in the item of laying 3 6 -in. pipe, as will be seen by comparison with the corresponding item for 30-in. pipe. The item of "shipping loss and haul" appears to be much over- estimated ; so also is the item of "lights and watchman." Cost of a Pipe Sewer in Quicksand. The following data were published in Engineering-Contracting, June 3, 1908. Wildwood is a new summer resort town, built a few years ago on the southern end of an island called Five Mile Beach, on the New Jersey coast. Prior to the building of the town the site was covered at high tide by 3 ft. of water. The soil was black mud covered with thick meadow sod, with, here and there, piles of sand which were shifted by the tide. The first work done was to build a bulkhead and by means of dredges to raise the land above the high tide. Then the building of the town and resorts began. To serve the buildings, a system of terra cotta pipe sewers was built. The trench for the entire distance, 12 miles, was through quicksand, from which water bubbled, and known locally as "boil- ing sand." This makes both expensive and difficult work, adding to the cost of laying the pipe, as it is difficult to keep the pipes at the proper grade and in good alignment, and the joints are hard to caulk, owing to the water in the ditch. The greatest cutting was 6% ft. deep and the entire trench was double sheeted throughout, great trouble being experienced in keep- ing the trench even partially dry. Sumps or wells could not be made, as the pumps pulled out so much sand under the sheeting as to cause either the ditch to fill or the sheeting to cave in. The sheeting was put down to a depth of 10 ft. with a water jet in advance of the excavation, this being the only way the con- tractor could make any headway. Owing to the numerous "salt SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 829 r jj 0000000-^lft V t~ W r-j iH T-J O O O O J c<5do'do'dddd 'co pj ooocooomoift I eo 2**SiH^OtHO < 000 ff^ o iHodo'ddodd ' fri C oooooooooio |o> fl inrHi-HOrHOOOO O N THoddddddd 'c4 ^,**SSoOrHOOOO I ^J IM ddddddddd '^ Cq OOr-JOOr-jOOOO - O O in eo o o o_ o o o o o I in ^ S^'^S^'^^-'-'OrHO |> M i e^o oooo ooo |co n 2 ** ^ ^ ^ ? ^ . . ? ? jV rHOOOOOoOO | ^ -- . . _ ... i * 13 . 3 . ,/ irt J ^ 2* I ^^ fl rt Tj Z O ; 3 8 S +J 5:lll s l Ii!-- i s : - S-Sfi^ajg^ rf f^lllllll S HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. holes" encountered, through which the line at time ran, it was nec- essary to make a foundation for the manholes and pipe. This was done by piling spaced 7 ft. apart and 6 in. c. to c. On the piles 4x4 yellow pine, 8 ft. long, was spiked, and to this was spiked hemlock planks 2x8 12 ft. long. The pipe was laid on this and the hole filled with sand and salt hay. If a manhole was located at one of these "salt holes," 4 piles, 10 to 15 ft. long were driven 4% ft. c. to c. Four railroad ties were then spiked together with two pieces of batten, and the whole bolted securely to the piles. On this foundation was placed a box 5 ft. square and 10 ins. deep, the bottom being covered with tongue and grooved floor boards, and in some cases lined with canvas and the inside covered with coal tar pitch. The concrete was placed in the box, the pipe line run through, and the brick work completed. As a general rule, water was struck in excavating the trench about 18 ins. below the surface. The pipe laid was 8 and 12 in. " O9 - mrr '/"* s /* I \ Enq-Contr Fig. 3. (1) Centrifugal Pump; (2) Boiler; (3) Piston Pump; (4) Pipe in Trench; (5) Trench Be- ing Excavated ; ( 6 ) Suction Pipe ; ( 7 ) Discharge Pipe; (8) and (9) Steam Pipes; (10) Pipe to Water Supply. terra cotta, hence the ditch was made only wide enough for a man to work in it easily, this width being 2 ft. for a ditch 6 to 7 ft. in depth. The method of excavating was as follows: By using the piston pump the sheathing was put down for a distance of 150 ft. along the trench, and a closure made at each end. Then 10 laborers were put in the trench and excavation made to the water line, when rangers and braces were set. The piston pump was then started pumping water into this "land coffer dam." A centrifugal pump was moved into position, and the discharge pipe placed midway in the last section, where the .sewer pipe had already been laid. Thus the centrifugal pump ex- cavated the material from the forward section and backfilled the last section at the same time. See Fig. 3. When grade was reached, the foundation piles were jetted down and the cradle constructed. The pipe was then laid, the joints being made with cement and tar. The next section was then done in the same manner. The sand excavated was quite coarse, and but little agitation was necessary with shovels, in order to allow the pump to pick up the sand. When the sand is fine grained, much more water is needed, SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 831 and likewise the sand must be agitated with shovels. With ex- tremely fine sand, the men must be relieved frequently, as the work is hard, and, as the pumps take up a much smaller percentage of the sand, the ditch must be kept with a larger amount of water in it, and the men, being compelled to stand in the water, feel the effect of it quickly. At times when the contractor got as deep in the trench as the original ground surface, he encountered a considerable number of roots that had to be cut out, but this was seldom necessary. Fig. 3 shows the layout of the plant to do the work in the manner described. In this way an average of 300 lin. ft. of trench was dug and pipe laid per day, while another contractor doing similar work by another method averaged only from 35 to 50 ft. per day. The cost of driving the sheeting and pulling it for the 300 lin. ft. of trench done per day was: Boss timberman $ 2.50 Fireman on jet pump 1.50 One man setting sheeting 2.00 Two helpers, at $1.50 3.00 Three men pulling sheeting, at $1.50 4.50 One man carrying sheeting 1.50 Two -men bracing trench, at $2.00 4.00 One man pumping 1.75 Coal and oil 1.00 Total .$21.75 This gives a cost per lin. ft. of trench of 7 cts. for driving and pulling sheeting, and as there was 6,080 lin ft. of sheeting driven and pulled a day, it makes a cost per lin. ft. of sheeting %-ct. With 2-in. sheeting used, the amount of timber was 6,000 ft. B. M., which cost $26 per M. This timber, being driven with a water jet, was used time and time again. The sound piles, which were from 10 to 15 ft. long, cost 25 cts. apiece, and the cost of driving them was 1.5 cts. per lin. ft. The cradle for the pipe was built by two men, each at $2 per day. They built 200 lin. ft. per day, which meant a cost per ft. of trench of 2 cts. The amount of lumber in 200 ft. of cradle was 866 ft. B. M., which meant a labor cost for framing of about $5 per M. The lumber cost $26 per M. The daily cost of digging the trench and backfilling, and of lay- ing the pipe was: Foreman, 10 hrs $ 4.00 Eight men digging, at $1.50 12.00 Two men trimming, at $1.50 3.00 One engineman 3.00 One pumper 2.50 Two pipemen, at $2.00 4.00 Coal, at $5.00 per ton 1.25 Rent of boiler 2.00 Rent of pumps 2.50 Rent of engine . 2.00 Two pipelayers, at $2.00 4.00 Two pipe carriers, at $1.50 3.00 One man on mortar and jute 1.50 Total ,.$44.75 832 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The excavation and backfilling done by the pumper can be listed as follows: Cost per lin. ft. of trench: Labor $0.032 Coal 0.004 Plant rental 0.022 Total $0.058 Each day this plant excavated about 200 cu. yds., hence the cost per cu. yd. was: Labor 4 . $0.047 Coal 0.006 Plant rental 0.032 Total , $0.085 This is a very low cost for excavating earth from a trench and backfilling it. The terra cotta pipe cost 16 cts. per lin. ft. and the hauling of it cost 2 cts. The total cost per lin. ft. of pipe laid was as follows, exclusive of manholes: Foreman $0.013 Excavating and backfilling by hand 0.050 Excavating and backfilling by pump : Labor $0.032 Coal 0.004 Plant rental 0.022 0.058 Driving sheeting 0.040 Bracing trench 0.013 Pulling and carrying sheeting 0.020 Piles in place 0.105 - Cradle, lumber and labor 0.132 Pipe 0.160 Hauling pipe 0.020 Laying pipe 0.028 Materials for joints 0.013 Total $o!65l This cost does not include any allowance for general expense nor for the materials used in shoring the sides of the trenches. The sheeting was used many times, as driving the planks with a water jet did not injure the planks or break them up. The cost of a manhole was as follows : Cover and frame $ 9.00 Bricklayer 200 Bricks, 1,500, at $10 per M 15 00 Stone, % cu. yd., at $1.00 75 Cement, 3 bags, at 50 cts 150 Pumping 1.12 Labor, excavating 3.18 Sheeting, etc. 2.17 Total $34.72 The cost of this work in a ground difficult to excavate is exceed- ingly low, and can be attributed to the methods used in carrying on the work. Mr. George L. Watson, M. Can. Soc. C. E., was chief engineer of the Wild wood Sewer Co., and designed the entire improvement made, including the sewers. He afterwards associated himself with the SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 833 contractor for the sewers, Mr. Alexander Murdock ; and, as engi- neer in charge, decided upon and put into operation the method used. Cost of Two Pipe Sewers and Manholes at Oskaloosa, la.* The following cost data relate to the construction of a 12 -in. sanitary sewer in Sixth avenue, and an 8-in. sewer in South Market street, Oskaloosa, la. The -Sixth avenue sewer consisted of 1,004 lin. ft. of 12-in. pipe (tile), five manholes and one lamphole. The work required the ex- cavation of 1,063.8 cu. yds. of material, the average depth being 11.4 ft. and the maximum depth 16 ft. On this sewer there were about 250 ft. of trench in which the depth was from 13 to 15 ft. This necessitated handling part of the earth three times before it was removed from the trench, which added considerably to the cost of excavation. The cost of the 1,004 lin. ft. of 12-in. sewer was as follows : Cost of 12-in Sewer. Per lin. ft. Labor : Total. Sewer. Trenching ? 543.90 $0.541 Sheeting 72.00 .072 Laying pipe 46.38 .046 Backfilling 93.65 .093 Miscellaneous expense, laying pavement, hauling, etc 45.00 .045 Total, labor $ 800.93 $0.797 Materials : Lumber, for sheeting $ 32.30 $0.032 Cement for joints, 15 sacks. . . . 5.40 .005 Sand for joints, 30 bu 1.80 .002 Jute calking, 50 Ibs 3.50 .003 Pipe, 958 lin. ft 249.08 .248 Specials, 14, at $0.72 10.08 .010 Total, materials $ 302.16 $0.301 One lamp hole, 13 ft. deep 4.20 .004 Five manholes 274.82 .274 Grand total $1,382.11 $1.377 In the above work there was 980 lin. ft. of trenching, the cost per lin. ft. being $0.555. The cost of sheeting the 980 lin. ft. of trench was: Per lin. ft. Total. Trench. Labor $ 72.00 $0.073 Lumber 32.30 .033 Total $104.30 $0.106 There were 400 joints, requiring 15 sacks of cement and 30 bush- els of sand, the cost per' joint being $0.018. The calking for the 400 joints took 50 Ibs. of jute, or .125 Ib. per joint, and cost $0.009 per joint. The South Market street sewer consisted of 816.8 lin. ft. of 8-in. tile, two manholes and one lamphole. There were 365.9 cu. yds. * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 23, 1908. 834 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of excavation, the average depth being 6.6 ft., and the maximum depth 10.6 ft. The cost of this sewer was as follows: Cost of 8-in. Sewer. Per lin ft. Total. Sewer. Trenching $113.40 $0.139 Sheeting trench and miscel- laneous 15.00 .018 Laying pipe 21.25 .026 Backfilling 15.25 .019 Cement for joints, 6 sacks 2.16 .002 Sand for joints, 20 bu 1.20 .001 Pipe, 780 lin. ft 121.60 .149 Specials, 18, at ?0.72 12.96 .016 Total $302.90 $0.369 One lamp hole, 10 ft. deep 4.30 .005 Two manholes 64.89 .081 Grand total $372.09 $0.455 There was 805.6 lin. ft. of trenching, the cost per lin. ft. being $0.14. There were 327 joints, requiring six sacks of cement and 20 bushels of sand, the cost per joint being $0.011. In the above work the cost of laying tile includes taking out the last spading from the bottom of the trench, and tamping same about tile previously laid. Each tile was laid to line and grade from a grade cord supported over trench, the supports consisting of two upright 2x4 pieces, and cross board, spaced 25 ft. apart. Joints were calked and cemented, bevel pattern, with 1 : 1 Portland cement mortar. The backfilling was done with team and scraper and two men. Earth was first put in the trench to within about 1 ft. of the top, and the trench then flooded with the fire hose. The balance of the earth was then scraped onto the trench. This has proven a very satisfactory method, as practically all of the earth goes back into the trench in a short time. The soil consists of from 1 to 3 ft. of black loam on the surface, under which is tough clay. As the ground this summer contained very little water, only skeleton bracing was used. Prices and Wages. The prices of materials delivered on the work were as follows : Cast-iron manhole and lamphole covers, $0.025 per Ib. Wrought-iron manhole steps, $0.24 each. No. 1 vitrified paving brick, $11.00 per M. Cement, $0.36 per sack. Sand, $0.06 per bu., 100 Ibs. per bu. Jute calking, $0.07 per Ib. 8-in. tile, $0.156 per lin. ft. 10-in. tile, $0.26 per lin. ft. Oak lumber, $38.50 per M. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 835 The wages paid were as follows: Brick masons, $0.55 per hour for 8 hours. Tile layer, $2.50 per day. Common labor, $0.20 per hour for 9 hours. Team and driver for backfilling, $0.40 per hour. Cost of Manholes. The manholes were built of No. 1 vitrified paving brick oh a foundation of 1 : 4.: 8 concrete from 8 in. to 1 ft. thick under the walls. Portland cement mortar mixed 1 : 2 was used in building walls, all joints being slushed full. The walls were lo in. thick at depths greater than about 12 ft. and 9 in. thick above this depth. Below is given cost of two manholes of different depths: Manhole 16.5 ft. deep, requiring 20.4 cu. yds. ex- cavation. Excavation : Labor, at $0.20 per hour $ 9.40 Foundation : Labor, at $0.20 per hour 2.40 3 sacks cement, at $0.36 per sack 1.08 0.4 cu. yd. sand, at $1.40 per yd 0.56 1 cu. yd. crushed brick, at $2.30 per cu. yd.. 2.30 Superstructure Manhole : 2,400 brick, at $11.00 per M 26.40 16 sacks cement, at $0.36 per sack 5.76 26 bu. sand, at $0.06 per bu 1.56 1 C. I. cover, 307 Ibs., at $0.025 per Ib. ... 7.68 1 dust pan, 50 Ibs., at $0.025 per Ib 1.25 8 steps, at $0.24 each 1.92 2 pieces split tile in bottom 0.65 Brick mason, 10 hrs., at $0.55 per hr 5.50 Hod carriers, at $0.20 per hr 6.00 Total cost of manhole $72.46 Manhole 8.4 ft. deep, requiring 8.2 cu. yds. ex- cavation. Excavation : 1 man 13 hrs., at $0.20 per hr $ 2.60 Foundation : Labor, at $0.20 per hr 080 2 sacks cement, at $0.36 per sack 0.72 .25 cu. yd. sand, at $1.40 per cu. yd 0.35 .5 cu. yd. crushed brick, at $2.30 per cu. yd. 1.15 Superstructure Manhole : 1,100 brick, at $11.00 per M 12.10 6 sacks cement, at $0.36 per sack 216 10 bu. sand, at $0.06 per bu 0.60 1 C. I. cover, 307 ft., at $0.025 per Ib 7.68 1 dust pan, 50 Ibs., at $0.025 per Ib 125 3 steps, at $0.24 each 072 2 pieces split tile in bottom 040 Brick mason, 8 hrs., at $0.55 per hr 4.40 Hod carriers, at $0.20 per hr 1.60 Total cost of manhole $36.53 836 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. All of the above work was done this summer by lay labor under the supervision of Mr. E. F. Bridges, City Engineer, to whom we are Indebted for the information from which this article was pre- pared. Cost of Two Pipe Sewers.* The following costs relate to ' two small jobs of 8-in. pipe sewer constructed during 1908 at Frederic- ton) N. B. The work was done by day labor and the wages paid were : Cents. Foreman, per hour 30 Laborers, per hour 18 Single team, per hour , 27 Double team, per hour 50 t A 9-hour day was worked. The 8-in. terra cotta pipe cost 22% cts. per foot, and Gillingham cement cost $2.10 per barrel delivered on the work. Lumber for studding cost $16.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The manholes were elliptical 4 ft. x 3 ft. in diameter with 8-in. brick walls and 12-in. tube. Waterloo Road Sewer. This job comprised 495 ft. of 8-in. pipe sewer with 2 manholes. The average depth of trench was 9.7 ft. It cost as follows: Item. Total. Per unit. 5.98 cu. yds. brick work $ 83.10 $13.85 533.5 cu. yds. excavation. . : 274.97 0.515 Laying 8-in. pipe (495 lin. ft.) 20.72 0.04 The cost of the sewer, including sheeting, which is lumped with excavation in the above costs, was $0.93 per lin. ft. The trench had to be close sheeted every foot of its length, the material being sand and the bottom 4 ft. wide. Phoenix Square Sewer. This job comprised 811 ft. of 8-in. pipe sewer, with 3 manholes. The average depth of trench was 5.8 ft. in sand and loam, which had to be braced about every 4 to 6 ft. The trench was dry. The cost of the work was as follows: Item. Total. Per unit. 4.32 cu. yds. brick work $ 54.00 $12.50 522.5 cu. yds. excavation 195.30 0.374 Pipe laying (811 ft.) 27.70 0.034 The total cost of the sewer was $425.15 or $0.52 per lin. ft We are indebted for the above information to A. K. Grimmer, city engineer, Fredericton, N. B. Cost of 8-In. to 18-ln. Sewers at Cardele, Ga. In Engineering News, March 30, 1893, Mr. Geo. G. Earl, C. E., gives the cost of some pipe sewer work at Cardele, Ga. Wages were 80 cts. to $1 per day for labor (presumably riegroes) and the foreman received $70 a month. ^Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 25, 1909. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 837 Depth Cost of Cost of of cut Length labor, foreman, Size of pipe. in ft. in ft. cts. per ft. cts. per ft 8 inches 5.9 1,185 14.1 1.0 8 inches 7.0 3,090 22.8 1.9 8 inches 8.0 900 33.8 1.9 8 inches 11.2 487 35.2 5.8 10 inches 7.0 225 26.7 10 inches 7.1 298 35.5 1.6 12 inches 5.4 1,044 27.0 1.1 18 inches 6.7 963 33.5 1.7 18 inches 10.6 867 79.2 4.0 The "Cost of Labor" given in the fourth column includes trench- Ing, pipe laying and backfilling. In building- 2.6 miles of sewer (2 miles of which were 8-in.) and 35 manholes, the total cost was: Labor $3,867 Masons and helpers 462 Sundries 17 Foreman 266 Supervision 1,000 Pipe 2,635 Brick 252 Cement . . . < 166 Hauling 82 Manhole covers 289 Tools and incidentals 561 Total $9,596 It will be noted that the foreman's wages amounted to about Q% of the total wages paid to laborers and masons. Cost of a 12-in. Pipe Sewer, Menasha, WIs. In 1903, some pipe sewers were built in Menasha, Wis., by day labor. I am indebted to Mr. S. S. Little for the following data: There were 2,200 ft. of trench, about half of which was for 12-in. pipe and half for 15-in. pipe. The depth of trench ranged from 7% to 10 ft., averaging 9 ft, and the width was 2 ft The material was solid red clay. Wages paid were $1.75 per 10-hr, day. Some team work, at $3.50 a day, was used in scraping in the backfill. The labor of trenching, laying pipe, and backfilling averaged 37 cts. per lin. ft. of trench. If the pipe laying cost 4 cts. per ft., the cost of trenching and back- filling was 33 cts. per ft., or 50 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of 8- In. Sewer at Ithaca, N. Y. In Engineering News, Aug. 20, 1896, Mr. H. N. Ogden, C. E., gives the following costs of trench- ing and laying 8-in. sewer pipe in Ithaca, N. Y. : The column of labor cost is based on daily wages of $1.35 for laborers, $1.50 for pipe layers, and $2 for foreman. Mr. Ogden has kindly informed the writer that the working day was 10 hours long. Teams were paid $3.50, masons on manholes, $3.50, and masons' helpers, $1.50 ; 8-in. sewer pipe cost 12% cts. per ft. Natural cement, at 95 cts. per bbl., laid 120 to 243 ft. of pipe per bbl. (Doubtless neat cement mortar was used.) The work was by contract, and not all under HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. shown in the table. Cost of labor. in ft. rial, work. Total. Per ft. 5.3 4 $126.50 ?0.11 5.8 5 200.70 .12 -4 9 1% 49.50 .12 6.8 318.90 .23 5.9 7 209.00 .1*) 6.7 4 108.25 .18 5.6 4 195.05 .20 6 8 7 347.00 .26 5.7 11 418.85 .22 54 10 11 519.85 .22 5.0 u 9 319.50 .22 5.3 v* 7 373.47 .28 6.3 13 10 468.25 .33 the same foreman; hence the variation in cost Depth of No. of Length Name of street. laid. Wheat 1,134 Corn 1,^04 Washington 398 Titus 1,391 Plain 1,332 Buffalo 597 Fayette 984 Centre 1,334 Green 1,919 Clinton 2,403 Albany 1,431 Geneva 1,323 Cayuga 1,413 i Wet clay ; water 3 ft. down, bailed out. a Wet clay ; water 3 ft. down, bailed out, occasional bracing. * Loam over wet clay ; water 6 ft. down ; occasional bracing. 6 Wet clay; water 5 ft. down; diaphragm pump; occasional bracing. 6 Clay and gravel ; much water in places ; pump ; braced. 7 Wet clay ; water 4 ft. down ; occasional bracing and pumping. 8 Wet clay ; water 3 ft. down ; 1 diaphragm ; occasional bracing. 9 Half clay, half gravel ; half close sheeted ; underdrain pumps. 10 Wet clay, some gravel pockets ; 1 pump ; some bracing. 11 Gravel containing water at 5 ft. ; pump ; half sheeted. 12 Sheeting and pumping entire ; water at 5 ft. 18 Loose gravel ; brick pavement removed ; half braced and hair sheeted. Cost of 12-in. Sewers in Toronto, Canada. A large number of 12-in. pipe sewers were built by day labor for the city of Toronto in 1891, at the following costs: . Man- Catch- Conne( tions. 15 $1.95 240 1.27 2.11 15 2.20 4 2.41 29 1.33 24 1.78 13 0.96 17 1.90 18 1.28 5 Average depth. Soil. Length, Man- Catcl feet. holes, basin 10' 10" Quicksand 1,041 5 6 11' 2" Clay 4,427 19 21 18' 0" Blue o^ N ~4> : :t>: : OS t(M .COOO-^rHrH o' I-HO I laid odd CO |^| cs m 9. 3 g c-as I ! 60 co_ioin ~ia oo rHcgin Iin : to MOO 'oocoocg I as d rHo' : loio'do'd t-t- OOOTt*-^ t oo oo c j O> OO -COCOlOOrHJ d - OO t- Oi rH -^ OO tr- * O d ddrHooeodddd ^ rH 'W.M'M > > II . tf& itt s ^H H O 2 d ^^ H44 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. averaged 11 ft. deep, and was timbered all along. No water was encountered. The sewer was three-ring brick. Sec. 7 was similar in every way to Sec. 6, except that a loose sand overlaid the rock. Sec. 8 was in gravel containing much water. The cut averaged 12y a ft. deep. Sec. 9 was in fine, loose sand, heavily charged with water. The average cut was 14 ft. deep. The concrete foundations were made 1:3:6 Portland cement and crushed, unscreened sandstone. The stone was estimated on a basis of 2,500 Ibs. per cu. yd. Concrete was hand mixed and de- livered in wheelbarrows. The average cost of 1,545 cu. yds. of concrete was as follows: 0.732 bbl. cement $2.543 0.754 cu. yd. stone 1.409 0.424 cu. yd. sand 0.148 Water 0.007 Labor ($1.75 an 8-hr, day) 0.703 Total per cu. yd $4.810 The stone cradle was built of a soft sandstone which broke out square in the quarry so that little hammering was required in the trench. It was bought by the ton. Louisville (natural) cement, weighing 265 Ibs. per bbl., was used in a 1:2 mortar. The average cost (not including engineering) of 6,438 cu. yds. of this stone cradle was as follows: 1.297 cu. yds. of rubble $1.975 0.875 bbl. natural cement 1.261 0.305 cu. yd. sand 0.130 Water 0.005 Labor (masons, $3.60 ; laborers, $2.00, for 8 hrs.) 1.284 Total per cu. yd $4.655 The invert brick ring of Sec. 3 was laid in 1 : 3 Portland mortar, and the same mortar was used in plastering. On Sees. 1, 3 and 5 a l:-2% Louisville mortar was used; and on Sees. 6, 7, 8 and 9, a 1 : 3 Louisville throughout. The amount of cement per cubic yard of brickwork, by sections, was as follows: Sec. 10, 0.835 bbl. ; Sec. 3, 1 bbl. ; Sec. 5, 1.07 bbls. ; Sec. 6, 0.87 bbl. ; Sec. 7, 0.937 bbl. ; Sec. 8, 0.99 bbl. ; Sec. 9, 0.976 bbl. Assuming that the I:2y 2 mortar required 2% bbls. cement per cu. yd. of mortar, it would require 0.4 cu. yd. of mortar per cu. yd. of brick masonry when it took 1 bbl. of cement per cu. yd. of brick masonry. The number of brick per cubic yard ranged from 431 on Sec. 3 to 450 on Sec. 6. The average cost of 6,702 cu. yds. of brick- work on all sections was as follows, per cu. yd. : 439 brick $4.584 0.92 bbl. cement 1.953 0.41 cu. yd. sand 0.198 Miscellaneous 0.229 Labor 2.384 Total per cu. yd $9.348 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 845 The labor cost ranged from $2 per cu. yd. on Sees. 1 and 3 to 12.95 on Sec. 9. One foreman handled 18 bricklayers, divided into three gangs, the total number of his force, including helpers and laborers, being 80 men. A neat form of steel centering was designed and used as fol- lows: Light, 8-lb., dump-car rails were bent so as to form half- rings; the lower half -ring (or semi-circle) being bent with the (Short- Piece \ of Rat/ boli-ect fo Lower Rail View of Joint Looking across the Sewer from its Center. View of Joint Looking along the Side of the Sewer. Fig. 4. Centers for Concrete Sewer. head of the rail facing out, and the upper half-ring with its head facing in, as shown in Fig. 4. A short piece of rail was laid with its flange against the flange of the lower half-ring and riveted. One of these short pieces of rail was thus riveted at each end of the lower half-ring. Thus it was possible to butt the ends of the upper half-ring against these short pieces of rail riveted to the lower half-ring, and connect the- two with fish-plates and boles. In order to be able to "strike" (remove) these steel centers, a be^el- joint was made, as shown in the figure. This was done by sawing one end of the upper half-ring across on a bevel, and sawing a 846 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. similar bevel on the end of the short piece of rail against Which it butted. After the fish-plate bolts were removed, a blow of a hammer would readily knock the two half-rings apart at the bevel- joint. It will be noted that the 2 -in. lagging was laid upon ths flange of the upper half-ring, no lagging being used on the lower half-ring, as the invert was built of brick. To hold the lagging to the upper half -ring, it was found best to make little iron clips, three of which were fastened to the under- side of each 12-ft. stick of lagging, using two wood screws for each clip. The end of the clip slipped over the flange of the steel rail, but was not screwed or bolted to the rail, so that each stick of lagging was quickly removed by shoving it endwise. These steel centers or rings were placed 2 ft. 5 ins. apart, c. to c., so that 40 rings sufficed to set up centers for 96 ft. of sewer. Two men would take down, clean and set up 96 ft. of this centering in a day, making the cost of moving centers about 4 cts. per ft. of sewer. In building 8,290 ft. of sewers, three sets of steel centers and two sets of lagging were used, costing $775 for materials and labor of making, or 9.3 cts. per ft. of sewer, making a total cost of a little over 13 cts. per ft. of sewer for making and moving lagging and material. There were only three sets of rings because there were only three sizes of sewers, 70, 77 and 94-in. Cost of an Egg Shaped Sewer, Springfield, Mass.* The Worces- ter St. sewer, for which cost data are given below, was built at Springfield, Mass., during December, 1904, and January, 1905. It consists of 670 ft. of 1 ft. 10 in. by 2 ft. 9 in., egg-shaped brick sewer and two manholes. The sewer was laid in a gravel trench at an average depth of 9.8 ft., the grade being 6 in. per 100 ft. The loose character of the gravel necessitated tight sheeting of the trench all of the way. The invert of the sewer was constructed of 8-in. brickwork, but the arch was of a single ring or 4-in. brick, plastered outside with 1 in. of cement mortar, Portland cement being used throughout. At the time the work was done there was about 2% ft. of frost in the ground, and consequently coke fires were built along the line of excavation in advance of the work. These fires required about $45 worth of wood and 536 bushels of coke at 11 cts. per busheL The excavation was done by pick and shovel, and the trench was backfilled as fast as the mason work was completed. The work was done by the city by day labor. The wages paid per 8-hour day were as follows: Foreman $3.00 Bracers 2.00 Laborers 1.75 Teams 4.50 Masons 5.60 Mason tenders 2.40 * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 16, 1907. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 847 The cost of the work is shown in the following .tabulation : Labor. Per lin ft. Excavating and refilling $1.40 Sheeting 23 Masons , ; . 36 Tenders 20 Total labor . . . $2.19 Material. Brick, $9.20 per M $ .79 Cement, at $1.60 36 Manhole castings and steps 02 Sheeting lumber, at $22.50 05 Wood 07 Coke (536 bu.) 09 Profiles and centers 01 Total materials $1.39 Grand total $3.58 The labor cost of constructing the brickwork was as follows: Per lin. ft. Per cu. yd. Masons, 42% days $0.36 $2.14 Tenders, 57 % days 20 1.19 Total ..$0.56 $3.33 On the work there were usually two masons and three tenders. Cost of a 7- Ft. Brick Sewer, Gary, Ind.* In trenching for a 7-ft. sewer through water soaked sand at Gary, Ind., the sand is being unwatered by driving well points and pumping. The method has enabled what promised to be a difficult task to be accomplished with comparative ease. Only a moderate amount of sheeting has been necessary and practically no caving has resulted. The sand through which the work passes is very fine, such a sand as forms the dunes of Michigan and other states bordering Lake Michigan. When water soaked it takes a slope of about 1 on 15. At Gary this fine sand is water soaked to within a few feet of the surface ; in places water covers the surface. So far as excavation work goes the material is to all intents and 'purposes a quicksand. In brief, the method of work adopted is as follows: A wide shallow trench is excavated by a drag, scraper bucket excavator of the Page & Shnable type to about water level, say to a depth of 6 to 8 ft. Bleeding is then begun. A 4-in. pipe 132 ft. long in six 22-ft. sections it stretched along the center line of the sewer. On each side of this pipe about 3 ft. away is sunk a row of well points 2 ft. apart. These well points are 3 ft. long and are attached to 13-ft. pipes. The' tops of the driven pipes are connected by hose to the 4-in. pipe line which has cross-valves for the purposes. A pump connects with the 4-in. pipe line and also with a 4-in. well point sunk vertically underneath. An extension of the 4-in. pipe line with strainer end also takes the surface water from a sump. This battery of well points lowers the water so that a further excavation of 6 to 8 ft. can be made between sheet piling. A second * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 5, 1908. 848 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. battery of well points is then sunk at this new level. In this battery, however, the points are sunk close to the sheeting and each row feeds into a separate 2-in. pipe along the trench. This battery lowers the water level enough to permit excavation to sub-grade, which is some 6-ft. below the bottom of the sheeting. The brick sewer is then built in the usual manner and the back- filling done by means of a derrick and Hayward clam shell bucket. The diagram Fig. 4A shows the general plan of procedure described. In this description details have been neglected to prevent confusion ; some of these details, however, require description. Scraper Bucket Excavator Work. The bucket is of 2 cu. yds. capacity and is operated on a 58-ft boom with the usual cable and chain attachments. The sand being excavated is wet ; that is, the voids are filled with water. The amount of excavation is 10 cu. yds. per running foot of trench, and the machine makes 60 ft. per day. This 60 ft. is not its capacity, but is the distance made daily by \,' ^' ]T Fig, 4 A. all the work and the excavator is worked just enough to keep pace. The depth being excavated is also limited by water level. The machine is mounted on rollers traveling on a track of timbers. One merit of the machine is that some of the excavated material can be dumped straight ahead in the path of the work so that it builds its own roadbed over the swamps in front. The machine is pulled ahead by simply lowering the bucket and letting it get a good bite in the ground ahead, then pulling on the digging cable. The excavator is taking out about 400 cu. yds. per 9-hour day, with a gang of 1 engineer, 1 fireman and 4 laborers. First Battery of WeU Points. Referring to Fig. 4A it will be seen that the first battery of well points occupies a narrow space along the center of the trench ; this permits the sheeting to be driven outside of the well points. The well points are 2 ins. x 3 ft, and they are attached to 2-in. x 13-ft. pipes with ells at their tops. A 4-ft. length of wire lined hose is attached to each ell. These points are sunk vertically by jetting. Two men were timed in Jetting. They used 1-in. jetting pipes with about 100 Ibs. water pressure and sunk four points in one minute. This time did not SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 849 include making connections. In addition to the two rows of 2-in. points, a 4-in. point is sunk directly under the pump. The well points are connected by the short hose lengths to a 4-in. horizontal suction pipe. Six 22-ft. sections of suction pipe are used with hanged joints. Each section has 11 cross-valves with. double bushings for the hose connections. A gate valve near the end of each section permits the rear-sections to be removed and placed ahead as fast as the work progresses. An extension of the 4-in. suction pipe forward to a sump in the excavation being made by the scraper bucket handles the surface water. The water is drawn from the suction pipe by an Emerson No. 3 pump with 5-in. suction and 4-in. discharge. The pump is hung to a chain fall from an A-frame mounted on rollers. It discharges into a tile drain alongside the trench ; this drain leads back to the completed sewer discharging behind a temporary dam of bags of sand inside the sewer. Summarized, the first battery of well points is composed as follows : 1 No. 3 Emerson pump. 1 4-in. well point sunk below pump. 132 2-in. well points sunk in two rows. 1 4-in. suction pipe with extension to surface water sump. Sheeting Trench. The trench is sheeted 10 ft. wide, the sheeting being carried along so as to embrace about one section (the rearmost) of the first battery of well points. The sheeting is 2 x 8-in. x 12-ft. planks and is driven by mauls. Waling pieces and trench braces are placed as the excavation proceeds. This excavation is carried down about 6 ft. by shovelers and at this level the second battery of well points is placed. The sheeting is pulled as the back filling proceeds. Second Battery of Well Points. The second battery of well points consists of two rows like the first, but the rows are placed wide apart (close inside the sheeting on both sides) and each has a separate suction pipe. The suction pipes are 2 ins. in diameter and the well points are 1*4 ins. in diameter; the well points and pipes are 16 ft. long and when sunk they penetrate a couple feet or so below sub-grade and 6 ft. below the bottom of the sheeting. The suction points are made in sections with hose connections every two feet and gate valves at the ends. Two pumps operate the second battery of well points ; they are of the same size and make as that for the first battery and are suspended similarly. Each pump draws water from both rows of well points and also from a 4-in. well point sunk directly under the pump. This is accomplished by means of a four-way connection in the suction of each pump, about 1 ft. below the pump. From this connection 2-in. pipes branch right and left to connections with the 2-in. suction pipes and a third connection is made with the 4-in. well point. Operating in parallel the two pumps can, by means of the gate valves, concentrate their work on those portions of the battery of well points where especially large quantities of water are encountered or can pump from the whole system, also either Sat/ HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. one o> (he pumps can be cut out. These pumps discharge into the same tile drain as the first pump. The methods of advancing the second battery of well points is substantially the same as for the first ; that is, the rear sections of Suction pipe and well points are detached and placed in front. Generally the forward end of the second battery is kept far enough ahead to overlap the rear section of the first battery. Excavation and Sewer Construction. The deepening of the trench at the rear end of the second battery of well points is done by hand. So perfect is the drainage that it is found possible to excavate some 6 ft. deeper than the bottom of the sheeting, and to construct the brick sewer in the trench bottom with no more seepage than can be handled by a fourth Emerson pump, which takes water from a sump and discharges behind the temporary sand bag dam mentioned previously. Backfilling. The backfilling is done from the spoil bank. As fast as the sewer is completed, shovelers cover it with a layer of sand. The remainder of the backfilling is done by an 8% x 10-in. Lidger- wood engine and derrick operating a 1 cu. yd. Hayward clam shell. This machine puts in about 500 cu. yds. of backfill in 9 hours at a labor cost of about 4 cts. per cu. yd. figured as follows: 1 engineman at $5 $ 5.00 1 fireman at $3 3.00 3 laborers at $2 6.00 Fuel at $3.60 per ton 6.25 Total 500 cu. yds. at 4 cts $20.25 Sheeting and Bracing. Two rows of 2 x 8-in. x 12-ft. sheeting 60 ft. long are driven, braced and pulled per 9-hour day with the following gang: 4 men setting braces at $2.25 f $ 9.00 3 men driving sheeting at $2.50 7.50 4 men pulling sheeting at $2.50 10.00 1 carpenter at $3 3.00 Total $29.50 This gives a cost of 24% cts. per lineal foot of 12-ft. sheeting driven, braced and pulled, not including materials and superintend- ence, etc. Pumping and Changing Piping. The pumping is continuous day and night, but the jetting of well points and changing of piping is confined to the regular shift of 9 hours. The gang worked is as follows : 14 pipe line men at $2.25... ..$31.50 10 firemen (two shifts) at $3 3000 2 foremen at $3 600 6 laborers at $2 12*00 Coal for 24 hours (estimated) 15.00 Total .$94.50 This gives a cost of $1.57 per lin. ft. of trench, not including superintendence, interest, depreciation, etc. Trench Excavation. The trench excavation, excluding scraper bucket works, runs about 300 cu. yds. per day, assuming 60 ft SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 851 of 10.5 x 13 ft. trench per 9 hours. This work is done by 85 shovelers at $2 per day, and costs $170 -v- 300 cu. yds. = 56.6 cts. per cu. yd. Miscellaneous. The cost of clearing the right of way amounts to $4 per day, 2 men at $2 being employed. There are 3 water- boys at $1, or a charge of $3 per day for Waterboys. Summary. Summarizing we have the following costs for trench complete and ready for sewer construction ; Per Per day. lin. ft. Scraper excavator work (400 cu. yds. )....$ 22.25 $0.370 Shovel excavation (300 cu. yds.) 170.00 2.833 Sheeting and bracing (300 cu. yds.) 29.50 0.491 Pumping and pipe system (300 cu. yds.)... 94.50 1.575 Backfilling (500 cu. yds.) 20.25 0.337 Miscellaneous (300 cu. yds.) 7.00 0.116 Total * $343.50 $5.722 Figured on a cubic yard basis these costs may be arranged as follows : Per cu. yd. Scraper work, including clearing (400 cu. yds.) . .$0.055 Trenching, pumping and sheeting (300 cu. yds.) 0.980 Backfilling (500 cu. yds.) 0.040 Brick Sewer Construction. About 60 ft. of sewer are completed per 9-hour day. The labor and materials cost of this work runs about as follows : Materials. Per day. 30,000 brick at $6.50 $195.00 30 bbls. Portland cement at $1.75 52.50 30 bbls. Utica natural cement at $1 30.00 Total materials $277.50 Labor. 5 men mixing mortar . .$2 50 $ 12.50 5 men carrying cement mortar 2.50 12.50 3 men lowering cement mortar 2.25 6.75 6 brick masons (5,000 brick each daily) 10.00 60.00 3 brick tenders 3.75 11.25 15 brick handlers (av.) 2^50. 37.50 26 men on industrial railway 2.00 5J.OO 3 teamsters 2.50 7.50 3 teams 9.00 27.00 3 form setters 3.25 9.75 3 water boys 1.00 3.00 Total labor $249.75 Total labor and materials 517.25 Assuming 500 brick per cubic yard of masonry, these figures give a cost of : Per cu yd. Materials $4.62 Labor 3.99 Total $8.62 About 2 bbls. of cement were required per 1,000 brick laid, and the cost per 1,000 brick laid was $17.24. The cost of superintendence on the work runs about $50 per day, and repairs, waste and depreciation aggregate about $40 per day. 852 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In reviewing these figures it must be kept in mind that they omit a number of costs. For example, the cost of lumber for sheeting, runways, etc., and the cost of lumber and construction for certers are not included. Other lacking items will be noted by those familiar with such work. Though incomplete as noted the figures will, we believe, prove decidedly interesting in connection with the novel methods of work adopted. [The costs are given in greater detail in the following paragraphs.] Cost of a Brick Sewer in Water-Soaked Sand at Gary, Ind.* In our issue of Aug. 5, 1908, we described in some detail the con- struction of a sewer in water soaked sand at Gary, Ind. The method adopted was to unwater the sand by bleeding by sinking well points in the sand along the line of the sewer and drawing out the water with pumps. At the time this description was pub- lished the construction had not been completed nor the costs fully analyzed, so that the costs then published were only approximate. Since then the cost of the work has been worked out in considerable detail by City Engineer A. P. Melton and his assistant, Mr. E. M. Scheflow, and has been placed at our disposal by Mr. Melton. The costs were compiled by keeping a force and time account of the work. The inspector kept the records on blanks prepared for the purpose and checked them with the books of the contractor's timekeeper. While some items of cost familiar to the contractor were not thus included, yet the figures given may be considered very close approximations. The work comprised 4,258 ft. of brick sewer, ranging from 7 ft. circular section to 6 ft. 4 in. by 8 ft. 11 in. oval section, all with shells consisting of 2 y 2 rings of brick. The soil was fine sand water soaked below a level about 22 ft. above subgrade ; the water- soaked sand ran on a slope of about 1 on 15. The trench ranged from 18 to 30 ft. in depth. The method of excavation was fully described in our issue of Aug. 5. Briefly a preliminary wide cut was made some 5 to 15 ft. deep with machines, then well points were sunk and the ground drained, after which excavation pro- ceeded by hand between sheeting. The masonry work and back- filling followed. The cost of construction was divided into the following items : Machine excavation, sheeting, pumping, hauling materials, sewer building, backfilling, materials and organization. Machine Excavation. The preliminary wide shallow cut only was excavated by machine. A % cu. yd. Hayward orange peel bucket operated by a 25-hp. engine was used for the first 1,900 ft. and took out 21,250 cu. yds. at the following cost: Item. Total. Per cu vd Engineer, 56 days, at $6 $ 336.00 $0.0153' Fireman, 56 days, at $3.50... 196.00 00092 Laborers, 255 days, at $1.75. 446.25 o!o210 Coal, 56 shifts, at $5 280.00 00131 Total $1,258.25 $0.0586 At this point the orange peel was removed to the rear to work on backfilling and a Page & Schnable drag scraper excavator was * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 853 substituted. This machine had a 2 cu. yd. bucket and a 40-hp. engine ; this engine was found to be too weak and was used only until a larger one could be secured. Another objection to the first arrangement was that two men were required to operate the bucket, one at the hoist and one at the swing engine. With the machine as first equipped and operated 15,300 cu. yds. of material were excavated at the following cost : Item. Total. Per cu. yd. Engineer, 31 days, at $6 $186.00 $0.0122 Fireman, 31 days, at $3.50 108.50 0.0071 Engineer, 31 days, at $3 93.00 0.0060- Laborers, 118 days, at ?1.75... 206.50 0.0138 Coal, 31 shifts, at $5 155.00 0.0101 Total $749.00 $0.0492 The 40-hp. engine was replaced by one of 60 hp., so arranged that one man operated both hoist and swinging engine. With the remodeled outfit 11,000 cu. yds. of material were excavated at the following cost : Item. Total. Per cu. yd. Engineer, 21 days, at $6 $126.00 $0.0114 Fireman, 21 days, at $3.50... 73.50 0.0067 Laborers, 84 days, at $1.75 147.00 0.0133 Coal, 21 shifts, at $5 105.00 0.0095 Total $451.50 $0.0409 It will be seen that the change of the engines reduced the cost per cubic yard by the amount of the wages of one engineer ; the saving was 0.83 cts. per cu. yd. Summarizing we have a cost of $2,488.75 for excavating 47,550 cu. yds., or of $0.0523 per cu. yd. For the 4,258 ft. of sewer the cost was 57.9 cts. per lin. ft. Hand Excavation. The bottom 13 ft. in depth of the trench was excavated by hand between sheeting ; the width of the excavation was approximately 10 ft. The cost of the work was as follows: Item. . Total. Per cu. yd. Laborers, 6,441 days, at $2. .$12,882.50 $0.5413 Foreman, 84 days, at $3 522.00 0.0232 Total $13,434.00 $0.5645 The total amount of hand excavation was 23,800 cu. yds. Sheeting. The sheeting consisted of vertical 2 x 8-in. by 12-ft. planks held by two pairs of 6 x 8-in. waling pieces and 9-ft. cross braces spaced 8 ft. apart. In cases of very wet trench a third row of waling and braces was put in ; occasionally, also, hori- zontal sheeting was used in the bottom. The cost of driving the sheeting and placing the bracing and also of pulling it was as follows : Placing. Total. Per lin. ft. Laborers, 882 'days, at $2 $1,764 $0.4142 Foreman, 80 days, at $3.50 280 0.0658 Carpenters, 50 days, at $3 150 0.0351 Total $2,194 $0.5151 Pulling : Laborers, 242 days, at $2 $ 484 $0.1136 Grand total . ..$2,678 $0.6287 854 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Pumping. The item of pumping comprises all the work of sink- ing and shifting the well points and pipe line and the removal of the backwater in the finished part of the sewer. Three Emerson pumps took water from the well points, a fourth handled the back- water and a duplex pump furnished water for boilers, mixing mortar, jetting, etc. The cost was as follows: Item. Total. Per lin. ft. Laborers, 542 days, at $1.75..$ 948.50 $0.2227 $2.50 me . .7! 6 . 1 !' !... 2,395.00 0.5625 Total for pipe work $3,343.50 $0.7852 Coal, 100 days, at $15 $1,500.00 $0.3499 Firemen, 855 days, at $3.50.. 2,992.50 0.7025 Total for pumping $4,492.50 $1.0524 Grand total $7,836.00 $1.8376 Pumping costs and pipe line costs have been separated, since the first is a continuous expense which does not vary from day to day, and the second cost is operative only when construction is actually going on. Hauling Brick and Other Materials. The materials were hauled 1,500 ft. in steel dump cars running on portable track ; the cars were pushed by hand. Coal, lumber, supplies, etc., purchased from local dealers, were hauled by team. The cost of hauling was as follows : Item. Total. Per lin. ft. Laborers, 1,219 days, at $2 $2,438 $0.5725 Foreman, 80 days, at $3.50 280 0.0657 Teams and drivers, 180 days, at $5.50 . 990 0.2322 Total ?3/708 $0.8704 Sewer Construction. The construction of the 4,258 ft. brick sewer was as follows: Item. Total. Per lin. ft. Laborers, 1,506 days, at $2..$ 3,012.00 $0.7073 Carpenters, 50 days, at $3.. 150.00 0.0351 Form setters, 225 days, at $3.75 843.75 0.1981 Bricklayers, 471 days, at $10 4,710.00 1.1061 Scaffold men, 236 days, at $2.75 649.00 0.1524 Brick tenders, 236 days, at $3.75 885.00 0.2076 Mortar mixers, 387 days, at $2.25 860.75 0.2021 Total $11,110.50 $2.6087 As noted further on, the cost of brick and cement for the job was $14,436.50, or $2.384 per foot of sewer, making the total cost for labor and materials $4.993 per lin. ft. Since there were 520 bricks per lin. ft. of sewer, the cost per cubic yard of the brick- work was approximately the same as the cost per lineal foot. The bricklayers averaged 4,710 bricks per man per 9-hr. day. Two barrels of cement were used per 1,000 bricks. SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 855 Backfilling. Enough backfilling was done by hand to cover the sewer and to permit the sheeting to be pulled ; the remainder waa done with the clam-shell excavator first used for preliminary trenching. The cost of backfilling by hand was as follows: Item. Total. Per lin. ft. Laborers, 378 days, at $2 $756 $0:18 The cost of backfilling by machine was as follows : Item. Total. Per lin. ft. iv? ,< Laborers, 307 days, at $1.75. . .$537.25 $0.1261 Engineers, 93 days, at $6 558.00 0.1287 Firemen, 93 days, at $3.50 325.50 0.0764 Coal, 93 shifts, at $5 465.00 0.1092 Total $1,885.75 $0.4404 Materials. The cost of the materials used in the job was as follows : Item. Total. Per lin. ft. 2,221,000 brick, at $5 $11,105.00 $2.6080 Utica cement, 6,663 sacks, at 20 cts 1,332.60 0.3106 Universal cement, 6,663 sacks, at 30 cts 1,998.90 0.4694 30 M ft. B. M. lumber, at $20 600.00 0.1409 Total $Ti,036.50 $3.5289 Superintendence and General Expenses. The costs of superin- tendence and general expenses were as follows: Superintendence. Total. Per lin. ft. Superintendent, 4 mos., at $150..$ 600 $0.1409 Gen'l foreman, 4 mos., at $125.. 500 0.1174 Master mechanic, 4 mos., at $200 800 0.1855 Timekeeper, 3 mos., at $60 180 0.0422 Team, 100 days, at $4 400 0.0927 Total $2,480 $0.5787 General expenses. Waterboys, 220 days, at $1.50..$ '330 $0.0775 Clearing right of way, 60 days at $150 90 0.0211 Total $ 420 $0.0986 Summarizing we have the cost per lineal foot of sewer as follows : Item. Per lin ft. Excavation by machine $ 0.58 Excavation by hand 3.15 Sheeting 0.63 Hauling brick and other materials 0.87 Pumping 1.84 Laying brick sewer 2.61 Backfilling by hand 0.18 Backfilling by machine 0.44 Materials 3.53 Superintendence and general . 0.68 Depreciation, repairs, setting up machines 1.50 Making 3 railway crossings ($2,500) 0.58 Total $16~59 The work was begun on April 2 and was completed on Aug. 5, 856 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 1908, during which time only 11 days were lost by the brick- layers. Cost of a 66-in. Brick Sewer at Gary, Ind.* The methods and cost of constructing a brick sewer of oval section, 6 ft. 2 ins. x 8 ft. 11 ins. in size, at Gary, Ind., were published in our issues of Aug. 5 and Oct." 7, 1908. This oval section changes to a circular section 66 ins. in diameter and then to a circular section 60 ins. in diam- eter, which continue the sewer inland. The costs of the circular sec- tions, 4,062 ft. long, have recently been compiled from inspectors' and timekeepers' reports by City Engineer A. P. Melton and As- sistant Engineer E. M. Scheflow and are given us for publication. The land through which the sewer passes consists of alternating ridges and marshes differing in elevation about 10 ft. The trench, therefore, varied in depth between a maximum of 24 ft. and a minimum of 14 ft., and averaged 17 ft. in depth. The material trenched was a fine sand saturated with water to a height of 13 to 14 ft. above the bottom of the trench. The water-soaked sand was very unstable, taking a slope of about 1 on 15 when unconfined. The method of excavation was to take out a wide cut between natural banks to about waterline level, then to drive sheeting and excavate between it to subgrade. To permit excavation between sheeting the sand was freed of its water to below sub-grade level by sinking batteries of well points and pumping. Full details of the bleeding plant were given in our issue of Aug. 5, 1908. The wide surface cut was made with a drag bucket excavator, with two objects, to get a wide working space, and to reduce the depth of sheeting. Construction was begun Aug. 1 and finished Oct. 1, 1908. Labor- ers on excavation sheeting, pumping, etc., worked a 10-hour day; tenders, cement mixers and helpers to bricklayers worked a 9 -hour day ; bricklayers worked an 8-hour day ; firemen on pumps worked in 12-hour shifts, and excavating machine crews worked a 9 -hour day. The costs of the various items of the work were as follows : Drag Bucket Excavator Work. The preliminary cut was about 30 ft. wide and from 4 to 10 ft. deep; there were 33,350 cu. yds. of excavation for the 4,062 ft. of sewer or about 8.21 cu. yds. per lin. ft. The excavator worked 83.5 shifts and so averaged nearly 400 cu. yds. per shift of 9 hours. The cost of operating the ex- cavator was as follows: .Item. Per 9-hr, shift. 1 engineman, at $6 $ 6.00 1 fireman, at $3.50 3.50 4 laborers, at $2 8.00 Coal (estimated) 5.00 Oil, repairs, etc 2.00 Total $24~50 This gives a cost of 6.1 cts. per cu. yd. of excavation and of 50.3 cts. per lin. ft. of sewer. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 27, 1909. SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 857 Excavation by Hand. The excavation between sheeting, approx- imately 8y 2 xlO ft, was done by hand, scaffolding the material from 3 to 5 times and an average of 4 times. The cost of the work was as follows: Item. Total. Foreman, 51 days, at $3.25 $ 165.75 Laborers, 2,184 days, at $2.25 4,914.00 Total $5,079.75 This gives a cost of 39.4 cts. per cu. yd., and of $1.25 per lin. ft. of sewer. Pumping. The pumping plant consisted of 3 No. 3 Emerson pumpfa drawing from the well points ; 1 No. 2 Emerson pump tak- ing water from the pools formed behind the drag bucket ex- cavator ; 1 duplex pump for boiler feed, jetting points, wetting brick, etc., and 4 30-hp. horizontal boilers mounted on wheels. This plant worked continuously. The cost of operation was as follows : Item. Total. Laborers, 464 days, at $2 $ 928.00 Fireman, 439 .days, at $3.50 1,536.50 Pipe linemen, 1,238 days, at $2.50 3,094.00 Foreman, 27 days, at $3.50 94.50 Coal, 60 days, at $15 (estimated) 900.00 Total $6,553.00 This gives a cost per lineal foot of sewer of $1.61 for pumping. Charged entirely against the excavation between sheeting which was closely 12,893 cu. yds., the cost of pumping per cubic yard of excavation was 50.8 cts. Sheeting. The sheeting consisted of 2x8 in. x. 12 ft. plank driven close on each side of the trench. This sheeting was braced apart by two 6x8 in. walling pieces set 3 ft. apart vertically and 6x8 in. x 8% ft. cross-braces spaced 8 ft. apart along trench. The cost for sinking, bracing, pulling and bringing forward was as follows : Item. Total. Labor, placing and driving, 392 days, at $2.25 $ 882.00 Labor, pulling and bringing ahead, 182 days, at $2.25 409.50 Foreman, 27 days, at $3.50 94.50 Carpenter, 36 days, at $3 108.00 Total $1,494.00 This gives a cost for sheeting of 36.8 cts. per lin. ft. of trench and of 11.6 cts. per cu. yd. of excavation between sheeting. There were about 73 ft. B. M. of sheeting and bracing per lineal foot of trench, so that the cost per M. ft. B. M. was practically $5 for labor placing, pulling, etc. Laying Brick Sewer. The sewer was built of two rings of brick. The invert was built in 24-ft. sections. Wooden centers with lag- ging 16 ft. long were used in laying the arch and 2 men knocked the 858 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. centers down, brought them forward and re-erected them as fast as 6 bricklayers could work. The cost of laying was as follows: Item Total. Bricklayers, 223 days, at $10 $2,230.00 Tenders, 112 days, at $3.75 420.00 Scaffoldmen, 111 days, at $2.75 305.25 Mortar mixers, 225 days, at $2.50. Form setters, 100 days, at $3.75. Laborers, 715 days, at $ Carpenter, 18 days, at $ Total $5,376.75 This gives a cost of $1.32 per lin. ft. of sewer and of $5.28 per 1,000 bricks laid. Backfilling. The backfilling to a height of 2 ft. above the brick- work was done by hand, and for the remainder of the height by a 1-cu. yd. Hay ward clam shell excavator. The backfilling by hand called for 277 days' labor at $2 and cost, therefore, $554 or 13.6 cts. per lin. ft. of sewer. The cost of the clam-shell excavator work was as follows: Item. Per shift. 1 engineer, at $6 $ 6.00 1 fireman, at $3 3.00 3 laborers, at $2 6.00 Coal (estimated) 5.00 Oil, repairs, etc 2.00 Total $22.00 There were 55 shifts worked giving a total cost of $1,210. In ad- dition the drag bucket excavator was worked backfilling for 18 shifts at $24.50 making a total of $441. Lumping the work of both machines, the cost of backfilling was 40.6 cts. per lin. ft. of sewer and 6.8 cts. per cu. yd. Materials. The cost of materials was as follows : Item. Total. 1,018,000 brick, at $5 per M $5,090.00 3,054 bags Utica cement, at 20 cts.: 610.80 3,054 bags Universal cement, at 35 cts... 1,065.90 Lumber (estimated) 600.00 Total $7,369.70 This is a cost of $1.81 per lin. ft. of sewer. Hauling Materials. For about 3,000 ft. of the work all materials were hauled from the railway siding in 2 cu. yd. steel dump cars running on narrow gage track. The average haul was 1,700 ft. For the remainder of the work the hauling was done with teams ; brick were hauled by subcontract for 70 cts. per M. Two teams were also employed throughout the work to haul supplies from local dealers and to haul coal to the excavators when they were beyond reach of the contractors' railway. The cost of hauling was as follows : Item. Total. Laborers, 767 days, at $2 .$1,534.00 Foreman, 52 days, at $3.50 182.00 Brick, hauled by team at 70 cts. per M. . 194.60 Teams, 100 days, at $5.50 550.00 Total $2,460.00 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 859 The cost of hauling was thus 60.7 cts. per lin. ft. of sewer. Superintendence and General Expenses. The costs under these items comprised the following: Item. Total. Superintendent, 2 months, at $150 $ 300.00 General foreman, 2 months, at $150 300.00 Master mechanic, 1 month, at $200 200.00 Clearing right of way 80.00 Waterboys, 160 days, at $1.50 240.00 Handy teams, 52 days, at $3 156.00 Total $1,226.00 This gives a cost of 30 cts. per lin. ft. of sewer. Summary. Summarizing the costs of the work per lineal foot of sewer we have: Item. Per lin. ft. Drag bucket excavation .$0.503 Hand excavation 1.250 Pumping 1.610 Sheeting 0.368 Laying sewer 1.320 Backfilling by hand 0.136 Backfilling by machine 0.406 Materials . . . '. 1.810 Hauling materials 0.607 Superintendence and general 0.300 Depreciation of plant, repairs, etc. (esti- mated) 1.500 Total $9.810 Cost of Rock Excavation for Sewer Trenches in St. Louis. The following data were published in Engineering-Contracting, May 30, 1906 : The excavation of sewer trenches in South Ben ton street, Sewer District No. 6, St. Louis, was mostly in solid rock, of a lime- stone formation usual to the vicinity. The work was done by con- tract, and the actual cost of the work is given below. The rock is a limestone lying in horizontal ledges or strata, 1 ft. to 3 ft. thick. The top 4 ft. or 5 ft. of rock is more or less rotten and seamy, easily shot and sledged to pieces. Below this top rock it is hard and difficult to break up. Dirt seams run through it all, at times causing the ledge to break out back under the sides of the trench, requiring considerably more excavation than is estimated and paid for under the specifications. An estimate of this extra excavation is about 20% more than is paid for. The specifications stated that when solid rock was en- countered in laying pipe sewers, the solid rock was to be excavated 6 ins. below the flow line for all pipes of 18 ins. or less in diameter, and 9 ins. below the flow line for pipes of greater diameter than 18 ins. The trench was then to be filled with sufficient earth, well rammed, to form a foundation upon which the pipe should be laid. Payment for the work was made as follows: Class "A," (Earth), Class "B" (Loose Rock), Class "C" (Solid Rock), and quicksand excavation for pipe sewers was paid for at the prices bid for Class "A," Class "B," Class "C" and quicksand excavation, respectively, and was estimated for a width 12 ins. greater than the inside dl 860 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ameter of the pipe, for all pipe 18 in. or less in diameter and 15 in. for pipes of greater inside diameter than 18 ins. To quarry the top rock, the drill holes were staggered, spaced about 4 ft. apart along the trench and about 6 ins. from the sides of the required width of trench. See Fig. 5. In the lower and hard- er rock, the spacing of drill roles was 2% ft. but similarly stag- gered. If any rock projected too far out, it was sledged or shot off by light shots. To break up a ledge or strata, the drill holes in the top rock were driven about half way through the ledge while for the lower rock they were driven % to % the thickness of ledge. Hand drills, 1%- in. bit, were used, one man to a drill, and about 10 lin. ft. of hole was drilled per 8 hours' work. The shots were about one stick of 60% dynamite per foot in depth of drill hole. The costs given here do not include insurance, collection of spe- cial tax bills, tools, and office expenses. The blacksmith bill was $355, or 20 cts. per cu. yd. ; the powder bill $689.76, for about 4,300 Ibs. of dynamite; the wages of foremen were $5.00, quarrymen $3.00, Fig. 5. Spacing of Drill Holes. and a few laborers $2.00 per 8-hour day. The total amount of rock paid for was 1,683 cu. yds. The cost of dynamite was, therefore, $0.40 per cu. yd., and amount was 2*4 Ibs. per cu. yd. On the sup- position of 1-5 more rock actually handled than allowed in the esti- mates, the dynamite is $0.34 per cu. yd., or 2 Ibs. per cu. yd. The average amount of rock for an 8-hour day per quarryman was 0.96 cu. yd. The following tables are based upon measurements and quantities estimated and paid for under the specifications. The average costs are derived from this estimate and the expense account on the whole or actual excavation. 370 lin. ft, 21-In. sewer; average depth in solid rock, 14 ft.: Foreman, 67 days, at |5 | 335 Quarryman, 700 days, at $3 2,100 Laborer, 73 days, at $2 146 Total, 600 cu. yds., at $4.30 $2,581 287 lin. ft, 18-in. sewer; average depth in solid rock,12 ft.: Foreman, 54 days, at $5 % 270 Quarryman, 343 days, at $3 1,029 Laborer, 53 days, at $2 106 Total, 317 cu. yds., at $4.43.. . . $M05 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 861 314 lin. ft., 18-in. sewer; average depth In solid rock, 13 ft: Foreman, 65 days, at $5 $ 320 Quarryman, 350 days, at $3 1,050 Laborer, 80^1 days, at $2 161 Total, 380 cu. yds., at $4.04 $17536 222 lin. ft, 15-in. sewer; average depth in solid rock, 11 ft: Foreman, 36 days, at $5 $180 Quarryman, 215 days, at $3 645 Laborer, 40 days, at . $2 80 Total, 206 cu. yds., at $4.39 $905 251 lin. ft, 15-in. sewer; average depth in solid rock, 8 ft: Foreman, 32 days, at $5 $160 Quarryman, 129 days, at $3 387 Laborer, 60 days, at $2 120 Total, 180 cu. yds., at $3.70 $667 The average cost of the rock excavation was as follows: Per cu. yd. Foreman and labor $4.20 Dynamite 0.40 Blacksmith 0.20 Total $4.80 On the estimate of 1-5 more actually excavated than allowed for the average cost of rock excavation was as follows: Per cu. yd. Foreman and labor $3.50 Dynamite 0.34 Blacksmith 0.16 Total (actual excavation) $4.00 The cost of excavation of earth and loose rock was $0.50 and $1.40 per cu. yd., respectively. The cost of backfilling was $0.15 per cu. yd. of excavation. For the information in this article we are indebted to Mr. Curtis Hill, Civil Engineer of the Sewer Department, St. Louis, Mo. Cost of Pipe and Brick Sewers, St. Louis. Mr. Curtis Hill gives the following data, which are averages of work done by contract during three years, April, 1901, to April, 1904. The work con- sisted in building 40 miles of vitrified pipe sewers, 12 to 24 ins. diam., and 13 miles of egg-shaped (18x27-in. to 48x60-in.) and circular (60 to 108-in. ) sewers. The egg-shaped sewers were 9 ins. thick; the circular sewers were 13 ins. thick. The excavation was, for the most part, in stiff clay, only a small amount of quicksand occurring. Trench excavators were not very successful, because the "joint clay" caved in if not well braced as fast as excavated. The Chicago Sewer Excavator, however, made the best records made with trench excavators. Potter trench machines were largely used for the smaller trenches, and cableways for the larger trenches. The Potter machine consists of a movable trestle, and a bucket car that rides on tracks on top of the trestle bents. This car is moved back and forth by a stationary hoisting engine, .which also hoists the buckets. The legs of the trestle span the trench and are pro- vided with wheels that rest on rails. 862 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following table gives the actual average cost to the con- tractors, including foremen and superintendence, but not including interest and depreciation of plant, insurance of men, and office expenses. COST OF PIPE AND BRICK SEWERS, ST. Louis. Earth Excavation. Brick Masonry. 3 ds ^ o3^ oS -P-O v . ~o >> e 3 .0 ft &>> ft -M <0 ^& d oi'o a ^-S i **a *- . _ p gg gS 3 g 5*3 orf oS x 15'* ____ 30 ........ 1.18 $1.71 $6.13 $7.84 circular! ..... 26 1.0 $0.36 1.00 1.87 6.13 8.00 6' circulart ..... 17 0.8 0.40 0.97 1.75 6.30 8.05 5' circular! ..... 16 0.8 0.40 0.95 1.80 6.30 8.10 2' x 3'$ ........ 11 ........ 0.80 2.40 6.10 8.50 * Method of excavation was steam shovel followed by a cable- way. The lumber bracing cost $3.60 per running foot of sewer, t Potter trench machine used. j No trench machine used. The "cu. yds. per laborer per hr." means the number of cubic yards excavated and loaded into buckets by each laborer actually engaged in digging. The average of all the work, including pipe sewers, was about 9 cu. yds. excavated per man per 10-hr, day. On pipe sewer trenches, where no machinery was used, the cost of earth excavating was as follows: Size of pipe, ins. Depth in ft. Cost per cu. yd. 24 15 $0.50 21 16 0.50 21 7 0.35 18 8 0.35 15 16 0.55 It cost 90 cts. per cu. yd. to excavate loose rock in the trenches 35 and 16 ft. deep; and $3.80 per cu. yd. to excavate solid rock. "Four men, the bottomman and his helper, with two men hand- ling and lowering the pipe, laid 21-in. and 24-in. pipe at the rate of sixteen lineal feet per hour, at a cost of 6 cts. per lin. ft. Three men will lay the same amount of 15 -in. or 18-in. pipe in the same time. Including the material for jointing, the cost of laying pipe is 10 cts. per lin. ft. "A good sewer brick mason will lay from 400 to 500 bricks per hr. There is one case where four masons, working on a 6^-ft. brick sewer, each averaged 600 bricks per hr., and kept it up for several days, but this is far above the average." The average contract prices for the three years (1901-4) was as follows : 12-in. pipe, per lineal foot $ 0.45 15-ln. pipe, per lineal foot 0.55 18-in. pipe, per lineal foot 0.80 21-in. pipe, per lineal foot 1.00 H-ln. pipe, per lineal foot 1.60 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 86b Pipe junctions, extra, each 1.50 Slants for brick sewers, each 0.65 Earth excavation, per cubic yard 0.55 Loose rock excavation, per cubic yard 1.60 Solid rock excavation, per cubic yard 4.00 Concrete, per cubic yard 6.50 Brick masonry, per cubic yard 9.40 Vitrified brick masonry, per cubic yard 12.20 It will be noted that the excavation was paid for as a separate Item, and not included with the pipe or brick. Mr. Hill informs me that on a recently completed brick sewer, requiring 287 days to build, two Potter machines and a cable way were used. There were 49,918 cu. yds. of Class "A" excavation (earth), 6,629 cu. yds. of Class "B" (loose rock), and 33 cu. yds. of Class "C" (solid rock). There were 2,303 lin. ft. of 9-ft. sewer, 3,240 lin. ft. of 8-ft. sewer, 254 lin. ft. of 7 -ft sewer, 1,607 lin. ft. of 5% -ft. sewer, and 1,203 lin. ft. of 4 x 5 -ft. sewer. These re- quired 8,177 cu. yds. of hard brick masonry and 723 cu. yds. of vitrified brick masonry. The excavation ("A," "B" and "C") cost 68 cts. per cu. yd., of which 11% cts. was the cost of the trench machines. The total cost of this trench excavation (56,580 cu. yds.), including labor of bracing and backfilling, was as follows: Foreman, 6,400 hours, at 50 cts % 3,200.00 Laborer, 87,000 hours, at 22 y 2 cts 19.575.00 Bottom-man (pipe layer), 6,360 hours, at 30 cts 1,908.00 Waterboy, 3,800 hours, at 15 cts 570.00 Team, 10,450 hours, at 50 cts 5,225.00 Watchman, 4,800 hours, at 25 cts 1,200.00 Machine, 4,400 hours, at $1.50 6,600.00 Total, 56,580 cu. yds., at $0.68 .$38,278.00 Most of the trenches require bracing, the timber for which costs 2 cts. to 10 cts. per cu. yd. of excavation, which is not included in the above. Yello.w pine costs $18 per M. The wages of foremen, Waterboys and watchmen are all charged against excavation, and no part against masonry. The cost of laying the brick masonry was as follows: Masons, 9,400 hrs., at 75 cts... . .$ 7,050.00 Helpers, 1,400 hrs., at 25 cts 3,500.00 Mortarmen, 10,750 hrs., at 27% cts 2,956.25 Total for 8,900 cu. yds., at $1.52 $13,506.25 The masons averaged 422 bricks per hr., or 3,376 bricks per 8-hr, day. Cost of a Brick Sewer at St. Louis, Including Tunneling in Earth and in Rock. The following data were published in Engineering- Contracting, July 10, 1907. The 13th street sewer in St. Louis, Mo., was designed to give deep drainage in a down town district, where the street is narrow, the traffic heavy, and the ground well filled with pipes and con- duits. Owing to these conditions, the plans were made and con- tract let for tunneling the entire sewer. The sewer is brick, 30-in. x 4 2 -in. diameter and 1,458 ft. in length. 864 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Taking a mean length of earth and rock, there were 630 ft. of earth and 828 ft. of solid rock tunnel. Five shafts were used in the earth section and ten in the rock. The work was done by the Myers Construction Co. of St. Louis during the whiter of 1906-1907, in 190 days, including Sundays and holidays. The contract included the excavation of 1,156 cu. yds. of earth COST OF A WEEK'S SEWER WORK ON FOUR JOBS. (Two Brick and Two Pipe Sewers) Kind of Trench Mach. Potter Potter Carson None Foreman .... Laborer Bottom man. Water boy... Team . . Wages per hour (0.50 .221 .30 .15 .50 .25 1.50 Job No. 1 Job No. 2 Job No. 3 Job No. 4 Hrs. 54 1,089 50 54 54 63 64 Wages $27.00 245.02 15.00 8.10 27.00 15.75 81.00 Hrs. 54 1,000 47 54 Wages $27.00 225.00 14.10 8.10 Hrs. 54 640 54 54 Wages $27.00 144.00 16.20 8.10 Hrs. 9 126 9 9 Wages $4.50 28.35 2 70 1.35 Watchman. . * Machine.. . . "54 "SLOO' 54 54 13.50 81.00 Total for excavation . Total cu. yds. " Cubic yards per hour per man Cost per cubic yard . . Depth of trench, ft. . Kind of soil Size of sewer $418.87 980 0.9 $0.43 19* Sandy 3x4 ft. 300 $355.20 600 0.6 $0.60 23 Stiff earth and clay 2*x3Ht. 154 $289.20 407 0.64 $0.71 18 Stiff earth, fire clay and 30% loose rk. 18-in. pipe 244 $36.90 120 0.95 $0.31 Shallow Black loam 21-in. pipe 108 Length of sewer, ft . . Brick Mason. Helper Mortarman . . Total $0.75 .25 .27* 104 104 104 I/S.OO 26.00 28.60 68 84 84 $51.00 21.00 23.10 4Hii pipe stre laidp per i ma pipe whos are; per I. ft. Of (double ngth) er hour jottom n (or layer), e wages W cents hour 12 lin. ft. of pipe per houi per bottom man. Trench shallow, no scaffold- ing or bracing $132.60 $95.10 Cu. yds. brick Cu. yds. per n Cost of labor masonry. . . 450 brick at $S 0.7 bbl. cemen $1 50 masonry lason, per hr. . per cubic yard .25 i M 112 1.08 $1 20 3.71 1.05 0.22 61 0.90 $1.56 3.71 1.05 0.22 t (1-3 mort.) at 0.2 cu. yds. sand, at $1.10 . . . Total per cubic yard brick masonry $6.18 $6.54 * A trench machine is rented for $125 per month, and bums 15 bushels of coal per 9-hour day. When the rental and fuel costs are added to the wages of engineman and fireman, the total cost is $1.50 per hour. and 880 cu. yds. of rock, and the construction of 770 cu. yds. of brick masonry. The work was paid for on the unit basis and all work done was measured up and paid for. The earth was a plastic clay, which would drop out in the arch following the shovel. In this way extra work over the arch (over and above the regular 9-in. brick work) averaged 8 ins. In the SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 865 rock tunnel, the average was 7 ins. over the arch and 6 ina on the lower quarter haunches of the invert. These spaces were filled solid with brick masonry. In the earth section, a small opening was driven 4 ft. to 6 ft. in length, and braced with a crown plank and short upright sup- ports. As this was enlarged, other crown planks were inserted, re- placing the shorter supports with longer ones. The masonry was then built in the section, removing the timber supports as the masonry progressed. Material for the next section was passed through the finished one. The rock was a stratified limestone, irregular and gnarly. It varied in hardness, in some places to a flinty appearance. The blasting was done in batteries of three shots, the first in the upper, or arch, portion of the heading. When this broken rock had been removed, the same process was repeated on the lower, or invert, section. Holes were driven to a depth of about 2 ft. and loaded with from % to 1% sticks of 50 per cent dynamite, the size of stick depending upon the indicated hardness and position of the rock. The cost of the work was as follows: Earth excavation : Per cu. yd. Foreman, 520 hrs., at $0.50 10.225 Bottommen, 1,320 hrs., at $0.50 571 Laborers, 7,500 hra., at $0.30 1.946 Carpenter, 830 hrs., at $0.50 359 Labor, timbering, 620 hrs., at $0.30 161 Timber, 22 M ft, at $20 381 Watchman, 520 hrs., at .017%... 079 Waste, 585 loads, at $1 506 Total '. $4.228 The earth excavation amounted to 1,156 cu. yds. and each labor- er averaged .154 cu. yd. per hour. Rock excavation : Per cu. yd. Foreman, 1,000 hrs., at $0.50 $0.568 Bottommen, 2,600 hrs., at $0.50 1.477 Laborers, 9,980 hrs., at $0.30 3.402 Engineer, 1,600 hrs., at $0.50 909 Blacksmith 070 Watchman, 1,600 hrs., at $0.17 % 318 Dynamite, 4,000 Ibs., at $0.15 682 Caps and fuse 030 Waste, 445 loads, at $1 500 Total $7.956 The rock excavation amounted to 880 cu. yds. and each laborer averaged .088 cu. yd. per hour. In the figures given above for earth excavation and rock excavation, by the item "waste" is meant the excavated material that it was necessary to take away ; in other 866 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. words the surplus excavation. The length of the haul was about 2^ miles, and, where the contractor hired teams for the purpose, they were paid by the load at the rate of $1 per load. The figures given for "waste" are what the contractor actually hired teams to re- move ; but, in addition, he used some of his own teams, of which he kept no close record. Brick masonry : Per cu. yd. Bricklayer, 1,180 hrs., at $1 $1.532 Helpers, 2,400 hrs., at $0.30 935 Watchman, 480 hrs., at $0.17 y 2 109 Brick, 340 M, at $9 3.974 Cement, 460 bbls., at $1.80... 1.075 Sand, 190 cu. yds., at $1 247 Total $7.872 A total of 770 cu. yds. of brick work were constructed ; of this amount 73 cu. yds. were constructed of vitrified brick, costing $12.00 per M. Allowing for the extra cost of this vitrified brick brings the total cost of the brick masonry per cubic yard to $7.99. The vitrified brick masonry alone cost $8.12 per cu. yd. Each bricklayer averaged .652 cu. yd. per hour. The plant used in the work and its cost were as follows: Dynamo, 20 hp., and electricity for 4 months $800 Compressor 250 Receiver 25 Air drills (Ingersoll-Rand, N. Y.), 3, at $110 330 Pumps, two 2-in. at $60, and one 1-in. at $30.,.. 150 Hand windlasses 100 Tools, boots, lights, gasoline, etc 200 With the exception of the last two items, all of the plant was used in rock excavation alone. The earth section of the tunnel was worked from the outlet and there was little pumping required. In the costs given above no charge has been made for plant, nor do the costs include office expenses of the contractor nor in- surance of the men. For the information from which this article was prepared we are indebted to Mr. Curtis Hill, C. E., of St. .Louis, Mo. Cost of Pipe and Brick Sewers and Manholes in St. Louis. This sewer, which was known as the Tarn Avenue public sewer, was con- structed in St. Louis, Mo., and consisted of 262.5 ft. of 24-in. pipe sewer and 154 ft. of 2 2-in. x 33-in. brick sewer and one manhole. The brick portion of this sewer is under the Missouri Pacific Railroad tracks and the street railway tracks on the adjoining street. The tracks consist of five railroad and two street car tracks. The work here was done in open cut, the railway com- panies supporting their own tracks. The difficulty of working through and under these tracks somewhat increased the cost of the SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 861 brick sewer. Even with this, the cost of rock excavation is low, since the rock belonged to a class easily handled, being horizontally stratified limestone, more or less rotten on top, while the rest shattered well when blasted. The drill holes were vertical (drilled with hand, or churn drills), spaced about 3 ft. along the center of the trench, driven about 2^ ft. deep and loaded with 1% sticks, about 1 Ib.) of 40% dynamite. The driller held his own drill, one man drilling, 1. e., only one drill with one man to a hole. Limestone was ordinarily found in one to three foot strata, and the drill holes were driven to such a depth that the shot would tear out the strata. The layers of stone were of a depth at this place that holes about 1% ft. deep loosened up the stone to the layer beneath. The top 4 or 5 ft. (and sometimes more) of the rock were rotten, and all that was necessary in the way of blasting was to loosen up the ledge, then sledge and pick it out The shots were in the center of the trench, which would Fig. 6. Profile of Tarn Avenue Sewer. leave the -sides of the trench ragged, but the same rotten rock can be sledged and dressed off to required width. The trench was 3% ft. wide. The width of rock excavation paid for is estimated to the extreme width of the brick work down to sub-grade. The railroad ballast is included in the earth excava- tion. All excavation costs include the labor of backfilling, disposal of surplus, bracing, etc., but no allowance is made for' lumber for bracing, nor for the incidentals, such as care of tools, insurance, contractor's office expense, etc. No machinery was used. HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 2Jf-In. Pipe Sewer. Earth Excavation (5^ ft. cut; 150 cu. yds.). Total. Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft Foreman, 27 hrs., at $0.50 $13.50 $0.09 $0.05 Labor, 153 hrs., at $0.25 38.25 Total $51~75 $0.35 $0.20 Pipe and Pipe Laying (262.5 lin. ft). Total. Per lin. ft Foreman, 10 hrs., at $0.50 $ 5.00 $0.02 Labor, 120 hrs., at $0.25 30.00 0.11 Bottomman, 63 hrs., at $0.30 18.90 0.07 Cement, 1-150 bbl., at $1.50 0.01 Pipe, per ft . Total $1.46 Excavation per lin. ft 0.20 Grand total per lin. ft pipe sewer $1.66 22-In. x 33-In Brick Sewer. (154 lin. ft.) Earth Excavation (9.2 ft cut; 190 cu. yds.). Total. Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft. Foreman, 53 hrs., at $0.50 $ 26.50 $0.14 $0.16 Labor, 630 hrs., at $0.25 162.50 0.85 1.05 Total $189.00 $0.99 $1.21 Solid Rock Excavation (7 ft. cut; 135 cu. yds.). Total. Per cu. yd Per lin. ft. Foreman, 100 hrs., at $0.50 $ 50.00 $0.37 $0.32 'Drillers, 570 hrs., at $0.30 .... 171.00 1.26 1.11 Labor, 460 hrs., at $0.25 115.00 0.85 0.75 Dynamite, 70 Ibs., at $0.15 10.50 0.08 0.07 Total $346.50 $2.56 $2.25 Brick Masonry (41 cu. yds.). Total. Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft Foreman, 54 hrs., at $0.50 $ 27.00 $0.66 $0.17 tMason, 61 hrs., at $1.00 61.00 1.49 039 Helper, 61 hrs., at $0.25 15.25 0.37 0.10 Mortarma,n, 62 hrs., at $0.30 18.60 045 012 Brick, 18,200, at $8.50 per M 155.55 3.79 1.01 Cement, 25 bbls., at $1.50 37.50 091 024 Sand, 12 cu. yds., at $1.00 12.00 0.29 0.08 Total $326.90 $7.96 $2.11 Earth excavation - 121 Rock excavation '....'. 2.25 Total cost of brick sewer $5.57 * At rate of % cu. yd. per hour per driller. t At rate of % cu. yd. per hour per mason. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 869 Brick Manhole. (4 cu. yds.) Total. Per cu. yd. Mason, 9 hrs., at $1.00 $ 9.00 $2.25 Helper, 9 hrs., at $0.25 2.25 0.56 Mortarman, 9 hrs. at $0.30 2.70 0.67 Brick, 1,800, at $8.50 per M 15.30 3.82 Cement, 2.5 bbls., at $1.50 3.75 .94 Sand, 1 cu. yd., at $1.00 1.00 .25 Total $34~00 |!U8 Cast-iron (head), 490 Ibs., at $0.02% 12.25 Wrought-iron bands and steps, 102 Ibs., at $0.04 4.08 Total cost of manhole $50.33 The information given above was furnished by Mr. Curtis Hill, Chief Engineer of the Sewer Department of St. Louis, Mo., and published in Engineering-Contracting, March, 1906. Cost of a Brick Sewer at Syracuse, Built by Tunneling. The fol- lowing data were published in Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 14, 1906. The so-called tunnel line sewer of Syracuse, N. Y., was construct- ed for the purpose of draining some 600 acres of land. The area to be drained lies in a valley, surrounded entirely by a ridge of nills, so that the excavation for the sewer had to be done partly by the open cut method and partly by the tunnel method. The cost figures that follow are for a section of the sewer constructed by the latter method. The sewer has a total length of 4,717 ft. and, starting at Grumbach avenue (see Fig. 7), the first section of 470 ft. was constructed by the open cut method; then came 1,135 ft. of tunnel, 495 ft. of open cut, 670 ft. of tunnel, 1,240 ft. of open cut, 280 ft. of tunnel, and finally 431 ft. of open cut. The sewer is circular, 33 ins. inside diameter, constructed of two rings of brick laid in cement mortar, and was designed to flow one- half full. As originally planned it was proposed to have cuts under 30 ft. made by the open cut method ; the contractor, however, decided to build the sewer for the distance of 495 ft. between the two longest tunnels in tunnel construction. All tunnel openings are permanent, manholes being built at these points, and also at places where the tunnel line intersects streets, a distance of about 600 ft., apart. Open Cut Method. Work on the first open cut section of the sewer was commenced at Grumbach avenue on Dec. 2, 1905. The cut ran from 13 ft. at Station O to 32 ft. to sub-grade at the first section of the tunnel (Station 4 + 70). The first 6 ft. of the cut was cast out by hand, but from this point to sub-grade a trench- ing machine was used to handle the material. The first material encountered was 7 ft. of loam clay and gravel, and underlying this was a stiff red clay containing stone and gravel, varying in size from pebbles to 12-in. boulders. The trenching machine was built by the contractor. It consists of a bucket car mounted on wheels, and had a device at the top for use in hoisting the buckets. The latter were of iron, revolving type, HAt HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. otn jsnoo RBW ,.Y JC &! adT .fcfuai lo ac t Sgbi-'t d ^U'li; -.; SEWERS, CONDUJTS AND DRAINS. 871 % cu. yd. capacity, of the kind ordinarily used on trenching ma- chines. The car ran on a track extending over the trench, spiked to cross ties laid on the ground, the rails being laid so that th6 car cleared the line of sheeting. A double drum stationary engine in an engine house, mounted on wheels, was used to operate the car and the hoisting apparatus. One drum of the engine was attached to the cable for moving the car ; the other drum operates the cable for raising and lowering the buckets. The cable runs from the engine house to an A frame, and a working distance of 200 ft. can be made advantageously. The operator, standing on the car in view of the trench and buckets, gave the signals to the engineer to raise or lower the buckets or to move the car forward or backward on the track. Buckets were distributed along the trench and when filled the op- erator dropped an empty one, picked up a filled bucket and carried it backward, dumping the material over the completed sewer. In this way the completed sewer was backfilled as rapidly as the work was finished. When it was necessary to move the machine ahead, rails were laid and the engine house moved forward under its own power, carrying the A frame along with it. By Jan; 4, 404 ft. of the first 470 ft. of open cut sewer had been completed, the remaining distance being left open to allow the engi- neers distance for a backsight .to project the line into the tunneL This section was afterwards built to within a few feet of the tun- nel opening, only enough room being allowed in which to raise and lower the buckets. The sewer constructed in the open cut excavation was circular, 33 ins. in diameter, the invert being of second quality paving brick and the arch of ordinary sewer brick. The brickwork was laid on a cradle of 1-in. hemlock nailed to 2-in. square forms, the cradle being backed with concrete for 3 ins. underneath and 6 ins. at the spring line. The space below the spring line was also filled with concrete. Tunnel Method Work on the tunnel section was first com- menced at the western end (Station 4 + 70). It was planned originally, however, to start the shaft at Oak street and the shaft at De Witt street about the same time that the open cut excava- tio'n was commenced, and in this way start the tunnel excavation simultaneously in four headings. Later on the work was carried on in four headings. The dimensions of the tunnel excavation were 7 ft. 9 ins. x 6 ft. 10 ins., and the materials encountered were a clay rock and in some instances slate rock. In the first section small pockets of clay and sand were encountered, which necessitated very close side sheeting. All of the drilling was done by hand, four holes, spaced about a foot from the side, being drilled in the face. The two upper holes were drilled about 18 ins. from the roof, the lower ones being from 18 ins. to 2 ft. from the floor. At first each hole was loaded with one stick of 40% dynamite, and all four holes blown at once. This threw down the whole face and was very effective. It was found, however, that the charge was too heavy for the tim- 872 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. bering to stand safely, and accordingly the two upper holes were loaded with iy 2 sticks of dynamite and fired. After the muck had been cleared away the two lower noles were loaded with the same sized charge and fired. The result proved satisfactory. The holes were drilled from 2 ft. to 2% ft., and the face thrown out by the blast had a depth of 18 ins. to 2 ft. Before a blast was fired a plat- form was laid at the foot of the face, and the material or muck was blasted, out upon it. In this way the material was more easily handled. The method of timbering the tunnel is shown in Fig. 8. All tim- ber used in the tunnel was beech, which on account of its toughness did not splinter or brush. The timber consisted of 6-in. x 6-in. frames, spaced about 5 ft. centers. The cap and sill were 5% ft. long and uprights were 6V 2 ft. long, with corners temporarily strapped with angle iron, which was withdrawn after overhead :Space for driving overhead Sheeting Sewer in a Tunnel. and sidebridging had advanced two frames. On top of the frames at each corner were blocks, on which was placed 2 -in. plank, leav- ing a space for driving overhead sheeting. On account of this overhead sheeting causing a pressure on the plank placed on the blocks, the edge of the plank was beveled and the overhead sheeting pointed to allow it to enter the space. The excavated matter was removed in buckets, similar to those described under open cut work. These buckets were placed on a platform car which ran on a 2 -ft. gage track carried along as the tunnel progressed. The car was pushed to the mouth of the tun- nel by one of the men, where it was raised by trenching machine previously described, and conveyed to the dumping ground. The excess of material was used in filling low land near the tunnel opening, the haul consequently being very short. The platform car was also used in carrying lumber and other materials into the tunnel, and in carrying out boulders, etc. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 873 The foul air caused by the dynamite fumes, also from working so far in the tunnel without ventilation, was overcome by pump- ing fresh air into the tunnel through a 9-in. galvanized pipe by means of a rotary steam fan. In this manner the air was kept very pure, and within a short time after a blast was fired the fumes had passed away and the workmen were able to return to the breast of the heading to clear away the muck. Some water was encountered, and this was pumped from the tunnel at the low points, as Station 4 + 70 and shaft at Oak street, by means of a steam siphon into the completed sewer. At the DeWitt street shaft the water was pumped out by a pulsometer, and in this way the tunnel was kept comparatively dry. In the section of the tunnel from Oak street to DeWitt street a very hard clay rock, bearing gypsum, was encountered, which proved not only hard to drill, but could not be blasted out satisfactorily. In addition water ran continually from the breast of the heading and also from the sides of the tunnel, making constant pumping neces- sary. The drillers were obliged to wear rubber suits. The rate of progress was about one-half as great as in the section from 4 + 70 to Oak street. Cost Data on Tunnel Sewer Construction. Cost data on the con- struction of a greater portion of the first section of the sewer built by the tunnel rfiethod are given below. These costs are for a total length of sewer of 1,047 ft, that is, for the sewer starting at Station 4 + 70 to within about 100 ft. of DeWitt street (see Fig. 7). In these data the cost of drilling per foot of hole could not well be separated from picking and shoveling into buckets, as some men worked on both. The drilling was all done by hand, and after a shot was fired the drillers shoveled the muck and trimmed up with picks. Water was, in general, taken care of with a steam siphon at one shaft and pulsometer at other. Hand bail- ing was occasionally resorted to. From Jan. 15 to Feb. 22, in 35 days of actual work, 173 lin. ft. of tunnel was excavated, or an average of 4.94 ft. per day of ten hours. The allowed excavation was 45.18 cu. ft. per lineal foot of tunnel ; consequently an average of 8.26 cu. yds. was excavated each day. The material was hard red clay, which worked well. The work was done by one gang working ten hours per day. The labor cost per day was as follows : Per day. 6 men in tunnel $2.00 1 sheeter 3.00 1 foreman 2.50 1 engineer 1.75 4 men on top 1.75 1 waterboy 1.00 Total $27.25 $5.50 From Feb. 22 to March 23, three shifts of eight hours each per day were worked by the men in the tunnel. The actual number of days worked was 30, and in this time 115 lin. ft. of tunnel was excavated, an average of 3.83 lin. ft. per 24 hours, or 1.28 lin. ft 874 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. per 8-hr, shift. The material was clay rock with from 12 ins. to 20 ins. of gypsum in the bottom. This material was very hard and progress was consequently slow. The labor cost per day was as follows: Per shift. Per day. Per lin. ft. 6 men In tunnel $2.00 $36.00 $9.40 1 sheeter 3.00 6.00 1.57 2 men on top 1.75 7.00 1 engineer 1.75 3.50 0.91 1 waterboy 1.00 2.00 0.52 Total $54.50 $14.22 The 6 men in the tunnel worked an 8-hr, shift ; all others worked 12 hours. From March 23 to April 4, two headings were worked, the men In the tunnel working in three shifts of eight hours each. The actual number of days worked was 13, and in this time the tunnel was advanced 216 ft., or 8.31 ft. per heading per 24 hours. At the shaft heading at Oak street the material was a soft; clay rock which worked easily. In the west heading the gypsum continued until March 14, when it disappeared entirely. The labor cost per day was as follows : Total Per shift. pSr day. Per lin. ft. 12 men in 'tunnel $2.00 $72.00 $4.33 2 sheeters 2.00 12.00 0.72 6 men on top 1.75 21.00 1.26 2 engineers 1.75 7.00 0.48 1 team 4.00 8.00 0.48 1 tag line boy 1.25 2.50 0.15 Total .''..V'Jl.k' 1 $122.50 $T36 The materials used in the work from Jan. 15 to April 4, when the first section of the tunnel was completed, were as follows: Rate. Total. Per lin. ft. 2,255 Ibs. dynamite $0.14 $315.70 $0.63 32 tons coal 3.50 112.00 . .22 110 gals, olive oil .45 49.50 .10 50 gals, engine oil ...... .34% 17.25 .03 860 electrical exploders... .03y a 30.10 .06 55,000 ft. B. M. lumber 16.00 880.00 1.74 Total ... $1,404.55 $2.78 The total cost of the tunnel work from Jan. 15 to April 4, a total progress of 504 ft. having been made, was as follows: Per day. Total. Labor, 35 days ... $ 27.25 $ 953.75 Labor, 30 days 54,50 1,635.00 Labor, 13 days 122.50 1,592.50 Total $4,081.25 Blacksmith, 156 hrs., at 25 cts 3900 Materials 1,405.55 Repairs 10000 Grand total, 504 ft, at $11.16 $5,624.80 Part of blacksmith work, sharpening picks, etc., was done by one SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 875 of the men on top and is not separated from cost of labor of men on top. Men on top also made wedges and assisted the sheeter in cutting frames, etc. One man on top acted as conductor on the bucket car. The above costs include not only the excavation, but also the sheeting of the tunnel, and in addition a small amount of concrete work. The cost of sheeting the tunnel was approximately as follows : Total. Per lin. ft. Labor $ 546 $1.08 Timber 88C 1.74 Total $1,426 $2.82 The labor cost on concrete amounted to about $.110 ; deducting this and the cost of sheeting from the total cost ($5,624.80), we have $4,088.80 as the cost of excavating the tunnel. The average cost per lineal foot of excavation would then be $8.11. At the allowed excavation, 45.18 cu. ft. per lineal foot, the average cost of excavation per cubic yard for the 504 ft. was $4.87. The labor referred to in the foregoing tables as "men on top" included man tending dump, conductor on bucket car, cutting wedges and all incidental work. Brickwork in First Section of Tunnel. The sewer construction in the tunnel is the same as in the open cut, or 33-in. circular, 2-ring brick, laid on a cradle. The allowed thickness was 9 ins., or 8.25 cu. ft. per foot of sewer. All space below the spring line is filled with second-class natural cement, mixed in a 1:3:7 pro- portion. From the spring line of the sewer to the roof tunnel the space is backfilled with carefully rammed earth. The brickwork was carried 4 ft. from the opening of the tunnel, making 500 ft. of completed sewer for the -first section. The brickwork, backfilling, etc., for the 500 ft. of sewer were completed in 18 days of 12 hours each, the cost being as follows: Rate. Total. Per lin. ft. 1 mason $4.50 $4.50 $0.16 1 mason 3.00 3.00 .11 5 men 2.00 10.00 .36 Total $17.50 $0.64 The materials used were as follows: Rate. Total. Per lin. ft. 75,000 brick $7.50 $ 562.50 $1.12 115 bbls. cement 1.20 138.00 .27 105 cu. yds. gravel 1.25 131.25 .26 Total $ 831.75 $1.66 18 days labor, at $17.50 315.00 .64 Grand total $1,146.75 $2.30 The above work included 153 cu. yds. of brickwork, 110 cu. yds. of concrete and 3.10 cu. yds. of backfilling. The latter was done' by the men who assisted the bricklayers, each 5-ft. section taking four men about 1% hours. The labor cost of the backfilling was 40. The labor on concrete consisted of about 550 hours' work 876 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. at 20 cts. per hour, or $110. Deducting these amounts from th total of $1,146.75, we get $923.35 as the cost of the brickwork for the first section of sewer. On this basis the cost per lineal foot was $1.85, and the cost per cubic yard of brickwork was $6.03. The cost of the forms or cradles used in construction of brick- work could not be separated from lumber cost. The cost was very slight. Shaft at Oak Street The dimensions of the shaft at Oak street were 10 ft. x 16 ft. on top; the bottom measured 9 ft. x 15 ft. The shaft was sunk to a depth of 58 ft. The materials encountered followed very closely those shown by the test borings as shown in Fig. 7. The shaft was divided into three compartments, the middle compartment, used for hoisting buckets, being 6 ft. in clear and the end compartments being 3^ ft. in clear. One end com- partment was used for a ladderway, the other end compartment being used for a pumpway. Beech timber was used and sets or frames were all 6-in. x 8-in. timber ; the sidewalls were 16 ft. long, braces 6% ft. long. The lagging was 2-in. beech. All of the drilling on shafts and tunnel was done by hand. A machine was used at this shaft for hoisting and disposing of excavated matter from the tunnel. It consisted of a platform car, 13 ft. long by 8 ft. wide, mounted on standard gage steel trucks. Buckets were hoisted through a hole 4 ft. 10 ins. by 6 ft. in the platform. Over this hole was an iron angle frame, at the top of which was the hoisting device for raising and lowering the buckets. The mechanism is similar to that of the trenching machine, pre- viously described. A 4-cylinder, 4-cycle gasoline engine of 30 hp. furnished the power to operate the hoisting apparatus and to move the car. The engine acts through a two-way friction clutch ; one way throws in a single drum and operates the cable which hoists or lowers the buckets ; the other way throws gears connected to a sprocket on the car wheel, causing the car to move forward or backward, the direction being controlled by a marine reversing device. The bucket operator stands between the bucket opening and one end of the car. The engine and drum are at the other end of the car and the engineer is stationed near the opening, where he can operate levers and at the same time have a clear view of the shaft below. The machine was designed and built by the contractor for the work. In sinking the shaft, red clay was encountered to within 15 ft. of the bottom, when some boulders were reached, and in the bottom was 3 ft. of clay rock. The shaft was sunk in 14 days of 10 hours each, the cost being as follows: Labor. Rate. Total. Per lin ft. 7 men in shaft ...$2.00 $14.00 $3.38 4 men on top 1.75 7.00 1.69 2 teams 4.00 8.00 1.93 1 engineer 1.75 1.75 .42 1 tag line boy 1.25 . 1.25 .30 Total $32.00 $7.72 SEU'ERS. COXDL'ITS AXD DR.UXS. Rat*. Total. Berlin, ft. 150 Ibs. dynamite $0.14 f*5,0 |0.0 100 electrical exploder* 3.S* 3.50 t- 4 tons coal 3*0 _14^ :* Total $51.50 30 lurs.. blacksmith .......... *0.ii 14 days, labor. ............. 31.00 19.300 ft. B. M. lumber ...... 14.00 Total. 58 ft., at 114.07 ...... SSltSO *14.07 The manhole in the Oak street shaft was 5 ft. malilt mmatig with a 1-ft. wall of brickwork to within SO ft. of the surface, where it was reduced to a 9-in. wall, and 5 ft. from the surface was drawn in from 5 ft. diameter to 2 ft. to allow for an iron cover. Around the sewer the size of the manhole and as far up aa the springiine was solid brickwork to insure a solid foundation for the DMMttMla First-class Portland cement concrete was used as backfilling around the manhole for the full dimensions of the shaft from the springiine of the sewer to the top of the normal tunnel excavation ; from this point to the surface the backfilling in the shaft was earth. The Umbering hi both shaft and tunnel was allowed to in place permanently. The cost, including labor on brickwork. masons and all incidental work, was as follows: I* tor. 1 mason ............................. $4.50 $ 4.50 1 mason ............................. &tO S,00 5 men ............................... 1 $.7$ Per day of ten hours ................... $:<:.> R-i-.f Total. 5 men ............................... $l,n *> : ^ 4 t/5 days S.75 Total labor , brick ......................... $ 7.5% TO iron st*ps ..................... OS ,00 1 irx^n iwer ..................... 10, 24 bbls. cement .................. 1,TO 19 cxi. yds. gravel ................ l.M 2J.7S Total material ........................ ..40 878 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The measured work complete was 37 cu. yds. brickwork, 10 cu. yds. concrete, 65 cu. yds. backfilling. Shaft at De Witt Street. The dimensions of the shaft at De Witt street were 9 ft. by 15 ft. The shaft was sunk to a depth of ?6V a ft., through red clay mixed with a few boulders, and 4 ft. of clay rock at the bottom. The shaft was sunk in seven days of ten hours each, the cost being as follows: Labor. Rate. Total. Per lin. f. 6 men in shaft $2.00 $12.00 $2.31 2 men on top 1.75 3.50 .67 1 foreman 2.00 2.00 $17.50 $3.36 7 days $17.50 $122!50 $3.36 Engineer, 5 days 1.75 8.75 .24 Sheeter, 5 days 3.00 15.00 .41 21 hours, blacksmith 25 5.25 .14 Total $151.50 $4.15 ' Material. 110 Ibs. dynamite $0.12 $13.20 $0.36 50 electric exploders 3.50 1.75 .04 2 tons coal 3.50 7.00 .20 10,500 ft. B. M. lumber 16.00 168.00 4.60 $189.95 $5.20 Summary. Total. Per lin. ft. Labor . .'. . '. \~ f f f. .-1 '.'. . ".^, .V,,. $151.50 $4.15 Material . 189.95 5.20 Total, 36% ft., at $9.35 $341.45 $9.35 Cost Data on Second Section of Tunnel. The second section of the tunnel, from Oak street to De Witt street, 543 ft., was driven in 139 days' labor of 24 hours each. The average progress was about 3.9 ft. per day, or 1.3 ft. per shift of eight hours. The material from entrance (Station 9 -f 88) to Station 10-+ 12 was clay rock, which broke up easily, but from this point to Sta- tion 15 the material was a hard clay rock bearing gypsum, much of which was of a flinty nature and very difficult to handle. An- other disagreeable feature of this section was the large amount of water encountered, which was continuous from Station 10 + 50 to Station 15. Men were obliged to wear rubber suits and pumping and bailing were constantly necessary. The cost of the work was as follows: Labor. Per shift. Per day. Per lin. ft. 4 men in tunnel $2.00 $24.00 $6.15 1 sheeter 3.00 6.00 1.54 3 men on top 1.75 10.50 2.69 1 engineer 1.75 3.50 .90 Total $44.00 $11.28 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 879 Labor (Continued). 139 days 144.00 $6.116.00 |11.28 77 days extra men bailing.. 2.00 154.00 .28 62 days blacksmith 1.75 108.50 .20 62 days waterboy 1.00 62.00 .11 Grand total for labor 16,440.50 $11.87 Materials. Rate. Total. Per lin. ft. 400 Ibs. dynamite $ 0.14 $ 56.00 $0.10 945 Ibs. dynamite 12.00 113.40 .21 842 exploders 3.50 29.50 .05 280 gals, olive oil 45 126.00 .23 51 gals, engine oil (bbl.).. .34y a 17.60 .03 35 tons coal 3.50 122.50 .22 $466.00 $0.84 37,400 ft. B. M. lumber $16.00 $598.40 $1.10 Summary. Total. Per lin. ft. Labor $6,440.50 $11.87 Material 466.00 .84 Lumber 598.40 1.10 Total, 543 ft. of tunnel at $13.82. .$7,504.90 $I3~81 A in the case of the first sectioa the above figures include the cost of sheeting and a small amount of concrete. The cost of the material for the sheeting was $598.40, and the laboi- cost was approximately as follows: 695 hours, at 25 cts $173.75 1^00 hours, at 17% cts 243.25 Total $417.00 Total. Per lin. ft Lumber $ 598.40 $1.10 Labor 417.00 .77 Total $1,015.40 $1.87 The cost of the labor on concrete was approximately $149.50 ; deducting this sum and the cost of sheeting from the total of $7,504.90, and we get $6,340 as the cost of excavating the second section of the sewer. As the second section of the tunnel was 543 ft. long, the actual average cost per lineal foot was $11.67 ; the average cost per cubic yard of excavation was $7.00. Cost of Third Section of Tunnel. Section 3 of the tunnel, from Station 15 + 45.50 to 21 + 50, or 605 ft, was driven in 95 days of 24 hours each, or 6.36 ft. per 24 hours. Work on Section 3 began on Aug. 22, with gang working east. On Oct. 8, another shaft was opened and gang started west from shaft No. 3. The two headings met on Nov. 2. The .laborers in tunnel, and sheeters, worked in 8-hr, shifts, and engineers and men on top were on duty 12 hours. The material was clay rock, not hard, and therefore easily handled. In this section the engi- 880 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. neer attended to blacksmithing, so there was no charge against this item. Labor Cost. Rate. Total. Per lin. ft. 855 days, labor in tunnel $2.00 $1,710.00 $2.84 285 days, sheeters in tunnel.... 3.00 855.00 1.41 190 days, engineers 2.00 380.00 .63 285 days, labor on top 1.75 495.75 Total 13,440.75 $5.70 From allowed excavation, the cost is $3.41 per cu. yd. Material. 21 tons coal, at $3.25 ton $ 68.25 $0.11 1,665 Ibs. dynamite, at $11.50 cwt 191.48 .3 1 762 caps, at $3.50 26.67 .04 190 gals, olive oil, at $0.38 72.20 .11 V 2 20 gals, engine oil, at $0.48 9.60 .01V a 3 mos. telephone, at $2.00 6.00 .01 38,682 ft. B. M. lumber, at $14.00 M... 441.54 .73 Total $815.74 $1.33 From allowed excavation, cost is $0.80 per cu. yd. Labor $3,440.75* $5.70 Material 815.74 1.33 Total $4,256.49 $7.03 Setting Cradle find Placing Concrete. Labor. Rate. Total. Per lin. ft. 96 days, labor in tunnel $2.00 $192.00 $0.31 24 days, engineer 2.00 48.00 .08 48 days, labor on top 1.75 84.00 .14 $324.00 $0.53 Material. 240 cu. yds. gravel ...$1.10 $264.00 $0.43 204 bbls. cement 98 200.90 .33 2,828 ft. B. M. lumber for cradles 20.00 56.56 .09 $~521.46 $0.85 Grand total $845.66 $1.37 Brickwork and Backfilling Over Sewer. Labor. Rate. Total. Per lin. ft 22 days, mason in tunnel. . .$3.50 $ 77.00 $0.12 22 days, mason in tunnel... 3.00 66.00 .11 132 days, labor in tunnel 2.00 264.00 .43 24 days, engineer on top.... 2.00 48.00 .08 72 days, labor on top 1.75 126.00 .21 Material 92,000 brick $7.50 110yds. sand 1.10 180 bbls. cement 98 Total Grand total $581.00 $690.00 121.00 176.40 $987.40 $1,568.40 $0.95 $1.12 .20 .29 $258 SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 881 The labor on top under "setting cradles and placing concrete" was for lowering cradles, mixing concrete and lowering same. The labor on top under "brickwork" was for lowering brick and mixing and lowering mortar. ' The work is being done by contract under the direction of Henry B. Brewster, Assistant City Engineer, to whom we are in- debted for the above information. Cost of a Sewer Tunnel at Chicago, Using a Hydraulic Shield. The following data were published in Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 6, 1907.. The Lawrence avenue conduit of the new intercepting sewer sys- tem of Chicago, 111., is tunnel work through clay. The completed conduit will be 16 ft. inside diameter, lined with 162 ins. of brick- work in four rings, backed by a ring of solid timbering 8 ins. thick. The bore being made by the shields is, thus, 20 ft in diameter, From Lake Michigan to the Chicago River the conduit is 8,220 ft. long and there is, in addition, an intake tunnel for flushing water extending out under the lake. This article refers only to the land portion of the conduit, which is being built by M. H. McGovern, Contractor, at a contract price of $79.50 per lineal foot. The conduit is being constructed by driving two shields in oppo- site directions from a central shaft, about the top of which are located the contractor's power house, shops, sawmill, storage yards and the spoil bank. The shield work is unusual in the fact that a close lining of timber segments is used to keep the clay in place and to take the thrust of the jacks used to advance the shields. This timbering is described fully in a succeeding paragraph, but it is important to note here that it serves its purpose admirably, being neither crushed nor distorted by the pressure of the jacks. Shield Construction and Operation. Fig. 9 is a diagram longi- tudinal section of the shield and tunnel lining and Fig. 10 is an en- larged detail of the cutting edge of the shield. The structural features and the principal dimensions of the shields are given clearly by these illustrations. Each shield is operated by 24 hydraulic jacks of 60 tons capacity and good for 6,000 Ibs. pres- sure. These jacks are of the Watson-Stillman type with 8-in. barrels and 5.75-in. plungers. They are operated with 3,500 Ibs. per sq. in. working pressure and 2,000 Ibs. per sq. in. release pres- sure. Each shield weighs about 8 tons and cost $8,000. Excavation. The tunnel is through clay which holds a nearly vertical working face and becomes quite hard in places. This clay is excavated principally by means of draw knives of the form illus- trated by the sketches in Fig. 11 and the photographic view, Fig. 12. The knives are operated like a draw shave for working wood. When the clay is soft, two men operate the knife, one grasping each handle, but, when the clay is hard, a third man is employed, who also takes hold and bears down. A strip of clay nearly 5 ft. long is shaved off with each stroke of the knife and is passed to a 882 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. third man, who rolls it up and casts it over his shoulder to the muckers behind. The draw knives, made by the contractor's blacksmith, are 7/32 x 1%-in. spring steel self-annealed in air. Two forms of knife are used, one for soft and one for hard clay; the difference in form is in the angle which the cutting edge makes with the handle this angle being 45 for soft clay and 20 for hard clay. The blades wear down to a width of about %-in. and then break at the center. Other details and dimensions are given by the sketches, Fig. 11. Work is carried on continuously in 8-hr, shifts, the usual ar- rangement being to operate three shifts of miners in one drift and Fig. 9. Tunnel Shield. two shifts of miners and one shift of masons in the other drift, the masons' shift working the two drifts alternately. Each shift of miners is made up as follows : Per shift. 1 foreman, at $5 $ 5.00 14 miners, at $3.75 52.50 12 muckers, at $3.25 39.00 2 valvemen, at $3.50 7.00 4 timbermen, at $3.50 14.00 2 switchmen, at $2 4.00 3 drivers, at $2.25 6.75 Totals $128.25 $384.75 This crew is divided between the two drifts and has averaged SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 883 7 lin. ft. of excavation per shift in each drift, or 14 ft. per shift in both drifts. The bore being 20 ft. in diameter, there are 11.63 cu. yds. of excavation per lineal foot of tunnel. Therefore, 14X11.63 = 163 cu. yds. of material are taken out every 8 hours at a labor cost for mining, mucking, timbering and haulage in tunnel of $128.25, or 79 cts. per cu. yd. Timbering. The timbering consists of a solid lining 8 ins. thick composed of rings of 4-ft. segments laid close. This timbering is placed by the mining gangs inside the tail of the shield, and as fast as the shield advances. The segments are prepared in the con- tractor's sawmill by a separate gang working one 8-hr, shift per day. Since about 495 ft. B. M. of lumber is required for timbering each lineal foot of tunnel, the millwork is an important detail. The timber used for the lining is rough hemlock, costing $18 per M. ft. B. M. It is delivered to the work in 6 x 8-in. pieces about 12 ft. long and is then sawed into segments 4 ft. long, 6 ins. wide and 8 ins. deep ; each segment has its ends cut to true radial planes and its back to a true circular arc. The machines for this work are installed in a building at the contractor's plant, and consist of Wet> of Casting 1v fit against Channe/s-. Fig. 10. Cutting Edge of Shield. a circular saw, a band saw, a band saw sharpener and minor tools. The circular saw is fitted with a table which swings with just the proper angle with respect to the saw to give the ends of the seg- ments the correct bevel. The band saw cuts the back of the seg- ment to the true circular arc and is fitted with a table which swings on the proper curve to effect this. In operation the 6 x 8-in. pieces are brought to the rear of the building and slid endwise through a window directly onto the table of the cutting-off saw. The sawyer first takes off a crop end to get the proper bevel ; he then turns the stick half-way over, shoves it along the table until the end comes against the stop and cuts it off. The stick is then turned again, pushed ahead against the stop and cut off. These operations are repeated for the third segment. As the seg- ments are sawed off they are piled up by the side of the band saw. The band sawyer takes the pieces, one at a time, adjusts them on the swinging table and cuts their backs to the desired arcs, and they are ready to go to the work. Each sawyer has one helper, and there are two other laborers to bring the sticks to the mill 884 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and pass them to the cutting-off saw. The sawmill force works one 8-hr, shift per day, and is organized as follows : Per shift. 1 fireman, at $5 $ 5.00 1 engineer, at $5 5.00 2 sawyers, at $3.50 7.00 4 laborers, at $3.00 J. 2 '^ Total $29.00 Thi3 sawmill gang turns out all the segments necessary to keep the work going in both drifts. The average advance of each drift is 21 ft. per day, and there being 495 ft. B. M. of timber per lineal foot of lining, this gang turns out 495X42 = 20,790 ft. B. M. of finished segments at a labor cost for sawing of $29, or about $1.40 per thousand feet. Lining. The 16-in. brick lining inside the timbering is placed Fig. 11. Draw Knife. by a separate mason gang. It amounts to 3.42 cu. yds. of brick- work per lineal foot. The mason gang is organized as follows : Per shift. 7 masons, at $9 % 63.00 17 helpers, at $2.75 46.75 10 laborers, at $2.50 25.00 2 drivers, at $2.25 4.50 Total $139.25 The mason gang lays 20 lin. ft. or 68.4 cu. yds. of lining per shift at a cost for labor and haulage in tunnel of $2.04 per cu. yd., or $6.96 per lineal foot. Haulage. The muck is hauled from the working faces to the shaft in tunnel and from the shaft top to the spoil bank on sur- face in cars drawn by mules. The same cars are taken back load- ed with brick, lining segments or other materials, so that they run loaded both ways. In the tunnel the hauling is done by the mining and the mason gangs, but a separate lift gang handles the cars on the elevator, and still another gang hauls them from the shaft top SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 885 to the spoil bank. This spoil bank is located about a hundred yards from the shaft top, since the clay is being saved for sale, it being of a kind particularly suited for certain burnt clay products. The lift gang works three 8-hr, shifts per day, and is organized as follows: Per shift. Per 24 hrs. 2 cagemen, at $3 $6.00 $18.00 4 laborers, at $2.50 10.00 30.00 Total $16.00 $48.00 The dump gang works three 8-hr, shift and is organized as follows : Per shift. 1 hoisting engineer, at $5 $ 5.00 1 fireman, at $4 4.00 16 laborers, at $2.75 44.00 2 drivers, at $2.25 4.50 Totals $57.50 $172.50 From these figures we can make an approximation of the cost of hoisting and dumping. Considering the cost of hoisting first, it is Fig. 12. Draw Knife. to b'e noted that this is divided between the work of hoisting tha muck and of lowering the brick, timber and mortar materials. We will, therefore, estimate the total cost of hoisting per day, and prorate this sum between the two. Assuming that one-half the fire- man's wages and one-fourth the coal consumption are chargeable to hoisting, we have the following figures : Per day. 2 cagemen, at $3 per shift $18.00 4 laborers, at $2.50 per shift 30.00 1 hoisting engineer, at $5 per shift 15.00 % fireman, at $3.50 per shift 5.25 5 tons coal, at $3 per ton 15.00 Total $83.25 Taking the quantities given elsewhere in the article we can 886 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. figure the weight of muck hoisted and the weight of materials low- ered per lineal foot of tunnel as follows: 11.63 cu. yds. muck, at 3,000 Ibs. per cu. yd... 17. 45 tons. As 42 lin. ft. of tunnel are excavated each 24 hours, the weight of muck hoisted during that time is 733 tons. Turning now to the materials lowered, we have : Tons. 0.91 cu. yds sand, at 2,700 Ibs. per cu. yd 1.23 41.2 cu. ft. timber, at 35 Ibs. per cu. ft 0.72 1,650 bricks, at 4% Ibs. per brick 3.71 Total weight of materials 5.66 This total multiplied by 42 ft. gives 238 tons of materials low- ered every 24 hours. The total tonnage of material handled is, therefore, 971 tons at a cost of 8.57 cts. per ton, of which about one- third, or 2.8. cts., are chargeable to lowering materials and two-thirds, or 5.68 cts., are chargeable to hoisting muck. The total yardage of muck hoisted every 24 hours is 11.63 X 42 = 489 cu. yds. The estimated cost of operating the hoist for 24 hours being $83.35, we have ($83.25-4-489) % = ll 1 ^ cts. per cu. yd. as the cost on the above assumptions of hoisting the muck. The cost of dumping per 24 hours as given above is $172.50, and a part of this is chargeable to loading materials and hauling them to the shaft head. It is probably fair to assume that at least two- thirds of the total cost is chargeable to hauling and dumping muck. As 489 cu. yds. of muck are hauled and dumped each 24 hours, we have ($172.50-^-489) % = 23.4 cts. as the cost per cu. yd. on the above assumptions. Plant. The contractor's plant is housed in wooden buildings grouped around the head of the shaft and comprises the following machinery: Power plant: two 100 h.p. boilers, one dynamo and dynamo engine, 20 h.p. ; one lift ; one emery wheel ; one 100 h.p. air compressor; one positive blower and 10 h.p. blower engine; two 50 h.p. hydraulic pressure pumps, and one 40 h.p. cage hoisting engine. Sawmill : one 80 h.p. boiler, one 50 h.p. engine, and the saws, etc., previously itemized. On the dump: one 15 h.p. hoisting engine boiler. The estimated first cost of this plant is $30,000. About 20 tons of coal per day (24 hrs.) at a cost of $3 per ton are required to operate it. The plant gang works three 8-hour shifts and each shift is made up of: Per shift. Per 24 hrs. hydraulic pump engineer, at $5. .$5. 90 $15.00 hoisting engineer, at $5 5.00 15.00 fireman, at $3.50 3.50 10.50 machinist, at $4 4.00 12.00 machinist's helper, at $2.75... 2.75 8.25 electrician, at $4 4.00 12.00 blacksmith, at $4.. 4.00 12.00 blacksmith's helper, at $2.50... 2.50 7.50 carpenter, at $5 5.00 15.00 trackman, at $3.50 3.50 10.50 barnman, at $3.50 3.50 10.50 2 laborers, at $2.50 5.00 15.00 Totals $47.75 $143.25 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 887 Office Force. The office force consists of seven men and its work is divided into two 12-hour shifts. It is made up of: Per month. 1 general manager, at $400 $133.00 2 superintendents, at $150 300.00 2 timekeepers, at $75 150.00 1 receiving clerk, at $75 75.00 1 bookkeeper, at $75 75.00 Total $733.00 The general manager has charge of several jobs and about one- third of his time is chargeable to the work being described. Di- viding the total wages by 30, we get $24.33 as the labor cost of the office force per day. Summary of Costs. The daily cost of labor, summarized from the above figures, is as follows: Office force $ 24.33 Dump gang . 172.50 Lift gang 48.00 Mason gang 13 >H Sawmill gang 29.00 Drift gang 384.75 Plant gang 143.25 Lock tender 9.00 Total $950.08 The cost of lumber as given above is $18 per M ft. B. M., and the cost of coal is $3 per ton. Estimating the cost of brick at $9 per thousand, of cement at $1.50 per barrel and sand at $1 per cu. yd., we get the following as the cost per lineal foot of the conduit exclusive of interest and depreciation on plant : Per lln. ft. 495 ft. B. M. of timber, at $18 $ 8.91 0.48 ton coal, at $3 1.44 1,650 bricks, at $9 per M 14.85 3.38 barrels cement, at $1.50 5.07 0.91 cu. yd. sand, at $1 0.91 Labor, $950.08 per day 22.62 Total $53.60 This does not include the cost of sinking the shaft, nor does it include plant interest, depreciation and repairs. Cost of a 13/2-ft- Sewer Tunnel at Cleveland, Using a Hydraulic Shield.* The method of building large sewers by tunneling is be- coming increasingly popular, not only because it is usually cheaper than open cut work in soft ground, but because there is no obstruc- tion of streets and no settlement of buildings adjacent to the sewer. Unfortunately, however, the use of a hydraulic shield is little understood by most contractors, and less is known about the actual cost of such work. We believe the following data are the first itemized costs of shield work that have appeared in the tech- nical press ; and, while a few of the items are probably not abso- lutely correct', the data are reliable in the main, and serve to give * Engineering-Contracting, July 25, 1906. 888 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. a very close estimate of the cost of similar work. Before giving the figures of cost, a word as to the conditions: Most of the main intercepting sewer of Cleveland, Ohio, was built in open cut, the top width of trench being 20 ft. and the depth averaging 40 ft. Two sets of Wakefield sheet piling were re- quired, the upper set being 28 ft. long. The sheet piling was well driven, but in passing certain brick buildings, enough quicksand leaked under the sheeting to cause a settlement of the buildings, and resulting cracking of the walls. The trench was through dry sand, wet sand, quicksand, and clay and sand mixed. As a result of the damage to one building it was decided to build the remainder of the sewer by the tunnel method. The contract price for the 13%-ft. sewer in open cut (40 ft. deep) had been $71 per lin. ft. The contractor agreed reluctantly to undertake the building of the sewer by the tunnel method for $60 per lin. ft., and, as we shall see, made a good profit at this price. The tunnel work proceeded day and night at a rate of 250 ft. a month, as compared with 135 ft. per month when the open cut method was used. One advantage of the tunnel work is that it can be carried on continuously, day and night, and there is no interruption on account of bad weather. Moreover, it requires fewer laborers than the open cut method, under the conditions above stated. The secret of the modern success in driving tunnels through quicksand and other soft materials lies in the use of the hydraulic shield. A shield is a section of steel tube, open at both ends. The forward end is provided with cutting edges, and, in very soft materials, it is -provided with trap doors through which the mate- rial is excavated. The shield is shoved forward about 2 ft. at a time, by means of hydraulic jacks ; and the tunnel lining is built up inside the rear part of the shield, ready for the next shove. In this particular case a brick lining was used, and the hydraulic jacks bore against blocks of wood laid on this lining when shoving the shield ahead. Where the ground is so porous that the water flows in faster than it can be pumped out, the tunnel is kept full of compressed air. The pressure of the air depends entirely upon the pressure of the outside water at the face of the shield. In this particular work an air pressure of 5 Ibs. per sq. in. was ordinarily sufficient, although in a few soft spots a pressure of 9 Ibs. was used. With such low pressures as these there is no danger that the men will get the "bends." And there is no danger of "blowouts" at the face of the shield where the air pressure is light, and the covering of earth over the shield has a fair thickness. In a word, this sort of sewer tunneling by the shield method is not at all hazardous; and, it Is surprising, indeed, to note how few contractors have had the courage to try it. Perhaps the stories of the difficulties encountered in driving tunnels under rivers (which is a wholly different matter) have served to frighten contractors and engineers generally. Regarding keeping the shield to line and grade, no difficulty need be experienced in sewer work of this character. By making a SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 889 mark in the earth at the face of the shield, it is easy to see whether the shield is moving in a straight line or not. If the shield is moving off to one side, simply relax the pressure on the hydraulic jacks of the opposite side, and the shield is easily brought to line. In similar manner it is kept to grade. The jacks are so connected by piping that any one of them can be cut out. All that is needed is careful watching, and the shield can be easily kept to line. A cut showing the general dimensions of the shield is given herewith (Fig. 13). We now come to the details of the work. The sewer is 13% ft. in diameter and was built of four rings < 4'0*~- ->< 7'ff" Fig. 13. Tunnel Shield. of No. 1 shale brick laid in Portland cement mortar. The masonry, from a point 2 ft. below the spring line to a point 4 ft. from the crown of arch, was laid in Flemish bond, keyed in with row-lock masonry. The air lock consisted of a section of the sewer included between two brick bulkheads, 2 ft. thick and 24 ft. apart. A wooden door made of 4 -in tongued and grooved timber was placed in each bulk- head. When closed the doors press against rubber gaskets to pre- vent leakage. The lock was supplied with large valves so that it could be filled or emptied in about one minute. The ordinary air pressure was about 5 Ibs., and it was found that this was sufficient 890 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to keep the tunnel dry and to give a good supply of fresh air to the workmen. When soft spots occurred in the excavation tilt- pressure was run up to about 9 Ibs. A higher pressure than this might have caused a "blowout" as the hard material in the roof of the tunnel was not particularly thick. The shield, a section through the center of which is shown in Fig. 13, was constructed of %-in. steel, and had a total weight of about 16 tons. The shield was 4 ft. long and 16^ ft. in diameter. The upper half was provided with a follower, 7 ft. long, made of %-in. steel, bolted to the shield. When the roof was of hard material the "follower" was pulled off the brickwork about 2% ft. The shield was pushed forward by 12 hydraulic jacks, Sins, in diameter and 26 ins. long. The water is conveyed to the jacks by a pipe line containing a swinging joint in the shape of an in- verted "V" with the joint at the apex, which allowed the shield to be shoved ahead and pulled the pipe with it. The average pres- sure used in shoving the shield was about 700 Ibs. per sq. in., but the pump could develop a pressure of 6,000 Ibs. The material excavated was principally a hard, dry quicksand, at times mixed with clay. All material was handled in cars of a 1 cu. yd. capacity, the cars being pushed in and out by the laborers. The method of excavation was as follows: The miners exca- vated about 2 ft. in advance of the shield, the pressure was then applied and the shield shoved ahead into the part just excavated. At the beginning of each day's work the heads of the jacks stood about 1 ft. from the brickwork. Large wooden blocks were then placed against the two outer rings of the brickwork and other blocks were placed between these and the heads of the jacks. The pressure transmitted to the brickwork did not damage it. After the first shove of 2 ft., the jacks were forced back and more block- ing placed between them and the other blocks. The sewer for part of the time, at least, was constructed at the rate of 9 ft. a day or about 250 ft. a month. An additional foot a day could easily have been made but the contractor did not care to take too great chances by pulling the shield follower off the brickwork any further. Two brick layers laid up the 9 ft. of sewer in about 8 hours, each man laying about 5,000 bricks. The mortar was mixed in the tunnel at the face of the work. In each lineal foot of sewer there were 8 cu. yds. of excavation and 2.62 cu. yds. of masonry, or about 1,100 bricks per lineal foot. The work was divided into four shifts, the wages and number of the men in each shift being as follows: the superintendent's were the contractor's sons, their wages being estimated at $5 per day: 1 Head Miner at $4.00... . .$ 4.00 3 Miners at $3.50 . 1050 2 Muckers at $2.50 5.00 1 Double Team at f 5.00 5.00 Total - $ 24.50 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 891 Second Tunnel Gang, 7 A. M. to 3 p. M. : Same number as first gang $ 24.50 Total for tunnel gangs $ 49.00 Brick Shift, 3 p. M to 10 p. M. : 2 Bricklayers at $8.00 $ 16.00 4 Tenders at $1.75 7.00 2 Car Pushers at $1.75 3.50 Total $ 26.50 Top Gang, 7 A. M. to 5:30 p. M. : 4 Laborers at $1.50 $ 6.00 Day Shift, 7 A. M. to 7 p. M. : 1 Superintendent at $5.00 $ 5.00 1 Engineer at $3.25 3.25 1 Fireman at $1.75 1.75 1 Carpenter at $2.00 2.00 4 Car Pushers at $1.75 7.00 1 Car Dumper at $1.75 1.75 Total $^20.75 Night Shift, 7 p. M. to 7 A. M. : 1 Superintendent at $5.00 $ 5.00 1 Engineer at $3.25 3.25 1 Fireman at $1.75 1.^5 4 Car Pushers at $1.75 7.00 1 Car Dumper at $1.75 1.75 Total $ 18.75 Total labor for 24 hours $121.00 The two tunnel gangs worked 8 hours each, and the total wages paid them were $49 for 16 hours, during which time they excavated 9 lin. ft, or 72. cu. yds. Hence their labor cost $5.44 per lin. ft, or 68 cts. per cu. yd. The two top gangs worked 12 hours each, and their total wages were $39.50. In addition to this there was the fuel for a 60-hp. boiler, which could not have exceeded 4 tons in 24 hours, and, doubtless, was much less. Assuming 4 tons at $3, we have $12 to be added to the $39.50, making $51.50, or $2.15 per hour. In the 16 hours of excavating work, the cost of the top labor and fuel would be 16 x $2.15 = $34.40, which is equivalent to $3.82 per lin. ft. of tunnel, or 48 cts. per cu. yd. The total cost of excavation was, therefore, $0.68 plus $0.48, or $1.16 per cu. yd., exclusive of interest and depreciation of plant. The brick mason gang worked 7 hours, and the total wages were $26.50. Since 2.62 cu. yds. of brick masonry were laid per lin. ft., there were 23.6 cu. yds. laid each shift, the advance being 9 lin. ft Hence the cost of labor was $1.12 per cu. yd., of $3 per M, or $2.95 per lin. ft. But this does not include the wages and fuel charged to the surface gang, which is $2.15 per hour, or $17.20 for 8 hours. Distributing this $17.20 over the 23.6 cu. yds. of brick masonry we have 73 cts. per cu. yd. of masonry, or $1.91 per lin. ft. of tunnel. The total labor cost 892 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of brick masonry is, therefore, $1.12 Plus 0.73, or $1.85 per cu. yd. We are now able to approximate the cost of the tunnel per lineal foot. Per lin. ft. 8 cu yds. excav., underground labor, at $0.68 $ 5.44 8 cu. yds. excav., surface labor, at ?0.48 . . 3.82 2 62 cu yds. brickwork, underground labor, at $1.12 2.95 2 - 62 cu. yds. brickwork, surface labor, at $0.73 1.91 1,100 bricks at $9 per M 9.90 2.1 bbls. cement (1 :3 mortar) at $1.70 3.57 Plan't, y 50 per cent of first cost,' distributed over 1,625 lin. ft. . 5.00 35 ft. B. M. floor of tunnel at 3 cts 1.05 Shafts or manholes 1-00 Total $35.64 The plant is estimated to have cost about $16,000, including $3,000 for track rails, pipe, wire and lamps; and we have assumed that half of this $16,000, or $8,000 should be charged to the 1,600 lin. ft. of tunnel, which is $5 per lin. ft. The tunnel was temporarily floored with plank, and upon this the tracks were laid. We have estimated that this flooring need not have exceeded 35 ft. B. M. per lin. ft. of tunnel. No data are available for accurately estimating the cost of shafts, but it is safe to assume $1,600 for the 1,600 ft. of tunnel as the cost of shafts. It will be remembered that the above costs are based upon a progress of 9 lin. ft. per 2 4 -hour day. Very bad material might reduce progress to 6 ft. per day, correspondingly increasing the cost of labor. The contractor's plant on this tunnel work was as follows: 2 boilers, 60 hp., return flue, only one in use at a time. 1 Duplex feed pump, 4-in. steam cylinder, 3-in. water cylinder, 5-in. stroke, made by Laidlaw & Dunn, Cincinnati, O. 1 straight line air compressor, class "A," 16-in. steam cylinder, 16 ^4 -in. air cylinder, 18-in. stroke, made by Ingersoll-Rand Co., New York City. 1 vertical high speed engine (20 hp.) for dynamo, cyl. 8 x 10 ins. 1 dynamo with rheostat, capacity 250 incandescent lights, 110 volts, 55 amperes. 1 Norton voltmeter and switches. 1 high pressure hydraulic pump, 10-in. steam cylinder, 1-in. water cylinder, 12-in. stroke, made by the National Pump Co., Chicago. 1 hoisting engine, double cylinder, 8 x 10 ins., with one drum (22 x 22 ins.), sink motion reverse, made by J. S. Mundy, Newark, N. J. 1 pump shaft, steam cyl., 5% x 4 ins., made by Knowles Steam Pump Co., 114 Liberty St., New York. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 893 1 elevator cage and guides. 12 hydraulic jacks (5 x 26 ins.), with valves, for shield. 1 shield, weight 32,000 Ibs. In conclusion it should be said that this work was done without the slightest settlement of adjacent buildings, although a 3-story brick building was with a few feet of the line of the sewer. The contractor was Mr. John Wagner, of Cleveland, O. Mr. J. M. Estep was Assistant Engineer Intercepting Sewers, and to him we are indebted for the data upon which the above given costs are Cost of Sewer In Tunnel, Cleveland, O.* The tunnel construction is a portion of the contract for the Lakeside Ave. intercepting sewer, between E. 40th and Marquette streets in Cleveland, Ohio, Mr. Thomas W. Nicholson, contractor. For some of the intercepting sewer, brick, with internal diameter of 13 ft. 6 ins., approximate depth to bottom of sewer 40 ft., the price per lineal foot in open cut was $88. In spite of all the care taken by the contractors to brace the trench it broke away from them in places until at some spots the sinking of the street extended to the curb lines. Much trouble was experienced with settlement of buildings with the drawbacks incidental to such happenings. The contractors were in so much trouble that they were permitted to tunnel and no more trouble was experienced with buildings settling and there was an immediate reduction in the cost of the work. The sewer now being put in by Mr. Nicholson was let to him for $33 per lineal foot when using three rings of brick with wood backing, his price for four rings of brick without the wood backing being $36. There were a number of other bidders who all bid higher for the wood backing form of construction, than for the four rings of brick, internal diameter of the sewer 12 ft. The work is now in progress. It may be interesting to note that on Aug. 4, 1908, a contract was let for another section 3,430 ft. long, to John Wagner, the internal diameter being 12 ft. 3 ins. at a price of $32. 7S with wood backing and $33.73 for all brick. The cost to the city is thus less than half by tunnelling compared with the open cut work and the dangers supposed to be guarded against by open cut work are really less with the tunnel. On his present contract for the 12-ft. sewer Mr. Nicholson is said to be meeting with no trouble by reason of settlement of buildings. To get rid of water and prevent settlement by a too rapid un- watering of the ground, the tunnel is constructed under air pressure of about 7 Ibs. to the sq. in. Men work in this pressure for a whole shift, the work being continuous in 8-hour shifts. A shield is used and an attempt is made to complete a 12-ft. length in each shift. The table given shows the progress made during August and September, up to the time the tunnel was visited. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 6, 1909. 894 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The material being a fine joint clay is shaved by knives. These knives are. made like a carpenter's draw knife, or shave knife, with the blade bent to a half circle. Small ones can be used by one man but in this tunnel the air makes the clay dense and several men pull on the knives, thus being enabled to take off long slices. When 2 ft. of excavation are gained the shield is driven ahead, and the wood lining put in. This wood lining consists of blocks of wood about 2 ft. long, 8 ins. wide and 6 ins. thick. On one side a curved piece is cut so the face of the block is cut to a radius of 7 ft. 1 in. The piece removed is nailed on the back and thus the block is 8 ins. wide and 6 ins. thick but front and back both curved to a radius. The excavation is 3 8 ins. larger than the interior diameter of the sewer and the wooden blocks are used to line the entire excavation, making a wooden ring with the inside face 13 ins. larger than the sewer. The jacks of the shield press against this wood lining and the pieces being cut to fit, any pressure exerted on the side of the excavation will simply force the ends of the blocks together and no other bracing is required. This leaves the space clear for the brick masons. The masons lay three rings of brick on' the wooden ring for one-half the height. Great care is taken to insure grade and as the excavation, if anything, is usually slightly in excess, the extra space is filled with cement mortar. The inside diameter of the sewer is therefore true. When the sewer is completed on either side to the middle, braces are spiked to the ends of the ties of the material track and leaning against the sides of the sewer. Upon the upper ends of these braces are placed heavy timbers carefully leveled and resting upon these timbers are placed semi-circular steel centers made from 4 in. channels, with feet riveted to them to enable them to be maintained in a vertical position. These centers are placed 4 ft. apart and the total length of brickwork put in on a shift is generally 12 ft., requiring three centers. The space between the brickwork and the centers is sufficient to permit the placing of 2 in. lagging on the centers. Against the lagging the masons lay the brick horizontally on the sides, presenting the narrow edge to the inside of the sewer. The three rings are thus laid and if any spaces exist between the brick and the wooden lining it is easy to slush them in. At the top, arrangements are made to place lagging for 3 ft. across, instead of lengthwise, and thus 1 ft. at a time can be built and cavities taken care of. Brick and mortar are carried in by cars drawn by a mule on ordinary industrial track. Double lines of track are laid with frequent switches and cross overs. All the excavated material is taken out on these tracks and the brick and other materials brought in. There is one shaft from which work is carried in two headings but only one heading was being worked at the time of the visit. The equipment at the shaft head consists of a hoisting engine and air compressor and in the tunnel is a pump to force out the water when it becomes troublesome. The air lock is at the foot of the shaft and about 25 ft. long. The SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 895 tunnel was in about 2,000 ft. when visited and under air the whole length. A usual working force consists of 11 men, according to the city sewer inspector, divided about as follows : Miners 6 Men placing blocks 2 Muckers 2 Mule driver 1 Total 11 This exact division is not adhered to as all the men help the miners except when blocks are to be placed, when some of the laborers are detailed for that work. There are generally two masons with four or more helpers. The men are paid by the shift and the inspector did not know what they were paid but from conversation with the men he gath- ered that the rates of pay are about as follows : Per hours. Masons $1.00 Helpers 0.25 Miners . 0.30 Laborers . 0.25 The following table is copied from the inspectors daily reports and collected for each week from tables prepared in the office of the city engineer. It will be noted that the laborers' hours are lumped, regardless of the work performed, no distinction being made between miners, muckers and helpers. Engineers from the sewer department go into the sewer daily to keep up the line and grade points. For grade, nails are driven in each side at a definite height at intervals, and strings are stretched from nail to nail across the sewer when the men want to check their grade at any time. Upon the strings pieces of paper are hung and sights are taken across two or more strings. In this way it is easy to keep it almost exactly on the grade with the work. Owing to soft places encountered from time to time in the material, it is more difficult seemingly to preserve the line than the grade. The alignment, however, seemed excellent and the work was creditable to the contractor and the men in charge for the city. Feet Week . Hours of sewer ending. Foreman. Engineer. Masons. Helpers. Laborers, completed. Sept. 18. . 96 96 112 560 1,647 Sept. 11 Sept. 4.. Aug. 28. Aug. 21. Aug. 14. Aug. 7 . . . 84 84 80 400 1,210 51 . 84 84 24 80 406 18 .168 168 154 800 2,470 97 .168 168 160 800 2,398 111 .168 168 160 800 2,910 101 .168 168 192 960 2,904 124 Total ..936 9.36 882 4,400 13,945 571 The cost was as given in Table XT. 896 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE XI. LABOR COSTS PER FOOT OP SEWER. Total Week labor cost ending. Foreman. Engineer. Masons. Helpers. Laborers, per foot. Sept. 18. $0.68 $0.56 $1.62 $2.03 $6.56 $11.45 Sept. 11. Sept. 4 . . Aug. 28. Aug. 21, Aug. 14, Aug. 7 . 0.82 0.66 1.57 1.96 6.52 11.53 2.33 1.87 1.33 1.11 6.20 12.84 0.87 0.69 1.59 2.06 7.00 12.21 0.76 0.61 1.44 1.80 6.59 11.20 0.83 0.67 1.58 1.98 7.92 12.98 0.68 0.54 1.55 1.93 5.71 10.41 The wages are assumed to be correct as given by the inspector. The wages for laborers are assumed at an average of 27% cts. per hour; foreman assumed 50 cts. per hour; engineer assumed at 40 cts. per hour. This analysis is made upon the foregoing data solely and has not been checked with information from the con- tractor. The foregoing labor cost takes the wood, brick, mortar, etc., down into the tunnel ; puts them in place and the excavated material is brought to the surface to be hauled away. This hauling must add $2 per foot to the cost unless some arrangements are made to dispose of the material at a profit. Each foot of excavation contains 6.7 cu. yds. In each foot there are 800 brick and 276 ft. B. M. of lining blocks. The mechanical equipment consists of a shield, a hoisting engine, air compressor and two pump's ; one in each heading and of tracks for cars, cars, mules, piping, etc., and locks. For this equipment and operation a charge of $1.25 per foot should be reasonable as it will not be worn out on this one job. The following estimate should be about right for similar work : Plant, fuel, etc .$ 1.25 800 brick at $15 per M 12.00 Mortar 128 Wood lining, 276 ft. B. M. at $35 9.63 Hauling away material 2.00 Cost per foot exclusive of labor $26.16 The labor costs vary as shown from $10.41 to $12.98 per foot, which brings the cost per foot from $36.57 to $39.14, the contract price being $33. When both headings are going the cost for foreman and engineer will of course be divided but this will cut off less than $1 per foot. If the excavated material is sold the price cannot more than pay the cost of hauling. Assuming everything favorable that can be assumed, it looks as if the contract is not going to be very remunerative. The men lumped together as laborers handle all the material into and out of the tunnel, do the mining, cleaning up, assisting brick masons, helpers, etc., so the actual excavation cost is less than $1 per cu. yd. The cost of masons and helpers is about $2.80 per 1,000 brick. No fault can be found with these items. Labor Cost of a Large Brick Sewer in Chicago.* In 1901 the * Engineering-Contracting, May 30, 1906. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 897 City of Chicago began the construction of the south arm of its intercepting sewer system, comprising Section G, which extended from 39th street to 51st street, and Sections G 3 and H, which extended from 51st street to 73d street. The work was done by day labor under the supervision of the city's engineers. Descrip- tions of the methods and cost of driving sheet piling and of the excavation for these sewers were given in the March and April issues of this magazine. The specifications for the brickwork on Section G called for five rings of hard burned sewer brick, laid in natural cement mortar, composed of one part cement and one part sand. From 39th street to 44th place, the sewer was 16 ft. in internal diameter, and from 44th place to 51st street, it had an internal diameter of 15% ft. Bricklaying on Section G was commenced in the early part of June, 1901, and was completed about March 1, 1903, no work being done during the winter of 1901-2. On account of the necessity of getting through the freight yards of the Illinois Central Ry. at 51st street, bricklaying was carried on during the winter of 1902-3 when the weather would permit. At no time was brick laid when the temperature was lower than 15 degrees above zero. The best quality of torpedo sand, thoroughly heated was used in the mortar. This section of the conduit was about 300 ft. long. The brick were unloaded from the cars and placed in piles about 16 ft. from the side of the trench. From these piles the bricks were loaded and wheeled to the side of the trench, and were then delivered to the bricklayers by means of tossers working on the bank and on scaffolds on the braces. All cement mortar was mixed by hand and lowered in galvanized iron pails by means of ropes, from scaffolds on the top set of braces. During the season of 1901, eight bricklayers were employed, and an average of about 22 ft. of conduit was built per day. This was equivalent to about 40.5 cu. yds. of brickwork per day, or 5 cu. yds. per mason. The second year, 13 bricklayers were used, and they averaged about 35 ft. of conduit per day. It should be re- marked that while 13 bricklayers were carried on the roll at this time, the gang usually consisted of 12 men. The gang for handling brick, mixing cement, etc., consisted of from 70 to 75 men for 12 Bricklayers. On the construction of that portion of the intercepting sewer lying between 51st street and 73d street, the first brick was laid Dec. 8, 1901. But 144 ft. were finished that year owing to the cold weather. Construction was resumed about March 15, 1902, and continued until Jan. 2, 1903, when it was stopped for the winter. The work was resumed April 10. 1903, and was completed July 10. The masonry consisted of five concentric rings of brick laid in natural cement mortar, composed of one part cement and one part sand. From 51st street to 56th street the sewer was to have an internal diameter of 14*4 ft.; from 56th street to 63d street the diameter was 13 Ms ft.; from 63d street to 70th street, 898 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 13 % ft., and from 70th street to 73d street, 12V 2 ft- The excavated sections were 48 ft. long, and consequently 12 bricklayers were employed most of the time. The work was so arranged that as soon as the invert was finished, work was begun on the arch. The arch work was usually kept at least one day behind the invert in order to give plenty of room for setting up centers, removal of timbers, and at the same time keep the mason gang busy, if there should be any delay in excavating the bottom or from other causes. Brick were delivered in cars on the street by the Municipal nar- row gage railway, no hand wheeling being necessary. When dumping space was available, sufficient brick for half the invert were usually on the bank before the masons began to work. The brick were passed from hand to hand to the masons. As in the construction of Section G, the cement was mixed by hand, the mixing being done as close to the workers as possible, but on the opposite side of the trench from the brick pile. The mortar was lowered by hand, one man supplying three masons, that number being allotted to each 12-ft. section. The division was made on account of the Potter trench machine bents, which were so low that a man could not pass under them while on the cement platform. The cement platform was laid on the cross timbers which supported the trench machine. The platform was about 1 ft. above the street surface, thus making a lowering distance of from 22 ft. to 28 ft. when mortar was delivered for the invert. A departure was made from the usual custom of having the mason tender dump the mortar, in that one man in the bottom was assigned to do this work. This proved a decided advantage as the mortar boxes were always kept filled. It might be well to note here that while a mason tender could have handled the mortar for a part of the time, yet even a delay of a few minutes for one mason at frequent intervals, amounts to considerable at the end of the day. Every contractor knows that a slight excuse for slow work will make a considerable difference in the amount of finished product. When 12 masons were working the mason gang consisted of from 58 to 65 men. The gang included masons, tenders, brick tossers and cement handlers. With this force, from 38 to 44 ft. of com- oleted sewer were built daily. The mason gang was as follows: Rate. Per Day. 1 Foreman $10.00 $ 10.00 12 Masons 9.00 108.00 11 Bottom tenders 3.25 35.75 7 Bank men 3.50 24.50 7 First scaffold men 2.50 17.50 7 Second scaffold men 2.50 17.50 7 Third scaffold men 2.75 19.25 6 Cement mixers 2.75 16.50 5 Cement carriers 2.75 13 75 5 Cement lowerers 2.75 13.75 2 Wheelers 2.50 500 5 Sand men 2.50 12.50 3 Laborers 2.50 750 Total per day $301.50 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 899 As an average of 38 ft. of sewer was built each day, the labor cost per foot is about $7.93. Assuming that. the inside diameter of the sewer was 13 % (some sections were 14*4 ft, 13*4 ft. and 12% ft.) the labor cost for the brick masonry amounted to $2.48 per cu. yd. It will be noticed in the above tabulation that the rates of wages in many cases were excessive. All that it is necessary to say in regard to this is that the work was done by the city. Cost of a Concrete and Brick Sewer. Mr. William G. Taylor, City Engineer of Medford, Mass., gives the following data of work done in 1902, by day labor, for the city. Figure 14 is a cross- section of the sewer, which has a concrete invert and sides and a brick arch. The concrete was 1:3:6 gravel. The forms for the invert were made collapsible and in 10-ft. lengths. The two halves Portland Cemerrt Carter, ?t?r 3 sand Fig. 14. Concrete and Brick Sewer. were held together by iron dogs or clamps. The morning following the placing 01 the concrete the dogs were removed and turnbuckle hooks were put in their places, so that by tightening the turn- buckle the forms were carefully separated from the concrete. The concrete was theen allowed to stand 24 hrs., when the arch centers were set in place. These centers were made of % x 1%-in. lagging on 2-in. plank ribs 2 ft. apart, and stringers on each side. Wooden wedges on the forward end of each section supported the rear end of the adjoining section. The forward end of each section was sup- ported by a screw jack placed under a rib 2 ft. from the front end. To remove the centers, the rear end of a small truck was pushed under the section about 18 ins. ; an adjustable roller was fastened by a thumb screw to the forward rib of the center ; the screw jack was lowered allowing the roller to drop on a run board on top of the truck ; the truck was then pulled back by a tail rope until 900 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the adjustable roller ran off the end of the truck; whereupon the truck was pulled forward, drawing the center off the supporting wedges of the rear section. In this manner not the least injury was done to the fresh concrete. Each lineal foot of sewer required 1 *4 cu. yds. of excavation ; 4 cu. ft. of concrete, and 1 cu. ft. of brick arch. The sewer was 1,610 ft. long and was built by day labor, wages being $2 for 8 hrs. The material excavated was gravel and clay. Excavation and backfill: Percu.yd. Perlin.ft. l? a c c a i v n a g tion ' labor ' 25 cts " per h " ". ; : :'oSS '8:Jli Backfilfing'Y.Y.Y.Y.Y.Y:.:. 0.168 0.210 Waterboy 0.017 u.uzi Kerosene .Y.Y.'.Y.Y 0.009 Lumber 0-035 Total ?0.594 $0.742 Concrete masonry: Percu.yd. Perlin.ft. PortSnf cement, at $2.15 per bbl $2.292 $0.34? Labor mixing and placing 3.017 0.45 Cost of forms 0.187 0.028 Labor screening gravel* 0.471 Cartine 0.592 0.088 Miscellaneous' '.'.'...". 0.146 0.021 Total $6.705 $1.002 Brick masonry : Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft. 492 brick, at $8.50 per M $ 4.182 $0.153 1% bbls. cement,t at $2.25 per bbl 3.026 0.111 Forms 0.408 0.015 Labor, mason 1.343 0.049 Labor, helpers 2.091 0.077 Carting 0.680 0.025 Incidentals 0.340 0.012 Total $12.070 $0.442 *The gravel and sand were obtained from the excavation. |This includes cement used in plastering the arch. The cost of this 30-in. sewer was, therefore, $1.44 per lin. ft., exclusive of the excavation which cost 74 cts. per lin. ft. The cost of brickwork in manholes was $15.34 per cu. yd. It should be noted that wages were high ($2 per 8 hrs.) and that the work was done by day labor, thus making the cost higher than it would be to a contractor. Cost of a Concrete Sewer.* The work consisted of a sewer 1,360 ft. long and 30 ins. inside diameter, with a 4 -in. shell, constructed during November and December, 1908, with the thermometer ranging 15 degrees above zero to above freezing point. The neces- sity of using frost preventives added about 2% cts. per lin. ft. to the cost of the work. The following is a description of the sewer and its construction. The location of the work was at Fond du Lac, Wis. About four years ago the city dug an open drain along a high- way upon the outskirts of the city for carrying storm water into 'Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 27, 1909. SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 901 De Neveu creek. On account of the ditch washing Into the road ft was decided to place a pipe in this trench and backfill over it. The contract was awarded to Burett & Dooley for a monolithic con- crete sewer. It contained about 1/9 cu. yd. of concrete per lineal foot. In addition there were 17 cu. yds. of concrete in the two abutments or portals at the ends of the sewer. The itemized total cost of the sewer was as follows: Perlinft. Items. Total. Cts. Labor ...$635.50 46.72 Tools 24.59 1.81 Sandy gravel 208.40 15.32 Lumber 14.04 1.03 Water 11.35 0.83 Frost preventives 34.38 2.53 Cement 370.19 27.22 Steel forms 204.35 15.02 Engineering 132.00 9.71 Totals '. $1,634.80 $1.20 In this statement the labor item is for unskilled laborers at $2 per day, working from 3 to 14 men a day for 29 days and 2 fore- men at $3 each for 31 days. The cost items for tools, lumber and frost preventives are the differences between their purchase prices and what they brought when afterwards sold. The sandy gravel was purchased delivered from three different pits at $1.50 per load of about 1.75 cu. yds., with some at 10 cts. extra per load; it cost, therefore, about 89 cts. per cu. yd. The gravel was mixed to obtain the greatest density of aggregates, and 5 parts of gravel were mixed with 1 part cement to make the concrete. The cement cost $1.70 per barrel delivered in sacks, less the rebate on sacks returned. Water cost for hauling only 35 cts. per load. The lum- ber was used for abutment forms and for establishing grades. The frost preventives consisted of horse stable manure, marsh hay, and a thin layer of flax straw sewed between two sheets of rosin paper and also fuel for heating the concrete materials. The steel forms were rented and the cost includes drayage to and from the job and a small sum for oil to grease them. The charge for engineering covers the entire expense to the city and township for plans, speci- fications, advertising, inspection of sewer during construction, etc. Separating the abutments containing 17 cu. yds. of concrete the cost was as follows: Items. Total. Per cu. yd. Labor $25.50 $ 1.50 Tools 00.59 0.035 Gravel ' 15.00 0.882 Cement 32.01 1.882 Lumber 40.04 0.237 Water 00.60 0.035 Frost preventives 1.88 0.110 Centers 0.75 0.045 Engineering, etc 5.00 0.295 Totals , . .~$I573~7 $5.021 902 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Some of these items are actual amounts and others are close ap- proximations. The costs for the sewer proper arrived at in the same manner were as follows : Per Per. Items Total. Lin. Ft. Cu. Yd. Labor or concrete... $253.00 $0.187 $1.683 Labor excavation 357.00 0.263 2.367 Tools . 24.00 0.017 0.153 Gravel : 193.40 0.142 1.278 Lumber 10.00 0.007 0.063 Water 10.70 0.008 0.072 Frost preventives 32.50 0.024 0.216 Cement 338.18 0.249 2.241 Center molds 203.60 0.149 1.341 Engineering 127.00 0.093 0.837 Totals $1,549.43 $1.139 $10.251 In the above table the amount for the concrete labor includes the labor cost for heating the materials, mixing and depositing the same in position complete, also for the small expense of operating the steel forms. The rest of the labor expense was for excavating the trench an average depth of 3 ft. and for back filling. This was done, as noted previously, in an old ditch, the bottom of which was red clay soil, requiring but a slight expense for trench bracing. No water ran in the trench except on a couple of days it rained when the water ran out soon through the molds into the sewer. Flax straw, bound in paper, already put up, was tried as a cover to the fresh concrete pipe, to keep frost away while the cement was setting, but the vapor from the concrete softened the paper cover so that it could not be handled and the article had to be discarded. The horse stable bedding of straw proved to be efficient for keeping frost out of the green concrete, it generating a certain amount of heat and allowed the moisture to pass through it from the heated concrete. Due to the chemical changes going on in this cover, too strong an article should not be laid next to fresh con- crete, as in some places on the pipe it was observed that the cement did not set well for a depth of 1/16 to % in. A thin layer of marsh hay was placed between the manure and the concrete on the balance of the work and the condition did not appear again. In the steel forms lighted oil heaters were placed at short inter- vals to keep up summer conditions while the cement made its initial set The style of the centers used was the full circle form so that the crown and invert of the pipe were built in one operation. The materials were mixed on a flat No. 12 gage steel sheet, size 60 x 156 ins. Concrete was put in the bottom of the trench first, which was dug somewhat rounding, and graded 4 ins. thick. Strips of No. 26 gage sheet steel 12 ins. wide by 8 ft. long, previously rolled to the arc of 30-in. circle, was next laid; one piece lengthwise on this bed, then one 5-ft. section of steel forms was placed upon* the strip, or track. The form was expanded to size by turning the hand wheel, the correct diameter being obtained by fitting a wire hoop SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 903 grage around the near end of the center and expanding the center against the gage. Another batch of concrete now ready was positioned around the form, an operator at the front end of the form having a steel blade, 5 ins. wide by 10 ins, long, affixed to a long handle, tamped the concrete firmly to place under the two bottom quarters of the form so that the possibility of voids or pockets forming In the bottom of the concrete pipe to be refinished later was eliminated, the concrete being positioned on top of the Fig. 15. Centers for Concrete Sewer. form nearly out to the end. Another form being set, the process described was repeated,, The object of using a light steel track, or slide, under the forms, was so that the molds could be drawn out easily the next morning one at a. time, and. to prevent scraping out partially set concrete from the bottom of the sewer, the steel track being laid with lapped ends so that the forms could slide over the joints and not disturb the track. The track was, of course, taken each 904 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. morning from the sewer after the centers were withdrawn and used repeatedly. Collapsing of the centers was accomplished by merely giving the hand wheel a few turns to the left, when the mold was pulled out of the sewer with a rope and taken ahead in the trench for re- setting when needed. No bracing of the forms was required to keep them in alignment. The top of the concrete pipe was shaped with a wood hand float, the concrete for this purpose not being made wet enough to make it sloppy. The adjustable steel centers as used on this job were handled on the desirable unit plan ; however, all the forms may be set before placing concrete about them, or in any other way that may appeal to a contractor as most advantageous. Two Y-connections were made to this sewer by placing the small ends of clay pipes against the steel forms as the concrete was being positioned. The next morning when the steel forms had been removed the first connec- tion had some concrete to be broken out of the end and refinished, while the one made later was found perfect. Gas engine oil thinned with kerosene and applied with a brush to the surface of the molds prevented the adhesion of concrete to the forms. The temperature varied during construction when concrete was made from 15 above zero to above the freezing point. The thermometer one morning registered 12 below zero, but by 10 o'clock it showed 15 above when concreting was started. One foreman with a crew of six men often put in 70 ft. of sewer in less than 5 hours' time. The style of mold used on this job is patened by J. E. Dooley, and is manufactured by the Adjustable Steel Centering Co. of Pond du Lac, Wis. We are indebted to the contractors, Burett & Dooley, for fhe information from which this article has been prepared. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Sewer at Cleveland, O. Mr. Wal- ter C. Parmley, M. Am. Soc. C. E., gives the following data: There were 3^j miles of reinforced concrete sewer. 13^ ft. diameter, of section shown in Fig. 16, and 12 ins. thick at the crown. The contract price was $62 per lin. ft, including excavation, and the excavation averaged 20 cu. yds. per lin. ft. The bid for a brick sewer was $75 per lin. ft. It will be noted that there are two rows of "anchor bars" buried in the side walls. The invert and side walls were first built, up as high as the top of the brick lining, then the arch centers were placed, and the steel skeleton was bolted to the anchor bars. The ribs of this steel skeleton were spaced 15 ins. centers, and there were 8 rows of horizontal or longitudinal bars of l%x%-in. steel bolted to the ribs. The metal was all bent to shape in the shop, so that there was no field work except to place and bolt the metal together. There were 93 Ibs. of steel per lin. ft. of sewer, of which 56 Ibs. made the skeleton in the arch, and 37 Ibs. of anchor bars. This design of steel skeleton was patented by Mr. Parmley. The lagging of the arch centers was covered with building paper water-proofed with paraffine. Then Portland cement mortar 2 to 3 Ins. thick was plastered on the paper, so as to form the interior S, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 905 finish of the arch. Then the concrete for the arch was placed and rammed, being 12 ins. thick at the crown and 15 ins. thick at the spring line. No outside forms were used on the arch. The arch concrete was 1:3:7%. When the paper lining was pulled off a smooth surface was left. The invert concrete was made with natural cement. Mr. Parmley had an inspector keep a record of progress for sev- eral days on the work, when the men did not know they were being Fig. 16. Reinforced Concrete Sewer. timed. He informs me that an 8-hour shift was worked. The labor cost of building 13% -ft. concrete steel sewer was as follows: Labor placing anchor bars (1,500 Ibs.) : 1 man 1 day, at $3.50 $3.50 1 day, at $1.75, 1 man 1 man % day, at $1.60, 1.75 , 0.80 ,$~* &i<- ff v Fig. 24. Reinforced Concrete Sewer. To get the total cost of the sewer proper we must add the cost of the vitrified brick invert paving. There were 71 cu. yds. of this paving and its cost was as follows: Per cu. yd. 0.6 bbls. cement, at $1.80 $1.08 0.25 cu. yd. sand, at 75 cts 0.19 450 bricks, at $12 per M '. . . 5.40 Labor laying, 71 cu. yds., at $180.33 2.54 Total $9.21 None of the preceding figures include the plant charges. The plant cost $12,000, and the cost of running it during the work de- scribed was $2,000. This plant will, of course, serve for the whole work under contract. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Sewer. Mr. Wm. G. Taylor is authority for the following data. The sewer had the section shown by Fig. 24 ; it was constructed 918 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of 1:7% concrete mixed to a mushy consistency using the forms shown by the illustration. The reinforcement was of twisted steel rods for parts of the work and of expanded metals for parts. When rod reinforcement was used it was bent on the bank and erected in cage form in the trench. The invert section was built as the first operation and the forms erected on it. The first cost of the forms shown was $1.80 per lin. ft. of sewer and the cost of maintenance was about 12 cts. per lin. ft, including depreciation and fixed charges. Petroline was used to grease the forms and was found superior to soft soap or to both light and dark mineral oils which were also tried. The concrete was deposited in level layers 6 ins. thick. The normal cost per lineal foot and per cubic yard of the sewer was as follows : Materials : Per lin. ft. Per cu. yd. Reinforcement (17% Ibs. per lin. ft.) $0.43 $1.16 Cement (0.482 bbl. per lin. ft.), at $1-53.. 0.74 2.00 Sand (0.17 cu. yd. per lin. ft), at $0.50.. 0.09 0.24 Stone (0.435 cu. yd. per lin. ft), at $1.10 per ton 0-47 Total $~I73 $4.67 Labor : Making and placing reinforcement $0.14 $0.38 Operation of forms 0.16 0.43 Mixing concrete 0.30 0.81 Placing concrete 0.27 0.73 Screeding and finishing invert 0.08 0.22 Finishing interior surface T 0.01 0.03 Sprinkling and wetting. 0.02 0.06 Total $T98 $2.66 General charges: Interior forms, cons, and maint $0.12 $0.32 Exterior forms, cons, and maint 0.05 0.14 Coating oil for forms 0.01 0.03 Cement, storage, handling and cartage.... 0.08 0.22 Total $.26 $0.71 Grand total $2.97 $8.04 In reference to these figures it should be noted that, as several contractors did the work, these are the composite costs. They in- clude a foreman at 50 cts., a sub-foreman at 35 cts., common labor at 17% cts., and teams at 50 cts. per hour. No administration ex- penses or contractor's profit are included. Cost of Concrete Sewers, Richmond, Ind. From a long and in- structive ar.ticle by Mr. Fred R. Charles, in Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 29, 1909, the following is an abstract: Concrete Pipes. Fifty-two-inch was the largest size used in concrete pipe. This was made according to the "Sheets" system, in which expanded metal is used for reinforcement; thickness of shell is 1 1/12 ins. per foot diameter; 24 ins. pipe made in 2% ft., and larger sizes in 3-ft lengths. Pipe is made in a mold consisting of an outer steel casing and an inner collapsible shell. The pipe rests on the end upon a pallet, and each end is formed by a shaping SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 919 ring, so that it is notched or rabbeted through half the thickness of the shell, on the outside for one-half the circumference, and on the inside for the other half circumference. The pipes are laid so as to form a groove at the joint, coming on the interior for the lower half and on the exterior of the upper half, whereby the mortar is always plastered downward in cementing the joint. For handling and placing in the trench a tripod or beam derrick Is needed with a block and tackle or chain hoist, as tne weight is considerable.' Our average cost to lay these pipes, including plas- tering the joints, was for 42-in., $0.083; 30-in., $0.06 ; 24-in., $0.053 per lin. ft. Monolithic Concrete. Another sewer, 54 ins. in diameter, was built in horse-shoe shape, semi-circular arch, vertical sides and bottom slightly V shaped. It was in an open ditch or water course, so nearly all except the flow line was above ground, and outside forms were necessary, in the absence of the trench walls, to hold the concrete. First the bottom was laid as in sidewalks, and the vertical sides run up to the spring line with ordinary plank inner and outer forms, the expanded metal reinforcement having been bent and placed as before, with plenty of lap at the spring line. The arch was put on with a semi-circular "Blaw" form. On all these monolithic jobs the average labor hours per linear foot for the different operations of constructing the sewer, using "Blaw" forms and expanded metal reinforcement, is given in the following table. Knowing the wages paid labor per hour and the price of materials, this will be some guide to the cost in other places: Labor hours per lin. ft. Placing flow line 0.48 Setting invert forms 0.50 Concreting invert 0.44 Setting arch forms 0.33 Concreting arch 0.25 For the lower half of the sewer the concrete should be very wet, so that it will flow freely around and under the forms ; for the arch not so much water must be used ; only enough to show quite perceptibly when concrete is tamped, as the concrete must have sufficient consistency to retain its position and not run off the arch; for the flow line the proper consistency is between the two. At first, house connections were provided for by building in ordinary vitrified slants or thimbles, but the flanges of these were^ frequently broken by falling rock and otherwise, so a change was* made and an opening left in the concrete shell by means of a special form or core, devised by Mr. D. B. Davis, inspector on the work. This comprised two circular blocks of hard wood, nailed together ; one 8 ins. in diameter and 2 ins. thick, the other 6 ins. in diametar and 3 ins. thick. Inserted in the concrete this left a good flange to receive the end of the 6-in. house connection pipe, and was ex- tremely inexpensive, two of these blocks lasting for the whole sea- eon. The average cost of this work was as follows: P20 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. For 54-in. sewer, 5-in. shell, rib metal 10 ft. : Per lin. ft Cement, 0.347 bbl. at $1.25 $0.434 Gravel at $0.80 0.260 Rib metal 0.30 Forms (cost of) 0.125 Labor, 20 cts. per hour 0.23 Total cost, exclusive of machine and super- intendence $1.349 For 48-in. sewer, 5-in. shell, rib metal 9 ft.: Cement, 0.29 bbl. at $1.25. . . $0.362 Gravel at $0.80 0.170 Rib metal 0.25 Forms 0.115 Labor, 20 cts. per hour 0.186 Total ?1.083 For 42-in. sewer, 4-in. shell, rib metal 8 ft.: Cement, 0.20 bbl. at $1.25 $0.25 Gravel at $0.80 0.118 Rib metal 0.24 Forms 0.115 Labor at 20 cts. per hour 0.188 Total cost, exclusive of machine and super- intendence $0.911 Forms were made by the Adjustable Steel Centering Co., 6 ft. long, and 6 sections were used, which make 35 ft. of sewer, allow- ing for the necessary lap. These forms are especially well adapted to large sewer work, owing to the accessibility of all the parts, which renders them easy and inexpensive to handle. They are made of sheet steel with steel ribs on the inside at each end. These ribs are collapsed by especially made "collapsers" ; forms then set in place. Cost of Making Blocks for a Concrete Sewer. At Coldwater, Mich., in 1901, there was built a concrete sewer with a monolithic invert and an arch of concrete blocks. Riggs & Sheridan, of To- ledo, O., designed the sewer, and H. V. Gifford, of Bradner, O., was in charge of construction. The sewer was circular, having an inner diameter of 42 ins., the thickness of the invert and the arch alike was 8 ins. The con- crete was 1 of Portland cement to 6 of gravel. There were 11 con- crete blocks in the ring of the arch, each block being 24 ins. long, 8 ins. thick, 8 ins. wide on the outside of the arch and 5 % ins. wide on the inside of the arch. A block weighed 90 Ibs. which was too heavy for rapid laying; blocks 18 ins. long would have been better. Some 8,500 blocks were made. Molds were of 2-in. lumber, lined with tin, for after a little use it was found the concrete would stick to the wood when the mold was removed. The four sides of the mold formed the extrados, the intrados, and the two ends of the block ; the other two sides being left open. When put together the mold was laid upon a 1-in. board, 12 x 30 ins., reinforced by vleats across the bottom. The sides of the molds were held to- SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 921 gether with screws or wedge clamps. When the blocks had set, the sides of the molds were removed, and the blocks were left on the 12 x 30-in. boards for 3 days, then piled up, being watered several times each day for a week. A gang of 14 men made the blocks; 2 screening gravel through 1-in. mesh screen ; 4 mixing concrete ; 4 molders ; 3 shifting and watering blocks ; and 1 foreman. With a little practice each molder could turn out 175 blocks a day ; and since each block measured % cu. ft., the output of the 14 men was 19^ cu. yds. a day. Mr. Gifford informs me that the wages were $1.50 a day for all the men, except the foreman. The daily wages of the 14 men were $22, so that the labor of making the blocks was $1.10 per cu. yd. Each batch of concrete, containing % bbl. of Portland cement costing $1.35 per bbl., made 18 blocks. (JL bbl. per cu. yd.) Since the gravel cost nothing, except the labor of screening it, the total cost of each block was 11 to 12 cts., which includes 0.85 cent for use of molds and mold boards, which were an entire loss. At 12 cts. per block the cost was $4.32 per cu. yd. The contract price was $3 per lin. ft. of this sewer, as against a bid of $3.40 per ft. for a brick sewer. When the trenching had reached to the level of the top of the invert, two rows of stakes were -riven in the bottom, stakes being 6 ft. apart in each row, and rows being a distance apart %-in. greater than the outer diameter of the sewer. Those stakes were driven to such a grade that the top of a 2 x 4-in. cap or "runner" set edgewise on top of them was at the proper grade of the top of the invert. The excavation for the invert was then begun and finished to the proper curve by the aid of a templet drawn along the 2 x 4-in. runners. In gravel it was impossible to hold the true curve of the invert bottom. Concrete was then placed for the invert. To hold up the sides of the invert concrete, a board served as a support for the insides, but regular forms were more satis- factory in every respect except that they were in the way of the workmen. A form was tried, its length being 6 ft. It was built like the center for an arch, except that the sheeting was omitted on the lower part of the invert. It was suspended from cross-pieces resting on the "runners." After the concrete had been rounded in place, the form was removed and the invert trued up. This form worked well in soil that could be excavated a number of feet ahead, so that the forms could be drawn ahead instead of having to be lifted out ; but in soil, where the concreting must immediately follow the excavation for the invert, the form is in the way. The invert was trued up by drawing along the runners a semicircular templet having .a radius of 21% ins. Then a %-in. coat of 1 : 2 mortar was roughly troweled on the green concrete. Another tem- plet having a 2 1-in. radius was then drawn along the runners to finish the invert. When the plaster had hardened, two courses of concrete blocks were laid on each shoulder of the invert, using a 7 : 2 : % mortar, 922" HANDBOOK OF 'COST DATA. the !/4 part being lime paste. The lime made the mortar more plastic and easier to trowel. Then the form for the arch was placed, and as each 8-ft section of the arch was built, a grout of 1 : 1 mortar was poured over the top to fill the joints. Earth was thrown on each shoulder and tamped, and the center moved ahead. Common laborers were used for all the invert work, except the plastering, which was done by masons who were paid 30 cts. per hr. Masons were also used to lay the concrete blocks in the arch. Mr. Gifford states that two masons would lay at the rate of 100 lin. ft. of arch per day, if enough invert were prepared in advance. As there were 11 blocks in the ring of the arch, this rate would be equivalent to 7% cu. yds. of arch laid per mason per day. Cost of 'Concrete Sewer Blocks. The cost of molding several thousand concrete blocks to be used in sewer construction at Halifax, N. S., is given in the "Canadian Engineer," from which we rearrange and further analyze the figures as follows : The work involved the mixing and molding of 356.35 cu. yds. of concrete in 1,341 batches of 7.17 cu. ft. each. The cost of the molded blocks was as follows: Total. Per cu. ft. 5,050 hrs. labor, at 16 to 24 cts $ 838.76 $0.087 1,733 bushels cement, at 80 cts 1,386.40 0.144 2,850 bushels sand, at 6 cts 171.00 0.017 2,684 bushels gravel, at 6 cts., 141.04 0.014 5,364 bushels stone, at 7 cts 375.48 0.038 Paper 26.82 0.0028 Soap 17.85 0.0018 Coal 48.95 0.0050 Total $3,006.30 $0.3096 The cost of the blocks complete was thus 31 cts. per cu. ft. or $8.37 per cu. yd. This cost includes cleaning molds, moving and storing blocks and all expenses incident to the cost of manufacture except the cost of the water used. Cost of Concrete Block Manholes. Mr. Hugh C. Baker, Jr., gives the following: The cost of making concrete block manholes at Rye, N. Y., was as follows per manhole : 30 blocks for walls, 2.5 cu. yd. of 1 : 2 : 5 concrete $21.00 6 blocks for cover, Viz cu. yd. reinforced concrete. . . 4.27 T-beams for cover in place 5.40 Supervision, freight and hauling, 5.6 tons concrete.. 9.38 3 hrs. labor placing cover, at 15 cts 0.45 20 hrs. labor placing walls, at 15 cts 3.00 Total per manhole, exclusive of iron cover $43.50 Each manhole was 5 ft. deep inside, 8-in. walls, 5 ft. in diameter. All concrete was hand-mixed, very wet, %-in. stone being used. A set of 30 wooden molds for the wall blocks was made. These molds cost from $3.50 to $12 each; some being made of hard wood lined with zinc. In making the blocks 4 men averaged 15 wall blocks a day .of about 2V 2 cu. ft. each, which is equivalent to 0.84 cu. yd. per man per day. The concrete was allowed to set 3 to 12 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 923 hrs. before removing the molds ; 24 to 36 hrs. before taking the blocks outside to dry, and 7 days before shipping the blocks. About 1,000 blocks were made and only 9 lost by breaking. For comparison it is well to give the cost of brick manholes, as follows : 1,450 brick, at $8.25 per M '.$11.96 Mason 6.00 46 hrs. labor, at 15 cts 6.90 4 bbls. cement, at $1.25 5.00 Sand 75 Supervision, etc 2.50 Concrete top blocks (% cu. yd.) and I-beams 11.40 Total $44.51 This brick manhole had a flat concrete top. Br/ttr lO.WperM Cement 2.00 1 bbl. Sand Eng.-Confr: Fig. 25. Diagram for Estimating Quantities in and Costs of Man- holes. Estimating the Cost of Manholes from a Diagram. This dia- gram and the description of its use were given by Mr. John Wilson, in Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 8, 1908. Herewith is given a diagram (Fig. 25) for estimating the quanti- ties of materials in manholes ; and, at given prices of materials and labor, the cost of the manhole can likewise be ascertained. The diagram shown is for a 4-ft. manhole. Having the depth of the manhole given, the number of brick, the amount of sand, cement, mortar, the cost of labor, and total cost of manhole complete, plus 15 per cent profit, may be taken from the diagram. Thus for a 15-ft. manhole, follow the vertical 15-ft. line to inter- 924 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. section with brick curve, thence horizontally to left read 2,600. From the intersections of the last horizontal line with the sand, mortar and cement curves, respectively, read vertically above 1.88 cu. yds. of sand, 2.22 cu. yds. of mortar and 4.6 barrels of cement. To ascertain the cost, follow the vertical 15-ft. line from bottom to intersection with the cost curves, and read horizontally to right, cost plus 15 per cent, $64, of which the cost of labor alone is $12.50, as shown by the labor curve. The curves allow for a double layer of brick in the bottom and the outside of the manhole to be well plastered. It is an easy matter to draw similar curves to meet local conditions and thus secure a very ready method of making estimates. A Device for Building Circular Manholes.* We illustrate here- with a device (Fig. 26) for use in building circular manholes hav- ing a concrete bottom and brick walls. The device was designed Fig. 26. Device Used in Building a Manhole. . by Mr. Elmer E. Barnard, Assistant City Engineer of Lynchburg, Va., and has been in use in the sewer department of that city for about a year. While the device was put in service with the primary object of getting a better class of work, yet both this has been obtained and the cost of the work has also been decreased quite a good deal. Mr. Barnard informs us that, using the device, they have built two 10-ft. manholes in 2^4 days, two men at $1.40 per day each, and one man at $2.00 being employed. Hence the labor cost of each manhole was : 2% days, at $1.40 ..$3.15 1% day, at $2.00 2.25 Total $540 "Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 19, 1906. SPM'ERS, COX DU ITS AND DRAINS. 925 It has been found that on a system where a large number of manholes are to be installed, they can be built in much less time than the figures given above, owing to the fact that the concrete bottoms can be put in before the bricklayers have gotten up to the work. Cost of a Concrete Manhole. The following figures of the cost of constructing a concrete manhole are rearranged from the "Cana- dian Engineer." The construction of the manhole is clearly shown by the accompanying sketch (Fig. 27). About the only point that need be noted is that the form lumber was so cut up that it could not be used again and its total cost is therefore charged against the Fig. 27. Concrete Manhole. work. The costs were as follows, there being 4.08 cu. yds. of con- crete in the manhole: Materials : Total. Per cu. yd. 300 ft. B. M. lumber, at $30 $ 9.00 $ 2.21 5 bbls. cement, at $2.25 11.00 2.69 4 cu. yds. sand and gravel, at$l. 4.00 0.98 Total materials $24.00 $~5~88 Labor : Forms, 70 hrs., at 32% cts $22.75 $ 5.57 Mixing and placing concrete: 13 hrs., at 22% cts $ 2.92 $ 0.71 Total labor $25.67 $ 6.28 Total labor and materials. .. .$49.67 $12.16 Cost of Brick Manholes. The walls of brick manholes are gen- erally 8 ins. thick up to 12 ft. in depth, and 12 ins. thick below. The cross-section of manholes is usually elliptical, 3 f t. x 4 % ft., up to the neck of the manhole which is circular and narrows down to about 24 ins. in diameter. The cast-iron ring and cast-iron cover weigh from 375 Ibs. to 650 Ibs., the lighter weight being used in village streets. A common weight for use in cities is 475 Ibs. These "manhole heads" are carried in stock by manufacturers of sewer 926 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. pipe, and are listed in their catalogues. The following is th actual cost of a manhole built by day labor for a Western city: 2,000 brick, at $6 $12.00 475-lb. ring and cover, at 2 cts 9.50 2% bbls. Louisville cement, at 75 cts 2.00 1 cu. yd. sand 1.50 24 hrs. bricklayer, at 55 cts 13.20 24 hrs. helper, at 18% cts 4.50 Total $42.70 It will be noted that the mason averaged less than 700 bricks per 8-hr, day, which indicates that he realized that he was working for a city and not for an individual. However, small jobs like manhole work are apt not to be handled with rapidity. Consult, for com- parison, other data. See "Manhole" and "Vault" in the index. Cost of a Brick Manhole, Flush Tank and Laying Pipe Sewer.* The following data relate to the construction of a brick manhole, a brick flush tank, and the laying of a section of sanitary sewer at Columbus, Mass. The work was constructed by day labor. Brick Manhole. The manhole was 4 ft. in diameter and 6^5 ft. deep ; it was of the "churn pattern." Its cost was as follows : 1,000 hard brick, at $6.50 $ 6.50 7 sacks Portland cement, at 50c 3.50 1 cu. yd. sand, delivered 0.85 Ring and cover, 395 Ibs., at $2.40 per 100 Ibs 9.48 3 step irons 0.30 Hauling iron 0.20 Digging hole in brick clay 2.25 Filling t.75 Mason, 8 hours, at 55 cts 4.40 Helper, 8 hours, at 12 y a cts 1.00 Total actual cost $29.23 Engineers' estimate of cost $30.00 Brick Flush Tank. The flush tank was 4 ft. in diameter by & ft. deep. Its cost was as follows: 650 brick, at $6.50 $ 4.22 9 sacks Portland cement, at 50 cts 4.50 1 load sand 50 1 load gravel 60 Ring and cover, 395 Ibs., at $2.40 per 100 Ibs 9.48 5-in. automatic syphon 22.10 Freight 65 Drayage 45 Drain pipe 50 Digging and filling (sand) 1.50 Mason, 9 hours, at 55 cts 4.95 Helper, 9 hours, at 12 y 2 cts 1.13 Total actual cost $50.58 Engineer's estimate of cost 60.00 Laying Sewer. The sewer was 1,613 ft. long, of 8-in. terra cotta pipe. The sewer pipe was furnished by the city, delivered on the job, so that the following is the cost of laying only. Four manholes and one flush tank were also constructed, but these were paid for separately and their cost is not included in the * Engineering-Contracting, June 9, 1909. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 927 figures below. The average depth of the trench was 6% ft. The work was completed in 14 days of 10 hours each. The cost was as follows : Total. Per lin ft. Labor, 1,639^ hours, opening trench, laying and backfilling with shovels, at 10 cts. per hour $163.95 $0.1016 Wiping joints (acting foreman), 143 hours, at 15 cts 21.45 .0133 Superintendence, 14 days, at $5 70.00 .0434 Cement, 12 sacks, at 50 cts. 6.00 .0037 Sand, 3 loads, at 50 cts 1.50 .0010 Total $262.90 $0.163 We are indebted to Charles Lyon Wood, C. E., Columbus, Mass., for the above information. Cost of Making Cement Pipe. Mr. Arthur S. Bent gives the fol- lowing data: In 1892 four miles of 28-in. cement pipe were laid for an irrigation system in Riverside county, California. The mor- tar was mixed by hand in boxes holding % cu. yd., and was hoed oyer 3 times dry and 3 times wet. It was then tamped (17-lb. tampers) by hand into sheet iron molds. The pipe was 28 ins. in diameter, 2% ins. thick and in 2-ft. lengths. The mixture used was 1 part Portland cement and 3* parts pit gravel and sand. During the best week's work, a gang of 25 men made 1 mile of pipe, or 35 ft. per man per day, or 1% cu. yds. of concrete per man per day. But the average week's work was V 2 mile of pipe made by a gang of 25 men, or 17 lin. ft., or 0.9 cu. yd. per man per day. The laborers received $2 and up- ward per day. This pipe line, after seven years of use, showed no appreciable loss of water in its 4 miles of length. The Miracle Pressed Stone Co., of Minneapolis, Minn., manufac- ture molds for making cement tile and cement sewer pipe with bell ends. Their catalogue contains the data given in the follow- ing table : COST OF CEMENT PIPE, IN 2-pr. LENGTHS. (Mortar, 1 : 3 mixture ; sand, 75 cts. per cu. yd. ; cement, $2 per bbl. ; labor, $2 per day.) Pipe, 2 ft. long. Tot. cost Total Kind of Thick- Cu. ft. Cost Cost of Cost of 2-ft. cost 24" pipe. ness, of sand, of sand, cement, labor. Bell-End. 2" 2.75 $0.075 $0.460 $0.15 pipe, per ft. $0.685 $0.34 24" 20" Straight . . Bell-End. 2" 2.25 1%" 1.95 .063 .056 .370 .325 .12 .13 .553 .511 .28 .26 20" Straight. . 1%" 1.67 .045 .266 .09 .401 .20 18" Bell-End. 1%" 1.84 .055 .230 .13 .445 .22 18" Straight. . 1%" 1.50 .045 .190 .10 .335 .17 15" Bell-End. 1%" 1.40 .039 .235 .11 .384 .19 15" 12" Straight. . Bell-End. 1%" 1.17 1%" 1.10 .033 .030 .195 .180 .08 .10 .308 .316 .15 .1C 12" Straight. . 1%" .88 .026 .145 .07 .240 .12 10" Bell-End. 1%" .83 .025 .105 .10 .230 .12 10" Straight. . !%<' .68 .020 .850 .07 .175 .09 928 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Cement Pipe Sewer and Manholes at Brooklyn, N. Y. The following records Of the methods and cost of constructing a 24-in. egg-shaped cement pipe sewer in Butler street, Brooklyn, N. Y., were furnished by Mr. J. J. B. LaMarsh and published in Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 3, 1906. A plan and profile of the sewer are shown in Fig. 28., which gives all lengths. The work Included trenching, pipe-laying and backfilling, manhole construc- tion and catch basin construction. The trench had an average depth of 12 ft. and was opened 3 ft. wide throughout. For the first 2 ft. the soil was loam and for the remainder of the depth it was gravel and sand. Picks were used. The timbering consisted of I^xl2-in. vertical sheeting held by 2 x 10-in x 16-ft. rangers and 4-in. diameter bars 3 ft. long. Fig. 28. Plan and Profile of Sewer. The sheeting was easily placed, as the bank stood until dried by the sun. On the 18-in. pipe curve into Rogers avenue the sheeting was left in place, but all the other timbering was removed. The pipe was laid on a foundation plank I%xl2 ins. It was cement pipe manufactured by the Wilson & Baillie Mfg. Co., and was of the general form shown by Fig. 29. It came in 3-ft. lengths, weighing for the 24-in. size 500 Ibs. each. It was laid with a three- leg derrick, using a goose-neck to lower. Four men handled the pipe to the derrick and lowered it and two men in the bottom of the trench placed it. There was no separate pipe gang, the work being done by men taken from the trenching gang and in stretches of from 3 to 20 lengths, as the progress of work necessitated. In all 933 ft. of 24-in. pipe were actually laid, although the contractor got paid for 964 ft. ; the difference of 31 ft. was taken up in the SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 929 3 x 5-ft. manholes. Besides the 24-in. pipe main, there were 36 ft. of 18-in. pipe, 33 ft. of 12-in. pipe, 10 manholes and 3 sewer basins. Turning now to the cost of this work we have the following figures : Amounts and Cost of Materials Used. 18,500 brick, at $8.75 , ' ? 1?1.875 27 barrels of cement, at $1.35 10 manhole heads and covers, at $11.00 5,500 ft. B. M. lumber, at $18.50. 3 sets granite stones for basins, at $35, 3 sets blue stones for basins, at $5.. .450 110.000 46.750 105.000 15.000 3 pans and hoods, at $9.50 28.500 933 ft. 24-in pipe, at $1.43 1,334.190 36 ft. 18-in. pipe, at $0.85 30.600 96 ft. 12-in. pipe, at $0.40. 38.400 Total cost of materials $1,906.765 Fig 29. Cement Pipe for Sewer. Owing to the method of doing the work the labor costs can be only partially classified. The trenching, sheeting, pipe-laying and backfilling were all done by the same gang, the men changing from one item to another, as occasion demanded. As a rule, the whole gang was worked on backfilling from 4 :30 to 6 p. m. each day ; there was no ramming. Of the 5,500 ft. B. M. of lumber, the contractor got paid for 930 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 3,250 ft. B. M., leaving 2,250 ft. B. M. lost from use. In this con- nection it should be noted that about 40 loads of sand from the ex- cavation were sold by the contractor at 25 cts. a load, or a total of $10. The team work was mostly hauling brick and lumber ; the outfit was owned by the contractor and with driver was estimated to cost $3.50 per day. The labor thus is itemized as follows: Trenching, Pipe-laying, Timbering and Backfilling. Per lin. ft. Total. Cts. One foreman, 34 days, at $3.50 $119.000 11.90 One boy, 317 days, at 75 cts 23.775 2.37 One bracer, 34 days, at $2.40 81.600 8.16 Labor, A, 172.5 days, at $1.70 93.250 29.82 Labor, B, 192.9 days, at $1.60 308.640 30.8*i Team and driver, 12 days, at $3.50 42.000 4.20 Total $868.265 86.82 These figures per foot are based on 1,002 ft. of sewer, namely, 933 ft. 24-in., 36 ft. 18-in., and 33 ft. 12-in. sewer. They include labor, excavating and backfilling, manholes and basins, but not the mason's labor. With a trench 3 ft. wide and 12 ft. deep, there were 1.33 cu. yds. of trench excavation per lin. ft. ; hence the excavation cost 65 cts. per cu. yd. The labor for ten manholes and three basins was as follows : Mason, 12.4 days, at $7 $ 86.80 Mason's helper, 12.4 days, at $2.10 26.04 Total $112.84 The actual cost of one sewer basin was as follows: Sewer Basin. Materials : 1 set granite $35.00 1 set bluestone 5.00 1 hood and pans 9.50 2,100 brick, at $8.50 17.85 3 barrels cement, at $1.35 4.05 21 ft. 12-in. pipe, at 40 cts 8.40 Total materials $79.80 Labor : 5 men, 1 day, excavating and backfilling, at $1.70. . . .$ 8.50 1 mason, 1 day, at $7 7.00 1 helper, 1 day, at $2.10 2.10 Total labor $17.60 Grand total $97.40 The manholes were 3x4 ft. of brick masonry. The actual cost of one manhole was as follows : Manhole. 1 head and cover $11.00 1,600 brick, at $8.50 13.60 1% barrels cement, at $1.35 2.03 1 day mason, at $7 7.00 1 day helper, at $2.10 2.10 Total $35*73 SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 933 From the preceding figures the total cost of the work may be summarized as follows: Materials $1,906.765 Labor 981.105 Total $2,887.870 Deduct sand 10.000 Total $2,877.870 In this total there is no wear on tools, interest on money invested, oil for 10 lanterns, or payment on bond included. There was no insurance on men. Cost of Constructing Cement Pipe in Place.* The method of making cement pipe in place, which will be briefly described in this article, is an invention of Mr. Ernest L. Ransome. A short stretch of 8-in. pipe was built at the rate of 1 lin. ft. ' per minute by six men and a foreman. The men were working with great energy, and the records show that they actually aver- aged about half this rate, their average being 300 lin. ft. per 10 -hr. day. As shown in Fig. 30, three men work in the trench, one of. the men packing the cement mortar in the mold, one continuously pulling the mold ahead by means of the lever and the third filling around the green pipe with earth. The other three men mix mortar and deliver it into the trench. Before giving the cost of this pipe, a word as to the method of construction : The mold, Fig. 31, is made of sheet steel with an inner core 10 ft. long. The front end of this core is surrounded by a short steel shell that serves as the outer form for the cement pipe. The mortar for the pipe is packed in between the inner core and this outer shell by a man who uses a small wooden rammer for the purpose as shown in Fig. 30. The man standing in the foreground keeps mov- ing the mold forward slowly by means of the lever grasped in the right hand. This lever is provided with a dog that works in a ratchet and thus rotates a small drum upon which a wire rope is wound. The wire rope is anchored into a deadman in the trench ahead. As the mold is thus moved forward it leaves behind it the cement pipe which is still green. The cement mortar, however, is mixed with a small amount of water so that it possesses sufficient cohesion to hold together when unsupported by the core. To pro- tect the pipe until it hardens, it has been found advisable to pack a little earth around its sides and over the top ; this is done by the third man in the trench, and he does this backfilling upon the part of the pipe that is still supported by the core. In verbally describing this feature of the construction two ques- tions have invariably been asked : 1. Doesn't the pipe cave in occasionally, especially when it is of large diameter? 2. How are branches put in? -Engineering-Contracting, March, 1906. 932 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Fig. 30. Ransome Cement Pipe Mold in Trench. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 933 Answering the first question, Mr. Ransome says that caving does not occur except when some heavy object falls upon the pipe before the cement has hardened. The pipe does not break down of its own weight even when made three feet in diameter. To put in a branch a hole is cut in the side of the "green" pipe before the core has been pulled ahead. A branch of the proper pattern is shoved up tightly against the pipe and the collar of the branch is plastered with cement mortar, producing a strong water- tight joint. The following was the itemized cost of an 8-in. cement pipe, built as before described, at Despatch, N. Y. : 6 men, at $1.70 per day, 10 hours. $10.20 1 foreman 2.00 3 bbls. cement, at $1.25 3.75 3.3 cu. yds. sand, at 85 cts 2.80 Water 15 Total for 300 lin. ft.., ..$19.90 Fig. 31. Ransome Cement Pipe Mold. This is equivalent to 6.63 cts. per lin. ft. of pipe. It should be added that the shell of this particular 8-in. cement pipe was made unusually heavy, being 1% ins. thick. On another stretch of 12-in. pipe the cost was as follows : Per day. 7 men, at $1.70 ............................. $11.90 1 foreman ........................ . ......... 2.20 13 bbls. cement, at $1.33 ...................... 17.30 12 cu. yds. fine gravel, at 88 cts ................ 9.60 Total for 400 ft. of pipe .................. $41.00 This is equivalent to 10% cts. per ft'. In none of these cases is the cost of digging the trench included in the labor item, for that cost is common to all kinds of pipe sewers. However, due to the fact that there are no bells on the cement pipe and no joints to be made, the trench can be dug about 6 ins. narrower than where vitri- fied pipe is used, thus effecting considerable saving in the cost of excavation. It was noted that in building the 8-in. pipe the men in the trench were capable of putting in pipes at the rate of 1 lin. ft. per minute, which was just about twice what they averaged for the whole job. 934 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The speed depends very largely upon the man who is packing the mortar into the mold, and as this is hard work, it would be ad- visable to let him change places frequently with the man who works the lever that pulls the mold ahead. By having two strong and willing men in these positions, it is believed that 500 lin. ft. of 8-in. pipe could be built in 10 hours, day in and day out. The molds for making this pipe are made by the Ransome Inter- national Conduit Co., 11 Broadway, New York City. Cost of Cleaning a Large Brick Sewer. Mr. Frederick L. Ford gives the following, relating to work done in Hartford, Conn., in 1905. The Franklin avenue sewer cleaned consists of 9,269 lin. ft. of circular brick sewer, 5,128 ft. of which is 6 ft. inside diameter; 2,225 ft. 4 ft., and 1,916 ft. 3 ft. inside diameter. This sewer was built in 1872-73, at a cost of about $150,000, and drains a district containing about 1,167 acres. It has never been thoroughly cleaned since it was built. The sewers which discharge into this trunk sewer vary from 8 ins. to 3 ft. in diameter, and have grades rang- ing from 0.5 to 6.0 ft. per hundred. The 6-ft. Franklin avenue sewer has a grade of 2 ft. per 1,000,. and the 4 and 3-ft. sections a grade of 3 ft. per 1,000. The first work done was a thorough inspection of the sewer to determine the location and amount of the deposits. In the 6-ft. sewer this was an easy task with lanterns, and the material was found only in patches on the bottom, averaging from 6 ins. to a foot deep and from 50 to 150 ft. in length, located usually just below where some large tributary sewer entered the Franklin avenue sewer. It was impossible to make a thorough advance inspection of either the 4 or 3-ft. sections of the sewer, as the manholes were, as originally built, sometimes 1,000 ft. apart, and the ventilation so bad that we found it suffocating and too dangerous to enter either for any great distance from any manhole. The deposits in the 3-ft. sewer were found, upon opening the sewer, to average about 1 ft. in depth and the ordinary sewage, about 6 to 8 ins., was running on top of it, so there was little available working space left. The cleaning was done by a contractor on a percentage basis (15%). The laborers received $2 a day, and their foreman received $15 per week. Before commencing the cleaning, manholes were built where nec- essary, so that they are now not more than 300 ft. apart, and often less on the smaller sizes. In cleaning, the force was organized in small gangs, which could work to advantage ; two starting at a manhole and working in op- posite directions until they met the men coming in the opposite direction. In the 6 and 4-ft. sections, wheelbarrows were used to convey the material to the nearest manhole, where it was hauled up and re- SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 935 moved in carts, each holding 1 cu. yd. In the 3-ft. sewer the men used pails to remove the deposit. The result of the work was as follows : Diara. sewer. Length. Loads. Cost. 6-ft 5,128ft. 107 $ 387.55 4ft 2,225ft. 61 243.80 3-ft. 1,916ft. 107 466.38 Total 9,269 ft. 275 $1,097.73 The average cost per load (cubic yard) on 9,269 ft. of sewer was $3.99, and the average cost per lineal foot was $0.118. Size of sewer, ft 6 4 3 Cost per load $3.62 Cost per foot 0.075 $3.99 0.109 $4.36 0.243 The 6-ft. sewer was cleaned in 7 days. The total time on this work, including foreman and team, was 1,592 hours. This is equivalent to 22.7 men working 10 hours a day for 7 days. The 4 -ft. sewer was cleaned in 4 days. The total time was 1,000 hours, equal to 25 men employed 10 hours a day for 4 days. The 3-ft. sewer was cleaned in 13 days. The time occupied was 2,019 hours, or an average of 15.3 men, working 10 hours a day for 13 days. The average distance cleaned by each man per day on the 6-ft. sewer was 32 ft. ; on the 4-ft. sewer, 33 ft., and on the 3-r't. sewer, 9 ft. The total cost of the work, including manholes built, was $1,395.47, of which 15% was paid to Mr. Charles H. Slocomb, who furnished the labor and materials and superintended the work. Cost of Cleaning Sewers and Catchbasins. The following tabu- lation shows the amount expended per mile per year for the past 21 years by the Bureau of Sewers of Chicago, 111., in cleaning sewers and catch basins: Miles of sewer to maintain. 1887 ... 474 1888 492 1889 712 1890 785 1891 888 1892 992 1893 1,145 1894 1,211 1895 1,248 1896 1,306 1897 1,345 1898 1,388 1899 1,424 1900 1,453 1901 1,475 1902 1,501 1903 1,529 1904 1,583 1905 1,615 1906 . .*. 1,633 1907 1,673 Cost of cleaning. $ 50,264.65 52,423.41 61,503.01 107,878.34 123,620.44 142,720.52 132,633.51 154,225.45 134,424.44 96,901.65 91,414.89 92,961.88 72,439.07 80,985.64 94,369.87 99,372.58 118,303.41 124,260.26 127,003.97 150,942.10 204,329.37 Cost per mile per year. $106.04 106.55 137.42 139.21 143.87 115.84 127.35 107.71 74.20 67.96 66.98 50.92 55.73 63.98 66.20 77.37 79.50 78.64 92.43 122.13 936 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The work is done by regular employes of the Bureau of Sewers, common laborers during 1907 receiving $2.50 and up per 8-hr. day. Cost of Cleaning Sewers and Catchbasins. The following table shows the cost of sewers cleaned in the city of Chicago during the year 1907: Method. Feet cleaned. Total. Per ft., cts. Flushing 2,485,900 $29,060 1.17 Iron scraper 488,700 32,161 6.58 Wood scraper 6,200 204 3.29 A total of 24,974 catchbasins were cleaned at a cost of $96,522, the average cost per basin being $3.86. The work is done by day labor by the Bureau of Sewers, common labor being paid $2.50 per day of 8 hours. Cost of Sewage Purification at Providence, R. I. The cost of treatment per million gallons of sewage during 1906 at Providence, R. I., was as follows: Chemical precipitation, $3.50; sludge dis- posal, $3.10. The population served by sewers in 1906 was about 182,000, according to the annual report of Otis F. Clapp, City Engi- neer. The sewerage system included 205.89 miles of combined sewers and 9.94 miles of storm sewers. The sewage was com- posed of manufacturing, wool washings, jewelers' dyeing and bleach- ing wastes, with domestic sewage, and the strength of average sew- age (parts per 100,000) was: Albuminoid ammonia, total 0.729; soluble, 0.370; suspended, 0.359; chlorine, 45.58. Other data from Mr. Clapp' s report were as follows: Daily flow of sewage in mil- lion gallons: Maximum, Dec. 31, 43.5; minimum, Aug. 19, 10.3; average for the year, 20.36. Average daily flow of sewage treated: 19,550,000 gals. Pounds of lime used per million gallons of sew- age (treated): 637.75. Other chemical used: Copperas, 72.1 Ibs. per million gallons. Cubic contents of settling basin up to water surface, when in use, in million gallons: 11.13. Per cent organic matter removed from sewage in terms of albuminoid ammonia . Total, 43.35 ; suspended, 85.07. Disposition of effluent : Discharged into Providence River off the end of Field's Point under 36 ft. of water. Volume of sludge produced in gallons per million gallons of sewage treated: 4,444.4. Per cent of solids in wet sludge: 7.43. Method of sludge disposal : Pressed and cake hauled by steam train to dump. Sludge pressing: Average number of gallons pumped per day, 86,893. Per cent of solids in wet sludge: 7.43. Pounds of lime added per thousand gallons of sludge: 23.07. Sludge Disposal Description of machinery used : Sludge pumped by Shone ejectors (two, 500 gals.) to storage reservoirs; thence by gravity to forcing receivers (four, 8 ft. dia. x 12 ft. long) ; thence forced under 60 to 80 Ibs. pressure per square inch up into the presses. The ejectors and forcing receivers are run by air pres- sure generated by one 150 and one 50-hp. air compressors actuated by electric motors; 18 filter presses are used, each with from 43 to 54 plates, with 6-in. center holes, forming cakes 36 Ins. square and from 1% in. to % in. thick, between filter cloths which sur- SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 937 round the plates. Hours of operation of presses daily: 6.83. For light, heat and power, $7.69 per day. Tons of sludge cake pro- duced daily: 97.16. Per cent of solids in pressed cake: 27.7 Tons of solids in sludge cake produced daily: 26.97. Cost of operation per ton of solids: $2.24. The quantities per day in above table are calculated on basis of 365 days' work. Cost of Sewage Disposal, 6 Cities. In Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 6, 1907, appeared a five-page article compiled from a report prepared by Mr. A. C. Gregory. It contains many valuable data relating to six cities, of which the following is a very brief abstract. Chemical Precipitation, Providence, R. I. Providence has the distinction of being the one large city in this country which treats all (except in time of heavy storm) of its sewage by chemical precipitation, the object, of course, being clarification. This is all that is considered necessary, inasmuch as the clarified effluent is discharged into the Providence River and speedily carried into Long Island Sound, where the dilution is amply sufficient to take care of what organic matter remains in the effluent. The disposal works consist of a pumping plant, chemical house, precipitation tanks and sludge compressing house with sludge well and tanks and a chemical laboratory. A pound of lime used as a precipitant produces 10 Ibs. of sludge (Dunbar, 1908) and that the amount of sludge amounts to about three times that produced by sedimentation or septic tank action. Population in 1907, 208,000. Population served by sewers, about 185,000. Length of sewerage system: Combined, 209.8 miles; storm, 10.11 miles. Character of sewage : Manufacturing, wool washings, jewelers, dyeing and bleaching waste, with domestic sewage. Daily flow of sewage, in gallons: Maximum, 40,462,000; mini- mum, 9,424,000 ; average for year, 19,329,000. Pounds of lime used per million gallons of sewage treated, 653.54. Other chemicals used: Copperas, 83.05 pounds per million gallons. Volume of sludge produced in gallons per million gallons of sew- age treated, 4,504. Per cent of solids in wet sludge, 7.85. Average number of gallons of sludge pumped per day, 83,660. Hours of operation of sludge presses per day, 671. Tons of sludge cake produced daily, 96.84. Tons of solids in sludge cake produced daily, 28.2. Cost of treatment per million gallons of sewage : Chemical pre- cipitation, $3.54 ; sludge disposal, $3.07 ; total, $6.61 per million gallons. 938 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Annual cost of maintenance about 22.4 cts. per capita. Per cent of organic matter removed from sewage in terms of albuminoid ammonia, 44.74, and of suspended matter, 83.92. In the analysis of sewage the amount of albuminoid ammonia found is a valuable index of the amount of organic matter present. Chemical Precipitation, Worcester, Mass. The Worcester dis- posal plant consists of a chemical house for storing and mixing the lime precipitant, and also containing sludge presses, a chemical laboratory, 16 precipitation tanks and 61 acres of filter beds. The sludge is finally deposited at a distance of about a mile from the works. During the year ending with Nov. 30, 1908, 15,930,000 gals, of semi-liquid sludge were pumped from the pre- cipitation tanks. After as much as possible of the liquid had been drawn off the remaining 12,074,000 gals, were pressed into sludge cake, amounting to 12,987 tons. Of this about 10,000 cu. yds. were taken as fertilizer by farmers. The above figures, together with those that follow, are taken from or based upon the report of the city engineer for 1908: Average daily quantity of sewage treated (precipitation), 11,- 240,000 gals. Length of time sewage remains in tanks, 4 to 8 hours. Volume of sludge per million gallons of sewage, 3,872 gals. Cost of tanks, $265,628.75. Cost of maintenance for year, including disposal of sludge, 135,671.15. Kind and quantity of chemicals used per 1,000,000 gals., 871 Ibs. Of lime. Cost of chemical precipitation per 1,000,000 gals., $4-82 ; sludge pressing, $3.85 ; total, $8.67. Annual cost of maintenance per capita, about 26.5 cts. In terms of albuminoid ammonia chemical precipitation removes 37.3% of the total organic matter and 75.3% of the suspended organic matter. Intermittent Sand Filtration, Worcester. There are in use about '61 acres of sand filters, divided generally in units of one acre and having a depth of from 4 to 6 ft. A large part of this area .is a natural sand bed, by reason of which fact a considerable saving was effected. At the bottom of the beds are laid parallel lines of drain pipes at intervals of about 50 ft. These collect the effluent and carry it to an intercepting pipe, whereby it is conveyed to the main effluent channel and finally reaches the Blackstone River. Date of construction of works, 1899-1908. Cost of beds, $263,340.93. Total filtering area, 61 acres. Average area of beds, 0.98 acre. Average daily quantity of sewage treated, 4,022,000 gals. Average daily quantity treated per acre, 79,000 gals. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 939 Annual cost of maintenance per capita, about 10% cts. Sewage flows on one bed, two to six hours. Beds used, one to four times weekly. Cubic yards material removed from surface of beds, 23,804. Cost of removing same, $8,500. Total cost of maintenance for year, $13,555.37. Cost of maintenance per million gallons of sewage treated, $9.21. The net cost of maintenance per capita for both sand filtration and chemical precipitation is slightly less than 37 cts. Intermittent Sand Filtration, Brockton, Mass. There are 37 filter beds of an acre each. The use of water meters has brought water consumption down to 35 gals, per capita. The sewage runs by gravity to a sump (pit) passing through screens before entering the sump, and from which it is pumped to the disposal beds about three and one-quarter miles away. About 110 Ibs. of refuse per 1,000,000 gals, is screened out before the pumping. No pumping is done at night, the sewage being allowed to collect during that time, and is pumped away on the following day. A considerable amount of sediment is deposited in the sump. This is stirred up, pumped to the disposal plant, and applied to beds, of which there are five, especially used for that purpose, an aver- age of about 136,000 gals, of sludge sewage being thus treated each day. The average amount of sewage treated per day at Brockton amounts to about 1,208,000 gals. The minimum seems to be about 1,079,000 gals., and the maximum about 1,433,000 gals. This would indicate a rate of about 45,000 gals, per acre per aay. The population of Brockton is estimated at 55,000. The above figures are for 1908. In reaching the bed from the pumping station the sewage travels 3.3 miles and is raised 42 ft. The Brockton plant has been placed in a spot naturally lending itself to economical construction. For the most part the prepara- tion of the beds consisted in removing the upper soil so as to leave exposed the sand and gravel underneath. Under drains were put in only where the sand at a depth of 5 or 6 ft. was too fine to allow the sewage to percolate freely through it. Where such a con- dition existed drains with open joints were placed about 40 ft. apart. Banks were also raised and the necessary dosing arrange- ments made. The disposal plant, up to Jan. 1, 1909, has cost $337,488.64. Seven new beds, constructed in 1907 and. 1908, were completed at a cost of $23,239.06, or at about $3,320 per bed. The expense for maintenance of the beds during 1908 amounted to $6,169.04, or about $12.53 per million gallons filtered, or 11.2 cts. per capita. Intermittent Sand Fltration, Saratoga, N. Y. Saratoga has a population of 12,000 to 60,000, according to the season of the year. The filter beds handle 100,000 gals, per acre per day. The plant cost $200,000, including $65,000 for metering water supply and for 940 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. drains desijjned to separate the storm water. Some of the items of cost were: Pumping plant $11,000 Force main 24,500 Septic tanks 15,500 Filter beds 48,000 Total $99,000 The operation of the pumps costs $700 per year. The cost of maintenance of beds for 1907, according to figures secured on the ground, was $1,833.47, and for 1908, $1,153.07. Mr. Barbour states that the total cost of maintenance per year amounts to about $3,000. Assuming the normal population at 12,000, a rate of 25 cts. per capita per year is indicated. Septic Tanks and Contact Beds, Ballston Spa, N. Y. Ballston Spa has a population of about 6,000, although being somewhat of a summer resort, the population varies. The plant was designed to deal with an estimated flow of 1,000,000 gals, per twenty-four hours. No figures are in our possession as to expense of maintenance. The management, at the time of our visit, appeared to be in the hands of one man, who not only looked after the electrically driven pumps but the disposal works as well. Probably one man is all that is necessary for such a plant except in extraordinary occa- sions. The following is the cost of the plant as it appears in the accepted bid: Septic tanks, beds, etc $39,456 Receiving tanks, pumping outfit 15,254 Pump house 3,072 Two gate houses , 1,118 Force main ($1.68 per foot) 4,536 Sewer extension ($1.41 per foot) 1,551 Crushed stone ($0.90 per cubic yard) 18,000 total $82,987 Estimated Cost of Sewage Filtering. Profs. C. E. A. Winslow and E. B. Phelps read a paper before the Boston Society of Civil Engi- neers, In 1907, wherein the following estimates were given of the probable cost of a 50-acre trickling or percolating sewage filter were given. It was estimated that 2,000,000 gals, per acre would percolate daily through a bed of broken stone 8 ft. thick. It was estimated that such filter could be built for $1,800,000, or $36,000 per acre, including all necessary land (Thompson's Island), grading, etc. The cost of treating the sewage was estimated thus per mUlion gallons : Capital charges $3.50 Operation, including extra pumping 2.00 Chloride of lime 1.50 Total $7.00 It is not stated what the land was estimated to cost. Cost of Sewage Filters, Pawtucket, R. I. Mr. George A. Carpen- ter gives the following relative to a sewage filter at Pawtucket, R. I. SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 941 The filter serves 7 miles of sewers, combined system, draining 960 acres, with a population of 9,500. These 7 miles of sewers deliver 58,000 gals, per day, as the average for the year (1895), more than half of this being ground water which enters the sewers, notwithstanding underdrains beneath of some sections of the sewers. There are 13 filter beds having a total filtering area of 2.36 acres; four of these beds (0.51 acres) being sludge beds, and receive the sewage from the bottom foot of the settling tanks. The two settling tanks are each 30 x 100 ft., 4 ft. deep. Sewage is held 24 hrs. in these tanks, and then delivered through 8-in. pipes to the filter beds in doses of 100,000 gals, to the acre. The underdrains are 4-in. tiles, buried 5 ft. deep in the natural sand that forms the filter beds. The cost of this plant was $12,000, or about $5,000 per acre of filter bed. One man operates the plant. Cost of Sewaae Filters, Waterloo, Ont. Mr. Herbert J. Bowman gives the following relative to the cost of sewage filter beds built in 1895 for Waterloo, Ontario. The work was done by contract. Six filter beds were built, each averaging 132 x 200 ft, or 26,400 sq. ft., or a total of 3.65 acres, with an available filtering area of 3 acres. The land is of sand and gravel, requiring little leveling up. The beds are underdrained by 3-in. tiles, laid 10 ft. apart in a tile gutter composed of 5 -in. half-tile, with joint covers of quarter- tile. The contract cost of 10,545 ft. of 3-in. tile in place (for 4 of the beds) was as follows: Materials, 10,545 ft. at 2.5 cts $ 264 Laying 10,545 ft. at 3.5 cts.. 369 1,856 cu. yds. gravel backfill at 20 cts 371 Removing surplus earth 129 Total, 10,545 ft. at 10.75 cts $1,133 The trenches were dug 4 ft. deep, and backfilled with gravel which cost 20 cts. per cu. yd. delivered. The 3.5 cts. per lin. ft. for "laying" included digging the trench and backfilling, *at which price the contractor barely paid his men, and had no profit. The entire cost of the 6 beds, with 3 acres of filtering area, was : 3,050 cu. yds. excavation for embankments at 12 cts $ 366 1,500 cu. yds. gravel for leveling up beds at 20 cts. 300 15,800 lin. ft. 3-in. drain at 10% cts 1,699 Sewer carriers (18-in.) 300 Total $2,665 This is equivalent to only $900 per acre. The low cost is due to favorable conditions and to very low contract prices. The excava- tion for embankments was done with drag scrapers. The 3.6 acres of land cost $100 an acre in addition to the above cost. Cost of a Sewage Filter and Septic Tank With Costs of Opera- tion.* Mr. F. A. Barbour gives the following relative to a sewage filter and septic tank plant at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., built in 1903. ^Engineering-Contracting, July 14, 1909. 942 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The sewage is lifted 15 ft. by three electrically driven centrifugal pumps (6-in.), and carried 8,800 ft. through a 16-in. cast-iron main, and then passed in succession through covered septic tanks, an aerator, an automatic dosing tank and intermittent sand filters. The volume ranges from 1,250,000 gals, to 2,500,000 gals, per day, the latter during the summer. The regular population is about 12,500, which increases to 50,000 during the summer. The pumps and motors have an average combined efficiency of 35%. They cost $5,400. The pump, well and building cost $4,000. The pumps work only during the day. The 4 septic tanks are of concrete with a concrete vaulted roof, each being 52x91 ft. in area. The total capacity of the 4 tanks is 1,000,000 gals., the sewage being 8 ft. deep. The aerator and dosing tank hold 26,000 gals. There are 20 filter beds of about 1 acre each. About 2% to 3 ft. of topsoil was excavated (and built into embankments) exposing the natural sand bed. The cost of the plant was as follows (exclusive of a $40,000 storm water built to reduce the amount of sewage treated) : Pumping plant and accessories $11,000 Force main (16-in.) 8,800 ft 25,000 Septic tanks, 1,000,000 gals 15,000 Filter beds, 20 acres 48,000 Total $99,000 The cost of pumping and operating the purification works is $3,000 a year, of which $720 is for the electric power, and $600 covers all services at the screen and pumps. At the filter beds, $1,680 a year is spent, of which 66% is for work not relating to the maintenance of the surface of the filter bed, being trimming em- bankments, weeding drives, etc. In midsummer 12 filter beds are used daily, the gates being changed twice ; during the remainder of the year 8 beds are used daily, the gates being shifted once. The average daily amount of sewage per bed in use is about 140,000 gals., applied in four doses. All the filter beds are kept in commission and the beds are used alternately, so that the average daily rate for the field is 60,000 gals. per acre. Mr. Barbour believes that double this rate could be maintained with equally good results. Assuming a cost of $3,000 per year for operation and $5,000 per year (5% of $100,000) for capital charges, we have a total of $8,000 per year, to which may be added, say, $1,000 for repairs and depre- ciation of pumping plant, making a grand total of $9,000, or less than $30 a day for treating 1,2000,000 gals., or about $25 per million gals. Cost of Cleaning Sewers and Catch Basins.* Mr. Allen Aldrich gives the following relative to the cost of cleaning 173 miles of * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 11, 1909. SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 943 sewers at Providence, R. I., during 1898. There were in use 4,026 catch basins (23 1 /4 per mile), each of which was cleaned, on an average, 3% times during the year. The 14,522 cleanings yielded 10,600 cu. yds. of deposit, or about 0.7 cu. yd. per cleaning. A gang of 2 laborers and 2 one-horse carts with drivers averaged 20 cu. yds. per day, cleaned out and hauled away. Assuming men's wages to be $2 each and a horse to be $1, the daily wage of this gang would be $10, and the cost would be 50 cts. per cu. yd. of sludge, or 35 cts. per catch basin per cleaning. The labor cost for the year would then be about $300 per mile of sewer, since 600 cu. yds. were removed per mile. In addition to this, about 10.4 miles of sewers were flushed out with a fire hose during the year, yielding 831 cu. yds. more. In cleaning the catch basins a man descends into the basin and first bails out the water into the sewer, until nothing but sludge is left ; and the -sludge is removed with buckets raised by a "wheel derrick" (a tripod with a drum operated by the wheels on which the derrick is transported) and dumped into the cart. Steel carts holding 1 cu. yd. are used. Mr. T. Chalkley Hatton describes a more economic method of cleaning catch basins, which involves a special design of catch basin, so that the sludge accumulates in a "catch bucket." This galvanized catch bucket is 3 ft. high and 2% ft. diam. at the top. A cast-iron hood is placed over the outlet to the sewer, for trap- ping the sewer gases. This hood is removed before raising the catch bucket. Riveted to the top of the bucket is an angle iron that rests on a ledge in the catch basin, the joint being merely dirt proof and not water proof. The bucket is raised with a "wheel derrick" (a trip on wheels), by means of a friction pulley. The legs of the derrick are of gas pipe. A brick catch basin (8 ft. 8 ins. deep) on a 6 -in. concrete founda- tion, with a bucket, hood, and connections complete, costs $40. Each connecting inlet costs about $35. The "wheel derrick" costs $35. Two men, with a horse and cart, can clean 20 catch basins a day, at a cost of 25 cts. per catch basin. Cost of Flushing Sewers.* Mr. Andrew Rosewater gives the fol- lowing relative to the cost of flushing sewers by automatic flush tanks and by hand. The costs are estimated, but said to be based upon actual performance. In 1893 Mr. Rosewater designed flush tanks that averaged 400 gals, capacity each and discharged at the rate of 11 gals, per sec- ond, developing effective scour in an 8-in. sewer for a distance of 2,000 ft. below the tank. To avoid sedimentation in the pipe that serves the flush tank, Mr. Rosewater states that the velocity of flow should not be less than 2 ft. per sec., and this is attained In a %-in. pipe discharging 445 gals, in 24 hrs. A larger pipe causes decreased velocity and sedimentation where unfiltered water * Engineering-Contracting, July 28, 1909. 944 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. is used. He estimates the cost of maintenance and operation of each flush tank as follows per annum, provided the flush tank is properly designed : Interest on $100 tank at 5 per cent % 5.00 Water, 182,000 gals, at $15 per million 2.73 Labor of attendance ($2,000 -i- 300 tanks) 6.67 Total per tank per year $14.40 Two men with a horse and wagon (costing $2,000 per year) are estimated to be able to take care of 300 flush tanks and maintain them in repair. In 100 miles of sewers in Omaha, Mr. Rosewater found that the existing flush tanks were using 1,800,000 gals, daily, which was three times the amount needed if the flow had been properly ad- justed. If flushing is done by hand labor, there are three methods avail- able : ( 1 ) Water carts ; ( 2 ) direct portable base m connections to hydrants; and (3) connection with pipe mains and hand valves. Flushing with water carts requires two men, at $1.50 each, and two horses, at $0.75 each, to handle 25 tanks per day, or 18 cts. per tank per day, or $65.70 per tank per year, to which must be added $2.73 for the water, making a total of $68.43. Flushing with portable base requires 2 men and a horse, who handle 30 tanks daily, at a cost of $49.25 per year per tank, to which must be added $2.73 for water, making a total of $49.25. Flushing with pipe connection and hand valves requires the con- struction of a manhole, which, with connections, etc., will cost $100. One man with a horse and wagon can handle 40 tanks daily, at a cost of $22.50 per tank per year. To this must be added $5 for interest and $2.73 for water, making a total of $30.25. Cost of Vitrified Conduits and of Tile Drains, Cross- References. Data on these subjects will be found in Section XV, Miscellaneous Cost Data, SECTION IX. PILING, TRESTLING AND TIMBERWORK. Definitions. Consult the index for words "not found in the fol- lowing alphabetical list Adz. A carpenter's chipping tool, like a small hoe with a handle. Angle Block. A block of cast iron or wood, having a triangular cross-section, against which the braces and counters of a Howe bridge truss abut. Apron. A covering at the foot of a spillway, to protect the ground from scour. Balk. A large stick of timber. Batter Piles. Piles driven inclined, as distinguished from plumb piles. Bent. One of the transverse frames of a trestle which supports the "deck" or floor system. It consists of a sill, a cap, posts (verti- cal and batter), and sway braces. A pile bent consists of the piles, cap and sway braces. Bit. The part of an auger that does the boring. Block and Tackle. A pulley block and rope. Board Measure. The unit of timber measure is the board foot (ft. B. M.), which is 1 ft. square and 1 in. thick, or 1/12 cu. ft. A thousand feet board measure (1,000 ft. B. M.) is often designated by the letter M. Box Culvert. A culvert having a water way of rectangular cross- section. 'Brace. A diagonal compression member of a truss, also any stick used to resist compression, like the horizontal timbers running from one side of a trench to another. Sway braces are the diagonal braces of a trestle bent. Lateral (or wind) braces are the diagonal braces between the lower, or the upper, chords of a Howe truss bridge. The frame that holds a bit or auger is called a brace. Brad Spike. A railway spike. Brash. Brittle. Bridging. The small diagonal braces between two joists or stringers of a floor system, which prevent the joists from turning over on their sides, or from buckling laterally. Brush Hook. A curved blade, mounted on a wooden handle, used for cutting brush. Burnettizing. Impregnating the pores of wood with a solution of zinc chloride under pressure. 945 946 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Burr. The nut of a bolt. Calk. To fill joints with oakum, or the like, to prevent leakage. Cant. To tip or lean. Cant Hook. A tool for handling timber. It is like a peavey, except that the pole or handle is not pointed. Cap. A timber across the tops of posts or piles, and usually flriftbolted thereto. Centers. The falsework that supports an arch during construc- tion, or, more strictly, the arch ribs of this falsework. Check. A crack in timber due to shrinkage from seasoning. Clear Inspection. A class of timber conforming to some such specification as follows (N. T. Lumber Assoc.) : "Scantling and plank shall be free of sap, large knots or other defects. Dimension sizes shall be free from sap, large or unsound knots, shakes through or round." Clearing. The removal of all trees and brush above the ground level. The removal of the roots below the ground level is grubbing. Close Piles. Sheet piles. Corbel. A projecting beam acting as a cantilever supporting an- other beam. Cord. A cord of wood measures 4x4x8 ft., or 128 cu. ft. Corduroy. A road made of round or split logs laid side by side upon marshy ground. Creosoting. Impregnating the pores of timber with hot creosote (dead oil of coal tar) under pressure. Crib. A log cabin structure built of timbers whose ends are notched and drift bolted together. Dap. A notch cut into the side of a stick of timber. Deck. The wooden floor system of a railway bridge, consisting of the stringers, cross-ties and guard rails. Deciduous. Subject to shedding leaves in the fall and winter, as distinguished from evergreen. Docking. A retaining wall of piles sheeted with plank, and capped with a "dock stick" bolted thereto. Dolly. A roller upon which is mounted a small truck for carry- ing timber. Dimension lumber. Sticks measuring Gx6 ins. and larger. Dosey. Sap rotted. Dovetail. A timber joint made by cutting the end of a stick so that it is narrower a few inches back of the end, and is let into a cross timber notched to fit it. Dowel. A short iron pin inserted into bored holes in two faces of sticks that meet. Usually a dowel is used to hold the foot of a trestle post from displacement from the sill on which it rests. Dressed. Planed. Drift bolt. A bar of round iron (% to 1 in.) used like a large nail (without a head) to fasten timbers together. An auger hole, 1/16 to % in. smaller than the drift bolt, is first bored and the bolt Is driven in the hole. PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERWORK. 947 Drop Timbers. Timbers dropped into place to close an opening in a dam. Dry rot. Rotting of timber not exposed to rain. The moisture is supplied by the sap of the timber. Dry rot often occurs when green timber is painted, the paint preventing the evaporation of the sap. Dubb. To cut the end of a stick to a bevel around the edge. It is usually good practice to dubb the end of a pile preparatory to ringing it. Falsework. The temporary frame work or staging built to support a bridge or other structure during its erection. Fascine. A bundle of brush or small branches wired or tied together. Flume. A trough for carrying water. Follower. A short length of pile placed on top of the pile that is being driven, to protect it from the blows of the hammer, or to force it down below the bottom of the leaders as when driving under water. Forms. The mold in which concrete is cast. Frame. To shape the members of a timber structure. Some- times the term is used to include the erection and fastening to- gether of the members. Frap. To bind together with a rope. Gib or Gib Plate. A large flat plate of wrought iron or steel, used like a washer between the timber and the nut heads of rods in a Howe truss. Gin or Gin Pole. A mast with a pulley at the top, guyed with three or four ropes, and used to raise heavy timbers, etc. Gins. See Leads. Grillage. Timbers laid criss cross, bolted together and fastened by drift bolts to the heads of foundation piles. Grub. To remove the roots of trees and brush. Jetting Piles. To sink piles by means of a water jet. Joist. A beam or stringer that supports flooring. Kerf. The narrow slot made in sawing timber. Kiln Dried. Dried artificially in a kiln. Knot. The American Society for Testing Materials adopted (1906) the following definitions: (1) A sound knot is one which is solid across its face and which is as hard as the wood surround- ing it ; it may be either red or black, and is so fixed by growth or position that it will retain its place in the piece. (2) A loose knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or position. (3) A pith knot is a sound knot with a pith hole not more than *4 in. In diameter in the center. (4) An encased knot is one which is sur- rounded wholly or in part by bark or pitch. Where the encasement is less than y s of an inch in width on both sides, not exceeding one- half the circumference of the knot, it shall be considered a sound knot. (5) A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in. (6) A pin knot is a sound knot not over % in. in diameter. (7) A standard knot is a sound knot not over 1% in. in diameter. 948 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. (8) A large knot is a sound knot, more than l l / 2 in. in diameter. (9) A round knot is one which is oval or circular in form. (10) A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise direction ; the mean or average diameter shall be considered in measuring these knots. Lagging. The plank sheeting placed upon the frames of arch centers. Lag Screw. A thick screw with a square bolt head. Leads or Leaders. The vertical guides that guide a pile driver hammer during its rise and fall. Also called gins, ways, etc. Lug Hook. A timber grapple, much like ice tongs hung from the center of a wooden handle ; used for carrying timber, one man at each end of the handle. Mattock. A grubbing tool with one cutting edge shaped like an adz (or hoe), and the other edge like an ax or pick. Mattress. A brush mattress consists either of fascines bound together, or of strands of brush woven together, ballasted with stone and sunk in a river bed to prevent scour. Merchantable Timber. According to specifications of the South- ern Lumber and Timber Asso. : "Scantling shall show three corners heart free from injurious shakes or unsound knots. Plank nine inches and under wide,' shall show one heart free and two-thirds heart on opposite side ; over nine inches wide shall show two-thirds heart on both sides, all free from round or through shakes, large or unsound knots. Dimension sizes: All square lumber shall show two-thirds heart on two sides and not less than half heart on two other sides. Other sizes shall show two-thirds heart on faces and show heart two-thirds of the length on edges excepting where width exceeds thickness by three inches or over, and then it shall show heart on the edges for half its length. All stock to be well and truly manufactured full to size and saw butted." Miter. The joint between two beveled edges, the bevel usually being 45 degrees. Mortise. A hollow cut made in the side of a timber to receive the tenon or tongue on the end of another timber. Mud Sills. Short pieces of timber (often cedar) laid beneath the sill of a trestle bent to keep it from contact with the ground. Needle Beam. Floor beam of a Howe truss, through the ends of which pass the vertical rods. Nippers. The scissor-like tongs that clutch the hammer of a free- fall pile driver. Overhang Driver. See Pile Driver. Packing Piece. A piece of wood or metal placed between two timbers to prevent their coming in contact. Peavey. A pointed pole with a pivoted hook near the pointed end, used for handling timbers. See Cant Hook. Pile. A stick driven into the earth. Foundation piles are driven to support a bridge, building or other structure. Sheet piles are sawed timber piles driven touching one another, so as to form a tight diaphragm. Wakefield piles are sheet piles made by bolting PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERIVORK. 949 or spiking three planks together, so as to form a tongue and groove. When driven, this gives a triple lap sheet piling. Pile Driver. A free-fall pile driver has a hammer held by nippers which, when tripped, allow the hammer to fall freely. A friction clutch driver has its hammer always attached to the hoisting rope, which is operated by the drum with a friction clutch. A steam hammer is raised by steam acting directly upon a piston attached to the hammer. An overhang driver is one mounted in a frame whose leads project 8 to 20 ft. beyond the base of support. Pinch Bar. A steel bar with a chisel- shaped end. Pitch Pocket. The American Society for Testing Materials gives the following specification : Pitch pockets are openings between the grain or the wood containing more or less pitch or bark. These shall be classified as small, standard and large pitch pockets, (a) A small pitch pocket is one not over % of an inch wide. (b) A standard pitch pocket is one not over % of an inch wide, or 3 ins. in length, (c) A large pitch pocket is one over % of an inch wide, or over 3 ins. in length. A pitch break is a well-defined accumu- lation of pitch at one point in the piece. Plank. In the lumber trade, the term plank is applied to pieces iy 2 to 5 ins. thick x 7 ins. wide, or wider. Posts. The upright members in a trestle bent. Put Logs. Horizontal stringers supporting a building scaffolding, the ends being inserted in put-log holes left in the masonry. Rangers. The longitudinal timbers used in bracing a trench ; the "braces" being the cross timbers between the rangers. Revetment. A river bank protection. Ring. An iron band around the head of a pile to protect it from splitting or brooming. Scantling. A timber of small cross-section. Also the cross-sec- tion dimensions, as a "scantling" of 4x10 ins. Scarf Joint. A joint made by overlapping and bolting or locking together the ends of two pieces of timber that are halved, notched or cut away, so that they will fit each other and form a lengthened stick of the same size at the scarf joint as elsewhere. Scissors. See Nippers. Seasoned. Air dried. Sheet Piles. See Piles. Shoe. An iron point over the lower end of a wooden pile. Sill. The horizontal timber of a trestle bent on which the posts rest. Sheeting or Sheathing. Plank or boards forming a wall, or a diaphragm. Skeleton Bracing. Trench bracing consisting only of rangers and cross braces, without any plank sheeting. Stay Lathed. Temporarily fastened with small cleats or braces. Stringer. A longitudinal joist in a floor system. Studs. The vertical pieces of timber (in a building) to which sheeting is fastened. 950 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Stumpage. The amount paid a land owner for standing timber. Tenon. A projecting tongue cut on the end of a stick of timber. See Mortise. Tongs. See Nippers. Treated. Preserved by impregnation with creosote, zinc chloride, or the like. Trestle. A bridge consisting of bents supporting a floor system. A frame trestle consists entirely of sawed timber. A pole trestle is made largely of round poles, none of which, however, are used as piles. A pile trestle has bents composed of piles. See Bent. Wakefield. See Pile. Wale. A longitudinal timber bolted to a row of piles ; but not on top of the piles, such a timber being a cap. Water Jet. See Jetting. Ways. See Leads. Also the inclined timbers down which any structure is launched into the water. Importance of Timberwork. Although timber will be used to a less and less extent for permanent engineering structures, it will long have a wide field of usefulness for falsework, forms, centers, temporary trestles, etc. In foundations that are always under water, timber will doubtless never cease to be used to a considerable extent. In supporting the roofs of mining excavations timber may never cease to be used. Trestle bridges for railways are still built extensively in the West, and even in the East. In brief, there is and long will be an enormous amount of timber used annually in engineering construction. It is a serious mistake, therefore, to re- gard a knowledge of timberwork as being comparatively non-essen- tial to the engineer of the future. Measurement of Timberwork. Timber is sold by the 1,000 ft. B. M. (thousand feet board measure). A common abbreviation for 1,000 ft. B. M. is the letter M. One foot board measure is 12 ins. square and 1 in. thick, w,hich is one-twelfth cubic foot. To esti- mate the number of feet board measure in a sawed stick, multiply the end dimensions (in inches) together and divide by twelve, then multiply this quotient by the length of the stick (in feet). For example, in a 10xl2-in. stick, 16 ft. long, there are: 10 X 12 X 16 = 160 ft. B. M. 12 Timberwork is paid for at a specified price per M for the timber measured in the work. The contractor must be cautious to make allowance for wastage in framing the timber. Scarf joints, for ex- example, may cause a wastage of 6%. If bridge flooring planks are laid diagonally for a 16-ft. roadway, there Is a wastage of about 5% when the ends are sawed off on line with the outer stringers. Timber is usually sold in lengths containing an even number of feet, as 10, 12, 14, 16 ft. In examining plans, the contractor should be careful to note whether the dimensions are such as to require the use of even lengths or not, for a careless engineer or architect may BO design a structure as to cause a large wastage of timber. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 951 In measuring dressed lumber, remember that the thickness used in calculating the number of board feet is not the actual thickness of the dressed board, but the thickness of the original stock from which the dressed board was made. So also the width of a tongue and grooved board is not its actual face width, as laid, but it is the width of the original board. Cubic Contents and Weight of Piles and Poles. Table I gives the cubic feet contents of a tapering pole. Thus a pole 8 ins. diam. at the small end and 16 ins. at the large end, contains 0.81 cu. ft. per lin. ft. of pole (see Table I). Hence if the pole is 30 ft. long, it contains 30 X 0.81 = 24.3 cu. ft. of timber. The weight of timber per cubic foot is given below. In estimating the amount of lumber that can be sawed from a log, the following rule is used: From the least diameter in inches subtract 4, divide by 16, multi- ply by the length in feet, and the quotient is the number of feet board measure. Expressed as a formula, we have d 4 (d 4x I 16 ) Weight of Timber. The cost of hauling timber must frequently be estimated. Timber is bought by the M, and it is well to remem- ber that an M contains 83% cu. ft., which at a specific gravity of 1 (the same as water) would be 5,200 Ibs., or 2.6 tons per M. How- ever, only very dense, green oaks, and similar dense timber, ever have a specific gravity equal to 1. Table II gives the weight of timber for different specific gravities. The following is the specific gravity of some of the common kinds of timber: Kiln Green. Dried. Yellow pine (Southern) 0.90 0.60 Norway pine (Northern) 0.50 Douglas fir 0.65 .... White pine 0.40 White oak 1.00 0.70 Hemlock 0.60 0.50 Cedar 0.35 See Frye's "Civil Engineer's Pocketbook" for the most complete data on weights of wood. TABLE II. WEIGHT OF TIMBER PER Cu. FT. AND PER M FT. B. M. Specific Weight per Weight per 1,000 gravity. cu. ft., Ibs. ft. B. M., Ibs. 1.0 62.40 5,200 0.9 56.16 4,680 0.8 49.92 4,160 0.7 43.68 3,640 0.6 37.44 3 120 0.5 31.20 2,600 0.4 24.96 2,080 0.3 18.72 1,560 952 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. sis 'Q'X' oo oo oj o> o o ,-H 1-1 cq IN eo eo * * 10 10 o o t- t- oo oo as o MN T-( tH ,H iH 7-1 rH iH r-l TH T-l r-l r-l iH r-l r-l iH rH rH rH rH (M COOlCOt-rHlrtOMOOiMt-rHSOT-l OiOlOOi-lrHrH(N if) os T-I c o eo t- TH rf oo oo t- 1-1 e o 10 o eocoo5*ciiflO5eOMt-rHioaio5ooeCT>e0"'*'ooeot- IfttCHOCCHOt-t-t-OOOOOiOiOiOOrHrHrHiKlN . . . Ol CO O O CO t- rH ^f OO c CD t- t- 00 00 00 Oi 05 Oi O O T-I rH rH (M fl _:_:_;_:_;_: s O 0 ..; t-OiC<|Ttt-t-t-OOOOOOOJO>O O OO rH CO O OS os o Sgl ^^^^^^^^^^!^^ MH 00 00 01 05 O O rH iH CO M 05 05 * - <> t- t~ OO OO <35 O5 O PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 953 Cost of Manufacturing Lumber. A contractor will often find it profitable to cut and saw lumber. A 20-hp. portable engine will run a small sawmill, and with a crew of 5 men the output will be about 8,000 ft. B. M. of 3-in. plank per day. If the wages of the 5 men are $10 a day, and the rental of the engine and saw is $10 more per day, the cost of sawing is about $2.50 per M. The price of the timber as it stands before cutting, is called the stumpage price, and this ranges from $1 to $5 per M. The cost of cutting and skidding hemlock fogs, I have found to be about $1 per M, half of which is for cutting and the other half for skidding, wages being $1.50 a day. The total cost of sawed plank in one case was as follows : PerM. Stumpage $1.50 Cutting 0.40 Skidding 0.60 Sawing 2.50 Total per M $5.00 I have been told by a lumberman in Washington that his "log- ging" cost him $5 per M, wages of laborers oeing $3 per day. This seems like a high cost. It includes cutting the trees and dragging the logs to an incline up which they are hauled by a hoisting engine to a chute, down which they are slid by gravity to tidewater. Cost of Sawing and Planing Lumber.* In connection with the operation and care of the Muscle Shoals Canal, TJ. S. Government Tennessee River Improvement, a small sawmill was used for sawing and planing lumber. This lumber was largely used in build- ing and repairing boats and was usually sawed and planed just as needed. Consequently the mill was run very spasmodically, some- times being in operation all day, and again only an hour or so. The men operating the mill were used on other work when not em- i ployed in the mill. The sawyer was paid $50 per month and helpers from $1.20 to $1.50 per day of 8 hrs. During the year 1904-5 a total of 77,591 ft. B. M. of lumber were sawed at an average cost of $2.11 per M, and 56,121 ft. B. M. were planed at an average of $1.38 per M. The lumber ranged in size from 8 ft. to 45 ft. long and from j 1-in. boards to sticks 20-in. x 20-in. in cross-section. The planer, which would take a stick as large as 6x24 ins., was worked by the same operations as the sawmill. The mill was run by a 55-hp. Victor turbine and had a 60-in. | circular saw. Price of Yellow Pine for Fourteen Years.f The "American Lum- berman," Aug. 22, 1908, gives a very complete table of prices of Southern yellow pine lumber of different classes, from which we have selected the prices of two classes only. These prices apply to lumber delivered at points that are reached by a 23-ct. rate (per * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 29, 1906. ^Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 2, 1908. 954 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 100 Ibs.) from the mills, and include the 23-ct. freight rate. The prices are as follows : No. 1 Timbers Dimension 4" x 10" to Year. 2" x 10" 16'. 12" x 12" 16'. 1894 $12.50 $16.25 1895 12.25 16.25 1896 . 11.00 15.50 1897 12.50 16.00 1898 13.50 17.00 1899 13.50 17.75 1900 14.50 19.25 1901 15.50 20.00 1902 16.00 20.50 1903 16.00 20.50 1904 16.00 21.00 1905 17.50 23.25 1906 21.00 28.00 1907 22.25 28.25 1908 17.75 25.25 Life of Trestle and Bridge Timbers.* A committee of the Ameri- can Railway Bridge and Building Association reported in 1908 thai the following is the average life : Caps of Trestles: Years. Long leaf pine (av. of 12 rys.) 10 Douglas fir (av. of 8 rys.) 10 White or burr oak (av. of 2 rys.) 11 Stringers: Long leaf pine (av. of 13 rys.) 10 Douglas fir (av. of 10 rys.) 11 White oak (av. of 1 ry.) 10 White pine with iron cover (1 ry.) 14 Ties: Long leaf pine (av. of 10 rys.) 9 Douglas fir (av. of 4 yrs.) 12 White oak (av. of 4 rys. ) 10 Piles: White or burr oak (av. of 10 rys.) 10 White cedar (av. of 6 rys.) 17 Red cedar (av. of 2 rys.) 12 Treated pine (av. of 2 rys.) 14 In 1899 a committee of the same association made a similar re- port, of which the following is an abstract. It is not so reliable as the report above given. The life of piles is as follows: ' Years. In water. On land. Cedar, white (Wis.) 20+ Cedar (Wis.) 28 16 to 20 Chestnut (New England) 15 to 20 12 to 18 Cypress (111.) 7 Oak (New Eng. ) 9 to 20 8 to 14 Oak, white (Middle States) 8 to 30 8 to 12 Pine, yellow (Miss. ) 10 10 Pine, Norway (Wis.) 7 6 Spruce (New Eng.) 4 to 10 4 to 8 Spruce, red (Colo.) 10 to 15 7 to 10 Tamarack (New Eng.) 18 10 to 12 Tamarack (Wis. ) 8 * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 25, 1908. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 955 The life of unprotected bridge timber, whether in stringers, bents, or trusses, is as follows : Years. Pine, yellow long leaf (New Eng.) 12 to 20 Pine, yellow long leaf (Miss.) 8 Pine, yellow long leaf (111.) 8 to 14 Pine, yellow long leaf (Colo. ) 10 Pine, white (New Eng.) 10 to 18 Pine, white (111.) 10 to 14 Pine, white (Minn. ) 10 Pine, Colorado 8 to 15 Pine, Norway ( Wis. ) 8 to 10 Spruce ( New Eng. ) 5 to 10 . Douglas fir (Wyo.) 10 to 16 Douglas fir ( Colo. ) 1 8 to 20 Oak, white ( Ohio) 7 to 8 Oak, white (111.) 14 to 18 Cypress, red (Ala. ) '. 12 Even a casual study of these figures shows that many of them are merely rough guesses. For example, why should white oak timber in Illinois last twice as long as in Ohio. The reports for these two states are from different superintendents, which accounts for the discrepancy. The life of timber truss bridges protected from the weather was reported to be 20 to 50 years, several superintendents saying in- definitely. Consult the section on Railways for life of timber, particularly ties. Life of Treated and Untreated Fence Posts. A committee of the Am. Ry. Engrg. and Mn. of Way Assoc. reported in 1907 that the* average life of fence posts is as follows: Chestnut and oak 9 years Locust 10 years Catalpa 12 years Cedar 15 years Bois d'Arc Everlasting Mr. B. E. Buffum made some experiments in Wyoming with 80 pitch-pine fence posts, by treating them in three different ways. The posts were placed in 1891 and in 1907 the following conclusions were reached. The best treatment consisted in dipping the lower 2% ft. of post in California (?) crude asphaltic oil and then burn- ing off the outside oil. This drives the hot oil into the post and chars the outside. After 16 years these posts seemed good for a life of fully 30 years, as they were as sound as the day they were placed. Of 15 untreated posts the life was estimated as follows: Estimated life, Number. years. 4 12 2 14 4 16 3 17 1 18 1 20+ 15 Average, 15 956 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A treatment of the lower 2% ft. of the post with tar was less effective than with crude oil, and it seemed to make little differ- ence whether the tar was burned off or not. Of ten posts thus treated 8 appeared to be good for a life of 20 years or more. Posts simply well charred seemed good- for a life of about 20 years. For cost of fences see the sections on Railways and on Miscel- laneous Costs. Life of Creosoted Ties. In 1880-2, some 150,000 ties were creo- soted with 10 Ibs. of oil per cu. ft. and put in the tracks of the Houston and Texas Central Ry. In 1907, there were still 11,300 in service, and Mr. O. Chanute estimated that the average life had been 19.35 years. Cost of Treating Timber, Cross References. The steadily advanc- ing price of timber has lead to "treating" timber with preserva- tives, such as creosote and zinc chloride. Cedar may be regarded as a timber containing a natural pre- servative the oil of cedar, which is too often "killed" by kiln drying to reduce the weight before shipment In addition to the data in the following paces, consult that part of the section on Railways relating to tie preservation. See the index under "Timber, Preserving." Process Treatment of Timber and Approximate Costs.* Mr. G. B. Shipley is author of the following: * The evolution of timber preserving processes in this country with- in the last ten years has developed many new methods of treating ties, piling, timber, poles, crossarms, mine timbers, etc., and a great many antiseptics or compounds are being proposed, but the subject is of such vital importance that the leading organizations are back- ward about experimenting. Consequently the processes actually em- ployed may be subdivided into only two methods and these are the full cell and partial cell treatments. The full cell treatment consists of impregnating the wood fibres and filling the cells with the anti- septic, whereas the partial cell treatment consists of impregnating the wood fibers only. These two methods are sometimes confused with processes or the manner in which the treatment is performed. The treatment of wood depends upon where the wood will be used, the climatic conditions, the permissible cost of treatment and the wood structure. If first-class wood is to be used for such work as docks around salt water, telegraph poles, building foundations or for railroad ties, where there is no mechanical wear, the full cell method is best, but if the wood is soft and not protected from mechanical wear, then the partial cell method will be satisfactory for the reason that with the latter method the chemical life will be equivalent to the mechanical life. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 19, 1910. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 957 The important processes that are in use in this country and which may be classed under the full cell method are the burnettiz- ing, Wellhouse, full cell creosote and card processes, and those which may be classed under partial cell method are the Reuping, Lowry and absorption processes. These processes, with the exception of the absorption process, are manipulated by mechanical contrivances, such as pressure pumps, vacuum pumps and air compressors and can be controlled to suit the wood structure, while with the absorption process the treatment is governed by temperature and atmospheric pressure, therefore is limited to certain woods. Burnettlzing Process. This is often referred to as the zinc chlo- ride process and consists of impregnating the wood fibers with a solution containing % Ib. of dry zinc chloride per cubic foot of wood and is operated as follows : The wood is first air seasoned in the open, or steamed in retorts to expel the moisture, then a vacuum is produced and maintained until the solution is introduced and the wood is completely submerged, the pressure is then increased to about 100 Ibs. or 125 Ibs. per sq. in., by pumping in additional solu- tion until the required penetration and impregnation is obtained, when the solution is drained from the retort. The approximate time required for the process is : Hrs. Mins. Steaming to 20 Ibs. pressure 30 Steaming, 20 Ibs. to 35 Ibs. pressure 3 30 Blowing off steam 15 Vacuum 45 Solution to about 100 Ibs. pressure 45 Solution maintained to 100 Ibs. pressure 1 15 Forcing back solution 15 Total cycle 7 15 If the steaming time Is reduced 2 hrs., then the total cycle is 5 hrs. 15 mins. Wellhouse Process. This is often referred to as the zinc tannin process. It consists of impregnating the wood fibers with a hot solution containing about % Ib. of dry zinc chloride plus %% of glue or gelatine per cubic foot of wood, then following by injecting a second solution containing %% of tannic acid. The purpose of the tannin is to solidify the first injection to prevent leaching. The wood is first air seasoned in the open or steamed in retorts to expel the moisture, then a vacuum is produced and maintained until the solution is introduced and the wood is completely submerged, the pressure is .then increased to about 100 to 125 Ibs. per sq. in. by pumping in additional solution until the required penetration and impregnation are obtained, when the solution is drained from the re- tort and the second movement takes place by filling the retort with a solution containing tannic acid and increasing the pressure by pumping in additional solution at about 100 or 125 Ibs. per sq. in. until the required penetration is obtained, when the solution is drained from the retort. The approximate time required is: 958 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Maximum Time, Hrs. Mins. Steaming to 20 Ibs. pressure 30 Steaming, 20 to 35 Ibs. pressure 30 Blowing off steam 15 Vacuum 45 Solution and glue to 100 Ibs. pressure 45 Solution and glue maintained at 100 Ibs. pressure 1 Forcing back solution and glue 15 Tannin introduced to 100 Ibs. pressure 20 Tannin maintained at 100 Ibs. pressure 50 Forcing back tannin 15 Total cycle 8 40 If steaming time is reduced 2 hrs., then the total cycle equals 6 hrs. 40 mins. Absorption Process. This Is often referred to as the non-pressure process consists of submerging the wood in a boiling preserva- tive at a temperature of from 180 to 230 F., then following with a cold preservative as follows: The wood is first air seasoned in the open to reduce the moisture, then placed in either an open or closed receptacle where it is submerged in a hot preservative which expels the air and additional moisture ; the receptacle is then drained and the wood submerged in a cold preservative. The first movement opens the pores or cells of the wood forming a vacuum within, while the second movement causes absorption due to the difference in temperature and atmospheric pressure. This process can be used in either open tanks or closed retorts. For treating the butts of poles, fence posts, piling and small quantities of ties the open tank is satisfactory, but for treating large quantities of ma- terial the closed retort is recommended where thorough impreg- nation is desired. The time of treatment is as follows : Green Timber. Boiling in hot preservative from 8 to 10 hrs. Bath in cold preservative from 8 to 16 hrs. Total time of treatment, 16 to 26 hrs. Seasoned Timber. Boiling in hot preservative from 3 to 6 hrs. Bath of cold preservative from 4 to 8 hrs. Total time of treatment, 7 to 14 hrs. With this process it is possible to impregnate a limited class of woods with about 6 to 12 Ibs. of concrete oil per cubic foot. Full Cell Creosote Process. This consists of impregnating the wood fibers and cells of ties with 6 to 12 Ibs. of creosote oil per cubic foot and timber and piling with 10 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. of creosote oil per cubic foot, as follows : The wood is first seasoned in the open or steamed in the retorts (generally both) to reduce the moisture and expel the sap ; then a vacuum is produced and maintained until the creosote oil is introduced and wood is completely submerged. The pressure is then increased to about 100 to 125 Ibs. per sq. in. and maintained until the desired penetration and impregnation is secured, when the creosote oil is drained from the tanks. In some cases a vacuum is produced and maintained at the finish to drain the surplus oil from the exterior of wood to nrevent loss by drippag*; PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 959 after the wood has been removed from retorts. The approximate time required is: 10-lb. Treatment. Hrs. Mins. Steaming to 20 Ibs. pressure 30 Steaming, 20 to 35 Ibs. pressure Blowing off steam 15 Vacuum ' Creosote to 100 Ibs. pressure 1 Forcing back solution Vacuum Total cycle 7 15 If the steaming time is reduced 2 hrs., then the total cycle equals 5 hrs. 15 mins. Rueping Process. This is often referred to as a partial cell treatment and it is used principally in connection with creosote oil. It consists of forcing compressed air into the pores or cells of wood and at a higher pressure creosote oil without relieving the air pressure and upon relieving the combined pressure the air expands and forces out the surplus oil, leaving wood fibres im- pregnated. The wood is first air seasoned in the open or steamed in the retorts (sometimes both) to reduce the moisture; with compressed air and by air equalizing reservoirs or pumps the retorts are filled with oil without releasing the air pressure. The oil pressure is thus started at from 80 to 100 Ibs. per sq. in. and gradually increased to about 100 to 150 Ibs. per sq. in., having the effect of compressing the air in the cells to a smaller volume and permitting about 10 to 12 Ibs. of creosote per cubic foot to enter. The pressure is then released and the oil drained from the retorts ; then a vacuum is produced, which causes the air within the cells to expand and forces the surplus oil out of the wood, leaving the wood fibres impregnated with from 4 to 6 Ibs. of creosote per cubic foot. This process is best adapted for treat- ment of ties. The approximate time required using equalizing cylinders is: Hrs. Mins. Air to 80 Ibs. pressure 30 Transferring oil 20 Creosote to 150 Ibs. pressure ; 1 30 Maintaining 150 Ibs. pressure 15 Forcing back oil 20 Vacuum 1 Maintaining vacuum 15 Draining > 10 Total cycle 4 20 This time is based on thoroughly air seasoned ties. Lowry Process. This is often referred to as a partial cell treat- ment and it is used in connection with creosote oil. It consists of forcing creosote oil into the wood cells and then drawing out by vacuum the surplus oil, leaving only the wood fibres impregnated. The wood is first air seasoned in the open, then placed in retorts and submerged in creosote. The pressure is then applied by 960 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. forcing in additional creosote of 10 to 12 Ibs. per cu. ft. at about 180 Ibs. pressure so as to saturate the pores and cells, after which the retort is drained and a quick vacuum is produced and main- tained from 1% to 2 hrs., leaving the wood fibres impregnated with from 4 to 6 Ibs. of creosote per cubic foot. This process is used principally in the treatment of ties. The approximate time re- quired is: Ties thoroughly seasoned: Hrs. Mins. Creosote to 180 Ibs. pressure 2 00 Draining oil from retort 10 Vacuum 2 00 Draining 10 Total cycles about 4 20 Card Process. This process consists of impregnating the wood cells with an emulsion consisting of zinc chloride and creosote oil, as follows: The wood is first air seasoned in the open or steamed in the retorts (generally both) to reduce the moisture and expel the sap. Then a vacuum is produced and maintained for 1 hr., when the retort is filled with the hot emulsion consisting of y a Ib. of dry zinc and from 1% to 4 Ibs. of creosote per cubic foot. The pressure is then applied by forcing in additional emulsion at about 100 to 150 Ibs. pressure per square inch, after which the retort is drained and a vacuum produced and maintained for about 30 min. to draw the surplus emulsion from the exterior of the wood to prevent loss by drippage when wood is removed from retort. It is necessary to keep the emulsion constantly agitated to prevent a separation of the zinc and creosote and to accomplish this a centrifugal pump draws the emulsion from top of retorts and discharges into the bottom of the perforated pipe. This process is used principally in the treatment of ties. The approximate time required is: Hrs. Mins. Steaming to 20 Ibs. pressure 30 Steaming, 20 to 35 Ibs. pressure 3 30 Blowing off steam 10 Vacuum 1 00 Emulsion to 120 Ibs. pressure 1 00 Maintaining 120 Ibs. pressure 1 30 Forcing back oil 15 Vacuum 20 Draining 10 Total cycle about 8 25 If the steaming time is reduced 2 hrs., then the cycle equals 6 hrs. 25 mins. If ties are thoroughly seasoned this time can be reduced to 4 hrs. 25 mins. Cost of Treatment. The prevailing rates for treating material with these processes depend upon locality, structure of wood, con- dition of wood ; that is, whether it has been air seasoned or requires steaming, residual impregnation and quality to be treated ; however, it is safe to assume that the following is an average rate when taking creosote at $0.07 per gal. and zinc chloride at $0.04 per Ib. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 961 Per Per 7 x 9 -in. x 8-ft 1,000 ft. Process. tie. B. M. Burnettizing y 2 Ib. zinc chloride per cu. ft. $0.17 $4.10 Wellhouse, etc 0.23 5.50 Card 0.26 6.10 Rueping 0.32 7.60 Lowry 0.32 7.60 Absorption 0.33 7.80 Full cell 0.47 11.15 Cost of Creosoting and Life of Creosoted Timber. Mr. O. T. Dunn gives the following data: Creosoting costs $15 to $20 per M. Assuming that two 6-ft. cylinders 100 ft. long are used, the capacity of each cylinder is 16,800 ft. B. M. The total plant will cost, say, $80,000. If the timbers are to be impregnated with 20 Ibs. of creosote per cu. ft., it will take about 36 hrs. for a run, and the annual capacity of the plant will be nearly 7,000 M. If the interest and depreciation of the plant is assumed at 10% we have $8,000 -~ 7,000 = $1.14 per M. chargeable to this item. The labor will cost about $3.75 per M. If the oil costs 8 cts. per gal., and 20 Ibs. be used per cu. ft, the cost of oil is $15.33 per M. This makes a total of $20.22 per M. If 16 Ibs. of oil per cu. ft are used, the cost of oil is $10.26 per M., thus reducing the total cost by $5. If the plant is not worked to its full capacity, the interest charge per M. becomes greater. Treated with 20 Ibs. of oil per cu. ft., piles in the bridge of the L. & N. R. R., over the mouths of the Pascagoula river, have been in the structure 28 years, and will be good for many years to come. These piles are subject to attacks of the teredo, where uncreosoted piles 1% ft. in diameter have been cut off by the teredo in a single year. Beech ties impregnated with 12 Ibs. of oil per cu. ft. have lasted 30 years on the Eastern Railway of France. Mr. Dunn underestimates the "plant charges," for while 10% for interest and depreciation, may be ample, it does not provide for current repairs. No data are available to determine what repairs will amount to, but I should put the item at less than another 10% of the first cost of the plant, excluding land and buildings. Cost of Creosoting Ties. Mr. W. H. Knowlton gives the follow- ing relative to a tie creosoting plant at Shirley, Ind. Ties are first seasoned 8 to 12 mos., then loaded on "buggies," 55 ties per buggy, running on 30-in. gage track made of 52 Ib. rails., and hauled in trains of 15 buggies by an electric motor. There are 200 buggies. Two retorts, 7 ft. diam. X 130 ft. long, receive these trains of ties, hence each retort holds 800 ties. The boilers are rated at 200 hp. The following force is required to work one shift : 1 man at the boilers. 1 headman in retort house. 3 assistants. 15 laborers to handle ties. 1 machinist. 962 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. When working at full capacity, two shifts are run. The' laborers receive % ct. for each tie handled. Each tie receives about 2% gals, of oil, costing 6 cts. per gal. (in 1906), and having a specific gravity of 1.02 to 1.07, averaging 1.05%. A chemist analyzes all oil. The charge for tie treating is 30 cts. per tie, including loading and unloading ties. This plant cost about $75,000. Working only one shift per day, and allowing 5 hrs. for treatment of ties, the two retorts would handle 3,200 ties per day, or about 900,000 per year. Mr. Kn owl ton does not give the output but states that ties are left in the retort 3% to 6 hrs. Cost of a Zinc Chloride Treating Plant. A zinc chloride tie treat- ing plant was built in 1902 at Carbondale, 111., for the Ayer & Lord Tie Co. It has 8 cylinders or retorts, 6 ft. diam X 125 ft. long, and the plant capacity is 2,000,000 ties per year, or 250,000 per retort. Each cylinder holds 14 iron cars, each with 30 to 40 ties, or about 500 ties. The buildings are of brick. The main building is 115 X 123 ft, the retort room being 90 X 123 ft. The' boiler house contains six tubular boilers 6 X 18 ft. The total cost of the plant is said to have been $175,000, exclusive of yards and tracks. This is equivalent to about $22,000 per retort, including buildings, etc., or about 90 cts. is invested in the plant per tie treated annually. See the section on Railways for other data on zinc chloride plant costs. Ties Treated With Crude Asphaltic Oil. On the A. T. & S. F. Ry. some seasoned pine ties were impregnated (in 1902) with California crude oil under a pressure of 150 Ibs. per sq. in. Each tie took up 4 to 8 gals, of oil containing 77%% of asphaltum. After 5 years of service they were in first class condition, although untreated ties in the same locality (Southeastern Texas) lasted only 2 to 4 years on account of the heat and moisture. General Data on the Cost of Framing and Erecting Timber. A study of the data given in the subsequent pages of this section and in the sections on Buildings and on Railways will show that it seldom needs cost more than $10 per M. to frame and erect almost any kind of a timber structure. In fact $10 per M. is generally used by many contractors as a basis for a rough estimate of the labor cost of any timber work. Nevertheless, it should not be hastily assumed that labor on timberwork does not vary con- siderably in cost, depending on the character of the work. While it will rarely exceed $10 per M. under good management, it may often be done for as little as $1, and I have, in fact, had men lay plank roads for 50 cts. per M. These very low costs are obviously obtained only where there is no framing, measuring, or sawing, but simply handling and spiking the timber. Even in such simple cases, a little poor management may run the cost up to $2 or $3 per M. I have made no mention of the rate of wages, for the cost per M. has been almost independent of rates of carpenters' wages. This seems incredible, but I find it to have been so, as a general PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 963 rule. Railway companies in America have long paid about $2.50 per 10 hr. day to carpenters in shops and on bridge and building work. Contractors doing similar work often pay carpenters $3.00 to even $3.50 per 8 hr. day, and get the work done at less cost per M. than do the railway companies. The reason is not far to seek. By a process of natural selection the hard working, ambitious carpenters are soon found where higher wages prevail, and their hard work justifies the higher wage. It is the old story. Of course, it is also a fact that the average contractor is a much better manager than the average railway superintendent. That is why the one is a contractor and the other is a superintendent. This is not true of all individuals, but it is true of the classes taken as classes. The workman is usually worthy of his hire. It does not follow, however, that labor unions may not force up wages without likewise forcing up the output of the workmen. This unfortunate condition unfortunate, because it is against the best ultimate interests of the workmen themselves exists in many cities. Nor does it follow that it is not good economics to use common laborers as much as possible in heavy timber work. The usual mistake in management of timberwork is to let high priced car- penters do loading, carrying, cross-cut sawing, etc., which can be done just as well by common laborers. Cost of Loading and Hauling Timber. One man, assisted by the driver of a team, will load 1 M. of 2-in. plank onto a wagon in about 16 mins. These same two men will unload in 12 mins. With wages at 15 cts. per hr. per man, the cost of loading is 8 cts. per M., and unloading is 6 cts. per M. On short hauls, where the team is idle during the loading and unloading, it is necessary to add 7 cts. more per M. for lost team time, if the two horses are worth 15 cts. per hr. This makes a total of 21 cts. per M. for loading and unloading a wagon, including lost team time. Green timber weighs from 3 Ibs. to 5 Ibs. per ft. B. M., depending upon the kind. Assuming 4 Ibs., as an average illustration, we see that 1 M. weighs 2 tons, which is a good load for hard earth roads in first- class condition. If the wages of a team and driver are 30 cts. per hr., and the load is 1 M., and the speed going and coming is 2% miles per hr., the cost of hauling is nearly 25 cts. per M. t>er mile measured one way from loading point to unloading point. On muddy earth roads, 1 ton, or y 2 M. is often a good load ; then the cost of hauling is nearly 50 cts. per M. per mile. I have known earth roads to be so bad that hauling cost 75 cts. per M. per mile. Consult the index under "Hauling" for further data. The cost of unloading timber from wagons can be entirely eliminated by having a roller 3 ft. long (or two 18 ins. long) at the rear end of the wagon box, and by tilting the wagon box up so that its front end is, say, 2 ft. higher than the rear end. The roller is provided with a ratchet wheel and a dog. Where the dog is tripped the timber rolls out of the wagon by gravity, if long sticks are on the wagon. If sticks are short, other rollers 964 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. must be placed in the bottom of the wagon box. All rollers are mounted in bearings, of course. Sawing, Boring and Adzing. In heavy timberwork the cost of framing consists mainly in sawing, boring and adzing the sticks. Where a large number of sticks are to be sawed to the same length it generally pays to install a small power saw ; but on jobs of moderate size the customary practice is to frame the timbers with a cross-cut saw operated by two men. Using a sharp saw and working rapidly two men can cross-cut a 12 X 12-in. oak stick in 3 mins., but it is generally safer to allow 5 mins. to cover delays. When a timber is to be notched, or scarfed, a cross-cut saw is used to cut to the bottom of the scarf, then a hatchet or adz is used to cut away the wood roughly, and an adz is used to dress the face. I have seen poor foremen permit workmen to use chisels instead of adzes, thus "making the job last." A "dap" is a shallow notch cut in a stick. Mortise and tenon joints are no longer used by those who know how to design economic and durable timber structures. Dowel pins and drift-bolts have largely replaced the old mortise and tenon. In boring holes for bolts, there are three methods commonly used : ( 1 ) Boring by hand with ship augers ; ( 2 ) boring vertical or in- clined holes of moderate depth with hand-power boring machines ; and (3) boring with augers operated by compressed air. A man with a ship auger will bore a 1%-in. hole in oak, 12 ins. deep in 5 mins, or at the rate of 120 ft. in 10 hrs. Using a geared boring machine, a man will bore a 1-in. hole 12 ins. deep in 2 mins., by hand, or at the rate of 300 ft. in 10 hrs. With a pneumatic auger a man will bore a 1-in. hole 3^ ft. deep, in yellow pine chord members of a trestle, in 5 mins. of actual boring time, but 2 mins. more must be added for cleaning the shavings out of the hole, and moving to the next hole, making 7 mins. in all for 3y 2 ft., or 2 mins. per ft., or at the rate of 300 ft. in 10 hrs. This is the most economic method of boring where much work is to be done. For cost of operating pneumatic machines, see index under Pneumatic Machines. Mr. W. E. Smith states that in building an ore dock three pneumatic boring machines were used. The air was supplied by two 9-in. Westinghouse locomotive air pumps, through 1,200 ft. of iy 2 -in. pipe in one direction of the dock and through 1,000 ft. of 1^-in. pipe in another direction to the framing, yard. For air receivers there were one locomotive air reservoir on the dock and one in the framing yard. The air pumps had to work so fast to supply air that a stream of water had to be kept running over their valves to keep them cool. It would require a 20 hp. boiler to supply steam for one of the air pumps working at such a speed. While these air pumps use a good deal of steam, they are very convenient, for they are light, easily moved and can be bolted up PILING, TRESTLING, TltyBERWORK. 965 anywhere to a wall or post. The pneumatic borers were run with a pressure of 60 to 90 Ibs., and gave great satisfaction. In the following paragraphs will be found a statement that in boring by hand, each man averaged 80 ft. of hole per day bored through trestle stringers, presumably % or 1-in. holes, averaging less than 8 ins. deep. For cost of boring deep holes lengthwise in oak piles, see the index under "Timber Boring." In boring %-in. holes with a ship auger through 12-in. Douglas fir, a man will ordinarily take 3 mins., which is at the rate of 200 ft. in 10 hrs. Transporting Timber Short Distances. Never allow carpenters to handle any considerable amount of timber. Provide common laborers for loading, carrying, etc. Rarely should men carry timbers on their shoulders or with lug hooks. Instead, lay run plank over which the timber can be pushed on a dolly, which is a little roller provided with a frame on which the timber is balanced. Often two dollies are used, one at each end of the timber. Even W/y Fig. 1. Dolly with Handle. if the timber is light boards, do not permit carrying, but require the boards to be stacked up on dollies. I have found it advantageous to provide each dolly with a handle, as shown in Fig. 1. Then one man walks ahead pulling thft front dolly by its handle, while another man follows at the rear pushing the handle of the rear dolly. The men walk tandem along the run plank until the place of delivery is reached ; then, if it is a wooden bridge floor, they swing the rear end of the stick, around (still on the dolly) and dump the plank right where it is needed by the carpenters. In loading such plank onto dollies, each man uses a lug hook. A 4 X 12 in. X 20 ft. plank weighed 250 Ibs. Two men loaded, hauled, a distance of 60 ft., and delivered one plank every 1% mins., or at the rate of more than 30 M. per 10 hr. day, or about 45 "tons of lumber were loaded and transported 60 ft. by two men. A heavier load could readily have been handled on the dollies, but one plank at a time was more economic, since the carpenters were thus relieved of all work except spiking. In that connection I may add that each plank was pinched up tight against the last plank in the floor by a man using a peavey. Another man started each spike with an ordinary hammer, and two men drove the spikes with spike mauls. 966 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Formulas for Quantity of Materials in Trestles. I have deduced the following formulas from bills of materials of standard trestles on the Northern Pacific Ry. High frame trestles are built in stories 25 ft. high. The follow- ing formulas give the amount of timber in a single-track frame trestle of any given height up to 125 ft. (1) M = L (220 + 6.ff) for trestles up to 25 ft. high. (2) M = L (240 + 8tf) for trestles 25 to 50 ft. high. (3) M = L (240 + 9#) for trestles 50 to 75 ft. high. (4) M = L (240 + 10S") for trestles 75 to 125 ft. high. M total ft. B. M. L = length of trestle in feet. JET = height from ground to 4 ft. below base of rail. There are 164 ft. B. M. in the timber deck per lin. ft. of bridge, but the above formulas include this deck timber. There are 70 Iba. of wrought iron and 30 Ibs. of cast iron per 1,000 ft. B. M. of deck and half that amount per M. of bents. Hence (5) W = L (20 + 0.4H) for trestles up to 75 ft. high. W = weight of iron in pounds, 70% of which is wrought and 30% cast iron. For closely approximate estimates determine the profile area of an opening that is to be trestled, calculating the area (A) from the ground up to a line 4 ft. below the rail. Divide this area (A) by the length (L) of the trestle, and the quotient is the average height (H). If it is desired to estimate quantities by profile area (A) direct, simply substitute for H in the above A equations its value . L Equation (1) then becomes (6) M = 220 L + 6A. This has the same general form as my "formula for the weight of steel in viaducts, which is given in the section on Bridges. For pile trestles, four piles per bent (bents 16 ft. c to c) and assumed penetration and cut off of pile amounting to 20 ft., we have H+ 20 (7) P = XL. (8) M = 185 L for heights up to 15 ft. (9) M = 200 L for heights of 15 to 25 ft. (10) W = 16 L. P = number of lin. ft. of piles. H = height of trestle in feet from ground to 4 ft. below rail. L length of trestle in feet. M = ft. B. M. W = weight of iron in pounds, 40% of which is wrought, 30% cast, and 30% galvanized. The above formulas (1) to (4) for frame trestles are sufficiently accurate for all but very short trestles, but they give an excess of timber equivalent to the amount in one bent. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. %' The formulas for pile trestles, however, provides for one bent fewer than is usually driven, for it is customary to drive an extra bent at each end to act as a bulkhead, and about 10 planks (4 X 12 ins. X 12 ft.) are placed as a sheeting back of each of these pile bulkheads, to hold back the earth fill. Hence one bent of 4 piles and about 500 ft. B. M. of bulkhead timber should be added to the quantities given by equations (7) and (8) for pile trestles, to be exact. In the section on Bridges, it will be found that the average height of trestles on the Great Northern and on the Northern Pacific Rys. in Washington was a little less than 20 ft. In which case H = 16, and eq. (1) gives us M = (220 + 96) = 316 ft. B. M. per lin. ft. W = (20 + 6.4) ^ 26.4 Ibs. iron. Hence at $30 per M. for timber in place and 4 cts. per Ib. for iron in place, the cost is $10.55 per lin. ft. of trestle. The following is the bill of lumber in a Northern Pacific pile trestle per 16 ft. length. Ft. B. M. 6 stringers, 9 x 18-in. x 16-ft 1,296 3 packing blocks, 4 x 18-in. x 6-ft 108 1 spacing block, 4 x 6-in. x 6-ft 12 . 14 cross ties, 8 x 8-in. x 12-ft 896 2 guard rails, 5 x 8-in. x 16-ft 107 1 cap, 12 x 16-in. x 14-ft 224 2 lateral braces, 6 x 8-in. x 18-ft 144 1 cleat, 2 x 8-in. x 10-ft 14 2 sway braces, 3 x 10-in. x 20-f t 100 Total 2,901 This is practically the constant for heights (H) up to 15 ft, and is equivalent to 185 ft. B. M. per lin. ft. But above that height is customary to put a horizontal brace midway between the cap and the ground, and use four diagonal sway braces instead of two. Methods and Cost of Building a Railway Trestle. A trestle on the Indiana, Illinois & Iowa R. R., near Streator, 111., was destroyed by a tornado in July, 1903. The right-of-way was quickly cleared by a large gang of trackmen and a new trestle built, using about half of the old timber, all of which had to be framed over again as the bents were made of different heights. The new trestle was 854 ft. long, consisting of 60 bents spaced 14 ft. center to center. Of these bents 43 were double-deck bents, the upper bents being 20% ft. high, and the lower bents averaging 21 ft. The remaining bents were single-deck. The force averaged 70 bridgemen (car- penters), and 190 trackmen (laborers), and a few teams. This force cleared away the wreckage, and built the new trestle com- plete in 7 days, not including 1% days spent in getting men to the site of the work. There were 351,000 ft. B. M. in the new trestle, including ties, and the cost of clearing the site and building the trestle was $11.85 per M. for labor of bridgemen, trackmen and a few teams. The wages were probably about $1.50 per 10-hr, day for trackmen, and $2.50 for bridgemen. The new timber cost $27 per M. 968 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The mortise and tenon is "a back number" on railway trestle work, so the principal tools used were the two-man cross-cut saw, the adz, and the ship auger. The sills were dapped %-in., and the ends of the posts were framed to 11% ins. square, ensuring a perfect joint. The posts were sawed off square, dapped into the cap and drift- bolted, toenailed to the sill with eight %-in. X 10-in. boatspikes in each post. A peg was driven and numbered to mark the center of each bent, and small stakes were set on each side to mark the location of the plumb legs and batter posts. The ground was then dug to a level surface around each of the four pegs, but no particular care was taken to dig the ground to the same level at all four pegs. Dif- ferences in level were made up by using blocks for cribbing under the sills. These blocks were leveled on top by digging earth out from under them where necessary, which did away with adzing or shimming the sill. The blocks under each bent consisted of eight pieces 4 ft. long, two blocks under each post, giving a ground bear- ing of about 45 sq. ft. per bent. When a foundation of blocking and the lower sill were in place, the posts and cap for a bent were dragged by teams to the site of the bent and rolled over into position just ahead of the foundation. The' sill was rolled over on its side ; the plumb posts were butted against the dapped places and toenailed, being centered from the grading pegs. The batter posts were laid near their proper places (but not toenailed), and the cap was drift bolted to all four posts, holes having already been bored in the cap. The cap and sill were held tight to the plumb post with chains and with "right and left screw-pulling jacks." Then the batter posts were crowded in at the bottom and toenailed to the sill. The bent being assembled, one sash brace and two sway braces were spiked across the upper face of the bent as it lay blocked up a few feet above the ground. Four %-in. X 8-in. boat spikes were used at each intersection. The bent was then ready to be raised. A set of double tackle blocks was made fast at each end of the cap and anchored to the cap of the preceding bent which had already been erected and securely braced. The pulling ropes ran through snatch blocks fastened to the sill of this preceding bent, and a team was hitched to each of the two pulling ropes. The team up-ended the bent easily. A subbing rope around the cap, and anchored to any convenient anchorage, prevented the bent from going too far and tipping over. And two temporary struts from the sill of the preceding bent to the sill of the bent that was being raised, prevented the bent from sliding while being raised. When erected, the bent was pinched over so as to be centered on the alinement stake ; then plumbed and tied to the preceding bent with sash braces and sway braces. The bents were plumbed by eye, or by lining the posts up with a plumb line string held at arm's length. It was necessary to plumb the bent from both sides. A small gang followed the erectors, putting PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 969 on the remaining sash braces, sway braces, tower braces and A-braces. Teams were used for hoisting the framed timbers for the top series of bents, from the ground to the top of the lower series of bents, where they were assembled and erected practically as above described. To hoist the timbers for the top series of bents, a gin- pole was erected. The gin-pole was 40 ft. high, and consisted of two 3 X 12-in. pieces, 28 ft. long, with another piece spiked between them so as to give a total length of 40 ft. This gin-pole was securely chained to one of the lower bents. At first a series of snatch blocks was used in hoisting the timbers, but this proved too severe on the teams and double blocks were used to multiply the power. The 8 X i6-in. .stringers were run out on the trestle on dollies pushed along run planks. They required but little framing. The ends were cut off so that the joint came over the middle of the cap, and the end of any stringer more than 15% ins. deep was adzed off to that size, to give an even bearing for the ties. The stringers were then turned over flatwise, and piled three deep (breaking joint) and bored. Then they were lifted apart and 2-in. cast iron packing washers slipped in between, and the bolts were entered and tightened. Sections of stringers 200 to 300 ft. long were bolted together, and then turned over into position. To turn a section over, a stout lever, 10 ft. long, was chained to one end of the section. A set of double blocks and tackle fastened to the end of this lever quickly turned the section over. In boring the holes through the stringers each man averaged 80 ft. of holes bored per day, that is 40 holes 2 ft. long. The ties were hoisted from the ground by teams, using gin-poles. The foregoing description has been prepared from data given by Mr. W. R. Sanborn. Cost of a Timber Viaduct. Mr. S. D. Mason gives the following data relating to a high timber viaduct on the N. P. R. R. in the Rocky Mts., near Missoula. The viaduct contained 970 M. of Nor- way pine, 75% of which was sawed by contract and the rest hewed. The saw mill was put up near the work and all the timber was framed at the mill. The viaduct was 866 ft. long, and 227 ft. high for a distance of about 150 ft. at the center. It consisted of 8 timber towers supporting 7 Howe truss spans of 50 ft. each. On each side of these were M bents supporting straining beams of 30 ft. span each. The timbers were erected by 2 to 4 gangs of 16 men each, a stick at a time. The heaviest stick weighed 1,700 Ibs. Both hors? and steam power were used for hoisting. The chords of the Howe trusses consisted of two 6 X 12's and one 8 X 12. They were placed and the diagonal braces put in, beginning at the center, the chords being temporarily held by struts and guy Jines. It was found impracticable to raise the trusses bodily. Fir angle blocks were used, but their subsequent shrinkage led finally to the building of new Howe trusses. Work was begun Jan. 1, 1882, and completed in 171 days. Laborers and carpenters received 970 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. exceedingly high wages, $6 to $7.50 a day, which accounts for the high cost of $37 per M. for framing and erecting. At ordinary wages the labor would have cost about $12 per M. The erecting gangs struck for $10 a day when within 30 ft. of the top, and their wages were raised, but it is not stated how much. The fol- lowing was the cost of the viaduct: 869 M., at $27 .$23,463 101 M., at $16 1,616 87,120 Ibs. wrought iron, at 5% cts 5,010 29,940 Ibs. cast iron, at 3% cts 973 117,060 Ibs. hauled 80 miles, at 2% cts 3,220 Wages of carpenters and laborers 36,336 Salaries of engineers 3,137 Traveling, office and sundry expenses 1,007 Supplies for men 2,860 Blocks, ropes, chains and wrenches 1,300 40 horses, 90 days, at $1 3,600 Hay and oats for same 2,700 Rent of land and land damages 400 Total, at $88.27 per M $85,622 Cost of Building a Pile and Timber Approach to a Bridge. Mr. B. L. Crosby gives the following cost data on the building of a timber trestle approach, 2,960 ft. long, to a double track bridge across the Missouri River, in 1893. The trestle was built by company men. In the trestle there were 1,438 M of yellow pine, 35,220 ft. of piles, and 97,552 Ibs. of iron (70 Ibs. per M of timber). The cost of un- loading, handling and driving piles, including all material and labor (except the cost of the piles themselves) was 13.7 cts. per lin. ft. The cost of unloading, framing and erecting timber, was $7.42 per M. Cost of Building a Trestle and a Howe Truss Bridge Umder Traffic. An old railway trestle was rebuilt under a traffic averaging one train per hour. The trestle was 300 ft. long and 50 ft. high at the center. The labor of rebuilding this trestle cost $9.90 per M, including taking down and piling up the old trestle timbers. There were 5 men and a working foreman in the gang; 2 men at $2 a day each, 3 men at $1.75, and 1 foreman at $60 a month. This same gang built a Howe truss railway bridge under traffic at a cost ot $28 per M for labor. The cost of framing and placing 30 M of oak ties and guard rails on three bridges was $12 per M, which was a very high cost. For comparative data see the section on Bridges. Cost of Wagon Road Trestles. My records show the following costs of building a dozen or more trestles in the state of Washington. The trestles were for highway use, and had a 3-in. plank floor, 16 ft. wide, resting on 7 lines of 4 x 14-in. stringers. Bents were spaced 20 ft. apart, three 10 x 10-in. posts to a bent dapped into and dow- eled to caps and sills. Sills were of hewed cedar 10 x 15 ins. Caps were 10 x 12 ins. x 18 ft. Sway braces were of 3 x 6-in. stuff spiked to the posts and sill. The supports for the hand rail consisted of 4x4-in. posts, 4y 2 ft. long, spaced 10 ft. apart and bolted to the outer stringers which in turn were drift bolted to the caps. The top or hand rail was of 3 x 4-in. stuff, and the hub rail was 2x8 ins. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 971 There was no mortise and tenon work, and the framing was of the simplest type. The bents were framed flat on the ground and up- ended to place by using blocks and tackle operated by hand power. The flooring and stringers were conveyed to place by dollies. The work was done by subcontractors with few carpenters, and in all cases was handled with excellent judgment and with rapidity. To frame and erect a trestle 60 ft. long, consisting of two bents and two bank sills, required 4 men only 1 % days. This trestle contained 7 M, of which 5 M were in the floor system (floor and stringers). Three of the gang were laborers, at $1.50, and one was a carpenter, at $2.50, making the daily wages $7 for the gang, so that the cost of building this trestle was only $1.50 per M. This cost was distributed as follows: $4 per M for framing and erect- ing the bents and the hand railing; 50 cts. per M for laying the stringers and the floor plank. This laying of stringers and plank, where there is nothing to do but to deliver them on dollies, toenail the stringers to the caps, and spike the floor plank to the stringers, can be done very cheaply by common laborers skilled enough to drive nails. It is not necessary to notch the stringers in order to secure align- ment of the tops of the stringers for the plank 'floor, because in such timberwork perfection of alignment causes a needless waste of labor. A gang of 3 laborers, on another trestle, laid a floor system con- taining 15 M of plank and stringers in l l / 2 days, at a cost of 50 cts. per M. On another trestle 260 ft. long, it took 4 men 3 days to lay 23 M of stringers and plank in the floor system, at a cost of nearly $1 per M. These men were much slower. On another piece of road work, where we used round timber for the posts and sills, a gang of 9 men and a team cut and delivered all the necessary timber from the. forest, erected and sway braced the bents of three trestles, having a total length of 440 ft. in 12 days. There were 7 framed bents, 12 pile bents (36 piles 20 ft. long, driven 5 ft.), and 6 mud sills in these 3 trestles. The piles were driven with a small horsepower pile driver. Seven of these men were laborers, two were carpenters and bosses. The timber in the bents was not accurately measured to determine the number of board feet, but the approximate cost, including the piles, was less than $16 per M for the bents. The cost of the sawed timber floor system was, of course, much less. I consider this an excellent rec- ord, and one not to be equalled except under the best foremanship and with willing, intelligent laborers. Cost of Trestles, Cross References. For further data on trestles see particularly the section on Railways. Consult the index under "Timber, Trestles." Estimated Prices of Howe Truss Bridges. The following were detailed estimates of cost at standard contract prices for building Howe truss single-track bridges in Washington (in 1906), according 972 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to standard plans of the Northern Pacific Ry. All lengths are lengths over all. 40 FT. PONT TRUSS BRIDGE. Materials. 15 M. timber at $16 + $2 frt. - $18 $ 270 3,500 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts. deliv 105 3,200 Ibs. cast iron at 2 V 2 cts 80 Total materials, $11.44 per lin. ft $ 455 Labor and Falsework. Labor to frame and erect 15 M. at $15 $ 225 12 piles (falsework) delivered at $3 36 12 piles (falsework) driven at $2 24 4 M. timber (falsework) second hand, at $6 24 4 M. timber (falsework) erected and taken down, $10 40 Miscellaneous expense 50 Total labor and falsework, $10 per lin. ft $ 400 Abutments. 2 pile abutments at $250 $ 500 100 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 150 Total abutments, $16.25 per lin. ft $ 650 Grand total at $37.50 per lin. ft 1,505 60 FT. PONY TRUSS BRIDGE. Materials. 24 M. at $18 $ 432 7,200 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts 216 6,800 Ibs. cast iron at 2 y 2 cts 170 Total materials, $13.60 per lin. ft $ 818 Labor and Falsework. Labor and frame and erect 24 M. at $15 $ 360 Falsework, materials and labor 200 Total labor and falsework, $9.20 per lin. ft...$ 560 Abutments. 2 pile abutments, at $250 $ 500 100 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 150 Total abutments, $10.80 per lin. ft $ 650 Grand total, $37.60 per lin. ft 2,028 70 FT. PONT TRUSS BRIDGE. Materials. 29 M. at $18 $ 522 10,300 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts 309 12,000 Ibs. cast iron at 2% cts .' . . 300 Total materials, $16.16 per lin. ft $1,131 Labor and Falsework. Labor to frame and erect 29 M. at $15 $ 435 Falsework, materials and labor. . . 225 Total labor and falsework, $9.33 per lin. ft $ 660 Abutments. 2 abutments at $250 $ 500 100 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 150 Total abutments, $9.30 per lin. ft $ 65G Grand total, $34.50 per lin. ft 2,416 . PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 973 100 FT. THROUGH BRIDGE. Materials. 51 M. at $18 % 918 21,600 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts 648 20,000 Ibs. cast iron at 2% cts 500 Total materials, $20.66 per lin. ft ............ $2,066 Labor and Falsework. 100 lin. ft. erected at $8 ...................... $ 800 A butments. 2 abutments at $300 .......................... $ 600 300 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 ................... 450 Total abutments, $10.50 per lin. ft ........... $1,050 Grand total, $39.16 per lin. ft ................ 3,916 120 FT. THROUGH BRIDGE. Materials. 63 M. at $18 ............................. -....$1,184 28,500 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts ................... 855 25,400 Ibs. cast iron at 2 y% cts .................. 635 Total materials, $22.30 per lin. ft ............ $2,674 Labor and Falsework. 120 lin. ft. erected at $9 ...................... $1,080 Abutments. 2 abutments at $300 ..................... . ____ $ 600 300 cu. yds. at $1.50 ............. ............. 450 Total abutments, $8.38 per lin. ft $1,050 Grand total, $40 per lin. ft 4,804 130 FT. THROUGH BRIDGE. Materials. 72 M. at $18 $1,296 34,000 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts 1,020 29,000 Ibs. cast iron at 2 % cts 725 Total materials, $23.40 per lin. ft $3,041 Labor and Falsework. 130 lin. ft. erected at $10 $1,300 Abutments. 2 abutments at $300 $ 600 300 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 450 Total abutments, $8.10 per lin. ft $1,050 Grand total, $41.50 per lin. ft 5,390 150 FT. THROUGH BRIDGE. Materials. 89 M. at $18 $1,502 45,000 Ibs. wrt. iron at 3 cts 1,350 40,000 Ibs. cast iron at 2% cts 1,000 Total materials, $26.30 per lin. ft $3,852 Labor and Falsework. 150 lin. ft. erected at $12 $1,800 Abutments. 2 abutments at $350 $ 700 300 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 450 Total abutments, $7.70 per lin. ft. $1,150 Grand total, $47.30 per lin. ft 7,102 The standard pile abutment contains 14 piles for spans under 8ft 974 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ft., 16 piles for 80 to 130-ft spans, and 20 piles for 130 to 160-ft. spans. Obviously the cost of piles will vary with the length. It is customary to assume a 20-ft. penetration. In addition to the piles there were 2,500 to 4,000 ft. B. M. of timber per abutment, and 160 Ibs. of iron per M of this timber. It will he noticed that the cost of Howe truss bridges on pile abut- ments does not vary greatly per lin. ft. of span, the principal rea- son being that the abutments constitute so large a part of the cost. See the section on Bridges and on Railways. Cost of 160-ft. Span Howe Truss Bridges and Cribs. In 1894 I designed, and built by contract, two highway bridges over different points on the Noaksack River, Washington. Each bridge had a 16-ft. roadway, a clear span of 160 ft., and a depth of truss of 30 ft. at the center. The bridge was designed to carry 100 Ibs. per sq. ft. of roadway. The trusses were a modified type of Howe truss, having upper chords that were not horizontal but sloped up from both end posts to an apex at the center, like a roof truss. This design very materially reduced the amount of iron, which was an important factor. Each chord was made of three parallel timbers, each 6x14 ins., bolted together. Panels were 20 ft. long. The floor was of 3-in. cedar plank, for lightness and durability. The rest of the tim- ber was Washington fir. The bridges rested on pile abutments, which were protected by log cribs filled with field-stones. Each bridge contained 40 M of timber, of which 23 M were in the trusses and braces, and 17 M in the floor system. No piles were driven for falsework, although the river was 4 te 6 ft. deep and swift ; but two-post bents were put up just back of each panel point. Bents were made of round timber, and erected by first dropping into the water pairs of long-legged saw horses on each side of the proposed falsework, and laying run planks on the horses for men to walk on. A falsework can thus be built with great rapidity and cheaply, and in spite of the weight coming upon the posts of each bent the settlement in the gravel bottom was very slight, and easily taken up by wedges under the lower chords. There is always danger, however, that a sudden flood will undermine the falsework, and this happened at one of the bridges, causing it to fall during construction. No upper falsework, except a light staging at each end post and at the center, is needed with this type of truss, provided long sticks of timber can be secured; for with chord sticks 62 ft. long (in a bridge of this size) it is possible to lift, first one end, then the other, of the upper chord sticks and support them upon the light staging at each end, until the diagonal struts are placed. The trusses must be first framed and bolted together, flatwise on the ground, then unbolted and erected piece by piece. The tim- bers were pushed out onto the falsework on dollies, and lifted with block and tackle, using a gin-pole where necessary ; all this handling being by hand without a hoisting engine. Although the following record of low cost will be hard te equal, it serves to show what can be done with efficient labor under a good bridge foreman. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 975 COST OF 160-FT. SPAN BRIDGE. Materials. 40 M. timber, at $7 on cars . .$ 280.00 40 M. timber hauled 3 miles, at $2.50 100.00 3,970 Ibs. iron rods; 662 Ibs. bolts; 769 Ibs. gib plates; 326 Ibs. drift bolts; total 5,727 Ibs., at 3!/4 cts 186.10 14 cast iron angle blocks, 1,316 Ibs., at 2% cts. 36.20 613 cast iron washers, 613 Ibs., at 2y 2 cts 15.30 Lag screws, nails, etc 9.90 Freight on iron 14.50 Total bridge materials delivered $ 642.00 30 abutment piles, 30 ft. long, at 5 cts. per ft. 45.00 Labor. Framing trusses, 6 carpenters 7 days, at $2.50. . $ 105.00 Getting out timber for falsework and building driver 40.00 Driving 30 piles, 6 men and 2 teams, 9 days.. 150.00 Building two log cribs 75.00 Erecting lower falsework, 8 men, 3 days 48.00 Erecting bridge, 4 carpenters and 6 laborers, 7 days . . . . 133.00 Laying floor and handrails, 4 carpenters and 4 laborers, 1 day 16.00 Loading, hauling and placing 70 cu. yds. of field-stones in cribs ( %-mile haul) 70.00 Total $ 637.00 Foreman, at $4 per day. '. 160.00 Grand total labor on bridge and abutments.. $ 797.00 Summary Bridge materials delivered $ 642.00 Piles delivered . . 45.00 Labor 637.00 Foremanship 160.00 Tools, ropes, etc. (one-half charged to each bridge) 100.00 Total cost of one bridge and abutments $1,584.00 This is less than $10 per lin. ft. of bridge. Deducting the cost of material and labor on the two pile abut- ments and their cribs, we have left, $1,200 as the cost of one bridge alone. If we analyze the labor we find that the wages of the foreman amounted to 20% of the total labor expenditure. This is a high percentage, but one often exceeded on small works of this char- acter where delays due to bad weather or lack of materials, add up very rapidly when the foreman is paid by the month for handling a small gang of men. It will be seen that the carpenter work of framing the 23 M (exclusive of the floor) cost $4.50 per M, to which should be added about $1.00 per M for foreman. Erecting the bridge (exclusive of 17 M of floor) cost $133 after the falsework was built, or nearly $6 per M (4 erectors being carpenters, at $2.50, and 6 laborers, at $1.50), to which should be added $1.50 for foreman. This makes a total of $10.50 per M for framing and erecting the 23 M in the bridge trusses, to which must be added $2.50 per M for foreman, and $2 more per M for erecting falsework, if we distribute the 976 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, labor cost of erecting the falsework over the 23 M. The falsework cost must be estimated for every bridge separately. In this case it was unusually cheap. The cost of placing the 17 M of flooring on the bridge was less than $1 per M, for there was practically no sawing, adzing or boring to be done simply running the timber out to place on dollies, and spiking it. This seems an exceedingly low cost, but similar records will be found on other pages. Perhaps no better example will be found in this book to show the necessity of separating plain timber work from framed timberwork in analyzing timberwork costs. The cost of the pile driving was high per pile not only because the driving was very hard, but because of the small number of piles in each abutment, and because of the cost of moving across the Fig. 2. Log Culvert. river and erecting staging for the driver to rest upon at each abut- ment. The cribs around the piles were made of hewn timber taken from the forest near by. .Each crib averaged 6 ft. high, 10 ft. wide, and 30 ft. long, containing about 6 M of timber. The cost of cutting this timber, hewing and erecting it, was $6 per M, wages of men being $2.50 a day. To this about $1.50 per M. should be added for fore- man. A third crib, built for another bridge abutment, was 10 ft. high, 12 ft. wide, and 3*5 ft. long, containing about 12 M of hewed timber. It took 5 men 4 days, at $2.50, to cut the timber for and build this crib, which is equivalent to about $4 per M and to this $1 per M should be added for foreman. For actual cost of Howe truss railway bridges, see the section on Bridges. Cost of Log Culverts. In building roads and railways through timbered country, it is generally good practice to build most of the culverts of logs. Log culverts are frequently floored with logs for the full length of the culvert, but they may be built with log sills spaced 4 ft. c. to c., and projecting 1 ft. beyond the walls, as indi- cated by the dotted lines in Fig. 2. The ends of a log culvert are stepped up, as in Fig. 3, I = L 2 D. Hence the "average length" is L D. To estimate the lin. ft. of logs in a paved culvert like that in Fig. it, add 2 ft. to the inside horizontal dimension to get the length of PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 977 logs in pavement and in cover, which is 6 ft. in this case. Then double this length and add double the inside height; the sum will be the total lineal feet of 12-in. logs per lin. ft. of "average length" of culvert. In a 2 x 4 culvert (Fig. 2), this gives (2 X 6) + (2 X 2) rr 16 lin. ft. of logs. There are 0.3 Ib. of %-in. drift bolts required per lin. ft. of logs (or 25 'Ibs. per M when squared timbers are used). The bidding price is usually about 12 cts. per lin. ft. of logs in place, plus 3 cts. per lin. ft. for hewing two sides, exclusive of the price for the iron. On the Great Northern Railway (517 miles) in Fig. 3. Log Culvert. Washington, the average size log culvert was 3 x 3% x 43 ft., or 750 lin. ft. of logs per culvert, and I estimated the average contract price in place to be: Per. lin. ft. logs. Logs in place... ". $0.12 Hewing 1% sides at 1% cts. per side 0.02. 0.33 Ibs. iron drift bolts at 3 cts 0.01 Excavating 0.04 cu. yds. at 25 cts 0.01 Total $0.16 See the sections on Railways and on Bridges. Materials Required for Timber Box Culverts. Culverts made of sawed timber are usually designed much lighter than log culverts. A 3x4-ft. opening will have wall pieces 8 ins. thick (8x12), cover 8 ins. thick (8x12), subsills 4 ins. thick (4x12) spaced 4 ft., c. to c., and floor 2 ins. thick (2x12), making a total of 90 ft. B. M. per lin. ft, and requiring 25 Ibs. of drift bolts per M. Cost of a Wooden Reservoir Roof on Iron Posts. A reservoir at Pasadena, Cal., was roofed over in 1899, at a remarkably low cost. I am indebted to Mr. T. D. Allin for the following data: The extreme dimensions of the reservoir were 330 x 540 ft., and 166,000 sq. ft. were roofed. The roof was supported by 551 iron posts made of 2-in. water pipe, capped at the bottom and set in cement. On the top of each of these posts a wooden corbel, 6x6 ins. x 2 Ms ft., was fastened by boring a hole 4 ins. deep in the corbel and driving the pipe into the hole. Each post, about 20 ft. long, was up-ended by hand, after the corbel had been driven on, plumbed and tempo- 978 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. rarily stay-lathed. Posts were spaced 15% and 18 ft. apart. OH the posts were laid floor beams made of two 2 x 10-in. plank, overlapped at the ends and spiked together, forming a continuous beam 4x10 ins. A gang of 7 men, using movable scaffolding for plac- ing and spiking these floor beams, averaged 1,500 ft. of floor beams per day. On these beams were laid 2 x 8-in. stringers, 16 ft. long. The stringers were overlapped 4 ins. and spiked, and were spaced 6 ft. centers. On the stringers were laid 1 x 12-in. planks, forming the roof. These planks were cut to 12-ft., 18-ft. and 24-ft. lengths, the planks being laid in forms so as to facilitate accurate cutting without individual measurement of each plank. Similar forms were used for cutting the planks used in the floor-beams. The stringers did not require accurate cutting. All the timber was rough, merchantable Oregon pine. The cost of this roof, covering 166,000 sq. ft., was as follows: 260 M. Oregon pine, at $18.70 $4,862 9,373 ft. of 2-in. pipe 987 Nails and spikes 203 Millwork on 551 corbels '. . . 27 Cement for footings '. 6 Engineering 151 Labor, including superintendence 1,004 Total, 166,000 sq. ft., at 4.36 cts $7,240 It will be noted that the labor cost was about $4 per M. Mr. Allin informs me that about 75% of the work was done by laborers and 25% by carpenters. The laborers received $1.75 for 9 hrs., and the carpenters, $2.50 for 9 hrs. The work was done during hard times and quite a number of the laborers were really carpenters. Carpenters were used on the erection work and on work around the sides of the structure where neatness was required. More recently Mr. Allin has completed covering three more reser- voirs in a similar manner, the only change in design being the spac- ing of joists 4 ft. apart instead of 6 ft. He believes that the extra expense is justified because there is less warping of the boards. Wages are now (1905) $4 per 8 hrs. for carpenters, and $2 for laborers, and prices of materials are higher, so that it costs 6 cts. per sq. ft. to cover a reservoir. For other data on reservoir roofs see the section on Waterworks. Cost of a Crib Dam. Mr. J. W. Woermann gives the following cost data for two crib dams across the north and the south chan- nels of Rock River, at the head of Carr's Island, near Milan, 111., built in 1894. The north dam is 598 ft. long; the south dam, 764 ft long. The two dams are connected by a levee 1,000 ft. long. The dams are on a rock foundation, and designed to withstand a head of 4 % ft. The dam is a crib of 6 x 8-in. pine timbers, with a rock filling. The main part of the dam is 13y 2 ft. wide, with an apron 6^ ft. wide, making a total base of 20 ft. A filling of clay and quarry refuse is placed against the cribwork on the up-stream side. The main dam and the apron are covered with 4-In. oak plank, and the up-stream face of the dam with two rows of 2-in. pine sheet- piling. From the crest of the dam to the apron the fall is 3 ft. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 979 An area below the north abutment was stripped for a quarry (June, 1894), and the 800 cu. yds. of stripping, together with 300 cu. yds. of riprap, were used t for cofferdams for the north dam. The cofferdams were made as follows: Cribs, 16 ft. square, were built in line, spaced 14 ft. apart. The cribs were built in shallow water by boring holes in the ends of each timber and dropping the timbers over long upright bolts at each corner of the crib. The top of these cribs was sheeted with 4-in. oak plank and weighted down with bags of sand. Timbers, 6 x 8-in., the ends of which were supported by adjacent cribs, were then shoved down into the water. This furnished a cofferdam 130 ft. long, and riprap and quarry strip- ping dumped against the face of the dam could not be washed away. The 4-in. oak plank was then removed and used in the permanent work. Subsequently the riprap, which was placed on the down- stream side of the cribs, was removed and used in the dam. The quarry stripping was placed on the up-stream side of the cribs. The areas enclosed by cofferdams were 50 to 200 ft. long, and were kept dry with hand pumps. The water in the river was so shallow that wagons were used to deliver all the materials used in both coffer- dams and main dams. The carpenter work on the south dam was begun Aug. 7 and fin- ished Aug. 22, working 8 hrs. a day, including Sundays. For this dam about 75% of the rock was quarried from the river bed without requiring explosives. During the construction of the coffer-dam for the south dam the force was 14 teams and 50 laborers (for a few rush days there were 130 laborers), and they were engaged from July 24 to Aug. 4. During the erection of the cribwork for the main dam (16 days) the force was 16 carpenters and 50 laborers, about one-third of the laborers assisting the carpenters in carrying timbers, boring, driving bolts and spikes. The number of teams was the same throughout the work. The total amount of timber in both dams was 330,190 ft. B. M., distributed thus: Feet B. M.- North dam. South dam. Longitudinal timbers (pine) . . 47,230 73,550 Transverse timbers (pine) 28,350 46,950 Sheet piling timbers (pine) 7,950 14,610 Plank in coding (oak) 33,540 42,840 Plank in apron (oak) 15,870 19,300 Total ; 132,940 197,250 The cost of the labor of putting this timber into the dams was $5.80 per M. The rock filling in the north dam is 1,240 cu. yds. ; in the south flam, 2,350 cu. yds. The iron used was: North dam. South dam. Anchor bolts, Ibs 1,010 320 Drift bolts, Ibs 6,050 9,610 Boat spikes, Ibs 4,750 6,050 Wire nails, Ibs 300 400 Total, Ibs 12,110 16,380 980 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of labor on the two dams was: North dam. South dam. Hauling materials : $ 284 Building coffer-dams $ 730 1,055 Preparing foundation 493 Carpenter work on dams. 949 965 Quarrying rock, tilling cribs and grading above dams 1,966 1,971 Engineering, watching and miscel- laneous 362 402 Total 14,500 $5,495 This makes the total cost of labor $9,995 on the two dams. The total cost was as follows: Labor $ 9,995 Rent of land 217 111 M. oak : 2,919 218 M, pine 3,087 28,490 Ibs. iron 805 Explosives 151 Total $17,174 Cost of Timber Cribs for Dams, Etc.* Maj. Graham D. Fitch gives the following: Timber cribs were built in connection with the building of the lock described on page 989. The work was done on the Upper White River, Arkansas, by Gov- ernment forces, common laborers receiving $1.50 per 8-hr. day. Guide Cribs. At the head and foot of each lock wall permanent guard or guide cribs were placed. The upper river crib is a solid crib, containing the line of the river wall. It is 150 ft. long and 8 ft. wide on top. The inside face is vertical from the top to 1 ft. below the upper miter sill, below which it is stepped, as is the outer face, so that the width of the base 30 ft. below the top is 20 ft. The lower part of the crib work connects with the lock wall, but above a level 2 ft. below the upper miter sill there is a gap 10 ft. wide between the crib and the lock wall for the passage of drift. The top of the crib is level with the coping. The lower river crib is 150 ft. long and is similar to the upper crib except that there is no gap between the crib and the lock walls, and that the top of the crib is not level with the coping throughout, that portion farthest down stream being 5 ft. below the coping in elevation. The land cribs are in line with the lock walls, the upper one being 66 ft. long and the lower one 20 ft. The cribs were built of 10 x 10-in. timbers, framed and drift bolted together, pine being used below pool level and oak above. The cribs are filled with one-man stone, large selected stones being set on edge with their flat faces against the side openings, the top being covered with large, well- shaped stones set level with the timbers. * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908, p. 283, PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 981 The cost of the upper land crib was as follows : Per M. ft. Material. Unit cost. Total, in crib. Lumber, pine, 30 M. ft. B. M $18.20 $ 546 $80.20 Riprap, 602 cu. yds 74 445 14.83 Iron, 2,350 Ibs..' 0026 63 2.10 Total materials $1,054 $35.13 Labor. Excavating 45 cu. yds $ 1.89 $ 85 $ 2.83 Insp. of timber, 30 M. ft 39 12 .40 Riprap, 602 cu. yds 008 5 .16 Building and filling, 30 M. ft 15.42 463 15.43 Backfill, 180 cu. yds 525 95 3.16 Total labor $ 660 $21.98 Grand total (30 M. ft.) $1,713 $57.10 The labor items in the above work that can be further summarized are as follows: Labor time Work done per Work done. in days. man per day. Excavating, 45 cu. yds 46 7/8 .957 cu. yd. Building and filling, 30 M. ft 259 6/8 .115 M. ft. Backfilling, 180 cu. yds 444/8 .404 cu. yd. The cost of the lower land crib was as follows : Per M. ft. Material. Unit cost. Total. in crib. Lumber, pine, 9.3 M. ft $18.15 $169 $18.15 Riprap, 145 cu. yds 74 107 11.51 Iron, 413 Ibs 026 11 1.12 Total materials $287 $30.78 Excavation labor. Earth 92, rock 15, 107 cu. yds $ 3.26 $242 $26.02 Building and filling, 9.3 M. ft 275 29.65 Insp. of timber, 4 M. ft 39 2 .21 Inspection of riprap, 65 cu. yds. . .008 ... .... Total labor $519 $55.88 Grand total (9.3 M. ft.) $806 $86.66 The following is the cost of the lower river crib : Per M. ft. Material. Unit cost. Total. in crib. Lumber, oak, 14.8 M. ft. B. M.... $16.82 $ 249 $ 5.39 Lumber, pine, 31.3 M. ft. B. M.. . . 14.97 469 10.16 Riprap, 1,014 cu. yds 74 714 15.46 Iron and spikes, 5,420 Ibs 132 2.86 Fuel 21 .45 Total cost materials $1,585 $34.33 Labor. Excavating, 980 cu. yds $ 0.039 $ 39 $ 0.84 Framing and placing timbers, 46.2 M. ft 15.60 721 15.60 Filling with riprap, 1,014 cu. yds. .447 455 9.85 Inspection of lumber, 8 M. ft..... .39 3 .06 Inspection of riprap, 90 cu. yds... .008 .72 .02 Total labor $1,219 $26.37 Grand total (46.2 M. ft.) $2,804 $60.69 982 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of the upper river crib was as follows: Material. Unit cost. Lumber, oak, 15.6 M. ft. B. M.... $20.12 Lumber, pine, 32 M. ft. B. M 14.90 Iron and spikes, 1,620 Ibs 028 Riprap, 1,315 cu. yds 74 Total cost materials. Labor. Excavation Total. $ 314 477 46 973 Per M. ft. in crib. $ 6.60 10.02 .93 20.47 $1,810 $38.02 Framing and placing timbers, 47.6 M. ft $10.32- Filling with riprap, 1,135 cu. yds. .31 50 491 410 Total labor Grand total (47.< M. ft.).... $ 951 $2,761 $19.98 $58.00 The average costs of crib materials may be summarized as follows: Per cu. yd. Average cost of riprap, delivered $ .74 Average cost to place 436 Average cost in place 1.176 Per M. ft. Average cost of crib timber, delivered $13.82 Average cost to place timber 9.29 Average cost of crib timber in place 23.11 The above costs include field supervision and subsistence, but do not include freight on timber, which is about $1 per M ft. Crib Dam. Dam No. 1 was a timber crib structure placed normal to the axis of the river and resting against the buttress of the upper river lock gate, so as to have the whole length of the lock chamber in the lower pool. The dam was 324 ft. long. For the 210 ft. next to the lock it is founded on rock, the remainder of it resting on gravel. The width at the foundation is 48 ft, and the height above the foundation varies between a maximum at one place of 27 ft. (on rock) and a minimum of 19 ft. next to the old abutment. The cribs are of yellow pine except the slope timbers and the face stringers, which are of white oak. All timbers are 10 x 10-in. scant- ling and are drift bolted together at their intersections. The up- stream face of the dam is vertical to within 2 ft. of the top, whence, to prevent catching drift, it slopes, to the crest (a 12 by 12-in. comb stick), having a slope of 1 on 4. The down-stream face sloped from the crest for 8 ft. with a slope of 1 on 4 and was stepped, having two steps each 8 ft. wide and an apron 16 ft. wide, the three vertical intervals being four courses of 40 ins. each. The upper slope was laid closely so as to be water tight ; the timbers on the down-stream side of the crest were spaced 1 in. apart. A short section of the dam about 9 ft. in length was in 1900 built inside the lock cofferdam up to the level of the apron. No further work on this dam was done until August, 1902, when work was recommenced by excavating with a dipper dredge. The dam was built in three separate sections, which were partially completed a short distance up-stream, the bottoms being built to suit careful soundings pre- PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. ys3 viously taken, and then towed to position and the building con- tinued. Only every other pen was filled with stone until the last section was in place and weighted. Triple-lap sheet piles, 9 by 12 ins., were driven to rock on the upper side of the dam for 110 ft. out from the abutment where the dam rested on gravel ; the remain- ing portion of the dam, which is on rock, was merely sheeted with double-lap 1*4 -in. plank. The lower side of the dam for 120 ft. from the abutment was also sheet piled for the purpose of holding the gravel. The dam was backfilled to within 4 ft. of the eave for about 20 ft. up-stream, partly with gumbo and partly with gravel. Below that portion of the dam on gravel a brush mattress covered with 2 ft. of stone was laid. The cost of this dam was af follows : EXCAVATION. Materials. Fuel and oil $ 96 Labor. 181 2/8 days 367 Total $463 FRAMING AND PLACING TIMBERS. Materials. Unit cost. Total. Per M. ft. Oak, 132.8 M. ft. B. M $19.81 $2,632 $ 5.07 Pine, 387.3 M. ft. B. M 13.71 5,320 10.23 Iron, 25,297 Ibs 025 655 1.25 Hauling lumber, 147.4 M. ft. B. M... 1.18 173 .33 Fuel, oil, etc 173 .33 Boat spikes, 12 kegs 8.65 104 .20 Miscellaneous 12 .02 Total cost of material, 520.2 M. ft. B. M $17.43 $9,069 $17.43 Labor. Frame and place, 520.2 M. ft, B. M. .$ 8.84 $ 4,599 $ 8.84 Grand total $13,668 $26.27 The labor time in days for framing and placing the 520.2 M. ft. B. M. was 2,392%, and the average amount framed and placed per man per day was 217 ft. DRIVING SHEET PILES. Per M. ft. Materials. Unit cost. Total. Piling. Oak, 25.2 M. ft $19.81 $ 501 $19.81 Boat spikes, 2 kegs 8.50 17 .67 Total materials, 25.2 M. ft $20.48 $ 518 $20.48 Labor. Driving, 25.2 M. ft $22.54 $ 570 $22.54 Grand total. $1,088 $43.02 The total labor time for driving the 25.2 M ft. of sheet piles was 315% days, the work done per man per day being 80 ft. B. M. driven. 984 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. FILLING (7,984 Cu. YDS.) Per cu. yd. Materials. Unit cost. Total. Filling. Riprap, 7,984 cu. yds $0.74 $5,908 $0.74 Coal (hauling), 47.1 tons 50 23 .003 Labor. Filling, 7,984 cu. yds 425 3,508 .428 Grand total $9,439 $1.18 The total labor time for filling was 1,999 days, the average work done per man per day being 4 cu. yds. of filling. PUDDLING (8,640 Cu. YDS.). Per cu. yd. Material. Unit cost. Total. Puddling. Fuel and oil $ 148 $0.017 Riprap, 60 cu. yds $0.74 44 .005 Labor. Digging and placing 8,640 cu. yds 277 $2,395 .277 Grand total $2,587 $0.299 REPUDDLING (1904). Labor, 4,550 cu. yds $0.336 $1,529 $0.336 Cost both years, 13,190 cu. yds 4,116 . .312 Total. Per lin. ft. Dam, 324 lin. ft $28,774 $88.81 Per cu yd. Dam, filling 7,984 cu. yds $3.60 SUMMARY OF DAM No. 1. Total. Unit cost. Excavation $ 463 Framing and placing timber, 520.2 M. ft. . 13,668 $26.27 Sheet piles, 25.2 M. ft 1,088 43.02 Filling, 7,984 cu. yds 9,439 1.18 Puddling, 8,640 cu. yds 2,587 .299 Repuddling (1904), 4,550 cu. yds 1,529 .336 Protecting apron and end of dam after flanking of abutment (1903) 1,212 Changing shape of old dam from step to slope (324 lin. ft.) 6,177 19.06 The cost of Dam No. 2 is given in equal detail in Engineering-Con- tracting, but it will suffice here to say that each man framed and placed 250 ft. B. M. per day, at a cost of $7.62 per M, there being 600 M all told. Foundation Crib. The crib was T shaped in plan, following the general outline of the dam abutment. The length of the river face was 136 ft., its width was 12 ft. at the up-stream end and 16 ft. at the down-stream end, and 24 ft. near the middle for a distance of 37 ft, beginning 46 ft. from the up-stream end. The portion of the crib underlying the stem of the abutment was 20 ft. wide and 60 ft. long from face to end ; it entered the bank 36 ft. The crib, which was constructed of 10 by 10-in. squared timbers, was built afloat and with interior pens varying in size from 5 to 10 ft. to 10 by 12 ft. After having been settled in place it was filled with "one man" stone up to 2 ft below extreme low water (6 ft. below water level at the time), the filling averaging 11 ft. in depth. Be- fore this filling began, however, the distributing boxes for the grout were placed. These consisted of open-ended square boxes (8 by 8 PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 985 ins. inside) of 2-in. plank perforated with 1%-in. holes spaced zigzag 1 ft. apart down the sides. They were long enough to reach just above a loosely laid floor on the top timbers and were set about 10 ft. apart throughout the crib. The cost of these boxes is given under grouting. After the grout boxes had been placed and the crib filled with rubble 9-in. triple-lap sheet piling was driven with a steam hammer along the outside of the crib from a point opposite the downstream edge of the apron to the up-stream end of the crib, and thence around the end and along the up-stream face of the stem. The other faces of the crib were sheeted with double-lap 1-in. plank driven by hand mauls. The sheet piling was also for the purpose of preventing leakage under the abutments, otherwise the double sheeting of 1-in. plank would have answered throughout. The sheet piling and plank sheeting were well spiked to the top timbers of the crib. Gravel and earth were then deposited around the crib up to the water level for a double purpose : First, to prevent the grout from forcing its way through the sheeting, and second to serve as a cofferdam when the time came to pump out the crib. The cost of this foundation crib was as follows : FOUNDATION CRIB. Per M. ft. Material. Total, of crib. Lumber, pine, 65.3 M. ft. B. M. at $11.36 $ 742 $11.36 Lumber, hauled, 50.3 M. ft. B. M. at $1.25 63 .96 Iron, 5,123 Ibs., at $0.023 119 1.82 Miscellaneous materials 100 1.53 Total cost of materials $1,024 $15.67 Labor. Framing and placing, 65.3 ft, 981 2/8 days.. $1,859 $28.47 Grand total $2,834 $44.14 The average work done per man per day was 66.6 ft. B. M. of timber framed and placed. SHEET PILES AND SHEETING. Per M. ft. Materials. Total, in place. Lumber, oak, 18.8 M. ft. B. M., at $15.79. . . .$ 299 $10.40 Lumber, pine, 9.9 M. ft. B. M. at $13.99 139 4.82 Lumber, hauled, 9.9 M. ft. B. M., at $1.25 12 .86 Spikes, 800 Ibs., at $0.031 25 .42 Total cost of materials $ 475 $16.50 Labor. Driving, 28.7 M. ft., 334 days $ 730 $25.43 Grand total $1,205 $41.93 FILLING WITH RIPRAP. Material. Total. Per cu. yd. Riprap, 876 cu. yds., at $0.74 $ 648 $0.74 Labor. Filling and placing, 118 days. $ 235 $ .27 Inspection of riprap, 10 days 18 .02 Grand total, 876 cu. yds. riprap $ 901 $ 1.03 986 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The average work done per man per day was 6.84 cu. yds. of rip* rap placed. Cost of a Coffer-dam and Aqueduct. In 1840, on the Erie Canal, when skilled laborers were paid $1 per day of 11 hrs. worked (and stonecutters received $2.25 a day carpenters' wages not stated), a cofferdam (built by contract) containing 157,500 ft. B. M. of timber and plank was built with 830 days of skilled labor and a few carpenters. This is equivalent to 190 ft. B. M. per man per day. If wages had been $2 per day, this would have meant a cost of $10.50 per M. In building (by contract) an aqueduct trunk or flume, supported by masonry arches, the timber gang consisted of 2 carpenters to every 1 skilled laborer. There were put in 892,400 ft. B. M. of timber, of which 260,300 ft. B. M. were framed. This required 3,153 days of carpenters and laborers. The average day's work for each man was: Ft. B. M. Framing 648 Putting in the work 324 If wages had averaged $2.60 per day (2 carpenters to 1 laborer) this would have meant a cost of $4 per M for framing and $8 per M for putting in the work, or a total of $12. Cost of Four Caissons. Mr. B. L. Crosby gives the following on the construction of four piers for a double-track bridge across the Missouri River, for the St. Louis extension of the St. L., K. & N. W. R. R. The foundation work was done by company labor. The masonry piers were founded on pneumatic caissons, each 30x70 ft. outside measure, excepting one which was 24 x 60 ft. The caissons were 16 ft. high, including the iron cutting edge, and surmounted with a timber cribwork. This cribwork was 24 ft, 45 ft., 58 ft. and 64 ft. high, respectively, on the four piers. All the caissons, except one, were built on launching ways on the north side of the river, just above the bridge line. These launching ways were con- structed by driving piles, which were capped by 12 x 12-in. timbers running up and down stream, and then the 12 x 12-in. way timbers were drift-bolted to the caps. The ways had a slope of 3 ins. to the foot toward the river, and extended far enough out to allow the caisson to float before being clear of the timbers. Piles were cut off under water with a circular saw, and the drift-bolts, which had been started into the caps before they were sunk, were driven by a ramrod working through a gas-pipe over the drift-bolt. To remove a sand-bar at the site of one of the piers, a steamboat was anchored to piles over the pier site, and by the revolution of its paddle wheels washed out a hole 7 to 10 ft. deep. Barges were placed each side of the caisson, and heavy timbers bolted across the caisson, and extending out over the barges. The caisson was towed to its site, and when it struck a sand-bar, air was pumped into the caisson to raise it so as to clear the bar. In sinking the caisson a Morrison sand-pump and a Morrison clay-hoist were used. The greatest depth reached below low water was 101 ft., and laborers in the caisson received $3.50 a day of 2 or 3 hrs. (working 1-hr, shifts) at this PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 987 great depth. The pneumatic plant used in sinking consisted of two No. 4 Clayton duplex compressors, having steam and air cylinders, each 14-in., with a 15-in. stroke; a Worthington duplex pump, 18% x 10% x 10 ins., and a small dynamo and engine. This plant was set up on the steamboat whose boilers furnished the power. There was also a duplicate plant, which was used part of the time, supported on a pile platform. There were several hoisting engines, a pile driver boat provided with a derrick for handling timbers in building up the cribwork on the caissons. The concrete used to fill the cribwork was 1:2:4 Louisville cement, and 1:3:6 Portland cement. In these four caissons and cribs there were 1,609 M of yellow pine. The cost of framing and building the caissons was $21.93 per M. This includes cost of launching ways, and of material and labor of all kinds; except the cost of the timber itself. It also includes all handling and towing. Carpenters were paid $2.50 and laborers ?1.75 per day. There were placed in these caissons 13,285 cu. yds. of concrete ' fcquiring 16,035 bbls. of Louisville cement and 4,759 bbls. of Port- 6 ft fang 4- Frames, ?fh C.toC. Fig. 4. A Small Scow. fend cement. The cost of this concrete (broken stone was used) was $5.36 per cu. yd. The average cost of caisson and concrete filling,, including cutting edges, shafting, etc., was 34.2 cts. per cu. ft. ; the average cost of sinking 9.17 cts. per cu. ft, this average being materially increased due to some rock excavation on one pier where the average cost of caisson sinking was 12.33 cts. per cu. ft. The average cost of cais- sons was $178 per ft. sunk, ranging from $116 per' ft. on one to $259 per ft. on the one where rock was encountered. Work on the first caisson was begun July 30, 1892, and it was launched Aug. 20. It reached bed rock Jan. 2, 1893, at a depth of 89 ft. below low water. The first engine passed over the completed bridge Dec. 27, 1893. For much more detailed costs of caisson work see data in the section on Bridges. Cost of Two Small Scows. For use in river work, two small scows were built as shown in Fig. 4. Each scow was 2 ft. deep, 6 ft. wide, and 32 ft. long. It consisted of four parallel frames made by spiking 2 x 6-in. hemlock to form rough trusses. These frames were 2 ft. apart, and to them rough hemlock sheeting plank was spiked, 988 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. making deck bottom, sides and ends of a closed box. All the joints, except the deck, were calked with oakum and tarred. Thus very cheap and watertight scows were made. They were strong enough to be used for a floating pile driver, 'by bolting the two scows side by side ; but they were not quite large enough for this purpose and the leaders of the pile driver had to held with guy ropes, which was a great nuisance. Nevertheless, this rough and light construc- tion proved good enough in every other respect for river work where no logs or other heavy objects could batter the scows. The cost of these two scows was as follows : 3 M. rough hemlock, at $11 $33.00 15 Ibs. oakum, and necessary pitch. .-. 1.50 1 keg nails 2.00 12 days' labor, at $2 24.00 Total for two scows $60.50 This is equivalent to $30 each for the scows. One carpenter, at $2.50, assisted by one laborer, at $1.50, did the work, which cost $8 per M. During the winter the scows were hauled out of the water, and next spring re-calked with 8 Ibs. of oakum, requiring the labor of one man for 14 hrs. Each scow was readily loaded on a wagon for transportation. Cost of a Semi-Circular Flume. Mr. William H. Hall is authority for the following relating to the work on the Santa Ana Canal of the Bear Valley Irrigation Co., in San Bernardino County, California, in 1894. Wooden stave pipe and a semi-circula*- stave flume, in- vented by Mr. Hall, were largely used, and cost data are given. The flume is 5% ft. in diameter, semi-circular, made of dressed red- wood staves 1 % ins. thick held by binding rods or hoops ( 2 f t. 8 ins. apart) passing through 4 x 4-in. wooden cross-yokes. The flume rests on sills or bolster* (10 ft. apart) cut to fit its curved bottom, and these sills are supported on concrete blocks or on wooden trestles according to the locality. A gang of 10 laborers and 5 carpenters and a foreman built the flume. Not a nail was used in its con- struction, wages were high, being $2 a day for laborers, $3 a day for carpenters, and $4 a day for team and driver. The cost of erect- ing the flume, exclusive of trestle work, was $5.75 per M, but this does not include shop work, delivery and calking. The cost of delivering the lumber in wagons was $2.50 per M and subdelivering it on dollies was $2.50 per M more, as the work was in a rough country; hauling costing 37% cts. per ton mile by contract. The cost of making the sills, and yokes, and dipping all the lumber in coal tar, and calking after erection, came to $3.25 per M, including all timber in the flume, exclusive of trestles. Hence the total labor cost, including delivery and subdelivery, was $14 per M. The lum- ber was bought for $28 per M. The cost of framing and erecting timber trestles to support this flume was $13 per M, the rough pine itself costing $19 per M; the cost of delivering was presumably $5 per M. The work was half over before the men became trained to their work, and at no time were they very active or efficient. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 989 The total amount of dressed redwood for the flume staves was 312 M, which required 214,000 Ibs. of wrought and cast iron for bands, bolts, etc., or about 700 Ibs. per 1,000 ft. B. M. This iron cost 5% cts. per Ib. At these high prices the cost of the finished flume was about $5 per lin. ft, of which $2.50 was for the flume alone and $2.50 for the trestle supporting it. Cost of a Wood Flume, Klamath Irrigation Project.* The flume is 4,303 ft. long, and has an inside width of 11 ft. and inside height of 5 1/2 ft. ; it rests on concrete piers with rubble-stone foundations, and is built of red fir lumber. Of Class 1 lumber, for the frame- work of the flume, 442,000 ft. B. M. were purchased at $15.50 per thousand, delivered. Measurement after construction, however, showed only 438,000 ft. B. M. in place, and thus indicated a waste of 4,000 ft. B. M., or a little less than 1%. Of Class 2 lumber, for lining the flume, 60,000 ft. B. M. were purchased at $30.50 per thou- sand, delivered, and 227,000 ft. B. M. at $19 per thousand, making a total purchase of 287,000 ft. B. M. Measurement after construc- tion showed 284,200 ft. B. M. in place, thus indicating a waste of 2,800 ft. B. M., or about 1%. The concrete piers and stone foundations were built by force account. The piers, 1,091 in number, are 18 ins. high, 24 ins. square at the base, and 12 ins. square at the top, and rest on rubble founda- tions 3 ft. square. The total costs on which the tabulated unit costs are based are $21,000 for the flume proper and $6,995.88 for the foundations; in addition, however, there were costs, not distributed in the unit costs, of $174.96 for a spillway and $347.54 for miscellaneous ex- penditures, making a total cost for the whole structure of $28,518.38, or $6.64 per lin. ft. of flume. Per M ft. B. M. Flume Labor: Class 1. Class 2. per lin ft. Superintendence $ 0.46 $ 1.02 $0.11 Carpenter work 5.97 4.83 .93 Distributing timbers 63 .63 .11 Miscellaneous 21 .17 .03 Material: Lumber delivered 15.64 21.60 3.02 Bolts and washers 36 ...... .04 Nails and spikes 94 .94 .16 Engineering and inspection.. 2.91 2.91 .50 Totals for flume proper. . .$27.12 $32.10 $4.90 Piers and foundations 1.62 $6.52 Cost of Lock Gates.f Maj. Graham D. Fitch gives the following: The gates for the lock described on page 570 are of the standard form, namely, mitering gates of the girder type with straight back and front. They are horizontally framed and without quoin or miter posts, the main timbers extending from edge to edge of the * Engineering-Contracting, May 26, 1909. ^Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908, p. 281. 990 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. gate and the ends, which are built up solid with filling blocks, being shaped to fit the hollow quoin and miter, respectively, thus avoiding the weakness of beams jointed into vertical heel and toe posts. The rise was taken as 1/6 of the span, which is equivalent to a miter angle of 18 degrees 26 minutes. The gates are of white oak, 20 ins. thick throughout, each arm consisting of a built-up beam composed of two 10 by 10-in. timbers bolted together with 1-in. bolts and extending in one length from toe to heel. The tops of the gates are flush with the tops of the lock walls, so that the lock can be used until the walls are sub- merged. The lower gates, which are 29 ft. 5 ins. in height, are built solid for 10 ft. from the bottom. For the upper gates these figures become 15 ft. 5 ins. and 20 ins., respectively. By making the lower portion of a gate solid, the gate may be made thinner, thus reduc- ing under pressure. The upper portions of the gates are paneled ; the arms are all made of the same scantling as below, but are spaced inversely as the maximum loads ; the arms are separated by five blocks (including the two at the heel and toe), and the inter- vals are closed with a sheathing of 2-in. oak plank made watertight by calking. The beams are held together by seven pairs of long 1%-in. bolts running vertically through the center lines of the main timbers as well as through the filling blocks in the upper part of the gate. The weight of the gate is taken up by two diagonal tie straps of 3% by %-in. wrought-iron eyebars provided with turnbuckles ; one end of each eyebar passes over a pin in the journal strap and the other over a similar pin held in place near the lower end of the toe by a stirrup strap and a nose strap. The bottom beam is fitted at the quoin with a cast-iron heel piece which rests on a forged steel pivot shrunk into a cast-jron pivot plate having sufficient bearing. This bedplate is bolted to the concrete. The top gudgeon is a 3-in. steel pin supported at both ends by journal castings, be- tween which the collar works. In order that the leaf may, in open- ing and closing, swing clear of the quoin without friction, the rota- tion axis of the pivot and gudgeon is on the up-stream side of the center of figure of the hollow quoin when the leaf is closed, the eccentricity being 1% ins. The up-stream half of the toe is rounded off so that the surface of contact when the gates are mitered shall fall upon the down-stream timbers of the built-up beams. Thus the compression due to the end reactions is thrown on the down-stream timbers where it will relieve the tension from the direct loading, and is removed entirely from the up-stream timbers to avoid increasing the compression from the direct loading. The anchorage for the gates consists of four " wrought-iron bars with cast-iron washers or anchor plates embedded in the concrete and connected in pairs at their exposed ends to two heavy castings. The anchorage connections fit in a recess below the coping and are covered with a cast-iron plate. The method of building and placing the lock, gates was as follows : PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 991 A small hand-power derrick was erected on a level spot so as to command the ways, which were built of heavy timbers laid perfectly level about 2^ ft. from the ground and close enough together to support without deflection the weight of an entire gate. On each side of the derrick were placed two sets of ways, between which ran a track for carrying the timbers. The gate timbers were de- livered as needed to the derrick and placed on the ways, the built- up beams framed and bolted, and the heel and toe worked to pat- tern. The arms and blocks were then juxtaposed in position so as to get the alignment of the long bolts and then separated for the holes to be bored. This was a tedious procedure, as no matter how care- fully the measurements for the holes were made it was found im- possible to bore all of them in the different pieces so as to avoid slight errors of alignment ; hence burning the holes out with long rods of hot iron had to be resorted to. The gate was then assem- bled, the bolts inserted and tightened, the irons fitted on, the heel and toe worked to pattern, and each arm and block numbered to avoid any displacement later. The gates were then taken apart and transported to the lock pit to be erected piece by piece, for which a land derrick was used. As each beam was put into position its top was given a heavy coat of white lead, and the position of its bolt holes tested by thrusting down an iron rod. After the gate had been thus built up to the required height, the long perpendicular bolts were raised by the derrick and put into place, the various irons fitted, the anchor bars and tie straps tightened, and the gate swung. The gates were then given two coats of red lead. The gates are operated by hand power. The maneuvering gear consists of a spar, to each end of which is fastened one end of a chain ; the bight of this chain is led through a chain guide consist- ing of two sheaves to a chain capstan worked by a crank. The gate is opened or closed according as the chain is pulled in one direction or the other. As wooden lock gates subject to varying lifts, unless made too heavy at low water, are too buoyant at high water, it is necessary at the approach of floods to ballast them, which was done by filling the panels with large stones. The miter sills, which provide an elastic cushion for the bottom of the gates, consist of 12 by 12-in. timbers well bolted to the miter wall, as they may sometimes be subjected to a lifting pressure from the gates, and when once started the upward water pressure is of course added. The miter sills are 2 ins. higher than the miter walls so as to act as a guard for the masonry. The miter sills are 1 ft. below normal 4 ft. depth, so as to permit the pool level to be reduced without affecting navigation. The sills, like the gates, are of white oak and were set when the concrete was placed in the miter walls. The gates do not, when shut, extend over the sill, as is some- times the case, for a difficult joint then becomes necessary. In this instance the gates lap the sill by 5 ins., the under pressure being counterbalanced by the weight of the gates. 992 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of the gates and sills was as follows : Material: Unit cost Total. Lumber, oak, 35.7 M ft. B. M $41.37 $1,477 Iron, wrought, 342 Ibs 05 17 Iron, wrought, 16,243 Ibs 06 975 Iron, wrought common, 153 Ibs 023 4 Iron, cast, 600 Ibs 046 28 Iron, cast, 5,354 Ibs 045 241 Steel, 615 Ibs , 065 40 Journal castings and patterns 22 Total materials $2,803 Labor: Inspection of lumber, 33.9 M ft $ 0.3897 $ 13 Hauling miscellaneous material 15 Framing, 35.7 M ft 43.28 1,545 Setting gates, 4 76.54 306 Care, repair and adjusting since 1901, 4 887 Total cost of labor $2,766 Grand total $5,569 The total labor time in days for framing was 684 4/8 and the work done per man per day was 52.1 ft. ; the total labor time for setting the four gates was 149% days. Cost of a Railway Box Car. Mr. E. C. Spalding is authority for the following data on small box cars built in 1883. The car was probably designed to carry about 30,000 Ibs., for its own weight must have been about 23,000 Ibs. Material in Body: 4,000 ft. B. M., at $20 $ 80.00 700 Ibs. wrought iron, at $0.05 35.00 600 Ibs. cast iron, at $0.03 18.00 Nails 5.20 46 Ibs. draw-springs, at $0,09 4.14 Tin for roof 12.60 Paint 3.30 Total material in body $158.24 Labor on Body: 20 days carpenter, at $2.25 ...: $ 45.00 2 days tinner on roof, at $2.00 4.00 1% days painter, at $2.00 3.00 Total labor on body $52.00 Material in Trucks: 4,200 Ibs. wheels ; 1,400 Ibs. axles $160.00 64 Ibs. brasses, at $0.22 14.08 184 Ibs. springs, at $0.09 16.56 490 ft. B. M., at $20 9.80 1,000 Ibs. wrought iron, at $0.05 50.00 1,300 Ibs. cast iron, $0.03 39.00 Paint 0.80 Total materials in trucks $290.24 Labor on Trucks: < days carpenter, at $2.25 $ 5.63 4 day painter, at $2.00 0.50 Total $ 6.13 Grand total $506.61 , TIMBERWORK. 993 It will be noted that the cost of the labor on the box of the car was $45 for 4,000 ft. B. M., or $11.25 per M. The labor cost, on the 490 ft. B. M. in the trucks was practically the same rate. By reference to data in the section on Buildings, it will be found that the labor costs of frame buildings is about the same as above given for this box car. Cost of Making Bodies for Dump Cars Some bodies for bottom- dumping cars were made to be mounted on ordinary hand-car trucks, and were used in filling a trestle. The car bodies were made hop- per shape, the sides being 4 ft. apart ; the ends were 6 y 2 ft. apart it the top and sloping toward the center until they were 4 ft. apart it the bottom. The height of the body was 20 ins., thus giving a struck-measure capacity of 33 cu. ft. Two doors, forming the bot- tom of the car, were hinged to the two ends of the car body with three 14-in. strap hinges to each door. These doors were each 18 ins. wide and 4 ft. long, and were closed by means of hoisting chains (*4 -in. iron) passing around a 2% -in. gas pipe winch which spanned the car from side to side. This 2% -in. gas pipe was stiffened by a 2% -in. pipe slipped inside. It required 150 ft. B. M. of plank to make each car, and a carpenter (25 cts. per hr.) with a helper (15 cts. per hr.) averaged one car in 7 hrs., which is at the rate of $10 per M. Cost of Making Tool Boxes. A carpenter made two tool boxes of 1-in. matched pine boards in 10 hrs. Each box contained 130 ft. B. M., so that the labor cost was a little less than $10 per M, wages being 25 cts. per hr. Cost of Plank Roads. Very often the contractor would be en- abled to haul much larger loads in wagons if he were to build plank roads up certain short steep ascents, or up out of the pit. The planks need not be spiked to the stringers. Plank for such roads should be 8 ft. long and 3 ins. thick. Contrary to general opinion cedar makes an excellent plank road, for its surface soon becomes a thin mat of wood fibers and dirt that protect the body of the plank. Either three lines of 4 x 6-in. or two lines of 3 x 12-in. cedar stringers should be bedded in the ground and the plank laid upon them without spiking. In the State of Washington I found the cost of building the very best of these plank roads to be as follows: Three skilled laborers bedding three lines of 4 x 6-in. stringers in clay, laying and spiking 3-in. plank, averaged 15,000 ft. B. M. per 10-hr, day. At $2.50 per day per man, the cost would be 0.50 per M. In sand these men averaged 18,000 ft. B. M. per day. They were hustling, as they re- ceived 50 cts. per 1,000 ft. B. M. for laying this road, plank being delivered alongside. Over such a road a team can pull as much as on the very best asphalt pavement. The "trick" about building a good plank road is to bed the stringers, not leaving them on top of the ground. The road then is firm and great loads can be hauled over it, so long as it is kept in good condition. Since in temporary roads the spiking may be omitted, and as a 994 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. matter of fact it should be omitted even on permanent roads, we see that the plank may be used over and over again for different jobs ; but if the road is worth laying at all it is worth laying well in the first place. Plank road work lends itself admirably to payment by the piece rate or by the bonus system. Piles. Piles are sold by lumber dealers at 5 to 15 cents per lin. ft. of pile for all ordinary lengths, but very long piles bring high prices per lin. ft. Specifications usually provide a contract price per lin. ft. for "piles delivered" on the work ready to drive ; and another price per lin. ft. for "piles driven." The length of the "pile driven" is the full length of the pile left in the work after cutting off the broomed head, although occasionally it is specified to be the length of the pile underground. Hence care should be taken to make clear what is meant by the expressed "per foot of pile driven." The actual cost of driving a pile should be recorded in dollars and cents per pile, as well as in cents per lin. ft. of pile driven ; for costs vary less per pile than per lin. ft. This is evident when we consider that where the driving is easy a very long pile is driven in no longer time than is required for a short pile where driving is hard. I prefer to specify payment for "piles delivered" by the lineal foot, and for "piles driven," by the pile. Pile Drivers There are three types of pile drivers: (1) Free fall; ( 2 ) friction-clutch ; and ( 3 ) steam-hammer. In the free-fall driver, the hammer is detached from the hoisting rope and allowed to fall freely upon the pile. In the friction-clutch driver, the hammer re- mains always attached to the hoisting rope, and, by means of a friction clutch on the hoisting engine, the drum is thrown into gear or out of gear at will. When the clutch is thrown out of gear, the hammer falls, dragging the hoisting rope after it. The Nasmyth steam-hammer is raised by steam acting direct upon a piston at- tached to the hammer. The hammer is raised about 3% ft., and allowed to fall by gravity. A steam-hammer strikes about 60 blows per minute. A friction- clutch hammer strikes about 18 blows per minute when the ham- mer falls 12 ft. ; and 25 blows per minute when the hammer falls only 5 ft. A free-fall hammer strikes about 7 blows per minute when the fall is 20 ft. and a hoisting engine is used. The free-fall hammer is much used where horses do the hoisting instead of an engine. In either case a lug on top of the hammer is gripped by a pair of "tongs," which are tripped at the desired height, allowing the hammer to fall. The "tongs" descend slowly by gravity helped perhaps by the man, who has tripped them, and they automatically grip the hammer again. The "tongs" are also called "scissors" or "nippers." The two upright timbers that guide the hammer are called "leads," or "leaders," or "gins," or "ways." A common weight of ham- mer for a free-fall or a friction-clutch machine is 2,000 to 3,000 Ibs. An "overhang driver" is a driver provided with leads that project PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 995 8 to 20 ft. beyond the base of support of the driver. The horizontal beams that support the leads of an overhang driver are trussed ; and the weight of .the engine on the rear of the trussed beams counterbalances the weight of the leads and the hammer on the front. A cheap driver of this type can readily be made for driving the bents of a pile trestle across a river, or other body of water, where a scow is not available for mounting the driver upon. The author has built such a driver with a 20-ft. overhang for driving falsework pile bents across a river. A "railway pile driver" is a heavy driver of the "overhang" type, mounted on a railway flat car. Sometimes these drivers are made self-propelling; but frequently a locomotive is used in handling the driver. The leads are so made that they can be lowered when pass- ing under overhead bridges, etc. In working with an overhang driver, there is always considerable delay, for as soon as the 3 or 4 piles for a bent have been driven, they must be sawed off and capped with a 12 x 12 -in. stick drift-bolted to the piles, before the beams or stringers can be laid to support the driver when it moves forward. A "scow driver" will drive more piles per day than a "railway ^driver," because this delay in sawing off and capping each bent does not occur. Moreover, the piles are floated alongside the driver ready for instant use. The scow itself is quickly shifted by means of ropes from suitable anchorages to the winch-heads of the engine. Excepting on railway work, land drivers (as distinguished from scow drivers) are seldom mounted on wheels running on a track ; but are usually supported on rollers running on plank or timber runways laid down in advance of the driver. If the ground is very irregular, it must be either graded, or the timber runways for the driver must be supported by cribbing or blocking so as to give a level runway for the driver. The building of such a runway often retards the work of land-driving. Excepting where the driving is exceedingly hard, the hammer is actually at work but a small fraction of the day at best. The contractor should, therefore, exercise his wits to reduce the last time. There are no very reliable data as to the relative effectiveness of the blows of steam-hammer drivers and friction-clutch drivers, but the following data by Mr. N. E. Weydert may prove of value : In driving piles in Chicago, piles 54 ft. long were driven 52 ft, of which 27 ft. were in soft clay, and 25 ft. in tough clay. Each pile averaged 13 ins. in diameter. Using a Nasmyth steam hammer, striking 54 blows per minute, with a weight of 4,500 Ibs. falling 3% ft., it required 48 to 64 blows to drive the last foot when a follower 20 ft. long was used on top of the pile; but, without a follower, it is estimated it would have taken only 24 to 32 blows to drive the last foot. After a pile had stood 24 hrs. it required 300 to 600 blows of the hammer on the follower to drive it 1 ft. In the same soil, using a 3,000-lb. drop hammer falling 30 ft., and striking a follower 20 ft. long, it required 16 blows to drive the 996 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. last foot; but with the same hammer falling 15 ft., it required 32 to 36 blows on the follower to drive the pile the last foot. The piles were tested with a load of 50 tons each for two weeks and showed no settlement. The Steam Hammer vs. the Drop Hammer. Some 50 years ago, when the Nasmyth steam hammer came into prominence as a pile driver, it was predicted by engineers who had seen it that the days of the rope hoisted hammer were numbered. Nor is it uncommon to read similar predictions even to this day. That the steam hammer weighing two tons and striking 60 blows a minute is a very effective machine no one can deny, but what appears to have been overlooked by many engineers is the fact that in nearly all driving of piles on land, a very small fraction of the working day of a pile-driving gang is spent in actual driving. This is particularly the case in building pile trestles with a railroad pile driver. Records that I have kept show very clearly how little time is ordinarily spent in pile driving on trestle work, using the ordinary railroad pile driver with a friction-clutch engine. Each trestle bent consisted of four piles driven about 10 ft. into firm, dry earth, and bents were 15 ft. c. to c. It took about 20 blows of a 2,800-lb. ham- mer falling about 18 ft. to drive each pile, and, once the pile was in the leaders, these 20 blows were delivered in from 1 to 2 minutes, depending upon minor delays in keeping the pile plumb. The piles were not ringed. Hence we may say that in so far as the actual time of driving four piles was concerned, only 8 minutes were thus consumed per bent at the most. About 4 or 5 minutes were re- quired to get each pile into the leaders, thus consuming some 20 minutes per bent. Tabulating the time consumed in performing each detail we have: Minutes. (1) Getting 4 piles into leaders 20 (2) Driving 4 piles 8 (3) Straightening and bracing the piles 27 (4) Leveling and nailing guide strips for sawing off . . 10 (5) Sawing off 4 piles 12 (6) Putting on cap and drift bolting it 13 (7) Pulling 3 stringers forward from last bent 11 (8) Putting in 2 more stringers that overhang 20 (9) Putting in 1 tie and spiking rail 4 Total time on one bent 125 Item (4) was unnecessarily long, due to the hair-splitting methods of the Y-level man, who was giving the cut-off. Even after the cleats to guide the saws were nailed on, he had them lowered %-in. Items (3) and (5) may frequently be reduced very materially, and always would be on contract work, but on work done for a railroad company, as this was, the end of the 10-hr, day will find only 4 to 6 bents built under the conditions here given. If, how- ever, we assume a bent of four piles built in 100 minutes, we see that only 8 minutes of that time will be consumed in actuaJ driving. In other words, only three-quarters of an hour out of the 10 hrs. is spent in hammering the pile. This will doubtless be surprising to many engineers, and particularly to those who have been impressed PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 997 by the speed of the Nasmyth steam hammers. Under a hustling, wide-awake contractor, the writer has seen 10 bents driven and completed in a day with a friction-clutch driver ; but even under such conditions the hammer was actually at work driving less than two hours. It seems quite clear from the foregoing discussion, that main- tenance-of-way engineers should look not to improvements in the form of hammer mechanism, but rather to improvements in the mechanism and methods of handling the piles, caps, stringers, etc. Very much can be accomplished in this respect by having a well- organized force with a clear-headed foreman at its head. In the example just cited the item of straightening piles was exceedingly expensive in time, in that it consumed nearly half an hour. This was largely due to the fact that the foreman did not appreciate the importance of sawing the pile heads square. He simply put the piles into the leaders with the heads rough sawed as they came from the forest. In one case the pile had a large prong of splintered wood projecting above the partly sawed head. Haste never makes more waste than in neglecting to square the pile heads, and guide the pile properly while driving it. In this particular instance, since the driving was across dry land, the foreman should have secured a team with which to "snake" piles and timbers up alongside of or directly in front of the driver. Then the pile rope or "runner" could have been quickly hooked on to a chain already fastened around the pile or timber to be moved, with a saving of 50% in the time spent in getting material to place. It does not pay to make a team out of a pile driver and a gang of men. Instead of spending 13 minutes getting a cap to place and drift- bolting it, not more than 6 or 7 minutes need have been so con- sumed. Two men can cross-cut a pile in 4 or 5 minutes, hence with eight men on four saws, item (5) can be reduced at least one-half. Running around looking for saws, mauls, drift bolts, etc., is one of the greatest causes of delay. For this reason there should be a man whose duty it is to bring tools and put them away immediately after they have served their purpose. The two leader men on the driver might well attend to -the tools. We see, by this method of timing, why the Nasmyth steam ham- ; mer has failed to displace the friction-clutch hammer on trestle i work, and we see that if any improvement is desirable in driver design it is not in the hammer mechanism, but rather in the means ! of mechanically handling the timbers. Finally we see that organ- < ization of the force is quite as essential as improvement in mechan- jism, while it possesses the decided advantage of costing nothing I except what may be paid for a better quality of brain work. From this discussion it should not be inferred that the steam I hammer has no field of usefulness, for it has. Its field, however, i is in scow or land driving, where a great number of foundation piles ijare to be driven close together, and especially where a great num- ijber of blows must be struck to secure the desired pile penetration. 998 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Making Piles. Two men can cut down and trim 17 oak piles per day, each pile being 20 ft. long. Where the men are paid $1.75 per 10 hrs., the labor cost of making the piles is practically 1 ct. per lin ft. To this must be added the cost of hauling and freight to the place where the piles are to be driven. For weight of piles, see the fore part of this section. Life of Pile Driver Rope. Mr. George J. Bishop kept some rec- ords of pile driving on the C., R. I. & P. Ry. in 1897, to determine the life of manilla rope. The drum of the friction pile driver engine was 14 ins. diam., also the sheave at the top of the leads, and the sheave at the front of the pile driver was 20 ins. The hammer weighed 3,000 Ibs. The rope was of three different makes, all 1^ ins. diam. Common manilla 3-ply rope made the best showing. The length of rope was 125 ft. and its weight ranged from 74 to 95 Ibs., averaging 85 Ibs., or nearly 0.7 Ib. per ft. The price of the rope was 6^ cts. per Ib. or $5.53 per average rope. Ten ropes were used up in driving 1,335 piles to an average penetration of 20 ft. Hence each rope averaged 133 piles, or a cost of 4 cts. per pile for rope. However, 5 of the ropes averaged only 101 piles each, and 5 averaged 166 piles each. Cost of Driving Piles With a Horse Driver. This work con- sisted in driving 219 piles, 2 ft. centers, to form the protecting toe of a slope-wall. The hammer weighed 2,000 Ibs., and was raised with block and tackle by horses. Two teams were used alternately. As soon as the hammer was tripped, two men pulled back the ham- mer rope hand over hand, and hooked it on to the second team while the other team was returning. In this way the blows were deliv- ered almost twice as rapidly as when one team only is used. The driver was supported on wooden rollers sheathed with iron and pro- vided with sockets into which bars could be inserted for turning the rollers. The rollers rested on planks laid on the ground which was comparatively level and required no staying or grading to secure a level runway for the driver. Pine piles, 15 ft. long, were driven in a stiff clay to a depth of 13 ft. The average number of piles driven per 10-hr, day was 21, but the best day's record was 30. The cost was as follows per day: 5 laborers, at $1.50 $ 7.50 1 foreman, who worked .* 2.50 2 teams and drivers, at $3.00 6.00 Rent of driver 2.00 Total, for 21 piles, at 85 cts $18.00 The piles cost 10 cts. per ft. delivered ; and the contract price was 24 cts. per ft. delivered and driven. On another contract under my direction, where piles were spaced 10 ft. centers and driven 12 ft. into gravel along the sloping bank of a river, it was necessary to do more or less grading and block- ing up to secure a level runway for the pile driver. Four men and a pair of horses averaged only 6 piles per 10-hr, day, making the cost about $1.50 per pile for the labor of driving. This gang was too small, and worked deliberately. PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERWORK. 999 Cost of Driving Foundation Piles for a Building. On this work, which consisted in driving long piles for the foundation of a building in Jersey City, a pile driver mounted on rollers was used. The lead- ers were 60 ft. long, and provided with two head sheaves, one for the hammer rope and one for the rope used in hauling and raising the piles. The hammer weighed 2,100 Ibs. ; and the engine was a double-drum friction-clutch. The piles were of spruce 50 ft. long, and were driven their full length in soft clay. For the first 10 ft. the piles were driven without ringing. When the pile head reached the bottom of the leaders, a short wooden follower was used for the last 10 to 25 blows. The pile ring was then pulled off the pile by a short iron peavy lifted by the pile rope. The piles were stacked up in the street about 100 ft. away from the driver, and were "snaked over," when wanted ; the pile rope being used for the purpose. For the first few blows the hammer had a fall of only 5 ft., and about 25 blows per min. were delivered. But after that the fall of the hammer was 12 ft., and about 18 blows per min. were delivered. It required about 110 blows to drive a pile its full 50 ft. The time required to drive one pile was as follows : Minutes. Hooking on dragging pile to driver 5 Hoisting pile and getting it in place Hammering pile 6 Putting ring on pile . 1 Placing follower on pile % Removing follower from pile 1 Removing ring from pile % Shifting pile driver 2 ft 1 Total time per pile 17 It will be observed that the hammer was actually engaged in ham- mering not much more than one-third of the total time. When everything was working smoothly 35 piles were driven in 10 hrs., but the output frequently fell below 30 piles in a day, due to sundry slight delays and accidents. The cost of operating the driver was as follows: 1 engineman $ 3.00 1 man up the ladder 1.50 4 men handling and guiding pile 6.00 1 man sharpening piles 1.50 1 foreman handling pile rope, etc 4.00 1/3 ton coal, at $6 2.00 Total per dav for labor and fuel $18.00 Rent of pile driver 3.00 Total, at 60 to 70 cts. per pile $21.00 This does not include cost of delivering and removing the pile driver. The Construction and Cost of a Small Pile Driver.* Frequently a pile trestle must be built, and the number of piles to be driven may not warrant buying, or even hiring, a pile driver of ordinary size. 'Engineering-Contracting, January, 1906. 1000 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In such cases a small driver may be built at a nominal cost, and it will do very effective work where the piles are to be driven to a moderate depth. Such a driver (Fig. 5) was built by the managing editor of this journal some years ago, and a description of it will be given. The "leads," or "gins," that guided the hammer were made of 4-in. x 6-in. sticks, 30 ft. long. The hammer was of cast iron and weighed only 1,200 Ibs. The rope that raised the hammer was 1-in. manilla. One end of this hammer rope was fastened to the "nip- pers" that clutched the lugs on the hammer. The other end of the H io'o" H Side Elevation. ZO'O"- Front Elevation. Fig. 5. Small Pile Driver. rope passed through a pulley and around a wooden drum 12 ins. in diameter. At one end of this wooden drum was fastened a wooden "bull wheel," 60 ins. in diameter. Another rope was wound around this "bull wheel," and a horse was hitched to the rope. The horse easily raised the hammer to the top of the "leads," where the "nippers" were automatically tripped, allowing the hammer to fall. The reader will note that only one pulley block was used. The use of a drum and "bull wheel" made it unnecessary to get any more blocks, and thus reduced the first cost ; but, what is even more im- portant, a "bull wheel" and drum does not consume the power of the horse in friction to any such degree as is the case where pulley blocks are used. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1001 The" bill of lumber for the driver is as follows : Piece, in. in. ft. Ft. B. M. 2 4x 6x30 (leads) / 120 1 6x6x4 (cross-piece) 12 2 6x 6x16 (base) 96 2 2x 4x32 (ladder) 43 2 2x 4x 2 (ladder rungs) 24 2 4x 4 x 26 (sway braces) 64 1 2 x 4 x 20 (long front sill) 13 1 2x 4x14 (short rear sill) 3 1 12x12 x 4 (drum) * 48 30 Ixl2x 6 (bull wheel) 180 Total 603 About 24 bolts, % x 8 ins., were used, and a few pounds of nails. The wooden drum and "bull wheel" required more time to make than all the rest of the driver. The drum was shaped out of a 12-in. x 12-in. stick, but was left square where the "bull wheel" was to be fastened on. At each end of the wooden drum, a wooden axle, 4 ins. in diameter and 6 ins. long, was cut out ; and these axles were fitted to wooden bearing blocks, and were well daubed with axle grease. The wooden "bull wheel" was made of five layers of 1 in. by 12 in. planks spiked together; one layer running one way, the next layer in the opposite direction. First, three of these layers were spiked together, and a 5-ft. circle was marked on them. Then with a key-hole saw the 5-ft. wheel was cut out. On each side of this wheel was spiked another layer of plank and sawed to a circle 5 ft. 8 ins. diameter. These two layers formed the rims of the "bull wheel" and kept the "bull rope" from slipping off. Two carpenters and two laborers built this driver in two days, at a cost^of $18 for labor. The total cast was: 700 ft. B. M., at $20 $ 14.00 Bolts and nails 2.00 Labor 18.00 1,200-lb. pile hammer 50.00 1 pair nippers 5.00 1 snatch block 3.00 240 ft. of 1-in. rope 10.00 Total $102.00 The driver weighed 1*4 tons, exclusive of the hammer, and was easily loaded on a wagon. The cost of driving piles with it is given in the following para- graph. Cost of Driving Piles for Wagon Road Trestles. It was neces- sary to drive piles for a number of wagon road trestles across ravines, which were often separated by several miles. A light pile driver that could readily be moved from place to place was built, as described on page 1000. Piles were driven in bents of three piles each, bents 20 ft. apart. In fairly hard ground the piles were driven only 5 or 6 ft. deep. Due to the irregularity of the ground, in nearly all cases it was necessary to build a light scaffolding on which to run the driver across each creek. This scaffolding was made of sticks cut from 1002 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. the forest alongside, and cost nothing except for labor, which is included in the cost of $1 given below. The young contractor would be apt to overlook this item of scaffolding, but it should always be remembered that a driver of this kind must have a level runway on which to work, and, if the ground is irregular, it must either be graded or scaffolding put up. Usually scaffolding is cheaper than grading. The crew consisted of 4 men and 1 horse. It would take them about 2 days to move the driver 4 miles over poor roads, and erect a staging upon which to drive a seven-bent trestle. Then they would average 10 piles driven per 10-hr, day. The cost of actual driving was about $1 per pile, wages being $10 a day for the crew ; to which must be added another $1 per pile for lost time moving driver from one trestle to the next and building staging. This was the average cost on six trestles, 84 piles being driven. Cedar piles were largely used for this work, as the driving was light, and as the durability of cedar is greater than other woods. After driving the piles, 2 men would saw off the heads of 18 piles in 3 hrs., at 6 cts. per pile. These piles averaged 20 ft. in length, and with axmen at $2 a day each, they were cut down and trimmed for 25 cts. a pile, and hauled 3 miles over rough roads for 50 cts. more per pile. I found it economic to sublet the pile driving to a reliable car- penter who would work with his gang of three men, and earn good wages for himself and crew if paid $2 for driving each pile, includ- ing all moving and building of staging. The work just described was done in this way. Work handled thus generally insures activ- ity on the part of small gangs of men and reduces the charges for superintendence to a very small percentage. Cost of Driving Piles for Trestle Renewals.* Mr. G. H. Herrold is author of the following work done on the Chicago Great Western Ry. in Minnesota. I have compiled the following statement [the complete tabulation of eaqh day's work is given in Engineering-Contracting, but not reprinted here] from daily reports of the performance of pile driver working on pile bridge renewals during the 1905 season, to show the number of piles driven each day and the labor cost per pile, the total labor cost per day, the delays and the average labor cost per pile for the season's work. I have done this to show the great variation in the cost per pile, comparing one day's work with another, and yet the relative low average cost of the total work done, jand, to determine a basis for estimating more closely the cost of pile renewals. A 3,000 Ib. drop hammer was used ; 25 bridges were opened, the work on each bridge varying from complete renewal to one bent renewal. Driver was supplied with piling by making shipments, by bridges, as far as possible, and one car load of assorted lengths, as extras, was kept in work train. * Engineering-Contracting, Mar. 23, 1906. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1003 Three hundred and ninety-one piles were driven in 32 10-hr, work- ing days, or an average of 12.2 piles per day, the maximum cost per pile for any day was $10.57, and the minimum cost was $1.28. The cost per pile for the season was $2.88. The piles varied in lengths from 20 ft. to 40 ft., and were driven 9 to 21 ft. in the ground. The average daily expense was as follows : Per day. Pile driver crew, wages $21.00 Work train, wages 14.50 Total, 12.2 piles, at $2.88 $35.50 In the 32 days' work, 80 hrs. were lost by delays due to. traffic, etc., or about 25% of the working time. The character of the driving varied from shell rock (requiring cast shoes) quick sand, and indurated clay to perfect material. The train crew consisted of engineer, fireman, conductor, and brakemen. The pile driver crew consisted of a foreman, engineer, fireman and eight men. The men were cared for in boarding cars which were self-sup- porting. The following is a type of the daily performance report : David, Sept. 26, 1905. Division Engineer. Drove 16 piles Br. A188 and transferred piling in KC&MB 690 to a local flat. Worked 10 men, expense $21.48. Delayed 2 hrs., 40 mins., as follows: 40 min. by No. 274 ; 50 min. running for water; 30 min. by No. 203 ; 40 min. by No. 204. Will finish A188 to-mor- row, want orders. Pile Driver Foreman. Cost of Driving Piles for a Trestle, N. P. Ry. Mr. E. H. Beckler gives the following data on driving piles for a railway trestle and three truss bridges on the N. P. Ry., at Duluth, Minn., by contract in 1884. The work was all done in the winter, and about 2,340 piles were driven, of which 460 were in foundations. The trestle was 5,000 ft. long. A pile driver, having leaders 65 ft. long, and a 2,600- Ib. hammer, was used. The piles were of Norway and white pine, the average length being 51 ft. From 50 to 150 blows were struck on each pile. With a 20-ft. fall the hammer struck 7 blows per min. The penetration was 10 to 42 ft. The average cut-off was 5 ft. for the trestle piles. The pile driven engine was mounted on the driver platform to give stability and for ease of moving. A 900-lb. follower was used in driving some of the piles, but it was found to reduce the penetration of each blow about 20%, and it did not save the heads of the piles from more or less shattering. Some piles were driven butt down, but it added 25% to the cos! m driving ; and it was believed that the small end, being exposed would decay faster than the butt end. Moreover, the area of the 1004 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. small end was so small that the pile would not stand hoary driving without shattering. The cost of operating one pile driver was about $38 a day and from Dec. 11 to Mar. 5 the record of its work was as follows: Per pile. 202 piles (32 ft. long), 19.2 pites per day $2.25 134 piles (44 ft. long), 23.3 piles per day 1.65 364 piles (60 ft. long), 25.1 piles per day 1.50 379 piles (66 ft. long), 19.2 piles per day 1.95 73 piles (65 ft. long), 22.5 piles per day 1.85 These costs represent the cost to the contractor. As niany as 30 piles a day for 4 consecutive days were driven. The average cost of driving these 1,152 piles, it will be seen, was nearly $1.75 per pile. The driving was done after the ice had formed in the bay, and the pile driver was supported by the ice during driving. The soil was 7 ft. of clay under which was sand. Before the work was begun, test piles were driven from a scow along the line of the trestle 300 ft. apart. This enabled the engineers to make out an accurate bill of pile timber for the work. It was found that Norway pine piles stood the driving in cold weather (as low as 15 F.) much better than white pine; for, when wood freezes, it is brittle. The test piles were nearly all broken off several feet below the ground level, by the side thrust of the ice that formed to 'a thickness of 4 ft. after the piles were driven. Three test piles were pulled up by the ice, although they had been driven 40 ft. into mud. The combined strength of four piles in a bent was required to resist the lateral thrust of ice pushed by the wind. The ice was unable to lift the piles once the trestle was finished. Cost of Pile Driving, O. & St. L. Ry. Mr. A. E. Buchannan gives the following data of work done, Oct. 22 to Dec. 17, 1S89, on the Omaha & St. Louis Ry., by company labor. There were 46 days worked, the actual working time being 6 hrs. 52 mins. per day. The railway driver drove 1,267 piles in these 316 hrs. of which time 14 hrs. were lost in lowering the leads 344 times, or 2% rnins. each time. The average time to drive a pile, it will be seen, was 15 mins. The average depth driven was 14 ft. The work was on 41 different trestles, each averaging 101 ft. long. Wages were $2.40 for engine- men, $2.00 for fireman, and $1.50 to $1.75 for laborers. The cost of the 46 days' work was: Wages $1,684 Fuel, etc 262 Total, 1,267 piles, at $1.54 $1,946 The poorest day's work was 11 piles ; the best, 44 piles ; the aver- age, 28 piles. Cost of Pile Driving, C. & E. I. Ry. Mr. A. S. Markley gives the following data relative to the cost of driving 436 piles on 16 jobs, PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1005 averaging 27 piles on each job. The work was done in 1902 for the C. & E. I. Ry., using a self-propelling railway pile driver made by the Industrial Works, Bay City, Mich. No locomotive was re- quired as the driver could run at a speed of 10 miles an hour and pull 5 cars on a level road. The leads were 47 ft. long; the ham- mer, 2,900 Ibs. ; the hoisting rope, 2-in. ; and the engine 30-hp., double cylinder. The leads could be raised in 2 mins. The engine- man received $2.50 a day; the fireman, $1.50; the rest of the men were laborers, except the foreman. The average cost of driving each pile was 75 cts. ; and each pile averaged 24 ft. long, although the range was from 14 to 42 ft. The Record for Rapid Driving on the O. & M. R. R. As illus- trating what can be done under favorable conditions where men are rushing their work, a record given by Mr. L. C. Fitch, Engineer of Maintenance-of-Way, Ohio & Miss. R. R., is interesting. A pile driver crew drove 28 piles (7 bents of 4 piles each) in 3 hrs., at a cost of 30 cts. per pile. The piles averaged 21 ft. long and were driven 15 ft. into the ground. Cost of a Pile Trestle, Sheet Piles, Etc Mr. Henry H. Carter gives the following costs of building a trestle across a pond in Mass- achusetts, The work was done by contract, occupying five months, beginning November, 1883, and ending April 9, 1884. The piles were driven in bents of 8 piles to the bent, bents 4 ft. apart, and capped with 10 x 10's 35 ft. long, notched down (dapped) 2 ins. on each pile. On the caps were laid four lines of 8 x 10-in. stringers, and on these were laid the ties for a double track road for con- tractor's dump cars. This trestle was filled with gravel, and after- ward all but the two outer piles in each bent were cut off 7 ft. below water and used as a foundation for a masonry conduit. The aver- age length of the 3,750 piles driven was 37 ft., about 25% of the piles being over 45 ft. long. With the hammer falling about 12 ft., 318 of the piles penetrated less than 1 in. under the last blow (very hard driving) ; 950 piles penetrated 1.3 to 2.7 ins. under the last blow (hard driving) ; 2,016 piles penetrated 3 to 4 ins. under the last blow (medium driving) ; and 141 piles penetrated over 4 ins. under the last blow (easy driving). In general the piles were driven through several feet of very soft mud and 12 ft. into the hard bottom. The piles were driven by two floating pile drivers sup- ported on a raft made of timbers and empty oil barrels. The cost of the work was as follows: Making Pile Driver: Foreman, 7 days, at $3.25 $ 22.75 Engineman, 7 days, at $3.25 22.75 Laborers, 15 days, at $1.75 26.25 Carpenter, 14 days, at $2.25 31.50 Carpenter, 18 days, at $2.00 36.00 Gins 124.00 Floats : :.... 314.95 Total making driver $578.20 The cost of building this driver if distributed over the 3,638 piles 1006 HANDBOOK OP COST DJTA. driven, amounts to nearly 16 cts. per pile. The other costs were as follows: Loading and Transporting Piles: Foreman, 96% days, at $2.00 $ 192.50 Laborers, 449 days, at $1.75 785.75 Horse, 104% days, at $1.50... 157.12 Sleds 3.50 - Total loading, etc , $1,138.87 Pile Driving: Foreman, 82 days, at $3.25 266.50 Foreman, 118% days, at $3.00 355.50 Foreman, 95 days, at $2.50 237.50 Engineman, 87 days, at $3.25 287.75 Engineman, 103 V 2 days, at $2.50 258.75 Topman, 166 days, at $2.00 332.00 Topman, 17 days, at $1.75 29.75 Deckhand, 116% days, at $2.25 262.12 Deckhand, 255% days, at $2.00 510.50 Deckhand, 280 days, at $1.75 490.00 Laborer, 20 days, at $1.00 20.00 Carpenter, 177 days, at $2.25 398.25 Carpenter, 172 days, at $2.00 344.00 Freight on pile drivers 75.00 Coal, 35 tons, at $6.40 224.00 Use of plant, 180 days, at $1.50 270.00 11 M spruce braces, at $14 154.00 872 Ibs. spikes in braces, at 3 cts 26.16 Tools 120.00 Total driving $4,661.98 Piles: 3,638 spruce piles (av. 37 ft. each), at $2.26. .$8,221.88 Grand total (excl. driver) $14,022.53 The loading and transporting of the 3,638 piles cost $0.32 per pile. The driving cost $1.30 per pile, the average number of piles driven being 20 per day. The cost of each pile averaged $2.26. The total cost of each pile driven was $4.04, including cost of making scow, interest on driver, labor, fuel and cost of pile. The use of plant at $1.50 a day is too low an estimate under ordinary con- ditions. The cost of the materials and labor for caps, stringers and ties (there were no sway braces) was as follows: Transporting Timber: Foreman, 19 days, at $2.00 $ 38.00 Laborer, 89 days, at $1.75 155.75 Laborer, 4 days, at $1.50 6.00 Horse, 20 days, at $1.50 30.00 Sled 1.50 Total transporting timber $ 231.25 Labor on Caps and Stringers: Foreman, 16 days, at $3.25 $ 52.00 Foreman, 20 days, at $2.50 50.00 Carpenter, 60 days, at $2.25 135.00 Carpenter, 58 days, at $2.00 116.00 Total labor on caps, etc $ 353.00 PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1007 Caps and Stringers: 159 M spruce, at $16.10 $2,559.90 12 M spruce bolsters, at $13.50 162.00 3.6 M spruce plank, at $14.00 50.40 10,490 Ibs. bolts, at 2% cts 283.23 3,830 Ibs. bolts, at 3 cts 114.90 88 Ibs. spikes, at 3 cts 2.64 Building derricks 5.00 Tools 28.50 Total labor and mtls. for caps and stringers. $3, 5 5 9. 5 7 The cost of transporting timbers to the trestle ($231.25) applies not only to the 175 M of caps and stringers, but also to 24 M of ties and 27 M of sheet piling and wales, making the cost of transport- ing practically $1 per M. The other labor involved in placing the caps and stringers ($353) after delivery, is equivalent to $2 per M, making a total of $3 per M for the labor on the caps and stringers. The cost of placing the ties was as follows : Placing Ties: Laborer, 4% days, at $1.00 $ 4.50 Laborer, 6 days, at $1.50 9.00 Laborer, 51 % days, at $2.00 103.50 Total placing ties $117.00 Ties: 24.1 8 M spruce ties, at $14 $338.52 540 Ibs. spikes, at 3 cts 16.20 Total labor and mtls $471.72 Prom this it appears that the cost of placing ties was nearly $5 per M (or 21.3 cts. per tie) to which must be added $1 per M for loading and transporting. The cost of sheet piling was as follows- Sheet Piling: 25.5 M sheet piling, at $18.60 $474.30 1.2 M spruce wales, at $16.00 19.20 205 Ibs. spikes, at 3 cts 6.15 Interest on pile driver, 16 days, at $1.40 22.40 3 tons coal, at $6.40 '. 19.20 Foreman, 16 days, at $3.25 52.00 Engineman, 16 days, at $3.25 52.00 Topman, 16 days, at $2.00 32.00 Deckhand, 16 days, at $2.00 32.00 Deckhand, 40% days, at $1.75 71.31 Carpenter, 32 days, at $2.00 64.00 Total sheet piling $844.56 The cost of driving the 25.5 M and placing the 1.2 M was nearly $13 per M. This sheet piling was 4-in. tongued and grooved, driven for two culverts. The cost of sawing, dapping (notched 2 ins.) and fitting 280 caps for 280 pile bents of 6 piles to the bent was as follows: Cost to saw off piles, and fit caps, $2.95 per cap, or $2 per M (for each cap was 10x10 ins. x 18 ft.). The piles were sawed off at the bottom of a wet trench, and it cost 90 cts. per bent to saw away the earth. Carpenters received $2.50, laborers $1.25, and foreman $3.50 a day The gang consisted of 1 foreman, 3 laborers and 4 carpenters. 1008 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. These caps were covered with a platform of 4-in. spruce plank run lengthwise of the trench, laid to break joint, and spiked to the caps with 8-in. cut spikes. This platform was laid with a force of 1 foreman, at $3.50 ; 8 laborers, at $1.50, and 1 carpenter, at $2.50. The cost of laying 900 M was $7.40 per M. The contrac- tor doing this work failed. Cost of a Pile Docking. This work consisted in driving a row of oak piles, 25 ft. long and 5 ft. centers, to an average depth of 10 ft. into gravel. The piles were sheeted on the rear with 3-in. oak plank laid horizontally and breaking joints. A waling piece, of 10 x 12-in. oak, was bolted along the front face of this docking, and anchored back to stone deadmen. The anchor rods were 1%- in., spaced 10 ft. apart. Back of this docking an earth fill was placed, but the following costs relate only to the timber work. A pile driver, mounted on rollers, and operated by a friction-clutch engine, was used. The daily cost of operation was as follows : 7 men, at $1.50 $10.50 1 foreman 3.00 1 pair of horses 1.50 Rent of driver and engine 3.00 % ton coal, at $4 1.00 Total, 10 piles driven, at $1.90 $19.00 The piles were of oak and two of the men peeled and pointed them and square-sawed the heads. The horses were used to drag the piles up to the driver. There was some grading and scaffolding work necessary to provide a level runway for the driver. The foreman was not a good manager, and the cost was much higher than it should have been. On one day when the work was pushed and when conditions were favorable, 25 piles were driven. The labor cost of placing the sheet planking and wale piece was $4.50 per M, about 80% of the timber being the 3-in. planking. This work was done by common laborers working in pairs, at $1.50 each per 10-hr, day. The piles were not always plumb and seldom spaced exactly, so that a measuring pole had to be used to fit each plank, and every plank had to be sawed separately by the men. Had the engineer so designed the work that the planks could have been set on end, like sheet piling, all this fitting and sawing of individual planks could have been avoided, with consequent re- duction in the cost. Moreover there would have been less wast- age of plank. Such a design would have necessitated two more small-sized wale pieces, but it would have made easy the removal of any single plank at any time for repairs due to rotting. In bor- ing the oak wale pieces and piles with a 1%-in. ship auger, a man would bore 12 ins. in 5 mins. It took 5 mins. for two men to cut off a 10 x 12-in. oak stick using a crosscut saw. It may be well to note that the plans called for the driving of 3 x 8-in. oak sheet piling to a depth of 5 ft. by hand, using wooden mauls. It was found impossible to drive these planks more than 2 ft. into the gravel without battering the heads to pieces. PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERWORK. 1009 Data on Driving Plumb and Batter Piles, New York Docks. Mr. Charles W. Raymond gives the following data on the driving of piles for docks, Hudson River, New York City, prior to 1880: Piles were driven with a scow pile driver, the scow being 3x20x42 ft., provided with leaders 50 ft. long. The engine was a 10-hp. friction- clutch hoisting engine, with double cylinders, 6x12 ins. The boiler was 15 hp. upright. A crew of 8 men worked 8 hrs. per day for the city, and drove 10 to 15 piles per day. The piles aver- .aged about 65 ft. long, and were driven 55 to 60 ft. below mean low water, penetrating about 10 ft. of gravel and cobbles (6-in. and less) that were filled in over the dredged area before driving. Then the piles penetrated about 25 ft. of river muck, making a total penetration of 35 ft. There was no difficulty in driving through the cobbles and gravel. without brooming the piles. All piles were sharpened, and their heads were squared. To indi- cate the kind of driving, two records of 50 piles show that 230 blows of the hammer were required to secure a penetration of 38 ft, or 180 blows to secure a penetration of 33 ft. The last foot of penetration required 13 to 14 blows of a 3,000-lb. hammer falling 8 ft. (not freely, but with the hammer rope). A special driver, with leaders inclined 1 to 6, was used to drive batter piles, and the average number of piles driven per day was about half as many as in driving plumb piles, or 5 to 7 piles per 8- hr. day. The number of blows per batter pile was somewhat great- er than per plumb pile, but by no means enough greater to account for the slower driving, which was probably due to difficulty in getting the batter pile properly started. Data on Driving Piles for Docks, New York. Mr. Eugene Len- tilhon states that in 1896 the following comparative records were made with a drop hammer and a Vulcan steam hammer : The driv- ing was for a dock on the Hudson River, New York City, and was very hard driving, the material being 10 ft. of cobbles underlaid by sand and gravel. The piles were spaced 3 ft. apart, and driven from scows. The drop-hammer, friction-clutch machine had a crew of 10 men. It required 175 blows of a 3,300-lb. hammer falling 10 ft. to drive a pile; and 15 blows were struck per minute, hence the actual time of hammering a pile was about 12 mins. The piles were 55 to 60 ft. long and penetrated 21 to 28 ft. The crew averaged 12 piles per 10-hr, day. As compared with this crew of 8 men, using a Vulcan steam hammer, averaged 18 piles per 10 hrs. The machine weighed 8,400 Ibs., and the striking piston weighed 4,000 Ibs. and had a drop of 3% ft. It struck 60 blows per minute, and some piles required as many as 1,200 blows. Mr. Lentilhon does not make it clear why the steam hammer was more effective than the drop hammer. It is probable, however, that there were fewer delays in straightening up the pile during driving when a steam hammer was used. He states that there were' two objections to the steam hammer, one of which was the frequent loss of the "cap" or "saucepan," or "hood," by dropping into the water, and the rapidity with which the "cap" 1010 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. was worn out. Only 38 piles were driven with each cap before it was worn out. The second objection was the impracticability of driving crooked piles. Cost of Pulling Piles, Drivinq Piles and Timberwork.* In 1899 the city of New York let a contract for making alterations to the temporary bridge over the Bronx River near Westchester avenue, Bronx Borough. The contract price was $950. The work con- sisted of the tearing out of the old pivot pier, cutting off one span of the west trestle approach and adding one span to the east side. Fig. 6 shows the extent of the work. The old pivot pier was constructed of piles driven to rock through four or five feet of hard material, probably disintegrated rock. The piles were sway braced, were capped by 12 in. x 12 in. timber 53'J"- s///////// Otf Work : West Approach Fig. 6. and had a 6 in. deck on top of the caps. A fender rack about 90 ft. long was also removed. This rack consisted of piles, 8 ft. center and timber, 3 in. x 12 in., bolted to the piles. The contractor's plant consisted of a pile driver and scow and a land driver operated from the scow. According to the terms of the contract all timber in good condition could be used over again. Work was begun June 14, and the weather was favorable for good work. The first work done was the tearing out of the old pile pivot pier and the fender rack. In this work the scow pile driver was used in pulling the piles, about 45 piles being removed in this man- ner. Such of these piles as were in good condition were used in the new work. In addition one span of pile trestle was cut off in the west trestle approach, the timber being sawed off close to the ground. A total of about 10 M ft. B. M. was removed, the labor cost being as follows : ^Engineering -Contracting, June 13, 1906. PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERWORK. 1011 Hours. Rate, cts. Total. Foreman . 48 45 $21.60 Engineman 24 35 8.40 Dock builders 96 27% 26.40 Watchman 30 15 4.50 Total 10 M ft. at $6.09 $60.90 It was necessary to excavate a small amount of mud in order to allow the pile driver to float in sufficiently near the pivot pier, and also to allow the placing of the sway bracing as low as possible The depth of the cutting was 3 ft. and about 30 cu. yds. of material was removed. The labor cost wa as follows : Hours. Rate, cts Total. Foreman 4 45 $1.80 Engineman 2 35 .70 Oock builders 8 27 % 2.20 Watchman 2 15 .30 Total, 30 cu. yds. at 16.6 cts $5.00 In driving the piles the scow pile driver and the land driver were used, the latter, however, was used only in driving the piles in the bank bents, 8 piles being so driven. In all 83 piles were driven. The piles were of spruce, about 25 ft. long, and were rather slen- der. They were driven through about 5 ft. of disintegrated rock, above which was soft mud, to solid rock. It took from 20 to 25 blows of the hammer to drive each pile. The hammer was raised by a friction hoist, and fell with hoist cable attached. The labor cost of driving the piles is shown in the accompany- ing table. LABOR COST OF DRIVING THE PILES. Cost Hours. Rate, cts. Total. per pile. Foreman 82 45 $ 36.90 $0.44 Engineman 41 35 14.35 .17 Dock builders 171 . 27% 47.03 .57 Watchman 40 15 6.00 .07 Total $104.28 $1.25 LABOR COST OF FRAMING AND PLACING TIMBER. Cost per M. ft. Hours. Rate, cts. Total. B. M. Foreman 166 45 $74.70 $5.06 Engineman 88 35 34.80 2.36 Dock builders 365 27% 100.38 6.78 Watchman . ..128 15 19.20 1.30 Total . $229.08 $15.50 Tn framing and placing- timber about 14,800 ft. B. M. of yellow pine lumber was used. Some of this was new and some was taken from the old work. The piles were cut off and capped, and the stringers and floor in the approaches and the deck of the pivot pier were placed. A railing was built on the approaches and the sway braces and fender rack were bolted into position. Little fram- ing was done. The labor cost of this work is shown in the accom- panying table. 1012 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The total cost of the work is shown below : Labor: Tearing out old work $ 60.90 Excavation 5.00 Driving piles 104.28 Framing and placing timber 229.08 Total labor $399.26 Materials: 53 piles at $2 $106.00 Timber, 3.6 M ft. B. M. at $30 108.00 Bolts, spikes, etc., 900 Ibs. at 5 cts 45.00 Total *. $259.00 Operating Expenses: Towing $ 30.00, Coal for pile driver, 2 /, tons at $4 10.00 Repairs to plant 10.00 Total operating expenses , $ 50.00 Total cost $679.00 As stated previously the contract price was $950. Work of this character is generally expensive because of the small gang of dock builders employed. The engineman's wages and plant expense, therefore, form a large percentage of the total cost. Cost of Driving and Sawing Off Piles. Mr. Eugene Lentilhon gives the following relative to a pile foundation for a concrete sewer, built by the New York City Dock Dept. The piles were driven by a scow driver with a 3,400-lb. hammer, which worked 65 days. Wages were $2.30 for laborers, $3.50 for engineman, and $3.00 for dock-builders, per 10 hrs. The average was 8 piles driven per day, at a cost of $3.90 for labor of driving. The piles were sawed off 1 ft. below mean low water. The dock builders fastened small battens on opposite sides of a pile to guide the saw, and frequently two men during a good low tide sawed off 3 piles. The cost of sawing off was $1.28 per pile. Data on Driving With a Steam Hammer and Sawing Off Piles. Mr. Sanford E. Thomson gives the following data on driving and sawing off piles for the Cambridge Bridge, at Boston, in 1901. A Warrington steam hammer, made by the Vulcan Iron Works, of Chicago, was used by the contractors. It weighed 9,800 Ibs., and the striking part weighed 5,000 Ibs. With 90 to 100 Ibs. of steam, the hammer would strike 60 to 70 blows per minute, falling by gravity. The top of the leaders of the scow driver was 75 ft. above the water surface. After a pile was well down, an oak follower, 14 ins. square and 30 ft. long, was placed on the pile to complete the driving, so that the pile head was left 18 ft. below the water surface. The average 10-hrs. work of a driver was 100 piles, but on one day as many as 212 piles were driven in 9 hrs. The piles were 40 ft. long and driven in hard clay. The piles were cut off 15 to 34 ft. below low water by a rotary PILING-, TRESTLING, TIMBERW.ORK. 1013 saw mounted on another scow. A 40-hp. engine i-unning at 150 revolutions per minute was geared up to the saw shaft so as to drive the saw at about 450 revolutions per minute. A 42-in. saw was mounted at the lower end of a hollow vertical shaft 4 ins. in diameter and 60 ft. long. This shaft was supported by three pil- low-block bearings which were bolted to a spud 14 ins. square and 60 ft. long ; so that when the spud was raised or lowered the saw shaft moved with it. The pulley on the saw shaft was arranged to slide on a spline or key, so that the shaft could be raised with- out raising the pulley. The belt from the pulley ran to another pulley mounted on a short vertical jack-shaft, provided with a bevel gear wheel meshing with another bevel gear wheel on a horizontal shaft driven by the engine. This horizontal shaft was geared to the engine with a link belt. This machine sawed off 600 to 800 piles per 10-hr, day. The spruce piles were 10 ins. diameter. Cost of Driving Piles for a Swing Bridge. A steel highway swing bridge, 240 ft. long, and 16 -ft. roadway, was to be supported on a pier in the center of the river. The piles were Washington fir, driven to an average depth of 20 ft. in grrvel. The penetration under the last blow of a 2,400-lb. hammer, falling freely 27 ft., was 3 to 4 ins. A scow pile driver was used, and the force to operate it was as follows : Per day. 1 engineman $ 3.00 1 man tripping hammer 1.75 2 men guiding pile 3.50 2 men making ready the next pile 3.50 % foreman 2.50 % ton coal, at $9 3.00 Total per 10 hrs $15.25 Rent of driver . 6.00 Total $21.25 This force averaged 26 piles per 10-hr, day. The foreman super- vised another gang of men, so that half his wages were charged to this work. The piles were neither peeled nor sharpened, for I found no economy in so doing. There were 42 piles in the pier, and twice as many more in the pier protection bents upstream and downstream, which also served as falsework upon which to build the bridge. The piles in these bents were sawed off, capped and sheeted with plank. Two men with a cross-cut saw would saw off 30 of the piles in the bents in 10 hrs., at about 12 cts. per pile. The cost of sawing off the piles below water for the pier is given in the next paragraph. Cost of Sawing Off 42 Piles Under Water. It was necessary to cut off 42 piles, 4 ft. below extreme low water for the pier work just described. A gravel bar occupied the site of the pier, and, al- though the water was about 4 ft. deep over the bar at the time of pile driving, it was necessary to dredge this bar at least 4 ft. deeper. A hole 4 ft. deep, and 27 ft. square on a side, was dredged with an ordinary drag scraper equipped with long handles and hauled by the pile-driver engine. The men operating the scraper walked on 1014 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. a raft. It took S 1 ^ days of the pile driver crew above given, to do this dredging, at $21 per day, or $74. The 42 piles were driven in this hole, after driving 4 piles above the hole and sheeting them with plank to act as a temporary sheer dam to prevent the river current (3 miles per hr. ) from filling in the hole with gravel dur- ing pile driving. The 42 piles were cut off about 8 ft. under water with a circular saw mounted on a shaft driven by the pile-driver engine. A saw, shaft, pulleys and belt were bought for this pur- pose and rigged up by the pile-driver crew. It took them 3 days to rig the saw and cut off the 42 piles. The hole had not been dredged deep enough and the gravel that had washed in dulled the teeth of the saw requiring frequent raising to resharpen it. More- over, the engine did not have sufficient power to drive the saw at high speed, and the piles were as much chewed off as sawed off. All these, however, are conditions apt to be met in similar work on small jobs. The 3 days' sawing cost $64, or $1.50 per pile. Data on Sawing Off Burlington Bridge Pier Piles. Mr. C. Hudson gives the following description of the method used in sawing off several hundred piles for the Burlington Bridge pier, in 1868: The piles when driven, were sawed off by machinery. On each side of the pier, and a few feet away from it, a row of piles, per- haps 6 or 8 ft. apart, was driven. These were capped, and upon the cap was placed a traveler 12 ft. wide, arranged to be moved from end to end of the pier on these caps. Upon this traveler was another and smaller one, arranged to run upon it and across the pier. This last traveler carried a vertical shaft in a properly braced frame. This shaft carried at its lower end a circular saw about 36 ins. in diameter. The shaft could be raised or lowered as re- quired, and was driven by means of a beveled gear from a hori- zontal shaft on the little traveler, A long belt extended the whole length of the large traveler, around a pulley on this horizontal shaft, and another guide pulley, so arranged that the shaft was turned regardless of the position of the little traveler. An engine on a boat alongside the pier was the motive power. The little traveler was fed across the pier by means of a set of small blocks on each side, and a line which ran around a wheel shaft like a ship's steering wheel. By this means the traveler could be moved either way, and could thus cut off a row of piles running one way, and then, by feeding back cut the next row, the large traveler having been moved back to reach it. In this way 12 or 15 piles were cut off per hour. The efficiency of the saw under water is, of course, very much less than in the air. Cost of Pulling and Driving Piles for a Guard Pier. The pile pro- tection, or guard pier, of an old draw bridge, across a tributary of the Hudson River, was removed and new piles were driven. I sub- let the work, and the following are the actual costs to the sub- contractor : The number of piles pulled was 200, and the time required was 10 days. A scow pile driver was used, the engine being a friction- clutch machine, and the hammer weighing 2,200 Ibs. To pull the PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1015 piles, a pair of heavy triple-sheave blocks were used. The pulling was easy, the piles being only 10 to 15 ft. in rather soft ground. The daily (10-hr.) cost of operating the scow was as follows: Per day. 1 captain of driver $ 2.50 1 engineman 2.00 3 men, at $1.80 5.40 Va ton coal, at $3 1.00 Rent of driver 5.00 Total, 20 piles pulled, at 80 cts $15.90 This same crew then drove 200 new piles in 20 days, or 10 piles per day, at a cost of $1.60 per pile. The piles were driven 15 to 20 ft., and were 30 to 35 ft. long after cutting off. The slowness of the driving was largely due to delays caused by navigation at high tide, the channel being so narrow that the driver had to drop down with the tide to make way for boats to pass, and then pull back against the tide. On some days the driver was inter- rupted in this way as many as 8 times. After the piles were driven and cut off, a 6 x 12-in. wale piece was bolted on each side of the piles, entirely around the guard pier, the wale piece being 1 ft. below the top of the piles. Another (but single) wale piece was bolted to the piles, on the outside, at low water. To these wale pieces, 3 x 12-in. sheeting planks were spiked upright; and two more lines of 6 x 12-in. walings were bolted through the sheeting and inside wale pieces, to hold the sheeting in place. The 1-in. bolts were countersunk. The timber for the wale pieces was yellow pine in 16-ft. lengths, and had to be scarfed with a 12-in. ship lap on each end, and drift bolted twice. This scarfing was expensive work, beside causing a 6% loss of tim- ber at the scarfs. If longer lengths than 16 ft. had been used, the cost of labor and the waste of timber would have been less. Beside the wale pieces and sheeting, there were 6 x 12-in.- timbers bolted on each side of every fifth bent of piles ; and the center piles of the bent were capped, lengthwise of the guard pier, with a 12 x 12-in. cap. There were nearly 30,000 ft. B. M. of yellow pine timber all told, which cost $23 per M delivered. For this timberwork the same crew was used as for pile pulling and driving, except that one more timberman, at $1.80, was em- ployed, making the daily cost $17.70. The crew averaged only 1,300 ft. B. M. per day, at a cost of nearly $14 per M for framing and placing all the timber. They were slow workers, and there were delays due to navigation. Cost of Drawing Foundation Piles and Sheet Piles. The following is a very brief abstract of a long illustrated article in Engineering- Contracting, May 8, 1907, by Mr. Charles M. Ripley, on the anchor- age of the Manhattan Bridge. Sheet Piling and Excavation. The first work done was the exca- vation of the foundation pit and the driving of the foundation piles. This work was done by the J. & F. Kelley Co., as sub- contractors. Sheet piling 12 ins. thick and from 20 to 30 ins. wide was driven all around the anchorage and so as to give about 1016 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. 4 ft. clearance on the sides and at the front and to be close against the footing masonry at the rear. It was driven by a Vulcan steam hammer. There were about 860 ft. of sheeting around the pit; the depth of the sheeting being about 25 ft. we have then some 258 M ft. B. M. of lumber in the sheeting proper not counting in waling or bracing. Exact figures of this work are not available for publication, but the sheet piling gang working with one driver usually consisted of one foreman at $4 per day, one engineer at $4 per day and five or six dock builders receiving $2.50 per day on land and $3.50 per day on water. An 8-hr, day was worked and about twelve sheet piles were driven per machine per day. Assuming an average depth of sheeting of 25 ft. we have 300 lin. ft. of piling driven per day, or about 3,600 ft. B. M., at a labor cost of: PerM. Total. Per ft. B. M. 1 foreman at $4 $4.00 l%c $1.60 1 engineer at $4 4.00 l%c 1.60 6 dock builders at $2.50 15.00 5c 6.00 Total .$23.00 7%c $9.20 The amount of excavation inside the cofferdam was approximately 45,000 cu. yds. Taking the amount of sheeting given above as 258,- 000 ft. B. M., we have 174 cu. yds. of excavation for every 1,000 ft. B. M. of sheet piling, or 5.75 ft. B. M. of piling per cubic yard of excavation. Foundation Piling. The foundation piles were driven by a plant of four 3,500-lb. drop hammer drivers with 4 5 -ft. leads. These ma- chines were mounted on skids and rollers in two horizontal directions and traveled across the work, driving a strip of piling as they progressed. In addition to the drop hammer drivers there were two steam hammer drivers similarly mounted, one a 5-ton and one a 4-ton Vulcan hammer. Every sixth row of piles across the foundation pit was driven by light drop machines and was then capped with a 12 x 20-in. timber. Two of these parallel tim- bers formed the track for the drivers. Five rows of piles were driven from each track. In a few cases a water jet was used to assist in the driving. Altogether 4,430 piles were driven. The piles were an average of 25 to 30 ft. long, 14 ins. in diameter at the banded end and 9 ins. in diameter at the point. The piles were driven to a refusal of a quarter of an inch and the work was so arranged that 16 piles were driven by each machine per 8-hr. day. The gang on each machine worked an 8-hr, day and was organ- ized as follows : 1 foreman at $4 $ 4.00 1 engineer at $4 400 6 laborers at $2.50 15.00 Total labor $23.00 With each machine driving 16 piles the labor cost of driving per 25 to 30-ft. pile was $1.43 per pile. It was found in this work PILING, TRESTLING, T1MBERWORK. 1017 that the steam hammer drivers were about 2% times as rapid as the drop hammer drivers. Cost of Pulling Piles. In 1898 I had a contract for pulling piles from the bed of a river. Several hundred piles were pulled with a tripod machine, with gear wheels and triple blocks that multi- plied the power 270 times, as shown on page 1047. A rope passed from the drum of the machine to a 4-hp. hoisting engine, which was thus able to pull piles driven 27 ft. into the ground. It cost $100 to make two of these machines and about $300 more for blocks and tackle and repairs. The crew for each puller was 3 laborers, 1 boss and 1 engineman, so that the cost of wages and ^4 ton of coal was $10 per day. About 700 piles were pulled with two machines, the average depth of pile being 12 ft., although many were 25 ft. The average day's work per machine was 15 piles making the cost of labor and fuel about 70 cts. per pile. The men worked in water up to their knees and were provided with rubber boots costing $100, which, with the $400 paid for machines and repairs, made $500, or about 70 cts. more per pile, or a total of $1.40 per pile. Chains that were wrapped around the piles in pulling were made of li/i-in. iron, with a breaking strength of about 100,000 Ibs. The strain was so great in pulling the longest piles that the chains were frequently broken. Cost of Blasting Piles. Several hundred piles were removed by blasting, in addition to the 700 that were pulled as above de- scribed. The piles had been cut off at the water's surface many years before, and our contract required the removal of the piles at least 4 ft. below the surface of the low water, which was equivalent to about 2 ft. below the bed of the river. Long ship augers were used to bore holes 1% ins. in diameter and 4 1 / ft. deep, down the core each pile. Each laborer averaged 7 such holes bored per 10 hrs. in white oak piles, or 30 ft. per day. The cost per pile for boring and blasting was: Labor boring, 15 cts. per hr $0.21 1 Ib. of 70% dynamite 0.20 V 2 lb. of 40% dynamite 0.08 5 ft. of fuse 0.03 1 cap 0.01 Total per pile $0.53 Each pile was loaded with two sticks of 70% dynamite and one stick of 40%. This charge would cut off the largest pile and hurl the butt 75 ft. in the air. Occasionally a very tough pile would be splintered, and had to be pulled. This added cost of pulling aver- aged 10 cts. more per pile, which might have been avoided by making all three sticks 70% dynamite. Cost of Driving and Pulling Test Piles.* A pile was driven every 50 ft. across the Hackensack River, N. J. t to test the nature of the bottom. Three 90-ft. piles were used, and were pulled after driving. * Engineering-Contracting, July 18, 1906. 1018 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of the work includes the cost of pulling as well as driving. A scow driver was used, and the work was done at cost plus 10% for superintendence. The total number of feet penetrated by the piles was 634, or about 57% ft. as an average of the 11 piles, 8 of which were driven to rock. The material penetrated was mud, sand and clay. The work occupied 4% days, of which 1*4 days were spent in transporting the driver to the site of the work and removing it from the work after completion. The cost was as follows : Foreman, 4 y> days at $4 $ 18.00 Machine men, 45 days at $3 135.00 Watchman, 4 nights at $3 12.00 Total $165.00 Add 10 per cent for profit 16.50 Total $181.50 This is at the rate of 30 cts. per lin. ft. of penetration for driving and pulling, but it does not include the cost of coal. Coal was probably less than % ton per day, or say $10 for the whole job, or less than 2 cts. per foot. The cost of materials was as follows : 3 piles, 90 ft. long, at $25.... $75.00 2 spruce piles, 52 ft. long, for use as followers, at $4 8.00 4 pile bands, at $2.50 ' 10.00 Total $03.00 Add 10 per cent for profit 9.30 Total $102.30 This is equivalent to about 16 cts. per lin. foot of pile penetra- tion. The total cost was therefore : Per ft. Per Penetration. Pile. Labor $0.30 $16.50 Coal .02 0.90 Materials ..'.'., .16 9.30 Total $0.48 $26.70 It will be noticed that there were 10 men and 1 foreman on the driver, which is an unusually large number ; and it will also be noted that the wages paid the "machine men" were very liberal. Since only 3^4 days were actually spent in driving, the average day's work was 3 piles driven and pulled. If an ordinary scow driver crew of 6 men at $2, and 1 man at $4, had been employed, the daily wages would have been $16. To which add $2 for coal and $6 for rental of plant, making a total of $24 per day for driv- ing and pulling 3 test piles, or $8 per pile. Even $8 per pile would be a high cost for such work, when done by contract, if the cost of moving the driver to and from the site of the work is not included. In view of the valuable information gained at small expense by driving test piles, it ic surprising that engineers do not oftener test PILING, TRESTLIXG, TIMBERWORK. 1019 the bottom of rivers in this way before drawing plans and speci- fications for bridge foundations, trestles, etc. When a contract has been awarded for foundations, the first thing that the contractor wants to do is to order his piles. The engineer usually refuses to furnish a bill of materials until enough piles have been driven to determine the character of the bottom. This delays the whole work, and adds materially to the contractor's expense. Moreover, it usu- ally results in a change of specified lengths of piles, and a corre- sponding change in the ultimate cost of the job. The time to drive test piles is before the award of a contract, not afterward. Cost of Driving Piles for a Shore Protection.* Mr. Daniel J. Hauer gives the following: The work was done by contract The piles were for the founda- tion of a reinforced concrete shore protection, consisting of a pilaster spaced on 12-ft. centers and a curtain wall 6 ins. thick cast between the pilasters. Two piles were driven for each pilaster, thus making a space of 12 ft. between each set of piles. The two piles Were 18 ins. center to center. This spacing is somewhat unusual, as foundation piles are seldom driven on more than 6-ft. centers, which means more piles to drive with less moving. There was nothing difficult in the driving, and no great obstacles to over- come. The work was along the shore of a tidewater bay, and except in a few places out of reach of the water. Only once for an hour or so was the work stopped by high tide. Nearly half of the work was through marshes, the rest of the driving being in stiff clay. But little cribbing had to be done, the runways being placed on blocks on the ground. Where any grading had to be done to allow the machine to be rolled ahead, it was done by other forces, and has not been included in the costs given. The piles were not sawed off, but were driven by a follow head to the proper depth, which was 0.6 ft. below mean low water, the foundation pit having just been excavated. This was made possible by the fact that the piles were not capped, but the heads of the piles were imbedded in the concrete. The piles were delivered within easy reach of the machine by teams, this being done by another contractor. The lengths driven varied from 10 to 30 ft., less than 5% being the last named length, while many were only 15 to 20 ft. long, more than half being but 10 ft. The average length was 12% ft. The pile driver had leads 33 ft. high, which were bolted to a bed frame of 12 x 12-in. timbers, 5 ft. wide and 24 ft. long, upon the other end of which sat the 10-hp. hoisting engine, it being a single cylinder double drum engine with two winch heads. One drum operated the hammer fall. and the other the pile hoisting line. The top of the machine was guyed by two lines run to anchors a hun- dred feet or more away on either side, and run through a block on the head, the other end of the line being fastened to a davit on the bed frame ; this allowed of the guys being easily slackened * Engineering-Contracting, July 27, 1906. 1020 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. or tightened. The bed frame rested on two steel rollers with holes in the end to take bars in order to roll the machine. The hammer weighed 2,000 Ibs. The machine was old and in a dilapidated condition. The fittings around the boiler and engine leaked both steam and water; the leads were badly racked ; towards the end of the job the hammer frequently jumped out of them. The rollers, too, were old ones, and, besides being cracked, one had a flat side on it, so as to pre- vent it rolling easily. All these things materially delayed the work at times and added much to the expense of operating the driver. The condition of the boiler and the indifferent engineers who ran it, coupled with the fact that most of the work was done in the winter season, made the consumption of coal and water large. The cost of such a plant new at the present time, including ma- chine ropes, small tools, blocks and anchors, would not be over $1,200. Thus, if a plant rental of $5 per day was charged against the job, with work for the outfit for 100 to 120 days in the year, the entire cost of the plant would be cleared in two seasons. This charge seems to the writer to be ample, but it is customary to hire such a plant for $10 per day for short jobs. The work will be divided into two parts, as this division will allow of a comparison of costs, driving the piles under two different fore- men, also under different weather conditions ; the first being done in excellent weather in the autumn, the second during the winter months. The rates of wages were also different for the men. The foreman and engineer were paid weekly and were not allowed over- time, as they lost no time. The work was seldom stopped even during stormy weather, their daily wage, prorated from the weekly rate, is used. In example No. 1 the wages paid were as follows: Foreman $2.50 Engine runner 2.00 Pile driver men 2.25 Laborer 1.50 In example No. 2 the daily wages were : Foreman $2.50 Engine runner 2.00 Pile driver men 2.00 Laborers 1.50 Cart and driver 3.00 Example L These piles were driven during good autumn weather. The foreman was competent and attended to his work. The ma- chine was brought to the site of the wall on a scow, which was beached, and the engine, leads and so forth skidded off and the parts of the machine assembled. This, with the building of a camp, con- sumed three days, and the labor items are included in the cost of the pile driving. This foreman drove 473 piles, their average length being 15 ft. The engine used 325 Ibs. of coal **fih day of 10 hrs., the coal costing on board of the scows $3.50 per ton. Both water and coal were brought to the work on scows, a tow costing PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERWORK. 1021 $15 per trip, the tug bringing a load and returning with the empties. A laborer carried the coal and water ashore from the scow in a row boat and delivered it at the engine. One man was kept at this continually, and he is listed in the cost under coal and water la- borer. The monthly rental of two small scows at $50 per month is given under "scows and tugs." In listing the cost each item was kept separate and is as follows, per pile driven : Per pile. Foreman $0.151 Engineer 0.121 Pile driver men 0.830 Labor preparing piles 0.106 Coal and water laborer 0.090 Scows and tugs 0.272 Watchman 0.052 Total labor $1.622 Coal, 325 Ibs. daily 0.055 Plant (int. and deprec.) 0.320 Total $1.997 The piles were squared on the end and prepared to be put in the leads by one man, who had no trouble in keeping this work ahead of the driving. One man attended to the water and coal, while seven men placed the piles in the leads, guided it down, placed the runways and assisted in moving the driver ahead. To accom- plish this an anchor was placed in the ground ahead to act as a dead man, and with a line run from it to the winch head on the engine, the machine was pulled ahead on the rollers, the crew as- sisting with bars. For the entire job an average of 17 piles were driven each day, but as three days were consumed in starting, and three addi- tional days were used in moving the machine as explained later, the average number of piles driven for each day of driving was 21. The average length of the pile was 15 ft. They were delivered in longer lengths and sawed into two pieces of the desired length. After working a number of days the pile driving work was stopped on account of the necessary excavation not having been made, and it was decided to move the machine back to the start- ing point and drive piles in the opposite direction in order to build more of the shore protection. The machine was turned around and moved in the manner as described above for a distance of 1,300 ft. Although the contractor was paid full account for this, yet the cost has been included in the figures given above. The time con- sumed in moving was three days, and the cost for labor, plant, coal, etc., was as follows: Labor $65.25 Plant rental 15.00 Coal 1.70 $8l795 This makes a cost per pile of 17.3 cts. for moving. During the course of the job it was necessary to move the water 1022 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and coal scows along the shore, so the water and coal tender could reach them quickly to get his supplies. The cost of this work is given under pile driver men, and was not separated from the other work. The foreman, as stated, was a competent and Intelligent one, and handled his men with some thought. He endeavored to keep up his runways and make the work light for his men, realizing that more work was accomplished in this manner. In addition to the cost per pile, a record was kept of the cost per lineal foot of pile driven, which was : Per lin. ft. Foreman $0.010 Engineer 0.009 Pile driver men 0.057 Preparing piles 0.007 Coal and water laborer 0.006 Scows and tugs 0.020 Watchman 0.003 Total labor $0.112 Coal, 325 Ibs. daily 0.004 Plant (int. and deprec.) 0.022 Total $o".138 Example II. After the winter weather had set in, the neces- sary excavation having been made, the work was resumed. A new foreman was put in charge of the job. After moving the machine from where it was last used to the new site, the driving com- menced. This move was also paid for by the railroad company. The distance was 2,500 ft. The driver was rolled 100 ft. onto an embankment, where an ox team could be brought to it, was knocked d>wn and hauled by the yoke of oxen hitched to a timber cart. The bed frame and engine making one load, the leads another, and the hammer, ropes and small tools making a third load. The machine was then set up for work. The time consumed was five days, a day and a half of which time the ox team worked. Fifty dollars were paid for their services. The total cost of moving 1 was : Labor $ 74.75 Plant rental 25.00 Coal 4.37 Ox team 50.00 $154.12 This cost is also included in the cost of driving as given below. The average length of the piles driven was 11 ft. For the actual number of days of driving the average number driven per day was 15, while for the whole time the average number was IS. Scows were not used for coal and water, but the water was hauled from a well about half a mile distant, and the coal from another job a mile and a half away. A one-horse cart was used for this purpose, a laborer serving the engine from the supplies so hauled. The cost per pile was : PILING, TRESTLING, T1MBERIVORK. 10'JM Per pile. Foreman $0.194 Engineer 0.150 Pile driver men 0.864 Labor preparing piles 0.182 Coal and water laborer 0.110 Carts 0.110 Watchman 0.013 Total labor . ..$1.813 Coal, 500 Ibs. daily $0.070 Plant (int. and deprec.) 0.380 Total $2~263 The cost per lineal foot of pile driven was as follows : Per lin. ft. Foreman $0.014 Engineer 0.013 Pile driver men 0.078 Labor preparing piles 0.016 Coal and water laborer 0.010 Carts 0.027 Watchman 0.005 Total labor $0.163 Coal, 500 Ibs. daily 0.005 Plant (int. and deprec.) 0.035 Total $0.203 A comparison of the costs of these two examples of similar work is extremely interesting. The weather was favorable in the first case, but the rate of wages for pile driver men were higher and the average length of pile was longer, yet every item of cost was larger in the second example. The size of the crew was the same, but instead of one man preparing the piles two men did this work, which about doubled the cost ; but this extra man made one less man working with the machine ; yet that cost is increased. This and the other labor costs being enlarged is due to less work being done each day. The larger consumption of coal was due to the weather being colder and to bad firing, as will be noted later. Taking into consideration the wages the increased cost of Example II over I should have been little, if any. The foreman in the last work was incompetent, yet a shrewd fel- low. A representative of the contracting firm only visited him a few times a week, and then rarely stayed with him more than an hour. The foreman took advantage of this, and by "grand stand plays" stood well with the firm, yet shamefully neglected his work ; in fact, he and his crew "soldiered." A record was kept of the time used in doing the various kinds of work each day, and in order to illustrate how it is possible for a foreman to rob his employer this record is reproduced for sev- eral days: December 27. Moving runways ahead and placing them, 2 hrs. ; rolling machine, 3 hrs. and 25 mins. ; boiler foaming, so it would not steam, 30 mins. ; driving piles, 4 hrs. and 10 mins. Total time worked, 10 hrs. and 5 mins. Crew: Foreman, engineer, 10 men, 1024 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cart and driver, 2 men preparing piles, 1 man coal and water. Foreman and 2 men went away at 8:10 to see that some timber was not afloat; came back at 9:45. (This was not necessary.) January 8. Moving runways and placing them, 50 mins. ; rolling machine, 1 hr. and 35 mins. ; driving piles, 1 hr. and 45 mins. ; boiler foaming, so it would not steam, 30 mins. ; out of steam through negligence of engineer, 20 mins. ; 5 hrs. consumed in fixing machine, such as tightening bolts and rods, adjusting lines, most of which was unnecessary ; 1 hr. should have adjusted everything that needed it. Total time worked, 10 hrs. Crew: Foreman, engi- neer, 11 men, cart and driver, 1 man coal and water, 2 men pre- paring piles. January 15. Waiting for steam from 7 o'clock until 10 :35, 3 hrs. and 35 mins., during which time runways were placed; rolling ma- chine, 1 hr. and 15 mins. ; waiting for steam in afternoon, 30 mins. ; making a follower, 1 hr. (the writer has frequently made one in 10 mins.). Total time worked, 9 hrs. and 30 mins. (30 mins. stolen by whole crew). Foreman away from work, 1 hr. Crew: Fore- man, engineer, 8 men, cart and driver, 1 man on water, 2 men pre- paring piles for 2 hrs. These are records picked at random, and no comment is needed regarding them, save that if accurate cost data are kept on work such rascality and incompetency could not occur. Another feature that added to the cost of Example II was that the foreman, instead of heading his machine in the direction in which he was moving, had the back end first, which prevented him from using an anchor and the winch head of his engine in moving the driver, as the other foreman did. Because he was used to moving a machine backward, owing to the fact that with such a driver the piles are frequently left standing above the surface of the ground, he could not see that when the piles were driven below the surface it was an advan- tage in moving ahead to have his machine with the leads in that direction. Even when he was advised to prod his machine properly he ignored the advice, and before finishing the job he had to turn the machine, as the last piles were driven so close to a high bank there was not room enough to take the driver between the piles and the bank. This turning cost $14.70 for the labor, as it con- sumed 6 hrs. of time. The following shows how the time of the crew was spent for a week, the cost of each item of work being given. The week was picked at random and is in many ways representative. The total cost of labor was $148.97, divided as follows: Fixing runways $ 12.04 Rolling machine 18.96 Preparing piles 22.00 Serving coal and water 8.25 Hauling coal and water 16.50 Waiting for steam 8.81 Fixing machine, etc. . 32.96 Driving piles 25.75 Time loafing 3.70 $148.97 P1UNG, TRESTL1NG, T1MBERWORK. 1025 Although this work was mismanaged many lessons can be learned from it. Cost of Driving Wakefield Sheet Piling, Chicago, III.* The matter of constructing intercepting sewers for the purpose of diverting sewage into the Chicago Drainage Canal was taken up by the City of Chicago in the latter part of 1897. In August, 1899, bids were received for the construction of the south arm of that sewer system. All these bids were rejected, and in 1901 the city undertook the con- struction of this section of the system, employing day labor, and having all work done under the supervision of its own engineers. We shall give a brief description of the manner and methods of driving the piling for Section G, which extended from 39th to 51st streets, and for Section H, between 51st and 63d streets. As this was the city's first experience in con- struction work on a large scale, it was necessary to secure an entirely new plant. Accordingly, the city built, with its own labor, a turntable drop hammer pile driver, for use on Section G. The driver had a hammer weighing 3,000 pounds, and was equipped with a 7 x 10-in. double-drum hoisting engine and a duplex steam pump for jetting. The machine cost $2,200. As the sewer for a distance of about 2,500 ft. would be under the shoal water of the lake, and for the rest of the distance very close to the water's edge, it was necessary to use sheeting during construc- tion, which would be practically water tight. Accordingly, Wake- field sheet piling was used, the lumber employed in its construction being 2 ins. x 12 ins. x 20 ft. Norway and Georgia pine, surfaced one side and one edge. For most of the work Southern pine was used. In practice, however, it was found that Norway pine would stand 50% more blows under a drop hammer, and, in consequence, Norway sheet piling was used where there was difficult driving. About 12 ft. below city datum the clay line was found; imme- diately above this was a layer of fine blue sand mixed with short clay. This stratum when loose and wet acts very much like quick- sand. Above this stratum was ordinary lake sand. The sand was very solid and compact, owing to the action of the waves of the lake, buUwith the exception of gravel spots the seepage was small, considering the nearness to the lake. The first sheeting was driven nearly to the bottom of the proposed excavation ; but later it was found that sheeting driven 4 to 5 ft. into the clay would do suffi- ciently well. In order to have the sheeting left to a sufficient height above the line of the lake for protection against high water, tides, etc., 20 ft. of material was used with some exceptions. In the bracing, 10-in. x 12-in. x 22-ft. stringers and 10-in. x 10-in. x 20-ft. braces were used. Three sets of stringers and braces were found sufficient for most of the distance. In some places, however, it was necessary on account of bad ground and swelling clay, to re- * Engineering-Contracting, March, 1906. 1026 . HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. Inforce both stringers and braces. Throughout, the entir> work, 12-in. Dunn screw-braces were used. In construction, the top set of stringers and braces followed the scraping and leveling. The distance between the sheeting was 22 ft. for the 16-ft. conduit and 21% ft. for the 15% -ft. conduit. A clear- ance of about 9 ins. between the sheeting and sewer brickwork was allowed. As was stated previously the city had built a turntable driver for use on this section of the work. In the operation it was found prac- tical to swing the driving apparatus about once every day. Ordi- narily about 50 ft. of sheeting in each direction was driven on one side, and then 50 ft. in each direction on the other side. A water jet for jetting to the clay was used with marked success. Ordi- narily, after jetting to the clay and getting the piling into position, four or five blows of the hammer were sufficient. In many cases isolated rocks, about 1% ft. in their largest dimensions, were found from 2 ft. to 8 ft. below the surface; these were disposed of by jetting a large hole beside them. The piles were held in place during driving by a %-in. buck line, attached to the front drum of the hoisting engine, and leading through the sheaves attached to the pile driver and sheeting in place, to and around the pile to be driven. In making each Wakefield pile, 50-penny wire spikes were used. Half-inch carriage bolts were tried as fastenings, but it was found that the carpenters could make at least twice the number of sheet piles when 50-penny wire spikes were used. Eight to ten spikes were used per pile. The pile-driving crew followed the gang setting the top braces ; and, on straight work at least, it was planned to have a distance of about 400 ft. between the pile driver and the excavating derrick, because when the driving was too near there was trouble with seepage water from the jet. In ordinary driving, the crew averaged about 90 pieces of sheet- ing for 8 hrs. This is equivalent to 45 ft. of trench sheet piled. The largest day's work was 120 pieces of sheeting placed. On some days, however, when such obstructions as piers were encountered, not more than 12 pieces of sheeting were driven ; this occurred once perhaps in 300 to 400 ft. The pile driving crew consisted of the following : t Per day. 1 foreman, $100 per month $ 4.16 1 engineman, $4.80 per day 4.80 1 fireman, $2.50 per day 2.50 2 carpenters, $3.60 per day 7.20 4 laborers, $2.50 per day 10.00 1 jet man, $3.00 per day 3.00 1 ladder man, $3.00 per day 3.00 .2 winch men, $3.00 per day , 6.00 Total $40.66 1 ton coal 2.90 Total, 10.8 M, at $4.03 $43.56 As about 45 ft. of trench was sheet-piled per 8 hrs., the labor PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1027 cost per linear foot of sewer amounted to $0.90. The labor cost per pile was 45 cts. The bill of materials required for the average amount placed in an 8-hr, day was as follows : 10.8 M ft. B. M. 2 ins. x 12 ins. x 20 ft. timber at $22 $237.60 900 spikes, at $2.65 per 100 ' . 23.85 Total materials $261.45 Adding the total labor cost and the total cost for material we have $305.01 as the total cost of 90 piles. From the above it will be seen that the cost per pile amounts to $3.38, of which $0.47 was for labor. The cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. of piling was about $28. Another pile driver was built by the city for the construction of the sheet piling in that section of the intercepting sewer between 51st and 73d streets, known as Section H. This machine was also constructed on a turntable and could be swung from one side of the trench to the other. In order to secure a good foundation bearing for the runways and rollers the span of the lower bed was made 34 ft. The driver was equipped with a 7 x 1 0-in. double-drum engine, had 40 ft. leads and a 2,500-lb hammer. A jet pump, with water tank, 20 ft. jet tube and other appliances were also among the equipment. As in the first case, the sheeting was of the ordinary Wakefield pattern, made up of 2-in. x 12-in. plank, fastened together, however, by 60-penny spikes. The method of driving this sheeting was as fol- lows: The top set of stringers and braces were put in place for 100 ft. to 200 ft. in advance, and about 18 ins. below the surface of the street ; a second set of stringers, parallel with the street, made up of 4-in. x 12-in. plank, was put in about 5 ins. outside of the main stringers and on the same level as those inside, for the purpose of keeping the sheeting in line. All braces and timbers were then covered with sand to prevent their being washed out by the water jet. The sheeting used was 18 ft., 20 ft., 22 ft. and 24 ft. long, depending on the depth of the clay. The top of the sheet- ing was driven to about 1 ft. below the street grade, and the lower end was from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in the clay. For each pile a hole was jetted to the clay line, and as soon as the jet tube was pulled out, a pile was dropped into place and pulled over the tongue of the previous pile. Excellent alignment was obtained by using a "buck line" to hold the sheeting in place while being driven. In this case the "buck line" consisted of an old cable having a loop at one end to go over the head of the pile, the other end of the cable, after passing through a couple of snatch blocks, being attached to the hoisting engine. From 75 to 110 piles were driven in eight hours, the number de- pending somewhat on the character of the ground; 85 piles, how- ever, were considered a fair day's work. 1028 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The pile driving crew and their rate of wages were as follows : Per day. 1 foreman, $100 per month .................... $ 4.16 1 jet man, $3.50 per day ...................... .50 2 ladder men, $2.50 per day .................. 5.00 2 winch men, $3.00 per day ................... b.OO 1 pile man, $2.75 per day ..................... 2.75 1 engine man, $4.80 per day .................. 4.80 1 fireman, $2.75 per day ...................... -3.76 4 laborers, $2.50 per day ...................... 10.00 2 carpenters, $4.20 per day .................... 8.0 Total labor per day 1 ton coal Total, 10.2 M, at $5 ....................... $50.26 An average of 85 piles per day were driven, which is equivalent to about 42.5 ft. of trenc/i piled. This was at the rate of $1.11 per foot of trench for the labor cost. The labor cost per pile was 55 cents. The bill of material required for 85 ft. of piling was as fol- lows: 10.2 M ft, 2 ins. x 12 ins. x 20 ft. timber, at $25 ................................... $255.00 850 spikes, at $2.65 per 100 .................. 22.52 Total .................................. $277.52 From the above it will be seen that the total cost for material and driving was $3.85 for each pile, of which $0.55 was for labor. The labor cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. of piling was about $32. Cost of Piling, Cross References. Data on wooden piling will be found in the sections on Bridges, Railways, Sewers, etc. Data on concrete piles will be found in the section on Concrete, and on steel piles in the section on Steelwork. Consult the index under Piles. Estimating Cost of Brush Revetment. A very effective method of protecting the banks of a river from scour is a revetment con- sisting of a brush mattress on that part of the bank below extreme low water and a stone slope wall, or hand placed riprap, on the part of the bank above low water. Brush when always submerged never rots, but it is useless to carry it much above low water for it soon decays. Such brushwork is a sort of timberwork, and is therefore placed in this section of the book. Engineers very commonly record costs of revetment in the terms of the lineal foot of bank as the unit, and, while such a unit is de- sirable, it is more important to reduce the costs of the mattress either to the square (100 sq. ft.) or to the square yard as the unit, for widths of mattresses vary greatly. So also should the cost of the slope wall or slope pavement be reduced to the square yard and the cubic yard measured in place in the slope wall. While data are given in the following pages as to the cost of slope wall paving, the reader should consult the section on Masonry for more complete discussion and data. In making roughly approximate estimates it may be well to re- member that rough slope wall paving seldom costs more than $2.00 PILING, TRESTLING, TlMBERWORK. 1029 per cu. yd. in place (unless stone must be brought long distances), and that, a thickness of 9 ins. ordinarily suffices, thus giving a cost of 50 cts. per sq. yd., but when stone is secured near the work may not cost 30 cts. per sq. yd. Brush mattresses can ordinarily be made and ballasted with stone for about the same cost per square yard as a rough stone slope wall, that is for 50 to 60 cts. per sq. yd., as a rather high cost, to 30 cts. per sq. yd. as a low cost attained only when brush and stone for ballast are near at hand. However, rough estimates of this kind need not be made, since the following pages give all details. Cost of Brush Mattress and Slope Wall, Missouri River Mr. W. R. De Witt gives the following relative to bank revetment built in 1901, on the Missouri River, by the company forces of the Chicago & Alton Ry. In general the work was similar to that done by the Government. The river bluffs were first graded to a slope of 1:2, using a water jet. A barge carrying a force pump, delivered water through a 4-in. hose at 100 Ibs. per sq. in., to a 1% or 1% in. nozzle. The nozzle is fitted with a lever and swivel, the pin of which is dropped into a piece of iron pipe previously driven in the ground at the top of the bank. This gives the nozzleman full control. Two labor- ers shift the hose. When the upper bank is graded and most of the earth thrown out into the river current, the nozzle is moved down the slope near the water surface, and the grading continued under water. The gang thus engaged is as follows: Per day. 1 engineman $ 2.75 1 fireman 1.50 1 watchman 1.25 1 nozzleman 2.25 2 laborers, at $1.25 2.50 Total $10*25 Fuel and supplies 2.25 Grand total, 800 cu. yds., at 1% cts $12.50 I have assumed the individual wages, but the totals are as given by Mr. De Witt. This crew graded 100 lin. feet, of bank about 50 ft. wide (about 800 cu. yds.) per 10 hr. day. Hence it costs $1.25 per lin. ft. for grading, which is an amazingly low cost. The grading was followed closely by the work of weaving a willow brush mattress 86 ft. wide, 82 ft. of which were under wa- ter when it was sunk. Two barges 20 x 50 ft. were lashed end to end, and a platform and set of ways built on them. Another barge loaded with brush furnished the supply of willows. The weaving is done on the inclined ways. When the top of the ways is reached the men lift the mattress and allow the boat to drop down stream until the edge of the mattress is at the foot of the ways, and so on. The brush is 1 to 2 ins. diam. and 15 to 25 ft long, and is woven in and out, bundles of willows being grouped together, as 1030 U.IXDBOOK ()]* COST /MV.I. In braiding hair. The stitch is like that on a cane seated chair. The mattress is 12 ins. thick, and has a selvedge on both edges. It is strengthened and held in place by wire cables. Five pairs of %-in. galv. cables run longitudinally (up and down stream), one cable of each pair under the mattress and one on top, and a single cable is run along the inshore selvedge. Similar pairs of cables are trans- versely at intervals 16 ft. 8 ins. (one under and one on top), and are carried up the bank and anchored to deadmen at the top. Where the longitudinal and transverse cables cross, an iron clip is used to fasten them together. The clip consists of two 7/16 in. bolts, each bent at right angles, and the threaded end of one bolt passing through a loop in the end of the other, a nut on each serv- ing to bind them. Before fastening the clips, the slack is taken out of the cables with block and tackle. The gang engaged in making the mattress was as follows : 1 foreman. 10 laborers skilled in weaving. 10 brush passers. 3 hand brush to brush passers. 5 laborers handling cables. 3 laborers digging and filling holes for deadmen. 1 water boy. 33 total. These men averaged $1.50 each per day, or $49.50, and they built 90 lin. ft. of mattress, 86 ft. wide, or 7,740 sq. ft. per day. Hence each man averaged 235 sq. ft. per day, at a cost of $0.64 per 100 sq. ft. A barge load of stone is swung across the mattress, and stones weighing 100 to 200 Ibs. are distributed over it and it is sunk. A gang of 30 men empty a barge of 150 cu. yds. of stone in 3 hrs., which sinks 200 lin. ft. of mattress. This is at the rate of 16% cu. yds. of stone per man per 10 hr. day. The inshore edge of the mattress is then filled with spalls for the distance that is 3 ft. above low water and 3 ft. below low water. The slope wall paving is begun at a point 2 ft. above high water, and shingled down the slope, reversing the usual practice of be- ginning at bottom and moving up. The reason for this is that the stones thus lean away from the river, and they catch and hold all sediment as the river rises and falls. The stone is delivered in barges and wheeled in barrows up runways. The stones are so tilted that the wall is about 8 ins. thick at the top of the bank and 12 ins. at the water's edge. The paved slope is 54 ft. long, and the following gang will pave 100 lin. ft., or 5,400 sq. ft., or 600 sq. yds. per day. Per day. 4 pavers, at $2.50 $10.00 28 men loading and wheeling, at $1.50 42.00 Total $52.00 The average thickness is 9 ins., hence 150 cu. yds. of stone are PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 103] laid by this gang per day, at a labor cost of 9 cts. per sq. yd., or 36 cts. per cu. yd., or *1 per 100 sq. ft. The work is very rough, no stone dressing being required, as is evident from the fact that each of the 4 pavers lays 38 cu. yds. per day. Over the pavement is spread a 2-in. layer of spalls or crushed stone, filling all cracks to prevent washouts from surface drainage. . The following was the average cost of 8,250 lin. ft. of bank revet- ment. f trading Bank: Labor $0.10 Fuel, etc . ( 0.03 Total grading bank $0.13 Weaving Mattress (86 ft. wide): 0.6 cords brush at $1.75 deliv $1.05 8 Ibs. %-in. galv. cable at $0.04 0.32 % iron clip at $0.05 0.03 0.06 deadmen (12x12 ins. x 4. ft.) at $1 0.06 Labor 0.55 Total weaving mattress $2.01 Ballasting Mattress: 0.75 cu. yds. stone at $1 deliv /. . .$0.75 Labor . . 0.07 Total ballasting mattress $0.82 Paving Bank (54 ft. wide): 1.5 cu. yds. stone at $1 deliv $1.50 Labor 0.52 Total paving bank $2.02 Spawls on Pavement: 0.47 cu. yds. spawls at $0.50 $0.24 Labor . 0.15 Total spawls $0.39 General Expense: Administration $0.18 Care of plant 0.07 Current repairs to plant 0.02 Hire of plant 1.00 Surveys 0.05 Ice 0.03 Towage, other than brush and stone 0.08 Total general expense $1.43 Grand total $6.80 Add 10% for contingencies $0.68 Total for estimate $7.48 The plant consisted of a grading boat, a small steam boat, a mattress boat, and six barges (25x100 ft.) if all material Is transported by steam, as was the case here. Cost of Brush Mattress and River Bank Revetment. Mr. Charles Le Vasseur is authority for the following. : -On the Mississippi River brush mattresses are now used only to protect that part of a *>ank that is under water, usually for a width of 250 ft. Then the 1032 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. bank above water level is graded to a 1 : 1 slope by a water jet, and paved roughly with stone. The brush mattress is woven by men working on scows, the scows extending out into the river 250 ft. The scows are provided with "ways" on which the mattress rests, and, by pulling the scows along as the mattress is woven, a continuous mattress is launched into the river along, the shore. The brush is made into small bundles (10 or 12 ins. diam.), or fascines bound with No. 12 wire (no brush being over 3 ins. diam.), and these are laid side by side and bound with % in. steel wire, woven in and out, being drawn taut by a block and tackle. On top of the mattress ar3 placed rows of poles, 16 ft. apart, extending up and down stream. They are lashed to the fascines with No. 7 sili- con bronze wire every 5 ft., and at intermediate points with steel wire. These poles prevent the stone ballast from slipping off the mat when it is sunk on a steep slope. Rock is wheeled onto the floating mat in barrows on run planks from stone barges. The materials and labor per 100 sq. ft. of mattress are: 1.5 cords brush. 0.08 cords poles. 0.75 cu. yd. stone. 3 Ibs. No. 12 galv. wire. 6 Ibs. % in. galv. wire strand. 4 Ibs. 5/16 in. galv. wire strand. 1 Ib. % in. galv. wire strand. 1.35 clamps, 5/16 in. 0.16 clamps, % in. 0.9 day labor building and sinking. It costs about $6.80 per 100 sq. ft. of this mattress, or about $17 per lin. ft. of river bank, the mattress being 250 ft. wide. In addi- tion it costs $1.25 per lin. ft. of bank to grade, with a hydraulic jet, the bank above the water edge. The hydraulic grader is a barge carrying a pumping plant discharging 2,000 gals, per min. under pressure of 170 Ibs. (125 Ibs. at the nozzle) through a 4 in. base to (1% or iy% in.) nozzles. This grading of the upper bank is not done till the mattress is sunk. Then the upper bank is paved with 0.3 cu. yd. of stone per sq. yd., at a cost of $10 per lin. ft. of bank. This makes the total cost $28.25 per lin. ft. of bank. In grading the bank the nozzle is handled by men on top of the bank, directing the jet downward, and it cuts the slope as true as if it had been planed. Cost of Brush Revetment Ballasted With Concrete.* The Depart- ment of Engineering of the State of California is now using a type of flexible revetment as a protection to river banks that is quite a departure from the kind previously employed by the department. The method that was formerly used was to make a mattress of * Engineer ing-Contracting, Mar. 24, 1909. PILING, TRESTL1NG, TIMBERWORK. 1033 brush fascines usually woven with wire or cable, and weighted down with loose rock laid on top of the mattress. If the slope of the bank below the water line, where it could not be graded, was steep, no rocks would lie in the mattress. Should erosion take place at the lower edge of the mattress, the latter would drop down, the rocks roll off and then the rush would rise with the water, be torn loose and carried away. The type of revetment now constructed by the Department of Engineering developed from a plan originated by Nathaniel Ellery, state engineer, and was successfully used by him in bank protection work along the Eel river in Humboldt county, California. The plan consists of a mattress composed of brush fascines 8 to 12 ins. in diameter and about 20 ft. long, bound with wire. These fascines are laid double, breaking joints, and woven over and under with three galvanized wire "strands" or cables, % in. in diameter. Galvanized anchor cables, % to 1 in. in diameter, are laid on the slope extending from the barge floating in the stream to upon ,or over the levee to a safe point where a line of concrete blocks is sunk in the soil and connected by a % to %-in. diameter galvan- ized cable. These anchor cables are fastened to the line attaching together the line of "deadmen," or as called by the department, an- chor blocks. The anchor cables are spaced about 8 ft. centers and are attached on the water end to a line of cable passing through heavy concrete blocks made on the barge. These concrete blocks are called by the department sinker weights. After this skeleton of cable and concrete work is set and ready, the mattress is woven on top of these cables and the mattress is tied or lashed to the anchor cables beneath the mattress every 6 ft. After the mattress is woven to its desired width another cable % in. in diameter and galvanized, is drawn down over the mattress directly over the an- chor cable. It is fastened to the anchor cable at 6 or 8-ft. intervals through the brush. The ends of this top cable are fastened to the anchor cable on the land end by a cable clip just above the brush mat and the water end is made long enough to reach the sinker block where it is fastened. Also, just at the water edge of the mat the anchor cable and the top cable are fastened together. Above the water the mattress is woven in place on the ground which has been prepared by grading to a uniform slope. When the water's edge is reached the weaving takes place on the cables suspended over the water by placing planks on the cables. The barge is held off shore by spars or struts which are held taut by shore lines to the barge. Afiter the mattress is completely woven, blocks of concrete 2 or 3 ft. square and from 6 to 12 ins. thick are placed on the mattress, the size and distribution of which depends upon the figured buoyancy of the brush and the force of the cur- rent to be resisted. These blocks are molded in place on the mat- tress and thoroughly fastened on the top cable usually with a turn or knot of the cable firmly embedded in the concrete. When the mat is thus made ready the barge is shoved away, permitting the structure to sink and conform to the bank slope. The mattress so }034 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. made will, because of its flexibility, conform to the variations in the slope of the bank below the water where it could not be graded. Should the current cut under the edge of the mattress the weights will drop down, carrying the mattress down as the earth is washed away, and all mattress and weighting being secured by cables to the anchorage on shore, will continue to hang over the bank like a curtain. No weights can roll off and release the brush. This type of revetment was used on Sherman Island in two places where the shore had been eroded by waves, and successfully pro- tected the bank. The revetment on Sherman Island consisted of a mattress of willow brush in two sections, 176 ft. and 352 ft. In length, making a total length of 528 ft. The average width was 75 ft., and the average thickness 16 ins. The superficial area was 4,400 sq. yds. and the cubic contents 1,984 cu. yds. A total of 182 cu. yds. of concrete was used. The mattress was built from a barge, the upstream sections overlapping the previously laid section down stream. The work was done in 1908 by contract on the basis of cost plus 8 per cent. The cost of the work was as follows : COST OF REVETMENT. Per Per Per Total, cu. yd. sq. yd. lin. ft. Labor $ 224.70 $0.113 $0.051 $0.432 Brush 1.489.70 .750 .338 2.865 Cable and clips 903.94 455 .205 1.740 Equipment 96.10 .048 .022 .182 Concrete 1,313.35 .663 .301 2.535 Inspection 74.20 .037 .017 .142 Contractor's com 215.40 .109 .049 .421 Grand total $4,316.39 $2.175 $0.983 $8.317 In addition, grading costing $75, or $0.017 per sq. yd. of mattress, . was done. This makes the total cost of the revetment $4,391.39, or $1.00 per sq. yd. The item labor is for the mattress work and covers 715 hrs. of work, or 36 hrs. per cu. yd. of revetment, 0.16 hr. per sq. yd. and 1.35 hrs. per lin. ft. Labor was paid $2.50 per day of 8 hrs. The item brush is for 1,983.99 cu. yds. of brush at 75 cts. per cu. yd. The item cable and clips in for 37,375 ft. of cable. The item equip- ment covers the following items : Barge hire and watchman $170.00 Launch hire, 16 days 65.00 Watchman, 17 days 37.50 Moving barge, checking gravel, etc 13.85 Material, telephone calls, etc 10.97 Total $297.32 This total was distributed over the revetment work proper and the concrete work. The barge hire and watchman for barge cost $10 per day and it cost $10 for tonnage to the barge. The item inspection covers surveys and inspection and was spread over the revetment work proper and the concrete. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1035 The itemized cost of the concrete was as follows : Total. Per cu. yd. Labor, 995 lirs $ 311.26 $1.729 Cement, $1.27 per bbl 305.64 1.695 Gravel, $1.25 per cu. yd 218.00 1.211 Lumber and nails 84.07 .466 Equipment 201.22 1.118 Inspection 103.56 .575 Contractor's commission 89.60 .498 - Total $1,313.35 $7.292 Another flexible brush mattress was placed on Brannans Island, the work being done by contract on the basis of cost plus 8%. The revetment consisted of a mattress of willow brush in three sections, 2,620 ft, 187 ft, and 175 ft., respectively; total length, 2,982 ft.; average width, 66% ft; average thickness, 14 ins.; super- ficial area, 21,892 sq. yds. ; cubic contents, 8,586 cu. yds. This mattress was built from a barge, in sections 225 ft. in length, the up-stream sections overlapping on the previously laid section down- stream. The concrete used was 700 cu. yds. The unit cost of the work was as follows: CONCRETE. Total cost Cost per cu. yd. Labor $1,287.01 $1.830 Cement 1,161.29 1.659 Gravel 864.35 1.235 Lumber and nails 374.91 0.535 Equipment 1,198.25 1.711 Inspection 262.42 0.375 Commission 382.86 0.547 Total $5,553.09 $7.901 REVETMENT. Total cost. Cost per cu. yd. Grading $ 229.59 $0.010 Labor 1,411.33 0.064 Brush 6,440.51 0.293 Cable and clips 5,727.24 0.262 Equipment 1,281.32 0.056 Concrete 5,531.09 0.252 Inspection 262.41 0.012 Commission 1,197.89 0.055 Total $22,081.38 $1.004 At Merkeleys, a revetment was constructed to protect a river bank which had begun to cave badly. The work was done in 1908 by contract on the basis of cost plus 8%. The revetment consisted of a matjtress of willow brush in four sections, aggregating 774 ft The average width was 40 ft. and the average thickness was 8 ins. The superficial area was 3,440 sq. yds. and the cubic contents 1,912 cu. yds. The concrete amounted to 145 cu. yds. The method of construction was the same as at Brannans Island, previously mentioned. 1036 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The unit costs of the work were as follows : CONCRETE. Total. Per cu. yd. Labor . i $ 332.17 $2.296 Cement 289.58 1.997 Rock 243.61 1.681 Lumber, etc 213.75 1.474 Equipment 196.75 1.357 Inspection 46.75 .322 Contractor's commission 101.00 Total $1,423.61 $9.825 REVETMENT. Total. Per sq. yd. Labor $ 246.01 $0.0715 Brush 1,434.39 .416 Cable and clips 1,025.41 .2925 Equipment 196.50 .0572 Concrete 1,423.61 .4145 Inspection 50.06 .0146 Contractor's commission 299.00 .0872 Total $5,177.10 $1.501 A similar revetmervt was also constructed in connection with the work of closing a break in a levee on the Kripp Farm in the city of Sacramento. The work of closing the break in the levee was done by day labor, the state engineer's department hiring a dredge and crew at $160 per day of 22 hrs. The levee required to close the break was 1,600 ft. long, 24 ft. maximum height and 16 ft. wide on top, containing 102,489 cu. yds. of eai?th. The actual cost of build- ing the levee, including superintendence and inspection was $5,667.64, or 5y 2 cts. per cu. yd. The revetment was built by contract on the basis of cost plus 10%. It consisted of a mattress of willow brush, 710 ft. long, 40 ft. wide and 12 ins. thick. The superficial area was 3,400 sq. yds. and the cubic conjtent was 1,172 cu. yds. The concrete used amount- ed to 100 cu. yds. The mattress was made on the bank and in place. The unit costs of the work were as follows : CONCRETE. Total cost. Cost per cu. yd. Labor $247.06 $2.47 Cement 163.79 $1.64 Gravel 135.00 1.35 Lumber 41.53 0.41 Equipment 139.28 1.39 Inspection 25.00 0.25 Commission 72.66 0.73 Total $824.32 $8.24 REVETMENT. Total cost. Cost per sq. yd. Labor $ 174.18 $0.042 Brush 921.05 0.272 Cable and clips 548.92 0.162 Concrete 824.32 0.269 Inspection 148.00 0.044 Commission 184.48 0.054 Total $2,773.95 $0.843 PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1037 Cost of Brush Mattresses.* Maj. D. Fitch gives the following: Brush mattresses, riprapped with stone, were used to protect the bank of the Upper White River, Arkansas, in connection with build- ing a timber crib dam. The cost of riprapping is given in detail in the section on Masonry, and the cost of the timber crib is given elsewhere in this section. Work was done by Government forces, laborers receiving $1.50 per 8-hr. day. The following was the cost of the protection mattress work: PROTECTION MATTRESS (293 SQ. YDS.). Unit cost. Total. Per sq. yd. Riprap, 320 cu. yds $0.74 $237 $0.808 Inspection of riprap, 320 cu. yds 008 3 .010 Cutting and hauling brush, 169 cords... 1.669 282 .962 Weaving and sinking, 293 sq. yds 1.344 394 1.344 Total $916 $3.124 The total labor time for cutting and hauling 160 cords of brush was 150 days, the work done per man per day being 1.09 cords; the total labor time for weaving and sinking 293 sq. yds. of mat- tress was 223 days, the work done per man per day being 1.31 sq. yds. 450 Ft. Bank Revetment. This work included the construction of 200 brush mats, the grading of the bank and paving it with riprap, the cost of the various items being as follows:" Per Brush Mattress: Unit cost. Total. square. Wire, etc $108 $0.54 Riprap, 336 cu. yds : $.74 248 1.48 Cutting and loading brush, 289% days 531 2.60 Weaving and sinking, 213% days 387 . 1.98 Inspecting 336 cu. yds. riprap, 4 days 7 .... Total, 200 squares $1,281 $6.40 Work done per man per day was 0.93 squares wove and sunk. Summary for 450 ft. bank revetment: Total. Unit cost. Brush mattress, 200 squares $1,281 $6.40 Grading bank, 450 lin. ft 229 .51 Riprapping bank, 1,044 cu. yds 1,000 .96 A total of 450 lin. ft. of bank was graded, the total labor time being 123 days at a cost of $229 or $0.51 per lin. ft. Each man graded 3.6 lin. ft. of bank per day. Summarizing we get the following as the cost of the 450 ft. revet- ment : Brush mattress $1,281 Grading bank 229 Paving bank 1,000 Grand total, 450 lin. ft, at $5.58 $2,510 Cost of Mattress and Slope Wall, M., K. & T. Ry.f Mr. R. M. Garrett is authority for the following : The revetment put in by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas along the * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908. p. 284. ^Engineering-Contracting, March 31. 1909. 1038 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Missouri River, for shore protection, is built like that along the Missouri River, which have been put in by the Missouri River Com- mission, and averages about 60 ft. in width. The first work put in by this company was during 1897, and extends from the east city limits of St. Charles down the river for 9,000 ft. A rock dike was first built out into the river, and a boom made of heavy timbers was anchored to the lower side of the dike, and laid parallel with it. From this boom the mat was started, having its full width at the beginning. The mat was first woven and sunk, and then the bank was graded by hydraulic power to a slope of 2 to 1, and then paved from the top down. In 1903, work was extended 3,000 ft. down the river, and was done in the same way as the first section, with the exception that the mat was anchored at the starting point with piles instead of the boom. In 1906, revetment was again extended 7,200 ft. On this last section the bank was graded to a slope of 2% to 1 in advance of weaving the mat, as considerable trouble had been experienced on former work, on account of material from the bank covering the mat, so that a connection between paving and mat could not be properly made. Grading on this section was done with a small hoisting engine on a barge, as follows: A derrick was erected on a barge, having a boom long enough to reach the top of the bank to be graded, a No. 3 wheeler scraper pan was pulled along this boom from the barge to the top of bank, by a mule on the bank, and was held in place by two men and filled, and then dragged down the bank by the hoisting engine. The beginning of the mat was anchored to deadmen on top of the bank about 200 ft. up-stream, and weaving was begun about 100 ft. back on the old mat, so that the full width of the new mat was gotten where the unprotected bank commenced. In 1908, 4,000 ft. of revetment was put on the north side of the river just above Boonville bridge. At Kingsbury, there is a siding on the west side of main line, and out of the south end of this track the spur was built to the river; this required a main track 6,500 ft. in length, and a spur track 900 ft. in length. Track was laid about 5 to 20 ft. from top of bank all along where revetment was to go in, so that rock could be unloaded and used with as little handling as possible. The bank was first graded to a slope of 2 % to 1 by teams ; the mat was then woven and sunk, and the slope paved from bottom up. It is the description of this last section that will be given, as the only differences between this and other works are those men- tioned. The bank was about 18 ft. higher than what was taken as the average low water ; the soil is mostly a very fine sand and very little gumbo; the bank was clear of timber and brush, but there were several large snags where the mat was to lie that were taken out by sawing, blowing-out and using teams and line. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1039 Shovelers first dug along the top of the bank and shoveled down all the perpendicular and overhanging points, so as to make it safe for a mule to walk along close to the edge ; then a two-mule team plowed two or three furrows as close to the edge of the bank as team could be gotten. The mules were then hitched to a "go-devil," constructed of two 2 x 10-in. plank 8 ft. long, fastened together at the front end and flared to about 4 ft. at the back end ; it re- quired one man to drive the mules and one man to weight the drag. This was then run along the back side of furrows, and the loose earth shoved toward the river. After the bank began to slope, two or three "slips" (drag scrapers) were put on, and the bank brought to the desired slope. It will be seen that only about half of the material in slope is moved, as the excavation makes the fill and does not wash away, as it does when grading by hydraulics. It was found that with this material the filled portion was as solid as the natural surface. Grading was never carried further than 200 ft. in* advance of weaving, as the barges from which the mat was being woven would protect the bank from the current for this distance. The mat was woven 60 ft. wide with a selvage edge on the out- stream side, and sunk parallel with the shore with the inner edge about 3 ft. above the average low water. The mat was strength- ened with five double rows of %-in. galvanized steel cable 7 strands of No. 11 wire laid longitudinally one above and one below, and anchored with a double row of similar cable laid trans- versely every 15 ft. and fastened to deadmen, buried 3 ft. deep and located 15 ft. back from the upper edge of slope. At every inter- section of the longitudinal with the transverse rows, the four cables are fastened together with a %-in. U clip. The transverse rows are fastened to deadmen by wrapping one cable around the deadman twice and then fastening it to the other cable with two %-in. U. clip. The deadmen are pile butts about 3 ft. long, and the object in fastening the cable to them, as mentioned, is to allow the cables to slip when loaded, so that the same strain will be on both the under and upper cables. The willows were cut from bank of river about one mile above the mat, and were hauled by wagons, hauling about 1.6 cords to the load. The road was bad at times, and it required a snap team to pull out of the mudholes, but most of the time the road was in good shape. It required 0.6 cord of brush to 100 sq. ft. of mat; average thickness of mat, about 18 ins. Weaving was started at a point at the upper end and gradually widened out to full width, anchors being placed for longitudinal cables in the top of the bank about 100 ft. above the upper end. The mat was woven with four small bags fastened together, so as to make the desired width. Fingers of skids were built on barges out of 3 x 12 -in. plank, 24 ft. long, and spaced 5 ft. apart, extend- ing from the water level on up-stream side to an elevation of 3 ft. above floor of barge at a point about 3 ft. back from down-stream side. Spools of cable were set under the down-stream ends of the fingers at the proper position for the under longitudinal cables, so 1040 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. that cable would unwind as the barge was let down stream. The barge was, anchored at the shore end to the track, and at the upper end to the mat that had been woven. The mat was woven on the barge as high as the fingers would permit, and cable and clip men would pull the under cables through the mat by means of an iron hook about 2 ft. long, and the top longitudinal cables were run under these, and all were fastened together with a %-in. clamp. The barge was then pulled from under the mat with a team, and anchor ropes slacked just enough so that about 3 ft. of mat would be left on fingers/ Top longitudinal cables were cut off of reel on shore in lengths of about 100 ft. and spliced together with a square knot on mat as the work proceeded. The mat was sunk and held down with stone weighing from 30 to 50 Ibs., an average of 1.5 cu. yds. of stone being used per 100 sq. ft. of mat. Rock for sinking was unloaded from cars onto shoulder of slope and wheeled in wheelbarrows out onto the barge, anchored lengthwise across the mat, and dumped along the edge of barge. The mat was sunk from the shore side out, so that it would settle away from shore and the transverse cables would tighten up. Sinking was kept at least 100 ft. back from weaving barge to prevent pulling the mat off of barge. When the water was higher than the proper elevation for the shore side of mat, it was sparred out, so that in sinking it would settle to its proper position. The rock for paving the slope was unloaded from cars onto slope and rolled down to the bottom, where paving was begun. Paving is 10 ins. thick, and was paved from the bottom up, care being taken to fill all the cracks with small stone. At the upper edge of paving, spawls were piled so as to keep the surface water from washing under the paving and starting it to roll. As long as the water was low, a good connection was gotten between paving and mat, but there were parts of this work that were paved during high water, and the rock slid in afterward, making repairs neces- sary. The work done on the first section in 1897 is in very good shape to-day. The mat has rotted where it has been exposed to the air, but the paving is in good condition. There have been some slides on the work done in 1906. At these places it was found that the rock was settling under the edge of the mat. These were places where the bank had washed after mat had been put in, and the mat does not lie up on the bank as it should. Considerable trouble has been experienced on account of the eddy caused by the end of revetment. At Boonville bridge, the revet- ment ends at an old rock dike, and no difficulty is expected at that point, but at all of the other places it has given trouble. At the end of the work done in 1906 it is probably more noticeable. The revetment at this place was ended at a place where the bank ex- tended out into the river 400 or 500 ft., and now the bank is 100 ft. further in than the revetment, and the revetment has been repaired PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1041 twice on account of the river washing behind the end, and allowing the rock to fall in. The cost of the Boonville revetment (4,000 lin. ft.) is as follows: Cost per linear foot for 60-ft. mat; banks 18 ft. above low water; laborers paid $1.50 per day; foreman, $4, and teams, $3.50. This does not include interest on investment or make allowances for rainy days and moving, but is the actual cost. The contractor's profit is included in the track work only : Per lin. ft. Grading bank, per lin. ft $0.130 Weaving mat 0.410 Sinking mat 0.110 Paving slope 0.230 Willows, including cutting, hauling and unloading, and price paid landowner 0.340 Rock, at $0.75, delivered on site (2.3 cu. yds. to the lin. ft.) 1.730 Unloading rock 0.120 Spotting cars with teams 0.004 Hauling deadmen and cable 0.018 Taking out snags 0.030 Cable and Clips : 1,260 %-in. clips, at .06 $ 75.60 746 %-in. clips, at .035 26.16 107,150 %-in. cable, at 1.00 1,071.50 $1,173.26 .0.300 Deadmen, 270, at 0.50 = $135.00 0.035 Total $3.457 Track, 7,500 lin. ft. : Labor, grading, including contractors' profit $1,581.90 Labor laying 1,493.20 Taking up 1,000.00 $4,075.10 Bridge across draw 460.00 Total track, etc , $4,535.10 1.140 Grading spur to quarry 393.50 0.074 Total per lin. ft $4.671 Excluding the cost of grading the bank and the cost of the rock used in paving the bank (but including the rock used in ballasting the mattress), the cost of the mattress was as follows per square of 100 sq. ft. : Per square. Willows, 0.6 cord $0.57 Weaving mat 0.68 Sinking mat 0.18 Rock for ballast, ly? cu. yd., at $0.75 1.13 Unloading rock, iy 2 cu. yd., at $0.05 0.08 Spotting cars with team 0.03 Hauling deadmen and cable 0.03 Taking out snags 0.05 Cable and clips 0.50 Deadmen 0.06 Total $3.31 Tracks, bridge and spur, per 1 y> cu. yd. rock 0.80 Total ..$4.11 1042 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The last item (tracks, bridge and spur) has been proi'ated to stone used on the mattress. The slope wall on the bank required 1.4 cu. yds. per lin. ft., being 10 ins. thick and measuring 45 wide along the slope. The rock cost $0.75 per cu. yd. delivered on cars, $0.05 for unloading, and $0.16 for delivering and laying it on the slope, or a total of $0.96 per cu. yd., not including the cost of the item of tracks, bridge and spur, which amounted to $0.53 per cu. yd. of rock, there being 9,200 cu. yds. of rock in the slope wall and on the mattress. Adding this $0.53 we have a total of $1.49 per cu. yd. of slope wall, or 41% cts. per sq. yd. 10 ins. thick. It will be noted that the labor on the 7,500 lin. ft. of track cost as follows per lin. ft. : Per lin. ft. Grading $0.21 Laying truck 0.20 Taking up track '. 0.14 Total $0.55 Cost of Brush Mattresses and Dikes.* The following data relate to levee protection work at the West Pass Levee, in Mississippi. The work was done in 1904 by Government forces, and consisted of the construction at the up-stream end of the levee of a paving covering the sloping end of the embankment and the side slopes for a distance of 100 ft. back from the end of the levee crown, to- gether with a paving 60 ft. wide on the natural ground surface laid continuous with the paving on the slopes. The work also included the construction of paving on the down-stream end of the levee slope, beginning 100 ft. back from end of crown on lake side, ex- tending around the sloping end, and continuing along the river slope for a distance of 555 ft, the ground surface adjacent to the paved slopes being covered with a mattress 85 ft. wide, built continuous with the paving. On the up-stream end the paving consisted of rip- rap laid close by hand with the larger voids clinked with spalls, except for the sloping end and the adjacent pavement, where the riprap was laid on a 3-in. layer of spalls. Around the outer edge of the paving was a trench 2y 2 ft. deep filled with selected heavy riprap. The paving on the downstream end was similar to that described above, but was somewhat lighter. The riprap was laid on spalls around the sloping edges, but on "the earth slopes for the remaining portions. Rock for the paving on the up-stream end had been unloaded on the river bank, 1,200 ft. from the end up the levee. A portion of the rock, however, were obtained from some temporary work done the year previous. The rock for paving and ballast at the down-stream end of the levee had been unloaded at a point about 700 ft. from the work, during the preceding high water. The mattress consisted of an upper and lower pole grillage with two layers of brush between, the grillage systems being connected ^Engineering-Contracting, March 29, 1907. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1043 by wires passing through the brush, and carried about 35 Ibs. of riprap ballast to the square foot. In addition, to prevent a con- centrated flow through a borrow pit in the river side, the pit was crossed by a series of pile and brush dikes having their crests on a level with the natural ground surface adjacent. The dikes were anchored to planks buried to a depth of 2% ft. and resting on crossheads nailed to piles, which were set 6 ft. in the ground with post-hole diggers. Scour underneath the brush filling of the dikes was prevented by ballasted foot mats around the poles. Brush for the mattress was cut at a point about four miles from the work, and was hauled by teams to the canal bank, whence it was towed by a snagboat to the levee. This barge was also used for quarters for the cutting party. Piles for the dike were obtained in a willow flat about 7,000 ft. from the work. Brush filling for the dikes was obtained from the same willow flat, 80 cords being cnt from the ground adjacent to the work and 100 cords from a point about 4,000 ft. north. The work was greatly handicapped by scarcity of labor, and, in addition, being low water while the towing was in progress, the flat fore shore of the willow flat held the barge some distance from the water's edge, necessitating a long carry and making this feature of the work slow and expensive. The lack of a proper number of barges, and of labor to load and unload them promptly, rendered it impracticable to keep the snagboat steadily employed in towing, though it was necessary to keep her constantly in commission. This still further increased the cost of brush and poles delivered at the mat. Part of the men employed in the work were paid $1.25 per 8-hr, day, and part were subsisted laborers, receiving $30 per month and rations; this latter amounted to 32% cts. per day, including the cook's and waiter's wages. Subsisted labor was principally used in cutting the brush for the mattress, and in loading and unloading it from wagons. About half of the loading and unloading of the barges was also done by subsisted labor. Teams including driver and wagons were secured at $3.90 per 8-hr, day for hauling at the place where the mattress brush was cut. For hauling at the down- stream end of the levee, $3.50 per day was paid for teams. Rock cost $2.18 per ton (.862 cu. yd.) delivered on river bank. The hauling for the paving at the up-stream end of the levee was done by contract at 50 cts. per ton (58 cts. per cu. yd.) and 33% cts. per ton (39 cts. per cu. yd), for the long and short hauls. The cost of stone paving at the up-stream end of the levee was as follows per square of 100 sq. ft. : Total. Per square. Superintendence $ 40 $ 0.096 Labor. 163 days, at $1.25 204 0.492 Hauling, 219 cu. yds. rock, 3,700 ft, at $0.58.. 127 0.307 Hauling, 1,566 cu. yds. rock, 1,200 ft., at $0.39.. 605 1.461 Rock, 1,785 cu. yds., at $2.53 4,519 10.915 Total, 414 squares -. $5,495 $13.271 1044 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following is the cost of stone paving at the down-stream end of the levee for 694 squares: Total. Per square. Superintendence $ 146 $0.21 Labor, 320 days, at $1.25 400 0576 Hauling, 2,157 cu. yds., at $0.23 487 0.720 Rock, 2,157 cu. yds., at $2.53 5.461 7.868 Total, 694 squares $6,494 $9.356 The cost of constructing the brush, mattress at the down-stream end of the levee was as given below for 1,162 squares: Total. Per square. Superintendence $ 182 $0.156 707 days, at $1.25 877 0.754 108 days, at $1.00 108 0.093 Subsistence, 108 days 35 0.030 Hauling, 1,743 cu. yds. rock, at $0.23 393 0.338 Rock, 1,743 cu. yds., at $2.53 4,414 3.798 Brush, at mattress, 1,139 cords, at $2.61 2,976 2.561 Poles, at mattress, 2,560, at $0.20 503 0.433 Wire, 1,100 lbs.,.at $0.023 ' 26 0.022 Nails, 600 Ibs., at $0.021 13 0.011 Staples, 360 Ibs., at $0.022 0.007 Total, 1,162 squares $9~535 $8^203 In addition a small scraper force was employed for five days in smoothing the portion of the borrow pit to be mattressed and in sloping off the bank between the pit and levee berm. Stumps left in the pit were grubbed out. The total cost of this grading and grubbing was $198 or $0.17 per mattress square. The cost of the 1,414 lin. ft. of brush dikes is shown in the fol- lowing tabulation: Total. Per lin. ft. Superintendence $ 36.00 $0.025 Labor building dikes: 73.1 days, at $1.25 9140 0065 46 1/6 days, at $1.00 46.60 0.033 Subsistence, 46 1/6 days 1500 0010 Piles, 480, at $0.07 33.00 0.023 Brush, 80 cords, 600 ft. haul, at $0.76 6100 0043 Brush, 10 cords, 4,000 ft. haul, at $0.98 98.00 0.069 Lumber, 6% M ft. B. M., at $2.86 82.00 0.058 Nails, 175 Ibs., at $0.021 4.00 0.000 Total, 1,414 lin. ft $467.00 $0.326 The approximate distribution of cost of the brush and poles used in mattress construction was as follows : Brush, Poles, per cord, per pole. Cutting privilege $0.02 Cutting 0.25 $0.02 Labor, loading and unloading, haul to bank 0.11 0.01 Team hire 0.28 0.02 Loading and unloading barges 0.68 0.06 Towing 0.44 0.03 Labor, loading and unloading, haul bank to mattress 0.12 01 Team hire 0.19 0.01 Superintendence 0.1S 0.01 Subsistence 0.3 } 0.03 Total $2~.Qi $0.20 J PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1045 The distribution of cost of hauling the rock used in mattress con- struction was as shown below : Per cu. yd. Labor, loading and unloading wagons $0.07 Team hire 0.14 Superintendence 0.02 Total $0.23 Cost of Clearing Land. The cost of clearing the margins of In- dian Lake, N. Y., for 35 miles, was about $12 per acre for 1,160 acres. Men were paid $1 a day and board; and the board cost about 50 cts. a day. Foremen (1 foreman to 20 men) were paid $35 a month and board. Each acre, it was estimated, ran from 50 to 75 cords of wood. Each laborer averaged one-fifth acre cut per day, including some piling, but no burning of the timber ; so that the cutting cost $7.50 per acre. There was no large merchantable timber, all having been cut down years before. The growth was mostly small pines, balsams and various hardwoods. In the work for the filter beds at Brockton, Mass., 1894, there were 18.8 acres cleared and grubbed, of which 14.4 acres were standing pine. The trees varied from 6 to 24 ins. in diameter ; and there were about 3 trees per sq. rod, or 480 per acre. When cut up, about 35 cords of wood per acre were obtained. The total cost of pulling and disposing of stumps was $112 per acre, or 23 cts. per tree. Wages of laborers were $1.50 a day. A very common price for clearing and grubbing forest land in the eastern part of America is $50 an acre, when wages are $1.50 a day. For contract prices see the section on Railways. Consult the index under "Clearing." Design of Stump Pullers The following is a very brief abstract of two articles on grubbing stumps in Engineering-Contracting, March 25 and April 8, 1908. Several different types of stump pull- ers are illustrated in detail and their use described, but I give here only two, which are not so well known, but which I have made and used with success. A style of stump puller, known as the sweep stump puller, is shown in Fig. 7. Its operation is simple yet very effective. One end of the sweep S rests on the ground, and the other end is mounted on a wagon wheel. The sweep is an 8xlO-in. timber 24 ft. long, and at the free end, B, there is attached a single or double whiffletree, as described. The arrangement at the fixed end, A, is somewhat more complex and may well be described in detail. About 3 ft. from the end is an eyebolt, I, to which is fastened an anchoring chain attached to a convenient stump or "dead man," P. On each si(Je of the eyebolt, and almost 4 ins. from it are attached hookbolts, hi and h 2 , and still further away two similar bolts, h a , 7i 4 . The stump pulling wire cable is fastened to a short chain, K, and then carried over on A from F and attached to a pile or stump as shown. The chain K is hooked to the bolt hi. In operating it the lever is drawn in the direction of. the arrow, HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. causing a strain on the pulling cable. The horse is driven ahead until the sweep has the position shown by the dotted lines, and when this position has been reached a short length of chain indi- cated by the dotted line K is hooked at one end to the pulling chain and at the other end to the hook bolt Tin. The horse is then turned and driven in the opposite direction, putting a further strain on the pulling chain and slacking the chain K so that it ran be short- ened and hooked up again when the horse has moved the sweep to r-'IOftormcre >* ^& _^/P 50 -ft. or more - ^ t>oop! \\ \\ \ \ Fig. 7. Stump Puller. the position shown by the left hand set of dotted lines. The horse is then started on its forward trip, then back again, and so on, pulling alternately on chains K and KI and putting, ultimately, an enormous strain on the stump or pile. An idea of the power exerted is gained from the following brief calculation. If the distance between the king bolt of the whiffle- tree and the bolt I is 20 ft., and if hi and h 2 are 4 ins. (% ft.) from 7, the pull of the horse is multiplied 3 X 20 = 60 times. A horse capable of pulling 500 Ibs. would then put a strain of 500 X 60 = 30,000 Ibs. on the chain K and K^ Then in the triangle a be, ab represents 30,000 Ibs. and ac represents the- pull on the stump, which must always be greater than 30,000 Ibs. to an amount depending upon the inclination of the A frame ; if the batter of the A frame is 1 in 3 the pull on the stump will be 40,000 !bs. As a matter of fact, one horse cannot maintain a 500-lb. pull, and a team must be used where such a pull is necessary. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1047 Very large stumps can be pulled with this simple device and a team of horses. From the figures given it is evident that heavy chains and cables must be used or else there will be frequent breaks. One set up of the machine can be used to pull a large number of stumps or piles, since it is necessary to move only the compara- tively light A frame. With a long cable, to give a good reach to the machine, there should be used take ups, else considerable time is consumed in taking up the slack of the cable. The crew to operate this style of machine consists of a foreman, three laborers and one team, the cost varying from $10 to $15 per day. This machine and the one shown in Fig. 8 were both used by one of the editors of this journal for pulling piles, the machines being adapted for either pile or stump pulling. Fig. 8. Stump Puller. The legs of the tripod shown in Fig. 8 were 8 x 8-in. timbers, 10 ft. long. The rope is reeved through a set of triple blocks and carried to the 4-in. chain. The speed wheel and pinion are re- spectively 20 ins. and 4 ins. in diameter. This arrangement gives a powerful strain on the chain or cable fastened to the stump. The stumps can be pulled by hand power or horses, or a line can be run from the 12-in. drum to a small hoisting engine and the machine operated by it. This whole outfit, though, must be moved for each stump that is to be pulled. For the cost of this tripod machine and the cost of pulling piles with it, see page 1017. Cost of Removing Stumps In Clearing Land.* Removing stumps by hand is a slow and costly method when the stumps are of small size and is out of the question for the large stumps of fir and other Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 22, 1909. 1048 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. trees up to 5 and 6 ft. in diameter. In the last condition the prin- cipal up-to-date methods are burning, blasting and pulling or some combination of these. Burning is considered the best way to remove pine stumps which have a large amount of turpentine, as this greatly assists in the process, and the long, deep roots of these trees are a great hindrance in pulling. In regard to burning these stumps Mr. Ferris, of the Mississippi Station, says : "The common method * * * is to dig a hole about 12 ins. deep with spade or post-hole digger on one side of the stump, as Fig. 9. Machine for Boring Stumps. close to it as possible, and to use this as a furnace for firing the stump. In digging these holes it is necessary that the dirt be re- moved from as much of the surface of the stump as possible, so as to allow the fire to come in direct contact with the side of the stump for at least 6 ins. An ordinary turpentine dipper on a suit- able handle makes one of the best implements for removing this dirt." This is a rather slow process, but may be greatly hastened by boring a slanting hole through the stump from the opposite side to the fire hole. For boring, the Mississippi Station has used the PILING, T REST LING, TIMBERWORK. 1049 simple machine shown in Fig. 9, invented by J. W. Day. It is thus described : "A 2-in. ship auger is welded onto one end of a %-in. iron rod 6 ft. long. Four inches from the other end of this rod a collar is welded and the end of the rod passed through an iron box fastened to a movable frame about 18 ins. square. A bevel gear is then fastened to the extreme end of this rod either by a key or set screw and works into a second gear of the same kind fastened on a horizontal shaft. This horizontal crank shaft is made of 1-in. iron rod bent at one end to form a handle, with a fly wheel fastened on the opposite end. It works through two boxes fastened to the movable frame and slides down the main frame as the auger bores into the stump. The upper end of the machine is elevated about 5 ft. and stands on two cart wheels, on which it is easily rolled from stump to stump or from field to field by a single indi- Fig. 10. Blast Holes in Stump. vidual. This elevation of the frame helps to brace it against the stump in boring, raises the crank shaft to a height at which it can be most easily turned, causes a slight pressure to be constantly ex- erted against the auger, and makes it possible to bore the hole diag- onally into the stump. At the extreme upper end of the frame is a small windlass with ropes attached which is used for pulling the auger out of the stump." This machine was used to aid in clearing 2.3 acres of land which had been cut over about seven years before. The sapwood had de- cayed, but the balance of the stump above ground and all below was sound. On this plat there were 158 stumps that required boring. These averaged 13.6 ins. in diameter, and the length of hole bored averaged 19.7 ins., the total cost being less than $8 an acre, figur- ing labor at $1.50 per day. For burning the large stumps of fir, etc., in the Pacific Northwest, a quicker method is used, which consists of boring two intersecting holes, as in Fig. 10, and burning by starting a fire at the inter- 1000 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. section with the aid of redhot coals or a piece of iron heated to a white heat. After the part marked A is burned out the fire is maintained by filling the space with bark and litter. While the method first described generally results in burning the stump low enough to allow of cultivating over it in the case of pine stumps, the method used on the western trees leaves the larger stringers with their smaller roots to be pulled out by steam or puller, or "they may be entirely burned by digging away the earth and roll- ing a small log alongside of the root." Other methods of burning are to split the stump with a small charge of powder and then kindle a fire in the hole thus made, and charcoaling or pitting. The latter, which consists essentially of keeping a smoldering fire around the base of the stump, is reported to be very economical for large stumps. Mr. Ferris says "remov- ing stumps by this method [boring and burning] has been decidedly cheaper than by any other method tried, as it requires only a small expenditure for machinery, practically no repair bills, and can be operated by a single individual." It is stated that in the section reported on by Mr. Thompson scarcely anyone undertakes to clear even a small tract without the use of powder. Powder is also used on the pine stumps of Missis- sippi, the common method being to bore a \%-\n. hole from the surface of the ground diagonally downward for 10 to 20 ins. and to insert in this from % to 1 Ib. of dynamite. This amount will shatter the general run of pine stumps, and makes the cost of this part of the work from 5 to 20 cts. per stump. With stumps of the fir type, which do not usually root deeply, blasting is best done by placing several sticks of dynamite beneath the center on the hard- pan, if not too deep, so as to cause the force of the explosion to be exerted upward. Mr. Thompson gives the following data as to size of charge under ordinary ground conditions, for shattering large stumps which are to be removed by stump pullers, blocks or teams : Diam. of stump, ins 18 24 30 36 48 60 72 Sticks of powder 5 .7 10 20 35 50 65 The sticks are 1^x8 ins., weigh a little over % Ib. and cost from 10 cts. to 15 cts. a pound. The average cost of the removal of each stump from a tract of 120 acres containing fir stumps from 1 to 4 ft. in diameter was reported as follows : Cents. Powder 49.76 Fuse 2.37 Caps 0.87 Labor 30.66 Total 83.66 If dynamite is handled with ordinary care there is but little danger attached to its use except in cold weather, when it should be kept warm, preferably at about 70 F. After loosening and shattering stumps by blasting, it is neces- sary to gather them in a pile for burning. This is usually done by means of a capstan or a donkey engine. The latter is reported to have found quite general application in the Northwest. A gin pole PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1051 is set up, as shown in Fig. 11, and the stumps drawn to it. When handled to advantage this method is considered to be time-saving and cheaper than hand methods. Another type of puller is the vertical derrick, which has the advantage of applying the pull in the best direction for stumps having long tap roots, but it is objected to on account of having to be moved for each stump. Cost of Clearing and Grubbing, Ohio.* Mr. Julian Griggs gives the following: All trees and brush on a reservoir site, near Colum- bus, Ohio, were cleared and grubbed by contract in 1904-5. The work was begun June 14, 1904, and cai-ried on continuously till Aug. 5, 1905, the season being unusually favorable. The area cleared was 255% acres, lying in a narrow river bottom 5.8 miles long. It was thickly covered with shrubs and trees elm, locust oak, hickory, sycamore, etc. There was a rank growth of weeds, horse-cane predominating. All was grubbed except about 5 acres. A trimming gang first cleared and grubbed the brush, cut off '/js ,_ _J Fig. 11. Method of Pulling and Handling Stumps. all low limbs and all small trees, and piled the stuff ready to burn. They were followed by a pulling gang of 6 to 12 men, a team of horses and a stump puller. During the winter it was possible to burn everything as fast as cleared. A "Hawkeye Stump Puller" was used. (This type of stump puller is illustrated and its use described in detail in Engineering- Contracting, March 25, 1908.) It consists of a capstan or vertical windlass (operated by a team of horses) that is mounted on a bed of two oak timbers (10 x 10-in. x 16-ft.) framed to form a cross. The drum is 2 ft. high and 13 ins. diam. The sweep (8x8-in. ) to which the horses are fastened is 20 ft. long. Dragging from the sweep, directly back of the horses, is a stick, the end on the ground being shod with an iron point, the purpose being to take the strain off the horses when they are standing still. Two %-in. wire cables, each 100 ft. long, hooks, grips, blocks, snatch cables, etc., compose the rest of the outfit. In operation, the timber bed is buried in the ground, and iron pins driven alongside the timbers into the ground, ' Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 17, 1906. 1052 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. or the timbers are loaded with stone. In pulling a tree, the snatch cable is fastened around 'it about 15 or 20 ft. above the ground. The cable is usually passed through a snatch block fastened to a tree near the stump puller, so as to bring the cable to a horizontal position as it winds around the drum. If the tree does not yield at first, some of the roots are cut, or a dynamite charge is exploded among the roots while the strain is kept on the cable. Stumps, of which there were many, were much harder to pull than trees, and most of them were dynamited and taken out in pieces. The following was the cost of clearing and grubbing 255 Mi acres: Per acre. Per cent. Superintendent, at $4.17 $ 4.16 2.6 Timekeeper, at $1.75 1.76 1.1 Foreman, at $2.50 14.72 9.2 Carpenter, at $2.00 0.48 0.3 Dynamite men, at $1.75 3.04 1.9 Laborers, at $1.50 85.28 53.3 Single horse, at $1.50 1.28 0.8 Two-horse team, at $3.50 11.68 7.3 Total labor $122.40 76.5 Dynamite, at 11% cts. per Ib 30.56 19.1 Machinery and repairs.. 7.04 4.4 Grand total $160.00 100.0 The work required 255 days, or an acre per day, with an average force of : 1 superintendent. 1 timekeeper. 5 foremen. 1/5 carpenter. 1% dynamite men. 65 laborers. 1 horse. 3 Mi two-horse teams. There were 266 Ibs. of dynamite used per acre. Before the reservoir could be filled with water it had grown up with weeds, which it cost $7 more per acre to cut and burn. This was one summer's growth. Cost of Blasting 3,5CO Stumps.* The Long Island R. R. bought a tract of land, in 1905, in Suffolk county on Long Island, in order to carry on experimental agricultural work. The tract was situ- ated in the waste lands of the island and the first work to be done was to clear it of timber. A force of men was put to work cutting down the trees and undergrowth, and this work was followed by the stump blasting. The blasting crew consisted of two men only, except for the three last days of the work when a third man was employed to hasten the finishing of the job. The work was done during the latter part of the summer and the fall of the year, good weather prevailing most of the time. * Engineering-Contracting, May 13, 1908. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1053 p One man employed was accustomed to handling explosives and had experience in blasting stumps. He was paid $3.50 for a 10-hr, day. The second man was a common laborer and was paid $1.50 per day. The third man, used for three days, also had handled ex- plosives. He was paid $3 per day. In all 10 acres of land were cleared. The blasting gang made the hole under the stump and charged it, setting off the charge, but the work of cleaning up after the blast was done by other men. The stumps were mainly white oak and chestnut, varying in size from 18 ins. to 7% ft. in diameter. Many of the stumps ran from 4 to 4 Ms ft. in diameter. Each acre of ground was measured off and a careful record kept of the number of stumps blown on each acre. The following table shows the number of stumps blasted and the amount of dynamite used : Acre No. 1 Number Stumps. .... 293 Lbs. dyna- mite used per acre. 145% Lbs. dynamite per stump. 0.50 2 310 152 0.49 3 301 169% 0.56 4 270 150% 0.56 5 280 211% 0.75 6 305 191% 0.62 7 , 285 178 0.62 8 337 188% 0.56 9 334 198% 0.59 10 , 797 446 0.56 Total 3,512 2,031 0.58 The soil was a light loam with sand or gravel underlying it. Nat- urally the amounts of dynamite used per stump varied with the size of the stump. Small stumps up to 4 ft. in diameter needed % Ib. of dynamite. Stumps from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter needed from 1 to 3 Ibs., while the largest stumps, measuring from 6 to 8 ft. in diameter needed from 3 to 4 Ibs. of dynamite. The largest stump blown was a chestnut 7% ft. in diameter which took 3% Ibs. dynamite. It will be noticed that the average per stump was not quite 0.6 Ib. All the dynamite used was 40%. In blasting the stumps the helper made a hole with an auger or bar under the stump, so the charge would be close up to the stump and near the center. The dynamiter prepared a large number of cartridges with fuse and caps in them in advance, so that when a number of holes had been made, all he had to do was to place the charge and tamp up the hole. Double tape fuse was used to put off the blast. The fuse was cut to lengths to explode the load within a given number of seconds, just enough tirn^ being allowed for a man to run to a safe distance. For most of the stumps, fuse a foot and a half in length was used, and when the end was split to allow of easy lighting, it took 30 seconds for this fuse to burn to the charge, hence this was known as a "30-second length." Care was taken to use enough dynamite to blow out the entire stump, but not to waste the explosives. Small stumps were blown out 1054 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, whole, but the larger ones were split up by the blast so they could be easily handled. The number of stumps blasted per day varied somewhat, accord- ing to the size of the stumps and the difficulties encountered. The best day's work for two men was 110 stumps, while on other days they did 97, 60, and 99, the average being 84 for two men, for the job. On one day that three men worked 160 stumps were blasted. In clearing an adjoining piece of land 1 man by himself blasted in 1 day 100 stumps, but he had prepared the charges the day previous. The cost of blasting the stumps for the 10 acres was: Total. Per acre. 1 man, 40 days, at $3.50 $140.00 $14.00 1 man, 40 days, at $1.50 60.00 6.00 1 man, 3 days, at $3.00 9.00 0.90 2,031 Ibs. 40% dynamite, at 15 cts 304.65 30.46 3,600 caps, at 75 cts. per 100 27.00 2.70 7,000 ft. D. T. fuse, at 45 cts. per 100.. 31.50 3.15 Total $572.15 $57.21 This gives a cost per stump of the following : Labor $0.059 Dynamite 0.086 Caps 0.008 Fuse 0.009 Total $0.162 This work was done under the direction of Mr. H. B. Fullerton, special agent of the Long Island R. R. Co., to whom we are indebt- ed for the information. Cost of Blasting 1,100 Stumps.* In grubbing stumps from land, one of the most economic methods is by blasting, provided care and judgment are shown in the use of explosives. The tendency seems to be to use a larger amount of explosives than is necessary. Then, too, different kinds of explosives are sometimes used in the same charge, such as dynamite and Judson powder. This should not be done. But one kind of powder should be used in a hole. For small and medium sized stumps dynamite will give the best results, but Judson powder will do efficient work on large stumps, and, at times for very large stumps, black powder is the cheapest to use. The charge should be placed well up under the stump and as near the center of the stump as possible. A bar is generally the best tool for making the hole. When only one charge is placed under the stump it is more economical to use fuse and a cap. It is possible in stump blasting to use single tape fuse, but, if the ground is very wet, it may misfire. Under such conditions it is better to use double tape fuse. When several charges are placed under one stump, it is always advisable to use electrical exploders, so that the charges will be exploded simultaneously. For a single charge, electrical fuses are too expensive. In the job, the cost of which we give below, dynamite was used *En L ''iheeri'n (/-Contracting, June 3, 1908. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. IGoo exclusively, and caps and fuse were used for most stumps, but electrical exploders were used on some, as several charges were placed under some of the largest stumps. There were 1,100 stumps blasted from 4 acres of land, the job being in eastern New Jersey. The trees had been cut about 2 years, and were mostly white oak and hickory. They varied in size from 4 ins. to 6 ft., the average size of the 1,100 stumps being about 15 ins. in diameter. The dynamite used was 40 per cent. The ground was full of large boulders, and more fuse, single tape, was used than would have been required if the ground had not been full of stones. The long fuse was necessary in order to allow the men time to get away from the flying pieces of stone. Two men only were used. One man handled the dynamite and the other prepared the holes. These men did nothing towards cleaning up th'e stumps after they were blasted. The cost of the labor was as follows : Dynamiter, 19 days, at $3.50 $ 66.50 Helper, 19 days, at $1.50 28.50 Total $ 95.00 The cost of the explosives was : 850 Ibs. dynamite, at 15 cts $127.50 1,300 caps, at 75 cts. for 100 9.75 1,300 ft, S. T. fuse, at 45 cts. per 100 5.85 300 short electrical exploders, at 6 cts 18.00 Total $161.10 The total cost of the 4 acres was $256.10, giving a cost per acre of $64.02. The cost per stump was : Labor $0.086 Dynamite 0.116 Caps 0.009 Fuse 0.005 Exploders 0.016 Total $0.232 The average amount of dynamite used per stump was 0.77 Ib. This is a very economical job of blasting, both as to labor, costs and explosives. We are indebted to Mr. Oscar Kissam, of Halesite, Long Island, N. Y., for these data. The work was done under his direction and according to his methods. Cost of Clearing and Grubbing by Blasting.* Mr. Daniel J. Hauer is author of the following: The work was done in 1893 in the suburb of an Eastern city. Nine acres of closely spaced trees, averaging about 20 ins. diam., were cleared. Trees ranged from 6 to 36 ins. diam. All smaller than 6 ins. was classed as brush. The trees were first cut down, and the brush and leaf wood piled and burned. The trunks were made into saw logs and cord wood. The timber was mostly oak, "Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 27, 1907. 1056 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. hickory and chestnut. Work was done in the spring of the year in good weather. The tools were: 33 axes, 29 mattacks, 30 shovels, 1 hatchet, 1 band saw, 3 cross-cut saws, 2 files, 3 water buckets, 2 grind- stones, 1 churn drill and 1 auger. These tools cost about $80, which could be charged at a rate of $9 per acre to the job. Foremen were paid $2.50 per 10-hour day and laborers, mostly Italians, were paid $1.25. One foreman looked after the chopping and grubbing, consequently his salary is divided between these items, while a second foreman gave his time exclusively to the blasting. The chopping down of 1,212 trees and the brush took about 13 days, the cost being as follows: Foremen $ 20.00 Laborers 149.61 Total -. $169.61 This makes a cost of $18.84 per acre. For eight days, as the above work was going on, another crew of men were piling and burning brush and grubbing the small stubs and stumps. This work was done at the following cost: Foreman $ 10.00 Laborers 129.74 Total $139.74 Or a cost of $15.53 per acre, and a total cost per acre for both chopping and cleaning up, of $34.37. This can be divided as follows : Foreman $ 3.33 Laborers 31.04 When this much of the work was done a foreman and a crew of 4 men began the blasting of stumps. The following was the cost, 50 stumps per day: Per Per day. stump. 1 foreman at $2.50 $ 2.50 $0.050 4 laborers at $1.25 5.00 0.100 200 lin. ft. double tape fuse at 50 cts. per 100 ft ; . . 1.00 0.020 50 caps at 75 cts. per 100 0.40 0.008 52 Ibs. 40% dynamite at $0.15 7.80 0.156 1081/a Ibs. Judson powder at $0.10 10.85 0.217 Total $27.56 $0.551 This work took 25 days, and, as there were 134 ftumps per acre on the 9 acres, the cost of blasting stumps was $73.'0 per acre. Both dynamite and Judson powder were placed in ^ach hole. The stumps were not so large, except in a few ^ases, that one charge placed under it, by churning a hole with the drill and auger beneath the stump and then loading it, did i it either blow the stump out or shatter it so that the grubbers were able to handle it. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1057 The cost of grubbing the roots after blasting was as follows: Foreman $ 40.00 Laborers 277.36 Total $317.36 This makes a cost per acre of $35.26, or $0.262 per etump, which makes a total cost of $0.813 per stump for blasting and grubbing. The grinding of the axes for chopping cost $5.87, or 65 cts. per acre, and an allowance of $9 per acre must be made for tools. At the same time the blasting began the chopping gang began to cut the tree trunks up into cord wood and saw logs, while the cleaning gang was set to grubbing the roots and the remains of the stumps after the blasters. The saw logs and cord wood were hauled away under another contract. The making of cord wood took eight days and cost : Foreman $10.00 Laborers 81.25 Total $91.25 This was a cost of $10.14 per acre. Unfortunately the wood was not corded up before being hauled away, so no accurate record was made of the amount, but there were between 175 and 200 cords, indicating a cost of about 50 cts. per cord after the trees were cut down. From the above we can obtain the total cost of the entire job '.9 acres), which was as given below: Total. Per acre. Chopping ..$ 169.61 $ 18.84 Grubbing and clearing 139.74 15.53 Making cord wood 91.25 10.14 Blasting 663.59 73.73 ' Grubbing after blasting 317.36 35.26 Grinding axes 5.87 0.65 Tools 81.00 9.00 Total ." $1,468.42 $163.25 This is not much different from the cost of the work recorded by ^ Julian Grigg in the following paragraphs. .tfost of Clearing and Grubbing for a Railway.* One of the items JJ work to be done in grading a railroad is generally the clearing Y<3 grubbing of the land. Under some contracts and specifications Uiis work is paid for as one item, under others as two items as clearing and as grubbing, while under other forms of contracts this work is included in that of excavation. The method of paying for clearing by the acre as one item and grubbing as another item is to be commended. In order to do the excavation all the land must be cleared, but in addition to the area used for the cuts and embankments, the entire width of the right of way must be cleared, and overhanging trees and branches must bfl cut away. On the other hand there is no need of the area occupied by the embankments, nor that on the &\ wing-Contracting, Dec. 25, 1907. 1058 JUXDBOOK OF COST DATA. right of way not included in the cuts, hence there should be no reason why this area should be included in the payment. Likewise the method of doing the excavation will very materially effect the cost of the grubbing, while it does not play any part in the cost of clearing. When steam shovels are used the grubbing cost is small,- as this machine will undermine the stumps, causing them to fall into the pit, where they can be loaded onto the cars by means of chains, attached to the dipper teeth. This work retards the progress made by the shovel, but the cost of grubbing is greatly reduced, and a contractor could "afford to bid a low price on the grubbing when done with a steam shovel, if it is not lumped in with the clearing or other work. When grubbing is done in connection with rock excavation, its cost is small as the stumps are shot out with the blasting of the rock, and the only additional expense is to dispose of the stump. This will have to be done by hand and will be work that the contractor will charge for under grubbing. When grubbing is done for scraper work the stumps and largest roots must be. blasted and dug out, and the work is much more expensive than with rock excavation and steam shovel work, although a large railroad plow in loosening the ground will cut and break up many of the roots, so that they do not have to be grubbed. The grubbing for elevating grader excavation must be done much more thoroughly, than that for scraper work. The stumps and large roots must not only be grubbed, but all the small bush stubs and roots must also be cut out. This is necessary as the grader plow will not cut these roots, as the pull on the plow is a steady one, unlike that of a breaking plow, which can be run in jerks, while the plowman can shake up the plow, which is a considerable help. In grubbing for a grader it is not advisable to blast the stumps, as this makes large deep holes, which, after rains, become full of water and soft, thus causing the traction engine and grader to mire in these holes. For this reason where there are many stumps of 6 ins. or more in size a stump puller should be used. The stump puller does its work much better than blasting, as it will not only pull up the stump, but also all the large roots and many of the small ones. Nor does it leave as large a hole as a blast does. Its work is as economical as blasting, and at times is much cheaper. The small stubs and roots must all be grubbed by hand. To do efficient work of grubbing for a grader, after the large stumps have been pulled, men should be spaced a few feet apart and the entire area gone over, the men working in rows grubbing up everything that may effect the working of the grader. This makes grader grubbing more expensive than that of any other grubbing for ordinary excavation work. The job to be described was the clearing and grubbing on nine miles of railroad construction. Most of the line was through cultivated fields, but in 11 places varying in length from 100 to riLIXG, TRESTUNG, TIMBERWORK. 1059 4,600 ft, there was clearing to be done. In all there were 14*4 acres, of which 1 % acres were over areas upon which embankments were to be made, while 13 acres were in cuts, hence there was both clearing and grubbing to do. The excavation was to be done by an elevating grader, and, as stated above, the grubbing had to be done more thoroughly than it would have been, if other methods of excavating had been employed. The first work done was to clear the ground. Most of the brush was burned, but some of it and the logs were rolled to the edge of the right of way and piled up. The trees, of the size of 6 ins. or more in diameter, numbered about 40 to the acre ; but there was a very rank undergrowth of bushes and saplings, the stumps and roots of which all had to be grubbed. The work was done by contract, and the men working upon the job were not experienced woodsmen or axemen, but were such as could be obtained at the labor market centers. Many of them were for- eigners. The wages paid to the foreman was $2.50 and to the men $1.50 per ten hour day. A waterboy was paid $1.00 per day. In the clearing gang an average of 12 men were worked, some using axes and others brush hooks. The brush was piled by hand, no forks being used, and the logs, few being more than 3 ft. in diameter, were cut short and rolled by means of hand sticks. Some few were carried by the men with these sticks. The cost per acre, there being as stated 14^4 acres, was: Per acre. Foreman $ 4.59 Men 27.10 Water boy 1.36 Total cost clearing per acre $33.05 The grubbing was done by a gang of men averaging 15. The wages were the same. Some few of the larger stumps were blasted, and their roots afterwards grubbed. Dynamite, costing 15 cts. per lb., was used for this blasting. No separate record of the stumps that were blasted nor of the explosive used for each was kept, only the total cost of the explosives being kept, and the labor of blasting was included in with the other grubbing. About 6 stumps were blasted to the acre. The cost per acre, there being but 13 acres to grub, was: Per acre. Foreman $ 4.54 Men 38.84 Water boy 1.81 Explosives 2.54 Total cost grubbing per acre $47.73 The men used long cutter mattocks and short handled shovels in grubbing the stumps and roots. There is but little doubt that this cost of grubbing could have been reduced by the use of a stump lOfiO JJAXDBOOK OP COST DATA. puller, but the contractor did not own one, and thought the job too small to justify purchasing such a machine. The total cost for clearing and grubbing was as follows : Per acre. Foreman $ 8.74 Men 62.54 Water boy 3.00 Explosives 33.00 Total clearing and grubbing per acre $76.60 The tools used for this work cost about $50, but with the exception of the brush hooks, they were all used on other work, hence to charge half their cost to this job would be sufficient. This means a charge for tools of $2 per acre, making a total of $78.60. This work was being done at the same time that grading and other construction was going on, hence the charge to be added for general expense, such as superintendence and office expenses would be small. This clearing and grubbing was not paid for by the acre, but the work was included with the grading, and the price of excavation covered the clearing and grubbing. There was 90,000 cu. yds. of earth excavation on the 9 miles of road, hence the cost of clearing and grubbing amounted to about 1^4 ct. per cu. yd. of earth. If elevating graders had not been used, the cost with the same forces doing the work, would have been less than 1 ct. per cu. yd. Another example of clearing and grubbing is given below. Five acres of woodland were to be cleared and grubbed of all bushes and worthless saplings, vines and briers. The undergrowth was dense. None of the trees were to be cut. The clearing was done by a contractor, but he was paid "force account," that is by the day plus a percentage for his work. The wages paid were the same as in the example just given. The brush, old logs and other debris had to be burned, and care had to be exercised that none of the trees were injured, as the woods was to be made into a park. The cost of clearing was as follows: Per acre. Foreman $ 7.25 Men 54.06 Water boy 3.00 Total $64.31 This work was done in the fall of the year, and the weather was exceptionally good. The following spring the ground had to be thoroughly grubbed in order to plant grass seed in the woodland. This work was done with mattocks, every inch of the ground being gone over, brier roots, old stubs and all roots of bushes being dug out. There were also a few old stumps that had to be taken out, but ""he work was mostly the small surface roots of bushes, saplings and briers. After the ground was gone over with mattocks, steel PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1061 rakes were used to rake out the roots, and put them in piles. Wheelbarrows were then used to haul them away to a waste pile, where they were afterwards burned, when they had dried sufficiently. This work had to be well done, or else the grass seed would not make a good sod ; that an excellent sod was obtained in one season, was evidence that the work was well done. Company forces did this grubbing, the rates of wages being: Foreman $2.50 for 9 hours, and laborers $1.50 for 9 hours. The cost of the grubbing was: Per acre. Foreman $ 4.20 Men 51.30 Total $55.50 This gives us a total cost for clearing and grubbing of $119.81 per acre. To this should be added $2.00 per acre for tools. If this work had been done by contract, it could not have been done better, but there is little doubt, that the cost would have been less. Cost of Transporting Logs by Driving and by Trains.* Practi- cally one-third of the lumber used for pulp and paper in the state of Maine comes down the Kennebec waters. The annual drive in the main river usually amounts to about 150,000,000 ft. B. M. In Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 198, Mr. H. K. Barrows gives some data as to the cost of driving on the above waters, the data being compiled from the reports of the Kennebec Log Driving Co., which controls the drives in the main river, the Moose River Driving Co. and the Dead River Driving Co. These companies drive the logs and apportion the cost as a tax per M. ft., this tax varying with the distance ; this tax is the cost per M. ft. for logs driven the distance for which the full tax applies. In the table below the cost of log driving on Kennebec River and tributaries, 1901-1905, is given, the cost per ton mile being approximate and calculated on the basis that 1,000 ft. B. M. weighs 3,500 Ibs. : Di Drive. H Kennebec river stance liles. 91 24 43 17 9 Average . tax per M. $0.41 .12 .38 t-12 Cost of driving Per mile. Per ton. Thousand. Mile. $0.0045 $0.0026 .0050 .0028 .0089 .0051 .024 .014 .013 .0074 Kennebec river Dead river Moose river. . .' Moosehead lake (Moose river to lake outlet, logs towed by boat) The figures cover, in addition to the cost of driving itself, the * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 13, 1907, jContract price for 10 years. 1062 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. other charges arising in carrying on this work, such as costs of dams, improvement of channel, booms, etc., as well as executive charges. Many important changes have been made during the period covered by the above costs and consequently the unit costs are higher than they would have been had a longer series of years been considered. From the above table it appears that the cost of log driving per ton mile varies from about one-fourth to l 1 /^ cts., depending on the distance driven and difficulties experienced. The average freight rate in the United States at present is about 0.8 ct. per ton mile and for the New England group of railroads 1.20 cts. per ton mile. Under exceptionally favorable circum- stances rates as low as 0.2 ct. per ton mile have been granted for coal transportation from the coal fields to tide water. For the sake of comparison rates during 1906 for log transportation on the new Somerset Ry. extension are given below: Average Charge Cost of transportation. Logs shipped distance, per ft. Per mile. Per ton. from Moscow to. miles. B. M. Thousand. Mile. Bingham 12 $1.75 $0.146 $0.080 Solon 20 2.00 .100 .057 North Anson 29 *1.50 .052 .030 *This price involves reshipment as manufactured lumber on Somerset Railway. Cost of Cordwood and Cost of a Wire Rope Tramway. Mr. B. Mclntire gives the following about a wire ropeway built by him in 1884 in Mexico. He states that when the inclination of an endless traveling ropeway is greater than about 1 in 7 it will run by gravity, the speed being controlled by a brake. A ropeway running 200 ft. per min. with buckets at intervals of 48 ft., each carrying 160 Ibs., will deliver 20 tons per hr. By using two clips close together on the rope, loads of 700 Ibs. per bucket may be carried. This particular ropeway was used for carrying cordwood to a mine. Its total length was 10,115 ft. between terminals, and the difference in elevation was 3,575 ft. The longest span between towers was 1,935 ft., the shortest, 104 f t. ; there were 10 towers and two terminals. Hewed timbers were used for the towers, being much better than round timbers in maintenance. The rope was 13/16-in. diam., plow steel, of 300,000 Ibs. strength per sq. in., bought of the California Wire Works. It was transported on 7 mules in lengths of 2,250 ft., each mule carrying a coil 321 ft. long, with a piece 10 ft. long between mules. The coils were 24 ins. diam. There were 3 men required to every 7 mules. Care must be taken to tead the mules on a steep ascent to prevent a sudden rush that may throw a mule over a precipice. The rope- way, after erection, was lubricated best by using black West Virginia oil (instead of tar), applied continuously at the rate of a drop a minute. This was vastly better than intermittent oiling. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1063 The cost of this ropeway was as follows: Upper terminal $ 192.45 Lower terminal 218.00 5 trees fitted for towers , 103.00 5 towers 854.25 Counterweight tower Remodeling towers 332.00 Stretching, splicing and mounting rope, at- taching clips and baskets 255.00 Total labor cost of construction $ 2,123.70 Opening and maintaining roads 1,822.30 Ropeway, materials and transportation 15,454.00 Total cost in running order $19,400.00 This is equivalent to about $10,000 a mile. During 9 mos. the ropeway was operated at a cost of $400 a month, and handled 660 cords per month ; the items of cost being as follows for 9 mos. : 1 brakeman, at $52 per mo $ 468 3 men filling, at $26 per mo. each 702 1 man dumping, at $40 per mo 360 1 man looking after line and oiling, at $26 234 Oil 117 Repairing (very heavy, $2.25 per day) 526 2 men wheeling wood away from terminal 468 2 men receiving wood from choppers and deliver- ing it to packers 702 Total for 9 mos $3,577 It will be noted that the cost of labor was low, being $1 a day for common labor. The cost of cutting and delivering wood to the tramway was $2.20 per cord, and the cost of transporting by the tramway, as above given, was 60 cts. per cord (not Including interest on the plant). During the previous year the cost of cutting and teaming wood had been $12 per cord. The total saving to the company, after deducting cost of tramway, was $33,500 the first year. Cost of Planting Trees at Washington, D. C.* During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, the Office of Trees and Parkings, of the Engineer Department of the District of Columbia, set out 3,988 young trees in the various streets of Washington and the District. Of this total 2,408 trees were planted in the fall season and the remainder in the spring season. The principal kinds of trees planted were elm, 626 ; Norway maple, 825 ; pin oak, 316; silver maple, 495, and sycamore, 978. The labor cost of planting the trees was as follows : Total. Per tree. Miscellaneous nursery work $ 3,165 $0.794 Digging tree holes 9,897 2.182 Planting trees 2,394 .600 Total labor $15,456 $3.876 * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 29, 1909. 1064 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of lumber for tree boxes and stakes, straps, strap Iron and nails amounted to $1.41 per tree. This added to the labor cost makes the cost per tree $5.286. This cost is an increase of nearly 16 per cent over the cost of similar work in the previous year, the principal reason being the increased cost of skilled labor and the very large amount of nursery planting done. Cost of Tree Planting by the Massachusetts Highway Commis- sion .* in 1904 the Massachusetts Highway Commission began the planting of trees along state roads. The total number of trees planted that year was 3,907, the varieties being as follows: 1,737 maples, sugar, Norway and white; 538 oak, red, scarlet, white and pin ; 1,000 elm, 207 poplar and some white pine and locust. The total cost of these trees in their final location, including trans- planting in a temporary nursery, care, manure, superintendence and labor, was $4,348.59, or an average of $1.14 per tree. During the fall of 1904 there was an unusually severe drought, which had a marked effect on the trees planted at the time. The total loss of trees was 15 per cent, this loss being traceable in a large degree to the dry weather. As a result greater care was taken in 1905 in preparing the ground for the reception of the trees. In 1905 the commission began placing in the state nursery all trees received from the nurserymen, so that the trees might get added development of root fibers. This made necessary two transplantings before the tree reached its final location. The cost of trees, transplanting, preparation of ground and final planting, in 1905, was $1.01 per tree. The original cost of each tree was higher in 1904, but more care was given to the preparation of the ground. The work for the year was as follows: Trees replaced, 726 ; new plantings, 3,239 ; vines planted, 300. In 1906 the systematic planting of trees along the state highways was continued, 2,511 new trees being planted that year. In addition 1,011 trees were replaced. The cost of planting the new trees in 1906, including the cost of tree and every expense connected therewith was $1.10 each. The cost of the maintenance of trees planted previous to 1906 was 16 cts. per tree, and including the cost of replaced trees 20 cts. Cost of Digging Holes and Planting Trees and Shrubs. f In carry- ing on many earthwork jobs, the engineer not only has to think and plan for the engineering features of the work, but also has to consider the artistic side, namely, the landscape features. This is rapidly becoming the case with railroad work, as the right of way of some of our larger roads is being terraced, hedges planted, and banks sodded or seeded, and the station grounds made into smooth lawns with shrubs and trees to ornament them, and well kept drives laid out through the grounds. Sewerage disposal plants, reservoirs and filter beds are likewise treated in this manner. This has made landscape architecture or engineering more prominent, and the civil engineer finds that he must give attention to these * Engineering-Contracting, April 29, 1908. ^Engineering -Contracting, Jan. 1, 1908. PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1065 matters. If he has much of this work to do he will call in an expert on the subject, but if the work does not warrant this expense, he will attend to the details himself. The cost of trees can be obtained from any nursery company, but the cost of planting is more difficult to obtain. One of the editors of this journal has done this work upon several occasions, and the following costs were kept several years ago. The trees in the first example were known as 4 to 6 in. trees, that is, trees measuring from 4 to 6 in. in diameter. They were maples and poplars, and were bought in the early spring and "healed" in, on a nearby lot to be planted later. Example I. In this lot there were 80 trees. The ground had been graded, to a depth of 1 to 5 feet, hence there was no soil left. For this reason it was necessary to dig a deep hole and fill it in with good soil so as to give the tree every chance of growing. The spread of the roots was about 2% ft. on the trees, hence a hole 5 ft. in diameter and 5 ft. deep was dug. Two men working together dug the holes, digging four such holes in a day. A pick and short shovel were used by them. The dirt was thrown on the side of the hole, wheel scrapers moving it away, but this cost was not charged against the tree planting as it saved borrowing that much earth elsewhere, hence this was charged against the borrow that was being made to fill in an adjoining marsh. In each hole there was 3.6 cu. yds. of earth. The wages paid for a nine-hour day were as follows : Foreman $3.50 Men 1.50 4-horse team and driver 7.50 1-horse cart and driver 3.50 About six men worked in the gang, and the cost of digging the 80 holes was : Foreman, 6% days $22.75 Men, 40 days 60.00 Total , $82/75" The cost per hole was: Foreman $0.28 Men 0.75 Total , $1.03 This gave a cost per cubic yard of earth excavated as follows-. Foreman $0.08 Men 0.21 Total cost per cubic yard . m $0.29 It must be remembered that this kind of excavation is very similar to trench work, and also to shaft sinking, as the picking is always from the top of the excavation, and in shoveling, the 1066 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. shovel cannot be heaped as easily as when working against a breast. In planting these trees soil had to be hauled several hundred feet from nearby stock piles. Wood earth was also hauled from a piece of woodland a half a mile away. Twenty-five cents a yard was paid for the privilege of getting it, and the cost of hauling and loading it is included in the cost of the tree planting. A four- horse dump wagon that carried 2 cu. yds. each trip was used for this. This wagon also hauled some loads of "mulch" from the seashore close by, a haul not exceeding 700 ft. A cart was used to haul soil and water. The method of planting the trees consisted in filling in the bottom of the hole for about 2 ft. with soil, then using a mixture of soil and woods earth, to fill up the hole within a few inches of the top. The roots of the tree were covered with about 10 in. of this mixture of soil. The last few inches was of the "mulch" from the seashore, as this kept the ground moist and prevented it from baking. As the tree was planted, plenty of water was poured around it. The placing of rich soil around the roots and the watering allowed the fibrous roots to begin at once to take nourishment for the tree. The planting was done in the summer time, thus making it necessary to take unusual precaution that the tree should grow. After the trees were planted they were watered and sprayed each day that it did not rain. The cost of the tree planting for these 80 trees was as follows : Foreman, 3% days ..$12.25 Men, 20% days 31.00 Teams, 4 days 30!00 Cart, 4 days 14.00 Wood's earth, 12 cu. yds., at 25c 3.00 Total $90.25 This gives a cost per tree of the following: Foreman $0.15 Men 0.39 Team 0.37 Cart 0.18 Wood's earth 0.04 Total ' $1.13 This makes a total cost per tree, of digging the holes and plant- ing, of $2.16. Example II. In this case 270 trees of about the same size were planted. The work was done in the fall of year, after the sap was down, and the ground in which they were planted had several feet of fairly good soil on it. The tree holes were made, for this reason, 5 ft. in diameter, but only 4 ft. deep. This meant the excavation of 2.9 cu. yds. for each hole. The wages paid for a 9-hour day were the same as in Example I, but, instead of working only about six men in the gang, about 24 men were worked. It PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 1067 will be noticed that this materially reduced the foreman cost. The cost of digging the 270 holes was: Foreman, 4 days $-14.00 Men, 95 days 142.50 Total $156.50 The cost per hole was as follows : Foreman $0.05 Men 0.53 Total for hole $0.58 The cost per cubic yard of earth excavated from the holes was: Foreman $0.02 Men . 0.18 Total cost per cubic yard $0.20 A comparison of this with the cost of digging the holes for the 80 trees will prove interesting. The unit cost of the foreman was reduced as explained by increasing the size of the crew of laborers, but it will be noticed that cutting off a foot of the depth (25 per cent) of the hole, decreased the cost of digging about 30 per cent. The cost of excavating per cubic yard was decreased 14 per cent. Two men working together nearly completed six 4-ft. holes in a day. In planting the trees the same earth and soil that was dug from the hole was put back, hence the cost of planting includes the labor of back filling, the getting of the tree from the "healing in ground," the placing of it, putting some little manure around the tree after it was planted and watering while planting. No teams were necessary for this, the cost being as follows : Foreman, 1% days $ 5 25 Men, 36 days 54.00 Total $59.25 The cost per tree was : Foreman $0.02 Men 0.20 Total $0.22 This makes a total cost of planting each tree of 80 cts., and illustrates how much cheaper the work can be done when the season is favorable, and the soil does not have to be hauled and ; prepared to place around the trees. Example III. In this case 60 evergreen trees of various kinds from 3 ft. to 12 ft. high were planted. Earth was taken up with the roots, at the nursery where they were bought, and burlap was tied around the roots to keep this earth from falling off. As these trees were unloaded from the car, they were carried by the men directly to the place they were to be planted. Teams could not be used for this, as the lawns, which were new, would have been 1068 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ruined by the passage of wheels over them. From 2 to 4 men were needed with hand sticks to carry each tree. The holes dug were about 2% ft. in diameter and about 18 in. deep, there being about 6.4 cu. ft. of earth excavated from each hole. The back filling was done from this material, which was piled up around the tree, leaving but little excess to be hauled away in wheel- barrows. Large pieces of canvas were laid down on the grass to hold the excavated earth, thus preventing the earth from injuring the grass. The entire lot of trees was planted in one day, and the cost consists of unloading the trees from the cars, carrying them to place, digging holes, planting trees, and cleaning up the ground and pieces of canvas afterwards. The ground was wet enough from recent rains to do away with watering the newly planted trees. The entire cost of this work was : 2 foremen, at $3.50 $ 7.00 33 men, at $1.50 49.50 Total $56.50 The cost per tree was as follows : Foreman . . $0.115 Men . . 0.825 Total $0.940 Example IV. This job consisted of planting 1,200 shrubs. About one-third of them were planted as separate shrubs or three or four plants in the same hole, the rest being planted as hedges. The holes were dug 1 ft. deep. A foreman and 3 men did the work, taking the shrubs from the "healing in ground," digging the holes, planting, back filling and watering. The wages were the same as paid in the other examples. The cost was as follows : Foreman, 5 days $17.50 Men, 15 days 22.50 Total $40.00 This was a cost of a little more than 3 cents per shrub. All the work was done by day labor. SECTION X. BUILDINGS. Cost of Items of Buildings by Percentages. In any locality, if we select buildings of any given class and estimate the percentagB of the total cost chargeable to each item, we find a remarkably small Excavation, brick and cut stone n Frame 3 Buildings. * Brick * Residences. 5 Brick Flats 5 and stores. Brick P Schools. 5 Brick Q Warehouses. Machine Sho (150 x400) 8 6 6 % 6 Skylights and glass. . . . '" 10 Millwork and glass. . . . Lumber 21 19 20 12 17 10% 7 6 6% Carpenter labor 18 10 10 10 9% 4 Hardware 3% 3 2% Tin, galv. iron and slate Gravel roofing 2% 4% IV 3% 2 1% Structural steel 5 % 45% Steel lintels and hard- ware 6 Plumbing and gas fitt'g Piping for steam, water and power. . 7 3 4 4 2 2 Paint . 5 5% 4% 4 2% 2 Total . 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Note. Heating is not included. variation. For example, the hardware item in brick residences aver- ages about 3% of the total cost of the building whether the building costs $10,000 or $50,000. For a $10,000 building the hardware costs $10,000 X 3%, or $300. For a $50,000 building, the hardware costs $50,000 X 3%, or $1,500. In making preliminary estimates of cost it is often sufficiently close to estimate one or two of the large items and calculate the rest by percentages. Every builder and architect, therefore, should analyze the actual cost of each item of a number of typical buildings, and reduce the analysis to percentages. Where foundation work is difficult and variable, it is well to exclude the foundations in forming a table of percentages, such as the one on this page. It is also well to carry the subdivisions of cost still farther ; but for the purpose of example, the foregoing table serves to illustrate. 1069 1070 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Buildings Per Cu. Ft. In order approximately to esti* mate the cost of any proposed building for which plans have not yet been prepared, it is convenient to estimate the cost in cents per cubic foot. In the following examples the cubic contents are computed from the cellar floor to the roof (if the roof is flat), or (in a pitch roof) to the top of the attic walls that are finished or may be finished ; but air spaces and open porches are not in- cluded. Measurements are from out to out of walls and founda- tions. The following figures were compiled by Mr. James N. Brown, of St. Louis, and form part of the instructions to insurance adjusters. Prices were for the year 1902. Country Property: Cts. per cu. ft. Frame dwelling, small box house, no cornice 4 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, small cornice, no sash weights, plain 5 to 6 Brick dwelling, same class 7 to 8 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, good cornice, sash Weights, blinds (good house) 7 to 8 Brick dwelling, same class 9 to 10 Frame barn, shingle roof, not painted, plain finish 1 % to 2 % Frame barn, shingle roof, painted, good foundation .... 2 y 2 to 3 Frame store, shingle roof, painted, plain finish 5 to 7 Brick store, shingle roof, painted, good cornice, well finished 7 to 9 Frame church or schoolhouse, ordinary 5 to 7 Brick church or schoolhouse, ordinary 8 to 10 If slate or metal roof, add % ct. per cu. ft. to the above. City Property: Frame dwelling, shingle roof, pine floors and finish, no bathroom or furnace, plain finish (good house) 6 to 7 Brick dwelling, same class 8 to 9 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood floor in hall and parlor, bath, furnace and fair plumbing 8 to 9 Brick dwelling, same class 8 to 1 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood in first floor, good plumbing, furnace, artistic design, some interior ornamentation, well painted 10 to 12 Brick dwelling, good plumbing, bath, furnace, pine fin- ish, well painted 11 to 12 Cost of Miscellaneous Buildings. Mr. Fred T. Hodgson published the following in the Architects' and Builders' Magazine, May, 1902 : Bathhouses, complete, or for barracks, but not supplied with hot water, per cu. ft $ .45 to $ .50 Or per bath 280.00 to 320.00 Baths, public, comprising swimming baths, slip- per baths, laundry, caretaker's quarters, machinery, etc., complete, per cu. ft .30 to .36 Breweries, complete, including buildings, cel- larage, boilers, engine, machinery, coppers, liquor baths, mash tubs, coolers, refriger- ator, ice storage, pumps, and all other re- quirements, per cu. ft .14 to .20 Churches, plain, per cu. ft., from .16 to .22 Per sq. ft., from 4.50 to 6.50 Per sitting, from 40.00 to 55.00 Churches, ornamental, per cu. ft., from .22 to .39 Per sq. ft, from 7.00 to 12.50 Per sitting, from 65.00 to 120.00 BUILDINGS. 1071 Cotton mills, as generally constructed: Per cu. ft .09 to .12 Per spindle .22 to .30 Cow stables, complete, with iron finishings and fittings : Per cu. ft .14 to .16 Per sq. ft 2.20 to 2.80 Per cow 170.00 to 190.00 Second-class stable with common fittings : Per cu. ft .11 to .13 Per sq. ft 1.65 to 2.00 Per cow 130. 00 to 145.00 Third-class, for farm, wood fittings: Per cu. ft 07 V 2 to .10 Per sq. ft 1.45 to 1.50 Per cow 90.00 to 105.00 Drill halls or sheds for infantry : Per cu. ft .llto .14 Per sq. ft 1.60 to 1.70 Electric stations of power houses, buildings erected complete, exclusive of machinery and plant: Per cu. ft .14 to .17 Flats, as constructed in New York, compris- ing ornamental brickwork in front, ele- vators, fire-resisting floors, and the whole well finished in ordinary wood throughout : Per cu. ft .28 to .36 Hospitals, complete, including administrative buildings, etc. : Per cu. ft .20 to .30 Per bed 1,550.00 to 2,300.00 Cottage hospitals for small towns : Per cu. ft .17 to .22 Per bed 1,050.00 to 1,550.00 Hospitals, isolated, including all nursery buildings : Per cu. ft .17 to .22 Per bed 1,800.00 to 2,300.00 Hotels, complete in every particular : First-class, per cu. ft .31 to .41 Second-class, per cu. ft .23 to .31 Third-class, per cu. ft .20 to .24 Houses, complete, in brickwork and good sub- stantial finishings: First-class Large mansion with elaborate finish : Main building, 16-ft. ceiling, per cu. ft .30 to .40 Per sq. ft 5.50 to 6.50 Additions, 11-ft ceilings, per cu. ft .16 to .20 Per sq. ft 2.50 to 3.00 Second-class Large mansion of ordinary character : Main building, 14-ft. ceiling, per cu. ft .22 to .30 Per sq. ft 3.50 to 4.50 Additions, per cu. ft .15 to .20 Per sq. ft 1.65 to 2.15 Third-class Country houses : Height of ceiling, 11 ft., per cu. ft .15 to .20 Per sq. ft 2.15 to 2.65 Fourth-class Speculative buildings : Ceilings, 10 ft., per cu. ft .13 to .15 Per sq. ft 1.30 to 1.55 Fifth-class Tenements and cottages to rent : Ceilings, 9 ft, per cu. ft .10 to .12 Per sq. ft 1.10 to 1.35 1072 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Libraries, public, complete in every particular: Per cu. ft - 16 to - 22 Municipal lodging-houses for cities and large towns : 1 r * 1 o "Po-r mi ft ! tO .lo plr bed .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. !!!!!!!!' '.! SOO.OOto 375.00 Museums, public : For large cities, per cu. ft .22 to .33 Towns .19 to .^b Music halls, complete, per head of accommo- Fo^VaTge cities 80.00 to 130.00 For small cities and towns 40.00 to 70.00 Town halls, complete: Large cities, per cu. ft .31 to .36 Small cities and towns .^ to .60 Alternative prices: Basement, per cu. ft..... .20 to .24 Superstructure, per cu. f t .27 to .35 Ornamental towers, per cu. ft .39 to .4b Theaters, complete, per head of accommoda- In large cities 82.00 to 108.00 Small cities and towns 50.00 to 80.00 Per cu. ft 28 to .38 Chimney shafts, plain, as for factories, etc., complete, including foundations, iron cap, etc., height measured from surface of ground to top of cap : Per ft. in height. Not exceeding 100 ft. in height .".$ 40.00 to $ 46.00 100 ft. to 180 ft. high 45.00 to 52.00 180 ft. to 250 ft. high 50.00 to 56.00 Costs of Concrete Buildings.* A common method of stating the cost of buildings for approximate estimates and comparisons is in terms of dollars per square foot of floor or cents per cubic foot of space inclosed. Either unit has been supposed to be a reliable one for approximate comparisons and both have been used frequently to proVe in individual cases the economy or the high cost of construc- tion work. In view of these facts the following comparisons made by Mr. Leonard C. Wason, president, Aberthaw Construction Co., TABLE I. COST OF FIREPROOF COMPLETED CONTRACTS. Volume Kind of Building. in cu. ft. Offices and stores 1,365,830 do. 496,780 Factory 112,440 do. 746,674 do. 312,000 Garage 156,198 Filter 149,250 Fire station 44,265 Observatory 9,734 Filter 59,991 Highest Lowest Average Floor area in sq. ft. 90,474 39,840 7,519 49,546 24,960 10,806 19,208 2,982 657 5,243 -Unit cost- Per cu. ft. $0.133 .124 .114 .060 .127 .085 .134 .153 .373 .333 .333 .06 .138 Per sq. ft. $2.00 1.545 1.70 .902 1.60 1.23 1.04 2.26 5.45 3.82 3.82 .90 1.72 Engineering-Contracting, March 10, 1909. BUILDINGS. 1073 TABLE II. COST OF FIREPROOF COMPLETE BUILDINGS. Volume Floor area Unit cost Kind of Building. in cu. ft. in sq. ft. Per cu. ft. Per sq. ft. Storehouse . .1,714,448 168,696 10.0827 $0.84 Hospital . . 703,692 57,654 .0865 1.05 Office building . . 496,780 39,840 .124 1.545 Cold storage ..1,535,000 154,000 .13 1.30 Factory . . 212,400 15,000 .091 1.28 do . .1,327,868 106,022 .107 1.335 Storehouse . .1,140,000 146,000 .0685 .575 Mfg. building Office ,1,380,500 . . 693,840 90,240 56,552 .067 1.01 .197 2.42 Factory . . 105,600 8,800 .124 1.485 do . .1,211,364 74,604 .0625 1.01 do . . 180,000 16,394 .129 1.42 Highest .197 2.42 Lowest .0625 .575 Average .1088 1.27 TABLE III. COST OF FIREPROOF BUILDINGS. Volume Floor area Unit cost-- Kind of Building. in cu. ft. in sq. ft. - Per cu. ft. Per eq. f> Office building .... . . 441,000 35,854 $0.159 ?1.97 Cold storage . .1,016,400 101,640 .13 1.30 Hospital .-. 348,320 34,832 .127 1.27 Hospital . . 414,732 29,838 .124 1.73 Bank . . 533,750 .123 Masonic . .1,479,456 .122 Warehouse . . 259,700 24,500 .120 1.28 Garage . . 497,420 .118 Warehouse ..2,597,000 212,000 .106 1.30 Hotel ..2,116,106 .104 Hospital . . 485,789 38,247 .100 1.30 Office . . 264,687 .095 Cold storage . . 909,240 66,745 .091 1.24 Club , . 513,808 .085 Office . . 501,575 67,400 .084 1 12 Highest .159 3 97 Lowest .084 1 12 Average .113 1 39 Per cent variation , high and low 53.8% 5>.0% TABLE IV. COST OF MILL CONSTRUCTION OR SECOND-CLASS BUILIHNG. T7"/-\1 w/-. T-TI Kind of Building. in cu. ft. in sq. ft. Per cu. ft. Per sq. ft. Mill , ,'. 544,788 44,172 $0.122 $1.51 Warehouse . .2,808,850 .12 .... Mill ..1,271,300 129,920 .0891 .875 Storehouse . .1,714,448 168,696 .059 .60 Mill ..1,622,128 152,200 .056 .60 Mill .1,331,200 83,200 .054 .865 Mill . .1,752,609 SI, 500 .048 1.05 Mill . .2,641,000 98,059 .046 1.25 Mill . .2,036,731 174,000 .046 .542 Mill . .2,867,535 157,730 .045 .82 Highest .122 1.51 Lowest .045 .542 Average .069 .90 Boston, Mass., will be of decided interest. In preparation for a study of the figures given it is important to note that Mr. Wason's conclusions are that, after making this comparison, he is con- 1074 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. vinced that neither method is accurate enough to put much reliance on, but that the square foot method is a little safer than the other. The comparative figures compiled by Mr. Wason are given in Tables I to IV, inclusive. In each case the total cost includes masonry and carpentry work without interior finish or decorating, plumbing and heating. The effort has been made to put the build-- ings upon a comparative basis as regards the amount of work done on each. The first table consists of the total cost of actual contracts exe- cuted. The second table consists of bona fide bids on complete build- ings on which Mr. Wason' s company were not the lowest bidders, but where the difference was, not as a rule very great. The third and fourth tables are bona fide bids on work by another contractor whose experience was similar to that of Mr. Wason' s. As a rule, cubic foot measurements are given in cents only, seldom being car- ried to any closer subdivision. In reference to Table IV on second- class buildings, it will be noted that for the largest building a vari- ation of 1 ct. per cu. ft., amounts to over $28,000, while the smallest one in the list amounts to only a little over $5,400. Again, on the last three items, the cubic foot price is practically identical, while the square foot measurements corresponding vary by more than 100%, with no easily apparent reason in the design. In Table III another discrepancy is noticed. In the first and the last items, the highest and the lowest per cubic foot, as well as per square foot are on office buildings of similar type which were within one mile of each other where there is no apparent reason for such discrepancy in the design or difficulty or access in the erection of the building. Cost of Fireproof Office Buildings. Mr. P. J. T. Stewart gathered the following data in 1906. The average cost of 3 office buildings in Chicago was 33 cts. per cu. ft., distributed as follows: Per cent. Foundations .... 4.3 Steel frame 15.2 Mason work 25.5 Equipment (elevators, plumbing, lighting, heating, ventilating, etc.) 25.0 Trim and finish 30.0 Total 100.0 The average cost of 4 office buildings in Boston was 40 cts. per cu. ft., distributed as follows: Per cent. Foundations 7.0 Steel frame I 18.4 Mason work 35.5 Equipment 18.5 Trim and finish 20.6 Total 100.0 Comparative Cost of Wood and Steel Frame Factory Buildings. Mr. H. G. Tyrrell gives the following, based on prices existing in Ohio in the forepart of 1905. BUILDINGS. 1075 Slow Burning Wood Construction. The building is 60 x 100 ft., six stories high, containing 6 floors, a roof and a cellar. The floors are designed for a load of 100 Ibs. per sq. ft. The building has windows on all four sides. The walls (brick) carry the ends of the floor beams. The basement walls are 24 ins. thick. Walls of first four stories are 17 ins. thick; top two stories, 13 ins. thick. Eight tiers of columns, spaced 20 ft. apart in both directions, carry the floors and roof. The columns of the upper four stories are yellow pine, the size being 14 x 14 ins. for the lowest of these four stories. Below this, round cast iron columns are used, 11x1^4 in. in the first story, and 12x1% ins. in the basement. All columns have cast iron bases 3 ft square and 16 ins. high. Lengthwise through the building in the floors, run two lines of 12 x 20-in. yellow pine header beams resting on the brackets of the cast iron column caps. The cross floor beams are 8xl6-in. yellow pine, spaced 5 ft. apart. At the columns they rest on column caps, and at intermediate points they hang from the header beams by wrought iron stirrups. In the walls the cross beams rest on cast iron wall plates, 9 x 20 x % in. The floor is of %-in. matched maple, laid on 1%-in. yellow pine. The roof is similar in con- struction and has a tar and gravel covering. The following estimates are for the structural part of the building only, including walls, columns, floors, roof, excavation, foundation, doors and windows, but not including partitions, stairs, elevators, plumbing, heating, lighting or wiring. 1. Excavation (cu. yds.) 1,800 2. Cellar cement floor (sq. ft.) 6,000 3. Foundation concrete (cu. yds.) 150 4. Brick (cu. ft.) 39,000 5. Windows, 4 x 7 ft 238 6. Roofing (sq. ft.) '. . . . 6,000 7. Yellow pine timber (M. ) 116 8. Yellow pine flooring (M.) 73 9. Matched flooring (M. ) 46 10. Iron work (tons) 46 The estimated cost of this design is $35,000, which is equivalent to 6.1 cts. per cu. ft., or 83 cts. per sq. ft. of entire floor area. The interior framing of floors and columns, (including wall plates, columns, caps and bases and stirrup irons), is 2 7 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area. Fireproof Steel Construction. This is similar in design to the above, as regards arrangement of beams and columns. Riveted steel columns are used, 'and the floors are framed with steel beams. The flooring between the beams is reinforced concrete. The quantities are as before for items (1) to (6) inclusive. The remaining items are : 7. Steel columns (tons) 105 8. Steel beams and wall plate (tons) 252 9. Concrete floor and roof (sq. ft.) 42,000 The estimated cost is $57,000, which is equivalent to 10.2 cts. per cu. ft, or $1.36 per sq. ft. of total floor area. Floors and 1076 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. columns "cost 75 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, as compared with 27 cts. for the slow burning mill construction. Cubic Foot Costs of Reinforced Concrete Buildings.* The follow- ing costs are for buildings actually erected and they are given by Mr. Emile G. Per rot, M. Am. Soc. C. E. : Cents per cu. ft. Warehouses and manufacturers 8 to 10 Stores and loft buildings 11 to 17 Miscellaneous, such as schools and hospitals. . .15 to 20 Fig. 1. One-Story Buildings. These costs include the building complete, omitting power, heat, light, elevators and decorations or furnishings. Cost of Mill Buildings. Mr. Charles F. Main is authority for the following data, based upon eastern prices in 1910. It is not an uncommon thing to hear the cost of mill buildings placed from 70 cts. to f 1 per sq. ft. of floor space, regardless of the size or number of stories. There is, however, a wide range of cost * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 27, 1909. BUILDINGS. 1077 per square foot of floor space, depending upon the width, length, height of stories and number of stories. Some time ago, I placed a valuation upon a portion of the prop- erty of a corporation, including some 400 or 500 buildings. In order to have a standard of cost from which to start in each case, I pre- pared a series of diagrams showing the approximate costs of build- ings varying in length and width and from one story to six stories in height. The height of stories also was varied for different Widths, being assumed 13 ft. high if 25 ft. wide, 14 ft. if 50 ft. Wide, 15 ft. for 75 ft., 16 ft. for 100 ft. and over. Fig. 2. Two-Story Buildings. The costs used in making up the diagrams are based largely upon the actual cost of work done under average conditions 01! cost of materials and labor and with average soil for foundations. The costs given include plumbing, but no heating, sprinklers, or lighting. These three latter items would add roughly 10 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area. Estimates. The accompanying diagrams, Figs. 1 to 6, can be used to determine the probable approximate cost of proposed brick 1071 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. buildings, of the type known as "slow-burning" to be used for manufacturing purposes, with a total floor load of about 75 Ibs. per sq. ft. and these can be taken from the diagrams readily. The curves were derived primarily to show the estimated cost per square foot of gross floor area of brick buildings for extile mills, and to include ordinary foundations and plumbing. For example, if it is desired to know the probable cost of a mill 400 ft. long by 100 ft. wide, three stories high, refer to the curves showing the cost of three-story buildings. On the curve for buildings 100 ft. f.90 00 /.50 MO 1::::::.'::: 25 f/y.- Comfy Fig-. 3. Three- Story Buildings. Wide, find the point where the vertical line of 400 ft. in length cuts the curve, then move horizontally along this line to the left-hand vertical line, on which will be found the cost of 81 cts. The cost given is for brick manufacturing buildings under average conditions and can be modified if necessary for the following con- ditions : (a) If the soil is poor or the conditions of the site are such as to require more than the ordinary amount of foundations, the cost will be increased. BUILDINGS. 1079 (b) If the end or a side of the building is formed by another building, the cost of one or the other will be reduced slightly. (c) If the building is to be used for ordinary storage purposes with low stories and no top floors, the cost will be decreased from about 10% for large low buildings, to 25% for small high ones, about 20% usually being a fair allowance. (d) If the buildings are to be used for manufacturing purposes and are to be substantially built of wood, the cost will be decreased -Co/?ty Fig. 4. Four-Story Buildings. from about 6% for large one-story buildings, to 33% for high small buildings ; 15% would usually be a fair allowance. (e) If the buildings are to be used for storage with low stories and built substantially of wood, the cost will be decreased from 13% for large one-story buildings, to 50% for small high buildings; 30% would usually be a fair allowance. (f) If the total floor loads are more than 75 Ibs. per sq. ft. the cost is increased. (g) For office buildings, the cost must be increased to cover architectural features on the outside and interior finish. 1080 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of very light wooden structures is much less than the above figures would give. Table IVa shows the approximate ratio of the costs of different kinds cf buildings to the cost of those shown by the curves. Evaluations. The diagrams can be used as a basis of valuation of different buildings. A buildUig, no matter how built nor how expensive it was to build, cannot be of any more value for the purpose to which it is no* 100 Fig. 5. Five-Story Buildings. put than a modern building properly designed for that particular purpose. The cost of such a modern building is then the limit of value of existing buildings. Existing buildings are usually of less value than new modern buildings for the reason that there has been some depreciation due to age and that the buildings are not as well suited to the business as a modern building would be. Starting with the diagrams as a base, the value can be approxi- mately determined by making the proper deductions. The diagrams can be used as a basis for insurance valuations after deducting about 5% for large buildings to 15% for small ones. BUILDINGS. 1081 for the cost of foundations, as it is not customary to include the foundations in the insurable value. Use of Tables. Table V shows the costs which form the basis of the estimates and these unit prices can be used to compute the cost of any building not covered by the diagrams. The cost of brick walls is based on 22 bricks per cubic foot, costing $18 per thousand laid. Openings are estimated at 40 cts. per sq. ft, in- eluding windows, doors and sills. Fig. 6. Six-Story Buildings. Ordinary mill floors, including timbers, planking and top floor with Southern pine timber at $40 per M. ft. B. M.. and spruce planking at $30 per M.., costs about 32 cts. per sq. ft., which has been used as a unit price. Ordinary mill roofs covered with tar and gravel, with lumber at the above prices, cost about 25 cts. per sq. ft. and this has been used in the estimates. Add for stairways, elevator wells, plumbing, partitions and special work. Deductions from Diagrams. (1) An examination of the diagrams shows immediately the decrease in cost as the width is increased. 1082 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This is due to the fact that the cost of the walls and outside founda- tions, which is an important item of cost, relative to the total cost, is 'decreased as the width increases. For example, supposing a three-story building is desired with 30,000 sq. ft. on each floor : If the building were 600 ft. x 50 ft., its cost would be about 99 cts. per sq. ft. If the building were 400 ft. x 75 ft, its cost would be about 87 cts. per sq. ft. If the building were 300 ft. x 100 ft., its cost would be about 83 cts. per sq. ft. If the building were 240 ft. x 125 ft, its cost would be about 80 cts. per sq. ft. (2) The diagram shows that the minimum cost per square foot is reached with a four-story building. A three-story building costs a trifle more than a four-story. A one-story building is the most expensive. This is due to a combination of several features: (a) The cost of ordinary foundations does not increase in pro- portion to the number of stories, and therefore their cost is less per square foot as the number of stories is increased, at least up to the limit of the diagram. (b) The roof is the same for a one-story building as for one of any 'Other number of stories, and therefore its cost relative to the total cost grows less as the number of stories increases. (c) The cost of columns, including the supporting piers and castings, does not vary much per story as the stories are added. (d) As the number of stories increases, the cost of the walls, owing to increased thickness, increases in a greater ratio than the number of stories, and this item is the one which in the four-story building offsets the saving in foundations and roof. ( 3 ) The saving by the use of frame construction for walls instead of brick is not as great as many persons think. The only saving is in somewhat lighter foundations and in the outside surfaces of the building. The floor, columns, and roof must be the same strength and construction in any case. Assumed Height of Stories. From ground to first floor, 3 ft. Buildings 25 ft. wide, stories 13 ft. high. Buildings 50 ft wide, stories 14 ft high. Buildings 75 ft wide, stories 15 ft high. Buildings 100 ft. wide, stories 16 ft. high. Buildings 125 ft. wide, stories 16 ft. high. Unit Prices. Floors, 32 cts. per sq. ft. of gross floor space not including columns. If columns are included, 38 cts. Roof, 25 cts. per sq. ft., not including columns. If columns are included, 30 cts. Roof to project 18 ins. all around buildings. Stairways, including partitions, $100 each flight Allow two stairways, and one elevator tower for buildings up to 150 ft. long. Allow two stairways and two elevator towers for buildings up to 300 ft. long. In buildings over two stories, allow three stairways and three elevator towers for buildings over 300 ft long. In buildings over two stories, plumbing $75 for each fixture in- cluding piping and partitions. Allow two fixtures on each floor up p g " s I BUILDINGS. 1M 2 *m a o S Q ^ ^ *O^S S rHO ^j ^ Ifl Irt O D CD OlOM OO Oi O r-l iH (M N CO M I 'O^S 9 t-.t-.t-t-.c--oooooooooooo o I : . K fQ o to t~ oo o -< i-H w e? eo eo , O -Q i>t-t ^ 5 to t- 00 05 O C^ (M CC Tj< Tj< )< w "O^S ^ c-^t>-t~-t-o oooooooooooo g OO OO O5 rH (M C5 rt* *< 1C Ifl O *O^g 8 t-.c--t-.oooooooooooooooo sl m . mC J 7 MCOOiHi-ie0^t 2 10 Difficult side walls. . 1 3.20 The standard bunch of shingles is supposed to contain 250 shingles averaging 4 ins. wide. Hence if shingles are laid with an exposure of 4% ins., each shingle covers 4 X 4y 2 = 18 sq. ins., or 800 shingles to the square. But the cutting for angles, the loss of broken shingles, the double course at the eaves, and the like, necessitate a larger allowance. On plain roofs allow 8% more, and on gables 12% more than the theoretical 800. Estimate as follows: With 4-in exposure. . . . With 4% -in. exposure. With 5-in. exposure. . . Plain roof. Cut-up roof. Shingles Shingles per square. per square. 990 1010 880 900 790 810 Cost of Laying Base- Boards. The amount of base-board work is computed in lineal feet, instead of board feet. The following costs relate to the actual number of lineal feet, doors and openings being deducted : Cost per Lin. ft. lin.ft. per man wages be- per day ing $3.20 of 8 hrs. per day. Base-board : In a building with an unusually large number of pilasters 50 6% cts. Base-board : Three-membered, hardwood, average number of miters 50 6% cts. Base-board : In a plain five-story business block, two-membered base scribed to floor 80 4 cts. Base-board : In a three-story seminary, narrow birch ; fitting to the floor not necessary 100 3^ cts. Base-board : Plain, quarter-round at floor 100 3% cts. Moulding : Bed, flat, 3-in 320 1 ct. 1090 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Placing Doors, Windows and Blinds. The following table gives the cost of labor on doors, windows and blinds : Labor cost of Number each, of hrs. wages be- labor on ing 40 cts. each. per hour. Windows : To put frames together if stuff comes knocked down .............................. 1% ? 0.60 Window : Ordinary pine window in a frame build- ing including setting frame ... .............. 5 Window: Same as before, except hardwood ..... 6^ 2.60 Window: Ordinary pine window in brick build- ing, including setting frame .................. 6 V 2 Window: Same as before, except hardwood ..... 9 3.60 Window: 30-light (lights 10 x 14), setting frame, fitting and hanging sash, and putting on hard- ware, for a machine shop .................... 7 2.80 Window : Same as before, but hung on sash bal- ances ..................................... 6 2.40 Transom: Fixed .......... .................... 1 ; 0.40 Transom : Hung .............................. 1 V 2 0.60 Door : Common hardwood, set jambs, case, hang and finish, including transom ................ 10 4.00 Door: Birch door, complete, for a seminary ..... 7 2.80 Door: Common pine door, 1%-in., complete ..... 4% 1.80 Door : Common pine, 1%-in., complete .......... 5% 2.20 Door: Pine, swinging door, no hardware except hinges .................................... 4 1.60 Door : Pine, finish of wide paneled jambs, with transom, for school house ................... 10 4.00 Door: Same as before, but hardwood ........... 12 * 5.00 Sliding doors: Pine (framing not included), to finish complete with lining, jambs, casings, and hardware, per pair .......................... Sliding doors: Same as before, but hardwood, per pair ...................................... Outside doors: Pine, 6 x 8 ft., door frame, casings, and hardware, complete, per pair ..... Outside doors : Same as before, but hardwood, per pair ................................... Outside double doors: Opening 12 x 18 ft., in a factory ............ .. ... ................. 32 Sliding doors: Opening 12 x 18 ft, in a barn ---- 24 Blinds: If fitted before frames are set, per pair. . % Blinds: If fitted after frames are set, per pair. . . 1 Blinds: Plain pine, inside blinds, per set ........ 3 Blinds : Same as before, but hardwood .......... 5 32 48 10 14 12.80 19.20 4.00 5.60 12.80 9.60 0.30 0.40 1.20 2.00 The labor cost of bedding and setting 10 x 14-in. lights on a large building was 1 y% cts. per light, or 1 % cts. per sq. ft. ; and one-twenty-fifth of a pound of putty per lineal foot around the edge of the glass was used. With a deeper rabbet and putty not properly pressed, one-fifteenth pound per lineal foot of glass edge may be used. The cost of setting plate glass is about 7 cts. per sq. ft. Floor and sidewalk glass may be set for 5 cts. per sq. ft. ; skylight glass for 8 cts. per sq. ft. BUILDINGS. 1091 Cost of Closets and Sideboards. The following miscellaneous la- bor costs will serve as* a guide : The labor ^costs are given in dollars and cents, wages being 40 cts. per hour: Cost of Labor. Drawers, if dovetailed, each $ 1.00 Drawers, 15 ins. wide, 18 ins. deep, including racks and fit- tings, each 0.80 Shelves, in a storeroom, shelves dadoed into compartments 18 ins. square, per sq. ft. of shelf .' 0.25 Shelves, in pantry, no dadoing, per sq. ft 0.15 Closet hooks, on a strip of wood, hooks 12 ins. apart, per lin. ft. of strip 0.06 Sideboard, ash, 8x8 ft., drawers, doors, brackets, shelves, mir- rors and hardware 50.00 Sideboard, oak, less detail than before 40.00 Sideboard, pine, fairly good 25.00 Cost of Making Stairs. The labor cost of making a number of different kinds of stairs will be given, labor being 40 cts. per hour. The cost includes the making and setting of the stairs, but does not include mill work. Cost of Labor. Two flights of stairs (for a school), 6 ft. wide, with ceiling rail $ 35.00 Three flights of oak stairs (for a hospital). 5 ft. wide with continuous rail 90.00 Three flights of oak stairs (for a seminary) 120.00 Box-stair, long, without landing 9.00 Box-stair, for cellar or attic, if windows are used 10.00 One flight of plain stairs, in a 7-room house 16.00 One flight of fine stairs, in a 9-room house 40.00 Cost of Tin Roofing. The sizes of tin sheets are 14 x 20 ins., and 20x28 ins. An allowance of 1 in. must be made for laps at joints; with sheets 20 x 28 ins., a square (100 sq. ft.) requires 29 sheets. With 14 x 20-in. sheets, allow 63 per square, and 50% more of solder, rosin, etc. A box of tin contains 112 sheets, and the large sheets of I. C. tin weigh 225 Ibs. per box; the I. X., 285 Ibs. per box. One man, at 40 cts. per hr., will lay 2 squares of plain roofing per day. One man will line about 75 sq: ft. of box gutter, or an equal amount of flashing, per day. The cost per square of tin roof was as follows : Per square. 29 sheets of I. C. tin, 55 Ibs., at 8 cts 4.40 5 Ibs. solder, at 14 cts 0.70 1 y 2 Ibs. nails, at 4 cts % 0.06 1 Ib. rosin 0.04 Labor, at 40 cts. per hr 1.60 Charcoal 0.10 Painting two coats 1.50 Total $8.40 A man, at 40 cts. per hr., will put up plain metal ceilings at the rate of 1% to 2 squares per day, including cornice and centers. On a large room, and plainest kind of work, he may do 3 or 4 squares. Wainscoting, at the same rate. 1092 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A man, with a helper, will lay 12 squarps of corrugated iron roofing in a day. Building Papers and Felts. The cheapest grade of building paper is "rosin-sized" paper. It is not waterproof, and should not be used on roofs, or on walls in a damp climate. It comes in rolls 36 ins. wide, containing 500 sq. ft., weighing 18 to 40 Ibs., and costs about 3 cts. per Ib. There are a number of different kinds of waterproof papers used for sheathing under siding or shingles. P. & B. building paper, for example, is coated with a paraffin compound. It comes in rolls 26 ins. wide containing 1,000 sq. ft. The weights per roll are: Ply 1-ply. 2-ply. 3-ply. 4 -ply. Weight 30 Ibs. 40 Ibs. 65 Ibs. 80 Ibs. Price is 10 cts. per Ib. Common dry felts are made of wood fibers cemented together with rosin. They weigh about 5 Ibs. per 100 sq. ft. The best grades of dry felt are made of wool, and weigh 11 Ibs. per 100 ,sq. ft. when they are %-in. thick; but some brands are 50% heavier than this. The price of dry wool felt is about 2*4 cts. per Ib. Tar felt, or common roofing felt, is made by saturating common dry felt with coal tar. The weight of a single layer or ply is 12, 15 or 20 Ibs. per 100 sq. ft., but the felt is laid in several layers, usually 4 or 5-ply, in making a roof, each layer being mopped with a "composition" of % tar and % pitch. The price of tar felt is about 1% cts. per Ib. There are many kinds of patent roofing felts. Ordinarily they come in rolls 29 ins. wide, and each roll covers a square, allowing 2 ins. for the lap. Nails and cement are supplied with each roll by the manufacturers. The cost of the roofing is $3 to $5 per square, and the cost of laying it is about 1 hr. labor per square, or 40 cts. The weight of such roofing varies considerably, but ordinarily is about 100 Ibs. per 100 sq. ft. Cost of Gravel Roofs. Tar felt, 4 or 5-ply, is first laid, the sheets being mopped with "composition" of % tar and % pitch. Screened roofing gravel is spread over the roof. A square of gravel roof costs about as follows: Per square. 1-6 cu. yd. (450 Ibs.) gravel, at $2.40. . $0.40 40 Ibs. tar, at 1 y 2 cts 0.60 80 Ibs. pitch, at 1 y 2 cts 1.20 100 sq. ft. felt, 4-ply, 75 Ibs., at 1 % cts 1.13 Labor, at 35 cts. per hr 0.70 Total per 100 sq. ft ?4.03 Note. About 20 Ibs. of "composition" per square per ply is ordinarily sufficient where sheets are mopped only at the joints instead of all over ; but in the above the sheets are assumed to be mopped all over, which takes 50% more composition. Tar is usually sold by the gallon, or by the oil barrel holding 50 gallons, present prices being 12 cts. per gallon. Tar weighs almost exactly as much as water, or 8% Ibs. per gallon. BUILDINGS. 1093 Cost of Slate Roofs. Roofing slate comes in a great variety of sizes, the most common of which are 16 x 8, 16 x 10, and 18 x 9 ins. ; but sizes as large as 25 x 14, and as small as 12 x 6, are made. To determine the number of pieces to a square, deduct 3 ins. from the length (for the lap), divide this by 2, multiply by the width of the slate, and divide the result into 14,000. An. 18x9 slate woull be estimated thus: 18 3 = 15, which divided by 2 gives 7% ; then 7% X 9 = 67% ; then 14,400 -=- 67% = 214 pieces. Slates are sold by the square, that is a sufficient number of slates to lay 100 sq. ft., each course having a lap of 3 ins. over the head of those in the second course below. The price f. o. b. Penn- sylvania and Vermont quarries varies according to the grade ; but a good No. 1 slate, 3/16-in. thick, can be bought for $5 per square. The freight from Pennsylvania or Vermont to the Mississippi River is about $2.50 per square. Allow about 1% waste, unless the roof is perfectly plain. The weight of 1 sq. ft. of slate %-in. thick is 3.6 Ibs. As there are 214 pieces of 18 x 9-in. slate per square of roof; and if it were all %-in. thick, the weight would be 868 Ibs.; if it were 3/16-in. thick, the weight would be 621 Ibs. Before laying the slate, the roof is covered with paper. A 50-lb. roll will cover 400 sq. ft., and with wages at 40 cts. per hr., the cost of laying the paper is 20 cts. per square. The holes for the nails must bo punched in the slate before laying. This may be done by the manufacturers, but it is usually done by hand by the slaters, because if a corner is broken off in transport the slate can be turned end for end, moreover as slate usually comes in three thicknesses it must be sorted anyway before laying, and the punch- ing can as well be done at the same time. One slater, at 40 cts. per hr., with a helper, at 20 cts. per hr., will punch the holes in 10 x 16-in. slates at a cost of 45 cts. per square. In laying slates, about one laborer is required for two slaters on plain roofs. A slater will punch and lay 3 squares per 8 hrs. on plain straight work, 2 squares on roofs with many hips and valleys, and as low as 1 sauare on difficult tower work. For fair average work allow 2% squares per day per slater, and allow 1 laborer to 2 slaters. This includes punching, and laying paper and slate. The cost of a slate roof, 10 x 16-in. slates, was as follows: Par square. Slate for 1 square $ 5.00 Freight (650 Ibs.) 2.50 Loading and hauling 0.20 Wastage, 1% of $7.70 0.08 16 Ibs. paper 0.50 1 Ib. nails 0.05 21/2 Ibs. of 3d galv. nails for slate 0.10 Slater, at 40 cts. per hr 1.30 Helper, at 20 cts. per hr 0.30 Total per square $10.03 1094 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Roofs. In the Proceedings Assoc. Ry. Supts. of Bridges and Buildings, 1902, a committee report gives the following costs of roofs in New England. Per square. Slate $ 9.00 to $12.00 Tile 30. 00 to 33.00 Cedar shingles 4.50 to 5.00 Tinned shingles 5.00 to 6.50 Sheet tin 6.50 to 8.00 Tar and gravel. 4.00 to 5.00 Ruberoid 2.75 to 3.75 Paroid 3.00 to 3.50 Tar paper, two-ply, laid double 2.00 to 2.25 Tar paper, three-ply, laid single 1.50 to 2.00 Instances were cited of slate roofs 40 years old. Shingle roofs 28 years old were cited, but 15 years seemed to be the ordinary life of good shingles. Tar and gravel roofs 30 years old were cited, but an ordinary life seemed to be 12 to 18 years. Cost of Ferroinclave Roof. This type of roof was invented by Mr. Alexander Brown, vice-president of the Brown Hoisting Mchy. Co. It consists of corrugated sheet steel plastered on both sides with Portland cement mortar, giving a total thickness of l 1 ^ ins. The corrugations are in the form of a dovetail. The steel sheets are laid on purlins spaced 4 ft. 10 ins., and clipped to them. The cement mortar is mixed 1 :2, and that used on the under side contains a small amount of lime and hair. When the cement has set for 10 days, the upper side is painted with two coats special paint. The cost per square (100 sq. ft.) is said to be as follows: Per sq. Ferroinclave sheets ? 8.50 Fastening clips 0.48 Laying Ferroinclave 1.25 Cement mortar on upper side > 3.00 Cement mortar on lower side 4.00 Waterproofing paint 1.50 Sundries, freight, supt., etc 1.27 Total $21.00 The weight is about 15 Ibs. per sq. ft. Brick Masonry Data. The size of common bricks varies widely. I have seen bricks as small as2x3*4x7% ins. used for house building in New York City. In the New England States, common bricks are said to average about 2*4x3%x7% ins. In most of the Western States, common bricks average 2%x4%x8% ins. The size of individual bricks in a car load often varies considerably ; hard bricks being % to 3/16-in. smaller than soft (or salmon) bricks. Pressed or face bricks are quite uniformly 2%x4%x8% ins. A thousand bricks, averaging 2*4x4x814 ins. weigh 5,400 Ibs., if there is any standard size it may be said to be 2 }4 x 4 x 8 *4 Ibs., and they weigh 125 Ibs. per cu. ft. ; and they occupy 43.2 cu. ft. of space, which is equivalent to 23*4 bricks per cu. ft, if no allowance is made for joints. If these bricks are laid in massive masonry with ^-in. joints, about 430 bricks will be required per BUILDINGS. 1095 cu. yd., or 16 per cu. ft. ; if laid with %-in. joints, 515 bricks per cu. yd., or 19 per cu. ft. Masons have empirical rules for estimating the number of bricks in a wall. Their rules do not give even an approximation to the actual number, or "kiln count." They often make no deductions for openings, but use a "wall measure" rule, allowing 7 % bricks per sq. ft. (or per superficial foot) for a wall that, is a "half brick thick," that is a 4-in. wall. For "one-brick", wall, that is 8 or 9 ins. thick, they estimate 15 bricks per sq. ft. For a "one-and-a-half - brick" wall (12 or 13 ins. thick), they estimate 22% bricks per sq. ft. This rule takes no account of .the actual size of the bricks, and does not, therefore, give "kiln count," but gives "wall count." We have seen, above, that "standard size" bricks, laid with %-in. mortar joints, will actually average 16 per cu. ft., as compared with 22 y 2 per cu. ft. "wall count." If all the broken bricks, or "bats," were thrown away, the wastage would be about 2% with fair bricks to 5% with poor bricks , but it not often that contractors are prohibited by inspectors from using practically all the "bats." The cost of loading and hauling paving bricks is given on page 352, and practically the same costs apply to building bricks, except that the latter are lighter. As above stated, the "standard size" hard brick weighs about 5.4 Ibs., or 2.7 tons per M., or 125 Ibs. per cu. ft. Soft bricks weigh 20% less, but repressed bricks weigh 20% more per cubic foot. With wages at 15 cts. per hr., the cost of un- loading cars into wagons is 30 cts. per M., and, unless a dump wagon is used, it costs another 30 cts. per M. to unload the wagons. Cost of Laying Brick. In building brick walls there are usually 1 to iy 2 laborers to each brick mason. The laborers mix mortar and carry mortar and bricks to the masons, using hods for the purpose. A hod holds about 18 bricks, or approximately 100 Ibs. The wages of masons and hod carriers vary widely in different cities, but seldom exceed $5 per 8-hr, day for masons and $3 for hod carriers. Very often the masons' unions have forced up their rates of wages, but the hod carriers have not, and may receive but little more than other common laborers. With wages as just given, and one helper to each mason, the labor cost of laying should not exceed $6 per M. for common brick, and $10 per M. for pressed (face) brick, "kiln count" in both cases. On a three-story brick hospital, with a carefully laid front (%-in. "shoved" joints), the labor cost was $5.50 per M., "kiln count." There were three laborers to every two masons, and wages were 17% cts. per hr. for laborers, and 45 cts. per hr. for masons, work- ing 9 hrs. The cost of the masons' wages amount to $3.50 per M., and the cost of the helpers' wages was $2 per M. This cost was rather high, due to the number of deep flat brick arches over basement openings, and to the row-lock arches over other openings, as well as a tower and other puttering work. In building warehouses, where the work was plain, wages being as just given, the cost was $4 per M., "kiln count." 1096 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. On several large city buildings, in which 15 to 20% of the brick masonry was pressed brick, each brick mason laid the following average number, "kiln count," per 9-hr, day : Apartment house, 4 stories 1,200 Four-story fronts 1,250 Heavy walls, ground level 1,500 Heavy footings and warehouse basement walls. 3,200 A bricklayer should lay 400 or 500 pressed brick per 8-hr. day. If an ornamental brick front is to be laid, with molded arches, buttresses with bases and caps, etc., the labor of laying pressed brick may run as high as $20 per M. In veneering a frame building with brick, a mason will average 400 bricks per day. In building brick arches to support the sidewalk in front of a city building, after the centers were set, each bricklayer averaged 1,800 bricks per 9-hr, day; and it required one man to make and deliver mortar and to deliver brick to every two bricklayers. The brick arches were 5-ft. span, 11 ft. long, and 4 ins. thick. Cost of Mortar. With lime mortar, mixed 1 part lime to 3 parts sand, it required 0.9 bbl. lime per M. of bricks, "kiln count," the bricks being laid with %-in. joints. A common allowance in esti- mating the cost of mortar, for "standard size" bricks, is 1 bbl. lime and 0.6 cu. yd. sand per M., "kiln count." About % cu. yd. of mortar is usually allowed per cu. yd. of brick masonry, or 0.7 cu. yd. mortar per M. of bricks, when bricks are laid with i^-in. joints. If cement mortar is used, the number of barrels of cement per cubic yard of mortar will be found on page 538. It will seldom require less than 1.6 bbls. of cement per M. of bricks, or 0.8 bbl. per cu. yd. of brick masonry, for if the mortar is made leaner it will not trowel well, and cause more loss in labor than is saved in cement. Rockland, Me., lime is sold by the barrel, 220 Ibs. net. When shipped in bulk 2% bu., of 80 Ibs. per bu., are usually called a barrel. A barrel holds about 3.6 cu. ft. The average yield of lime paste from the best limes is 2.6 bbls. of paste for each barrel of quick lime. This paste is usually mixed with 2 parts sand by measure. It, therefore, takes about 1% bbls. of the best quick lime to make 1 cu. yd. of mortar. A poor lime does not make % as much paste as a good lime. The price of lime is about 60 cts. per bbl. Cost of Brickwork in a Railway Repair Shop.* Below is given the labor cost of some brickwork done in October, 1896, for the Detroit, Lansing & Northern R. R. The work consisted of building the walls of the railroad repair shop at Ionia, Mich. The work was done by contract, the contractors, however, furnishing only the labor, this being done for a lump sum ; the materials were furnished by the railroad company. The face bricks were new, but the back was of bricks which came from an old building. The size of the bricks was 2% x 3% x 8 in., and the joints were from %-in. to %-in. in thickness. According to these figures about 20 bricks were ' Engineering-Contracting, May 16, 1906. BUILDINGS. 1097 used to the cubic ft., and that number was us.ed in computing the number of bricks in the building. In the summary is given the actual cubic contents of the walls, all openings being deducted. As the walls were only 20 ft. high, scaffolds an.d runways were built so that wheelbarrows could be used throughout the entire work for tending masons. The cost of laborers was thus reduced. The scaffolding was built by the railroad company. The wages allowed were as follows: Foreman, 40 cts. per hr. ; mason, 30 cts. per hr. ; laborers, 12% cts. per hr. The \veather was favorable for good work. Cubic ft. built 5,204.3 Bricks laid 104,086 Foreman, hrs 161 Mason, hrs 439 Laborers, hrs 509 The average number of bricks laid per mason per hour was 173, including the time of the foreman, who was a mason and worked also. . The labor costs were as follows : Mason's wages -. $196.10 Laborer's wages 66.63 Mason's wages per cu. yd 1.02 Mason's wages per M brick 1.88 Laborer's wages per cu. yd 0.33 Laborer's wages per M brick 0.61 Total cost of masons and labor per cu. yd 1.35 Total cost of masons and labor per M 2.49 From the above figures the cost of labor for similar work can be estimated as follows: Labor cost of 1 cu. yd. brickwork is equal to 5/6-hour wages of foreman, plus 2*4 hours wages of mason, plus 2% hours wages of laborer. In the same manner, the cost of laying 1,000 brick is equal to 5/6-hour wages of foreman, plus 4% hours wages mason, plus 4% hours wages laborer. In the work it was found that 0.44 cu. yd. of sand and 10-11 bbl. (bulk) lime were required to lay 1,000 brick with %-in. to %-in. joint. One barrel of lime equaled 3% cu. ft. and weighed 201 Ibs., the weight being figured from car weight. Accordingly 1 bbl. (bulk) lime was used for laying 1,100 bricks, with %-in. to %-in. joint; 1 cu. yd. sand was used for laying 2,260 bricks, with %-in. to %-in. joint. Cost of Brickwork in Five Buildings for Manufacturing Plant.* Mr. Sam W. Emerson gives the following record of cost of brick- work in five buildings forming part of a large manufacturing plant. The work was done by the owners hiring their own labor. All joints in the brickwork were struck both sides, and a first- class job obtained. On building No. 1 local bricklayers were used at 50 cts. per hour, but for the other buildings city bricklayers at 60 cts. per hour were imported. The latter did better work and more of it, as shown by Table VII. * Engineering-Contracting, April, 1906, p. 100: 1008 UAXDBOOK OF COST DATA. The hod carriers were developed from local laborers, and were paid IT 1 /} cts. per hour. Buildings Nos. 1 and 2 were long and low, containing about equal amounts of 9-in* and 13-in. wall. Buildings Nos. 3 and 4 were higher and had a somewhat larger proportion of 13-in. wall. Part of the brickwork in No. 4 was started from steel lintels at some, distance above the floor line, which explains the high cost of scaffolding. Building No. 5 was higher and contained more brick than any of the others. It was composed of 13-in. walls, with some 17-in. and 22-in. walls. The heavier walls account in part for the lower cost of laying, but better foremanship had something to do with it. The scaffolds were erected by carpenters at 20 and 22^ cts. per hour, drawn from other parts of the work when needed. Handling materials include unloading and hauling brick, sand, lime and cement, and is the ax*erage for the job. About one-third of the materials had to be hauled from a switch nearly a mile away, the balance being delivered on a switch run over to the plant site. The brick were large, so that 918 laid up a "thousand," figuring 14 brick per square foot of 9-in. wall. All openings were deducted. Brick cost $5.00 and $5.25 per M., f. o. b. the yards; the average cost was $5.08 per M. No record was kept of the cost of scaffold lumber, as material ordered for other purposes was used and worked up later in wooden buildings. About two or three weeks after the 60-cent bricklayers started work, the writer, being dissatisfied with the way the work was going, started the practice of preparing careful estimates of the brick laid each week and figuring the cost per 1,000 for bricklayers and helpers. Within three weeks after the first estimate, the output per bricklayer had increased over 40 per cent, and about 30 per cent increase was maintained. This illustrates one of the reasons for keeping "up-to-date" cost records. The cost of the work per 1,000 brick was as follows: TABLE VII. LABOR COST PER 1,000 BRICK. Buildings Nos. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Av. Bricklayers.t 60 cts. per hr. .$5.56 $4.49 $4.57 $4.68 $3.68 $4.16 Helpers,* 17 y 2 cts. per hr.. . 1.95 1.67 2.14 1.95 2.00 1.87 Carpenters, J 20 and 22 y 2 cts. .70 .71 .88 1.15 .67 .77 Handling materials 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 Total labor . ..$9.37 $8.03 $8.75 $8.94 $7.51 $7.96 *Hod carriers and mortar men. tOn Building No. 1 bricklayers received 50 cts. per hr. ^Engaged in building scaffolds. Note. Buildings Nos. 1 and 2 were long and low, with about equal amounts of 9-in. and 13-in. walls; Buildings Nos. 3 and 4 had larger proportion of 13-in. wall; Building No. 5 contained more brick than any of the others, and had 13-in. walls, with some 17-in. and 22-in. walls. BUILDINGS. 1099 COST PER 1,000 BRICK. Materials: Brick, 918, at $5.08 ............. .............. $ 4.67 Brick, freight ................................ 1.12 Sand, % cu. yd., at $0.46 ...................... 023 Sand, freight ................................ 0.13 Cement, 0.44 bbl., at $2 ........................ 0.88 Lime, 2 bu., at $0.20 ..................... ...... 0.40 Total, materials ..................... . ____ $ 7.43 Total, labor (average) ............ . . .......... 7.96 Grand total, material and labor, per 1,000 brick .................................. $15.39 As is stated elsewhere in this article, 14 brick were figured as making one square foot of 9-in. wall. This would make 504 bricks, wall measure, per cubic yard. Accordingly, if we divide the figures in the tabulations given above by 2, we will have the cost per cubic yard of brick masonry. On this basis we have : Materials: Cost per cu. yd. 459 bricks, at $5.08 ............................ $2.33 Freight ....................................... 56 J /4 cu. yd. sand, at $0.46 ......................... 11 Freight ........................................ 06 .22 bbl. cement, at $2.00 ......................... 44 1 bu. lime, at $0.20 ......................... ... .20 Bricklayers ............... . . $2.08 Helpers ...................................... .93 Carpenters .................................... 39 Handling materials ............................. 58 Total, labor ...... ........................ $3.98 Total, material and labor .................. '.$7.69 Cost of Brick Chimneys. On small chimneys and fireplaces the labor costs 2 to 3 times as much per M. as on plain wall work. A mason (55 cts. per hr) and helper will lay 600 bricks in 9 hrs. The labor costs 30 to 35 cts. per lin. ft. for single-flue chimneys, 8 x 8 ins. square and 4 ins. thick; and 50 cts. per lin. ft. for double- flue chimney. There is a wastage of brick of about 5% where the brick fit, or 10% where cutting is necessary. Cost of High Brick Chimney Stacks. With wages of masons at 55 cts. per hr., and where the flue is large enough for men to work from the inside, the cost of laying bricks for chimney stacks, 100 to. 125 ft. high, is $12 per M of bricks. In one case a stack 150 ft. high, containing 250,000 bricks, cost $7 per M for labor, wages being as above given. Cost of Brickwork, Cross- References. In various sections of this book will be found further data on brick masonry, for which con- sult the index under "Brickwork." Cost of Rubble Walls. Basement walls are commonly made of rubble. The best work requires "two-man rubble," that is, stone too heavy for one man to lift. A common allowance for a lime- 1100 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. stone rubble wall is % cu. yd. sand, % bbl. cement, and 2,800 Ibs. stone, per cu. yd. of wall. If lime is used, allow % bbl. lime. A mason and helper will lay 3 cu. yds. in 8 hrs., so that if wages are 50 cts. per hr. for mason and 25 cts. per hr. for helper, the cost of laying is $2 per cu. yd. For further data, see the sections on Masonry and Concrete. Cost of Ashlar. Ashlar in buildings is estimated by the cubic foot. In ordering "raw stone" (uncut stone) for ashlar, give the quarryman the exact number of cubic feet measured in the wall. He will make allowance for the waste in cutting it. The cost of Bedford ashlar for the moldings, turrets, etc., in an Omaha building was : Per cu. ft. Raw Bedford $0.65 Cutting, wages 55 cts. per hr 1.00 Setting in the building 0.20 Washing and pointing 0.05 Total in place $1.90 It requires about 1 gal. muriatic acid to wash 500 sq. ft. To wash and point the joints costs 3 cts. per sq. ft. Cost of Cut Stone Work.* The walls for the building of the Government Printing Office at Washington, D. C., completed in 1903, were built of red bricks trimmed with red sandstone from a quarry near Longmeadow, Mass. The cost of this stone, ready to set, was as follows : Per cu. ft. Plain ashlar $1.80-$2.00 Molded courses 2.00- 2.40 Sills 2.00-2.40 Lintels 1.95- 2.15 Columns 3.00 In computing these prices, all molded and curved or irregular pieces were squared out to the minimum containing rectangular par- allelopipedon. The cost of setting, etc., average for all classes, was as follows: Per cu. ft. Handling $0.133 Setting 179 Cutting (corrections, etc.) 018 Pointing 041 Mortar 012 Miscellaneous materials 026 Total $0.409 The high cost is said to be due to the care with which the joints were calked, and to the fact that there was not enough stone to be placed to justify the purchase of a special plant to handle it. Some of the wages paid for 8-hr, day on this job were as follows: Labor- ers, $1.50 ; stone masons, $4 ; stone cutters, $4. * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 19, 1908. BUILDINGS. 1101 Cost of Wood Lathing. The standard size of wood laths is *4-in. X iy% ins. X 4 ft. There is a special lath made 32 ins. in length. Laths are sold by the 1,000 in bundles of 50 or 100 laths per bundle. A common price is $3 per 1,000. laths. It requires 1,500 standard laths to cover 100 sq. yds. Allow 10 Ibs. of 3d fine nails for 100 sq. yds. when joists are 16 ins. center to center. Chi- cago lathers have fixed 1,250 laths as a day's work per man. The cost per 100 sq. yds. is as follows: 100 sq. yds. 1,500 laths, at $3 per M $4.50 10 Ibs. nails, at 3 cts 0.30 Labor, at $3.20 per 8-hr, day 3.84 Total per 100 sq. yds $8.64 This is 8.6 cts. per sq. yd. There is no uniformity in practice as to deducting window and door openings from the area lathed. Cost of Metal Lathing. There are several makes of wire lath- Ing, as well as expanded metal lathing. For plastering, the Ex- panded Metal Engineering Co., of New York, furnish two styles of expanded metal lath, in sheets 1% X 8 ft, as follows: Lbs. per sq. yd. "Diamond" lath, Gage No. 24 3.65 "Diamond" lath, Gage No. 26 2.66 "A" lath, Gage No. 24 4.23 "B" lath, Gage No. 27 2.84 The price of these laths ranges from 15 cts. to 20 cts. per sq. yd. The cost per 100 sq. yds. is as follows: 100 sq. yds. 100 sq. yds., "Diamond" No. 26 $15.00 10 Ibs. staples, at 3 cts 0.30 Labor, at $3.20 per 8-hr, day 3.20 Total per 100 sq. yds $18.50 This labor includes the cost of scaffolding, and is based upon some 6,000 sq. yds. of work. It will be noted that the labor cost is 1.2 cts. per Ib. of metal. Cost of Plaster. Plastering on laths generally requires three coats, occasionally two coats. The first is the scratch coat ; the second is the brown coat ; the third is the white coat, or finish. On brick walls the scratch coat is generally omitted. Plaster is made either with lime or with cement plaster. Cement plaster (or wall plaster) usually consists principally of plaster of Paris. Some plasters are made of lime gaged with Portland ce- ment. Whatever kind of lime or plaster is used, sand and hair are mixed with the plaster. The hair is put up in paper bags sup- posed to contain 1 bu. of hair when beaten up, and supposed to weigh about 7 Ibs. Some cement plasters are sold with the proper amount of hair mixed in. Cement plaster is commonly sold in 100- Ib. sacks, four sacks making 1 bbl. A common price is 25 cts. per sack, * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 4, 1907. 1102 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In making lime plaster, 1 part of lime paste to 2 or 2% parts of screened sand is used. About 1% cu. yds. of sand are required per 100 sq. yds. of three-coat plaster, and about 4 bbls. of lime, or cement plaster, and 2 bu. of hair. The cost of 100 sq. yds. of three-coat plaster is about as follows: 100 sq. yds. 1.75 cu. yds. sand, at $1 $ 1.75 31/2 bbls. lime, or 9 bu., at 35 cts 3.15 2 bu. hair, at 40 cts 0.80 100 Ibs. plaster of Paris, at 50 cts 0.50 Labor, plasterers, at 55 cts. per hr 15.00 Total, 100 sq. yds., at 21.2 cts $21.20 Cost of Plastering. Mr. R. L. Brooker gives the following average cost of plastering 17 houses in Ohio in 1903. Each house required 500 to 1,000 sq. yds. of plastering. Per sq. yd. Cts. Lath and nails 6.5 Labor lathing 3.0 Materials for 1st coa,t mortar 3.5 Labor for 1st coat mortar 3.8 Materials for white coat 1.0 Labor for white coat 3.0 Total ' 20.8 The following materials were required per 100 sq. yds. : 26 bunches of lath. 7 sacks Alabastine (100 Ibs. ea.), mixed 1:2. 150 Ibs. white coat material (white enamel finish). In plastering, a man averaged 16 sq. yds. of first coat per hour, although on two jobs the average was 21 sq. yds. per hr. On white coat work, a man averaged 19 sq. yda. per hr., and the best record was 21 y 2 sq. yds. per hr. The lowest labor cosf of lathing was 2% cts. per sq. yd. The plastering was "three-coat" work, the first and second coat being applied at the same time and of the same material, while the third or white coat was not applied till the other coats were dry. The "brown wall" was rodded along angles and base, then darbied, and just before taking a set was floated to an even surface. Cost of Placing Tile Fireproofing. Hollow tile used for floors or walls, or for protecting steel beams and columns, is measured by the square foot. It is desirable to purchase it from the manufac- turers on the basis of the square foot measured in the work. Where the brick-layers' wages were 45 cts. per hr'., the tile work in a four-story hospital cost 5% cts. per sq. ft. for the labor on the 10- in. and 12-in. tile floors and roof. This does not include the cost of hauling the tile to the building, but 4t does include the hoisting and delivery of the tile to the masons. The labor cost of 4-in. tile parti- tions and tile protection for I-beams and columns was 4^ cts. per sq. ft. BUILDINGS. 1103 Cost of Terra Cotta Brick Fire Proofing.* Solid brick of porous ter- ra cotta were used for fireproofing the floor arches, girders and col- umn coverings at the U. S. Government printing office, completed in 1903, at Washington, D. C. In connection with the floor arches a very heavy skewback having projecting flanges 1% ins. thick was designed. The protecting flanges are very heavy and strong, and meet, with a small mortar joint, under the beam. The lower flanges or girders were covered with shoes of the ordinary form, meeting under the girder. They were, however, much heavier than ordi- narily used, being solid and 2y 2 ins. thick. They were filled with mortar and squeezed on, so as to have a solid bearing, and were then wrapped all around with wire lathing and plastered with Port- land cement mortar. On top of the shoes, on either side of the girder, was built a 4 -in. terra cotta brick wall, the wire lathing being applied before the 4 ins. walls were built. The 4 ins. walls on the sides of the girder were carried to the top flange before the floor arches were built. The latter were then built, abutting at their ends against the upper part of the 4 -in. walls, thus bracing them securely in position. The columns were covered with 4-ins. of por- ous terra cotta brick work built around them. The inside of the col- umn and all space between it and the fire proofing were filled solid with Portland cement concrete. The work was done by contract, the following data being obtained by keeping records of the con- tractors' work: From time required to set, it was determined that the girder shoes on the various girders were equivalent to about 8.5 bricks per linear foot. This was a little high for beams smaller than 20 ins., but it was compensated for by increased cost of changing scaffolds, centers, etc., for the smaller girders. The figures of cost do not allow for power for hoisting furnished by the United States, nor for contractor's general expense. GIRDER COVERINGS OF 33-iN., 30-iN. AND 24-iN. GIRDERS. Total labor cost: Per 1,000 bricks $12.80 Per linear foot of covering 0.524 Materials, exclusive of the terra cotta and wire netting: Per 1,000 bricks 0.85 Per linear foot of covering 0.162 Average day's work per man, bricks 564 Number of bricks per barrel of cement 546 GIRDER COVERINGS FOR GIRDERS 20 INS. AND UNDER. Labor cost: Per 1,000 bricks $12.80 Per linear foot of covering 0.323 Materials, exclusive of terra cotta and wire netting: Per 1,000 bricks 3.40 Per linear foot of covering 0.093 Average day's work per man, bricks 564 Average number of bricks per barrel of cement. 615 * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 4, 1907. 1104 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. COLUMN COVERINGS. Labor Cost : Per 1,000 bricks $12.80 Per linear foot of covering 0.46 Average day's work per man, bricks 564 Average number of bricks per barrel of cement. . . 545 In the one linear foot of beam covering (skewbacks) was taken as equivalent to 5.5 bricks in time and labor, data on the work being as follows : Total labor, per 1,000 bricks $10.64 Total labor per sq. ft. of floor 0.06 Total materials, except bricks, per 1,000 bricks.. 3.65 Total materials, except bricks, per sq. ft. of floor. 0.021 Average day's work per man, bricks 892 Average number of bricks per barrel of cement. . . 575 The above figures are based on the actual number of bricks laid plus 3 per cent for waste. The average cost of all fireproof con- struction, excluding ceilings, but including column and girder cov- erings, and including roof, was 36.4 cts. per square foot, of which 9.5 cts. was labor applied at the building. Some of the wages in force on the work were as follows per 8-hr, day: Laborers, $1.50 to $2 ; bricklayers, $4 to $4.50. Cost of Ornamental Terra Cotta Work.* In the construction of the new U. S. Government printing office at Washington, completed in 1903, 19,100 cu. ft. or 585 tons of ornamental terra cotta was used. All of the ornamental terra cotta was filled solid with concrete and where it projected considerably, as in the main cornice, it was thoroughly tied back with steel anchors. The ornamental terra cotta used was built up of relatively thin webs, like hollow tiles, except that it was built up by hand instead of by being forced through a die. The total cost of the work was as follows ; the price given for materials, however, does not include brick or concrete filling: Per cu. ft. Per ton. Handling $0.0332 $1.0881 Setting 1301 4.2513 Cement, etc 0243 .7944 Anchors, etc 0245 .8010 Total cost of setting.; $0.2121 $6.9348 Average price for materials 1.5300 50.0000 Grand total $1.7421 $56.9348 Some of the wages paid per 8-hr, day during the construction of the building were as follows: Laborers, $1.50; bricklayers, $4 to $4.50. Cost of Combined Concrete and Tile Floor Construction.! Rein- forced concrete was employed in constructing, during 1908, a 150x50 ft. extension from 8 to 10 stories high to the famous Quebec hotel, the Chateau Frontenac. Structurally the new building consists of a rein- forced concrete skeleton covered with brick outside walls, metal roof, etc. The floors were combined clay tile and reinforced concrete con- * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 20, 1907. ^Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 18, 1909. BUILDINGS. 1105 struction, and columns and girders were of reinforced concrete. Complete records of the cost of the work were kept, but these are not available for publication except for one typical floor, and the cost of this floor is given below. The typical floor is that located at elevation 187. The slab spans varied from 12 to 16 ft. The tile used were 8 X 12-in. hard terra cotta. The concrete joists were 4 ins. wide, reinforced by one % X 2-in. Kahn bar and one Vk-in. cup bar. The joists extended the full depth of the tile and were in one piece, with the 2-in. concrete slab which covered the tile. The floor concrete was a 1-2-4 mixture, and the column concrete was a 1-1-2 mixture. A %-in. limestone was used for aggregate. The concrete was machine mixed at basement level and was hoisted to floor level, discharged into a hopper and distributed over the floor by wheelbarrows. The quantities re- quired for the floor were : Concrete in columns, cu. yds 43.5 Concrete in floor, cu. yds 255.8 Reinforcing steel, tons 25.9 Tile, 8 x 12-in., number 28,000 Lumber, forms and staging, ft. B. M ! 45,000 The cost of the floor concrete was as follows: Concrete: Total. Per cu. yd. Materials for 255.8 cu. yds $1,445 $5.65 Placing 255.8 cu. yds 174 0.58 Totals $1,619 $6.23 This is the cost for the floor slabs and beams above. The cost of the concrete in the columns (43.5 cu. yds.) was $464, or $9.21 per cu. yd. The cost of reinforcement for the whole floor, columns included, was as follows: Reinforcement: Total. Per ton. 29.9 tons steel at $75 $1,943 $75.00 Cartage on steel 21 0.80 Handling and placing steel 130 5.00 Totals $2,094 $80.80 This gives a cost per cubic yard of concrete for reinforcement of $6.99 or say $7. The cest of forms and staging was as follows: Forms and Staging: Total. Per M. ft. 45 M. ft. B. M. lumber at $22 $990 $22.00 Construction 616 13.70 Totals $1,606 $35.70 Summarizing, we get the following total cost for concrete, charg- ing everything, except tile work, to concrete : Item: Per cu. yd. Concrete in place $6.97 Reinforcement 6.99 Forms and staging 5.38 Total . $19.34 1106 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of the tile work in the floor slabs was as follows : Tile Work: Total. Per tile. 28,000 tile at 10 cts $280 10.00 cts. Cartage 33 0.12 cts. Handling and laying 42 0.15 cts. Totals $355 10.27 cts. The total cost of the floor was $6,072, divided into the following percentage items : Concrete 33 per cent Steel 35 per cent Forms . 26 per cent Tile 6 per cent Total 100 per cent Costs of Combination Concrete and Tile Floors in Three Build- ings.* The following figures of costs of similar construction are from figures given by Prof. W. K. Hatt, Purdue University, La- fayette, Ind., who was engineer of the work. The work comprised three buildings: Indiana State Soldiers' Home. This building is irregular in plan, With two stories, attic and basement. It is constructed of brick and limestone, with reinforced concrete hollow tile floors, each floor cov- ering approximately 7,000 sq. ft. The floor ribs are 4 ins. in width and range in depth from 10 to 6 ins. The rib spans are from 8 to 15 ft. The tile are 12 X 12 ins. of projected area, and the ribs are thus spaced 16 ins. centers in all cases. The thickness of concrete over the tile is 2 ins. Upon this floor is placed a 3-in. cinder con- crete, over which there is a %-in. maple flooring upon nailing strips. The floor was designed to hold a live load of 60 Ibs. per sq. ft. for the first floor and second floor, and 30 Ibs. per sq. ft. live load for the attic floor in addition to cinder filling and wood floor. The ribs were continuous from the side rooms through into the corridor. The con- crete was 1 :2 :4, with a screened gravel aggregate. The gravel and sand contained about 4% per cent of clay. Reinforcing was plain, round bars of soft steel. Forms consisted of %-in. lagging 'sup- ported on joists, spaced 24 ins., running between the walls. The steel rods were supported on a large-headed nail driven into the centering, and the wire staple was driven over the bar into the same centering. The channels of the ribs were cleaned of all dirt by blow- ing out with steam. The tile were kept wet. The attic floor was of cinder concrete slab construction, 3 ins. thick. Wire fabric of 3 X 12-in. mesh, 3 X 8-in. and Nos. 6 and 10 gage wires, respectively, were used for reinforcing. The cinder con- crete was 1 :2 :4. Cinder was of good quality and screened of all ashes. Most of the floor construction was during freezing weather and the building was heated. Salamanders were kept burning day and night and the forms were sprinkled to prevent baking the con- * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 13, 1909. BUILDINGS. 1107 crete, while the exposed surface of the concrete was protected from freezing by tar paper, on which was a layer of manure. Table VIII. gives the unit cost of the second floor of the Soldiers' Home Hospital. The spans were as follows : Corridor, clear span, 8 ft. ; side rooms, clear span, from 10 to 15 ft. The unit stresses used for the design were as follows: Tensf.on of steel, 16,000 Ibs. per sq. in. ; compression in concrete, 750 Ibs. per sq. in. ; bond, 75 Ibs. per sq. in. ; diagonal tension, 75 Ibs. per sq. in. (one bent rod). TABLE vm. UNIT COSTS OF SECOND FLOOR, SOLDIER'S HOME HOSPITAL. Per cu. yd. of con- Per sq. crete and Total. ft. floor, mortar. Tile laying $108.70 $0.015 $1.40 Steel: Bending and placing 36.40 Cost f. o. b Lafayette 175.00" 0.030 2.80 Total $211.40 Concrete: Cement, 114.5 Ibs., $1.75 f. o. b. Lafayette 200.37 Gravel, 64.24 yds. at $1.10 per yd., hauled and screened 70.66 Sand, 32.12 yds. at $1.10 per yd., hauled and screened 35.36 0.044 3.96 Total $306.39 Mortar: Cement, 16.25 bbls., $1.25, f. o. b. Lafayette 28.44 Sand, 4.4 cu. yds. at $1.10, hauled and screened 4.84 0.005 0.43 Total .$ 33.28 Labor: Wheeling, mixing, hauling, tamping, runs, etc. ... . ........ 255.79 0.036 3.30 Centering: Putting up and tearing down 414.40 0.060 \ 5.35 Totals $1,329.93 $0.190 $17.24 Purdue University Experiment Station Building. The- building is U-shaped, with basement, two stories and attic. The first and 'sec- ond floors were designed for a live load of 100 Ibs. per sq. ft., and the attic for a live load of 60 Ibs. per sq. ft., in addition to weight of cinder filling and floor. The concrete is 1:2:4; aggregate was screened bank gravel. The sand and pebbles were remixed in speci- fied proportion. Reinforcing was plain, round bars of steel. The floors were supported on girders and columns. The spans varied from 9 to 23 ft. The centering is composed of 4 X 4-in. posts with 2 X 10-in. chords nailed to them. Upon the chords are joists supporting 7 / s -in. lagging. The spacing of the chords, posts and joists varied accord- 1108 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ing to the weight of the floor supported. On the lagging tiles are placed with a clearance of not less than 4 ins. from all walls and girders and spaced 17 ins. centers, thus making a 5-in. rib. In lay- ing these tile, hard-burned, small tile were placed together, and soft- burned, large tile together, thus assuring a rib of even width. The TABLE DC. UNIT COSTS FIRST FLOOR EXPERIMENT STATION. Per Per sq. cu. yd. ft. of of con- floor crete and Total. area, mortar. Tile: Laying % 43.20 Hoisting 129.60 Cost f. o. b. Lafayette 567.85 $0.0587 $3.47 Total $740.65 Steel: Bending and placing 255.69 Cost, f. o. b. Lafayette 582.00 0.0664 3.92 Total $837.69 Concrete, 1,961 yards: Cement, 308 bbls. at $1.17 f. o. b. Lafayette 360.36 Sand, $1 per yd., hauled and screened.... 86.30 Gravel, $1 per yd., hauled and screened... 172.60 0.0490 2.90 Total $619.26 Mortar, 178 yards: Cement, $1.17 f. o. b. Lafayette 42.70 Sand, $1 per yd, hauled and screened. . . . 17.80 0.0048 0.28 Total $ 60.50 Labor: Wheeling, mixing, hoisting, tamping, runs and dumping 542.50 0.0430 2.53 Centering: Let by contract at $12 per 1,000 ; 67,600 used (labor only) 811.20 0.0642 3.80 Superintendence 330.00 0.0261 1.54 Total $3,941.80 $0.3122 $18.44 rods were held in place by nails and staples and were continuous from one panel to another. Before any concrete was deposited in the ribs a 1 :3 cement mortar was placed in the bottom of the chan- nel and brought to the level of the middle of the rod. Great care was exercised in cutting the concrete in between the rods and against the faces of the tile. The concrete was very wet, so that it would keep an even surface in the wheelbarrow, but yet would sup- port the pebbles on the surface. A batch of concrete in the mixer was received In a bucket and hoisted to a large box on the floor, and taken out in barrows to be dumped. BUILDINGS. 1101) TABLE x. UNIT OF COSTS OF SECOND FLOOR, EXPERIMENT STATION. Per Per sq. cu. yd ft. of of con- floor crete and Total. area, mortar. Tile: Hoisting $125.00 Laying 48.20 Cost f. o. b. Lafayette 593.62 $0.0607 $3.42 Total $766.82 Steel: Bending and placing 178.73 25.5 tons at $30, f. o. b. Lafayette 765.00 0.0745 4.22 Total $943.73 Concrete, 214 yards: Cement, 336.5 bbls. $1.17, f. o. b. Lafayette 393.70 Sand, 94.16 yds., at $1, screened and hauled 94.16 Gravel, 188.32 yds 188.32 0.0535 3.C; Total $676.18 Mortar, 9.5 yards: Cement, 26 bbls. at $1.16, f. o. b. Lafayette 30.40 Sand, 9.5 yds. at $1, screened and hauled. 9.50 0.0036 0.18 Total $ 39.90 Labor: Wheeling, mixing, tamping, dumping runs 461.38 0.0364 2.06 Superintendence 145.00 0.0115 0.65 Centering: Set by contract (approximately) 600.00 0.0475 2.68 Total $3,633.01 $0.2877 $16.22 The first floor was laid during freezing weather. To prevent freezing, salamanders were kept burning day and night and the concrete was covered with a heavy layer of straw. The labor for the concrete was paid at a rate of 20 cts. an hour. The unit cost for the first and second floors of the experiment station are given by Tables IX and X, as furnished by H. A. Wortham, inspector on the work. Note that these floors cost on an average of about 30 cts. per square foot. The unit stresses used were as follows: Tension in steel, 16,000 Ibs. per sq. in. ; compression in concrete, 750 Ibs. per sq. in. ; bond on steel, 75 Ibs. per sq. in. ; diagonal tension without stirrups, but with one bent rod, 75 Ibs. per sq. in. The external moments were figured V 8 W. L., both at the center and over supports. The length of span was between centers of the bearings. This design is conservative, and, in the belief of the writer, might be cut down perhaps 25 per cent with safety. Shrinkage stresses at the surface of the floors are taken up by % -in. wire. Cost of Bituminous Concrete for a Mill Floor.* In laying tar * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 14, 1907. 1110 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. concrete base for wood covered mill floors, the common practice is to use a mixture of steam cinders aggregate and coal tar binder, and to mix the materials by hand. A departure from this practice is recorded by Mr. C. H. Chadsey, Construction Engineer, Northern Aluminum Co., Ltd., Shawinigan Falls, P. Q., Canada, in laying 17,784 sq. ft. of mill floor. A sand, broken stone and tar mixture was used and the mixing was done with a Ransome mixer. The apparatus used and the mode of procedure followed were as follows : Tv/o parallel 8-in. brick walls 26 ft. long were built 4 ft. apart and 2 % ft. high to form a furnace. On these walls at one end was set a 4x6x2 ft. steel plate tar heating tank. Next to this tank for a space of 4x8 ft. the walls were spanned between with steel plates. This area was used for heating sand. Another space of 4x8 ft. was covered with 1 ^ in. steel rods arranged to form a grid ; this space was used for heating the broken stones. The grid proved especially efficient, as it permitted the hot air to pass up through the stones, while a small cleaning door at the ground allowed the screenings which dropped through the grid to be raked out and added to the mixture. A fire from barrel staves and refuse wood built under the tank end was sufficient to heat the tar, sand and stone. For mixing the materials a Ransome mixer was selected for the reason that heat could be supplied to the exterior cf the drum by- building a wood fire underneath. This fire was maintained to prevent the mixture from adhering to the mixing blades, and it proved quite effective, though occasionally they would have to be cleaned with a chisel bar, particularly when this aggregate was not sufficiently heated before being admitted to the mixture. A little "dead oil" applied to the discharge chute and to the shovels, wheelbarrows and other tools effectually prevented the concrete from adhering 1 3 them. The method of depositing the concrete was practically the same as that used in laying cement sidewalks. Wood strips attached to stakes driven into the ground provided templates for gaging the thickness of the base and for leveling off the surface. The wood covering consisted of a layer of 2-in. planks, covered by matched hardwood Hooring. In placing the planking, the base was covered with a 14 -in. layer of hot pitch, into which the planks were pressed immediately, the last plank laid being toe-nailed to the preceding plank just enough to keep the joint ight. After a few minutes the planks adhered so firmly to the base that they could be removed only with difficulty. The hardwood surface was put on in the usual manner. The prices of materials and wages for the work were as follows : Pitch, bulk, per Ib $ 0.0075 Gravel per cu. yd 1.50 Spruce sub-floor, per M. ft. B. M 15.00 Hardwood surface, per M. ft. B. M 33.00 " Laborers per 10-hour day 1.50 Foreman, per 10-hour day 4.00 Carpenters, per 10-hour day 2.00 BUILDINGS. 1111 At these prices and not including a small administration cost or the cost of tools and plant, the cost of the floor consisting of 4 ^ ins. of concrete, 2 ins. of spruce sub-flooring and % in. hardwood finish was as follows : Per sq. ft. Pitch $0.04 Gravel 0.02 Spruce, for sub-floor 0.03 Hardwood for surfacing 0.035 .nv.'O Labor, mixing 0.03 Labor, laying 0.015 ? Carpenter work. . .0.025 Total per sq. ft $0.195 Cost of Passenger Stations In the Railroad Gazette, Sept. 16, 1904, p. 350, photographs are given of a passenger station of the Santa Fe at Oakland, Calif. It is 204 ft. long, including arcades, and 54 ft. wide, total 11,000 sq. ft, and its cost was $12,000. The main part is two stories high. It has arcades 12 ft. wide running entirely around it. The building is Spanish mission style, built of steel lath covered with concrete and with red tile roof. A one-story brick passenger station built in 1898 at Quincy, 111., for the C. B. & Q. R. R., cost $75,000, or $4.27 per sq. ft It is 58 x 304 ft., and has a tower, 20 ft. square at the roof level, rising to a height of 150 ft The walls of the station are of red pressed brick, with trimmings of sandstone and terra cotta. The walls are 22 ft. high. The roof is of Spanish tile, with a pitch of 30. .The interior finish is an enameled brick wainscoting, and plastered walls and ceiling. The waiting room (54x70 ft) has a marble tile floor, and the other rooms have mosaic tile floors. Cost of Four Frame Depots*. This is the first of a series of articles that we shall publish on the cost of railway buildings. While they are typical railway structures, still the cost data will be found equally valuable in estimating the costs of buildings erected for other purposes. It is a fact not generally known that the labor cost of framing and erecting plain buildings averages from $10 to $15 per 1,000 ft. B. M. This fact will be clearly brought out in these articles, and it will be of great assistance to anyone who is called upon to estimate the cost of- a plain frame building. Wages will be given in each case, but the reader is cautioned against supposing that an increase in wages necessarily involves a corresponding increase in cost. A high priced carpenter is usually more efficient than a low priced carpenter, the very fact that he is high priced often being evidence in itself that he is correspondingly more competent than the low priced man. A contractor who pays $3.50 a day for carpenters will usually get more work done for the money than will a railway company that pays $2.50 a day for its "company car- penters." Railways have a policy of paying very low wages, under * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 28, 1907. 1112 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the mistaken idea that they are economizing thereby. In conse- quence, they usually secure lazy or incompetent day workers. Perhaps, with their present lack of system in keeping costs of construction, the railways would gain nothing by employing higher priced men. The work that we are about to describe was done by "company forces," carpenters receiving $2.50 for 10 hours. As is usually the case in day labor jobs, the men were very slow. The method of summarizing the costs of buildings is our own. Records kept by railways are usually so jumbled up as to be of no use in comparing the costs of similar structures or in ascertain- ing whether the cost of any particular structure has been reasonable or not. This is largely because the engineering department is not in charge of building construction, or, if it is in charge, the engineers take little interest in work which does not seem to be engineering. There is crying need for cost analysis engineering in the manage- ment of all building construction, but particularly on railways. The cost of those plain frame depots may be conveniently dis- tributed under seven headings: Lumber. Shingles. Millwork. Hardware. Paint. Masonry. Labor. The first six items cover the materials. The labor item can be subdivided to suit each particular kind of work. The weight of each building of standard design should be esti- mated, so that the items of freight and team haulage, can be ac- curately predicted, but this is rarely done by railway companies. The number of square feet of ground floor area should be stated, and the cost of each building reduced to costs per square foot, both in dollars and cents and in percentages. Cost of a 2l t x 60 Ft. Depot. This was a small combination passenger and freight depot, of very plain design, without a masonry foundation and without plastering. The building was one story, 24x60 ft., surrounded by a wooden platform in front and ends, and a cinder platform extension. This depot had an area of 1,440 sq. ft., exclusive of the platform Weight. Lbs. 30 M. at 3,300 Ibs 99,000 20 M. shingles at 150 Ibs 3,000 Millwork 1,000 Hardware 1,600 1,100 brick 6,000 Total, 55 tons.. 110,600 BUILDINGS. 1113 Lumber. 8,025 ft. B. M., at $8.00 ; $ 64.20 12,800 ft. B. M., No. 2 com. a I. S., at $8.50 108.80 1,400 ft. B. M., 1 in. oak, at $10.00 14.00 3,000 ft. B. M., % x 8 ft. to 18 ft., at $14.00 42.00 2,700 ft. B. M., No. 2 D. siding, at $14.40 38.88 1,100 ft. B. M., No. 3 flooring, at $12.00 13.20 832 ft. B. M., No. 1 flooring, at $19.10 15.89 30,057 ft. B. M., total lumber, $13.23 av $T96.97 Shingles. 20 M. shingles, at $1.10 $ 22.00 M'llwork. 900 lin. ft. miscel. moulding, at Ic $ 9.00 225 lin. ft. 5 in. crown moulding, at 3c 6.75 1 transom, 3 doors, 9 windows 24.00 Frames for doors and windows 16.00 Total millwork $ 55.75 Hardware. 8 rolls tar paper at 75c . .$ 6.00 900 Ibs. nails, at 2y 2 c 22.50 Locks, knobs, hinges, etc 9.00 Total hardware $37.50 Paint. Paint, 23 gals, at 70c $16.10 Masonry. Brick, 1,100, at $8.00 $ 8.80 Labor. Building depot. 38 days foreman, at $80.00 per mo $ 98.38 87 days carpenter, at $2.50 217.50 51.2 days helper, at $1.75 90.05 176.2 days total, at $2.32 average $406.38 Putting up ladders. 2 days carpenter, at $2.50 $ 5.00 Painting depot. 14 days helper, at $1.75 $ 24.50 Building chimney. 4 days mason, at $4.00 $ 16.00 Filling cinders in platform. 2 days section foreman, at $50.00 per mo $ 3.20 6 days labor, at $1.05 6.30 8 days labor, total $ 9.50 Tools $ 38.50 Summary : Materials. Total. Per cent. 30,057 ft. B. M., at $13.23.. ..$296.97 33.2 20 M. shingles, at $1.10 22.00 2.4 Millwork 55.75 6.1 Hardware 37.50 4.1 ?3 g\ls. paint, at 70c 16.10 1.8 1,100 brick, at $8.00 8.80 1.0 Total materials.. ..$437.12 48.6 1114 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor. 176.2 days labor building, at $2.32 $406.38 45.3 2 days labor, put up ladders, at $2.50. . . . 5.00 0.6 14 days labor, painting, at $1.75 24.50 2.8 4 days labor, building chimney, at $4.00 16.00 1.8 8 days labor, filling cinders, at $1.20. . . . 8.50 0.9 Total labor $460.38 51.4 Total materials and labor $897.50 100.0 Freight 55 tons, 200 mi., y 2 c ton mile..$ 55.00 $952.50 Tools (excessive in this case) 38.50 Materials Per. sq. ft. $0.304 Per cent. 44 2 Labor 319 46 5 Freight 0.038 5 5 Tools 027 4 o Total $0.688 100.00 It will be noted that the price of lumber was very low. The total labor was $460, which is practically $15 per 1,000 ft. B. M. in the depot and platform. If we exclude the labor of build- ing the chimney, painting the depot and spreading the cinder plat- form, the labor cost $406, or about $13 per 1,000 ft. B. M., yet some time was lost by the crew waiting for lumber to arrive. This lost time should have been recorded, but was not. Cost of Another 24 x 60 Ft. Dex>ot. This depot was similar to the last, except that 7,200 ft. B. JM., of second-hand car sills (8x16 ins.), were used for posts and stringers of the platform. Grading of the depot grounds was an unusually expensive item. Lumber. 8,000 ft. B. M., at $8.50. ... $ 68.00 7,200 ft. B. M. (8 in. x 16 in.) second-hand, at $4.00 . 28.80 6,400 ft. B. M., S. I. S., at $10.00 64.00 106.80 13.12 45.00 18.90 54.60' 4.50 8,900 ft. B. M., S. I. S., 1 in., at $12.00. 1,050 ft. B. M., com. floor, at $12.50.... 3,600 ft. B. M., com. ceiling, at $12.50 900 ft. B. M., clear floor, at $21.00 2,600 ft. B. M., drop siding No. 2, at $21.00. . 300 ft. B. M., com. ceiling, at $15.00 38,950 ft. B. M., total lumber .$403.72 Shingles. 23 M. shingles, at $1.60 $ 36.80 Millwork. 1,200 lin. ft. molding, at %c av $ 9.. 00 Doors arid Windows and frames. . 70.00 Total millwork. ........... $ 79.00 Hardware. 5 rolls tar paper at 70c .$ 3.50 Locks, knobs, hinges, etc.. . ... fr.OO 1,400 Ibs. nails, at 2%c 35.00 Total hardware. . v . -44.50 BUILDINGS. 1115 Paint. 34 gals, paint, at 75c , $ 25.50 16 gals, boiled oil and turp 9.00 10 gals. Roger's black paint, at $2.00 20.00 Total paint $ 54.50 Masonry. 1 M. brick $ 8.00 Labor. Unloading lumber. 2 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $ 5.00 7 days, helper, at $2.00 14.00 9 days, total, av. at $2.10 $ 19.00 Building and painting depot. 33 days, foreman, at $80.00 per mo $ 86.66 140.2 days, carpenter, at $2.50 350.50 74.1 days, helper, at $2.00 148.20 247.3 days, total, av. at $2.41 $585.36 Grading depot grounds. 5 days, section foreman, at $65.00 per mo $ 10.45 153 days, section men, at $1.10." 168.45 158 days, total grading $178.90 Tools . . . -. $ 26.00 Summary : Materials. Totals. Per cent. 38,950 ft. B. M., lumber $ 403.72 32.7 23 M. shingles, at $1.60. 36.80 3.0 Millwork 79.00 6.3 Hardware 44.50 3.6 44 gals, paint, and 16 gals, oil and turp. 54.50 4.4 1,000 brick 8.00 0.6 Total materials 626.52 51.0 Labor. 9 days, unload lumber, at $2.11.. ..$ 19.00 1.6 247.3 days, building, at $2.41 585.36 47.4 Total labor $ 604.36 49.0 Total materials and labor $1,230.88 100.0 Freight, 70 tons at $1.00 70.00 Tools 26.00 Grading depot grounds 178.90 Grand total $1,505.78 Per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.436 41.7 Labor 0.420 40.2 Freight 0.049 4.7 Tools 0.016 1.6 Grading 0.124 11.8 Total . .$1.045 100.0 It will be noted that the labor on the depot, exclusive of grading the grounds, amounted to $604. This is a trifle more than $15.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M. It will be noted that the paint for this depot cost four times what paint cost for the other depot, indicating the necessity of so 1116 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. classifying costs as to enable comparisons to be quickly made with a view to discovering "leaks." Cost of a 30 x 48 Ft. Depot. This depot has the same area, 1,440 sq. ft., as those previously described, but is wider and shorter. The labor of building this depot cost $542, which is equivalent to a little more than $13 per 1,000 ft. B. M. Weight. Lbs. 41 M. at 3,300 Ibs ..135,300 21 M. shingles, at 150 Ibs 3,150 Millwork 1,000 Hardware 1,600 1,000 brick 6,000 6 bbls. cement 2,400 Weight, 75 tons 149,450 Lumber. 10,255 ft. B. M., at $ 7.00 ..$ 71.79 10,940 ft. B. M., S. I. S. 2E, at $7.50 82.05 3,920 ft. B. M., S. I. S., at $7.50. . 29.40 4,600 ft. B. M., No. 2 boards, at $11.90. . . 54.74 2,800 ft. B. M., 1x6 siding, at $14.00 39.20 1,100 ft. B. M., 1x4 flooring, D. M., at $19.00... 20.90 1,700 ft. B. M., 2x6 selected, D. M., at $8.50. . 14.45 139 ft. B. M., S. 4 S., No. 2 dr., at $17.00. .' 2.36 568 ft. B. M., S. I. S., at $10.00 5.68 200 ft. B. M., S. 4 S., at $19.00 7.28 4,437 ft. B. M., 8 in. x 16 in., S. H., at $4.00. . 17.75 40,729 ft. B. M., total av., at $8.50 $345.60 21 M. shingles, at $1.75 $ 36.75 Millwork. 1,380 lin. ft. molding at %c $ 10.35 Windows, doors and frames 48.00 Total millwork $ 58.35 Hardware. 11 rolls tar paper at 65c $ 7.15 750 Ibs. nails at 2^4c 16.90 Locks, knobs, hinges, etc 5.60 Miscellaneous 9.60 Total hardware $ 39.25 Paint. 30 gals, outside paint at 60c $ 18.00 20 gals, inside paint at 85c 17.00 Total paint $ 35.00 Masonry. 1,000 brick at $9.00 $ 9.00 24 sacks cement at $1.00 24.00 3 sacks lime at 60c 1.80 Total masonry $ 34.80 La b or. Unloading material. 1 day foreman at $80.00 per mo $ 2.67 5 day carpenters at $2.50 12.50 10 day helpers at $2.00 20.00 16 Total av. $2.20 $ 35.17 BUILDINGS. 1117 Putting in foundation. 6 day carpenters at $2.50 % 12.50 4 day helpers at $2.00 8.00 9 Total av. $2.30 . .$ 2050 Building depot. 27 days, foreman, at $80.00 $ 69.77 87.5 days, carpenter, at $2.50 218.75 50.5 days, helper, at $2.00 101.00 165 days, total av. $2.36 $389.52 Painting depot. 6 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $ 15.00 9 days, helper, at $2.00 18.00 15 days, total av. $2.20 $ 33.00 Excavating for platform and privy. 9 days, helper, at $2.00 $ 18.00 Unloading cinders and build cinder platform. 18.5 days, helper, at $2.00 $ 37.00 Building chimney. 1.5 days, bricklayer, at $3.50 $ 5.25 2.0 days, helper, at $2.00 ; 4.00 3.5 days, total av. $2.70 $ 9.25 Tools $ 60.00 Summary : Materials. Totals. Percent 40,729 ft. B. M., at $8.50 $ 345.60 31.8 21 M. shingles at $1.75 36.75 3.4 Millwork 58.35 5.3 Hardware 39.25 3.5 Paint 35.00 3.2 Masonry 34.80 3.2 Total $ 549.75 50.4 Labor. 16 days, unloading, $2.20 $ 35.17 3.2 9 days, put in foundation, at $2.30. . . . 20.50 1.9 165 days, build depot, $2.36 389.52 35.8 15 days, paint depot, $2.20 33.00 3.0 9 days, excavation, $2.00 18.00 1.6 18.5 days, build cinder platform, $2.00 37.00 3.3 3.5 days, build chimney, $2.70 9.25 0.8 Total labor $ 542.44 49.6 Total materials and labor 1,092.19 100.0 Tools (excessive) 60.00 Total $1,152.19 Freight, 75 tons, 200 mi., at y 2 c ton mi. 75.00 Grand total $1,227.19 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent Materials $0.385 44.8 Labor 0.378 44.0 Tools 0.042 5.0 Freight 0.052 6.2 Total $0.857 100.0 1118 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of a 30 x 60 Ft. Depot. This depot is of the same general type as the others, but larger, having an area of 1,800 sq. ft It will be noted that it contains a large amount of second- hand car sills (15,200 ft. B. M. ), used in building the platform. The labor cost was $714, or nearly $12 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The labor of painting the depot was very high. The cost of the paint vas not $20, yet the labor of painting was nearly $70. Weight. Lbs. 61,000 ft. B. M. ( at 3,300 201,000 26 M. shingles, at 150 3,900 Millwork 1,000 Hardware 1,600 Brick 6,000 Stone 21,600 Total weight, 118 tons 235,100 Lumber. 8,108 .ft. B. M., at $8.50 $ 51.92 6,912 ft. B. M., at $8.50 58.75 1,440 ft. B. M., S. I. B., $8.50... 12.24 3,700 ft. B. M., boards, $8.50 . 31.45 4,300 ft. B. M., S. I. S., $9.00 38.70 9,189 ft. B. M., S. I. S., $9.00 82.70 10,900 ft. B. M., No. 2 floor, ceiling and siding, $18.50 201.65 408 ft. B. M., No. 2, S. 4 S., $26.00 10.63 836 'ft. B. M., S. 1. S., $25.00 20.90 70 ft. No. 2, S. 4 S., $1.00 2.17 15,200 ft. B. M.. 8 in. x 16 in., S. H. (for plat- form), $4.00 60.80 61,063 ft. B. M., total av. $8.73 $531.91 Shingles. 26 M. shingles, $1.72 $ 45.00 Millwork. 1,540 ft. moulding at lc $ 15.40 6 doors, 9 windows and frames 60.60 Total millwork $ 76.00 Hardware. 11 rolls bldg. paper, 57c $ 6.27 900 Ibs. nails, 2y 2 c 22.50 Locks, knobs, hinges, etc 21.00 Total hardware $ 49.77 Paint. 13 gals. O. B. paint, 50c. . $ 6.50 14 gals, boiled oil, 37 %c 5.25 16 gals, inside paint, 50c -. 8.00 Total paint $ 19.75 Masonry. 1,000 bricks, $9.00 $ 9.00 144 cii. ft. undressed stone, 70c 100.80 1% bbls. lime, 85c 1.28 Total masonry $111.08 BUILDINGS. 1119 Labor. Unloading material. 6,5 days, carpenter, $2.50 $ 16.25 17.7 days, section men, $1.15 20.35 24.2 days, total av. $1.50 $ 36.60 Trucking* lumber. 1 day, foreman, at $80.00 per mo $ 2.85 5 days, carpenter, $2.50 12.50 29.5 days, helper, $2.00 59.00 ^ 35.5 days, total av. $2.09 $ 74.08 *Note. Track was a long distance from depot. Clearing snow off timber. 3 days, helper, at $2.00 $ 6.00 Erecting depot. 21 days, foreman, $80.00 per mo $ 54.19 fc, 114 days, carpenter, $2.50 285.00 24 days, helper, $2.00 48.00. soD ^ 159 days, total av. $2.44 $387.19 Painting depot. 2 days, foreman, $80.00 per mo $ 5.16 1 day, carpenter, $2.50 2.50 31 days, helper, $2.00 62.00 lf:fl> 22 34 days, total av. $2.05 $ 69.66 . ; :, Unloading cinders. 10.8 days, section foreman, $55.00 $ 19.19 7.0 days, section laborers, $1.20 7.95 b| 15.1 days, section laborers, $1.05 15.90 Q 32.9 Total av. $1.30 $ 43.04 Building platform. 7 days, foreman, $80.00 $ 18.07 17.6 days, carpenter, $2.50 44.00 11.2 days, helper, $2.00 22.40 35.8 dayjs, total av. $2.36 $ 84.47 Building privy. 5.4 days, carpenter, $2.50 $ 13.50 Tools $ 51.00 Summary : Materials. Totals. Percent 61,063 ft. B. M., $8.73 $ 531.91 34.4 26 M. shingles, $1.72 45.00 2.9 Millwork 76.00 4.9 Hardware 49.77 3.2 Paint 19.75 1.3 Masonry 111.08 7.2 Total . ..$ 833.51 53.9 1120 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor. 24.2 days, unload, $1-50 $ 36.60 2.4 35.5 days, trucking, $2.09 74.08 4.7 3.0 days, clear snow, $2.00 6.00 0.4 159.0 days, erect depot, $2.44 387.19 25.0 34.0 days, paint depot, $2.05 69.66 4.5 32.9 days, unload cinders, $1.30 43.04 2.8 35.8 days, build platform, $2.36 84.47 5.5 5.4 days, build privy, $2.50 13.50 0.8 Total . $ 714.54 46.1 Total materials and labor $1,548.05 Tools 51.00 - Total $1,598.05 Freight, 118 tons 118.00 Grand total $1,716.05 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.463 48.6 Labor. 0.397 41.6 Tools 0.028 2.9 Freight 0.066 6.9 Total $0.954 100.0 Cost of 57 Frame Depots. The following data relate to a rather cheap class of railway stations built in the Pacific Northwest, by company labor. Carpenters received $2.50 per 10. hr. day. Lum- ber was exceedingly cheap, hence the cost of materials is not typical. I have charged the entire cost of labor against the lumber, as that enables us to compare costs in terms of the M. ft. B. M., which is the best single unit for such comparisons. The average cost of five, first class, combination, one-story depots (24 x 75 ft.) was as follows per depot: Total. Per sq. ft. Materials $1,450 $0.80 Labor 927 0.52 Total $2,377 . $1.32 There were 69 M. (including platforms) in each depot, hence the labor cost was $13 per M. The average cost of three, third class, combination, one-story depots (24 x 55 ft.) was as follows per depot: Total. Per sq. ft. Materials $ 964 $0.75 Labor 726 0.55 Total $1,690 $1.30 There were 39 M. (including platforms) in each depot, hence the labor cost was $18 per M. The average cost of 18 fourth class, combination, one-story depots (16 x 48 ft.) was as follows per depot: Total. Per sq. ft. Materials $480 $0.62 Labor 320 0.42 Total ..$800 $1.04 BUILDINGS. 1121 There were 20 M. (including platforms) per depot, hence the labor cost was $16 per M. The average cost of 15 fourth class, combination, one-story depots (16 x 68 ft.) was as follows per depot: Total. Per sq. ft. Materials $ 700 $0.64 Labor , 533 0.49 Total $1,233 $1.13 There were 26 M. per depot, hence the average labor cost was $20 per M. The average cost of five, second class, combination, two- story depots (24 x 59 ft.) was as follows per depot: Total. Per sq. ft. Materials ... . .. $1,480 $1.04 Labor , 1,150 0.81 Total $2,630 $1.85 There were 71 M. per depot, hence the average labor cost was $16 per M. The average cost of 11 third class, combination, two-story depots (24x55 ft.) was as follows per depot: Total. Per sq. ft. Materials $1,270 $0.98 Labor 1,000 0.77 Total $2,270 $1.73 There were 51 M. per depot, hence the average labor cost was nearly $20 per M. The Cost of Five Frame Section Houses.* In this issue we giv< the cost of five frame section houses. These were built in the northwest and were three room houses of very cheap construction, the type known in that section as "Jap houses." The work was done by company forces. As is customary for day labor work, nothing has been allowed for superintendence and general office expenses, as would have been the case if the houses had been built by contract. The three room houses were 16x24 ft., having 384 sq. ft. of room space. The bill of material for each house was as follows : * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 11, 1907. H22 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA Bill of Material for 16 x 2k Section House. Ft. B. M. 44 pcs. 2x122 176 5 pcs. 6x6 16 240 18 pcs. 2x8 16 384 18 pcs. 2x4 16 , 192 36 pcs. 2x4 12 288 2 pcs. 1x6 14 14 70 pcs. 2x48 373 24 pcs. 2x414 192 16 pcs. 2x4 16 171 4 pcs. 2x2 12 16 1,940 ft. com. boards, sis 1,940 95 pcs. 1x10 10, sis 792 "1 pcs. 2x12 12, sis 24 6 pcs. 1x6 14, sis 42 v/iulfc 4 PCS. 1x12 14, sis 56 8 pcs. 1x6 12, sis 48 1,700 ft. 1x6 D. and M., sis 1,700 270 ft. 1x6 D. and M., s2s 270 95 pcs. 1x310 237 7 pcs. 2x4 12, s4s 56 Il%x%xl2, % rd 132 2 pcs. 2x4 14, s4s 19 4 pcs. 4x4 6 32 5 M. shingles. 15 pcs. %xl% 16 cover moulding. 18 pcs. 8x10 flashing tin. 1 door 2.10x6.10x1%, 4 P. and G. 1 door frame, as above. 2 doors 2. 8x6. 8x1 y s , 4 P. and G. 4 windows 10x161%, 12 Its, 4 window frames. 350 brick. 10 Ibs. 20d nails. 100 Ibs. 8d nails. 25 Ibs. shingle nails. 10 sash spring bolts. 3 prs. wrought butta 3 doz. 1-in. No. 8 screws. 1 sack lime. 2 rolls tarred paper. 3 rim locks and knobs complete^ 5 gals, outside body paint. 1 gal. outside trimming paint. 5 gals, inside body paint. 1 gal. inside trimming paint The estimated weight is: Pounds. 7,200 ft. B. M. at 3,300 Ibs. 23,760 5 M. shingles at 150 Ibs 750 Millwork 500 Hardware and paint 400 Brick 2,100 Total .' 27,510 For practical purposes the weight can be considered as 14 tons The cost of materials and labor for each house was : BUILDINGS. HOUSE No. 1. Lumber. 2,046 ft. B. M., $7.50 $15.35 2,902 ft. B. M., sis, $8 23.22 2,207 ft. B. M., 1x6, D. and M., $12 26.48 100 ft. B. M., $9 .90 7,255 ft. B. M., total, $9.10 (av.) $65.95 5 M. shingles, Star S, $1.35 6.75 Millworlc. Moulding $ 2.50 3 doors arid 4 windows 26.46 Total millwork $28.96 Hardware. 2 rolls tarred paper, 85 cts $ 1.70 135 Ibs. nails 4.94 Locks, hinges, etc ...,....: 4.82 18 pcs. 8x10 flashing tin .48 Total hardware $11.94 Paint. 5 gals. o. s. body paint at 75 cts.. $ 3.75 1 gal. o. s. trimmings at 70 cts 70 5 gals. i. s. body paint at 80 cts 4.00 % gal. i. s. trimmings at 85 cts 43 Total paint $ 8.88 Masonry. 350 brick at $7.50 ..$ 2.62 Labor. Engineering $ 4.05 Building section house. 16.5 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $41.25 2.0 days, bridgeman, at $2.25 4.50 18.5 days, total, at $2.47 $45.75 Building flue. 1 day, bridgeman, at $2.25 $ 2.25 1 day, helper, at $1.75 1.75 Total $ 4.00 Painting. 4 days, foreman, at $2.50 $10.00 Tools 4.50 Summary : Materials. Totals. Pet. 7,255 ft. B. M. lumber at $9.10 $ 65.95 29.0 5 M. shingles at $1.35 6.75 2.9 Millwork 28.96 12.8 Hardware 11.94 5.2 Paint . . 8.88 3.9 Masonry, 350 brick, $7.50 2.62 1.1 Total materials ..../... ..$125.10 54.9 1124 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor. Engineering % 4.05 1.8 18.5 days building house, $2.47 45.75 20.1 2 days building flue, $2 4.00 1.8 4 days painting, $2.50 10.00 4.4 Total labor .' . $ 63.80 28.1 Total material and labor 188.90 83.0 Tools 4.50 2.0 Freight, 14 tons (excessive chg.) 33.44 15.0 Total $226.84 100.0 Per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.326 55.2 Labor 0.167 28.3 Tools 0.012. 2.0 Freight 0.085 14.5 Total .$0.590 loTo HOUSE No. 2. Labor. Unloading material. 2 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $ 5.00 Building house. 16.5 days, carpenter, at $2.50 41.25 Building flue. 1.3 days, mason, at $3 1 3.90 Painting. 1 day, foreman, at $2.50 2.50 3 days, helper, at $1.75 5.25 Total labor $ 7.75 Tools 3.65 Summary : Materials. Total. Pet. 7,255 ft. B. M. lumber at $9.10 $ 65.95 30.9 5 M. shingles at $1.35 6.75 3.1 Millwork 28.96 13.5 Hardware 11.94 5.6 Paint 8.88 4.1 Masonry, 350 brick, $7.50 2.62 1.2 Total materials $125.10 58.4 Labor. 18.5 days, building house, at $2.50 $ 46.25 21.7 1.3 days, building flue, at $3 3.90 1.8 Painting 7.75 3.6 Total labor $ 57.80 27.1 Total material and labor 182.90 85.5 Tools 3.65 1.7 Freight 27.31 12.8 Total $213.86 100.0 Per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.326 58.7 Labor 0.150 27.1 Tools 0.009 1.6 Freight 0.071 12.6 Total ' $0.556 100.0 BUILDINGS. 1125 HOUSE No. 3. Labor. Unloading materials. 2 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $ 5.00 Building house. 16 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $40.00 Cleaning up old material. 1 day, carpenter, at $2.50 $ 2.50 Painting. 1 day foreman, at $2.50 $ 2.50 4 days, helper, at $1.75 7.00 Total labor $ 9.50 Tools 4.18 Summary : Materials. 7,255 ft. B. M. lumber, at $9.10. $ 65.95 33.1 Total. Pet. 5 M. shingles at $1.35 6.75 3.3 Millwork 28.96 14.6 Hardware 11.94 6.0 Paint 8.86 4.4 Masonry, 350 bricks, at $7.50 2.62 Total materials $125.10 62.7 Labor. 19 days building house, at $2.50 $ 47.50 23.7 Painting 9.50 4.7 Total labor $ 57.00 . 28.4 Per cent. Total materials and labor $182.10 91.1 Tools 4.18 2.0 Freight 13.79 6.9 Total $2WX07 100.0 Per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.326 62.7 Labor 0.148 28.4 Tools 0.010 1.9 Freight 0.036 7.0 $0.520 100.0 HOUSE No. 4. Labor. Building house : 16.6 days, carpenter, at $2.50 $41.50 Building flue: 1 day, carpenter, at $2.50 $2.50 1 day, helper, at $1.75 1.75 $4.25 Painting. 3 days, foreman, at $2.50 $ 7.50 2 days, helper, at $1.75 3.50 Total labor $11.00 Tools . % 3.82 1126 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. SUMMARY. Materials. Total. Per cent. 7,255 ft. B. M. lumber, at $9.10 $ 65.95 33 6 5 M shingles, at $1.35 6.75 3 3 Millwork 28.96 14.7 Hardware 11.94 6.1 Paint 8.86 4.5 Masonry, 350 brick, $7.50 2.62 1.3 Total materials $125.10 63.5 Labor. 16.6 days building house, at $2.50 $ 41.50 21.1 Building flue 4.25 2.2 Painting 11.00 5.6 Total labor $ 56.75 28.9 Per cent. Total materials and labor $181.85 92 4 Tools 3.82 2.0 Freight 10.67 5.4 Total $196.34 100.0 Per sq. ft. Per cent. Material .' $0.326 63.4 Labor 0.150" 29.2 Tools 0.010 2.0 Freight 0.028 5.4 $0.514 100.0 HOUSE No. 5. Labor. Unloading materials: 1 day, carpenter, at $2.50 . $ 2.50 Building house: 20 days, carpenter, at $2.50 50.00 Building flue : 3 days, carpenter, at $2.50 7.50 Painting : 5 days, foreman, at $2.50.. . 12.50 1 day, helper, at $1.75 1.75 Total labor ..$14.25 Tools $ 4.44 SUMMARY. Materials. Total. Per cen^, 7,255 ft. B. M. lumber, at $9.10 .-.$ 65.95 32.2 5 M shingles, at $1.35 6.75 3 2 Millwork 28.96 14.0 Hardware , .. 11.94 58 Paint 8.86 4.3 Masonry, 350 bricks, $7.50 2.62 . 1.3 Total materials $125.10 60.8 BUILDINGS. 1127 Labor. 21 days building house, at $2.50 $ 52.50 25.4 Building flue 7.50 3.6 Painting . . 14.25 7.0 Total labor $ 74.25 36.0 Per cent. Total materials and labor $199.35 96.8 Tools 4.44 2.0 Freight : 2.51 Total $206.30 100.0 Per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.326 60.6 Labor 0.193 36.0 Tools 0.012 2.1 Freight ... 0.007 $0.538 100.0 It must be borne in mind that the -cost of lumber is extremely low, even for the section in which this particular building work was done. Per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.326 60 Labor 0.160 30 Tools 0.010 .2 Freight 0.045 $0.541 100 Since the weight of the buildings is given in all cases, it is easy to calculate the freight for any given haul. ' The average cost of the labor on these section houses was $62 per section house. There were 7,250 ft. B. M. in each section house, and, if we charge the full cost of the labor ($62) against this amount of lumber, we have a trifle less than $9 per 1,000 ft. B. M. Cost of a Blacksmith Shop, Barn and Telegraph Office.* We give in this issue the detailed cost of erecting a blacksmith shop, a telegraph office and a barn for railroad purposes in the Northwest. The work was done by day labor. It will be noticed that the price of lumber is very low : BLACKSMITH SHOP. Blacksmith shop, 20 x 30 ft. ; area 600 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 2,120 ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 6 996 4 V 2 M shingles, at 150 675 Hardware 35 Total, 4 tons 7,706 Lumber: 320 ft. B. M., at- $8.00 $ 2.56 1,800 ft. B. M. second hand, at $4 7.20 2.120 ft. B. M. total, at $4.60 (av.) $ 9.76 4% M shingles, at $1.65 7.43 Engineering -Contracting, Nov. 6, 1907. 1128 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Hardware: 20 Ibs. 8d. nails, at $2.10 $ 0.42 5 Ibs. 20d. nails, at $2.00 10 10 Ibs. 3d nails, at $2.45 25 Total hardware $ 0.77 Labor: Superintendence $ 4.80 Carpenter, 10.4 days, at $2.10 21.82 Total labor $26.62 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Percent. 2,120 ft. B. M., at $4.60 $ 9.76 21.4 4% M shingles, at $1.65 7.43 16.7 Hardware 77 1.9 Total materials -... $17.96 40.0 Labor $26.62 60.0 Grand total materials and labor. .$44.58 100.0 Cost sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.030 40.0 Labor 0.044 60.0 Total $0.074 100.0 The low cost of materials for this building is explained by the fact that six-sevenths of it was second-hand material. The build- ing had no floor, and no studs were used in the sides. The cost per M ft. B. M. for the labor on the lumber was $12.55. HAY BARN. Hay barn, 20x35 ft. ; area, 700 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 6,794 ft. B. M., 3,300 Ibs 22,420 7 M shingles, 150 1,050 Hardware, paint, etc 475 Total, 12 tons 23,945 2,585 ft. B. M. at $7.50 $19.39 1,613 ft. B. M. at $8.00 12 90 496 ft. B. M. at $12.00 5.95 2,000 ft. B. M. at $8.00 16.00 100 ft. B. M. at $17.00 1.70 6,794 ft. B. M., total, at $8.23 (av.) $55.91 7 M shingles, at $1.35 $ 9.45 Millwork: 2 window sash, at $0.75.. 1.50 BUILDINGS. 1129 Hardware: 200 Ibs. 20d. nails, at $3.55 7.10 200 Ibs. lOd. nails, at $3.55 7.10 20 Ibs. 3d. nails, at $3.95 79 3 Ibs. 8d. nails 15 3 Ibs. 3d nails 12 2 pair 10-in. strap hinges 32 36 1 %-in. screws 07 1 8-in. hasp 07 2 8-in. bar locks 34 No. 10 screws , 01 Total hardware $16.07 Paint: 5 gals, outside body paint, at $0.75 ..$ 3.75 2i/ 2 gals, oil, at $0.58 . 1.45 Total paint $ 5.20 Labor: Engineering $ .80 Building hay barn: Foreman, 4 days, at $85 per month 10.95 Carpenter, 20 days, at $2.50 50.00 Carpenter, 6 days, at $2.25 13.50 Helpers, 5 days, at $1.75 7.00 Total .$81.45 Moving material from barn, helper, 1 day, at $1.75 $ 1.75 Cutting door in back and placing it, carpenter, 1 day, at $2.50 2.50 Painting barn : Carpenter, 1 day, at $2.50 2.50 Bridgeman, 2 days, at $2.25 4.50 Total . . .$ 7.00 Total labor $93.50 Tools $ 4.98 _ SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent. 6,794 ft. B. M., at $8.23 $ 55.94 30.0 7 M shingles, at $1.35 9.45 5.1 Millwork 1.50 0.8 Hardware 16.07 8.6 Paint . . . v 5.20 2.7 Total materials $ 88.16 47.2 Labor: Engineering ..$ .80 0.5 Building 81.45 43.6 Moving lumber, etc 1.75 0.9 Cutting door in back 2.50 1.3 Painting 7.00 3.7 Total labor $ 93~50 50.0 Total materials and labor $181.66 97.2 Tools 4.98 2.8 Grand total $186.64 100.00 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.126 47.2 Labor 0.133 50.0 Tools 0.007 2.8 Total $0.266 100.0 The cost of labor per M ft. B. M. of lumber used was $13.76. TELEGRAPH OFFICE. Telegraph office, 12 X 12 ft. ; area, 144 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 2,332 ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 7,695 2 M shingles, at 150 Ibs 300 Hardware, etc 150 Total, 4 tons 8,145 Lumber: 185 ft. B. M., at $12.00. $ 2.22 230 ft. B. M., at $15.00 3.45 340 ft. B. M., at $16.50 5.61 431 ft. B. M., at $15.00 6.47 243 ft. B. M., at $12.00 , 2.91 73 ft. B. M., at $26.00 2.03 200 ft. B. M., at $20.00 4.00 630 ft. B. M., at $30.00 18.90 2,332 ft. B. M. total, at $19.55 (av.) '. . .$45.59 2 M shingles, at $3.50 $ 7.00 Millwork: 3 window sashes $ 3.28 Hardware: 75 Ibs. tar paper , $ 1.52 1 pair strap hinges 20 Screws 04 1 rim hook . 30 6 Ibs. 6d. nails 18 5 Ibs. 8d. nails (finishing) .31 10 Ibs. 4d. nails . . . 30 30 Ibs. lOd. nails 84 Total hardware $ 3.69 Labor: Foreman, 3 days, at $80 per month $ 7.74 Carpenter, 11 days, at $2.50 27.50 Total labor $35.24 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Percent. 2,332 ft. B. M., at $19.55 $45.59 48.0 2 M shingles at $3.50 7.00 7.3 Millwork 3.28 3.5 Hardware 3.69 3.9 Total materials $59.56 62.7 Labor 35.24 37.3 Grand total $94.80 100.0 Cost sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.413 62.7 Labor . . 0.245 37.3 $0.658 100.0 BUILDINGS. 1131 The cost per M ft. B. M. of lumber used for labor on the office was $15.11. This building had a floor in it and a ceiling, hence the cost per sq. ft. of area, and the cost per M ft. of lumber used would naturally be higher than in the other two buildings. Cost of Forty Hand-Car Houses.* In this article we give the cost in detail of erecting 40 frame hand-car houses on a division of a Western railroad. The price of lumber is given and other ma- terials, as well as the labor costs. The work was done by "com- pany men." Forty hand-car houses built on one division ; size, 8x12 f t. ; area, 96 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 48,055 ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 158,581 50 M shingles, at 150 7,500 Hardware and paint 2,400 Total, 84 tons 168,481 Timber: 9,207 ft. B. M., at $11.50 $105.88 6,400 ft. B. M., at $11.50 73.60 1,200 ft. B. M. S. 1 S., at $13.75 16.50 4,053 ft. B. M. S. 1 S., at $28.75 116.52 3,407 ft. B. M., at $19.00 64.73 1,760 ft. B. M., at $19.00 33.44 2,333 ft. B. M. ceiling, at $32.50 75.82 2,725 ft. B. M. S. 1 S., at $14.00 38.15 2,270 ft. B. M. S. 1 S., at $28.75 65.26 8,500 ft. B. M. S. 1 S., at $28.75 244.33 6,200 ft. B. M., at $13.00 80.60 48,055 ft. B. M. total, at $19.03 (av.) $914.83 50 M. shingles, at $1.25 62.50 Hardware: 80 pairs 12-in. hinges, $1.21 per doz $ 8.06 80 5-in. hasp and staples 1.20 140 doz. 1%-in. screws, at $0.23y 2 per gross 2.74 27 doz. %-in. screws, at $0.08 per gross .18 200 Ibs. 3d nails, at $2.85 5.70 100 Ibs. 6d nails, at $2.25 2.25 200 Ibs. 16d nails, at $2.00 4.00 40 8-in. hinge hasps 1.25 40 padlocks 9.00 250 Ibs. 20d nails, at $2.00 5.00 800 Ibs. lOd nails, at $2.05 16.40 Total hardware . . ... $ 55.78 100 gals, railroad paint, at $0.75 $ 75.00 Labor: Superintendent $ 23.73 Foreman, 29 days, at $3.00 87.00 Carpenters, 121.5 days, at $2.50 303.75 Total labor . ..$414.48 Tools .$ 3.75 Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 20, 1907. 1132 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. For one hand-car house, weighing 2.1 tons, we give the following summary : Materials: Total. Per cent. 1,201 ft. B. M., at $19.03 $22.87 60.0 114 M shingles, at $1.25 1.56 4.1 Hardware 1.39 8.7 Paint 1.87 4.9 Total materials $27.69 72.7 Labor $10.36 27.1 Total materials and labor.. ..$38.05 99.8 Tools $ 0.09 0.2 Grand total $38.14 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent Materials $0.288 72.7 Labor 0.108 27.1 Tools 0.001 0.2 Total $0.397 100.0 The cost per M ft. B. M. for the entire labor on these buildings was $8.62, which was quite low. Cost of Six Tool Houses.* In this article we give the cost in detail of building six frame tool houses for use on railroads. The labor was performed by company forces. The costs are summarized so as to allow of comparison with other cheap structures, like those that have appeared in our previous issues in this series of articles. Lists of materials and prices are given as well as wages. The cc-^t of lumber was very low. EXAMPLE I. Tool house, 8 x 12 f t. ; area, 96 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 1.000 ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 3,300 1 % M shingles, at 150 188 Hardware . 50 Total, 1% tons. 3,538 Lumber: 323 ft. B. M., at $9 ; $ 2.91 630 ft. B. M., at $11 6.93 48 ft. B. M. flooring, at $20 96 1.001 ft. B. M. total, at $10.80 (av.)' $10.80 1% M shingles, at $1.80 $ 2.25 Hardware: Bolts $ .82 3 Ibs. 3d nails, $2.76 08 10 Ibs. 8d nails, $2.35 24 5 Ibs. 20d nails, $2.25 11 1 gal. paint 60 2 pr. 8-in. tie hinges, 4 ct 08 1 8-in. hinge hasp, 5 ct 05 % gross 1-in. No. 10 screws, 14 ct 07 1 Yale padlock 43 Total $ 2.48 * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 30, 1907. BUILDINGS. 1133 Labor: Engineering $ 1.65 Building house, 4.5 days, carpenter, $2.50 11.25 Total $12.90 This includes painting. Tools .'..$ .48 SUMMARY.. Materials: Totals. Percent. 1,001 ft. B. M., at $10.80.. ..$10.80 38.0 Shingles 2.25 7.4 Hardware 2.48 8.5 Total materials $15.53 53.9 Labor: Engineering $ 1.65 5.7 Carpenter 11.25 38.9 Total labor $12.90 44.6 Total materials and labor $28.43 98.5 Tools 48 1.5 Freight 00 0.0 Grand total . . $28.91 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $ .161 53.9 Labor 134 44.6 Tools 005 1.5 Total $ .300 100.0 It will be noted that the carpenter labor, as above given, cost $11.25 per 1,000 ft. B. M. in the tool house. EXAMPLE II. Tool house, 12 x 14 ft., and oil house, 10x32; area, 168 sa. ft. and 320 sc. 'ft. Total area, 488 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. Lumber and millwork 13,700 5 y 2 M shingles, at 150 825 Hardware and paint 200 Total, 7 V 2 tons .14,725 Lumber: 416 ft. B. M. at $9 . . .$ 3.74 700 ft. B. M. at $12 8.40 1,360 ft. B. M. at $8.50 11.56 1,100 ft. B. M. 450 ft. B. M. at $12 13.20 at $9 4.05 4,026 total, at $10.17 (av.) $40.95 Millwork: Battens $ 1.92 1 door frame and door 2.95 2 window frames and sash 5.90 Total $10.77 1% M shingles, at $1.45 $ 7.98 1134 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Hardware : 100 Ibs. 8d nails $ 2.56 20 Ibs. 30d nails, at $2.46 .49 1 hasp 05 2 hinges and hasps 10 1 pair butts 04 20 Ibs. 6d nails, at $2.66 .53 1 galv. iron chimney 1.04 Paint: 6 gals, outside body paint, 75 cts $ 4.50 1 gal. outside trim paint 70 % gal. turpentine 22 ^4 gal. Japan dryer 20 $ 5.62 Labor: Building tool and oil house : Carpenters, 20 days, at $2.50 $50.00 Putting up shelving: Carpenter, 4 days, at $2.50 10.00 Painting, helper, 1 day, at $1.75 1.75 Total labor $61.75 Tools $ 2.34 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent. 4,026 ft. B. M., at $10.17. $ 40.95 30.5 Millwork 10.77 8.0 Shingles 7.98 5.9 Hardware 4.81 3.5 Paint 5.62 4.1 Total material $ 70.13 52.0 Labor: Building $60.00 44.7 Painting 1.75 1.3 Total labor $ 61.75 46.0 Total material and labor $131.88 98.0 Tools 2.34 2.0 Freight 00 0.0 Grand total $134.22 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials . ..$0.144 52.0 Labor 0.126 46.0 Tools 0.005 2.0 Total $0.275 100.0 It will be noted that the labor cost about $15 per M. It is noteworthy in this instance to record that the foreman car- penter on this job was discharged for inefficiency, owing to the high cost of building these two sheds. One of these buildings had win- dows in it and shelving, which should have made the labor costs higher than in Example I, where neither windows nor shelves were used. A comparison shows that the cost per square foot of area in Example II was lower than in all the cases given except Example V. The cost was 2V, cts. lower than Example I. 1 ct. of which was BUJLDIXGS. 1135 in the reduced cost of labor. This makes evident the fact that cost data and their analysis form the only true way of telling of the efficiency of workmen and methods, provided the records are kept honestly and intelligently. EXAMPLE III. Tool house, 8 x 12 ft. ; area, 96 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 1,110 ft. B. M. lumber, at 3,300 3,663 1 1/5 M shingles, at 150 180 Hardware and paint 50 Total, 2 tons 3,893 Lumber: 758 ft. B. M., at $10.50 % 7.95 352 ft. B. M., at $7.50 2.64 . 1,110 ft. B. M. total, at $9.54 (av.) $10.59 1,200 shingles, at $1.90 $ 2.28 Hardware : 3-in. bolts $ 1.60 5 Ibs. 20d nails, at $2 10 5 Ibs. 8d nails, at $2.10 11 10 Ibs. lOd nails, at $2.05 20 Total $ 2~01 Paint: 2 gals, outside body paint, at 60 cts $ 1.20 . Labor: Loading material for tool house : Carpenter, 1 day, at $2.50 $ 2.50 ' Erecting tool house : Carpenter, 2 days, at $2.50 5.00 Helper, 6 days, at $2 12.00 Total $19.00 This includes painting. Tools $ 1.57 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent 1,110 ft.-B. M., at $9.54 $10.59 28.8 1,200 shingles, at $1.90 2.28 6.2 Hardware 2.01 5.5 Paint 1.20 3.3 Total material $16.08 43.8 Labor ...$19.00 51.9 Total materials and labor $35.08 95.7 Tools 1.57 4.3 Freight 0.00 0.0 Grand total $36.65 100.0 Cost per sq. ft Per cent. Materials $0.167 43.8 Labor 0.198 51.9 Tools 0.016 4.3 Total ....$0.381 100.0 1136 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. It will be noted that the labor cost nearly $17.50 per M, which is excessive. EXAMPLE IV. Tool house, 8x12 f t. ; area, 96 sq. ft. Weight: Pounds. 1,247 ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 4,115 1 % M shingles, at 150 187 Hardware and paint 65 Total, 2 tons 4,367 Lumber: 577 ft. B. M., at ?7. $ 4.04 180 ft. B. M., at $7 1.26 490 ft B. M., at $8 3.92 1,247 ft. B. M. total at $7.40 (av.) . . $ 9.22 1% M shingles, at $1.50 $ 1.87 Hardware: 10 Ibs. 20d nails, at $2.46 $ .25 20 Ibs. 8d nails, at $2.56 51 5 Ibs. 3d nails, at $2.91 15 2 prs. hinges 12 1 hasp 05 1 padlock 16 Total $ 1.24 Paint: 4% gals, outside body paint, at 75 cts $ 3.38 % gal. boiled oil, at 70 cts. 35 Total $~3~73 Labor: Carpenter, 3 days, at $2.50 $ 7.50 Carpenter, 1 day, at $2.25 . , 2.25 Helper, 1 day, at $1.75 1.75 Painting, helper, 1 day, at $1.75 1.75 Total $13.25 Tools 95 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent 1,247 ft. B. M., at $7.40 $ 9.22 30.4 1^4 M shingles, at $1.50 1.87 6.1 Hardware 1.24 4.1 Paint 3.73 12.3 Total materials $16.06 52.9 Labor: Building $11.50 38.0 Painting 1.75 6.7 Total labor $13.25 43.7 Total material and labor $29.31 96.6 Tools 95 3.4 Freight .00 0.0 Grand total $30.26 100.00 BUILDINGS. 113? Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.167 52.9 Labor 0.138 43.7 Tools 0.001 3.4 Total $0.306 100.0 It will be noted that the labor cost $10.50 per M. EXAMPLE V. Double tool house, 12x30 ft.; area, 360 sq. ft. Weight : Poundi . J,606-ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 11,36 f 3 V 2 M shingles, at 150 Ibs 52U Hardware 75 Total, 6 tons . . 11,965 T Lumber: 1,019 ft. B. M., at $8 $ 8.15 708 ft. B. M., S. 1 S., at $8.50 6.02 879 ft. B. M., at $8 7.03 288 ft. B. M., at $8.50 2.45 232 ft. B. M., at $8 1.86 318 ft. B. M., at $4 1.27 3,444 ft. B. M. total, at $7.77 (av.) $26~78 3y 2 M shingles, at $1.40 $ 4.90 Hardware: 20 Ibs. 4d nails, at $3.80 $ .76 6 Ibs. 20d nails, at $3.50 21 8 Ibs. 8d nails, at $3.60 29 24 Ibs. lOd nails, at $3.55 85 6 Ibs. 30d nails, at $3.50 21 4 pairs hinges 48 2 pairs hasps 14 2 Yale padlocks 88 Total $~3~82 Labor: Carpenter, 12.1 days, at $2.50 $30.25 Tools 2.21 Freight 76 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent 3,444 ft. B. M., at $7.77 $26.78 39.0 Shingles 3 V 2 M, at $1.40 4.90 7.2 Hardware 3.82 5.6 Total materials $35.50 51.7 Labor $30.25 43.8 Total materials and labor $65.75 95.5 Tools 2.21 3.3 Freight 76 1.2 Grand total , ..$68.72 100.0 1138 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.0j8 51.7 Labor 0.084 43.8 Tools 0.007 3.3 Freight ._0.002" 1.2 Total ..$0.191 100.0 It will be noted that the labor cost $8.60 per M> ' EXAMPLE VI. Tool house, 8x12 ft. ; area, 96 ft. Weight: Pounds. 1,247 ft. B. M., at 3,300 Ibs 4,115 1^4 M shingles, at 150 187 Hardware 60 Total, 2 tons 4,362 Lumber: 577 ft. B. M., at ?7 $. 4.04 180 ft. B. M., at $7 . 1.26 490 ft. B. M., at $8 3.92 1,247 ft. B. M. total at $7.3'i (av.) ..... . .$ 9.22 1 % M shingles, at $1.50 $ 1.87 Hardware: Bolts .- . . '. $ .42 10 Ibs. 20d nails, at $2.46 jr, 20 Ibs. 8d nails, at $2.56 .51 5 Ibs. 3d nails, at $2.91 15 2 pairs hinges 12 1 hasp 05 1 padlock .16 Total $ 1.66 Paint: 2y 2 gals, outside body paint, at 75 cts.. .$ 1.88 y 2 gal. oil, at 70 cts ; .35 r 2 :s Labor: Carpenter, 6.3 days, at $2.50 15 75 Carpenter, 1 day, at $2.25 2.25 Helper, 2.5 days, at $1.75 4.37 Total $22.37 Tools , 92 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent. 1,247 ft. B. M., at $7.39 $ 9.22 ">4 1% M shingles, at $1.50 1.87 49 Hardware 166 43 Paint 2.23 5> Total materials $14.98 39.1 Labor 22.37 58.4 Total materials and labor $37.35 97 5 Tools 92 2 f> Freight 00 O/o Grand total $3S.27 ioo.O BUILDINGS. 1139 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.156 39.1 Labor 0.233 58.4 Tools 0.001 2.5 Total 10.390 100.0 It will be noted that the labor cost $18 per M, which is excessive. A number of these tool houses were 8x12, giving 96 sq. ft. of area in the building and needing for their construction a little more than a thousand feet of lumber. Their cost ran from $28 to $38 . A comparison of these buildings with the cost of building a large number of shacks for camps in building railroads in the South will be of interest. These camps were built by one of the editors of this journal. They were about 10 x 10, and had a slanting roof. A door made from boards was used in it, and a sliding board window was put in one side. A bunk was also built in it, but there was no floor. A thousand feet of lumber was used in building the shack. The roof was covered with tar paper, and strap hinges, hasp and padlock were used on the door. The lumber on a large number built in Ten- nessee cost $10 per M ; the tar paper, nails and hardware cost $2, making a cost of materials of $12. Carpenters were paid $3.50 per day, and 3 carpenters completed a building in a day, making a cost of about $10 for labor, or a total cost of $22 per shack. A comparison with the tool houses shows that if paint and shingles had been used these shacks would have cost a few dollars more for materials and slightly raised the cost of labor ; but wages paid by the contractor on the shacks were $1 per day higher, which about offsets the increased cost of materials. We have pointed out before that a contractor who pays $3.50 a day for carpenters will usually get more work for the money than will a railroad company that pays $2.50 to its carpenters. A com- parison of the cost of labor per square foot as listed above with 10 cts. per square foot as paid for these shacks shows plainly that this is true. Capacity and Cost of Ice Houses. The nominal capacity of an Ice house is generally stated in tons of ice, and is generally taken to mean the capacity up to the eaves. By stacking the ice up higher under the roof, working from doors in the roof or gable ends, the capacity can be increased 10% or more. About 34 cu. ft. of ice make a ton of 2.000 Ibs., the ice weighing 58.7 Ibs. per cu. ft. It Is not unusual to assume a weight of 60 Ibs. per cu. ft. for con- venience of calculation. Allowing for voids between the cakes of ice it is customary to allow 36 cu. ft. per ton, but this is usually too low, a fair average being nearer 40 cu. ft. per ton of 2,000 Ibs. In a large, well-built ice house, only 10% of the ice is lost annually by melting and evaporation, but in smaller houses the loss is larger. 1140 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following are dimensions and nominal capacities of some standard ice houses on the Lehigh Valley R. R. : Size. Capacity Capacity cu. ft. tons. 18 X 32 ft. X 12 ft. height of frame 6,912 150 32 X 86ft. X 28 ft. height of frame.... 1,500 30 X 120 ft. X 24 ft. height of frame 86,400 2,000 If frame ice houses cost 5 cts. per cu. ft. to build, the equivalent cost is $2.00 per ton of ice capacity. Cost of Six Ice Houses.* The work was done by railway com- pany forces. It will be noted that the price of lumber was very low. EXAMPLE I. Ice House 30 X 48 ft. Weight. Pounds. 26,000 ft. B. M. at 3,300 Ibs. equals 85,800 17^4 M. shingles at 150 Ibs 2,600 Hardware, etc 2,000 Total, 45 tons 90,400 Lumber: 1,280 ft. B. M. at $8 % 10.24 7,333ft. B. M. at $8 58.66 2,432 ft. B. M. at f 8.50 20.67 2,053 ft. B. M. at $7.50 15.40 4,360 ft. B. M., 1 in., at $11 47.96 777 ft. B. M., 1 in., at $12 9.32 4,420 ft. B. M. drop siding at $13.50 59.67 400 ft. B. M. flooring at $18.50 7.40 3,072 ft. B. M. S. H., 8 X 16-in., at $4 12.28 26,127 ft. B. M. total at $9.20 (av.) $241.54 17% M. shingles at $1.75... $30.19 Hardware: 390 Ibs. rods and bolts at $2.55 per 100 Ibs $ 9.95 1,300 Ibs. at $2 per 100 Ibs 26.00 Bolts, nuts and washers : 11.75 6 padlocks at 13 cts 78 Total hardware $48.48 Paint: 27 gals, paint at 50 cts. . $13.50 3 gals, oil at 37.5 cts 1.12 Total paint $14.62 Labor: Engineering $20.80 Loading material: 1.6 days carpenter at $2.50 $ 4.00 3.2 days laborer at $2 6.40 4.8 total ! $10.40 Unloading material: 1 day carpenter $ 2.50 * Engineer ing-Contracting, Oct. 9, 1907. BUILDINGS. 1141 Building ice house: 18.5 days foreman at $80 per mo $ 47.74 102.1 days carpenter at $2.50 256.75 43.1 days helper at $2 86.20 163.7 days total at $2.37 $390.69 Painting ice house: 1 days helper at $2 $14.00 Tools 32.50 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent. 26,127 ft. B. M. at $9.20 $241.54 28.4 Shingles 30.19 3.5 Hardware 48.48 5.5 Paint 14.62 1.7 Total material $334.83 39.1 Labor: Engineering . . $ 20.80 2.5 4.8 days loading 10.40 1.2 1 day unloading 2.50 .3 163.7 days building at $2.37 390.69 46.0 7 days painting at $2 14.00 1.4 Total labor $439.39 51.7 Total materials and labor $774.22 90.8 Tools 32.50 3.8 Freight 45.00 5.4 Grand total $851.72~ loToO Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials : $0.232 39.1 Labor 305 51.7 Tools 022 3.8 Freight .031 5.4 Total .To^ 10*0 EXAMPLE II.. Ice House 30 X 60. Weight : Pounds. 18,600 ft. B. M. at 3,300 Ibs. equals 61,380 Hardware .. 700 Total, 31 tons 62,080 Lumber: 10,196 ft. B. M. at $6.50 . . $ 66.27 5,414ft. B. M. at $7 37.90 1,520 ft. B. M. at $7.50 ...-.- 11.40 192 ft. B. M. sis, at $9 1.73 320 ft. B. M., s4s, at $9.50 ' 3,04 300 ft. B. M., ceiling 1 , at $10.50 3.15 675 ft. B. M., 1 X 3 battens, at $1G 10.80 18,617 ft. B. M. total at $7.22 (av) ,?. $134.29 19 M. shingles, Star A, at $1.15 $ 21.85 1H2 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. Hardware: 680 Ibs. nails at .016 ct $ 10.04 Paint: 10 gals, outside paint at 70 cts $ 7.00 Labor: Unloading lumber: 1 day carpenter at $2.50 $ 2.50 3 days laborers at $1.60 4.80 4 days total at $1.82 $ 7.30 Erecting ice house: 93.5 days carpenter at $2.50 , $233.75 12.5 days helper at $1.75 21.85 106 days total at $2.40 $255.60 Painting : 4 days foreman at $75 per month... $ 9.67 2 days painter at $2.50 5.00 6 days total at $2.45 $ 14.67 Tools 19.00 SUMMARY. Materials: Totals. Per cent. 18,617 ft. B. M. at $7.22 $134.29 25.1 19 M. shingles at $1.15 21.85 4.1 690 Ibs. nails at 1.6 cts 10.04 1.8 10 gals, paint at 70 cts. .. 7.00 1.5 Total $173.18 32.5 I/a & or: 4 days unloading lumber at $1.82. . . .$ 7.30. 1.3 106 days erecting at $2.40 255.60 47.5 6 days painting at $2.45 14.67 2.6 Tools , 19.00 3.5 Total materials and labor $470.75 87.4 31 tons freight, actual (excessive) 67.70 12.6 Total $538.45 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.096 32.5 Labor 0.164 54.9 Freight 0.037 12.6 Total $0.297 100.0 EXAMPLE No. III. Ice House 24 X 48. Weight: Pounds. 16,665 ft. B. M. at 3,300 Ibs ..54,994 15% M. shingles at 150 Ibs 2,325 Hardware 1,500 Total (29 tons) 58,819 BUILDINGS. 1143 Lumber: 624 ft. B. M. S. H. at $7 ."$ 4.37 6,420ft. B. M. at $11.50 73.83 240 ft. B. M. at $12.50 3.00 112 ft. B. M., s2slE, at $13.40 1.50 328 ft. B. M., at $17.50 5.74 5,441 ft. B. M., sis, No. 1, at $17.25 93.86 3,500 ft. B. M., ship lap, No. 2, at $21 73.50 16,665ft. B. M. total (av.), $15.35 $255.80 15 % M. shingles at $2 $ 31.00 Hardware : 125 Ibs. 20d wire nails at $1.60 $ 2.00 355 Ibs. lOd wire nails at $1.75 6.21 70 Ibs. 4d wire nails at $2.10 1.47 Bolts, plates, nuts and washers 10.19. Padlocks and hinges 1.78 Total hardware $ 21.65 Paint: 10 gals, outside at 84 cts $ 8.40 9 gals, oil at 55 cts 4.95 Total paint $ 13.35 Labor: Building : 10 days carpenter at $2.64 $ 26.40 41 days carpenter at $2.25. 92.25 6 3-10 days foreman at $2.50 15.75 $134.40 Painting : 6 days painter at $2 $ 12.00 Foreman . 1.56 Total $ 13.i SUMMARY. Materials: 16,665 ft. B. M. at $15.35 $255.80 Shingles 31.00 Hardware 21.65 Paint 13.35 Total materials $321.80 Labor: Building $134.40 Painting 13.56 Total labor $147.96 Total materials and labor $469.76 Tools , 2.94 Per cent. 50.9 6.2 4.3 2.6 63.9 Total $472.70 Freight 29.00 Grand total . $501.70 100.0 1144 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials ..$0.280 64.0 Labor 0.130 29.8 Tools 0.005 .5 Freight 0.015 5.7 Total $0.430 100.0 EXAMPLE IV. Ice House 24 X 48. Weight: Pounds. 16,694 ft. B. M. at 3,300 Ibs 55,090 15 M. shingles at 150 Ibs 2,250 Hardware 1,000 Total (29 tons) 58,340 Lumber: 3,200 ft. B. M. at $18. $ 57.60 256 ft. B. M. at $9 2.30 960 ft. B. M. at $9.50 9.12 4,500 ft. B. M., sis, at $17.50 78.75 108 ft. B. M., sis, at $17.25 1.86 221 ft. B. M., at $13 2.87 2,498 ft. B. M., at $10 . 27.24 312 ft. B. M., flooring, at $27.50 8.58 719ft. B. M. at $6.50 4.67 3,120 ft. B. M. at $11 34.32 16,694 ft. B. M., total average, $13.35 $227.31 15 M. shingles at $2 $ 30.00 Hardware: Rods, washers, etc . ,$ 12.67 200 Ibs. 20d nails 3.20 60 Ibs. 4d nails 1.29 400 Ibs. lOd nails 7.00 Locks, hinges, etc 2.08 Total hardware $ 26.24 Paint: 12.5 gals, paint at 90-cts ..$ 11.35 5.5 gals, oil at 59 cts 3.25 Total paint .' $ 14.60 Labor: Building house : Supervision $ 31.19 11.5 days foreman at $85 per month 34.91 45.5 days carpenter at $2.48 112.73 Total $178.83 Banking cinders around house: 1 day foreman at $1.74 $1.74 6 days laborers at $1 . . 6.00 Total $7.74 Painting : 2 days painter at $2.25 ..$450 3 days painter at $1.75 . 5.25 Total $9.75 BUILDINGS. SUMMARY. , 16,694 ft. B. M. at $13.35 $227.31 15 M. shingles at $2 30.00 Hardware 26.24 Paint . 14.60 1145 Material: $298.15 Labor: Building house $178.83 Banking cinders 7.74 Painting 9.75 $196.32 Materials and labor $494.47 Tools 77 Total $495.24 Freight . 29.00 Per cent. 43.3 5.7 5.0 2.8 56.8 34.1 1.5 1.8 37.4 94.2 0.1 94.3 5.7 Grand total , $524.24 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.259 Labor 0.170 Tools 0.001 Freight 0.025 56.8 37.4 0.1 5.7 Total $0.486 100.0 EXAMPLE V. Ice House 24 X 48. Weight: Pounds. 18,247 ft. B. M. at 3,300 Ibs 60,325 14 M. shingles at 150 Ibs 2,100 Hardware Total (32 tons) Lumber: 1,000 ,63,425 576 ft. B. M. 4,560 ft. B. M. 3,500 ft. B. M., 224 ft. B. M., 4,500 ft. B. M., 662 ft. B. M. 225 ft. B. M. at $12.50 $ 7.20 at $11.50 52.44 not ship lap, at $27.50 96.25 No. 2 flooring, at $13.50 3.02 No. 2 sis, at $13.75 61.88 at $11.50 7.61 at $13 2.93 18,247 ft. B. M. total (av) $12.68 $231.33 14 M. shingles at $2.75 $ 38.50 Hardware: 2 kegs 20d nails at $2 $ 4.00 2 kegs lOd nails at $2.05 4.10 80 Ibs. 4d nails at $2.45 . . 1.96 Locks, hinges, etc 1.08 Total hardware . ..$ 11.14 1146 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor: 21 days foreman at $3 $ 63.00 25 days carpenter at $2.75 67.25 12.5 days carpenter at $2.50 31.25 1 day foreman at $2.14 2.14 19 days laborer at $1.50 28.50 Total $192.14 SUMMARY. Materials: Per cent Lumber, 18,247 ft. B. M. at $12.68 $231.33 45.8 Shingles, 14 M. at $2.75 38.50 7.6 Hardware 11.14 2.2 $280.97 55.6 Labor $192.14 38.1 Freight . . 32.00 6.3 $505.11 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials $0.243 55.6 Labor 0.167 38.1 Freight 0.028 6.3 Total $0.438 100.0 EXAMPLE VI. Ice House" 24 X 48 Per cent. Materials , $322.81 62.2 Labor 164.72 31.8 Tools 1.69 0.3 Freight 29.00 5.7 $518.22 100.0 Cost per sq. ft. Per cent. Materials '.'.'/ $0.280 62.2 Labor 0.143 31.8 Tools 0.001 0.3 Freight 0.025 5.7 Total $0.449 100.0 The labor cost per thousand feet of lumber in place was as fol lows: PerM. Example No. I . . $16.00 Example No. II 15.60 Example No. Ill 8.70 Example No. IV 11.00 Example No. V 10.70 Example No. VI 10.00 Average $12.00 Cost of 11 Ice Houses. The following costs relate to work done by railway company labor in the Pacific Northwest, carpenters receiving $2.50 per 10-hr, day. BUILDINGS. 1147 A 200-ton ice house. 22 x 31 ft., contained 18 M. The average cost of five of these houses was : Totals. Per sq. ft. Materials $270 $0.40 Labor . 177 0.26 Total $447 $0.76 Since there were 18 M. in each house, the labor cost was $10 per M. A 1,000-ton ice house, 30 x 86 ft., contained 54 M. The average cost of six of these houses was : Total. Per sq. ft. Materials $ 670 $0.26 La*)or 500 0.20 Total $1,170 $0.46 The labor cost was a little more than $9 per M. Cost of Car Shops. Car shops were built in six months (1906) by contract for the Wabash Ry., at Decatur, 111. The total cost of the plant was $368,000, including buildings, machinery, shop yard, grading and track. The cost of the different buildings was as follows : Per cu. ft. cts. Car shop, 88 X 464 ft 2.7 Blacksmith and machine shop, 80 X 294 3.0 Storehouse and 2-story office bids at one end, 40 X 464. 5.5 Wood mill, 80 X 238. . . . . . 2.9 Cabinet, upholstering, etc., shop 40 X 350 4.5 Power house, 60 X 108, brick * 3.4 Lavatory building 5.4 Dry kiln, reinforced concrete roof, floor, etc 11.1 Dry lumber sheds 2.3 Iron, coal and coke sheds 3.5 Material sheds and racks 5.8 All the large shop buildings have timber frames with hollow walls formed of plaster (1 to 1% ins. thick), on expanded metal lath (24 gage), secured to 1%-in. round rods stapled to the timbers. The shop buildings have maximum window area. Cost of Engine Roundhouses. Mr. R. D. Coombs gives the fol lowing bills of materials and estimated* costs of wooden, of steel framed, and. of reinforced concrete roundhouses. Each stall is 73 ft. long, 24 ft!' wide at one end and 14 ft. wide at the other, giving an average width of 19 ft., or an area of 912 sq. ft. The-' estimated cost of one stall of the wooden roundhouse with brick walls is : 1148 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. WOODEN ROUNDHOUSE. Roof and Center Columns: 380ft. B. M. spruce monitor sheathing at $35.00...$ 13.30 320 ft. B. M. pine monitor purlins at $40.00 12.80 345 ft. B. M. cypress monitor framing at $60.00. . . 20.70 1 512 ft. B. M. spruce roof sheathing at $35.00 52.92 2 238 ft. B. M. pine roof purlins at $40.00 89.52 675 ft. B. M. pine girders at $40.00 27.00 601 ft. B. M. pine columns and caps at $40.00 24.04 65 ft. B. M. spruce bridging, etc. at $40.00 2.60 6 136 ft. B. M. total timber $242.88 70 Ibs bolts at $0.03 2.10 8 pivot windows, incl. painting, at $4.00 32.00 2 fixed windows, incl. painting, at $2.50 5.00 2.92 cu. yds. concrete column foundation at $6.00.. 17.52 1,513 sq. ft. tarred felt roofing at $0.04 60.52 Smoke-jack- 30.00 4,200 sq. ft. painting at $0.0225 94.50 700 Ibs. cast iron column base at $0.0275 19.25 Total for roof and center columns , $503.77 Walls: 12.5 cu. yds. brick wall at $6.50 $ 81.25 1.8 cu. yds. brick arch at $8.00 14.40 3,200 Ibs. cast iron column at $0.0275 88.00 7.2 cu. yds. concrete wall foundation at $6.00 43.20 1.46 cu. yds. concrete post foundation at $6.00 8.76 2 lifting windows, incl. painting, at $10.00 20.00 200 ft. B. M. cypress window framing at $60.00.... 12.00 1 double door, incl. painting 50.00 Total for walls $317.61 Grand total for one stall $822.38 The cost of each stall of a steel framed roundhouse with brick walls is estimated as follows: STEEL FRAMED ROUNDHOUSE. Roof and Center Columns: 380 ft. B. M. spruce monitor sheathing at $35.00. . .$ 13.30 320 ft. B. M. pine monitor purlins at $40.00 12.80 345 ft. B. M. cypress monitor framing at $60.00. . . . 20.70 2,330 ft. B. M. spruce roof sheathing at $35.00 81.55 135 ft. B. M. spruce nailing strips at $40.00 5.40 1,550 Ibs. steel columns at $0.03 46.50 7,650 Ibs. steel purlins at $0.03 228.00 1,900 Ibs. steel girders at $0.03 57.00 450 Ibs. steel knees, etc. at $0.03 13.50 100 Ibs. bolts and fillers at $0.03 3.00 8 pivot windows, incl. painting, at $4.00 32.00 2 fixed windows, incl. painting, at $2.50 5.00 2.26 cu. yds. concrete column found, at $6.00 13.56 0.14 cu. yds. column found, cap at $10.00 1.40 1,470 sq. ft. roofing at $0.04 58.80 Smoke jack 30.00 1,250 sq. f t. painting, steel at $0.01 12.50 - 1,900 sq. ft. painting, wood at $0.0225 42.75 Total for roof and center columns $677.76 Brick walls (same as for wood roundhouse) 317.61 . Grand total . ..$995.37 BUILDINGS. U49 The cost of one stall of reinforced concrete roundhouse is esti- mated thus: REINFORCED CONCRETE ROUNDHOUSE. Roof and Center Columns: 3,770 Ibs. reinforcing rods at $0.03 $113.10 42.56 cu. yds. concrete superstructure at $15.00 638.88 2.3 cu. yds. concrete col. bases at $6.00 13.80 410ft. B. M. pine, monitor purlins at $40.00 16.40 420 ft. B. M. spruce, monitor sheathing at $35.00. . . 14.70 280 ft. B. M. cypress monitor frame at $60.00 16.80 8 pivot windows at $4.00 32.00 2 fixed windows at $2.50 5.00 1,440 sq. ft. roofing at $0.04 57.60 38 ft. gutter at $0.16 6.08 18 ft. down spout at $0.30 5.40 Smoke jack 30.00 700 sq. ft. painting at $0.0225 15.75 Total for roof and center columns $965.51 Walls: 640 Ibs. reinforcing rods at $0.03 $ 19.20 350 Ibs. channels at $0.03 10.50 2,330 Ibs. cast iron column at $0.0275 64.07 215 sq. ft. expanded metal No. 10 at $0.027 5.80 6.42 cu. yds. reinforced concrete walls at $15.00 96.30 7.09 cu. yds. concrete foundations at $6.00 42.54 0.74 cu. yds. concrete door post at $6.00 4.44 4 lifting windows at $10.00 40.00 Double door . 40.00 Total for walls $346.85 Total for one stall . $1,312.36 Cost of Roundhouse, Coaling Station, Turntable, Etc.* Mr. A. O. Cunningham gives data of which the following is a brief abstract. See Engineering-Contracting for full description of the plant with drawings. In 1907, the Wabash R. R. built a new engine terminal plant at Decatur, 111., where 100 engines are cared for daily. The roundhouse has a wooden frame resting on concrete founda- tions. The walls are of wooden girts to which expanded metal is fastened on both sides. The expanded metal on the outer surface is plastered on both sides with a mixture of Portland cement, lime and sand, and cocoanut fiber. The expanded metal on the inner surface is, of course, only coated on one side with the same kind of plaster. This construction provides a wall with a hollow space of air between, so that dampness cannot penetrate to the inner surface. The air space forms a good insulator to keep the building warm in winter and cool in summer. The plaster applied to these walls consists of 1 bbl. of lime mixed with 15 bbls. of sand and 4 Ibs. of cocoanut fiber, the whole being mixed thoroughly with water and allowed to stand for at least two weeks so as to give the lime time enough to slack thoroughly. One part of Portland cement is added to three parts of this mixture, with enough water added to make a plastic; ^Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 28, 1909. 1150 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. mortar. This is applied to the expanded metal and allowed to harden. This is called a scratch coat. On this coat is plastered another layer of mortar, composed of 3 parts of sand to 1 part of cement. The plaster on the expanded metal on the outer surface of the house is 1^ ins. thick, and that on the inner surface about % in. thick. This hollow wall extends completely around the outside of the house, and from the ground to a height of 5 ft. The exterior face of the wall is painted with a water- proofing compound. On this wall is placed a continuous line of windows, which extend to the underside of the eaves of the building, thus providing plenty of light, which is very essential in such build- ings. The cost of a wall of this description is slightly less than brick, but a saving is made because brickwork requires foundations to support it, while this construction requires only those necessary to support the posts. Also lintels are required over openings in brickwork, and none are required in this kind of a wall. A further advantage in this construction is that a continuous line of windows may be used, while with brickwork this is not possible, on account of the pilasters. The windows are made so that the two lower sashes are hung together with copper chains over pulleys ; thus when one is raised the other is lowered ; consequently they are counterbalanced without going to the expense of providing box frames with counterweights. The floor of the roundhouse is of concrete, built similarly .to a sidewalk, and placed on cinders. It is laid out in squares of about 3 ft. to the side, so if any square gets broken, as it is liable to be on account of the heavy pieces handled in a house of this description, it can be repaired at small cost. The foundations carrying the posts are of concrete and are entirely separate from the floor, so if any settle, the floor will not be disturbed. On the roof sheathing is laid a built-up roof of 5-ply tar and crushed limestone. The crushed limestone not only adds weight to hold the built-up roof in place, but, being white in color, helps to protect the tar from the rays of the sun. The cost of this roof covering in place was about the same as that of a prepared roofing. The turntable foundations are supported by piling and are of concrete. The center or pivot foundation is reinforced with rods just above the head of the piles. The circle rail is spiked to short ties laid without any fastenings on the circle wall. The pit is paved with concrete in a manner similar to that in the house and is drained by a 4-in. tile into the catch basin previously mentioned. The turntable is of the deck type, 75 ft. long, with a live load 1 capacity of 215 tons, and is turned by means of a tractor wheel running on the circle rail and operated by electricity. The steel work of the turntable was built by the American Bridge Co., and installed by employes of t..e Wabash R. R. Co. There are 70 cu. yds. of cinders removed daily from the cinder pits by means of an electric gantry crane and clamshell bucket, this part of the plant being made by the Case Mfg. Co., of Columbus, BUILDINGS. 1151 Ohio. There are two cinder pits, each 150 ft. long, and the crau^ travels on a track between them. The cost of work is given below in detail ; but, as will be noticed, it does not include the value of the old buildings utilized (machine shop, blacksmith and boiler shop and sand house), nor the value of the old machinery and cost of labor for installing it in the machine shop. 42 stall engine house, incl. turntable foundations $60,000 Roofing 2,000 Heating system with pump, well, etc 6,220 Smoke jacks 2,100 Door anchors , 100 Drainage and sewerage 1,950 Wiring and lights 1,000 Grading 600 Engineering in field 1,000 Track inside of engine house (value new) 1,675 Telpher hoist 1,000 Washout system and motors 6,900 $ 84,545 Track between turntable and engine house and la- bor laying (value new) $ 1,955 Turntable pit and foundation $ 3,360 Turntable 2,430 Circle rail and track on turntable (value new) 685 Machinery for operating turntable 1,075 7,550 Cinder pit $ 6,875 Gantry crane 835 Machinery for gantry crane 2,950 Clam-shell bucket (value new) 600 11,260 Coaling station (200-ton) 8,775 Sand house and machinery (value new) 2,000 50,000-gal. water tank and fixtures (value new) .... 1,100 Three water cranes with water pipes and fixtures, etc. (value new) 1,000 $118,185 NOTE. Items with the words "value new" written after them indi- cate that the material or structure had been formerly used with the old facilities. The amount given is the cost if new. Cost of a Brick and Steel Building.* Mr. A. E. Duckham is author of the following : In the spring of 1907 the writer was called upon to design a building for a wire-glass plant in South Greensburg, Pa., for the Arbogast-Brock Glass Co. ; the wire-glass to be made under a new process of Mr. John Arbogast, who is now superintendent of the plant which has been completed. The building, which is 60 x 170 ft., was started (breaking ground) on May 20 and was finished by the author on Aug. 1. This includes the lehr (furnace) foundations. The foundations up to the level of the ground are of concrete, made of 1 part cement (Portland), 3 parts sand, and 7 parts gravel. They were carried down to clay, which on an average was 3 ft. below the surface of the ground, which was level. As the ground *Engineering-Contracti>i(i, Apr. l. r , 1908. 1152 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. was marsh-like, the trenches were dug and immediately filled up with concrete, mixed on the board and deposited by wheelbarrow from a plank runway into the bottom. No water was required in the mixing-board for the bottom layens of concrete, owing to the trenches being partly filled with surface water. After standing all night we would find the trenches filled with water in the morning; this we pumped out with an ordinary hand-pump and trench suction hose (about 3 ins. in diameter). At times, it kept one man busy pumping all day, owing to the heavy rains to which we were subject, which kept the ground saturated. Above the level of the ground the building is of brick. The roof-trusses are of steel, including the purlins. They rest on the pilasters of the wall, and are attached to them by anchor bolts. The latter were set loose in the walls ; and, after the erection of the steel, were grouted with cement mortar. This was to facilitate the erection of the steel-work. The roof was covered as fellows : Nailing strips of 2 x 4 in. hemlock were bolted (every 3 ft.) to the steel purlins, and upon them was nailed 1 % in. matched yellow-pine sheathing ; upon this was laid and fastened Carey's Magnesia Flexible Cement Roofing. The building was well situated for receiving materials, as it was located 118 ft. from the railroad and 75 ft. from a street. The cement, sand, gravel and brick were obtained from local dealers within a mile of the place ; the first three were hauled by wagon (with the exception of one carload of sand), and the last one was shipped in by car on a siding opposite the building, and slipped in by a chute, the railroad track being about 8 ft. above our ground. The walls between the pilasters are only 9 ins., but the pilasters project 9 ins., thus making an 1 8-in. pillar or column under each truss to carry the load ; the 9-in. wall between acting as a curtain wall. The brick wall was laid complete in cement mortar, no lime being used. The mortar was composed of 1 part of cement and 2% parts of clean river sand. When the building was finished, the mortar was so hard that it was difficult to break it with a hammer. We had some trouble at first with the bricklayers to get them to use this mortar without the addition of lime, as it is not easy to spread. When set up, however, it lasts for all time. The cement, an American Portland, gave us perfect satisfaction. This was used throughout in foundations, brick walls and lehr .'furnace) foundations. Partly in the lehr foundation we used furnace slag from the steel works in place of gravel, being unable to obtain the latter in time. It was very satisfactory, but required much more water in mixing, which had to be carried from a creek about 100 ft. distant. The steel half trusses were skidded off the cars onto the ground, brought into the building after the erection of the walls through one of the large doorways on a "buggy," riveted together to form complete trusses, and then raised into position by a gin-pole, block and tackle, and crab (the latter being operated by six men). There were ten steel erectors, and it took them about ten days to BUILDINGS. 1153 I erect the steel-work, including trusses, purlins, lateral bracing (in three bays) and "sag rods." A day or so was lost, however, waiting for tools and material. On the original plans we figured on regular ventilators or lanterns with side louvres of sheet steel extending the whole length of the ridge of the roof for ventilation ; but, at the suggestion of the owners, to save cost, these were omitted, and four ordinary circular ventilators were used along the ridge. As there were many large windows along the sides of the building, as well as the ends, these were considered enough for the purpose. The windows had boxes for pulleys and weights. There were two sash to each window. The bottom sash weighed 39 Ibs. including the glass; this was weighed to determine the size of counter-weights. The 122 squares of roof-covering took one week to lay, nail, cement, and paint. There were five men for three days and two men for six days. Two men (experts) came up on the job, and three ordinary local mechanics were hired. The extra men cost $20. In unloading the brick from the cars on the railroad track, in one case it took five hours to unload one box car of 12,000 brick with four men (two inside and two outside), with chute; and in another it took 3% hours for five men to unload the same car. The building was not only designed by the author as engineer and architect, but he also had the contract to erect the building complete on the ^'cost-plus-a-fixed-sum" plan. By this method, the owners saved at least $2,000 figuring on the lowest bids, or about 25 per cent of the net cost (not taking into account the architects and contractors' commission). The building was originally intended to be built at Carnegie (about five miles from Pittsburg), but was finally built at Greensburg (over 30 miles from Pittsburg), where everything, owing to the increased distance from a large city and a river (for sand and gravel), cost more. The bids were figured on the Carnegie location, consequently the percentage showing the amount saved in cost should be increased. The average lump bid of the contractors was about $11,500, but this was for the Carnegie location. To show the increased cost of the same building at Greensburg, we got a bid on the brickwork from the same man of $1,955 at Carnegie and $2,400 at Greensburg, or an increase of over 22 per cent. Again cement cost $1.75 per barrel at Carnegie and $1.85 at Greensburg, while sand cost 7% ots. a bushel at Carnegie and 9 cts. at Greensburg. The detailed cost of the building as built was as follows : Steel-work $2,730.00 Lumber, doors and windows, sheathing, etc... 1,283.64 Roof covering (cement roofing felt) 412.50 Cement, sand and gravel 938.04 Brick 738.4-5 Labor (including common ' labor, bricklayers and carpenters) 2,175.58 Bolts to fasten nailing strips to purlins 28.88 Hardware 79.54 Ventilators (circular) 18.00 Total . ..$8,404.63 1354 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of the building per cubic foot of space from the ground level to the roof was 3% cents. The cost per square foot of floor space was 82.4 cts. The above does not include the architect's fee of 5 per cent or the contractor's fee (of approximately 8 per cent) ; this would bring the cost per cubic foot up to 3.6 cts., and the cost per square foot up to 93.1 cts. The building was filled in to a depth of 4 ft. with dry earth and burnt sand (from a foundry nearby). It was originally intended to lay a cement floor upon this, or a brick floor (preferably the latter, as being easier to take up for the additional lehrs) ; but this was abandoned for the present, until the filling would become well tamped down by walking and by rolling trucks over it. The lehr walls (foundation) were built by the writer under a separate contract with the furnace contractors. This work he did for $6.50 a cubic yard for the concrete walls (3 ft. under ground and 4 ft. above ground) and 50 cts. a yard extra for excavating the trenches. At this figure, he made 18 per cent profit. There were some advantages and some disadvantages. Under the head of advantages were the facts that his foreman, who was overlooking the main building, also took charge of this work ; then for casing or forms for the concrete we used sheathing and lumber afterwards used on the building; under the head of disadvantages were the handicaps of having to carry water for the concrete and that we were held up by the steel erectors, who got in our way. The car- penter work in building the forms for the concrete lehr foundations amounted to 10 per cent of the total labor bill. The total labor bill amounted to 28 per cent of the total cost, and the materials (cement, gravel, slag, and sand) consequently run up to 72 per cent of the total cost. Runways were built of inclined planks, and the concrete was deposited by wheelbarrows directly into the forms and then tamped. The writer believes in rather a wet mix of concrete, tamped enough to bring the water to the surface, and make it livei like (quaking). Inclined runways and scaffolding of 2-in. plank and doubled 2 x 4~ in. studs as posts were also used in the main building to supply the bricklayers with brick and mortar. Up these, common laborers wheeled the material in barrows ; thus doing away with the slow and more expensive hod-carriers and ladders. The material used in the construction of the runways and scaffolds was afterward used in the room, so there was but little waste of lumber. The plans, with the exception of the details, were made on 7&-in. scale, instead of the usual ^-in. scale. This smaller scale made it more convenient in the field, and not so cumbersome, especially when there was a strong wind. The writer believes that as small a scale as possible should be used, and all details should be made on a separate sheet on say 1-in. or 1%-in. scale. Figures in all cases should be given instead of depending on the scale. This would remove all doubt and controversy. In fact we should follow the procedure of the bridge drafting room. BUILDINGS. 1155 In designing the building, no attempt was made at ornamentation, as the owners wanted the building to cost as little as possible ; but the writer saw to it that everything was strong and efficient. The brickwork was laid in English Bond, the strongest kind ; and the writer was surprised to find how few "of the so-called practical bricklayers knew what it was or how to lay it. Most of them thought that it was Flemish bond or* alternate headers and stretchers instead of alternate layers of headers and stretchers, which is the English Bond. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. The following is a very brief abstract of a five-page article by Mr. Leonard C. Wason, President Aberthaw Construction Co., in Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 13, 1909. [The labor unit costs are rather high. The work was done in New England.] It is well known that the cost of materials and labor in different parts of the country vary somewhat. Having the unit items all sub-divided into their elementary parts, it is an easy matter after determining the cost of materials in any locality to make the exact corrections to the re.^'ilts obtained on a previous job. Similarly, when a difference in tne rate per hour for wages is known, if the same efficiency is obtained from the men it is very easy to make a correction, or if the efficiency varies, judgment must be applied to determine the correct rate to use. It has been the writer's experi- ence that although the rate of wages and cost of materials vary somewhat in different parts of the country, the variations frequently offset one another so nearly that the sum total of the unit cost obtained in one place may be used in another, very seldom needing correction. For instance, within one month, after careful investiga- tion, a bid was made up on a structure at San Juan, Porto Rico, using the same unit costs as foi* a building in Boston. In the report that is given, the costs relate to strictly first class material and workmanship in every case, as it has been the endeavor of the writer to establish and maintain one standard for all work. In general I would say that the standard mixture for all floors has been either 1-3-6, or 1-2-4 if the floor is subjected to extremely heavy loads and service. Walls are mixed 1-3-6 and columns usually 1-2-4 ; in some cases where they are very heavily loaded a richer mixture is used. As these mixtures are common to nearly all construction the costs here given may be applied with little danger of error from neglecting the mixture on any work. Of course it can readily be understood that in the large number of jobs which have entered into the averages given, there being as many as 18 in the case of beam floors, different methods of conducting the work have been used and many different foremen. Therefore, while the general average is doubtless safe for any work of an average character, some latitude may be allowed the judgment in determining whether any specific case is likely to be difficult, easy or average. The writer has found quite a difference, for instance, in cost of identical work handled by different foremen, due to the personal equation of their painstaking supervision and ability. 1156 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Columns. The following costs are the average of 9 buildings : Per cu. ft. of concrete. Cement $0.085 Sand and stone 0.049 Labor on concrete.- 0.096 General labor 0.027 Team and miscellaneous 0.021 Plant 0.023 Total, exclusive of steel and of forms $0.301 The cost of forms i>er square foot of concrete surface encased was as follows: Per sq. ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.036 Nails and wire 0.001 Carpenter labor 0.082 Total $0.130 This includes all necessary posts and staging, also wheelbarrow runs for placing the concrete. Cost of Beam Floors. The average cost for 18 buildings was: Per. cu. ft. of concrete. Cement $0.106 Sand and stone 0.063 Labor on concrete 0.111 General labor 0.020 Team and miscellaneous 0.025 Plant 0.024 Total, exclusive of steel and of forms $0.354 The cost of forms per square foot of concrete surface covered was: Per sq. ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.045 Nails and wire 0.002 Carpenter labor 0.070 Total $0.116 Cost of Flat Slab Floors. The average cost of 3 buildings was : Per cu. ft. of concrete. Cement $0.096 Sand and cement 0.070 Labor on concrete 0.097 General labor 0.009 Team and miscellaneous 0.019 Plant 0.024 Total, exclusive of forms $0.315 BUILDINGS. 1157 The cost of forms was: Per sq. ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.038 Nails and wire 0.002 Carpenter labor 0.071 Total $0.111 Cost of Concrete Slabs Between Stc-el Beams. The average cost for 13 buildings was: Per cu. ft. concrete. Cement $0.128 Sand and stone 0.068 Labor on concrete 0.102 General labor 0.019 Team and miscellaneous 0.024 Plant 0.017 Total, exclusive of steel and of forms $0.359 The cost of forms was : Per sq. ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.032 Nails and wire 0.002 Carpenter labor 0.061 Total .$0.095 Cost of Walls. The average cost of concrete walls (above grade) for 17 buildings was: Per cu. ft. concrete. Cement $0.073 Sand and stone 0.076 Labor on concrete 0.090 General labor 0.016 Team and miscellaneous 0.025 Plant . 0.019 Total, exclusive of steel and of forms $0.301 The cost of forms was : Per sq. ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.036 Nails and wire 0.002 Carpenter labor 0.085 Total . $0.128 Cost of Foundation Walls. The average cost for 14 buildings was: Per cu. ft. concrete. Cement $0.080 Sand and stone Labor on concrete General labor Team and miscellaneous. Plant . 0.062 0.076 0.015 0.019 0.017 Total, exclusive of forms. $0.269 1158 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. The cost of forms was : Per sq ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.033 Nails and wire 0.002 Carpenter labor 0.068 Total $0.103 Cost of Footing and Mass Foundations. The average cost for 10 buildings was : Per cu. ft. concrete. Cement $0.071 Sand and stone 0.077 Labor on concrete 0.045 General labor 0.007 Team and miscellaneous 0.007 Plant 0.021 Total, exclusive of forms $0.229 The cost of forms was : Per sq. ft. Lumber at $22 per M $0.034 Nails 0.002 Carpenter labor 0.057 Total . $0.093 Cost of Labor on Reinforcing Steel. Table XI omits entirely the first cost of the material. After it is received at the site of the work in the shape sold by the manufacturer, these prices cover the cost of fabricating into units for columns or beams, bending the stirrups, placing and all incidentals whatsoever prior to the actual embedding in concrete. In the case of the highest cost, a coal pocket, there was very limited storage space, 1^4 -in. bars had to be bent diagonally so as to pass over the top of the support at columns, and there were numerous stirrups, all of which had to be made by hand. The job was too small to justify any mechanical arrangement for bending or for handling material. The next highest, office build- ing, Portland, Me., there was a sufficient amount to require proper machinery. The hoops for columns were all welded. The vertical bars were all wired inside of these hoops. There was a mushroom head of bent and circular bars wired together at the top and great numbers of long bars of small section spread in all directions over the floor. The lowest price, filter at Lawrence, was made entirely of straight bars placed loose, the only expense being cutting them in a hand shear to length and placing them. BUILDINGS. 1159 TABLE XI. STEEL. Weight. Cost of Cost per Location. Tons. handling. ton. Office building, Portland, Me 324% $5,115.32 $15.76 Fire station, Weston, Mass 8% 40.26 4.74 Mill, Chelsea, Mass 65% 548.81 8.41 Coal bins, Dalton, Mass 8% 61.75 7.26 Dam, Auburn, Me 55 506.76 9.18 Filter, Warren, R. 1 19 102.59 5.40 Tank, Lincoln, Me 8% 69.38 8.16 Tar well, Springfield 15% 59.21 3.82 Monument, Provincetown 24% 136.84 5.58 Mill, Greenfield 92% 1,232.01 10.20 Machine shop, Milton, Mass 20% 177.16 8.75 Coal pocket, Lawrence, Mass 28 461.16 16.47 Mill, Southbridge 53% 142.76 2.67 Mill, S. Windham, Me 293 3,079.60 10.51 Mill, Attleboro, Mass 49% 286.02 5.78 Garage, Newton, Mass 20 86.55 4.33 Mill, Southbridge, Mass 30 100.03 3.34 Coal pocket, Hartford, Conn 195 2,316.60 11.88 Filter, Lawrence, Mass 44y 2 112.84 2.54 Warehouse, Portland, Me 62 462.99 7.47 Standpipe, Attleboro, Mass 199% 1,547.00 7.75 Highest 16.47 Lowest 2.54 Average of 21 8.52 Cost of Reinforced Concrete Building Construction.* Mr. T. Herbert Files is author of the following: The costs here given are those of labor only, as labor costs are usually the unknown ones in estimating, the material costs being easily obtained from the schedule of quantities and the market prices. These costs are taken from different work which the writer has been on and are known to be correct for that kind of work. They are not obtained from rough figures after the work was finished, but from carefully kept cost records. All of the costs are from jobs consisting of a number of buildings. The cost analysis was kept in the following manner. Each job had a cost keeper whose only duties were those of keeping the average weekly cost of the different work of construction. The distribution of the time was taken either from foreman's reports or from time cards. Most of the costs given in this article are obtained by means of time cards. Time cards are rather difficult to get from the ordinary labor employed on construction work, but this difficulty was overcome by having the foreman of the labor gangs make out cards for each man in his crew. The carpenters and better class of laborers made out their own cards. Each man had to pass in a time card as he checked out at the timekeeper's window at night. In this way the record of each man's time and how it was spent, was passed into the office each night, and no special men were lost, as usually happens when the distribution is taken from foremen's cards. "Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 7, 1909. 1160 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost keeper would go over these cards the next day and enter the totals of the labor of each class of work on the cost keeping sheets. The record was divided into different accounts, one for each division of the work, such as excavation, concreting, forms, floor finish, steel, etc. All time was charged against its proper account in such a way as to show the date, kind of work, total time, and wage rate, as shown by the accompanying form. The total number of hours in the analysis was checked up each day with the total number of hours on the timekeeper's sheets. At the end of each week the total cost of each kind of work for the week and the unit cost were figured up and a summary made of the totals of the different accounts. This total was then compared with the pay-roll. If everything has been carried through correctly, the two totals should check within a few dollars. They will not check exactly, as average wage rates are used in the cost keeping. Wages. As cost figures do not mean much unless the rates of wages are known, the average rates paid will be given. They are as follows: Common labor, as used in excavating, unloading materials, and unskilled work, 17^ cts. per hour; foreman, 30 cts. ; concrete labor, 19 cts. per hour ; foreman, 40 cts. ; steel labor, 25 cts. per hour ; foreman, 30 cts. ; form labor, used for stripping and rough carpenter work, 30 cts. ; carpenters 41 cts. per hour, and foreman, 50 cts. Cost of Unloading Materials. Cement is usually unloaded by laborers carrying the bags on their shoulders from the car, or by wheeling in wheelbarrows. If a car can be unloaded direct from the car into the storage shed, with very little carrying, six men can unload 600 bags equivalent to 150 bbls., in 3 hours, at a unit cost of 2 cts. per bbl. If unloaded by wheelbarrows with a distance of 100 ft., it will cost 4 cts. per bbl., but may run up to 5 cts. or 6 cts. if the men are not handled in the proper manner. Sand and gravel will cost on an average of 8 cts. per cu. yd. for unloading, laborers shoveling it from the car to the storage pile nearby. The cost varies from 6 to 10 cts., depending upon con- ditions. Reinforcing steel bars can be unloaded at a cost varying from 35 cts. to |3.00 per ton, depending upon the carrying distance. Here are some actual costs: Unloading % in. x 20 ft. twisted steel, from box cars and piling it on ground beside car 32 cts. per ton. Unloading from gondola cars, carrying 300 ft. and piling on racks in steel shed, $3.00 per ton. The unloading of lumber differs considerably in cost, same depending upon the distance carried and the size of the sticks. It was found, however, from our records that it cost from 70 cts. to $1.00 per 1,000 ft. B. M. to unload, haul 200 ft. and pile, form sheathing. Form Work. The cost of form work is the most difficult cost to get in reinforced concrete construction. This is especially so in regard to the making of forms, as the work on construction jobs is ' usually done in such a manner that it is hard to distribute the costs BUILDINGS. 1161 properly and have the correct amount of work done, reported. The cost work here referred to was not started in the best way to give good costs of the making of forms and for that reason the costs of making forms will not be as complete as might be. The unit costs were figured on the number of square feet of form surface in contact with the concrete. The following are some of the labor costs of forms made in a field carpenter shop,* which consisted of two saw machines, a planing and a boring machine, with a shop foreman in charge. Per sq. ft. of surface. Columns cts. Girders and beams 5 cts. Floor panels 2 cts. Wall panels 3 cts. The cost of setting forms for the floors, which included time spent in the moving of the forms from one floor to another, erecting and setting the forms of columns, beams, and floor panels and the falsework supporting them, was figured per sq. ft. of floor surface. The costs of different floor set-ups varied, because the men at first were unskilled and not well organized. From 1,300 to 1,800 sq. ft. of floor were set up in a day. These costs ranged from 13 cts. per sq. ft. for the first set-up to 4.7 cts. for the roof set-up, making an average of 8.4 cts. per sq. ft. The stripping of the floor forms cost from 2.5 cts. to 1.5 cts. per sq. ft, or an average of 1.9 cts. per sq. ft. of floor. This makes the cost of setting up and stripping of forms for floors average 10.3 cts. per sq. ft. of floor. The curtain walls, between columns, were put in place after the floors and cost from 6 to 10 cts. per sq. ft. of form surface for setting up, or an average of 8 cts. The cost of stripping these was % ct. per sq. ft. Partition walls and outside plain walls cost from 4 to 8 cts. per sq. ft. of form surface or an average of 5 cts. for setting and % ct. per sq. ft. for stripping. Reinforcing Steel. The steel used for reinforcing was twisted rods. The column cages, beam and girder reinforcements were made up into units in the steel yard. From there they were carried and hoisted to the different floors, as they were made ready for concreting, and were put in place by the steel gang before -con- creting. The floor steel was placed as the floor was concreted. The cost of the steel work is divided as follows: Per ton. Unloading I 2.00 Making up steel 5.50 Carrying 1-75 Placing LOO Total $10.25 Concreting. The labor costs in concreting vary a great deal with the plant and method of conveying. On this work, the concrete was machine mixed, the materials being run into storage hoppers HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. over the mixer, by a self dumping car, on an inclined track, from the material pile, where it was loaded by hand. The concrete after being mixed, was raised to the proper floor by a hoist, which dumped automatically into a hopper. From this hopper the concrete was wheeled to the desired location by means of concrete carts. The greatest wheeling distance was 350 ft. and the least 50 ft., making the average distance 200 ft. The costs of concreting columns and floors ranged from 2.8 cts. to 4.2 cts. per cu. ft., or^m average cost of 3.5 cts. per cu. ft. In concreting footings, the material was moved to the mixer by means of wheelbarrows instead of self dumping cars, and wheeled to the desired location over plank runs. Under these conditions the cost of concreting was 5 cts., with the carrying distance the same as for the floors. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Factory.* Mr. D. L. C. Raymond gives the following relative to a building erected in 1907 at Walker- ville, Ontario. It is a two story factory, 100 x 100 ft., with 18 ft. clearance on the first floor and 12 ft. on the second. It is skeleton type of construction, 16 x 16 ft. floor panels, and 6-in. curtain walls. Steel rods were used for reinforcement with wire mesh in the slabs. A 1 :2 :4 mixture was used, the mortar finish on the floors being 1 :2. The columns and beam forms were 2-in. dressed pine, supported by 4 x 4 stuff. The floor forms were 1 in. laid on 2 x 4 pieces spaced 18 ins. The men were all green at the work. There were 847 cu. yds. of concrete, the cost of which was as follows: Materials: Total. Per cu. yd. Cement at $2.05 per bbl $ 3,314 $ 3.91 Sand and gravel at $1.25 per cu. yd 1,054 1.25 Reinforcement at $55 per ton 2,314 2.73 Lumber for forms at $27 per M 4,944 5.84 Nails... 107 0.13 Total materials $11,733 $13.86 Labor: Building runs, mixing and hoisting concrete. $ 872 $1.03 Placing and tamping concrete. 562 0.66 Placing reinforcement 221 0.26 Stripping and cleaning forms, etc 380 0.45 Carpenters building and setting forms 2,010 2.38 Superintendence 714 0.84 Tools and depreciation of plant 338 0.40 Total labor . .$ 5,097 $ 6.02 Grand total 16,830 19.88 It will be noted that no salvage is allowed for the lumber, and that 216 ft. B. M. were used per cu. yd. of concrete. The carpenter work on the lumber cost $11 per M. The cost of stripping lumber and cleaning up amounted to a little more than $2 per M. There were 100 Ibs. of reinforcement per cu. yd., and the labor of placing it was only a trifle more than *4 ct. per Ib. ^Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 29, 1908. BVJLDJXGS. 1163 This building contained about 320,000 cu. ft. of space. Hence the cost of the concrete alone was 5*4 cts. per cu. ft., which is a low cost. The cost per square foot of floor area (2 stories) was 84 cts., not including windows, etc, Cost of a House of Separately Molded Concrete Members.* The construction of a kiln house of separately molded reinforced concrete columns, girders and slabs for the Edison Portland Cement Works at New Village, N. J., was described in our issue of Oct. 2, 1907. (See also "Concrete Construction," by Gillette and Hill.) This article gave for the first time costs of molding and erecting sepa- rately molded concrete structural members for building work. Since it was published the same company has built a cement storage house for which the columns, girders and roof slabs were separately molded and erected. In a paper by Mr. W. H. Mason, superintendent Edison Portland Cement Works, some of the costs of this later work were given. We give these costs in different form and more fully analyzed in the following paragraphs. The storage house is 144 x 360 ft., in plan with a clear height of 30 ft. The exterior walls are of retaining wall section, they having to take the thrust of the stored cement, and they were built in place. Between walls are five longitudinal rows of columns ; the rows are spaced 24 ft. apart and the columns in each row are 12 ft. apart. Transverse roof girders 12 ft. apart cap the columns and carry a roof of 6 x 12 ft. x 4-in. slabs. For column footings 5 x 5 x 5 -ft. plain concrete cubes with 20-in. square sockets molded in their tops were used. Materials and Labor. The concrete used was a 1 :6 mixture, using crushed run stone, all of which would pass a %-in. screen. The Edison company furnished both cement and stone, charging up the cement at $1 per barrel and the stone at 60 cts. per cu. yd. The lumber, of which 7,000 ft. B. M., were used, cost $27 per thousand. The reinforcing steel, of which 201,400 Ibs. were used, cost delivered 2.03 cts. per pound. A force of 23 men was employed; eleven of them were classed as carpenters at an average wage of 24 cts. per hour and 12 as laborers at an average wage of 15 cts. per hour. Casting Floor and Plant. The casting floor on which the columns, girders and slabs were molded, was located some half a mile from the building. A % cu. yd. Ransome mixer was set lip under the mill conveyor which carries crushed cement rock for cement making to the stock house and from this conveyor the stone was chuted directly into the mixer stock bins as wanted. The mixer discharged directly into 3 cu. yd. cars which ran out on a track between casting floors on each side. The casting floors consisted of trowel finished con- crete slabs 4 or 5 ins. thick laid on a 4-in. sub-base of compacted cinders. These casting floors cost, Mr. Mason states, 4 cts. per square foot. So far as possible, members were cast side by side and in tiers so as to reduce floor space and form work. The concrete cars discharged by spout directly into the molds, the mixture being made wet enough to flow easily. 11 Engineering-Contracting, Mar. 18, 1908. 1164 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Molding Columns. There were 141 columns, having 18 x 18-in. shafts 32 ft. long with two triangular brackets at the top for girder seats, and each column contained very closely 2.8 cu. yds. of concrete and 275 Ibs. of reinforcement or closely 98 Ibs. of steel per cubic yard of concrete. These quantities are computed from drawings. The construction of the forms for molding the columns is shown by Fig. 7. Each complete form contained about 535 ft. B. M. of lumber and seven were used for molding 141 columns and were still in good condition after the work. The seven molds con- tained about 3,745 ft. B. M. of lumber and molded 141 X 2.8 = 395 Fig. 7. cu. yds. of concrete, so that the amount of form lumber used per cubic yard of concrete molded was about 9.7 ft. B. M. The costs of molding per column and per cubic yard were as follows : Item. Per col. Per cu. yd. Steel reinforcement $ 7.57 $2.70 Concrete materials 5.48 1.96 Labor, carpenters 4.27 1.52 Labor, concrete and steel 1.95 0.70 Total cost $19.27 $6.88 Molding Girders. There were 187 girders, each 12 x 26 ins. x 24 ft. and each containing 1.9 cu. yds. of concrete and about 320 Ibs. of steel or about 168 Ibs. per cubic yard of concrete. A complete girder form is shown by Fig. 8. A complete form contained ap- proximately 370 ft. B. M. of lumber and five forms, or 1,850 ft. B. M., were used for molding 187 girders, or about 5.2 ft. B. M. per cu. yd. of concrete in girders. It should be noted that many of the girders were molded between other girders without using any BUILDINGS. 1165 wooden forms at all. The average cost of molding a girder complete was as follows : Item. Per girder. Per cu. yd. Steel ............................... $ 5.53 $2.91 Concrete material .................... 3.51 1.90 Carpenter labor ...................... 2.26 1.18 Labor, mixing, placing, etc ............ 1.34 Totals $12.64 Fig. 8. Molding Roof Slabs. The roof slabs were 6 x 12 ft. x 4 ins. and each contained 0.88 cu. yds. of concrete and about 83 Ibs. of reinforcing steel or about 95 Ibs. of steel per cubic yard of concrete. The slabs were molded in tiers, using the form shown by Fig. 9, made 8 ins. deep so as to be clamped onto each slab in molding the slab above. There are about 52 ft. B. M. in a slab form, as 28 forms molded 720 slabs, about 2% ft. B. M. of form lumber were required Fig. 9. per cubic yard of concrete. The cost of molding roof slabs was as follows : Item. Per slab. Per cu. yd. Steel $1.69 Concrete material 1.85 Carpenter labor 0.423 Labor . 6.405 Totals ,$4.368 $1.92 2.10 0.48 0.46 $4.96 1166 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Each slab covered 6 x 12 = 72 sq. ft. of roof, so that the cost of molding was 6.06 cts. per sq. ft. or $6.06 per 100 sq. ft. In casting columns, girders and slabs side by side and in tiers in contact the fresh concrete was prevented from adhering to the member already molded by coating the contact surface of the molded member with two coats of ordinary whitewash. This method proved far superior to using paper, as had been done in previous work. The paper stuck to the concrete so fast that it was difficult to remove it. It should be noted also that in the preceding cost figures the cost of form lumber is apparently included in "carpenter labor." There was 7,000 ft. B. M. of form lumber at $27 per M. ft. required for molding 1,048 members, or about 1,384 cu. yds. of concrete. The cost of form lumber per cubic yard of concrete was, therefore, $189 -7- 1,384 = 13.65 cts. The labor cost of erecting the molded concrete members with a Browning locomotive crane was as follows : Per on. yd. Columns , $2.63 Girders 1.57 Roof slabs. 1.75 The details of this cost of erection and the methods are given in Gillette and Hill's "Concrete Construction." Comparative Cost of Constructing Two Identical Reinforced Con- crete Buildings One of Separately Molded Members and One of Members Molded in Place.* Mr. Mason D. Pratt is author of the following : In 1904 the Central Pennsylvania Traction Co. of Harrisburg, Pa., built a car barn and a repair shop of reinforced concrete, probably the first buildings in this country built entirely of this material for this purpose. The buildings are one story in height and were con- structed in the usual manner by erecting wooden forms and casting all concrete work in place. The same company has just completed a second barn adjacent to the one above described of the same dimensions as the first barn, viz. : 75 ft. wide by 360 ft. long. The last barn is also of reinforced concrete, but owing to conditions which seemed favorable for the purpose, an entirely different mode of construction was followed. All of the members for that portion of the building above the foundation and floors, including columns, beams, wall and roof slabs, were separately molded on the ground and afterwards erected by means of a traveling stiff-leg derrick. This method of construction proved economical and owing to the close similarity of the two buildings in size and general design it is possible to make an accurate comparison of the costs. In describing the two buildings, Barn A refers to the original building and Barn B the last one erected. Barn A was built on ground which was from 2 to 10 ft. below the floor level. The column footings were placed on solid ground 6 to 12 ins. below the sod and carried up within 1 ft. of floor level, the ground being filled in after the building was under roof. In general 'Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 19, 1910. BUILDINGS. 1167 plan the building had three rows of non-reinforced hexagonal col- umns spaced 15 ft. centers longitudinally and 37 ft. centers trans- versely. The roof consisted of transverse beams, resting on the columns, longitudinal purlins and a 3-in. slab cast in place, the col- umns being connected longitudinally with beams 6 ins. thick and 2 ft. deep. After the forms were removed from this skeleton the three longitudinal walls were filled in place. Provision was made for future extension laterally by casting brackets in the columns to support roof girders for an adjacent bay. The barn also had a wing 16 ft. wide and 90 ft. long, containing barn foreman's office, lockers and lavatory for the use of motormen, conductors and barn men. Concrete for this building was mixed in a rotary batch mixer, into which the aggregate was dumped directly from wheelbarrows, and the concrete distributed from the mixer to the job in wheelbarrows by means of runs and an elevator operated by a power hoist. Barn B was built entirely independent from Barn A, the first wall being placed 37 ft. beyond the wall of Barn A, thus permitting the increase of the plant by one addition bay in the future by simply adding a roof between the two buildings. Column spacing was made the same as Barn A, but the columns were square. In order to get roof slabs of a size which coujd be conveniently handled, the roof beams were spaced 10 ft. centers and alternated in the two bays. Thus on the outer walls a roof beam came at every other column, while on the center wall each column carried a beam and a longitudinal beam between columns supported the ends of two roof beams. The roof proper consisted of slabs, 3% ins. thick, 10 ft. long and 6 ft. and 7 ft. wide, which were laid directly on the roof beams. Two slabs at the center of every alternate 10 ft. bay were omitted to allow placing skylights. The walls were 6 ins. thick, as in the case of Barn A, but were made up of slabs of various sizes. These slabs were all tongued and grooved, as were also the columns. Three-eighths of an inch was allowed for all joints, the horizontal joints being mortared as the work was laid Up and the vertical joints filled and pointed after everything was in place. A small percentage of reinforcement was placed in all slabs as an insurance against breakage in handling. The concrete for this building was mixed in the same mixer used on Barn A, located at a central point, the materials being moved in wheelbarrows as before. Barn A had about 290 ft. of open pits under each track, 60 ft. of the front end of each bay being paved with granolithic floor and used as space for washing cars. Barn B had the same arrangement in one bay, the other bay, which was intended for storage purposes only, had granolithic floor from end to end. The ground on which Barn B was built had been filled in with various materials, mostly cinder from a nearby steel plant, and excavations had to be made for all foundations. In the figures given below, all labor for excavation in both buildings is omitted. In Barn B each column had a separate footing as in Barn A, which, however, was carried to a point 15 ins. above floor level, and provided with a pocket to 1168 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. receive the column. A layer of sand was put in each pocket to give the column good bearing and to adjust height. A beam 12 ins. wide and 2 ft. deep connected these footings, being cast at the same time with the footings. The tracks were laid in the storage bay and the granolithic floor cast in place at the time of starting excavations for the foundations, and as soon as the .floor was in place the casting of beams, columns and slabs began. The beams and columns were nested by casting the alternate pieces a suitable distance apart, and after removing the forms these became the forms for the intermediate pieces. The slabs were cast in piles, the ends being offset to enable rapid hand- ling. The pieces were separated by means of 40-lb. waxed manila paper. No difficulty whatever was experienced during the erection in separating. In some instances soap was used, but the results were not as satisfactory and the cost was higher than with the paper. The surface of the pieces formed by paper separation showed a close, smooth, dull surface, except for the wrinkles formed by the paper, which was not heavy enough to prevent wrinkling. The paper was also responsible for other defects in the surface finish, owing to the mortar running in between joints where the paper overlapped and forming thin slivers. The paper was easily removed with water from a 1-in. hose, with nozzle ^4 in. The top surfaces of all pieces, of course, were troweled. This gave a rather variegated wall surface to the structure, but a coat of cement wash using a thin mixture of about equal parts of cement and limestone dust applied with whitewash brushes produced a fairly uniform appearance. This method of construction involved the use of slightly more reinforcing steel and a larger yardage of concrete, but the saving in forms, lumber and carpenter work was more than sufficient to pay for this difference and the additional cost of derrick and erection labor. The number of loose pieces required was 1,400. These were com- pletely erected in 33 working days, with a loss of only three slabs from breakage. The derrick used was a standard stiff -leg with 60-ft. boom and 38-ft. mast, mounted on a truck so that it could be moved around the work. Power was furnished by a regular street railway motor through a gear bolted to the flywheel on the driving shaft of a two-drum hoist, the motor being equipped with standard street railway controller and suitable resistance coils. A traction com- pany motorman operated the hoist and a rigger crew placed the material. The heaviest pieces handled were the roof beams, which weighed iy 2 to 8 tons. A number of special devices were used to handle the various pieces. For the heavy beams a loop was formed at the quarter points by bending a reinforcing rod, bringing it flush with the top of the beam and scooping out a portion of the concrete while green, and a special hook used to engage this loop. These hooks entered the slotted ends of a steel spreader. The rig was thus adjustable for variable spacing of the loops and for balancing. The slabs were handled by means of slings, holes being formed in BUILDINGS. 1169 TABLE XII. COST OF CONCRETE IN SEPARATELY MOLDED CONCRETE CAR BARN. BARN B. Foundations and Floors, 710 cu. yds. : Materials: Total. Per cu.yd. Stone at |1.25 cu. yd $ 856.00 $ 1.20 Sand at $1.30 cu. yd 432.00 .61 Cement at $1.15 bbl 1,082.50 1.53 Steel 120.00 .17 Lumber 633.00 .89 Tools 100.00 .14 Total $ 3,223.50 $ 4.54 Labor: Placing reinforcement $ 19.00 $ 0.03 Forms 771.00 1.09 Concreting 1,015.00 1.43 Total $ 1,805.00 $ 2.55 Total materials and labor $ 5,028.50 $ 7.09 Building above Foundations, 948 cu. yds.: Material: Stone at $1.28 cu. yd $ 1,085.00 $ 1.16 Sand at $1.30 cu. yd 546.00 .58 Cement at $1.15 bbl 1,735.00 1.86 Steel 1,755.00 1.87 Tools 140.00 .24 Lumber 220.00 .15 Total $ 5,481.00 $ 5.86 Labor: Forms $ 818.00 $0.87 Bending and placing reinforcement 360.00 .39 Concreting 1,152.00 1.23 Erection 1,776.00 1.89 Pointing and cement wash 617.00 .66 Total $ 4,723.00 $ 5.04 Total labor and materials $10,204.00 $10.90 Totals, 1,648 cu. yds 15,232.50 9,245 Area covered by building, 360 X 75 ft. = 27,000 sq. ft. Cost of foundations and floors 18.5 cts. per sq. ft. Cost of building. 38.0 cts. per sq. ft. Total 56.5 cts. per sq. ft. 1170 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE XIII. COMPARISON- OF COST BETWEEN CAR BARNS, SEPARATELY MOLDED AND CAST IN PLACE. (Average including 'Foundations and Superstructure.) Per cu. yd. Barn B. Barn A. ( Separately Materials: (Cast in place.) molded pieces.) Stone, sand and cement $ 3.480 $3.480 Steel reinforcement 915 1.140 Lumber 1.335 .480 Paper .040 Tools, wheelbarrows, etc .145 .145 Total $5.875 $5.285 Labor: Carpenters $ 3.250 $0.965 Bending and placing steel 095 .230 Concreting 2.210 1.685 Erection 1.080 Total $ 5.555 $3.960 Total cost per cu. yd $11.430 $9.245 9.245 Dif. in favor Barn B $ 2.185 the slabs with a short section of %-in. gas pipe for receiving bolts. In setting up the side walls, these holes were used to fasten 3 x 4-in. sticks on each side of the three wall slabs of each bay, thus keeping them in line, and by means of props, in a vertical position until erection had proceeded far enough to remove them. Table XII gives complete detailed cost of all the concrete work in Barn B. Table XIII is a comparison of the average costs of all the con- crete work on Barns A and B, the figures covering all charges except general supervision. The concrete aggregate is put at same figure in each to eliminate any difference in unit cost of these materials. The mix was practically the same in each, the largest percentage being 1:2:4. Unit costs for labor were the same in both cases, viz. : ordinary labor, $1.25 per day, and carpenters, $2.50 per day. It will be noted more steel was required in B, but very much less form material and labor. The roof of Barn B required more con- crete, as all beams and slabs had to be treated as simple members, whereas in Barn A full advantage was taken of the T sections. Making full allowance for these differences the actual cost of the concrete structure of Barn A over Barn B was 15 per cent. Both buildings were constructed by day labor from plans made by the writer and under his direct supervision. Cost of Metal Forms For Concrete Building Work.* In Engi- neering-Contracting for Sept. 16, 1908, we describe a system of * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 10, 1909. BUILDINGS. 1171 metal column and floor forms for concrete building work that had been worked out by Mr. W. L. Caldwell of Canton, Ohio. In a paper read at the recent annual convention of the National Cement Users' Association Mr. Caldwell gives some estimates of the cost of these forms which are of interest. These costs are based on a 16-in. square column, with a girder beam 8 ins. wide and 18 ins. deep below floor slab, and with the lateral beams 6 ins. wide and 12 ins. deep, and floor slab 4 ins. thick. For a structure of this character, Mr. Caldwell recommends the use of 10-gage material for the angles at the four corners of the columns, 14 -gage for the lining of the columns, 14 -gage for the girder boxes, 16-gage for the lateral beam boxes and 18-gage material for the channel boards forming the intercolumn area -for carrying the floor slab, with all necessary reinforcing angles, bolts, etc., to set up the work complete ready for receiving the concrete. The costs are as follows : Column centering per lineal foot $1.75 Girder centering per lineal foot 1.00 Lateral beam centering* per lineal foot 0.50 Floor area per square foot 0.13 Adjustable girder and beam box posts per lin. ft.. . 0.05 Throwing the cost of all of these items against the floor area, the average is about 45 cts. per sq. ft. This price is arrived at by taking a building 50 x 100 ft. with , 28 columns and 18 bays or intermediate column spaces, each space or bay containing 237 sq. ft., in round numbers, each bay divided by two intermediate cross beams, or three spans to each bay. These figures will vary somewhat with the different types of buildings but will give, it is stated, a fair idea of the average cost. Under ordinary conditions these centers can be erected at a cost of approximately 1% cts. per sq. ft. for labor. Cost of Concrete Building Blocks. Mr. L. L. Bingham gives the following data. Letters were sent (1905), to more than a hundred makers of concrete blocks in Iowa. Most of the replies gave data relating to blocks for walls 10 ins. thick. The average cost per square foot of blocks for a 10-in. wall was: Cts. Sand 2.0 Cement, at $1.60 per bbl 4.5 Labor, at $1.83 per day 3.8 Total, per sq. ft 10.3 The labor of making the blocks includes mixing, molding, sprink- ling, piling and re-piling during or after curing. The average out- put per man was 48% sq. ft. (1% cu. yds.) per day. The 10% cts. however, does not include all costs of manufacture, for it does not include interest, depreciation and repairs, purchase of improved machinery, superintendence and office expense. One maker who turned out 20,000 blocks (40 car loads) had a general expense of nearly 5 cts. per sq. ft., besides the above given 10 V 2 cts. The selling price of 10-in. blocks averaged 21 cts. per sq. ft. of wall. 1172 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Concrete Buildings, References. For further data on this subject consult "Concrete Construction" by Gillette and Hill. Weight of Steel in Buildings. Mr. H. G. Tyrrell states that weight of steel for buildings not more than 11 stories high is approximately as follows per sq. ft. of floor area : Per sq. ft. Lbs. Apartment houses and hotels, with outside frame.. 14 Apartment houses, without outside frame 9 Office buildings, with outside frame 23 Office buildings, without outside frame 15 Warehouses, with outside frame 28 Warehouses, without outside frame 18 Mr. Edward Godfrey gives the following: The Phipps Power Building, Pittsburg, Pa., is 100x100 ft, 10 stories high, the first three stories being 24 ft, the rest being 13 ft floor to floor. The live load was assumed at 250 Ibs. per sq. ft. The total weight of steel and castings was 5,742,500 Ibs., or 3.5 Ibs. per cu. ft. of volume of building. Of this weight, 1,829,400 Ibs. were in the columns, and 305,500 Ibs. in the 38 cast iron column bases. The following is the weight of steel in other Pittsburg buildings: Lbs. per cu. ft. Arrott Building 2.8 Farmers Bank Building 2.3 Empire Building 2.1 Oliver Building 1.8 Mr. J. S. Branne gives the following estimate of the cost of the steel framework of an office building. The building is 50 x 100 ft, 16 stories high in the front and 13 stories high in the rear. The first story is 17 ft. high, and all others are 12 ft high from floor line to floor line. All curtain walls (outside walls) are 13 ins. thick ; inside tile partitions 4 ins. thick ; floors of concrete. Live loads are assumed at 60 Ibs. per sq. ft. ; dead loads are 75 Ibs. per sq. ft Using outside dimensions, there are 745,000 cu. ft. in the building, and the steel weighs 795 tons, or 2.13 Ibs. per cu. ft of building. The price of the steel is estimated at 3 cts. per Ib. in place. Weight of Park Row Bldg., New York. The main part is 26 stories high, surmounted by two 4-story towers. The area covered is 15,000 sq. ft. It rests on 3,500 piles. The basement was ex- cavated 34 ft. below the street level. The weight of the building is: Tons. Steel 9,000 Masonry and other materials 56,200 Total 65,200 The estimated cost (in 1906) was $2,000,000. The total height from street level to top of cupolas on towers is 386 ft. The first story is 17 ft. high in the clear, the second ia BUILDINGS. 1173 13 ft., the third and fourth are 12 ft, the fifth is 11 ft, the rest are 9 ft 11 ins. in the clear. Weight of Steel Dome. The steel dome of the Emporium build- ing, San Francisco, is 102 ft. diameter and 52 ft high, su mounted by a "lantern," 22^ ft diameter and 15 ft high. The weight is 200 tons. Weight of Largest Steel Dome. The largest steel dome in the world forms the roof of the West Baden Hotel, West Baden, Ind. Its span is 195 ft. c. to c. of pins. It is an aggregation of two- hinge arches, a drum at the center forming their common connec- tion. The weight, including the steel framework and its covering is 475,000 Ibs., or about 15 Ibs. per sq. ft. of horizontal projection of roof surface. Weight of Steel Arch Roof. The Government building at the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 contained steel roof trusses, which were three-hinged arches of 172 ft span and 70 ft. rise. The trusses were spaced 35 ft. c. to c. The weight per square foot of horizontal projection was: Per sq. ft. Lbs. Steel 13.1 Roofing 6.6 Tin covering 0.5 Total 20.2 Weight of Steel Fink Roof Trusses. Mr. H. G. Tyrrell gives the following formula for the weight of steel roof trusses, based upon data of 146 separate trusses. The weight includes trusses complete, with rafter clips and shoe plates, but without ventilators. S 12 " ~20 iT' W = weight (Ibs.) per sq. ft. of ground. 8 = span in feet D distance (in feet) c. to c. Steel Frame, St. Louis Coliseum. Mr. B. W. Stern gives the fol- lowing relative to a coliseum built in 1897. The steel frame for the roof is an oblong dome, 186 x 298 ft. The 4 main trusses are three- hinged arches, 176 ft. span. There are 6 radial trusses at each end of the building. A traveler derrick, 63 ft long, 31 ft. wide, arid 42 ft. high, carried two derricks used to erect the trusses. The total weight of steel was 9.500 tons. There were 4,188 days' labor spent on the work in the shops, and 3,550 days' labor for erection, the average number of men in thp erecting force being 50. Each of the main arches weighed 64,000 Ibs. ; each radial arch, 21,000 Ibs. Materials In Large Grain Elevator. A fireproof grain elevator, having a capacity of 3,100,000 bushels, was built in 1900 for the Great Northern Ry., at West Superior, Wis. It is 124 x 364 ft. in 1174 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. plan and 246 ft. high. It has 505 steel bins. It rests on a pile andi grillage foundation. The following are the quantities : Foundation and Walls in Main Stor y : Piles, number 4,570 Timber and sheet piling, M 380 Excavation, cu. yds 23,000 Masonry, cu. yds .' 1,500 Concrete, cu. yds 3,000 Cut stone, cu. ft 1,300 Brick, cu. ft 45,000 Superstructure : Structure below bins, tons 1,850 Bins proper, tons 6,500 Cupola, tons 1,450 Legs and spouts below bin floor, tons 450 Legs and spouts above bin floor, tons 350 Total steel, tons 10,600 There are 42 electric motors, having a total of 2,110 hp. Cost of Fabricating and Erecting Steel Mill and Mine Buildings The following is a summary of data given in Ketchum's "Steel Mill Buildings," a book containing much excellent information on estimating steel work : The drawings for steel mill buildings usually show only the dimensions of the "main members." The estimator usually calcu- lates the weights of these main members and adds a percentage to provide for the weight of the "details." The "details" are the plates and rivets used in fastening the main members together. The weight of the "details" of trusses will commonly be 25 to 35% of the weight of the "main members," being usually nearer 25%. After computing the actual weights of details for a few buildings, the estimator will seldom blunder in computing by percentages. In estimating the weight of corrugated steel, add 25% for laps where the side lap is two corrugations, and the end lap is 6 ins. ; add 15% where the side lap is one corrugation and the end lap is 4 ins. Corrugated steel is usually made with corrugations 2% ins. wide (from ridge to ridge) and %-in. deep. The thickness of the steel is usually given in U. S. Standard Gage. The following are the weights per 100 sq. ft. of black corrugated steel : Gage, No ...16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Lbs. per 100 sq. ft. 275 220 15 138 111 84 69 Add 16 Ibs. per 100 sq. ft. if the steel is galvanized. The cost of steel mill buildings is divided into four items: (1) cost of steel; (2) cost of shop work; (3) cost of transportation, and (4) cost of erection. The price of structural steel may be found in current numbers of "Iron Age," published in New York. The price is now (1905) about 1.8 cts. per Ib. at New York. The following are actual shop costs, in a shop having a capacity of 1,000 tons per month, and with labor estimated at 40 cts. per hr., which includes also the cost of management and the cost of operating and maintaining the shop equipment : BUILDIXGS. 1175 Cost of shop-work: Columns, made of 2 channels and 2 plates, 1,000 Ibs 0.8 Columns, made of single I-beam, or single angle 0.5 Columns, Z-bar . 0.8 Columns, plain, cast iron 0.8 to 1.5 Riveted roof-trusses, 1,000 Ibs. each 1.2 Riveted roof-trusses, 1,500 Ibs. each 1.0 Riveted roof-trusses, 2,500 Ibs. each..... 0.8 Riveted roof-trusses, 3,500 to 7,500 Ibs. each 0.6 to 0.75 Plate-girders, for crane girders and iloors 0.6 to 1.3 Eye-bars, % x 3 ins. x 16 to 30 ft 1.2 to 1.8 Eye-bars, large 0.5 to 0.8 Steel frame transformer building, 60 x SO ft., with 20-ft. posts, pitch of roof %, 55,700 Ibs. steel framework, including drafting . . 1.0 Smelter building, 270 tons, including drafting 0.86 Six gallows frames, including drafting 1.0 to 2.0 Drafting design of "details" for Ordinary buildings 0.1 to 0.2 Headworks for mines 0.2 to 0.3 Roof-trusses 0.3 to 0^4 With skilled labor at $3.50 and common labor at $2 per 9-hr, day, the cost of erecting small buildings is about 0.5 ct. per lb., or $10 per ton, if trusses are riveted and other connections bolted. The cost of erecting small buildings in which all connections are bolted is about 0.3 ct. per lb., or $6 per ton. The cost of erecting heavy machine shops, all material riveted, is about 0.45 ct. per lb., or $9 per ton, including labor of painting. The cost of erecting 6 gallows frames was 0.65 ct. per lb., or $13 per ton. The cost of laying corrugated steel roof is about $0.75 per square, or $9 per ton for No. 20 steel, when laid on plank sheathing; it is $1.25 per square, or $15 per ton, when laid directly on the purlins ; it is $2 per square, or $24 r>er ton, when laid with anti- condensation roofing. The erection of corrugated steel siding costs $0.75 to $1.00 per square, or $9 to $12 per ton for No. 20 steel. Cost of Erecting the Steel in Buildings The costs are given in tons of 2,000 Ibs. On a four-story, fireproof hospital the cost of erecting the steel and cast iron was $4.50 per ton; hand derricks were used, and the work was all done by common laborers, at $1.50 per day. With a steam derrick the cost might have been reduced to $3.50 per ton. On a three-story business block, under the same con- ditions as before, the store fronts were erected for $5 per ton. On a large railroad machine shop, with structural steel workers at 40 cts. per hr., the cost of erecting was $8 per ton. In this case the work was all heavy, the lightest truss weighing 5 tons. On train sheds, and where lighter sections were used, and where there were more field rivets to the ton, the cost was $10. Ordinarily there are about 10 field rivets to the ton, and it is safe to allow 10 cts. each, or $1 per ton for riveting alone. There are buildings in which 25 field rivets per ton are required. The foregoing costs. of steel erec- tion include unloading from cars, setting derricks and scaffolding. The cost of erecting large electric cranes is about $3 per ton if put in place directly from the cars. Add $1.50 per ton if unloaded from cars before erecting. 1176 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The steel frames of modern office buildings are usually erected by derricks high enough to erect two or three floors without shifting. The cost of erecting and riveting the steel is $10 to $15 per ton. The trusses of small roofs can be erected cheaply by the use of one or two gin poles. Area of Passenger Stations. In the Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and Mn. of Way Assoc., 1904, a committee report gives the average area of passenger stations for cities of 10,000 to 15,000 population on 31 different railways, as follows: Sq. ft. Waiting rooms 1,160 Toilet rooms 186 Baggage rooms 433 Ticket offices 218 Total 1,997 Such a station would measure about 24 x 84 ft. inside. Cost of Moving a Frame Dwelling House.* This building was moved at Secaucus, N. J., during the month of July, 1906, under con- tract, to make room for freight yard extensions. The house (weigh- ing about 50 tons) was 30 ft. square, two stories in height, with a one-story extension in the rear 12 x 18 ft., all resting upon brick piers standing 2 ft. above level of ground. The building was first raised about 14 ins. with jack screws and blocking. Several long 12- in. x 12-in. timbers were then placed under the joists lengthwise and crosswise, all properly cleated and fastened, care being taken to sup- port the two chimneys. The movement was accomplished with wind- lass, team, driver and about 1,000 ft. of 2-in. manilla rope passed through the blocks, the building sliding forward upon greased sup- ports of way of long timbers blocked up to the proper height. II Was moved forward a distance of 115 ft., then turned about 90 and pulled backward a distance of 435 ft. to its new location, making a total distance traveled of 548 ft. During the moving the force was kept busy greasing timbers with soap and carrying blocking forward. At intervals the moving was stopped, the team detached from the windlass and used to haul the long timbers ahead. In moving it was necessary to cross over two roads and pass under three lines of light and telephone wires. Men were stationed upon the top of the house to lift the wires over the roof and chimneys. Previous to moving, the building was strengthened to prevent racking, by placing several temporary bents in rooms on first floor. The only damage occurred from plaster cracking around chimneys, and this was slight. The tenants occupied the house during the moving period. Wages for laborers were $2.00 per day, hours from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m., and half days on Satxirday, for which they received a full day's pay. The foreman received $3.50 per day, utility man $3.00 per day, night watchman $2.00 per day. Teams were paid at the * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 30, 1907. BUILDINGS. 1177 rate of $1.50 per day and 75 cts. per day was paid for a horse. During the moving drivers worked as laborers. The actual labor cost is divided as follows: Per cent. Hauling blocking, lumber and tools (9 miles for round trip) % 27.00 9.1 Placing and removing blocking timbers, rais- ing and lowering before and after moving 102.00 34.5 Moving building (548 ft.) 166.75 56.4 Total moving |295.75 100.0 The time occupied in doing the work including the time lost for Sundays, holidays and rain was 24 days. Actual number of days worked was 16. The total cost of this moving to contractor was $357.50, the extra $61.75 (added to $295.75) being wages paid to foreman, 2 drivers and watchman for Sundays, holidays and days lost on account of rain. For the above information we are indebted to Mr. A. L. Moore- head, C. E. References. Any one engaged in estimating the cost of very many buildings will do well to consult Arthur*s "Building Esti- mator," Tyrrell's "Mill Buildings," Ketchum's "Steel Mill Buildings," and Kidder's "Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book." The prices of hardware may be obtained from "The Iron Age Standard Hardware. List" ($1), published by The Iron Age, New York City. The current discounts are given in The Iron Age, a copy of which costs 10 cts. The prices of lumber are quoted weekly in such papers as the "New York Lumber Trade Journal." Different mills issue catalogs giving prices of mill work. SECTION XI. RAILWAYS. Cross- References on Cost of Grading The reader is referred to the Earth Excavation and Embankment Section, and to the Rock Excavation Section, for costs of grading. The cost of tunneling is given on page 1180, etc. Cross- References on Bridges, Culverts and Buildings For data on these subjects, consult the "Bridges and Culvert Section," the "Timber-work Section," and the "Building Section," of this book. Use the index for the item in question. Cost of Transporting Men, Tools and Supplies on Railroads for Grading.* In carrying on construction work it is the custom of railroads to charge to construction certain rates of fares oh the men employed, and freight on tools and supplies. This charge against the new work is credited to the operating department. En- gineers in the employ of a railroad company in making up esti- mates for new work must include these charges, else the cost of the work is likely to overrun the estimate. To do tnis there must be some basis of the amount of work that a man, horse and machine will do in a given time, and an approximate tonnage of machines and supplies needed to excavate a given unit. The same assumption applies to track work, bridges and build- ings, but in this article we consider only the grading of a railroad. The following figures have been used by one of the editors of this journal in estimating the cost of railroad construction. The fig- ures of work done, and men, horses and tools and supplies needed are based on large jobs of construction, and are safe averages. The fares for men and the freight rates are those ordinarily charged by railroads for such movement of men and freight. The costs follow : One horse plus 1% men readily excavate ai.d move 15 cu. yds. of earth per day. Hence allow 360 cu. yds. per month per horse and 250 cu. yds. per month per man. One man requ'res transportation at 1 ct. per mile, and freight on 200 Ibs. of bedding, cooking utensils, tents, small tools, etc. ^Engineering-Contracting, July 8, 1908. 1178 RAILWAYS. 1179 Hence for 100 miles transportation each way, or 200 miles round trip, we have 200 passenger miles at 1 ct $2.00 1/10 ton bedding, etc., 200 miles at % ct. per ton mile 10 Total $2.10 Since one man will excavate 250 cu. yds. per month, it costs $2.10 divided by 250, or 0.8 ct. per cu. yd., if the job lasts only one month ; but if the job lasts four months it costs 0.8 ct. divided by 4, or 0.2 ct. per cu. yd., because in that time a man will move 4 times 250 cu. yds., or 1,000 cu. yds., and will only require transporta- tion once at a cost of $2.10. Other months are in proportion. For any other haul than 100 miles multiply accordingly. Each horse requires the following equipment : Lbs. % wheel scraper, at 500 Ibs 250 % wagon, at 2,000 Ibs 1,000 Tents, harness, etc 250 Total 1,501) Allowing 16 horses per car of 24,000 Ibs., each horse stands for freight equivalent to 1,500 Ibs, hence: Lbs. 'Equipment for each horse 1,500 Weight of horse 1,500 Total, l 1 ^ tons or 3,000 For each 100 miles of haul we have, therefore, 200 miles round trip; hence 200 miles X 1% tons X 0.4 ct. = $1.20. Since each horse moves 360 cu. yds. per month, we have $1.20 ^ 360, or 0.3 ct. per cu. yd., if the job lasts only one month. But if the job lasts four months we have *4 of 0.3 ct., or 0.075 ct. per cu. yd. Other lengths of time and other hauls are in proportion. Each horse consumes % ton of food per month ; hence if food is hauled 100 miles we have % ton X 100 miles X 0.4 ct. =; 20 cts. Since the horse moves 360 cu. yds. per month, we have 20 cts. ~- 360, or 0.05 et. per cu. yd. for each 100 miles of haul. Summing up, we have the following costs: Cost per cu yd. for transportation rt 100 miles and return. Men. Horses. Food. Total- Duration of work. Cts. .Cts. Cts. Cts. 1 mo. . . ... 0.80 0.30 0.05 1.15 4 mos 0.20 0.08 0.05 0.33 6 mos 0.13 0.05 0.05 0.23 8 mos 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.19 12 mos 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.15 Note. If the haul is 300 miles, multiply by 3. If the haul is 500 miles, multiply by 5. If the haul is 1,000 miles, multiply by 10. . The above is for work done by wheel scrapers and wagons and carts, but for steam shovel work the following would be the ap- proximate cost for transportation: 1180 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Tons. 1 shovel 70 60 dump cars 120 Rail 65 Cross ties (6"x6"x6') 75 Three small locomotives 35 Pumps, drills, etc 35 Total 400 400 tons X 100 miles X 0.4 ct. = $160. Such a shovel as this will average at least 20,000 cu. yds. per month, hence we have $160 -f- 20,000, or 0.8 ct. per cu. yd. for transporting the shovel 100 miles. This is equivalent to 1.6 cts. for transporting the shovel the round trip of 200 miles, when the job lasts only one month. For four months the cost would be *4 of 1.6 cts., or 0.4 ct. per cu. yd. Other months would be correspondingly in proportion. Such a shovel does not consume more than 60 tons of fuel and supplies per month; hence we have 60 tons X 100 miles X 0.4 ct. = $24. Since 'with this 60 tons of fuel there are 20,000 cu. yds. exca- vated, we have $24 -h 20,000, or 0.12 ct. per cu. yd. With such a shovel there will never be more than 40 men engaged in operating the shovel, operating the dump cars and trains, as well as in making temporary roadways and repairing equipment ; hence each of these 40 men averages 500 cu. yds. per month, which is double the out- put where men are working with wheel scrapers, carts, etc., as above given ; therefore the cost of transporting men per cu. yd. on shovel work is approximately one-half the amount given in the previous table. Summing up we have the following: Cost per CH yd. for transportation 100 miles and return. Shovel. Men. Fuel. Total. Duration of work. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. 1 mo 1.60 0.40 0.12 2.12 4 mos 0.40 0.10 0.12 0.62 6 mos 0.26 0.07 0.12 0.45 12 mos. 0.13 0.03 0.12 0.28 The above is for a haul of 100 miles, and for any other hauls multiply according to the length of haul. If the workmen are of a restless disposition, and remain only a month or two on the job before quitting, the cost of their transporta- tion varies not with the length of the job but with the average time they remain on it. When they quit of course their return fare is not paid. Cost of Three Short Single-Track Tunnels.* Short tunnels are usually constructed at less cost than long tunnels, not only because of the less cost of hauling and "muck" and the ease of ventilating the tunnel, but because a very inexpensive plant can be used. In limestone and sandstone formations the present contract prices average about * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 21, 1907. RAILWAYS. 1181 $45 per lin. ft. of single-track tunnel for all lengths up to 1,000 ft. or so, even where common laborers receive $2.25 a day. The fol- lowing data give the cost (at contract prices) of three tunnels built in the West, and, both as to prices and as to quantities, these ex- amples will be useful to engineers and contractors : TUNNEL No. 1 (900 LIN. FT.). Per lin. ft Excavating tunnel $45.00 2.7 cu. yds. enlargement for lining, at $3.00 8.10 350 ft. B. M. timber lining, at $20 7.00 5.7 Ibs. iron, at $0.03 0.17 Total $60.27 TUNNEL No. 2 (600 LIN. FT.). Per lin. ft. Excavating tunnel $45.00 2.7 cu. yds. enlargement, at $3.00 8.10 370 ft. B. M. lining, at $20.00 7.40 5.5 Ibs. iron, at $0.03 0.17 Total $60.67 TUNNEL No. 3 (400 LIN. FT.). Per lin. ft. Excavating tunnel $42.50 2.8 cu. yds. enlargement, at $3.00 8.40 400 ft. B. M. lining, at $20.00 8.00 7.4 Ibs. iron at $0.03 0.22 Total $59.12 In addition to the above costs which are based on the contractor's final estimate, there was a cost of $3 per lin. ft. (or about 5%) for engineering and superintendence, and a cost of $0.50 per lin. ft. for train service. Cost of the Stampede Tunnel.* Mr. Charles W. Hobart gives the following data on the Stampede or Cascade Tunnel of the Northern Pacific R. R. Bids were opened in New York Jan. 21, 1886, for a single-track tunnel, 9,844 ft. long, to be completed in 28 mos. Of the 12 bids, that of Mr. Nelson Bennett was lowest and was accepted. A forfeit of $100,000 and 10% of the contract price for failure to complete within the time was required. Mr. Bennett tele- graphed his general manager to gather men and clear a road to get the machinery on the ground. The plant was purchased for $100,000 in New York and shipped. It consisted of 5 engines, 2 water wheels, 5 air compressors, 5 boilers of 70-hp. each, 4 fans, 2 electric arc light plants, 2 miles of 6-in. wrought iron, 2 miles of water pipe, 2 machine shop outfits, 36 air drills, 2 locomotives, 60 dump cars, 2 saw mills and other necessaries. This plant had to be transported on wagons and sleds from Yakima, Wash., a distance of 82 miles to the east portal of the tunnel and 87 miles to the west portal. The first wagon loads started Feb. 1, and the first boiler *Gillette's "Rock Excavation." 1182 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. Feb. 22. By June 19 the plant for the east portal, and by July 15 the plant for the west portal had reached its destination. On Feb. 13 hand drilling was begun on the east portal and 411 ft. of tunnel had been driven when the machines began June 19. On March 15 hand drilling started at the west end and by Sept. 1, when the machines started, 488 ft. had been driven. The last 15 miles of the hauling before reaching the mountains was in mud, so that wagons were hauled by block and tackle, planks being laid down in front of the wheels and taken up as fast as the wagons passed. About one mile a day was covered in this way. When the mountains were reached sleds were improvised and hauled by blocK and tackle with teams. Wagons lightly loaded with provisions trav- eled 12 miles a day. The cost of clearing the way and getting the machinery and ma- terials on the work was $125,000,* and 6 mos. time was required. The tunnel was to be 9,950 ft. long, 16% x 22 ft. in the clear; 900 ft. had been driven by hand, leaving 9,050 ft. to be driven in 22 mos. An 8-ft. heading was driven along the top of. the tunnel and was kept 30 ft. ahead of the bench. The tunnel was timbered- as work progressed. The average number of men employed, after the ma- chinery was installed, was 350. They worked 10-hr, shifts, receiv- ing $2.50 to $5 a day. Contractor boarded men at 75 cts. a day. A bonus of 25 cts. a day was paid each laborer for every foot gained during the month over the necessary average of 13.6 ft. a day in both headings C9mbined, and each driller received a bonus of 50 cts. per day per ft. gained. Every day of the year was worked, requir- ing two shifts of 75 men each, beside the engineers, firemen, car- penters, machinists, etc., making a monthly payroll of $30,000. The best month's progress was April, 1888, when a total advance of 540 ft. was made in the two headings, or 9 ft. a day per head- ing. The average progress for 21% mos., with power drills, was 413 ft. per month for the two headings. On May 3, 1888, the headings met, and on May 14 the excavation was completed, 7 days before the time limit. The track was laid in two days more and on May 22 the first regular train passed through the tunnel. The total explosives used were 309,625 Ibs., as follows: No. of 50 Ib. boxes. Giant No. 1, 60 per cent.. 403% Giant No. 2, 45 per cent 2, 123 1/2 Hercules No. 1, 60 per cent 1,609% Hercules No. 2, 45 per cent. . 1,781% Nitro glycerin No. 2 232 Forcite No. 2 41 % Total No. of 50-lb. boxes. 6,192 The average price of all explosives was $10 a box, or 20 cts. per Ib. The total number of men killed in the two years was 13. The following data were furnished by Mr. Andrew Gibson, Assistant Engineer. The American center-cut system of blasting was used ; *Wages were $2.50 for laborers, which is a high price. RAILWAYS. 1183 20 to 23 holes, 12 ft. deep, being drilled in the heading, and about 18 holes in the bench. Each drill, in medium hard rock, would make 6 or 7 holes in 5 hrs., although at times in an exceedingly hard layer 15 hrs. would be required. About 400 Ibs. of dynamite were used at each blast in each of the headings and benches. This would break 8 to 12 lin. ft. of tunnel, although in very hard rock at times only half this progress was made. The rock is basaltic,* with a dip of 5 to the west. It required immediate timbering, which delayed the drillers and muckers about 25% of the time. During the period of hand drilling there were 17 men, with about 23 muckers, employed in each heading, and 4 lin. ft. of tunnel in 24 hrs. were averaged. During the period of air drilling, 10 drills were used, 5 in each end, and the progress was 6.9 ft. in 24 hrs. per heading, or 207 ft. per mo. of 30 days. While the contract size of the tunnel was 16% ft. wire, and 22 ft. from subgrade to face of arch, the timbered sections had to be excavated 19% ft. wide by 24 ft. high, thus requiring 15.7 cu. yds. of excavation per lin. ft. where timbering was used, as against 12.36 cu. yds. where no timber was used. Timbers were 12 x 12 ins., except the 8 x 12-in. sills. Five segments were used in the arch, lagged with 4 x 6-in. pieces. Bents were spaced 2 to 4 ft. Water gave no trouble. Mules were used for hauling up to the first half mile ; then small locomotives, which hauled 8 to 12 cars. A "go-devil" or plat- form on wheels was used to great advantage in loading cars. The men wheeled the rock on plank runways from the heading to the "go-devil," dumping directly into cars below ; and the muckers on the heading never interfered with those on the bench. It was also a great convenience in timbering. Before blasting the drills were loaded upon the "go-devil," and it was pushed back some distance from the face. Endless belt conveyors for removing muck to the "go-devil" were contemplated, but they were never used, as with the large force of men at work they would have been in the way. The swelling of the shale on exposure often reduced a 12-in. tim- ber to 4 ins. ; hence it was necessary to line the tunnel with masonry. Concrete side, walls and a brick arch were used for lining. The concrete mortar was brought in on, cars and run back of the forms through spouts, without shoveling ; then the broken rock was shoveled into the mortar from a flat car. The total cost of the tunnel to the N. P. R. R. under Mr. Ben- nett's contract (which did not include masonry lining) was $118 per lin. ft. Mr. Bennett's brother was the superintendent of the work. The actual cost of tunnelling the west end during the month of November, 1887, was $75.75 per ft. for the 258 ft. driven, dis- tributed as follows : Elsewhere it is stated that the rock was shale; 1184 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Lab.or. Superintendent, V 2 mo., at $500 $ 250.00 Superintendent, 1 mo., at $250 250.00 Master mechanic, % mo., at $150 75.00 Engineers, 4 x 30 = 120 days, at $4 480.00 Machine repairers, 3 x 30 = 90 days, at $3. 50 315.00 Firemen, 4 x 30 = 120 days, at $2.50 300.00 Blacksmiths, 2 x 30 = 60 days, at $4.00 ' 240.00 Blacksmiths helpers, 2 x 30 = 60 days, at $2.50 150.00 Carpenters, 396 days, at $3.00 1,188.00 Foremen, 160 days, at $4.50 720.00 Drillmen, 294 days, at $3.50 1,029.00 Chuckmen, 293 days, at $3.00 879.00 Muckers, 1,138 days, at $2.75 3,129.50 Nippers, 60 days, at $2.50 150.00 Dumpmen, 60 days, at $2.50 150.00 Car drivers, 60 days, at $2.50 150.00 Timekeeper, 30 days, at $2.50 75.00 Lampmen, 60 days, at $2.50'. 150.00 Laborers, 662 days, at $2.50 1,655.00 Bonus for daily progress over 6 ft 500.00 Total labor for 258 ft, at $45.90 per ft $11,835.50 Material. 78,000 ft. B. M. timber, at $10 $ 780.00 800 Ibs. wrt. iron, at 6 cts 48.00 64 y 2 cords wood, at $3 193.50 240 tons coal, at $4 960.00 900 caps, at 1 ct 9.00 14,400 ft. fuse, at 1 ct 144.00 13,800 Ibs. dynamite, at 16 cts ^ 2,208.00 Total materials for 258 ft., at $16.80 per ft.$ 4,342.50 Plant. 6 per cent of $50,000 plant, 1 mo $ 250.00 1/28 of 75 p. c. depreciation * of $50,000 plant 1,339,28 10 p. c. on all above to cover all possible omissions fl.776.72 Total plant charges for 258 ft, at $13.05..$ 3,366.00 *Note that a liberal but not unusual allowance is made for plant depreciation. tThis 10 per cent, practically covers the cost of installing the plant. Summary of cost per ft. Labor $45.90 Material , .16.80 Plant , . 13.05 Total $75.75 During this month the entire length was lined with timber, the rock being a soft basaltic rock that drills well but goes to pieces rapidly on exposure. There were no accidents or delays. On the east end during this same month, with an equal force, the progress was 246 ft., at a cost of $72.70 per ft. It will be noted that wages were high. It will also be noted that the cost of haul- ing and installing the plant is not included, although a liberal al- lowance is made for plant depreciation and in the 10% added to cover omissions. RAILWAYS. 1185 The contractor received for his month's work on the west end of the tunnel : 258-ft. tunnel, standard sections, at $78. ..'... .$20,124 862 cu. yds. extra excav., at $4.50 3,879 78,000 ft. B. M. lining, at $35 2,730 258 ft. of tunnel, timbered, at $103.62 $26,733 The best month's record in driving a heading was 274 ft. but, ai, before stated, the average progress with the air drills was 207 ft. per mo. per heading, although in the month of November, 1887, 258 ft. were progressed on the west end, which was 25% better than the average progress. Assuming that 15.7 cu. yds. were excavated per lin. ft. of tunnel, the total excavation at the west end for November was 4,052 cu. yds. It is probable that the 862 cu. yds. extra excavation, above given, are included in this estimate, because the "standard section" differed from the timbered section by 3.3 cu. yds. per lin. ft., and in 258 ft. this would amount to 852 cu. yds. On this assumption (of 4,052 cu. yds.) the labor cost $2.92 per cu. yd. ; the materials, $1.07 per cu. yd. ; and the plant, $0.83 per cu. yd. ; total, $4.82 per cu. yd. for the best month's work. Further data on this tunnel are given in the following para- graphs. Cost of the Stampede Tunnel and Its Masonry Lining.* The Stampede Tunnel on the Northern Pacific Ry. is 9,844 ft. long and was built in 1886 to 1888 by contract. The contract work included the excavation of this tunnel and the timber lining. Subsequently this timber lining was replaced with a masonry lining by the rail- way company's own forces. This article gives in detail the cost of the permanent masonry lining. To make the cost figures com- plete, however, we itemize the contract costs of the original con- struction as follows: Per lin. ft. Excavation, standard section, at $78 $ 78.00 Extra excavation, 3.2 cu. yds., at $4.50 14.40 Timber lining, 305 ft. B. M., at $35 10.68 Traffic charges 0.77 Total $108.85 Ballast 0.90 Track materials 1.23 Track laying 0.18 Track surfacing 0.16 Engineering 5.00 Total $111.32 The above figures are the contract costs to the Northern Pa- cific Ry. * Engineering-Contracting, June 3, 1908. 1180 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The permanent masonry lining work, whose cost is given here, was begun June 16, 1889, and completed Nov. 16, 1895, the progress in lineal feet per year being as follows : Walls. Arch. 1889 1,176 1890 . . .. 1,280 538 1891 2,549 871 1892 5,038 1,402 1893 2,930 911 1894 3,229 2,812 1895 2,301 2, 887 The side walls were of concrete and the arch was of brick, there being 30,259 cu. yds. of concrete side walls and 18,426 cu. yds. of brick arch, or a total of 48,683 cu. yds. of masonry lining in the 9,311 lin. ft. that, were lined. There were, therefore, 3*4 cu. yds. of concrete side walls and 2 cu. yds. of brick arch, or a total of 5% cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The average cost of the lining was as follows : Concrete Side Walls: Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft. Cement, at $2.90 per bbl $4.27 $13.95 Rock, at 31 cts. per cu. yd 0.24 0.80 Sand, at 21 cts. per cu. yd 0.12 0.40 Traffic charges 0.35 1.13 Train service 0.96 3.12 Labor 2.10 6.87 False work 0.08 0.27 Tools, lights, etc 0.10 0.33 Engineering and superintendence. . 0.16 0.53 Total $8.38 $27.40 Brick Arch: Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft. Cement, at $2.90 per bbl $ 2.93 $ 5.80 Brick, at $7.12 per M 3.56 7.04 Rock backing, at 59 cts. per cu. yd. 0.41 0.81 Sand, at 40 cts. per cu. yd 0.14 0.27 Traffic charges 0.36 0.71 Train service 1.21 2.39 Labor ... 4.20 8.32 Falsework 0.22 0.43 Tools, lights, etc 0.21 0.41 Engineering and superintendence.. 0.25 0.50 Total $13.49 $26.68 Since the concrete side walls cost $27.40 per lin ft. and the brick arch cost $26.68, the total cost was $54 per lin. ft. of tunnel, which, if added to the $111 above given, makes a grand total of $165 per lin. ft. Had the masonry lining been built in the first place, the cost would have been considerably less. The item of "traffic charges" covers freight on materials at 1 ct. per ton-mile. The item of "train service" covers hauling of sand, rock, etc., with a work train. The cost of this lining was very much higher during the first years of the work. This was due partly to the greater thickness of the lining used at first, but it was principally due to the inexperi- RAILWAYS. 1187 ence of the men and the higher cost of materials, table shows the cost by six-month periods : The following 6 mos. ending. June 30 1889 Brick Arch. Cono Lin. Cost Lin. ft. per lin. ft. ft. 33 -etc Wall. Cost per lin. f1 $61.72 61.72 5V.92 40.94 40.94 22.06 19.80 19.48 19.40 16.55 iV.oi Total .. per lin. ft. Dec. 31, 1890.. June 30, 1890. . Dec. 31, 1890.. June 30, 1891.. Dec. 31, 1891.. June 30, 1892. Dec. 31, 1892. June 30, 1893. Dec. 31, 1893. June 30, 1894. Dec. 31, 1894. June 30, 1895. Dec 31 1895 1,143 . 257 63.24 281 63.24 1,280 . 600 51.64 733 271 51.64 1,816 517 34.90 2,422 885 27.13 2,616 496 25.35 2,219 415 20.96 711 904 20.21 3,229 1,898 19.40 1,225 18.90 2,187 114 $124.96 120.15 92.58 92.58 56.96 46.93 44.83 40.36 36.76 36.94 Total ease in the cost per crease in the cost per Concrete Walls. Cost Cu. yds. per cu. yd. 83 $12.26 2,876 12.26 . . 9.311 18,503 The foregoing lineal foot. The cubic yard : Six mos. ending. June 30 1889 shows the progressive deer following table shows the de Brick Arch. Cost Cu. yds. percu.yd. Dec 31 1889 June 30 1890 617 $26 35 Dec 31 1890 674 26.35 3,224 1,303 3,228 3,582 3,488 2,951 1,139 4,720 3,495 170 11.30 11.51 11.51 7.33 7.42 7.32 6.05 5.66 "5.64 June 30, 1891. . . . 1,740 17.90 Dec 31 1891 786 17 90 June 30 1892 1 092 16.53 Dec 31 1892. . .' 1,634 14.69 June 30, 1893. . Dec 31 1893 916 13.72 751 11.58 June 30 1894. . 1,645 11.10 Dec 31 1894 3 479 10.55 June 30 1895 . . . 2,322 10.21 Dec. 31, 1895. . .. 2,770 Total and av 18,426 $13.49 30,259 $8.38 The cost of lining the tunnel during the six months ending Dec. 31, 1892, represents about an average of the whole job. It was as follows : CONCRETE SIDE WALLS. Materials: Per cu. yd. Cement, 1.5 bbls., at $2.36 $3.54 Sand, 0.33 cu. yd., at 36 cts 0.12 Rock, 0.5 cu. yd., at 55 cts 0.28 Dry rock backing, 0.04 cu. yd., at 55 cts 0.02 Total $3.96 Traffic Charges: Cement , $0.24 Sand 0.17 Rock . 0.18 Total , J0.59 1188 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Work Train Service: Hauling concrete, removing old timbers and excavating ma- terial, 0.031 day of work train, at $26.90 $0.83 Labor: Mixing cement dry, 0.104 day, at $2.50 $0.26 Building walls, 0.247 day, at $2.84 0.70 Removing timbers, excavating and preparing panel for concrete, 0.226 day, at $2.83 0.64 Placing rock backing, 0.02 day, at $2.50 0.05 Total $1.65 Engineering, Superintendence and Miscellaneous: Engineering $0.29 Falsework, timber and iron 0.06 Lights, wear on tools, etc 0.03 Interest and depreciation of plant, 10% per annum on $1,500, for. 3y 2 mos 0.01 Total $0.39 Total per cu. yd. in place $7.42 The proportions were 1 cement, 3 sand and 5 rock. The dimen- sions of each side wall were 2 ft. 3 ins. thick and 16 ft. high. There were 1.33 cu. yds. of concrete per lin. ft. of side wall, or 2.66 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The average daily force, not including the work train crew, was : 1 foreman, at $135 per mo. 1 foreman, at $3.75 per day. 1 foreman, at $3.25. 3 carpenters, at $3. 22 laborers, at $2.50. 4 laborers, at $2. The average daily progress was 38.75 cu. yds. per day. The average daily force "building the side walls" was: 1 foreman, at $135 per mo. 2 foremen, at $3.25 per day. 4 carpenters, at $3. 12 laborers, at $2.50. The averagt daily force engaged in "removing timbers, exca- vating, etc." : 1 foreman, at $135 per mo. 2 foremen, at $3.75 per day. 2 carpenters, at $3 per day. 14 laborers, at $2.50 per day. The cost of the brick arch during the same period was : BRICK ARCH. Materials: Per cu. yd. Brick, 526, at $7 per M $ 3.68 Cement, 1.18 bbls., at $2.40 2.83 Sand, 0.263 cu. yd., at 82 cts 0.21 Dry rock backing, 0.483 cu. yd., at 75 cts 0.36 Total materials . ...$7.08 RAILWAYS. 1189 Traffic Charges: Brick $ 0.8S Cement 0.19 Sand ' 0.13 Total $ 1.21 Work Train Service: Hauling brick and cement and removing debris and old timber, 0.046 day, at $26.70 $ 1.23 Labor: Mixing mortar and building arch, 0.78 day, at $4.06 $ 3.16 Placing rock, backing, 0.135 day, at $2.66 0.36 Moving centers, preparing for work and removing timber 0.383 day, at $2.87 1.10 Total $ 4.62 Engineering, Superintendence and Miscellaneous: Engineering and superintendence $ 0.44 Falsework, timber and iron 0.05 Changing lights, wear on tools, etc 0.04 Interest and depreciation of plant, 10% per annum on $1,500, for 2V 2 mos 0.02 Total $ 0.55 Total per cu. yd $14.69 The brick arch was 5 rings thick, or 1 ft. 9 ins., and 28% ft. around the arc. The bricks were 2 % x 3 % x 8 ins. There were 1.85 cu. yds. of -brick masonry per lin. ft. of tunnel, making the cost $27.13 per lin. ft. for the brick arch. The average daily prog- ress was 25.9 cu. yds., with the following force, not including v/ork train crew : 1 foreman, at $135 per mo. 1 brick mason foreman, at $6.50 per day. 1 foreman, at $3.75 per day. 1 foreman, at $3.25 per day. 7 brick masons, at $6 per day. 3 carpenters, at $3 per day. 25 laborers, at $2.50 per day. The average gang engaged in "mixing mortar and building arch" was: 1 foreman, at $135 per mo. 1 foreman, at $3.75 per day. 2 brick foremen, at $6.50 per day. 7% brick masons, at $6 per day. 1 carpenter, at $3 per day. 21 laborers, at $2.50 per day. The average gang engaged in "placing rock backing" was: 1 foreman, at $135 per mo. 2 foremen, at $3.25 per day. 4 carpenters, at $3 per day. 30 laborers, at $2.50 per day. 1190 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The average gang engaged in "removing timbers, excavation,etc.," was: 1 foreman, at $135 per -mo. 2 foremen, at $3.75 per day. 5 carpenters, at $3 per day. 12 laborers, at $2.50 per day. As above stated, the cost during the last year of the work was very much reduced. During the six months ending June 30, 1895, the cost of lining was as follows: CONCRETE SIDE WALLS. Materials: Per cu. yd. Cement, 1.33 bbls., at $2.25 $2.99 Sand, 0.47 cu. yd., at 18 cts 0.09 Rock, 0.79 cu. yd., at 39 cts 0.31 Total $3.39 Work Train Service: Hauling concrete, removing debris and old timber, 0.022 day, at $22.90 $0.51 Labor: Mixing cement, 0.07 day, at $2.14 $0. Building walls, 0.28 day, at $2.40 0.66 Removing timbers, excavating and preparing panel for con- crete, 0.21 day, at $2.62 0.54 Total $1.35 Engineering and Miscellaneous: Engineering and superintendence $0.22 Falsework, timber and iron 0.06 Tools, lights, etc 0.10 Interest and depreciation of plant, 10% per annum of $1,500, for 3 mos 0.01 Total $0.39 Total per cu. yd $5.64 It will be noted that "traffic charges" (freight on the materials for concrete) appear to have been omitted. The proportions of the concrete were 1:3:5. The side wall was 2 ft. 7 ins. thick by 16 ft. high, and each side wall contained 1.6 cu. yds. per lin. ft. The average progress per day was 46 cu. yds., and the working force was as follows: 1 foreman, at $112.50 per mo. 1 foreman, at $90 per mo. 1 foreman, at $3.50 per day. 1 blacksmith, at $3 per day. 2 carpenters, at $3 per day. 19 laborers, at $2.25 per day. 7 laborers, at $1.75 per day. RAILWAYS. 1191 The cost of the brick arch during the same period was as follows : BRICK ARCH. Material. Per cu. yd. Brick, 500, at $6.35 $ 3.18 Cement, 0.98 bbl., at $2.25 2.21 Sand, 0.34 cu. yd., at 28 cts 0.09 Total $ 5.48 Work Train Service: Hauling material, debris, etc., 0.037 day, at $24.25 $ 0.91 Labor: Mixing mortar and building arch, 0.57 day, at $3.15 $ 1.80 Placing rock backing, 0.09 day, at $2.29 0.21 Removing old timbers, excavating and preparing for arching and moving centers, 0.32 day, at $2.48 0.80 Total $ 2.81 Engineering and Miscellaneous: Engineering and superintendence $ 0.23 Falsework, timber and iron 0.09 Tools, lights, etc 0.20 Interest and depreciation of plant, 10% per annum on $1,500, for 3 mos 0.02 Total $ 0.54 Total per cu. yd $10.21 It will be noted that the item of "traffic charges" appears to have been omitted. There were 5 rings of brick in the arch, giving a thickness of 1 ft. 9 ins., and the length of the arc was 28 ft. There were 1.85 cu. yds. of brick masonry per lin. ft. of tunnel. The bricks were 2 % x 3 % x 8 ins. The average progress per day was 44.2 cu. yds. with the follow- ing force: 1 foreman, at $112.50 per mo. 1 foreman, at $90 per mo. 1 foreman, at $3.50 per day. 1 brick mason foreman, at $5.50 per day. 8 brick masons, at $5 per day. 1 carpenter, at $3 per day. 1 blacksmith, at $3 per day. 27 laborers, at $2.25 per day. The gang when engaged in "mixing mortar and building arch" was as follows: 1 foreman, at $112.50 per mo. 2 foremen, at $3.50 per day. 2 mason foremen, at $5.50 per day. 1 timekeeper, at $60 per mo. 17 brick masons, at $5 per day. 1 blacksmith, at $3 per day. 25 laborers, at $2.25 per day. 1192 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The gang when engaged in "placing rock backing" was as follows: 1 foreman, at $112.50 per mo. % timekeeper, at $60 per mo. y 2 blacksmith, at $3 per day. *4 carpenter, at $3 per day. 22 laborers, at $2.25 per day. The gang when engaged in "removing old timbers, etc.," was as follows : 1 foreman, at $112.50 per mo. 3 foremen, at $90 per mo. 1 timekeeper, at $60 per mo. 3 blacksmiths, at $3 per day. 1 carpenter, at $3 per day. 17 laborers, at $2.25 per day. Cost of the Cascade Tunnel. The tunnel is 13,813 ft. long through the Cascade Mountains on the line of the Great Northern Ry. The width in the clear is 16 ft., and the height from top of rail to bot- tom of arch is 21 % ft. It was begun, from two headings, Aug. 20, 1897, and completed Oct. 13, 1900. A top heading, 10 x 20 ft., was driven from each end ; and the bench was taken out in two lifts. The average monthly progress was 175 ft. at each heading, or 5.76 ft. per day of 24 hrs. The best year's work was from June 1, 1899, to June 1, 1900, in which time 5,575 ft. were driven from the two headings, the monthly average being 232 ft. per heading. The best month's progress was 527 ft. from two headings; the best week's progress was 143 ft. from two headings; the best month's prog- ress from a single heading (east) was 301 ft. The rock was medium hard granite, very seamy and very wet. Although hard to drill and blast, the granite disintegrated so rapidly that a tem- porary timber lining was necessary throughout, and it was after- ward replaced with concrete. The work was all done by day labor, no contracts being let, and, in consequence, it cost considerably more than would have been the case had it been built by contract. Three 8-hr, shifts were worked. There were 600 to 800 men employed, and they were not very efficient. Four columns in a heading carried 6 drills (3*4 -in. size). From 24 to 28 holes were drilled 12 ft. in the heading, and fired in three rounds by electricity. Including the bench work there were 14 drills used at each end of the tunnel. Rock from the heading and top bench was wheeled in barrows out onto the "jumbo," or "go devil," and dumped through into cars below. A compressed air hoist on the "jumbo" served to lift large rock and to shift the "jumbo" back before firing. Eight electric motor cars were used to haul the muck, etc. One motor hauled 16 to 20 dump cars of 1 cu. yd. each up the 1.7% grade to the east portal, at 10 miles an hour. The rails were 50-lb. rails lajd to a gage of 2 ft. Large power houses were built at each portal. The east power house contained 1 Ingersoll-Sergeant duplex compressor, 18 x 24 RAILWAYS. 1193 Ins. ; 1 straight line compressor, 18x24 ins. ; 1 Rand duplex com- pressor, 20x36 ins.; 1 Buckeye high-speed engine, 12x16 ins.; 1 Chandler & Taylor high-speed engine, 13 x 14 ins. ; 6 150-hp. boilers ; pumps, dynamos, fans and water heaters. Compressed air was delivered through 6-in. mains to the drills, at an initial pres- sure of 100 Ibs. The tunnel was lined with concrete from end to end, the tem- porary timber lining being removed. The concrete is nowhere less than 2 ft, and in places it is 3 % ft. thick ; spawls and broken stone were packed above the concrete where necessary. To place the concrete without interfering with the muck trains, a platform 500 ft. long was erected, and the cars loaded with concrete were hauled up an incline by a compressed air hoist. The concrete was dumped on the platform and shoveled into the forms. While this was going on another 500-ft. platform was being built in advance. Side walls were built in alternate sections 8 to 12 ft. long, the weight of the timber arches being thus transferred to the walls. The concrete arch centers were made in 12-ft. lengths, of which there were 10 in each end of the tunnel. When the concrete had set, the 12-ft. arch center was lowered with screw jacks onto "dollies," pushed forward 12 ft. and jacked up again. Concrete was mixed, 1 cement, 3 sand and 5 parts rock. About 95,000 bbls. of Portland cement were used in lining the tunnel, an average of 7 bbls. per lin. ft. of tunnel. Work of lining was begun in De- cember, 1899, and finished November, 1900; more than 1,000 ft. of lining having been placed in October, 1900, in the west end, although the general average was about 600 ft. of lining per month from each end. The tunnel was opened for operation Dec. 20, 1900. Mr. Willard Beahan says that it was a serious mistake to have driven the heading in rock by hand 300 ft. in advance of the bench While waiting for the power plant to arrive, for the long heading overtaxed the transportation so that work on the heading had to be stopped until the bench was brought up. The use of four drill columns he regards as novel, and adds that there was plenty of room in which to work six drills, and that it was not necessary to shift any of the columns in drilling a set of holes. The actual cost of this tunnel, as originally printed in Engi- neering-Contracting, Dec. 8, 1908, was as follows : Per lin. ft. Engineering $ 4.30 Labor excavating tunnel 60.60 Explosives 7.40 Power 22.50 Tools ($137,000) 10.00 Machinery ($223,000) 16.20. Buildings 3.50 Timber lining 9.40 Concrete lining 43.50 Personal injuries 2.10 Hospital expenses 1-10 Permanent track through tunnel 2.80 Total . $183.40 1194 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A comparison of this cost with that of the Stampede Tunnel, through the same mountain range, shows that the Stampede Tun- nel was built at less cost, although high contract prices were paid. Wabash R. R. Tunnels.* I am indebted to Mr. T. H. Loomis, Div. Eng. P., T. & W. R. R. (Wabash system) for much of the follow- ing data kindly furnished by him when I went over the line in 1903 studying the methods and cost of excavation. Eight double- track tunnels were under way, the cross-section of each being as shown in Fig. 1. The material encountered was shale, sandstone, fire clay and occasional seams of coal characteristic of eastern Ohio "and western Pennsylvania. The section above the wall plates (i. e., the longitudinal timbers on top of the posts) requires an ex- EN&. NEWS. Fig. 1. Double Track Tunnel. cavation of 15 cu. yds. per lin. ft. The clear width between wall plates is 34^4 ft. The segmental arch timbers are 12x12 ins., lagged with 4-in. plank, the arch ribs being 3 to 4 ft. c. to c. The favorite method of attack, as shown in Fig. 2, was by what I will term the twin-heading method ; two 8 x 8-ft. headings being driven as shown, and afterward enlarged. The floor of these headings is 12y 2 ft. above subgrade, thus leaving a 12y 2 -ft. bench, ACDE, to be taken out. One machine drill is operated in each heading (two could be worked) for the drilling is easy. The rivalry between the two drilling gangs in these twin headings appeared to me to be one of the best features of this method of attack. It is certain that no hitherto published data show as low a cost per cubic yard for tunnel work as the data which I secured on this work. The weekly 'Gillette's "Rock Excavation." RAILWAYS. 1195 progress was not rapid, but, as all the tunnels were comparatively short, there was no necessity of going to great expense in securing rapid progress a fact that tunnel contractors should bear in mind. Steam drills were used in some of the short tunnels. The following is the actual cost of excavating and timbering the section of a tunnel above the wall plates (15 cu. yds. per lin. ft.), using air drills, for a distance of 100 lin. ft. : Labor $2,527.45 2,000 Ibs. 40% dynamite, at 12 cts 260.00 470 gals, kerosene oil, at 12 cts 56.40 1,875 gals, gasoline, at 12 cts 225.00 3,000 bus. coal for compressor, at 9 cts 270.00 Machine and lubricating oils 62.50 Blacksmith shop 150.00 41,649 ft. B. M. timber, at $23 957.93 Total cost of 100 lin. ft $4,509.28 Cost per lin ft. above wall plates 45.09 Cost per cu. yd. including timber 3.06 Cost per cu. yd., excluding timber 2.60 The material in this case was sandstone. On another tunnel the section above the wall plates was exca- vated by hand at a cost $40.90 per lin. ft., or $2.73 per cu. yd., for a distance of 110 ft., the material being hard fire clay in the /H A L __1 Fig. 3. upper half and shale in the lower half of the section excavated, making easier excavation than in the sandstone. The force engaged in hand drilling, by the twin-heading method, was: Wages per 10-hr, shift. 1 general foreman $ 4 1 foreman 1 blacksmith 2 carpenters, at $3 10 miners, at $2 10 muckers, at $1.50 1 team 3 6 20 15 4 Total per shift (10-hr.) $55 While these men took out the whole section above the wall plates (16 cu. yds. per lin. ft.) for $2.73 per cu. yd. for labor and ex- plosives (not including cost of timber), working in shale and fire 1196 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. clay, they excavated a 7 x 8-ft. heading in sandstone for $3.75 per cu. yd., distributed as follows : Per 10-hr, shift. Labor on 7 x 8 heading $18.00 Dynamite 3.84 Repairs 90 Light 32^ Total per shift $23.06 Each shift excavated 6.2 cu. yds. of this 7 x 8-ft. heading, making the cost $3.75 per cu. yd., as above stated, equivalent to an ad- vance of 3 ft. per shift. No night shifts were being worked on the eight tunnels, and the progress per week in shale was 25 ft. when working by hand and excavating 15 cu. yds. per lin. ft. ; and 50 ft. a week working with machine drills. In hard sandstone the weekly progress was about 15 ft. by hand and 30 ft. with machine drills, in all cases working only 1 10-hr, shift in the 24-hr, day. The following is the actual cost of timbering on one job : Per M. Georgia pine f. o. b. cars $23.60 Hauling 6 miles 3.00 Cost of framing 5.00 Cost of erecting 3.00 Total per 1,000 ft. B. M $34.60 The carpenters received $3 per 10-hr, day, and laborers erecting received $1.50. The cost of framing and erecting, including super- vision, was $8 per M, which was about $2 more than it should have cost had there been more workers and fewer bosses. Over the rough roads each team hauled about 1,000 ft. B. M. per load and made one trip of 6 miles each way in a day. The cost of "pack- ing" (i. e., placing small stones) above the lagging was 80 cts. per cu. yd. We now come to what I have said are the lowest records of tun- neling cost yet made public : Tunnel heading in sandstone, double track full section above the wall plate grade (15 cu. yds. per lin. ft.) : Cu. yd. Drilling $0.60 Explosives 40 Mucking . .85 Total $1.85 Tunnel bench in same tunnel : Cu. yd. Drilling $0.40 Explosives 20 Mucking 22 Total . ..$0.82 RAILWAYS. 1197 The sandstone was very hard, breaking in large blocks, which have to be drilled and shot before mucking. A steam shovel is used in the bench, and material of heading is carried about 400 ft. and dumped over the breast of bench, whence steam shovel loads it along with bench material. In another tunnel, in a formation of practically level strata of slate, limestone (thin) and fire clay (a stone hard as limestone to drill, but disintegrating in the air) the cost was as follows: Heading full double-track sections all above wall plates : Cu. yd. Drilling $0.48 Explosives 30 Mucking 80 Total $1.58 same tunnel full section : Cu. yd. Drilling $0.30 Explosives 20 Mucking 18 Total $OJ58 In the case of another tunnel in coal formation with a 5-ft. vein of coal running all through on the wall plate grade ; steam drills used in rock, and steam coal augers in the coal, with steam shovel for mucking, the costs were as follows: Headings per cubic yard double track : Labor $0.966 Explosives and materials 090 Total ,. $1.056 Bench same tunnel and formation : Cu. yd. Labor $0.38 Explosives and materials 04 Total $0.42 This last may seem too low, but it was in all probability the cheapest material a tunnel is ever built in, and the organization was so good that it was worked with extreme economy. A core of about 2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. was left in the middle of the heading (between the twin headings) and taken out along with the bench. Mount Wood and Top Mill Tunnels. Mr. W. J. Yoder gives the following data: The tunnels (built in 1888-1889) are within the northern city limits of Wheeling, W. Va., and the material pene- trated was for the most part shale of the coal measures. The shale disintegrates rapidly upon exposure and must be supported. The block or American system of timbering was used for lining, and was kept never more than 50 ft. back of the face. All drilling was done by hand. A top heading 10x34 ft. was driven, and then widened; the bench was taken out in two lifts. The first or cut holes in the heading were drilled so as to blast out a long horizontal wedge 1198 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of rock near the roof; these holes being 5 to 6 ft. deep. Then a lower row of 5-ft. lift holes was fired. Finally the bottom of the heading was taken out like a bench by a row of vertical holes and a row of horizontal holes. In all 33 holes were fired in the heading, aggregating 160 lin. ft., and requiring 60 Ibs. of 40% Forcite to load them. The effect of the firing was to make an advance of 2% ft., displacing 25 cu. yds. [The heading gang consisted of 1 foreman, 14 drillers, 12 muckers and 1 nipper.] About 25 lin. ft. of drilling was considered a day's (10 hrs.) work for 2 men. The muck was wheeled in iron barrows to a traveler and dumped down chutes into cars. The heading gang timbered and placed the packing above the arch; two 10-hr, shifts per week being needed for this work, leaving 10 shifts per week for advancing the heading. The timbering is fully described; 660 ft. B. M. of white oak were used per lin. ft. of tunnel. The bench holes were 8 ft. deep, churn drills being used except for the corner holes and for blockholing. The bench force consisted of 1 foreman, 6 drillers, 18 muckers, 2 mule drivers, 3 dump men and 1 nipper. The average haul was about 800. ft. The maximum monthly progress (working two 10-hr, shifts) in a heading on the Mount Wood Tunnel was 130 lin. ft., the average monthly progress being 84 ft. The maximum monthly progress on the bench was 125% ft., the average being 97 ft. The average ex- cavation was 10.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft, of heading and enlargement, and 18 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of bench. The total excavation in both tunnels was 49,670 cu. yds., and the excavation in approaches was 25,751 cu. yds. The number of men employed was 350. The heading men were composed of two-thirds negroes and one-third Austrians. The foremen were Irish. The best drillers were negroes. No work was done Sundays or Saturday nights. The scale of wages (10-hr, shift) was as follows: HEADING GANG. 1 foreman $4.00 14 drillers 1.75 10 muckers 1.50 1 nipper 1.25 BENCH GANG. 1 foreman . .$3.00 6 drillers 1.75 16 muckers 1.50 2 men (lagging) 1.50 1 nipper . 1.25 2 drivers 1.50 3 dumpmen 1.50 2 mules MISCELLANEOUS. 1 carpenter $2.50 4 sawyers 1.75 1 trackman 2.50 3 blacksmiths 3.00 1 walking boss 4.00 1 timekeeper . 2.25 1 engineer and fireman 2.50 1 electrician . 2.50 RAILWAYS. 1199 COST OF LABOR PER LIN. FT. OF TUNNEL. Labor excavating (heading, $22.79 ; bench, $20.95) $43.74 Hauling and dumping 5.65 Labor timbering 4.19 Labor framing timber -. 77 Blacksmithing 1.00 Track repairs .21 Labor electric lighting 88 Superintendence and accounts 2.00 Total labor $58.44 * Cost per cu. yd 2.0C The above does not include the cost of timber, oil, fuel, wear of tools or explosives. About 1 Ib. of 40% Forcite was used per cu. yd. of tunnel excavation, or 28 Ibs. per lin. ft. The labor cost was $2.34 per cu. yd. of heading, and $1.10 per cu. yd. of bench exca- vation, making an average of $1.55 per cu. yd., not including the items of timbering, etc. The labor cost of erecting arch and packing back of it was $3.19 per lin. ft. of tunnel; or $7.80 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The labor cost of erecting plumb posts and side lagging and packing same was $2.33 per lin. ft.; or $4.27 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The contractors were Paige*, Carey & Co., of New York, whose super- intendent was Mr. Frank Moran. Tunnel Driven by Hand on the B. & O. Mr. J. G. G. Kerry gives description and cost of a short single-track tunnel built in 1891 on the W. Va. & P. R. R., a feeder of the B. & a system. The tunnel is on a *4% grade falling to the south, with a length of 624 ft., in a soft blue clay shale, nearly dry and showing little stratification. This shale disintegrates rapidly on exposure. The width was 23 ft., height from floor to spring line 13 ft. ; semi-circular arch of 11% ft. radius. The area of the heading was 208 sq. ft. ; bench, 299 sq. ft. ; total, 507 sq. ft. Work was all done by hand. The heading gang consisted of 1 foreman, 8 miners, 6 muckers and 1 nipper. Common laborers were paid $1.45 and miners $1.75 per 10-hr, day. Three sets of holes (2 wet and 1 dry) were drilled in the heading; each set consisting of 4 holes about 4 ft. deep ; and 24 ft. of holes was considered a good day's work for two miners. Each hole was loaded with 4 to 6 sticks (% Ib. per stick) of dynamite; and the average advance from a blast was 2% ft. A scaffold car, or go-devil, was used in handling the muck. It was provided with a derrick and also used for handling timbers, lagging and packing. The bench gang consisted of 1 foreman, 8 drillers, 10 muckers and 1 nipper. The bench was shot down in 4-ft. holds or lifts, two half-depth blasts being made for each hold. Each blast con- sisted of four holes, two being center holes, and two nearly vertical under the wall plate. The charge was 10 sticks to an outside hole and 15 sticks to a center hole. Muck was taken out in 1 cu. yd. dump cars in trains of two. Stone flat cars with platforms flush with top of wheels were used for handling large rocks. The bench was kept two wall plate lengths behind the heading, making 1200 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the same progress, 2% ft. per shift. The actual excavation was at the rate of 5 ft. per shift, but the time consumed in pointing down projections, timbering and packing being equal to the time spent in excavation, reduced the average progress to 2^ ft. per shift. The work was done by contract, and it cost the company at contract prices as follows : 11,726 cu. yds. of excavation at $2.85 $33,419 742 cu. yds. of packing, at $1.75 1,298 256 cu. yds. of fallen rock, at $1.25 320 303,000 ft. B. M., at $30.00 9,090 Total 624 lin. ft. of tunnel, at $70.70 $44,127 The actual cost to the contractor was about $35,000. The method of handling and placing the segmental arch timber- ing is described in detail. The timbering consisted of a 7-segment arch of 12 x 12-in. white oak resting on 12 x 14-in. wall plates on top of the posts. The 16 -ft. wall plates were jointed by halving for a foot at each end, so that the forward end always showed the lower half of the joint. The arches were 8 ft. c. to c. The segments of the arches were erected on temporary centers made of 2-in. plank. These centers were erected in two parts and joined at the crown by bolts ; a long dog-hook, fastened to the center, was driven into the preceding arch to hold it in place laterally. The arch timbers were wedged solidly against the roof, and the centers withdrawn. The lagging was close laid, all voids being packed with broken sandstone. Each end of the tunnel was lined with masonry for 50 ft, the centers used in this lining being 25 ft. long and mounted on rollers. During use the centers were supported on wedges, which upon being struck lowered the center enough to clear the rock- faced Voussoirs. A hole was left in the crown of the arch-center lagging so that the voussoirs could pass through. Above this a piece or two of the tunnel lagging was removed, and an iron bar placed on the timber arches. A set of blocks was hung from this iron bar, and used to raise the voussoir stone. Gas pipe rollers were put under the stone to roll it to place on the center lagging. The stone was then canted up, and a rope slung around it, six men then sliding it to place. The contract prices were $9 per cu. yd. for portal masonry, $8 for side walls and $14 for arch sheeting. The cost at contract prices per lin. ft. of that part of the tunnel which was lined (excluding portals, fallen material, etc.), was: Per lin. ft. Excavation, at $2.85 per cu. yd $ 53.55 Packing, at $1.75 per cu. yd 2.08 Timbering, at $30.00 per M 14.75 Side walls 20.56 Arch 21.42 Total per lin. ft $112. 36 RAILWAYS. 1201 Cost of the Busk Tunnel. The Busk Tunnel Ry. Co. built a tun- nel 9,395 ft. long on the Colorado Midland R. R. through the Rocky Mts., 11.7 miles S. W. of L-eadville. The contract was let to Keefe & Co., and work was begun Sept. 15, 1890. After all but 921 ft. had been driven the work was turned over to the railway company and finished under the direction of their chief engineer, Mr. B. H. Bryant. The tunnel is single track, 15 x 21 ft., with 10.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. excavation in rock and 13.8 cu. yds. where timbered. The heading was 7 ft. high and the full width of the tunnel. The first 8 holes, 8 ft. deep, were drilled in two rows from the top to bottom, holes being about 2 ft. apart at surface and converging toward the center. The firing of these holes made a V-shaped opening. A second set of holes was drilled parallel to the sides of the tunnel, and when fired the remaining rock was blown into the V-shaped opening. The bench was excavated in the same way. The progress was as follows: Driving the 2 headings 1,118 days Av. daily progress 8.4 ft. Av. daily progress, best month 10.9 ft. Best month's (28 days) progress, 1 heading 202.5 ft. The rock was granite, and in places it disintegrated on exposure, requiring timbering; in other places it was so full of seams as to require timbering; so that 78 per cent of the tunnel was timbered. The contractor was paid for the tunnel as follows: 9,393% ft. of tunnel at $62.50 $587,103.75 32,575 cu. yds. enlargement for timbering at $2.50 81,437.50 Cost of timber, 2,723,000 ft. B. M. at $30 81,690.00 Labor timbering at $12 per M 32,676.00 Total 9,393% ft. at $82.30 $782,907.50 The plant at the Ivanhoe end consisted of three 100 hp. boilers, two 20 x 24-in. Ingersoll compressors, one 20 x 24-in. Norwalk compressor, one 10 hp. engine to drive electric light dynamo, one 20 hp. engine to drive a No. 6 Blake blower, 14-in. air pipe, two pumps with 14-in. steam cylinders and 10-in. stroke, six 3%-in. Ingersoll drills (4 in the heading and 2 on the bench), a small traction engine running on a 20-in. gauge track hauling nine 3-yd. dump cars. Coke was used as fuel for the traction engine, so that the smoke did not inconvenience the tunnel workmen. Cost of a Tunnel Near Peekskill, N. Y. The following data are given by Mr. Geo. W. Lee, engineer for Sundstrom & Stratton, the contractors who built the double track tunnel described. The tunnel is only 275 ft. long, and is on the line of the New York Central R. R., 2% miles north of Peekskill. The yardage as shown on the plans was 7,028 cu. yds., but as the rock lay in strata dipping at an angle of 45, it broke out on the uphill side so as to leave large pockets, in consequence of which the contractor took out 10 per cent more rock than he was paid for. Owing to the seamy condition of the rock, and the proximity of the tunnel to the main line traffic, very light charges of dynamite were used, which 1202 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. increased the cost and delayed the progress. Rand steam drills, 3-in., were used. A heading 8 x 10 ft. was run and the bench was kept close behind. Rock from the heading was removed in small narrow gage cars; rock from the bench was loaded into standard gage cars by derrick cars. The following was the cost of the tunnel excavation : Equipment (less present value), supplies and repairs $ 2,893.52 Dynamite and exploders - 1,604.58 Coal 570.80 Oil, waste, etc 92.80 Lumber for houses and shops 129.88 Miscellaneous 92.10 Labor 22,212.86 Total $27,596.54 Average cost per cu. yd. paid for 3.93 Average cost per cu. yd. taken out 3.54 The tunnel was lined with 1:2:4 concrete ; 692 cu. yds. in the bench walls; 932 cu. yds. in the arch; the portal head walls were of 1:3:6 concrete, 324 cu. yds. The cost of the concrete was as follows for the 1,948 cu. yds.: Cement at $1.63 per bbl $ 5,755.50 Sand at 75 cts. per cu. yd 662.94 Crushed stone at 80 cts. per cu. yd .... 1,303.20 Lumber. Mixing platforms and runways $336.89 Ribs, including hand sawing 234.10 Backing boards 134.44 Lagging 341.04 Sheathing 268.49 Plates, sills, studs and braces 182.75 1,497.71 Coal 118.73 Oil 16.12 Hardware, nails, spikes, etc 224.39 Tools 181.10 Freight on stone, cement, etc 3,089.86 Labor, including supt., foreman, etc 8,036.31 Total, $10.72 per cu. yd $20,885.86 In the approaches to the tunnel and in widening cuts south of the tunnel 45,698 cu. yds. of rock were removed. On account of proximity to traffic, blasting could be done only at limited periods, which made the cost of excavation high. Rock was loaded on flat cars with stiff leg derricks provided with bull wheels. The cost was as follows : RAILWAYS. 1203 Equipment (less present value, supplies and repairs $11,673.60 Dynamite and exploders 6,588.82 Coal 2,490.13 Oil, waste, etc 370.59 Lumber for buildings 634.22 Miscellaneous 373.19 Labor 69,550.66 Total $91,681.21 Average cost per cu. yd. paid for 2.24 Average cost per cu. yd. taken out 2.01 Cost of Tunnelling, Alaska Central Railway. From data com- piled by Mr. G. A. Kyle, and given in a great detail in Engineering- Contracting, April 7, 1909, I have prepared the following condensed summary. The work comprises seven short tunnels located on the Alaska Central Ry., between miles 48 and 52. The work was begun by a contracting firm, but taken over by the railway and finished with company forces. The costs are all high, not only because wages were high and because of location in an inaccessible country, but because work done with company forces is almost invariably more expensive than work done by contract. Table I shows the length of each tunnel, and the cross-section. It is worthy of note that the "overbreak" averaged 12.1%. The rock was a "hard blocky slate with fractures at right angles to the axis of the tunnels." It broke easily and almost to the theoretical lines of the tunnel, and required no timbering. The standard cross-section was 14 ft. between side walls and 21 ft. between top of rail and top of tunnel. Tunnel No. 1 was built by company forces and was begun Jan. 16, 1906. This tunnel was located 1% miles from the end of com- pleted track. The tunnel was driven entirely from the north end on account of a snow slide on the south end, making it Impossible to work on that end, as the work was mostly done in the win- ter months. The tunnel is 699 ft. long. The first 250 ft. was driven with steam power and drills. The character of ma- terial is of a hard rocky slate and is evidently in an ancient slide from the mountains, as the strata were badly broken up, which caused a great amount of overbreak outside of the standard sections, the same being 27 per cent. This tunnel was on a 14 curve and was widened to give a minimum clearance of 18 ins. for the maximum length passenger car. The size of the tunnel was 17 ft. wide between timbers, and 21 ft. from top of rail to clearance at top of tunnel. Timber was used for 396 ft. in the north end. The balance was left unlined, but later had to be lined nearly its whole length at an extra high cost, which is not included in the costs as shown below. The steam plant used In driving the first 250 ft. of the tunnel was one 40 hp. boiler, one 10 hp. boiler; three 3% -in. Rand drills were used in the heading. The work carried on with the following 1804 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. g fcfc^rt w - 10 -^s^ ' > is 1 *6~| ^ g r OO.f csj '^IC^D O t* p 1 ^Wg'-^lOO C<1 ^C<1- oo fc,'3 oo -o -OOIMCO -t~ ^S\OO 'lO '^O5O iH 1 II J a S OA ~ * fe .S * K! 'd S ^oS ^^ : :ss^ ' *S " t> (1( o S lrt0 '^ aiCO?0 "TH fco w > M CQ fC'q .0 OTHCO * 'e>i CQ THTH TH iHrHTH ' 'iH StS r 3 Si G CO C*l TH O5 CO O Tj< oo t- gs O u o c^Tco" t cT | ^"00"^ ' ' t^ co" s H u gj TH TH "4| H w 1 X 00 -OIMO -00 (H rt o -o -oooo t^ S 2 Qp^)OOco co c^ic % 4 ' 'co* " EH rt o tl ^> 'THOO (>. t^ r^ CD CO Ci -^ CO rH 10 *M ' I co . O C *7 C TH (M CO CO 5 RAILWAYS. 1205 force in each shift of 10 hours (although work was carried on with day and night shifts during a short period) : 1 foreman. 3 machine drillers. 3 machine driller helpers. 1 muck boss. 10 muckers, 2 in head and 8 on bench. 1 light tender. 1 man on dump. 1 man on cars. 1 horse. 1 engineer. 1 fireman. 1 blacksmith. Making 24 men and 1 horse per shift. The timbering was not kept up with the bench, as the material stood sufficiently well for the men to work, although it was con- sidered dangerous at times. There were used in blasting 21 or 22 holes in the heading 8 to 10 ft. deep, and the bench was taken out in two lifts generally. The heading was run from 40 to 60 ft. ahead of the bench and scaffold- ing used to dump the muck from heading directly into the cars from above, two plank runways supported on trestle being used for the purpose. The steam plant was discontinued on April 14, 1906, as the heat from the escaping steam at the drills made the tunnel too hot for the men to work. The progress with the steam plant was satis- factory with the above exception and seemed to be about the limit that steam can be used economically, viz., 250 ft. from the end of tunnel. The steam was carried from the boilers to the drills in a 2y 2 -in. pipe and the escaping steam was carried from the drills back out of the tunnels in a 2-in. pipe enclosed in a wooden box with the 2^ -in. steam pipe to decrease the heat. The progress during the 84 days that the steam plant was used was 250 ft., and the progress made while the air drills were working was about 26 ft. per day, so that about the same progress was made during the steam plant's operation as with the air plant, which was 26.2 -ft. This might be accounted for by the fact that from the time that the steam plant was discontinued, April 14, 1906, until April 28, 1906 (14 days), when the air plant was started, there was not much work done in the tunnel excepting to work on the bench, which was considerably behind at that time. From the time the air plant was installed until Sept. 25, 1906, 150 days, the tunnel was worked continuously and was practically finished. The time from Sept. 25 to Oct. 8, the time that the tunnel is shown as completed in Table II, was employed in dressing up and completing the timbering of tunnel. The actual days worked on the tunnel were 234, making the actual progress while work was going on 3 ft. per day. Considerable trouble was had in keeping the force 1206 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Is C 1 g us co oo I as - 3 fa t-s : : SS 3 I ! & ? . to to . o o : : 5 o o O ? .^>? ^optliii^^-l^Iji sffi^i RAILWAYS. 120' t- 1-1 >> 05 Ifl C 00 N ^J 5 t b co C 05 C co t- ^_,rrt (BUg 05 00 N ~s K ^2 : uw c S . q C* C o co' c. co 10 ; " gi ^S I < rt- r-3 C 5 . 1 10 g C> lfili!:ll|llfll^ JlilliM^ c 1 1208 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. up to the standard number in this tunnel on account of the dan- gerous character of the rock. The cost of this tunnel was as shown in Table III (the length being 699 ft, involving 12,988 cu. yds. excavation) : TABLE III COST OF TUNNEL. Compressor and Steam Plant. Lighting compressor house, 125 gals, oil at 40c....$ Dep. of boilers comp. plant drills, etc., 30% of original cost at end of track Per [in. ft. 0.072 3.044 Per cu. yd. $0.004 0.164 Lubricating oil for compressor 0.086 0.005 Freighting machinery for plant, 25 tons at 50c per ton mile 0.072 0.004 Lubricating oils for drills 046 0.002 Machinist repairing plant 0.153 0.008 Building for compressor plant (mtls. $184, labor $330) 470 0.025 Total compressor and steam plant . . : $ 3 943 $0.212 Fuel. Coal at end of track (266 tons at $8 80) $ 3.346 $0.181 Freighting 266 tons coal from end of track, at 50c per ton mile 0.761 0.041 Miscellaneous labor hauling coal and ashes 8 mos. at $85 00 . 972 0.052 Horses, hauling coal and ashes 8 mos., at $48.00. .. 0.549 0.030 Total fuel $ 5.628 $0.304 Enginemen, Etc. Compr. Plant. 5 mos. engrs., at $250 per mo. (2 men) $ 1.788 $0.096 150 days firemen at $3 00 ... . . 0.644 0.035 82 days firemen at $6 00 (2 men) 704 038 Total engineers and firemen $ 3.136 $0.169 Pipe Line. Dep. of pipe line and fittings, 60% of 1st cost $ 0.359 $0.019 Hose and parts, 1st cost 1.762 0.095 Laying pipe line 800 ft at 20c 229 012 Total pipe line $ 2 350 $0 126 Lighting Tunnel. Candles $ 0.705 $0.038 Coal oil 1 043 0.056 Gasoline 0.300 0.016 Buckeye lights and torches (dep., 50% of $160, first cost) 113 0.006 Freight hauling 17 tons 4 miles, at 40c per ton mile Labor, 245 days, attended lights, at $6 day 0.039 2.103 0.002 0.114 Total, lighting tunnel. . $ 4 303 $0.232 Blacksmithing. 265 days, at $9.00 (2 men) $ 5 686 0.307 14.8 tons coal, at $20 per ton, at end of track 14.8 hauled from end track to tunnel, at 40c per ton mile, $1.60 per ton 0.423 0.034 0.023 0.002 Depreciation of tools (50% of $316, first cost) 0.226 0.012 Total blacksmithing. . ..$ 6.369 $0.344 RAILWAYS. 1209 Engineering and Superintendence. Engineering $ 2 861 $0 155 Superintendence . . . .- 2 575 139 Total engineering and superintendence. $ 5 436 $0 294 Labor Excavating. Bonus $ 2 111 $0 114 Labor, including shift bosses 76 226 4 116 Horses, 496 days at $1.50 1 064 058 Total labor in tunnel excavation . . .$ 79.401 4 288 Explosives. Explosives, powder $ 11 273 $0 601 Fuses, caps, exploders, lead wires 1 072 Total explosives $ 12 345 $0 668 Materials. Tools, hand $ 193 $0 Oil Tools, drill steel, dep. 50% first cost. . 317 017 Cars, tracks, dep . 556 030 Miscellaneous hardware and sundries . . . 614 033 Lumber for scaffolding and miscl., 39,383 ft. B. at $12.00 M., 684 0037 Hauling above material, 112 tons, at $1 60 256 014 Total materials $ 2 620 $0 14? Total making roads and trails $ 1 717 $0 093 Total excavation $ 96 083 Total timber lining (see Table IV) .. $ 11 205 $0 60b Total cost of tunnel $138 453 $7 477 Summary. Compressor and steam plant . Per lin. ft. $ 3 943 Per cu. yd. $0 212 Fuel compressor and steam plant 5 628 304 Engineers and firemen compressor plant 3.136 0.169 Total compressor plant $ 12 707 $0 685 Pipe line connections, etc 2 350 $ 126 Grand total compressor plant $ 15 057 $0 811 Lighting tunnel 4 303 232 Blacksmithing 6 369 0.344 Labor on excavation 79 401 4 288 Explosives 12 345 668 Material used in excavation for scaffolding, etc.. 2.620 1 717 0.142 093 Timber lining 11 205 605 Engineering and superintendence 5 436 294 Total cost of tunnel. . ..$138.453 $7.477 There were 63.3 Ibs. of dynamite used per lin. ft. of tunnel, or 3.57 Ibs. per cu. yd. There were nearly 30 lin. ft. of hole drilled per lin. ft. of tunnel, or 1.6 lin. ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. The extravagantly 1210 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. expensive cost of this drilling is seen when reduced to the cost per lin. ft. of drill hole: Per ft. of hole. Total compressor plant charges ($15.057 per lin. ft. of tunnel) .$0.51 Wages of drillers and helpers 0.23 Total per ft. of drill hole $0.74 The plant used on this tunnel was as follows : 1 40 hp. firebox, water bottom boiler with stack injector and feed pump. 1 12x12x14 inch Franklin straight line air compressor, steam driven, capacity 350 cu. ft. of air per minute. 1 30-inch by 10 ft. air receiver. 750 ft. 4-inch gas pipe. 400 ft. 2 % -inch gas pipe. 300 ft. 1-inch gas pipe. 450 ft. 1-inch armored rubber air hose. 150 ft. 2-inch armored rubber air hose. 2 314 Rand drills. 43% Rand drills. 22% Rand drills. 5 tripods. 3 columns. 5 arms. 1,000 Ibs. X steel. Blacksmith outfit. Pipe tools. Pipe fittings. Repair parts for drills. TABLE IV COST OF TIMBER LINING. Per Company force, 148 ft. tunnel lining. Total. lin. ft. 80 cords wood, at $3.32 per cord $ 266.57 80 cords wood, at $3.00 per cord 240.00 Total cord wood $ 506.57 5,400 ft. B. M. timber, at $22.22 1,199.88 566 Ibs. iron, at 5c 28.33 5,400 ft. B. M. timber, at $12.. ... 648.00 Total for timber $1,876.21 Total for 148 ft. lin. lining $2,382.78 $16.010 RAILWAYS. 1211 Contract for 248 lin. ft. 952 Ibs. iron, at 5c 47.60 $ 0.192 Lumber on hand 667.76 2.693 106,530 ft. B. M. timber, at $12, at end of track. . 1,278.36 5.154 106,550 ft. B. M. timber, at $20 2,130.60 8.591 Timber framed on hand 84.00 0.339 Total timber for 248 ft. tunnel . .$4,208.32 $16.969 99.74 cords wood, at $4, labor 398.96 90.56 cords wood, at $3, labor 271.68 190.30 cords wood, at $3, material end track. . . . 570.90 Total cords wood back filling $1,241.54 $ 5.006 Cost of 248 lin. ft. lining ....$5,449.86 $21.975 Total for 396 lin. ft. tunnel lining $7,832.64 $19.782 Total for 699 lin. ft. tunnel lining $7,832.64 $11,205 The wage scale was as follows: Position. Per month. Per day. Superintendent *$300 Walking boss * 175 Shift bosses t$5.00 Muck bosses t 4.00 Machine drillers t 4.00 Machine helpers f 3.00 Carpenters f 4.00 Blacksmiths t 4.50 Powder thawer t 3.50 Machinist t 125 Engineers t 125 .... Firemen |3.00 Muckers t2.75 to 3.00 Carmen f2.75 to 3.00 Other general labor f 2.75 *And board. tPaid their own board at $6 per week. The prices of explosives were as follows : Per Ib. Dynamite, 70 per cent $0.186 Dynamite, 60 per cent 0.170 Dynamite, 40 per cent 0.160 Black powder , 075 Champion powder 110 Vigorite 120 Trimiff .110 per 100. Caps $0.90 Per 100 ft. Fuse $0.75 Electric exploders, 4' to 14' leads, average all lengths,- 10 ft... 5.00 Tunnels Nos. 2, 3, 6 and 7. The character of rock in all these tunnels was practically the same, being a hard blocky slate with fractures at right angles to the axis of tunnels. The rock drilled and broke easily and almost to the theoretical lines of the tunnel, and did not require any timbering, for the present at least. 1212 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The standard cross section was 14 ft. wide between side walla and 21 ft. between top of rails and clearance at top of tunnel. The lighting was with torches and Wells standard lights, one of the latter in each face of tunnel, and gave good satisfaction, the electric lighting plant that was bought for the purpose not being used. Lbs. Explosives used in these tunnels were 90,394 Per lineal foot of tunnel 44.7 Per cubic yard in tunnel 3.57 Per lineal foot of hole drilled in tunnel 1.46 The work was carried on in the same manner as tunnel No. 1, viz.: using 21 holes in the heading, 8 ft. deep, and the bench taken out generally in two lifts, the muck taken from the headings on wheelbarrows by two men and wheeled on planks supported by trestles and dumped directly into the cars from the wheel- barrows. The work was carried on in shifts of 10 hours each, part of the time day and night, with the following force in each shift, viz. : 1 horse. 1 foreman. 1 muck boss. 3 machine drillers. 3 machine driller helpers. 1 light tender. 8 muckers, 2 in heading, 6 on bench. 1 dump man. 1 car man. 1 blacksmith. 1 engineer. 1 fireman. Making 23 men and 1 horse in all per shift. When the company took these tunnels over from contractors, Mr. Martin Moran, who is an experienced tunnel man, was hired as general superintendent to look after the work. There was also trouble in keeping men on these tunnels on account of scarcity of labor at that time, and a system of paying a bonus of so much per foot to each man connected with the work after a certain number of feet per day was driven, was put into effect, which is shown in Table II. The actual work of driving tunnel No. 2 by air was begun Feb. 20, 1906, and finished May 12, 1906, requiring 81 days to complete the remaining 280 ft. or an average of 3.46 ft. per day. Tunnel No.- 3 was driven from both ends; from the south end 529 ft. and from the north end 426 ft. by air drills! 75 ft. of the south end was driven by hand, and the remaining 454 ft. by air drills. Work on the south end began with the air drills on Feb. 20, 1906, and finished July 11, 1906. The north end was begun Feb. 28 and finished July 11, 1906, an average of 3.20 lin. ft. per day on the south end and the same on the north end. RAILWAYS. 1213 Tunnel No. 6 was begun with air June 18, 1906, and finished Oct. 15, 1906, requiring 120 days to finish at an average per day of 1.61 lin. ft. The slow progress of this tunnel is evidently on account of the lack of power to run three headings at a time, as they were working in tunnel No. 7 at both ends at the same time, and it was impossible to carry all the headings on full force at once. Tunnel No. 7 was driven from both ends at once time, but the exact data are not available to segregate the number of feet driven on each end. This tunnel was begun May 24, 1906, and finished Nov. 4, 1906, requiring 145 days to complete at an average of 4 ft. per day. See Table II for other data. Wages and prices of materials were the same as for tunnel No. 1, above given. These four tunnels (Nos. 2, 3, 6 and 7) had a total length of 2,024 ft, involving the excavation of 25,257 cu. yds. of rock. | There were 31.5 ft. of drill hole per lin. ft. of tunnel, or 2.43 ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. The itemized cost of the work on these four tunnels averaged as given in Table V. TABLE V. AVERAGE COST OF 4 TUNNELS. Per Per Compressor Plant: lin. ft. cu. yd. Dep. compressor plant, interest, etc. (30% first cost $ 2.402 $0.192 Lubricating oil f9r compressor 0.032 0.003 Compressor building 0.207 0.016 Machinist labor repairing plant 0.092 0.007 Freighting machinery (60 tons, at $2.50) 0.074 0.006 Lighting compressor building (125 gals, coal oil, at 40 cts. ) 0.024 0.002 Total compressor plant $ 2.831 $0.22f> Pipe Line: Pipe and fittings (60% first cost, for dep. and in- terest) 0.563 0.045 Hose and parts 0.246 0.020 Lubricating oil for drills 0.059 0.005 Laying pipe line from compressor to tunnels 0.673 0.054 Hauling (35 tons pipe, at $2.50) 0.043 0.003 Total pipe line $1.584 $0.127 Fuel: Coal at end of track (980 tons, at $8.80).. ..$ 4.261 $0.341 Hauling (at $2.50 per ton) 1.211 0.097 Miscellaneous labor hauling coal and ashes (8 mos., at $125) 0.494 0.039 Fire wood 0.138 0.011 Horses hauling coal and ashes, at compressor 8 mos., at $72) 0.284 0.023 Total fuel for compressor $ 6.388 $0.511 Enginemen, Etc.: Engineers (8 mos., at $250) ..$ 0.988 $0.079 2 firemen (245 days, at $6.00 per day) 0.726 0.058 Total engineers and firemen $ 1.714 $0.137 1214 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Excavating: Bonus $ 1.853 Labor, including shift bosses and muck bosses. . . 50.845 Horses on cars, etc * 0.563 Total labor on tunnels $53.261 Total roads and trails $ 0.791 Explosives: Explosives powder $ 7.593 Fuse, caps, exploders, lead wire, etc 0.722 Total explosives . $ 8.315 Tools: Hand tools . .$ 0.130 Drill steel (50% original cost for dep.) 0.214 Cars, tracks, etc., depreciation 0.374 Total tools $~o7718 Materials: Miscellaneous hardware and sundries $ 0.414 Lumber for scaffolding (77,837 ft. B. M., at $12) 0.461 Hauling (216 tons lumber, at $2.50) 0.267 Total lumber and hardware $ 1.142 Engineering, Etc.: Superintendence $ 1.253 Engineering 1.778 Total engineering and superintendence $ 3.031 Lighting: Candles . . $ 0.474 Coal oil 0.704 Gasoline 0.202 Buckeye lights and torches (50% original cost dep. and interest) 0.077 Hauling (33 tons at 2.50 per ton, 5 mi.) 041 Labor attending lights (245 days, at $6) 0.726 Total lighting tunnel $ 2.224 Blacksmithing : 284 days blacksmithing, at $4.50..:.. ..$ 0.631 500 days blacksmithing, at $4.00 0.988 663 days blacksmithing at $3.00 0983 19.82 tons blacksmith coal, at $20.00 end track... 0.196 19.82 tons freight same, $2.50 per ton 0.025 Blacksmith tools, dep. 50% cost 0.104 Total blacksmithing $ 2.927 Grand total : $84.927 The following is a summary of the foregoing: Per Compressor Plant: lin. ft. Machinery dep., lighting, frt. on same, etc $ 2.831 Fuel for compressor 6 388 Engineer and fireman 1.714 Total compressor plant $10.933 Pipe line $1.584 RAILWAYS. 1215 Excavating: Tools $ 0.718 $0.057 Labor (compressor plant, drilling, etc.) 53.261 4.261 Roads and trails 0.791 063 Explosives, cap and fuse 8.315 665 Lumber, etc 1.142 o'.091 Engineering and superintendence 3.031 0.242 Total excavation $67.259 i5~379 Total lighting tunnel $ 2.224 ?0~m Total blacksmithing $ 2.927 $0.234 Grand total $84,927 ' ?6~791 The very high cost of the drilling is shown by the following cost per lin. ft. of drill hole : Per lin. ft. Compressor plant ($12.52 per lin. ft. tunnel) $041 Drillers and helpers 0.22 Total Tunnels Nos. 4 and 5. These tunnels were driven by contract, and hand drills were used entirely. See Table II for time data as to these tunnels, and Table I for "overbreak" data. The advantage of doing this work by contract is well shown by the following costs, which were the costs to the railway company at contract prices. COST OF TUNNEL No. 4 (404 LIN. FT.). 2,078 972 G 6 r cu. cu. cu. yds. yd. yds. tunnel tunnel excavation, excavation, at 'at $4. '$5 50 $ Total. 9,351.00 4,863.00 Per lin. ft. Per cu. yd. 1,403.5 cu. yds. tunnel excavation, at $4.75 7,094.12 4,544.1 cu. yds. tunnel excavation $21,308.12 $51.47 $4.497 Use of 2 cars 160 days, at $1.00 160.00 .38 .034 Horses for cars 70.00 .17 .015 Engineering 670.00 1.62 .141 Superintendence 392.46 .95 .083 Total $22,600.58 $54.59 $4.770 COST OF TUNNEL" No. 5 (304 LIN. FT.). Per Per Total. lin. ft. cu. yd. 3,726 cu. yds. tunnel excavation, at $4.50. $16,767.00 $55.15 $4.50 Use of two cars 136 days, at $1 per day. . 136.00 0.45 .04 Engineering 530.00 1.74 .14 Superintendence ^. . . 389.60 1.28 .10 Total cost $17,822.60 $58.62 $4.78 It will be seen that the tunnels driven by company forces cost 50% more than the tunnels driven by contract. Cost of the New Raton Tunnel.* Mr. Joseph Weidel, Asst. Etigr., A., T. & S. F. Ry., gives the following: * Engineering-Contracting, May 3, 1909. 1216 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. During the latter seventies of the past century, when the Santa Fe Railway was built westward and southward through Colorado and New Mexico, a tunnel was found to be* necessary in crossing the divide of the Raton Range, a spur of mountains projecting eastward from the Taos Range in southern Colorado. This tunnel was built during the years of 1878 and 1879, and while it was under con- struction a switch back was used in crossing the range. Its length is 2,037 ft., and it is on an ascending grade of 2% from the east ; the summit being at the west portal. The grades ap- proaching the tunnel, from either end, are 184.8 ft. per mile. The tunnel is 18% ft. high above top of rail and has a clear width of 14 ft. About 50% of the tunnel is lined with timbers. This original tunnel had been in constant use for about 29 years when the increase in traffic, size of rolling stock, and loads, and the necessity of extensive repairs forced the company to build a new tunnel. The new tunnel occupies a site adjacent to the old one and at the east portal the two are only 40 ft. apart, center to center. At the east portal the subgrade of the new tunnel is about 12 ft. lower than the subgrade of the old tunnel. The new tunnel is on an ascending grade of 0.50% from the east; the summit being at the west portal. The new tunnel is 2,786 ft. long, 17 ft. wide at spring line, and 24 ft. high above top of rail and is lined throughout with a concrete wall of an average thickness of 24 ins. There are two shafts ap- proximately 6x10 ft. in the clear. One of these shafts is 686 ft. from the east portal and the other 1,100 ft. from the west portal. The contract for the construction of the tunnel was awarded to The Lantry Contracting Co., a Kansas corporation, organized for this particular purpose. The papers were signed on April 5, 1907, and stipulated that the tunnel was to be completed, ready for track laying, by March 1, 1908. There was a penalty and premium clause in the contract of $100 per day for every day's variation from the stipulated time of completion. In what follows, it must be borne in mind that the contractor had not hitherto been in the business of tunnel building and he conse- quently found himself without a suitable working plant or organiza- tion at the time the contract was signed. Mr. Charles E. Higbee, of Denver, Colo., was engaged as Super- intendent of Tunnel Excavation and Mr. S. A. Maley, of Kansas City, Mo., was engaged as Superintendent of Concrete Work. Both of these gentlemen had had wide experience in their respective fields, and it was under their direction that the work was success- fully completed. A central power plant was installed near the west end of the tunnel. The principal items of this central plant were, one bat- tery of two horizontal tubular boilers of 100 hp. and 80 hp., re- spectively ; one Sullivan Straight Line Air Compressor W. B. 2, 20 x 22-in. cylinder; one 90-hp. Armington & Sims steam engine for driving the generators; two 25-kilowatt Bipolar Edison Generators of 125 volts; together with pumps, tanks, steam and water pipes RAILWAYS. 1217 and such other appliances as are needed in an up-to-date power house. A secondary steam plant was located on top of the mountain for the purpose of supplying power for operating the hoists at the shafts. A 100-hp. boiler was installed and the steam was carried in pipes laid on the surface of the ground, from the boiler to the hoist, for a distance of 500 ft. each way. From the central power plant at Lynn a 4-in. air line was laid along the surface of the ground, over the top of the mountain, to the Wootton portal. At the Lynn portal, as well as each of the shafts, 2 -in. tees were inserted, from whence the air was carried down into the headings and shafts by 2-in. pipes. The drilling machinery consisted of 10 Sullivan piston and TO Jeffrey rotary power drills. For ventilating, 2 No. 4% Baker's rotary blowers were secured. These were operated by 2 7%-hp. motors of 230 volts and 28% amperes. This outfit was moved from place to place as needed. The cages in the shafts were operated by hoisting engines, using either compressed air or steam. For excavating the bench, a No. 20 Marion steam shovel was used. This shovel was operated by compressed air from the central power plant. Three dinky engines kept the shovel supplied with cars. Ten 3-cu. yd. dump cars were needed to supply the shovel, 5 in a train. The rock crushing and concrete mixing plant consisted of 1 Ajax boiler, an engine mounted on wheels, 1 Simmons No. 10 rock crusher, 1 %-cu. yd. concrete mixer of the Ransome type, 10 1%-cu. yd. dump cars and an incline for hoisting the loaded cars from the tunnel grade onto the working platform at the spring line. There was also constructed an electric light and power line over the mountain for supplying light and power to 'the camps and tun- nel. A telephone system was also installed. The grading outfit was of the usual kind. Owing to the lack of water on top of the mountain the company shipped in four tank cars full every 24 hrs., approximately 40,000 gals, being required for all purposes each day. On April 25, 1907, ground was broken for the power plant at Lynn. While the camp and power plant were in course of con- struction work on excavating the approaches at Wootton and Lynn was in progress. On April 3 work was begun excavating the shafts. The drilling was done by hand and the excavated material was hoisted by animal power. These shafts were dug about 8x12 ft. in the clear and were 109 and 115 ft. deep, respectively, measured from the crown of arch in tunnel. The material penetrated was soft sandstone, hard shale and some coal. By May 9, when the power plant was ready for service, the ex- cavation of the shafts had been practically completed, all of the work having been done by hand and animal power. For the benefit of those who may have occasion to construct shafts under similar 1218 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. conditions, I submit the following table, which shows the cost of excavating Shaft No. 1 : Foreman, at $4.50 % 375.25 Shaft men, at $3 1,792.50 Nippers, at $2 32.00 Timber men, at $3.50 56.00 Teams, at $2.50 132.50 Teamsters, at $2 96.00 327 cu. yds. excavation, at $2,484.25 The cost per cubic yard of excavation was, then, as follows: Per cu. yd. Labor $7.60 Explosives 75 Supervision 65 Total $9.00 It may be stated that this includes the placing of approximately 20,000 ft. B. M. of timber lining. On May 9 the actual work of tunnel excavation was begun by shooting the first round of holes in heading No. 6 at the Lynn portal. On May 24 heading No. 5 was started and on May 28 heading No. 1 /0N Sfcrtoff'ff' 3fcr/i Fig. 4. Cross-Sections of Tunnel. was started. On July 9 headings No. 5 and No. 6 met at Station 7 + 12, Lynn end, and on same date headings Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were started. Headings Nos. 1 and 2 met on Aug. 8 at Station 8 + 10, Wootton end. Headings Nos. 3 and 4 met on Sept. 8 at Station 2 + 00, Wootton end, thus completing a hole through the mountain 2,786 ft. long in 122 days from time of beginning. In taking out the headings it was found that from 12 to 18 holes were necessary to cover the face in a satisfactory manner. The center set of holes was pointed so as to remove a wedge of rock ; other holes were then pointed straight ahead. Those at the sides, top and bottom were pointed slightly outward. The average depth of these holes was 8 ft. and the diameter 2~y 2 ins. Sullivan piston and Jeffrey rotary drills, the former mounted on tripods and col- umns and the latter on the usual frames, both operated by com- pressed air at 90 Ibs. pressure, were used. RAILWAYS. 1219 As soon as the drilling was finished the holes were cleaned by blowing compressed air into them. They were then charged with dynamite, which was exploded by fuse. Fuses instead of electric exploders were used because of tho former permit of timing each shot in such a way as to give the best results from the explosives used. For instance, the central set of holes is fired first, removing a wedge so that the succeeding shots will have two free faces toward which they can break the rock. The "muckers" at the bottom are fired last. Their function is to throw back the debris so that the drillers will be delayed as little as possible before they can proceed with the next set of holes. The shots were generally fired just before meal time. Immedi- ately after they had been fired, compressd air was permitted to escape into the headings and the ventilating fans were started. It was thus possible to clear the headings of gases so that they could be entered after the meal hour without loss of time. Before firing the shots, sheets of boiler iron were spread on the ground just in front of the holes to facilitate the handling of debris after blasting. When the workmen returned from their meals the headings had usually been cleared of gases and fumes and the drillers and their helpers would enter and proceed to shovel back any rock that was found to obstruct the working front. As soon as this was done, they proceeded to drill a new set of holes for the next blast. The debris was loaded by from 6 to 10 laborers onto cars of 1% cu. yds. and % cu. yd. capacity. The former were used in the headings No. 1 and No. 6, while the latter were used in headings Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5. The former were pulled by animal power to the portals and the latter were propelled by man power to the shafts. From the por- tals the 1% cu. yd. cars ran by gravity to the waste bank, the empties being brought back by horses or mules. The smaller cars at the shafts were raised to the surface by hoisting engines operat- ing cages. The following is a statement of the cost of excavating heading No. 6: Rate. Total. Machine foremen *. $4.50 $ 495.00 Machine men 4.00 1,196.00 Machine helpers 3.50 1,046.00 Nippers 2.50 507.50 Muck foremen . . : 3.50 387.00 Laborers 2.25 2,975.50 Teams 2.50 315.00 2,897 cu. yds. material excavated... $6,922.00 The cost per cubic yard for excavation was as follows: Per cu. yd. Field labor $2.39 Labor operating power plant 0.31 Labor in camp and supervision 0.88 Powder, fuse and caps 0.55 Coal 0.30 Depreciation 0.65 Total . $5.08 1220 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A summary of the total and unit costs of all 6 headings is given below : Length. Cost. No. Ft. Cu. yds. Total cost. per cu. yd. 1 476 3,165 $17,534.10 $5.54 2 210 1,026 5,550.56 5.41 3 400 1,845 8,320.95 4.51 4 600 2,334 13,233.78 5.67 5 312 1,564 9,274.52 5.93 6 788 2,897 14,716.76 5.08 The material penetrated in heading No. 1 was soft sandstone, while the other headings were mixed sandstone, coal and shale. The most rapid progress was made in heading No. 6, where there was no timber lining to contend with. The average daily progress in this heading was 12y 2 ft., while for the last nine days the daily average was 17 ft. This, of course, means per 24 hrs. About 55% of the headings were taken out through the shafts. In moving the bench, holes were drilled vertically about 7 ft. apart. These were shot as in open cut work. The muck was loaded by a No. 20 Marion steam shovel, operated by compressed air. Ten 3-cu. yd. dump cars were used, five in a train. These trains were operated by three dinky engiries, one switching at the shovel, one taking the excavated material to the waste dump and one in reserve. Following is the steam shovel monthly progress. July 50 ft. October . ., 355 ft. August 420 ft. November 565 ft. September 540 ft. December 500 ft. About 88% of the bench was removed by steam shovel and 12% by hand. If we take into account the entire tunnel excavation, 25% came out through the shafts and 75% through the portals. The steam shovel began work on July 29 and finished on Dec. 23. a period of 148 days. Below follows a table showing the cost of removing 29,417 cu. yds. of bench excavation by steam shovel: Rate. Total. Foremen $4.50 $1,300.50 Steam shovel engineer 6.50 1,839.50 Crane men 3.50 897.00 Dinky engineers 3.50 1,791.00 Machine men 4.00 3,604.00 Machine helpers 3.50 3,244.50 Pit men 3.00 5,793.00 Laborers 2.00 6,151.75 29,417 cu. yds . . $24,621.25 The cost per cubic yard was as follows : Per cu. yd. Field labor $0.88 Labor operating power plant 0.09 Camp labor and supervision 026 Powder, fuse and caps . 0.17 Coal 09 Depreciation o!l9 Total ..$T68 RAILWAYS. 1221 In excavating the tunnel no unusual difficulties were encountered. There was very little water to contend with and the material pene- trated was sandstone, shale and coal. About two-thirds of the en- tire tunnel had to be temporarily lined with timbers. The work was done in the following manner : As soon as the headings had advanced sufficiently a gang of drill- ers was set to work enlarging the section to the full semi-circle re- quired. Sills consisting of 12 x 12-in. timbers were bedded at the spring line on each side of tunnel, so that the outer face was a uni- form distance of 6 or 12 ins. from the face of the concrete. Engi- neers gave grade and centers for these and in placing them they were set 4 ins. higher than the theoretical requirements. This was done to allow for subsequent settlement during the excavation of the bench. As soon as the sills were bedded to proper grade, the segments, six in number, were placed. These were made of 10 x 12- in. pieces, or an equivalent section of- 3 x 12-in. or 4 x 12-in., was built up. The sill, by the way, was also built up of 3 x 12 or 4 x 12- in. pieces, set edgewise. The segments were spaced 3 ft. on centers. 'Over the segments 3-in. lagging was placed, this having previously been cut into 3-ft. lengths by means of a circular saw. As soon as the lagging was placed, the void spaces between the lagging and the roof of the excavation were packed solid with stones of various sizes. As fast as the bench was excavated by the steam shovel, it was of course necessary to support the sills at spring line. In this case ordinary piles about 12 ins. in diameter were used. These were spaced variously from 3 to 6 ft. apart, according to the load to be supported. Where the loads were light it was found that short stulls from 4 to 6 ft. long made of 8 x 8-in. stuff answered Very well for supporting the roof timbering. In such cases, hori- zontal struts had to be inserted to prevent the timbers from kick- ing in at spring line. The work of enlarging the section, the placing of timbers and the back filling was done by the same set of men. Owing to this cir- cumstance the records of cost data are somewhat less satisfactory in this case than in other portions of the work. Of these three items the records for the cost of enlarging the tunnel section are quite reliable. By subtracting this cost from the total cost of per- forming the different classes of work, we have an amount which rep- resents the cost of labor placing the timbers and the cost of labor placing the backfilling. The cost of enlarging the tunnel section was $2.55 per cu. yd. After repeated trials the cost of placing the timbers was ascer- tained to be $15.55 per M ft. B. M. By subtracting these two, the cost of enlarging the section and the placing of the timbers, the remainder was assumed to represent the cost of back filling. By this process of reasoning it was found that the cost of placing the backfilling was $1.50 per cu. yd. In the abstract such reason- ing may be correct, but practically the writer has little faith in the results. Summing up, then, it may be assumed that the cost of enlarging the section is correctly represented by $2.55 per cu. yd., that the cost of placing the timbers lies between $12 and $18 per M 1222 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ft. B. M. and that the cost of placing the backfilling was not ascer- tained. While the steam shovel was taking out the bench a gang of men was excavating for the footing course of the concrete walls. As Boon as portions of these trenches were excavated another gang placed the concrete in the foundation. The mixing was done by hand on sheets of boiler iron placed in front of the trenches. These were moved from place to place as required. However, before any concrete was placed, carpenters erected a sufficient amount of forms to define the neat line of concrete at grade. For setting these forms engineers gave the grade and center points and after the concrete was once placed to this line no further instrumental work was re- quired. All of tile foundation concrete, up to the grade line of the tunnel, was placed in the manner indicated above. For the real work of lining the tunnel the contractor installed a rock crushing and concrete mixing plant in the approach at Lynn, about 200 ft. from the portal. The rock was quarried from the ad- jacent hill, within 100 ft. of the crusher, which was a No. 10 Sim- mons. The mixer was of the Ransome type, mixing % cu. yd. per' charge. The crusher was at the top of the approach slope, about 20 ft. above grade. A bin, divided into three compartments, was placed above and to one side of the track in the approach. In the bottom of the compartments were chutes discharging into a meas- uring hopper. Immediately below the hopper was the mixer and below the mixer and a little to one side stood the cars that re- ceived the mixed concrete. The rock was carried from the crusher Into the bin by a small chain elevator and the sand was handled in a similar manner. The cement was carried to the bin in sacks. Water was supplied by a 2-in. pipe discharging into the mixer, the amount being controlled by a boy operating a valve. One man oper- ated the measuring apparatus and one attended the mixer. It will be seen that the entire process of handling the material from the crusher until the concrete reached the cars was mechan- ical and from the bin to the cars gravity did the work. The crusher was operated by a stationary engine and the mixer and elevators by independent electric motors. The cars were handled by dinky engines. The sand was shipped from La Junta. The crushing and mixing plant was a complete success from every poxnt of view. Originally it was the contractor's intention to place all of the con- crete lining, above foundation line, off a movable platform at spring line. With this idea in view a standard flat car was secured from the railway company and by means of framework placed upon this car a platform 17 ft. wide and 50 ft. long was supported at the elevation of spring line. This car was carried on a track laid in the center of the tunnel. In order to elevate the concrete cars as they arrived from the mixing plant to spring line, an in- clined plane (Fig. 5) with a narrow gage track and mounted on wheels was coupled onto the platform mentioned above. On the flat car was mounted a hoisting engine operated by compressed~air. The cars were pushed to the bottom of the incline by dinky engines. RAILWAYS. 1223 where a cable was hooked onto them and they were then hoisted to the top of platform by means of the hoisting engine. Once on top the concrete was dumped onto thp platform and cars returned by gravity to tunnel grade. The concrete was then shoveled into the forms and the idea was that the arch ring would also be turned . Fig. 5. Method of Handling Concrete for Lining. at once before advancing the incline and platform to a new posi- tion. It was found to be impossible to turn ' the ring fast enough without delaying the placing of concrete in bench walls. A feature of the forms was to use two 40-lb. bent rails, one on each side and meeting at soffit line, as ribs for supporting lagging for concrete. It is evident that a movable platform will not permit of bracing these 1224 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ribs crosswise of the tunnel axis. Owing to this circumstance these ribs lacked stiffness and bulged out considerably when concrete was shoveled into the forms. The long and heavy bent rails were also very difficult to handle. Owing to these drawbacks, this method of placing the concrete was abandoned. During the short time that the above method of placing the con- crete was in vogue it became evident that, in order that work might be carried on without interruption, a platform of considerable length was necessary. It was decided, therefore, to erect a fixed platform at spring line 17 ft. wide and 500 ft. long. Instead of the bent rails for ribs, 6 x 8-in. vertical studding spaced 4 ft. on centers was used. These pieces extended from grade line to spring line and were cross braced about 10 ft. above grade line. On top of these uprights were placed 6 x 10-in. caps, which acted as beams for carrying the loose 2-in. platform floor. The lagging was placed directly behind the vertical studs, to which it was loosely nailed. The old movable platform, mounted on a flat car, and the inclined plane, were then run up to the 500-ft. fixed platform and the concrete was hoisted as before. While the carpenters were placing the fixed platform, the mixed concrete was brought in and dumped onto sheets of boiler iron at grade line and .from there was shoveled into the forms to a height of about 6 ft, above grade. By the time that this height was reached the platform was ready and all concrete above this 6-ft. line was then placed from the fixed platform at spring line. In the center of this platform, for its full length, was a track connecting with the track on the incline. The cars, after they had been hoisted to the platform, were pushed by men to different places and dumped. The cars were then pushed back to the incline and lowered to tunnel grade by gravity, controlled by hoisting engine on mov- able platform. The concrete was shoveled into the forms until the spring line was reached. As soon as a portion of the bench walls had reached spring line a gang of men erected rail ribs of a 40-lb. section bent into the form of a semi-circle to receive the lagging for turning the arch ring. These rails were generally made in two pieces and were spaced 4 ft. on centers. The lagging was 2-in. stuff and was placed as fast as the placing of concrete required it. The distance from spring line to soffit line is 8y 2 ft. The placing of concrete in the arch ring for the first 6 ft., did not differ materially from the method of placing it in bench walls, only a little more tamping was necessary to fill the voids. After a point was reached where it was too high to cast in the concrete from the platform at spring line, a small movable platform on wheels, about 8x10 ft. and 4 ft. high, was pushed under the arch and the concrete was shoveled from platform at spring line onto this smaller platform and from there into arch ring until only a 3-ft gap remained to be closed. This was an awkward job and required the closest attention on the part of the foreman to prevent the men from slighting their work. The concrete had to be shoveled in endwise and to facilitate this the length of the lagging for the last 3 ft. of arch ring was cut RAILWAYS. 1225 down to 3-ft. lengths. The concrete for this was made dryer to pre- vent it from sloughing back when the tamper was withdrawn. The temporary timber lining was imbedded in the concrete and had been so placed that at least 6 ins. of concrete was in front of all ribs and sills. In places where the timber had settled or swung out of line, the timbers had settled to such an extent as to weaken the arch, the wooden ribs were replaced by bent . rails. The progress made in lining the tunnel by months was as follows : Cu. yds. October 326 November . . . 1,000 December .....;... 985 January v .1,986 February .4,173 March '. . . .2,931 April 1,025 Besides the tunnel lining proper, che two shafts were also lined with concrete. This was done by force account. At the Wootton end a reinforced concrete portal wall was built and at the Lynn end one of plain concrete was constructed. The cost per cubic yard of placing concrete, exclusive of the cost of cement, was found from records kept by the assistant engineer to be as follows : Fer cu. yd. Forms and platforms, labor $0.63 Forms and platforms, lumber 0.54 Crushing and quarrying rock 0.89 Cost of sand (no freight) 0.18 Cost of handling sand at tunnel. 0.18 Cost of handling cement at tunnel. ... . 0.17 Cost of housing cement at tunnel. 0.04 Mixing and transporting concrete 0.41 Placing concrete into forms 0.81 Removing forms and pointing 0.32 Supervision and camp labor 0.66 Labor operating power house. . . 0.20 Coal 0.34 Depreciation of plant 0.65 Nails, oil and candles 0.03 Rental on rails and ties 0.03 Total $6.08 The lining of the tunnel proper was completed on April 15, while the whole contract was finally completed on June 20, 1908, 444 days after ground was broken. The cost of the contractor's plant in this case was estimated at $55,000. The outfit was purchased especially for this contract and at the conclusion of the work the contractor offered to sell the plant at 50 cts. on the dollar. This fact accounts for the heavy depre- ciation charge in the unit costs. The unit costs given in this article are based upon records kept by the writer as assistant engineer in charge for the railway com- pany. A man was employed to keep this record, who had no other duties to perform, and the results were tabulated every day. From facts known to the writer it is his belief that 10% should be added to these figures to arrive at the actual total cost. 122b HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The work was planned and carried on under the direction of Chief Engineer C. A. Morse, of Topeka, Kan., and Engineer F. M. Bisbee of La Junta, Colo. The field force consisted of Assistant Engineer Fig. 6. Cross-Section of Tunne:. Original ground Fig. 7. Longitudinal Section of Tunnel. Jos. Weidel with an instrument party and, latterly, during the con- struction of concrete work, one day and one night inspector. Cost of Driving a Tunnel in Earth.* During the past decade a * Engineering-Contracting, July 1, 1908. RAILWAYS. 1227 large number of descriptions have been written of driving tunnels through rock, but only a few tunnels excavated through soft ma- terials have been described in engineering literature, and then only those in which special methods were used, or unusual difficulties encountered. The tunnel described in this article could not be classed as unusual in any respect, nor were any novel methods used on the work, but inasmuch as we are able to give the itemized cost of the tunnel, it may prove of interest. The tunnel was on the line of one of the large western roads, on the outskirts of a town, crossing under some of the streets, but without many houses in that neighborhood. The length of this single-track tunnel was 2,360 ft. It was lined with timber as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The cross-section was designed to have ultimately a lining of concrete. There were about 15 cu. yds. of excavation to the running foot figured for the cross-section as designed, which meant a total excavation of 35,385 cu. yds., not including any slips or falls. The material excavated was mostly a glacial deposit or till, there being at one end some cemented gravel that had to be blasted while the other end was mostly sand. Temporary timbers had to be used and some trouble was experienced with the earth slipping, as the method of putting in the timber roof shows. The work was done by company's forces and the following wages were paid, the working day being 10 hrs. Resident engineer $250.00 per mo. Assistant engineer 125.00 per mo. Transitman 85.00 per mo. Draftsman 75.00 per mo. Rodman 50.00 per mo. Chainman 40.00 per mo. Axeman 2.25 per day Extra chainman 2.25 per day Superintendent 225.00 per mo. Accountant 75.00 per mo. Purchasing agent 70.00 per mo. Material clerk 70.00 per mo. Clerk 40.00 per mo. Cook 45.00 per mo. Heading foremen 5.00 per day Bench foremen 4.00 per day Track foremen . 2.50 per day Foremen 2.50 per day Miners 3.00 per day Muckers 2.00 per day Nippers , 2.00 per day Team and driver 5.00 per day Horse and driver 3.00 per day Rail drillers 2.50 per day Trackmen 2.00 per day Dumpmen 2.00 per day Carpenter foreman " 3.50 per day Carpenters . . . .' 2.50 per day Blacksmith 3.00 per day Helper 2.00 per day Timber inspector 2.50 per day Timekeeper 2.25 per day Mortormen 2.75 per day 1228 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following men were used at times and paid tae following wages : Electrician $100.00 per mo. Linemen $2.50 to 2.75 per day Ceirshop foreman 3.00 per day Carshop carpenter 2.50 per day Machinists $2.50 to 3.50 per day Masons 4.00 per day Engineering and Superintendence. Under this head is given the cost of superintendence and the engineering work. The superin- tendence was a cost that would have come under the contractor's item of general expense, if the work had been done by contract. The two items of engineering and superintendence were kept to- gether, but the superintendence was more costly than the engineering, as the resident engineer gave only part of his time to the tunnel work, and even the assistant engineer's salary was not charged in full against the tunnel. The items going to make up this charge were : Payroll $4,582.67 Supplies and inciujatals 174.81 Board 663.99 Telephone for office 21.30 Light for office 61.16 Engineering and superintendence $5,544.03 This gives a cost of 16 cts. per cu. yd. of excavation and a cost of $2.35 per lineal ft. of completed tunnel. Camp and Offices. A camp was built near the tunnel site for the men to live in, and an office was also established for the superin- tendent and the engineers. A temporary depot was built, and a freight house to store supplies. Electric lights were used in some of these buildings, and water was also placed in some, being procured from the town. The total cost of camp was $3,177.93, and, as some of the builJ- ings were sold and the depot was given to the operating department of the road, a credit of $492 was made to this account, making the net cost of the camp $2,685.93. This means a cost per cu. yd. of excavation of 8 cts., and a cost per lin. ft. of tunnel of $1.14. When work is done by contract the item of camp comes under general expense, but, as a contractor usually charges his men a small rental for houses or bunks, there are generally enough credits made to the camp account to balance it. Plant. In spite of the length of this tunnel, being such as to class it as a long tunnel, a compressor plant was not used, but an electric motor was installed and used in operating a motor car to haul material from the tunnel. The motor had been used on some other job and had to be repaired. The total charge for motor, supplies, repairs, operation and power was $3,132.29. When the tunnel was finished the motor was sent to another tunnel that was being driven and a credit was made for the motor of $1,606.36, and $360 for power furnished for other purposes, leaving a net harge of $1,165.93. The cost per cu. yd. of excavation was 3 cts., RAILWAYS. 1229 while the cost per lin. ft. of tunnel was 49 cts. In contract work this item would be classed under the head of plant. Tools. The tools used on the job were small ones for the excava- tion and timber work, with the exception of the electric locomotives and the cars for hauling earth and timber. The cost of the tools and supplies was $6,520.04. The cost of repairing and maintaining these was : Labor . ..$2,684.95 Coal 135.38 Lumber 195.76 Iron 417.64 Total This makes a total expenditure for tools of $9,953.77. . At the end of the job, a credit was made of $3,929.16 for tools and supplies sent to another job, leaving a net charge for tools of $6,024.61. This charge properly belongs under the item of plant, yet, inasmuch as the depreciation on small tools is much greater than on ma- chinery, it is well to keep a separate account of tools. The cost per cu. yd. for tools was 17 cts., while the cost per lin. ft. of tunnel was $2.55. Explosives. A car load of Forcite dynamite was bought for the job, but only a small part of it was used. The strength was 40 per cent, and it cost 12% cts per Ib. Two 30-hole exploding batteries were bought, and electrical exploders to use with the batteries. The total cost of explosives was: Dynamite and exploders $2,638.48 2 batteries 80.00 Wire 40.00 Total $2,758.48 At the end of the job, the batteries and unused explosives were sent to another piece of work. A credit of $60 was made for the two batteries, and $2,030.29 was credited for the explosives. Consequently there remained a net charge of $668.19 for blasting. This makes a charge of 2 cts. per cu. yd. and 28 cts. per lin. ft. of tunnel. Tunnel Excavation. The excavation was done in the usual manner. The heading was excavated and timbered, then widened out and the roof supported in the manner shown in the illustrations, with the addition of temporary props. Then the bench was excavated and the permanent timbering finished. The excavated material was wheeled out of the heading in wheelbarrows, and horses were used in pulling the cars from the bench excavation to the dump, but as the haul became long, the electric locomotives previously referred to were used. Candles were used to give light in the headings, the expense for this being $116.71. Electric wire was strung for the motors and also for lighting purposes. The costs for the hauling has been included in that for plant, but this work for the lighting and the power rented, with the lights, wires, etc., cost $1,191.57, making a total cost of $1,308.28. This makes a 1230 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cost of 4 cts. per cu. yd. for lights, and 55 cts. per lin. ft. of tunnel. Another item of cost was some incidentals on the outside of the tunnel, such as small drains at street crossings, some clearing, a temporary trestle, the blocking up of a warehouse, and other details on which $1,158.27 was spent for materials and labor. For these incidentals the cost per cu. yd. was 3 cts. and the cost per lin. ft. of tunnel was 49 cts. The expenses for labor and teams was $75,762.10, making a cost per cu. yd. of $2.14 and per lin. ft. of tunnel of $32.12. Timber Lining. The total amount of timber used was 2,434,200 ft. B. M., costing $20,223.18. This is exclusive of wedges, cord- wood and iron. Cordwood was used, for packing, the plans calling for 533 cords, but only 451 cords were bought, the price per cord being $1.50. The deficiency was made up by using old pieces of temporary timbers and scraps. The cost of the cordwood was $658.16. Wedges were made from 2x12 boards, and cost to make from 1^4 to 2 cts. a piece. These were made by contract, about 15,000 being used, costing $2,586.95. The iron and nails used cost $669.79. The amount of permanent timber called for by the plans was 1,687,200 ft. B. M. The average price paid for this was $8.40 per M. In addition to this 747,000 ft. B. M. were used as temporary timbers and for other purposes. This cost an average price of $8.10 per M. The cost of labor for framing and placing timber, exclusive of the time of the men from the mucking gangs that may have been used temporarily, was $8,615.40. This gives a cost for framing and placing per M. ft. of timber as called for by the plans of $5.10, while the cost per M. for the total amount of timber used was $3.54. Separate record was not kept of placing the cordwood. The total cost of the lining was: Lumber $20,223.18 Cord wood 658.16 Wedges 2,586.95 Iron 669.79 Labor 8,615.40 Total $32,753.48 The cost of each of these items per cu. yd. of excavation was. Per cu. yd. Lumber, at $8.30 $0.57 Cordwood 0.02 Wedges 0.07 Iron 0.02 Labor 0.24 Total $0.92 The cost of lining per lin. ft. of tunnel was: Per lin. ft Lumber, at $8.30 $8.53 Cordwood 0.28 Wedges 1.09 Iron 0.28 Labor 3.65 Total $13.83 RAILWAYS. 1231 Personal Injury. No one was killed in building this tunnel ; however, a number of men were hurt, but none seriously. Various expenses were incurred on account of those injured, there having been paid out $2,170.45, making a cost per cu. yd. of 6 cts., and per lin. ft. of tunnel of 92 cts. Summary of Cost. The total cost of the entire work was : Engineering and superintendence $ 5,544.03 Camp 2,685.93 Personal injury 2,170.45 Plant . 1,165.93 Tools 6,024.61 Expenses 668.19 Tunnel Excavation: Light 1,308.28 Incidentals 1,158.27 Labor 75,762.10 Timber Lining: Lumber : 20,223.18 Cord wood 658.16 Wedges 2,586.95 Iron 669.70 Labor -. 8,615.40 Total $129,241.27 The cost per cu. yd. for each of these items was: Per cu. yd. Engineering and superintendence $0.16 Camp 0.08 Personal injury 0.06 Plant 0.03 Tools 0.17 Explosives 0.02 Tunnel Excavation: Light 0.04 Incidentals 0.03 Labor 2.14 Timber Lining: Lumber 0.57 Cord wood 0.02 Wedges 0.07 Iron 0.02 Labor 0.24 Total $3.65 The cost per lin. ft. of tunnel for each item was: Per lin. ft. Engineering and superintendence $ 2.35 Camp 1.14 Personal injury 0.92 Plant 0.49 Tools 2.55 Explosives 0.28 Tunnel Excavation: Light 0.55 Incidentals 0.49 Labor 32.12 Timber Lining: Lumber 8.53 Cord wood 0.28 Wedges 1.09 [Iron 0.28 Labor 3.65 Total $54.82 1232 . HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The total payroll on the job amounted to about $90,000 and it will be noticed that the amount paid out for personal injuries was $2,170.45. If liability insurance had oeen taken out for this job the rate would have been less than 2 per cent, hence money would have been saved. It is always well on construction work to carry this kind of insurance. No record was kept of the slips and slides that occurred in the tunnel, but some must have occurred as glacial drift is apt to be treacherous material to tunnel through, and this must not have been an exception to the rule, as the large amount of tem- porary timber used bears witness. Considering the high wages paid, and the fact that the work was done by day labor, the cost is not excessive, but no doubt timber was wasted, yet the prompt use of temporary timbers in some places may have saved money when heavy slips were threatened. The engineering and superintendence together were less than 5 per cent of the total cost. This would mean that the engineering expense did not exceed 2 per cent, arid the cost of locating the work is included in this. The item of general expense, as a contractor would have classified it, including superintendence, camp, and personal injury, was about 6 per cent. This could have been cut down a little by taking liability insurance, and charging rent for the camp. The plant and tool charge was a little more than 5 per cent. The tunnel lining was 25 per cent of the total cost. The excavation of the heading was commenced in March. Work was started at both ends of the tunnel. During April no work was done inside the tunnel, but in May active operations were commenced and night and day forces were put to work. The headings were finished in August, and the benches cleaned up by the middle of September. Each heading foreman worked from 9 to 10 men, while the bench foremen worked from 15 to 20 men in their gangs. At one end of the tunnel a bench sub-foreman with extra men were used for several months. When work first com- menced, the track gangs had from 10 to 15 men in them, there being a track gang for each end of the tunnel ; but, as soon as the work was well under way, these gangs were cut down to 6 men each, and at the end only 4 men were kept in a gang. The timber gangs, consisted of a foreman, from 7 to 10 carpenters and a timber inspector. There was a night and day gang of carpenters from May to September. Cost of Lining the Mullan Tunnel. The tunnel is 3,850 ft. long, 20 miles west of Helena on the Northern Pacific Ry. Falls of rock and fires in the tunnel had caused numerous delays. The original timbering consisted of sets 4 ft. c. to c. of 12 x 12-in. timbers, with 4-in. lagging. The size was 16 x 20 ft. in the clear. Concrete side walls (30-in.) and four-ring brick arch were built in place of the old timbering. A 7-ft. section was first prepared by removing one post and supporting the arch by struts. Two temporary posts were sent up and fastened by hook bolts ; and a lagging was placed back of them to make forms to hold the RAILWAYS. 1233 concrete. Several of these 7-ft. sections were prepared at a time, each two being separated by a 5-ft. section of the old timbering. The mortar car delivered Portland cement mortar (1 to 3) through a chute, making an 8-in. layer of mortar into which broken stone was shoveled until all the mortar was taken up by the stone voids. In 10 to 14 days the walls were hard enough to support the arches which were then allowed to rest on the walls, and the posts of the remaining 5-ft. sections were removed, and concrete placed as before. About 4 parts of mortar were used to 5 parts of broken stone, which is a very rich concrete. The average prog- ress per working day was 30 ft. of side wall, or 45 cu. yds. From 3 to 9 ft. of brick arch were put in at a time, depending .upon the nature of the ground. To remove the old timber arch, one of the segments was partly sawed through, and a small charge of dynamite exploded in it ; the debris being caught on a platform car, from which it was removed to another car and conveyed away. The center was then placed, and the cement car used to mix mortar on. Brick were 2y 2 x 2% x 9 ins., four ringings, making a 20-ft. arch and giving 1.62 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The bricks were laid in rowlock bond. Two gangs of 3 brick- layers and 6 helpers each, laid 12 lin. ft., or 19.4 cu. yds., of brick arch per day. The foregoing description of the work is given by Mr. H. C. Relf. The following data were published in Engineering-Contracting, July 17, 1907. For most of the distance it was lined with concrete side walls and concrete arch, but for part of the distance a brick arch was used instead of concrete. T-he brick was used only where it was necessary to support the roof by timbering, for wherever the roof would stand without props the concrete was used on account of its much^ greater cheapness. The concrete side walls were 14 ft. high and had an average thickness of 2% ft. Therefore each side wall averaged nearly 1.3 cu. yds. per lin. ft., and the two walls averaged 2.59 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The concrete was mixed 1:3:5, being, we believe, unnecessarily rich in cement. The average amount of concrete placed in the walls per day was 50 cu. yds. COST OF SIDE WALLS. Materials: Per cu. yd. 1.33 bbl. cement, at $2.00 $2.66 0.5 cu. yd. sand, at $0.18 0.09 0.75 cu. yd. stone, at $0.55 0.41 Total '. $3.16 Labor on Concrete: 0.01 day foreman, at $5.00 $0.05 0.03 day foreman, at $3.00 0.09 0.03 day engineman, at $3.00 0.09 0.35 day laborer, at $1.75 0.61 0.42 Total . ..$0.84 1234 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor, Removing Timber, Building Forms, Excavating Etc.: 0.02 day foreman, at $5.00 $0.10 0.05 day foreman, at $3.00 0.15 0.40 day laborer, at $1.75 0.70 0.47 Total $0.95 Miscellaneous : 0.02 day engineer and superintendent, at $5 $0.10 Falsework and forms, timber and iron 0.07 Tools, light, etc 0.10 Interest and depreciation of $1,800 plant at 20% per annum 0.09 Train service, 0.03 day work train, at $25 0.75 Summary Concrete Side Walls: Materials $3.16 Labor on concrete 0.84 Labor removing timber, etc 0.95 Train service 0.75 Miscellaneous 0.34 Total $To~4 In the two side walls there were 2.59 cu. yds. of concrete per lin. ft. of tunnel, hence the cost of the side walls was $6.04 X 2.59 = $15.64 per lin. ft of tunnel. The concrete arch varied in thickness, averaging from 14 to 20 ins. at the springing line to 8 to 14 ins. at the crown. The arch averaged 1.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. About 20 cu. yds. of arch were placed per day. The arch concrete was mixed 1:3:5 and the cost was as follows : COST OF CONCRETE ARCH. Materials: Per cu. yd. 1.36 bbls. cement, $2.00 $2.72 0.05 cu. yd. sand, $0.18 0.09 0.75 cu. yd. stone, $0.55 0.41 Total $3.22 * 1.8 cu. yds. dry rock backing, at $0.55 0.99 Labor on Concrete: 0.02 day foreman, at $5.00 $0.10 0.12 day foreman, at 3.00 0.36 0.88 day laborer, at 1.75 1.54 1.02 Total $1.96 $2.00 Labor Placing 1.08 Cu. Yds. Rock Backing: 0.01 day foreman, at $5.00 $0.05 0.51 day foreman, at .$3.00 0.15 0.55 day laborer, at 1.75 0.96 0.61 Total $1.90 $1.16 Labor Removing Timbers, Removing Forms, Excavation, Etc.: 0.02 days foreman, at $5.00 $0.10 0.04 days foreman, at 3.00 0.12 0.06 day carpenter, at 2.50 0.15 0.40 day laborer, at 1.75 0.70 0.52 Total $2.06 $1.07 RAILWAYS. 1235 Train Service: 0.06 day, at $25 $1.50 Miscellaneous: Engineering and superintendence $0.07 Falsework, timber and iron 0.13 Tools, light, etc 0.12 Interest and depreciation, $1,800 plant, 20% per annum 0.09 Summary Concrete Arch: Concrete materials : $3.22 Dry rock backing (1.8 c. y.) 0.99 Labor and concrete 2.00 Labor placing 1.8 cu. yds. rock backing 1.16 Labor removing timber, etc 1.07 Train service hauling materials 1.50 Engineering and superintendence 0.07 Falsework, timber and iron . 0.13 Tools, light, etc 0.12 Interest and depreciation plant 0.09 Grand total $10~35 It will be noted that the "train service" is an item that really should be considered as a part .of the cost of the materials, for the cost of the sand and stone is the cost f. o. b. cars at the sand pit and at the quarry, to which should be added the cost of hauling them to the tunnel to-wit, the "train service." Summing up, we have the following as the cost per lineal foot for lining this single-track tunnel with concrete : Per lin. ft. 2.59 cu. yds. side walls, at $ 6.04 $15.64 1.20 cu. yds. arch, at 10.33 12.40 3.79 cu. yds. Total .$9.38 $28.04 It should be remembered that the higher cost of the arch concrete is due in large measure to the fact that 1.8 cu. yds. of dry rock packing above the arch Is included in the cost of the concrete. Strictly speaking, this dry rock packing should not be charged against the arch concrete, and, segregating it, we have the fol- lowing : Per lin. ft. 2.59 cu. yds. concrete side walls, at.. $6. 04 $15.64 1.20 cu. yds. concrete arch, at 8.18 9.82 2.16 cu. yds. dry rock, at 0.55 1.19 Labor placing 2.16 cu. yds., at 0.64 Total $28.04 This is a much more rational analysis of the cost and a still further reduction in the cost of the arch concrete might be made by prorating the train service item ($1.50 per cu. yd. concrete). At least half of this train service should be charged to the dry rock backing, for there are 1.25 cu. yds. of sand and broken stone to 1.80 cu. yds. of dry rock backing. The amount of this dry rock backing, or packing, varies greatly in different parts of a tunnel. In the first half of this tunnel it averaged 1.8 cu. yds. per lin. ft., while in the second half it averaged 1236 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. nearly 2.4 cu. yds. per lin. ft. In a subsequent issue we shall give the cost of lining a tunnel that averaged 1.4 cu. yds. of dry rock packing per lin. ft. As previously stated, part of this tunnel was arched with brick instead of concrete. About one-third of the tunnel was thus arched with brick, laid 2 to 5 rings thick, and averaging 1.28 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The average progress was 13 lin. ft. per day. The brick were 2^x4x8 ins. in size. The 'cost of the brick arch was as follows: Materials: Per cu. yd. 500 brick, at $7.00 $3.50 1.02 bbl. cement, at 2.00 2.04 0.4 cu. yd. sand, at 0.25 0.10 Total $5.65 1.5 cu. yds. dry rock backing at $0.55 $0.83 Labor and Masonry: 0.03 day foreman, at $5.00 $0.15 0.03 day foreman, at 3.00 0.09 0.32 day masons, at 3.00 0.96 0.65 day laborers, at 1.75 1.14 0.06 day sta. engr., at 3.50 0.21 1.09 days. Total $2.34 $2.55 Labor Removing Timbers, Moving Centers, Excavating, Etc.: 0.02 day foreman, at $5.00 $0.10 0.07 day foreman, at 3.00 0.21 0.07 day carpenter, at 2.50 0.18 0.46 day laborer, at 1.75 0.81 0.62 day. Total $2.10 $1.30 Labor Placing Rock Backing: ft. 01 day foreman, at... $5.00 $0.05 0.06 day foreman, at 3.00 0.18 0.52 day laborer, at 1.75 0.91 0.59 day. Total $1.93 $1.14 Train Service: 0.06 day, at $25.00 $1.50 Miscellaneous: Engineering and superintendence $0.04 Falsework, timber and iron 0.12 Tools, light, etc 0.12 Interest and depreciation, $1,800 plant, 20% per annum 0.09 Total $0.37 Summary of Brick Arch: Materials for masonry $ 5.64 Labor on masonry 2.55 Labor removing timber, etc 1.30 Train service 1.50 Miscellaneous , 0.35 Total $1124 Dry rock backing 0.83 Labor placing rock backing 1.14 Grand total ......$13.21 RAILWAYS. 123? The cost per lin. ft. of tunnel for lining with a brick arch resting on concrete side walls was as follows: Per lin. ft. 2.50 cu. yds. concrete side walls at $6.04 $15.64 1.28 cu. yds. brick arch at $11.24 14.39 1.92 cu. yds. rock backing at $0.55 1.06 Labor placing 1.92 cu. yd. rock backing at $0.76 1.46 Total ^ $32.55 The previous remarks about train service apply in this case also. Not much has ever been published on the cost of tunnel lining. Several examples of such cost are given in Gillette's "Rock Ex- cavation," but the costs there given are considerably higher than those above recorded. In making comparisons, however, the reader is cautioned to compare the cost per cubic yard of lining as well as the cost per lineal foot of tunnel. The character of the ground and the opinion of the engineer influence the thickness of the lining used, so that one tunnel may contain twice as many cubic yards per lineal foot as another tunnel of equal size. Masonry lining put in at the time of construction is obviously cheaper than lining put in to replace an old timber lining. Not only does the passage of trains delay work, but the cost of removing the old timber lining is no small item itself. The work above described involved the removal of an old timber lining, yet it was done at a very low cost, particularly when one considers thut it was done by company forces and not by contract. Cost of Lining a 1,000 Ft. Railway Tunnel.* This tunnel was lined with concrete side walls and a brick arch, the length of the lining being about 1,000 lin. ft. The two concrete side walls averaged 3.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel, and the cost was as follows, per cu. yd. Per cu yd. 1.1 bbl. cement at $2.00 $2.20 0.9 cu. yd. stone at $0.60 0.54 0.5 cu. yd. sand at $0.12. . '. 0.06 Tools 0.04 Light 0.01 Falsework, timber and iron 0.07 Labor excavating for and building side walls 1.75 Engineer and superintendence 0.15 Work train service 0.90 Total $5.75 Laborers received $2.00 a day on the concrete work. We are unable to give the cost of the labor in as much detail as was given in our Issue of July 17, but the total cost per cubic yard is nearly the same in both cases. The cost of the sand was merely the cost of loading. Work train service (90 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete) covers the cost of hauling sand and broken stone. There were four rings of brick in the arch which averaged 1.8 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The brick measures 2%x3%x8 ina The cost of the brick arch was as follows per cu. yd. * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 14, 1907. 1238 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Materials. Per cu.yd. 1.1 bbls. cement at $2.00 $2.20 480 brick at $7.00 3.36 0.4 cu. yds. sand at $0.50 0.20 Total $5.76 Labor : Excavating and Preparing for Arching Moving Centers. 0.03 day foreman at $4.00 $0.12 0.06 day foreman at $3.50 0.21 0.01 day timekeeper at $2.50. 0.03 0.02 day blacksmith at $2.50 0.05 0.27 day laborer at $2.00 0.54 0.39 day at $2.44" $0.95 Mixing Mortar and Building Brick Arch. 0.03 day foreman at $4.00 $0.12 0.06 day foreman at $3.50 0.21 0.01 day timekeeper at $2.50 0.03 0.05 day brick mason at $3.50 0.18 0.23 day brick mason at $3.00 0.69 0.35 day laborer at $2.00 0.70 0.73 day at $2.65 $1.93 Quarrying Rock for and Filling Over Arch. 0.07 day at $2.15 $0.28 Engineering and superintendence 0.16 Work train service 0.56 Falsework, timber and iron 0.07 Tools, light, etc 0.05 Summary of Brick Arch. Materials $5.76 Labor, excavating, etc 0.95 Labor, mix mortar, etc 1.93 Quarrying rock and filling over arch 0.15 Engineering and superintendence 0.16 Work train service 0.56 False work 0.07 Tools, light, etc 0.05 Total $9.63 Summary of Tunnel Lining. Per lin. ft. 3.2 cu. yd. concrete sidewalls at $5.72 $18.30 1.8 cu. yd. brick arch at $9.63 17.33 Total $35.63 The two portals were of concrete and each contained 250 cu. yds. The average cost of each portal was as follows: Per portal. 275 bbls. cement at $2.00 $ 550 225 cu. yds. rock at $0.60 135 110 cu. yds. sand at $0.12 13 Work train service 150 Lumber for forms 70 Labor, erecting and removing for-ms 140 Labor excavating for and building portals 500 Engineering and superintendence 50 Total $1,608 This is equivalent to $6.45 per CTI. yd. of concrete in the portals. The cost of two portals, $3,216, distributed over a tunnel 1,000 ft. long, adds $3.22 per lin. ft. to the cost of the masonry lining. RAILWAYS. 1239 Cost of a Brick and Stone Lining. (The data on tunnels above described should be consulted for data on concrete lining.) Drinker gives the following data on the ILiing or Carr's Tunnel (825 ft.) on the Pennsylvania R. R. in 1868-1869. Brickwork: 609,000 brick in the arch (5 per cent broken and lost) ; 10.44 bushels of neat cement (no sand used in the mortar) laid 1,000 bricks, the mortar forming 30 per cent of the brick masonry; the arch was 25 ins. thick, 24%-ft. span and 9-ft. rise: Cost per M. Bricks f. o. b $ 8.80 Loss in handling 51 Unloading and delivering. 1.92 Laying 5.84 Cement 5.10 Total ..................................... $22.17 Bricklayers received 40 cts. per hr. ; helpers, 17% cts. per hr. ; carpenters, 27% cts. per hr. ; laborers, 17 cts. per hr. Stonework: 1,730 perches (25 cu. ft.) of rough masonry for side walls, presumably sandstone; 187 perches of ring stone; 25 perches wasted in dressing. The bench walls were 4 ft. wide at the bottom, 3 ft. at the top and 13 ft. high : Cost per perch. 8uarrying (1,730 perches) .................... $ 4.80 utting ( 1,730 perches) ....................... 4.36 Hauling (1,942 perches) ...................... 1.06 Handling and laying (1,917 perches) ........... 2.80 Cement, 1.65 bu. per perch (8 1/6 per cent of the Masonry) .................................. 81 Total .................................... .$13.83 Stone cutters and masons received 35 cts. per hr. ; quarrymen, cts.; laborers, 17 cts. The stone side walls were laid in 8 courses averaging 2 ft. thick each; hence there were 52,800 sq. ft. of beds cut ; and estimating each stone 3 ft. long and dressed for 1% ft. back of the face on joints, there were 14,300 sq. ft. of joints; making a total of 67,100 sq. ft. of cutting which cost 11.2 cts. per sq. ft. This is said to have been too high a cost, if the measure- ments were correct. Arch centering cost $1,400, to which was added $600 for moving the centering forward from time to time ; making $2.40 per lin. ft. of tunnel, to which must be added $0.70 per ft. for scaffolding. Weights and Price of Rails. Steel rails are sold by the ton of 2.240 Ibs. The standard price for many years past has been $28 per ton at the mills, Pittsburg, Chicago, etc. Railways have charged one another % ct. per ton-mile freight on rails. The number of tons of rails per mile of single track is exactly 11 of the weight of the rail in pounds per yard of length. Thus a 7 11 track laid with 80-lb. rails will require X 80 = 125.5 + tons per 7 mile of single track. 1240 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. $41.25 35.25 33.75 41.25 49.25 47.13 45.50 Prices of Rails Since 1876.* We publish below the price of steel rails at Pittsburg for the years 1876 to 1907 inclusive. We also include the price of iron rails from 1876 to 1882. After the last named date iron rails were seldom laid. It will be noted that since 1888 the price of rails has never varied much from the present price, except in the years 1897 and 1898. PRICE OF RAILS AT PITTSBURGH, PA. (Statistical abstracts of U. S. Dept. Commerce and Labor, 1905, page 539.) (Ton equals 2,240 Ibs.) Price per ton, Price per ton Year. steel rails. iron rails. 1876 ......... ...... $59.25 1877 ............................. 45.58 1878 ............................. 42.21 1879 ................ . ............ 48.21 1880 .............. ............... 67.52 1881 ............ ................. 61.08 1882 ............................. 48.50 1883 ............................. 37.50 1884 ............................. 30.75 1885 ............................. 28.52 1886 ............................. 34.52 1887 ............................. 37.08 1888 ..... . ....................... 29.83 1889 ............................. 29.25 1890 ............................. 31.78 1891 ............................ 29.92 1892 ................... . 30.00 1893 ............................. 28.12 1894 ............................. 24.00 1895 ............................. 24.33 1896 ....................... . 28.00 1897 .............................. 18.75 1898 ........... .................. 17.62 1899 ............................. 28.12 1900 ............................. 32.29 1901 ............................. 27.33 1902 to 1907 ...................... 28.00 The Cost of Track Laying.! Contracts for track laying on new railway construction are not at all uniform as to specified methods of payment, largely because of varying practice as to the time and method of ballasting. If the ballast is not placed at the time of track laying, it is customary to divide the payment for track work in two parts (1) track laying and (2) surfacing track. Track laying involves the unloading of the ties and rails from the cars, trimming the earth to true grade to receive the ties, deliv- ering and placing the ties and rails thereon, curving the rails and joining them. The railway company usually stands the cost of loading the ties, rails, etc., at the material yard and the transportation to the site of track laying work. This expense is charged upon the railway company's books as "train service." * '-Engineering Contracting, July 8, 1908. ^Engineering- Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. RAILWAYS. 1241 Surfacing track consists in shoveling earth in between the ties, aligning the track and tamping. "Where suitable material for filling between the ties is not at hand, it is hauled in on cars at the expense of the railway company, and the contractor loads and unloads these cars at a separate unit price agreed upon. Such material if hauled in is usually gravel, and is called ballast. On the Northern Pacific Railway the contract prices for track laying and surfacing have been quite constant for the last 30 years, being about $250 per mile for track laying and $200 per mile for surfacing. The engineer's preliminary estimates of the cost of "train service" have usually been about $100 a mile, but the actual cost has ranged from $75 to $150 a mile. Summarizing we have: Per mile. Tracking laying (contract price) $250 Surfacing (contract price) 200 Train service (including loading) 125 Total $575 Of course the length of all permanent siding is included in arriv- ing at the mileage. In addition to this item of "train service" there is the cost of transporting workmen to the site of the work, for, under most contracts, the railway company agrees to carry the contractor's workmen free over its own lines. The railway also frequently agrees to carry the contractor's plant, including animals, free for some prescribed distance. This cost of transporting men and plant has seldom exceeded $25 per mile of track. This brings the total cost up to about $600 a mile. An allowance greater than this is usually an error on the side of liberality. The item that we have called "train service" is commonly under- estimated by engineers who have not had access to the books of railway companies, so that an analysis of items that go to make up this cost of train service will prove of decided value to the majority of railway engineers. Such an analysis follows : Per day. 1 engineman $ 3.60 1 fireman 2.00 1 conductor 3.00 2 brakemen at $2 4.00 1 engine 7.50 14 flat cars at 35 cts 4.90 4 tons coal at $3 12.00 Oil and waste 0.75 Total $37.75 In round numbers we may call it $40 a day for a train and train crew. It must be remembered that the train crew is paid by the month and not by the day. Hence the average number of miles Of track laid per month should be divided by the total number of working 1242 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. days in the month and not by the number of days actually worked in arriving at an average daily mileage for track laying to be divided into the cost of train service. It must also be remembered that the number of trains required can not be determined by the average haul of materials, but by the longest haul from the material yards to the front. Usually three trains are needed in building a long line, where the track laying gang is large enough to lay 2 miles of track a day when working. Due to spells of bad weather, delays occasioned by non-completion of bridges, etc., the monthly average will not be more than 40 miles, or 1.5 miles per working day. Hence 3 trains at $40 equals $120, which divided by 1.5 miles gives $80 per mile for train service. To this must be added the cost of unloading rails and ties in the material yard. The rails and fastenings weigh about 120 tons per mile, and the ties weigh about 200 tons per mile of track. Practically all the steel has to be unloaded and loaded again, but usually the ties are delivered with such regularity that only a small portion of them needs to be stored. Contract prices for loading rails at 10 cts. a ton are not uncommon, although the price frequently runs as high as 25 cts. By common forces, ma- terials should be unloaded and reloaded for 25 cts. a ton. Hence, if all the track materials were thus handled, the yard expense would not exceed $80 per mile of track. Under ordinary conditions not more than half the materials are thus handled in the yard, so that the yard cost averages about $45 per mile of track. Adding this to the item of train service we have the total of $125 per, mile of track, as above stated. Where all the track is to be ballasted at once, the present practice is to include the cost of "surfacing track" as a part of the cost of ballasting. To indicate how the contract prices run under such conditions, we may cite the bids on the Portland & Seattle Ry., in 1906, which were as follows : Track laying, including loading of track materials but not including unloading in the yard, $300 per mile. Tie plating (fully tie plated), $75 per mile. Labor on single tie plates, 1% cts. each. Labor on switches, $25 each. Ballast, 27 cts. per cu. yd. This price is for gravel ballast and includes all the cost of loading and unloading the same and tamping it under the ties, 'and lining up the track, but does not include the train service nor the wear and tear on the steam shovel which is furnished bv the railway company. The train service rarely exceeds 8 cts. per cu. yd. and another 1 ct. will usually cover steam shovel repairs and depreciation. This 9 cts. added to the contract price of 27 cts. gives a total of 36 cts. per cu. yd. of gravel ballast in place. This is a liberal estimate under ordinary conditions. RAILWAYS. 1243 We give the following as confirming the above given estimate of $150 per mile for "train service," yard work and transportation of men in track laying: On the Seattle and Montana Ry., built in 1891, the train service, etc., cost $67 per mile of track for 79 miles. On the Idaho division of the Great Northern Ry. (110 miles long), built in 1892, the train service, eta, cost $125 per mile of track. On the Cascade division of the Northern Pacific Ry., built in 1884, the cost of train service, etc., was $170 per mile of track. This was a difficult section over the Cascade Mountains. On an easier section the corresponding cost was $150 per mile. On the Snake River branch of the O. R. & N., built in 1899, the cost of train service, etc., was $154 per mile, to which must be added $18 per mile for the cost of transporting men, etc. It will be seen from these figures that engineers quite commonly underestimate the total cost of track laying and surfacing. Fre- quently estimates may be seen that contain no allowance whatever for train service and work at the material yards. Cost of Tracklaying, M., St. Paul & S. S .M. Ry. About 263 miles of track were laid in 1892-3 from Valley City across North Dakota. The tracklaying and surfacing were done by the railway company, not by contract. The track was 72-lb. rails laid on 16 ties to the 30-ft. rail. The construction train was made up of 32 cars, the loco- motive being in the middle of the train. The next car behind the locomotive was an ordinary flat car loaded with telegraph material ; then followed 15 box cars loaded with ties. In front of the locomo- tive were the following cars, No. 1 being the one farthest front. No. 1, Pioneer car. This was double deck, containing blacksmith shop, store room, general foreman'^ office, telegraph office, two sleep- ing rooms, and three extra berths. In front of the car was a plat- form carrying extra splice bars, bolts and spikes. No. 2, store car. This was double deck, and had a store room for provisions and one for clothes, sleeping berths for cooks and a sleeping apartment above. Nos. 3 and 4, dining and sleeping cars, double deck. No. 5, kitchen car, single deck. No. 6, dining and sleeping car, double deck. No. 7, feed and fuel car, ordinary box car. No. 8, water car, flat car with a 2,000-gal. tank at each end. Nos. 9 to 16, flat cars with rails and spikes. Work commenced at 7 a. m., the teams hauling ties from the five rear cars. The ties were shoved from the car down a tie chute, provided with three rollers, and were loaded into a V-shaped rack on a wagon holding 25 ties. The rails were unloaded onto the ground from both sides of the cars, and the train pulled back out of the way. The rails were loaded onto two "iron cars" and hauled to the end of the track by horses. The iron car gang would "drop" 100 rails (1,500 ft. of track) in half an hour. As soon as a pair was dropped upon the ties, a hook gage was thrown over them, at the for- ward end, and the horse pulled the car forward 30 ft. Two more 1244 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. rails were then run out, and so on. The tracklaying force was as follows : Per day. Iron car gang, who dropped rails, 22 men at $2.25 $ 49.50 Strappers, who adjusted and bolted splices, 6 men at $2.00. . . 12.00 Spike peddlers, 2 men at $1.50 3.00 Tie-spacing gang, 12 men at $1.50 18.00 Men lining ties, with rope and stakes, 2 men at $1.75 3.50 Men spacing joint ties, 2 men at $1.75 3.50 Men leveling grade cut by tie wagons, 4 men at $1.50 6.00 Spikers, 16 men at $2.00 32.00 Nippers, holding up end ties for spikers, 8 men at $1.50 12.00 Tracklining gang, 6 men at $1.75 10.50 Teamsters for tie wagons ($35 per mo. and board), 40 men at $2.00 80.00 Men unloading ties from cars, 15 men at $1.75 26.25 Men unloading rails and fastenings from cars, 4 men at $1.75 7.00 Telegraph gang, 8 men at $1.75 14.00 Telegraph operator ($50 per mo.), 1 man at $2.00 2.00 Drivers of iron car horses, 2 men at $1.75 3.50 Blacksmith, 1 man at $2.25 2.25 Night watchman, 1 man at $1.50 1.50 Cooks ($50 per mo.), 2 men at $2.00 4.00 Baker, working nights, 1 man at $2.50 2.50 Waiters, 5 men at $2.00 10.00 Storekeeper, 1 man at $2.50 2.50 Foremen ($65 per mo. each), 5 men at $2.80 14 00 General foreman ($150 per mo.), 1 man at $6.00 6.00 Total $325.50 Note that the teams of horses are not included, but the drivers of the teams are included in the above. The men were boarded for $3.50 a week, and this was deducted from the wages of all except teamsters. The average daily wage of these 167 men was $1.95. The telegraph gang, consisted of 8 men and 1 foreman. The cedar poles were 25 ft. long, spaced 30 to the mile, set 5 ft. in the ground. The wire was stretched from a reel on a small hand wagon pushed by the men. This force of 167 men and about 90 horses averaged 3 miles of track per day. If we consider horses (not including driver) as costing $1 per day, we have a total daily cost of $415.50, not includ- ing the cost of operating two locomotives and trains, which may be rated at $40 each (including wages, fuel, interest and depreciation). This brings the total cost to $495.50 per day, or $165 per mile, including the erecting of the telegraph line, but not including the cost of surfacing the track. On one occasion the above force laid 4 miles in 10 hrs. In dry open country, like North Dakota, this method was faster than working with track machines and no more expensive. In swamp, very hilly or timbered country, the track- laying machines are especially serviceable. The track surfacing gangs followed the tracklayers and surfaced the track so as to make a safe roadway and prevent bending of the rails and splices before the ballasting was done. These gangs numbered 40 to 45 men under a foreman and sub-foreman. About 250 men were required for surfacing, and they went to and from work on hand cars, their boarding cars being located on the sidings RAILWAYS. 1245 which were put in about every 10 miles. If these men received $1.50 per day, the surfacing cost $375 per day, or $125 per mile. Hence the total cbst of laying and surfacing would be $290 per mile. Cost of Tracklaying, 50-lb. Rails. In 1881 the following gang averaged one mile of track laid per day by contract. The track was not surfaced by this force. This does not include the cost of "surfacing," nor does it include 'train service." Tie gang. Per day. 1 panel spacer, at $1.50 $ 1.50 1 tie surfacer, at $1.50 1.50 2 tie liners, at $1.50 3.00 3 tie unloaders, at $1.50 4.50 6 tie spreaders, at $1.50 9.00 1 waterboy, at $1.25 . 1.25 1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 Iron gang. 1 gager, at $2.00 '. . : 2.00 2 heelers, at $2.00 4.00 .2 unloaders, at $2.00 4.00 6 iron men, at $2.00 12.00 1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 Front gang. 1 tie spacer, at $1.50 1.50 1 spike peddler, at $1.50 1.50 2 nippers, at $1.50 3.00 4 spikers, at $2.00 8.00 5 strappers, at $1.50 7.50 1 waterboy, at $1.25 ' 1.25 1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 Tie loading gang. 16 men (4 gangs of 4 each), at $1.50 24.00 1 waterboy, at $1.25 . 1.25 1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 Backspiking gang. 1 tie spacer, at $1.50 1.50 2 spike peddlers, at $1.50 3.00 4 nippers, at $1.50 6.00 8 spikers, at $2.00 16.00 1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 Lining gang. 5 men, at $1.50 7.50 1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 Backfilling gang. 15 men, at $1.50 22.50 1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 Hauling gang. 18 teamsters, at $1.80 32.40 1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 40 mules' feed, at $0.40 16.00 1 wagon master, at $3.00 3.00 General force. 1 camp boss, teamsters' camp, at $2.25 2.25 1 blacksmith, at $2.25 2.25 2 night watchmen, at $2.25 4.50 1 tool man, at $2.00 2.00 1 bookkeeper, at $4.00 4.00 1 superintendent, at $5.00 5. Of Material train, fuel and wages 24. ^ Total per day and per mile $266. 3t 1246 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The force, as above given, can lay 1 V 2 miles of steel track per day, but cannot keep up the back work and average mugh more than one mile. All ties are full spiked ; 15 ties to a 30-ft. rail ; 50-lb. steel rails. The ties and steel are delivered to the contractor on cars at the last side track ; and side tracks are about 8 miles apart. A material train is made up of 10 tie cars, each holding 135 ties, and 3 steel cars, each holding 60 rails. This train is at the boarding train at 6 a. m., in time to take the force to the front after break- fast. The backfillers, liners and backspikers are dropped where work had stopped the day before, and the 10 cars of ties (which are in the rear of the locomotive) are uncoupled far enough back to give the train room to move ahead with the 3 cars of steel (which are in front of the loctimotive) as far as the "iron car" upon which 30 rails at a time are loaded and pushed up front. The two un- loaders in the iron gang assist in loading the iron car ; and, while the rails on the iron car are being laid, they throw off another 30 rails from the flat cars ready to be loaded on the iron car. The 10 cars of ties are brought up as fast as the track will allow, and only enough are unloaded by the tie loaders at one time to keep the wagons busy. At noon the train carries the force back to dinner, the empty flat cars are sidetracked, and another train of 10 tie cars and 3 steel cars brought up in time to take the men back after dinner. In laying the track, the panel spacer with a 30-ft. pole and pick keeps far enough ahead to do duty as the roadmaster. The front gangs of spikers (2 on each rail) spike 3 ties in each panel, always the joint and the 6th and llth ties, skipping 4 ties each time. Of the 5 strappers, one untrims the plates, leaving plates, nuts and bolts on the joint tie, and the other 4, working 2 on a side, strap up and bolt the joints. Should the backspikers get behind, they are assisted by the frontspikers. Should the backfillers get behind, they are reinforced by the tie gangs, and the iron gang and strappers can be putting in the sidings. Of the teams, 16 are used to haul ties, 1 to pull the iron car, and 1 to haul water to the boarding train. The 16 teams haul 14 loads of 12 ties each per day, making 2,688 ties. Cost of Tracklaying on the A., T. & S. Fe R. R. With a well- organized force the cost of laying and surfacing the Arkansas City extension of the A., T. & S. Fe, in 1888, was $292 per mile for a month's work. On the same road the following force laid 2 miles per day: RAILWAYS. 1247 Laying. Per day. 15 men running iron cars, at $1.75 $ 26.25 2 men unloading iron, at $1.75 3.50 24 men spiking, at $1.75 42.00 8 men strapping, at $1.75 14.00 5 men spacing ties and "squaring" joints, at $1.75 8.75 4 men lining track, at $1.75 7.00 7 men setting "joint and center" ties, at $1.75 12.25 2 men carrying gages, at $1.75 3.50 2 men distributing spikes, at $1.75 3.50 1 man caring for tools, at $1.75 1.75 42 men bedding ties, at $1.40 58.80 12 men ("nippers"), at $1.40 16.80 18 men handling ties, at $1.40 25.20 2 men stretching tie line, at $1.40 2.80 4 men carrying water, at $1.40 5.60 1 general foreman 3.33 1 foreman iron car 2.50 1 foreman tie bedding 2.50 1 foreman handling ties 2.50 1 foreman tracklining 2.50 1 foreman spiking gang 2.00 10 extra men, at $1.40 14.00 22 teams hauling ties, at $3.50 77.00 1 team hauling iron car, at $3.50 3.50 Total laying 2 miles at $170.76 $341.53 In addition to this the surfacing of 2 miles of track per day cost as follows : Surfacing. 80 shovelers, at $1.40 $112.20 2 "back-bolters," at $1.75 3.50 1 foreman raising track 2.00 1 foreman v. f . 2.50 Total surfacing 2 miles at $60.10 $120.20 Train Service and General. Superintendent of tracklaying $ 5.00 Timekeeper 3.00 Train and engine crews 15.04 Engineering 10.97 Total, train crews, etc., 2 miles at $17.00 $34.01 Summary. Per mile. Tracklaying $170.76 Tracksurfacing 60.10 Train service, etc 17.00 Total *. $247.86 This does not include the cost of supplying and distributing of ballast by train. On the Lamed branch 15 miles were laid in 7 days, but under the favorable circumstance of light grades, light work, light earth for ballast, and roadbed in first-class condition. It will be noted that the cost of "train service" appears not to in- clude the delivery of materials from material yards, nor does it in- clude fuel, and interest and depreciation on plant. Cost of Tracklaying, A., T. & S. Fe R. R. Some rapid work was done (1899) in the extension of the A., T. & S. F. Ry. from Stockton, Cal., to Port Richmond. The rails were laid with broken 1248 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. joints, 17 ties per rail. One stretch of 11 miles (62y 2 -lb. rails) was laid at the rate of 2,846 ft. per day, with a force of 45 men, on level grade. Another stretch of 17 miles (75-lb. rails) was laid at the rate of 3,500 ft. per day, with 48 men, on a descending grade of 1%, with curves at intervals of % mile. The best day's work, on the level grade, was 5,400 ft., with 52 men. The force was as follows: Foreman 1 Sub-foreman 3 Strappers 4 Iron car men 10 Spikers 8 Nippers 4 Tie line man 1 Lining ties '. 2 Tie plater 1 Spike peddler : 1 Spacing ties 2 Spacing rails 2 Back bolting 2 Tie carriers 10 Picking up materials 1 Total 52 Cost of Tracklaying, P., S. & N. R. R. Mr. G. C. Woollard gives the following on tracklaying on the Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern R. R. The length of track laid was 8 miles. With a gang of 46 men and 3 foremen the average day's work was 2,870 ft. of track laid; the best day's work was 3,290 ft. There were 18 men and a foreman in the tracklaying gang; 17 men and a foreman in the supply gang; 11 men and a foreman in the backtieing gang. Beside these men there* were a locomotive engineer, fireman, con- ductor and a brakeman. No teams were used. Trucks passed one another by raising one truck to a vertical position on the cross-ties and then allowing it to drop back to an oblique position, keeping it from turning over by means of a prop while the loading truck passed. There were 18 oak ties to a rail, and rails were 85-lb. All the work was on a 2% down grade, which facilitated delivery of materials by gravity. Cost of Tracklaying with Machines. Tracklaying machines do not lay the track, but merely facilitate the delivery of ties and rails on a series of rollers from the cars to the tracklaying gang of men. In rugged or swampy country a tracklaying machine is especially economic, because the ties cannot be easily delivered by teams. With a Holman tracklaying machine, 120 miles of the Washing- ton County Ry. (Maine) were laid in 1899. The best day's work was 2 miles laid in 9 hrs. with 110 men. On the Burlington & Missouri River Ry., with a gang of 85 men and a Holman machine, 1% miles per day were laid at a cost of $100 per mile. The rails were 65-lb. rails, with 18 ties to a rail. Curves <** j t ie WPJ-A Jaid. Equally good work was done with the Harris tracklaying macTiirnj. RAILWAYS. 1249 On the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry., 1,300 miles of track were laid with a Harris machine in 1886 and 1887. The average cost of laying 2 miles per day was as follows: Per day. 1 general foreman $ 5.00 2 assistant foremen, at $3 6.00 109 laborers, at $2 218.00 1 engine and train crew 20.00 Total, 2 miles, $124.50 $249.00 To this must be added $10 per mile for preparatory work in trans- ferring material to cars in the yard, and $5 per mile royalty for use of the Harris machine, bringing the total to $140 per mtte. It will be noted that this does not include the cost of surfacing. The Harris machine is said to be quicker than the Holman, where long stretches are to be laid ; but the Holman is more eco- nomical for short stretches or where delays are frequent, as the gang is smaller. Another machine that has been extensively used is the Roberts. The Hurley Tracklaying Machine Co., of Chicago, make an ex- cellent machine with which 2 to 4 miles per day can be laid and quarterspiked with a gang of 40 men. Cost of Laying a Narrow Gage Track. Where ties and rails are dumped along in small piles, and where no grading has to be done, a gang of 3 men will average 210 ft. of track laid in 10 hrs. This applies to a light 3-ft. gage track made of 30-lb. rails on 6 x 6-in. ties, 5 ft. long, spaced 3-ft. centers: With wages at 15 cts. per hr., the labor cost is practically 2 cts. per ft. of -track, or $100 per mile, after the materials are delivered. A Method of Unloading Rails. An effective method of unloading rails, along a track where new rails are to be put in, is as follows : The car is provided with a tail board that hangs down and drags along on the track, forming an inclined plane. A hook on a rope is hooked into a rail, and another hook, on the other end of the rope, is hooked over a tie. As the car moves slowly forward the rail is dragged out. By having two of these ropes and hooks, pulling out two rails at a time, 71 rails were unloaded in 25 mins. from a drop end gondola, and 86 rails in 42 mins. from a solid end gondola. Cost of Renewing Rails on the C., C., C. & St. L. Ry.* The fol- lowing is given by Mr. John Barth, and relates to the cost of taking up 80-lb. rail and laying 90-lb. rail. To unload the new rail I used a rail unloader, which was oper- ated by air, furnished by the work engine, which took a foreman and five men besides the train crew to operate. Any good handy man could run the loader. I made comparison with loading and unloading- ran, and found that we could handle the rail considerably * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 6, 1909. 1250 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cheaper with the machine. It cost to unload the new rail and fastenings, per mile : Labor % 9.75 Work train service 9.58 Fuel, oil and waste 7.58 gs Making, per mile for unloading, a total of $26.91 This was on single track where we had an average of 17 trains during the 10 working hours. To get the above estimate of cost of unloading I took total cost of unloading 65 miles of rail, and divided by 65 which gives the average cost per mile. Some days we were hung up on account of trains and did very little work, and other days we could do more. "We loaded the old rail with the rail loader, and it cost practically the same to load it as it did to unload the new rail. In laying this rail I used gangs of one foreman, assistant fore- man, timekeeper, and two flagmen, and 44 men. Had my gangs organized as follows: Six men with claw-bars pulling spikes. Three men with spike mauls to loosen up spikes that were stuc and to knock down stubs. Four men throwing out the old rail. One man with nipping bar to cant the old rails up out of the old bed, and 3 men to shove it out. Three men driving plugs in the old holes, which should be dis- tributed ahead of the work. In taking up light rail and laying heavier rail, pull the outside spikes. In doing this, I had 1 man with an adze to adze off the very highest ties only and to cut off the plugs that stick up. Twelve men with tongs to set in the new rail, which should be set in one rail at a time. One good hustling fellow to put in the expansion shims and keep the rail gang moving, using steel cut nails for shims, making the expansion according to the thermometer by using different sizes of nails, putting the nail in crosswise against the ball, so that it will be out of the way in putting on the angle bars. The first few trains over, this nail will slip out. Two men with bars with claws on one end and pointed on the other to shove the rail into the spikes at center and quarters. Four men with spike mauls. These men start off leaving eight ties unspiked between each man, and go ahead, each man spiking every eighth tie from the last one that he spiked. This spikes every other tie, and prevents the men running around each other. One man with a claw bar and adze to pull out the spikes that come in the way of the angle bars at the new joint, and to adze down the high ties at the new joint. Five men putting on angle bars, and bolting up, putting two bolts at each joint, all bolts and angle bars to be distributed ahead of the rail laying for each day's work only. Have plenty of wrenches and spike mauls, and when connection is being made, or waiting for RAILWAYS. 1251 trains, turn the men that are working in the tong gang and those throwing out rail, back to do full bolting and full spiking. Two men with a push car, to keep the connection rails, off-set splices, and everything needed in making a connection, and extra tools, right up with the rail-laying, so that when connection is to be made they will be on the ground. Have the spikers and bolters fn starting out assist these two men in loading the connection rails. Always move the last new rail ahead and use it as a connection rail all the way through. This will always give you a good joint. The foreman should watch the time of the regular trains, and go ahead of the spike pullers, and pick out his place for making a con- nection, and have four picked men out of the gang that set in the rail to make the connection, using short pieces of rail. I used pieces from 4 ft. to 4 ins. long and used off-set bars from 90 Ibs. to 80 Ibs. I always found that my new rail fell short. I was putting down 33-ft. rail and taking up 30-ft. rail, and every ten rail lengths we could make a good connection by pulling the 80-lb. rail against the 90-lb. and using short pieces of 80-lb. rail to fill in the gap. In clos- ing up at night, if I thought it necessary, I would cut in a long piece of rail. The two men handling the push car and keeping the tools and con- nections up with the rail laying, should also keep the tools in good repair, such as keeping handles in the mauls, and have a general supervision of the tools. The assistant foreman should be back among the workmen and see that the track is kept safe spiked and bolted, and ready for trains by the time a connection is made. Section men should follow up and tamp any ties that may be hanging or shim them up as the season of the year may require. Gage the track when you space the ties, as you will have to do it at that time any way, and it avoids cutting up the ties with spikes. In taking up 80-lb. rail and putting down 90-lb. rail, pull the out- side spikes of both rails. In doing this you avoid adzing, as the new rail will set up on the shoulder of the tie on the outside and give the wheels a full bearing on the ball of the rail. In taking up and laying rail of the same size, pull the inside spikes on both rails, and adze the ties down so as to give the wheel a perfect bearing on the ball of the rail. To do this it would take five extra men to do the adzing above the 44. Full bolt and spike the new rail and uncouple the old rail as far as you- go each day. This usually can be done while waiting on trains. If not, take the time to do it. This is the reason I did not work larger gangs of men, as 44 or 46 men just about cleaned up each day's work even. This rail laying was done on single track where we had an average of 17 trains in our 10 working hours, and was laid at a cost of $134.24 per mile. We laid an average of 3,500 ft. of rail per day. Since there are 141 tons of 90-lb. rails per mile, this cost is equiva- lent to $0.95 per ton. 1252 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Rail Relaying Gang.* At the last annual convention of the Headmasters' and Maintenance of Way Association a committee re- port was read on relaying rail and the organization for the work. According to the report 51 men will make a good rail gang for 85 to 100-lb. rails, this gang being made up as follows: 1 foreman, 1 assistant foreman, 12 men on the tongs, 7 men pulling spikes, 6 men adzing, 1 man plugging spike holes, 4 men throwing out old line of rails, 10 men spiking, 5 men bolting, 2 flagmen, 1 tool man, and 1 water man. All rails should be laid one at a time, except in a yard where business is too heavy to permit of the use of the tracks. Heavy adzing should, if possible, be done in advance of rail laying. A gang of this size can lay one mile of track per day on the average railroad. At this rate, and assuming wages to average $2 per man, it would cost $100 per mile for relaying rails. Labor Cost of Renewing Rails. During a traffic of one train per hour, in winter, the cost of taking up old rails, unloading and placing new 72-lb. rails on a single track, was $140 per mile. The wages of common laborers were $1.25 per 10 hrs. Labor Cost of Renewing Rails. In 1904 and 1905, old 72-lb rails were taken up and new 85-lb. rails laid on certain sections of track in the state of Washington at the following costs per mile. The first work involved 27 miles of single track. Per mile. Unloading and distributing $ 34.60 Laying and surfacing 294.15 Picking up and piling old steel 38.15 Total $366.90 Since 85-lb. rails weigh 134 tons per mile, the labor cost of re- newing these rails was $2.75 per ton. On another 18-mile stretch, the cost was as follows : Per mile. Unloading and distributing $ 35.05 Laying and surfacing 393.70 Picking up and piling old steel 38.60 Total $467.35 This is equivalent to nearly $3.50 per ton, which is an unneces- sarily high cost. The wages of laborers were $1.75, and of spikers $2.25 per day. Cost of Laying Side Tracks and Switches.! Practically nothing has ever been printed as to the cost of laying sidetracks and spurs. We purpose giving in this article eight examples of the actual cost of this sort of work on a western railway. The grading was done, in most cases, by contract and its cost is not included in the following costs, unless specifically mentioned. The tracklaying and surfacing were done by company forces. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 15, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 4, 1908. RAILWAYS. 1253 Example 1. This is a spur track 400 ft. long. Labor. 8 days, foreman at $1.50 $12.00. 16 days, laborers, at $1.25 20.00 Total labor, 400 ft. at $0.08 $32.00 Materials. 158 cedar ties at $0.35 $ 55.30 1 set stub switch ties, 3,200 ft. B. M. at $15 48.00 800 ft. S. H. (second hand), 56 Ib. rail, 6 and 1886/2240 tons at $16 109.31 52 S. H. angle bars, 728 Ibs., at $1.37 9.97 100 S. H. track bolts, 85 Ibs., at $1.95 1.66 400 Ibs. new spikes at $1.85 7.40 1 frog (56 Ib.) 8.00 1 S. H. switch lock 0.25 2 S. H. 2 way switch chairs, 190 Ibs., at $1.65.. 3.14 6 connecting rods, 5' 2", at $1.35 8.10 1 S. H. long connecting rod 2.50 1 high switch stand, 2 way 8.00 Total materials $261.63 Grand total, 400 ft., at $0.73 $293.63 Example 2. This work involved putting in a switch to connect two tracks, the length of track laid being 118 ft. Labor. 4% days, foreman at $1.80 $ 8.10 14 y 2 days, laborer at $1.25 18.13 4 days, laborer helping engineer stake out spur, $1.25 s 5.00 Total labor, 118 ft. at $0.265 $31.23 Materials. 19 S. H. switch ties at $0.10 $ 1.90 1 set switch ties, 2,677 ft. B. M. at $14 37.48 108 ft. new 75 Ib. rail, 1 460/2240 tons, $27 32.54 127 ft. S. H. 75 Ib. rail, 1 935/2240 tons, $16. ... 22.68 22 new 25 Ib. angle bars, 528 Ibs., $1.45 7.66 62 track bolts, 52.7 Ibs., $2.00 1.05 . 256 track spikes, 143.4 Ibs., $1.68 2.41 1 new 75 Ib. 1-7 frog 16.65 1 new sw. lock 0.46 1 S. H. sw. stand, 2 way, low 4.40 ' 2 new switch points (75 Ib.) at $7.40 14.80 12 new tie plates at $0.25 3.00 8 new rail braces at $0.155 1.24 1 main rod 0.90 3 connecting rods at $0.50 1.50 8 clips at $0.27 2.16 24 clip bolts, 12 Ibs., at $3.10 0.37 1 S. H. short connecting rod 1.10 Total materials $152.32 Grand total, 118 ft, at $1.55 $183.55 Example S.-. This work consisted in putting in a passing track 2,500 ft. long. Labor tracklaying. 20 days, foreman at $1.80 $ 36.00 78 days, laborer at $1.35 105.30 Total labor, 2,500 ft. at $0.056 $141.30 1254 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Materials. 2 S. H. head blocks, 224 ft. B. M. t at $6. . . .$ 1.34 1,245 S. H. ties at $0.145 180.53 2 sets sw. ties, 34,045 ft. B. M., at $20.00 68.09 42 planks (3 x 12-16), 2,016 ft. B. M., at $11 ... 22.17 4,969 ft. S. H. 56 Ib. rail, 41 911/2240 tons, at $16 662.51 340 S. H. A bars, 4,590 Ibs., at $0.88 40.39 182 new trk. bolts, 155 Ibs., at $1.85 2.86 592 S. H. trk. bolts, 503 Ibs., at $1.40 7.04 5,100 spikes, 2,856 Ibs., at $1.65 47.12 2 frgs (1-9), 60 Ibs., at $13.25 26.50 2 H. T. 2 way sw. stands at $7.25 14.50 2 long conn, rods at $2.10 4.20 2 S. H. conn, rods at $1.05 2.10 14 S. H. conn, rods at $0.53 7.42 8 sw. stand bolts, 12 Ibs., at $2.25 0.27 8 sw. nuts 0. 3^ 40 sw. chairs (60 Ib.), 357 Ibs., at $1.45 5.18 2 sw. locks at $0.29 0.58 2 S. H. guard rails (60 Ibs.) at $1.27 2.54 Total materials $1,095.67 4,720 cu. yds. grading at 13 cts 613^60 Labor ballasting. 5% days, foreman at $1.80 $ 9.90 11 days, laborer at $1.35 14.85 Total labor ballasting $ 24.75 Grand total, 2,500 ft., at $0.75 1,875.32 Example 1,. The work consisted in laying a passing track 2,500 ft long, including grading, ballasting and surfacing. Labor grading: 15 days, foreman at $1.80.. ..$ 27.00 10 days, laborer at $1.25 22.48 195 days, team at $3.50 ' 682.50 Total grading $ 731.98 Labor laying track. 4 days, foreman at $1.80 $ 7.20 80 days, laborer at $1.25 100.00 Total, 2,500 ft. at $0.043 $ 107.20 Labor moving a switch. 1 day, foreman .' $ 1.80 8y 2 days, laborer at $1.25 10.63 Total $ 12.43 Labor surfacing track. 4 days, foreman at $1.80 $ 7.20 20 days, laborer at $1.25 . 25.00 Total $ 32.20 Work train service ballasting. 1.4 days, engine service (140 mi.) at $27.50..$ 38.50 1.5 days, conductor at $80 mo 4.44 3 days, brakeman at $60 mo 6.67 Total $ 49.61 RAILWAYS. 1255 Materials. 4,760 lin. ft. S. H. 56 Ib. rail, 39 1493/2240 tons, at $16 $ 634.66 128 lin. ft. S. H. 50 Ib. rail, 2133/2240 tons, at $16 15.24 1 new No. 9 frog 13.25 1 new No. 1 frog (56 Ib.) 12.25 4 guard rails at $1.27 5.08 1,088 ties at $0.23 250.24 2 sets sw. ties, 5,354 ft. B. M., $12.00 64.25 4 H. B. bolts, 12 Ibs., $2.25 0.27 318 S. H. 56 Ib. A bars, 4,452 Ibs., $0.88 39.18 2 sw. stands, $7.25. 14.50 12 S. H. 50 Ib. splice bars, 108 Ibs., $0.88... v 0.95 8 sq. nuts, 2 Ibs., $2.90 0.06 648 new track bolts, 551 Ibs., $1.85 10.19 2 sw. locks, $0.45 0.90 4,990 new track spikes, 2,974 Ibs., $1.65 46.11 2 long conn, rods, $2.10 4.20 4 new 2 way sw. chairs, cast 382 Ib., at $1.45 5.54 2 new tie rods, $1.10 2.20 10 new conn. sw. rods, $1.10 11.00 8 rail braces, $0.91 0.73 12 crossing plank (3 x 12 16), 576 ft. B. M. at $10.00 5.76 12 Ibs. spikes, $1.85 0.22 2 sets frog blocking, $1.20 2.40 Total materials $1,139.18 Grand total, 2,500 ft. at $0.829 $2,072.60 Example 5. This is an industry spur 550 ft. long, and the cost of labor only is given. The rail w r as 56-lb., and the cost of materials can be easily estimated from the examples previously given. 10 days, foreman, $1.80. $ 18.00 30 days, laborer, $1.50 , . . 45.00 24 days, team and driver, $4.00 96.00 Total, 550 ft., at $0.28 $159.00 Note the high cost due to team work. Example 6. This consisted in making an extension 180 ft. long to an existing spur, so that no switch was put in. Labor : 3.6 days, foreman, at $55 mo $ 6.75 11.6 days, labor, at $1.50 14.16 4.8 days, labor, at $1.20 5.04 Total labor, 180 ft., at $0.144 $25.95 Material : 360 ft. S. H. 60-lb. rail, 3 480/2240 tons, $24.20..$ 77.79 24 S. H. A. bars, 342 Ibs., $1.53 5.23 190 track spikes, 106 Ibs., $1.59 1.69 48 S. H. tr. bolts, 41 Ibs., $2.04 0.84 90 treated ties, $0.36 32.40 Total $117.95 Grand total, 180 ft., at $0.80 $143.90 1256 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Example 7. This consisted in building an industrial spur 550 ft. long. The low cost of the labor should be noted, as compared with that in Example 5, where an inordinately high team cost appears. Engineering : 8 hrs. asst. engr., at $100 mo $ 2.58 8 hrs., roadman, at $50 mo 1.29 8 hrs., chainman, at $40 mo 1.03 Total engineering $ 4.90 Labor : 55 hrs. foreman, at $55 me $ 9.75 475 hrs. laborer, at $1.25 day 59.20 Total labor, 550 ft, at $0.126 $ 68.95 Material : 1,052 ft. S. H. 56-lb. rail, 19,637 lbs. t at $24.20. . $212.10 30 ft. scrap rail (56-lb.), 560 Ibs., at $7.37.. 1.84 76 A bars (56-lb.), 1,083 Ibs., at $2.25 27.62 129 Ibs. tr. bolts, at $3.19 4.12 700 Ibs. tr. spikes, at $2.98 18.06 1 rigid frog (1-9), 60-lb 21.05 1 sw. stand 6.68 4 sw. bolts 0.20 1 long conn, rod 2.33 1 split sw. compl. (60-lb.) 23.52 2 guard rails, 10 ft., 50-lb 6.56 12 S. H. rail braces, 8% cts 1.02 1 sw. lock 0.38 1 set sw. ties, 3,283 ft. B. M., at $8.50 27.91 1 sand bumper 9.20 Total materials $362.59 Grand total .' $436.44 It will be noted that no charge for cross ties (other than the set of sawed switch ties) is made. Hence the cost of materials is in- complete. Example 8. This is a crossover track, 496 ft. long. Engineering : 1 day, asst. engr $ 2.75 1 day, rodman 1.60 1 day, chainman 1.30 Engr. expense 4.35 Total $ 10.00 Labor : Putting in sw. ties and grading new crossover track : 1.5 day, foreman, at $75 mo. . . 1 $ 3.75 1.5 day, timekeeper, at $60 3.00 1.5 day, asst. foreman, at $60 3.00 38 day, laborers, at $1.75 67.35 Total $ 77.10 Putting in crossover track : 1 day, foreman, at $75 $ 2.42 1 day, timekeeper, at $60 1.93 1 day, asst. foreman, at $60 1.94 39.8 day, laborers, at $1.75 69.65 Total ? 75.94 RAILWAYS, 1257 Surfacing crossover track : 0.4 day, foreman, at $75 $ 0.97 0.4 day, asst. foreman, at $60 0.97 0.5 day, timekeeper, at $60 096 11.5 day, laborers, at $1.75 20.10 Total $ 22.80 Materials : 50 ft. 80-lb. 1st qual. rail, 1,333 Ibs., at $29.30.$ 17.43 87 ft. 80-lb. 2d qual. rail, 1 80/2240 tons, at $29.30 28.89 679 ft. S. H. 68-lb. rail, 6 1951/2240 tons, at 24.20 166.27 41 S. H. ties, at $0.10 4.10 130 treated ties, at $0.37 48.10 1 set sw. ties 27.81 1 set sw. ties 22.51 14 new 24-in. 80-lb. A bars, 290 Ibs., $1.30... 3.77 2 new W. joints, $0.96 1.92 50 S. H. 36-in. 68-lb. A bars, 1,200 Ibs., $0.98.. 11.76 4 new 24-in. offsets, 68 Ibs., $1.37 0.93 185 new tr. bolts, 157 Ibs., $2.48 3.89 1,331 new spikes, 745 Ibs., $1.88 13.97 1 new No. 9 sprg. rail frog (77^-lb.) 35.50 1 new No. 7 frog (68-lb.) 13.70 IS. H. sw. stand 2.98 1 new sw. stand . . 5.55 8 sw. stand bolts, 14 Ibs., $3.66 0.51 1 sprg. switch comp., 15 pts. (68-lb.) ...... 18.11 1 sprg. switch comp., 15 pts. (68-lb.) ...... 9.41 1 S. H. long conn, rod ........ ... .^w^H. tx> 0.70.^uO 1 short conn, rod .......................... 0.34 2 guard rails comp. (80-lb.) ............... 13.65 2 S. H. 68-lb. guard rails, 680 Ibs., $13.80.. -4.19 2 sw. locks repd., $0.18 ................... 0.36 ^ s ,m f o< : n . s '..::::: :::::::: : 68 new tie plates, 273 Ibs., $2.15 ............. 5.87 415 S. H. tie plates, 1,177 Ibs., $1,875 ......... 22.07 9 S. H. wall rail braces, 22 Ibs., 11.05 cts... 0.12 Total material ......................... $486.56 Grand total, 496 ft., at $1.366 ............ $672.40 The high cost of the labor is attributed to "extra labor expended In clearing and to considerable interference by switch engine, this work being done in the yards." Summary. On short sidetracks or cross-overs the cost of putting in a switch constitutes a much larger percentage of the total cost than on long sidetracks. Hence the cost of labor, as well as of materials, is greater per lineal foot of short sidetrack than of long sidetrack. Estimated Cost of Growing Tie Timber.* In a paper read before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, Mr. E. A. Sterling, Forester of the Pennsylvania Lines, stated that in their work on the Penn- sylvania Lines east of Pittsburg and Erie, over 2,000,000 trees had been planted on lands acquired in connection with widen- ing and straightening the main line, and in the construction of low * Engineering-Contracting, April 22, 1908. 1258 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. grade lines. The actual cost of plant material and planting last spring was $11.29 per thousand trees. Mr. Sterling gave the following as an estimate of the returns per acre, which may be expected from such work, if red oak is planted on land valued at $10 per acre, with interest at 4%%, compounded annually, and the crop maturing in 40 yrs. : Land at $10, at 4%%, for 40 yrs $ 58.16 Plant material and planting $10, at 4y 2 % for 40 yrs 58.16 Taxes, 3 cts. per annum, at ?%_% for 40 yrs... 3.21 Management and protection, 15 cts., at 4 1 /.% for 40 yrs 16.05 Sawing or hewing 400 ties, at 10 cts 40.00 Hauling 400 ties, at 5 cts 20.00 Total, 400 ties, at 48 cts $195.58 By the above estimate 400 ties would be produced per acre every 40 yrs. at a cost of 48 cts. each, including compound interest charges at 4%%. Mr. Sterling states that the estimate of 40 yrs. will hold for red oak and Scotch and red pines ; while chestnut should make ties in 30 to 35 yrs. and locust in 25 to 30 yrs., if not eaten up by the borers. The trees at the end of this period should average 15 ins. on the stump. The tax rate of 3 cts. per acre, used above, is far below the present rate, but is what would be considered a fair charge in a European forest. Cost of Making Hewed Ties. From a pine tree that is 14 ins. diameter at the height of a man's shoulder, from 3 to 5 pole ties may be made. The ties are hewed 8 to 8% ft. long, 6 ins. thick, with two hewed faces 8 ins. wide, and the bark on the sides is peeled with a tie peeler. It is said that a skillful man can cut and make 40 to 50 of these ties per day, but it would not be safe to figure on such an output. In the state of Washington, 25 to 35 fir ties per man per day are a fair output. This includes cutting down the small fir trees from which the ties are made. The men who do this work are called "tie hackers." In Missouri 25 white oak ties per man per day are regarded as a good output, the men receiving 10 cts. per tie. A Cheap Way of Loading Ties. The following described device is simple and well adapted to handling other materials than ties. It consists of an overhead trolley, traveling on a 4-in. I-beam that serves as a rail. In loading box cars with ties, one end of this I-beam is supported on a light wooden A-frame, 7 ft. high and standing about 15 ft. from the car door; the other end of the I-beam enters the car door, and inside the door it is fastened to two bars ( 14 x 3 ins.) that branch, forming a Y with curved branches, so that one trolley can run toward one end of the car, another trol- ley toward the other end. The trackway in the car is hung from the roof rafters by clamps. From each of the trolleys is suspended, by a chain, an L-shaped tie stirrup for carrying a tie. Two men un- load a tie from a truck and place it on the tie-stirrup, one man (one on each trolley) runs the tie into the car, the track having a slight down grade, and one man (one at each end of the car) RAILWAYS. 1259 assists in unloading and piling. The man then takes the trolley off the track and carries it back to the loaders, Thus with a gaog of 6 men as much work is done as with 10 men unaided by this device. A gang of 6 men loaded 3,325 large creosoted hewn ties in 9 hrs., no effort being made to make a record. When timed they unloaded a truck of 30 ties into the car in 2 mins. Creosoted ties weigh 200 to 250 Ibs. each, and as one man by using a trolley can easily transport them it is evident that much labor is saved. I would suggest the use of a similar device for handling sacks of cement (2 sacks on a double stirrup), for handling brick, two-man stone, etc. Cost of Burnettizing Timber and Ties.* The following data re- late to the cost of treating timber by the zinc chloride process, known as burnettizing. The extremely low cost of preserving tim- ber in this manner will doubtless astonish many of our readers who are more familiar with the relatively high cost of creosoting. In this article we shall show that burnettizing costs about $2.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M., or 3 cts. per cu. ft. ; and in a subsequent article we shall give similarly detailed figures showing a cost of $16 per M, or 19 cts. per cu. ft. for creosoting. The plant has a capacity of 2,500 ties per day, and the following is the average cost of a year's work: Cts. per cu. ft. 0.3 Ib. zinc chloride, at 3.8 cts 1.14 Fuel, at $3.50 per ton 0.25 Oil, etc 0.06 Current repairs 0.10 Switching engines, etc 0.10 Depreciation, 10% of $75,000 plant divided by 2,500,000 cu. ft 0.30 Labor 1.05 Total per cu. ft 3.00 The ties were 7x9 ins. by 8 ft., containing 3.5 cu. ft. each, hence the cost per tie and per 1,000 ft. B. M. was as follows: Cts. Per ,per tie. M ft. B. M. Zinc chloride, at 3.8 cts. Ib 4.00 $0.95 Fuel 0.87 0.21 Oil, etc 0.21 0.05 Current repairs 0.35 0.08 Switching engines, etc 0.35 0.08 Depreciation 1.05 0.25 Labor 3.67 0.88 Total 10.50 $150 The amount of zinc chloride per cubic foot is somewhat less than is commonly used, being 0.3 Ib. as compared with 0.4 to 0.5 Ib. per cu. ft. Cost of Burnettizing Ties on the S. P. Ry. On the Southern Pacific Ry., in 1893, the cost of burnettizing ties was 9% to 12 cts. *Engmeering-Contracting, July 3, 1907. . 1260 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. per tie 6 x 8 ins. x 8 ft. About 221,000 "sap" ties were treated during the year, these ties being purchased at the mills h Texas for 23 cts. each. Cost of Creosoting Piles and Ties.* In our issue of July 3 we gave the itemized cost of burnettizing ties, the total cost being $2.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M., or 10% cts. per tie of 7 x 9 ins. x 8 ft. The following 1 data relate to the cost of creosoting ties and piles. Creosoting is a much more expensive process, but the burnettizing treatment is of no use where timber is constantly exposed to the action of water, as is the case wherever piles are used. Water leaches out the zinc chloride in a comparatively small time when- ever the- timber is constantly submerged, and, even where it is ex- posed to frequent rains the zinc chloride is dissolved little by little until there is no longer enough left in the timber to protect it from the fungus of decay. Could someone devise a method of filling the outer pores of burnettized wood with some waterproof compound it would be possible to use the zinc chloride for preserving the body of timber that is exposed to water. For example, it might be practicable to treat the surface of burnettized timber with the Sylvester process which has been so successfully used in water- proofing masonry, namely, by coating with soft soap and alum in such a manner as to fill the pores with a curd like precipitate. Indeed, it might be practicable to treat timber, first with zinc chloride and subsequently with creosote, so that the creosote would form the outer protective shell. The following costs represent the average of a year's work in a plant having a capacity of 500,000 cu. ft., or 6,000,000 ft. B. M. per annum. The cost of treating the timber was as follows, per cu. ft. : Cts. per cu. ft. 1.05 gals, creosote, at 11.5 cts 12.08 Fuel ($3.50 per ton) and other supplies 1.82 Labor 3.75 Depreciation, maintenance and repairs 1.50 Total 19.15 This is equivalent to $16 per 1,000 ft. B. M., which is more than six times as expensive as burnettizing. A 7 x 9-in. x 8-ft. tie contains 3.5 cu. ft., hence the cost of creo- soting each tie was 67 cts., as compared with 10% cts. by the zinc chloride process (burnettizing). About 300,000 lin. ft. of piles were creosoted, and it was found that the piles average 1.11 cu. ft. of timber per lin. ft. of pile. Hence the cost of creosoting was 21% cts. per lin. ft. of pile. In analyzing the above costs per cu. ft. it will be noted that the item of depreciation and maintenance is 1.5 cts. per cu. ft., which is equivalent to $1.80 per M. This item is based on an allowance of 10% per annum for depreciation of a $75,000 plant, plus current repairs and insurance. * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 7, 1907. RAILWAYS. 12G1 See the section on Timber in this book for further data on creosoting. Cost of Treating Ties With Zinc Chloride and Creosote, Gales- burg, III.* The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. has built a plant for treating ties at Galesburg, 111. The plant is situated on a tract of 80 acres with a space for tracks having a capacity of 2,000,000 ties, although at present there are tracks for a storage of only 1,000,000. For fire protection in the yard, hydrants are spaced 300 ft. apart, being supplied with water from a 100,000-gal. storage tank, fed by a well 1,300 ft. deep. The tracks in the yard are laid with three rails, as narrow gage cars are used to deliver the ties to the retorts. The plant was located at Galesburg as it is the connecting point of the Burlington lines with the south, the principal source of the supply, and on this part of the system there are always available stock cars for the shipment of the treated ties. Box cars cannot be used for this purpose on account of the odor which is retained in the cars when loaded with creosoted timber. The main building is 152 x 115 ft, divided into three rooms, one containing three retorts, another the engines and tanks, the third being the boiler room. There is also a test room, fitted up for treating four ties. The building is of reinforced concrete through- out. The window sashes are of metal, glazed with wire glass, while the doors are all covered with sheet metal. The retort room is the full length of the building and 38 ft. wide, the retorts being 132 ft. long and 6 ft. in diameter, made of %-in. steel, furnished by the Allis-Chalmers Co. Each has a capacity of 650 ties, while the plant treats 6,000 ties in 24 hrs. There are three 150-hp. boilers, one being for emergencies. There is no chimney, induced draft system being used. The engine room, 30 x 115 ft, contains an Ingersoll-Rand compressor, with a capacity of 525 cu. ft. of free air per min., a Knowles fire pump, three Knowles pressure pumps, one Knowles oil pump and one Battle Creek vacuum pump. There is also a small electric light plant in this room. The tank room, 39 x 50 ft, contains a 25,000-gal. steel working tank and a 100,000-gal. steel mixing tank for creosote. On the outside,, close to the main building, are the storage and measuring tanks, one 500,000-gal. steel tank for creosote storage and two 5,000-gal. steel tanks for measuring creosote, two 50,000-gal. wooden tanks for zinc chloride and one 25,000-gal. iron storage tank for zinc chloride. The two steel outside tanks are arranged for heating with steam coils. The plant is arranged with its pipe connections between pumps, tanks and retorts, so that the straight zinc chloride process, of the two, known as the Card process, may be used on one retort or on all * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 2, 1908, an abstract of an article The Railway Age. 1262 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. three. In the Card process, which is a modification of the Rutger, the zinc chloride and creosote are continuously agitated under pres- sure by centrifugal pumps, and ordinary coal tar creosote can be used. Each retort is connected with an electrically driven centrifugal pump, which forces the liquid in at the bottom and ex- hausts it from the top of the retort. The vacuum in retorts is obtained by a Baragwauth barometric condenser, with an auxiliary air pump 6^x12x12 ins. having a connection with the air chamber of the condenser. The condensing pipes are placed on the roof of the engine room. The Rutger process has been used in Germany, but it requires a creosote having special qualities and is expensive. In the Allar- dyce process the zinc chloride is put in first and then the creosote, while the Ruping process aims to reduce the expense for creosote by first filling the wood cells with compressed air and then coating them with creosote. Seasoned ties are treated directly, but if green they are first steamed under pressure of 5 to 20 Ibs. from 1 to 2 hrs. The sap is blown off every 15 to 30 mins. With the Card process a vacuum of 27 to 28 ins. is held on the retort for an hour, and, with the vacuum still on, the mixture of zinc chloride and creosote is run in by gravity, entirely filling the retort, and requires about 18,000 gals. The liquid is heated to 180 F., and at this temperature the two ingredients do not separate as rapidly as in a cold solution. The centrifugal pumps are then started and the liquid is circulated at the rate of 2,500 gals, per min. and the whole charge is changed every 7 or 8 mins. At the same time the pressure pumps are started and pressure gradually increased to 150 Ibs. and held at that for 2 to 4 hrs., or until a sufficient amount of the liquid is ab- sorbed by the timber. The pressure pumps are connected to the 5,000-gal. measuring tanks which have gauges operated by floats, and in this way the volume of liquid forced into the timber is known. When the gauges show a sufficient amount the pressure is released and the remaining liquid is forced back into the mixing tank. Then a vacuum of 24 to 28 ins. is created and held for an hour, taking out all surplus liquid into the underground tanks, where it is allowed to settle and -then returned to the mixing tank. This last treatment is for the purpose of removing the surplus creosote remaining on the surface of the ties, so they can be handled comfortably, g,nd 506 gals, saved from each retort. The retort door is then opened and the cars withdrawn by wire cable operated by electric motor and switched to the platform, where they are loaded directly for shipment. Each tie is marked with a short thick nail having the year of ti-eatment on its head, j The ties are loaded by the Anzier loader at a cost of 25 cts. per j tram. RAILWAYS. 1263 An approximate cost of the new plant is as follows: Land $ 28,000 Tracks 50,000 Sewers 5,000 Well 6,000 Platform 3,000 Building 30,000 Three retorts 30,000 Tanks of all kinds 10,000 Pipes and valves and labor 20,000 Pumps 6,000 Boiler and settings 5,000 Klectric light plant 3,000 Mundy hoists 2,500 $198,500 Thirty men are employed in the offices and plant, there being a chief engineer and chemist, 2 engineers and 2 assistant engineers for day and night, 3 sub-foremen and 2 motormen, besides the laborers. The liquid used is a mixture of 17% creosote and 83% zinc chloride solution, the latter containing 3% chloride and the rest water. The creosote .has a specific gravity of 1.045 and contains about 35% naphthaline and 5% tar acid. The cost of creosote is 6% to 7 cts. per gal. The cost of treating a pine tie is estimated as follows : Per Per tie cu. ft. (3cu. ft.) 0.5 Ib. dry zinc chloride, at 4cts $0.020 $0.060 0.8 Ib. creosote, at 3 cts. 0.024 0.072 Labor, fuel, supplies and supt *. 0.013 0.040 Interest and depreciation 0.005 0.15 Total $0.062 $0.187 This figure is the cost during the winter months. The cost is less in warm weather probably as low as 16 cts. About 46% of the ties treated at this plant are red oaks, and 35% yellow pine, the rest being gum, elm, beech, birch, etc. The plant was designed under the supervision of T. E. Calvert, chief engineer, and F. J. Creiger, who now has charge of the plant. It will be noted that at 6.2 cts. per cu. ft., the cost of treatment is equivalent to $5.17 per 1,000 ft. B. M. Cost of Treating Ties and Their Life. In 1885 the A., T. & S. F. Ry. began treating ties by the zinc-tannin, or Wellhouse, process. Up to 1901, its cost of treating some 4,000,000 ties is said to have been 15 to 18 cts. per tie. New Mexico mountain pine ties having a life of 4 yrs. when un- treated have a life of of lO 1 /^ to 11 yrs. when treated. In 1886 the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. contracted to have ties treated for 1.6 cts. per tie. Some 4,750,000 hemlock and tamarack ties had been treated up to 1901, and the average life of these ties has been 10% to 11% yrs., depending on location. 1264 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In 1887 the Southern Pacific Ry. began burnettizing ties (zinc chloride process) without subsequent treatment. Up to 1901 it had treated 2,500,000 pine ties, which last 4 yrs. when untreated. The life of the treated ties was 7 yrs. where the rainfall was heavy (Glidden Division) to more than 9 yrs. where the rainfall was light (Del Rio Division). The average of all was 8^4 yrs. life. Not including interest or depreciation of plant, the cost of treat- ment was only 6.44 cts. per tie, in 1898. About 0.24 Ib. dry zinc chloride was used per cu. ft. of timber, or half the standard used in Europe. Life of Treated Ties. The records of treated pine ties taken out of the A., T. & St. F., showed the following averages : Life, yrs. 1897 10.18 1898 10.56 1899 10.61 1900 10.78 1901 10.58 1902 10.70 These ties were treated with the two-injection Wellhouse process. These figures relate only to the ties removed on account of rot. Life of Ties. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, seven railways reported that untreated oak ties (white, post, burr, etc.) were in use on the following mileage: . Miles of Miles of main line. all track. Chicago and Northwestern (Madison Div.).. 614 764 Illinois Central (Eighth Div.) 286 332 Illinois Central (Springfield Div.) 454 552 Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis 1,195 1,414 Penn. Lines (Pittsburg Div.) 442 594 Southern Ry. (Eastern Dist.) 3,200 3,749 Southern Pacific (Atlantic System) 2,107 2,607 Total 8,298 10,012 There were 17,471,116 oak ties in these tracks, and 2,147,684, or 12.3% more renewed during the year, which is equivalent to a life of about 8 yrs. The average life of ties, as estimated by different railways, was as follows: . Kind of Life in Tears. Railway. . tie Main track. Side track. Chicago and Great Western.... Oak 8 10 Chicago and Northwestern 7 10 Illinois Central " 7 9 Nash., Chatta. & St. L " 7 9 Norfolk & Western White Oak 8.5 9.5 Pitts. & Lake Erie " 8 10 Boston & Maine Chestnut 8 12 Illinois Central (Louisiana) . . . Cypress 9 13 RAILWAYS. 1265 The French State Railway gave the following as the life of creo- soted ties: Life Years on Main line. Siding. Total. Creosoted pine 15 5 20 Creosoted oak 18 7 25 Creosoted beech 20 10 30 Estimated Life of Ties in 1894. Bulletin No. 9 (1894) of the For- estry Division, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, states that when there were 235,000 miles of track (all main, branch and side tracks) in the U. S., 76,000,000 ties were annually required for renewals. This is equivalent to 324 ties renewed per mile of all tracks. If there were 2,800 ties per mile, the life was 8.7 yrs. The estimate of 76,- 000,000 ties for renewals may be accurate, since the reports of the railways to the Interstate Commerce Commission give the number of ties used each year for renewals. Due to the use of heavier rails than were common in 1894 (15 yrs. ago), the life of ties is greater now than then. Life of Ties as Affected by Weight of Rail. Mr. P. H. Dudley states that on the New York Central Ry M when 65-lb. rails were used, the life of a yellow pine tie was 8 or 9 yrs. Since the intro- duction of 100-lb. rails, the life has increased to 11% yrs. The tiea are no longer cut by the rails nor injured by the frequent tamping required with lighter rails. He states (in 1901) that not 5% of the ties are now removed for other causes than decay, whereas 40% of the ties under 65-lb. rails were taken out because of cutting under the rail and other injury. Eighteen ties used per 30-ft. rail length, or 3,168 per mile. The average tie renewals -from 1890 to 1900, was 293 ties per mile, or 9 1 /4%, for untreated ties of all kinds. Spacing of Ties on Different Railways. In 1901 the following was *the spacing of ties on different railways : Ties per mile. Main track. Side track. Baltimore & Ohio 2,850 .2,650 Chicago & Great Western 3,000 2,800 Chicago & Northwestern 2,990 2,500 C., M. & St. P 3,000 2,640 C., C. & St. L 3,000 2,800 Illinois Central 3,168 2,640 Louisville & Nashville 2,816 2,112 Michigan Central 3,168 2,375 Nashville, Chatta. & St. L 2,900 2,640 New York Central 3,000 2,500 Norfolk & Western 2,816 2,600 Penn. Lines (Pittsburg Div.) 2,816 2,288 Pittsburg & Lake Erie 2,640 2,640 Southern Pacific (Atlantic Syst.)... 2,816 2,664 Southern Ry. (Eastern Dist.) 2,816 2,640 Wabash (Detroit Div.) 2,990 2,800 Union Pacific (2,816 on branches).. 2,992 2,640 It is probably very close to an average to say that there are 2,900 ties per mile of main line and branches, and 2,640 per mile of sidetrack and yards, in the railways of the United States. Since ;here are 0.4 mile of sidetracks and yards per mile >f main track -1266 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and branches the average of all tracks would then be 2,820 ties per mile of track. Labor Cost of Renewing Ties. The cost of distributing new ties, taking out old ties and laying new ones, and disposing of the old ties by burning, averaged as follows for the years 1904 and 1905 on one of the divisions of the Northern Pacific Ry. in Washington : Per new tie. Distributing $0.028 Laying 0.110' Disposing of old tie 0.009 Total $0.147 Wages averaged $1.45 per day for section men and $2.00 per day for section foremen. The ties were laid on a gravel ballast. Prices of Ties and Labor Cost of Renewals. In 1901 the follow- ing was the cost of ties and of placing them in track on several typical railways : Road. - frt tjD '^ ' tj " So. Pacific Redwood Mich. Cent Oak 45 1V 2 4% 1 10 60 Wabash Oak 40 1% 5 1 10 55 N. Y. Cent Y. Pine 59 Louisville & N Y. Pine 45 Denver & R. -I Red Spruce 33 1 % 1 1% 37 Mo. Pacific Oak 32 Lake Shore & M. S Oak 58 Union Pacific . Oak 56 . . . Union Pacific Wyo. Pine 40 ... 2% 2 11 57% Average Price of Ties in America. The annual reports made by the 'different railways of America to the Interstate Commerce Com- mission contain statements of the number of ties used in renewals and of the average price paid for ties at the point of distribution. Unfortunately the reports made by the Interstate Commerce Com- missioij contain none of these data. However, the reports give the total cost of tie renewals each year, which is approximately $130 per mile of all track. If there are 2,800 ties per mile, and if 10% are renewed annually, then the average cost of ties is 46.4 cts. This does not include the cost of distributing and laying the ties. If 11% of the ties are renewed annually, the average cost of ties is 42.2 cts. per tie. It is reasonably certain that, including side tracks and yard tracks, tie renewals (untreated ties) average 10 to 11% per year for American railways, variations from this average depend- ing on kind of wood, climate, weight of rail, etc. Cost of Gravel Ballast. A common amount of gravel ballast is 1,600 cu. yds. per mile of track, and rarely need the cost exceed 40 i-ts. per cu. yd., including the labor of putting the ballast under the "ties and surfacing the track. A not unusual contract price is 27 cts. RAILWAYS. 1267 per cu. yd. for loading ballast on flat cars with steam shovels, unloading with ballast plows, and putting under the ties, and sur- facing of track. In addition to this the railway company must pay the cost of hauling the ballast work train service which should not exceed 17 cts. per cu. yd. even for a haul of 100 miles. The following is a typical gang for loading, hauling and unloading ballast : Steam Shovel Per day. 1 foreman, $150 per mo $ 6.00 1 engineman, $125 per mo 4.80 1 cranesman, $90 per mo 3.50 1 fireman, $60 per mo , 2.30 1 watchman, $60 per mo -. 2.30 1 timekeeper, $60 per mo 2.30 6 pit laborers, at $2.00 12.00 6 laborers "throwing" pit tracks and repairing 12.00 Total .- $ 45.20 Repairs to steam shovel 8.00 Total steam shovel loading $ 53.20 Hauling Ballast. 1 conductor $ 3.50 2 brakemen, at $2.50 5.00 Engine service on work train. 1 engineman $ 4.50 1 fireman 2.50 Coal and oil 8.50 Engine rental and repairs 12.00 27.50 Engine service "spotting" cars 27.50 Rental and repairs, 40 flat cars, at $0.50. ...... 20.00 Total hauling ballast $ 83.50 Unloading and Distributing Ballast. 1 operator of unloading plow $ 3.00 10 laborers, at $2.00 20.00 Coal and oil for unloader 4.00 Rental and repairs of unloader 4.00 Total unloading ballast $ 31.00 Grand total $167.70 When this crew is handling 800 cu. yds. of gravel per day the cost is : Per cu. yd. Cts. Loading 6.7 Hauling 10.4 Unloading 3.9 21.0 In addition to this, the labor cost of tamping ballast under ties and track surfacing is about 12 cts. per cu. yd. It often happens that gravel pits must be stripped of overlying earth, that considerable grading is necessary for tracks into the pit, that the gravel is cemented and requires some blasting, and that "pit rent" must be paid for the gravel. All these items,- how- ever, will rarely amount to 7 cts. per cu. yd., so that the total HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cost of the gravel in the track should rarely exceed 40 cts. per cu. yd. Where traffic on a road is so congested that a ballast train cannot average more than 100 miles traveled per Gay, and where the load hauled is only 160 cu. yds. per train, it is evident that 5 trips of 10 miles and return will be required to haul 800 cu. yds., and to the figures above given must be added another train for each additional 10 miles of distance from the gravel pit to the dump. However, on long hauls it is obvious that much heavier train loads will ordi- narily be used, thus keeping the cost down. Cost of Gravel and Rock Ballasting Old Track.* The following matter has been taken from the report of a committee read before the 1907 convention of the Roadmasters and Maintenance of Way Association : On a northern division of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. the cost of ballasting one mile of track with gravel was $1,020, figured on the basis that 3,400 cu. yds. of material would be used per mile. The gravel was unscreened and unwashed and was used just as it came from the pit. The gravel was placed for a 12-in. raise with standard gravel roadbed on the top of Iiy 2 -ft., slope iy 2 to 1, and 16 ft. wide from bottom ballast line to ballast line. The itemized cost per cubic yard was as follows : Per cu. yd. Cost of gravel loaded on cars at pit $0.070 Hauling and unloading, 50-mile haul 0.107 Ballasting 0.123 Total $C.300 On a division of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. for the year 1906 the cost of ballasting with gravel was as follows: Per cu. yd. Gravel, washing and loading $0.18 Hauling 0.07 Digging out old ballast 0.15 Unloading and placing in track 0.15 Total $0.55 For crushing limestone % to 1% ins. in size the cost was as follows : Per cu. yd. Cost of stone $0.535 Digging out old ballast 0.150 Hauling, unloading and placing in track 0.400 Total $1.085 For ballasting with crushed stone on a division of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. the cost was as follows: Per cu. yd. Crushed stone at crusher, loaded on cars $0.615 Haul, 50 miles 0.055 Labor (Mexican) inserting 0.330 Total $1.00 * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 25, 1907. RAILWAYS. 1269 For a 12-in. raise 3,400 cu. yds. of ballast are used per mile, talking the cost $3,400. The present standard on this road requires the ballast to be dressed level with the top of the ties for the full length of the tie and 6 ins. beyond the ends of ties, making the top widths of the ballast 9 ft. and giving a slope of 1 % to 1 ; this gives a roadbed 16 ft. wide from ballast line on one side to ballast line on the other side, with a 12-in. raise. Cost of Gravel Ballasting. About 30 miles of single track rail- road were ballasted with gravel sufficient to raise the ties 8 ins. Ties had 10-in. face, were 8% ft. long, and there were 16 ties to a 30-ft. rail. A 2% -yd. steam shovel was used to load flat cars. About 4 ft. of earth had to be stripped off the gravel pit. The gravel was hauled by two trains of 35 apron flat cars each, each car holding 6 to 7 cu. yds. Two locomotives were used to haul these trains and one locomotive in the pit to spot cars. The cars were unloaded with a plow, and it will be noticed that the damage to the cars caused by the plow was very high. The cost to the rail- way company per cubic yard of ballast in place was as follows : Cts. per cu. yd. Pit rent 1 % Loading, hauling and dumping 15^ Repairs to cars 5 Shoveling and tamping ballast in track 8 . Total per cu. yd 30 Common laborers were paid $1.25 per 10 hrs. Cost of Cemented Gravel Ballast.* There are two principal points In the territory east of Memphis where cementing gravel is worked for the purpose of supplying ballast to railroads ; one at luka, Miss., on the Southern Ry., known as the Tishomingo Gravel Pit, owned and operated by the Tishomingo Gravel Co., of Memphis, Tenn., and one at Perry ville, Tenn., on the Memphis & Paducah Division of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry., owned and operated by the Perryville Gravel & Ballast Co., of Memphis, Tenn. As the character of the gravel and the manner of working the two pits are somewhat different, they will be handled separately. Tishomingo Gravel. This is a water-worn gravel lying in a compact mass requiring blasting before it can be handled with a steam shovel. It is composed of 20% clay, 5% sand, and 75% gravel. This gravel as a rule is small and none of it large enough to require crushing to make it suitable for ballasting purposes. In order to get it in shape to load with steam shovel, it is loosened up by blasting. This is ac- complished by digging a tunnel about 20x26 ins. in cross-section into the material a distance of about 26 ft., then turning at right angles for a distance of 10 ft (see Fig. 8). This digging is done by a man lying down using a pick with a very short handle. The cost of digging these tunnels is 50 cts. per ft. * Engineering-Contracting, April 14, 1909. 1270 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The charge is placed in the extreme end of the tunnel and a portion of it refilled as shown on sketch. From 75 to 100 carloads of material is loosened up at each blast. This material is then loaded by steam shovel onto cars. The cost of this material is as follows : Per cu. yd. Loading ?0.09 Hauling 0.20 Unloading and distributing 0.07 Putting under ties and surfacing 0.11 Total . ..$0.47 The advantages of its use are : Small cost, quick cementing quali- ties, holds track in line and surface well under fairly heavy traffic, does not churn, very little dust and has great resistance to erosion vo'te** | 1* 1 i f 1 I Fig. 8. Chamber Blast. by water. Considered an excellent ballasting material. Has the disadvantage of growing prolific crops of weeds and grass, making it costly to keep clean. Perryville Gravel. This is an angular gravel lying in compact mass requiring blasting before it can be handled. Large pockets of clay are encountered, making it preferable to load by hand in order to get the best material. It is composed of 10% clay and 90% gravel, with chemical analysis of 97% silica, 2.5% alumina and 0.5% iron. There is found in this pit considerable large stone, which has to be crushed before it is suitable for use. The cost of this gravel per yard is as follows: Per cu. yd. F. o. b. cars at pit $0.27 y a Hauling, 100-mile train service 0.20 Unloading and distributing 0.04 Stripping, putting under and surfacing 0.20 Total $0. RAILWAYS. 1?71 Cost of Washing Gravel. A large gravel washing plant was built in 1906 by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry., at Pleasant Lake on the Ft. Wayne branch of the Lake Shore. The plant handles 3,000 cu. yds. of raw gravel daily. A 75-ton steam shovel with a 3% -yd- bucket loads dump cars, which are dumped into two hoppers that discharge upon two inclined conveyors (made by the Link-Belt Co.), having a capacity of 4,000 cu. yds. per 10-hr. day. The conveyors discharge upon a short flume ( 8 ft. long) where the gravel encounters the water. Thence the material passes over several fixed screens, all material larger than 2-in. being shunted to a gyratory rock crusher. The washed gravel for ballast collects in hoppers whence it is drawn oft into cars, and the sand (all material larger than %-in.) collects in other hoppers, whence it is drawn off into cars. The output for a typical day is as follows : Cu. yds. Raw gravel 3,270 Washed gravel 1,335 Washed sand 1,850 The following is the crew required to operate the plant : 1 foreman. 1 clerk. 1 engineman at plant. 1 fireman at plant. 1 shopman. 1 carpenter. 2 men on two sand settlers. 4 men dumping gravel cars. 4 men keeping track clean at washer. 10 men repairing cars and calking ballast cars with hay. 2 locomotive crews delivering gravel. 2 locomotive crews removing washed gravel. 1 steam shovel crew. 30 men in section gang. The washing plant is driven by a 200-hp. Erie steam engine, but the driving load on the engine is only 132 hp., of which 105 hp. is* required to operate the pump supplying the wash water. A 10-in. single-stage centrifugal turbine pump (Worthington), having a 2,400-gal. rating under a 90-ft. head, is used ; but the pump is not called upon to deliver more than 1,650 gals. The cost of the plant and land was as follows: Plant for washing $25,000 Land 15,000 Grading 10,000 Bridge work 2,500 Miscellaneous 5,000 Track 36,000 Total . ..$93,500 1272 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Assuming that the gravel pit will be exhausted in 5 years, we have the following annual and daily cost (200 days per year) : Per year. Per day. Plant, 15% of $25,000 $ 3,750 $18.75 Track, 10% of $36,000 3,600 18.00 Grading, 20% of $10,000 2,000 10.00 Bridging, 20% of $2,500 500 2.50 Miscellaneous, 20% of $5,000 1,000 5.00 Land, 20% of $15,000 3,000 15.00 Total $13,850 $69.25 Assuming that 3,000 cu. yds. of sand and gravel are produced daily, half of which is sand, for which there is no market, we have the following cost : Per cu. yd. Per day. of gravel. Operating expense $250.00 $0.167 Plant and land depreciation 69.25 0.046 Plant interest (at 5% of $93,500).. 23.35 0.015 Total $362.60 $0.228 This does not include the cost of stripping the gravel which was about 6V6 cts. per cu. yd., making the total cost of this washoJ gravel nearly 30 cts. f. o. b. cars. For description and drawings of this Pleasant Lake washing plant, and for hints on ballasting, see Engineering-Contracting, April 14, 1909. Cost of Ballasting, Using Dump Cars. The Goodwin steel car is largely used by contractors, and railway companies, for ballasting and for dumping earth and rock on standard gage tracks. Its dimensions are 36 ft. long, 9 ft. % in. height above rails, and it weighs 47,500 Ibs. Its capacity is 40 cu. yds., or 80,000 Ibs. A train of cars can be dumped at one time all together, or one at a time, by one man operating a compressed air valve, or they can be dumped by hand. The car is so designed that its load may be placed between the rails ; on either side of the track, or on both sides, or in any combination of ways desired. In grading and bal- lasting 22 miles of track with 30,000 cu. yds. of gravel, during the winter of 1904-5, an average train of 8 40-cu. yd. Goodwin cars was used, the average haul being 14^ miles. The gravel came from the pit quite wet, but required little or no spreading as plows and scrapers are not needed when these cars are used. Mr. W. B. Stimson, Superintendent Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry., gives the following data on the loading and hauling of gravel for ballast : RAILWAYS. 1273 Rodger ballast cars were used, working two trains of 25 cars per train. Sixteen miles of track were ballasted with 1,039 carloads, or 20,800 cu. yds. of gravel, or 1,300 cu. yds. per mile, the average haul being 7 miles. The cost was as follows for the 16 miles: Total. Per day. Two train crews, 12 days each $ 175.00 $14.58 Locomotives, enginemen and watchmen. 199.25 16.60 Fuel for locomotives 254.10 21.17 Telegraph operator 15.50 1.28 Pit foreman 28.84 2.40 Pitmen 100.35 8.36 Steam shovel, including rent of shovel, fuel and wages 323.52 26.96 Total, at 5.3 cts. per cu. yd $1,096.56 $91.35 In addition to this it cost 6.7 cts. per cu. yd. to spread and tamp the gravel in the track, each laborer averaging 75 ft. of track per day. Including in the expense of 5.3 cts. per cu. yd., is the cost of moving the two trains and the steam shovel 166 miles to the pit, and half a day's time setting up the shovel and getting ready to work ; so that the actual working time of the shovel was only 10% days, making an average of 2,000 cu. yds. loaded per day of 12 hrs. The depth of the face at which the shovel worked was only 8 ft. The above is an exceedingly low cost. The Rodger ballast car is 8 ft. 9 Ins. x 34 ft. over sills, weighs 28,000 Ibs. and its capacity is 60,000 Ibs., or 20 cu. yds. of gravel heaped measure. The car is hopper bottomed, with plows and scrapers for spreading the ballast. One car is dumped at a time and fills about 80 ft. of track. Cost of Rock Ballast. The Railroad Gazette, Nov. 16, 1906, p. 438, gives the following cost of re-ballasting an Eastern railway: Per cu. yd. Rock on cars at Rockland Lake $0.575 Floatage from Rockland Lake 0.086 Distribution by train (Rodger cars and ballast plow) 0.035 Labor putting in track 0.058 Total $0.754 This does not include cost of preparing the old track, forking up old ballast, lifting track, etc. It is estimated that $0.15 per cu. yd. would cover the added cost of putting rock ballast in a new track, including cost of lifting track, tamping, surfacing, etc. 1274 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Prices of Frogs and Crossings, Etc. The prices used in esti- mating the cost of frogs, etc., on the New York Central, in 1902, were : Wt. of Rail, No. Lbs. Description. Price. 6 80 Rigid, Bolted $27.00 10 80 Rigid, Bolted 32.00 10 65 Spring R. 48.50 8 60 Rigid, Bolted 23.00 8 65 Rigid, Bolted 24.00 8 75 Rigid, Bolted 28.50 Type A 80 Crossing Bolted 335.00 to 365.00 10 75 Spring R. Bolted 51.00 7 80 Rigid, Bolted 27.50 10 80 (5%") Spring R. 49.25 10 67 (4%") Spring R. 44.50 18 80 (5%") Rigid, Bolted 45.00 to 70.00 Rail braces, 3.32 Ibs. each, each % .10% Rail joints (80-lb. rail), Weber, insulated 5.25 Rail joints, Atlas, com 3.75 Rail joints, 22-in. for 60-lb. rail 2.50 Replacers, Little Giant 15.00 Rail bender, roller 143.00 Rail chairs, cast, per 100 Ibs 2.48 Rail chairs, weights : ' 4 ins. high, 19.5 Ibs. 3 ins. high, 18.6 Ibs. Switch stand, Ramapo, low 10.00 Smoke jack in place 40.00 Track drill 18.00 Track jack 3.00 Cost of Track Scales. On the N. Y. Central a 100-ton track scales, 42 ft. long, cost as follows, in 1902 : Scales and materials $1,760 Labor 640 Total $2,400 8.7 tons rails (relayers), at $20 174 15 ties, at $0.60 9 Miscellaneous material 150 Labor laying track, etc 70 Grand total $2,803 No piles were used in foundation. The cost of 50-ton track scales, 42 ft. long, on the Northern Pa ciflc, in 1899, averaged as follows: Scales, delivered $ 580 Other materials 170 Labor ($175 to $300) 250 Total $1,000 The cost of 80-ton track scales, 50 ft. long, in 1905, was as follows : Scales and materials $1,250 Labor ($500 to $700) 650 Tv>tvii si inn RAILWAYS. 1275 Cost of Water Tanks. On the Chicago & Northwestern, in 1896, the following was the cost of four different 50,000-gai. tanks' 16x24 ft., on 24-ft. posts: TANK No. 1. Material: Water tank, including hoops, etc $ 275 Two 8-in. standpipe 380 540 ft. 8-in. pipe, valves, etc 315 1 bbl. pitch and 1 bbl. oakum 7 Posts, caps and braces 209 Stone, cement, etc., for foundation 309 108 ft. 4-in. gas pipe 22 Total material $1,517 Labor: Building tank $ 263 Building masonry foundation 209 Painting tank, 2 coats 26 Laying pipe and setting standpipes 178 Total labor $ 676 Grand total - .. $2,193 TANK No. 2. Material: Tank, and posts, braces and caps $ 304 One 8-in. standpipe 190 Two 8-in. gate valves 45 608 Ibs. lead . 21 660 ft. 8-in. cast-iron pipe 255 Lumber for well, pump house and standpipe foundation 23 80 ft. 4-iri. gas pipe 16 Paint 20 Stone, cement, etc 289 Total material $1,163 Labor: Building tank '.'..: $ 201 Building foundation 120 Laying pipe 199 Painting tank, 3 coats 35 Digging well (16 x 18) and walling it up. 290 Total labor $ 845 Grand total $2,008 TANK No. 3. Material: Tank $ 275 One 10-in. standpipe 225 90 ft. 10-in. cast-iron pipe 72 Fittings for pipe and standpipe 65 Foundation for tank and standpipe 150 Paint 13 Total material ' ! ....;.. $ 780 (Posts, etc., seem to- have been omitted.) 1276 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor: Building tank $ 238 Building foundation 133 Laying pipe 93 Painting, 2 coats 31 Total labor ..$595 Grand total $1,375 TANK No. 4. Material: Tank $ 304 10-in. standpipe 225 60 ft. 12-in. cast-iron pipe 72 Valves, elbows, etc 65 2,586 Ibs. lead, at 3% cts 87 250 pieces 6-in. cast-iron pipe 1,230 Paint 20 . Material for standpipe 21 Material for tank 129 Total material $2,153 Labor: Building tank ' $ 228 Laying 3,000 ft. pipe, at 30 cts 600 Building foundation of tank 112 Building foundation of standpipe 18 Painting, 2 coats 29 Total labor $ 987 Grand total $3,140 The cost of a 16 x 24-ft. tank, on the C., R. I. & P., in 1896, was: Tank with 12 hoops '. $275 Indicator 5 Set 7-in. fixtures 68 12 iron post caps 24 Rail joists, at $5 per ton 19 Substructures (incl. frost proof g.) 198 Paint 15 Foundation stone 69 Labor erecting tank 165 Labor painting tank 24 Labor on foundation 116 Total $978 On the Lehigh Valley Ry., in 1896, a 20-ft. tank cost as follows : 2,720 Ibs. wrought-iron hoops, at 3 cts $ 82 4,560 ft. B. M. of 3-in. cypress for staves and bottom, at $28 128 700 ft. B. M. yel. pine (1x3) for false bottom, at $20 28 6,000 ft. B. M. white pine, at $30 180 Nails, door, ladder, etc 30 56 cu. yds. masonry foundation, at ?," 280 Lead, etc 35 Labor erecting tank 175 Total $938 RAILWAYS. 1277 On the Northern Pacific, from 1890 to 1900, the average cost of 25 tanks, 16x24 ft., was as follows: Materials $ 900 Labor 800 Total $1,700 In no case does this include pump, pump house, well, etc., but it does include pipe, foundation, etc. The cost of a typical water tank on the Erie Ry., in 1901, was a3 follows for a 50,000-gal., 16 x 24-ft. tank: Tank and Substructure: 16 x 24-ft. pine tub $ 275 30,270 Ibs. steel trestle, at $2.25 832 49 ft. iron ladder 13 9 squares slate for roof 27 9 squares tar paper 3 40 Ibs. yellow metal slate nails 7 128 ft. galv. ridge roll 4 Pine 80 Nails, etc 10 14 gals, paint 16 63 bbls. cement 86 30 cu. yds. crushed stone 12 31 cu. yds. sand 15 9,000 brick 63 Mason labor . 239 Carpenter labor 187 Total $1,869 Plumbing: Standpipe, 10-in., complete $ 225 1.75 tons 10-in. cast-iron pipe 237 1 length (12 ft.) 10-in. flanged pipe 17 10.75 tons 10-in. cast-iron pipe 237 1 length (12 ft.) 10-in. flanged pipe 17 3 elbows (10-in.) and 1 sleeve (10-in.) 35 552 Ibs. lead 24 130 ft. galv. pipe (3-in.) 47 1 Worthington meter (3-in.) 78 1 gate valve ( 3-in. ) 4 1 angle valve ( 2-in. ) 3 70 ft. sewer pipe ( 4-in. ) 2 1 iron grating for drain pit 4 1 galv. iron float, beam and chain 4 4 pr. pipe flanges ( 3-in. ) , etc 5 6 nipples (3-in.), 4 elbows and 1 tee Labor of plumbers 153 Total plumbing ? 840 Grand total $2,709 Cost of Track Tank. The form of track tank shown in Fig. 9, 1,200 ft. long, on the B. & O. R. R., cost as follows, in 1890: Repairing roadbed : $ 1,094 Labor placing trough and pipe 2,135 Trough, including shop work 4,159 Cross-ties, pipe and other material 2,936 Hauling 61 Total $10,385 The trough was of steel 3/16 in. thick, made in 30-ft. sections. The above cost includes 75 ft. of 8-in. cast-iron pipe and two standpipes for use of freight engines. 1278 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, The cost of operating such a track tank was as follows per month : Two pumpmen, at $45.00 % 90.00 15 tons coal, at $1.50 22.no Ordinary repairs 20.00 Total $132.50 Examples of Practice in Turntable Construction, With Some Data on Costs.* The following text consists of a series of letters dis- cussing seven subjects suggested by a committee as follows : (1) Proper length, allowing for probable future increase in length of locomotives. (2) Plate girder tables, and cost. (3) Cast- iron tables, and cost. (4) Gallows frame tables, and cost. (5) Other designs, and cost. (6) Foundation, circle wall, paving if any and pit drainage. (7) Power for operation; electricity, air and other power. Fig. 9. Track Tank. J. P. Canty, Boston & Maine R. R. Anticipating the probable length of a turntable required for future locomotive service, is rather an uncertain problem just at this period. However, it is the opinion of many that, on the division where I am located, the lately purchased steam locomotives have apparently reached their eco- nomical limits in both length and weight, provided the class of traffic remains similar to that which is now being handled. The largest engines on our division are turned easily on turn- tables 70 ft. long. This is now our standard length, and as far as we are able to predict, will answer for future requirements. The steel work in these tables cost approximately $2,500 on board cars delivered to our road by the contracting bridge "com-' pany. There is nothing unusual about the design. However, I will mention that we specify that four cast steel end wheels shall be furnished on each end of table and the center pivot bearing shall be of the disc pattern ; meaning that the table turns on a composi- tion disc on top of the center cast steel pivot casting, instead of on the familiar roller bearing. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 27, 1909. RAILWAYS. 1279 Our turntable center foundations have, of late, been made of concrete, being 10x10 ft. on bottom and bearing on piles when there is doubt about the earth being sufficiently solid to carry the maximum load on this area without settling. The bottom course of concrete is generally 2 ft. in depth. The foundation is then stepped I 1 /? ft. square by 2 ft. thick, and a granite cap 5 ft. square by 2 ft. in depth is placed on top to receive the cast steel center pedestal. There are 330 cu. yds. of masonry in our 70-ft. turntable pits. The whole outfit, including turning motor, costs us between $6,000 and $7,000. Figures vary for different locations, depending upon whether or not we are obliged to drive piles, provide expensive drainage, etc. Practically all of these new outfits have been put in where older and smaller tables were installed and as the older tables were kept in service just as long as possible so as to avoid delays to engines, our work has always" been made more expensive than if new tables were constructed where we would not be handicapped by keeping the old table in use. We use gasoline power turning device. The floors of the turntable pits are covered with a coal-tar con- crete paving, about two and one-half inches thick, somewhat sim- ilar to that which is used extensively in small cities and towns in New England for sidewalk surfaces. This gives a fairly hard and elastic surface, and does not crack when soil underneath heaves with frost, and is comparatively smooth, so that it is easily kept clean and snow may be removed from pit without much trouble. The cost is about 50 cts. per sq. yd. A. H. Beard, Philadelphia & Reading Ry. The cost of our plate girder standard 75-ft. table in place ready for the tiack rails is $7,785.00, as follows: Masonry $2,500.00 Miscellaneous - 500.00 Table 4,785.00 $7,785.00 A 65-ft. plate girder table has been in service at the roundhouse at Reading since 1897. This was manufactured by the Pottstown Bridge Co. Engines of all classes are turned on this table, the number turned every 24 hrs. (although the table is short for some engines) is 75 to 80. The cost of this table in place was $5,825. This table at present is operated by an 8-hp. gasoline engine, manu- factured by the Williamsport Gasoline Engine Co., the cost of same in place was a fraction over $1,000, and costs for operating about $165 per month, this includes labor, oil, gasoline and repairs; we are now arranging to install an electric motor on the same table to replace the gasoline engine. E. E. Schall, Lehigh Valley R. R. Our 80-ft. turntable is con- structed as- follows: Deck plate girders 5 ft. 6% ins. deep at cen- ter and 2 ft. 8*4 ins. at ends, spaced 6 ft. c. to c., conical wheel center bearings with live ring, built for a moving load of Cooper's 1280 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. B. 50 engines or 4,500 Ibs. per Hn. ft. of table. Cost about $3,200 delivered f. o. b. cars within 200 miles of bridge shop. The center foundations and circular rim walls are generally of concrete, the circular rail resting on short sawed ties. The top of rim is covered by a white oak timber coping to act as a cushion with rail tie-plated. The pit is paved with concrete about 6 ins. thick, and provided with drainage. For outlying districts, and tables not used extensively, the rim wall is at times omitted, using only a segmental wall at entrance and run-off of table, using bal- last under the ties of circular rail. For operation we have in use electric motors, gasoline engine motors and air motors ; all are giving satisfaction. When electric power is at hand, it is the most suitable power to use ; when electric current must be purchased from other parties or when none is available, gasoline engine motors of from 8 to 10 hp. will prove very satisfactory. The air motor will also prove efficient if properly installed and arranged to take proper adhesion on circular rail, ob- taining a sufficient supply of air from locomotives to be turned, unless the air can be taken from a compressor near by. The air motor will not turn as many engines in a given time as either of the - other two kinds, on account of the time required in making couplings, but for outlying districts it is the best motor attach- ment available at this time. The cost of installing one of the motors ranges from $900 to $1,200. A. A. Wolf, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. "We use 85-ft. turntables on mountain division where the heaviest power is used, and 75-ft. tables on other main line divisions. We have three types of the plate girder tables, which we distinguish as through, semi- through and deck. The reason for these various designs is occa- sioned by the difficulty in many places of getting drainage from the pit to a sufficient depth to accommodate a deck table. These plate girder tables cost from $6,000 to $8,500, varying somewhat with local conditions, pertaining to the nature of foundations, etc. The labor amounts to from 35 to 40% of the total cost. For plate girder tables, we use a concrete center pier, circle wall and circle rail foundation ; the circle wall and foundation for circle rail being of monolithic construction. Piles are always used under center foundation, except at places where solid ledge rock is found. Piling is used under circle wall except where rock or other firm soil is found. We do not make it a practice to pave the pits. Drain- age is provided by means of connection to roundhouse sewer or to low adjacent ground, according to local conditions. We use gasoline and electric motors only for power ; the electric motor, in our estimation, furnishes the ideal power for turntable operation where it can be procured without excessive cost. At several of our division points we have our own generators and con- sequently the current required for operating turntable costs but very little. /. O. Walker, Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry. Our stand- ard length is 70 ft. Plate girder tables cost with ties, latches, etc., RAILWAYS. 1281 in place, $3,200. Masonry and foundations $2,000. The cost of the masonry is extremely variable, however. W. T. Main, Chicago & North Western Ry. Turntables newly in- stalled in the future should be 80 ft. in length. A 70-ft. King Bridge Co., deck plate girder turntable installed at Chicago Ave., in 1907, cost as follows: Material .................................. $2,570.46 2 ' 262 - 00 Total ................................ $4,832.46 This table replaced an old 60-ft. deck plate girder and was in- stalled under continuous traffic except for two days while new concrete center pier was allowed to set. Over 400 engines were turned every 24 hrs. on old table during construction of new circle wall which will give some idea of conditions under which work was done and reason for high cost. Table is operated by 10-hp. electric motor which was used on an old table but furnished with new frame. A 70-ft. King Bridge Co., deck plate girder turntable installed in 1907 cost as follows: Material .................................. $2,890.00 Labor .................................... 2,262.00 Total ................................. $5,380.00 This table replaced an old 60-ft. Lassig plate girder and was installed under traffic in same manner as the one before mentioned. About $500 of the cost was due to renewal of radial tracks. The circle wall was built of concrete and the center pier of concrete, re- inforced with scrap rails in order to spread the load over old masonry foundation. The table is operated by 10-hp. Pilling air motor and has six reservoirs under runways, the air being furnished by air compressor. A 60-ft. Stroebel deck plate girder table installed at Chicago Ave., in 1899, on old masonry wall and new center pier, cost $2,500. A 60-ft. Greenleaf cast-iron table installed at Milwaukee, 1899, in- cluding new center pier, cost $3,100 ; the table alone cost $1,160. A 50-ft. gallows frame turntable installed at Evanston in 1896 with timber circle wall and center pier cost $983. Circle walls should preferably be built of concrete except when table is renewed under traffic, where rubble masonry can be used to better advantage while working in cramped space. Center pier may require pile foundation unless subsoil is good, where a spread foundation of concrete or masonry 12 ft. square will serve. The advantage of paving in pit will hardly justify the additional expense though it is easier to keep pit clean when paved and helps the drain- age. The best drainage possible should always be secured. Circle walls should have an offset at one point to allow of examination and repairs to end rollers and boxes, particularly where table has rollers between girders. Masonry circle rail seat should be extended at two points, diametrically opposite, to afford support for jacks for raising table and examining center. This saves placing cribbing 1282 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. on soft ground when using jacks and renders the operation much safer. Would recommend the use of electric motor for operating tabU- wherever possible and where service demands the quick handling of engines ; second choice, gasoline engine ; third choice, air motor. The latter gives excellent service, where there is plenty of time for handling engines and where there is sufficient supply of compressed air which can be piped to reservoirs, but it is slow in operation i where engine to be turned must supply the air. A. O. Cunningham, W abash R. R. No table less than 75 ft. should be used. Deck tables of this length cost $2,600. The foundation of circular wall and paving should always be of concrete ; pit should be well drained ; the cost of this for 75-ft. deck table would be $3,700. Electricity is the ideal power for operating a table. If this can- not be obtained a gasoline engine may be employed of about 6 hp. The cost of the electrical equipment would be $1,150, and for the gasoline engine equipment $1,000. W. H. Moore, New York Haven d Hartford R. R. The standard length for turntables on our road is 75 ft., but we build some tables 80 ft. long. The approximate average cost for a 75-ft. deck plate girder turntable is about $3,500, and for a half through plate girder turntable about $5,750. The cost of foundation of the circular wall, etc., varies so much, depending on the nature of the ground, that it would be hardly proper to name any average. I may say, however, that for a concrete pit with granolithic floor and granite center stone, in a location where there was good firm sand requiring no piles and where drainage could be cheaply taken care of, the total i cost is about $3,800. For power operation we use mostly gasoline motors ; some air motors, and electric motors where current can be conveniently obtained. The cost of power installation averages about $1,000. G. Aldrich, New York, New Haven d Hartford R. R. For the re- quirements of modern engines, 75-ft. minimum ; 80-ft. recommend ; 75-ft. deck plate girder, erected complete $3,600, base of rail on table to top of center pier, 6 ft. 4 ins. ; base of rail on table to top of circular rail, 4 ft. 8 ins. ; 75-ft. through plate girder, cost with floor erected complete, $5,750. Base of rail on table to top of center pier, 3 ft. 11 ins. ; base of rail to top of circular rail, 2 ft. 9 ins. The foundation, circular wall and center pier are constructed of con- crete ; the pit is usually paved with granolithic pavement. The cost varies in accordance with local conditions, ranging from $2,500 to $4,000. For power we use : (a) air supplied by the engine being turned ; (b) air supplied from compressors in adjacent shops; (c) gasoline engines; (d) electric motors. Electric motors preferred where current is available ; air motors, supplied by compressors, second, and gasoline motors third choice. The cost of power installation varies from $900 to $1,200. N. F. Helmers, Northern Pacific Ry. The Northern Pacific Ry. are installing 80 and 85-ft. tables. I do not anticipate any power RAILWAYS in the future which will call for the use of a larger table. An 80-ft. through table, without the circle rail, and weighing 114,855 Ibs.. cost in place $4,600. Such a table was installed at Staples, Minn., with concrete circle wall and center foundation. The masonry was done by contract, and the installation of the table by the company at an expense of $3.92 per ton. The framing of ties, and other timber cost $4.05 per thousand feet. The cost was as follows: Labor. Material. Turntable $211.44 $4.1!>8.52 False work I :.::: Timber, ties, planking, etc 35.2;: 77.4! Painting 27.4!) 44. 78 $274.16 $4,333.72 Total cost (not including masonry) .... $4,607.88 In 1908 an 80-ft. table of the same type was installed at Minne- apolis replacing one 64 ft. In length. The foundation work was done under traffic, and the change of tables was done with a total int.iruption of 15 hrs. ; itemized statement follows: Labor. Material. Excavation $ 463.94 Gravel 92.14 Concrete work 408.28 $ 651.52 Forms 21.76 1 ;:.!! Circle rail 38.74 Table proper 361. 3fi 4,040.95 False work for curbing 66.36 Removal of old brick curbing. . 104.42 Cleaning girders 37.98 Painting 23.76 21.04 Ties and coping 7,9.71 188.89 Engineering 14.66 The total cost was $6,749.70. $1,632.09 $5,117.61 I consider that ordinary conditions do not require the neces- sity of paving for the pit, but good drainage is essential in most cases. For power we are using electricity and compressed air, while some the 80 and 85-ft. tables are being turned by hand. Air motor in at Jamestown, N. D. f cost at St. Paul, $450 ; installation, $19.81 ; il. $469.81. Electric tractor furnished by Nichols & Bro., cost L.104.37 ; installation, $115.86 ; total, $1,220.23. W. T. Powell, Colorado ro t~ * o C-rH SO SO M rH lO iO \ t~ ?- *? X ^> _ ^ i-^SP N O O 30 j U5 * lO 30 O g Tt< O t- r-t CO C^ t^ OS i 3030 MC ~N r 30 rq 30 1- o t> M !c-r~- i-TrH~S30O05OIM *OCOt~-O oot> ooi>e iH O rH iH OO i-H OO t- N O O < O5 <*< CO CJ5 O5 ITS OOlOt-O *-( OOC^lO'-HCOO C^lOC5COt>- oo'oo" Qj * * co 10 M en CQ ^ C a g * |V ";'* p O M GO co 10 rt< ia er> t- . cocoocoo Q ^Oi-t-eocoeftO . (Mi/siorHCi I. ^J ^ O CO 00 i-H 00 TH . COCgt-IMt- *S "H ^ IACO r~D35'M^?qco -j'soerisoo rt t>- to * o -^ in si os^oco< Pq in ^ 3S T-H O IM CXI rH 3 m^< O 13 02 82 o rt ou 3 ueo RAILWAYS. 1305 pleted. The Seattle and Montana (S. & M.) extended along Puget Sound from Seattle to Belfast. The Seattle and Northern (S. & N.) extended from Anacortes to Sauk. The contract prices were quite uniform, and were about as fol- lows per cubic yard : Earth excav. hauled less than 300 ft. $0.17 Earth excav. hauled 300 to 1,000 ft 0.21 Cemented gravel hauled less than 1,000 ft 0.38 Loose rock 0.42 Solid rock 1.05 Embankment from borrow pits 0.17 Overhaul, for each 100 ft. beyond the free haul of 1,000 ft 0.01 Grading was paid for but once. It is interesting to note that the average grading was 26,000 cu. yds. per mile, classified as follows: Per cent. Earth excav. within 300 ft 14.4 Earth excav. within 1,000 ft 10.3 Cemented gravel 22.6 Loose rock 5.9 Solid rock 16.6 Embankment from borrow pits 30.2 _____ Total 100.0 There was less than 50 ft. of overhaul on the average cubic yard of excavation, or less than % ct. per cu. yd ^or overhaul. The average cost of grading, including overhaul, was about 40 cts. per cu. yd. of all excavation. The price of. clearing ranged from $28 an acre in the Idaho Division to $139 in the Pacific Division. Grubbing ranged from $14 a station in the Idaho Division to $25 a. station in the Pacific Division. The price of tracklaying was about $230 per mile and the price of surfacing was about $200 per mile. Items 29, 30 and 31 are especially interesting in view of the absurd testimony that has often been given as to these items. Item 33, Operating Expense, is the cost of operating trains over the line prior to its being turned over to the operating department. Items 34, 35 and 36, total $2,144 per mile, or about 4.8% of the total cost, which shows that an allowance of 5% for interest during construction is ample, although it has been frequently claimed that double this amount should be allowed. A 'short line was built in northwestern Washington, from Belling- ham northward and southward, called the Fairhaven Southern Ry. Part of it was subsequently abandoned. The remaining part was 32.3 miles long. Its cost was determined from the accounting rec- ords of its original builders, to which was added the costs shown in the Great Northern Ry. after it had passed into the latter's hands. This total cost for the 32.3 miles of line was as given in Table VIII. 1306 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, TABLE VIII. COST OF FAIRHAVEN SOUTHERN RY. (32.3 MILES OF LINE OR ROADBED). Per mile Item. of line. 1. Engineering ? 749 2. Right of way 2,230 3. Real estate 84 4. Clearing and grubbing (very heavy) 1,083 5. Grading 4,013 6. Masonry 436 7. Cribbing and bulkheading 248 8. Bridges and culverts 4,196 9. Cattle guards and signs ? 10. Ties 751 11. Rails 4,303 12. Rail fastenings 498 13. Progs, switches, etc 16 14. Tracklaying and surfacing 396 15. Ballasting 653 16. Transportation department buildings 545 17. Road department buildings 149 18. Roundhouses and shops 158 19. Fuel and water stations 273 20. Other buildings and structures "257 21. Fences 12] 22. Telegraph 211 23. Shop tools and machinery 23!) 24. Locomotive and car service 189 25. General expense . . 748 26. Insurance 1U Grand total ' $22,565 The following were the grading quantities per mile and con- tract prices on the Fairhaven Southern : 9,200 cu. yds. earth, at $0.21. 2,000 cu. yds. cement gravel, at ?0.35. 400 cu. yds. loose rock, at $0.40. 1,300 cu. yds. solid rock, at $1.02. 12,900 cu. yds. total per mile. 4,800 cu. yds. overhauled 100 ft., at $0.01. This is fairly typical of the yardage per mile of branch line built through "easy country." Item 14, tracklaying, does not include train service, which is given in Item 24 for the entire construction of the road and is not pro- rated to the other items. No interest was charged on the books. The Spokane Falls and Northern Ry. was also built in the early 90's, by an independent company, whose cost records could not be secured. A field survey was accordingly made, and its cost was estimated, using prices that were common at the time of the con- struction of the line. This line is 130.5 miles long, and its original construction cost was estimated to have been as given in Table IX RAILWAYS. 1307 TABLE IX. ESTIMATED ORIGINAL COST OF THE SPOKANE FALLS AND NORTHERN RY. (130.5 MILES OF LINE OR ROADBED). Per mile Item. of line. 1. Engineering $ 524 2. Grading 5,132 3. Bridges and culverts 1,164 4. Cattle guards and signs 24 5. Ties 1,612 6. Rails 4,031 7. Rail fastenings 791 8. Frogs, switches, etc 70 9. Tracklaying and surfacing ($700 per mile of track) .... 835 10. Ballasting 600 11. Transportation department buildings 396 12. Road department buildings 107 13. Fuel and water stations 147 14. Other buildings and structures 14 15. Fences 63 16. General expense 150 17. Bond interest during contruction. . . . . .'. . . .'_.' 785 Grand total $16,445 In addition to the 130.5 miles of line there were 20.79 miles of sidetracks, etc. It will be noted that no land is included in this estimate, but $1,000 per mile of line was the estimated value of the land In 1906. It was certainly much less originally. This line was probably built for $17,000 per mile, including all land. The Great Northern Ry. had just completed in 1906 a stretch of branch line in northern Washington, known as the Washington & Great Northern Ry. The completed portion was 83.9 miles long, through a mountainous country. The grading yardage per mile of line, and contract prices, were as follows: 9,200 cu. yds. earth excav. under 300 ft, at $0.18 5,600 cu. yds. earth excav. under 1,000 ft., at $0.22 9,000 cu. yds. cement gravej, under 1,000 ft., at $0.35 1,800 cu. yds. loose rock under 1,000 ft., at $0.40 6,900 cu. yds. solid rock under 1,000 ft., at $0.93 32,500 cu. yds. total per mile 19,000 cu. yds. overhauled 100 ft, at ?0.01 The actual cost of this line was as given in Table X. 1308 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE X. ORIGINAL COST OF THE WASHINGTON AND GREAT NORTH- ERN RT. (83.9 MILES OF LINE OR ROADBED). Per milo Item. of line. 1. Engineering $ 1,489 2. Right of way 1,064 3. Real estate 3 4. Clearing and grubbing 656 5. Grading 14,558 6. Tunnels 75 7. Masonry 928 8. Bridges and culverts 3,623 9. Cattle guards, road crossings and signs 17 10. Ties 1,035 11. Rails 5,261 12. Rail fastenings 700 13. Frogs, switches, etc 161 14. Tracklaying and surfacing 866 15. Ballasting v 1,024 16. Surfacing, filling and lining track 34 17. Transportation department buildings 139 18. Road department buildings 122 19. Roundhouses and shops 22 20. Fuel and water stations 389 21. Other buildings and structures. . 5 22. Fences 50 23. Telegraph 127 24. Locomotive and car service 575 25. General expense 25 26. Transportation of men and materials 2,378 27. Insurance 2 28. Operating expense 19 29. Interest on advances 1,09!) 30. Taxes 56 31. Wagon roads 17 Grand total $36,519 In addition to the 83.9 miles of line there were 7.89 miles of sidetracks, etc., whose cost is included above. It will be noted that Item 1, Engineering, cost about 4% of the total; and that Item 29, Interest During Construction, was about 3% of the total. In addition to the foregoing lines belonging to the Great North- ern there was a short line, The Columbia & Red Mountain, 7.5 miles long, whose original cost could not be ascertained, but was esti- mated to have been $258,327, or $34,450 per mile. The preceding costs total as follows: Main line (487.6 miles) $21,673,780 Fairhaven & Southern (32.3 miles) 728,976 Washington & G. N. (83.9 miles) 3,054,042 Spokane Falls & N. (130.5 miles) 2,145,682 Columbia & Red Mt. (7.5 miles) 258,327 Total original cost $27,860,807 If we allow $140,000 for the probable cost of the right of way of the S. F. & N., we have $28,000,000, in round numbers, for 742 miles RAILWAYS. 1309 of line, or $37,730 per mile, not including rolling stock. This is very close to the actual original cost. We come now to the additions and improvements made since the original lines were built. They total as follows : Fairhaven cut-off line (18.4 miles) $ 962,102 New side tracks 747,209 Right of way 745,370 Real estate 2,519,513 Grading (mostly bank widening) 1,142,369 Tunnels 1,250,145 Masonry 729,409 Cribbing and bulkheading 19,457 Bridges and culverts 465,520 Rails 52,207 Transportation department buildings 503,968 Road department buildings 50,541 Roundhouses and shops 90,333 Fuel and water stations 49,334 Grain elevators, coal bunkers, et.? 104,933 Docks and wharves 546,926 Other buildings and structures 177,480 Fences 39,523 Telegraph 6,884 Shop tools and machinery 96,136 Protection against snow and ice 111,501 Total additions and improvements $10,410,859 This brings the cost up to June 30, 1906. Unfortunately the account of New Sidetracks does not distribute the cost between the various items, as it should ; consequently Mr. Gillette adopted the following distribution : Per cent. Grading 25 Ties 10 Rails 40 Rail fastenings 10 Frogs and switches. 10 Laying and surfacing 5 Total 100 In this manner the total itemized cost (original plus additions and improvements) was arrived at very closely, as shown in Table XI. Table XI includes no allowance for the right of way of the S. F. & N. and of the Columbia & Red Mountain ; but, as the present value of that right of way is only $139,678, it will be seen that the grand total cost was about $3'8,400,000. In using Table XI the reader should be cautioned that the Addi- tions and Improvements were not recorded in the accounting de- partment exactly under the same headings as were the original construction costs. It was an error not to have done so, but it is the common practice of railway companies to make this mistake. Engineering, for example, is not recorded as a separate item in the Additions and Improvements (except on the "Fairhaven Cut-Off 1310 1IAXDROOK OP COST DATA. Line," where it was 3% of the total) ; hence one cannot estimate the total cost of engineering on any part of the Great Northern work other than the original <-<>ntitr nation. The same holds true of Locomotive and Car Service, Transporta- tion of Man and Materials, and Interest during the time that work is in progress. TABLE XT. ORIGINAL COST OF GREAT NORTHERN RY., PLUS ADDI- DITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS UP TO JUNE 30, 190G (767.75 MlLES OF RAILWAY LINE AND 187.06 MILES OF SIDE TRACK AND OTHER TRACK). Per mile Item. Total. of line. 1. Engineering ? 897,523.10 ? 1,169* 2. Right of way 2,885,290.66 3,75'J 3. Real estate 2,634,533.12 3,432 4. Clearing and grubbing 657,585.67 856 5. Grading 9,561,212.68 12,454 6. Tunnels 4,166,137.81 5,426 7. Masonry 1,280,582.94 1,668 8. Cribbing and bulkheading 375,779.13 489 9. Bridges and culverts 3,275,652.60 4,266 10. Cattle guards, road crossings and signs 119,026.15 155 11. Ties 1,004,558.13 1,309 12. Rails 4,425,000.32 5,763 13. Rail fastenings 642,684.77 837 14. Frogs, switches, etc 186,760.15 243 15. Tracklaying and surfacing 505,533.96 658 16. Ballasting 760,517.22 990 17. Surfacing, filling and lining track... 34,095.90 44 18. Transportation department buildings 885,130.96 1,153 19. Road department buildings . . 122,739.99 160 20. Roundhouses and shops 256,933.72 334 21. Fuel and water stations 235,045.35 ::06 22. Grain elevators, coal bunkers and stockyards 104,932.89 136 23. Docks, wharves and inclines 627,888.57 817 24. Other buildings and structures 200,984.65 261 25. Fences 66,975.8.7 87 26. Telegraph 47,185.27 61 27. Shop tools and machinery 151,066.94 196 28. Protection against snow and ice... 188,688.99 245 29. Locomotive and car service 96,536.47 126* 30. General expense ' 101,109.98 132* 31. Transportation men and materials.. 243,860.20 318* 32. Insurance 1,117.43 1* 33. Operating expense 252,948.48 329t 34. Interest on advances 336,342.11 437* 35. Bond expenses . 36,065.80 47* 36. Bond interest during construction.. . 880,835.66 1,146* 37. Taxes 4,696.89 6 38. Wagon roads 17,198.97 22 Total $38,270,760.50 ?49,848 39. Equipment (rolling stock) 3,973,586.18 5,176 Grand total $42,244,346.68 ?5~5,024 *These items relate only to original construction, and not to any of the work done under additions and improvements. t Operating expense covers the cost of operating passenger and freight trains during construction (before the road was turned over to the operating department). This expense should really not be regarded as part of the cost of construction. RAILWAYS. 1311 Since there were 0.244 miles of sidetrack and other tracks per mile of line, the costs in the last column of Table XI must be divided by 1.244 to arrive at the cost per mile of track. Multi- plying by 0.8 will give almost the same result as dividing by 1.244. Item 15 does not include all the surfacing, as will be seen by noting Item 17 ; but Item 15 includes locomotive and car service. The locomotive and car service of Item 29 relates to other work. From the records of quantities in the engineering department of the Great Northern, supplemented by data in the accounting depart- ment, and by field surveys where necessary, Mr. Gillette prepared the estimated cost of reproducing (new) the Great Northern lines in the state of Washington, as detailed in Table XII. Item 2 (lands) in Table XII is based upon the final "findings" of the Washington Railroad Commission. TABLE XII ESTIMATE OF THE COST OF REPRODUCING THE GREAT NORTHERN RY. IN WASHINGTON, UP TO JUNE 30, 1906. (767.75 MILES OF LINE AND 187.06 MILES OF SIDE TRACKS AND YARD TRACKS.) 1. Engineering, 3y 2 % of items 3 to 2.6 inclusive ? 1,077,601.47 2. Right of way, etc. Terminal land, Seattle $10,937,543.6!) Terminal land, Spokane 1,562,228.33 Terminal land, Everett 1,077,750.00 Terminal land, Bellingham 552,610.00 Right of way, and other station grounds 2,975,560.02 Total right of way, etc $17,105,692.04 Clearing and Grubbing. Clearing, 4,968 acres at $100.00 $ 496,800.00 Grubbing, 9,521 stations at $20.00 190,420.00 Cutting dangerous trees, 6,596 at $2.00 13,192.00 Total clearing and grubbing $ 700,412.00 4. Grading. Earth excavation (300 ft. haul), 2,802,453 cu. yds. at $0.20 , $ 560,490.60 Earth excavation (1,000 ft. haul), 3,911,918 cu. yds. at $0.25 977,979.50 Cement gravel, 3,998,152 cu. yds. at $0.40 1,599,260.80 Loose rock, 1,186,985 cu. yds. at $0.50. . 593,492.50 Solid rock, 3,246,964 cu. yds. at $1.10 3,571,660.40 Unclassified excavation, 299,866 cu. yds. at $0.50 149,933.00 Embankment, 3,771,056 cu. yds. at $0.20 754,211.20 Overhaul, cu. yds. hauled 100 ft, 8,361,186, at $0.01 83,611.86 Widening roadbed (acctg. records) 1,142,368.85 Grading new side tracks (acctg. records) 186,802.19 Total grading (except trestles filled, item 8).$ 9,619,810.90 1312 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 5. Tunnels. Cascade tunnel (masonry lined), 13,813 lin. ft. at $180.00 $ 2,486,340.00 Everett tunnel (in earth, timber lined), 2,259 lin. ft. at $60.00 135,540.00 Seattle tunnel (double track, in earth, masonry lined, % owned by G. N.), 5,141 lin. ft. at % of $360.00 1,233,840.00 Other tunnels, 5,316 lin. ft. at $75.00 398,700.00 W. & G. N. tunnel, 113 lin. ft. at $60.00 6,780.00 Total tunnels ? 4,261,200.00 6. Masonry. Riprap, slope wall and retaining wall (as per acctg. records, after deducting bridge and culvert masonry) $ 865,718.94 7. Cribbing and Bulkheading. As per accounting records $ 375,779.13 8. Bridges and Culverts. Trestles (av. 18 ft. high, 30,390,311 ft. B. M. at $30.00, and 1,234,583 lin. ft. piles at $0.25), 128,400 lin. ft. at $10.00 $ 1,284,000.00 Trestles filled, 2,048,038 cu. yds. at $0.20 409,607.60 Howe Truss and Combination Bridges (8,046 ft.). Spans under 60 ft, 966 lin. ft. at $30.00 28,980.00 Spans 60 to 100 ft, 825 lin. ft at $35.00 28,875.00 Spans 100 to 150 ft, 3,909 lin. ft. at $45.00 175,905.00 Spans over 150 ft, 2,346 lin. ft at $60.00 140,760.00 Steel Bridges (11,722 lin. ft). Steel in place, 24,004,260 Ibs. at $0.0475 $ 1,140,202.35 Foundation masonry, 30,267 cu. yds. at $12.00 363,204.00 Log Culverts (31,606 lin. ft. culvert). Logs in place, 538,741 lin. ft. at $0.16 86,198.56 Timber Culverts (12,922 lin. ft. culvert). Timbtr, 2,180,232 ft B. M., at $26.00 56,686.03 Box Drains (3,709 lin. ft drains). Timber, 62,080 ft B. M., at $26.00 1,614.08 Concrete Culverts (2,377 lin. ft. culverts). Concrete, 4,740 cu. yds., at $9.00 51,660.00 Stone Box Culverts (3,206 lin. ft. culverts). Masonry, 4,074 cu. yds., at $5.00 20.370.00 Vitrified Pipe Culverts (11,870 lin. ft. culverts). 12-in. pipe, 694 lin. ft, at $0.50 347.00 18-in. pipe, 2,848 lin. ft., at $1.30 3,702.40 24-in. pipe, 4,058 lin. ft, at $2.60 10,550.80 27-in. pipe, 3,583 lin. ft, at $3.00 10,749.00 30-in. pipe, 687 lin. ft, at $3.50 2,404.5V Cast Iron Pipe Culverts (6,159 lin. ft culverts). 8-in. pipe, 48 lin. ft, at $1.50 72.00 12-in. pipe, 606 lin. ft, at $3.00 1,818.00 18-in. pipe, 852 lin. ft, at $4.00 ;. 3,408.00 24-in. pipe, 3,119 lin. ft, at $6.00 18,714.00 30-in. pipe, 1,324 lin. ft, at $7.00 9,268.00 36-in. pipe, 210 lin. ft, at $9.00 1,890.00 Total bridges and culverts $ 3,850,986.32 9. Ties. (954.8 miles, at 3,000), 2,864,400 ties, at $0.50.$ 1,432,200.00 10. Rails. (954.8 miles), 98,237 tons, at $40.00 $ 3,929,480.00 RAILWAYS. 1313 11. Track Fastenings. Spikes, 6,111,960 Ibs., at $0.028 $ 171,134.88 Angle bars, 16,549,280 Ibs., at $0.025 413,732.00 Bolts, 1,692,540 Ibs., at $0.032 54,161.28 Rail braces, 382,500, at $0.10 38,250.00 Tie plates (25% of line), 1,125,000, at $0.08. . . . 90,000.00 Total track fastenings * 767.278.16 12. Frogs and Switches. Turnouts (frogs), 1,033, at $80.00 $ 82,640.00 13. Ballast. Main line, 767.7 miles, at $1,000.00 $ 767,700.00 Side track, 187.1 miles, at $600.00 112,260.00 Total ballast $ 879,960.00 14. Tracklaying and Surfacing. Main line and side track, 954.8 mi., at $700.00..$ 668,360.00 15. Fencing Right of Way. As per accounting records plus 20% $ 80,371.04 16. Crossings, Cattle Guards and Signs. Signs, 3,020, at $2.00 $ 6,040.00 Road crossings (grade), 1,044, at $6.00 6,264.00 Cattle guards, 295, at $20.00 5,900.00 Tell tales, 18, at. $25. 00 450.00 Steel highway bridges, 1,743 lin. ft., at $80.00.. 139,440.00 Wood highway bridges, 1,384 lin. ft., at $20.00. . 27,680.00 Total crossings, etc $ 185,774.00 17. Telegraph Lines. As per accounting records plus 20% $ 56,622.00 18. Transportation Department Buildings. Passenger depots, frame, 95,<573 sq. ft., at $1.25.$ 119,466.25 Passenger depots, brick, at Bellingham 18,000.00 Passenger depot, brick, at Spokane.... 130,000.00 Passenger depot, brick and stone, at Seattle ( i/ 2 interest) 280,000.00 Freight depot, brick, Spokane, 30,000 sq. ft., at $1.00 . 30,000.00 Freight depot, brick, Everett, 9,350 sq. ft., at $1.00 9, 350. 00 Freight depot, brick, Seattle, 16,245 sq. ft, at $1.00 16,245.00 Freight depot, brick, Seattle (stores), 27,440 sq. ft., at $3.50 96,040.00 Freight depot, brick, Seattle, 50,000 sq. ft, at $1.50 75,000.00 Freight depot, frame, Seattle, 64,000 sq. ft, at $1.00 64,000.00 Freight depot, frame, Seattle, 56,000 sq. ft., at $1.00 56,000.00 Freight depot, frame, elsewhere, 21,822 sq. ft, at $1.00 21,822.00 Warehouses, 18,648 sq. ft., at $1.00 18,648.00 Stock yards, 277,662 sq. ft, at $0.04 11,106.48 Track scales, 9, at $2,000.00 18,000.00 Platforms, wood (other than depots), 38,422 sq. ft., at $0.10 3,842.20 Platforms, cinder, 25,575 sq. ft, at $0.06 1,534.50 Platforms, brick, 600 sq. ft, at $0.25 150.00 Water closets, 3,638 sq. ft, at $1.00 3,638.00 Station furniture (other than Seattle) 10,692.08 Total transportation department buildings.. $ 983.534.51 1314 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 19. 20. 21. 24. Road Department Buildings. Section houses (white men), 56,538 sq. ft., at $L25 ? 70,672.50 Section houses (Japanese), 22,826 sq. ft., at $0.80 18,260.80 Tool houses, 14,050 sq. ft, at $0.50 7,025.00 Total road department buildings % 95,958.30 Round Houses and Shops. Round houses, brick, 55 stalls, at $1,500.00 $ 82,500.00 Round houses, frame, 19 stalls, at $900.00 17,100.00 Cinder pits, 290 lin. ft., a.t $50.00 14,500.00 Turntables, 9, at $3,000.00 27,000.00 Machine and repair shops, brick, 117,315 sq. ft., at $1.25 146,643.75 Machine and repair shops, frame, 8,123 sq. ft., at $0.50 4,061.50 Transfer tables, 2, at $1,500.00 3,000.00 Repair sheds, 24,000 sq. ft., at $0.25 6,000.00 Total round houses and shops ? 300,805.25 Fuel and Water Stations. Water stations, 51, at $2.700.00 $ 137,700.00 Coal chutes (5), 67 pockets, at $1,500.00 100,500.00 Total fuel and water stations $ 238,200.00 Shop Tools and Machinery. As per accounting records plus 20% ? 181,280.40 Grain Elevators. Sack house, Seattle, 50,400 sq. ft, at $0.50 $ 25,200.00 Elevator, Seattle 100,000.00 Total grain elevators $ 125,200.00 Docks and Wharves. Docks, Seattle .> $ 626,368.60 Wharves elsewhere, 30,000 sq. ft., at $0.75.... 22,500.00 Total docks and wharves $ 648,868.60 Other Buildings and Structures. As per accounting records plus 20% (106,905 sq. ft of miscellaneous buildings, etc.) $ 241,181.58 Snow Protection. As per accounting records plus 15%, (consist- ing mainly of 4,558 lin. ft. snow sheds) $ 216,992.35 Legal and General Expense. 1% of items 3 to 26, inclusive 5 307,866.13 Interest During Construction. 5% of items 1 to 27 (except 2), inclusive $ 1,608,705.06 Stores on Hand. Necessary for maintenance and operation $ 360,904.26 Total of items 1 to 29, inclusive $51,249,402.44 Equipment. Locomotives $ 1,334,740.70 Passenger cars 715,395.92 Freight cars 2,320,036.29 Work and miscellaneous 199, 451. 19 Total equipment $ 4,569,624.10 Grand total of items 1 to 30 $55,819,026.54 RAILWAYS. 1315 Regarding Item 2 of Table XII, it should be said that the Rail- mad Commission did not include any land not needed in the im- mediate future for railway purposes. In the city of Seattle there was land, owned by the Great Northern, of the estimated value of $9,097,490, which is not included in Item 2. In Spokane there was similar land of the value of $221,750, and other leased lands (bring- ing $16,000 yearly income), whose value was not determined. The chief engineer of the Great Northern presented an estimate of the cost of reproduction far in excess of that of Mr. Gillette above given. The Railroad Commission finally determined that $58,671,559 would be a fair cost of reproducing (new) the Great Northern lines in Washington, and that $53,887,080 would be a fair "present value," or second-hand value, of all this property, including equipment. The accounting and engineering records of the Great Northern had been so kept that the yardage of earth in widening roadbed (subsequent to original construction) and in building new side- tracks, could not be ascertained without an amount of labor that did not seem to be warranted. Referring to the last two entries in Item 4 of Table XII, it will be seen that they total $1,329,170, or about 14% of the total of Item 4. At an assumed cost of 20 cts. per cu. yd. for this bank widening, etc., there were about 664,600 cu. yds., which is equiva- lent to 865 cu. yds. per mile of line. Dividing the items of yard- age in Item 4 by 768, the miles of line, we have the following: Cu. yds. per mile of line. Earth excav. (300 ft. or less haul) 3,640 Earth excav. (300 to 1,000 ft. haul) 5,090 Cement gravel 5,200 Loose rock 1,540 Solid rock 4,230 TTnclassified excavation 390 Embankment from borrow 4,910 Total 25,000 Widening roadbed (earth) 870 Total 25,870 Filling trestles (see Item 8, Table IV) 270 Grand total ; 26,140 In Item 8 it will be seen that the trestles averaged 18 ft. high. This was ascertained by dividing the total sum of the profile areas of the trestles by their total length. Trestle filling was kept in Item 8, in order to correspond with the accounting records. i'he prices assigned to all classes of construction include all labor, materials and costs of transporting men and materials, train serv- ice, etc. 1316 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Item 12, Progs and Switches, does not include cross-ties, which are included in Item 9. Item 17, Telegraph Lines, was taken from the accounting records and 20% added to cover increase in prices, transportation of men, etc. The Great Northern does not own the telegraph lines entirely. Table XIII summarizes the cost of reproduction, and gives also present value. TABLB XIII. COST OF REPRODUCTION AND PRESENT VALUE OF GREAT NORTHERN AS ESTIMATED BY H. P. GILLETTE. Reproduction. Condition. New. Per cent. 1. Engineering $1,077,601 100.0 2. Right of way 17,105,692 100.0 3. Clearing and grubbing 700,412 100.0 4. Grading 9,619,811 110.0 5. Tunnels 4,261,200 100.0 6. Masonry (except in Item 8) 865,719 100.0 7. Cribbing and bulkheading. . 375,779 22.0 8. Bridges and culverts 3,850,986 78.2 9. Ties 1,432,200 46.3 10. Rails 3,929,480 80.0 11. Track fastenings 767,279 80.0 12. Frogs and switches 82,640 80.0 13. Ballast 879,960 100.0 14. Tracklaying and surfacing. 668,360 100.0 15. Fencing right of way 80,371 54.5 16. Crossings, cattle guards, etc. 185,774 90.0 17. Telegraph lines 56,622 80.0 18. Transp. dept. bldgs 983,535 89.5 19. Road dept. bldgs 95,958 76.0 20. Roundhouses and shops 300,805 83.5 21. Fuel and water stations. . . . 238,200 80.0 22. Shop tools and machinery.. 181,280 65.0 23. Grain elevators 125,200 79.0 24. Docks and wharves 648869 79.0 25. Other bldgs. and structures. 241,182 85.0 26. Snow protection 216,992 ' 72.4 27. Legal and general expense. 307,886 100.0 28. Interest during constr 1,608,705 100.0 29. Stores on hand 360,904 100.0 Present Value. $ 1,077,601 17,105,692 700,412 10,581,792 4,261,200 865,719 82,672 3,011,471 663,109 3,143,584 613,823 66,112 879,960 668,360 43,802 167,197 45,298 880,265 72,928 251,173 190,560 117,832 98,908 512,606 205.004 157,103 307,886 1,608,705 360,904 Total of items 1 to 29 ... $51,219,402 30. Equipment 4,569,624 Grand total $55,819,026 70.33 $48,741,678 3,213,747 $51,955,425 In arriving at an estimate of the Present Value, or second-hand value, of the property, Mr. Gillette determined the average age of each class of structures, as explained in his report to the Railroad Commission (see Engineering-Contracting, April 7, 1909). Then an annual depreciation was determined from a study of the records. For example, the average age of existing trestles was 4.2 years, and the annual depreciation was taken at 10%; hence the present condition was 100% 4.2 X 10%= 58%. RAILWAYS. 1317 Table XIV gives average ages and annual depreciations. TABLE XIV. Age years. Cribbing and bulkheading 4.2 Howe truss bridges 5.0 Log culverts 9.4 Timber culverts 13.0 Box drains 13.0 Ties Rails, track fastenings, etc. Fences Transportation dept. bldgs. . Road dept. bldgs Roundhouses and shops Fuel and water stations. . . . Shop tools and machinery.. Grain elevators Docks and wharves Other buildings Snow sheds 4.3 8.0 6.5 3.5 8.0 5.5 3.5 7.0 7.0 5.0 Annual Present deprec. condition per cent. per cent. 10.0 58.0 10.0 50.0 6.0 41.6 6.0 12.0 6.0 12.0 12.5 46.3 2.5 80.0 7.0 54.5 3.0 89.5 3.0 76.0 3.0 83.5 80.0 10.6 65.0 3.0 79.0 3.0 79.0 3.0 85.0 4.0 72.4 The rate of depreciation of Fuel Stations was assumed at 3% ; Water Stations at 2V6%, the latter being lower because so much of the value exists in piping, reservoirs, etc. Equipment depreciation was put at 3.6% per annum. All other items were regarded as having suffered no depreciation. Grading was regarded as having actually appreciated 10% in value, due to the "seasoning" of the roadbed. This is equivalent to $1,280 per mile, which was regarded as a liberal allowance for expenditures in track maintenance during the first few years after construc- tion, which might properly be charged to construction, although, In fact,- they never are so charged in the company books. It also provides for the increased value of the roadbed due to natural settlement. The actual cost of the equipment of the entire Great Northern Ry. system, as determined from the accounting records, was as follows, up to June 30, 1906 : Locomotives $10,020,193.14 Passenger cars 4,070,424.68 Freight cars 20,356,142.73 Work and miscellaneous 1,487,062.67 Total $35,933,823.22 Spokane Falls and Northern 190,742.00 Grand total $36,124,565.22 The actual original cost of the Spokane Falls & Northern equip- ment, as purchased by the Great Northern Ry., was not available, but was estimated to be $190,742, composed of the following items; Locomotives $ 71,500.00 Passenger cars 33,500.00 Freight cars 69,340.00 Work and miscellaneous 16,402.00 Total $190,742.00 1318 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. To arrive at the cost of reproducing the equipment new, present (1906) prices, were assumed and applied to all the locomotives and cars. This showed an increase of cost of about 15%, hence it was decided to add 15% to the original cost (as shown by the account- ing records) to obtain the cost of reproduction new. With the exception of the locomotives, the entire equipment was then prorated to the state of Washington on the ratio of the car mileage of the entire system to the car mileage of Washington. The work equipment was prorated on the basis of the miles of road operated. The cost of reproduction and the present value of the equip- ment for the state of Washington were estimated to be as follows : Cost of Present Reproduction Value. Locomotives $1,334,740.70 $ 876,779.33 Passenger cars 715,395.92 494,404.42 Freight cars 2,320,036.29 1,695,410.98 Work and miscellaneous 199,451.19 147,152.36 Total $4,569,624.10 $3,213,747.09 The present value (second-hand value) was not ascertained by a field inspection, which is practically impossible of satisfactory ac- complishment anyway, but by determining the average age of each kind of equipment and multiplying that age in years by 3.6%, to arrive at the percentage of depreciation suffered. Mr. Gillette's studies of the equipment records indicated to him that the average locomotive or car could not be expected to have a life exceeding 28 years, and that it would therefore be liberal to the railway to allow an annual depreciation of only 3.6% in arriving at the present value. He selected the straight line formula, rather than the sinking fund formula, for estimating depreciation. In determining the average age of locomotives the standard price of each locomotive was multiplied by its age. The sum of these products was divided by the total cost of the locomotives to secure the average age. It would be manifestly incorrect to use the actual average age obtained by dividing the sum of the ages by the total number of locomotives, for locomotives differ so in value that the "weighted average" must be obtained. In like manner the age of all rolling stock was determined. It will be noted that there was an average depreciation of 29.67% (since the condition was 70.33%). Hence the average weighted age of all equipment was 29.67 -f- 3.6 = 8.24 years. The rolling stock on the Spokane Falls & Northern was all 10 years old, and on the rest it was as follows: Locomotives . 9.5 years Passenger cars 8.5 Freight cars 7.4 Work and miscellaneous 7.0 The cost of reproduction of the Great Northern, per "mile of line," is given in Table XV. RAILWAYS. 1319 TABLE XV. COST OF REPRODUCTION OF GREAT NORTHERN RY. IN WASHINGTON, AS ESTIMATED BY H. P. GILLETTE. Per mile of line.* 1. Engineering $ 1,406 2. Right of way 22,317 3. Clearing and grubbing 914 4. Grading 12.550 5. Tunnels 5,559 6. Masonry 1,030 7. Cribbing and bulkheading 489 8. Bridges and culverts 5,024 9. Ties 1,870 10. Rails 5,126 11. Track fastenings 1,001 12. Frogs and switches 107 13. Ballast 1,148 14. Tracklaying and surfacing 872 15. Fencing right of way 105 16. Crossings, cattle guard and signs 242 17. Telegraph lines 74 18. Transportation department buildings 1,284 19. Road department buildings 125 20. Roundhouses and shops. 391 21. Fuel and water stations 310 22. Shop tools and machinery 236 23. Grain elevators 163 24. Docks and wharves 845 25. Other buildings and structures .*. 314 26. Snow protection -. 282 27. Legal and general expense 401 28. Interest during construction 2,098 29. Stores on hand 470 Total of Items 1 to 29 $66,753 SO. Equipment 5,950 Grand total $72,703 *There are 1.244 miles of track per mile of line ; hence multiply by 0.8 to get cost per mile of track. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1906, there were 479,- 847,387 ton-miles of freight carried over the Great Northern within the state of Washington. The freight car mileage was 33,428,695 car-miles in Washington, or 9.681% of the car-mileage of the entire Great Northern system. Cost of the Northern Pacific Railway (1,645 Miles) In the State of Washington.* This issue contains data relating to the Northern Pacific Ry., data that were submitted as exhibits by Mr. H. P. Gillette in his testimony at the hearings before the Railroad Com- mission, but not printed in the "findings," which contain only the conclusions as to costs reached by the commission after hearing all the evidence. Work was begun on the Northern Pacific in Washington in 1879, and the major part of the construction of the main line was done in the early 80's. The task of ascertaining the original cost of the Northern Pacific was complicated not only by the age of the rec- * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 12, 1910. 1320 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ords but by the purchase of a number of important branch lines The purchase prices were available, but it was exceedingly desirable to arrive at the actual cost to the builders of those branches. This was determined with considerable accuracy by securing construction quantities from old engineering records and applying prices current at the time of construction. The total original cost of main line and branches in Washington was found to be about $64,000,000, including improvements and betterments. Of this total 80% was ascertained with great accuracy from the accounting records. Of the remain- ing 20% fully half was determined with almost as great accuracy from old engineering records, leaving only about 10% to be estimated by field inspection. It has been repeatedly stated that the original cost plus im- provements can be ascertained for very few railways in America. Doubtless this assertion has deterred other railway commissions from even attempting to secure the original cost. The facts are, however, that of the entire railway values in Washington, not much more than 5% were such that the original cost plus improve- ments could not be found. Mere age of construction has less to do with the difficulty of arriving at original costs than is commonly supposed. The greatest difficulty exists where purchases of lines have been made without transfer of tho construction ledgers from the original owners to the purchasers. In many instances such transfers of ledgers are made, and in nearly all cases transfers of cross section books and other engineering records are made. The importance of securing the original itemized costs plus itemized costs of improvements cannot be overestimated. The conflicting testimony of experts in court is the bane of a judge's life, but with actual original costs as a basis there is not great difficulty in determining costs of reproduction, for wages and prices are a matter of record and the increase or decrease in the value of any item of railroad construction is readily ascertained. The following is a summary of the mileage of the Northern Pa- cific railway in Washington UP to June 30, 1906 : Miles. Main line 658.73 Branch lines (incl. Wash, and Col. Rivers)... 986.53 Total lines 1,615.26 Second track, main line 41.65 Spurs 117.59 Yard tracks and sidings 400.75 Total track 2,205.25 In the findings of the Railroad Commission the following mileage was assigned to the Northern Pacific : Miles. Main line 087.68 Branches and spurs 911.71 Total lines.. ..1,629.42 RAILWAYS. 1321 However, we shall use the mileage determined by Mr. Gillette namely: 1,645 miles of line since the following costs are based upon that mileage. The original cost of the Northern Pacific in Washington plus im- provements and betterments up to June 30, 1906, as determined by Mr. Gillette, was as given in Table XVI. In using the last column of this table it should be remembered that there were 1.34 miles of all tracks to each "mile of line" ; hence to arrive at the cost per mile of track, divide the items in the last column by 1.34. TABLE XVI. ORIGINAL COST OF THE NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY IN WASHINGTON, PLUS IMPROVEMENTS. (1,645 miles of line.) Per Total. mile. 1. Engineering $ 2,907,344.26 $ 1,768 2. Right of way 1,796,272.00 1,092 3. Real estate 1,360,895.38 827 4. Clearing and grubbing 1,213,770.19 738 5. Grading 15,589,712.88 9,479 6. Tunnels 974,519.99 590 7. Bridges, trestles and culverts . 7,879,328.94 4,790 8. Masonry 156,823.46 95 9. Ties 2,278,007.25 1,385 10. Rails 8,520,625.03 5,182 11. Track fastenings 1,063,620.96 647 12. Frogs and switches 255,243.07 155 13. Tracklaying and surfacing 1,669,691.18 1,015 14. Ballast 1,524,759.29 929 15. Station buildings and fixtures 1,477,207.49 897 16. Engine houses and turntables 246,663.97 150 17. Engine and car shops 849,340.77 516 18. Shop machinery and tools 294,507.95 179 19. Water stations 325,042.66 198 20. Fuel stations 79,544.48 47 21. Fencing right of way 273,067.50 166 22. Snow fences, etc 130,494.72 79 23. Stock yards 31,064.11 19 24. Crossings, cattle guards and signs 101,860.54 62 25. Interlocking and signal apparatus 44,706.61 27 26. frocks, wharves and coal bunkers 1,015,566.29 617 27. Transfer boats and barges 31,662.70 19 28. Section and tool houses 122,352.50 74 29. Miscellaneous structures 1,179,108.09 717 30. Telegraph lines 207,361.48 126 31. Transportation charges and rent of equip- ment 1,756,796.39 1,068 32. Operating expenses 261,910.26 159 33. Construction equipment 63,743.75 39 34. General expense 640,744.02 390 35. Interest and discount 7,173,190.53 4,360 36. Legal expense 3,009.24 37. Undistributed expense 480,212.62 Tota l $63,979,772.61 $38,895 38. Equipment (rolling stock) 11,478,121.38 6,978 Grand total . $75,457,893.99 $45,873 1322 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Of this $63,979,772 cost of construction, $5,896,735 was spent for "improvements and betterments" between the years 1896 and 1906. The corresponding improvement expenditures prior to that time (charged to "Construction B") were $2,951,972, making a total of $8,848,707 spent for improvements. It will be noted that Item 1, Engineering, amounts to nearly 5% of the total cost exclusive of equipment. This very high percentage was due to several factors. The explorations for a pass through the Cascade Mountains were made at an early date when little was definitely known about their topography and that exploration alone cost $300,000. The engineering on the early branch lines cost 6% oC the $11,400,000 spent in building them, due in part to slow progress of work in those early days. A very considerable part of the early Northern Pacific work was done by company labor, which added not only to the expenditures for engineering and supervision, but also made the entire cost of the work greater than it would have been had it been done by contract. Items 2 and 3 are small, because nearly all the right of way was given by the government. But as a matter of fact it should be a trifle higher than given in Table XVI, to provide for the unascer- tainable original cost of right of way of about 350 miles of branch lines. Item 31, Transportation Charges and Rent of Equipment, relates to the book charges for hauling construction materials over the N. P. lines. Under a proper system of accounting this item would have been distributed to the materials themselves. Item 32, Operating Expense, relates to the cost of operating freight and passenger trains over the lines before they were formally transferred to the operating department. Item 34, General Expense, was practically 1% of the total con- struction cost. On the early construction work, involving some $30,000,000, this item of general expense was nearly 1%%. Item 35, Interest and Discount, is inordinately high. It consists mostly of discount on the bonds. In fact the first $22,400,000 ex- pended, more than $5,900,000 was charged to interest and discount, or nearly 27% of the total. Hence no general conclusions can be drawn from this item. Item 36, Legal Expanse, does not appear in any of the accounts except for a small branch line, where it amounted to nearly 1 per cent of the cost of that branch. Item 37, Undistributed Expense, relates to certain items which were so entered that they could not be prorated to Washington under any definite item, and were consequently grouped here. The cost of reproducing (new) the Northern Pacific Ry. in Wash- ington, as estimated by Mr. Gillette, is given. in Table XVII, the values of right of way and land being those finally determined by the Railroad Commission. RAILWAYS. 1323 TABLE XVII. COST OF REPRODUCING THE NORTHERN PACIFIC RAIL- WAY IN WASHINGTON, AS ESTIMATED BY H. P. GILLETTE. (1,645 miles of line.) 1. Engineering, 5% of Items 3 to 27 $ 2,510,580.23 2. Right of Way, etc. : Terminal land, Seattle 13,038 176 50 Terminal land, Tacoma . . . 7,638,006.00 Terminal land, Spokane 5,306,465.00 Terminal land, Everett 366,530 00 Terminal land, Bellingham 215,330 00 Right of way and other station grounds 6,298*364.50 Total right of way, etc $ 32,862,872.00 3. Clearing and Grubbing: Clearing, 9,445 acres, at $100.00 $ 944 500 00 Grubbing, 16,542 stations, at $22.00 33084000 Extra trees cut, 4,942, at $2.00 9,964.00 Six branch lines (from acctg. records) 117,811.04 Improvements (from acctg. records) 24,069*48 Total clearing and grubbing $ 1,427,184.52 4. Grading: Earth excavation, 18,566,958 cu. yds., at $0.22 $ 4,084,730 76 Earth embank, (barrow), 3,265,120 cu. yds., at $0.22. 718,32620 Unclassified, 318,512 cu. yds., at $0.50 159 256 00 Cement gravel, 3,483,838 cu. yds., at $0.40 1,393,535 20 Loose rock, 1,321,720 cu. yds., at $0.50 660 860 00 Solid rock, 1,735,503 cu. yds., at $1.10 1,909'053'30 Overhaul, 13,767,359 cu. yds. 100 ft, at $0.01 137,673*59 Riprap, 186,064 cu. yds., at $1.10 20467040 Slope wall, 3,350 cu. yds. at $2.50 8 375*00 Log cribs, 882,632 lin. ft. logs, at $0.16 141 22l'l2 Timber cribs, 127,774 ft. B. M., at $26.00 3, 322*12 Six branch lines (cost from acctg. records) 1,113'697 75 S. L. S. & E. (estimated from field inspection) 88000*00 Improvements and betterments (from acctg. records). 1,988,673*81 Total grading- $ 12,543,395.25 5. Tunnels: Stampede, 9,844 lin. ft. (masonry lined), at $180.00..$ 1,771,920.00 Seattle, one-half interest, 5,141 (dbl. track in earth), at % of $360.00 925,380.00 Other tunnels lined with concrete, 2,570 ft, at $110.00 282,700.00 Other tunnels lined with timber, 2,329 ft., at $70.00. . 163,030.00 Total tunnels $ 3,143,030.00 6. Bridges, Trestles and Culverts : Howe Tusses and Combination. 30-ft spans, 1 at $1,200.00 $ 1,200.00 50-ft spans, 4 at $1,600.00 6,400.00 60-ft spans, 8 at $1,800.00 . 14,400.00 70-ft spans, 1 at $2,000.00 2,000.00 80-ft spans, 3 at $2,300.00 6,900.00 90-ft. spans, 1 at $3,000.00 3,000 00 100-ft spans, 15 at $4,000.00 60,000.00 110-ft spans, 1 at $4,500.00 4,500.00 120-ft spans, 3 at $5,500.00 16,500.00 130-ft spans, 1 at $6,200.00 6,200.00 140-ft spans, 5 at $7,000.00 35,000 00 150-ft spans, 19 at $7,500.00 142,500.00 13 miscellaneous spans (2,390 lin. ft at $60.00) 143,400.00 8 draw spans, 1,625 lin. ft at $60.00 97,500.00 Total Howe trusses and combination spans. . . .$ 539,500.00 1324 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Pile and frame trestles (44130 M at $30, and 1,304,533 lin. ft. piles at 0.25 ; av. height trestle 19 ft.), 168,978 lin. ft. at $10.50 1,774,269 00 Trestles filled with earth (139,862 lin. ft.), 5,988,784 cu. yds. at $0.20 1,197,756.80 Steel Bridges: Spokane River at Trent $ 40,000.00 Snake River, Ainsworth 1,100,000.00 Columbia River, Kennewick 500,000.00 Tacoma Channel 105,000.00 Chehalis River 100,000.00 Walla Walla River, W. & C. R 43,190.00 Three plate girders (260 ft.) and concrete ret. wall (350 ft.), N. & C. R 30,200.00 Steel in other bridges, 19,516,343 Ibs. at 0.0475 927,026.44 Masonry abutments and piers for 215 spans 537,500.00 Total steel bridges $ 3,382,916.44 Culverts : Log culverts, 264,943 lin. ft. logs, at $0.16 f 42,390.88 Timber culverts, 5,015,024 ft. B. M. at $26.00 130,390.62 Box drains, 336,720 ft. B. M. at $26.00 8,754.72 Total log and timber culverts $ 181,536.25 Concrete arch, 11,510 cu. yds. at $!).00 103,590.00 Stone drains, 6,731 cu. yds. at $8.00 53,848.00 Total masonry culverts $ 157,438.00 Vitrified Pipe: 4-in. 62 lin. ft .at $0.25.. ..$ 15.50 10-in. 50 lin. ft. at 0.45 22.50 12-in. 1,229 lin. ft. at 0.50 < 614.50 15-in. 226 lin. ft. at 0.75 169.50 16-in. 137 lin. ft. at 0.80 109.60 18-in. 3,929 lin. ft. at 1.30 5,107.70 20-in. 168 lin. ft. at 1.70 285.60 22-in. 109 lin. ft. at 2.00 218.00 24-in. 24,895 lin. ft. at 2.60 664,727.00 30-in. 2,845 lin. ft. at 3.50 9,957.50 36-in. 276 lin. ft. at 4.50 1,242.00 Total vitrified pipe culverts $ 682,469.40 Cast-Iron Pipe: 6-in. 300 lin. ft. at $1.00 $ 300.00 8-in. 24 lin. ft. at 1.50 36.00 12-in. 892 lin. ft. at 3.00 2,676.00 14-in. 27 lin. ft. at 3.50 94.50 16-in. 732 lin. ft. at 3.75 2,745.00 18-in. 5,095 lin. ft. at 4.00 20,380.00 20-in. 889 lin. ft. at 4.75 4,222.75 24-in. 28,411 lin. ft. at 6.00 170,466.00 30-in. 2,432 lin. ft. at 7.00 17,024.00 36-in, 4,453 lin. ft. at 9.00 40,122.00 42-in. 663 lin. ft. at 13.00 8,619.00 48-in. 1,026 lin. ft. at 18.00 18,468.00 54-in. 516 lin. ft. at 21.00 10,836.00 60-in. 198 lin. ft. at 25.00 36-in. corrugated iron, 900 ft. at $3.00 4,950.00 Total iron pipe culverts 2,700.00 Masonry walls, etc 303,639.25 Total bridges, trestles and culverts $ 7,776,348.11 RAILWAYS. 1325 7. Ties: (2,205.24 miles at 3,000), 5,615,750, at $0.50 $ 3,307,875.00 8. Rails: 221,367 tons at $40.00 $ 8,854,680.00 9. Track Fastenings : Spikes (6,500 Ibs. per mi.), 14,334,125 Ibs. at $0.028. .$ 401,355.50 Angle bars (17,600 Ibs. per mi.), ;',S,812,400 Ibs., at $0.025 970,310.00 Bolts (1,800 Ibs. per mi.), 3,969,450 Ibs. at $0.032... 127,022.00 Rail braces, 838,950 at $0.10 83,895.00 Tie plates, 1,525,000 at $0.08 122,000.00 Total track fastenings $ 1,704,582.90 10. Frogs and Switches: Switches, 2,850 at $80.00 $ 228,000.00 11. Ballast: 1,645 miles at $1,000.00 $ 1,645,000.00 560 miles at $600.00 336,000.00 Total ballast $ 1,981,000.00 12. Tracklaying and Surfacing: 2,205.25 miles at $700.00 $ 1,543,675.00 13. Fencing Right of Way: From accounting records plus 20% $ 227,682.00 14. Snow Fences and Sheds: From accounting records plus 20% $ 156,595.00 15. Crossings, Cattle Guards and Signs : From accounting records plus 20% $ 122,232.00 16. Telegraph Lines: From accounting records plus 20% $ 248,835.00 17. Station Buildings and Fixtures: Seattle terminal station ( % interest) $ 280,000.00 110 combination depots (frame), 167,062 sq. ft. at $1.50 250,593.00 100 passenger depots (frame), 121,684 sq. ft. at $1.25 152,105.00 Spokane passenger depot (brick), 8,050 sq. ft. at $4.00 32,200.00 31 freight depots (frame), 591,050 sq. ft. at $1.00... 591,050.00 3 freight depots (brick), 81,320 sq. ft. at $1.50 121,980.00 Warehouses (frame), 376,741 sq. ft. at $1.40 527,437.40 720 wood platforms, 1,006,790 sq. ft. at $0.10 100,679.00 15 cinder platforms, 26,492 sq. ft. at $0.06 1,589.52 2 cement platforms, 34,631 sq. ft. at $0.15 -. 5,194.65 198 water closets, 10,666 sq. ft. at $1.00 10,666.00 Track scales, 28 at $1,300.00 36,400.00 Total station buildings $ 2,109,894.57 18. Engine Houses and Turntables: 8 engine houses (frame), 27,686 sq. yds. at $0.75 $ 20,764.50 Engine houses (frame), 20 stalls $900.00 18,000.00 Engine houses (brick), 71 stalls at $1,500.00 106,500.00 Turntables, 28 at $2,800.00 78,400.00 6 ash pits, 277 lin. ft. at $15.00 4,155.00 Total engine houses and turntables $ 227,819.50 1326 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 19. Engine and Car Shops: 43 machine shops and car houses (frame), 114,523 sq. ft. at $0.50 $ 39 machine shops and car houses (brick), 299,685 sq. ft. at $2.90 Transfer, tables, 2 at $1,500.00 83 sand, coal, wood, oil and store houses, 20 245 sq ft. at $0.50 .' 3 bins, 2,053 sq. ft. at $0.25 Total engine and car shops $ 20. Shop Machinery : From accounting records plus 20% $ 21. Water Stations: 91 tanks, 41 pump houses, etc. (from accounting rec- ords plus 20%).... $ 22. Fuel Stations: From accounting records plus 20% $ 23. Stock Yards: 63 yards, 603,397 sq. ft. at $0.05 $ 24. Interlocking and Signal Apparatus: From accounting records plus 20% 25. Docks, Wharves and Coal Bunkers: From accounting records plus 20% $ 26. Section and Tool Houses : 124 section houses, 89,866 sq. ft. at $1.25 $ 80 bunk houses, 29,430 sq. ft. at $0.70. .... 147 tool houses, 27,839 sq. ft. at $0.50. . Total section and tool houses $~ 27.- Miscellaneous Structures: From accounting records plus 20 % $ 28. Legal and General Expense: 1% of Items 3 to. 27 inclusive $ 29. Interest During Construction: 5 % of Items 1 to 28 (except Item 2) $ 30. Stores on Hand $ Total of Items 1 to 30 inclusive $ 89,279,064.' 31. Equipment: Locomotives $ Passenger Freight Work and miscellaneous Total equipment $ 14,334,377.21 Grand total of Items 1 to 31 inclusive $103,613,441.97 It will be noted that Item 1, Engineering, was estimated at 5%, instead of the 3^% which was used for the Great Northern. Since engineering had actually cost the Northern Pacific 5%, Mr. Gillette considered it fair to allow that amount, particularly in view of the fact that there was a large mileage of cheap branch lines where the item of engineering would form a larger percentage than on main line construction. The Railroad Commission, however, adopted a RAILWAYS. 1327 uniform 3%% for all the railways in the state as a fair allowance for engineering. Item 2. Land, does not include any land not actually used or needed for railway purposes in the immediate future. The North- ern Pacific Ry. has a right of way 400 ft. wide on much of its line, given to it by the government. The Railroad Commission allowed a 100 ft. strip as being all that is actually needed for railway purposes, except in towns and cities. In addition to the lands owned and used for terminals, there was land of the following value, which was not included in Item 2 because it is not needed for railway pur- poses at present : Spokane '. $ 1,194,156 Tacoma 4,980,417 Seattle. 9,250,000 Total $15,424,573 The value of the right of way land not needed for railway pur- poses was determined to be $913,184, and is not included in Item 2. Item 4, Grading, is equivalent to the following yardage per mile of line: Cu. yds. per mile. Earth excavation 11,325 Earth embankment (borrow) 1,990 Unclassified 195 Cement gravel 2,125 Loose rock 805 Solid rock 1,055 Total '...'.. 17,495 6 branch lines (unclassified) 1,700 S. L. S. & E. (unclassified) 130 Improvements ('unclassified) 4,545 Trestles filled (Item 6) 3,650 Grand total 26,520 The items of yardage in the "6 branch lines" and of yardage *n "improvements" are estimated by assuming that the unclassified yardage on these branch lines cost 40 cts. per cu. yd. and that the yardage in improvements cost 30 cts. per cu. yd. Since most of the improvement yardage was bank widening, the lower unit price for this unclassified work is justified. By referring to our issue of Dec. 8 it will be seen that the yardage per mile on the Great Northern was 28,570 cu. yds. per mile. Table XVIII gives a summary of Mr. Gillette's estimate of the cost of reproduction (new) and the present value (second hand) of the Northern Pacific in Washington. The annual rates of depreci- ation of the different classes of structures and of equipment were the same as those used in calculating the present value of the Great Northern. 1328 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. TABLE XVIII. COST OF REPRODUCTION AND PRESENT VALUE OF THE NORTHERN PACIFIC RY. IN WASHINGTON. (1,645 Miles.) Cost Condition o: reproduc- per tion new. cent. 1. Enginering $ 2,510,580 100.0 2. Right of way, etc 32,862,872 100.0 3. Clearing and grubbing 1,427,185 100.0 4. Grading 12,543,39*5 110.0 5. Tunnels 3,143,030 100.0 6. Bridges, trestles and culverts 7,776,348 84.7 7. Ties 3,307,875 50.0 8. Rails 8,854,680 80.0 9. Track fastenings 1,704,583 80.0 10. Frogs and switches 228,000 80.0 11. Ballast 1,981,000 100.0 12. Tracklaying and surfacing. . 1,543,675 100.0 13. Fencing right of way 227.682 55.0 14. Snow fences and sheds. . . . 156,595 72.0 15. Crossings, cattle guards and 122,232 55.0 16. Telegraph lines 248,835 75.0 17. Station building and fix- tures 2,109,895 81.5 18. Engine houses and turntables 227,819 68.2 19. Engine and car shops 939,084 66.4 20. Shop machinery 353,408 ' 65.0 21. Water stations 390,050 65.5 22. Fuel stations 95,453 77.5 23. Stock yards 30,170 45.5 24. Interlocking and signal ap- paratus 53,648 85.0 25. Docks, wharves and coal bunkers 1,216,680 75.0 26. Section and tool houses. . . . 146,853 61.0 27. Miscellaneous structures... 1,382,530 61.0 2 8. Legal and general expense . . 502. 116 100.0 29. Interest during construction 2,661,215 100.0 30. Stores on hand 530,677 100.0 Total of Items 1 to 30. . ..$ 89,279,065 31. Equipment 14,334,377 Grand total.. ..$103,613,442 67. Si- Present value. RAILWAYS. 1329 TABLE XIX. COST OF REPRODUCTION OF THE NORTHERN PACIFIC IN WASHINGTON. Per mile of line.* 1. Engineering $ 1,526 2. Right of way, etc 19,980 3. Clearing and grubbing 867 4. Grading 7,626 5. Tunnels 1,911 6. Bridges, trestles and culverts 4,728 7. Ties 2,011 8. Rails 5,384 9. Track fastenings 1,036 10. Frogs and switches 139 11. Ballast 1,206 12. Tracklaying and surfacing 938 13. Fencing right of way 138 14. Snow fences and sheds 95 15. Crossings, cattle guards and signs . 74 16. Telegraph lines 151 17. Station buildings and fixtures 1,283 18. Engine houses and turntables 138 19. Engine and car shops 571 20. Shop machinery 215 21. Water stations 237 22. Fuel stations 58 23. Stock yards 18 24. Interlocking and signal apparatus 33 25. Docks, wharves and coal bunkers 740 26. Section and tool houses , 89 27. Miscellaneous structures 840 28. Legal and general expense 305 29. Interest during construction 1,618 30. Stores on hand 322 Total of Items 1 to 30 $54,277 31. Equipment 8,715 Grand total ' $62,992 *There are 1.34 miles of track per mile of line. The actual cost of the equipment on tho entire Northern Pacific system, up to June 30, 1906, was as follows: Locomotives $12,977,823.23 Passenger 5,074,739.99 Freight '. . . 21,436,740.43 Work and miscellaneous 1,904,185.11 Trust equipment 3,032,526.48 Discount and commission 939,858.42 Total equipment $45,365,882.66 The above does not include the equipment of the Washington and Columbia River Ry., which was estimated by Mr. Gillette to have cost as follows : Locomotives $ 60,000 Passenger 24,000 Freight 62,000 Work 1,200 Total . ..$147,200 1330 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of the locomotives in Washington was based upon the cost of those actually used in that state. The cost of passenger and freight cars was apportioned to Washington according to car mileage. The cost of work equipment was apportioned according to mileage of railway line operated. On this basis the following costs were arrived at for the state of Washington : Original Cost Present cost. reproduction. value. Locomotives 3,689,522 4,242,950 2,715,488 Passenger 1,598,184 1,447,593 868,556 Freight 5,665,564 8,040,255 5,668,380 Work and miscellaneous 524,851 603,579 425,523 Total $11,478,121 $14,334,377 $9,677,947 The "cost of reproduction" was determined by adding 15% to the original cost to provide for increased prices. The "present value" was determined by deducting from the "cost of reproduction" a de- preciation of 3.6% per annum. In this connection it is interesting to note that the report of the Northern Pacific Ry. to the Interstate Commerce Commission for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1906, gave the value of the equipment at $32,044,260, or about 70% of its original cost. Mr. Gillette's esti- mate of the "present" value was 67.6% of the original cost, which shows that the Northern Pacific Ry. had charged off for depreciation only slightly less than Mr. Gillette has estimated. It is also worthy of comment that many railway engineers have erred in their estimates of the cost of equipping railways, largely be- cause they have taken the total cost of equipment given in the Interstate Commerce Reports and have divided it by the total mileage of railway lines. It has not been generally known that the costs given in the Interstate Commerce Commission reports are depreciated, or second hand, values. In roughly estimating the probable cost of equipment of a steam railway line the proper method is obviously to base the estimate upon the ton-miles (or car-miles) of freight per year per mile of line. In Engineering-Contracting, June 19, 1907, the freight carried per mile of railway in America was shown to have been 830,000 ton- miles in 1904. Since the Northern Pacific carried 845,000 ton-miles in 1906 per mile of line in Washington, it may be regarded as nearly typical of the average American road, so far as freight is concerned. On the other hand, its passenger traffic is considerably less dense than that of the average American road. It is safe to say, there- fore, that the cost of the equipment of the Northern Pacific is fairly typical of the average railway in America. Roughly speaking, then, the cost of equipment of an American railway is $10 per 1,000 ton- miles carried per annum per mile of line. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1906, there were 1,390,064,- 467 ton-miles of freight carried over the Northern Pacific within the state of Washington, or 845,000 ton-miles per mile of line. This was almost 50% more per mile of line than was carried by the Great Northern, which accounts for the higher cost of the Northern Pacific equipment per mile of line. RAILWAYS. 1331 In drawing conclusions relative to the probable average cost of railway lines throughout the country, serious errors have been made by considering only the costs in one or two states. It will be noted that the cost of terminal lands in Washington is enormous when charged entirely to the road mileage within that state. In the find- ings of the Washington Railroad Commission it was determined that 56.8% of the entire value of lands used by the whole Northern Pacific Ry. system exists in the state of Washington. The Railroad Commission also determined that 62.3% of the entire cost of tunnels and 31.6% of the entire cost of bridges on the N. P. system is found in Washington. These figures show clearly the rugged character of much of the country traversed by the N. P. in Washington. Unquestionably the cost of its lines in that state far exceeds the cost in any other state through which it passes. The same also is true of the Great Northern. Cost of 500 Miles of the O. R. & N. My appraisal of the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Co. lines in the state of Washington gave, briefly, the following results : On June 30, 1907, there were 501 miles of single track main line and branches, and 68 miles of sidings and yard track. The con- struction period was from 1875 to 1899, but most of the mileage was built in the 80's. The following was the original cost of construction per mile of single track main line and branches (501 miles) : Per mile. 1. Engineering ; $ 623 2. Superintendence and inspection 78 3. Right of way 400 4. Lands and depot grounds 1,884 5. Grading 6,603 6. Clearing and grubbing 65 7. Tunnels 260 8. Bridges, trestles and culverts 2,518 9. Ties 1,397 10. Rails 5,589 11. Track fastenings 684 12. Frogs and switches 68 13. Ballast 526 14. Tracklaying and surfacing 798 15. Fencing, crossings, cattle guards and signs 118 16. Telegraph lines 4 17. Station buildings and fixtures 345 18. Section houses 141 19. Engine houses and shops 190 20. Turntables 50 21. Shop machinery and tools. 10 22. Water stations 265 23. Miscellaneous structures 39 24. Legal expensed 6 25. Interest and discount 575 26. General expense 106 27. Taxes 8 28. Miscellaneous, undistributed 581 Total original construction $23,931 Betterments, undistributed 2,388 Grand total $26,319 1332 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. My estimate of the cost of reproduction new was as follows per mile of single track main line and branches (501 miles) : Per mile. 1. Engineering (3%% of Items 2 to 21) $ 706 2. Grading 6,886 3. Tunnels 260 4. Bridges, trestles and culverts 2,782 5. Ties 1,666 6. Rails 4,515 7. Track fastenings 919 * 8. Frogs and switches 76 9. Ballast ... 721 10. Tracklaying and surfacing 828 11. Fencing right of way 255 12. Crossings, cattle guards and signs 44 13. Interlocking and signal apparatus 48 14. Telegraph lines 30 15. Station buildings and fixtures 283 16. Shops, roundhouses and turntables 165 17. Shop machinery and tools 46 18. Water stations 166 19. Fuel stations 52 20. Storage warehouses 112 21. Miscellaneous structures 307 22. Taxes 8 23. Section equipment 22 24. Legal and general expense (1% of Items to to 22) 202 25. Interest (5% of Items 1 to 24) 1,055 26. Stores on hand 481 Total $22,635 27. Right of way and terminal grounds. ." 4,487 Total $27,122 28. Equipment (rolling stock) 2,994 Grand total $30,116 For a more detailed statement of the foregoing items, consult the files of Engineering-Contracting, year 1910. Note that there were 68 miles of sidetracks in addition to the 501 miles of main line. Hence the above costs per mile of main line should be divided by 1.136 to ascertain the cost per mile of track. Appraised Value of the Steam Railways of Wisconsin.* In our issue of June 26, 1907, was published the appraised value of the railways of Wisconsin, as of June 30. 1903* The following is a brief summary of the last valuation, as of June 30, 1907, which wa.s completed in December, 1908, under the direction of Prof. W. I>. Pence, Engineer of the Wisconsin Tax Commission and of the Railroad Commission. Table I is a summary of the first and the last valuations. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 19, 1910. RAILWAYS. 1333 TABLE XX. COMPARISON BETWEEN FIRST AND FIFTH WISCONSIN STEAM ROAD VALUATIONS. Valuation as of date. June 30, 1903. June 30, 1907. Number of railroad properties included. .. 47 52 Total length, road mileage... 6,656.88 7,090.39 Cost of reproduction : Property, new total $205,760,519 $244,128,868 Cost of reproduction : Existing condition, total 169,758,518 196,239,314 Reproduction cost per mile of line : Property new 30,900 34,400 Present value per mile of line 25,500 27,700 Per cent condition 82.5 80.3 The mileage on June 30, 1907, was as follows: Main line 6,519.69 Main line, joint, % interest 9.80 Branch line 551.83 Branch line, joint, % interest 9.07 Total main and branch line 7,090.39 Second track 431.57 Third track 40.62 Fourth track 35.54 Total "trackway" 7,598.12 Spurs and sidings 2,523.33 Spurs and siding joint, % interest 52.83 Spurs and sidings joint, % interest 4.32 Spurs and siding joint, % interest 0.29 Crossovers 0.04 Grand total track -10,178.93 The total appraised values, new and in present (depreciated) con- dition, as of June 30, 1907, are as in Table XXI. TABLE XXI. VALUATION NEW AND IN DEPRECIATED CONDITION OF WISCONSIN RAILWAYS. Cost of reproduction. Present New. condition. 1. Right of way and station grounds $ 26,339,419 $ 26,339,41D 2. Real estate 3. Grading 39,391,307 39,391,307 4. Tunnels 797,412 776,972 5. Bridges, trestles and culverts IS, 616,486 14,688,887 6. Cross ties and switch ties 11 181,399 5,826,021 7. Rails 30,111,358 24,605,740 8. Track fastenings 5,254,013 3,367,649 9. Frogs, switches and crossings 1,179,056 743,079 10. Ballast 5,768,084 3,969,476 11. Track laying and surfacing 3,345,555 2,770,572 12. Fencing 1,611,775 826,512 13. Crossings, cattle guards and signs 440,896 269,880 14. Interlocking and signal apparatus. . . . 613,354 538,801 15. Telegraph lines 167,840 99,587 16. Telephone lines and distribution system 89,639 81,439 17. Station buildings and fixtures 3,918,995 2,902,418 18. Shops and round houses, power houses and car barns 3,892,882 3,048,497 19. Tools 144,419 86,384 20. Water stations 1,345,218 986,357 21. Fuel stations 466,745 351,432 22. Grain elevators 826,706 612,171 23. Warehouses 262,539 200,278 24. Docks and wharves 3,645,907 2,956,821 25. Miscellaneous structures 2,106,101 1,409,949 26. Sub-stations 45,130 44,119 Totals of all the above Items $161,562,23*5 $136,893,767 1334 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 27. Engineering, superintendence, and legal expenses, 4.5% of all the above items 7,270,300 28. Locomotives 11,531,174 29. Passenger equipment 5,317,465 30. Freight equipment 30,944,348 31. Miscellaneous equipment 901,935 32. Ferries and steamships 33. Electric plants 161,476 34. Shop machinery and tools 1,573,000 6,160,220 7,331,573 3,193,301 20,479,648 588,260 35. 36. 37. Totals of all the above items $219,261,933 Freight on construction material, 0.7% of items 1.34 1,523,656 Interest during construction, 3 % ; Or- ganization, J , contingencies, 5.5%; in all, 2 , of Items 1.34 20,738,225 Stores and supplies on hand for use in Wisconsin 2,605,054 146,114 1,186,369 $175,979,252 1,209,539 16,463,297 2,587,226 Totals $244,128,868 $196,239,314 n% and 1.5%. 2 9.5% and 10%. Includes dock property and all lines under construction. Dividing each of the items in the first column of Table XXI by 7,090, we have the following cost per mile of roadbed: Per mile of roadbed. 1. Right of way, etc $ 3,714 2. Real estate 3. Grading 5,554 4. Tunnels 112 5. Bridges, etc 2,625 6. Ties 1,577 7. Rails 4,246 8. Track fastenings 741 9. Frogs, etc 166 10. Ballast 813 11. Track laying and surfacing 472 12. Fencing 227 13. Crossings, etc 62 14. Interlocking and signal 86 15. Telegraph 24 16. Telephone 13 17. Station buildings 553 18. Shops and roundhouses 548 19. Tools . . . 20 20. Water stations 189 21. Fuel stations , 66 22. Grain elevators 121 23. Warehouses 37 24. Docks and wharves 514 25. Miscellaneous structures. 297 26. Substations 6 Total of above $22,783 RAILWAYS. 1335 27. Engineering 1,025 28. Locomotives 1,625 29. Passenger equipment 750 30. Freight equipment 4,363 31. Miscellaneous equipment 127 32. Ferries, etc 33. Electric plants 23 34. Shop machinery and tools 222 Total of above $30,918 35. Freight on construction materials 215 36. Interest during construction, contingencies, etc 2,924 37. Stores on hand 367 Grand total $34,424 Since there are 1.435 miles of track per mile of roadbed, each of the above items should be divided by 1.435 (or multiplied by 0.7) to obtain the cost per mile of track. For example, item 11, "Track laying and surfacing," is $472 per mile of roadbed, which is equivalent to 0.7 X $472 = $331 per mile of track, which, by the way, is an exceedingly low estimate of cost. Cost per Mile of Railways in Wisconsin and Michigan.* In the year 1900, Prof. Mortimer E. Cooley made an appraisal of all the steam railways in Michigan for the Board of State Tax Commis- sioners. A field inspection was made of every structure to deter- mine its "present value" expressed as a percentage of its value now. About 33,000 freight cars were inspected for the same purpose.. By examining records of transfer of lands it was decided to use a factor of 2 to 2^4 by which to multiply the market value of adjacent property to obtain its "value for railway purposes." It is a well- known fact that a railway usually pays two to three times the ordinary market value of land in securing its right of way. Prof. Cooley did not secure the "original cost" of the railways, that is, he did not secure the cost as determined by an inspection of the railways' records ; but he made his own estimate of the "cost of reproduction" under the then (1900) existing conditions as to prices, wages, etc. An examination of his estimate leads us to think that it was, in many items, much too low, even though he added 10% for contingencies. But the railways have, as yet, not fought the estimate, because it was made for taxation purposes, and the lower the estimate to the more to their liking. The Wisconsin appraisal was made by Prof. W. D. Taylor for the State Board of Assessment. He began this work in June, 1903, and made his final report 18 months later. Prof. Taylor pursued much the same plan as that pursued by Prof. Cooley, except that he required the railways themselves to submit first their own estimates of the cost of reproduction, which he subsequently checked, adding 13^% to their appraisal. Of course the railways tried to keep their estimates as low as possible, for the reasons above given, and it is quite apparent that the estimates were too low, even after Prof. Taylor had added the 5^% for contingencies. * Engineering-Contracting, June 26, 1907. 1336 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 10000051 ssgis-g; lilf^ ' 3$i . +J ra ^_, _O .00 ; as oo < S^o't^gg ;gg-j PH i o t- 1- <> to OOOrHrHait-t-lftOOOilrtOOCrsOO ' 06 o o e-O ^ fi ? 3 ^ -2 u 00 t> U5 t-^CO-^< CO * lOt K5gB*S**S ^_CO_00 00 00 0_0> I-H IM to ^ ^cq " SNffR 111 111 ifll 'to w S - w" cS 111 ExfS-r-* JS^ 3 :* *:|,;i; W'Stjj*mpiJ > 2 Q < -o c " F S \C.|_^'.r5. j *lHCi(W( c pti a %M e;* *EI u s c ^ f R i^fl : a*s g=a gowP^ 2 ^>,c : --P^ fi c c'^^^'c^ 1 llg^lll 'jsr^gg- X^ v ufl W W3 W .iry closely and yet are carried out with a little different method as to details ; for precision of detail and speed of accomplish- ment was only possible to a very well defined and carefully consid- ered method entirely and exclusively evolved by Mr. Edward A. Dunbar, a former West Pointer and expert engineer, and well acquainted with real estate matters himself in large enterprises. For economy of costs and in the completeness of the returns I think it is unexcelled, and has never been approached by any other equally reliable method, except your own ; but all of them are much the same and splendid in their discussion of a very difficult and what has heretofore been a vexatious problem to solve. I hope sometime in the near future to have the great pleasure of meeting you personally, for we highly appreciate your method of thinking about a good many things. There has been in all this property so much theoretical stuff injected into it that it is very wearisome to practical men, and it is a relief to find some one like yourself who has the courage and the earnestness of purpose and honesty of intention to say so. Yours truly, F. T. BARCROFT, Director of Appraisal. Detroit, Mich., April 26, 1909. My Dear Mr. Barcroft. In compliance with your request I submit herewith a statement of the method by which the land values of the Michigan Railroad Appraisal were deduced. LAND VALUATION. The limited time in which full results had to be made known precluded the general adoption of any of the usual methods of land valuation and for that reason the following method was adopted : Determining the Quantity. The office inspectors, as they were called, took direct from the maps and other data of the railroad company, and of the registers of deeds offices, all the information necessary to determine the area of the railroad land throughout the state. They subdivided the land, in taking it off by counties and also subdivided it so the right-of-way between stations showed separately from the right-of-way and additional land at stations, or at points where the density of population would enhance the values of land beyond that of farm land. In the cities the land was all divided into small blocks, so that it might be estimated either by square feet or by the front foot, as might seem most expedient. Determining the Quality. As the land throughout the state is not uniform quality the railroads' lands were subdivided into 83 subdivisions following county lines. And on the basis of its physical characteristics, it was also subdivided into six separata classes, viz. : 1st. Farm land. 2d. Barren land. 3d. Towns under 500 population. 4th. Towns under 3,000 population. RAILWAYS. 1351 5th. Towns under 10,000 population. 6th. Towns over 10,000 population. To determine the percentage on each railroad in each county of farm and waste land a representative was sent to each of the railway centers of the state. He interviewed roadmasters, assistant roadmasters, locomotive engineers and freight train conductors, as being men who knew every foot of the land over which the railroad passed and from them secured the information which enabled him to report on the percentage of waste land on each railroad by counties. In the smaller cities and a few of the larger villages the quality of land was determined by our representative going over the land within the city, dividing it up according to the use to which the various sections were put, viz. : Laborers' residence property. Mechanics' residence property. v High class residence property. Manufacturing property. Second-class store property. First-class store property. He also got local experts to value each division, but this really falls under the next head which is: Determining the Price. The price of the land in the first five classes, except as next before noted, was determined by sending a letter of inquiry, enclosing a card for reply, to some five hundred representative citizens of the state, taking about six from each county and choosing these citizens from among land dealers, bankers, county surveyors and county treasurers. Each man selected was supposed to be peculiarly adapted as a judge of land values within his county and on the card enclosed was requested to give his estimate of the present value of an average acre of land in his county in each of the five classes. This method it will be observed assumes that every acre of land of the same class, in a county, is equally valuable arid that that value may fairly be taken to be the average price of the land of that class in that county. An average of the prices by classes a. given on the cards for each county was therefore taken as the present valuation for the first four classes and partly for the fifth. For part of the fifth and all of the sixth, the price was determined in the usual manner by a board of experts ; going over every foot of the property in question and valuing each piece separately; taking into consideration surrounding values, both from selling prices of adjoining land and assessment rolls. Our method of accumulating this information was by mean* of a card index file, of which I enclose a sample card. One card was made for each county through which each railroad passed. It Is evident therefore that by applying the average prices to the class quantities, determining as hereinbefore described, that each card would represent the total present market value of all the land belonging to the railroad in question in that particular county, and the sum of the values given on all the cards, for any given rail- road (that is one card for each county) would equal the actual 1352 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. present market value of all the land owned by that railroad in the State of Michigan and that the total of all the cards would equal the total present value of all the railroad lands in the State of Michigan. The question arose in our minds at the outset whether in ad- dressing five hundred strangers, nearly all of whom were busy men, we should get any considerable number of replies to our inquiry and if we did, whether they would not be mere off-hand guesses rather than thoughtful estimates. It is extremely gratify- ing to be able to say that out of five hundred cards sent out less than fifty have failed to respond. In only one case was the failure to comply with the request based upon the plea of no compensa- tion, and of all the answers received there is scarcely one that does not bear either in itself, or in an accompanying letter, evidence of the, most painstaking care. It was noticed in many instances that before making out his card the writer would correspond with from five to twelve different persons in his county, getting their views and then summarizing them on his card. I do not believe that had we gone over every acre of the land in this state, with a board of inspection and valuation, at enormous expense, we would have arrived at any better result than we did by the inexpensive and expeditious method detailed above. Yours very truly, E. C. DUNBAR. Cost of 1,100 Miles of the C., M & St. P. R. R. in South Dakota.* In the "Spokane Rate Case" before the Interstate Commerce Commission, Mr. A. H. Hogeland, chief engineer of the Great Northern Railway, and Mr. W. L. Darling, chief engineer of the Northern Pacific Railway, presented itemized estimates of the cost of reproducing those two railway systems. Acting for the city of Spokane, Mr. Halbert P. Gillette offered testimony showing that the estimates of Mr. Hogeland and Mr. Darling were too high. Among the facts most strongly in dispute was the allowance to be made for transporting the contractors' men and supplies over the railway to and from the site of the work. Mr. Hogeland testified that 4^ cts. per cu. yd. shotild be added to the contract price of each yard of earth excavation to cover the added cost to the railway company for transportation. Mr. Darling testified that 3 cts. per cu. yd. would cover this item and Mr. Gillette testified that 1 ct. would be an excessive allowance. In substantiation of his estimate Mr. Gillette presented data of his own and estimates made by other engineers. Among the latter was an estimate of Mr. D. J. Whittemore, made while he was chief engineer of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. Mr. Whittemore presented his testimony in 1898 in the "South Dakota Rate Case" under conditions that made it desirable for him to claim all he reasonably could claim on the cost of construction of his road. His estimate covered the original cost of 1,101 miles of main line and 86 miles of sidetracks in South Dakota, which is equivalent to 1.08 miles of main line and Engineering-Contracting, July 24, 1907. RAILWAYS. 1353 sidings to each mile of main line. The unit prices used by Mr. Whittemore were based upon those prevailing in 1879 to 1887, 'the years during which the road was built. He testified that there was practically no rock excavation, which accounts in part for the low unit price in the earthwork. Believing that Mr. Whittemore's estimate is worthy of being placed permanently on record, we reproduce it herewith. In a subsequent issue we shall give Mr. Hogeland's and Mr. Darling's itemized estimates of the cost of the two great railroad systems of which they are chief engineers: Per mile of main line (1,101 miles). 11,300 cu. yds. embankment at 15.16 cts $ 1,713.10 4.55 cu. yds. riprap at $1.50 6.80 10,000 ft. B. M. timber in bridges and culverts at $30 per M 300.00 425 lin. ft. piles in bridges at 35 cts 148.75 Truss bridges at $4,437 each 31.05 y iron pipe culvert in place of wooden one (betterment) at $50 12.50 96.63 tons (gross) rails at $46.76 4,518.40 7,555 Ibs. track spikes at 2% cts 188.90 380 pairs rail joint splices at $1 380.00 3,238 cross ties at 30 cts 971.40 0.63 switches at $100 63.00 0.01 railroad crossings at $200 2.00 1.08 miles main and side track laid and surfaced at $450 486.00 0.24 miles track ballasted at $500 120.00 Moving track material from store depot to the front 140.00 0.92 miles fence at $1.40 128.80 29 panels (0.1 miles) snow fence at $2.10 60.90 260 ft. B. M. crossing plant (1.1 crossings per mile) at $20 5.20 1 cattle guard 10.00 Freight on track materials, % ct. per ton mile. . . 2,130.00 Freight on contractor's tools and supplies 7.50 Freight on contractor's teams 6.00 Freight on bridge and culvert material 99.00 Transportation of laborers, 6 men transported 500 miles to work at 2 cents per mile 60.00 0.23 station sign board, at $6.00 1.40 1.1 highway sign board, at $5.0 5.50 0.04 R. R. crossing sign board, at $6.00 .25 0.04 R. R. crossing stop board, at $6.00 .25 2 whistle posts, at $1.00 2.00 0.45 mile posts, at $1.00 .45 1 rail rest, at $1.00 1.00 Buildings 855.00 1 mile right-of-way and station grounds 128.00 Telegraph lines 64.80 Engineering, superintendence, legal and general office expense 300.00 Interest on the above items for % o f two years at 6% 777.00 Track tools, V 8 section at $138 per section 17.25 Station furniture, 1/12 station, at $78 6.50 Betterment to roadbed and bridges, estimated at 5% of above 687.00 Stores and supplies 300.00 Total (exclusive of equipment) .$14,725.70 1354 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. Whittemore testified that the $140 per mile for distributing trtck material from the store yard was estimated thus : 2 engines and crews at $25 per day $50.00 36 cars at 50 cents per day 18.00 1 caboose 2.00 Total $70.00 He stated that one-half mile of track was laid per day, hence it cost two times $70, or $140 per mile, to distribute track materials from the material yard. It will be noted that the cost of transporting men and supplies, as given by Mr. Whittemore, consisted of three items, namely : Freight on contractor's tools and supplies $ 7.50 Freight on contractor's teams 6.00 Transportation of laborers 60.00 Total per mile $73.50 This is equivalent to 0.66 ct per cu. yd. of earthwork, if charged entirely to the earthwork. Prices Used in Estimating Cost of Railways In Texas.* The Railroad Commission of Texas has appraised the value of roads recently constructed, using a schedule of unit prices which we reproduce herewith. The railways were paying $1.50 to $1.75 per day of 10 hrs. for com- mon laborers in 1906, and found labor very scarce at these wages. The following unit prices were used in valuing the Trinity & Brazos Valley Ry., from Mexia to Houston, a distance of 165 miles: Price. Right of way, per acre , $ 50.00 Depot grounds, per acre (minimum) 100.00 Reservoir grounds, per acre. 25.00 Clearing and grubbing, per acre, 25.00 Clearing and grubbing, per acre 50.00 Earth excavation, per cu. yd. 0.15 Loose rock excavation, per cu. yd. 0.40 Solid rock excavation, per cu. yd. 0.75 Trestle timber, in place, per M 40.00 Trestle piling, in place, per lin. ft 0.40 Wood drain boxes, per M 35.00 Tile drains, 24 in., per lin. ft. 3.00 Cattle guards, wooden surface 40.00 Fences, 4 -wire, cedar posts (16 ft. apart) per mile of fence 160.00 Road crossings, per .M 35.00 Ties, L. L. Y. pine (6" x 8" x 8') 0.70 Rails, 75 lb., per ton 35.00 Joints, including bolts, each 1.20 Spikes, 34 kegs per mile, per keg 5.25 Track laying and surfacing per mile 500.00 Car and engine hire during construction, per mi. 250.00 Sidings (60-lb. rail, 2,640 ties per mile), per lin ft. " ...:.. 1.15 Switch furniture, per set 135.00 Ballast, sand (about 2,500 cu. yds. per mile), per mile 750.00 Telegraph line (for 1 wire, construction only, materials furnished by Western Union), per mile , 50.00 Passenger depots, small frame, per sq. ft 1.00 Platforms for ditto, per sq. ft 0.16 Cotton platforms, per sq. ft 0.18 * Engineering-Contracting, July 24, 1907. RAILWAYS. 1355 Engineering and legal expense, 5 per cent of total cost of con- struction. Interest during construction, 5 per cent of total cost of con- struction. For comparative figures the reader is referred to Lavis' "Railroad Location, Surveys and Estimates^" page 193 et. seq. Itemized Cost of the Northern Pacific Railway System as Esti- mated by Its Chief Engineer.* In this article we give an estimate prepared by Mr. W. L. Darling, chief engineer of the N. P. Ry., and introduced as part of his testimony in the "Spokane Rate Case" before the Interstate Commerce Commission a few months ago. . While many of the quantities were guessed ~ at by Mr. Darling, and while no quantities at all are given for many items, but simply lump sum estimates, still these data are worthy of being recorded, if only to indicate the relative cost of different items. Engineering, for example, is estimated at 3 per cent of the total, and this percentage is undoubtedly not far from correct, although the actual amount estimated for engineering is unquestionably very liberal. The reader should bear in mind that this estimate was prepared for the purpose of proving that the Northern Pacific Ry. is not earning an unreasonable amount of money, considering what the physical value of the property is today. The city of Spokane contends not only that it is discriminated against in the matter of transcontinental freight rates, but that the rates are in themselves too high, and yield an unreasonable profit to the railways. The Northern Pacific and Great Northern Rys. contend that their rates are reasonable and yield only a fair profit ; and, in proof, they have submitted estimates of the cost of reproducing their entire systems as they stand today, using what they claim to be current unit prices. Regarding these unit prices, it is only fair to say, that the City of Spokane contends that they are, in nearly every instance, unreasonably high. Mr. Halbert P. Gillette, in behalf of the City of Spokane, testified that much lower unit prices are commonly paid by railways in the northwest. He also criticised the quantities in many instances, claiming that they were mere guesses, and not trustworthy. We shall not go into all the testimony that was offered by both sides in the controversy, further than to put on record an abstract of the testimony of Mr. W. L. Darling, chief engineer of the N. P., and Mr. Hogeland, chief engineer of the G. N. The mileage of the N. P. is as follows: Miles. Main line, single and second track 2,860.67 Branch lines, main and second track 3,014.24 Spurs, sidings and yard tracks 1,819.88 All tracks, total 7,694.79 Of this track only 112 miles is second track. * Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 15, 1908. 1356 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. Darling's estimate of the cost was presented in the following form : Grading and track 1138,745.971 Grade revisions, 1897 to 1901 2,350,600 Turnouts 1,838,750 Permanent bridges 9,950,248 Temporary bridges 4,284,580 Culverts 3,091,000 Wooden bridges filled 4,518,600 Tunnels 3,921,421 Fencing 707,290 Snow fences 537,600 Telegraph 1,443,000 Water supply 1,971,200 Coaling stations 635,900 Wharfs and docks 1,725,000 Stock yards 152,857 Track scales 107,671 Cattle guards 57,195 Round houses, turntables, power houses, etc. 1,680,448 Shop buildings 2,091,650 Miscellaneous buildings 1,578,528 Warehouses 2,886,016 Headquarters building 756,600 Furniture 440,000 Passenger stations 1,102,304 Combination stations 1,408,960 Duluth Union depot 343,300 St. Paul Union depot 159,200 Interlocking 123,555 Block system 44,307 Mile posts and signs 129,584 Ash pits 79,067 Oil and sand houses 120,960 Shop tools and machinery 1,100,000 Kalama ferry and steamer 617,400 Lines in Manitoba 7,000,000 Joint work, Seattle 2,457,000 Total $200,155,762 Engineering, 3 % 6,004,673 Total $206,160,435 Contingencies, 10% 20,616,043 Total $226,776,478 Interest during construction 4 % for 2 % yra, 10% 22,677,648 Total $249,454,126 Freight equipment : 30,486^000 Passenger equipment 5,898,600 Power 16,480,200 Floating equipment 497,000 Grand total $302,815,326 RAILWAYS. 135? This does not include lands which were estimated to be worth as follows : Right of way, not including large terminals$ 31,889,587 Large terminals. '75,000,501 N. P. interest in terminal companies 882,655 Coal properties 50,720,120 Total $158,492,913 Grand total 461,308,239 This estimate of the value of lands was not made by Mr. Darling. In estimating the cost of grading, Mr. Darling stated that an estimate of quantities was made in 1898, and was as follows: Per mile Total. (4,4 19 mi.). Clearing, acres 15.089 3.4 Grubbing, stations 21,124 4.8 Earth, cu. yds 88,334,218 20,000 Loose rock, cu. yds 7,258,532 1,640 Solid rock, cu. yds 5,164,479 1,170 Riprap, cu. yds 1,548,911 350 At that time there were 4,419 miles of main track and branches, plus 850 miles of siding and yard tracks, or a total of 5,269 miles of track. In the year 1907, however, there were 1.4605 times as many miles of track. Hence, it is reasonable to suppose that each of the above quantities is 1.46 times larger now than in 1898. But, in addition to this, Mr. Darling claimed that all embankments had been widened from an original 14 ft. to a present 18 ft., and he estimated that all the above quantities (except the clearing and grubbing) should be multiplied by 1.20 to allow for this increase in bank widening. This would make a total increase of 1.20 X 1.4605 = 1.7526. Accordingly, Mr. Darling increased the grading quantities by 75.26% and secured the following quantities, to which he affixed the following unit prices : 22,036 acres clearing at $80.00 $ 1,762,880 30,851 stations grubbing at $16.50 590,042 116,110,913 cu. yds. earth at $0.28 32,511,055 38,703,637 cu. yds. hardpan at $0.42 16,255,528 12,721,303 cu. yds. loose rock at $0.50 6,360,651 9,051,266 cu. yds. solid rock at $1.10 9,956,39s 2,714,621 cu. yds. riprap at $2.00 5,429,242 Total grading, etc $72,865,791 It will be noted that the 1898 estimate of quantities showed the following classification : Per cent. Earth 88 Loose rock 7 Solid rock 5 But Mr. Darling claimed that fully one-quarter of this earth (or 22% of the total excavation) must have been hardpan, hence his estimate of 38,703,637 cu. yds. of hardpan above given. Mr. Gillette testified that this 22% allowance for hardpan was fully three times too high. He also testified that it was not at all probable that branch lines built and acquired since 1898 had required as heavy grading as the work done before that time, and 1358 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. that, in any event, an estimate of increase in yardage would more properly be based upon the increase in the miles of railway "line" rather than in the increase in the miles of "track." The miles of "line" had only increased 33%, as compared with an increase of 46% in the track mileage.. Mr. Gillette testified that while it was. possible that bank widening had increased the original yardage 20%, he knew that no such increase had occurred in the 1,500 miles of line owned by the Northern Pacific in the state of Washington ; but, even conceding that an increase in the widths of embankments had been made throughout the system, certainly no rock cuts had been widened, no hardpan dug, no loose rock excavated, and very little riprap widened. Practically all bank widening had been made by steam shovels working in gravel pits, and that it was not right, therefore to increase the original yardage of solid rock, loose rock and hardpan by 20% when practically no such work had been done. Mr. Darling's unit prices of reproduction were arrived at as follows : Clearing : Contract price per acre $75.00 Transportation of men and tools 5.00 Total $80.00 Grubbing : Contract price per station $15.00 Transportation of men, etc 1.50 Total $16.50 Earth. Per cu. yd. Contract price, average haul 400 ft $0.22 Overhaul 0.03 Transportation of men, etc 0.03 Total $0.28 Hardpan and cement gravel : Contract price $0.35 Overhaul 0.04 Transportation of men, etc 0.03 Total $0.42 Loose rock : Contract price $0.42 Overhaul 0.04 Transportation of men, etc 0.04 Total , $0.50 Solid rock : Contract price $1.60 Overhaul 0.05 Transportation of men, etc 0.05 Total $1.10 Riprap : Contract price, per cu. yd $1.75 Extra haul and work 0.15 Transportation of men, etc 0.10 Total . $2.00 RAILWAYS, 1359 As to the unit prices for grading, Mr. Gillette testified that all the contract prices were very liberal, and that the allowances for overhaul and transportation were fully three times too high. The unit prices for clearing were too high, because most of the clearing was light clearing, a great deal of it being sage brush. The unit price for riprap was excessive, except for hand placed riprap, and that ordinary riprap could be contracted for at $1.25 or less. The cost of the track was estimated as follows by Mr. Darling: Cost per mile of main track: 117 tons steel at St. Paul at $31 $3,627.00 7.3 tons angle bars at $34 249.66 0.75 tons bolts and nuts at $55 41.25 3.4 tons spikes at $42 143.48 7.5 tons tie plates at $44 330.00 135.95 tons handled in material, yard, at$l... 135.95 1 extra switch, per mile 27.50 Contract price for laying track 357.50 Train service and rent of equipment used in hauling to the front / 375.00 3,000 ties at $0.55 1,650.00 Transportation of ties, rails, etc. (steel hauled 1,000 miles and ties hauled 400 miles at 0.4 ct. per ton mile) 1,023.80 3,000 cu. yds. gravel ballast at $0.66 1,980.00 Total, per mile $9,941.14 Cost per mile of branch lines : 97 tons steel at St. Paul at $31 $3,007.00 6.46 tons angle bars at $34.20 220.93 0.75 tons bolts at $55 41.25 3.4 tons spikes at $42.20 143.48 107.61 tons handled in material yard, at $1. . . 107.61 1 extra switch 27.50 Contract price for track laying 375.50 Train service, hauling to the front 375.00 2,880 ties at $0.55 1,584.00 Transportation of steel and ties 891.24 1,500 cu. yds. ballast at $0.66 990.00 Total, per mile $7,763.51 The ballast was estimated thus: Per cu. yd. Contract price $0.27 Repairs to steam shovels, etc 0.03 Transportation 1% tons, 60 miles at 0.4 ct. per ton mile 0.36 Total $0.66 In testifying regarding these quantities and prices, Mr. Gillette states that the Northern Pacific was not fully tie plated even on its main line ; that the contract price for track laying was ex- cessive ; that the allowance for train service was nearly three times what such service actually costs ; that the price of ties was excessive ; that the estimated price of the gravel ballast was at least 50% too high, and that the 'quantity of ballast per mile was fully 50% in excess of the actual quantity. 1360 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. Darling estimated the cost of each turnout as follows : Set of switch ties $ 54.00 Switch stand 13.30 Connecting rod 1.65 Frog 33.00 Split switch 31.00 Rail braces 1.60 Switch lamp 5.00 Guard rails 8.80 Freight charges 14.40 Total $162.75 For the weight of rail used, and considering the character of the average turnout, this estimate is high. Mr. Darling estimated the cost of the tunnels on the system as follows : 3,390 lin. ft. tunnels under 700 ft. in length. 1,090 lin. ft. tunnels of 700 to 1,200 ft. each. 7,548 lin. ft. tunnels of 1,200 to 4,000 ft. each. 9,833 lin. ft. tunnels, very long tunnel. The above are single track tunnels lined with concrete. Beside these there were 4,919 lin. ft. of single track tunnels lined with wood, and 1,656 lin. ft. of double track tunnel lined with concrete. The cost of single tunnels per lineal foot was estimated as follows : Concrete lining : Per cu. yd. Contract price $ 9.00 1% bbls. cement 2.50 Freight 1.00 Total $12.50 With concrete averaging 2 ft. in thickness, there would be 4.1 cu. yds. per lin. ft. ; hence the cost of lining would be 4.1 X $12.50 = $51.25 per lin. ft of tunnel. The cost of short tunnels (up to 800 ft.) was estimated as follows per lin. ft. : Per lin. ft. Contract price $ 50.00 Add 10% for extra excavation to make room for lining 5.00 Concrete lining '. 51.25 False work 13.00 Total $119.25 For similar tunnels lined with wood instead of concrete, the estimate was $24^75 per lin. ft. for wood lining plus $55 for ex- cavation, making a total of practically $80. For longer tunnels the item of lining remained the same, but the item of excavation was estimated as follows: Length of tunnel: Price per ft. Up to 700 ft. $50 plus 10% = $55.00 700 to 1,200 ft 55 plus 10% = 60.50 1,200 to 4,000 ft 75 plus 10% = 82.50 4,000 to 10,000 ft 90 plus 10%= 99.00 RAILWAYS. 1361 The 10% Is added to cover the cost of the extra excavation to make room for the lining, and to these prices must be added the cost of the lining itself. Mr. Gillette testified that the unit prices for tunnel excavation were very liberal, and that the allowance for ' lining was excessive. The allowance for "falsework," he said, seemed to be in error by a misplaced decimal point, and would be nearer correct if it were $1.30, since it could refer to nothing but the materials used in the forms, centers, etc. Mr. Darling's estimate of the cost of short double track tunnels was as follows per lin. ft. : Contract price $50 plus 10% $ 55.00 11.5 cu. yds. extra excavation at $3 34.50 5.2 cu. yds. concrete at $12.50 65.00 Falsework 13.00 Total $167.50 Mr. Darling's estimate of bridges was not given in much detail, but was as follows: Howe truss bridges , $ 694,580 Steel and combination bridges 9,950,248 359,000 lin. ft. trestles at $10 3,590,000 Trestles filled with earth 3,012,415 Total bridging $17,247,243 Other items were estimated as follows : 4,575 miles fencing at $154.55 $ 707,290 Water supply 1,971,200 1,750,000 sq. ft. wharfs and docks at $0.70. . 1,725,000 Coaling stations 635,936 3,412,000 sq. ft. stock yards at 4.48 cts 152,857 74 track scales at $1,456 107,671 3,464 cattle guards at $16.80 57,195 Roundhouses, turntables, power houses, etc. 1,680,448 Shop buildings 2,091,650 Warehouses 2,886,016 Headquarters building 756,600 Passenger stations 1,102,304 Combination stations 1,408,960 Interlocking plant 123,555 Mile posts and signs (5,785 miles at $22.40) 129,584 Ash pits 79,067 Oil and sand houses at $1.68 per sq. ft 120,960 Block system 44,307 Miscellaneous buildings and piping 1,578,528 320 miles snow fences at $1,680 537,600 The above costs include freight on the materials, and, in nearly every instance, this freight was estimated at 12% of the unit price assumed; thus, oil and sand houses were estimated at $1.50 per sq. ft. plus 12% for freight, making a total of $1.68 per sq. ft 1362 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following unit prices for building were used by Mr. Darling, and do not include freight: Frame roundhouses, per stall $1,300.00 Brick roundhouses, per stall 2,100.60 Turntables, each 5,000.00 Brick shops (3 -story) per sq. ft 1.50 Brick shops (2-story) per sq. ft 2.50 Frame shops (1-story) per sq. ft 1.00 FrameT warehouses, per sq. ft 1.20 Brick warehouses, per sq. ft 1.60 Frame passenger stations, per sq. ft 1.50 Brick passenger stations, per sq. ft 2.50 Frame combination stations (1-story) per sq. ft 1.50 Frame combination stations (2-story) per sq. ft 2.50 Oil and sand houses, per sq. ft 1.50 Mr. Darling failed to give the number of square feet of each of these different kinds of buildings. For purposes of comparison, Mr. Gillette rearranged the foregoing figures of cost, following the classification used by the Interstate Commerce Commission, and divided each item by 5,875 miles, which is the mileage of main line and branches on the Northern Pacific system. The following table gives the results of this calculation, showing the cost per mile of main line and branches, and the percentages : Per mile. Per cent. 1. Engineering $ 1,027 2.04 2. Grading 12,814 25.44 3. Tunnels 670 1.33 4. Bridges, trestles and culverts..... .3,722 7.38 5. Ties 2,719 5.40 6. Rails 4,850 9.63 7. Frogs and switches 342 0.68 8. Track fastenings 705 1.40 9. Track laying 1,128 2.24 10. Ballasting 1,776 3.53 11. Fencing 116 0.23 12. Crossings, cattle guards and signs 30 0.06 13. Interlocking and signal 25 0.05 14. Telegraph lines 247 0.49 15. Station buildings.. 1,138 2.26 16. Shops and roundhouses 675 1.34 17. Machinery and tools 186 0.37 18. Water stations. 337 0.67 19. Fuel stations Ill 0.22 20. Warehouses 488 0.97 21. Docks and wharves 292 0.50 22. Miscellaneous structures 403 0.80 23. Interest 3,860 7.66 24. Marine equipment 106 0.21 25. Contingencies 3,509 6.97 26. Freight equipment 5,202 10.32 27. Passenger equipment 1,002 1.97 28. Locomotives 2,804 5.57 29. Floating equipment 86 1.17 Total ... $ 50,370 ToO.OO Total 295,916,693 Right of way and station grounds 107,772,743 Grand total.. ...$403,689,436 RAILWAYS. 1363 The above does not include lines in Manitoba, estimated to cost $7,000,000 to reproduce, nor the coal properties valued at $50,720,120. It will be noted that the $50,370 per mile multiplied by the 5,874.91 miles does not give exactly the total of $295,916,693. This is due to the fact that a slide rule was used in computing the cost of each item per mile, and absolute precision was not obtained. However, the error is only $4 per mile. The reader should also note that the above costs per mile are not costs per mile of track, but per mile of all main and branch lines. Since there are 7,694.79 miles of all track, and only 5,874.91 miles of main and branches, there are 0.77 mile of main and branches for each 1.00 mile of "all tracks." Hence if we multiply any of the above 29 items by 0.77 we shall have the cost per mile of all tracks, Thus, item 9, Track Laying, is $1,128, which is the cost per mile of main line and branches, sidings and yards being lumped in. But the estimated cost of laying each mile of every kind of track is 0.77 X $1,128 = $868. In our issue of June 22, 1907, are given estimates of the cost of all the railways in Wisconsin and Michigan. In a subsequent issue we shall give the estimated cost of the Great Northern Ry. system. A comparison of these various estimates should prove instructive to every engineer interested in railway construction. Itemized Cost of the Great Northern Railway System as Esti- mated by Its Chief Engineer.* In our issue of April 15 we gave an estimate of the cost of the Northern Pacific Railway similar to the one that will be given here. Both these estimates were presented as testimony before the Interstate Commerce Commission in their hearing of the "Spokane Rate Case." Since the object of the hearing was to ascertain the reasonableness of railway rates on the N. P. and on the G. N. railways, the railways naturally claimed a high physical value for their property. As stated in our April 15 issue, Mr. Halbert P. Gillette, testifying in behalf of the city of Spokane, claimed that the estimates presented by the railways were much too high, frequently being high not only as to unit prices but as to quantities. Mr. A. H. Hogeland, Chief Engineer of the Great Northern Rail- way, presented the following as his estimate of the cost of reproduc- ing the railway new at present prices. The mileage of the Great Northern under operation April 1, 1907, was: Miles. Main track 6,523.09 Second, 3d, 4th, 5th and 6th track 112.25 Side track , 1,480.24 Grand total of all tracks. 8,115.58 * Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908. 1364 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. Hogeland's estimate of the cost was presented in the following summarized form : 1. Engineering $ 6,870,187 2. Right of way and station grounds. . . . 87,067,532 3. Grading 93,098,889 4. Tunnels 7,447,620 5. Bridges, trestles and culverts 17,953,028 6. Ties 18,690,731 7. Rails 31,054,392 8. Track fastenings 7,375,495 9. Frogs and switches 904,450 10. Ballast 10,509,000 11. Track laying and surfacing 6,998,409 12. Fencing right of way 760,815 13. Crossings, cattle guards and signs.... 1,922,160 14. Interlocking or signal apparatus 386,190 15. Telegraph lines 2,198,283 16. Station buildings and fixtures 3,276,300 17. Shops, roundhouses and turntables. . . . 3,667,900 18. Shop machinery and tools 1,779,692 19. Water stations 1,983,325 20. Fuel stations 575,700 21. Grain elevators 2,708,100 22. Storage warehouses 276,500 23. Docks and wharves 1,222,900 24. Gas making plants 15,000 25. Miscellaneous structures 3,194,850 26. Track and bridge tools 142,877 27. Stores and supplies on hand Feb. 28, 1907 5,395,463 28. Contingencies 15,291,252 29. Equipment: Locomotives $10,756,324 Passenger cars 4,915,764 Frt. cars and other equip. 25,249,096 40,921,184 Total $373,688,224 30. General and legal expenses (1% ) 3,736,882 Total $377,425,106 31. Interest during constr. (10% ) 37,742,510 Grand total $415,167,616 Engineering was estimated at 3% of all items requiring engineer- ing supervision, being all items except items 2, 26, 27, 29, 30 and 31. Right of way and station grounds were estimated by the Right of Way Department. The grading was estimated as follows : 27,018 acres clearing at $82.50 $ 2,228,985 340,000 sq. rods grubbing at $1.65 561,000 165,438,650 cubic yards earth at $0.31 51,285,982 33,973,350 cubic yards hardpan at $0.45 15,288,008 8,441,860 cubic yards loose rock at $0.55 4,643,023 12,771,060 cubic yards solid rock at $1.10 14,048,166 1,765,675 cubic yards riprap at $2.00 3,531,350 92,500 cubic yards retaining wall at $9.00 832,500 194,250 cubic yards slope wall at $3.50 679,875 Total grading $93,098,889 RAILWAYS. 1365 Mr. Hogeland testified that the quantities of grading were arrived at as follows: "For 82% of the mileage of the system the actual quantities moved in construction were obtained from Engineering Department records. For the balance of the system the quantities could not be obtained in that way, because no records were avail- able, and they were estimated from, profiles and by comparison with adjacent portions of the system where the quantities were known. To these quantities were added the quantities moved since con- struction, in widening banks, reducing grades, taking out sags, filling bridges and widening and deepening cuts. The result being the actual quantities as nearly as possible to arrive at same, required to make the roadbed as it exists to-day." It will be noted that Mr. Hogeland' s estimate gives an average of 33,250 cu. yds. of excavation per mile of main track, distributed thus: Per cent. Earth 75.0 Hardpan 15.4 Loose rock 3.8 Solid rock 5.8 Total 100.0 Mr. Hogeland testified that the part of the G. N. east of Havre (4,553 miles of main line) averaged 27,760 cu. yds. per mile, whereas the line west of Havre (2,082 miles of main line) averaged 45,250. Mr. Hogeland gave the percentages as follows : East of West of Havre. Havre. Per cent. Per cent. Earth 88.4 57.0 Hardpan 10.2 22.4 Loose rock 1.1 7.4 Solid rock 0.3 13.2 Total 100.0 100.0 Mr. Gillette testified that Mr. Hogeland' s estimate of yardage per mile was much too high, and cited actual records of the G. N. In the state of Washington where much of the heaviest grading on the G. N. is found. But, as we shall publish in detail Mr. Gillette's quantities and estimates of cost of each of the railway systems in the state of Washington, the reader may make comparisons for himself. Mr. Hogeland arrived at his unit prices as follows: Clearing : Per acre. Contract price ?7 ^95 Transporting men, tools and supplies 7.50 Total . $82.50 1366 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Grubbing: Per sq. rod. Contract price $1.50 Transporting men, etc 0.15 Total $1.65 Earth : Per cu. yd. Contract price up to 1,000 ft. haul $0.23 Overhaul 0.035 Transporting men, etc 0.045 Total $0.31 Hardpan : Per cu. yd. Contract price up to 1,000 ft. $0.35 Overhaul 0.045 Transporting men, etc . 0.055 Total $0.45 Loose rock : . Per cu. yd. Contract price up to 1,000 ft $0.45 Overhaul 0.045 Transporting men, etc 0.055 Total .$0.55~~ Solid rock : Per cu. yd. Contract price up to 1,000 ft $1.00 Overhaul 0.045 Transporting men, etc 0.055 Total $1.10 Riprap : Per cu. yd. Contract price $1.50 Overhaul or train service 0.35 Transporting, etc 0.15 Total $2.00 Retaining wall : Per cu. yd. Contract price (concrete or rubble).. $7.50 Train service 0.80 Transporting men, etc 0.70 Total $9.00 Slope wall : Per cu. yd. Contract price $2.50 Train service 0.75 Transporting men, etc 0.25 Total $3.50 It is interesting to note in this connection that the actual yardage of excavation on about 700 miles of the G. N. in the state of Washington was 26,000 cu. yds. per mile for the original con- struction in the early '90's, and that the item of "overhaul" actually averaged less than % ct. per cu. yd. for every yard of material excavated, as compared with the 4^ cts. estimated by Mr. Hoge- land. The free haul limit was 1,000 ft. Much the same criticism also applies to Mr. Hogeland's estimate of the cost of transporting men and supplies to and from the site of the work. RAILWAYS. 1367 Mr. Hogeland's estimate of tunnels was as follows : 5,232 lin. ft. unlined single track tunnel at $70... $ 366,240 17,346 lin. ft. timber lined single track tunnel at $120 2,081,520 6,139 lin. ft. concrete lined single track tunnel (Boulder) at $175 i 1,074,325 13,813 lin. ft. concrete lined single track tunnel (Casca.de) at $195 2,693,535 5,141 lin. ft. concrete lined double track tunnel at Seattle, $1,848,000, two-thirds to G. N 1,232,000 Total $7,447,620 The unit prices were arrived at as follows : Unlined tunnel : Per lin. ft. Contract price for standard unlined section $55.00 Extra excavation 8.00 Transporting men, tools, supplies, etc.. . 7.00 Total $70.00 Timber lined tunnel : Per lin. ft. Contract price for standard unlined section $ 55.00 Enlargement for timber lining 30.00 Timber and iron in place 25.00 Transporting men, etc 10.00 Total $120.00 Concrete lined tunnels : Per lin. ft. (BOULDER TUNNEL.) Excavation $ 90.00 Temporary timber lining 20.00 Permanent masonry lining 45.00 Transporting men, etc 20.00 Total $175.00 (CASCADE TUNNEL.) Per lin. ft. Excavation ' $ 95.00 Temporary timber lining. 25.00 Permanent concrete lining 50.00 Transporting men, etc ' . .' 25.00 Total $195.00 Bridges, trestles and culverts: 1 stone arch (Minneapolis), 1,770 lin. ft...$ 867,000 260 steel bridges with masonry piers, 63,557 lin. ft 6,941,645 3,934 timber trestles, 429,851 lin. ft 5,216,480 189 Howe truss spans, 19,996 lin. ft 905,478 4,940 permanent culverts 3,021,685 4,021 timber culverts 1,000,740 Total $17,953,028 Mr. Hogeland did not give the number of pounds of steel, yardage of masonry, etc. He stated, however, that he used the following unit prices, to which he subsequently added % ct. per ton per mile for transporting the materials, so that these unit prices do not in- clude the cost of transporting the materials : 1368 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Steel in bridges : Per ton. Contract price ready to erect, f. o. b. St. Paul. . .$65.00 Mill and shop inspection 75 Erection 12.00 Painting ^ . . 2.25 Total .$80.00 This is equivalent to 4 cts. per Ib. erected, exclusive of the cost of transportation from St. Paul. Masonry : Per cu. yd. First class $12.00 Second class 8.00 Concrete 6.00 Excavation, coffer dams, pumping, etc., variable. Timber trestles: Timber in place, per M $31.50 Piling in place, per ft 0.35 Wrought iron, per Ib 0.05 Freight to be added. Howe truss spans : Per lin. ft. 44 ft $18.50 60 ft 27.00 75 ft 34.00 87% ft 35.50 100 ft . 37.50 125 ft 42.00 150 ft 45.00 Freight to be added. Howe truss timber, per M $25.00 Rods, plates, etc 0.03 Bolts , 0.025 Freight to be added. Vitrified pipe culverts : . Per lin. ft. 12-in. pipe $0.25 18-in. pipe 0.50 24-in. pipe 1.15 27-in. pipe . v 1.52 Freight to be added. Cast iron pipe culverts, $30 per net ton, plus freight. Mr. Hogeland estimated 2,S"50 ties per mile of main track and 2,750 per mile of side track, at the following cost: Delivered on right of way $0.48 Train service and loading and handling 0.09 Burnettizing % of all ties at 16 cts 0.04 Transporting 500 mi. at % ct. ton mile 0.21 Total $0.82 He estimated 8,880 sets of switch ties as follows per set: F. o. b. mill, per M $60.00 Transporting 500 miles, per M 15.00 Total . $75.00 RAILWAYS. 1369 The rails for the main track averaged 68.1 Ibs. per yd. and for the side track 60 Ibs. Five rails per mile were added for "repair rails." The cost of rails was estimated to be : Per gross ton. F. o. b. St. Paul, including handling .$32 00 Transp. 800 miles at y 2 ct. ton mile 4.00 Total $36.00 Angle bars were estimated at 17,600 Ibs. per mile of side track at a cost of: Per net ton. F. o. b. St. Paul. . $40.00 Transporting 800 miles 4.00 Total $44.00 Bolts and nuts were estimated at 1,800 Ibs. per mile of main track and 1,500 Ibs. per mile of side track, at a cost of: / Per net ton. F. o. b. St. Paul. $54.00 Transporting 800 miles 4.00 Total $68.00 Spikes were estimated at 6,500 Ibs. per mile of track, at a cost of : Per net ton. . F. o. b. St. Paul $42.00 Transporting 800 miles 4.00 Total $46.00 Tie plates were estimated at 29,000 Ibs. per mile of track where fully tie plated (or 5 Ibs. per tie plate), and it was assumed that 2,451 miles were fully tie plated and 1,950 miles half tie plated, as a cost of: Per net ton. F. o. b. St. Paul.... $45.00 Transporting 800 miles 4.00 Total $49.00 It was assumed that 750 miles of track were provided with rail braces at 2,000 braces per mile, at a cost of 10 cts. per brace. Summary of track fastenings : Angle bars $3,090,736 Bolts and nuts 431,288 Spikes 1,304,284 Tie plates 2,399,187 Rail braces. . 150,000 Total $7,375,495 1370 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. Gillette testified that these items were substantially correct except as to the number of tie plates, which was very much over- estimated. Frogs and switches: Complete turnout, f. o. b. St. Paul (3,750 Ibs.) . . .$85.00 Transp. 800 mi. at y% ct. ton mile 7.50 Total $92.50 8,880 turnouts (except ties) at $92.50 $821,400 302 crossing frogs at $275 83,050 Total $904,450 The "complete turnout" includes switch stand and bolts, lamp, witch points, connecting and tie rods, plates, rail braces, clips, frog and guard rail, but does not include cross ties. Mr. Hogeland estimated that 3,750 miles of the main track averaged 3,000 cu. yds. of gravel ballast per mile, and that 1,900 miles averaged 2,250 cu. yds. per mile. Of the 1,480 miles of side track, he estimated that 950 miles were ballasted with 1,500 cu. yds. per mile. This made a grand total of 16,950,000 cu. yds. of ballast on the system, the cost of which was estimated as follows: tf Per cu. yd. Loading, unloading, putting under track and dressing track $0.27 Maintenance and repairs of steam shovels 0.05 Train service, hauling, repairs and rental of equip- ment, transp. of men, tools and supplies 0.30 Total $0.62 Mr. Gillette testified that this estimate of unit cost was fully 50 per cent more than the actual cost as shown by the records of the G. N. and that gravel ballast could be placed for less than 40 cts. per cu. yd. under existing conditions. Mr. Hogeland estimated the cost of track laying and surfacing as follows : Per mile. Curving rails, laying and surfacing $350.00 Labor of tie plating (average) 45.00 Train service and rental of equipment and haul- ing to front. 390.00 Transporting men, supplies, etc 50.00 Total $835.00 8,115.58 miles at $835 $6,776,409 8,880 switches placed at $25 220,000 Total $6,998,409 Mr. Gillette testified that the item of train service was about three times higher than the actual cost, and that the transportation of men, ' etc., was even more excessive. RAILWAYS. 1371 Mr. Hogeland estimated 4,611 miles of right of way fences at the following cost per mile : Per mile. Standard fence $150.00 Train service distributing materials 10.00 Transporting men, etc 5.00 Total $165.00 He estimated the cost of crossings, cattle guards and signs as follows : 6.635.34 miles of $75 for cattle guards, signs, etc.$ 497,650 58 steel highway bridges (overhead) 1,344,000 Timber bridges (overhead) 80,510 Total $1,922,160 Interlocking and signal apparatus: Interlocking $327,750 Block signaling 58,440 Total % $386,190 Telegraph lines : Labor $ 650,614.48 Material 1,295,207.46 Train service 16,638.00 Transp. men, tools, material, etc 219,598.22 Quadruplex instruments, batteries, furni- ture, etc., in 8 main offices 16,225.00 Total $2,198,283.16 This is equivalent to the following cost per mile of telegraph line : Per mile. Labor $ 98.00 Material 200.00 Train service : 2.50 Transporting men, etc 33.00 Quadruplex instruments, etc 2.50 Total $336.00 Mr. Gillette testified that this was an excessive estimate, and that, so far as the state of Washington was concerned, the G. N. did not own a large part of the telegraph lines and that, in fact, it was the common practice for railways to share the ownership of the lines with telegraph companies, as shown by the accounting records of tho railways : Passenger depots : Seattle (one-half interest) $ 295,000 Spokane 137,500 Grand Forks 37,500 Fargo 41,800 Sioux City 180,000 Minneapolis union depot 342,500 29 other passenger depots of brick or stone. . 419,600 705 frame passenger and freight depots. ... 1,226,700 14 freight depots of brick or stone 422,900 Frame freight houses 172,800 Total $3,276,300 1372 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The St. Paul union det>ot (of which the G. N. owns one-ninth interest) and the Superior depot (of which the G. N. owns one- third interest) are not included above, but are included under "right of way and station grounds." Mr. Hogeland did not give any dimensions of buildings, so that it is impracticable to check his estimates. Shops, roundhouses and turntables : Shop, St. Paul $ 854,400 Shop, St. Cloud 75,400 Shop, Superior 91,000 Shop, Barnesville 17,500 Shop, Sioux City 12,500 Shop, Devils Lake 60,000 Shop, Havre 91,000 Shop, Great Falls 42,000 Shop, Spokane 124,800 Shop, Everett 70,200 Roundhouses, frame, 88 stalls, at $1,400 123,200 Roundhouses, masonry, 554 stalls, at $2.,100 1,163,400 Boiler houses, power houses and small shops 216,000 Turntables, frame, 10, at $1,800 18,000 Turntables, steel, 57, at $6,500 370,500 Cinder pits 140,000 Store houses, oil and sand houses and scrap bins 198,000 Total $3,667,900 Water stations : 420 water stations (at $4,722) $1,983,325 This includes tanks, pump houses, pumps, engines, wells, reser- voirs and all appurtenances of water stations. It will be noted that this supplies one station every 16 miles of road. Fuel stations : 52 standard coaling stations at $9,500 $ 544,500 52 platforms coaling stations, portion with cranes and buckets, $600 31,200 Total $ 575,700 Grain elevators : Minneapolis $ 240,000 Superior, A and X 823,100 Superior S (steel) 1,536,400 Seattle, Smith's Cove 108,600 Total $2,708,100 Storage warehouses: Superior, flour shed $ 142,800 Five wool houses 19,800 Seattle, warehouse, Smith's Cove 113,900 Total $ 276,500 Docks and wharves (including dredging) : Superior No. 1 $ 175,000 Superior No. 2 80,800 Superior Nos. 5 and 6 and machinery 449,500 Seattle, Smith's Cove dock 517,600 Total . $1,222,900 RAILWAYS. 1373 - Miscellaneous structures : General office building, St. Paul $ 590,000 Division office buildings 18,000 Boarding houses 87,500 Section houses, bunk houses, hand car houses 853,500 Ice houses 107,500 Stock yards 157,600 Track scales 92,250 Snow sheds 295,000 Snow fences 450,000 Loading platforms 71,000 Quarry and crusher plants 45,000 Tie treating plant 85,000 Commissary buildings 15,000 Miscellaneous buildings 327,500 Total $3,194,850 Mr. Hogeland allowed 10 per cent of items 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 25 for "contingencies," to cover the increased cost of the work due to unforseen causes, such as fires, floods, tornadoes, accidents, etc. Mr. Gillette testified that, while an allow- ance for "contingencies" is certainly permissible in estimating the cost of projected work, it is not permissible in estimating the cost of completed work, particularly where the actual costs are on record for nearly all the work, as is the case of the G. N. In estimating the interest charges during construction, Mr. Hogeland assumed that the system, including equipment, would be unproductive for a period of two years. He assumed that it would take eight years to reproduce the system, 1,000 miles of track (main and side) being built per year, and that it would be two years after the "beginning of the work before the first 1,000 miles would produce sufficient revenue to pay interest on the investment, and so on with the rest. Hence, two years at 5% is 10% of the total cost to be charged for interest. It will be interesting to compare this estimate with the actual interest charges as taken from the ledgers of the different railway companies operating in the state of Washington. These data will be published in this journal in the near future, along with the other items of actual cost as ascertained by Mr. Gillette for the Railroad Commission of Washington. For purposes of comparison with the estimated cost of the N. P. (published in our April 15 issue) we append the estimated cost cf the G. N., by items per mile of main and second track, as deter- mined by dividing Mr. Hogeland's items by 6,635.34. The mileage of the Great Northern under operation April 1, 1907, was: 6,635.34 miles main and second tracks. 1,480.24 miles side tracks. 8,115.58 miles total tracks. There are only 112.25 miles of second track included in the above, and it will be seen that there is 0.22 mile of side track per mile of main and second track. 1374 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of repro- duction per mile of main and second track. (6,635.24 miles.) 1. Engineering $ 1,035 2. Right of way and station grounds 13,160 3. Grading 14,030 4. Tunnels 1,070 5. Bridges, trestles and culverts 2,705 6. Ties 2,820 7. Rails 4,680 8. Track fastenings 1,110 9. Frogs and switches 135 10. Ballast 1,585 11. Track laying and surfacing 1,055 12. Fencing right of way 115 13. Crossings, cattle guards and signs 290 14. Interlocking and signal apparatus 60 15. Telegraph lines 330 16. Station buildings and fixtures 495 17. Shops, roundhouses and turntables 550 18. Shop machinery and tools 270 19. Water stations 300 20. Fuel stations 90 21. Grain elevators 420 22. Storage warehouses 40 23. Docks and wharves 185 24. Gas making plants 25. Miscellaneous structures 480 26. Track and bridge tools 20 27. Stores and supplies on hand 815 28. Contingencies 2,300 29. Equipment 6,170 30. General and legal expense 563 31. Interest 5,690 Grand total $62,570 Deduct right of way and station grounds 13,160 Cost, exclu. of right of way and sta. grounds. .$49,410 Deduct equipment 6,170 Cost, exclusive of lands and equipment $43,240 Contract Prices for Railway Work in the State of Washington.* In building the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul line through the state of Washington, the contract prices for work let in 1906 were as follows : Average price per cu. yd. Earth excavation, haul 300 ft. or less, $0.17 to $0.22 $0.19 Earth excavation, haul 300 to 1,000 ft, $0.21 to $0.27 0.23 Hard pan, haul 1,000 ft. or less, $0.30 to $0.43 0.37 Cement gravel, haul 1,000 ft. or less, $0.36 to $0.40 0.38 Loose rock, haul 1,000 ft. or less, $0.33 to $0.45 0.42 Solid rock, haul 1,000 ft. or less, $0.80 to $1.00 0.90 Riprap, loose, haul 1,000 ft. or less 0.75 Riprap, hand placed, haul 1,000 ft. or less 1.25 Overhaul, for each 100 ft beyond 1,000 ft 0.01 *Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 15, 1909. RAILWAYS. 1375 Other prices were as follows for different units : Clearing, per acre, $40.00 to $300.00 $120.00 Grubbing, per station, $10.00 to $20.00 15.00 Ties made on right-of-way, each 0.18 Tunneling ( 800 ft. long or less) , per lin. ft 45.00 Tunnel enlargement, per cu. yd 3.00 Tunnel timber in place, per M 28.00 Log culverts, per lin. ft. of logs 0.14 The contract prices on the Portland and Seattle Ry., built in Washington at the same time as the C., M. & St. P., were as follows : Per cu. yd. Earth excavation, haul 300 ft. or less. $0.17 Earth excavation, haul 300 to 1,000 ft 0.21 Hardpan, haul 1,000 ft. or less 0.35 Loose rock, haul 1,000 ft. or less. 0.40 Shell rock, haul 1,000 ft. or less 0.30 Solid rock, haul 1,000 ft. or less 0.90 Riprap, loose, haul 1,000 ft. or less 0.90 Riprap, hand placed, haul 1,000 ft. or less 1.25 Overhaul for each 100 ft. beyond 1,^00 ft 0.01 Other prices were as follows on different units : , Clearing, per acre $ 25.00 Grubbing, per sq. rod 1.50 Wrought iron, spikes, etc., in structures, per Ib 0.05 Cast iron in structures, per Ib 0.05 Square timber in culverts, per M 20.00 Flatted timber in culverts, per lin. ft 0.12 Tunnel in rock (16 x 24 ft.), per lin. ft 45.00 Tunnel, extra excavation, per cu. yd 3.00 Tunnel timber lining, including iron, per M 20.00 Piling, per lin. ft., cut off 0.10 Piling per lin. ft, driven 0.20 44-ft. Howe truss bridge, per lin. ft. 9.25 60-ft. Howe truss bridge, per lin. ft 13.50 75 to 88-ft. Howe truss bridge, per lin. ft 19.00 100-ft. Howe truss bridge, per lin. ft 20.00 120 to 125-ft. Howe truss bridge, per lin. ft 21.00 150-ft. Howe truss bridge, per lin. ft 22.00 Concrete (cement furnished by the company), per cu. yd 6.00 Concrete in tunnels (cement furnished by the company), per cu. yd 7.00 Track laying, including loading all material, per mile 300.00 Switches placed, each 25.00 Placing tie plates, per mile, fully tie plated 75.00 Ballast (gravel), including track surfacing, per cu. yd 0.27 The price for ballast does not include hauling it, which was done by the railway company. The prices for Howe truss bridges in- clude all materials except the iron, and all framing and erecting. Record of Rapid Construction on the C. P. Ry. In the Jour. Assoc., 1884, p. 150, Mr. E. T. Abbott gives a brief account of the rapid construction of 500 miles of single track road across the prairies from Brandon (132 miles west of Winnipeg). Ground was broken May 28, 1882, and continued to Dec. 31. In 182 working days, including stormy ones, with a force of about 5,000 men and 1,700 teams, the contractors did the following: 6,104,000 cu. yds. earth excavation (or 14,000 cu. yds. per mile), 2,394 M. timber in bridges and culverts, 85,700 lin. ft. piling, and 435 miles of track-laying. The track was all laid from one end, and in no case were the rails hauled ahead by team. Two iron 1376 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cars were used, the empty one on its return being turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by. The tracklaying crew was equal to 4 miles a day. In the month of August, 32 miles of track were laid. The grading forces were scattered along 150 miles ahead of the track. Sidings 1,500 ft. long were graded 7 miles apart. It will be noted that the grading force averaged 34,000 cu. yds. excavation, 13 M. timber, and 500 ft. piling, per day. Hence each horse, plus 1% men, averaged 10 cu. yds. per day. Weight and Cost of Steel in Brooklyn Elevated Railways.* In 1806 there were about 20 miles of double track elevated railways in Brooklyn, and the average weight of steel was 6,780,000 Ibs. per mile, or nearly 1,300 Ibs. per lin. ft. This weight was about 20% in excess of what would have been necessary if the columns could have been placed in the roadway ; but, due to the narrow streets, fully 4% of the columns were placed at the edge of the sidewalks, necessitating transverse girders 35 to 45 ft. long. The average length of the longitudinal girders was 5.0. ft. The following is typical of the distribution of the steel in more modern sections (built in 1893), which averaged 7,840,000 Ibs. per mile, or nearly 1,500 Ibs. per lin. ft., the transverse girders being 45 ft. long: Per cent. Columns 1 1.5 Transverse "girders 20.5 Longitudinal girders (two tracks) 57.0 Station platforms 5.0 Bracing 6.0 Total 100.0 This work cost nearly 3 cts. per Ib. erected, at which rate the steel work cost nearly $45 per lin. ft., or less than $240,000 per mile. Ties 7x8 ins., spaced 15 ins. c. to c., were used; guard rails, 6x8 ins. The earlier lines were built with 60-lb. rails, but in 1893 rails weighing 85 Ibs. were adopted. Stations average 1,800 ft. apart. The locomotives weighed 45,000 to 56,000 Ibs., the wheel base being 16 ft. Cost of the Early Elevated Railways In New York City.* The cost of a mile of double track elevated railway on Manhattan Island, New York City, up to 1880, when there were 35 miles, is given by Mr. R. E. Johnston as follows : Foundations, columns, superstr. and track. .. $288,400 Stations 60,000 5 locomotives at $4,000 20,000 12 cars at $3,300 39,600 Total $408,000 The foundation pit is 7 ft. square and 7 ft. deep. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. RAILWAYS. 1377 The foundation of each column is of brick 4x4 ft. on top and 6x6 ft. at the base, 4 ft. high, resting on two 6-in. flagstones, 3x7 ft. each, which in turn rest on 4 ins. of concrete. The cast-iron base of the column weighs 3,000 Ibs. and is secured by four 2-in. bolts that pass through the foundation. The longitudinal girders are 44 ft. long. Nothing was paid for damage to property. Labor Cost of Track Laying on Elevated Railways in New York City, Also Some Costs of Erecting Steel.* The following costs relate to track-laying on elevated roads on Manhattan Island, and, although the work was done 28 years ago, the records are given by Mr. G. Thomas Hall in such detail as to be applicable to-day, provided proper substitutions are made for wages. The Second Avenue line was double track, and about 7.4 miles long, of which about 2% was curved. The contractors found the following organization the most effective for track-laying : 15 carpenters. 10 skilled laborers assisting carpenters on the guard timbers. 10 men laying steel rails. 10 men clipping cross-ties. 10 men spacing, marking and edging cross-ties. 10 unskilled laborers for derrick, distributing materials, etc. 2 horses with drivers. 3 foremen. The clippers were kept 500 ft. ahead of the spikers, and the spikers 750 ft. ahead of the carpenters on the guard timbers. Horsepower was found to be cheaper than steam in hoisting track material from the street. The cross-ties were first hoisted, dis- tributed and spaced ; then marked for camber by means of T sights, adzed and clipped. Then the steel rails were in turn dis- tributed, lined up and spiked ; then the guard timbers were dis- tributed, ends jointed, gaged and bolted down ; the inside guard being put in place and' finished with strap iron before the outside one was laid. A space of about 250 ft. intervened between the gangs employed on the two ranges of guard timbers. Everything work- ing smoothly, the above force laid about 260 ft. of double track per 10-hr, day on tangent work. The following was the cost to the contractor of laying complete 1,000 lin. ft. of straight single track : Hoisting and distributing materials $ 40.00 Laying cross-ties 65.00 Laying steel rails 30.00 Laying guard timbers 100.00 Strap ironing guard timbers 20.00 Incidentals, loss of time, repairing, tools, etc.... 25.00 Superintendence 20.00 Total for 1,000 ft $300.00 The contract prices were 35 cts. to 43 cts. per lin. ft. of single, straight track. * Engineering-Contracting, June 2, 1909. 1378 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Wages of common laborers \vere 15 cts. per hr. The above crew of 70 men and 2 horses received about $145 a day, or practically 20 cts. per hr. per man. The amount of materials in 1,000 ft. of single track was as follows : 250 cross-ties, 6"x6"xl2', 9,000 ft. B. M. 500 cross-ties. 6" x 6" x 8', 12,000 ft. B. M. 3,000 wrought-iron clips, y 2 " x 2y 2 " x 5y 2 ". 1,500 log screws, %"x6". 67 steel rails (30'), 63 Ibs. per yd. 67 fish plates, %"x 2y 2 " x 20". 268 fish plates bolts, %" X 4". 3,000 spikes. 7,000 lin. ft. guard timber, 6' x 8", 28,000 ft. B. M. 1,500 guard rail bolts, %"x!4y 2 ". 150 log screws, %"x 12". 2,000 lin. ft. strap iron, V 2 " X 2V 2 ". 300 strap iron bolts, %" X 6V 2 ". 300 blunt bolts for strap iron, ^" x 5". % bbl. Portland cement. It will be noted that laying the cross- ties cost about $3 per 1,000 ft. B. M., and that laying the guard rail cost about $3.60 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The cost of 30 cts. per lin. ft. of single track is equivalent to $1,584 per mile for tracklaying. To lay one "typical crossing" consisting of two cross-over tracks (one from each main track to a center track), comprising 218 lin. ft. of single track, with 5 frogs, from switches and Outside guard timbers, with inside steel guard rails, cost as follows : Hoisting, adzing and clipping cross-ties $18.25 Laying rails, frogs and switches 40.00 Laying guard' timbers 12.50 Laying steel guard rails 4.25 Total . ...$75.00 This is equivalent to 35 cts. per lin. ft. of the single track. The iron superstructure of this elevated road consisted of Warren longitudinal girders, whose upper chords rest upon the top of Warren transverse girders, supported by six-segment Phoenix columns. The weights were as follows: Lbs. per lin. ft. Transverse girders 200 Longitudinal girders 130 Bracing 8 "A" caliber columns 117 "B" caliber columns. 140 The columns were erected by a gang of 7 men and a team of horses, using a derrick wagon. This gang averaged 39 columns, of 20 ft. each, erected per day, or about 4y 2 tons. The same gang averaged 10 columns of 50 ft. each, or 3^ tons per day. The columns were held temporarily in place by inserting iron wedges inside the rim of the base casting. . RAILWAYS. 1379 The cost of placing a 3,200-lb. base casting, on which the column rests, was as follows : Per casting. Uncovering pier (15 cts. per hr.) $0.35 Moving casting fronf sidewalk to pier (15 cts. per hr.) . . . . 0.40 Erecting derrick and setting casting (15 cts. per hr. ) 0.60 Repaving, 25 sq. ft. (25 cts. per hr.) 0.50 Washing, tarring and bricking (25 cts. per hr.) 0.35 Refilling (15 cts. per hr.) 0.15 Preparing cement mortar (20 cts. per hr. ) 0.10 Foreman and night watchman 0.50 Total labor $2.95 % bbl. cement, at $1 0.25 1,4 bbl. sand, at $1.25 per cu. yd. 0.05 32 brick, at $10 * 0.32 % cu. yd. refuse carted away 0.38 2% cu. ft. sand for paving 0.11 Coal tar, cement work, etc 0.11 Oil for lamps, etc 0.05 Grand total $4.21 The above is for company work. Later on contracts were let for $3.75 per 3,200-lb. base casting, and the contractor put in 15 cast- Ings a day, as compared with 10 placed by the company's forces. The girders were erected by a traveler on the structure, with a crew of 12 men and one engineman for the 15-hp. engine, which consumed % ton coal per day. This crew raised 66 girders per 10-hr, day, or 200 tons. The iron girders all being in place, the lateral bracing was then adjusted and riveted, and the columns very carefully plumbed with heavy iron plumb-bobs. Long columns were plumbed with a transit. Two coats of paint were applied, the first being an iron ore paint and second being white lead. The painting cost $1.50 per lin. ft. of double track road (not including station buildings), of which 36.8% was for labor. First Cost and Cost of Operation of Elevated Railways in Brook- lyn and New York.* The following table gives costs of building double track elevated railways in Brooklyn during three different periods : 1885 to 1888 to 1892 to Year. 1888. 1891. 1903. Miles of structure built 5.6 5.4 3.22 Number of stations 14 19 9 Total net tons iron 19,488 16,203 10,980 Average net tons per mile 3,473 3,001 3,055 Maximum net tons per mile 3,578 3,566 3,287 Minimum net tons per mile 2,907 2,842 2,824 Cost of iron per ton $ 79.00 $68.68 $61.00 Cost of each foundation 187.70 140.00 93.50 Total cost per mile 542,441 332,352 297,599 In explanation of the high cost of foundations it should be stated that, from 1885 to 1888, a brick foundation pier with a bluestone cap * Engineering-Contracting, May 5, 1909. 1380 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and cast-iron base was used under each post or column. During 1888 to 1891 concrete was substituted for the brick, but the cast- iron base (below the street level) was retained. In 1892 and 1893, the cast-iron base was abandoned, and the columns were designed to rest directly on the concrete at the street level. The 3.22 miles of structure built in 1892-1893 included 2,800 ft. of third and cross-over tracks, and the following were the average unit prices: Excavation (per cu. yd.) % 0.50 Concrete (per cu. yd. ) 7.00 Steel in structure (per net ton) 61.00 Timber (per M) 21.00 Steel rails per gross ton (85 Ibs. per yd.) 31.00 Labor, laying single track (per ft.) 0.35 The following gives the detailed costs per mile of structure : Per mile of double track. 200 foundations (1,900 cu. yds. concrete) in- cluding bolts % 18,649 3,055 net tons iron in place 184,423 Double track, materials and labor 43,248 Stations 38,819 Engineering 9,934 Miscellaneous 2,526 Total $297,599 There are 683,670 ft. B. M. timber per mile, in ties, guard rails, etc., which, at $21 per M, is equivalent to $14,357 per mile for timber. It will be noted that engineering cost 3.35% of the total, and that the average weight of steel in the structure is 1,157 Ibs. per lin. ft, and that the average span length of the plate girders is about 53 ft. Considering merely the cost of materials and labor, a span of 30 ft. would have been the most economical, and would have resulted in a saving of 5%, considering only the foundations and superstructure, but the longer span (53 ft.) was adopted to reduce damage to abutting property. The maximum work of erection in 10 hrs. was 12 spans of 52 ft. each, weighing 315 tons; an average of 8 spans per day was easily maintained. In the track laid prior to 1888, the ties were 6x8 ins., spaced 22 ins. c. to c., and the rails were 60-lb. A 6 x 8-in. guard timber was bolted each side of each rail. In 1888, the ties were made 7x8 ins., spaced 16 ins. c. to c., and the rails were still 60-lb. In 1892 an 85-lb. rail was adopted, to secure a longer life of the rail and to reduce the cutting of the rails into the ties, and the ties were spaced 15 ins. c. to c. RAILWAYS. 1381 The contract prices for stations were about as follows in 1893 : One stair- Two stair- way, ways. Carpenter work $3,095 $3,578 Sheet metal work....- 1,432 926 Painting and decorating 409 540 Plumbing work 225 296 Heating apparatus 225 295 Architectural work 2,100 2,200 Total $7,467 $7,835 These were ordinary inter-track stations. It is a serious economic mistake to build two stations outside of the tracks, instead of one between, as it doubles not only the first cost but the cost of station service and maintenance. Station service and maintenance cost $2,400 a year per station. Terminal stations, containing trainmen's rooms, etc., cost about double the above. The cost of operating 16.9 miles of double track road, by steam locomotives, in Brooklyn in 1893 was as follows: Maintenance of Way and Structures: Repairs of track and structures $ 38,316.59 Repairs of stations, shops, etc 13,032.29. Other expenses 425.30 Total $ 51,774.18 Maintenance of Equipment: Repairs of locomotives $ 40,317.29 Repairs of cars 53,039.53 Repairs of machinery and tools 1,730.76 Other expenses 11,847.72 Total $ 106,935.30 Conducting Transportation: Wages of conductors and guards $ 99,343.85 Wages of engineers and firemen 205,180.83 Fuel for locomotives 246,131.53 Oil and waste 6,085.92 Water supply 12,661.38 Other train expenses and supplies. 16,585.73 Wages of station agents, gatemen, etc.... 158,331.71 Station supplies 7,893.11 Wages of flagmen, switchmen, etc 25,600.48 Other expenses 67,225.84 Total $ 845,040.38 General Expenses: Salaries of officers and clerks $ 32,247.55 General office expenses and supplies '809.30 Stationery and printing 6,746.94 Advertising 444.80 Legal expenses 16,574.05 Damage to property 915.08 Damage to persons 14,434.74 Telegraph maintenance and operation.... 1,195.69 Other expenses 14,595.55 Total .1 87,963.70 Grand total operating expenses $1,091,713.56 1382 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The operating expenses were 56.82% of the gross receipts. There were 38,110,376 passengers carried. There were 50 stations in the 16.91 miles. There were 76 locomotives and 230 cars to operate the 16.91 miles of elevated road. This is equivalent to about 4.5 locomotives and 13.6 cars per mile of road, there being about 3 cars to each locomotive. In Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908, the cost of 35 miles of double track elevated railway built on Manhattan Island prior to 1880, was given as follows per mile: Foundations, columns, superstructure and track $288,400 Stations 60,000 5 locomotives, at $4,000 20,000 12 cars, at $3,300 39,600 Total $408,000 It will be noted that the equipment cost nearly $60,000 per mile. If the locomotives and cars cost the same for the Brooklyn lines, it will be seen that the cost of locomotive repairs was 13% of the first cost, for that item amounted to $530 per locomotive during the year 1893. The cost of car repairs amounted to $230 per car for 1893, which is about 7% of the first cost. Our Oct. 7, 1908, issue gives the distribution of steel in the vari- ous parts of the Brooklyn elevated railways built in 1893, as follows : . Per cent. Columns . 11.5 Transverse girders 20.5 Longitudinal girders (two tracks) 57.0 Station platforms 5.0 Bracing 6.0 Total 100.0 It is also stated that the locomotives weighed 45,000 to 56,000 Ibs., the wheel base being 16 fk Cost of Foundations of the Boston Elevated Railway. Mr. George A. Kimball gives the following relative to foundations for the Bos- ton Elevated Ry., built in 1899. In general the foundations extend 10 to 12 ft. below the ground surface, to provide against being undermined by subsequent excavations for sewers, building founda- tions, etc. They are built of concrete in courses 2 ft. thick, stepped up with 6-in. offsets. The top course is 4 x 4 ft., and supports a cast-iron pedestal 12 ins. high to receive the steel post. Most of the foundations were built on the "cost plus a percentage plan." There were 1,133 foundations built, half at a cost of $260 each, and half at a cost of $700 each due to soft ground and interference with underground structures. This includes cost of pedestal castings, anchor castings and anchor bolts, which cost $22 per foundation ; it also includes cost of moving underground structures which aver- aged $18 per foundation pier. The average foundation cost $480, RAILWAYS. 1383 which is equivalent to $17.50 per lin. ft. of double traek structure, or $91,000 per mile. It will be noted that these foundations cost five times as much per mile of double ti-ack road as those in Brooklyn and New York, indicating extravagant design. Cost of Elevated Railway and Subway, Berlin, Germany. In 1901 an electric, double track elevated and subway railway was com- pleted in Berlin, Germany. The motor cars each have two 4 -wheel trucks, with axle loads of 6% tons, axles being spaced 5.9, 15.0, 5.9 and 11.2 ft., in sequence. The weights of steel in different por- tions of the double track elevated road were : Span, ft. Lbs. per lin. ft. 39.4 < 810 49.2 (at stations, but ,;ot incl. stations) 1,145 54.1 940 68.9 1,210 There are 5.1o miles of double track elevated line and 1.22 miles of subway. There are 10 stations on the elevated portion and 3 in the subway. The main power plant building is 73 x 132 ft., and houses 3 com- pound engines, each developing 900 hp. normally, or 1,200 hp. maxi- mum. Trains are run on 2* to 5 min. headway, at a maximum speed of 30 miles per hour. Each train consists of 3 cars (each 40 ft long), two of which are motor cars. The cost was : Construction $4,400,000 Power house, rolling stock, equipment 950,000 Extras 800,000 Interest during construction 500,000 Total $6,650,000 The construction cost of $4,400,000 was distributed thus: 1.221 miles double track subway, at $860,000 $1,050,000 5,154 miles double track elevated, at $650,000... 3,350,000 6,375 miles total.. $4,400,000 There were about 18,000 tons of steel used in the elevated (in- cluding stations), which is equivalent to about 1,320 Ibs. per lin. ft. of double track elevated. The contract price on this work ranged from 3 to 4*4 cts. per Ib. erected. There were 2,200 tons of steel used in the subway. Some of the other contract prices were : Per cu. yd. Concrete in subway $4.60 Brick foundation masonry 5.25 Arch masonry 7.85 It will be noted that the power house and equipment cost about 15% of the total cost, and amount to about $150,000 per mile of double track railway. 1384 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of New York Subway Rock Work.* By observation and through the aid of an assistant I have secured reliable data relat- ing to every item of cost on several typical sections of the New York Rapid Transit Ry., including excavation, concrete, steel con- struction, etc. ; and it is astonishing to find how high the labor cost of the work has been. The high cost may be attributed to several causes. In the first place, the contractors were compelled to employ union labor, much of which was inefficient. In the second place the foremen on this work were, as a rule, paid such small salaries that the best class of foremen were not kept. In the third place excava- tion and other work in crowded city streets is obviously made diffi- cult ; the supporting of pipes, tracks, etc., adding greatly to the cost in certain parts of the city. In fact, in the lower part of New York, where the material is all sand, I have found that 50 cts. per cu. yd. has been expended in shoring, bracing, etc. In the fourth place the light blasts required by city rules leave the tough mica schist in large chunks upon which much labor must be expended in gadding and sledging ; for practically all the rock was broken to one or two-man size so that it could be hauled away in dump wagons. The work that I am about to describe involved the excavation of about 125,000 cu. yds. of tough mica schist in the upper part of the city, where the streets are not crowded and where there were very few pipes to be supported. The width of the excavation was 41 ft., and the depth averaged about 30 ft. One trolley track ran along the center of the street and had to be supported the entire distance. This track supporting was accomplished at comparatively slight ex- oense by using some ten second-hand railroad bridge trusses of 66 ft. span, which were moved forward as the work progressed. Five cableways, each having an average span of 400 ft., were used for hoisting the rock in self-righting buckets, which were dumped into patent dump wagons. The average daily force employed was as follows: Rate per day. Total. 4 foremen $3.50 $ 14.00 80 laborers 1.50 120.00 10 drill runners 2.75 27.50 10 drill helpers 1.50 15.00 2 blacksmiths 2.75 5.50 2 blacksmiths' helpers 1.50 3.00 5 hoisters 3.00 15.00 1 compressor man 4.00 4.00 1 fireman 2.00 2.00 2 timbermen 2.00 4.00 3 Waterboys . 75 2.25 20 teams 4.50 90.00 Total per 8-hr, day 1302.25 *Gillette's "Rock Excavation," p. 273. RAILWAYS. 1385 The average output of this force was only 150 cu. yds. of rock per day. Cost per cu. yd. Wages per Average of Best 8-hr, shift. 30 months. month. Drill runners $2.75 $0.174 $0.150 Drill helpers 1.50 .100 .082 Blacksmiths 2.75 .032 .025 Blacksmiths' helpers 1.50 .018 .012 Compressor man 4.00 .016 .014 Firemen 2.00 .012 .014 Hoist enginemen 3.00 .100 .051 Carpenters 3.50 .008 .000 Timbermen 2.00 .024 .000 Waterboys 0.75 .012 .010 Laborers 1.50 .785 .745 Foremen 3.50 .102 .095 Teams (with drivers) 4.50 .620 .581 Total wages $2.002 $1.779 Cu. yds. excavated 125,000 7,600 To the foregoing must be added the cost of fuel, explosives, main- tenance, interest and depreciation of plant, etc., as follows: Cost per cu. yd. 1/30 ton coke, at $4.50 $0.150 0.6 Ib. 40% dynamite, at 12% cts 0.075 1/2 exploder, at 4 cts 0.020 Drill repairs (est'd at 50 cts. a day per drill) ... .034 Installing boiler and compressor 014 Interest and depreciation (50%) of $7,000 boiler and compressor plant 028 Ditto for $3,500 drilling plant 014 Total supplies, etc $0.335 Add total wages 2.002 Total $2.337 To this sum should be added 3 or 4% to cover general expenses, such as office rent, bookkeeping, night watchmen, insurance on la- borers, etc., which would bring the grand total to nearly $2.40 per cu. yd. of rock excavated. It will be seen by the description of the work and by the comparatively low cost of timberwork that the expense of supporting pipes and tracks was unusually low for such a city as New York. On the other hand, the cost of drilling was exceedingly high, being 28 cts. per cu. yd. for wages alone, if we include the blacksmiths' wages and half the wages of the com- pressor man and his fireman. The drills should be charged with about half the cost of the fuel, which adds 7% cts. more per cu. yd., making 35y 2 cts. per cu. yd. for drilling, not including some 3% cts. for drill repairs (estimated) and 1% cts. for interest and depre- ciation. Adding these two items we have a total of 40 cts. per cu. yd. chargeable to drilling alone, which is exceedingly high for an open cut of this width and depth. It is a striking fact that each drill broke less than 15 cu. yds. of rock per 8-hr. day. The ineffi- ciency of the laborers is also well shown by their output of less than 2 cu. yds. per man per 8-hr. day. It is true that they had to 1386 HANDBOOK OF fO.97 DATA. do a great deal of gadding, sledging and hand drilling to break the rook ready to load into buckets ; but anyone who saw the men at work must have been impressed with their slowness. The output of only 30 cu. yds. per day per cableway shows how the cableway output was limited by the drilling. The high cost of hauling is also noteworthy, for the average haul was but little more than one mile. While it was difficult to get union laborers to do a fair day's work, I think that if the contractors along the subway had in all cases employed civil or mining engineers of known experience in rook excavation, a great deal of money would have been saved. Cost of New York Subway Earthwork.* This is a class of work exceedingly expensive, not only on account of the work of sup- porting of pipes, buildings and car tracks, but because of the com- paratively small gangs that must be worked. This not only runs up the cost of superintendence, but due to the great number of fore- men employed, many bosses are exceedingly inefficient. While the laborers receive high wages (1.50 for 8 hrs.), it will be noted that the foremen are paid altogether too low salaries to secure the best of their class. A good superintendent of railway excavation fre- quently receives $250 a month, and if he is worth anything, he is worth that. On extensive excavation, cheap foremen mean dear work, as the following illustrates quite clearly : Case I. Uptown, where the streets were not congested. Soft earth, ploughed, loaded with shovels into patent dump wagons, hauled half a mile and dumped ; 1.9 cu. yds. place measure per wagon load. Excavation 55 ft. wide, in the street, and ultimately 20 ft. deep. Snatch teams and hoisting engine used to pull loaded wagons out of the pit. Delays in hauling due to street blockades. Numerous pipes and conduits to be supported, necessitating car- penters, plumbers, etc. The following gives the cost for one month's work, including tearing up pavement: Laborers .1,130 days at $1.50 $1,695.00 Teams, hauling and plowing 520 days at 4.50 2,340.00 Snatch teams 30 days at 5.00 150.00 Carpenters 180 days at 2.50 450.00 Engineman 22 days at 2.75 60.00 Fireman 22 days at 2.00 44.00 Engineman (night) 22 days at 2.00 44.00 Superintendent 100.00 Foremen 59 days at 3.00 177.00 Two timekeepers and load checkers 135.00 Three watchmen 78 days at 1.50 117.00 Plumbers, caulkers, etc 300.00 Total for 6,400 cu. yds. at 88 cts $b,612.00 The foregoing cost was at the beginning of the work, and under what might be regarded as favorable conditions. The following gives the general average of several jobs at a later period, and may be taken as being under, rather than over the actual cost, because all timber work and incidentals are probably not included : "Gillette's "Earthwork and Its Cost," p. 176. RAILWAYS. 138? Case II. Conditions same as in Case I, except that excavation, ir tracks, etc., required more support. Per cu. yd. Labor excavating and superintendence $0.50 Teaming 0.40 Materials and supplies 0.09 Labor on bracing and sheeting 0.06 Materials for bracing and sheeting 0.07 ' Labor on bridges and barricades 0.01 Materials for bridges and barricades 0.01 Taking up pavement 0.01 Labor for pumping and draining 0.02 Materials for pumping and draining 0.01 Labor on engines 0.04 Fuel for erigines ..... . v.v-r ., _ Total $1.23 Hauling away in scows 0.32 Grand total $1.55 A charge of 60 cts. per wagon load, which was equivalent to 32 cts. per cu. yd. (as above recorded), was made for removing the earth from the water front on scows. The subcontractor's prices for this earthwork averaged about $2 per cu. yd. On some sections as high as $2.50 per cu. yd, was paid, and in those sections the contractors found that it cost them $25 per lin. ft. of street to keep the car tracks in shape, due largely, however, to poor methods of management. On downtown work, where the streets were not entirely torn up, but were kept planked over so as not to interfere with traffic, the cost of earth excavation was $3.65 per cu. yd. (See the following paragraphs. ) Itemized Cost to the Contractors of the New York Subway for Earth and Rock Excavation, Bracing, Concrete, Waterproofing and Steel Work.* In view of the fact that the City of New York will doubtless construct scores of miles of subways for rapid transit, any data of actual cost of construction will be of great value to con- tractors and subcontractors who may bid upon subway work in the future. Then, too, other large cities will surely be forced to build subways similar to those in New York and Boston. We have secured complete itemized records of the actual cost of labor and materials required to build several sections of the subway in New York City, and these records are now published for the first time. We shall first give the methods and costs of building a half-mile section from the Post Office to the Battery. The excavation #ork was not done by the "cut and cover method" ; that is to say, a trench was not dug in the street and left entirely open, as was the practice on nearly all subway work between the years 1902 and 1904. So much of a hue and cry had been raised against the open-cut method that when the contract for the Brooklyn Extension was drawn, the contractors- were required to keep the streets con- tinuously open for traffic, except at night time. * Engineering-Contracting, Feb., 1906. 1388 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. To meet this requirement the contractors devised the following method of operation : In the night time a short section of the street pavement was removed, stringers were laid down, and a plank roadway was laid upon the stringers. Then the excavation was proceeded with, underneath this plank roadway. In order to make the excavation, small shafts were sunk through the sidewalk at in- tervals of about a quarter of a mile. Through these shafts all excavated materials were removed and all construction materials were taken in. Fig. 10. Excavation, New York Subway. At each shaft a temporary bridge was built (Fig. 10) spanning the street, and .upon this bridge were mounted the derricks and hoisting engines. Each overhead bridge consisted of a 52 X 60 ft. wooden platform carried by I beams, the whole supported by well- braced timber trestles set upon each curb line, as shown below. Each platform carried two stiff-leg derricks set opposite each other, also a hoisting engine and a spoil-bin with chutes. The derricks were operated during the daytime by compressed air, but at night the necessary power was supplied by a vertical boiler on one plat- form and an electric motor on the other. The work of substituting timber platforms for street pavement was begun at the overhead bridges. Small strips of pavement RAILWAYS. 1389 were removed at each end of the platform and shallow excavations made in which trenches were dug. Longitudinal 24-in. I beams were placed in each trench and blocked up on the trench bottom. The paving between the trenches was then taken up and a layer of earth removed to make room for the timber platform. This was composed of 8-in. I beams, spread 7* ft. apart, with their ends resting on the girders. On this was placed 6-in. roadway planking. All this work was done at night and in such short sections that the street could be restored before daylight. After the first section of platform had been built, a shaft 8 ft. square was sunk through the west sidewalk to a depth of 10 ft. From this shaft the upper part of the excavation was tunneled under the platform, the longitudinal girders being supported by posting down as the work progressed Similar posts and blocking were placed under the street railway. When sufficient headway had been secured, shafts 5 ft. square were sunk to the subgrade of the subway. A portion of the concrete floor of the subway was built in the bottoms of these shafts and a post erected to carry the girders. The temporary blocking under the railway conduits was then removed and replaced by saddle beams strung from the girders. An alternative method for carrying the tracks and street surface was used where the excavation was obstructed by pipes and con- duits. Surface platforms were built on each side of the street be- tween the curb and the nearest street railway conduit. A lateral drift was then carried under the conduit and a needle beam in- serted. These beams, which were blocked up against the conduit, carried on their outer ends longitudinal I beams which supported the inner edges of the surface platforms. The other edge of these platforms rested on the I beam girders supported by the blocking in the trenches at the curbs. After the earth between the drifts was removed, the needle beam shores were reinforced by jacks resting on continuous longitudinal sills. The posts were then set in shafts and replaced the jackscrews and blocking. All of the excavated material was taken to the shafts and hoisted by the derricks to the overhead platform, where it remained until discharged through the chutes into wagons on the street below. The excavation was done by pick and shovel, cars being used to trans- port the material to the nearest shaft. These cars were either pushed by the laborers or drawn by a mule. The excavated ma- terial was sand, for the most part, very easy to dig. Indeed, much of the sand was used for concrete. In the following tabulation is given the actual unit cost to the contractor of the construction of a section about one-half mile long of the Brooklyn Extension of the Rapid Transit subway of New York City. The period covered by these costs extends over sixteen months : 1390 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. EARTH EXCAVATION. (112,288 cu. yds.) Per cu. yd. Total. Labor $1.60 $179,998 Materials and plant 0.32 35,590 Power 0.02 2,676 Dump charges (60 cts. per load) 0.25 27,934 Total unit cost $2.19 Grand total cost $246,198 Bracing and Sheeting: Labor $0.78 $87,466 Materials and plant 0.37 41,216 Total unit cost $1.15 Grand total cost $128,682 Pumping and Drainage: Labor $0.01 $ 8,878 Materials and plant 6.01 1,271 Power 0.01 1,059 Total unit cost $0.03 Grand total cost $ 3,208 Bridges and Barricades: Labor $0.10 $ 11.588 Materials and plant 0.14 15,423 Total unit cost $t).24 Grand total cost $ 27,011 Backfilling: Labor $0.01 $ 1,279 Grand total, earth excavation $3.62 $406,379 ROCK EXCAVATION. (760 cu. yds.) Labor $2.35 $ 1,783 Materials and plant 2.96 2,254 Power 0.40 301 Total unit cost 1^71 Grand total cost $ 40,741 CONCRETE. (Foundation Concrete, 8,827 cu. yds.) Labor, mixing $0.53 $ 4.669 Labor, placing 0.58 5,142 Materials and plant 0.02 211 Cement, sand, stone, etc 3.48 30,719 Total unit cost $4.61 Grand total cost $ 40,741 RAILWAYS. 1301 Roof Arches, Side Arches, and Protection Concrete: (6,664 yds.) Labor, mixing $0.82 $ 5,444 Labor, placing 0.84 5,623 Labor, setting forms 2.21 14,746 Labor, plastering arches 0.06 431 Materials and plant 0.18 1,176 Cement, aand, stone, etc .J5.58 23,888 Total unit cost $7.69 Grand total cost $ 51,308 Grand total unit cost concrete (15,491 cu. yds.) $5.94 STEEL WORK. (Steel, 1,533 tons; cast-Iron, 171 tons.) Labor, trucking $0.80 $ 1,364 Labor, placing 8.14 13,872 Labor, riveting 2.76 4,697 Labor, painting 0.70 1,197 Materials and plant 2.32 3,958 Materials, painting 0.24 415 Power J).19 317 Grand total unit cost $15.Is Grand total cost ;. {'I ! - $ 25,823 . BRICK BACKING. enJ i< / ji (1,014 cu. yds.) moil Labor $8.56 $ 8,687 Materials and plant.. ^.03 2,063 Grand total unit cost $10.59 Grand total cost $ 10,750 LAYING DUCTS. (123,483 lin. ft. single duct.) Labor $0.01 $ 1.435 Materials and plant 0.05 6,321 Grand total unit cost $0.06 Grand total cost $ 7,756 WATERPROOFING. (98,074 sq. yds. single ply.) Labor $0.05 $ 5,563 Materials and plant . . 0.10 9,702 Grand total unit cost $0.15 Grand total $ 15,265 WATERPROOFING. (Brick in asphalt 1,337 cu. yds.) Labor $ 6.32 $ 8,457 Materials and plant 11.48 15,351 Grand total unit cost $17.80 Grand total cost $ 23,808 1392 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following table gives a summary of the total costs from August, 1903, to January 1, 1905, of constructing this section. Ir the preceding table no unit costs are given on the work of under- pinning buildings, blocking, moving and relaying mains, supporting tracks, paving, station work, track work in tunnel and construction of a cross passage in Dey street. The net totals of these, however, are figured in wiih the other totals in the summary: SUMMARY. Labor $443,268.13 Materials and plants 232,723.30 Dump charges (46,556 loads at 60 cts.) 27,933.60 Power (coal and electricity) 4,373.95 Labor charged to sewers 2,803.60 Total cost (not incl. cost of steel and iron) .$711,102.58 This is for half a mile of double track line. During the excavation the contractor sold 12,924 cu. yds. of sand at 50 cts. per cu. yd., and 1,620 cu. yds. rubble stone at $1.00 per cu. yd. Deducting this total of $8,082 from the total cost of the work we have $703,020.58 as the net cost of the work, exclusive of the cost of the steel in posts and beams. The cost of track and ballast is not included, but that is readily estimated. It will be noticed that in the tables giving the unit costs of the subway construction one of the main items is for materials and plant. In the following tabulation are shown the principal items and their cost which composed materials and plants : MATERIALS AND PLANTS. Earth Excavation: Total. Small tools, etc $ 529 Illumination, etc 3,119 Boilers, total 210 hp 2,600 37 1 cu. yd. buckets 2,200 11 stiff leg derricks 2,750 20 flat cars 400 4,600 lin. ft. rail tram 306 2 Rand drills 600 2 Dake engines 700 3 Lidgerwood engines . 1,680 3 electric hoists, "Maine" 3,750 1 electric hoist, "Lidgerwood" 1,500 166 M. ft. yellow pine lumber at $25 4,155 209 tons steel beams, in working platforms.... 10,470 Miscellaneous 550 Total $35,590 Rock Excavation: 4 Rand rock drills $ 1,200 1 Lidgerwood engine 560 1 stiff-leg derrick 250 760 Ibs. dynamite 114 Small tools, etc Total . "$ 2,254 RAILWAYS. 1393 Bracing and Sheeting: 2 Rand drills (without at.) for driving sheeting. $ 500 24 hydraulic jacks, 1,264 tons capacity 4,049 1,436 M. ft. yellow pine lumber at $25 35,900 Small tools, etc 767 Total $41,216 Pumping and Drainage: 5 Worthington pumps $ 770 1 Lawrence pump 350 2 Edison draphragm No. 3 pumps 45 5 pumps, steam syphons . . 100 Small tools 6 Total $ 1,271 Bridges and Barricades. 607 M. ft. yellow pine lumber $15,187 Small tools, etc 236 Total ' $15,423 Underpinning Buildings and Vaults: 1,323 cu. yds. rubble stone $ 1,323 225 cu. yds. sand 112 872 bbls. Portland cement 1,378 165 gallons asphalt 19 442 sq. yds. asphalt felt 19 16 M. brick 115 124 gallons paint 124 Small tools, etc Total $ 3,132 Roof and Side Arch and Protection Concrete: 3,248 cu. yds. sand $ 1,624 4,296 cu. yds. gravel 6,874 8,095 bbls. Portland cement 12,790 36 M. ft. yellow pine lumber at $25 900 371 M. brick 2,599 Small tools, etc 276 Total $25,064 Brick Backing: 34 cu. yds. sand $ 17 130 bbls. Portland cement 205 81 M. hollow tile brick 1,785 Small tools, etc 56 Total ,.iTSI Duct Laying: 6,000 sq. yds. burlap... $ 270 123,483 lin. ft. single ducts 5,556 275 bbls. Portland cement 435 68 cu. yds. sand 13 sets mandrels 26 Total ? 6,321 Waterproofing, Brick Laid in Asphalt: 869 M. brick : $ 6,083 401 tons mastic asphaltum 9,025 Small tools, etc 243 Total . $15,351 1394 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Waterproofing: 112,785 sq. yds. asphalt felt $ 5,075 36,582 gallons asphalt 4,389 Small tools, etc 237 Total | 9,702 Placing and Riveting Steel Work: 2 "Lidgerwood" engines $ 1,120 2 air compressors and receivers 1,400 1 hand power derrick . ; 50 1 pneumatic drill 125 4 riveting guns 500 Small tools, etc 763 Total $ 3,958 Painting Steel: 370 gallons cerion paint $ 376 Brushes " and scrapers 39 Total $ 415 Supporting Tracks: Sand, stone and cement $ 301 68 M. brick 474 20 hydraulic jacks, 1,050 tons capacity 3,412 Total $ 4,184 Block, Moving and Relaying Mains: 199 M. ft. yellow pine lumber at $25 $ 4,985 2 hand derricks 100 1 portable derrick, with boiler and engine 1,000 Pipe 26,186 Gates, valves and lead 1,871 Small tools, etc 1,699 Total $35,841 Grand total for plant and materials $232,723 We note that the cost of placing and riveting steel is given, but nothing is said as to the cost of the steel itself. The price of steel delivered in New York, ready for erection, may be estimated at 2% cts. per lb., or $50 per ton. As there were 1,533 tons of steel, the total cost of the steel was $76,650. In addition, there were 171 tons of castings, which, at $40 per ton would amount to $6,840 ; and there were 1,014 cu. yds. of brick backing, the bricks for which would cost about $14 per cu. yd., or $14,200. The sum of these three items is $97,690 to be added to the $711,102 above given, making a total of nearly $810,000 for the section under consideration half a mile of double track subway. It will be seen that the full first-cost of the plant has been charged up against the various items. The cost of renewals of wornout parts was . not obtainable, so that the only satisfactory method of estimating plant charges consisted in including the full cost of the plant. In some items, as in Rock Excavation, the cost of plant is altogether too high, due to the fact that an expensive plant is charged up against a small amount of work. RAILWAYS. . i39o It will be noted that the pumping item was very small ; so also is "backfilling," because most of the excavated material was hauled* away. The backfill was 6 ft. deep over the subway roof. All the excavated material not used for concrete or masonry, was hauled away in wagons to the docks, the haul being very short (about Va mile) to the docks where the material was dumped into scows and hauled to sea. The charge made for hauling to sea in scows ("dump charges") was 60 cts. per wagon load, and about 1% cu. yds. of earth constituted a load. The total cost of earth excavation was $3.62 per cu. yd., which seems very high. However, the conditions must be considered, and among other things it must be remembered that the cost of sup- porting numerous water pipes and gas pipes is included. The excavation was 26 ft. deep, and 34 ft. wide along the line between stations. The cost of power charged to the various items includes only the fuel and electricity consumed. Electricity was paid for at 4 cts. per kw.-hour. All steel was painted with one coat of carbon paint ; and all steel not imbedded in concrete received, in addition, a coat of white lead paint. The cost of waterproofing is reduced to cents per square foot of single ply ; but the waterproofing was actually laid 2 to 3 ply thick. For the sake of comparison, we shall next give a summary of the costs of earth excavation on two sections in the lower part of New York City, where the open cut method of excavation was used. The rates of wages were practically the same as in the .table on page 33; but the work was done between the years 1902 and 1904. The excavation was wider, being for a four track road, and cableways were largely used for delivering the materials from the trench into wagons. Some derricks were also used for this purpose. The streets were not always opened their full width, which necessitated a good deal of mining under the pavements and car tracks. The costs of excavation by this open-cut method were as follows on two sections which are designated as Contract A and Contract B. Contract Contract A. B. Cu. yds. excavation 105,070 252,870 Labor and teaming $1.15 $1.20 Plant (all of first cost) 0.17 0.14 Power 0.12 0.09 Dump charges, at 60 cts. per load of 1% cu. yds 0.19 0.18 Labor and bracing and sheeting 0.34 0.18 Lumber for bracing and sheeting 0.21 0.11 Pumping and draining 0.00 0.06 Labor on bridges and barricades 0.03 0.02 Lumber for bridges and barricades. . . . 0.03 0.04 Labor, backfilling 0.06 0.04 Total per on. y! >H I7'6 -> w ^1 ^^^^/t^ w/q&A i ^ v$i 8x10" 6*10-** ^ i &p\ Base of fail r$H ^^^^ " J^jg$2si f! It ' Fig. 12. requiring 20,900 days' labor, or 3.6 cu. yds. per man per 10-hour day. Wages averaged $1.50 per day, making the average cost 42 cts. per cu. yd. for loading the cars. This does not include the cost of sheeting and bracing, which will be given later. The cost of the excavation by months was as follows: EXCA 1 Amount cu. yd. , .. 4,818 NATION. Labor in days. 1,637 1,433 2..S54 1,508 1,321 1,127 990 1,664 2,450 2,392 1,930 1,898 Pay-roll. $ 2,278 1,992 3,552 2,132 1,844 1,573 1,379 2,617 4,307 3,658 3,023 3,083 Cost per cu. yd. $0.47 0.49 0.33 0.40 0.44 0.52 0.35 0.49 0.54 0.35 0.35 0.52 February . . . . , . 4,089 March April ...11,005 . .. 5,381 May , , .. 4,230 3 035 July . . 4,002 August . . . 5,383 September . 8 118 October . . .10,327 8 550 December , . 5,953 Total 74,891 20,905 ?31,438 ?0.42 1402 11AXDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of labor sheeting and bracing was as follows : SHEETING AND BRACING. Labor Goct per days. Pay-rolk cu. yd. January 507 $ 1,093 $0.23 February 482 1,091 0.27 March 827 1,766 0.16 April 874 1,859 0.35 May 782 1,859 0.42 June 860 1,999 0.66 July 1,005 2,363 0.59 August 812 1,894 0.35 September 700 1,613 0.20 October 800 1,831 0.18 November 644 1,510 0.18 December 1,316 1,742 0.29 Total ...9,609 $20,548 $0.27% It will be seen that the average wages paid for sheeting and bracing were $2.13 per day. As above given, the labor cost of excavating was 42 cts. per cu. yd., to which must be added the 27% cts. per cu. yd. spent for labor on sheeting and bracing, making a total of 69% cts. The amount of timber used in sheeting and bracing the work done in 1902 and 1903 was as follows: Rangers, braces, Ft. B. M. angles and Between stations. sheeting. uprights. 143 and 115...' 248,320 498,440 115 and 112 14,740 24,030 101 and 92 57,320 115,520 87 and 91 17,820 9,620 Total 338,200 647,610 This makes a grand total of 985.810 ft. B. M., or 7.94 ft. B. M. per cu. yd. of excavation, or 263 ft. B. M. per lin. ft. of finished subway, 3,700 ft. long. From these data it is apparent that practically all the timber was left in place until the completion of this section of the subway. It is also apparent that the yardage of earth excavated in 1902 and 1903 was about 124,300 cu. yds. It should be borne in mind, however, that the labor costs above given for excavation and bracing include only the work done in 1903. The labor of sheeting and bracing for the two years was as follows : Year. Lafoor days. Pay-roll. 1903.. 9,609 $20,548 1902 4,290 9,870 Total 13,899 $30,418 From this it appears that the labor costs of framing and placing the 985,810 ft. B. M. was $30.80 per M., and that each man averaged only 71 ft. B. M. per day. This is a very high cost for such work. RAILWAYS. 1403 Since the timber itself must have cost approximately $30 per M. delivered on the work, we have the following estimate of the total cost of excavating: PPer cu. yd. Labor loading cars $0.42 Labor sheeting and bracing 0.27 % 7.94 ft. B. M. timber at 3 cts 0.24 . Total $0.93 1/ 2 Of course, much of the timber would possess some salvage value after completing the work. The cost of hauling the material away in cars and dumping is not available. The cost of the concrete work was as follows : ' Bbls. cement Proportions by parts. per cu. yd. Cement. Sand. Gravel. Broken stone. concrete. 1 3 2i/ 2 2% 0.75 1305 1.07 to 1.14 i 4 iy 2 2% 1.12 1 4 22 1.16 1404 0.98 413 1.07 2% 3V 2 1.2$ 303 1.20 21/2 IVi 2% 1-46 312 1.30 3 1% 11/2 1.04 It is interesting to note that in mixing many thousand yards of 1 :3 :5 concrete, it took 1.07 bbls. cement when mixed in the gravity mixer, as compared with 1.14 bbls. for the batch mixer, indicating a less perfect mixture in the gravity mixer. Of the "1 to 8" concrete, about 13,880 cu. yds. were placed during the year of 1903, months of January to November inclusive, and 90 per cent of this was mixed with gravity mixers. Of the "1 to 6" concrete, 5,320 cu. yds. were placed, of which 85 per cent was mixed with gravity mixers. The remainder, in both cases, was mixed in a "batch mixer." The average size of a batch in a gravity mixer was 0.46 cu. yd., and the size of batch in the "batch mixer" averaged about 0.57 cu. yd. There were "6,940 cu. yds. mixed in gravity mixers, requiring 2,860 days' labor mixing and 4,000 days placing the concrete. Wages were $1.50 a day and the cost was 26 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing and 33 cts. for placing, making a total of 59 cts. per cu. yd. During the month or' August when 2,800 cu. yds. were mixed, the cost was as low as 24 cts. cr mixing plus 22 cts. for placing, making a total of 46 cts. per cu yd. for mixing and placing. The gravity mixer averaged abtf'it. 115 ?u. yds. per day, with a gang of 19 men mixmg*and 26 men placing concrete. With the "batch mixer," wftieh averaged about 0.57 ru. yd. of concrete per batch, there were mixed 2.360 cu. yds. This required 1404 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 970 days of laborers mixing and 740 days placing, at a cost of 59 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing plus 45 cts. for placing, making a total of $1.04 per cu. yd. for mixing and placing. During the month of June the cost was as low as 40 cts. for mixing and 30 cts. for placing, or a total of 70 cts. per cu. yd., wages being $1.50 per day. The average gang was 14 men mixing and 11 men placing the concrete, and the average output was only 35 cu. yds. per day actually worked. Even during the month of June, when the best record was made, the output was only 52 cu. yds. per day actually worked. This indicates very poor management. We refrain, therefore, from giving the name of the "batch mixer," to which an injustice would be done if its efficiency were rated according to this particularly poor record. Of course, in the preceding discussion of the itemized labor cost of mixing and placing, the item of "mixing" includes all the work involved in delivering the materials to the mixer; while "placing" includes hauling the concrete away from the mixer. In delivering the materials to the gravity mixer a Robins belt conveyor was used, which accounts in large measure for the lower cost of mixing with the gravity mixer. The concrete was hauled away from the mixers in dump cars pushed along a track by men. The track was laid on top of the braces that supported the sides of the excavation. We are unable to find out why the conveying of the concrete from the batch mixer cost so much more than from the gravity mixer. The foregoing costs relate to work done in 1903. During Tne year 1904, 20,000 cu. yds. were mixed in the 190 days worked by the gravity mixer gangs; the average number of men mixing being 15, and the number of men placing being 25. The cost was as follows: Cts. per cu. yd. 2,950 days labor mixing, $4,870 24 4,760 days labor placing, $7,300 36 Total 60 During the best month, the labor cost was 16 cts. for mixing and 29 cts. for placing, or a total of 45 cts. per cu. yd. During the same year of 1904, the batch mixer worked 153 days, averaging 46 cu. yds. per day. The average size ol each batch was 0.44 cu. yd. The labor cost of 7,000 cu. yds was as follows: Cts. per cu. yd. 1,910 days mixing, $3,175 45 1,740 days placing, $2,660..., 38 Total .,....., . . . . 83 It will be noted that in 1904 the cost of placing was practically the same as with the gravity mixer, and that the average gang on the batch mixer was 13 men mixing and 11 men placing. Thus far we have not considered the cost of the labor on the forms, which was a large item. For the total 19,30C cu. yds. of RAILWAYS. 1405 concrete placed in 1903 there were expended $16,800 for labor on the forms, which is equivalent to 87 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete. The total number of days' labor on the forms was 6,341), at ari average of $2.70 per day. If we add this 87 cts. per cu. yd. for labor on forms to the 59 cts. for mixing and placing, we have a total of $1.46 per cu. yd. charge'able to labor on the con- crete in this subway, where a gravity mixer was used. This is considerably below the cost of 'similar work on the New York subway. As to the amount of lumber in the forms and the interest and depreciation of the plant, we have no record. Nor have we a record of the fuel consumed. Cost of Cable Railways in Cities. In Fairchild's "Street Rail- ways" (1892), the following is given as an estimate of the cost of a double track cable line, based upon actual cost of some six lines. The line is 3 miles long. Per mile of double Power House and Plant: Total. track. Real estate.., $10,000 $ 3,333 House, 100 x 175 25,000 8,333 Two engines and foundation 23,000 7,667 Boilers and settings 14,000 4,667 Brick smokestack (5 ft. diam. x 100 ft.) 5,000 1,667 Tension cars and tracks 2,500 833 Heaters, pumps, fittings, etc 3,000 1,000 Total power house and plant $ 82,500 $ 27,500 General Street Construction: 19,800 cu. yds. trench excavation at $0.75 $ 14,850 $ 4,950 2,755,000 Ibs. cast yokes (350 Ibs. ea.) at $0.015.. 41,580 13,860 880 carrying sheaves at $3.75 3,300 1,100 1,056,000 Ibs. slot rails (50-lb.) at $0.025 26,400 8,800 1,185,000 Ibs. track rails (60-lb.) at $0.0225 28,512 9,504 154,000 Ibs. cast iron manhole covers and frames at $0.0175 2,695 898 10,000 cu. yds. concrete at $8.50 85,000 28,333 15,840 lin. ft. of double track laying at $1.00 15,840 5,280 22,200 sq. yds. granite block paving at $3.00 66,600 22,200 Sewer connections 9,000 3,000 32,180 ft. wire cable at $0.33 10,619 3,540 Total general street construction $304,396 $101,465 Special Street Construction: Main vault at engine house and fixtures $ 8,000 $ 2,667 Two end vaults with fixtures 5,000 1,667 Special street sheaves for summits of grades 1,500 500 Two grip switches 2,500 833 Two coach switches 1,000 333 One crossing 1,500 500 180 degs. of double tracked curve 9,000 3,000 Total special street construction $ 28,500 $ 9,500 Rolling Stock: 15 grip cars and grip at $1,000 $ 15,000 $ 5,000 15 coaches at $1,200 18,000 6,000 Total rolling stock.. ..$ 33.000 $ 11,000 Grand total 448,396 149,465 Uoti HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. With a cable speed of 8 miles per hr. for 19 y? hrs., and trains 011 4 mins. headway, each train would make 110 miles per day ; and 15 trains would make 1,650 train miles, or 3,300 car miles per day. The daily operating expense would be : Total per day. Depreciation of cable . . $ 35.00 Repairs, track and buildings 6.00 Repairs, engines and line machinery 2.00 Repairs, grip and cars 7.00 House, track and cable expenses 6.00 Track service 8.00 Power and car house service 28.00 66 grip men and conductors at $2.00 132.00 5% tons (2,240 Ibs.) coal at $2.50 13.75 Water, oil and grease 3.25 Injury to persons and property 7.00 Licenses and taxes 7.00 General and miscellaneous expense 23.00 Total ' $275.00 It is clear that Mr. Fairchild's data on repairs of track, buildings, and engines are founded on too brief a term of years to be of any value, for they total only $8 per day on. an investment of $82,000 for power plant and $55,000 of rails alone. This expense of $2,920 per year ($8 per day) is not 2%% on the buildings, power plant and rails a manifest absurdity. It will be noted that the $35 daily depreciation of the cable is $12,775 per year on .a cable whose first cost is $10,619. This is equivalent to a life of about 10 months. Mr. Fairchild states that the usual diameter of cables is 1% to 1% ins. A 1*4 -in. rope has a tensile strength of 80 tons, and weighs 2% Ibs. per ft. The average life of ropes of the best design, he says, has been 12% mos., with an average service of 88,400 miles. The general average for the country has been about 8 mos., with mileage ranging from 40,000 to 150,000. Cost of Constructing and Operating Cable Rys., Kansas City Mr. D. Bontecou gives the following relative to the cost of con- struction and operation of a cable railway in Kansas City. The road was finished in 1889. It comprises 8.54 miles of double track line, which is equivalent to 17.08 miles of single track. It was operated as four distinct lines, with cables 14,200, 29,500 and 31,000 ft. long respectively, driven from one power house, and a fourth cable 18,900 ft. long driven from a second power house. The cable speeds were 7.8, 9.9, 9.9 and 10.3 miles per hr. No grades exceeded 10%. The rope was 1%-in. diam., carried on 12-in. pulleys, in a conduit 36 ins. deep. RAILWAYS. The cost of construction was as follows : p er m ji e of double Total. track. 1. Real estate $ 116,736 $13,664 2. Underground obstructions 20,285 2,377 3. Substructure 542,820 63,562 4. Track and line machinery 276,075 32,331 5 Paving 159,092 18,631 6. Buildings 184,392 21,593 7. Machinery 130,003 15,223 8. Equipment 202,926 23,760 9. Ropes and splicing tools 30,760 3,607 10. Patents 12,951 1,522 11. Engineering and miscellaneous exp. 83,017 9,719 12. Discount and interest 146,931 17,201 Total $1,905,989 $223,190 The equipment comprised 99 combination cars, of which 61 were in constant service. The combination car contained the grip, seats for 40 people, and weighed 11,000 Ibs. It ran on two 4 -wheel trucks, with 22-in. wheels. The machinery in the main power house consisted of three 200 hp. boilers and simple non-condensing engines. The machinery in the branch power house consisted of two 175 hp. boilers and engines. The total engine friction was 64 hp., the total resistance of all cables when no cars were on the line was 345 hp., and car resistance 166 hp. due to 61 loaded cars, or 2.72 hp. per car. About 30 hp. was used to supply electric light, etc. Total 541 hp., to which add, say 34 hp. for banking fires, etc., giving a grand total average of 575 hp. developed by two engines (one 38 x 48-in. and one 32 x 48-in. simple non-condensing) at the main power house. The coal (soft) contained 18% ash, and its cost was $2 per ton (2,000 Ibs.). The consumption was 11.86 Ibs. per car mile (com- bination car), or 2.1 per ton-mile. For the fiscal year of 1892, the operating expense was as follows: Total. 1. Car service and expense $ 73,315 2. Injuries to persons and property 5,087 3. Secret service 529 4. Repairs, cars 4,862 5. Car house service and expense 9,62-0 6. Maintenance, track and building 8,429 7. Motive power : Fuel $17,407 Water 1,157 Oil and grease 1,041 Engine house service 7,786 Repairs, machinery 268 Engine house expense 299 Ropes -. 29,381 Rope service 3,066 Repairs of grips 1.789 Total motive power $ 62,194 8. Taxes 4,596 9. General and miscellaneous 26.610 Grand total (13.8 cts. per car mile) $195,242 Total car ("combination") mileage 1,415,366 Passengers carried . 5,318,410 Average number cars run daily 61 1408 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The ropes lasted from 6 mos. on the short main line to 24 mos. on the branch line ; the life of the four ropes averaging as follows : 20,000; 55,000; 68,000, and 130,000 miles respectively. Since the line had been in operation only 4 years, the cost of car repairs, machinery repairs and track maintenance was ob- viously far below what a normal long period cost would ba The operating cost was 13.8 cts. per car mile. Cost of a Cable Railway in an Eastern City. Mr. D. Bontecou gives the cost of a double track cable line in an Eastern city, as follows: The line was 3.05 miles long, almost straight, with 33.&00 ft. of cable, and driven by a 300-hp. compound, condensing engine. Per mile of double Total. track. 1. Real estate $ 67,065 $ 22,027 2. Underground obstructions 46,500 15,264 3. Substructure and track 222,386 73,010 4. Paving 83,000 26,946 5. Power house and vault 103,032 33,811 6. Machinery and plant 65,563 21,533 7. Equipment (88 cars) 85,950 28,231 8. Rope 10,394 3,413 9. Patents 8,000 2,626 10. Interest during construction 22,136 7,254 11. Engineering, legal and miscellaneous 16,846 5,515 Total $730,872 ?239,630 Life of Cables and Cost of Operating Cable Railways, Chicago. During the year 1898, the average life of 9 different cables, used on Chicago street cable railways, was 76,000 miles; but the life ranged from 44,000 miles to 120,000 miles per cable. The roads were level and with few curves, which accounts for the long life. Cables aver- aged 22,000 ft. long. The cost of operation of cable and of electric lines in Chicago in 1898 was as follows: Cts. Per Car Mile. Cable. Electric. Transportation *... 4.537 5.731 Maintenance of way and bldgs. .. 1.563 1.889 Power 1.092 1.005 General expenses 2.508 2.493 Maintenance equipment 1.115 1.811 Total, cts. per car mile.. 10.815 12.929 Car miles 11,678,020 12,563,380 Use of trail cars on the cable accounts for lower transportation cost. Labor Cost of Brickwork in Vaults of a Cable Railway.* This work was done in 1892 in connection with the Third Avenue cable construction in New York City. The work was done by a sub- contractor, who furnished the masons only, all the other labor and * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 5, 1906. RAILWAYS. 1409 materials being furnished by the general contractor for the Third Avenue cable construction. The laborers assigned to the sub- contractor were directly under the charge of the masons, although the general contractor's foremen on adjacent work gave some at- tention to them. The sub-contractor was paid at the rate of $5 per 1,000 brick laid on all work except pulley vaults. For these he received $8 per 1,000 brick laid for single vaults and $10 for 1,000 brick laid for double vaults, these prices including cost of setting iron covers on ! the vaults. Twenty-one bricks were figured as making one cubic foot. The masons were paid at the rate of 50 cts. per hour and they worked 8 hours per day. The foreman received 62^ cts. per hour and worked the same length of time as the masons. Laborers were paid $1.65 per 10-hour day, the extra 2 hours being spent In getting the materials ready, screening sand, mixing mortar, etc. During July and August there was no regular foreman, the work being looked after by the sub-contractor. The latter, however, did not perform the usual duties of a foreman, aw the work was spread over a stretch of two miles, with additional work at 65th street and Harlem. In the summaries, where the sub-contractor really acted as foreman on the different works, these works are charged fore- man hours for the time actually spent upon them by the sub- contractor. Several causes tended somewhat to increase the cost of the brick- laying, the main causes being as follows : An unnecessarily exacting inspection ; a frequent scarcity of brick, or such as the inspector would allow to be used, this scarcity of brick being primarily due to a brickmakers' strike ; the fluctuating quantities of work on hand, due mainly to the slow arrival of iron for the cable railway, and to interferences by the surface cars. Then, too, the cost of common labor was high for that time (1892), due partly to the fact that the work was located in the most crowded part of New York City. The extra labor was required for rehandling materials. The force account was carefully kept and the amount done each day was carefully measured by one of the engineers in the employ of the general contractor. The masons' time in the force account is the actual time paid for by the- sub-contractor and includes the time spent in moving from one piece of work to another, but does not include time spent in waiting for brick or lost during showers. The laborer time includes all labor connected with bricklaying after the brick were dumped by the brick companies and the cement (in barrels) delivered by the general contractor near the mixing box There were, however, occasional transfers by the laborers of brick, cement and sand from one part of the work to another, this transfer being caused by a local scarcity of materials. The bricks used were mostly "Up River" bricks, measuring 8 in. x 3% in. x 2% in.; the sand was Cow Bay sand from Long Island, and the eement was White's English Portland. An average of 447 bricks were used per barrel of cement. 1410 HAXDBOOK <)/ COST DATA. PULLEY VAULTS. Pulley vaults were, placed for every 35 ft. of track. These vaults were to permit the biling and repairing of the pulleys of the cable road. The single pulley vaults were placed outside of the track, but the double pulley vaults were placed between tracks wherever the tracks were the standard distance (10 ft. % in.), center to center. The single pulley vaults were constructed principally in the upper part of the Bowery, where a double vault could not be put in. The average height of both types of vaults was 4V& ft. The single vaults each contained about 40.1 cu. ft. of brick work, or 841 bricks, and the double vaults each contained about 47.7 cu. ft. of brick work, or 1,002 bricks. About % of the vaults had extra brick work for sewer connections. In building the vaults the cost of the mason work was necessarily large owing to cramped space in which to work, and owing to the fact that considerable time was lost in mov- ing from one vault to another. There were generally three laborers to one mason. It will be remembered that the contract price for single pulley vaults was $8 for the mason work and $10 for the mason work for the double pulley vaults, the general contractor furnishing the materials. These prices include setting the iron cover. To do this last piece of work took one mason and three labor- ers one hour each, making the cost $1 per cover. The average labor cost of the brick work was $7.77 per cu. yd., divided up as follows. Masons, $4.02 ; laborers, $3.75. During July to December, 96 days were worked, and 6,343 cu. ft. of brick work laid, at the following cost for labor : Per cu. ft. Per M brick. Mason $0.15 $7.08 Laborers (mixers, helpers, tenders) 0.14 6.63 Total $0.29 $12.71 The average number of bricks laid per mason per hour was 88, but during the best month the average was 96, and on the best day it was 106. The average number of brick per laborer hour was 25. SPECIAL PULLEY VAULTS. These vaults were constructed near the lower terminus of the line and were designed for the special iron work and pulleys required to operate the change from fast to slow cables. The average height of the vaults was 5 ft., their length was 10 ft., and all walls were 1% ft. thick. The work was done in December, 10 days being required for its completion. In that time 1,070 cu. ft. of brick work were built, taking 22,485 brick. The wages of the masons amounted to $112.31 and the laborers' cost was $82.42. The average number of brick laid per mason hour was 122 ; the average number per laborer hour was 45. RAILWAY, 1411 The cost per cubic foot of brick and per M of brick was as follows : Per cu. ft. Per M. Masons $0.105 $5.01 Laborers 0.077 3.67 Total $0.182 $8.68 The labor cost per cubic yard of brick work was $4.91. THIRD CABLE VAULTS. These vaults were for manholes to give access to the pulley scar- rying the third cable around the special iron work on Park Row. The vaults had an inside length of 4% ft, and a width of 2% ft. All of the walls were 1 ft. thick. The work on these vaults was done in December, 7 days being required to complete the brick work. In that time 418 cu. ft. of brick work was built, requiring the placing of 8,776 bricks. The total cost of the masons was $43.25, and the laborers cost $42.65. The average number of brick laid per mason hour was 128 ; the average per laborer hour was 34. The cost per cubic foot of brick work and per M brick was as follows : Per cu. ft. Per M. Masons $0.103 $4.93 Laborers 0.102 4.89 Total $0.205 $9.82 The labor cost of the brick work per cubic yard was $5.53. POST-OFFICE WHEEL VAULT. This vault was constructed at the lower terminus of the line and was designed for the sheaves around which the cables pass. The work on the vault was done entirely under ground, the top being covered with 6-in. x 12-in. yellow pine timber to accommodate the street traffic. Kerosene lamps furnished the light to work by, extra labor being required to attend to the lamps. Two blowers, operated by two laborers, were used to keep the air fresh. However, exces- sively hot weather with insufficient ventilation had a serious effect upon the cost of the work. As there was no regular foreman in charge of the masons considerable loafing resulted, and the cost was consequently increased. In the construction of the arches of the vaults, the space between them and the roofing was so small that the masons were almost compelled to assume a prostrate position. The height of the vault was 8 ft. ; the inside dimensions were 19 ft. x 46 ft. The walls of the main vault were 1% ft. thick. In addition, another vault 29 ft. long by 4% ft. wide was built against the wall of the main vault. This vault had walls 1 ft. thick. The arches across the main vault were 19% ft. long, were 1 ft. thick, and had a 3-ft. span and a 3-in. rise. 1412 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. There were 2,812 cu. ft. of main walls built in 27 days (July and August), and the cost was: Per cu. ft. Per M. Mason $0.136 $6.48 Laborer 0.180 8.56 Total $0.316 $15.04 The masons averaged 86 bricks per hr., but the maximum was 146 bricks. There were 745 cu. ft. of arches built in 7 days, and the cost was: Per cu. ft. Per M. Mason $0.109 $5.18 Laborer 0.182 8.66 Total $0.291 $13.84 The masons averaged 112 bricks per hr., but the maximum was 147. Laborers averaged 19 bricks per hr. Cost of a Cable Railway for Freight Cars. Mr. Edward Flad gives the following cost of a short inclined cable railway built in 1891 in St. Louis, for the purpose of taking freight cars (2 at a time) up a 6% grade to a brewery, 2,000 ft. distant from the main steam railway track. The rise is 95 ft. Switch tracks at both ends were of 63-lb. rails, but the cable railway track had 85-lb. rails. The rails rested on cast-iron yokes, 500 Ibs. each, 3% ft. c. to c. The slot rail was a Z-rail, weighing 53 Ibs. per yd. The conduit was made of 1 : 2 % : 5 Portland cement concrete. COST OF CONDUIT CABLE TRACK. (1,872 lin. ft.) Grading and Track: Total. Per lin. ft 3,850 cu. yds. excav., at $0.58 $ 2,219 $ 1.19 942 cu. yds. concrete mtls. and labor, at $5.55.. 5,231 2.80 51 tons T rails (85-lb.), at $36.00 1,840 0.98 Freight on rails 179 0.09 32i/2 tons slot rail (53-lb.), at $50.00.. 1,627 0.85 Bolts, shims, etc 497 0.27 Labor, tracklaying (except on concrete, which was $896) 947 0.51 Castings for street crossing 1,100 0.59 273,174 Ibs. cast yokes, at $0.0155 4,234 2.26 53,338 Ibs. manholes and covers, at $0.0175. . . . 933 0.50 16,276 Ibs. sheaves and frames, at $0.067 1,085 0.58 29,053 Ibs. rack castings, at $0.035 1,017 0.55 Extra castings, depression sheaves, etc 661 0.35 Total grading and track $21,570 $11.52 Paving for Conduit Track: 80 squares granite blocks, at $18.75 $ 1,500 Sand 250 Labor 408 Total paving for conduit track $ 2,158 $ 1.16 RAILWAYS. 1413 Repairs to Pavement: 300 squares macadam, at $3.75 $ 1,127 50 squares gravel 212 Total repairs to pavement $ 1,339 $ 0.72 Cable $ 704 $0.38 Total track, paving and cable $25,771 $13.78 Grip Car $ 2,470 $ 1.32 Hoisting Engine (not incl. foundation) $ 7,100 $ 3.80 Total track, paving, equipment, etc $35,341 $18.90 SWITCH TRACKS IN UPPER AND LOWER YARDS. (7,700 lin. ft.) Track: Total. J5 tons T rails (63-lb.), at $33.00 . . .$ 2,805 Freight on same 298 Track fastenings 816 Switches, frogs, etc 2,518 Stringers, ties, etc 2,139 Plank 746 Total track materials $ 9,323 Laying track, 7,700 ft 6,474 Total track in place $15,797 Paving: 563 Viz squares macadam, at $3.50 $ 1,972 8.5 squares spalls 22 227 squares macadam, at $3.75 851 15,000 granite blocks, at $0.05 750 Granite pavers' wages 188 2,675 cu. yds. excav., at $0.30 803 Total paving $ 4,586 Sewerage $ 909 Tools $ 830 Total track, paving, etc $22,120 Crossing gate, house, etc 397 Miscellaneous 481 Grand total, 7,700 lin. ft, at $3.00 $22,978 The foregoing does not include engineering. The work was done by a contractor, who received 15% on the cost of all- labor, which 15% is included. The engine hoists at the rate of 5 ft. per sec. when the grip car, pushing two loaded freight cars, is ascending. The grip car is permanently fastened to the lower end of the cable. The cable track is straight, except for a curve at the lower end. Sixty to 80 freight cars handled daily. The entire cost of this plant, cable road and side tracks, was $58,319. Cost of a Rack Railway, Pike's Peak. Mr. Thomas F. Richardson gives the following relative to the Manitou and Pike's Peak Rail- way, built in 1890. It is a rack railway (Abt rack), 8.9 miles long, 1414 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. writh maximum grades of 25%, total rise 7,517 ft., 16 max. curve, total curvature 210 per mile. The gage is 4 ft. 8% ins.; 40-lb. T-ralls on hewn red spruce ties 7x8 ins. x 9 ft. The grading was done by contract, at 15 cts. for earth, 32 cts. for loose rock and 90 cts. for solid rock. These prices were much too low, and should have been 30% higher to yield a fair proHt, although the grading was "paid for both ways" ; i. e., if the contractor succeeded in moving a cubic yard of loose rock from cut to fill, he got 32 cts. for excavation and 32 cts. again in embankment. The total cost of grading was $150,900, or $16,950 per mile, in- cluding log culverts and masonry abutments for 4 small bridges (20 to 30 ft. span). Laborers received $2 per day. The following was the weight of iron and steel per mile of track : L.bs. per mile. 1,584 rack bars, at 87.8 Ibs 139,080 1,584 chairs, at 23.25 Ibs 36,830 3,168 rack-rail bolts, at 1.97 Ibs 6,240 3,168 wood screws, at 1.64 Ibs 5,200 1,584 cover plates, at 1.89 Ibs 2,990 3,168 spring washers, at 0.146 Ibs 460 352 T rails, at 400 Ibs 140,800 352 pairs angle bars (38-in.), at 32.75 Ibs 11,530 2,112 bolts (%x3-in.), at 0.48 Ibs 1,010 12,672 spikes (5%-in.), at 0.55 Ibs 6,970 Total iron and steel per mile 351,110 3,168 spruce cross-ties. The tracklaying cost $4,275 per mile, including the cost of planing the ties (9 cts. each), engine service and everything except engi- neering. Had the material been more simply designed, this cost would have been much less. There were 7 switches costing $450 each complete with ties. There were 4 locomotives, each weighing 26 tons when loaded with fuel and water. The round trip is made in 2 tirs. with a coal con- sumption of less than a ton. The cars weigh 14,000 Ibs., are 41 ft. long, seat 50 passengers. The train crew is one conductor and one brakeman ; only one car in a train. Cost of Conduit Electric Street Railways.* Mr. A. N. Connett gives the following costs of a conduit electric street railway in- stalled by him in 1895 at Washington, D. C. There were 21 miles of single track built. The following prices were paid for rails and splice bars : Per ton. Wheel rails $28.05 Slot rails 31.28 Guard rails for curves 46.25 Conductor rails 40.88 Joints complete, each $1.20 * Engineering-Contracting,, July 14, 1909. RAILWAYS. 1413 The cost per mile of single track was : Rails of all kinds, at above prices $ 9,031.54 215.5 tons cast iron (yokes, incubator frames, covers, etc.), at $28.19 6..054.75 Bolts, tie bars, clips, etc 1,518.82 Bonds for conductor rails 476.00 Tracklaying (all labor and hauling) 2,864.97 Temporary track 162.04 2,507 cu. yds. all excavation (except cable ducts), at $0.95 2,373.34 Sewer pipes and brick work for duct manholes 483.01 Cable ducts 1,032.65 Excavation for cable ducts 355.14 765 cu. yds. concrete for conduit, at $7.09 5,422.02 514 cu. yds. concrete for paving base, etc., at $4.52 2,258.74 6,375 sq. yds. paving (not including base) 7,996.20 Special track work and curves 3,805.04 Extra bills of street contractor 1,163.20 Removal of sub-surface obstructions 3,240.09 Total per mile of single track $48,336.47 The item of "cable ducts" covered the following totals for the 21 miles of track: 10,616 ft. of 12 way duct at $1.20 41 ft. of 8-way duct at * 0.88 21,354 ft. of 4-way duct at 0.55 133 ft. of 2-way duct at 0.35 There were 9,207 cu. yds. of excavation for these ducts at 83 cts. per cu. yd. The concrete for the conduit was 1 bbl. Portland cement, 12 cu. ft. and and 22% cu. ft. stone. The concrete for the paving base was 1 bbl. Cumberland cement, 10 cu. ft. sand and 20 cu. ft. stone. The paving on the 21 miles of track was: 42,126 sq. yds. old stone block at $0.80 91,716 sq. yds. asphalt at 1.50 The temporary track is a very low item, the authorities having permitted a flat strap-rail to be laid on the pavement by means of flat tie bars with special seats at their extremities. The streets of Washington are exceptionally favorable for the construction of con- duit roads, being wide and having little traffic. For comparison study the following New York City figures by Mr. William C. Gottschall, engineer in charge of construction of the Second Avenue Railroad Co. of New York: Per mile of Single track. Labor, at $7.59 per lin. ft $39,720.90 Insulators, at $1.40 each 696.53 Iron work, excluding yokes, at $1.83 per lin. ft 6,684.25 224.7 tons cast-iron yokes, at $25.30 5,678.68 Concrete 3,929.38 mling yokes and iron work 569.03 Total, without paving $57,551.53 This does not include paving, special track work, feeder ducts, ds, sewer connections nor temporary track. The item of labor, which is exceedingly high, includes digging trough, removing old track, repairing concrete, removing excess of earth, hauling all ck material, and track laying. 1416 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Mr. Connett estimates the excess in cost of a conduit line over a trolley line as follows per mile of single track : 105 tons sheet rails, at $31.30 $ 3,287 40 tons conductor rails, at $41.00 1,640 210 tons cast iron, at $28.20 5,922 Bolts 600 Porcelain insulators 175 1,400 cu. yds. excess excavation, at $1.00 1,400 1,200 cu. yds. excess concrete, at $7.00 8,400 Sewer connections 2,000 Excess labor track laying 3,000 Special track work, excess 2,500 Total " $28,924 Removing sub-surface obstructions, say 8,476 Total excess cost conduit $37,500 Deduct overhead trolley construction 2,500 Total difference in cost $35,000 The removing of sub-surface obstructions is merely a rough esti- mate. The data on cable railways, on the preceding pages, may be con- sulted with advantage. Cost of Electric Railway, Denver, Colo. Mr. John P. Brooks gives the following as the cost of a single track line built (1899) in Denver, Colo. : Per mile. 94^ long tons of 60-lb. T-rails, at $23.50 $2,220.75 360 pairs of 60-lb. angles, at 40 cts. (too l^w; 144.00 1,080 Ibs. track bolts, at 2 % cts 29.70 32 kegs railway spikes, at $4.50 144.00 360 copper or plate bonds, at 25 cts 90.00 2,000 ft. B. M. plank for culverts 42.00 2,640 Texas ties, at 50 cts 1,320.00 180 ft. of curve and guard rails, at $1 180.00 Hauling ties and rails 130.00 Laying 1 mile of track 550.00 1 mile No. trolley wire 325.00 88 cedar poles in place and painted, at $4.25 374.00 Overhead work incidentals, including hangers; insulators and ratchets ($60), span wire ($40), and labor ($50).. 150.00 2,000 cu. yds. excavation for track trench, at 25 cts 500.00 $6,199.45 Add 5% for engineering 300.55 $6,500.00 Add 2 switches, at $250 500.00 Total per mile $7,000.00 It is apparent that this line was not laid in a paved street. It will be noticed also that the price of rails, etc., was lower then than now. The cost of power plant and buildings is not included, but may be estimated at $15,000 for a suburban line 5 miles long. Where paving of streets must be done, use the data given in the section on Roads and Pavements. Cost of Electric Railway, Third Rail Line Mr. Ernest Gozen- bach gives the following relative to a first-class, third-rail suburban RAILWAYS. 141? line, 621/2 miles long. Including switches and sidings, the number of miles of single track is actually 66. Of the 62 14 miles, 6% miles are laid in city streets. Per mile Total. of line. 1. Excavation and embankment . ..$ 96,000 $ 1,536 2. Bridges, abutments and culverts. 91,050 1,457 3. Two overhead railway crossings 64,000 1,024 4. Ties, 2,640 per mile, at 55 cts 96,250 1,540 5. Ballast, 2,200 cu. yds., per mile, at SO cts. . 116,000 1,856 6. Rails, 70-lb. per yd., at $31 per ton delivered 225,000 3,600 7. Joints, spikes and bolts for 60-ft. rails 29,500 472 8. Labor on track, 56 miles, at $600 33,600 538 9. Labor in street track, 6V 2 miles, at $1,800. . 11,700 187 10. Farm and highway crossings 9,500 152 11. Wire fences, 24,000 rods, at 73 cts 17,500 280 12. Switches, special work, etc 21,000 336 13. Bonds, 24,000, at 61 cts. in place 14,650 234 14. Cross bonds and special bonding, at switches 2,000 32 15. Third rail, 70-lb. per yd., 56 miles, at $36 ton 131,000 2,096 16. Insulators, spikes and bolts, at 62 cts. in place 18,000 288 17. Joint plates, bolts and labor laying rail... 9,800 157 18. Bonds, 15,000, at 73 cts. in place 10,950 175 19. Crossings and crossing cables 13,500 216 20. Trolley in streets, single-track span con- struction 24,000 384 21. Power station, 150 kw., at $120 per kw 180,000 2,880 22. Power station building, at $11 per kw 16,500 264 23. Transmission line, 55 miles, at $1,400 77,000 1,232 24. Sub-station, freight and depot buildings.. 24,500 392 25. Sub-station, railway apparatus 65,000 1,040 26. Batteries 80,000 1,280 27. Telephone line 9,000 144 28. Block-signal system 35,000 560 29. Stations and platforms 4,250 84 30. Switch and platform-lighting circuit 4,000 64 31. General office building 8,000 128 32. Car shops, shop tools, etc 24,000 384 3*3. Car bodies and locomotive body 49,000 784 34. Trucks and air brakes 27,500 440 35. Electric car equipment 76,000 1,216 36. Lighting and power apparatus and sup- ply systems 70,000 1,120 37. Accidents, contingencies and insurance, 5% 89,000 1,424 38. Administration, superintendence, office ex- penses, engineering, etc., 5% 89,000 1,424 Total $1,963,750 $31,420 This estimate does not include allowance for right of way, station ground and legal expense. To reduce above costs per "mile of line" (62% miles) to cost per "mile* of track" (66 miles), deduct 5.3%. Items 33, 34 and 35 must be added together to get the total cost of rolling stock, making $2,440 per mile of line. 1418 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of an Electric Street Railway, Chicago. The following wa.- the cost of a mile of double-track street railway in Chicago in 1895: Per mile dbl. tr. 283 tons (90-lb.) rails, at $33.00 $ 9,839 4,224 oak ties (5 x 8-in. x 7-ft), at $0.38 1,605 352 cast welded joints, at $3.50 1,232 1,760 tie rods, at $0.15 264 33,792 spikes (y 2 xy 2 x4y 2 ), at $0.01 338 42,240 ft. wood filler 2,112 Labor at $1 per lin. ft. of double track 5,280 Total, exclusive of pavement materials. .. .$20,170 10,560 sq. yds. cedar blocks, at $0.30 3,168 146 cu. yds. sand, at $1.25 183 435 cu. yds. broken stone, at $1.50 668 10,560 sq. yds. gravel and dressing, at $0.08 845 10,560 sq. yds. 2-in. hemlock boards, at $0.08.. 845 Total $25,879 The above does not include electric construction nor overhead costs. Cost of an Interurban Trolley Line. Mr. Gilbert Hodges gives the following estimate of cost of an interurban electric trolley railway, based upon experience in New England in 1?02 : Per mile Roadbed, Land, Etc.: single track. 14,300 cu. yds. earthwork, at $0.45.. ..$ 6,435.00 325 cu. yds. rock, at $1.75 568.75 3 acres clearing and grubbing, at $75.00. 225.00 3,000 cu. yds. gravel ballast, at $0.50 1,500.00 640 rods wire fence, at $1.00 640.00 Pipe culverts 50.00 Masonry for bridges and culverts 1,000.00 Wooden and steel bridges 1,300.00 Land lor private right of way 1,000.00 Total roadbed, land, etc $12,718.75 Track: 110 tons T -rails (70-lb.), at $31.50 $ 3,465.00 360 continuous rail joints, at $1.54 554.40 2,640 chestnut ties (6x6 ins. x 8 ft), at $0.54 1,425.60 5,870 IDS. spikes, at $0.0225 132.07 720 bonds in place, at $0.615 442.80 17 cross bonds, at $0.50 8.50 Teaming material 270.00 Labor laying track 1,056.00 Total track $~7,354.37 Overhead System: Poles (35 ft), brackets, cross-arms, etc., in place " 650.00 Trolley wire and overhead material in place. 1,100.00 Direct and alternating current feeders in place 1,750.00 Block signal and telephone systems 2,000.00 Total overhead system $ 5,500.00 Engineering and Superintendence $ 600.00 Grand total . ..$26,173.21 RAILWAYS. 1419 This does not include buildings, power, equipment, interest during construction, etc. Cost of Third Rail and Trolley Lines Compared. "Electric Rail- ways" (1907), by Sydney W Ashe, contains the following costs of third-rail and of trolley lines, as estimated by Thomas Con- way, Jr. The estimated cost of a third-rail line is as follows per mile of single track : Item. Per mile. 1. 2,640 ties, at $0.75, delivered $ 1,980.00 2. 2,200 cu. yds. ballast, at $0.80 .. . 1,760.00 3. 123.2 tons rails, at $31.00 3,819.20 4. Joints, spikes and bolts 500.00 5. Labor on track 600.00 6. Farm and highway crossings 150.00 7. 640 rods wire fence, at $0.75 467.20 8. Switches, special work, etc 300.00 9. Bonding 400.00 10. 61.1 tons third-rail, at $36.00 2,199.60 11. Insulators, spikes and bolts, at $0.62 109.12 12. Joint plates, bolts and labor laying rail 175.00 13. Power station . 3,000.00 14. Power station building 275.00 15. 7,000 Ibs. transmission line copper (500 pr. triple- strand), at $0.2005 1,403.50 16. Pole brackets and insulators for transmission line. . . . 450.00 17. Sub-station, freight and depot buildings 2,000.00 18. Sub-station railway apparatus 1,000.00 19. Telephone line 150.00 20. Block signal systems 500.00 21. Platforms 100.00 22. Switch and platform lighting circuit 70.00 23. General office building 125.00 24. Cars 5,500.00 25. Accidents, contingencies, etc., 5% 1,500.00 26. Administration, engineering, etc., 5% 1,500.00 Total $30,033.62 The estimate for a trolley line is essentially the same, except for the following items : Item. 4 Joints, spikes and. bolts $1,000.00 9 Bonding, 35.2 bonds, at $0.75 in place 264.00 10. Trolley wire (4/0), 3,382 Ibs., at $0.198 669.63 11. Brackets for trolley poles, 52, at $1.50 78.00 12 Constructing overhead work 600.00 16. Trolley poles, 52, at $7.50 . . 390.00 Total $3,001.63 The total of the corresponding items (4, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 16) for third rail is $3,659, an excess of only $657 over the trolley line. Mr. W. C. Gottschall gives the following estimates made by Mr. Maurice Hoopes of the difference in cost between a third rail and a trolley line : 1420 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. THIRD RAIL LINE. Per mile Extra length (15 ins.) of 500 ties, at $0.075 % 37.50 500 insulators and fastenings, at $0.50 250.00 62.86 tons (80-lb.) low carbon rail, at $35 + $2 fit 2,325.82 176 rail joints, at $0.60 105.00 352 bonds (425,000 cir. mil.) in place, at $1.00 352.00 200 ft. cable for crossings (1,000,000 cir. mil), etc., at $1.20 240.00 Laying rail JIOO.OO Total $3,410.92 TROLLEY LINE. (Span construction, and assuming one line of poles chargeable to transmission line.) 22,774 Ibs. copper (equiv. to 80-lb. rail), at $0.17 $3,871.58 50 chestnut poles (8-in. x 30-ft), at $5.00 250.00 Labor and materials for erecting 300.00 Total $4,421.58 Mr. W. B. Potter's estimate of the cost of a protected third rail is as follows : Per mile. 66 tons (75-lb.) third rail, at $43.00.. $2,840.00 528 reconstructed granite insulators, etc., at $0.40 211.00 352 bonds (No. 0000 G. E. 9" Form B), at $0.38 134.00 21.71 tons channel iron (6-in., 31V 2 -lb.) guard, at $45.00.. 1,248.00 792 milleable iron supports for channel, at $0.36 286.00 176 malleable iron fish plates and bolts for channel, at $0.25 44.00 Labor of installation, including drilling rails and channel.. 900.00 Total $5,663.00 Cost of Labor and Materials in Building Two Electric Railways.* Mr. Daniel J. Hauer gives the following : It is difficult to keep accurate records of costs of all details, owing to the methods generally pursued in carrying on the construction of electric roads. The majority of lines are built within city limits, thus allowing only a short section of the street to be torn up at a time, and this necessitates one gang doing several different kinds of work in a single day. Consequently we find the "common labor" item covering a number of details ; instead of the cost of each being listed by itself. This reason still holds good and the writer regrets that this is the case in the data he will give in this article. Even though this is so, several valuable lessons can be learned from the records and they may serve to guide some engineers and contractors on future work. The two examples given are descriptive of construction done in a Southern city, during a year when labor was being paid a com- paratively high wage, out-of-door work being plentiful, and a job obtained easily. This, of course, added to the cost of the work. ^Engineering-Contracting, February, 1906. RAILWAYS. 1421 Example I. Example I was done under a contractor on "force ac- count," that is, at cost for labor plus a percentage. The work con- sisted of tearing up and partially destroying an old cable track and relaying the new electric roadbed. The old cable track rails and slot rails were taken out, and part of the concrete conduit and cast-iron yokes destroyed and filled in, then new ties and rails were laid and the street paved. The overhead work was not disturbed, so we present only the cost of track work. Unfortunately the cost of the various details was not kept separate, so we cannot give the cost of tearing up track, but .can only show the total cost of common labor. The working day was 10 hours and the following rates of wages were paid per day : Superintendent $12.00 Paymaster and assistant superintendent 5.00 Material man ,"..' 4.00 Assistant material man 2.00 Timekeeper 3.00 Foremen 4.50 Assistant foremen 2.50 Laborer 1.50 Water boy 1.00 Laborers in the iron gang 1.65 Watchmen 1-50 Bonders and blacksmith 3.00 Helpers 1.75 Block pavers 5.30 Rammers 3.90 Stonecutter 6.00 Cart and driver 2.75 2-horse team 5.00 4-horse team 10.00 The pavers, stonecutter and rammers were union men, hence the two first named worked but 8 hours and the rammers 9 hours. About a mile and one-half of track was laid, the total costs of labor and materials being: Labor $20,518.64 Paving 817.44 Paving materials 762.07 Gutters 341.26 Hauling 452.47 Permits from city 199.88 Engineering department 201.34 Rails, ties, angles, plates, bolts, etc 12,532.97 Miscellaneous supplies . 95.32 Total $35,921.39 The rail laid was of the girder type weighing 107 Ibs. to the yard, or 168.14 gross tons per mile. The height of the rail was 9 ins., while the base was 5% ins. ; the length of the rail section was 60 ft. The angle plates were 32 ins. long with 12 holes; the tie rods were 1% ins. by % in., spaced every 6 ft. The two were spaced 2-ft. centers, while the spikes were 5 1/2 -in. by 9/16-in. The bonds were 10 ins. concealed. 1422 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Thr cost of the material was: Per lin. ft. Rail, tie rods, spikes, plates, nut locks, bolts. .$1.3894 Bonds 0244 Tie .2425 Handling from cars 0020 fl.6583 The cost of labor for tearing up the old track, excavating, laying and bonding for new and filling in ready for the pavers was $2.581 per lin. ft. of track. The cost per lineal foot of track for paving materials was $0.10 and for labor was f 0.108, making a total cost of $0.208. The cost per lineal foot of track for the miscellaneous items, enumerated above, was $0.17 ; this makes a total cost per lineal foot as follows : Material $1.658 Labor (common) 2.581 Paving, including labor 208 Miscellaneous 170 Total $4.617 The paving was granite block paving with large flag stone laid at street crossing for foot pavement. The majority of the blocks taken up from the old track were used, only about 10% of new blocks being substituted. The blocks were laid in sand, and cinders in wet places. The cost per square yard of paving was $0.19, being 10 cts. for labor and 9 cts. for materials. Example II. This work was identically the same, replacing a cable roadbed with girder rails for electric track. The cable road was of similar construction, but the work was done by the railroad company's own forces, except the paving, which was let to contract, the company furnishing materials. The amount of work done was a little more than a mile of single track, yet in both cases the work was for double track in the heart of the city, where street traffic was heavy. The prices paid labor in this case were as follows : Superintendent $3.33 Foremen 2.50 Assistant foremen 2.25 Sub-foremen 2.00 Pavers 4.75 Rammers 3.50 Blacksmiths 1.90 Bonders 1.70 Surfacers and leaders 1.75 Laborers in iron gang 1.60 Laborers, including helpers, watchmen, etc 1.40 Water boys 75 Cart and driver 2.50 One-horse team and driver 3.00 Two-horse team and driver 5.00 Team and driver for dragging rails 3.75 Four-horse team and driver 8.00 Team for hauling rails 9.00 RAILWAYS. 1423 The total cost for labor and all materials was as follows: Labor $ 8,235.77 Paving 2,652.47 Paving materials 1,791.58 Gutters 106.21 Hauling 796.16 Permits from city 120.75 Engineering department 133.53 Rails, ties, angle plates, bolts, etc 9,946.80 Miscellaneous supplies 105.79 123,889.06 The paving was done by contract, the railroad company furnish- ing all the materials, the contractor simply doing the labor of laying the Belgian blocks. There was 5,894.3 sq. yds. of paving, the con- tract price beiilg 45 cts. per sq. yd. The cost of new materials per square yard was 31.4 cts., making a total cost per square yard of 76.4 cts. The paving in all cases ran 2 ft. outside of rail. This makes a cost per lineal foot of track for paving of 74 cts., being divided as follows: 44.2 cts. for the labor of laying and 29.8 cts. for materials. All the blocks were laid in sand^ there being no other foundation. The cost per lineal foot of track for track materials was the same as in Example I, namely $1.658. The miscellaneous cost, such as hauling, permits, gutters, etc., per lineal foot of track was 21 cts. In this case the labor cost of the work can be divided under sev- eral heads, but still such division as should be made, cannot be given, as the records were not kept with such an idea. The labor costs per lineal foot of track were : Superintendence ............... ' ........... -. . . .$0.005 Foremen ............ ................. , ....... 095 Laying and surfacing rails ..................... 195 Labor of tearing up cable track, excavation, re- filling, spacing ties, etc ...... , .............. 1.030 Watchmen ................................... 010 Water boys ................................... 016 Blacksmith work ............................. 012 Bonding ...................................... 009 $ 1*372 This makes a total cost per lineal foot of single track as follows, and allows of comparison with similar cost in Example I: Material ............................... ..... $1.65*. Labor (common) .... ....................... 1.S72 Paving, including labor ...... ................. 740 Miscellaneous ................................ 21C It would seem from these figures that tlie company forces ^ore up the old cable road bed and laid the electric road for 63.7 cts. less per lineal foot of single track, or a difference of $3,3oo.36 per rniie. This, at a, glance, seems like an extraordinary difference, and for that reason it would be. well to analyze these records. 1424 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The first thing to be noted is the great difference in the wages of various men, the contractors paying the larger wage. The dif- ference in the compensation of laborers was 10 cts. This was made up by the railroad company giving each man two car tickets daily, one for use in the morning and the other for evening use. The cost of these tickets was not included in the company's records. It was considered that there was no direct cost to the company, but such an idea is certainly erroneous. It would seem that at least 5 cts. should be charged for these two rides, making a total charge of about $300. The other differences in wages are very hard to esti- mate, as the details of time on the two jobs could not be obtained. The contractor has, in some cases, charged very high prices for some of his men, such as superintendent, foremen and some others. Some of these high rates were made necessary, as the men were paid full time, whether the weather permitted work or not, and as wages could only be charged the company when work was actually done, a higher rate than was paid was billed. Then, too, some of the wages paid by the company were very low, as foremen, black- smith, bonders and a few others. The company failed to make a charge against their work for a pay master, material man and time- keeper. The roadmaster of the railroad and one or two other offi- cials spent the greater part of their time in supervision of this work, yet no charge was made for this. All of these things would add materially to the cost. Another matter, worthy of note, is that the contractors were only doing one stretch of work at a time, while the railroad company had as many as six jobs going on simultaneously. This reduced the cost of superintendence, blacksmithing and a few other items for the company, while the contractors were compelled to charge full time. Another consideration was the class of work done. The con- tractor had no object but to give the best of work, the more it cost the greater his profits ; but this was not so with the company's forces. Specifications were not lived up to, but rather ignored, and when difficulties were encountered, specifications were changed to suit the conditions. One foreman expressed the situation tersely when he said : "Anything goes with the company." Repairs to the work were necessary within a few months. As is always the case, cheap foremen do indifferent work, and foremen's salaries were small. The percentage paid the contractor in Example I was 10%, hence his profit per lineal -foot of track was 45.6 cts. Deducting this from his cos' co th) company we have $4-161. Taking iiito consideration all of these facts, and it is more than doubtful if :he cost of the work by the company's forces was less than tha* o: tha contractor. It will also be noticed that there was no charges for plant, ana also for clerica> hire, although clerks from several departments did extra work on account of the recon- struct 1 ' :>r. The write*- ^ Sieves that this is another lesson against such work being done by company's forces instead of by contract. He would r.ot be understood as advocating having the work done by a con- RAILWAYS. 1425 tract on the percentage basis, as both the costs, of these examples are high, but it would be much more economical to let the work at contract. There would no doubt have been a number of re- sponsible contracting firms only too glad to do these jobs for less money than they cost the railroad company. If the work was too irregular to let it upon a unit basis, or too uncertain to make it a lump sum job, it could have been contracted for, at cost plus a fixed sum. Then there would be no object for the contractor to "salt" the job, or even prolong the time or skimp the work. There is cer- tainly much food for thought in the above figures. The bonding of the rails on electric track is an important detail of the work. The labor necessary consists of reaming the hole out in order to make the contact good and in placing and tightening up the bond. The cost of labor and material per lineal foot of track for bonding has been given, but it may be of interest to consider the cost per joint or bond. The bond used, was a 10-in. concealed bond, that is a bond entirely covered up by the angle plate. The cost of the bonds, apiece, was 73.2 cts. In Example I, with bonders' 'wages at 30 cts. per hour, the cost of labor per bond was 41.7 cts., making a total cost of $1.149. In Example II, with wages at 17 cts. per hour, the labor cost per bond was 24.5 cts. giving a total cost of 97.7 cts. This does not include the expense -of putting on the angle plate and tightening up the bolts, as that is listed in the records of laying iron. Both jobs were done in good summer weather. Traffic was main- tained over one track while tha other track was being rebuilt. No record was kept of the cost of laying these cross overs, consequently they were not charged against the work. The management and organization of the forces was not up to the standard of our best contracting firms. A large per cent of the laborers were foreigners and they worked under sub-foremen or assistant foremen of their own nationality. This made it possible for the men to lose and waste time. Frequently instructions were misunderstood, so work was done wrong only to be changed. Some foremen were kept at work, not from their ability to handle men and obtain good results, but because they could furnish new laborers when they were needed. It was also possible for dis- charged men to go from the job at which they were laid off to another piece of work being done by the company and obtain em- ployment. Any contractor knows the cost of such proceedings. They cannot be calculated but they show up on the wrong side of the ledger at the end of a season's work. Cost of Street Railway Track with Rubble Concrete Base, Ft. Wayne, Ind.* The track was single track in paved street, with sidings and turnouts, and the work consisted in excavating some 8 ft. wide and from 1 to 3 1 / 2 ft. deep, placing the concrete, laying track, and repaving. The construction is shown by Fig. 13. The costs as given by Mr. H. L. Weber, chief engineer, Ft. Wayne & Wabash Valley Traction Co., were as follows : * Engineering-Contracting, March 11, 1908. 1426 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. There were 5,022 lin. ft. of single track made up as follows: Main line, lin. ft 4,481 Sidings, lin. ft 476 Two left-hand turnouts, lin. ft 65 Total track, lin ft r>.0-2 There were 3,970 sq. yds. of repaying made up as follows: In gage of main track, sq. yds 3,399.1 On sidings, sq. yds 453.9 1-ft. strip outside of rails, sq. yds 1,117.0 Total paving, sq. yds 3,970.0 The excavation consisted of a trench some 8 ft. wide and from 1 to 3% ft. deep. All excavated material was hauled away, teams costing 40 cts. per hour and common labor 16^ cts. per hour. The cost of excavation was as follows : Excavating and hauling away $3,378.03 1 new road plow Total cost . $3,403.03 };5Mortor Special Nose BlecK J:3Grrpuf _" 5 P""'' I I I I ' \ l^fTT \ v-'kLx/^ Wo * Tl ' e *> &"**>"* r'o"-3o''ctoc . i OM ft a/I Cross tie tv replace Wood fie Carneq/e Steel Tie Under \ 0)d5WRailf?elaic<-Firs1-foti/d92 Li EncjrConir Plan Vis. 13. Street Railway Track. This gives a cost for excavation of 67.7 cts. per lin. ft. of track. The track was laid with old 5%-in. rails, which were revrrs- 210.00 0.041 Item. Labor Ties 1 8 kegs spilu-s at $."> 8 kegs bolts at $5.85 350 bonds at 60 ots Totals ,$2,336.46 RAILWAYS. 1427 The concrete work comprised the making and laying of 1,20 cu. yds. of concrete at the following cost : Item. Total. Per cu. yd. Stone at $1.25 per cu. yd $ 973.55 $0.772 688 cu. yds. gravel and sand at $1 688.00 0.546 759% bbls. cement at $2 1,519.00 1.205 Labor 527.68 0418 Totals $3,708.23 $2.941 This low cost of concrete per cubic yard was made possible by the use of cobble stones from the old cobble pavement in the concrete. It was estimated by the engineer that had broken stone concrete been used throughout the cost would have been $5.50 per cu. yd., so that a saving of nearly one-half was affected by using the rubble concrete. The cost of the concrete per lineal foot of track was $3,708.23 + 4,957 ft. = 74.8 cts. There were 3,970 sq. yds. of repaying which cost as follows: Item. Total. Per sq. yd. Gravel and sand $ 344.20 $0.086 90y 2 bbls. cement at $2 181.00 0.046 33,145 new brick at $22.50 per M. . . 746.86 0.188 123,618 blocks at $18.25 per M 2,256.86 0.568 Unloading and hauling brick 250.00 0.063 1 road roller 200.00 0.050 Labor 425.70 0.107 Totals ( $4,404.62 $1.108 The cost of paving per lineal foot of track was 88.8 cts. and the total cost of the work per lineal foot of track was : Per lin. ft. Excavation $0.677 Track laying 0.468 Concrete 0.748 Paving 0.888 Total I $2.781 This does not include the cost of the rails. Comparative Cost of Street Railway Track Built with Steel and with Wood Ties.* A steel tie laid in concrete is cheaper than a wood tie laid in concrete or broken stone in street railway track construction, according to figures by Mr. C. H. Clark, Cleveland Electric Ry., Cleveland, O. Comparison is made between the standard construction with Carnegie steel ties on the Cleveland Electric Ry., and various standard forms of construction with wood ties. The Carnegie tie is a steel I-beam 5% ins. deep with a top flange 4% ins. wide and a bottom flange 8 ins. wide. The ties are spaced 6 ft. apart on centers. A strip of 1:3:6 concrete about 2 ft. wide and 5% ins. thick is placed under each tie and the space between ties is filled with a 5%-in. layer of concrete. The * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 7, 1906. 1428 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. rods connecting the rails come over each tie. The actual cost of this construction per 100 ft. is given as follows: Per 100 ft. 16% ties at $2.50 $ 41.66 17 cu. yds. concrete at $5 85.00 Total $126.66 Total per foot of track 1.27 Using oak ties costing 80 cts. each and spaced 2 ft. on centers the cost of the several standard constructions per foot are given as follows : . No. 1. Tamping with material taken out ; no extra excavation : Per ft. Tamping $0.04 Tie 40 Total per ft 0.44 No. 2. Seven inches broken stone under ties and concrete be- tween the ties : 0.18 cu. yds. crushed stone, at $1.50 $0.27 1 cu. yd. concrete, at $5 50 Tamping crushed stone 08 Extra excavation and removing the same 07 Tie 40 Total per ft $1.32 No. 3. Seven inches broken stone under ties and broken stone between the ties: 0.28 cu. yd. of stone, at $1.50 $0.42 Tamping the same 08 Extra excavation and removing the same 08 Tie 40 Total per ft $0.98 No. 4. All concrete ; 5 in. below and filled to the top of the tie : 0.218 cu. yd. of concrete, at $5 $1.19 Extra excavation and removing the same 07 Tie 40 Total per ft $1.56 No. 5. Four inches concrete ; 1 in. sand under tie and concrete between the ties : 0.208 cu. yd. concrete, at $5 $1.04 Extra excavation and removing the same 07 Tie . 40 Total per ft $1.51 It will be seen that the steel tie construction is cheaper in first cost than any of the concrete constructions with wood ties. Re- ferring to this comparison Mr. Clark says : "This is on the assumption that white oak ties cost 80 cts. apiece. This price, of course, varies in different localities, and the difference jn price can readily be applied for comparison. The life of the steel tie can readily be placed at 20 years, and the white oak at about 12 years. RAILWAYS. 142D Cost of Welding Rails by the Thermit Process.* The following account of the methods and cost of welding a large number of rail joints by the thermit process has been obtained from Mr. M. J. French, Engineer Maintenance of Way of the Utica & Mohawk Valley Electric Railway. A part of this information appeared originally in a paper by Mr. French, read before the Street Railway Association of the State of New York, and the remainder, covering practically all of the matter on costs, was obtained from the author by the editors of Engineering-Contracting. Both the methods described and the costs given refer to work on the railway named above during 1905-6. Thermit Process. The process of welding consists in pouring molten mild steel from a melting crucible into sand and flour molds placed around the rails at the joint. It is in detail as follows : The rails having first been lined and surfaced, the joint is thoroughly cleaned with a sand blast or wire brush. Then the rails are heated by a gasoline or oil blow-torch to expel all moisture, and by heating the rails to a dull red better results are secured as the temperature of the molten steel is not reduced as much when coming into contact with the rails. After the joint is cleaned and heated a pair of molds made of an equal mixture of common clay and sand, or, preferably, of sand and 10 per cent of cheap rye flour, is clamped firmly to the rails. The molds are held by a wrought iron frame-work provided with handles to facilitate carrying. The molds being in place, the rail head is painted with a watery solution of red clay which the heated metal immediately dries up to a thin coating, the purpose of which is to prevent the molten slag or steel from uniting with or burning the rail head. After thoroughly luting all joints of the molds with clay of the consistency of putty, earth is packed around the outside of the molds. The molds and the rails are then given a final warming with the blow-torch, the flame being directed inside the molds to expel any remaining moisture. The crucible on its tripod is then set over the mold with its pouring hole directly over and about 2 ins. above the gate in the mold. After placing the tapping pin, iron disc, asbestos disc and refractory sand in the bottom of the crucible to act as a plug for the opening the thermit compound is poured in and in the center of the top is placed about one-third teaspoonful of ignition powder. A storm match starts the chemical process. The thermit compound is composed of aluminum and iron oxide both in granular or flake form ; the ignition powder is composed of aluminum and barium peroxide in much finer form. When the match is applied the barium peroxide ignites and releases its oxygen to the aluminum very quickly. The heat produced is so intense that it causes the iron oxide to release its oxygen, which in turn is seized by the aluminum and almost instantly the entire contents of the crucible are a boiling and seething mass. By this reaction the pure steel is liberated and settles immediately to the *Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 13, 1907. 1430 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. bottom of the mold. The crucible is then tapped by striking the tapping pin with a special iron spade and the molten steel runs into the mold followed by the aluminum oxide and corundum, slag. The chemical reaction described is completed fn about 30 seconds, an. reinforcing bars and 21 Ibs. of steps, weighs 4,400 Ibs. and costs J13. First Cost and Cost of Operating a Trolley Line "Street Rail- ways," by C. B. Fairchild, contains the following estimate, made in 1892, of the cost of constructing, equipping and operating 3 miles of double track electric trolley line, with power station near the center of the line. Per mile of single Road Bed: Total. track. 15,840 lin. ft. stone ballast (6 ins. below ties and between ties), including excavation for same, at $0.90 $ 14,256 $ 2,376 15,136 ties (5 x 7-in.) at $0.45 6,811 1,135 1,056 double joint ties at $0.75 792 132 31,680 ft. rails (78-lb.), including all other iron and steel at $1.42 44,986 7,498 6 miles electrical construction, including copper return wire, at $500.00 3,000 500 31,680 ft. track laying (labor, teaming and supt.) at $0.30 9,504 1,584 28,158 sq. yds. granite pavement at $3.00 84,474 14,07!) Total road bed $163,823 $27,304 Special Street Construction: 2 cross-over switches at $525.00 . ..$ 1,050 $ 175 1 double track crossing 270 45 180 degs. double track curve 492 82 Total special street construction $ 1,812 $ 302 Overhead Street Construction: 270 iron pipe poles (6x5x4 ins. x 28 ft.) and fittings at $26.00 $ 7,020 $ 1,170 8 iron terminal and curve poles at $50.00 400 67 278 poles set with concrete foundations at $7.00. . . 1,946 324 278 poles painted at $1.00 '. 278 46 10,224 Ibs. (No, 0) trolley wire at $0.15 1,534 256 2,200 Ibs. (5/16, 7 strand) galvanized steel wire (50 ft. street) at $0.055 121 20 15.600 Ibs. feed wire (4 miles) at $0.17 2.652 442 270 Ibs. strain and anchor wire at $0.04 11 2 3 miles line and insulating appliances, lighting arresters, etc., at $300.00 900 150 3 miles labor stretching trolley and feed wire and attaching insulating appliances, at $500.00 1,500 250 Total overhead construction $ 16,361 $ 2,727 Special Overhead Construction: 6 trolley switches at $3.00 $ 18 $ 3 2 double track curves (90 deg.) at $75.00 150 25 Guard wire and guard span half the line, with connections . 250 42 Total special overhead construction $ 418 $ 10 RAILWAYS. 1439 Power House and Plant: Real estate $ 10,000 $ 1,667 House, 100 x 175 ft -. . 25,000 4,166 Steam plant, 1,050 hp. (35 hp. per car) (2 slow speed engines, boilers, etc.), at $65.00 68,250 11,375 Electrical equipment (including generators, switch- board, etc.), 900 hp. (30 hp. per car) at $35.00.. 31,500 5,250 Total power house and plant $134,750 $22,458 Rolling Stock and Equipment: 15 motor car bodies (16-ft.) at $1,000.00 $ 15,000 $ 2,500 15 motor trucks at $275.00 4,125 687 30 motors (20 hp.) and electrical appliances, at $1,250.00 37,500 6,250 15 coaches (trailers) with trucks at $1,200.00... 18,000 3,000 ' Total rolling stock .$ 74,625 $12.437 Car Barn and Repair Shop: Real estate.... $ 2,500 $ 416 Car house, fireproof 25,000 4,167 Pits, tracks and switches 4,000 667 Repair shop equipment 8,500 1,417 Total car barn and repair shop $ 40,009 $ 6,667 Auxiliary Appliances:. 1 electric snow plow and sweeper $ 5,000 $ 833 Other snow appliances ' 1,000 167 1 wrecking wagon, tools and team 800 133 1 high wagon, tools and horse 600 100 1 express wagon and horse 350 58 1 heavy wagon and team 500 83 2 carts .'...". 100 17 Track tools, etc 300 50 Total auxiliary appliance $ 8,650 $ 1,442 Grand total 455,439 75,906 Mr. Fairchild gives the following estimate of cost of operating 15 trains (motor and trail car), running on 4 mins. headway, including an allowance for "depreciation." He figures the life of the destructible part of the plant at 20 years, and provides a sinking fund that at 3% compound interest will redeem the plant in 20 years. This amounts to $13,870 per year, or $38 per day, which shows that he figured this depreciation on a plant of about $365,000, 1440 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Per day. Depreciation of plant and rolling stock $ 38.00 Repairs, engines, boilers, generators, etc 13.00 Repairs, cars (including motors) 78.00 Repairs, track, overhead construction and bldgs. 47.00 Track cleaning, train and shop expense 14.00 Track service 8.00 Power and car house expenses 6.00 Car house service, inclusive of cleaning, inspec- tion, etc 20.00 Engineers, fireman and dynamo tenders 25.00 .66 motormen and conductors at $2.00 132.00 12 tons (2,240 Ibs. ) coal at $2.50 30.00 Water, oil and grease 10.00 Injury to persons and property 10.00 Legal, secret service and insurance 8.00 Licenses and taxes. 7.00 General and miscellaneous expense 32.50 Total operating expense $478.50 Each of the 15 trains will make 110 miles per day, or 1,650 train miles, or 3,300 car miles per day for the line. Hence, dividing $478.50 by 3,300 gives 14% cts. per car mile. The repairs to the power plant machinery, $13 daily, amount to 1 $4,745 per year, or less than 5% on the first cost The repairs to cars, $78 daily, amount to V" 2 8,4 70 per year, or more, than 38% of the first cost, which is ridiculously high. The repairs to track, overhead construction and buildings, $47 daily, amount to $17,155 per year. Excluding the ballast and pave- ment, the track materials and labor cost about $65,000, the over- head construction cost $16,000; the buildings cost $50,000; total $131,000. Hence, the $17,155 repairs is more than 13 % ; but iron poles, fireproof buildings and durable construction are provided throughout (except the ties). Hence, this item is inordinately high. In brief, not a single item of repairs is correctly figured, and the most important items are wide of the truth. Errors of the kind made by Mr. Fairchild are best detected by expressing the annual costs of repairs as a percentage of the first cost. Estimated First Cost and Cost of Operating a 4-Track Electric Railway. "Electric Railway Economics" (1903), by W. C. Gott- schall, contains the following estimate of the maximum cost of suburban electric railway. Per mile single track. Rails (80-lb.), $33 per ton deliv., and fastenings$ 5,100 Labor laying track 900 Track bonding < 50 2,640 white oak ties (6x8 ins. x 8 ft.) at $0.70 1,848 2,750 cu. yds. rock ballast at $1.50 4,125 20,000 cu. yds. grading at $0.30 6,000 Third rail 7,000 Copper and installation thereof 2,50 Bridges and culverts 12.00C Labor and incidentals Power stations at $100 per kw. ; sub-stations at $40 per kw 18,000 Rolling stock (5 min. headway) 8,00 Real estate and right of way 20,000 Incidentals, including block-signals, telephones, fencing, etc 4,000 Total $90,623 RAILWAYS. 1441 Mr. Gottschall gives an estimate of the probable cost of operating i 4-track interurban road, 24 miles long (New York & Port Chester), as follows: 96 miles of main single track. 124 daily local trains each way, trains of 1 car. 74 daily express trains each way, trains of 2 cars. 4,500,000 car miles per annum. 248 daily local trains both ways, 49 mins. each. 148 daily express trains both ways, 31 mins. each. Hence : 248 X 49 -r- 60 = 202.5 car hours per day of local train service. Per car hr. 1 motorman at $0.30 1' conductor at 0.25 Total . . $0.55 202.5 car hrs. X $0.55 X 365 days = $40,752 per year. In like manner for express trains : 2 X 148 X 31 -f- 60 = 152.8 car hrs. per day.' p er train hr. 1 motorman at $0.30 1 conductor at 0.25 Total $0.80 This is equivalent to $0.40 per car hr. 152.8 car hrs. X $0.40 X 365 = $22-,309 per year. Train Crews: Per year. Train crews, local trains $40,752 Train crews, express trains 22,309 Total $63,061 Add % for extra man 21,020 Grand total train crews $84,081 Station Crews: 22 stations using 5 men = 110 men. 110 men X $2.00 X 365 days = $80,300 yearly. Maintenance of Equipment: 4,169,760 car miles plus allowance for extra occasions = 4,500,008 car miles. 4,500,000 at $0.02 = $90,000 yearly.. Maintenance of Roadway and Structures: Per mile peryr. 5% of $5,092, first cost of rails and fastenings $ 254 6% of $1,848, first cost of oak ties (at $0.70 ea. ) . . . 108 5% of $2,700, first cost of rock ballast 135 Labor of section and line men : 5 trackmen at $1.80 $ 9.00 2 linemen at $2.50 5.00 Total per day for 12 miles $14.00 $14 H- 12 X 312 days = 364 Repairs and renewals of fences 25 Total $ 886 Add for contingencies, etc 114 Grand total maintenance roadway $ 1,000 96 miles at $1,000 yearly 96,000 1442 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Electric. Power:* Weight of loaded motor car is estimated to be : Tons. Car and trucks 25 Electric equipment 17 Total 42 Passengers 10 Total when loaded 52 With 5,208 local car miles daily, at 52 tons per car, we have 270,816 ton miles. At 160 watt hours per ton mile (see Table XXVu.> we have: 160 X 270,816 = 43,330,560 watt hours per day for local service. In similar manner we get 42,020,160 watt hours per day for express service; total 85,350,720 watt hours per 24 hr. day, or 85,351 kw. hours. Add : Per cent. Transmission loss from main station to 3d rail. ... 18 Heating cars 5 Lighting cars, etc 2 Total to be added We have 85,351 + 21,338 = 106,689 kw. hrs. per 24-hr, day, or a plant of 4,445 kw. The cost per kw. hr. was estimated thus: Power Station Labor: . Per day. 1 chief engineer .................. . ...... $ 10.00 3 assistant engineers at $5.00 ............. 15.00 30 oilers at $2.50 ............. ...... . ..... 75.00 3 switchboard men at $3.50 ............... 10.50 3 electric helpers at $2.50 ................ 7.50 6 cleaners at $1.50 ....................... 9.00 6 condenser men at $2.50 ................. 15.00 1 machinist and 2 helpers ................ 9.00 24 boiler men at $2.50. . .................. 60.00 1 boiler cleaner and 2 helpers ............. 6.00 4 laborers at $1.50 ....................... 6.00 Total labor per day .................... $ 223.00 Total labor per year .................... $ 81,395.00 Fuel: 6,684 therefore, 146.69 tons coal at $2.40 ..... . $ 352.06 106,684 kw. at 2% Ibs. coal = 293,381 Ibs. ; , 146.69 Total labor and fuel per day ............ $ 575.06 Total labor and fuel per year ........... 209,897.00 Hence : Per kw. hr. $575 ^- 106,684 = ........................... $0.00538 Add for repairs, etc ......................... 0.00112 Total ................................... $0.00650 This allowance of $0.00112 per kw. for repairs of power station is equivalent to $119.50 per day, or $42,718 per year. Since a power station and sub-station would not cost more than $140 per kw., the R.-ULir.-lYS. 1443 total cost of power plant would be $633,300 for a 4,445 kw. plant. Hence the $42,718 repairs per year is about 7% of the first cost. The allowance of 2 cts. per car mile for maintenance of equip- ment is far too low for large high speed electric cars (42-ton). He should have taken fully 10% of the first cost of each car, for annual repairs, and that divided by the annual car miles would have given the cost of repairs per car mile. The allowance of 5% per year for renewals of rails is excessive. Mr. Gottschall errs seriously in this. He reasons as follows : The life rails for main line service of steam railway trunk lines is 15 years; but such a service is equivalent to 20 years on a high speed electric line where heavy locomotives are ' not used. Hence, a life of 20 years, or 5% depreciation, for rails in an electric line is assumed. Mr. Gottschall fails to consider that when a rail is removed from a main line it has a scrap value of about half its first cost. This being so, it has depreciated only 2 % % per year, instead of the 5% assumed by Mr. Gottschall. On the other hand, the 6% depreciation that he assumes for white oak ties is too low. Such ties will not last more than about 10 years. But then, on the other hand again, his- assumed 5% annual depreciation of rock ballast Is ridiculously high. TABLE XXVa. WATT HOURS PER TON MILE. Distance "Watt hrs. per ton mile for schedule speed of between stops, miles. 3 40 mi. "per hr. 110 35 mi. per hr. 80 30 mi. per hr. 78 25 mi. per hr. 65 20 mi. per hr. 53 15 mi- per hr. 40 2 14 121 90 83 74 54 40 2 :..:..:. .... 142 99 86 80 60 41 95 85 68 43 i 128 90 74 50 Vo . 145 119 56 y ... ... ... ... 120 Train friction in Ibs. per ton 35 30 27% 25 20 15 Note: 1. The breaking effort or retardation is taken at 150 Ibs. per ton. 2. The stops are taken at 15 sees, each, except for the 15-mi. schedule, where 10 sees, are taken. 3. A schedule speed of 25 mi. will require actual speeds of 40 to 50 mi. per hr., etc. 4. The rate of acceleration for the long runs varies from 75 to 110 Ibs. per ton, going as high as 210 Ibs. per ton- for the short runs. 5. The table applies only to single car trains. If more than one car is used, the train friction in Ibs. per ton decreases, hence the electric energy required decreases. 6. The figures are for the electric energy required at the motors. 1444 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Power Plants for Electric Railways. "Electric Railways" (1907), by Sydney W. Ashe, contains the following power plant costs estimated by Mr. H. G. Stott: Per kw. Min. 1. Real estate $ 3.00 2. Excavation 0.75 3. Foundations, recipr. engines 2.00 4. Foundations, turbines 0.50 5. Iron and steel structure 8.00 6. Building 8.00 7. Floors, galleries and platforms 1.50 8. Tunnels, intake and discharge 1.40 9. Ash-storage pocket, etc 0.70 10. Coal hoisting tower 1.20 11. Cranes 0.40 12. Coal and ash conveyors 2.00 13. Ash cars, locomotives and track 0.15 14. Coal and ash chutes, etc 0.40 15. Water, meters, storage tanks and mains 0.50 16. Stacks 1.25 17. Boilers 9.50 18. Boiler setting 1.25 19. Stokers 1.80 20. Economizers 1.30 21. Flues, dampers and regulators 6.60 22. Forced-draught blowers and air 1.25 23. Boiler, hand and other pumps 0.40 24. Feed water heaters, etc 0.20 25. Steam and water piping, traps, separators, high and low pressure 3.00 26. Pipe covering 0.60 27. Valves 0.60 28. Main engines, reciprocating 22.00 29. Exciter engines, reciprocating 0.40 30. Condensers, barometric or jet 1.00 31. Condensers, surface 6.00 32. Electric generators 16.00 33. Exciters , 0.60 34. Steam turbine units complete 22.00 35. Rotaries, transformers, blowers, e'.:- 0.60 36. Switchboards, complete ' 3.00 37. Wiring for lights, motors, etc 0.20 38. Oiling system, complete 0.15 39. Compressed air system, etc 0.20 40. Painting, labor, etc 1-25 41. Extras 2,00 42. Engineering and inspection 4.00 Total, excluding Items 4, 22, 31 and 34 ?102.00 $148.00 Mr. W. C. Gottschall gives a similar estimate, as follows: RAILWAYS. 1445 RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINE POWER-STATION COSTS PER KILOWATT. Per kw. Max. Min.. 1. Buildings $ 15.09 $ 8.00 2. Foundations . 3.50 1.50 3. Boilers and settings 17.00 9.00 4. Steam piping and co vexing: 12.00 4.00 5. Engines 32.00 20.00 6. Generators 21.00 18.00 7. Pumps, etc 1.00 1.00 8. Switchboards, etc 4.00 1.50 9. Feed water heaters, etc 2.00 1.00 10. Wiring conduits, etc 6.00 3.00 11. Coal storage and conveyors 6.00 2.00 12. Smokestack and flues 13. Fuel economizers 14. Stokers 15. Ash conveyors 2.00 1.00 4.50 2.50 3.00 2.50 1.50 1.00 16. Incidentals 2.00 2.00 Total 132.50 $78.00 A fair average is $100 to $110 per kw. The cost of sub-stations using rotary converters will range from $38 to $45 per kw. including the building. Land is not included in the above costs. Cost of Power Plant and Equipment of an Electric Rai W. A. Blanck gives the following estimated cost (in 19 electrical equipment of a 60-mile, single-track, interurt railway : Direct JL Power House: current. Building $ 1 0.000 Iway Mr. 04) of the >an trolley Alternating current. $ 10,000 2,500 12,000 7,500 22,000 23,000 1,000 7,500 3,000 2,500 800 800 1,000 2,000 3,000 3,500 4,400 Foundations ... 2 500 Boilers and settings 12 000 Steampipe and covering 7 500 Engines 22 000 Generators, two 400 kw 18 000 Exciters 1 000 Step-up transformers 800 kw 8 000 Switchboard 3 500 Wiring 3 000 Feed water heater 800 Pumps ... 800 Coal storage 1,000 Smokestack and flues 2 000 Fuel economizers 3 000 Stokers 3 500 Incidentals 4 400 Total power house $103,000 $106,500 Sub-station in Power House: Building extension $ 1,000 $ 600 Synchronous converter, 300 kw 4,800 Transformer, 300 kw. ; 200 kw. alternating current 3,200 2,000 Switchboard 2,000 1,300 Wiring 1,000 500 Incidentals -. 600 200 Total sub-station $ 12,600 $ 4,600 1440 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Transmission Line ($ Miles): Poles (see Trolley Line below). Copper $ 10,000 % 11,500 Insulators, pins and cross-arms 7,500 5,000 Erection 4,000 3,000 Incidentals 1,000 1,000 Total transmission line $ 22,500 ? 20,500 Sub-stations Along Road: Buildings, four $ 8,000 $ 4,000 Synchronous converters, four 19,200 Step-down transformers 12,800 8,000 Switchboards, four 8,000 5 200 Wiring 4,000 2,000 Incidentals 2,000 800 Total 4 sub-stations. $ 54,000 $ 20,000 Trolley Line and Feeders: Poles, 3,500, at $5 $ 17,500 Poles distributed and set 4,000 Guys and anchors 2,000 Brackets with hangers 18,000 Copper, direct current : Feeder, 12 miles, 500,000 circ. mils. Feeder, 48 miles, No. 0000. Trolley, 120 miles, No. 000 95,000 Alternating current : Trolley, 60 miles, No. 00 Feed insulators , 2,000 Erection 10,000 Incidentals 7,500 Total trolley line .$156,000 Bonding of Rails: Both rails bonded . . . One rail bonded Cross bonds Total bonding of rails Rolling Stock: 10 vestibuled passenger cars, each with 4 motors, wt. 30 tons 2 express passenger cars, each with 4 motors, wt. 35 tons 2 baggage cars, each with 4 motors, wt. 30 tons Snow plow and construction car $ 75,000 18,000 10,000 7,000 Total rolling stock f 110,000 Summary: Power house Sub-station in power house. Transmission line Sub-stations Trolley line and feeders. . . . Bonding of rails. Rolling stock $103, OOd 12,600 22,500 54,000 156,000 32,000 110,000 Grand total Cost per mile (60 miles) $490,100 $ 8,168 $ 78,000 $ 16,000 $126,000 $106,500 4,600 20,500 20,000 78,000 16,000 126,000 $371.600 I 6,193 RAILWAYS. 1447 The running schedule upon which the above is based is- as follows : 5 local cars having 1-hr, headway ; 1 express car, making round trip in 3 hrs. ; 1 freight and baggage car, making trip be- tween the two terminals in 8 hrs. Cost of a Street Railway Power Plant and of Its Operation Mr. R. W. Conant gives the following estimated cost of a street railway power plant and its cost of operation : The plant has a capacity of 3,600 kw. There are three cross- compound condensing engines, three 1,200-kw. generators, and six water-tube boilers of 500-hp. each. The estimated cost of this plant in 1898 was: Engines, condensers, heaters, separators and piping $ 91,800 Feed pumps and fuel economizers 18,000 Boilers and flue connections complete 61,000 Generators and switchboard complete 73,800 Building, chimney, engine and boiler foundations, coal hand- ling apparatus, etc 120,000 Land 17,000 Engineering and sundries 5,000 Total $386,600 This is equivalent to $107 per kw. Mr. Conant estimates fixed charges at 11%, or $42,526, distributed thus: Per cent. Interest 6 Insurance and taxes 3 Depreciation 2 _>; -iff 3B Total 11 id The item of "depreciation" is badly underestimated, for it includes current repairs. It is assumed that this station is operated with 3 shifts of men, 8 hrs. per shift, for 8,760 shift hours per year. The crew of ona shift would be : 2 enginemen.. 2 firemen. 1 oiler. J. IlGipGr. 1 coal passer. 7 men at 27 cts. per hr. = $1.89. The plant is assumed to work with a load factor of 33%%, so that it actually averages 1,200 kw. for 8,760 hrs., or 10,500,000 kw. hours per annum. Therefore, we have : Per kw. hour. Fixed charges, $42,526-^10,500,000 0.40 cts. Wages, $1.89 -=-1,200 0.16 cts. Coal, 2.2 Ibs., at $3 ton 0.33 cts. General expense, super., supplies and repairs. 0.09 cts. . Total, including fixed charges 0.98 cts. Mr. Conant states that the fuel cost would be practically doubled were non-condensing engines used, for he has assumed a steam con- sumption of only 14% Ibs. of steam per i. hp., a transformer effi- 1448 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ciency of 90%, and a boiler efficiency of 9.4 Ibs. of steam per lb. of coal. He calls the above a "standard plant," an ideal capable of realiza- tion, which is exceedingly doubtful, however, as the actual records of some 28 street railway power stations show. A summary of these 28 plants gives the following average: Average capacity, 2,140 kw. Average load factor, 30%. Average number men per shift, 10. Average number shifts, 2 of 12 hrs. Average wage, 20 cts. per hr. The average cost of generating power was: Per kw. hr. Labor, 1.5 hrs., at 20 cts 0.30 cts. Coal, 5 Ibs., at $2.10 per ton 0.53 cts. General expense 0.15 cts. Total, not including fixed charges 0.98 cts. The "load factor" of 30% means that the average output of elec- tricity during the entire year was 30% the capacity of the plant; hence it was 30% of 2,140 = 642 kw. There was not a single one of these 28 plants that operated with as little fuel as Mr. Conant's "ideal plant," for the most efficient plant required 3 Ibs. of coal per kw. hr. The cost of labor per kw. hr. obviously varies greatly as the "load factor" varies. In one of these plants the load factor was as high as 57%, giving a very low unit cost (0.18 ct. per kw. hr.) for labor; while in another plant the load factor was only 11%, giving an extraordinarily high unit cost (1.1 ct. per kw. hr.) for labor. As above pointed out, Mr. Conant's estimate of his so-called "fixed charges" on the plant, is entirely too low. Cost of Operating Street Railways. The most satisfactory records of this sort .are to be found in the annual reports of the Massa- chusetts Railway Commission. The reports of other railway com- missions are either less detailed or relate to street railways that are comparatively new. Following is a brief summary showing the growth of street rail- Ways in Massachusetts. Miles Miles of operated single by Car miles, Passengers, Year. track, electricity, millions. Cars, millions. 1887.. 470 20.6 2,633 125 1888 533 23.2 2,588 134 1889 574 51 24.3 2,942 148 1890 612 160 26.5 3,247 165 1891.. 672 289 27.7 3,494 176 1892 755 496 29.7 3,679 194 1893.. 874 711 34.5 4,040 214 1894 929 825 36.7 4,058 220 1895.. . 1,088 1,016 43.7 4,426 260 1896 1,277 1,241 53.6 4,913 292 1902 2,444 100.3 7,144 465 1908 2,675 137.0 7,618 60? RAILWAYS. 1449 It will be noted that not till 1889 did electricity come into use, and not till 1893 had it practically displaced horse power. Note that thei mileage per car has hardly increased, nor the passengers per car mile. According to the report for 1908. the assets of Massachusetts street railways were: Construction . ..$ 82,934,355 Equipment (rolling stock) 29,699,294 Land and buildings 39,663,442 Other permanent property 1,807,999 Cash , 8,170,683 Miscellaneous assets 7,705,688 Total assets $170,154,909 The mileage was: Miles. Railway line owned (1st track) 2,233.85 Railway line owned (2d track) 441.04 Total main track owned 2,674.89 Sidings, switches, etc., owned 166.70 Total track owned 2,841.59 Main track leased 577.10 Total main track operated 2,741.00 The equipment was as follows: Box passenger cars 3,876 Open passenger cars 3,742 Total passenger cars 7,618 Other service cars 461 Snow plows 779 Other vehicles (wagons, etc. ) 1,650 Electric motors on cars 16,649 We see from the above that the reported cost per mile of main single track operated was: Construction $31,005 Equipment 11,103 Buildings and land 15,569 Total $57,677 It Is evident that no reliance can be placed in the so-called cost of construction* for it really represents purchase price and not actual cost of construction. The cost of equipment, however, appears to be reliable, for it Indicates a cost of about $4,000 per car. There were 17,267 employes ; 602,400,874 passengers were carried, and the gross earnings from operation were $30,780,762. The number of car miles was 116,982,089, or 42,700 car miles per mile of track. Table XXVI gives the operating expense, which I have calculated both in terms of the car mile and of the mile or single track operated. The repairs of cars and electric car equipment (Items 9 and 10) amounted to $2,429,253. Since the first cost of the equipment was (29,699,294, it appears that repairs amounted to a little more than 1450 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 8% of the first cost. However, sight should not be lost of the fact that half the equipment consisted of open cars, which are used only in the summer and at a time when the closed (box) cars are mostly idle. Therefore, the cost of repairs would be nearly- double the 8% if all equipment were kept constantly busy, making the annual cost of repairs about 16% of the first cost of the active equipment. These repairs doubtless include renewals. Unfortunately the cost of rail renewals is not given as a separate item. The number of car miles per mile of track was less than half as many as on the average steam railway of America. Item 14, Wages of Employes, evidently refers to conductors and motormen, but does not include employes in the power plant. TABLE XXVI. OPERATING EXPENSE, MASSACHUSETTS STREET RYS., 1908. Per mi. Per car single "mile. General Expense: Total. track, cents. 1. Salaries of officers . . $ 690,082 $ 252 0.59 2. Office expenses and supplies 151,174 55 0.13 3. Legal expenses 421,611 154 0.36 4. Insurance . , 248,972 91 0.21 5. Other general expenses 407,304 148 0.35 Total general expense $ 1,919,143 $ 700 1.64 Maintenance of Way: 6. Repairs of roadbed and track .$1,273,992 $ 465 1.09 7. Repairs of electric line construction. .. 393,047. 143 0.33 8. Repairs of buildings 184,747 68 0.16 Total maintenance of way $1,851,786 $ 676 1.58 Maintenance of Equipment: 9. Repairs of cars $ 1,157,680 $ 423 0.99 10. Repairs of electric car equipment 1,271,573 464 1.09 11. Repairs of miscellaneous equipment. . 75,124 27 0.06 12. Provender and stabling 56,021 20 0.05 Total maintenance of equipment $ 2,560,398 $ 934 2.19 Transportation Expense: 13. Electric motive power $3,928,820 $1,434 3.36 14. Wages of employes 7,948,277 2,901 6.80 15. Removing snow and ice 136,002 50 0.12 16. Damages for injuries 1,218,242 445 1.04 17. Tolls for trackage rights 97,033 35 0.08 18. Rents of buildings, etc 171,182 19. Other transportation expense 710,695 260 0.60 Total transportation expense $14,210,251 $5,187 12.15 Grand total operating expense 20,541,578 7,497 17.56 RAILWAYS. 1451 Power to Operate Street Cars. The following data relate to small motor cars. The record of power consumed on an electric street railway, for the year 1895, is as follows: Tons (2,240 Ibs.) coal . . .' 19,172 Car-miles, motdr car 5,677,581 Car-miles, trailer car 654,557 Car-miles, total 6,421,638 Car-miles, motor car per day 120 Coal per motor car-mile, Ibs 7.6 Coal per car-mile, Ibs 6.9 Passengers per car-mile 4.1 Ton-miles (2,000 Ibs.), passengers at 140 Ibs 1,810,033 Ton-miles (2,000 Ibs.), motor car at 6% tons 36,900,873 Ton-miles (2,000 Ibs.), trailer at 2y a tons 1,645,140 Ton-miles (2,000 Ibs.), total 40,356,046 Coal per ton mile, Ibs 1.08 Engine hours 25,183 Elec. horsepower hours, total 15,305,254 Watt hours, per motor car-mile 2,032 Watt hours, per ton-mile 286 Watt hours, per pound of coal 266 Coal per electric horsepower, Ibs 2.81 Watts per motor car-mile 16,562 Effort per ton-mile, foot-pounds 103,420 Average pull per ton 19.5 Schedule speed, miles per hour 7.37 The "average pull per ton" is calculated from the consumption of electricity, and not by dynamometer test. Cost of Operating an Elevated Electric Railway. "Electric Rail- way Economics" (1903), by W. C. Gottschall, contains the following actual cost of operating an elevated railway in a large city, operat- ing electric cars at a scheduled speed of 16 miles per hour. The age of the cars is not given, hence no sound conclusions can be drawn from these data as to equipment maintenance : Per car mile. 1. Train crews, telegraphers, couplers and yard men $0.0237 2. Station men, agents, porters and laborers 0.0072 3. Maintenance and upkeep of cars, trucks and motive power 0.0125 4. Repairs of elevated structure and roadway 0.0065 5. Electric power 0.0123 6. Miscellaneous expenses, supplies, etc 0.0021 7. General expenses, salaries, etc. 0.0084 Total $0.0727 8. Legal expenses and injuries 0.0053 9. Taxes 0.0065 Grand total $0.0845 The power was 2 kw. hrs. per car-mile at the central station. 1452 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Power to Operate New York Elevated and Surface Cars. In Man- hattan elevated railways it is estimated that the electric power con- sumed per loaded car is as follows: Kw. per car. Operating (current measured at the car) 21.0 Heating (current measured at the car) 4.8 Lighting (current measured at the car) 1.5 Air pumps (current measured at the car) 0.6 Total (current measured at the car) 27.9 Line loss 7.8 Grand total at the switchboard 35.7 On the surface lines in Manhattan about 16 kw. per car in sum- mer, and 25 kw. in winter, is required. The power required at the switchboard to drive 224 elevated motor cars and 1,247 surface cars in Brooklyn was determined to be as follows: Kw. per car. Surface Elevated car. car. Operation 15.95 36.85 Heating 3.30 8.25 Lighting 1.10 1.10 Total 20.35 46.20 Weight and Power of Motor Cars. In the early days of electric railways small motor cars with bodies only 16 or 18 ft. long and With two 15-hp. motors were common. Such cars are still com- mon in the smaller towns and cities, and are not entirely out of use even in the larger cities. A large city car, 30 tons, with double trucks, equipped with four 40-hp. motors (160-hp. total), and seating 44 people, is now the standard for heavy city traffic. Interurban cars vary considerably, but the following is fairly typical: Car 50 ft. long, seating 42 people, double trucks, weighs 34 tons, is equipped with four 75-hp. motors (300-hp. total), and maintains a schedule speed of 30 miles per hour. Cost of Maintenance of Motor Cars. Although considerable has been published on this subject, very little of value has thus far appeared. The reasons why the data are unsatisfactory are these : (1) The age of the cars is not given. Obviously new cars entail much less expense for repairs than old cars. (2) The first cost of the cars, the size of the motors and the size of the cars are not stated. Pending further information, I recommend estimating the annual cost of repairs of motor cars (incl. motors) at 12% of the first cost. If a large motor car costs $7,500, the average annual maintenance over a long period of years (20) would then be $900. If the car travels 30,000 miles per year, its maintenance will then be 3 etc. per car-mile. If the life of a car is 25 years, and no sinking fund is renewals being paid for annually as they become necessary, RAILWAYS. 1453 4% of the first cost will be the average annual expenditure for re- newals when distributed over a long term of years. Renewals ( 4 % ) being % as much as current repairs (12%), we have 1 ct. per car-mile for renewals of a $7,500 motor car, making a total of 4 cts. per car mile for repairs and renewals of a $7,500 car, when dis- tribiited over a long term of years. In 1902 the repairs and renewals of street cars in Massachusetts were 1.65 cts. per car-mile, and the first cost of the average car was $3,000. If the cost had been $7,500, as above assumed for large cars, we should have 2% X 1.65 = 4.12 cts. per car-mile for repairs and renewals. This makes an excellent check upon my esti- mate of 16% of the first cost for repairs and renewals of equip- ment. It was about 1883 that electric lines began to be built in Massachusetts, so that repairs and renewals of equipment 14 years later (1902) are a fair index of what may be expected in the future. Repairs and renewals of equipment per car-mile may rise still higher in Massachusetts, even with cars of the present cost, for the mileage of street railways doubled about every six years between 1890 and 1902. The cost of maintenance of the power plant should be estimated in a manner analogous to the foregoing. Railway Operating Expenses, Etc. The annual reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission and the reports of the various state railway commissions contain valuable data on operating expenses. The miles of trackway include all 1st, 2d, 3d and 4th tracks, and amounted to 243,322. The miles of roadbed (or "line") include only 1st track, and amounted to 222,340. The miles of track include all tracks, main, branch, side and yard, and amounted to 317,083. There are nearly 1.43 miles of track per mile of roadbed in America. According to the report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for the year 1906, the following was the operating expense, given for each item as a percentage of the total : Maintenance of Way and Structures : Per cent 1. Repairs of roadway 10.726 2. Renewal of rails 1.432 3. Renewal of ties 2.509 4. Repairs and renewals of bridges and culverts 2.207 5. Repairs and renewals of fences and road / crossings, signs and cattle guards 0.413 6. Repairs and renewals of bldgs. and fixtures 2.304 7. Repairs and renewals of docks and wharves 0.241 8. Repairs and renewals of telegraph 0.177 9. Stationery and printing 0.030 10. Other expenses 0.257 Total . . 20.296 1454 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Maintenance of Equipment: 11. Superintendence 0.561 12. Repairs and renewals of locomotives 8.080 13. Repairs and renewals of passenger cars 1.968 14. Repairs and renewals of freight cars 9.009 15. Repairs and renewals of work cars 0.268 16. Repairs and renewals of marine equipment. . 0.232 17. Repairs and renewals of shop machinery and tools 0.668 18. Stationery and printing 0.047 19. Other expenses 0.563 Total 21.396 Conducting Transportation : 20. Superintendence 1.776 21. Engine and roundhouse men 9.275 22. Fuel for locomotives 11.119 23. Water supply for locomotives 0.650 24. Oil, tallow and waste for locomotives 0.385 25. Other supplies for locomotives 0.250 26. Train service 6.375 27. Train supplies and expenses" 1.557 28. Switch, flag and watchmen 4.357 29. Telegraph expenses 1.751 30. Station service 6.307 31. Station supplies 0.611 32. Switching charges balance 0.293 33. Car per diem and mileage balance 1,231 34. Hire of equipment 0.201 35. Loss and damage 1.375 36. Injuries to persons 1.139 37. Clearing wrecks 0.200 38. Operating marine equipment 0.685 39. Advertising 0.422 40. Outside agencies 1.352 41. Commissions 0.017 42. Stock yards and elevators "0.055 43. Rents for tracks and yards 1.751 44. Rents of other buildings and other property 0.324 45. Stationery and printing 0.629 46. Other expenses 0.245 Total 54.432 General Expenses: 47. Salaries of general offices 0.826 48. Salaries of clerks and attendants 1.372 49. General office expenses and supplies 0.263 50. Insurance 0.481 51. Law expenses 0.452 52. Stationery and printing (g. o.) 0.182 53. Other expenses 0.300 Total 3.876 Grand total (per cent) 100.000 Grand total $1,588,404,385 The operating expense, expressed in various units, was as follows : Per train mile $1.3706 Per car mile (approximately) 0.0833 Per mile of roadbed (line) 6,896 Per mile of trackway 6,308 Per mile of track 4.8f? RAILWAYS. 1455 By multiplying the percentage given for any item in the table of operating expense by any of the above unit costs of operation, the corresponding item unit cost is obtained. . . Thus, Item 22, Fuel, is 11.119%. The total operating expense per train mile is $1.37. Hence $1.37 X 11.119% = $0.1523 per train mile for fuel. Thus, Item 2, Renewal of Rails, is 1.432%. The total operating expense per mile of trackway is $6,303. Hence $6,303 X 1.432% = $90.21 per mile of trackway for rail renewals. In 1906, the total equipment of American railways was: Locomotives : Passenger 12,249 Freight 29,848 Switching 8,485 Unclassified 1,090 Total locomotives in service 51,672 Cars : Passenger 42,262 Freight 1,837,914 Company service 78,736 Total cars in service 1,958,912 It will be noted that there were 3.45 passenger cars per passenger Jw^omotive, and 61.6 freight cars per freight locomotive. The above does not include freight cars owned by private com- panies, on which the railways pay a mileage, the value of whicl; is estimated to be $72,000,000. Nor does it include cars owned" by the Pullman Co., estimated at $51,000,000. If the average freight car owned by private individuals is worth $1,000, there would be about 72,000 of them. If the average Pullman is valued at $10,000, there would be 5,000 of them. These numbers would increase the number of freight cars above given by about 4%, and would increase the number of passenger cars by about 12%. The average weight of the locomotives (exclusive of tender) was 66 tons, of which 54 tons was on the drivers. The average tractive power was 24,300 Ibs. The classification of freight cars was as follows: Box cars... 843,118 . Flat cars . . . 146,908 Stock cars 64,202 Coal cars .....' 686,717 Tank. cars..... ... 5,324 Refrigerator cars 31,782 Other cars 55,584 Total 1,833,635 1456 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The average capacity of these cars was 32 tons. The following were the employes: Total Per day. per year. 6,090 general officers $11.81 $ 15,911,369 6,705 other officers 5.82 12,870,203 57,210 general office clerks 2.24 41,227,916 34,940 station agents 1.94 22,571,595 138,778 other station men 1.69 70,702,517 59,855 engine men 4.12 74,581,454 62,678 firemen 2.42 44,247,306 43,936 conductors 3.51 47,417,403 119,087 other trainmen 2.35 81,884,828 51,253 machinists 2.69 40,326,031 63,830 carpenters 2.28 40,961,083 199,940 other shopmen 1.92 111,524,564 40,463 section foremen 1.80 23,519,671 343,791 other trackmen 1.36 112,196,214 49,659 switch tenders, crossing tenders and watchmen 1.80 27,939,001 36,090 telegraph operators and dispatchers. .. 2.13 24,729,669 8,314 employes acctg. floating equipment.. 2.10 4,776,654 198,736 all other employes 1.83 103,414,175 1,521,355 Total $900,801,653 By multiplying the average daily wage by the total number of men in each class and dividing this product in the total annual payment, the average number of days worked can be ascertained. For all except "general officers" (240 days), and for "other trackmen" (270 days), the average is close to 315 days. The average employe received nearly $600 per year. In the case of trainmen, it must be remembered that the wage shown is not the true average daily income, for they are usually paid on an arbitrary basis, say 100 miles of run constituting a day's work. The following is a summary of the service performed by the railways according to the 1906 report. 1. Passengers carried 797,946,116 2. Passenger miles 25,167,240,831 3. Passenger train miles 479,037,553 4. Passengers per train, average 49 5. Passenger's journey, miles 31.54 6. Freight, tons, excluding those received from con- <> necting roads 896,159,485 7. Freight, ton miles 215,877,551,241 8. Freight, ton miles per mile of roadbed 982,401 9. Freight, train miles 594,005,825 10. Freight, car miles 16,589,958,024 11. Freight, tons per train 344.4 12. Freight, average haul, regarding all railways as one system, miles 240.9 13. Total revenue passenger and freight train miles. . 1,105,877,091 Item 13 would be the sum of items 3 and 9, were it not that there were also mixed trains (passenger and freight combined). It will be noted that the number of passenger car miles is not given, but it can be closely approximated, as follows: RAILWAYS. 1457 Dividing the 42,262 passenger cars by the 12,249 passenger locomotives, we find there were 3.45 passenger cars per passenger locomotives. Hence multiplying the 479,037,553 passenger train miles by 3.45, we have 1,612,678,558 passenger car miles. This assumption implies that there would be as many passenger cars as locomotives in the shops, or otherwise idle. The Pullman sleeping cars are not in- cluded in the above, and as we have seen, they would add about 12% to the total number of passenger cars. On this assumption, the total number of passenger car miles would be about 1,806,200,000. If we regard a locomotive and its tender as equivalent to two cars, multiplying the total train miles by 2 gives us the locomotive and tender car miles. Hence we have : Freight car miles 16,589,958,024 Passenger car miles 1,806,200,000 Total car miles 18,396,158,024 Locomotive and tender miles 2,211,754,182 Total car and engine miles 20,607,912,206 Since there were 243,322 miles of trackway, we have 20,607,912,209 -j- 243,322 = 84,700 cars per year passing over each mile of track- way. The importance of this deduction will be seen when we come to consider the wear of rails. If we divide Item 13 (the total train miles), by the 243,322 miles of trackway, we have 4,540, which is the number of trains per year per mile of trackway. If we divide this 4,540 by 365 (the number of days in a year), we have a little more than 12, which is the number of trains per day both ways, or 6 trains per day each way on each trackway. If we divide 16,589,958,024 (the number of freight car miles) by 594,005,825 (the number of freight train miles), we get nearly 28, which is the average number of freight cars per freight train. We have seen that there were about 3.5 passenger cars per passenger train, plus nearly 0.5 Pullman car, or a total of 4 cars per passenger train. * Since about 45% of the trains were passenger trains and 55% freight, the average of both passenger and freight trains was about 17 cars. Dividing 594,005,825 (the freight train miles) by 29,849 (the number of freight locomotives), we get nearly 20,000 miles per freight locomotive per year. This is not quite 55 miles per day. Dividing 479,037,553 (the passenger train miles) by 12,249 (the number of passenger locomotives), we get nearly 40,000 miles per year, or not quite 110 miles per day. The average of bpth freight and pasenger locomotives was about 25,500 miles per locomotive per year. We have seen that there were 62 freight cars per freight locomotive, and that there were 28 cars per freight train. Hence 1458 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. there were about 62' 28 = 34 freight cars not moving in trains, or about 34 -^ 62 = 55% of the car time was spent on sidings and in yards not attached to a locomotive. If 45% of the time was spent moving with a freight locomotive, and if (as we have seen) a freight locomotive averages 55 miles per day, then 55 X 45% 24.75 miles were averaged per freight car per day. This may be arrived at with greater accuracy thus : 16,589,958,000 (freight car miles) divided by 1,958,912 (freight cars), gives nearly 8,460, which is the car miles per car per year, which is equivalent to 23.2 car miles oer day. This checks very well with the approximate method first given. That method involved the assumption that time lost during shop repairs is the same for freight cars as for locomotives, which is not quite true, since about 5% of the total freight cars and 8% of the total locomotives are constantly in the shops. It also involved the assumption that there are not more locomotive crews than locomotives, which is not far from correct, since there were 59,855 enginemen to operate the 51,672 locomotives. The average haul of a ton of freight was 241 miles, which would take nearly 10 * days at 23.2 miles per day, including time spent in yards and sidings, loading and unloading; but, since 45% of the time (as we have seen) was spent on the road, 4% days of car time were spent on the road traveling and 6 days on the side tracks, etc. The empty freight car mileage was 31.2% of the total freight car mileage. Since the average number of tons per freight train was 344, and since there were 28 cars per freight train, the average carried by all cars (loaded and empty) was 344 -=- 28 = 12.3 tons nearly. Since 68.8% were loaded cars, the average loaded car carried 12.3 -~ 68.8 = 17.9 tons. The income was: Passenger revenue I 510,032,583 Mail 47,371,453 Express 51,010,930 Other earnings, passenger service 11,314,237 Freight revenue 1,640,386,655 Other earnings, freight service 5,645,222 Other earnings from operation 59,741,198 Unclassified 262,889 Total earnings from operation $2,325,765,167 Income from other sources 256,639,591 Total earnings and income $2,582,404,758 RAILWAYS. 1459 Considering all the railways as one system, we have the following income account: Earnings from operation $2,325,765,167 Clear income from investments 60,520,306 Gross earnings and income $2,386,285,473 Operating expense (incl. leased lines) .... 1,537,448,702 Net earnings and income $ 848,836,771 Net interest on funded debt $ 305,337,754 Interest on current liabilities 11,653,076 Taxes 74,785,615 Total fixed charges and taxes $ 391,776,445 Balance available for dividends $ 457,060,326 Net dividends $ 213,555,081 Balance available adjustments and im- provements $ 243,505,245 The revenue per train mile was : All trains $2.075 Passenger trains 1.203 Freight trains 2.608 The average freight revenue was 0.748 ct. per ton mile. The average passenger revenue was 2.003 cts. per passenger mile. The operating revenue per mile of roadbed was $10,460. The operating expenses were 66.08% of the operating income. Average Life of Rails and Cost of Rail Renewals. In determin- ing the annual depreciation of rails subject to a given traffic I made the following analysis for the Railroad Commission of Washington. The average cost rail renewals in the United States was $75 per miles of trackway, or $82 per mile of roadbed, or $58 per mile of track, as deduced from the 1904 report of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The mile of trackway is the preferable unit, for it represents the mile of 1st, 2d, 3d and 4th track. Naturally, the wear on rails in side tracks is almost insignificant. If the annual rail wear is $75 per mile of trackway, it remains- only to know the average cost of a mile of rails to arrive at the percentage of annual renewals. The weight of rails in the average track is about as many pounds per yard of rail as the weight in tons of the average locomotive. In 1904 the average locomotive weight was 60 tons, and it is reasonable to suppose that the average weight of rail was not much in excess of 100 tons of rails wer mile of track. Now, if we can ascertain the average cost of a ton of rails delivered to the distributing point of the average railway, we shall be able to estimate the value of a mile of rails in the average track. To determine the "center of gravity" of the railway mileage of America, I assumed that the center of each state would represent, with sufficient accuracy, the "center of gravity" of the railway mileage of that state. To ascertain the "center of gravity" of the total mileage, co-ordinate axes were drawn and the distances from these axes to the center of each state were measured. The abscissas and ordinates thus obtained were multiplied by their respective mileages of railway line. The sums of these prod- 1460 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ucts were divided by the total mileage of all lines, and the quotients were, of course, the abscissa and ordinate of the "center of gravity" of the entire railway mileage. This was found to be at a poin* not far north of St. Louis, Mo. The practice of railways has been to charge % ct. per ton mile for freight on rails, so that, In the year 1904, freight to the "center of gravity" of railway mileage could not have cost much to exceed $3 per ton from Pittsburg, or $1.50 from Chicago. The standard price of rails was $28, so the total cost delivered was not to exceed $31 per ton, and doubtless averaged less than $30. As a matter of fact, rails cost the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern less than $29.50 per ton delivered at St. Paul, at that time, so that we are safe in saying that the average cost of rails delivered to the average railway distributing point wa* not far from $30 per ton. Hence enough new rails for an average mile of track (100 tons) cost about $3,000. Since rail renewals actually cost $75 per mile of trackway, we see that rail renewals cost 2 % % of the value of the rails in a mile of trackway. This is on the assumption that renewals of rails in side tracks was a com- paratively insignificant item, which is practically so. It must not be hastily assumed, however, that the life of the average rail is 40 years, for the fact is that it is less than half that. The $75 per mile of trackway represents cost of new rails minus the scrap value, or relaying value, of the old rails. There is, at present, no means of knowing exactly what the practice of all railway companies is as to the credit given on their books for the rails that are replaced, but it is certain that an old rail is worth at least its scrap value at the mills less the freight to the mills, or about $12 per ton. As a matter of fact, relaying rails are worth considerably more, and since many old main line rails are used for branch lines and particularly for side tracks, it is evident that the credit given to old rails will somewhat exceed $12. From study of the accounting practice of several large railways, I concluded that $15 per ton would be not far from the average credit. Hence the net cost of the new rails (after deducting the credit for the old rails replaced) would be $15 per ton ; and, since the annual rail renewals averaged $75 per mile of trackway, there would be 5 tons of new rails laid per mile per annum. Hence in a track averaging 100 tons of rails per mile, this would mean 5% renewals every year, or a rail life of 20 years in the main and branch line tracks. It is obvious that rail wear depends upon the density of traffic. In 1904, there were 829,500 tons of freight carried over each mile of roadbed, or 746,500 tons per mile of trackway. There were 4,370 trains that passed over each mile of trackway, or nearly 12 trains per day, of which 53% were freight, 44% passenger and 3% mixed trains. If we count an engine and its tender as equivalent to two cars, thei*e were 78,540 cars passed over each mile of trackway during the year. Wellington, in his "Economic Theory of Railway Location," has erred badly in his estimate of rail wear. He states that a rail RAILWAYS. 1461 should carry 300,000 to 500,000 trains (of 500 tons each) before replacement. With 4,370 trains per year (the average of the U. S. in 1904), Wellington's rule would indicate a rail life of 100 years! This is at least five times the actual life of 20 years above shown. As I have shown on page 1462, about 22% of the average railway line is curved. Even assuming that the average curve is as sharp as 6, which is, of course, far sharper than the average, and that a 6% curve increases the wear 100%, we see that the increased wear due to curves would be only 22% of 100% = 22% greater than if the entire mileage of track were tangent. Part of Wellington's error arises from the assumption that a rail head can lose half its weight before renewal of the rail is necessary. As a matter of fact, Northern Pacific tests have shown that not more than one-quarter of the weight of the head is lost before renewals are made. On an 80-lb. rail, this would mean that when about 10% of its entire weight is lost by abrasion, the rail is unfit for further economic service, except in sidings and the like. Wellington was also misled by a belief that pre- vailed in the early 80's that a steel rail would last many times as long as an iron rail, a belief which was much too optimistic, as subsequent events have proved. In selecting a proper unit in which to measure rail wear there has been much dispute. Wear may be measured in three ways : (1) In terms of the number of tons of gross weight that pass over the rail before it is worn out; (2) in terms of the number of trains; or (3) in terms of the number of cars. Wellington favored the train as the unit, for he says: "The locomotive alone causes by far the greater portion of this wear." He cites the opinion of Launhardt, a German writer, to the effect that the engine causes fully half the wear a conclusion apparently based upon nothing but theory. He also cites some theoretical deductions of Mr. O. Chanute. In brief, there was even then no real evidence to prove the contention that a locomotive causes as much wear as the rest of the train. At present, when wheel loads on the largest freight cars equal those on the average locomotive, the argument that a locomotive causes half the wear on a rail is manifestly absurd. I am satisfied that rail wear is not a function of the number of gross tons carried, nor of the number of trains, but of the number of cars that pass over the rail. Nor do I think that the weight on the wheels is a very material factor in the cause of wear. Rail wear on tangents is due mainly to the grinding of particles of grit and steel between the wheel and the rail. The abrasion due to any grinding action is by no means proportionate to the pressure. In sawing wood the weight of a cross-cut saw is sufficient to produce rapid abrasion of the wood, and nothing whatever is gained by bearing down on the saw. So, too, in cutting stone with grit or chilled shot, a comparatively light pressure Is quite as effective in abrading the stone as is a heavy pressure : It should be remembered that it does not take a great weight applied to a grain of saricl to produce a very large unit pressure between the grain of sand and. the weight. It is this unit pressure that counts. 1462 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and it needs be only sufficient to cause slight penetration of the sand into the steel to result in abrasion. What is true of sand grains is true of all other particles between, or minute protuberances and irregularities upon the two abrading surfaces the rail and the wheel. As we have seen, the average rail in an American trackway has a life of about 20 years, when it carries 78,500 cars per year. Hence it carries 20 X 78,500 = 1,570,000 cars during its active life. I think it is more than mere coincidence that the life of a steel rail in a street "tramway" in England has averaged 1,500,000 cars, as shown below. At any rate, it is evident that rail wear is far more nearly a function of the number of cars that pass over the rail than of any other unit yet suggested. It will probably be found, however, that the most exact unit in which to measure wear is the number of wheels that pass over a rail. Curvature of Railways. Since curvature affects the wear of rails, and thus affects the cost of track maintenance, it is of interest to know what per cent of the average railway track is curved. The following statistics, gathered in 1901, throw light on this matter. Miles of Per cent Road. roadbed. curved. Bur. Ced. R & N 1,234 21 Chicago & AIJton 900 12 C. & E. I 725 12 C. & N. W 5,562 19 C. M. & St. P 6,423 20 8. G. W . O. & G . 946 659 20 17 C. R. I. & P 3,630 21 Del. & H 723 35 Del. & Lack 908 35 Denver & R. G 1,675 30 111. Centr 3,996 16 Lehigh Valley 461- 36 Long Island 379 16 Mich. Centr v . . 1,642 14 M., St. P. & Ste. Marie 1,039 14 Mo. K. & T 1,988 20 Mo. Pacific 5,329 21 Nash. C. & St. L 1,195 25 N. Y. C. & H. R 2,828 38 N. Y. C. & St. L 512 6 Pere Marquette 1,743 15 Penn. (West of Pittsburg) 2,762 21 Penn. (East of Pittsburg) 4,287 34 St. L. & S. F 1,640 29 Seaboard Air Line ... 1,049 25 So. Pacific (Pacific System) 5,155 24 Tex. & Pacific 1,582 5 Union Pacific 3,000 20 Wisconsin Central 961 20 Total .......................... 64,933 22.15 Life of Rails on an English ^"Tramway."- Mr. T. Arnall gave the following data in a paper read in 1892 before the Tramway's Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. RAILWAYS. 1463 At Birmingham, a steam motor car weighing 10 tons hauls a large car holding 60 passengers over girder rails weighing 98 Ibs. per yd. After 8 years experience witn a very heavy traffic, Mr. Arnall concluded that such a rail will carry less than 750,000 steam cars before needing replacement. The life of the driving wheel tires is only 25,000 miles, due to steep grades (5%), and frequent use of sand. If we include the passenger car, we see that a rail carried 1,500,000 cars before It was worn out. Average Cost of Maintenance of Equipment in America. Individ- ual railways are apt to show quite wide fluctuations from year to year in the cost of repairs and renewals of rolling stock. This is due largely to the financial condition of the company, and often to the desire to make an unusually good showing as to net earnings. On the other hand, the average of all roads in America would be the best possible criterion of maintenance costs were the actual first cost of the equipment known. Unfortunately it is not known, but we can estimate the approximate first cost with considerable accuracy, using the annual reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission and applying unit prices to various classes of equipment there described. The report for 1906 shows that there were 51,672 locomotives of all kinds in the United States, and that the "repairs and renewals of locomotives" cost $123,893,482, which is nearly $2,400 per locomotive for the year. The average weight of each locomotive was 66 tons, not including the tender, with a weight of 54 tons on the drivers. A. 66-ton locomotive costs about $12,000 new, hence the repairs and renewals for 1906 averaged 20% of the first cost. While the rules of the Interstate Commerce Commission require the railways to charge to "renewals" the full cost of a new loco- motive bought to replace an old one, the railways ignore this order, and properly charge to capital account the excess value of the new locomotive over the value of the old one. Hence the railway maintenance accounts show true repairs and renewals cost. It should be noted, however, that the amount charged to repairs and renewals of locomotives should be increased by nearly 10% of the, 20%, distributed as follows: Per cent. Superintendence of maintenance 2.9 Repairs and renewals of shop machinery 3.4 Stationery and printing 0.2 Other expenses 2.9 Total 9.4 This does not include repairs and renewals of- shop buildings nor interest on the shop plant, nor "general expenses" of the entire railway systems, the latter being nearly 3.9% of the total operating expense. However, if we add only 10% to the cost of "repairs and re- newals" of each locomotive to cover the above named items of direct costs of shop machinery, repairs, etc., we have a total of $2,640 per locomotive, or 22% of the first cost. 1464 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The 1904 report shows that locomotives averaged 60 tons weight and that "repairs and renewals of locomotives" averaged $2,250 per locomotive. Since the average weight was nearly 10% less than for 1906, the "repairs and renewals" should be about 10% less, and such, in fact, is the case. In. 1906, the average locomotive traveled 27,400 revenue train miles. The actual locomotive mileage was somewhat in excess of this, but no data are given from which it can be computed. Since the "repairs and renewals," which we shall now call 22% of the first cost of locomotives, includes true depreciation (re- newals of entire locomotive), we must deduct depreciation to arrive at true repairs. There is no available record of exactly what this has averaged in America, but my study of the equipment records of the Great Northern, Northern Pacific and other lines, has led me to conclude that about 3.6% is the least percentage of locomo- tives that have been retired from service annaally. This is equiva- lent to a life of 27.8 years. Due to the rapid increase in train loads in past years it is probable that from 1 to 5% of the locomotives have been retired annually. If we assume that 4% were retired in 1906, we have 22% 4% = 18% of the first cost spent for true repairs. Of the 51,672 locomotives, 58% were freight, 16% switching, 24% passenger, and 2% unclassified. In 1906 there were 1,833,635 freight cars whose rated capacity was 32 tons. The "repairs and renewals of freight cars" amounted to $138,141,295, or nearly $76 per car for the year. The first cost of a 32-ton car probably was about $600, so that "repairs and renewals of freight cars" were about 12.7% of the first cost, to which should be added fully 10% (for reasons given) of this 12.7%, making a total of 14% as the annual cost of repairs and renewals. If 4% of the freight cars were "retired" in 1906, this would leave 10% as the cost of true repairs. In 1906 there were 42,262 passenger cars, and their "repairs and renewals" totaled $30,177,532, or 715 per car. The probable average first cost of passenger cars is about $6,000. Hence about 12% was spent for "repairs and renewals" to which should be added (for reasons above given) fully 10% of the 12%, making a total of about 13.2%. If 4% were retired in 1906, the cost of true repairs was 9.2%. However, the percentage of passengei cars retired is somewhat less than freight cars. Hence true repairs of passenger cars doubtless were nearly 10% of the first cost. Summing up we see .that true repairs of equipment were about the foflowing percentages of their first cost : Per cent. Locomotives .Freight cars Passenger cars 10 RAILWAYS. 1465 Repairs and renewals (= repairs and depreciation), were: Per cent. Locomotives . 22 Freight cars 14 Passenger cars 13,2 Cost of Maintenance of Equipment, N. P. Ry In making my appraisal of the equipment on the Northern Pacific Ry., as of June 30, 1906, I* found the company's books skewed the following original cost: 1,005 locomotives $12,977,823 478 passenger and accommodation cars. . 2,805,197 127 sleeping and dining cars 1,583,792 195 baggage, express and postal cars.... 685,750 37,584 freight cars 22,843,823 Floating equipment 497,102 Total $41,353,487 This gives an average unit cost of: Locomotive $12,970 Passenger car 5,890 Sleeping car, etc t 12,480 Baggage car 3,530 Freight car 610 The average first cost of each of three classes of equipment, and the average amount spent In repairs and renewals for the fiscal year 1906, were as follows: Per cent First Annual of cost. maintenance. first cost. 1,005 locomotives $12,970 $2,540 19.5 800 passenger cars 6,340 630 10.0 37,584 freight cars 610 69 11.3 This annual maintenance (for the year 1906) includes repairs and renewals, but the "superintendence" and "other expenses" are not included, and they amounted to about 3.6% additional. The locomotives average 78 tons weight, not including the weight of the tender ; their average actual ages was 10.7 years, but their average "weighted age" was 8.6 years. The average "weighted age" of the passenger cars was 11.1 years, and of the freight cars, 8.2 years. At the prices now prevailing, this equipment would cost 10 to 15% more if bought new. There were 137 switching engines in the above number and there were 229 passenger engines and 639 freight engines, and the 868 engines averaged 28,600 miles each, including all train and engine tnileage, which was as follows: Passenger train miles 8,057,721 Locomotives helping passenger trains 393,974 Mixed train miles 849,035 . Freight train miles 12,248,582 Locomotives helping freight trains 2,097,913 Non-revenue train miles 1,229,736 Total 24,876,961 1466 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Since the revenue train mileage was 21,155,338, the 868 locomo- tives each averaged 24,300 revenue train miles. The car mileage was : Passenger cars 59,298,843 Freight cars 415,358,345 The avei'age was 6.66 passenger cars per passenger train, and 31.71 freight cars per freight train, of which 23.15 were loaded With 17.30 tons each = 400.47 tons load per train. The total spent for maintenance of all equipment (excepting marine) was $6,000,000, including superintendence and repairs of shop machinery. Since the first cost of all this equipment was $41,000,000, we see that the average cost of repairs and renewals was nearly 15% for the year 1906. Taking all locomotives and cars of all kinds (freight and pas- senger), the average first cost of each unit was $1,000 and the average cost of repairs and renewals was $150 or 15%. The value of this deduction will be apparent when we come to consider the percentage that should be allowed for annual repairs and renewals of electric motor cars. Many absurdly low estimates have been made as to the latter, based upon 'short experience with compara- tively new equipment, and also without any regard as to the actual first cost of the equipment. Life of Railway Cars and Locomotives, and Cost of Repairs, S. P. Ry.* Mr. William Mahl, comptroller of the Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railways, gives some valuable data as to the life of equipment on the Southern Pacific I-lailway. The following are averages for the period of six years, 1902 to 1907, the costs being the average cost per year: Expenditure on Number each per annum. Class. Serviceable. Repairs. Vacated. Locomotives 1,540 $3,165 . $183 Passenger cars 1,504 759 104 Freight cars 42,983 70 17 In "repairs" are included the annual expenditure for repairs and renewals of each locomotive or car, other than the expenditure for equipment "vacated," or retired. In "vacated" is included the cost of equipment destroyed, condemned and dismantled, sold or changed to another class. In 1903 there was a fire which destroyed $225,000 worth of passenger cars, bringing up the cost per car "vacated" to $234 for that year, as against an average of $82 per car per year for the other five years of the period. Hence the $104 for passenger cars "vacated," as above given, is probably too high for a fair average. From 1891 to 1907, a period of 17 years, the average number of freight cars "vacated" each year was 3.63% of the total number in service. Dividing 100 by this 3.63, we get 27 1 /&, which is, therefore, the average life in years of each freight car. These cars were nearly all wooden cars, of which the cost of a box car did- not exceed $450, excluding air brakes. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 23. 19.07. RAILWAYS, 1467 In the six-year period (1902 to 1907) the following was the record of equipment vacated : . Cars.- Loco- Pas- Road motives. senger. Freight, service. Total number 294 299 11,797 468 Av. price per locomotive or car : Credited to replacement fund. $9,298 $4,228 $553 $567 Charged to operating exp 5,742 3,140 372 380 Proceeds from sale or salvage. 3,556 1,087 180 188 Since there were 294 locomotives "vacated" in six years, the average was 49 per year out of the 1,540 in service, or 3.2%, which is equivalent to a life of 31 years. The life of passenger cars was practically the same. There were nearly 2,000 freight cars "vacated" per year out of an average of 42,983 in service, or nearly 4.7%, which is equivalent to a life of but little more than 21 years. But in the years 1906 and 1907 6,338 cars were vacated, which is more than half of all vacated in the six-year period, indicating an unusual amount of replacement. This is also borne out by the fact that for the 17-year period the life of freight cars averaged 27% years, .vis above stated. Percentage of Engines Laid Off for Repairs. In estimating the number of pits required in shops for repairing 1,000 locomotives on the St. Louis and San Francisco Ry., in 1907, various data were used, from which it was concluded that 70 pits would be needed. This is equivalent to 7% of the total number of locomotives con- stantly in the repair shops. However, many large railways count on 8% of the locomotives constantly in the shops. The records of the St. L. & S. F. showed that there had been 288 days worked each year by the men in the shops. Each engine was estimated to spend 20 days in the shop once a year, and to travel 30,000 miles between these periods of general repairs. It is interesting to note how greatly the percentage of engines laid off for repairs has been reduced within recent years. On the Pennsylvania Ry., from 1851 to 1881, the average was nearly 18% constantly in the shops; for the years 1881 to 1884, the average was nearly 15%. Percentage of Freight Cars Laid Off for Repairs. This percent- age is ascertainable with great accuracy, for it is shown in the weekly statistical bulletins issued by the American Railway Associa- tion of Car Efficiency (Chicago). The average number of freight cars constantly in the shops is about 5 to 5%% of the total cars in service. Price of Locomotives. Mr. Wm. P. Evans, of the Baldwin Loco- motive Works, gives the following: 1885. 1905. Price Price Type of Weight, per Ib. Weight, per Ib. Locomotive. Ibs. Price, cts. Ibs. Price, cts. American 80,857 $6,695 8.28 102,200 $9,410 9.20 Atlantic ... 187,200 15,750 8.30 Mogul 72,800 6,662 9.12 Pacific 227,000 15,830 7.00 Ten wheeler . .....:. .85,000 7,583 8.92 156,000 15,690 8.80 Consolidation 92,400 7,888 8.54 192,460 14,500 7.50 1468 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The price per pound is figured from the total weight of the engine with three gages of water in the boiler, but excluding the tender. Cost of Shop Machinery. Mr. M. K. Barnum gives the following as the actual cost of shop machinery and tools for several different locomotive repair shops : Locomotives. Area Cost Number At one During of shops of Shop. of tools. time. ysar. sq. ft. tools. A 96 9 120 47,300 $76,600 B 254 16 216 62,000 188,100 C 226 22 300 131,300 147,400 D 237 22 300 96,000 174,300 E 282 50 600 238,000 264,300 He estimates the average useful life of shop machinery and tools at 20 years. Cost of Stopping Trains.* Mr. J. A. Peabody states that an official of a Western railway gave him the following as the cost of stopping trains, determined by experiment. An 8-car passenger train, weighing 530 tons, including engine and tender half loaded, from and to a speed of 50 miles per hr., costs as follows per stop : Lbs. Coal to stop train (air pump) 30 Coal to accelerate train (estimated) 275 Total coal 305 Per stop. 305 Ibs. coal, at $2.15 per ton $0.33 Brake shoe wear and tire wear (from laboratory tests) 0.03 Wear of brake and draft riggings, etc. (esti- mated) 0.06 Total -. $0.42 The lost time in starting and stopping on a straight, level track, averaged 145 sees., or nearly 2% mins. This is the actual loss from the time that would have been required to make the trip had no stop been made. The corresponding items of cost of starting and stopping a 2,000- ton freight train (80 cars) from and to a speed of 35 miles per hr. were: Lbs. Coal to stop train (air pump) 50 Coal to accelerate train 500 Total coal 550 Per stop, 550 Ibs. coal, at $2.15 .$0.56 Brake shoe wear 0.15 Other items, as classified above 0.29 Total $1.00 "Engineering-Contracting, Feb., 1900. p. 49. RAILWAYS. 1469 Cost of Handling Locomotives at Terminals Mr. Charles H. Frye gives the following costs of handling locomotives at terminals in 1903. On the St. Louis & San Francisco line, the average cost per engine per time handled was $1.57 for wages of hostlers and assistants, fire cleaners and asphalt men, front end cleaners, wipers, boiler washers and assistants, sand dryers, laborers or sweepers and callers. On the Norfolk and Western, the cost was $1.30 for repairs plus $0.52 for watching and hostlering, total $1.82 per engine per time. On the Motile and Ohio, 4,832 locomotives were handled at the following labor cost per time : Hostlers $0.30 Boiler washers 0.10 Callers (calling engine crew) 0.08 Sand dryers 0.03 Coalers 0.80 Wipers 1.13 Machinists 0.36 Boiler makers 0.12 Truck repairers 0.13 Total $3.05 On the Texas & Pacific the cost of despatching, in and out of terminals, was 2 cts. per engine mile, or $2.21 per engine per time. On the Wabash Ry., 17,060 engines were despatched by 636 men, during 1903, at the following labor cost per engine per time: Repairs $0.98 Handling 0.84 Total $1.82 On the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the cost of all round- house expenses, including skilled mechanics on ordinary running repairs, was : Skilled mechanics . $1.87 Other labor 1.73 Total $3.60 On the Seaboard Line, 7,615 engines were despatched at the following unit cost : Repairs $1.13 Supplies, labor 0.03 Roundhouse men 0.64 Total $1.80 An Eastern road having 476 locomotives, handled at 31 round- houses by 231 men, gives the following unit cost for 13,388 despatches monthly : Handling $0.79 Running repairs 2.83 Coal 8.32 Supplies . 0.43 Water and water station 0.70 Total , ..$13?07 1470 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. A Western line with 312 locomotives on 1,300 miles of line gives the following unit cost: General $0.70 Washout 0.27 Wiping 0.10 Cinders 0.13 Hostling 0.80 Coaling 0.35 Total $2.35 Roundhouse repairs (heavy engines) 2.50 Total $4.85 These engines average 125 miles per engine handled. CHAPTER XII. BRIDGES. The Weight of Steel Bridges. To compute the approximate cost of a steel bridge, it is first essential to estimate Its weight. Formu- las for estimating weights are given in this section, together with many examples of weights of bridges actually built, both for high- way and for electric and steam railway purposes. The following formulas, taken from Johnson's "Modern Framed Structures," give the weight of steel in trusses and floor-beams of highway and railway bridges. For a highway bridge with a roadway 16 ft. wide, designed to carry 100 Ibs. live load per sq. ft, use the following formula: W = 2L 4- 50. W = weight in Ibs. per linear foot of bridge. L = span in feet. For bridges of less or greater width of roadway than 16 ft., sub- tract or add 15 Ibs. per lin. ft. for each 2 ft. change in width. For railroad bridges designed according to Cooper's E-50 load- ing, the weight of steel per lin. ft. of bridge is as follows : For deck plate girders, W=12 J/+150. For through plate girders with beams and stringers, W= 12 L +500. For truss bridges, The Weights of Steel Bridges for Highway, Railway and Electric Railway, Spans of 10-ft. to 300-ft.*. In this issue we shall confine ourselves to the weights of standard bridges on the Northern Pa- cific Ry. and on the Santa Fe Ry., followed by Tyrrell's formulas for calculating the weights of bridges of moderate size. Weights of Standard Bridges, A. T. & S. F. Ry. These single track bridges are designed to carry a moving load of two 139-ton consolidation engines, followed by a train weighing 3,200 Ibs. per lin. ft., according to specifications drawn in 1902. * Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 23, 1908. 1471 1472 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Estimated Weights of Single Track Through Pin Truss Bridges; Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. Span c. to Weight c. of pins. per span. Ft. Lbs. Class. 100 193, 700 1 D 103 183,300 D 110 195,300 D 124 236,800 126. . . : 283,900 s D 128 244,300' 130 251,500 130. 258,200* 134 263,200 C 149 295,500 C 149 347, 500 5 D 160 341,900 D 164 346,100 C 172 371,700 . C 200* 499,500 C i^::::: ::::::::::::::::::::! 8 300 914,500 s C Note All truss spans of 140 ft. and less have stiff bottom cords. *Soft steel. jMedium steel. !, 2 and 5 stiff bottom chord carries floor; 3 130-ft. span shortened; 4 span for 5 curve; "parallel chords; T , 8 , 9 chords not parallel. C Deep floors. D Shallow floors. Estimated Weight of Single Track Plate Girder Bridges; Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. Deck Girders. Through Girders. Class A. Lbs. 12,800 16,000 17,500 20,000 21,600 24,300 24,600 26,000 28,300 35,500 Span. 26 ft 30 ft 32 ft 34 ft 36 ft 40 ft 40 ft. 10 curve. 42 ft 44 ft. ... 48 ft..., 48 ft. 5 curve. . , 48 ft. 10 curve. 50 ft 52 ft 54 ft 58 ft. 60 ft. 60 ft. 60 ft. 62 ft 64 ft 56,100 64 ft. 5 curve 64 ft. 10 curve 66 ft 58,600 70 ft 68,800 70 ft. 5 curve 70 ft. 10 curve 75 ft 78,500 75 ft. 5 ourve 75 ft. 10 curve 80 ft* 88,500 90 ft* 110,600 100 ft 133,600 105% ft 5 curve. . 10 curve. 36,900 40,900 42,500 si.Voo Class B. Lbs. 17 900 Class C. Lbs. Class D. Lbs. 23,900 34,300 25,800 28,600 32,100 36,600 39 200 37,100 '44,700 49,600 36 000 45,000 63,400 64 100 49,800 50 000 64,400 68,600 73 000 53,500 58 500 76,800 62J400 80,200 80 600 90,400 91 600 81,100 92 600 93,600 66,800 82,200 89 100 97,700 89 700 83,300 105,000 105,800 106,300 112,000 113,100 113,900 94,800 113,200 113 700 129,200 114 000 124,100 159,900 136,400 172,200 218,500 "Weights given for girders Class C and D are for round ended girders. BRIDGES, 1473 Classes A and C are designed in the most economic manner and are used wherever possible. Class B is for spans of the least depth consistent with good service. Class D is for spans with shallow floors. Classes B and D are used only where it is less expensive to use these shallow bridges than to change the grade line. The tabular weight is the calculated weight plus 2y 2 %. If the shipped weight is in excess of the tabular weight the excess is not paid for. Weights of Standard Bridges, N. P. Ry. In 1899 standard plans were made for Northern Pacific Ry. bridges. The assumed live load was two 146-ton locomotives, followed by 4,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. of track. The following table gives the approximate weights of sin- gle track steel bridges, the weights being given closely enough for purposes of preliminary cost estimates. I Beam : " 30 ................................ 20000 Deck Plate Girders: 25 ................................ 13,000 35 ............................. . . . 20,000 40 ................................ 25,060 50 ................................ 37,000 60 ................................ 50,000 70 ........................... 63,000-73,000 80 ................................ 96,000 90 ................................ 113,000 100 ................................ 133,000 Through Plate Girders : 40 ............. ................... 40,000 50 ............................... .. 53,000 60 ....................... ...... ... 70,000 70 .......................... 83,000-98,000 80 ................................ 118,000 90 ............................. . . .142,000 100 ................................ 170,000 Deck Lattice: 110 ................................ 150,000 120 ................................ 165,000 'Vi-/-.iirrV. To+ti/m- Through Lattice : 110 174,000 120 215,000 Deck Pin Spans: 130 202,000 140 220,000 150 244,000 160 264,000 170 297,000 180 330,000 190 360,000 200 392,000 Through Pin Spans: 130 210,000 140 230,000 150 252,000 160 280,000 170 303,000 180 340,000 190 374,000 200 410,000 1474 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Formulas for Weights of Railway Bridges. Mr. H. G. Tyrrell gives the following formulas: All weights (W) are per lineal foot of single track bridge for steel only ; units 10,000 to 12,000 Ibs. per sq. in. The live loads assumed are two engines weighing 100 tons each, and 4,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. of track. Deck plate girder bridge W = 100 + 9 L Deck lattice girder bridge W - 100 + 8 L Half through plate girder bridge with floor W 100 -j- 12 L Same with ties on shelf angle W = 200 + 8^ L Same with trough floor W = 600 + 10 L Riveted through truss bridge W = 400 + 6 L Riveted deck truss bridge, ties on top chord W 200 -j- 7 L Pin through truss bridge W = 400 + 5 Ms L Pin deck truss bridge with stringers W = 400 + 6 L Pin deck truss bridge, ties on top chord W=300+ 6 L W = weight of steel, Ibs. per lin. ft. L = span in feet. Railway Trestles. Assumed loads same as above ; weight of spans as above. Weight of bents and bracing is 9 Ibs. per sq. ft. of side profile from ground to base of rail. Mr. Tyrrell also gives the following formulas for the weights of single track railway bridges, for spans of 30 to 230 ft., designed ac- cording to Cooper's E 50 loading: Deck plate girders, W=100 + 12L. Through plate girders, TT=500 + 12L. Through truss spans, W=600 + 7I/. W = weight in Ibs. per lin. ft. L = span in feet. Add 90% for double track bridges. Johnson's "Modern Framed Structures" gives the following formu- las for the same loading: Deck plate girders, W=150-fl2Z/. Through plate girders, W=500 + 12Z/. Through truss spans, W=650 + 7I/. Cooper's E 50 loading provides for a train of two "consolidation engines" (177% tons each, including tender), followed by a uni- form live load of 5,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. Formulas for Weigh* of Electric Railway Bridges. Mr. H. G. Tyrrell gives the following formulas- for weight of single track elec- tric railway bridges of 5 ft. to 200 ft. span. The weights include steel only, without safety stringers. The live load is assumed to cover the span from end to end. The details are figured for riveted joints. I-beam spans of 5 to 20 ft, W= 50 + 5 L. For truss spans of 40 to 200 ft., loaded with 15-ton cars, or 1,000 Ibs. per ft., W = 200 + 0.8 L. For truss spans of 20 to 180 ft., loaded with 30-ton cars, or 2,000 Ibs. per lin. ft, W = 250 + 1.5 L. For deck plate girder spans, loaded with 2,000 Ibs. i>er lin. ft. W= 30 + 5 L. W = weight of steel per lin. ft. L = span in feet. BRIDGES. 1475 Electric railway trestles : Weights of spans same as above ; weights of bents and bracing is 6 Ibs. per sq. ft. of side profile from ground to base of rail. Weights of Bridges, III. Central R. R.* The Department of Bridges and Buildings of the Illinois Central Railroad has made standard designs of steel 'bridges of all ordinary spans, and has plotted the weights of steel in each type of bridge. From the curves thus plotted certain formulas have been derived for ascertaining the weight (W) of the steel in a bridge of any given span. It will be noted that these formulas are not like those found in text books. Among the/ valuable diagrams of weights of standard bridges on the Illinois Central is one that gives the weight of draw (swing) bridges, from 75 to 450 ft. span. We do not recall ever having seen similar data for swing bridges. From the diagrams, we have pre- pared the tables that follow. The formulas and tables are for class "R" loading, which is as follows : "For all single track spans use equivalent uniform loads due to two 161.5-ton engines with a total wheel base of 104 ft., followed by a uniform train load of 4,600 Ibs. per lineal foot of track. "For double track spans, of either two or three trusses, and up to 150 ft. span, use equivalent uniform loads due to full engine and train loading as above on each track. "For double track spans, of either two or three trusses, and over 150 ft. span, use equivalent uniform loads due to full engine and train loading on one track and uniform train load on the other. "The weight of track will be assumed at 420 Ibs. per ft. The weight of steel will be taken from the diagrams." The weights of spans of intermediate length can be interpolated from the data given in the following tables : WEIGHTS OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK DRAW BRIDGES. , Without With provision for provision for Span, ballast floors, ballast floors, ft. Ibs. Ibs. 75 80,000 100,000 100 120,000 150.000 125 170,000 215,000 150 230,000 280,000 175 295,000 360,000 200 365,000 450,000 225 ' 450,000 550,000 250... 545,000 660,000 275 655,000 800,000 300 785,000 970,000 350 1,100,000 2,320,000 400 1,440.000 1,690,000 450 1,800,000 2,090,000 Note. Weights of intermediate spans of swing bridges may be interpolated. For weights of double track spans with three trusses add 85% to the above weights. The spans given in the above table are from c. to c. of end bearings. *Engineering-Contracting, June 1. 1909. 1476 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. WEIGHT OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK I-BEAM SPANSJ WITHOUT BALLAST FLOOR. ( W = 3.5 L z + 352 L + 1215.) Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 5 : 3,000 10 5,000 15 7,200 20 9,700 25 12,200 30 14,900 35 17,700 WEIGHTS OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK DECK PLATE GIRDER SPANS, WITHOUT BALLAST FLOOR. (W= 9. 5 2 + 200 L + 450 for spans less than 70 ft.) (W=2BL S 2, 280 L -f 83,400 for spans more than 70 ft.) Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 30 -. 15,000 40 23,500 50 34,000 60 46.500 70 61,000 80 80,000 90 105,000 100 136,000 WEIGHTS OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK DECK PLATE GIRDER SPANS. (Designed for future ballast floors.) Without I-Beams With I-Beams Span, for future for future ft. ballast floor. ballast floor. 30 18,100 25,200 40 28,400 t 37,400 50 40.100 50,700 60 54,500 67,200 70 69,000 84,400 80 90,800 108,400 90 114,600 134,300 100 .- 150,100 172,300 WEIGHT OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK THROUGH PLATE GIRDER SPANS, WITHOUT BALLAST FLOOR. (W = 1824 L 26,160 for spans less than 76 ft.) (W=75I/ 2 9,927I/ + 433,740 for spans more than 76 ft.) Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 30 28,500 40 46,600 50 64,600 60 82,700 70 100,700 80 120,000 85 131,800 90 147,300 100 190,500 BRIDGES. 147; WEIGHT OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK THROUGH PLATE GIRDER SPANS, DESIGNED FOR FUTURE BALLAST FLOOR. Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 40 64,400 50 . 81,200 60 103,800 70 . 128,000 80 154,100 90 189,600 100 224,800 WEIGHT OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK THROUGH PIN SPANS, WITHOUT BALLAST FLOOR. ( W = 7.9 I/ 2 + 870 L + 11,500.) Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 110 203,000 120 230,000 140 288,000 160 353,000 180 424,000 200 500,000 220 585,000 240 675,000 260 772,000 280 874,000 300 984,000 320 1,100,000 340 1,221,000 360 1,349,000 380 . '. 1,481,000 400 1,621,000 WEIGHTS OF STEEL IN SINGLE TRACK THROUGH PIN SPAN BRIDGES, DESIGNED FOR FUTURE BALLAST FLOORS. Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 100 220,000 120 290,000 140 370,000 160 455,000 180 550,000 200 650,000 220 770,000 240 900,000 250 972,000 WEIGHT OF STEEL IN DOUBLE TRACK THROUGH PLATE GIRDER SPANS (2 LIGHT AND 1 HEAVY GIRDER), WITHOUT BALLAST FLOOR. (W= 4 L 2 + 2,980 L 44,000 for spans 30 to 80 ft.) (W= 68 I/ 2 7, 100 L +352, 800 for spans 80 to 100 ft.) Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 30 49,000 40 82,000 50 115,000 60 149,000 70 184,000 80 220,000 90 264,000 100 324,500 1478 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. WEIGHT OF STEEL. IN DOUBLE TRACK THROUGH PIN SPANS (2 LIGHT AND 1 HEAVY TRUSS), WITH- OUT BALLAST FLOOR. (TF= 14.38 L 2 + 1,583 L + 20,900.) Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 110 370,000 120 .. 418,000 140 524,000 160 '. 640,000 180 771,000 200 911,000 220 1,065,000 240 ' 1,230,000 260 1,404,000 280 1,593,000 300 1,790,000 320 2,000,000 340 2,222,000 360 2,455,000 380 2,700,000 400 2,955,000 Note. If the bridge is designed with only two trusses, instead of three, add 82% to the weights given in the above table. WEIGHT OF STEEL IN DOUBLE TRACK THROUGH PLATE GIRDER SPANS (2 LIGHT AND 1 HEAVY GIRDER), DESIGNED FOR FUTURE BALLAST FLOORS. Span, Weight, ft. Ibs. 40 117,300 50 148,900 60 187,700 70 230,700 80 282,100 90 340,300 100 402,100 Formulas for Weight of Highway Bridges. Mr. H. G. Tyrrell gives the following formulas for the weight of steel in highway truss bridges: L With sidewalks, W = 2.8 H 11.3 L Without sidewalks, W = 5 H 9.5 L = length of span in feet. W = weight of steel per sq. ft. of floor, including both carriage- way and walk. The weight includes bracing and shoe plates, but not joists or floor. These formulas were based upon designs of through truss spans from 50 to 150 ft., for roadways ranging from 14 to 20 ft, wide. The trusses are riveted. The live load assumed was 80 Ibs. per sq. ft. for trusses and 100 Ibs. per sq. ft. floor beams, or a 6-ton wagon. These bridges have timber joists and a floor composed of two layers of plank. BRIDGES. 1479 The following formulas are for plate girder highway bridges hav- ing 16 to 24 ft. roadway and 20 to 80 ft. span, loading same as above. L Through plate girder W 3 -\ 4.25 L Deck plate girder, W = 2.1 H 5 W = weight of steel per sq. ft. and does not include the timber stringers and plank floor. For highway bridges with solid floors (assumed dead weight of floor, 150 Ibs. per sq. ft.), Mr. Tyrrell gives the following formulas: L Deck plate girder bridges, W = 3 -{ 2.6 L Half through girder bridges, W = 3 -] 2.4 L - Truss bridges, W = 3 -j Weight of a 465-ft. Span Highway Bridge.* The longest high- way truss span in America was built in 1901 across the Miami River at New Baltimore, Ohio. It has a span of 465 ft. c. to c. of end pins, and a depth of 66 ft. at the middle. The pin connected trusses are 25 ft. apart in the clear. The bridge is designed for a live load of 2,600 Ibs. per lin. ft., with a live load of 100 Ibs. sq. ft. on the floor system and a 6-ton road roller as a concentrated load. The floor system consists of plate girder floor beams, I-beam string- ers, and 2% -in. plank floor. There is no sidewalk and no street railway track. The weight of the bridge is 1,000,000 Ibs., or 2,150 Ibs. per lin. ft. or 86 Ibs. per sq. ft. Weight of a 406-ft. Span Highway Bridge.* A very long highway truss span was built in 1899 across the Miami River at Hamilton, Ohio. The span is 406 ft. c. to c. of end pins. The trusses are 50 ft. deep at the middle and spaced 26% ft. c. to c. The roadway is 22 ft. wide, and the two cantilever sidewalks are 6 ft. wide each, making a total floor width of 34 ft. The trusses are calculated for a dead load of 5,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. of span and a live load of 2,720 Ibs. per lin. ft. of span, or 80 Ibs. per sp. ft. of floor. The floor system is calculated for a 20-ton roller on two axles 12 ft. apart, or a 16-ton electric car. The floor of the roadway is asphalt blocks on concrete laid on buckle plates, supported by I-beam stringers. The sidewalks are concrete slabs. The total weight of steel in the bridge is 1,300,000 Ibs. Weight and Cost of a Highway Bridge, 120-ft. Spans.* A steel highway bridge was built in 1905 across the Wabash River at Terre Haute, Ind. It is 812 ft. long between abutments, and con- sists of 6 spans of 120 ft. each and one 75-ft. span in the center. The roadway is 50 ft. wide, and there is an 8-ft. cantilever sidewalk * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. 1480 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. on each side, making a total floor width of 66 ft. It is a deck bridge, and each span has two riveted trusses 53 ft. c. to c., with three intermediate plate girders. The roadway is paved with brick. The total weight of steel in the bridge is 4,144,000 Ibs. including 88,000 Ibs. of street car rails. There are 2,330 cu. yds. of concrete in the two abutments and 3,900 cu. yds. in the six piers; there are 718 piles. The piers average 50 ft. high. The substructure cost 178,700, and the superstructure cost $192,500, a total of $271,200, by contract, including the removal of an old bridge and the build- ing of a temporary bridge, which is equivalent to $334 per lin. ft., or $5 per sq. ft. of floor area. Weight of a 450-ft. Span Highway Swing Bridge.* A highway swing span of unusual length was built across the Connecticut River in 1896. The bridge is 450 ft. long. The trusses are 26 ft. c. to c., providing for one line of electric cars and two lines of carriages. The floor is designed to carry 100 Ibs. per sq. ft., 14 ton electric cars or a 10 ton wagon. The trusses are designed to carry a live load of 1,500 Ibs. per lin. ft. for chords and 2,000 Ibs. for web. The floor consists of 4xl4-in. yellow pine stringers spaced 2y 2 ft. apart, supporting two layers of plank, 3 in. and 2 in., respectively. The stringers for the car track are 15-in. steel beams weighing 42 Ibs. per ft. There are 22 panels, depth 21 to 55 ft. The turntable is rim bearing. The drum is 4 ft. deep and 31 ft. diameter. Three 25- HP. motors are used, one for turning and two for blocking up the ends.. An extra motor is provided. To open takes the motor 30 seconds. Working on 10-ft. levers the bridge is turned by four men in 8 minutes. The total weight of draw- bridge superstructure, including drum and flooring, is 1,380,000 Ibs. Weight of a 520-ft. Double Track Swing Bridge.* The longest swing span in the world is the Interstate bridge. It is a double track railway draw bridge, built in 1903, across the Missouri River at East Omaha, Neb. The trusses were destgned to carry a live load of 11,180 Ibs. per lin. ft. of bridge. This heavy load was al- lowed in case it should be desired to provide a cantilevered road- way and sidewalk 16 ft. wide on the outside of each truss. The weight of this 520-ft. draw span is 3,900,000 Ibs. There were also 9 plate girder 60-ft. spans in the approach, having a total length of 575 ft, and a total weight of 1,773,000 Ibs. The pivot pier was sunk to bed rock, a depth of 120 ft. below low water, by open dredg- ing inside a steel cylinder. The following are the quantities in the substructure: Cu. Yds. Mass in cribs and pneumatic caissons of 2 piers 80 ft. deep. . 4,180 Mass in base of pivot pier ; 5,390 Mass in bases of 8-pile piers and 2 abutments 2,330 Masonry in shafts of 4 large piers 2,135 Concrete in shafts of 8 shore piers and 2 abutments 1,550 Lin. Ft. . .19,900 Lbs. Steel in pivot pier "well" or open caisson 580,000 Piling below bases of 8 shore piers and abutments 19,900 Lbs. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. BRIDGES. 1481 The "4 large piers" above mentioned are the pivot pier of the draw span and its two rest piers, and a third rest pier for an old existing draw span. The contract price for this 520-ft. swing bridge and approaches was $600,000. Weight of a 450-ft. Double Track Swing Bridge.* A double track draw bridge, with 5 approach (single track) spans, was built in 1905 across the Tennessee River for the Illinois Central Ry., to re- place a lighter steel bridge built 17 years previously. The draw bridge is 450 ft. long, and about 25 ft. c. to c. of trusses. Three of the Approach spans are 300 ft. each, and two are 150 ft. each, and are all single track, the trusses being 17% ft. c. to c. The weights of steel in these spans are as follows: Lbs. 1 double track draw span (450 ft.) and turntable 2,576,000 3 single track spans, 300 ft. each .4,074,000 2 single track spans, 150 ft. each 764,000 Total 7,414,000 The price for the draw span was 4.45 cents per Ib. ready to as- semble; and the price for the pin connected truss spans was 3.64 cents per Ib. The cost by contract for erection was $90,000, which is about 1% cents per Ib. The pivot pier is 62 ft. high, and 47 ft. diameter. It contains 873 cu. yds. of concrete footing and 1,356 cu. yds. of concrete above the footing, or a total of 2,229 cu. yds., and 16,200 Ibs. of reinforcing rods. It rests on 305 piles. Weight of a 438-ft. Single Track Swing Bridge.* As a part of the single track bridge, built in 1899 over the Mississippi River, for the Davenport, Rock Island and Northwestern Ry., there are one 361-ft., three 296-ft., and three 200-ft. pin-connected truss spans, beside a 438-swing span which is described subsequently. The trusses are designed for Cooper's Class E 35-train load, and the floor system for Class E 40. The trusses are 18% ft. c. to c. The weights of each span is as follows : Lbs. 438-ft. swing span (including machinery) 1,400,600 361-ft. span (c. to c. end pins) 1,039,100 296-ft. span (c. to c. of end pins) 742,400 200-ft. span (c. to c. of end pins) 410,000 Weight and Cost of a 334-ft. Four Track Swing Bridge.* A four track swing bridge was built in 1900 across the Chicago Drainage canal at West 46th street, Chicago, for the Chicago & Western In- diana R. R. It is unique among four track swing bridges in that it has two trusses instead of three. By this arrangement the cen- ter pier is only 43 ft. diameter, thus saving about 20 ft. of length over a three-truss bridge that gives the same clear waterway. The bridge is 334 ft. long c. to c. of end bearings. It is 29% ft. c. to c. of trusses, two of the tracks being supported on cantilever floor beams outside the trusses. The total width is 57 ft. The live load, continuous girder of four supports, is 4,980 Ibs. per lin. ft. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. 1482 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. on the adjacent inside track, 4,200 Ibs. per lin. ft. on the adjacent outside track, with no load on the distant outside track. The weight of steel and iron is 2,692,000 Ibs., exclusive of the operating machinery. The pier is octagonal, 44 ft. diameter, over coping, masonry shell 7 ft. thick, filled with earth inside, is 30 ft. high and rests on clay. The substructure cost $51,353, the contract prices being: Excava- tion, 51 cts. ; concrete, $7.30 ; stone masonry, $13.35 per cu. yd. The superstructure cost $131,393, or nearly 4.9 cts. per Ib. includ- ing the floor. The total cost was $182,746, or $547 per lin. ft. of bridge, or $137 per lin. ft. of track. Weight of a 231ft. Single Track Swing Bridge.* A single track swing bridge was built across the St. Joseph River, for the Pere Marquette Ry., to replace an older span having become too light for modern locomotives. The bridge is 231 ft. c. to c. of end floor beams, and 17 ft. 8 ins. c. to c. of trusses. It was designed for Cooper's Class E loading, and its weight is 600,000 Ibs. It is ope- rated by a 30-HP. gasoline engine which opens or closes it in one minute. Weight of a 216-ft. Double Track Swing Bridge. A double track Winer bridge was built in 1899 across Kinnickinnic River, near Milwaukee, for the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., to replace a single track pin-connected bridge built 19 years previously. It is a rivet- ed lattice truss draw bridge, 216 ft. long, trusses 27 ft. apart in the clear, and designed for a load of two 131% -ton engines followed by a train weighing 4,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. on each track. Its weight is 1,200,000 Ibs. including track, machinery, etc. Weight and Cost of a 1,504-ft. (3 Spans) Cantilever Double Track Bridge.* The longest cantilever railway bridge in America is a bridge finished in 1903 across the Monongahela River at Pittsburg, for the Wabash R. R. It is 1,504 ft. long exclusive of approaches. The channel span is 812 ft. c. to c. of piers, and each of the shore spans is 346 ft. c. to c. of piers. The steel towers, are 126 ft. high, and the depth of the suspended span is 60 ft. The live load con- sists of two consolidation engines (on each track) followed by a train load of 4,500 Ibs. per lin. ft. The weight of the superstructure is 14,000,000 Ibs., or 9,300 Ibs. per lin. ft. The cost of substructure and superstructure was $800,000, or $533 per lin. ft. The four piers were sunk to rock by the pneumatic caisson process. The height of the four piers averaged 110 ft., of which 35 ft. is below low water. Weight and Cost of a 1,296-ft. (3 Spans) Cantilever Double Track Bridge.* A double track cantilever bridge was finished in 1903 across the Ohio River, at Mingo Junction, Ohio, for the Wabash R. R. It is 1,296 ft. long exclusive of approaches. The channel span is 700 ft. and each of the two shore spans is 298 ft. c. to c. of piers. The steel towers are 109 ft. high, and the depth of the sus- pended span is 51% ft. Two of the piers have caisson founda- * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. BRIDGES. 1483 tions and are 115 ft. high, 25 ft. of which is below low water level. One pier is 100 ft. high, of which only 10 ft. is below low water. There is an abutment (instead of a fourth pier) 40 ft. high. The weight of the superstructure is 12,000,000 Ibs. exclusive - of ap- proaches. The cost of the substructure and superstructure was $750,000, or $577 per lin. ft. Weight and Cost of a 2,750-ft. (5 Spans) Cantilever Double Track Bridge.* A double track cantilever bridge was finished in 1905 across the Mississippi River at Thebes, 111., for the Illinois Central and other railways. It has a length of 2,750 ft. (exclusive of con- crete approaches) and consists of 5 spans: one 671 ft., two 521 ft., and two 518 ft., measured center to center of piers. The steel superstructure weighs 24,000,000 Ibs., and cost $1,400,000, and the substructure cost $600,000, a total of $2,000,000, which is $800 per lin. ft. The piers have an average height of about 115 ft. from the cutting edge of the caisson to the top of the pier, and the water averages 20 ft. deep when low. One pier was sunk to a depth of 40 ft. below low water. There is a double track concrete viaduct ap- proach on each side, having a total length of about 1,200 ft, con- sisting of 65-ft. arches. The height of this viaduct is about 100 ft., and its cost was $300,000, or about $250 per lin. ft. Weight of a 1,380-ft. (3 Spans) Cantilever Highway Bridge.* A cantilever highway bridge was finished in 1903 across the Ohio River at Marietta, Ohio, for the Ohio River Bridge and Ferry Co. Its length is 1,380 ft. exclusive of two approach spans of 220 ft. each and a plate girder viaduct 640 ft. long, but with these the total length is 2,460 ft. The width is 28 ft. c. to c. of trusses, or 25 ft. clear width of roadway including a 4^ -ft. sidewalk. The live load for the trusses was assumed at 60 Ibs. per sq. ft. ; and for the floor system it was assumed at 80 Ibs. per sq. ft. or a steam roller of 15 tons. The cantilever is of peculiar design, due to neces- sity of providing two channels and of placing one of the piers in a shallow part of the river. The length of the main channel span is 650 f t. ; the south anchorage span is 600 ft. ; the north anchorage span is 130 ft. ; all c. to c. of piers. The trusses are pin connect- ed. The floor system consists of plate girder floor beams, timber stringers, and plank floor. The weight is 4,800,000 Ibs., including the approach spans and the viaduct. Weight and Cost of a Scherzer Highway Lift Bridge. f A Scherz- er rolling lift highway bridge was built in 1897 across the Chicago River at Halsted street. Length of movable part, 176 ft., divided into two leaves 38 ft. long, giving a clear span of 121 ft. between faces of abutments and 109 ft. between protection piles ; length of each of the two anchor spans, 50 f t. ; total length 276 f t. ; width of carriageway, 34 ft. c. to c. of trusses-, width of each sidewalk, 7*4 ft. center of truss to center of hand rail ; total width, 5 ft. The bridge was designed to carry 100 Ibs. per sq. ft., or an 18-ton motor car followed by trailers weighing 15 tons, each on an 8 ft. wheel * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2. 1908. 1484 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. base and having 37 ft. length. The weight of superstructure, in- cluding the 50 ft. approach spans, is 820 tons, of which 300 tons is counterweights. The weight of the machinery is 70 tons. Each leaf is operated by a 50 HP. motor. It requires an average of 40 HP. to open each leaf, and about the same for closing, the time required being % min. to open and the same to close. The cost of the bridge to the city was: Substructure $ 34,500 Superstructure 55,400 Machinery 13,560 Electrical equipment 5,400 Engineering, inspection, temporary foot bridge and inci- dentals 14,740 Total $123,600 Cost of a Scherzer Highway Lift Bridge.* In 1894 a Scherzer rolling lift highway bridge was built across the Chicago River, on Van Buren street, Chicago. The span is 115 ft. c. to c. of bearings, giving a clear channel of 109 ft. It has 2 roadways of 21 ft. c. to c. of trusses, and 2 sidewalks of 8% ft. each. The piers are of con- crete and sandstone masonry resting on piles. Each leaf of the bridge has 3 trusses, and is counterweighted with 129 tons of cast iron. The floor is plank, resting on steel I-beams. Two 50 HP. motors operate each leaf. Tests have shown that it requires an average of 60 HP. to raise one leaf at a time, and 96 HP. to raise both sides simultaneously. Exclusive of engineering and inspection, the bridge cost : Superstructure $ 73,100 Substructure 79,600 Electric equipment and machinery 11,150 Total . . .$163,850 Weight of a Scherzer Railway Lift Bridge.* A double track bas- cule bridge of the Scherzer type was built in 1904 to replace a draw bridge built 17 years previously, the draw bridge having become too light for the traffic on the Central R. R. of New Jersey. The bridge is part of the Newark Bay crossing. The bridge consists of two lift spans, back to back, across two separate channels. Each of these spans is 120 ft. c. to c. to center of piers, or 110 ft. between piers ; but, due to the skew, the clear channel width is only 85 ft. Each span weighs 2,000,000 Ibs., about half of which is in the cast Iron counterweight, leaving 1,000,000 in the span alone. Weight of a Scherzer Railway Lift Bridge.* A rolling lift bridge of the Scherzer type was built in 1899, at the Fort Point Channel, Boston, for the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. It is a skew bridge, the skew bejng 42. One truss is 113 ft. long, the other being 84 ft, and the distance from center to center of chords is 27 ft. The weight of this double track bascule bridge is 381,200 Ibs. The counterweights weigh 3,100 Ibs. The time to operate the bridge one way is 35 sees, with a 60 HP. motor. ^Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2, 1908. BRIDGES. 1485 Cost of a Page Highway Lift Bridge.* A trunnion bascule high- way bridge was built in 1901 across the Chicago River at Ash- land avenue. The bridge is of the Page type and consists of two leaves, 168 ft. c. to c. of trunnions. The bridge is 258 ft. long, and has a clear waterway of 140 ft. between fender piles. The trusses are 40 ft. c. to c. carrying a 36-ft. clear roadway with two 8-ft. cantilever sidewalks, making a total of 52 ft. of floor width. The bridge is designed for a live load of 100 Ibs. per sq. ft. for the road- way and 80 Ibs. for the sidewalks; concentrated load 20 tons on two axles 12 ft. c. to c. The weight of steel in each leaf is 340,- 000 Ibs. There are about 620,000 Ibs. of cast iron for counter- weights of each leaf. The substructure required the following quan- tities : Excavation 6,500 cu. yds. Concrete 2,820 cu. yds. Sheet piling and bracing 250,000 ft. B. M. Timber in protection work and dock 23,500 ft. B. M. Piles in protection work and dock 7,300 lin. ft. Piles in coffer dam 2,100 lin. ft. The contract price was : Substructure $ 35,540 Superstructure 91,200 Total $126,740 Cost of a Page Railway Lift Bridge.* A double track single- leaf bascule bridge of the Page type was built in 1907 over the Chicago River by the Chicago & Alton Ry. It has a span of 150 ft., and there is an approach span of 64 ft. The superstructure, in- cluding electrical equipment for operation, cost $115,000. The sub- structure, including the removal of an old pivot pier and some dredging of the channel, cost $50,000, making a total cost of $165,- 000. The substructure contained 3,200 cu. yds. of concrete. Cost of a Trunnion Bascule (Lift) Bridge.* A trunnion bascule highway bridge was built at Clybourn Place, Chicago, in 1902, ac- cording to designs of John Ericson, City Engineer. The bridge is a fixed center, double leaf, counterbalanced bascule, 128 ft. c. to c. of pivot bearings, and 120 ft. c. to c. of piers, with a clear channel of 100 ft. between the guard piles that protect the piers. The length over all is 180 ft. Each leaf has three through trusses, 21 ft. c. to c., and the total width of the bridge is 60 ft, the sidewalks being carried on 9-ft. cantilever brackets. The motive power is two 38 HP. motors. The bed of the river is about 40 ft. below the lower chord of the bridge, and the water is 23 ft. deep. The sub- structure is of concrete resting on piles. The contract price was $69,000 for substructure and $86,000 for superstructure, or a total of $155,000. The weight of each leaf is 640,000 Ibs. including struc- tural steel, cast iron rack, timber and counterweights. This is equivalent to nearly $1,300 per lin. ft. of span between piers, or $860 per lin. ft. of total length. Cost of a Trunnion Bascule (Lift) Bridge.* A trunnion bascule highway bridge was built in 1903 at Northwestern avenue, Chi- * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2. 1908. 1486 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. cago. It consists of two leaves, and the span between centers of trunnions is 205 ft., while the span between abutments is 190 ft., and the clear width of the channel is 165 ft. between the timber pro- tection works. There are three lines of trusses 21 ft. c. to c., and 9 ft. cantilever sidewalks, making a total width of 60 ft. There are two approach spans, one of 75 ft. and one of 17 ft. The total length of the bridge is 361 ft, and it contains 2,180,000 Ibs. of structural steel, 1,400,000 Ibs. of counterweight pig and cast iron, and 200,000 Ibs. of machinery. The substructure consists of 4,500 cu. yds. of concrete and 300 cu. yds. of rubble curb walls for the approaches. The contract price for the substructure was $88,200, and $208,500 for the superstructure, a total of $296,700. Weight of an 840 ft. Span Arch Bridge." The Niagara Falls and Clifton steel arch bridge was built in 1895-1898. It consists of a main span of 840 ft. and two end spans, one of 190 ft. and the other of 210 ft, giving a total length of 1,240 ft. The main arch springs from the solid rock. The arch is two-hinged, parabolic, and has a rise of 137 ft. The end spans are pin-connected, inverted bow string trusses. The bridge carries on one level two lines of trolley car tracks, two carriageways and two sidewalks, having a total width of 46 ft There are 1,637 cu. yds. of masonry in the substructure. The materials used in the main span were as follows : Lbs. Two-arch trusses, not including laterals 1,673,356 Laterals of arch 383,522 Bents, including lateral bracing 450,577 Longitudinal bracing 150,705 Skewbacks and shoes . 226,634 Floor system 766,287 Total 3,651,081 In addition there were : New York end span 344,862 Canadian end span 371,733 Hand rail and floor fastenings 83,048 Miscellaneous (field rivets, etc.) 81,323 Grand total 4,532,047 There were 246,000 ft. B. M. of timber in the permanent flooring. Weight and Cost of a 195 ft. Span Arch Bridge.* A steel arch highway bridge was built in 1900 across Nine-Mile Run, at Pitts- burg. The total length is 444 ft. The carriageway is 36 ft wide, on each side of which is 6 % -ft. cantilever sidewalk, making a total width of 49 ft. of floor. It consists of a steel arch span, 195 ft. c. to c. of pins, and a steel viaduct approach of five 24-ft plate girder spans on each side of the arch span. The arch span is a pair of three-hinge plate girders. The sidewalks and carriageway are made of buckle plates and concrete, the carriageway being paved with asphalt. The arch has a rise of 59 ft. ; and, as the ground rises rapidly from the skewbacks toward each end of the bridge, the average height of the viaduct approaches is about half this rise, or 30 ft * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2, 1908. BRIDGES. 1487 The materials were as follows : Structural steel ('ibs.) . . l',457,000 Railing, 889 lin. ft. (Ibs.) 60,000 Stone Masonry (cu. yds. ) 1,410 Concrete (cu. yds.) 287 Paving on roadway (sq. yds.) 1,800 Paving on sidewalk (sq. ft.) 5,500 Curb (lin. ft.) 890 The total contract cost was $86,534, including $535 for mill, shop and field inspection of the steel, or 70 cts. per ton for inspection. This is equivalent to $195 per lin. ft, or $4 per sq. ft. of floor. Weight of a 207 ft. Span Arch Bridge.* A single track, three- hinged steel arch bridge was finished in 1903 across the Menominee River, Michigan, for the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., replac- ing a steel bridge built 17 years previously, which had grown too light for the traffic. The bridge is 355 ft. long, consisting of a three-hinged arch of 207 ft, span and four plate girder approach spans of 39.y 2 ft. each. The trusses are 22 ft. c. to c. The arch h^s a rise of 52 ft. The bridge is designed according to Cooper's specifications for a live load of two consolidation Class E-50 loco- motives and 7,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. behind the engines. The weight of steel in the arch span is 480,000 Ibs., and in the approach spans it is 150,000 Ibs. ' Weight and Cost of a 440 ft. Span Arch Bridge.* A steel high- way bridge was built in 1906 in Pittsburg. It is known as the Oak- land Bridge. It is 800 ft. long and has a roadway 20 ft. wide, with a 7 ft. cantilever sidewalk on each side. It consists of an arch hav- ing a span 440 ft, and a rise of 70 ft, and a steel viaduct approach at each end of the arch, the spans of the approach girders being 30 to 40 ft. each. The arch span consists of two lattice girder arch ribs, abutting on concrete abutments built on the solid rock. The arch is not hinged. The cost of this bridge was $138,000, which is equivalent to $172 per lin. ft, or $4.50 per sq. ft of floor area. Cost of Steel Arch Bridge.* A steel highway bridge was built in 1906 across the Potomac River, at Washington, D. C. The bridge is 1,000 ft. long between abutments, and consists of 6 three-hinged arch spans of 129 ft. each, and one two-leaf bascule span of 103 ft. Each of the arch spans has six plate girder ribs. The bridge is 48 ft. wide between handrails, having two 6% ft. sidewalks and a 35 ft. roadway. The rise of the arches is 14 ft., and the height of the piers averages about 65 ft. to the spring line. The concrete piers rest on pile foundations. The site of each pier had to be dredged before driving the piles. The low water surface is about 10 ft. below the spring line of the arches. The bridge cost $375,000, or $375 per lin. ft, or $7.80 per sq. ft. Weight of the Burlington Bridge of the C., B. & Q.t In 1890 a double track steel railway bridge was built across the Mississippi River, at Burlington, for the C., B. & Q. R. R., to replace a single * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2. 1908. a. ) Q taaO- jjni.J6mi*a3 ^Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 4, 1908. 1488 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. track iron bridge built 22 years before. The 6 spans of 250 ft. each, weighed 3,340 Ibs. per lin. ft. The draw span of 363 ft. weighed 3,980 Ibs. per lin. ft. The bridge was designed to carry a moving load of 6,000 Ibs. per ft. of double track structure (3,000 Ibs. per ft. of single track), this load being increased 50% in estimating the variable effect of a moving load. The cost of engineering was 5% of the total cost of piers and superstructure. Weight of a Double Track Draw Bridge, 195 ft. Span. A double track swing bridge (through riveted truss) was built in 1901 across the Hackensack River, N. J., for the D., L. & W. Ry. Its weight is 1,206,000 Ibs. and its length is 195 ft. Weight of a 533 ft. Span Railway Bridge and of a 323 ft. Draw Span Across the Delaware. A double track railway bridge was built in 1896 across the Delaware River, at Bridesburg, for the Pennsylvania and N. J. R. R. Co. There are three spans of 533 ft. each, and a draw span of 323 ft. The weight of steel in each of the three 533 ft. spans is 4,182,000 Ibs. The weight of the steel in the draw span with riveted work is 1,- 505,000 Ibs., and the weight of the machinery is 356,000 Ibs., total 1,861,000 Ibs. A steel traveler was used to erect the bridge. The traveler was 110 ft. high, 46 ft. wide at the bottom and 81 ft. wide on top. Its weight was 292,000 Ibs. without trucks. Weight of a Highway Cantilever Bridge, 1,024 ft. Long. Mr. Gustave Kaufman gives the following data relative to the weight of a highway bridge at Cincinnati, built in 1890. The cantilever bridge has a span of 520 ft. c. to c. of piers, and the shore arms of the cantilever are each 252 ft. long, making a total length of 1,024 ft. This does not include several approach spans on each side. The weight of metal is as follows : Lbs. Shore arms of cantilever 1,376,978 River arms of cantilever .' 691,360 Suspended span (208 ft.).- 335,185 Total , 2,403,523 It required % gal.' of paint per ton of metal for two coats. The bridge trusses were designed for a live load of 80 Ibs. per sq. ft. The stringers and floor beams were designed for a live load of 100 Ibs. per sq. ft., or a 15-ton steam roller. The roadway con- sists of 6 lines of iron stringers riveted to iron floor beams, and covered with cross timbers, spaced 30 ins. c. to c., to which are spiked two layers of oak flooring having *a total thickness of 5V 2 ins. The roadway is 2 ft. wide in the clear, and the sidewalks (which are on brackets outside oi; the trusses) are each 1% ft. wide in the clear. Estimating Cost of a Steel Bridae Erection. The cost of erect- ing steel bridges should be separated into two main items: (1) BRIDGES. 1489 cost of falsework, and (2) cost of erecting the steel. Usually, how- ever, engineers who have published cost data have unfortunately lumped these two items together. The cost of falsework for any given bridge, and of a traveler of given design, can be estimated from the data given in the section on Timberwork, and from data in the following pages. It should be remembered that railway plate girder bridges are usually erected with little or no falsework. Railway plate girders up to 80-ft. span, and occasionally up to 120-ft. span, are shipped as single pieces. Short girders are skidded flat into position from the car and then turned on edge. Long girders may be lifted from the cars by gallows frames and lowered to position. Swing bridges are erected on the pile fender or guard pier, which serves as the falsework. This makes the cost of erection much less than for truss bridges for which falsework must be built. Steel viaducts are erected with travelers, so that no falsework is required. The cost of materials and of labor on steel bridges should be recorded in terms of the pound of steel as the unit, or in terms of the ton of 2,000 Ibs. Cost Per Lin. Ft. and Per Sq. Ft. It is customary to state the cost of railway bridges in terms of the lineal foot of span, while the cost of highway bridges is preferably reduced to the square foot of floor area as the unit. However, it should be remembered that, in either case, the unit cost increases rapidly as the span increases. The cost of viaducts is often given in terms of the square foot of profile area ; but care should be taken to state whether the total profile area is estimated below the base of the railway rail, or below the top of the towers. ' Most Economical Span. Mr. J. A. L. Waddell, M. Am. Soc. C. E., was, I believe, the first to enunciate the following theory (in 1890) : "For any crossing, the greatest economy will be attained when the cost per lineal foot of the substructure is equal to the cost per lineal foot of the trusses and lateral systems." Note that the cost of the floor system, being practically independent of the length of the span, does not enter into this generalization. The following is the demonstration of this theory : Assume a bridge crossing of indefinite length, with the depth to bedrock con- stant. Let 8 cost per lin. ft. of substructure. T = cost per lin. ft. of trusses and laterals. F= cost per lin. ft. of floor system. Y = cost per lin. ft. of entire bridge. L = length of each span. Y = 8 + T + F. Assuming that slight changes in L will not materially affect the size of the piers, S will vary inversely as L, hence K 8 = , K being a constant. 1490 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. But, for slight changes of L, T varies nearly directly as L, hence T = C L, C being a constant. Since F is practically a constant, being a function of panel length and not of span length, we have K Y = i-CL+F, L m which Y is to be made a minimum. Differentiating we have KdL dY S (I Y = \-CdL, whence, by putting = O, we have L 2 dL L T ^ = o, or 8 = T. L A further differentiation shows that the result corresponds to a minimum. Although no bridge is indefinite in length, and although ledge rock usually is found at different depths, still this same prin- ciple may be applied to each pier and the two spans that it helps to support, by making the cost of the pier equal to one-half the total cost of the trusses and laterals of the two spans. The principle obviously applies to trestles, viaducts and elevated roads. In an ordinary viaduct, consisting of alternate spans and towers, the cost of all the girders in two spans (one span being over the tower), plus the cost of the longitudinal bracing of one tower, should equal the cost of the two bents of the tower plus the cost of their masonry pedestals. In an elevated railway, the cost of the stringers or girders of one span should equal the cost of one bent, including its pedestals. The Life of Steet Railway Bridges.* Considering the economic importance of the subject, it is astonishing that no tabulated sta- tistics as to the life of American steel railway bridges can be found in print. Bridge engineers are accustomed to denominate wooden bridges as "temporary," while they call steel bridges "permanent." The annual reports of railway managers to stockholders contain these expressions, and there is a general acquiescence in the propriety of their application. But the facts are that steel railway bridges are so far from being permanent that they, too, should be classed as temporary. We must not be misunderstood as decrying the lasting qualities of steel itself, for there is abundant evidence that iron and steel are exceedingly lasting under certain conditions. Let us illustrate. The "first iron railway bridge" was built in 1823, for the Stock- ton & Darlington Ry., at West Auckland, England, and was not removed until 1903, after 80 years of service. This bridge is illus- trated and described in the "Railroad Gazette," July 8, 1904, p. 125. The bridge was, in fact, an iron trestle with cast iron posts and four iron spans of 12 ft. 8 ins. each. The spans consisted of double members of wrought iron united by cast iron struts. Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 7, 1908. BRIDGES. 1491 As is well known, the life of an iron or street railway bridge is not limited by the durability of the bridge, but by its ability to with- stand the steadily increasing loads imposed upon it. The average age of the 1,000 locomotives in use on the Northern Pacific Railway is 10.4 years. There are in service (or, at least, there were two years ago) several locomotives 34 years old. This road has been in existence so long that its rolling stock may be said to have reached a condition of normal renewals. When a con- dition of normal renewals is reached as to cross ties, the life of the average tie is just twice the age of the existing average tie. If the age of the average tie is found to be 5 years, and a condition of normal renewals of 10 per cent per annum exists. In like manner, rolling stock ultimately approximates a condition of normal re- newals. It does not reach exactly that condition, due to the steady growth of traffic on the railway. But, if we multiply the 10.4 years by 2, we have 20.8 years, which is the approximate average life of locomotives on the Northern Pacific Ry. Due to the in- crease in the number of locomotives each year, the true average life is slightly greater than the 20.8 years thus ascertained. Since there 'has been a complete renewal of locomotives in about 20 years, and since the locomotives have grown progressively heav- ier, it is logical to look for a renewal of steel bridges in about the same length of time, and in fact that is what has occurred. Table I shows the life of 10 bridges. . TABLE I. SHOWING LIFE OF TEN RAILWAY BRIDGES. Item Location of When Life, No. Name of R. R. Bridge. Built. Tears. 1.. C., M. & St. P. Rock River... 1884 19 2 Wabash Sangamon River..... 1885 21 3 C., B. & Q Big Rock Creek 1881 22 4 111. Cent Big Muddy River 1889 13 5 111. Cent ....Tennessee River 1888 17 6 C. & N. W Kinnikinnic River... 1880 19 7 P. M St. Joseph River 1887 17 8 Grand Trunk Niagara 1877 19 9 C., M. & St. P Menominee River 1886 17 10 C. R. R. of N. J.. . . .Newark Bay 1887 17 Average of the above. 18.1 It will be noted that the average life of these 10 steel railway bridges has been 18.1 years. When it is remembered that the life of an uncovered Howe truss wooden bridge is rarely less than 10 years and is frequently 20 years (see committee report of the As- sociation of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings, October, 1899), what becomes of the designation "permanent" as applied to steel in contrast with wooden railway bridges? The consensus of opinion given in the report above cited was to the effect that a Howe truss, properly housed in, would last more than 40 years. A housed in wooden highway bridge, of the Howe truss type, was taken down at Zanesville, Ohio, after 65 years of service. With such statistics before us, we are forced to conclude that m,ost railway bridge engineers have fallen -into serious error in not giving proper consideration _to the temporary character of steel railway bridges as heretofore designed, a 1492 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. While we cannot predict with accuracy what the increase in rail- way bridge loading will be in the future, there is nothing more cer- tain than that an increase will occur. Since the first railway was built, there has been a steady growth in the size of locomotives and cars. When will it cease? No man can tell. Therefore, if we plan for the future upon the teachings of the past 80 years, we must either make due allowance for increased weight of rolling stock when designing steel railway bridges, or we must cease calling them "permanent" and apply to them, as to timber bridges, their proper designation, "temporary." In addition to the important bearing that such statistics as are here given have upon bridge design, there is the further impor- tance of such data in solving problems of railway appraisal. In making his appraisal of railways of Washington for the State Rail- road Commission, Mr. H. P. Gillette had to make an estimate of the "present value" of all structures. Nearly all the steel railway bridges in Washington are comparatively new, and, as the ap- praisal of the railways was made primarily for rate making pur- poses, Mr. Gillette assigned no depreciation to the steel bridges. This gave the railways more than "the benefit of the doubt," for there can be no doubt that there is no real permanency in steel railway bridges as at present designed. For taxation purposes, it is clear that a depreciation of about 5 per cent per annum should be made from the first cost of all steel railway bridges. Even a casual study of bridge books and bridge literature must impress an engineer with the lack of attention that engineers have given to- this all important subject of the life of bridges. The text books treat the problems of bridge design largely as problems in pure mathematics and mechanics, and ignore many equally impor- tant principles of bridge economics. Most of the de- signers of reinforced concrete railway bridges are making the same blunders that have characterized the designers of steel railway bridges, namely, designing for present loadings without provision for the future. Life of Railway Bridges. Mr. J. E. Greiner states that the life of iron or steel railway bridges "has been scarcely 25 years," due to the steady increase in the weight of locomotives. He gives the following table of weights of locomotives in the Baltimore & Ohio Ry., for 60 years: Tear. Weight in tons. 1835 10.7 1851 37.3 1863 45.4 1873 52.6 1881 54.3 1886 56.6 1890 66.5 1894 80.4 1895 95.0 (electric) The increase between 1885 and 1895 has been 75%, or 7^% per annum. . The increase between 1835 and 1895 has been 788% for 60 years, or 13% per annum. BRIDGES. 1493 Amount of Work Done Per Man in a Large Bridge Works. At the Pencoyd works of the American Bridge Co. the following was the amount of work done in the first half of the year 1901 : The number of men employed was 765 (of whom 98 were draftsmen) and the output was 82,600,000 Ibs. in 6 mos., or nearly 13,800,000 Ibs. per mo. The average output per man per month was, there- fore, 18,300 Ibs. The output of each of the different classes of men was as follows per month : Pounds. Draftsmen (98 men) 140,000 Templaters (30 men) 455,000 Bridge shop 21,300 Forge 11,000 Eye-bar shop 35,400 The output per draftsman was found by dividing the total out- put of the works by the number of draftsmen employed ; in like manner the output per templater was calculated ; but the output of each man in the bridge shop, forge and eye-bar shop was calcu- lated only on the basis of the number of pounds handled in each of those departments. Cost of Erecting A., T. & S. F. Ry. Bridges. The average cost per ton of the bridges erected on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., in 1907, all of which were on the main line of this railway, and consequently made it necessary to contend with all trains was as follows : Per ton. Trusses, 984 tons erected $4.63 Girders, 2,784 tons erected .- 5.49 I-beams, 2,837 tons erected 2.88 All the girders and I-beams were erected with steam wrecker and through spans with the derrick car. It will be noticed that the girder work cost more than the trusses, the reason for this being that a good part of the girder work was on second track, where one girder had to be cut apart and moved to the outside and a heavier girder set in its place. The bridge gang traveled over a territory of 5,000 miles and the cost of moving was also charged to the bridges. The riveting was done by hand. Falsework for a Railway Bridge.* The new Havre de Grp.ce bridge for the Pennsylvania R. R. in Maryland of 255 ft. and ane of 192 ft., is a double track deck truss structure about 4,116 ft. long composed of one 280-ft. swing span and 17 fixed spans from 192 ft. to 255 ft. long. The swing span and the 8 fixed spans were fabricated and erected by the American Bridge Co. The swing span was erected up and down stream on the fender, and the fixed spans were erected on pile trestle falsework. The construction of the falsework trestle, the method of its erection, and the total and unit quantities of lumber used are given in this article from data furnished by Mr. H. F. Lofland, General Manager of Erection, American Bridge Co., Philadelphia, Pa. *Abstracted from Engineering-Contracting, June 5, 1907, but omitting the drawings. 1494 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Under the shore span (192 ft.) a falsework of framed benis constructed was employed. In deeper water pile bents were used with the caps directly on the pile tops and every other panel braced. The number of piles in a bent was increased with the increase in the depth of water ; for spans 2, 3, 8 and 9 six pile bents were used, and for spans 4 and 7 eight pile bents, while spans 5 and 6 had double bents of eight piles each. The 8-pile double bents were two bents of 8 piles each, the bents being spaced 4 ft. c. to c. The longitudinal bracing was universally 4x8-in. stuff for diagonals and 6x8 in. stuff for horizontals. The method of construction was to drive the piles for all nine spans complete, then to complete the falseworks for the first five spans and finally to transfer the caps and bracing to spans 6, 7, 8 and 9 from preceding spans as fast as these were erected. The piles ran from 50 to 90 ft. in length and were driven to a pene- tration of 25 ft. in all spans except 5 and 6, where a penetration of only 20 ft. was permitted. The schedule of piles for the several spans was as follows : Spans. , No. piles. Total lin. ft. 2-3 48 2,400 3-4 48 2,550 4-5 64 4,320 5-6 128 9,920 6-7 128 11,200 7-8 64 4,400 8-9 48 2,760 9-10.. 48 2,880 Total ; : 576 40,430 There were, therefore, about 18 lin. ft. of piling used for lineal ^ .% day at $3.40 - . . .- $ 1.70 4 days at $2.50 10.00 4 days at $2.25 9.00 1 day, stationary engineer 3.00 ? 23.70 Erecting Steel Trusses 5 days at $3.40 $17.20 40 days at $2.50 100.00 40 days at $2.25 90.00 5 days, stationary engineer, at $3.00 15.00 1 day, work train 25.00 $ 24720 1500 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Taking Out Pony Bents to Erect Floor System 2% days at $2.50 $ 6.25 2 days at $2.25 4.50 $ 10.75 Putting in Steel Floor System 5 days at $3.40 $ 17 20 30 days at $2.50 7500 26 days at $2.25 58.50 4 days, stationary engineer, at $3 12.00 $ 162.70 Riveting 50 days at $3 $150.00 60 days at $2.50 150.00 32 days at $2.25 71.00 15 days, blacksmith, at $2.50 37.50 $ 408.50 Putting in Machine Fit Bolts 1 day at $3 $ 3.00 4 days at $2.50 10.00 9 days at $2.25 20.25 $ 33.25 Timber Deck Framing Ties 1% days at $3.40 $ 5.10 8 days 'at $2.50 20.00 4 days at $2.25 9.00 $ 34.10 Placing and Fitting Ties 1 day at $3.40 . .$ 3.40 2y 2 days at $2.50 6.25 9 days at $2.25 20.25 $ 29.90 Framing and Fitting Guard Rail 1 day at $3.40 $ 3.40 4 days at $2.50 10.00 4 days at $2.25 9.00 $ 22.40 Boring and Bolting Guard Rail and Ties 7 days at $2.50.. $ 17.50 1 day at $2.25 2.25 $ 19.75 Taking Out Old Deck % day at $3.40 $ 1.70 1 day at $2.50 2.50 1% days at $2.25 3.35$ 7.55' Total labor $1,461.25 This is equivalent to $8.10 per lin. ft. of bridge, or $8.48 per ton. It will be seen that it took 50 days of labor, including foreman, but excluding work train crew, to erect the bridge, thus making the average wage about $2.60 per day of 10 hours. In comparing labor costs per unit of work done, it is always well to state the average wage paid, for, otherwise, serious errors may be made in comparing unit costs given only in dollars and cents. Wages have been rising so rapidly within recent years that the necessity of stating the average wage is more urgent than ever. The wages of the foreman constituted 7 per cent of the total wages paid. BRIDGES. 1501 The cost per ton for erecting this bridge may be summarized as follows: Per ton. Preparing and dismantling plant, $318.50 $1.85 Unloading steel, $89 .52 Painting inaccessible parts, $77.65 45 Erecting trusses and floor system, $420.65. 2.45 Riveting and machine bolting, $441.75 2.55 Timber deck work, $113.70 . .66 Total $8.48 It will be seen that the work on the timber deck cost 63 cents per lin. ft. of bridge. The total cost of this bridge on concrete abutments with pile foundations was as follows: Two concrete abutments, materials and labor $ 4,700 Materials for superstructure 9,500 L,abor erecting superstructure ./- 1,461 Falsework and removal of old bridge 2,800 Engineering and superintendence 370 Total $18,831 This is practically $105 per lineal foot of bridge, including abut- ments. Cost of Two Steel Truss Bridges of 180-ft. Span, and One Plate Lattice Girder Bridge of 100-ft. Span.* In our issue of April 10, we gave the detailed cost of erecting a steel bridge of 180 ft. span. The following data relate to two spans, also of 180 ft. each, on which the labor of erection cost was very much less per ton than the cost given in our issue of April 10. This difference appears to have been due to better management and more efficient workmen on the work about to be described. These two 180-ft. spans were erected by a contractor, and the costs are the actual costs to the contractor, exclusive of contractor's profits. The bridges were single track, through, riveted trusses erected with a traveler. The average force engaged was as follows : 1 General foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00 1 Carpenter foreman at 4.00 4.00 1 Sub-foreman at 3.50 3.50 7 Riveters, etc., at 3.25 22.75 10 Bridgemen at 3.00 30.00 8 Carpenters at .2.75 22.00 3 Laborers at 2.50 7.50 1 Stationary engineman at 3.25 3.25 1 Water boy at 1.50 1.50 3? Total men $3.00 $99.50 It will be noted that the average wage paid was $3 per day of 10 hours, as compared with $2.60 on the bridge described in our issue of April 10. No attempt was made to record the exact cost of each item of the work, but account was kept of the number of * Engineering-Contracting, May 8, 1907. 1502 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. men and the number of days required to perform each item of the work, and the average wage was assumed to b^ $3 per man day. Preparatory Work 50 Man days traveling at $3 $ 150.00 50 Man days erecting traveler and derricks at $3 150.00 12 Man days taking down same 36.00 40 Man days removing old floor at $3 120.00 20 Man days unloading steel and ties \ 60.00 Steel Work 70 Man days putting in new steel floor system at $3 210.00 100 Man days erecting steel trusses at $3 300.00 125 Man days riveting 375.00 Timber Deck 20 Man days framing ties at $3 $ 60.00 30 Man days laying floor at $3 90.00 Pai n ti ng - 46 Man days, first coat 138.00 42 Man days, second coat. 126.00 Total labor $1,815.00 Wear of tools, ropes, etc 100.00 Coal for engine and blacksmith 70.00 Total $1,985.00 The steel in each of the two bridges weighed 170 tons, or 340 tons in both bridges, or 1,800 Ibs. per lin ft. Summarizing the cost of erection, we have : Per ton. Lost time traveling, $150 '. . . . . $0.44 Erecting and taking down plant, $186 0.55 Removing old floor system, $120 0.35 Unloading steel and ties, $60 0.18 Steel work, $885 2.60 Timber deck work, $1.50 0.44 Painting, $264 . . .- 0.78 coS r $7o tools ' n / Y.' '.*.' '/.'/.'.'.'.'. ;:;;:'.';; olo '. Total $5.84 The above does not include the cost of erecting the falsework, but it includes the item of "removing old floor system" or the wood- en bridge which was replaced by the new steel bridge. It will be noted that the labor on the timber deck of the new bridge cost only $150, which is equivalent to 40 cts. per lin. ft. This is about two-thirds the cost of similar work given in our issue of April 10. In fact the whole cost of erection was correspondingly less in this bridge work, in spite of the fact that the daily wages averaged 15 per cent higher. A comparative study of this sort will frequently disclose unsuspected inefficiency of men and foremen. We shall next consider the cost of erecting a steel plate lattice girder of 100 ft. span. This girder was erected by company forces, and it replaced a wooden bridge. The weight of the steel was 82 tons, or 1,640 Ibs. per lin. ft. It was erected by a force of 18 men in 10 days, including 2 days spent in traveling, and the average BRIDGES, 1503 wage paid was $3.18 per day, including the foremen in the aver- age. The foremen's wages amounted to 13 per cent of the total wages paid, which was an unusually high percentage. The rate of wages were as follows: General foreman % 5.00 Sub-foreman 3.50 Drivers of rivets 3.25 Heaters of rivets 3.00 Buckerup of rivets 3.00 Bridgemen 3.00 Carpenters 2.75 Stationary engineman 3.25 Time Traveling 2 days at .$5.00 $10.00 2 days, at 3.50 7.00 12 days at 3.25 39.00 18 days at : . . . 3.00 54.00 4 days at 2.75 11.00 38 days total at $3.18 $121.00 Rigging 1 day at $5.00 $ 5.00 1 day at 3.50 3.50 4 days at 3.50 13.00 6 days at 3.00 18.00 12 days total at . $3.30 $ 39.50 Loading Tools 2 days at $5.00 $ 10.00 2 days at 3.50 7.00 5 days at 3.25 16.25 Jl days at 3 ' 15 - 00 14 days total at $3.45 $ 48.25 Steel Work Erecting Girders 1 day at'... $5.00 $ 5.00 1 day at .-...- 3.50 3.50 4 days at 3.25 13.00 6 days at 3.00 18.00 12 days at $3.30 $ 39.00 Erecting Floor System 1 day at $5.00 $ 5.00 1 day at 3.50 3.50 10 days at 3.25 32 50 12 days at 3.00 36.00 24 days total at $3.21 $ 77.00 Riveting 2 days at $5.00 $ 10 00 2 days at 3.50 7.00 18 days at 3.25 58.50 20 days at 3.00 60.00 42 days total at $3.23 $135.50 Timber Deck 6 days framing ties at $2.75 $ 16 50 12 days laying floor at 2.75 33.00 18 days total at $2.75 $ 49.50 1504 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Painting 10 days at '. ..$3.25 $32.50 10 days at . 3.00 30.00 20 days total at $3.12 $ 62.50 Total labor $572.75 Wear of tools 35.00 Coal 10.25 Total $618.00 Summary Per ton. Traveling . . . $121.00 $1.48 Rigging 39.50 0.48 Loading tools 48.25 0.50 Steel work 252.00 3.08 Timber deck 49.50 0.60 Painting 62.50 0.76 Tools and coal 45.25 0.55 Total : $618.00 $7.54 It will be noted that the cost of work on the timber deck was 49% cts. per lin. ft. The cost of building the false work is not included in the above estimate. Cost of Erecting a Draw Bridge of 236-ft. Span.* This single track railway bridge has a span of 236 ft., and a length of 239 ft. over all. Trusses are 16 ft. c. to c., and the depth of truss is uniform and 25 ft. c. to c. of chord pins. The center panel is 16 ft. and the remaining 10 panels are each 22 ft. The bridge is designed to be turned by hand only, and has a drum 22 V 2 ft. x 4% ft. The bridge was designed for a live load of 3,300 Ibs. per lin. ft. The total weight of the metal is 433,300 Ibs., distributed as follows : Lbs. Trusses 205,60 Lateral bracing 20,000 Floor system 107,000 Turntable Drum (22% ft. diam.) 21,400 Wheels (46) 16,200 Track ' 11,100 Rack 4,900 Tread pis 5,200 Gearing and journal boxes 25,400 End lift 10,200 End supports 6,300 Total 433,300 * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 21, 1907. BRIDGES. 1505 The itemized cost (to the contractor) of erection was as follows: General Expense: 7.5 days, foreman at $5.00 $ 37.50 44 days, bridgemen, at $3.00 132.00 34 days, laborers, at $2.00 68.00 10 days, watchman, at $2.00 20.00 3 days, blacksmith, at $3.00 9.00 98.5 Total labor, at $2.67 $266.50 3,000 ft. B. M. in traveler, at $25 75.00 Total : .. $341.50 Thus $341 includes the cost of erecting a derrick to unload the Steel from cars, the labor of making and erecting traveler. Erection of Steel Work: 19 days, foreman, at $5.00 $ 95.00 110 days, bridgemen, at $3.00 80 days, riveters, at $3.00 73 days, heaters and buckers, at $2.00 84 days, laborers, at $2.00 168.00 366 Total labor, at $2.65 $ 969.00 30 days' rent of hoisting engine, at $3.00 . 90.00 10 tons coal, at $3.00 30.00 Total $1,089.00 The engineman received the same wages as the bridgemen and was classed with them. 3 days, foreman, at $5.00". . . .... $ 15.00 9 days, bridgemen, at $3.00 . 27.00 80 days, painters, at $2.50 200.00 92 days total labor $242.00 Total materials and labor. $337.00 _. , _ . .., ... ,. _ _, . Timber Deck (17,000 ft. B. M.): 3 days, foreman, at $5.00 $15.00 26 days, carpenters, at $2.75 71.50 3 days, laborers, at $2.00 6.00 32 days total labor, at $2.90 $92.50 It will be noted that the labor of framing and placing the timber deck (i. e., the ties, guard rails, etc.), cost $5.50 per M., or 38 cts. per lin. ft. of bridge. Since the bridge weighed 433,000 Ibs., or 216.5 tons, the cost per ton for erection may be summarized as follows: General Expense: Per ton. Labor $ 266.50 $1.23 Material for traveler . 75.00 0.35 Erecting Steel: Labor $ 969.00 $4.49 Rent of engine 90.00 0.42 Coal for engine 30.00 0.14 1506 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Painting: Materials $ 95.00 $0.44 Labor 242.00 1.11 Timber deck 92.50 0.42 Total $1,860.00 $8.60 This work was done by a contractor who received $12 per ..^n for erecting the bridge. Practically no falsework was neces&^ry, since the bridge was erected upon the "draw protection," which served as a falsework. The bridge metal cost 4 cts. per Ib. f. o. b. cars, ready for erection, and, since the contract price was 0.6 cts. for erection, the total was 4.6 cts. per Ib. in place, or $19,931 for the total super- structure, exclusive of the timber deck. This is equivalent to nearly $85 per lin. ft. There were nearly 70 ft. B. M. per lin, ft. of timber deck (ties and guard rail), which cost $20 per M., or $1.40 per lin. ft. of bridge. Cost of Erecting Pratt Truss Bridges. A Pratt truss steel rail- way bridge, 130 ft. long, 14 ft. wide and 20 ft. high, was built to re- place two Howe pony truss bridges, each 65 ft. long. The cost of this work was as follows: Falsework, materials and labor $174.00 Removing falsework 100.00 Taking down two Howe truss bridges 145.00 Wages of common laborers were $1.50, and of bridgemen $2.50 a day. It took a gang of 20 men 45 hrs. to erect a 200-ft. span Pratt truss highway bridge, of the combination type (wooden upper chord and posts and steel lower chord and diagonals), after the pile false- work was in place. The roadway was 16 ft. wide. A hoisting en- gine was used, and the posts were up-ended in pairs just as trestle bents are raised. A mast was used in raising the upper chord pieces. There was no oupper falsework, nor was a traveler used. Cost of Three-Plate Girder Bridges of Ten Spans.* The data in this article relate to three plate girder (deck) bridges, on concrete abutments and piers, having pile foundations, built to replace exist- ing timber bridges. The first bridge consisted of three spans, one 30-ft. and two 75-ft. girder spans, having a total weight of 110 tons. The work was done by company forces, the details of cost being as follows : Moving rigging from the last bridge y 2 day, foreman, at $3.40 $ 1.70 2V 2 days, carpenters, at $2.50 6.25 2 days, laborers, at $2.25 4.50 1 day, stationary engineer, at $3 3.00 $15.45 Erecting portals for lowering the two 16-ft. girder spans 1 % days at $3.40 $ 5.10 6 days at $2.50 15.00 3 days at $2.25 6.75 $26.85 * Engineering-Contracting, April 17, 1907. BRIDGES. 1507 Erecting portals for lowering the 30-ft. span 1 hour at 34 cents % .34 3 hours at 25 cents .75 4 hours at $2.25 .90 1 hour, sta. engr., at 30 cents 30 $ 2.29 Rigging portals with blocks and tackle % day at $3.40 $ 1.70 2y 2 days at $2.50 6.25 2 y 2 days at $2.25 5.62 Va day, sta. engr., at $3 1.50 $15.07 Placing two stationary engines for erecting girders 3 hours at 34 cents $ 1.02 1% days at $2.50 3.75 3.38 1.50 $ 9.65 Picking up rigging after erecting 2 hours at 34 cents '.-..- . . $ .68 1 day at $2.50 2.50 1 day at $2.25 2.25 2 hours, sta. engr., at 30 cents 60. $ 3.03 STEBL WORK. Putting down bearing shoes 1 day at $ 5.43 Placing and lowering the two 75-ft. spans 1 day at $3.40 $ 3.40 5V 2 days at $2.50 13.75 5y 2 days at $2.25 12.37 1 day, engr., at $3 3.00 2 days, work train, at $25 50.00 $82.52 Taking out pony bents to erect floor system 1 day at $3.40 . . $ 3.40 6 days at $2.50 15.00 5 days at $2.25 11.25 1 day, engr., at $3 3.00 $32.65 Painting inaccessible parts with two coats 19 days at $2.25 .$42.75 Putting in steel floor system 2.2 days at $3.40 $ 7.48 11 days at $2.50 27.50 13 days at $2.25 29.25 3 days, engr., at $3 9.00 50 - $123.23 1508 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Riveting 38 days, riveters, at $3 $114.00 60 days, at $2.50 t 150.00 4 days, blacksmith, at $2.50 10.00 $274.00 Putting in machine fit bolts 7 days at $2.25 $15.75 Placing and lowering SO-ft. span- 0.3 day at $3.40 . . $ 1.02 11/2 day at $2.50 3.75 iy 2 day at $2.25 .- 3.38 0.3 day, engr., at $3 90 y 2 day, train, at $25 12.50 $21.55 TIMBER DECK. Framing ties 8 days at $2.50 $20.00 Placing and fitting ties 1% days at $3.40 $ 5.10 8 days at $2.50 20.00 6 days at $2.25 13.60 $38.60 Framing and fitting guard rail y 2 day, foreman, at $3.40 $ 1.70 3 days at $2.50 7.50 2 y 2 days at $2.25 5.63 $14.83 Boring and bolting guard rails and ties y 2 day, foreman, at $3.40 $ 1.70 4% days at $2.50 11.25 3% days at $2.25 .. 7.87 $20.82 Tearing up old deck and lowering track on new bridge 1 day at $3.40 $ 3.40 5 days at $2.50 12.50 2 days at $2.25 4.50 $20.40 Total labor $787.87 This is equivalent to $7.15 per ton, or $4.35 per lin. ft. of span. The cost per ton may be summarized as follows : Per ton. General labor preparatory to erection, $75.34 $ 68 Painting inaccessible parts, $42.75 39 Placing girders, $265.38 2.41 Riveting and mach. bolts, $289.75 . . 2.63 Timber deck work, $114.65 1.04 Total $7.15 The timber deck work cost 64 cts. per lin. ft. of span. It will be noted that there were 4% days of work train service costing $112.50, or $1.02 per ton. Deducting this, we have $675 left, to be divided by 247 days' labor, which gives $2.73 as the average wage paid. Therf BRIDGES. 1509 were 13 days of foreman's time, which amounted to $44, or less than 7% of the 675. The total cost of this bridge was : Four concrete abutments and piers $ 7,950 Materials in superstructure 5,600 Labor erecting superstructure 788 False work 770 Engineering and inspection. . ." 500 Total $15.608 This is practically $85 per lin. ft. of bridge, including abutments and piers. -The falsework cost about $4 per lin. ft. of bridge, or practically as much as the labor of erecting the spans. It will be seen that the substructure cost more than the super- structure. The second bridge was three 60-ft. plate girder spans, having total weight of 69 tons, on concrete abutments and piers. The cost of erecting by company forces was as follows : Erecting false "bents for lowering girders - 1 day, foreman, at $3.40 $ 3.40 4 days, carpenters, at $2.50 10.00 10 days, laborers, at $2.25* 22.50 $35.90 Tearing up old bridge deck and pony bents 0.8 day at $3.40 $ 2.72 5.6 days at $2.50 . 14.00 5.6 days at $2.25 12.60 $29.32 Placing and lowering girders from flat cars to piers 1.2 days at $3.40 $4.08 8.4 days at $2.50 21.00 8.4 days at $2.25 18.90 $43.98 Framing ties 1.5 days at $3.40 $ 5.10 14 days at $2.50 . 35.00 $40.10 Putting ties in place and relaying track 0.3 day at ?3.40 $ 1.02 2.1 days at $2.50 , 5.25 2.1 days at $2.25 4.73 $11.00 Framing and placing guard rail 1.5 days at $3.40 $ 5.10 8 days at $2.50 20.00 6 days at $2.25 1350 $38.60 Tearing down false bents 0.1 day at $3.40 $ .34 0.7 day at $2.50 k 1.75 0.7 day at $2.25 . . 1-57 $3.66 1510 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. "Work train on erection 3 days at $25 '.. $75.00 Total labor $277.56 This Is equivalent to $4.02 per ton, which may be summarized as follows : Per ton. Erecting and tearing down false bents, $39.56 $ .57 Tearing up old bridge deck and pony bents, $29.32. . . .42 Placing girders, $43.98 .64 Timber deck work, $89.70 1.30 Work train service* $75 . 1.09 Total $4.02 The labor cost of $277.56 is equivalent to $1.54 per lin. ft. of span. Tearing up old bridge deck and pony bents cost 16 cts. per lin. ft. The cost of the timber deck work was 50 cts. per lin. ft Exclusive of the train service, the total labor cost of erection was $202, which, divided by the 82 days, is $2.46 per day. The fore- man worked 6% days, receiving $22, which is 11% of the labor cost, exclusive of train service, or 8%, including train service. As noted above, it took 1 foreman and 14 men 12 hours to place and lower the three girder spans, The first span took 5 hours ; the second span, 4 hours ; and the third span, 3 hours. After erecting the new bridge, at the cost above given, it took the gang about a day additional to tear down the old wooden bridge, at a cost of $44. The total cost of this three-span girder bridge was : Four abutments and piers. $ 5,400 Materials in superstructure 3,600 Labor erecting superstructure 278 False work 650 Engineering and inspection 340 Total .$10,268 This is $55 per lin. ft. of bridge. The falsework cost $3.50 per lin. ft. The third bridge consisted of two 75-ft. girder spans and two 70-ft. girder spans (through bridge) on concrete abutments having pile foundations. The rates of wages paid were the same as on the first bridge, given above, and the cost per ton and per lin. ft. of bridge were about the same. The summary of the cost is as fol- lows, the total weight of the four- span bridge being 197 tons: Per ton. Removing old deck and placing girders, $295.50 $1.50 Putting in floor system, $309.30 1.57 Riveting, $482.80 2.40 Painting inaccessible parts, $13.80 07 Timber deck work, $112.30 -. 57 Train service, $275.80 1.40 Total $7.51 The timber deck work cost 40 cts. per lin. ft. of bridge. The total labor cost of erection was $1,480, or $5 per lin. ft. of bridge. BRIDGES. 151! The total cost of the bridge was as follows : Five piers and abutments $ 9,10t Materials in superstructure 10,700 Labor erecting superstructure 1,480 False work 1,320 Removing old bridge 520 Bunk house 60 Engineering and inspection 500 This is nearly $80 per lin. ft. of bridge, per lin. ft.- $23,680 The falsework cost $4.40 '- ^ j 4x6^ ^ * ^ ^ *' i Nh J |j > Y Lz-'/Xff 4x6--.. { 14 *X M s J *** I '^'r* ^ J r < A $ 3 ' .y Sectional Plan. '/ * * \ ' \ \ ; Transverse Section. Fig. 2. Cofferdam. ft. of the surface, and of 1,000 ft. of pile trestle at the south end where the rock shelves off to a maximum depth of 60 ft., was de- cided upon as the most economical structure to fulfill the necessary requirements. The grade line was established to admit of replac- ing the pile trestle portion of the structure with 70 and 85 ft. deck plate girders at a later period. A concrete abutment and concrete piers were designed to carry the 50-ft. plate girders. Figure 1 shows the dimensions and details of the piers. Methods of Construction. The work was begun in the late fall, when an extreme rise in the river was unlikely to occur, and the very low cost of the structure was partially due to the fact that the work was little interfered with by high water. Telephone com- munication was established with Teloga, a point about 40 miles up the river, and a watchman stationed at that point observed and re- ported the stage of water at frequent intervals. BRIDGES. 1513 The concrete in the piers was of the following proportions : Tola Sunflower Portland cement, one part ; Arkansas River sand, fur- nished by Messrs. Luttgerding Bros., of Wichita, Kan., three parts ; crushed limestone, passing a 2-in. ring, furnished by the Frazier Stone Co., of El Dorado, Kan., five parts. The concrete in the bridge seats was of the proportions, 1-2-4. The bases of the piers and abutment were put down in open coffer dams, Fig. 2. The sheet piling, Fig. 3, for the first pier was driven with a light hammer, but this was found to be both slow and inefficient. The lower strata of sand proved to be more compact than had been anticipated, and, by this method, considerable diffi- culty was experienced in driving the sheet piles accurately and in preventing leaky joints. The balance of the sheet piling was driv QT i with a 2-in. jet drawn to a 1-in. nozzle, and this method proved entirely satisfactory. The water was supplied by a 7 x 5 x 10-in. Gardner Duplex pump. The pile with the jet placed in the groove Fig. 3. Sheet Pile. sank rapidly and accurately with the weight of- two men clinging to a hanger slung over the top of the pile. When the pile had reached the bottom, it was struck several blows with a 12-lb. sledge to broom the point on the rock. The piles were driven between 6 x 8-in. walings, firmly secured with wrought iron clamps, to prevent irregularities in the driving. Built up angles were made for the returns at the corners and jetted to rock in the ordinary manner. The actual time required to drive a coffer dam seldom exceeded ten hours. It was originally the intention to build a form inside the coffer dam and to gather the water from leakages in a sump at one cornet to be pumped out by a pulsometer, and to withdraw the sheet piling after the completion of the base. So little difficulty was experienced in preventing leakages that this plan was abandoned and the con- crete was deposited against the sheet piling, which no attempt was made to recover. It was estimated that the loss of the sheet piling was more than offset by the time and expense necessary to have built an inside form. The sand was pumped from the coffer dam by means of a No. 4 Morris centrifugal sand pump, having a 6-inch flexible suction 1514 HANDBOOK Or COST DATA. pipe and protected foot valve. The power to drive this pump was furnished by a traction engine, because of the ease with which it was supported on the river bottom at the pier sites. A sufficient amount of water was allowed to flow into the coffer dam through a small weir to keep the sand of the right consistency to be handled by the pump. As the excavation proceeded, the necessary shoring was placed in position. When the sand had been completely re- moved, the bottom of the sheet piling was grouted with cement mor- tar and the coffer dam kept dry by means of the pulsometer pump, while leaks were being stopped and other necessary work done, pre- vious to depositing concrete. Except in cases where bad leaks or accidents occurred, the time required to remove the sand from a coffer dam averaged about eight hours. It was interesting to note Elevation, Both Sides. Bill of Material-One Pier. 6 PCS.. 4"x6" 14'; 3 PCS., 4"x6" 10'; ^^22222 cs., 2"xl2" 12': $0 PCS., 2"x8" 12'; 40 I * ^'4'. es v 2*x4" 12'; 30 bolts. %"xll"; 60 O. G. J(7...-.*%J& ashers for % bolts; 25 Ibs. JOd wire nails. Neu*d F PCS., PCS., . , washers Nosed Ends. Fig. 4. Forms for Pier. Frame 6' below Top. the good state of preservation of tree trunks and limbs removed from the coffer dams. Leaves and twigs found in the compact sand near the rock were quite fresh and green. The concrete was mixed with a No. 1 Smith mixer, having a batch capacity of about 9 cu. ft. The capacity of the machine was found to be ample to fill a coffer dam before the next ahead was com- pleted. The mixer was placed in position on the slope of the em- bankment approach, with the main line track at its rear and facing a temporary material track. This temporary track turned out from the main line about 500 ft. beyond the mixer and extended diagonally down the embankment approach on a 3% grade and across the river bottom alongsside the pier sites. The portion of the track in the river bottom was supported on bents of spliced ties, jetted* to the rock, and wired to the coffer dam to avoid the danger of loss in case of high water. The sand and crushed rock were delivered by cars from the main line track, immediately above the mixer, and the cement was stored in a shanty at one side of the mixer. The concrete materials and machinery were, in this man- BRIDGES. 1515 ner, very conveniently located for rapid work and well above the high water line. The concrete was transported to the pier sites in improvised dump boxes, set on push cars. These dump boxes were hinged longitudinally and discharged directly into the coffer dams. The grade of the temporary track carried the push cars by gravity to the coffer dams and they were returned by teams, for which purpose a straw and brush road had been built paralleling the track. As the work progressed farther into the stream, more cars were added properly to balance the work. While the concrete in the base was still fresh, a number of steel reinforcing bars, 8 ft. in length, were set in place along each end to insure a good bond between the base and shaft. P/an of Frame of Bottom. No. 8. Ga/vanized Wire Fig. 5. In general, the work of putting in the bases was organized so that about the same time was required in filling a coffer dam with con- crete, in excavating the sand from the next, and in driving the sheet piling for the third. These three operations were thus carried on simultaneously and, although interruptions in one part of the work or the other occurred frequently, the gangs were interchangeable and no appreciable loss was suffered, except in time, because of such delays. In piers 19 and 20, where the rock was from 17 to 19 ft. below the surface, some difficulty was encountered due to the presence of fissures in the rock, from which it was necessary to remove the sand to fill with concrete. In such cases, the larger leaks were stopped as much as possible by driving sheet piles against the outside face of the coffer dam and into the fissures, and the smaller leaks by manure in canvass bags rammed into the openings. Upon the completion of all bases, the frames (Figs. 4 and 5) for several shafts were set in position and the work of filling with concrete proceeded as in the case of the bases, except that a derrick 1516 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. erected on a flat car and stationed at the pier was utilized to raise the dump boxes in depositing the concrete in the forms. As soon as the^concrete in one shaft had set sufficiently to permit of it, the forms were removed and placed on the pier ahead. Four sets of forms were used for the shafts. The girders, which were furnished by the American Bridge Co., were set in place with a derrick car of 20 tons' capacity. Cost of Construction, The following are the average prices paid for materials and labor: Material: Lumber for forms, etc., $16.50 per M. ft., B. M. Cement, Kansas Portland, $1.50 per bbl. Broken limestone, 45c per cu. yd., Kan. Sand, Arkansas River, 15c per ton. Labor: General foreman, $110 per month. Assistant foreman, $75 per month. Timekeeper, $60 per month. Riveters, 35c per hour. Blacksmith, 30c per hour. Blacksmith assistant, 20c per hour. Carpenters, 22 %c and 25c per hour. Enginemen, 25c per hour. Firemen, 20c per hour. Night watchman, 20c per hour. Laborers, 17y 2 c and 20c per hour. Team (including driver), 40c per hour. Note : The prices quoted for lumber, cement, limestone and sand are prices f. o. b., Louisiana, lola, Kan., El Dorado, Kan., and Wichita; Kan. The total and unit cost of constructing the concrete piers and abutments and of erecting the steel superstructure are given in the following tabulation. Altogether there was about 2,300 cu. yds. of concrete in the substructure, most of which, as stated above, was a 1-3-5 mixture. Machinery and Supplies Concrete mixer, 20% of cost $ 152.10 Supplies, freight, hauling, setting up 505.04 Total $ 657.14 Centrifugal sand pump, 20% of cost $ 27.00 Supplies, freight, hauling, setting up 277.50 Rent of traction engine to operate 83.25 Total $ 387.75 Water pump and pipe, 20% of cost $ 29.00 Supplies, freight, hauling, setting up 177.32 Total $ 206.32 Pile driver engine, 20% of cost $ 100.00 Supplies, freight, hauling, setting up 243.65 Total . $ 343.65 Grand total $1,594.86 BRIDGES. 1517 Coffer Dams Materials, lumber and nails $1,285.26 Freight and train haul 306.33 Labor making piles 696.82 Labor driving piles 1,384.05 Total $3,672.46 The sheet piling took 63,500 ft. B. M. of lumber; the cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. for the sheet piling was then: Materials, lumber and nails $ 20.08 Freight and haulage 4.82 Labor making piles 10.97 Labor driving piles 21.80 Total ? 57.67 Forms, Platforms and Runways Lumber, hardware, etc $ 224.59 Freight and train haul 40.20 Labor making, removing and placing 556.51 Total I 821.30 Concrete Materials Cement, freight, unloading and storing $4,617.48 Sand, freight, unloading, etc 1,336.05 Broken stone, freight, unloading, etc 2,026.92 Total $7,980.45 This gives us for 2,300 cu. yds. of concrete a cost of $3.47 per cu. yd. for materials, including freight, storage, and unloading charges of all kinds. A line on the proportion of the cost contributed by these latter items may be got by taking the prices of the materials f. o. b. at the places of production and assuming the proportions for a 1-3-5 concrete. According to tables in Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data," a 1-3-5 broken stone concrete requires per cubic yard 1.13 bbls. cement, 0.48 cu. yd. sand and 0.80 cu. yd. broken stone. We have then : 1.13 bbls. cement, at $1.50 $1.69 0.48 cu. yd. sand, at 20c 10 0.80 cu. yd. stone at 45c 36 Total $2.15 This leaves a charge of $1.32 per cubic yard of concrete for freight and handling materials. The cost of mixing concrete and placing it in the forms was $3,490.87, or $1.52 per cu. yd. We have then: Cost of concrete materials per cu. yd $3.47 Cost mixing and placing concrete 1.52 Total $4.99 The miscellaneous expenses of the work comprised : Watchman, tools, telephone, etc $ 722.48 Shanties, furnishings, supplies, etc 829.04 Total . ..$1,551.52 1518 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. To this has to be added $ 1,1 3 4. 2 8, the cost of excavating the coffer dams. The total and unit costs of the different items of the con- crete substructure work can now be summarized as follows : Item. Total. Per cu. yd. Machinery and supplies $ 1,594.86 $ .69 Coffer dams 3,672.49 1.60 Forms, etc 821.30 .36 Concrete materials 7,980.45 3.47 Mixing and placing concrete 3,490.87 1.53 Excavating coffer dams 1,134.28 .49 Miscellaneous 1,551.52 .67 Totals $20,245.74 $8.80 The weight of steel in the plate girders was 694,479 Ibs. The total and unit costs were as follows : Item. Total. Per Ib. Steel girders $19,128.42 2.730 cts. Freight on girders 1,365.60 0.215 Unloading and stacking 140.35 0.015 Total $20,634.37 2.96 cts. Erecting girders $ 1,363.48 0.211 cts. Derrick car, 20% of cost , 127.10 0.009 Total $1,490.58 0.22 cts. Grand total 3.18 cts. The cost of the deck, material, freight, labor^ and painting was $2,388.42, making the total cost of the superstructure $24,513.37. Adding to this the cost of the substructure, as given above, we have $44,759.11 as the total cost of the bridge. The cost per lineal foot, then, was: For superstructure $24.51 For substructure 20.24 Total $44.75 Cost of Erecting Riveted Deck Girder Bridge. A riveted deck girder bridge, 710 ft. long and 56 ft. high, consisting of seven 80- ft., one 60-ft. and three 30-ft. sections, was erected as described below. The bridge was to replace 525 ft. of timber trestle and two 105-ft. overhead Howe truss spans on a railway line over which 22 trains were moved between 7 a. m. and 6 p. m. Two travelers with tackle were used in the work. While the excavation was be- ing done the falsework was put in, by trestling the two spans and cutting out a section 1 ft. long of the posts of the trestle part, and introducing an intermediate cap, a distance of 12 ft. below the rail to form lookouts for track for travelers. In this way the cost of the false- work was reduced and everything could be placed from the top, using one traveler for placing the pedestal stones the entire length, and for placing the posts on the return trip. After the posts had been placed the other traveler was erected in order to carry both ends of the girders. Owing to circumstances, the materials were unloaded 2,000 ft. from the bridge and were brought to it on push cars ; that is, all except the girders, which were loaded on trucks BRIDGES. 1519 and moved with a locomotive. The girders were riveted together on the skids, the ties, tie plates, guard rail and rail placed upon them, and then loaded on trucks ready to be sent out. Jacks were placed under each end of the girders when they had been spotted over their place and they were raised clear of the trucks. The tackle was then attached, a strain taken, the trucks run out, and the jacks released, and they were swung clear. Owing to the height, the stringer-ties and guard rail had to be taken on deck. The bents were let down on the intermediate caps and the girders lowered into place by the means of the lines. It was possible to swing the girders either way, so that when they were within 6 ins. of their seat a small bar, pointed at each end, could be inserted to guide them into place. The first 80-ft. girder was placed in 2 hours and 22 minutes, and the second was placed in 1 hour and 38 minutes, while another girder was placed in 58 minutes. The fol- lowing costs, incomplete though they are, may be of some value. The work was done some years ago when wages were lower than they now are. Cost of placing the 11 girders, together with the riveting, unloading steel, loading on trucks, engine attendance, etc., was $1,255.49, or $1.7683 per lin. ft. ; cost of placing four rocker and three tower bents was $570.04, or $0.8003 per lin. ft. ; total cost of superstructure, including falsework and traveler, was $2,248.85, or $3.1674 per lin. ft. The cost of riveting was as fol- lows : Rivets. Per rivet. Riveting girder 8,026 $0.0502 Riveting bents 480 0.1066 Riveting girders to post 264 0.1458 Cost of an Iron Bridge, Including the Cost of Masonry Abut- ments.* In this article we give the cost of erecting a 130-ft. span, supported by stone abutments *and pier, at New Buffalo, Mich., for the Chicago & West Michigan Ry., the work being done in 1894. The statement of the cost of the bridge to the railway company was as follows : False work material (estimated) $ 75.00 Ties, etc 134.86 Iron span 5,568.00 1,050 cu. yds. excavation at $0.25 262.50 425.4 cu. yds. stone (Grafton) at $6.86 2,917.39 445 cu. yds. stone cut and laid at $6.50 2,892.50 Filling behind abutment, laborers , . 35.25 Filling behind abutments, engine work 5.10 Filling behind abutment, 10% above labor 4.04 Labor taking down old truss and erecting false work 170.75 Labor framing and placing ties and tie guard. . . 67.39 Labor taking down false work 27.00 Total cost $12,159.78 The actual cost of the stone masonry per cubic yard was $13.05 ; of this sum $6.50 was for cutting and setting and $6.55 for the stone. The above cost of the stone is the cost .to the railway * Engineering-Contracting, February, 1906. 1520 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. company at La Porte. Delivered at New Buffalo the stone would cost $8.10 per cubic yard, making the actual cost of the masonry $14.60 per cubic yard. The stone measured 425.4 cu. yds. in the block and made 444 cu. yds. in the wall, thus overrunning 19.6 cu. yds. A total of 51 cars of stone was used, the average weight per car being 34,500 Ibs. ; the average number of cubic feet per car was 226 ; and the average weight per cubic foot was 144 Ibs. These figures were based on the shipping weights of the cars. The stone was scabbled only, which accounts for the high weight per car. The total cost of erecting the bridge was $265.14, this including the labor for taking down the old truss, erecting false work, fram- ing and placing ties and tie guard, and the labor for taking down the false work. The cost of erecting the 130 ft. span was there- fore a trifle over $2 per foot. It will be noticed that the weight of the iron span is not given in the above statement of the cost of the work, nor is the num- ber of men, the rate of wages or the time employed. The state- ment would have been much more complete had these details been obtainable. Cost of a Plate Girder Bridfle With Concrete Piers in Mexico.* The following is rearranged from data originally published in the "Railway Age-Gazette" : The bridge consists of 17 spans of 50 ft. deck plate girders carried on concrete piers and reinforced con- crete piers and reinforced concrete abutments. The substructure is founded on solid rock ranging in depth below low water from zero on the west shore to 19 ft. on the east shore. The west abut- ment and succeeding 13 piers were carried to rock; the three remaining piers and the east abutment were set on piles driven to rock and cut off at low water level. The piers consist of bases 14 ft. 9 ins. x 7 ft. 9 ins. in dimensions and varying in height with the depth of foundation, and shafts 13 ft. 9 ins. x 6 ft. 9 ins. at the base; 12 ft. x 6 ft. at the top over coping and 28 ft high. Each shaft contains about 84.8 cu. yds. of concrete. The spans between pier centers are 50 ft. 3 ins. The abutments are of reinforced con- crete. Two methods of construction were employed. The first method was used for the west abutment and the succeeding six piers. Ope- rations were conducted from the river bed. The west abutment was above water level and was straightforward construction. For this six succeeding piers U. S. Steel Sheet Pile cofferdams Were built and excavated ; the base forms were set inside and concret- ed, and then the shaft forms were erected and concreted. A 60 x 120x4 ft. 'barge in the river carried a hoisting engine and stiff leg derrick. This derrick handled the forms and also a clam shell for excavating the cofferdams. A pile driver supported on heavy horses drove the sheeting. The concrete was mixed on the river bed by a % cu. yd. Chicago Improved Cube mixer and taken to the work in dump buckets in push cars running on a track . *Engineer\ng-Contracting, Feb. 3. 1909. BRIDGES. 1521 which was extended from pier to pier. At the piers the buckets were raised and dumped by means of a mast and crosshead. When the pier was completed the girders were set by means of a 15 -ton derrick car. Work was conducted in the man- ner described from April 20, 1907, to May 1, 1908. This slow progress was due largely to the fact that the organization was such that one part of the work had to await the completion of another, no two op- erations being carried on at the same time. Furthermore the driv- ing and pulling of the steel sheet- ing was a tedious process. It took from a week to ten days to drive the sheeting for one cofferdam, and in penetrating the cemented gravel the piles were often so battered and bent that it took as long or longer to pull as to drive them. The ex- cavation of the cofferdam occupied about two days. It was to remedy this slow progress that the second method of construction was devised by Mr. W. W. Colpitts, Assistant Chief Engineer, who assumed per* sonal charge of the work. A second track was laid parallel to the main track as shown by Fig. 6. To support this second track 20-ft. guard rail timbers were in- serted between each pair of main track ties and secured with hook bolts to the girder flanges. On the overhanging ends of these timbers two lines of 3 x 12-in. planks, on 5-ft. centers, were laid to carry the second track rails. The concrete mixed was removed from the river bed and placed on the west bank as shown by Fig. 6 ; the second track led directly to and from the mixer. A siding was also laid to the mixer for the sand and gravel cars, which were loaded at a nearby cut- ting. Water was pumped to the mixer from the river as shown by Fig. 6. 1522 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The second track was extended from pier to pier as fast as the main track was completed, so that the derrick car could be run out on the second track to a position alongside the last completed pier. The derrick car boom was lengthened about 25 ft. by splic- ing and trussed with wire cables to sustain a load of 4 tons at its outer end. From the boom a 66-ft. extension of the second track was suspended by cables at the boom and at mid-length ; the inner end of the extension track was supported by a bent on the pier. The arrangement of the extension track is made above by Fig. 6 ; as will be seen the concrete could come from the mixer by car to directly over the pier. When a pier had been concreted the extension track was set one side and detached and the derrick was available for erecting the plate girders. Fig. 7. Concrete Bucket. For depositing concrete below water, a bucket was deviled to operate with a single line| as illustrated in Fig. 7. It was built of a 3-ft. section of 36 in. corrugated iron culvert pipe, having a capacity of % cu. yd. In the bottom, which was of wood, was a clap valve 8 ins. square opening upward A 1-in iron trunnion set 6 ins. off center was secured to the bottom. A bale with chain hooks at its extremities was attached to the pile line of the der- rick car which was led through a block at the end of the boom directly over the center of the pier. To the top of the bale was pivoted a counter-weighted trip engaging a lip on the side of the BRIDGES. 1523 bucket. The bucket was carried on a push car and the mixer dis- charged directly into it. It was then run out to the end of the ex- tension, the hooks of the bale slipped over the trunnions, the trip caught on the lip, the bucket raised, and the car pushed from un- der it. The bucket was then lowered and upon its weight being taken on the bottom the trip automatically released. As the bucket was slowly raised from the bottom and upset, the valve in the bot- tom opened and the concrete poured out without disturbance ; its construction being such that it discharged toward the lowest point. Three buckets were used, one being dumped while two others were on their way to and from the mixer ; the loaded car using the second track, the empty car returning on the main track. The concrete for the shafts was carried in dump boxes on push cars, Fig. 8. The forms were securely wired to prevent distor- tion from the falling concrete and baffle boards were used to dis- tribute the concrete uniformly. It was found that detachable cast steel teeth on the lips of the clam shell greatly increased the daily capacity of the dredge and Fig. 8. Concrete Car. this fact suggested the advisability of doing away entirely with the steel sheet piling which had proven both expensive and slow. The greatest depth to rock was 19 ft. below the low water surface and was practically level over the area of a pier. It was de'cided to sink open wooden cofferdams, first dredging as deep as practic- able in the open water at the pier site, the limit of which proved to be about 12 ft. In the meantime, the timber for the cofferdams was being framed on the bank. They were built as follows : The three bottom courses were composed of condemned bridge string- ers, the lower one having a 45 cutting edge, unshod. Above the stringers the sides were composed of 3xl2-in. plank, spiked to cor- ner posts and studs. During construction the cofferdam was supported on a raft also composed of condemned bridge stringers. The raft was built with an open bay, about 1 ft. larger on all sides than the cofferdam. 1524 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, Across the center of the opening was stretched a heavy telegraph wire supporting the ends of four planks, the other ends resting on the raft. The lower courses of timbers of the cofferdam were then set in position on these planks and drift-bolted together. The position of the cofferdam on the planks was such that only a small percentage of its weight came upon the wire. The two other courses of stringers were then laid and bolted to these, after which the 3-in. planks comprising the balance of the sides of cofferdam were spiked to the corner posts and studs. When completed, the wire was cut and the cofferdam launched into the water below, which, as stated above, had previously been dredged to a depth of about 12 ft. It was then guyed to its exact position and held level by lines from the boom of the barge derrick. Four posts or legs, with the lower ends resting on the bottom of the excavation, were spiked to the outside corners and all the guys removed, al- lowing the cofferdam to rest entirely upon these legs. To make provision for weighing the cofferdam while being sunk, stringers were placed across its ends and on the portions projecting beyond the sides, a floor of other stringers was laid and boxed up to a height sufficient to carry a load of about 75 tons of gravel each. The dredging operations were then begun and the material taken from the interior of the cofferdam placed in the boxes until they were filled. When the dredging had continued to a point where the bearing was uniform on the cutting edge of the bottom, the legs detached themselves from the sides and floated to the sur- face. By carefully sounding the bottom and loading the boxes uni- formly as the dredging proceeded, the cofferdam sank uniformly to the rock. The load was not removed from the boxes until the concrete had been placed, when by cutting the wires supporting the sides the gravel dropped into the water. The cofferdam was pre- vented from bulging when the concrete was being deposited, by means of a wire cable strung around the top and wedged taut at each of the studs. The derrick car was not removed from its position supporting the extension track until the concrete in both the base and shaft had been placed. The pile line of the derrick car was, therefore, available in removing the form on the shaft of the pier behind "and erecting it on the recently completed base. The operation of filling it with concrete was then begun. While the work of placing the concrete in the base, erecting the form for the shaft, filling it and setting the girders was going on, the barge was employed in dredging for and sinking the next cofferdam, and in this manner the work proceeded until the 13th pier was com- pleted. The piles in the foundations of the three piers on the east bank of the river were driven with rafl leads suspended loosely from the boom of the stiff-legged derrick, which had been removed and placed on skids on the bank. The forms were set and filled in the manner described. The method of building the west abutment was as follows : Upon the completion of the excavation, the form was built up to a point BRIDGES. 1525 3 ft. above the bottom of the overhang. The piles were then driven and the back-filling completed up to the level to which the form had been built and care taken to tamp the filling solidly un- der the form for the overhang. The form was then filled with con- crete to the top and the overhanging slab, which was 3 ft. thick, reinforced with steel to enable it to support the load of green con- crete that would later come upon it. The form for the upper por- tion was then completed and the whole filled with concrete up to the bridge seat in two days' run. The west abutment was com- pleted and the last span set on August 27, 1908, an average, after May 1, of one pier and span about every nine working days. The statement of cost will be especially interesting to those who are familiar with conditions in the Republic of Mexico. Generally speaking, machinery, materials and supplies of all kinds are much more costly than in the United States, but this disadvantage is partly offset by cheap labor. The scale of wages (in U. S. cur- rency) that prevailed on the work are given below: The cost of materials delivered at the work was as follows: General foreman -. $150.00 per month Sub-foremen 4.00 per day Hoisting engineers 4.00 per day Firemen 1.50 per day Carpenters 1.50 per day Blacksmiths 2.00 per day Laborers (.peons) .75 per day Cement, per bbl $ 3.73 For lumber, per M. ft. B. M 23.33 Bridge timber, per M. ft. B. M 36.65 Reinforcement, per ton 79.20 Steel sheeting, per ton 54.15 Bridge steel, per ton 6"9.98 In the statement below a proportion of the cost of all machin- ery and tools is charged against the bridge, depending upon their condition and availability for future work. Abutments. (Contain 586.2 cu. yds. concrete.) Material. Total. Per cu. yd. Cement, 694.4 bbls., at $3.73 $2,590.11 $4.42 Sand, 263 cu. yds., at ?0.50% 132.81 0.23 Gravel, 526 cu. yds., at $0.50y 2 265.62 0.45 Lumber, 22,232 ft, B. M., $23.33 518.66 0.88 Piles, 240 lin. ft., at $0.22 52.80 0.09 Reinforcement, 41,730 Ibs., at $3.96 1,632.51 2.79 Machinery, proportionate cost 59.21 0.10 Wire and nails 101.50 0.18 Lubricating oil 6.50 0.01 Fuel 109-00 0.18 Total material $5,468.72 $9.33 1526 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Labor. Excavation for foundation ? 199.66 50.34 Building and removing forms 33 i',i Driving piles in foundation 67.77 Placing steel reinforcement 92 -^> X2 Mixing concrete 220.53 0.38 Placing concrete 96.39 0.17 Pumping water 18.74 Cleaning and storing machines, etc 61.00 0.10 Total labor $1,087.65 $1.86 Total material and labor $6,556.37 $11.19 Bases of Piers 1 to 16, Inclusive. Bases 1 to 6 contain 373 cu. yds. Bases 7 to 16 contain 887.7 cu. yds. Total 1,260.7 cu. yds. Material : Total. Cu. yd. Cement, 1,233 bbls., at $3.73 $4,599.09 $3.65 Sand, 591 cu. yds., at $0.50y 2 298.46 0.24 Gravel, 1,182 cu. yds., at $0.50y 2 596.92 0.47 Cofferdams of piers 1 to 6 : Lumber, 3 M., B. M., at $23.33...$ 69.99 Steel sheet piling 924.72 Wire nails and oil 53.00 Machinery 817.00 Fuel 700.00 Material in cofferdams 1 to 6 $2,564.71 Per cu. yd. concrete in bases 1 to 6.$ 6.88 Cofferdams of piers 7 to 16 : Lumber, 26 M., B. M., at $23.33..$ 606.58 Piles in foundation 198.00 Wire nails and oil 210.25 Machinery 1,353.66 Fuel 1,200.00 Material in cofferdams 7 to 16. $3,568.49 6,133.20 4.86 Per cu. yd. concrete in bases 7 to 16 $4.02 Total material $11,627.67 $9.22 Labor : Mixing concrete 580.33 0.46 Placing concrete 662.26 0.52 Pumping water 38.00 0.036 Cleaning and storing machines, etc 122.01 0.10 Cofferdams of piers 1 to 6 : Excavation $ 857.22 Driving sheet piling 1,653.19 Pulling sheet piling 371.60 Building inside forms 214.21 Labor on cofferdams 1 to 6.... $3,096.22 Per cu. yd. concrete in bases 1 to 6 $8.30 Cofferdams of piers 7 to 16 : Excavation $1,010.05 Piles in foundation 313.23 Building and sinking cofferdams. 870.89 Labor on cofferdams 7 to 16... $2,194.17 5,390.39 4.20 Per cu. yd. concrete in bases 7 to 16 $2.47 Total labor $ 6,692.99 $5.31 Total material and labor $18,320.66 $14.53 Labor and material of cofferdams 1 to 6 per cu. yd. concrete. $15.18 Labor and material of cofferdams 7 to 16 per cu. yd. concrete. 6.49 BRIDGES. 1527 Shafts of Piers. 1 to 16, Inclusive. ( 1,357.2 cu. yds. concrete. The shafts of the piers did not differ appreciably in cost, and the statement is not divided as in the case of the bases.) Materials : . Total. Per cu. yd. Cement, 482 bbls., at $3.73 $ 4,617.74 $ 3.41 Sand, 257 cu. yds., at 50 y 2 cts 321.69 ' 0.24 Gravel, 514 cu. yds., at 50% cts 643.38 0.47 Lumber, 3,000 ft, B. M., at $23.33 163.31 0.12 Machinery, proportionate cost 155.00 0.11 Wire and nails 101.50 0.07 Lubricating oil . 28.50 0.02 Fuel 919.00 0.68 Total material $ 6,950.12 $ 5.12 Labor : Building and removing forms $ 582.55 $ 0.43 Mixing concrete 602.45 0.45 Placing concrete 652.79 0.48 Pumping water , :....... 39.00 0.03 Cleaning and storing machinery 122.01 0.09 Total labor $ 1,998.80 $ 1.48 Total material and labor $ 8,948.92 $ 6.60 Total cost of substructure...- $33,825.95 $10.56 Steel Spans. 11 50-ft. Deck Plate Girders. Material : Total. Per ton. Steel, 611,734 Ibs., f. o. b. New York $16,822.68 $55.00 Freight and brokerage 4,582.68 14.98 Fuel, setting and riveting girders 181.36 0.59 Total material $21,586.12 $70.57 Labor : Unloading and setting girders $ 294.45 $ 0.96 Riveting girders 640.35 2.09 Setting anchor bolts 105.00 0.34 Machinery, proportionate cost 253.70 0.83 Total labor $ 1,293.50 $ 4~^2 Total material and labor $22,879.62 $74.79 Deck. Ties L. L. P. 8-in. x 10-in x 10- ft., Spaced 13-ln. Centers; Guard Rails L. L. P., 7-w. x 9-in. x 20-ft. Per Material : Total. M. B. M. 62,401 ft., B. M., f. o. b. Safton, La.... $ 1,123.22 $18.00 Freight and brokerage 1,163.78 18.65 Fuel 25.50 0.40 Total material $ 2,312.50 $37.05 Labor : Framing and placing $ 561.68 $ 9.00 Machinery, proportionate cost 60.63 0.97 Total labor $ 6~22.31 $~9~97 Total material and labor $ 2,934.81 $47.02 Total cost of superstructure $25,814.43 Total cost of bridge $59,640.38 1530 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Howe Truss Bridges, Cross- References. In the section on Timberwork will be found other data on Howe truss bridges. Cost of a 150-ft. Howe Truss Through Span Bridge. The following data were published in Engineering-Contracting, June 26, 1907: Loading Bridge Material 2 days, foreman, at $3.00 $ 6 00 18 days, carpenter, at 2.50 45.00 12 days, helper, at 2.00 24.00 32 days. Total $2.34 $75*00 Loading Hoisting Engine 0.5 day, pile driver engr., at $3.00 $ 1.50 0.15 day, carpenter, at 2.50 3.7o 0.5 day, helper, at k 2.00 1.00 2.5 days. Total $2.50 $6.25 Loading Pile Driver 1 day, carpenter $2.50 $ 2.50 1 day, helper 2.00 2.00 2 days. Total $2.25 $ 4.50 Fitting Up Pile Driver 13.5 days, carpenter $2.50 $33.75 3.5 days, helper 2.00 7.00 17 days. Total ..$2.40 $40.75 Driving Pile Falsework 1 da\, foreman $3.00 $ 3.00 1 day, engineer 3.00 3.00 8 days, carpenter 2.50 20.00 5 days, helper 2.00 10.00 15 days. Total ..$2.40 $36.00 Framing and Erecting Bridge 30 days, foreman $3.00 $ 90.00 22 days, engineer 3.00 66.00 236 days, carpenter 2.50 590.00 260 days, helper 2.00 520.00 548 days. Total $2.30 $1,266.00 Train Service 2 days, conductor $3.50 $ 7.00 4 days, brakeman . ..; 2.50 10.00 2 days, locomotive and crew 25.00 50.00 Total $67.00 Miscellaneous 11 tons coal for hoisting engine, at $3 $ 33.00 Repairs to hoisting engine 24.00 Tools, etc 135.00 Total $192.00 Bridge Materials 88,800 ft. B. M. timber, at $15 $1,332.00 44,800 Ibs. wrought iron, at 2 y 2 cts 1,120.00 40,000 Ibs. cast iron, at 1.8 cts 720.00 Total $3,172.00 BRIDGES. 1531 Falsework Material 1,120 lin. ft. piles (28 piles, 40 ft.), at 8 cts $ 89.60 . 30,000 ft. B. M., second hand at |8.00 240.00 500 Ibs. iron, at 2y 2 cts 12.50 Total . , $242.10 file Abutments Material 1,600 lin. ft. piles (40 piles, 40 ft), at 8 cts $128.00 1,700 Ibs. iron, at 2V 2 cts 42.50 7,600 ft. B. M., at $15 114.00 Total $284.50 Pile Abutment Labor 5 days, foreman, at $3.00 $ 15.00 5 days, engineman, at 3.00 15.00 36 days, carpenter, at 2.50 90.00 30 days, helper, at 2.00 60.00 76 days. Total $2.37 $180.00 SUMMARY. Labor 32 days, loading material, at... $2.34 $ 75.00 2V6 days, loading engine 2.50 6.25 2 days, loading pile driver 2.25 4.50 17 days, fitting up pile driver 2.40 40.75 15 days, driving falsework 2.40 36.00 548 days, erecting bridge 2.30 1,266.00 2 days, train service 67.00 76 days, building pile abutments 2.37 J80.00 Miscellaneous supplies 192.00 Total labor and supplies $1,867.50 Materials Falsework material $ 242.10 ' Abutment material 284.50 Bridge material 88,800 ft. B. M., at $15 1,332.00 44,800 Ibs., wrought iron, 2% cts 1,120.00 40,000 Ibs. cast iron, 1.8 cts 720.00 Total material $3,698.60 Total labor and material $5,566.10 The abutments were not protected by cribs, nor is any riprap included in the above cost. In subsequent issues we shall give costs of abutments protected by cribs and riprap. The cost per lineal foot of bridge was as follows: Labor Per lin. ft. General labor, loading materials, etc. ..$ 162.50 $ 1.08 Erecting bridge 1,266.00 8.44 Train service 67.00 0.45 Building pile abutments 180.00 1.20 Miscellaneous supplies 192.00 1.28 Total labor $12.45 Material Falsework $ 242.10 $1.61 Abutment 284.50 1.90 Bridge 3,172.00 21.15 Total material $24.66 Total labor and material $37.11 1532 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. It will be noted that the cost of fitting up the pile driver ($40.75) was excessive ; but, on the other hand, the cost of driving the pile falsework ($36) was low. The cost of framing and erecting the bridge ($1,266) includes the cost of erecting the upper falsework. The labor on the pile abutments ($180) was high, considering there were no cribs. Cost of Two Howe Truss Bridges of 120-ft. and 130-ft. Span, In- cluding Falsework and Pile Abutments.* The following data relate to a through Howe truss bridge 130 ft. long over all, for which a contract was let for the labor of erecting the bridge. The con- tractor paid bridge carpenters $2.75 a day and helpers $2.00 The bridge was designed for a live load of engine and tender weighing 112 tons, followed by a train of 3,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. The dead load was 1,650 Ibs. per lin. ft. The cost of the bridge to the railway company was as follows : Falsework 840 lin. ft. piles (20 piles) delivered at 8 cts. . .$ 67.20 840 lin. ft. piles driven at 12 cts 100.80 24,000 ft. B. M. timber delivered at $15 360.00 24,000 ft. B. M. timber framed and erected at $7.50 180.00 400 Ibs. iron at 25 cts 10.00 Total, $5.52 per lin. ft. bridge $ 718.00 Pile Abutments 1,400 lin. ft. piles (40 piles, 35 ft.) delivered at 8 cts $ 112.00 1,400 lin. ft. piles, driven, 12 cts 168.00 1,700 Ibs. iron, 2.5 cts 42.50 ,7,600 ft. B. M. timber delivered. $15 114.00 7,600 ft. B. M. framed and erected, $7.50 57.00 Total for two abutments $ 493.50 Howe Truss Bridge 29,000 Ibs. cast iron, at 2 cts $ 580.00 34,000 Ibs. wrought iron, 2% cts 850.00 71,700 ft. B. M. timber, at $15 1.075.00 130 lin. ft. bridge framed and erected, at $7.50. . . 975.00 Total $3,480.00 Train service 50.00 Total $3,530.00 Summary Falsework, materials $ 437.20 Falsework, labor (by contract) 280.80 Pile abutments, materials 268.50 Pile abutments, labor 225.00 Howe truss bridge, materials 2,515.00 Howe truss bridge, labor 975.00 Train service. 50.00 Grand total, 130 lin. ft, at $36.50 $4,751.50 It will be noted that there was no crib, crib filling or riprap pro- tection for the abutments. It would not be excesive to add 400 cu. yds. of riprap and rock in cribs, at $1.50 per cu. yd., and 24,000 ft. * Engineer ing -Contracting, July 3, 1907, BRIDGES. 1533 B. M. (or 2,000. lin. ft.) of hewed timber for two cribs to protect the abutments. A common contract price in the West is 15 cts. per lin. ft. of crib timber in place. The full cost of the timber for the falsework in this bridge is charged against the bridge, but, since most of it possesses a sal- vage value, not to exceed half the cost of the timber (half of $360) should be so charged. It will be noted that the contract price of framing and erecting the bridge was $950, which is equivalent to about $14 per M. ft. B. M. in the bridge, exclusive of the falsework. The falsework cost $718, which, if added to the $975, gives a cost of $1,693, or $13 per lin. ft. of bridge. The piles for the falsework were driven in bents about 11 ft. apart, two piles to the bent. While this is a sufficient support fcr the dead load of a Howe truss bridge, it is evidently insufficient to support any trainload during construction. In rebuilding an old bridge, without interruption to traffic, it is evident that the false- work would be much more expensive than in this case, which is typical of new construction rather than of reconstruction. The following costs relate to a Howe truss bridge 120 ft. long, and the remarks concerning the 130-ft. bridge apply also to this one : Falsework 540 lin. ft. piles (18 piles) delivered at 8 cts..$ 43.20 540 lin. ft. ' piles driven, 12 cts 64.80 28,000 ft. B. M. at $15 420.00 i 28,000 ft. B. M. framed and erected, $7.50 . .. 210.00 400 Ibs. iron, 2.5 cts 10.00 Total at $6.23 per lin. ft. bridge $ 748.00 Pile Abutments Same as for previous bridge $ 493.50 Howe Truss Bridge 63,000 ft. B. M. at $15 $ 945.00 28,400 Ibs. wrought iron at 2.5 cts 710.00 25,400 Ibs. cast iron at 2 cts 508.00 120 lin. ft. framed and erected, $7.50 900.00 Total .- $3,063.00 Train service 50.00 Summary Falsework, materials $ 463.20 Falsework, labor (by contract) 274.80 Pile abutment, materials. 268.50 Pile abutment, labor 225.00 Howe truss bridge, materials 2,163.00 Howe truss bridge, labor 900.00 Train service 50.00 Grand total, at $36.20 per lin. ft $4,344.50 As previously stated, no protection cribs, rock filling, or riprap are included in the cost of the abutments. Cost of Constructing Six Crib Piers, Three Howe Truss Spans and One Steel Draw Span.* Crib piers for railway and highway bridges possess the great merit of making it unnecessary to build coffer *Engineermg-Contractin fcV ^- ^ co coc-1 M" CO ft* ft* ro W5- . OOOOCU5 |O OrHO I i-< M C D ir: o 10 o o < \ te*+ M r-t C: (MOrH eoou; us ScJ^ . o" eoiM-^ M- CO IM* V? w* a 8 go5SS^^|^ S^^|^SS|S| 1 "^ococi^o^ll ^ -|^^|co| ^|j ii 5 O 3 H CO >000 OlH o us us, t- t- us, us I us . : : ) \ ) I r i * tar tal materials r. ng, framing and buildi b, ^ S ^ fcffl c - '3 o Of^Pntf 'JSS'g o -- of O s r ^! |8 3 s o BRIDGES. 1549 g 00 00 2 s 2 fi 000 i ma "" w 6 c-^ o ^ S-M.Q ^ "i ^ I %%% JO i ^ MR oo r^rjc oo oo-rr? oo ... . - ' I -noo ! t)HB .' fJ^E rtJJw : ; : di o .s ft . ^jj -2^ Sri ^ ^ 0!^ -2 a) " ! I * ; " : : : : : ; ! tr. ; ; I > g U5OO^ 00 THOSUJ T* ^ ^ ^ g *$ S" * e ^"c- c4 o o ! ^f ^5 ^ PH ** * 69- *>. G O w to co ri a5 rfri ri W .73 73 .2 ,2 >>>> d rQ ' ' U^gg o o "S ^"S "S . . g oS g 5 '^ ^ _ fi 5 c~eooo o ro ococo 05 OS os was 1 os o H /S ^ I ~' a5 to eo 9 <0 to tO /S ^ eo'c^-H* in in in win 1 in .1 rfj - ^ -tJ oooo OOo OOo 00 00 W / ^^ ^ Tt< co c^i ^o in e< 73 3 o t-'-' os *e. > >> >>>> > 5r) " 2 j3 3 w ,a o o g g g gg g fo g OOOrH O 3 2 oooow t- b- t- t-t- t- : : 9 : 9 j j III : . : . : i^ : bg C 1-1 : "o ed J S ^ g -c ^ o P< /n ^ M c "o, O 2 -M ri o 73 S? o "3 "* ^ C dfi tf ^ rt> S^3 ^ S^ ^ c? ~ti c O O h/i O "o"c3 "- "S ^rrt 2 0) H 1 ? C-^-M ^ ^fe y 1652 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. directly under the roof of the working chamber. The concrete was mixed in the cubical mixer and dumped on the bottom door of the material lock, the top door of the lock was then closed, the bottom door opened and the concrete fell through the shaft to the working chamber. It was then shoveled by the sand hogs into place. A 6-ln. space was left below all bearing surfaces into which damp mortar was tightly rammed. Concreting the south caisson took 10}4 working days of 24 hours, the gangs working night and day in twelve 2-hour shifts; 1,566 cu. yds. of concrete and mortar were placed, or at the rate of 140 cu. yds. per 24 hours. The gross time including Sundays was 14% days. The sand hogs worked in shifts of 2 hours each and received $3.50 for the two hours work. The twelve foremen received $1 more; the average gang consisted of 12 sand hogs. On the north caisson the organization was much better, owing to the experience gained on the first caisson ; and in spite of the fact that the sand hogs, on account of the increased depth, received $4.00 for 1% hours work, or an increase of $22.00 per man per 24 hrs. over that on the south caisson, the work was done for less money. There were placed 1,566 cu. yds. of concrete in 7 working days of 24 hrs., or at the rate of 224 cu. yds. per day. The gross time was 11% days including Sundays. The average number of men in the sand hog gangs was 18, with one foreman, who re- ceived $5 for 1% hours work. See Table VII. Cost of Sinking Caissons. The cost of sinking caissons has been subdivided according to the materials encountered and also with reference to the depth of cutting edge, as the price paid the pressure men varies with the depth. The following were the union rates paid to "sand dogs," or workmen : From to 50 ft below M. H. W $2.50 for 8 hours 55 to 70 ft. below M. H. W 2.75 for 6 hours 70 to 80 ft. below M. H. W 3.00 for 4 hours 80 to 90 ft. below M. H. W 3.25 for 2 hours 90 to 100 ft. below M. H. W 3.50 for 1 hour 100 to 110 ft. below M. H. W 3.75 for 1 hour When connecting chamber, the price was increased 25 cts. per shift. Compressor engineers received $3.60 per day, foremen $2.60 and coal passers $2. The superintendent in charge of the pneumatic work received $6 per day and his night assistants $5. The present "sand hog" rates have increased 20% over these figures. The air plant consisted of three 100-hp. vertical boilers, 3 Laid- law-Dunn-Gordon Duplex Compressors, 16-in. steam and 18-in. air cylinders with 18-in. stroke, and two high pressure force pumps. One 6-in. pipe supplied air to the caissons, and one 5-in. pipe supplied the water. There were also three 4-in. blowout pipes, six 3-ft. material shafts and one 6-ft. man shaft with elevator. Docks were built around the caissons to hold them in position while sinking; on one of these the compressor plant was located. The clay encountered was a very hard stratified material and difficult BRIDGES. -*J ooo I oo 00 0005 +J 0000 ^ 0000 X3 cc^Nod 13S F wT3 "' o ooo o o o o t- oom c- O CON 9* ' t-TrH 1 00 CO ' ' -o-o : 11*IK& |co i t-co t- I coo liis" COCO in in IS, in in" +J 000 W C . 00 o oo 00 00 K o O -M oooo ^g 0000 000 000 o ooo o ooo s 3 el diniM' t- ect^ fa C 05 m in m in coc^ 05 S'P.S 1 I i Labor. Handling, TM^nt ^ai :I | General e Ciro-nrt 3j CH t i 4-> H- : c : S e 3 r ^ c t im IX ~ Oj ^ iS ^ ft ? !w ^a ^ "5 !!' ^ ^^ Kgf oc 5 ^ S es -2 ^^ 1 e &i >l &, c Grand 1554 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. *o excavate. The rock was the ordinary New York gneiss and was drilled by hand. The cost of plant was estimated from inventory taken, as the prices paid for it were not available. The supplies also had to be estimated, and the charge for them, as well as the plant are, probably 10 to 15% low. Cost of Sinking South Caisson (1) Sand with boulders, 3 gangs per day at 8 hours each. Elevation 53.5 ft. to 56.25 ft. Labor sinking $1,583.00 Temporary docks 88.00 Plant 867.00 Supplies 489.00 Total $3,027.00 General expenses, 10% . . 303.00 Total, 509 cu. yds., at $6.55 $3,330.00 (2) Sand with boulders, 4 gangs per day at 6 hours each. Elevation 56.25 ft. to 66.7 ft. . Labor sinking $ 6,828.00 Temporary docks 236.00 Plant 2,310.00 Supplies 1,307.00 Total $10,681.00 General expenses, 10% 1,068.00 Total, 1,929 cu. yds., at $6.10 $11,749.00 (3) Clay and Stratified Clay. Elevation 66.7 to 71.25 ft., 4 gangs per day at 6 hours each. Labor sinking $3,763.00 Temporary docks 11000 Plant 1,083.00 Supplies 613.00 Total $5,569.00 General expenses, 10% 557.00 Total, 839 cu. yds., at $7.31 $6,126.00 (4) Stratified Clay, 6 gangs per day at 4 hours each. Elevation 71.25 to 80.19 ft. Labor sinking $ 9,462.00 Temporary docks 191.00 Plant 1,876.00 Supplies 1,063.00 Total $12,592.00 General expenses, 10% 1,259.00 Total, 1,648 cu. yds., at $8.42.. ..,$13,851.00 BRIDGES. (a) Sound Gneiss Rock, 6 gangs per day at 4 hours each. Elevation 80.19 to 81.25 ft. Labor sinking $ 4,595.00 Temporary docks 96.00 Plant 937.00 Supplies 530.00 Explosives 81.00 Total $ 6,239.00 General expenses, 10% 624.00 Total, 195 cu. yds^ at $35.20 $ 6,863.00 (6) Stratified Clay Stripping Rock. Elevation 81.25 to 83.3 ft., 12 gangs per day at 7 hoars each. Labor sinking % 8,158.00 Temporary docks 102.00 Plant 1.010.00 Supplies 42.00 Total $ 9,312.00 General expenses, 10<& 931.00 Total. 380% cu. yds., at $26.90. .. .$10,243.00 (7) Work Incidental to sinking South Caisson. Recaulking chamber $ 9C4.00 Blocking in chamber 1,228.00 Total $2,132.00 Cost of Sinking North Caisson (1) Material Mud, Sand and Gravel. Elevation 51.7 to 56.8 ft., 3 gangs per day at 8 hours each. Labor sinking $2,351.00 Temporary docks 80.00 Plant 854.00 Supplies 383.00 Total ............................ $3,668.00 General expenses, 10< ................. 367.00 Total, 1,714 cu. yds., at $2.35 ...... $4,035.00 (2) Material Fine Sand. Elevation 68.6 to 73.3 ft., 4 gangs per day at 6 hours each. Labor sinking ......................... $3,133.00 Temporary docks ...................... 88.00 Plant ................................ 931.00 Supplies .............................. 413.00 . ............................. $4,565.00 General expenses, 10% ................. 456.00 Total, 2.175 cu. yds., at $2.31 ....... $5,021.00 1556 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. (3) Material Clay and Stratified Clay. Eleva- tion 68.6 to 73.3 ft., 4 gangs per day at 6 hours each. Labor sinking $2, 230.00 Temporary docks 81.00 Plant 853.00 Supplies 378.00 Total 13,542.00 General expenses, 10% 354.00 Total, 866 cu. yds., at |4.50 $3,896.00 (4) Material Stratified Clay. Elevation 73.3 to 81.4 ft., 6 gangs per day at 4 hours each. Labor sinking $7,500.00 Temporary docks 140.00 Plant 1,480.00 Supplies 655.00 Total . $9,775.00 General expenses, 10% 977.00 Total, 1,493 cu. yds. at $7-20 $10,752.00 (5) Material Stratified Clay. Elevation 81.4 to 89.8 ft., 12 gangs per day at 2 hours each. Labor sinking $11.130.00 Temporary docks 154.00 Plant 1,630.00 Supplies 724.00 Total $13,638.00 General expenses, 10% 1,364.00 Total, 1,621 cu. yds. at $9.25 $15,002.00 (6) Material Sound Gneiss Rock "Benching." Elevation 83.5 to 91.25 ft., 12 gangs per day at 2 hours each. Labor $4,753.00 Temporary docks 74.00 Plant 776.00 Supplies 345.00 Explosives 35.00 Total $5,983.00 General expenses, 10% 598.00 Total, 84 cu. yds. at $78.40 $6,581.00 (7) Material Stratified Clay. Elevation 91.25 to 95.00 ft., 14 gangs per day at 1% hours each. Labor $9,770.00 Temporary docks 88.00 Plant 932.00 Supplies 414.00 Total $11.204.00 General expenses 1.120.00 Total, 702 cu. yds. at $17.5." $12,224.00 BRIDGES. 15W (8) Materials Sound Gneiss Rock Benching. Elevation 91.25 to 95 ft, 14 gangs per day at 1% hours each. Labor , $13,303.00 Temporary docks 101.00 Plant 1,165.00 Supplies 516.00 Explosives 105.00 Total $15,190.00 General expenses 1,519.00 Total, 2,534 cu. yds. at $65.80 per cu. yd $16,709.00 (9) Materials Stratified Clay, Stripping Rock. Elevation 95 to 110 ft., 14 gangs per day at % hours each. Labor $9,232.00 Temporary docks 66.00 Plant 698.00 Supplies 310.00 Total $10,306.00 General expenses, 10% 1,031.00 Total. 453 cu. yds. at $25.00 $11,337.00 (10) Recalking chamber cost $ 715.00 The cost of stripping and cleaning up rock is excessively high, but this work is necessarily slow, the quantity of actual excavation small and the labor rate of from $1.75 to $1.87 per hour is about 10 times that for similar work above ground. The fixed plant and overhead charges are likewise heavy. The same explanation applies to the high rock excavation cost, besides which very small charges of powder had to be used owing to danger of injuring the caisson, as well as the danger of blow- outs under the cutting edge. Therefore holes had to be drilled close together. All drilling was done by hand ; power drills would have greatly reduced the cost. The delay caused by blasting is expensive in this class of work ; the whole gang has to go up in the airlock at almost every shot. Cost of Pier Masonry. The masonry was begun at the elevation of the top of the caissons and carried up to elevation 24 ft. above M. H. W. in courses varying from 2 ft. 6 ins. in thickness at the bottom to 2 ft. at the top. The pier was built of limestone .up to 4 ft. below M. L. W., above which the facing was of rock faced granite with the backing of limestone. The two top courses, as well as the pedestals, were built entirely of granite, all exposed sur- faces of which were 6-cut. All other face stones, whether of lime- stone or granite, were of rock faced with ^-in. beds and joints. The backing was built of roughly squared stones with %-in. beds, and 3-in. joints. Spalls were used in filling the joints. See Table VIII. Cramps and dowels were used in the two top courses of granite. The plant consisted of derricks surrounding each pier. The limestone was unloaded direct from barges. Two extra barges ^ere kept continuously at the site for storage purposes. The 1558 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 0000000000 000>000000 00 00 000 000 00 00 * +J OOOCOOOt~U3OcO THCO oot- 01 Tj ooo 00 c OO CO CO OO LO l/Dt- OrJ< OOlft Tf^CO cc ^ 3 CO OS CO IrtCO 01 /*^ O fl C * *" * P* X a b 02202"W020303 mm SxS'gg O '^ i t- co ^ C OJ CO t^ O TH ITS r-( O Gj r-l O3 ift CO t>- iH ^ OO 3 ?-t 00 CO iH -f OS OS O C' THCO" M TH 02 0302 03 O -o-O -0 >> >.>. >> gg 8 oc oc 0006 V 5 . 0000000000 0000000000 00 00 ooo 000 o oo oo ^ 00 00 CO OO IO *> -<1< OT} 1-1 IO * t-. r-( CO CO CO oco t-o ocoo Tt> > >> >> >> to 02^ t. c ffl SB 1 1 S 1 , . 1 3 J - BRIDGES. 1559 granite was unloaded, cut and stored on adjacent docks rented for the purpose. The mortar was mixed by the concrete plant in pro- portions, 1 of cement to 2y 2 of sand, and handled in buckets by the derricks. The interference on this class of work is great, and the organiza- tion that can be attained where masonry work alone is carried on, is not possible. The coffer-dam braces interfere with the progress, as well as the fact that the quantity of masonry which can be set while the caisson is being sunk depends on the weight required on the cutting edge and not on the efficiency of the masonry gang. The first pier was built in 122 gang days, or at the rate of 56 cu. yds. per day; the second one was completed in 77 gang days, or at the rate of 90 cu. yds. per day. This increased performance was made possible by the more rapid sinking of the second caisson as well as by better organization. In the total masonry for both piers up to the coping courses the voids were in backing 12%, in face stone 6%. In the coping courses the voids were 3%%. The labor rates were as follows per 10-hour day: Per day. Foreman $5.00 Asistant foreman 4.50 Masons 3.20 Stone cutters 3.00 Hoister runners 2.75 Laborers 1.50 Cost of Erecting the Brooklyn Towers and End Spans of the Williamsburg Bridge, New York City. The following data were given by Mr. Francis L. Pruyn in Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 24, 1906: The work consisted of the erection complete in place, of a steel tower 310 ft. high on the tower foundations, the erection of truss 596 ft. long, the connecting of the same with the cable anchorage, and the construction of an intermediate tower about 100 ft. high supporting the center of the end span. Main Tower. The main tower consisted of eight heavy columns braced laterally in all directions. At the floor level they were provided with a system of heavy girders to support the end of the land truss as well as the end of the suspended structure, the main span of the bridge. At the top of the tower another system of heavy girders was provided on which rested saddles for the cables of the suspended structure. The actual erection of falsework for the main tower began in January, 1900, and the erection and painting of steel work was finished in November, 1901. The falsework consisted of a heavy flooring resting on seven 60-ft. trusses extending between the masonry piers. On the floor was placed the boil- .ers and engines which were used for raising all steel work for the tower. The main falsework, consisting of a heavily braced tim- ber tower, was put up in three sections. The first section extended to the roadway level, and was about 100 ft. high. On top of this 1560 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. were erected two heavy A frame derricks for hoisting the steel and two smaller derricks for handling the lighter parts. The steel work was then erected up to the roadway level. On top of the roadway the second section of timber tower was erected about 107 ft. high, the derricks were transferred to its top, and the steel work erected as far as possible. The first section of falsework tower below the roadway was then wrecked and re-erected on top of the second section, the derricks again transferred, and the erec- tion of tower completed. After steel tower was erected a heavy timber gallows frame was built on top of it for hoisting the cable saddles into place. In the erection of falsework, steel work, etc., the Bridgemen'i Union was employed. The rate of wages for its members was $3.20 for eight hours at the start of the work ; later the rate was in- creased to $3.76 per day. The general rate of wages for the erection of falsework for main towers for an eight-hour day was as follows: Foremen $5.00 . u f Sub-Foremen 3.50 Carpenters and steel men 3.20 Hoisters 3.50 Laborers 2.00 The cost of erecting the falsework for the main towers is shown in Table IX. TABLE IX. COST OF ERECTING FALSE WORK FOR MAIN TOWERS. Cost of First Section, Including Trusses Between Piers, Floor, En gine House and A Frame Derricks. Quantity. Rate. Amount Yellow pine timber ........ 74.6 M. ft., B. M. $24.45 $1.823.0 Iron and steel ............ 42.4 Tons 77.00 3,261.0 Labor ................... 74.6 M. ft., B. M. 53.00 3,959.0 Total ................................ 77" $9,043.00 Cost of Second Section of False Work and Raising Derricks on Top of Same. Quantity. Rate. Amount. Yellow pine timber ........ 42 M. ft., B. M. $26.40 $1,110.00 Iron and steel.. .......... 19.6 Tons 73.00 1,427.00 Labor ..., ................ 42 M. ft., B. M. 61.80 2,601.00 Total ............................... 77"." $5,138.00 Cost of Third Section of False Work, Consisting of Wrecking First Section and Re-Erecting Same. Quantity. Rate* Amount. Yellow pine timber ........ 26.4 M. ft., B. M ............... Iron and steel ............ 11% Tons .............. Labor ................... 26.4 M. ft., B. M. $77.50 $2,047.00 Total ........ . ................ t . $2,047.00 BRIDGES. 1561 Cost of Gallows Frame Erected on Top of Tower. Quantity. Rate. Amount. Yellow pine timber 8.1 M. f t B. M. $15.00 $122.00 Iron and steel % Ton 80.00 40.00 Labor 8.1 M. ft, B. M. 104.00 943.00 Total . $1,105.00 Cost of Wrecking Second and Third Sections of False Work as Well as Staging Between Masonry Piers. Quantity. Rate. Amount. Yellow pine timber Iron and steel Labor 124.7 M. ft, B. M. $26.65 $3,325.00 Total $3,325.00 . Total Cost of Erecting and Wrecking False Work, Complete. Quantity. Rate. Amount. Yellow pine timber 124.7 M. ft., B. M. $24.50 $3,055.00 Iron and steel 62.5 Tons 75.80 4,728.00 Labor 151.1 M. ft, B. M. 85.25 12,875.00 Plant 1,314.00 Plant, labor 1,285.00 General expenses, 10% 2,326.00 Total "77 $25,583.00 The total weight of the tower was 3,071 tons, therefore the falsework cost $8.32 per ton. It should be noted that no salvage has been allowed on timber or iron. False Work for End Span. The false work for the end span consisted of a heavy timber structure about 575 ft. long and aver- aging about 90 ft. in height. The bents were made up of 12 x 12 -in. yellow pine timber fastened together with iron fish plates and %-in. bolts and braced with 6-in. sway bracing. The portion from the main towers to the bulkhead, about 190 ft., was built on a pile trestle in 50 ft. of water. A 40-ft. truss spanned Kent Ave. A traveler was built on top of the false work by means of which the steel work was erected. Cost of Pile Dock. The pile dock was built in 50 ft. of water, where the current ran at times 6 miles an hour. The river bottom was hard and the piles did not penetrate over 10 ft. For these reasons it was built much more carefully than is customary with this class of temporary structures. The piles were of Norway pine, 70 ft long with 18-in. butts. The capping was of 12 x 12-in. yellow pine timber carefully framed and heavily bolted. The whole was braced by 12 x 12-in. and 4 x 12-in. timber. The labor rates for a 1 0-hour day were : Foremen ; $5.00 Dock builders 2.25 Hoist ers . .2.50 1562 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The dimensions of the trestle were 190 ft. x 89 ft., making a total of 16,900 sq. ft. Driving 226 Bearing Piles. Per Pile. Total. Labor $ 3.25 $ 735.00 Piles, at $18 18.00 4,068.00 Pile driver 1.21 275.00 Total, 226 piles, at $22.46 $5,078.00 Driving Land Bent. Per Pile. Total. Labor ..$ 7.57 $197.00 26 to 20 ft. piles 10.00 260.00 Pile driver 2.69 70.00 Total, 26 piles, at $20.26 $527.00 Driving 36 (10 ft.) Spar Piles. Per Pile. Total. Labor $ 5.36 $193.00 36 piles, at $18 18.00 576.00 Pile driver 2.22 80.00 Total, 36 piles, at $25.58 $849.00 Driving 36 (60 ft.) Fender Piles. Per Pile. Total. Labor $3.80 $137.00 36 piles 16.00 576.00 Pile driver 1.11 40.00 Total, 36 piles, at ?20~91. $773.00 Total cost of driving $7,227.00 Cost of Framing and Bracing Pile Trestle. Labor . . $1,912.00 93 M. ft, B. M., Y. P. capping 2,568.00 19 tons iron 1,081.00 Pile driver 220.00 *S*J5 Erecting. Total cost of pile dock.. .."513,008.00 Cost of wrecking 665.00 Grand total $13,673.00 General expenses, at 10% 1,367.00 $15,040.00 :iJ en-,'; There were 16,900 sq. ft. of dock, which, therefore, cost 80 cts. per sq. ft. False Work Trestle for End Span. -The false work for the canti- lever span, which extended from the intermediate tower to the BRIDGES. 1563 anchorage, consists of 17 bents 20 ft. apart, and from 60 ft. to 90 ft. high and included the truss across Kent. Ave.,' which was made up of nine trusses 48 ft. long and 15 ft. deep. After the cantilever span was erected, seven bents were moved forward to serve as false work for the connecting span and the remainder of the steel work erected. The timber bents were erected stick by stick in place, and not, as is customary, by building on the ground and erecting the bent as a unit. The steel work was erected by means of a traveler running on tracks on top of the false work. It was 45 ft. square by 47 ft. high, and was furnished with four 10-ton derricks, which were mounted on top of it. A 20-ton derrick was set up on the extreme end of the false work for raising the steel from the ground to cars on top of the false work. As in the case of the false work for the towers, all labor had to be furnished by the Bridgemen's Union. Total Cost of Erecting 17 Bents and Moving For- ward 7 Bents and Kent Ave. Truss. Labor, building and wrecking 17 bents. $12,636. 00 Labor, moving and wrecking 7 bents... 2,843.00 Materials for 17 bents: Yellow pine, 469 M., at $27.50 12,910.00 Yellow pine, 31 M., at $20 632.00 Iron bolts, etc., 39,501 Ibs 1,351.00 Materials for truss : Yellow pine, 10.8 M., at $27.50 297.00 Rods, 21,100 Ibs 740.00 Plant total 2,000.00 Total $33,409.00 General expenses, 10% 3,341.00 Grand total $36,750.00 Total Cost of Traveler. Labor, building and wrecking 3,895.00 Materials : Yellow pine, 46.4 M., at $27.50 1,278.00 Iron bolts, etc., 14,740 Ibs 420.00 Rods, 5,500 Ibs., at 3^ cts 193.00 Tackle, 20,000 Ibs., at 4 cts 800.00 Plant 340.00 Total $6,926.00 General expense, 10% 693.00 Grand total $7,619.00 Total Cost of 20-Ton Derrick. Labor, building and wrecking. . $647.00 Materials 600.00 Plant 50.00 $1,297.00 General expenses, at 10% 129.00 Total $1,426.00 1564 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Total Cost of False Work for End Span Con- taining 2,636 Tons of Steel. Per Ton Steel Erected. Total. Pile trestle $5.70 $15,040.00 Timber false work 13.94 36,750.00 Traveler 2.90 7,629.00 20-ton derrick 54 1,426.00 Total $23.08 $60,845.00 The total weight of steel erected in intermediate tower and end span was 2,636 tons; the false work, therefore, cost $23.08 per ton of steel. It should be noted that no salvage has been allowed for timber and iron, as there was no means of determining what was the ulti- mate value of this material. Cost of Erection of Main Towers. Erection of main towers was begun Feb. 1, 1900, and was completed, with the exception of placing the saddle on top of the tower on Oct. 1st of the same year. The last saddle was set Dec. 14. The first section erected, which extended up to the roadway level, or to elevation 125 ft. above mean high water, contained the heaviest members, and should have been the cheapest to erect. The delivery, however, was slow and the organization not yet perfected. The second section erected extended to elevation 232 ft. above mean high water, and contained a great deal of light and intricate cross bracing, which accounts for its higher cost. In the top section the steel was delivered promptly, and the construction was simple and free from detail work. The prices paid to labor, per day of 8 hours, were as follows : Foremen $5.00 Sub-foremen 3.75 Hoisters 3.50 Steelmen 3.50 Laborers 2.00 The plant consisted of two 40-hp. 10-in. x 12-in. boilers, one 25-hp. 8-in. x 10-in. double-cylinder, 4-drum engine, and one small donkey engine. Charging these off at 509c, the total plant charge, including steel cable, rope, small tools, coal, etc., was $5,000. The cost given in Table X does not include the cost of riveting, which is treated separately. The incidental expenses were as follows : Preliminary work $ 637 Fitting steel at top of towers, chipping roller beds, etc 1,221 Placing anchor bolts 45 Diamond-drilling 32 anchor-bolt holes 4,000 Rust joints materials 931 Total $6,814 BRIDGES. 1565 Erecting End Span. This work consisted of erecting the inter- |iediate tower and the land truss, which extended from the main jowers to the anchorage, a distance of 600 ft. The truss was 40 ft. jeep by 67 ft. wide, with a roadway 25 ft. in width extending eyond the truss on each side. The span was made up of two eavy trusses, divided into 20-ft. panels, and complicated with a multitude of details owing to the various kinds of traffic that had o be taken care of on this bridge. The intermediate tower on which the cantilever span rested was ft. in height, and rested on two masonry piers 67 ft., center to enter. Each pier supported four steel columns, with diagonal racing and connected across at the top with heavy beams. All naterial was brought to the site on floats, and was unloaded by neans of a derrick situated at the main tower. The material was >laced on flat cars, which ran on a trestle about 6 ft. above mean ligh water, and was pushed by hand to the foot of the false work extending just beyond the intermediate towers. Here it was loisted to cars running on top of the false work and placed under ;he traveler, which erected it in position. The erection of the intermediate tower was begun in April, 1900. The erection of the end span was finished in March, 1901. The cost of labor was the same as for the main tower, with the ex- ception of the hoisters, runners and steelmen, whose rate was in- creased to $3.76 per day of eight hours. The plant consisted of three second-hand 25-hp. engines, double- cylinder 8 in. x 10 in., with six drums and boilers, and cost, at 50%, $1,500. The cost of rope, small tools, etc., was $1,300, making the total cost $2,800. The total cost of erection is given by Table XI. The incidental expenses were : Preliminary work $ 500 Rust joints ; 150 Adjusting errors in steel work 696 Removing steel for cables 1,006 Total $2,352 1566 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA coco o o-*f M0500TH O5 Cvl O T*l 00 rHOl,-ICO Sss 00 H 01 -M t-OiO Tf O O co rf m t-o f-l ij< ,_( o 10 oo g ^HdS^ 000 00 000 00 g H ^ !i t TO EH . s^! 5 ^ 00000 jj 00000 tf 06 oo o e^T-* O n-owco^ G . M t- co co TJI c^j O ? Sg M ^ . ^J QQ M o o oo *-< Si O COTf t-COb- ^H t-- CO CO -^< C4 r-T 'od O O C C^ * M O BRIDGES. 156? ro ocoo oeg . "t; LOCOO oio tO r ~ OO CO 5O -r -JO 1050 l"= TH eo eg TH eg TH eg Zj T" <^> * ^.r o +. ^ * CQ O OC-CO CO 05 .eg f~. s - +1 t^ t- o o 10 oo .00 rH ^ M O ' ^ pq<; J * w -" << o > e o f~ o eo oo ^i^-^< esfoo'oo'oo"' -^tr:Si > a 3 8 882 oft :8 miSU 5 S Q.B S g | |S |oag g|! cS B 1 w e S 33 S a e ^ H llj'll^ 30 rt C.S t/i&H i_3 WH BRIDGES. 1583 were used. The mixing was done by a rectangular horizontal ma- chine mixer. The concrete was deposited continuously, working day and night, except in the case of pier No. 2, where an accident to the cofferdam sides caused an interval of several weeks. Table XVII of costs for cleaning and repairing is for the work of the diver in removing with hoes, shovels and pumps the silt which had been deposited on the foundation site. The foundations had been cleaned by the dredge several months before, the work of the diver being to remove the silt which had afterwards been deposited. There was much soft material in abutment No. 1, owing to the proximity of the embankment. At pier No. 3 the cofferdam rested upon a rock, which had to be drilled and blasted. Little work was required at pier No. 4, as the site was compara- tively clean. In the table for concreting, the high cost of the work on pier No. 2 was due to the fact that the concrete was improperly deposited and had to be removed. In the same table, the higher cost for the work under abutment No. 1, was probably due to the fact that the abutment was so long and narrow that it was difficult to handle the bucket. Weight and Cost of the Washington Bridge. N. Y. City.* In his book entitled "The Washington Bridge," Mr. William R. Hutton gives the following data: The Washington bridge, across the Harlem River, was built In 1886-1888 by contract. It consists of two steel arch spans of 510 ft. each, and six masonry arch approach spans of 60 ft. each. The width of the carriage way is 50 ft., and each of the two sidewalks is 15 ft. wide. The rise of the steel arches is 92 ft, the spring line being 41 ft. above M. H. W. The center pier rests on a caisson sunk 40 ft. below M. H. W. The other two main piers required no caisson work. The masonry of these three main piers was carried up to the floor level of the bridge. The main piers are 40 ft. thick at the spring line and 98 ft. long. They are of concrete, faced with granite. Above the stone back they are cellular. The total length of the bridge between abutments is 1,550 ft. In addition to this there are approaches, consisting of embankments supported by retaining walls, at each end of the bridge. The two steel arches required 1,500,000 ft. B. M. timber for the falsework (one span rested on piles), and the six masonry arches required 1,500,000 ft. B. M., including timber used in trestles for landing materials. Each of the steel arches consists of 6 steel ribs of 13 ft. deep. The superstructure of each 510 ft. long weighs 13,086 Ibs. per ft. of span, and is designed for a live load of 8,000 Ibs. per ft. of span. The cost of this bridge was: Paid to contractors $2,648,785 Enginering, etc 162,400 Commissioners' office 40,500 Total $2,851,685 Engineering-Contracting, July 14, 1909. 1584 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This is equivalent to $23 per sq. ft. of roadway between the abut- ments. Some of the principal quantities and cost were as follows: 8,358 cu. yds. granite in piers (dressed) $203,101 2,300 cu. yds. cornice and parapet 201,245 15,491 cu. yds. arch voussoirs 248,393 16,545 cu. yds. facing 174,762 29,348 cu. yds. granite concrete 161,052 31,219 cu. yds. earth excavation 80,048 26,504 cu. yds. rock 29,211 12,815 cu. yds. embankment 7,538 4,052 cu. yds. caisson 182,354 151,078 sq. ft. flagging (sidewalk) 49,577 13,742 sq. yds. asphalt roadway 62,782 7,549,606 Ibs. steel in arch ribs and bracing 777,359 5,927,816 Ibs. iron in posts, bracing and floor 777,359 1,233,874 Ibs. cast and wet iron in cornice and balustrade 132,260 The caisson foundation of the center pier contained 7,726 cu. yds. of timber and concrete for the 40 V 2 ft. below the highwater line, which cost the city $30.64 per cu. yd. The contractor paid the following wages: Laborers, $1.75 ; masons and stone cutters, $3.50 ; drillers, $2 ; enginemen, $2.50 ; carpenters, $3 ; painters, $1.75. Portland cement was substituted for Rosendale for about 40 per cent of the amount of cement used, adding $32,000 to the cost above given^ Cost of a Bridge Foundation Excavation and Cofferdam. Mr. Walter N. Frickstad gives the following data on bridge founda- tion work, done by force account, by the Southern Pacific R. R. in Nevada, year 1902-3. In crossing the Humboldt River the line made a very sharp angle with the river, but a skew bridge was not used. There were two abutments and one pier. To build the east abutment an I/-shaped cofferdam of sand bags, filled in between with earth, was used. The long leg of the L was 100 ft. long, and the short leg 40 ft. lon'g. This enclosed a triangle of water, bounded by the two legs of the I/-shaped cofferdam and the shore line of the river. The sand filled sacks were wheeled to place and deposited by men provided with long-handled shovels and sticks to guide them to place ; but it was not found practicable to build the sacks up in tiers, for the air spaces in the sacks buoyed them so that they were easily displaced by the river current. It was intended to leave a 3 -ft. space between two tiers of sacks, to be filled with puddle, but this space became choked with sacks. It was found impossible to pump out this dam with a one-man sewer "deluge" pump, so a bank of earth was deposited outside of the dam of sacks. Where the current was swiftest, the earth was rushed to place with a steady stream of wheelbarrows, the coarsest gravel being used as a riprap on the loam and sand ; and, in spite of current of 5 ft. per second, the embankment held its place. Then with 4 men on a shift, two working while two rested alternately in 15-minute periods, the dam was pumped dry in 2 days and 3 nights, at a cost of $19 per 24 hrs. To reduce the area, to be kept pumped out, a cross-wall of sacks, 30 ft. long, was put in. About 2,230 sacks were used, all told. BRIDGES. 1585 This work cost as follows : Building L-shaped dam, 53 days, at $1.50 $ 79.50 Filling its slope with earth, 32 days, at $1.50 48.00 Building cross-wall of dam, 30 days, at $1.50 45.00 Excavating mud and loose rock, 24 days, at $1.50.. 36.00 Pumping until masons were above water line, 85 days, at $1.50.. 127.50 Foreman, 9 days, at $3 27.00 Total $363.00 While the masons were at work on the east abutment the coffer dam of the center pier was built in a manner that proved to be the cheapest and requiring the least equipment of all the methods of cofferdamming used. To get to bed rock there were 2 ft. of silt, 7 ft. of gravel and boulders and 5 ft. of boulders. Tests with long drills had led the engineers to believe that solid rock was 5 ft. nearer the surface, the boulders being mistaken for solid rock. The pier was of masonry with a sharp nose at each end, so the cofferdam was made of similar shape and with a length of 55 ft. Fig. 9. Plan of Cofferdam. from nose to nose, and an outside width of 16 ft. The cofferdam consisted of sheet piling driven by hand" as fast as the excavation progressed inside, just as in ordinary sheeting of a sewer trench. The rangers, or waling pieces, to support the sheet piling were made of 8 x 17-in. Oregon pine, drift-bolted together to form a frame, as shown in Fig. 9. This frame was laid flat just above the surface of the water, being temporarily supported by a bar of river sand at one end and by a pair of wooden horses (4 ft. high) near the other end. These horses were built and sunk in the stream, and planks laid out from the sand bar, upon which to push the- frame to place on 1*4 -in. gas pipe rollers by four men using pinch bars. About one-third of the frame overhung these horses, and the water was 7 ft. deep at the outer nose of the frame. Holes were dug 2 ft. deep under the three corners of the frame that rested on the sand bar, and temporary posts set in these holes to support that end of the frame. Then excavation was begun, 8-ft. lengths of sheet planking or piling being driven, starting at the nose of the frame. A heavy wooden maul was used to drive the sheeting. When 12 of these 3 x 12-in. sheeting planks had been driven down a short distance, earth and manure were piled out- side. Then the lines of sheeting were continued out into the river, 1586 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. using longer plank. Finally several of the sheeting planks were temporarily spiked to the frame, the horses removed, and plank driven to close the gaps. Earth and manure were banked up out- side the sheeting. It was found necessary to deflect the river cur- rent, which was washing away this earth and manure, and to do this a wing dam of sacks filled with sand was built, and coarse gravel and sand-filled sacks used to riprap the outer end of the earth and manure fill. The water was readily pumped out, and ex- cavation begun. It was found that the sheeting was sloping in- ward, so a second frame was built of 6 x 12's inside the excavation and at the bottom of the sheeting ; then the driving of the sheet- ing was continued and this second frame was lowered as the ex- cavation progressed. Once the gravel caved and two sheet planks were forced in, but quick work with brush, manure and earth Fig. 10. Section of Cofferdam. closed the hole. When the excavation was 7 ft. below the water surface, and rock was not encountered, it was decided to build a third frame and drive a second- tier of sheet plank inside, and slop- ing outward, as in Fig. 10. This was begun when the flow of water became so great that a 6-hp. Fairbanks, Morse & Co. combined gasoline engine and pump was installed, and no further difficulty occurred in getting down to bed rock. The cost of this pier ex- cavation by force account was as follows: Labor excavating, etc., 324 days, at $1.50 $ 486.00 . Labor pumping, 136 days, at $1.50, Engine-runners, 50 days, at $3... Four-horse team, 6 days, at $6. Carpenter, 8 days, at $3 .., Foreman, 24 days, at $4 115 gallons gasoline, at 15 cts... 300 sacks, at 15 cts 10 M. of pine, at $30 , 204.00 150.00 36.00 24.00 96.00 17.25 45.00 300.00 Total $1,358.25 Salvage value of 5 M of pine removed 150.00 Total for 280 cu. yds. excavation, at $4.30 .. .$1,208.25 BRIDGES. 1587 I have assumed the prices and rates of wages as above given, although in fact they may have varied slightly. The number of days' work and the amount of materials is exact. It will be noted that half the timber in the cofferdam was recovered and used elsewhere. The cost of excavation was high, because no derricks were used, but the shoveling was done in stages ; moreover, there was a large quantity of boulders, and trouble with pumps caused considerable delay. The excavation for the west abutment, though much larger than for the pier just described, was done in the same manner. The cofferdam inclosed an .L-shaped area, about 60 ft. long on each leg of the L, and about 20 ft. wide. The waling frames were built in place after the site had been excavated to the water level with drag scrapers, and the second and third frames in due course. In lowering the frames from time to time as the excavation pro- gressed, it was found almost impossible to drive them down with a 16-lb. sledge or a wooden maul. Even a 6-in. x 12-in. x 8-ft. wood- en rammer, operated by two men, failed to drive the frames. It was found that by loading the shoveling platforms, 2 ft. wide by 16 ft. long, with gravel, one platform being loaded on each side the sec- tion to be lowered, a slight tapping produced any desired amount of settling. The excavation was not carried to bed rock, but the abut- ment was founded on the gravel and boulders, at a depth of 12 ft. below the water surface. The cost of this work was as follows: Team on drag-scraper, 18 days, at $3.50 $ 63.00 Laborers, 748 days, at $1.50 1,122.00 Carpenter, 35 days, at $3.00 105.00 Pump engineers, 140 days, at $3.00 420.00 Foreman, 35 days, at $4.00 140.00 45 tons coal, at $6.00 270.00 150 gallons gasoline, at 15 cts 225.00 22 M lumber, at $30 660.00 Total $3,005.00 Salvage value of 11 M lumber removed 330.00 Total, 700 cu. yds., at $3.82 $2,675.00 Cost of Coffer Dam.* Maj. Graham D. Fitch gives the following: A cofferdam was built en the Upper White River, Arkansas, within which to build a lock. Common laborers received $1.50 per 8-hr. day. The work was done by Government forces. The lock (No. 1) was founded on sandstone bed rock, and as the foundation bed afforded no foothold for piles, crib cofferdams were used. These were built and sunk in sections from 20 to 30 ft. long, each section consisting of round oak logs 7 to 9 ins. in diameter, driftbolted together with %-in. round iron. The walls were tied together every 10 ft. by a transverse crib wall. Above the water the cofferdam was a continuous crib. The inside faces of both walls were sheeted with boards driven to a good bearing with hand mauls, a single row of 1-in. boards being used for the outer wall and double lap 1-in. and 2-in. boards for the inner wall, Engineering-Contracting, May 6, 1908, p. 278. 1588 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The pens were filled with clay and the dam well banked on the outside. The puddle, which was taken from a bank nearby, was loaded by a dipper dredge on a barge and placed in the dam with shovels. The inside width of the cofferdam was 10 ft. 8 ins., and its length was 462 ft. It was built to a 9 ft. stage and had an average height of 17 ft. The dam was built in 6 weeks time and the pit was pumped out in about 11 hours with one 10-in. centrifugal pump. A 3% -in. pulsometer pump was used to keep seep water out of the pit. There was very little leakage except during rises, after which the dam always had to be repuddled, as much of the backing was washed away by the swift current. The cost of this cofferdam was as follows : Materials: COFFERTXA.M (462 LIN. FT.). Unit Cost. Logs, 30,560 lin. f t. . % .0365 Timber, 32.8 M ft. B. M 10.90 Iron, 8,139 Ibs 0289 Straw, 12 loads 1.75 Fuel Illumination, oils, etc Total materials Labor: Quarrying and placing break- water stone, 498 cu. yds $ 0.718 Excavation, 300 cu. yds 562 Hauling lumber, 20 M ft 86 Placing logs, 30,560 lin. ft 02 Placing timber, 32.8 M ft 1.73 Digging puddle, 7,860 cu. yds... .062 Placing puddle, 7,860 cu. yds... .53 Pumping pit Total Grand total Per lin. ft. Total. Cofferdam. $1,115 $2.41 360 .78 234 .51 21 .04 177 .38 104 .22 $2~o7l $4.34 ' $ 388 $ .85 169 .36 17 .04 638 1.38 57 .12 490 1.06 4,179 9.05 539 1.17 $6,476 $14.03 $8,487 $18.37 Some of the labor items may be still further summarized as follows : Work done Work Labor time per man done. in days. per day. Quarrying and placing breakwater stone.... 498 cu. yds. 248 2 cu. yds. Excavation 300 cu. yds. 95 1/8 3.16 cu. yds. Placing logs 30,560 lin. ft. 3701/8 82.59 lin. ft. Placing timber 32. 8 M ft. 374/8 .863Mft. Placing puddle 7,860 cu. yds. 2,3926/8 3,284 cu. yds. The total labor time in constructing the 462 lin. ft. of cofferdam was 3,660% days. The unit cost per linear foot of cofferdam was $18.37 and the work done per man per day was .126 lin. ft. About 90 lin. ft. of cofferdam was removed by dredge and men, at a cost of $161 ; the labor time being 86% days. The unit cost was $1.794 per lin. ft. BRIDGES. 1589 In excavating for the foundation of the lock a 1% cu. yd. Bucyrus dipper dredge removed from the pit, before the cofferdam was closed, such material as it could handle ; but owing to the large boulders encountered most of the excavating was done by hand after the cofferdam/ had been pumped out, the material clay, boulders, and cemented gravel being removed by wheel- barrows and derrick skips. The lockwall foundations averaged 6 ft. in depth below the lock floor, the maximum depth being 6 ft. 5 ins. Both the chamber and miter wall were founded on bed rock. The cost of excavation work was as follows : EXCAVATION (3.635 Cu. YDS.). U ait Per cu. yd. Material: Cost. Total. Excavation. Dynamite, 600 Ibs $0.14 $ 84 $0.023 Fuel 9 .002 Illuminating oils, etc 119 .032 Total materials $ 212 $0.057 Labor: Excavating, 3,365 cu. yds $1.49 $5,438 $1.49 Cleaning lock pit 108 .029 Total labor $5,546 $1.519 Grand total $5,758 $1.58 The total labor time in days for excavating was 3, 13 8% days and the work done per man per day was 1.16 cu. yds. Cost of Placing Puddle in a Coffer Dam by Pumping.* Mr. Will- iam Martin is authority for the following data : In building Davis Island Dam, several years ago, a cofferdam 1,085 ft. long, containing 5,784 cu. yds. of puddle material, was built by pumping the puddle from an island. The cofferdam con- sisted of two rows of piles, the rows being 15% ft. c. to c. and the piles in each row being 21 ft. c. to c. The piles were 20 ft. long, and were driven 8 ft. Three rows of wale pieces or stringers were bolted to the piles, 12 ft. apart. A single line of vertical sheeting plank, driven 2 ft. into the gravel bottom, rested against the wales. The joints of the sheeting were covered with 1x6 in. strips to prevent leakage of the puddle. On each side of the sheeting, at the top, was spiked a 2 x 10 in. string piece, to form a bearing upon which a plank deck was laid. The plant, as finally developed, was as follows: Tubular boiler, 36 ins. diam. x 16 ft. long. Engine, 10 x 10 ins. Piston pump steam cyl. 12 x 18 ins. ; water cyl. 6% x 18 ins. Centrifugal pump, 3 in. discharges. Pipes, etc., of the following sizes were used : Delivery pipe, 4-in. clearing pipe, 2% -in. ; priming pipe, 1%-in. ; lubricator pipe, 1-in. steam pipe to engine, 2%-in. ; steam pipe to piston pump, 2-in. band wheel on engine shaft, 4 % ft. ; pulley on centrifugal pump shaft, 10 ins. ; width of driving belt, 10 ins. ; agitator hose, 1% ins. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 6, 1909. 1590 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following pressures were obtained: Steam boiler, 100 Ibs. per sq. in. ; gage on piston pump, 70 Ibs. ; gage on delivery pipe, 35 Iba The centrifugal pump for pumping the puddle was located on an island 900 ft. from the cofferdam. Beneath the pump was a tank for mixing the puddle, 8 ft. diameter and 4 ft. deep, sunk to a sufficient depth to secure a fall of water from a flume that tapped the river. The piston pump was connected to the delivery pipe by a wye connection, and was used for priming the centrifugal pump, and keeping the sand from packing, and for furnishing water for the steam boiler and for the agitator hose, as hereafter described. The puddle, consisting of loam and sand, was obtained within a radius of 100 ft. from the pump by loosening with a plow and delivering close to the tank with drag scrapers. It was then shoveled by hand into the tank, a cost that could have been avoided had the scrapers dumped through a trap into the tank. The material was mixed with water in the tank and kept agitated by water from a hose in the hands of workmen, to prevent the earth from settling to the bottom. This puddle was taken by the feed pipe of the centrifugal pump and forced through the delivery pipe to the cofferdam, a distance constantly increasing as the work progressed. The delivery pipe was laid on the bottom of the river, and then rose by an easy ascent to about 1 ft. above ' the top of the cofferdam. The puddle occasionally became so thick as to clog the delivery pipe. In order to meet this difficulty, the following ingenious plan was devised. On the delivery pipe at the centrifugal pump was placed a pressure gage. Any clogging of the delivery pipe im- mediately caused the pressure to rise, whereupon the engineman slackened the speed of the centrifugal and opened the valve in the wye connection to the piston pump. This admitted a stream of clear water at high pressure from the piston pump and immediately cleared the congestion of puddle in the delivery pipe. The check valve in the delivery pipe between the wye connection and the centrifugal pump prevented a back flow into the centrifugal pump. At the bottom of the feed pipe in the tank was a screen having 1-in. meshes. Above the screen, and in the same casing, was placed a foot valve for the purpose of holding the priming. One of the principal difficulties in working the centrifugal pump was the rapid wear of all its parts that came in contact with the sand. The casing, which was originally %-in. thick, wore through in 10 days, during which time not 2,500 cu. yds. of puddle were handled. This was replaced with a 1-in. casing which was still in service after the 13 days use which completed the job. The stuffing box wore rapidly until the following ingenious device was applied : A screw was cut in the chamber in the opposite direction to the motion of the shaft. A pipe was put in back of the packing and connected with the piston pump. Water was forced through this around the shaft, and, being under a greater pressure than the centrifugal pump, prevented the puddle material from getting into the stuffing box. Water thus applied performed a BRIDGES. 1591 double duty, for it acted as a lubrication and prevented the shaft from heating. At the discharge end of the delivery pipe the puddle material was deposited in the cofferdam and flowed off for a distance of a few hundred feet, depositing in a hard and solid mass. The loam being lighter, remained longer in suspension and settled out on top >f the sand. In 23 days there were delivered 5,784 cu. yds. of puddle material, or 251 cu. yds. per 10-hr, day. Laborers received $1.75 to $2 a day, and mechanics $2.50 to $2.75. The cost was as follows: Plant: Pump $ 145 Repairs, fittings, etc 382 Pipe 364 Total cost of plant . . '..".% 891 Labor: Installing plant and pumping puddle, removing plant, etc $2,847 Fuel: 23 days fuel $ 38 Total labor and fuel $2,885 It will thus be seen that the cost of labor and fuel for puddling amounted to $265 per lin. ft. of cofferdam, or 50 cts. per cu. yd., including the labor cost of installing the plant. It is unfortunate that this item of installation and removal of plant was not kept separate, as it was evidently a large item. The fuel cost only $1.65 a day, or % ct. per cu. yd. The labor during the 23 days of pumping could probably not have exceeded 4 cts. per cu. yd. for pumping and pipe laying. With a haul averaging about 50 or 60 ft. for the drag scrapers, the cost of delivering the puddle along- side the tank probably did not exceed 10 cts. per cu. yd. Shoveling it into the tank doubtless cost less than 10 cts. per cu. yd. This would make a total of not more than 25 cts. per cu. yd. for the puddle in place, exclusive of plant charges for interest, depreciation, repairs and installation. Apparently the installation and removal of the pumping plant cost at least $1,500. The plant itself cost $891, as above given. The exceptionally high cost of installation appears to have been due in part to the experimenting incident to developing the best way of handling the material, most of which cost can be saved by studying the finally adopted methods and devices above given. For comparative purposes it is well to add the following costs of filling another section of another cofferdam nearby by another method. The other section was 1,165 ft. long, and it cost $5.69 per lin. ft. for puddle in place, or practically $1.10 per cu. yd. of puddle. The method employed consisted in loading the material by hand into cars, hauling it over a narrow gage track to the river, loading into boats and transporting to the cofferdam, shoveling by hand into place, and compacting with water. Wages were only $1.25 a day for laborers, and $2.25 for mechanics. 1502 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The Cost of Some Masonry Bridge Piers and Abutments.* Some fairly complete data as to the cost of constructing bridge masonry are given below. The work, which was done by contract for the Chicago & West Michigan Ry., consisted of the construction of a pier and abutment at New Buffalo, Ind., to carry the tracks of the above road over the Michigan Central R. R. Work was com- menced Aug. 24, 1891, and was finished Oct. 27, 1891, taking in all 56 working days. The average working force and its wages per day were as follows : 1 Foreman $2.50 1 Engineman 2.00 4 Stonecutters , . 3.00 1 Mason 2.50 9 Laborers 1.50 From this it will be seen that the total labor cost per day was $32.50, and the total cost for 56 days was $1,525. The cost of the labor was distributed as follows : Cost per Cu. yds. Cost. cu. yd. Excavating, abutment 868 $133 $0.153 .Excavating pier 232 45 0.194 Cutting stone, abutment 281 514 1.93 Cutting stone, pier 163 347 2.13 Setting stone, abutment 281 197 0.70 Setting stone, pier 163 152 0.93 Unloading stone from cars. .444 50 0.11 To the above should be added $86.50 as the cost of erecting and moving the plant. The total cost of the work to the contractor amounted to $1,863, as is shown by the following figures: Labor $1,525.00 78 bbls. Louisville and Miller cement 78.00 8 bbls. Buckeye cement 30.00 40 yds. sand 30.00 10% of value of plant 200.00 Total $1,863.00 According to the estimate on which the contractor was paid he was to receive $6.50 per cu. yd. for masonry cut and placed, and $0.25 per cu. yd. for excavation. As 444 cu. yds. of masonry were constructed and 1,100 cu. yds. of earth excavated, the contractor received $3,148.50. His total expenses, as shown in the preceding paragraphs, were $1,863 ; therefore he made a profit of $1,285.50 on the job. The total cost of the Chicago & West Michigan Ry. was $5,884.65; this includes the estimate of $3,148.50 and the furnish- ing of 435 cu. yds. of stone, costing $6.29 per cu. yd. The stone used was Grafton sandstone delivered on cars at La Porte, Ind. It should also be added that the amount given for * Engineering-Contracting, May 30, 1906. BRIDGES. 1593 use of plant covered the expense of repairng stonecutters' tools and the cost of fuel. Cost of a Masonry Bridge Abutment.* We give herewith the cost of constructing the west abutment of a 60-ft. through girder bridge near Ionia, Mich., where the Detroit, Lansing & Northern R. R. crosses Prison Road. The work was done by contract for the above-mentioned railroad. According to the terms of the contract the railroad company furnished the stone and free transportation of men and materials ; the contractor furnished all other material and labor, and in addition was paid for all timber left in the con- struction. His plant consisted of a steam hoist derrick with accom- panying tools, etc. The stone used was sandstone from Graf ton, O., and was delivered f. o. b. Detroit. The average weight of a car- load of stone was 33,873 Ibs., and the average carload contained 203 cu. ft. The average weight per cubic foot, according to car weights and quarry measurements, was 166.8 Ibs. Hanover Port- land cement was used, and on account of the low temperature when the work was done, it was necessary to add salt to the mor- tar. In the excavation, the removal of excavated matter was done almost entirely with wheelbarrows. The excavated material was sand and was wasted. The overhaul was only a short distance, the lead being but 75 ft. The work of excavating was commenced November 18, 1893, the first stone was laid December 5, and the last stone January 7, 1894 ; two days later the contractor finished removing his plant. As will be seen from the above dates, the work was done in the winter, and this accounts in a measure for the higher cost of stonecutting, etc. Indeed, it was necessary to use heated sand to remove the frost from the stone before it was cut. The tables below give the actual cost of materials and labor to the contractor: MATERIALS. 34 % bbls. Hanover Portland cement at $2.85 $ 98.32 24 wagon loads sand at $0.75 18.00 2 bbls. salt at $1.00 2.00 Coal for engine 20.00 2 cords wood (heating sand) 3.59 Total $141.83 LABOR. Erecting and Removing Plant. Foreman 2.2 days at $3.00 $ 6.60 Foreman 4.2 " " 1.75 7.35 Laborers 29.7 1.50 44.55 Engineman 2.2 " " 1.75 3.85 Derrickman 2.2 " " 1.50 3.30 Total labor cost. $65.65 * Engineering-Contracting, May 30, 1906. 1594 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Excavation. Foreman 8.9 days at $1.75 $15.58 Laborers 64.8 " " 1.50 97/20 Engineman 0.4 1.75 .70 Derrickman . 0.4 " " 1.50 .60 Scabblers 11.1 Engineman 9. Derrickman 9. Labor heating sand 9.4 Blacksmith . 15. Total, 772 cu. yds. at $0.15 $114.08 Unloading Stone. Foreman , 0.6 days at $3.00 $1.80 Foreman 1.1 " " 1.75 1.93 Laborers 3.7 " " 1.50 5.55 Engineman 1.1 " " 1.75 1.93 Derrickman 1.1 " " 1.50 1.65 Stonecutter , 1.3 " " 3.00 3.90 Total, 165.6 cu. yds. at $0.10 $16.76 Stonecutting. Stonecutters 141.4 days at $3.00 $424.20 1.50 16.65 1.75 15.75 1.50 13.50 1.50 14.10 1.75 26.25 Total, 181.2 cu. yds. at $2.81 $510.45 Setting Stone in Abutment. Foreman . 7.4 days at $3.00 $22.20 Foreman 9.6 " " 1.75 16.80 Mason 2.5 " " 3.00 7.5C Laborers 38.6 " " 1.50 57.90 Engineman 5.7 " " 1.75 9.98 Derrickman 5.7 " " 1.50 8.55 Total, 181.7 cu. yds. at $0.68 $122.93 Laying Stone in Retaining Wall. Foreman 1.4 days at $1.75 $2.45 Laborers 5. " " 1.50 7.50 Engineman 0.5 " " 1.75 .88 Derrickman 0.5 " " 1.50 .75 Total, 16 cu. yds. at $0.72 $11.58 Old Masonry of West Abutment Taken Down. Foreman 1 day at $1.75 $1.75 Laborers 6 " " 1.50 9.00 Total, 30.5 cu. yds. at $0.35 $10.75 Preparing East Abutment for Bridge Seat. Foreman 1.2 days at $1.75 $2.10 Laborers 4. 1.50 6.00 Total $8.10 Pointing. Foreman 8 day at $3.00 $2.40 Laborers 2.3 1.50 3.45 Total . 5.85 BRIDGES. 1595 Backfilling. Foreman 2.4 days at $3.00 $ 6.80 Foreman 6.3 " " 1.75 11.03 Laborers 37.8 " " 1.50 56.70 Engineman 3.6 1.75 6.30 Derrickman 3.6 1.50 5.40 Total, 380 cu. yds. at $0.23 $86.23 The total labor cost to the contractor was $952.38, to this must be added $120.00 for depreciation and repairs to plant, and $141.83 for the cost of materials, thus making the total cost to the con- tractor for material and labor amount to $1,214.21. The final estimate of work done by the contractor and the unit rate at which he was paid for it, were as follows: 772 cu. yds. excavation at $0.26 380 cu. yds. backfilling at 0.25 181.7 cu. yds. masonry, cut and place at.. 6.15 16 cu. yds. masonry (retaining wall) at 4.00 30.5 cu. yds. old masonry taken down at 0.30 Total paid to contractor, $1,478.73. As was shown in the preceding paragraph the total actual cost of the work to the contractor was $1,214.21. His profit accordingly amounted to $264.52 or 21.8 per cent. Fig. 11. The cost to the Detroit, Lansing & Northern R. R. was as follows : 165.6 cu. yds. Grafton standstone at $6.021, $997.22 ; amount paid contractor, $1,478.73 ; total, $2,475.95. The cost per cubic yard of masonry to the railroad company was as follows : 181.72 cu. yds. of stone (wall measurement), total cost, $997.22; per cubic yard, $.5.48 ; 181.72 cu. yds. of stone cut and placed, cost $6.15 per cu. yd. ; total cost per cubic yard of masonry is there- fore $11.637. Labor Cost of a Bridge Abutment.* The work was done by con- tract during the fall of 1893 for the Detroit, Lansing & Northern R. R., near Redford, Mich. Figure 11 shows plan of the abutment. According to the terms of the contract, the railroad company fur- nished the stone and free transportation of men and materials, and the contractor furnished all other material and labor, and in addi- *Engineering-Contracting, June 6, 1906. 1596 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. tion was paid for all timber left in the construction. The stone used was sandstone from Grafton, O., delivered f. o. b. Detroit, Mich. The average weight of the stone per carload was 41,900 Ibs. ; the average number of cubic feet per carload was 24'J. The average weight of a cubic foot of the stone as amputated from the car weights and quarry measurements was 174.4 Ibs. It should be noted, however, that the true dimensions of the stone were con- siderably larger than the quarry measurements, and this accounts for the apparent large weight per cubic foot. Buffalo natural cement was used in the greater part of the work, but Dyckerhoff Portland cement was used for pointing and for joints in the face of the work as far as 10 in. back from the face. The sand was obtained from the property of the railroad company, the only cost to the contractor being for the loading and unloading. The material excavated was sand and clay, and was removed from the excavation by wheelbarrows and by boxes holding about 1% cu. yds., which were lifted out by the derrick. The greater part of the excavated material was removed by the latter method. The contractor's plant consisted of a steam hoist derrick and a hand derrick. For driving the sheet piling a small man-power driver was constructed. This was built with an oak driver weigh- ing 125 Ibs., and having a drop of about 4 ft. The sheet piling was double and triple 1 in. x 12 in. oak, 10 ft. long, and was driven 8 ft. through clay and coarse gravel. The contractor began erecting his plant September 7, 1893. On September 11 excava- tion was started, and October 2 the first stone was laid ; the last stone was laid November 19, and one week later the contractor finished removing his plant. LABOR. Erecting and Removing Plant. Foreman 5.5 days at $2.50 $13.75 Laborers 55.4 " " 1.50 83.10 Engineman 1.8 1.75 3.15 Total $100.00 Earth Excavation, Wet and Dry. Foreman 12.9 days at $2.50 $ 32.25 Laborers 197.8 " " 1.50 269.70 Engineman 9.8 " " 1.75 17.15 Derrickman . 8.2 " " 1.50 12.30 Water boy 9.9 " " 0.75 7.43 Total, 1,632 cu. yds. at $0.21 $338.83 Pumping Water. Laborer 6.3 days at $1.50 $9.45 Making Sheet Pile Driver. Foreman . 0.8 days at $2.50 $2.00 Laborers 3.5 " " 1.50 5.25 Water boy 0.15 0.75 .11 Total . $7.36 BRIDGES. 1597 Driving Sheet Piling. Foreman 4.4 days at $2.50 $11.00 Laborers 165.2 " '.' 1.50 247.80 Water boy 9.6 0.75 7.20 Total, 8,932 ft. B. M. at $2.98 $266.00 There were 2,227 lin. ft. of sheet piling, so that the labor cost was 12 cts. per ft. Concrete. Foreman 5.7 days at $2.50 $14.25 Laborers 42 " " 1.50 63.00 Engineman : 1.25 " " 1.75 2.19 Derrickman 7.9 " " 1.50 11.85 Water boy 2 " " 0.75 1.50 Total, 57 cu. yds. at $1.63. $92/79 Unloading Stone from Cars. Foreman 3.65 days at $2.50 $ 9.13 Laborers 30.3 " " 1.50 45.45 Engineman 3.6 " " 1.75 6.30 Derrickman 3.6 1.50 5.40 Stonecutters 14.7 3.00 44.10 Total, 6571/2 cu. yds. at $.0.17 $110.38 Btonecutting. Engineman 23.8 days at $1.75 $ 41.65 Darrickman 24.7 " " 1.50 37.05 Stonecutters 284.9 " " 3.00 854.70 Scabblers 28.4 " " 1.50 42.60 Blacksmith 3.3 " " 1.75 5828 Water boy 14.7 " 0.75 11.03 Total, 657% cu. yds. at $1.59 $1,045.31 Betting Stone. Foreman 30.7 days at $2.50 $ 76.75 Mason 47.4 " " 1.50 71.10 Laborers 59.3 " " 1.50 88.95 Engineman 11.4 " " 1.75 19.95 Derrickman 17.4 " " 1.50 26.1 Water boy 9 0.75 _ 6.75 Total, 657% cu. yds. at $0.44 $289760 Pointing. Mason 10 days at $1.50 $15.00 Loading Sand. Laborer 11.9 days at $1.50 $17.85 Backfilling. Foreman 1 day at $2.50 $ 2.50 Laborers 103.7 days at 1.50 155.55 Engineman 6.5 " " 1.75 11.38 Derrickmen 14.5 " " 1.50 21 75 Water boy 5.3 0.75 3.98 Total, 796 cu. yds. at $0.245 $195.16 Ditching. Laborers 2.5 days at $1.50 $3.75 Total, 27.2 cu. yds. at $0.14 $3.75 Tear Down Old Abutment and Load. Foreman 4.3 days at $2.50 $10.75 Laborers 33.2 1.50 49.80 Total, 90.4 cu. yds. at $0.67 $60.55 1598 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Of the 1,632 cu. yds. of earth excavation there were 1,260 cu. yds. dry, and 372 cu. yds. wet. The dry excavation cost $253.08, or 20.8 cts. per cu. yd. 'The labor of the wet excavation cost $85.75, or 23 cts. per cu. yd., to which must be added nearly 3 cts. for pumping and 73 cts. for the labor of driving the sheet piles, in- cluding the labor of making the pile driver. This makes a total of 99 cts. per cu. yd. for the labor of the wet excavation ; but in addi- tion to this there was nearly 9,000 ft. B. M. of oak sheet piling, which at $14 per M (a very low price), would add another $180. or nearly 34 cts. per cu. yd., making the total cost nearly $1.33 per cu. yd. for the 372 cu. yds. of wet excavation. Had the sheet piling timber cost $20 per M, the total cost of the wet excava- tion would have been about $1.50 per cu. yd. The total labor cost to the contractor was $2,552.03. To this amount must be added the following: 10% value of plant for depreciation and repairs. . . .$140.00 8,932 ft. B. M. oak piling at $14 125.00 215 bbls. Buffalo cement at $0.85 182.75 7y 2 bbls. Dykerhoff cement- at $3.00 22.50 Coal for engine 55.80 Coal for blacksmith 3.40 Total $389.50 Time work 95.57 The total actual cost to the contractor for labor and materials is accordingly $2,552.03 + $389.50 + $95.57 = $3,177.10. As is shown in the succeeding paragraphs the railroad company paid the con- tractor $5,377.76 on the final estimate of the work done, thus giving him a profit of $2,200.66. In the following table is shown the final estimate of the amount of work done by the contractor and the unit rate at which he was paid by the railroad : 1,260 cu. yds. dry excavation at $0.25 372 cu. yds. wet excavation at 75 27.2 cu. yds. ditching at 25 796 cu. yds. back filling at. 25 57 cu. yds. concrete at 3.75 657.5 cu. yds. masonry at. 6.15 90.4 cu. yds. old abutment torn down at 1.00 Total $5,273.63 In addition the contractor was paid for the timber left in the structlon and for time labor, the unit costs being as follows : 8,932 ft. B. M. oak sheet piling at $14.00 8 days' labor night watchmen at 1.25 41 days' labor night watchmen at 1.50 2.8 days' labor changing braces at 1.50 13.25 days' labor excavating at 1.50 Total ... $95.57 The contractor was paid 10 per cent of this last total, or $9.56, for use of tools, etc., making $5,377.76 as the total amount paid BRIDGES. 1599 him on the final estimate. As the railroad company furnished the stone the grand total cost of the work to it was as follows : 600 cu. yds. stone at $5.89 ..$3,533.05 74.5 cu. yds. broken stone at $1.177 '. . 87.71 Amount paid contractor 5,377.76 Total cost of work $8,998.52 The cost to the railroad company of masonry per cubic yard was as follows: 657.5 cu. yds. stone (laid), cost $3,533.05, $5.37 per cu. yd. ; 657.5 cu. yds. stone cut and set, $6.15 per cu. yd. (contract price) ; total, $11.52 per cu. yd. of abutment masonry. p 1 1 ,1 I 1 t 1 1 1 i i i i i *P i i A J1! ii ii ii n" tf >i x K R! ^-w-*-r-o"-* t*--*6~--&- 6 - 8&-+\ " u I Nlj ^ Base of fbi/ Too ofSte^Hbtt *r. Plan and Elevcrbon of Piers 2. 3 and 4. p, an and Oevatloh of Pfere land 6 Fig. 12. Bridge Pier. Cost of Concrete Foundations for a Railway Bridge. Mr. J. Guy Huff is authority for the following data. The original Calf Killer River bridge on the Sparta-Bon Air extension of the Nash- ville, Chattanooga, St. Louis Ry. consisted of two end piers, one middle pier, and a stem wall at each end, carrying Phoenix column deck, trusses of the Warren type. The distance from base of rail to bridge seat was 25 ft. 1% ins. In 1905 the old superstructure was replaced by four spans of 75 ft. deck plate girders, two new co*>' 1600 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. crete piers being constructed and the old masonry piers built up with concrete. Figures 12 and 13 show arrangement, plans and elevation of the piers. Briefly described, the method of construction was as follows: The end pieces were built up, the end vertical posts and end braces being encased, the latter being removed when the old structure was taken down ; the two new piers were finished complete, the bars of the lower chords of the old bridge being boxed around, and after the old bridge had been removed these slots were filled with con- crete ; on both sides of the old middle pier falsework towers suffi- ciently strong to support the ends of the new girders were erected, and after the old spans had been taken down and the new super- structure put in place, the pier was built up. TT t__ | 1 N I 11 1? ,1 ! /^ i ' i ill f Cfl/xre) s( N6 -* A j StuiMUf A ^^ i 1 n A i i i i i *e.~far>dati'or %r Afc./. /Jff ^(75* Co/c/-/te V ST firefy / 'Centre* ? ^ fe- 5/4 r Afr>* SPB w ^ Concm i $& ^V^^^pjM^ 5 Pier No. 2 yse Entirety Metv eToo of Concrete Pier No. S Stone Btrse Ke Concrete Top Fig. 13. Bridge Piers. The old masonry was built up of concrete to the finish for 7-ft. deck plate girders, using vertical faces and not exceeding the size of the old piers. The length of this top section on the old ma- sonry was 14 ft. on each of the piers, and the design of the new piers was similar in size and shape to the old mid-pier with its new top section. Mixing and Placing Concrete. The sand and aggregate, consist- Ing of blast furnace slag obtained from South Pittsburg, Tenn., were unloaded from cars to platforms on a level with the top. of rail, placed about 100 ft. south from the south end of the bridge. A cubical form, 1-6 cu. yd. capacity, concrete mixer was used. This was operated by a gasoline engine, and was located on a platform about 50 ft. south of the south end pier. A tank near the mixer to supply water was elevated enough to get the desired head, and was kept filled by a pump run by another gasoline engine located BRIDGES. 1601 down by the river bank. The cement house was located between the mixer platform and slag pile. Slag and sand were delivered to the mixer by means of wheel- barrows. The mixer was so placed that it would dump onto a plat- form, and the concrete could then be shoveled into a specially de- signed narrow-gage car. This car ran on one rail of the main track and an extra rail outside. A turnout for clearing passing trains was provided at both ends of the bridge. The track over the bridge from the mixer had a descending grade of about 1 per cent, so that with a little start the concrete car would roll alone down to the required points on the bridge. Only in returning the empty cars to the mixer was it necessary to push it by hand, and then only for a distance of never more than 400 ft. Over the piers on the bridge in the center of the concrete car's track openings were sawed to let the concrete pass to the forms below. To get the concrete into the forms, there were used zigzag chutes with arms about 10 ft. long, which sections were removed as the concrete in the forms were increased. This chute was a convenience by its end alternating from one side to the other as the arms were removed in coming up. Cost Data on the Foundation Work. The foundation work was built by the railway's masonry gangs, the work being commenced about June 20, 1905, and finished complete about Dec. 1 of the same year. The girders were furnished and placed by a bridge company. In Table XVIII the wages per day are the average rates. The men worked 10 hours each day. The concrete was mixed in a 1:3:6 proportion. TABLE XVllI. Unloading Materials. Per cu. yd. Rate Total days Con- per day. worked. Total. crete. Foreman $3'.40 5 $17.00 $0.04 11 laborers 1.368/10 52 71.14 .15 Total for unloading material $0.19 Building Forms, Bins, Etc. Foreman $3.40 18 $61.20 $0.14 9 carpenters 2.25 166 373.50 .81 New lumber, 23.7 M ft. at $17.80 421.86 .92 Old lumber, 6 M ft. at $8.33 49.98 .11 Total for building forms, bins, etc $1.98 Cofferdam Excavation (^5 Cu. Yds.) Foreman $3.40 8 $27.20 $0.06 9 laborers 1.15 6/10 74y a 8612 .19 Total for cofferdam excavation. . $0.25 1602 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cofferdam Concrete (87 Cu. Yds.) Foreman ..$3.40 8 $27.20 $0.06 11 laborers 1.363/10 79 107.68 . .23 Cofferdam lumber, 2.25 M ft. at $20.00 4500 .09 Total for cofferdam concrete $0.38 Concrete Mixing and Placing. Foreman ..$3.40 30 $102.00 $0.22 9 laborers 1.156/10282 325.99 .74 Cement, 452 bbls. at $1.55 , 701.50 1.52 Slag, 437 cu. yds. at $0.20 87.40 .19 Sand, 220 cu. yds. at $0.30 66.00 .14 Total for mixing and placing $2.78 Taking Down Forms and Clearing Up. Foreman $3.40 13 $44.20 $0.09 11 laborers ... . 1.17 143 107.31 .36 Total for taking down forms, etc $200.00 $0.45 Engineering and supervision 43 Grand total, 460 cu. yds. concrete $6.46 The cofferdam work was done in connection with the construc- tion of the fourth pier, this pier being the only one coming in the bed of the river to be built entirely new. The work on this was started in water about 6 ft. deep. The 37 cu. yds. of concrete are included in the total of 460 cu. yds. in the above tabulation. By itself the cost of the cofferdam work, not including cost of cement, sand and slag, was as follows: Per cu. yd. Total. Concrete. Lumber ..$45.00 $1.21 Labor, excavating 113.32 3.06 Labor, concrete 134.88 3.64 Total 37 cu. yds. concrete $7.91 Cost of a Cofferdam and Concrete Pier on Pile Foundation. The following was published in Engineering-Contracting, May 29, 1907: This pier (Fig. L4) was built in water averaging 5 ft. deep. The cofferdam consisted of triple-lap sheet piling, of the Wakefield pat- tern, the planks being 2 ins. thick, and spiked together so as to give a cofferdam wall 6 ins. thick. The cofferdam enclosed an area 14x20 ft., giving a clearance of 1 ft. all around the base of the concrete pier, and a clearance of 2 ft. between the cofferdam and the outer edge of the nearest pile. The cofferdam sheet piles were 18 ft. long, driven 11 ft. deep into sand, and projecting 2 ft. above the surface of the water. The concrete base resting on the foundation piles was 12x18 ft. The concrete pier resting on this base was 7x13 ft. at the bottom, BRIDGES. 1603 and 5x11 ft. at the top. The pier supported deck plate girders. There were 100 cu. yds. of concrete in the pier and base. The cost of this pier, which is typical of several others built at the same time, was as follows : Setting Up and Taking Down Derrick and Platform 4 days foreman at $5.00 $20.00 % days engineman at $3.00 2.25 % days blacksmith at $3.00 2.25 % days blacksmith helper at $2.00 1.50 22 days laborers at $2.00 44.00 Total . ..$70.00 Fig. 14. Bridge Pier on, Piles. Cofferdam 7 days foreman at $5.00 $35.00 4 days engineman at $3.00 12.00 38 days laborers at $2.00 76.00 1 ton coal at $3.00 3.00 Total labor on 7,900 ft. B. M. at $16.00.$126.00 7,900 ft. B. M. at $20.00 ................ 158.00 Total -for 58 cu. yds. excav. at $5.. $284. 00 Wet Excavation 1.8 days foreman at $5.00 ................. $9.00 1.5 days engineman at $3.00 .............. 4.50 9 days laborers at $2.00 .................. 18.00 % ton coal at $3.00 ...................... 1.50 Tota 1 on 58 cu. yds. at 57c ...... $33.00 ?.604 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Foundation Piles 960 lin. ft. at lOc |96.00 4 days setting up driver and driving 24 piles at $20 per day for labor and fuel 80.00 Total $176.00 Concrete 100 cu. yds. stone at $1.00 $100.00 40 cu. yds. sand at $0.50 20.00 100 bbls. cement at $2.00 200.00 5 days foreman at $5.00 25.00 50 days laborers at $2.00 100.00 5 days engineman at $3.00 15.00 2 tons coal at $3.00 6.00 Total, 100 cu. yds. at $4.66 $466.00 8 days carpenters at $3.00 $ 24.00 2,400 ft. B. M. 2-in. plank at $25.00 60.00 1,000 ft. B. M- 4x6-in. studs at $20.00 20.00 Nails, wire, etc 2.00 Total forms for 100 cu. yds. at $1.06. .$106.00 Summary Setting up derrick, etc $ 70.00 Cofferdam (7,000 ft. B. M.) 284.00 Wet excavation (58 cu. yds.) 33.00 Foundation piles (24) 176.00 Concrete (100 cu. yds.) 466.00 Forms (3,400 ft. B. M.) . . 106.00 Total $1,135.00 Transporting plant 20.00 20 days rental of plant at $5.00 100.00 Total cost of pier $1,252.00 Regarding the item of plant rental, it should be said that the plant consisted of a pile driver, a derrick, a hoisting engine, and sundry timbers for platforms. There was no concrete mixer. Hence an allowance of $5 per day for use of plant is sufficient. It will be noted that no salvage has been allowed on the lum- ber for forms. As a matter of fact, all this lumber was recovered, and was used again in similar work. Referring to the cost of cofferdam work, we see that, in order to excavate the 58 cu. yds. inside the cofferdam, it was necessary to spend $284, or nearly $5 per cu. yd., before the actual excavation was begun. The work of excavating cost only 57 cts. per cu. yd., but this does not include the cost of erecting the derrick which was used in raising the loaded buckets of earth, as well as in subse- quently placing the concrete. The sheet piles were not pulled, in this instance, but a contractor who understands the art of pile pulling would certainly not leave the piles in the ground. A hand pump served to keep the cofferdam dry enough for excavating ; but in more open material a power pump is usually required. BRIDGES. 1605 The above costs are the actual costs, and do not include the con- tractor's profits. His bid on the work was as follows : Piles delivered 12 ct per ft. Piles driven $5 each Cofferdam $37 per M. Wet excavation $1.00 per cu. yd. Concrete $8.00 per cu. yd. In order to ascertain whether or not these prices yielded a fair profit, it is necessary to distribute the cost of the plant transpor- tation and rental over the various items. We have allowed $120 for plant transportation and rental, and $70 for setting up and taking down the plant, or $190 in all. The working time of the plant was as follows: Per cent Prorated Days, of time, plant cost. Cofferdam 7 39 $ 74 Excavation 2 11 21 Foundation piles 4 22 42 Concrete 5 28 53 Total 18 100 $190 As above given, the labor on the 7,900 ft. B. M. in the coffer- dam cost $126, or $16 per M. ; but this additional $74 of prorated plant costs, adds another $9 per M., bringing the total labor and plant to $25 per M., to which must be added the $20 per M. paid for the timber In the cofferdam, making a grand total of $45 per M. This shows that the contractor's bid of $37 per M. was much too low. The labor on the excavation cost 57 cts. per cu. yd., to which must be added the prorated plant cost of $21 distributed over the 58 cu. yds., or 36 cts. per cu. yd., making a total of 93 cts. per cu. yd. This shows that the bid of $1 per cu. yd. was hardly high enough. The labor on the 24 foundation piles cost $80, or $3.33 each. The prorated plant cost is $42, or $1.75 per pile, which, added to $3.33, makes a total of $5.08. This shows that the bid of $5 per pile for driving was too low. However, there was a profit of 2 cts. per ft., or 80 cts. per pile, on the cost of piles delivered. The concrete amounted to 100 cu. yds. Hence the prorated plant cost of $53 is equivalent to 53 cts. per cu. yd. Hence the total cost of the concrete was: Per cu. yd. Cement, sand and stone .$3.20 Foreman (at $5). : . . 0.25 Labor (at $2) 1.00 Engineman (at $3) 0.15 Coal (at $3) 0.06 Carpenters (at $3) 0.24 Forms (at $23.50, used once) 0.80 Wire nails, etc 0.02 Prorated plant cost 0.53 Total $6.25 1606 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Since the contract price for concrete was $8 per cu. yd., ther was a good profit in this item. It is doubtful whether many contractors analyze their costs in this manner, prorating plant costs and like, but no other method is satisfactory. Such an analysis frequently discloses the economy of radically changing the method of doing the work. For example, on abutment work, and on some piers, it is often wise not to erect a derrick at all, but to build inclined runways up which to wheel the concrete. As the pier or abutment rises in height, the run- ways are raised. The added cost of labor is more than offset by the saving in the cost of transporting and erecting a derrick where the yardage to be moved is small. In like manner the excavation of a small amount of earth from the cofferdam may be more economically accomplished by shovel- ing it out in "lifts," than by installing a derrick for the purpose. On the other hand, few contractors have given much study to economic methods of erecting and moving derricks, etc. A little brains put into this end of the work, may abundantly justify the use of derricks even on small jobs. We urgently recommend the careful recording and analysis of the cost of erecting and shifting plants, as well as a similar an- alysis of all other costs. The foregoing analysis should make it clear to engineers that seemingly high bids on work involving one or more small units of construction, may, in fact, prove to be too low. Cost of a Pneumatic Caisson and Masonry Bridge Pier.* The fol lowing data relate to the cost of labor and materials required for three railway bridge piers built by the pneumatic caisson process. The work was done for the railway company in the state of Wash- ington, by a contractor working on a percentage basis, but the costs are the actual costs, not including the contractor's percentage. Borings were made along the line of the bridge and the bottom was penetrated With a 2-in. pipe to a depth of 34 ft. below extreme low water. The material encountered was a very uniform bed of fine sand. Plant. A scow 30 ft. x 80 ft. x 4 ft. was built and was equipped with 3 boilers having an aggregate capacity of 125 hp. There were 2 air compressors ; 1 air receiver ; 1 duplex Knowles pump, with 12xl8-in. cylinders and 60-in. discharge; 1 small pump for sup- plying water into the receiver ; 3 air locks, 4 ft. diameter by 8 ft. high ; 8 sections main air shaft, 3 ft. diameter by 8 ft. high ; 2 hoppers, 3 ft. diameter by 2% ft. high, for 18-in. supply shaft; rubber hose, various iron pipes, etc. Pneumatic Caissons, Pier No. 2. There were three caissons. Pier No. 2 was a pivot pier, supporting a single track draw bridge 240 ft. long. Piers Nos. 1 and 3 supported the ends of this draw span and the two 70-ft. plate girder spans approaching it. * Engineering-Contracting, May 8, 1907. BRIDGES. 1607 The caisson for this pivot pier was 30x30 ft. square and 15 ft. high. It was built of 12xl2-in. surfaced timbers, sheeted both out- side and inside with 3-in. surfaced plank, nailed vertically, and calked with oakum. The cutting edge was made of %-in. iron, 3 ft. high, with shoulder 2 ft. wide, stiffened by brackets at inter- vals of 1 ft. to 2y 2 ft. The 12x12 timbers were drift bolted to- gether with 1-in. bolts, and the whole structure tied with 1%-in. and 2-in. rods. The corners were protected by %-in. iron plates. The cutting edge of the caisson was sunk to a depth of 55 ft. be- low water level or 45 ft. below ground level, requiring the excava- tion of 1,500 cu. yds. When the caisson was built up 10 ft. above the cutting edge, the inside and the outside linings were spiked on and calked. The bottom sections of the supply shaft and air lock were inserted and tightly fitted. A temporarily false bottom of 3-in. plank, well calked, was made for the purpose of floating the caisson into place, after which the work of adding to its height was continued. Meanwhile 11 guide piles were driven to guide the caisson dur- ing sinking. The day after the caisson was in position the filling of the top part with concrete was begun, and lasted five days. Compressed air was introduced into the caisson the second day after it was in position, and on the third day three eight-hour shifts began work, the first work being the chopping out of the false bottom referred to above. By this time a cofferdam, 16 ft. high, had been con- structed on top of the caisson, so as to prevent floods from inter- fering with the work. It required just 29 days of 24 hrs. to sink the caisson 45 ft. after it was in place, although the actual time of sinking was 19 days, there being several delays. Then the working chamber was filled with concrete. Sections 2 ft. by 2 ft. were dug out under the shoul- der of the cutting edge, and successively filled with concrete. Hav- ing thus supported the caisson, the center portion was excavated and filled with concrete. The filling of the working chamber and lower air locks with concrete took 7 days. The compressed air was then taken off, having been used for 36 days. The depth sunk was 45 ft., or 1^4 ft. per day. The masonry on top of the caisson was finished 18 days after the compressed air had been turned off, so that 54 days after the cais- son had been floated to place the pier was ready to receive the bridge. The masonry on top of the caisson consisted of an annular cylin- der of cut stone masonry, 50 ft. high, having a thickness of 4% ft. at the base and 3^ ft. at the top. This cylinder was filled with concrete. The outside diameter of the masonry cylinder was 25 ft. at the top and 29 ft. at the base. The height of this masonry cylinder was 50 ft. The cost of the plant was as follows: 1608 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The scow was 30x80x4 ft, provided with a boiler house, and its cost was : 30,600 ft, B. M., timber in scow at $15 $459.00 1,400 Ibs. boat spikes at 4c.... 56.00 800 Ibs. bolts, screws, etc., at 3c 24.00 2,000 Ibs. oakum at 4c 80.00 5 bbls. tar at $5 25.00 Miscellaneous materials 20.00 Total materials in scow $664.00 22,000 ft, B. M., in boiler house at $15 $330.00 1,200 Ibs. nails, etc 40.00 800 Ibs. tarred paper at 2%c 20.00 1,000 brick 8.00 1 bbl. lime 1.50 Miscellaneous materials 10.00 Total materials in boiler house $409.50 Labor building scow and boiler house : 15 days, foreman, at $4 $ 60.00 240 days, carpenters, at $3.05 720.00 50 days, laborers, at $2 100.00 Total labor $880.00 This labor cost is equivalent to $16 per 1,000 ft, B. M., of tim- ber in the scow and boiler house. The cost of setting up the boil- ers, compressors, etc., was as follows: 12 days, foreman, at $4 $ 48.00 24 days, carpenter, at $3 72.00 4 days, machinist, at $5 20.00 3 days, blacksmith, at $3.50 10.50 50 days, steam fitter, at $3.50 175.00 24 days, engineman, at $3.50 84.00 270 days, laborer, at $2 540.00 387 days. Total $949.50 This cost is also excessive and indicates very poor management The freight on this plant was $150. Summarizing, we have: Scow and boiler house $1,950 Setting up boilers, etc : 950 Freight 150 Total $3,050 Charging this $3,050 to the three piers according to their size, we may assign 50 per cent, or $1,525, to Pier No. 2, and $762 to each of the other two piers. The three boilers, two air compressors, pumps, etc., were worth about $4,000, and a very liberal allowance for their use on this job would be $2,000, charging 50 per cent, or $1,000, to Pier No. 2, and $500 to each of the other two piers. This $1,000 added to the $1,525, makes $2,525 charged for plant The cost of erecting a platform and derrick at Pier No. 2 was $100. About 250 ft of 4-in. pipe and 70 ft of 1%-in. pipe and fittings, costing $130, were left in the caisson and not recovered. About 36,000 Ibs. of iron were required for the air locks, shafts, tc., of the three piers. About half of it, or 18,000 Ibs., was left BRIDGES. 1609 in the piers, for which a charge of 5c per Ib. was made, or $900, or $300 per pier. The cost of materials in the caisson (30x30x15 ft.) was as fol- lows: 71,000 ft. B. M. in caisson at $20 $1,420.00 4,400 ft. B. M. in false floor at $20 88:00 3,400 ft. B. M. in inside curbing at $20.. 68.00 9,000 ft. B. M. in cofferdam 180.00 15,000 Ibs. cutting edge at 4y 2 c 675.00 1,400 Ibs. corner plates at 4c 56.00 5,200 Ibs. rods at 2i/oc 130.00 4,000 Ibs. drift bolts at 2%c 100.00 3,000 Ibs. boat spikes at 2c . 60.00 800 Ibs. cast washers at 2c 16.00 1,000 Ibs. lag screws, etc., at 4c 40.00 20 bales (2,000 Ibs.) of oakum at $4 80.00 100 Ibs. rubber packing at 70c 70.00 Total materials $2,983.00 There were 78,800 ft. B. M. in the caisson, exclusive of the 9,000 ft. B. M. in the cofferdam. The cost of framing and erecting the caisson was as follows : 45 days, foreman, at $4 . $ 180.00 320 days, carpenters, at $3 960.00 90 days, laborers, at $2 180.00 14 days, blacksmiths, at $3.50 49.00 10 days, engineman, at $3.50 35.00 7 days, machinist, at $5 35.00 486 days, total, at $2.96 $1,439.00 This is equivalent to $18.25 per 1,000 ft. B. M., which is a very high cost for this kind of work. The cost of building the cofferdam on top of the caisson was as follows : 6 days, foreman, at $4.00 $ 24.00 60 days, carpenters, at 3.00 180.00 10 days, laborers, at 2.00 20.00 3 days, blacksmith, at 3.50 10.50 79 days, total $2.97 $234.50 Since there were 9,000 ft. B. M. in the cofferdam, the labor cost $26 per 1,000 ft. B. M. The cost of sinking the caisson, which included tamping the con-, crete in the working chamber of the caisson also, was as follows: 34 days, foreman machinist, at.. $5.00 $ 170.00 16 days, general foreman, at..... 6.00 96.00 80 days, sub foreman, at 5.00 400.00 64 days, top lock tender, at.... 2.25 144.00 720 days, pressure men, at 3.50 2,520.00 72 days, enginemen, at -3.50 252.20 72 days, firemen, at 2.75 198.00 32 days, coal passers, at 2.50 80.00 40 days, wipers, at 2.00 80.00 .60 days, steam fitters, at 3.00 150.00 4 days, blacksmith, at 3.50 14.00 58 days, carpenters, at 3.00 174.00 360 days, laborers, at 2.00 720.00 32 days, signal man, at 2.00 64.00 32 days, call boy,- at 1.00 32.00 1,706 days total $2.99 $5,094.20 1610 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. As above stated, It required 36 days to sink the caisson and fill the working chamber with concrete, hence by dividing each of the above items by 36 we get the number of each kind of men per day. In addition to the materials and labor above enumerated, there were the suppHes, which cost as follows: 220 tons coal at $3 $660.00 220 gals, gasoline and kerosene, at lOc... 20.00 40 gals, valve oil at 50c 20.00 20 gals, engine oil at 35c 7.00 70 Ibs. waste at 5c 3.50 45 prs. rubber boots at $3 135.00 Total $845.50 The guide piles around the caisson were driven with a scow driver, and cost as follows : 600 lin. ft. piles at lOc $ 60.00 Labor driving 52.00 Coal for driver, etc 20.00 Total : $132.00 There were 400 cu. yds. of concrete placed in the working cham- ber of the caisson and 400 cu. yds. inside the stone masonry on top of the caisson. The cost of this concrete was as follows : Per cu. yd. 1 cu. yd. stone at $1 $1.00 0.45 cu. yd. sand at 80c 36 0.7 bbl. cement at $2 1.40 Mixing and placing 1.15 Erecting derricks, platforms, etc 34 Total $4.25 The $1.15 for "mixing and placing" covers the wages of the men ($2 a day) engaged in hand mixing and handling the concrete, the derrick engineman, the foreman, the lock tenders, and the coal ; but it does not include the placing and tamping of the concrete In the working chamber of the caisson, for that item is included in the cost of sinking the caisson. There were 400 cu. yds. of concrete in the caisson and 400 cu. yds. of concrete on the top of it, but of this last 400 cu. yds. only 60 per cent, or 240 cu. yds., was below the ground level. Hence we have 400 + 240 = 660 cu. yds. of concrete below the ground level. This 660 cu. yds., at $4.25, cost $2,805, which is equivalent to $62 per lin. ft., or $1.93 per cu. yd. of pier below the ground level- BRIDGES. 1611 We may now summarize the cost as follows : p er cu Perlin. yd. (1,500 Total. ft. (45ft.) cu. yds.) Plant, proportionate cost $ 2,525 $ 56 $1.68 Setting up platform and derrick. . . 100 2 0.07 Pipe left in caisson 130 3 0.09 6,000 Ibs. iron left in caisson 300 7 0.20 78,800 ft. B. M. caisson, $20 1,576 35 1.05 9,000 f t. ' B. M. cofferdam, $20.... 180 4 0.12 15,000 Ibs. cutting edge, 4V 2 c 675 15 0.45 9,200 Ibs. rods, drifts, etc., 2%c 230 5 0.16 6,200 Ibs. boat spikes, etc 172 4 0.11 2,200 Ibs. oakum, 4c 80 2 0.05 100 Ibs. rubber packing, 70c 70 2 0.05 486 days bldg. caisson, $2.96 1,439 32 0.96 79 days building cofferdam, $2.97.. 235 5 0.16 1,076 days sinking, $2.99 5,094 112 3.39 220 tons coal, $3.00 660 15 0.44 Other supplies 185 4 0.12 600 lin. ft. piles delivered, lOc 60 1 0.04 600 lin. ft. piles driven, 12c 72 2 0.05 Supt. and office exp 700 16 0.47 Totals $14,483 $322 $9.66 The cost of cutting and handling the sandstone for the masonry was as follows : p er cu y( j 2.8 days, stone cutter, at $6 $1.G8 3.2 days, laborer, at $2 0.64 (M)4 day, blacksmith, at $3.50 0.14 0.04 day, blacksmith helper, at $2.50 0.10 0.06 day, horse, at $1.50 0.09 Total $2.65 The total cost of this stone masonry was as follows : Per eu. yd, 1 cu. yd. stone at $6.50 $ 6.50 Cutting stone 2.65 Setting stone 0.95 0.08 cu. yd. sand at 80c 0.05 0.2 bbl. cement at $2 0.40 Total $10.55 There were 600 cu. yds. of this stone masonry, hence its cost was $6,330. About 60 per cent of it, or $3,798, was below the ground level. Summarizing the cost of the pier below the ground level, we have: Total. Brought forward $11,483 Concrete at $4.25 2,805 Masonry at $10.55 3,798 Total $21,086 $468 $14.12 The cost of the 20 lin ft. of pier above the ground level was; 160 cu. yds. concrete at $4.25 $ 680 240 cu. yds. masonry at $10.55 2,532 Total, 20 lin. ft., at $160 $3,212 The total cost of the pier was $24.298. 1612 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The reader will note that the tabulated cost of this caisson is given In such shape that the cost of similar work can be easily estimated by allowing for differences in prevailing prices and wages. If timber costs $30 per M, instead of $20, then, by adding 50 per cent to the items involving timber, the increased cost per cubic yard of caisson is readily estimated. Since the timber in the caisson cost $1.05 per cu. yd. of caisson, when timber was $20 per M, it is evident that, with timber at $30 per M, this Herri of $1.05 will be increased 50 per cent, making it $1.58 per cu. yd. of cais- son. In like manner other items may be raised or lowered, almost by inspection, and a total secured which will be a very accurate estimate. The above costs do not include "engineering," which, in this case, was about 6 per cent of the total. In a succeeding issue will be given the cost of the two caissons (piers Nos. 1 and 3) mentioned in the first part of this ai'ticle ; and in that issue we shall compare the costs of caissons in piers Nos. 1, 2 and 3, showing that the cubic yard is the proper unit to use in recording and comparing the cost of caisson work, and not the lineal foot. The lineal foot, it is true, has long been re- garded as a convenient unit of caisson costs, but it is wholly unre- liable for comparative purposes, and should be abandoned. Cost of Two Pneumatic Caissons and Masonry Bridge Piers.* In our last issue we gave a general description of a large pivot pier caisson and plant used in sinking it to a depth of 45 ft. In this issue we shall give the itemized cost of two smaller caissons of the same type, sunk with the same plant described in our last issue, and under the same conditions. Each of these caissons was 16 x 34 ft. in cross-section, and 15 ft. high ; and on top of each was built the masonry pier as fast as the caisson was sunk. These two "rest piers" will be designated as piers No. 1 and No. 3. The masonry was built to a height of 51 ft. above the top of the caisson, or 13 ft. above water level. The cutting edge of the caisson of pier No. 1 reached 47 ft. below ground level, or 53 ft. below water level. The cutting edge of pier No. 3 reached the same distance below water level, but only 38 ft. below ground level. The masonry of each pier had a cross-section of 11x28 ft. at the base, and 7x24 ft. under the coping. The masonry was cut stone (sandstone), excepting a core or concrete, 4 x 19 ft., 29 ft. high above the top of the caisson. The working chamber of the cais- son was filled with concrete after it had been sunk to the proper .depth. Cost of Pier No, 1. Eighteen days after the caisson was launched the sinking was begun. Eleven days after the sinking began, the sinking was completed, but the compressed air was not taken off until 17 days after the sinking began. The masonry pier was completed 54 days after the sinking began. Since the cross- section of the caisson was 544 sq. ft. and it was sunk to a depth of 47 ft., the excavation amounted to 947 cu. yds. The proportionate charge for the use of the plant for this pier was $1,262. * Engineering-Contracting, May 15, 1907. BRIDGES. 1613 There were 6,000 Ibs. of iron (air shafts, etc.) left in the pier, for which a charge of 5 cts. per lb., or $300, was made. There were 160 ft. of 4 -in. pipe, and 40 ft. of iy 2 -in pipe and fittings, worth $100, left in the pier. The cost of materials in the caisson was as follows : Plant, proportionate Total. cost...... $1,262 Setting up derrick and platform 90 Pipe left in caisson .......... 100 6,000 Ibs. iron left in caisson.. 300 51,000 ft. B. M. caisson, $20... 1,020 13,000 Ibs. cutting edge, 4y 2 cts. 585 8,000 Ibs. rods and drifts, 2%. 200 5,000 Ibs. boat spikes, etc ..... 136 1,500 Ibs. oakum, 4 cts ....... 60 100 Ibs. rubber packing, 70 cts. 70 321 days building caisson, $2.94 945 943 days sinking caisson, $3.10. 2,929 100 tons coal, $3.00 ........ .. 300 Other supplies ............... 109 Supt. and office expense ....... 440 Per Lin. Ft. ( 4 7 f t. ) $ 27 2 2 6 22 13 4 3 1 2 21 62 Per Cu. Yd. ( 9 4 7 cu. yds. ) $ 1.33 0.10 0.10 0.32 1.08 0.62 0.21 0.14 0.06 0.07 1.00 3.09 0.32 0.11 0.47 Total .................... $8,546 280 cu. yds. concrete, $4.25... 1,190 . . Total ........... . ........ $9,736 $207 $9.02 1.25 ---- $10.27 46,000 ft. B. M. in caisson, at $20 $ 920 2,000 ft. B. M. in false floor, at $20 40 13,000 Ibs. cutting edge, at 4 l / 2 cts 585 1,300 Ibs. corner plates, at 4 cts 52 5,000 Ibs. rods, at 2 y 2 cts 125 3,000 Ibs. drift bolts, at 2y 2 cts 75 2,400 Ibs. boat spikes, at 2 cts 48 800 Ibs. cast washers, at . 2 cts 16 500 Ibs. lag screws, etc., at 4 cts 20 15 bales (1,500 Ibs.) oakum, at $4 60 100 Ibs. rubber packing, at 70 cts 70 Total materials $2,071 There were 51,000 ft. B. M. in the caisson. The cost of framing and erecting the caisson was : 30 days, foreman, at $4.00 $120.00 220 days, carpenters, at 3.00 660.00 60 days, laborers, at 2.00 120.00 7 days, blacksmith, at 3.50 24.50 4 days, machinists, at 5.00 20.00 321 days, total, at $2.94 $944.50 This is equivalent to $18.50 per 1,000 ft. B. M., which is a very high cost. 24 days, general foreman, at. 48 days, sub-foremen, at 36 days, top lock tender, at . . .. 6.00 . . 5.00 2.25 380 days pressure men at 3 50 44 days, enginemen, at 44 days, firemen, at 38 days coal passers at . . 3.50 .. 2.75 2 50 24 days, steamfltters at . . 3 00 2 days, blacksmith, at . 3.50 30 days, carpenter at . 3 00 250 days laborers at 2 00 5 days, call boy at . 1 00 943 days, total, at.. . .$3.10 1614 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of sinking the caisson, which includes tamping the con- crete in the caisson also, was as follows : 18 days, foreman machinist, at.. $5. 00 $ 90 144 240 81 1,330 154 121 95 72 90 500 5 $2,929 The coal supplies used in sinking the caisson were as follows: 100 tons coal, at $3 $300.00 70 gals, gasoline and kerosene, at 10 cts. 7.00 160 Ibs. candles, at 12 cts 19.20 3,000 ft. B. M. in inside curb, at $20 60.00 20 Ibs. valve oil, at 50 cts 10.00 10 Ibs. engine oil, at 35 cts 3.50 35 Ibs. waste, at 5 cts 1.75 20 pairs rubber boots, at $3 60.00 100 Ibs. red lead, at 8 cts 8.00 Total $409.45 There were 200 cu. yds. of concrete placed in the working cham- ber of the caisson and 80 cu. yds. in the pier, the cost being $4.25 per cu. yd., as given in our last issue. We may now summarize the total cost as follows: In addition to the above there were 480 cu. yds. of stone masonry, the actual cost of which was $10.55*per cu. yd., or $5,064. About 330 cu. yds. of this masonry was below the ground level, which is equivalent to $3,481 of stone masonry below the ground level. Dividing this by 47, we have $74 per lin. ft. Summarizing, we have the following cost of pier No. 1 below the ground level : Total. Per lin. ft. Per cu. yd. Caisson, etc $ 8,546 $182 $ 9.02 280 cu. yds. concrete at $4.25.... 1,190 25 1.25 330 cu. yds. masonry, at $10.55... 3,481 74 3.66 Total $13,217 $281 $13.93 150 cu. yds. masonry above ground level, at $10.55 1,583 Grand total $14,800 Cost of Pier No. S. The design of this pier was the same as of Pier No. 1. It differed somewhat in cost, however, since it was sunk to a depth of only 38 ft. below ground level, due to the fact that the water was deeper at the site of this pier than at the site of pier No. 1. Fifteen days after the caisson was launched, the sinking began. It took 15 days to sink the caisson, and 4 days more to fill the BRIDGES. 1615 working chamber with concrete, making 19 days of work under air pressure. The masonry pier was completed 37 days after the sink- ing was begun. The cost of materials in the caisson was the same as for pier No. 1. The cost of framing and erecting the caisson was : 29 days, foreman $4.00 $116.00 218 days, carpenters 3.00 654.00 58 days, laborers 2.00 116.00 9 days, blacksmith : 3.50 31.50 4 days, machinist . 5.00 20.00 318 days, total : $2.95 $937.50 This is equivalent to $19 per M. The cost of sinking the caisson, which included tamping the con- crete in the caisson also, was as follows : 18 days, foreman machinst.. . . $5.00 30 days, general foreman 6.00 38 days, sub-foreman 5.00 33 days, top lock tender 2.00 340 days, pressure men 3.50 50 days, enginemen 3.50 46 days, firemen 2.75 20 days, coal passers 2.50 28 days, steamfitters 3.00 2 days, blacksmith 3.50 16 days, carpenter 3.00 220 days, laborers 2.00 90.00 180.00 190.00 66.00 1,190.00 175.00 126.50 50.00 84.00 7.00 48.00 440.00 851 days, total $3.11 $2,646.50 The coal and supplies used in sinking the caisson were follows : 120 tons coal, $3 $360.00 70 gals, gasoline, etc., 10 cts 7.00 175 Ibs. candles, 12 cts 21.00 20 gals, valve oil, 50 cts 10.00 12 gals, engine oil, 35 cts 4.20 35 Ibs. waste, 5 cts 1.75 24 pairs rubber boots, $3 72.00 100 Ibs. red lead, 8 cts 8.00 Total . $483.95 The guide piles cost as follows: 620 lin. ft, delivered, 10 c'..~ $ 62.00 620 lin. ft. driven, 10 cts 62.00 Total $124.00 1616 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Summarizing we have : Per Per Lin. Ft. Cu. Yd. Total. ( 3 8 f t. ) ( 7 6 6 cu. yds. ) Plant $1,262 $33 $1.65 Setting up derrick and platform.. 120 3 0.16 Pipe left in caisson 150 4 0.20 6,000 Ibs. iron left in caisson... 300 8 0.39 50,000 ft. B. M. left in caisson, $30 1,000 26 1.31 13,000 Ibs. cutting edge, 4 y 2 cts... 585 15 0.76 8,000 Ibs. rods and drifts, 2y 2 cts. 200 5 0.26 5,000 Ibs. boat spikes, etc.../.. 136 4 0.18 60 2 0.08 70 2 0.09 938 25 1.22 2,646 71 3.45 1,500 Ibs. oakum, 4 cts. 100 Ibs. rubber packing, 70 cts. 318 days building caisson, $295. 851 days sinking caisson, $3.11. 120 tons coal, $3.00 360 . 9 0.47 Other supplies 124 3 0.16 Supt. and office exp 440 11 0.57 Total ?8~39l $221 $Io~95 280 cu. yds. concrete, $4.25 1,190 31 1.55 Total $9~581 $252 $12.50 In addition to the above there were 480 cu. yds. of stone masonry, the cost of which was $10.55 per cu. yd., or $5,064. Adding this to the $9,581, we have a total cost of $14,645 for pier No. 3. Let us compare the costs of piers Nos. 1, 2 and 3. Referring to our issue of May 8, we find the cost of pivot pier No. 2. In making the comparison we shall exclude the cost of the masonry and concrete. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Cost per cu. yd., displaced $9.02 $9.66 $10.95 Cost per lin. ft. below ground level 1.82 3.22 2.21 It Is perfectly evident, from this comparison, that the lineal foot of distance sunk below the ground level is not a rational unit to be used in comparing the cost of pneumatic caisson work. On the other hand, the cubic yard of displaced earth is a much more ra- tional unit. Obviously the cost of the masonry should be estimated separately, excepting possibly the concrete used in filling the work- ing chamber of the caisson. The foregoing data relate to work carried on at moderate depths below the water level. Cost of a Caisson in Arizona. Mr. S. M. Rowe gives the following data relative to a caisson for the Red Rock cantilever bridge, built in 1889, across the Colorado River in Arizona for the Atlantic and Pacific R. R. Co. The caisson was 30x60 ft. in cross- section and 17 ft. high, sur- mounted by a timber crib 47 ft. high, the height from the cutting edge to the top of the crib being 64 ft. The ordinary low water level was at the top of the crib, and the depth of water (at low water) was only 4 ft. The material penetrated was mostly sand, gravel and boulders. So compact was the material at a depth of 61 ft. that it was practically impossible to reach bed rock. BRIDGES. 1617 The caisson and crib were of Oregon pine, and the following was the bill of material : Ft. B. M. Working chamber (incl. 3 ins. casing inside) 82,560 Roof, 8 ft. thick 155,904 Crib (incl. -3 ins. casing outside) 240,855 Total timber (neat) .479,319 Iron bolts and spikes 58,000 Ibs, Concrete in crib (47.7 cu. yds. per lin. ft). 2,290 cu. yds. Concrete in working chamber 580 cu. yds. Total concrete 2,870 cu. yds. It is stated that the timber weighed 35 Ibs. per cu. ft. when well dried, and that it absorbed 28 Ibs. of water per cu. ft. There were 1,480 cu. yds. of solid timber and 2,870 cu. yds. of concrete, making a total of 4,350 cu. yds. as the volume of the caisson and crib, the timber being 34% of the total volume. The total cost was $128,263, or nearly $30 per cu. yd., of which $16.50 is labor, which is an exceedingly high cost. The following is the itemized cost of the caisson : Timber (480 M) $ 7,665.02 Iron and steel (58,000 Ibs.) 2,180.13 Tools and materials 8,415.65 Fuel and water 7,158.30 Cement for 2,870 cu. yds. concrete 9,568.00 Freight 13,363.20 Local and train service 2,790.96 Labor 71,754.02 Engineering 5,052.67 Total '. $128,263.19 This did not include the building of a trestle across the river to the site of the caisson, which cost $6,238, nor the tracks to the quarry, which cost $7,313. The following gives the labor cost for the different periods : Depth Labor Cost Pay Roll. Sunk. Per Lin. Ft. November, 10 days $ 2,612 9.9ft. $263 December, 31 days 10,027 23.4ft. 429 January, 31 days 10,710 26.8ft 400 The last foot or two sunk in January cost $2,500 per ft. for labor. In February, 11 days were spent, at a cost of $3,760 for total labor, filling the working chamber with 580 cu. yds. of concrete. The air plant consisted of 3 compressors (two of which were double cylinders 16 x 24 ins., and one 12 x 18 ins. Two were used while excavating and one held in reserve. These were driven by two 75-hp. boilers and by one of 50 hp. The air plant was on a boat 24 x 60 ft. built for the purpose. The stone for the concrete was a broken volcanic rock, with which the "mesas" were strewn, which was raked into windrows and hauled by wagons to a pile where it was loaded into a car. 1618 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost or a Caisson In Tennessee. Mr. Hunter McDonald gives the following data relative to a caisson for a pivot pier of a railway swing bridge built in 1893 across the Tennessee River for the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry., by contract. The caisson was 36 ft. square and 16 ft. high, surmounted by a crib 28 ft. high, making a total height of 44 ft. The cutting edge was sunk through gravel and sand to a depth of 44 ft. below low water. The caisson and crib were filled with 1:2:5 natural cement concrete. The contract price of the pivot pier was as follows : 119,792 ft. B. M. timber in caisson, at $38 $ 4,552.11 95,727 ft. B. M. timber in crib, at $28 2,680.37 54,975 Ibs. iron, at 4 cts 2,199.00 96 lin. ft. shafting left in place, at $7 672.00 44 lin. ft. sinking below water level, at $344.81 15,172.42 313.4 cu yds. material removed through lock at $35 10,969.00 1,085.9 cu. yds. concrete in crib and pockets, at $6 6,515.40 233.5 cu. yds. concrete in air chamber, at $12 2,802.00 Total cost of caisson ...................... $45,562.00 Since the displacement of this 44 ft. caisson was 2,112 cu. yds., the cost was $21.57 per cu. yd., or $1,035 per lin. ft. of Vertical height. The cost of the stone masonry was: 415.62 cu. yds. face stone, at $12 ............... $ 4,987.44 725.19 cu. yds. backing, at $7 .................. 5,076.33 24.52 cu. yds. coping, at $16 .................. 392.32 Total masonry ............................ $10,456.09 The masonry was 48 ft. high above the top of the crib. A caisson for a rest pier was 16% x40% ft. in cross-section, and displaced 1,107 cu. yds., and cost $19 per cu. yd., or $476 per lin. ft. of vertical height. It contained 115,000 ft. B. M. in caisson and crib and 672 cu. yds. of concrete. Cost of Four Caissons. Mr. B. L. Crosby gives the following data relative to 4 caissons built in 1892 for the St. Louis, Keokuk & Northwestern R. R. for a double- track bridge across the Missouri River. The work was done by company forces. Each caisson was 30x70 ft. in cross-section and 16 ft. high, surmounted by a crib. The cribs were 24, 45, 58 and 64 ft. high for piers Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. The caissons anfl cribs were filled with 1:2:4 natural cement concrete. The 'air plant consisted of two No. 4 Clayton duplex compressors, having steam and air cylinders, each 14 ins. with 15 -in. stroke; and a Worthington duplex pump, 18% x 10% x 10 ins. This plant was set on a small steam boat. There was a duplicate plant mounted on a platform on piles. There were several hoisting engines, a pile-driver boat, provided with a derrick for handling the timbers, arid an arc light plant for night work. The concrete was mixed BRIDGES. 1619 in a Cockburn Barrow Co. mixer on a barge provided with a der- rick for handling concrete blocks. There were several other barges for handling timber, cement and stone, and a small steam- boat for towing barges. The caissons were built on launching ways constructed of piles capped with 12 x 12-in. timbers parallel with the river bank. The way timbers were 12 x 12-in. having a slope of 3 ins. to the foot toward the river, and were extended far enough into the river to allow the caisson to float before being clear of the timbers. The piles under water were cut off with a circular saw and caps were placed by a diver ; the drift-bolts were driven by a ramrod work- ing through a gas pipe over the drift-bolt. Several sandbars at the sites of the piers were washed away by the paddle wheels of the steamboat, a hole 7 to 10 ft. deep being dug out in this manner. Barges were placed on each side of a caisson, and heavy timbers bolted the caisson, extending out over the barges. By pumping air into the caisson it was raised till it drew only 5 ft. of water, and blocking was placed under the tim- bers projecting over the barges. Then it was towed to place. The following were the depths below "standard low water" to which the different caissons were sunk: No. 1, 68 ft. ; No. 2, 89 ft. ; No. 3, 101 ft. ; No. 4, 83 ft. Some blasting of the rock site of caisson No. 1 was done. Rackarock was used, because its fumes do not give the men head- aches as do the fumes of dynamite in a caisson. The total combined height of the four caissons and cribs was 255 ft, and, since their cross-section was 30 x 70 ft, this is equiva- lent to combined displacement of nearly 20,000 cu. yds., of which 25% was the yellow pine timber, there being 1,609,000 ft B. M. There were 13,285 cu. yds. of 1:2:4 concrete placed in the caissons and cribs, requiring 20,800 bbls. of cement, of which 80% was natural and 20% Portland. The cost of the concrete was $5.36 per cu. yd., including all material and labor. The cost of framing the timber and building it into the caissons was $22 per 1,000 ft. B. M., including the cost of the launching ways, han- dling and towing, and all labor and materials, but not including the cost of the timber in the caissons and cribs. It is likely that in 1892 this yellow pine cost about $18 per M. In which case the total cost was $40 per M in place. Since 1,000 ft. B. M. = 3.08 cu. yd., each cubic yard of tim- ber would cost $13. If each cubic yard displaced by the caisson and cribs was 25% timber (at $13 per cu. yd.) and 75% concrete (at $5.36 per cu. yd.), then the average cost was $7.20 per cu. yd., to which must be added the cost of sinking the caissons, which was $2.48 per cu. yd., making a total of $9.68 per cu. yd. displaced. As a matter of fact the total cost actually was $9.23 per cu. yd., from which it would appear either that our assumed price of $18 per M for the timber is a little too high, or that the percentage of timber was not quite 25%. 1620 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The material was excavated and discharged from the working chambers with a Morrison sand pump, which is a modification of the Eads sand pump. For comparative purposes it is well to record here that a long timber trestle, built at the same time by company forces, cost $7.42 per M for labor, including unloading, framing and erecting. Wages are not given, except for "pressure men," who received $3.50 a day, and worked an hour at a time for 2 or 3 hrs. a day when at the greatest depth. It is probable that common laborers received $1.25 to $1.50 and carpenters $2.50 per day of 10 hrs., at that time and place. Materials for a Caisson. In building a single-track bridge for the Illinois Central R. R. across the Ohio River near Cairo, 10 piers were^sunk 75 ft. below low water. The f Fictional resistance was found to be 600 to 700 Ibs. per sq. ft. of exposed surface. The largest caisson and crib is 30 ft. wide, 70 ft. long and 50 ft. high. The total height of the pier is 177 ft. (50 ft. of caisson and crib filled with concrete, and 127 ft. of masonry on top). It contains the following materials : 331,000 ft. B. M. lumber. 137,000 Ibs. iron. 2,865 cu. yds. concrete in caisson and crib. 3,800 cu. yds. masonry. The pier measures 14 x 43 ft. on top. The weight of the 137,000 Ibs. of iron was distributed as follows: Lbs. Cutting edge 26,583 Corner plates 8,108 Air locks (1 pr. doors left in) 7,287 Sections of shaft 14,813 Rods 30,570 Washers 7,111 Drift bolts 21,606 Boat spikes 15,402 Lag screws 265 Bolts 331 Pipe (334 ft. of 4 in.) 3,495 Pipe (83 ft. of 5 in.) 1,234 Total 136,785 Cost of Erecting Three Steel Viaducts and a New Formula for Computing the Weight of Viaducts.* In Engineering-Contracting of April 3, 10 and 17 and May 8, we gave the costs of erecting a num- ber of steel bridges of different spans and types. In this issue we shall give the cost of erecting several steel viaducts, and shall briefly discuss methods of estimating the cost of steel viaducts. The modern steel viaduct is a structure consisting of deck plate girder spans supported by steel bents resting on concrete pedestals. Each steel bent has two legs, having a batter of 2 ins. to the foot. Bents on high viaducts are spaced 30 ff and 60 ft. apart alter- nately, so that the plate girder spans are alternately 30 ft. and +Engineering-Contracting, June 19, 1907. BRIDGES. 1621 60 ft. long. Every pair of bents 30 ft. apart is braced by horizontal and diagonal members, thus forming a "tower." Ordinarily, there- fore, the number of towers in a viaduct is just half the number of bents ; and the number of plate girder spans is just one more than the number of bents. Estimating Weight of Viaducts. There are excellent rules or for- mulas for estimating the approximate weight of plate girders and tru'ss bridges of different spans, but the existing formulas for estimating the weight of viaducts are very unsatisfactory. The editors of this journal have deduced a new formula for estimating the weight of steel in viaducts of the type just described, but, be- fore presenting the deduction, we shall quote the empirical for- mulas proposed by Mr. C. P. Howard, M. Am. Soc. C. E. They are as follows: W = 26 A, for height of 20 ft. W= 20 A, for height of 60 ft. W= 17 A, for height of 90 ft. W = total weight of viaduct in Ibs. A = profile area of viaduct in square feet. The above formulas are for Cooper's E 40 loading. Add 20% for Cooper's E 50 loading. This method of estimating the weight of viaducts by profile areas alone is a very common one, but is wholly irrational, as is seen by the fact that a different factor is necessary for different heights. The profile area, it should be explained, is the area on the profile between the base of the rail and the ground surface, or between the lower chord of the plate girders and the line joining the tops of the masonry pedestals on which the towers rest. It is in the former sense (which is most common) that we use the term profile area here, although the latter sense is to be preferred and should be generally adopted. Obviously the weight of the bents, or towers, bears some relation to this area, but it is equally obvious that the weight of the plate girders bears no relation whatever to the profile area. For a live load of two 116-ton engines and a train weighing 3,000 Ibs. per lin. ft., the average weight of plate girder spans (30 ft. and 60 ft. alternating) is about 600 Ibs. per lin. ft. For the same load- Ing, the weight of steel in each bent is about 540 Ibs. per lin. ft. of height of bent, for viaducts of any considerable height. Having these data in mind, we are able to deduce a very simple and ra- tional formula for estimating the weight of steel in high viaducts. Let A = profile area in sq. ft. L = length of viaduct in ft. W = weight of viaduct in Ibs. Then : A Average height of bents = . L L Number of bents = . 45 1622 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. This last equation is slightly in error, giving one bent too lev) when the average length of girders is 45 ft. (% of 30 + 60), but it Is close enough for practical purposes. Therefore: ALA Total height of all bents = X = . L 45 45 But the weight of bents per lin. ft. of height is 540 Ibs. ; hence: A Total weight of bents =54 OX =12 A. 45 The total weight of girder spans = 600 L. Therefore: W= 12 A -f 600 L. This is a formula which the editors have used in estimating the weight of many viaducts of different heights, and, except for very low viaducts (20 or 25 ft.), or for viaducts of antiquated design, it gives very close results. Low viaducts are really trestles, with bents spaced at equal distances, and not built with bents spaced and braced so as to form towers. We shall now pass to a consideration of the cost of erecting two viaducts, and at the close of this article will discuss the design of masonry substructures, indicating wherein we believe present prac- tice to be extravagantly wasteful of material. Cost of Erecting a 500- ft. Viaduct. This viaduct weighed 34C' tons and was erected by contract. The profile area was 31,500 sq. ft., and the average height was 63 ft. The following costs were thM actual costs to the contractor. The average force was: Per day. 1 foreman at $5.00 '. $ 5.00 1 foreman carpenter, at $4.00 4.00 1 foreman, at $3.50 3.50 7 riveters, etc., at $3.25 22.75 10 bridgemen, at $3.00 30.00 8 carpenters, at $2.75 22.00 3 laborers, at $2.50 7.50 1 stationary engineer, at $3.25 3.25 1 water boy, at $1.50 1.50 33 Total gang $99.50 It will be noted that foremen's wages constituted 12% of the total. Time allowed traveling 1 day at $5.00 $ 5.00 1 day at 4.00 4.00 1 day at 3.50 3.50 8 days at 3.25 26.00 10 days at 3.00 30.00 8 days at 2.75 22.00 3 days at 2.50 7.50 Total . 98.00 BRIDGES. 162fl Loading derricks and tools 4 days at $5.00 $20.00 4 days at 3.50 . 14.00 12 days at 3.00 36.00 2 days at 2.50 5.00 Total $75.00 Framing traveler and rig derrick car 3 days at $5.00 $15.00 3 days at 3.50 10.50 6 days at 3.25 19.50 7 days at 3.00 21.00 Total $66.00 Erecting traveler 1 Va days at $5.00 $ 7.50 9y 2 days at 3.25 30.87 9 days at 3.00 27.00 Total . * $65.37 Erecting towers 12 days at $5.00 $ 60.00 12 days at 3.50 .- 42.00 36 days at 3.25 117.00 47 days at 3.00 141.00 12 days at 2.50 30.00 6 days at 1.50 9.00 Total $399.00 Riveting towers 48 days at $3.25 $156.00 52 days at 3.00 156.00 32 days at 2.50 80.00 7 days at 1.50 10.50 Total $402.50 Filling bases of posts with concrete 4 days at $2.75 $11.00 Erecting girder spans 10 days at $5.00 $ 50.00 10 days at 3.50 35.00 40 days at 3.25 130.00 60 days at 3.00 180.00 5 days at 1.50 7.50 Total $402.50 Riveting girder spans 24 days at $3.25 . $ 78.00 48 days at 3.00 144.00 12 days at 2.75 33.00 6 days at 1.50 9.00 Total $264.00 Framing ties for floor 10 days at $4.00 $ 40.00 33 days at 2.75 90.75 Total $130.75 1624 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Laying floor 16 days at $4.00 $ 64.00 16 days at 2.50 40.00 43 days at 2.75 118.25 Total $222.25 Painting first coat 23% days at $3.25 $ 76.37 26 days at 3.00 78.00 20 days at 2.50 50.00 Total $204.37 Painting second coat 21 days at $3.25 . . .$ 68.25 24 days at 3.00 72.00 16 days at 2.50 40.00 Total " $180.25 Summary Time traveling $ 98.00 Loading derricks and tools 75.00 Framing traveler, etc 66.00 Erecting traveler 65.37 Total general expense $ 304.37 Erecting towers 399.00 Riveting towers 402.50 Filling bases of posts 11.00 Erecting girder spans 402.50 Riveting girder spans 264.00 Framing ties 130.75 Laying floor 222.25 Painting, first coat v . 204.37 Painting, second coat 180.25 Total labor $2,521.00 Coal for derrick engine 120.00 Blacksmith coal 45.00 Train service, 5 days, at $25 125.00 Wear of tools. . 125.00 Total, 500 lin. ft, at $6 $2,936.00 Summary per ton Per ton. General expense, $304 $0.90 Erecting and riveting, $1,479 4.32 Painting, 2 coats, $385 .1.13 Framing and laying floor, $353 1.05 Total labor $7.40 Coal, $165 0.48 Train service, $125 0.37 Wear of tools, $125 0.37 Grand total $8.52 The cost of framing and laying the floor, it will be seen, was $35 3. or 70 cts. per lin. ft. BRIDGES. 16*5 The total cost of this viaduct to the railway company was as follows : Steel superstructure, labor $ 4,240 Steel superstructure, materials 19,000 Masonry substructure, labor 4,360 Masonry substructure, materials. 5,200 Total . '. $32,800 This is equivalent to $46.50 per lin. ft. for superstructure, and $19.10 per lin. ft. for substructure, or $65.60 per lin. ft. of viaduct. The substructure, therefore, cost 30% of the total. Sincfe the steel superstructure weighed 340 tons, or 680,000 Ibs., it cost 3.56 cts. per Ib. in place. As previously stated, the average height of this viaduct was 63 f t. ; its maximum height was 89 ft. from top of masonry to base -of rail. It was supported by 6 towers (or 12 bents), the length of the "tower spans" being 31 ft. The remain- ing spans, or "open spans," were three spans of 57 ft., two of 38 ft., and two of 30 ft. The above costs for labor include con- tract price for erection, salaries of engineers, inspectors, etc. The costs for materials include freight and train service. Cost of Erecting a 580-ft. Viaduct. This viaduct was erected by contract, with the same gang as the 500-ft. viaduct just described. The weight of the steel was 382 tons, or 764,000 Ibs. The profile area was 34,800 sq. ft., the average height was 60 ft., and the maximum height from masonry to base of rail was 89 ft. There were 7 towers or 14 bents. The "tower spans" were 31 ft. The "open spans" were: One 61-ft. span, three 57-ft., one 38-ft., and three 30 -ft. spans. The cost to the contractor was as follows : Time traveling 2 days at $5.00 $10.00 2 days at 3.50 700 12 days at 3.25 39 DO 20 days at 3.00 ...... . 60 00 Total $116.00 Loading, derricks and tools 4 days at $5.00 $20.06 6 days at 3.25 19.50 10 days at 3.00 30.00 Total $69.50 Erecting traveler 1 day at $5.00 $5.00 1 day at 3.50 3.50 1 day at 3.25 3.25 10 days at 3.00 30.00 Total . 41.76 1626 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Erecting towers 11 days at $5.00 . . .$ 55.00 10 days at 3.50 35.00 22 days at 3.25 71.50 104 days at 3.00 312.00 24 days at 2.75 66.00 5 days at 1.50 7.50 Total ' 5547.00 Riveting towers 32 days at $3.25 , ..$104.00 88 days at 3.00 264.00 8 days at 1.50 12.00 Total $380.00 Filling bases of posts with concrete 4 days at $2.75 : . . $11.00 Erecting girder spans 12 days at $5.00 . ..$ 60.00 12 days at 3.50 42.00 24 days at 3.25 78.00 83 days at 3.00 249.00 6 days at 1.50 9.00 Total $438.00 Riveting girder spans 24 days at $3.25 $ 78.00 66 days at 3.00 198.00 9 days at 1.50 13.50 Total , . . $289. Floor, framing ties 18 days at $4.00 $72.00 30 days at 3.00 90.00 10 days at 2.75 27.50 Total 5189.50 Laying floor 15 days at $3.50 $ 52.50 48 days at 3.25 156.00 100 days at 3.00 300.00 Total $508.50 Painting first coat 7 days at $5.00 $ 35.00 35 days at 2.75 96.25 25 days at 3.25 81.25 40 days at 3.00 120.00 Total ?332.5 Painting second coat 2 days at $5.00 $ 10.00 28 days at 3.25 91.00 60 days at 3.00 180.00 Total $281.00 BRIDGES. 1627 Summary Time traveling % 116.00 Loading derricks, etc 69.50 Erecting traveler 41.75 General expense % 227.25 Erecting towers 547.00 Riveting towers 380.00 Filling bases 11.00 Erecting girder spans 438.00 Riveting girder spans 289.50 Floor, framing ties 189.50 Laying floor 508.50 Painting, first coat 332.50 Painting, second coat 281.00 Total 13,204.25 Coal for derrick engine 72.00 Blacksmith coal 45.00 Train service, 5 days, at $25 125.00 Wear of tools 160.00 Grand total $3,606.25 Summary of cost per ton Per ton. General expense, $227 $0.59 Erecting and riveting, $1,665 4.36 Painting, 2 coats, $603 1.60 Framing and laying floor, $698 1.83 Total $8.38 Coal, $117 0.30 Train service, $125 0.33 Wear of tools, $160 0.42 Grand total $9.43 Comparing this with the cost of erecting the 500-ft. viaduct, we see that the painting cost 50% more per ton, and that the work on the floor (timber deck) cost 80% more. In this 580-ft. viaduct the total labor on the deck cost $698, or $1.20 per lin. ft., which is fully double what it should have cost. The total cost of this 580-ft. viaduct to the railway company was as follows : Steel superstructure, labor $ 5,750 Steel superstructure, materials 21,950 Masonry substructure, labor 5,860 ' Masonry substructure, materials 4,240 Total $37,800 This is equivalent to $47.80 per Hn. ft. for superstructure and $19.70 per lin. ft. for substructure, or $67.50 per lin. ft. of viaduct. Therefore the substructure cost 20% of the total. The steel super- structure cost 3.63 cts. per Ib. in place. Cost of a 1,170-ft. Viaduct. This steel viaduct had profile area of 97,200 sq. ft, and an average height of 78% ft. It had 12 towers and 2 "rocker bents," making a total of 26 bents. The extren-e 1628 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. height of bent from top of masonry pedestals to base of rail was 104 ft. ; the average height 77 ft. ; and the aggregate height of all bents, 2,000 ft. There were 12 plate girder "tower spans" of 31 ft. over the towers, 11 plate girder "open spans" of 61 ft., and 4 girder "open spans" of 31 ft. The weight of the metal was 1,690,000 Ibs. The actual cost of erecting the viaduct was $8.50 per ton. The viaduct was built and erected by a contractor at the following cost to the railway company for materials and labor : 674,000 Ibs. girder spans in place, at 3.9 cts % 25,286 1,004,000 Ibs. bents and towers, 3.9 cts 39,156 5,400 Ibs. sheet lead, at 6 cts 324 132,000 ft. B. M. in floor system, at $25 3,300 Total superstructure ? 68,066 1,000 cu. yds. dry excavation, at 40 cts 4,000 640 cu. yds. wet excavation, at $2 1,280 216,000 ft. B. M. sheet piling, etc., in cofferdams, at $25 5,325 8,000 lin. ft. piles delivered and driven, at 30 cts. 2,430 3,000 cu. yds. riprap, at $1.50 4,500 1,800 cu. yds. concrete, at $8 14,400 1,800 Ibs. iron in anchor bolts, etc., at 4 cts... 72 Total superstructure $32,007 Engineering, shop inspection, etc 5,500 Grand total $105,573 The cost per lin. ft. of viaduct was : Per lin. ft. Per cent. Superstructure $58.1 3 64.3 Substructure 27.35 30.4 Engineering 4.77 5.3 Totals $90.25 100.0 The foundations of two of the towers, eight masonry pedestals in all, were in water, which ran up the total cost of substructure very considerably. Nevertheless, the cost of the substructure of the majority of steel viaducts of large size is usually a far higher percentage of the total cost than it should be. This is due to the fact that bridge engineers are generally very painstaking in the economic design of superstructures and not so painstaking in the design of substructures. Because the design of a superstructure is an exact science, there is an attractiveness about such work easy to understand. Because the .design of foundation is merely by rule of thumb, there is less of fascination in the work. This par- ticular viaduct is a splendid example of our contention that engi- neers usually put altogether too little brains into designing sub- structures. The concrete pedestals of the substructure rest on rock, with the exception of eight pedestals which have pile foundations. Yet every one of these concrete pedestals is designed exactly as if it were in- tended to rest on soft earth, as is shown in Fig. 15, ft will be BRIDGES. 1629 seen that each pedestal has a base of 110 sq. ft. Even at a point where the viaduct is 90 ft. high, as in this case, the weight of the steel is less than 1,700 Ibs. per lin. ft. The timber floor system would add only a little more than 300 Ibs. per lin. ft., making a total of 2,000 Ibs. Adding a live load of 5,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. to this, we have 7,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. Each bent has to' support the weight of 45 lin. ft. of bridge, or 45X7,000 = 315,000 Ibs. But this is distributed over two pedestals, making a load of 160,000 Ibs. per pedestal, or 80 tons. If wind pressure were to raise this to 110 tons, the load on the foundation would be 1 ton per sq. ft., for we have 110 sq. ft. of foundation area. From this it is clear that, even where resting on earth, the area of the pedestal base is in excess of any reasonable requirement. Fig. 15. Pedestals for Steel Viaduct. Reid's "Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Construction," p. 408, gives the safe bearing power of soft clay at 1 ton per sq. ft., and of ordinary loam at 3 tons. Hence the absurdity of providing any such area of base as in this pedestal under discussion, for it is resting not on earth but on rock. It is perfectly clear that the designer could have saved 60 or 70% of the concrete masonry in each of these pedestals, had he not followed a rule of thumb which is applicable only to foundations resting on earth, and not always applicable even to them. It is no unusual thing for earth to be called upon to support 10 tons per sq. ft, and there are few places where 5 tons can not be safely imposed on each square loot. A bridge engineer who is seeking to effect every possible economy should visit the site of every large structure, and personally test the bearing power of the earth, by digging test pits to the proposed depth of foundation where possible. 1630 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Another noticeable economic defect in the design of these pedes- tals is the excavation of the rock so as to form a square footing. Solid rock having so slight a transverse slope as that shown in the illustration need not be excavated at all. A few drill holes, in which large dowel pins are placed, will serve every purpose in pro- viding against possible sliding of the masonry on the ledge rock under the vibration of passing trains. Cost of the Pecos Viaduct.* The Pecos Viaduct, Texas, was built in 1891 for the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio Ry. It is a single track steel viaduct 2,180 ft. long, and 321 ft. high at the center. The viaduct is built on a peculiar profile. For 1,070 ft. of the west end the average height of the viaduct is 57 ft., then the ground drops off precipitously, so that for a distance of 600 ft. the towers are 260 ft. high and rest on masonry piers, of varying heights up to 80 ft. Then the ground rises on an almost uniform slope to the last pier on the east end. The profile area between the base of rail, and the tops of masonry piers is approximately 280,- 000 sq. ft. Dividing this by the length gives 129 ft. as the average height of the viaduct. None of the tower ^)iers is under water at times of low water, but three of them are submerged at times of high water. There are 33 towers and the tower spans are plate girders 35 ft. span. The spans between the towers are 8 riveted lattice girder spans of 65 ft., 2-pin-connected cantilever spans of 172 ft., and one 80 ft. suspended span. The masonry piers were built in 229 working days. Ths steel work was erected in 118 days, including 24 days required to build a traveler weighing 116 tons and 6 days to take it down and move it to the opposite side of the river. The erecting gang average 60 men and at no time exceeded 79. The average amount of steel erected were 41,000 Ibs. per day for the 86 days, or 39,600 Ibs. per day for the 118 days. If wages were $2.50 a day, this would be equivalent to 0.36 ct. per Ib. ; exclusive of the cost of erecting and moving the traveler, or 0.5 ct. per Ib. including erecting and moving the traveler. The actual wages paid are not available but were appa- rently considerably more than $2.50, for the actual cost 'of erecting this viaduct was 0.87 ct. per Ib. including not only the cost of erecting the traveler but the cost of the traveler itself. The weight of this viaduct was as follows: Lbs. 34 plate girder spans, 35 ft. long 495,550 1 plate girder span, 35 ft. long 24,810 8 lattice girder spans, 65 ft. long 354,120 1 lattice girder span, 80 ft. long 57,870 2 cantilevers, 172 y 2 ft. long 478,400 Floor bolts and railings 51,620 Total superstructure . .1,462,370 Towers and anchor bolts 2,147,190 Grand total 3,609,560 * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2, 1908. BRIDGES. 1631 The cost was as follows : 3,270 cu. yds. masonry, at $13 $ 42,505 3,609,560 Ibs. steel delivered, at 4.43 cts. 160,000 Erecting, including cost of traveler 30,500 256,600 ft. B. M. timber flooring, at $20.75 5,325 Total $238,330 This is equivalent to $119 per im. ft. ; and the weight of steel was 1,650 Ibs. per lin. ft. It will be noted that the masonry pedestals cost only 18% of the total cost of the viaduct. Cost of the Marent Viaduct.* In 1884 a single track iron viaduct was built for the Northern Pacific Ry. across Marent Gulch to re- place a timber viaduct. The profile area of this viaduct is 95,700 sq. ft. below the top of the stringers, and the length of the viaduct is 800 ft, so the average height is practically 96,000-^800=120 ft. nearly. It has two towers, each 200 ft. high; two towers each 120 ft. high ; and four short bents. There are 4 plate girder spans at the ends, each 30 ft. ; 6 truss spans, each 116 ft. long; girders 23 ft. long over each of the four towers. The foundation piers are of concrete, of which there was 544 cu. yds. in all. The viaduct contained the following amount of iron and steel : Lbs. Towers and bents 872,900 5 deck truss spans 466,700 Floor system 297,827 )late girder spans 40,161 iscellaneous 8,962 4 pi Mis( Total, at 2,133 Ibs. per lin. ft 1,686,550 This is equivalent to 17.5 Ibs. per sq, ft. of profile area. The iron work cost 3.85 cts. per Ib. delivered at St. Paul, and the "traffic charges" for transporting the iron and other materials from St. Paul, at 1 ct. per ton mile, amounted to $24,743. The total cost was: Foundations $ 21,664.59 Masonry 30,079.81 Towers, materials and labor 49,188.44 Superstructure, materials and labor. . . 36,593.94 Timber, floor 4,701.43 Painting 1,826.74 Permanent track 116.06 Engineering and incidentals 9,085.15 Permanent track. . , 116.06 Total $153,362.16 Traffic charges 24,743.18 Total, at $222.63 per lin ft $178,105.34 * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2, 1908. 1632 HANDBOOK. OF COST DATA. The cost of erecting the towers was $15,800, and of erecting the superstructure (spans and floor) was $6,500, or a total of $22,300 for erecting 840 tons, or nearly $27 per ton. This exceedingly high cost is said to have been due to high wages and to working in the winter. It appears, however, to have been due to the usual lazi- ness of men doing "company work." The following were the quantities in the substructure, including the abutments: Cu yds. Rock excavation 1,645 Earth excavation 3,689 Concrete 544 Cut stone masonry 722 -It cost $7,664 to remove the old wooden viaduct, which con- tained 970,000 ft. B. M., or about $7.70 per M. for removing this timber. Skilled labor received $3 to $4.50 a day. The cost of erecting and removing the temporary buildings in which the men lived was $2,700. Depreciation on plant was estimated at $4,500. Both these items are included above. For comparison, the following weights of a viaduct of the same average height are given by Mr. H. G. Tyrrell. The weight of a single track railway viaduct 120 ft. high, with tower bents 30 ft. c. to c., and intermediate girder spans of 60 ft. was: Wt. per lin. ft. Spans 622 Ibs. Bents 955 Ibs. Traction bracing 324 Ibs. Total 1,941 Ibs. Taking the cost of steel in place at 3% cts. per Ib. for girders and 4 cts. per Ib. for bents and bracing, the cost per lin. ft. is $75 for the steel. To this must be added the cost of the concrete pedestal piers,. Cost of the Old Kinzua Viaduct. Mr. Thomas C. Clark gives the following data relative to the original Kinzua viaduct built in 1882 : The viaduct was 2,050 ft. long, 3^02 ft. high at the center, and weighed only 1,400 tons, or 7.36 Ibs. per sq. ft of profile area. It was designed for a live load of an 80 ton consolidation engine fol- lowed by a train of 3,000 Ibs. per lin. ft. Rough calculations from a small profile indicate that the profile area was about 380,000 sq. ft. below the base of rail. The viaduct was erected by a gang of 40 men in 4 mos., using one traveler. The iron work was delivered at only one end of the ravine, and slid down along a trough to a point below the traveler. The tower girders were 38% ft. long, and the intermediate girders. 61 ft. long. Mr. Clark claims that the first American viaduct was designed by C. Shaler Smith, the viaduct being really a high trestle with iron posts. Mr. Clark, in 1870, designed the first modern type of viaduct, consisting of braced towers supporting intermediate girders. Mr. Clark states that the cost of erecting the Kinzua viaduct was less than $12 per ton, which is equivalent to $-16,800 for erecting BRIDGES. 1633 the entire viaduct. This does not agree very well with his state- ment that 40 men erected it in 4 mos., for that would be about 4,000 man-days, and it is not likely that any such wages at $4 a day were paid, unless the height at which the men worked led to a de- mand for high wages. If wages averaged $2.50 a day, the labor cost would have been about $7 per ton. As a matter of fact this same viaduct was removed in 1 1900 and a new one fouilt in its place, the cost of erection (including removal of the old viaduct) being given below. Cost of the New Kinzua Viaduct. Mr. C. R. Grim gives the fol- lowing data about the Kinzua viaduct on the Erie R. R., in Mc- Kean County, Pa. It was built in 1900 to replace an iron viaduct built 19 years before. The viaduct is 2,053 ft. long, rests on the old piers, and has 20 towers, ranging from 30 to 285 ft. high from masonry to base of rail, and has a profile area of about 380,000- sq. ft. below the base of rail. 'The weight of the deck spans is 638 tons, and that of the towers is 2,715 tons, total 3,353 tons. Two travelers were used, working from opposite ends. Each traveler spaned a clear space of 160 ft., having an old tower in the middle. The work of removing the old viaduct and erecting the new one consumed 4 mos., with a force of about 120 men at 10 hrs. a day. Charging the entire cost against the new viaduct, and assuming that wages averaged $2.50 a day, the labor cost would be about $30,000 or $9 per ton. The weight was about 17.6 Ibs. per sq. ft. of profile area. Weight of a Steel Viaduct. A single track steel viaduct was built In 1904 near Paoli, Ind., for the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louis- ville Ry. It is 870 ft. long, and 87 ft. high in the center. It has 2 abutments and 36 small pedestal piers, four under each tower. The abutments are 60 ft. high. The pedestal piers are 3% ft. square on top and extend down to solid rock, a distance of 3 to 12 ft. below the ground. There are 4,300 cu. yds. masonry in piers and abut- ments, and 1,091,000 Ibs. steel and cast iron in the viaduct. Data on Riveting a Viaduct. In the construction of the Cuyahoga Valley Viaduct, there were 18,869 seven-eighths inch rivets driven in the field. The average day's work for a gang of 4 men was 192 rivets. The best day's work was 315, all hand driven. The defective rivets amounted to less than 2 per cent. Cost of Concrete Pedestals for a Steel Viaduct. The viaduct was 410 ft. long with towers 30 ft. high on the Canadian Northern On- tario Ry. The concrete work consisted of 10xlOx4-ft. footings carrying pedestals 5x5 ft. on top with sides battered 1 in 12 to meet the footings. The tops of the pedestals were all at the same elevation but their height varied, the highest being 18 ft. above tops of footing. The pedestals were cored for anchor bolts. The total amount of concrete in the work was 711% cu. yds., of which 298% cu. yds. were in the footings and 405 cu. yds. were in the pedestals. The concrete was a 1-2 %-4 mixture, taking 1 1/2 bbls. cement for the footings; and a 1-2% -4 mixture, taking 1% bbls. cement for the pedestals. Altogether 3,350 bags of cement were 1634 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. used for the 711% cu. yds. of concrete, including 44 bags for the 1-2 mortar top dressing and 15% bags for washing, plastering, etc. Excavation. The pits for the footings were 12 ft. square car- ried down into hard clay through 6 or 6 ft. of sand and clay and a 1-ft. layer of driftwood. The average depth of pit was 11% ft., the maximum depth 15.2 ft. The material was handled by a horse- power derrick, consisting of a guyed 'mast and a boom set at 45. The bucket was lifted by a double purchase block, the fall of the line being carried to a pulley set a few feet to one side of the mast and thence to a whiffletree. This gave enough side pull on the boom to swing the bucket clear of the excavation. To hold the boom fixed during hoisting and lowering, a line from the end was carried to the far side of the excavation and operated by one man. One man drove the horse. Two %-cu. yd. buckets were employed, one being filled as the other was being dumped. There were 1,127 cu. yds. of excavation which cost as follows : Items. Total. Per cu. yd. General expenses $194 $0.172 Foreman, 35 days at $3 105 0.093 Labor, 323 days at $1.60 517 0.458 Horse, 26 days at $2 52 0.046 Totals $868 $0.769 Forms. The forms for the footings were rough 2 -in. lumber braced to the pit walls. The pedestal forms were made of 2-in. dressed lumber. Five sets were made. Each form was made 16 ft. high and was added to at the bottom for the taller pedestals and cut off for the shorter pedestals, which were built last. Two sides of each form were built in panels or units, and the two other sides were built up board by board as the concreting progressed. The solid panel sides were held together by two wire ties every 3 ft. in height; one tie every 3 ft. held the other two sides. These ties were No. 9 gage wire looped around studs and tightened by twist- ing. There were also core forms for the anchor bolts, each a box 4 ft. long, 6 ins. square on top and 5% ins. square on the bot- tom. The cost of the forms was as follows: Lumber Total. Per cu. yd. 7,000 ft. B. M. 2-in. derrick at $19 per M $133 2,000 ft. B. M. 2-in. rough at $18 per M 36 750 ft. B. M. 2x4-in. scantling 14 Cartage, $2.50 per M. ft 24 Anchor bolt boxes, etc 10 Totals $217 Deduct salvage $10 $207 $ 0.29 Wire, Ties, Nails 5 rolls No. 9 at 3 cts 200 Ibs. wire nails at $2.50 Totals $ 17 $0.024 BRIDGES. 1635 Labor Carpenter, 28 days at $2.50 $ 70 Helpers, 38 days at $1.75 67 Totals $137 $0.193 Grand totals $361 $0.507 Concrete. The concrete wa's mixed by hand on "boards" set close to the piers and was shoveled directly into the forms. The mate- rials were transported to the boards in wheelbarrows'. A gang of 1 foreman, 5 barrowmen, 6 mixers and 1 man in the form aver- aged 25% cu. yds. per day, or a little over 2 cu. yds. per man working. The maximum day's work was 38 cu. yds. with 16 men. The concrete was deposited moderately wet and the mortar was spaded to the surface. The top 3 ins. of the pedestals was built of 1-2 mortar. The exposed surface of the piers was washed with a thin cement grout ; about 1 bag of cement was required for 25 sq. yds. of surface. One man covered 7% sq. yds. per hour, using an ordinary whitewash brush. The cost of the concrete work was as follows : Materials Total. Per cu. yd. 173 cu. yds. rubble stone at $0.85 $ 147 $ 0.207 555 cu. yds. 2-in. stone at $1.875 1,041 1.463 290 cu. yds. sand at $1.25 363 0.510 840 bbls. cement at $1.80 1,512 2.121 Cartage at 15 cts. per bbl 126 0.163 Totals $3,190 $ 4.464 Labor Foreman, 28 days at $4 $112 $ 0.157 Laborers, 343 days at $1.75 600 0.843 Totals $712 $ 1.000 General Expenses. General expenses were as follows: Superintendence $239.50 General labor 78.40 Interest and depreciation on plant tools... 70.50 Total $388.40 This gives a charge of 27.3 cts. per cubic yard of concrete. There were also the following items of cost : 24 M. ft. B. M. 6x8-in. hemlock at $20.. ..$480 Labor backfilling piers 162 Platforms, runways, etc 69 Total $768 We can summarize the cost of concrete work as follows: Per cu. yd. General expenses ( % of $388) $0.273 Platforms, runways, etc 0.097 Forms 0.507 Labor 1.000 Materials 4.464 Total $6.341 Mr. J. H. Ryckerman is authority for the above data. 163G HANDBOOK OF COS! DATA. Cost of Abutments and Pedestal Piers, Lonesome Valley Viaduct. Mr. Gustave R. Tuska gives the following on the concrete sub- structure of the Lonesome Valley Viaduct, near Knoxville, Tenn. There were two U-shaped abutments and 36 concrete pedestal piers made of a light limestone that deteriorates rapidly when used for masonry. Derricks were not needed as would have been the case with masonry piers, and colored labor at $1 for 11 hrs. could be used. The piers were made 4 ft. square on top, from 5 to 16 ft. high, and with a batter of 1 in. to the foot. The abutments aver- age 26 ft. high, 26 ft. long on the face, with wing walls 27 ft. long ; the wall at the bridge seat is 5 ft. thick, and the wing walls are S 1 /^ ft. wide on top. Batters are 1 in. to the foot. The forms were made of 2-in. tongued and grooved plank, braced by posts of 2 x 10-in. plank placed 3 ft. c. to c. for the abutments, and at each corner for the piers. At the corners one side was dapped into the other, so as to prevent leakage of cement. The posts were braced by' batter posts from the earth. For the piers a square frame was dropped over the forms and spiked to the posts. The abutment forms were built up as the concreting progressed. The north abutment forms were made in sections 6 ft. high, held by %-in. bolts burled in the concrete. The lower sections were re- moved and used again on the upper part of the work, thus saving plank. The inside of forms was painted with a thin coat of crude black oil. The same form was used for several piers. The concrete was 1:2:5, the barrel being the unit of measure, making about % cu. yd. of concrete per batch. The mortar was mixed with hoes, but shovels were used to mix In the stone. By passing the blade of a shovel between the form and the concrete, the stone was forced back and a smooth mortar face was secured. Rammers weighing 30 to 40 Ibs. were used for tamping. Two days after the completion of a pier the forms were removed. The con- crete was protected from the sun by twigs, and was watered twice a day for a week. It was found by actual measurement that 1 cu. yd. of concrete (1:2:5), the ingredients being measured in barrels, consisted of 1*4 bbls. of Atlas cement, 10 cu. ft. of sand and 26V 2 cu. ft. of stone. The total amount of concrete was 926 cu. yds. of which two-thirds was in the two abutments. The work was done (in 1894) by contract, for $7 per cu, yd., cement costing $2.80 per bbl., sand 30 cts. per cu. yd., and wages $1 a day. A slight profit was made at this price. A gang of 15 men and a foreman would mix and lay about 40 cu. yds. in 11 hrs. when not delayed by lack of materials. The cost of making the concrete, with wages at $1 a day, was: Cents per cu. yd. 1 man filling sand barrels and handling water 2.7 2 men filling rock barrels 5.4 4 men mixing sand and cement 10.6 4 men mixing stone and mortar 10.6 BRIDGES. 1637 Cents per cu. yd. 2 men wheeling concrete 5.3 1 man spreading concrete in place 2.7 1 man tamping 2.7 Total labor , . . 40.0 1 foreman at $2 5.0 Total exclusive of forms 45.0 If wages had been $1.50 a day instead of $1, the labor cost would have been 68 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of Paint. Mr. Walter G. Berg, Chief Engineer of the Le- high Valley R. R., gives the following on painting iron railway bridges : Oxide of Iron. 6% Ibs. oxide of iron, at 1 ct $0.06 5/6 gal. (6% Ibs.) raw linseed oil, at 56 cts 0.47 Cost of 1 gal. of paint $0.53 Red Lead. 20 Ibs. red lead, at 5 cts $1.00 % gal. (51/3 Ibs.) raw linseed oil, at 56 cts . .. 0.42 Cost of 1 gal of paint ! ... $1.42 - Graphite. 3% Ibs. graphite paste, at 12 cts $0.45 % gal. boiled linseed oil, at 59 cts. . 0.45 Cost of 1 gal. of paint $0.90 Weight and Surface Area of Steel Bridges. Mr. C. E. Fowler. Chief Engineer Youngstown Bridge Co., gives a table of the weights, of iron highway and single track bridge trusses, and the corre- sponding areas of metal requiring painting, as determined "by actual calculation in a large number of cases." I find by a study of the tables that they can be very simply expressed in rules or formulas, as follows : For a highway bridge divide the weight of metal in pounds by 7 to get the area of metal surface in square feet. This applies to highway bridges 16 ft. wide, calculated for a floor load of 90 Ibs. per sq. ft., for all spans from 40 to 300 ft. For a single track railway bridge, divide the weight of metal in pounds by 12 to get the area of metal surface in square feet. The weight in pounds of metal in a highway bridge is found by adding 50 to 2 times the span in feet and multiplying this sum by the span in feet. Expressed in a formula this rule is w = L (2 L -f- 50). The weight in pounds of metal in a single track railway bridge is found by adding 400 to 4.8 times the span in feet and multiply- ing this sum by the span in feet, w = L (4. 8 L +400). Cost of Painting a Howe Truss Bridge. The bridge was painted with two coats of paint costing $1 per gallon. One gallon covered 133 sq. ft., two coats thick, and a painter averaged 166 sq. ft., two 1638 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. coats thick, per 10 hrs., or 332 sq. ft. of one coat per day. The cost was, therefore, as follows: Cts. per Cts. per sq. ft. sq. yd. Paint, two coats 0.75 6.8 Labor painting, two coats (17% cts. per hr.) 1.15 10.3 Total .T90 17.1 Cost of Painting 6 R. R. Bridges. Three spans pin-connected Pratt truss bridges, each 145 ft. long, 14 ft. wide and 20% ft. high, were painted with one coat at a cost of $48 per span for labor. One span required 35 gals, of asphaltum paint costing 65 cts. per gal. The other spans received 27 gals, of carbon paint each, at $1.50 per gallon. A riveted Pratt truss bridge, 94 ft. long, 14 ft. wide and 20 ft. high was given one coat of black carbon paint, 23 gals., at $1.50 per gal. The labor was $40. A double-intersection riveted lattice truss bridge, 96 ft. long, 14 ft. wide and 20 ft. high, was repainted with one coat of carbon paint, 26 gals., at $1.50 per gal. The labor cost $46. A single intersection lattice truss highway bridge (20-ft. road- way and two 8-ft. sidewalks), 106 ft. long, was painted with one coat of black carbon paint, 35 gals., at $1.25 per gal. The labor cost $59. Cost of Painting 6 R. R. Bridges and 2 Viaducts. Mr. O. E. Selby, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1897, has a paper on the cost of painting the Louisville and Jeffersonville Bridge across the Ohio River. The work was begun June 3, and finished Aug. 7, 1895. There was practically no traffic over the bridge during the work, which, of course, lessened the cost of painting ; and the iron being new required no great amount of cleaning. The force averaged about 50 men with 1 foreman, 1 assistant foreman and 1 time- keeper. The men were mostly ordinary bridge men, erectors and carpenters, and were paid $2 a day of 10 hrs. Some few men paint- ing sidewalk railings and other parts not hazardous were paid $1.50 a day. The paint was oxide of iron, and was used just as it came from the barrel, except for a little occasional thinning, equivalent to about % gal. per bbl. of paint. The cost of the paint was 67 cts. per gal. The best results were obtained with flat brushes costing $7.50 per doz., of which 19 doz. were used; 4 doz. steel brushes and 13 doz. whisk brooms were used for cleaning the iron. The total cost of the work was: Paint, $3,769 ; labor, $4,427 ; equip- ment, $301; accident insurance, $200 ; total, $8,697 distributed as follows : Jeffersonville Approach (Viaduct) and Span No. 1 (4,271 Ft Long; 1,762 Tons). Per ton. 0.62 gallon iron oxide paint $0.42 Labor, $2 per 10 hrs 0.51 Total per ton of 2,000 Ibs . $0.93 Total per lin. ft $0.38 BRIDGES. 1639 This Jeffersonville approach is a viaduct having an average height of 40 ft. and a length of 4,063 ft., all single track, except 1,000 ft., which is double track. Span No. 1 is single track, 209 ft. c. to c. The Jeffersonville approach had previously been painted with one coat in October, 1892. The work of which costs are above given consisted in going over the viaduct, cleaning and painting all spots where rust had formed ; then after this had dried th whole viaduct was given one coat. Louisville Approach (2,585 Ft. Long; 1,012 Tons). Per ton. 0.90 gallon paint, first coat $0.61 0.58 gallon paint, second coat 0.39 Labor on first coat 0.72 Labor on second coat 0.38 Total per ton . . .$2.10 Total per lin- ft $0.82 This Louisville approach is 2,585 ft. long, single track, and has an average height of 45 ft. It had been erected a year before it was painted, and had never been painted before. It received two coats throughout. Bridge Spans Nos. 5 and 6 (Each 338 ft. c. to. c. ; Total Weight 665 Tons). Per ton. 0.66 gallon paint, first coat $0.44 0.44 gallon paint, second coat 0.30 Labor on first coat 0.47 Labor on second coat 0.35 Total per ton of 2,000 Ibs $1.56 Total per lin. ft $1.53 Bridge Spans Nos. 2, 3 and 4 (Each Span 546*4 ft. c. to c. ; Total 2,768 riTans). Per ton. 0.50 gallon paint, first coat $0.33 0.32 gallon paint, second coat 0.22 Labor on first coat 0.32 Labor on second coat 0.22 Total per ton of 2,000 Ibs $1.09 Total per lin. ft ". $1.84 All these bridge spans were single track, erected about a year before they were painted. All the iron had had a shop coat of lin- seed oil. All the spans were given two coats of paint throughout, except the inside of the top chords and end posts which received only one coat, as it was believed that this one coat in such a pro- tected location would outlast the two coats on exposed work. Spans Nos. 5 and 6 were erected in the latter part of 1893, while the other and longer spans were erected a year later, so that the rustier condition of Nos. 5 and B may account for their taking more paint. The labor cost of painting 5,700 lin. ft. of sidewalk railings was $390, or $6.85 per 100 ft. This does not include the cost pf the paint, which was a small item. Half of this railing was a lattice railing 4 ft. high ; the other half was a gas pipe railing consisting of two lines of 1^4 -in. gas pipe. 1640 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Painting HO Plate Girder Bridges. Mr. W. J. Wilgus gives the following data on the cost of repainjting 33 steel bridges on the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg R. R. in 1896-8. The bridges were originally painted with two coats of "patent paint" that had failed within a year. The following costs include clean- Ing with wire brushes, and repainting with one coat of asphaltum- varnish paint made of 4 Ibs. lampblack ground in pure raw lin- seed oil, % gal. genuine asphaltum varnish, % gal. pure boiled linseed oil, and ^4 gal. drying japan. This paint cost 60 to 80 cts. per gal., and 1 gal. covered 350 sq. ft. Labor cost $2 a day. The calculation of the exposed areas of many of the plate girder bridges showed that there were 100 sq. ft. for every ton of 2,000 Ibs. Cost of Painting 50 Plate Girder Spans (Av. Length, 74 ft. ; Total Weight, 1,884 Short Tons). Per ton. 0.30 gal. paint $0.175 Labor cleaning and painting 0.340 Total per ton .. $0.515 Cost of Painting 5 Truss Spans (Av. Length, 155 ft. ; Total Weight, 638 Tons). Per ton. 0.39 gal. paint $0.235 Labor cleaning and painting 0.490 Total per ton $0.725 Cost of Painting 11 Spans of a Viaduct (Total Length, 706 ft; Height, 88 ft.; Weight, 342 Tons). Per ton. 0.48 gal. paint $0.39 Labor cleaning and painting ^0.60 Total per ton $0.99 Cost of Cleaning and Painting W Bridges. Mr. E. D. Graves gives the following data on the painting of light double triangular trusses in bridge spans from 80 to 136 ft., the total length being 1,000 ft. painted in the summer of 1897. The steel work had re- ceived one shop coat of iron oxide paint, and had been in place one year. The greater part of the surfaces was found to be scaled off and rusted. The surfaces were scraped with a steel scraper or brushed with a steel wire casting-brush. The dust t was removed with a whisk broom, and one coat of No. 38 Detroit Graphite paint applied, costing $1.10 per gallon, delivered. The floor beams and bottom chords being most likely to rust, were painted a second coat. The foreman received $3.50 per day, and had 8 to 12 men, at $1.75. These men were mostly laborers, except a few bridge men for the top work. The cost was as follows per ton of 2,000 Ibs. : Cost of First Coat Per Ion. 0.94 gal. first coat on 202 tons $1.04 Labor cleaning and painting 202 tons 1.44 Total per ton, one coat $2.48 BRIDGES. 1641 Cost of Second Coat (Bottom Chord and Floor Beams). Per ton. 0.35 gal. second coat on 100 tons $0.38 Labor painting second coat 100 tons 0.58 . Total per ton of bottom chord and beams. $0.9 6 The total 'cost of paint and labor was $598, or nearly 60 cts. per lin. ft. of bridge. Cost of Painting J t 8 Bridges and 2 Viaducts. Mr. C. D. Purdon gives the following data : These bridges were new and painted with two coats of red lead. They had received one coat of oil at the shop. Cost per ton Paint Labor. Total. Two deck girders, each 54 ft. (34.3 tons).. $0.80 $1.34 $2.14 Pratt truss, 103 ft. (62.9 tons) 0.58 1.45 2.03 Pratt truss, 180 ft. (161.4 tons) 0.82 1.27 2.09 Six deck girders, each 54 ft. (105.2 tons).. 0.65 1.12 1.77 Iron viaduct; two 64 ft., two 48 ft, and two 32 ft. deck girders (182.4 tons) 1.40 0.76 2.16 Iron viaduct, eight 64 ft., and seven 32 ft. spans (471 tons) 1.00 0.66 1.66 Pratt truss, dbl. track, 150 ft. (228.7 tons) 0.51 1.17 1.68 The summary of the amount of lead and oil used on the above bridges is as follows: Per ton Lbs. Gals, of lead. of oil. Deck girders (139.5 tons) 6.08 0.48 Single track trusses (224.3 tons) 7.12 0.56 Viaducts (653.3 tons) 13.80 0.44 Summary of all (1,245.6 tons) 10.10 0.42 Judging from the amount of paint used, a truss bridge takes 1.2 times as much paint per ton as a plate girder, and a viaduct takes 2.3 times as much as a plate girder. This is confirmed on p. 560. The cost of cleaning and painting 17 spans over the Arkansas River is as follows : These bridges received two coats of red lead and oil, having been originally painted with iron oxide which was first cleaned off. The cost of cleaning off the old paint is included, and almost equaled the cost of applying the first coat of red lead. Cost of 9 Spans (153 Ft.; Weight, 810.6 Tons). Per ton. 7 Ibs. red lead $0.49 Labor C 58 Second coat 2.3 Ibs. red lead 0.17 Labor 0.25 Total per ton $1.49 5642 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of 8 Spans (Three, 253 Ft. ; Four, 162 ft. ; One Draw, 370 Ft. ; Total Weight, 1,451.2 Tons). First coat Per ton. 6 Ibs. red lead $0.42 Labor 0.54 Second coat 1.9 Ibs. red lead 0.15 Labor 0.26 Total per ton $1.37 The average of the above 17 spans was: 6.42 Ibs. of lead and 0.23 gal. of oil per ton for the first coat; 2.04 Ibs. of lead and 0.074 gal. of oil per ton for the second coat. The cost of repainting 13 spans with two coats of iron oxide was as follows: Gallons Cost per ton Paint. Oil. Paint. Labor. Total. 200-ft. deck truss and two 50-ft. girders, dbl. track (475.6 tons) 128 60 $0.20 ?0.62 $0.82 Pony lattice, 92y 2 ft. (115 tons) 30 10 0.31 0.33 0.64 Three through spans, 150 ft. and 302 ft. draw span (656.7 tons) 335 122 0.36 0.63 0.99 Three through spans, 150 ft. (313.3 tons) 184 46 0.38 0.54 0.92 Three through spans, 150 ft. (297.6 tons) , 130 30 0.28 0.54 0.82 These 13 spans had originally been painted with iron oxide which was not cleaned off except at rusted spots. It will be noted that about % gal. of oil was used to thin each gallon of paint. The cost of repainting ten old bridges with one coat of iron oxide was as follows : Gallons Cost per ton Paint. Oil. Paint. Labor. Total. Double track truss, 126 ft. (176 tons) 75 25 $0.19 $0.55 $0.74 Through plate girder, 50 ft. (27.6 tons) 15 3y a 0.34 0.34 0.68 Six spans deck truss, 150 ft. (696.5 tons) 280 62 0.25 0.51 0.76 Deck plate girder, 70 ft. (30.4 tons) 12 .. 0.20 0.22 0.44 Through plate girder, 47 ft. (24.5 tons) 17 .. 0.32 0.34 0.66 These 10 spans had been originally painted with iron oxide which was not cleaned off except at rusted spots. It will be noted that the average of these ten spans is 0.51 gal. of paint and oil per ton, for one coat work. Cost of Cleaning and Painting Four Bridges, St. Louis Mr. N. W. Eayers gives the following data on painting railway bridges with one coat of carbon paint. This paint was ground especially for the bridge work, and came as "semi-liquid" taking about 1 gal. of oil to 1 gal. of "semi-liquid." It was laid on thick. The St. Louis Merchants' Bridge is double track, three spans, each of 517% ft., trusses 75 ft. deep at center. It was erected in 1890, and had had one shop coat and one coat of iron oxide after BRIDGES. 1643 erection. The metal was very rusty, and the cost of cleaning was quite large, but could not be separated from the cost of painting. The total cost of cleaning and painting these three spans in 1895 was as follows: 493% gals, boiled oil, at $0.58 $ 286.08 552 y<> gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 690.62 Sundry supplies 69.96 48 days' labor, at $2.50 120.00 91.4 days' labor, at $2.25 205.65 444.4 days' labor, at $2.00 888.80 51.5 days' labor, at $1.00 51.50 Total $2,312.61 The cost per lin. ft. was, therefore, $1.49, and 0.69 gal. of paint, costing 93.3 cts. per gal., was required per lin. ft. The Ferry St. Bridge is a double track deck span, 126 ft. resting on iron columns. It was cleaned and painted in 1895, at the fol- lowing cost : 32 gals, boiled oil, at $0.58 $ 18.56 22 gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 27.50 Labor 97.70 Total, at $1.14 per lin. ft $143.76 The Angelica St. Bridge is a through plate girder bridge, 68-ft. span, having a total painted surface of 6,250 sq. ft., which required 1 gal. of paint for every 312% sq. ft. The cost was as follows: 10 gals, boiled oil, at $0.58 $ 5.80 10 gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 12.50 Labor 22.00 Total, at $0.59 per lin. ft $40~30 The Elevated Structure, Merchants' Bridge, consists of steel col- umns supporting plate girder spans of 28 to 35 ft., carrying a double track railroad. It was erected and painted in 1890, but in 1897 it was badly rusted and was repainted at a contract price of 57 cts. per ft. for 4,075 ft. The actual cost to the contractor was as follows : Carbon paint and oil, one coat $ 748.13 Labor for cleaning 657.67 Labor for painting 628.74 Total, exclusive of foreman's time. .$2,034.54 The St. Louis (Eads) Bridge was repainted in 1896. It consists of three arched spans of a total length of 1,524 ft., carrying a double track railway on the lower floor and a highway on the upper floor. The floor beams for the highway are the struts for the wind truss. The bridge is 54 ft. wide out to out. The metal was quite rusty, in places, requiring chipping to remove scale, espe- cially the highway floor beams exposed to locomotive smoke. It J644 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. was painted with one coat. The cost was $0.70 per ton distributed as follows : 675 gals, boiled oil, at $0.35 $ 236.25 650 gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 812.50 Sundry supplies 52.55 Labor, 130 days, at $2.50 325.00 246 days, at 955 days, at 2.25. J.OO, Total, at $2.55 per lin. ft.. 553.50 , 1,910.00 $3,889.80 Cost of Painting Two Railway Bridges. The following data or, scraping and painting two railway bridges are given by Mr. A. S. Markley. The bridges were both painted in 1896, bridge No. 1 being painted during the summer and bridge No. 2 during October and November. The structures are viaducts with lattice columns and lattice struts in towers. The total number of tons of iron in bridge No. 1 was 719; in bridge No. 2 there was 154 tons of iron. Bridge No. 1, first coat Total. Per ton iron. Red lead, 3,560 Ibs., at $.049 $174.44 $0.242 Boiled oil. 177 gals., at .40 70.80 .098 L. black, 18 Ibs., at .085 1.53 .002 Labor .. 558.39 .776 Total $815.16 $1.118 Bridge No. 1, second coat Red lead, 2,395 Ibs., at $.049 $117.35 $0.163 Boiled oil, 160 gals., at .40 64.00 .089 L. black, 55 Ibs., at .085 4.67 .006 Labor 372.08 .517 Total $558.10 $0.775 Bridge No. 2, first coat Red lead, 500 Ibs., at $.049.. ...$ 24.50 $0.159 B. L. oil, 181/2 gals., at .40 7.40 .048 L. black, 5 Ibs., .085 43 .003 Labor 121.41 .788 Total $153.74 $0.998 Bridge No. 2, second coat Red lead,. 335 Ibs., at $.049 $ 16.41 $0.106 B. L. oil, 17 gals., at .40 6.80 .044 L. black, 10 Ibs., at .08V 2 85 .005 Labor 89.90 .584 Total $113.96 $0.739 BRIDGES. 1645 Summary -Per ton iron. Bridge 1. Bridge 2. Labor 1.294 1.372 Labor and material 1.896 1.731 Material $0.602 $0.359 Labor, scraping 194 .... Labor, painting, first coat 776 .788 Labor, painting, second coat 517 .584 Pounds of red lead, first coat 4.95 3.25 Pounds of red lead, second coat 3.33 2.17 Gallons boiled oil, first coat 246 .120 Gallons boiled oil, second coat .222 .110 Cost of Painting Plate Girders, Truss Bridges and Trestles on the C. & W. M. Ry.* Table XIX gives the cost of painting several bridges on the Chicago & West Michigan Ry. (Detroit, Lansing & Northern R. R.), the work being done in 1894. Cost of Painting, Cross- References. For further data consult the index under "Painting." Cost of Bridge Abutments. Mr. W. A. Rogers gives the following data relative to the construction of bridge abutments on the C., M. & St. P. Ry. : The work consisted in building 20 abutments for 10 four-track plate girder bridges over street crossings in Chicago. The work was done between May 1 and Oct. 1, 1898, in which time 8,400 cu. yds. of concrete were placed, all the work being done by company labor. The forms were made of 2-in. plank and 6 x 6 -in. posts bolted together at the top and bottom with %-in. rods. The lumber was used over and over again. When the dressed plank became too poor for the face it was used for the back. The concrete was 1 Portland cement, 3 gravel and 4 to 4^ limestone (crusher run up to 3-in. size.) A mortar face 1% ins. thick was built up with the rest of the concrete. The concrete was made quite wet, and each man ramming averaged 18 cu. yds. a day rammed. The concrete was mixed by a machine of the Ran- some type, operated by a 12-hp. portable gasoline engine.. The load was very light for the engine, and 8 hp. would have been sufficient. The engine made 235 revolutions per minute, and the pulley wheels were proportioned so that the mixer made 12 revs, per min. One gallon of gasoline was used per hour, and the mixing was carried on day and night so as not to give the concrete time to set. The time required for each batch was 2 to 3 mins., and about % cu. yd. of concrete was delivered per batch. The average output was 70 cu. yds. per 10-hr, shift, with a crew of 28 men; but as high as 96 cu. yds. were mixed in 10 hrs. The concrete was far superior to aand mixed concrete. The water for the concrete was measured in an upright tank and discharged by a pipe into the mixer. The sand and stone were delivered to the mixer in wheelbarrows, and the concrete was taken away in wheel- barrows. No derricks were used at all. Each wheelbarrow of concrete was raised by a rope passing over a pulley at the top of a gallows frame ; one horse and a driver, serving for this raising. * Engineering-Contracting, June 13, 1906. 1046 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ***< eo o o ta .C '"JH 050LOOOIOOOO "* AH OJrHCOCgovOCKOLrti-H l rH ^ C. -eooo pj ' tf o oo c- <> o 1-1 oo co f! tM^ ,_( oot-o J-

-H i co i -^ tn CT> 0> 03 OS 05 05 05 OS OJOl 000 OOOOOOOi-O 1 00 00 00 OC 00 00 00 OO OOOO O> OS OS OSO3O>OOO5OSOSOO>OSO5O I Ti0 OOOO"3OOOOOO OS "3 * r-i 05 U3 r^CC > t>- ^H -i MOOOO>00 O 0>0 00 CO OOOOCOOOOOOO tCOOqOCOt^O O "500 t^- ^t CO OO t^OOOt^OOOOOO O 1^ ** 1-1 -<* "5 tO o River d Liabach Big Muddy R Kalamazoo R Prospect Ave Grunwald :'e abSRl : : s i^^e : : g^ilsjd : :8 : : : :. llilil! ! f^^^piiWiwPQ H i BRIDGES. 166J iCOOCOOOSS.'O-.OTfriC^ O O OOOOOO -^0 c 8 O g.Spq ^^^ >,+J u 5? ^ c O^CJ .. ft ' 2J ^l' 1 Illllj 1662 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to 9 X 21. They are penetrated vertically by two wells 2% X 5 ft. thus saving concrete and providing drainage by weep holes below and horizontal tunnels at the top of the arch haunch. There are two sets of spandrel walls connected by cross walls, covered by a 10-in. concrete floor which sustains -the 3% ft. of ballast. Cement and gravel in the ratio 1 to 11 were used for the foundations and spandrel walls. The arch rings were made of 1:2:4% stone con- crete. The gravel was washed by means of a sluice passing through a box where the coarse gravel and clean sand settled, Three Ransome mixers were operated by a 25-hp. engine. The arch centers were supported on four bents of four piles per bent driver to bed rock. These were capped by 12 X 12-in. caps. The thrusl from the segments was conveyed by radial 8 X 8-in. struts to hor- izontal chords which were upheld by wedges placed on 12 X 12-in stringers that rested upon the caps. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Arch Highway Bridge. Mr. P. A. Courtright gives the following on the cost of mixing and placing concrete in a concrete bridge having 7 arches, each of 54 ft. spar and 8 ft. rise, at Plainwell, Mich., in 1903, as follows: Total Total per day. per cu. yd. 13 men, at $1.80 $23.40 $0.78 Engine and mixer 5.00 0.17 1 team 3.00 0.10 1 foreman 3.00 0.10 Total labor for 30 cu. yds $34.40 $1.15 0.9 cu. yd. gravel, at $0.50 $0.45 0.65 bbl. cement, at $2.00 1.30 Total, per cu. yd $2.90 The concrete yardage was as follows: 5.70 cu. yds. of 1 :8 gravel concrete in foundations. 770 cu. yds. of 1 :6 gravel concrete in arches. 150 cu. yds. of 1 :6 gravel concrete in walls. One sack of cement was considered to be 1 cu. ft. The bridg< had an 18-ft. roadway and a 5-ft. side wall, a total length of 44( ft., and the estimate of its cost at contract prices was: 1,490 cu. yds. concrete, at $7.00 $10,430 1,200 cu. yds. earth fill, at $0.30 360 36,000 Ibs. of steel, at $0.05 1,800 2,800 ft. of piles in foundations, at $0.20 560 2,230 sq. ft. of cement walk, at $0.10 223 Total $13,373 Excavating, pumping, coffer dams, and centers, $791 per arch ' 5,537 Grand total.. $18,910 BRIDGES. 1663 The method of making the concrete was as follows: The gravel, which had 32% voids, and contained sufficient sand, was shoveled into a 1 cu. yd. wagon at the pit, and hauled to a platform at the intake of a McKelvey continuous mixer. Half the cement required for a batch was spread over the load of gravel before dumping the load through the bottom of the wagon ; then the rest of the cement was added after dumping. One man shoveled the material over to another man who shoveled it into the mixer. After the material had passed one-third the length of the mixer, water was turned in. The mixer delivered the concrete into wheelbarrows from which it waK dumped to place and spread in 3-in. layers. Two men were employed tamping to 1 man shoveling the concrete. The gravel for the arches and walls was screened through a 2 -in. mesh screen placed on the wagon while loading at the pit. Regarding the product of the mixer, Mr. Courtright says : "A more complete blending of materials would be difficult to produce." This state- ment is noteworthy in view of the common prejudice against con- tinuous mixers. Centers. The heels were supported on the benches constructed upon each pier and abutment foundation. Each center was sup- ported to the panel joints by twelve temporary piles. These were driven in advance of the foundation work, sawed off, capped with timbers, and used as a working platform. The centers themselves were made of Georgia pine plank. Each rib section was built up with three planks, two 2 X 12 inch for out- sidei and one 10 X 2-inch between. These were securely nailed and bolted together, the panels being joined by bolting on two pieces of 2 X 4 -inch oak. The top chord was made of one plank, cut in sections, and rounded to fit the intrados of the arch. The panel joints were sup- ported by 8 X 12-inch timbers, carried on posts resting on 8 X 12- inch timber caps on piles. Wedges for lowering the centers were used at all bearing points. Centers were covered with 2 X 12-inch planed pine lagging and made a very rigid and smooth surface for concrete. The minimum of time allowed for the removal of centers after the completion of an arch was 28 days. The appearance of the arch rings, showing the same divided as by joints between stones, was produced by nailing half round strips on the form, and gives a good structural effect to the work. The entire structure was built in the forms with the single exception of the fourteen keystones, which, owing to their peculiar design, were cast separate, and set in the form. Piling. Each abutment foundation has 31 piles, the piers hav- ing 23 each. Piles were oak, elm, beech and hickory, not less than 12 ins., nor more than 16 ins. at the head. They cost, delivered on the ground and sharpened ready for driving, 15 cents per lineal foot. The average number driven per day was S 1 /^. 1664 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The character of the soil rendered driving very difficult ; a pene- tration of 2 or 3 ins. when starting a pile was the exception rather than the rule. Cost of driving Engine and driver, per day % 5.00 Engineer 2.50 Fireman 1.80 Four driver men, at $1.80 7.20 Total 116.50 Conditions for construction were very favorable. The water va- ried in depth from 3 to 5 ft., with a current of from two to three miles per hour. Under the silt and sand which formed the river bed, gravel was found to depth of about 3 ft. ; below this, quick- sand, filled with stones of varying sizes, was encountered. For foundations, piles were driven to an approximate depth of 10 ft. below the bed of the stream. Cofferdams were built, the water pumped out, and the excavation carried down until 1 ft. of gravel was left above the quicksand. The piles were sawed off IVa ft. above the bottom of the excavation, and the concrete carried up to the spring line of the arches. Cost of Three Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges, L. S. & M. S. Ry. Mr. Samuel Rockwell gives the following as to the size and cost of three reinforced concrete railway arch bridges. The bridge arches had a span of 30 ft., a rise of 9 ft., a crown thickness of 33 ins., a thickness at the spring of 6V 2 ft., and a barrel length of 40, 60 and 160 ft., respectively. The abutments were 8 ft. high and 14 ft. wide at the base. Johnson corrugated steel bars were used, for reinforcement. The concrete was 1 sand, 3 gravel and sand (50% each) and 6 broken stone laid wet. In all there were 4,833 cu. yds., including wing walls and parapets. The work was done by company forces at Elkhart, Ind., in 1903. It will be noted that the sand and stone were unusually low in cost. Total Cost per cost. cu. yd. Cement $ 8,860 $1.84 Stone 1,789 0.36 Sand and gravel (obtained from founda- tions) 240 Drain tile 103 Steel rods 3,028 Labor on concrete 8,091 Engineering and watching 508 Arch centers and forms 3,529 Sheet piling and boxing 1,006 Excavating and pumping 1,620 Machinery, pipe, fittings, etc 41( Temporary buildings, trestles, etc 752 .Total for 4,833 cu. yds $29,942 $6.19 Cost of Small Reinforced Concrete Highway Bridges.* Reinforced concrete highway bridge construction is being widely advocated by * Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 2, 1908. BRIDGES. 1GC5 the Illinois Highway Commissioner, Mr. A. N. Johnson, State Engi- neer. To encourage the building of such bridges, he has worked out two general standard designs. He recommends reinforced con- crete for all spans under 50* ft. in length. It has found that for I j-a'-V Fig. 17. spans under 40 or 50 ft., reinforced concrete can be used at very reasonable cost and that for longer spans a reinforced concrete floor does not add an excessive amount to the cost of the bridge. /Spans Under 18 Ft. For spans under 18 ft. in the clear a plain reinforced concrete slab is used for the floor, the principal rein- 1666 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. forcement running from abutment to abutment. Reinforced con- crete side rails are used for this class of bridge and are considered preferable to pipe or angle rails because of their strength and dura- bility. Figures 16, 17 and 18 show the plans for one of these bridges. In constructing these bridges Mr. Johnson says : "Where a number of slab bridges under 20 ft. in span are built the same season, it may prove cheaper to use I-beams to support the slab until the concrete has set than to use mud sills and timber posts. If this is done the abutments are carried up as usual to the height of the under side of the floor, pockets being left for the I-- beams ; these pockets being about 6 ins. wide and deep enough so that when opposing wedges are placed under the ends of the I- beams the top flanges of the I-beams will be 2 ins. below the Fig. 18. level of the bottom of the slab. Two-in. planking is used to sup- port the slab. When the concrete in the slab and rails has hard- ened sufficiently the wedges are removed and the floor forms drop down ; the planks are drawn out at the sides and likewise the I- beams through the pockets in one of the abutments. The pockets are then filled with concrete. The I-beams and planks may be used repeatedly." Spans From 18 to Jft Ft. For spans ranging in length from 18 to 42 ft. the concrete rails have been designed as girders to carry the load to the abutments. The floor in this case is a reinforced concrete slab, the main reinforcement running from girder to gir- der. The floor is suspended to the girders by bending every third floor bar up into the girders. This type might well be classed as a reinforced concrete through girder bridge. This has proved to be a very economical design. The forms are very simple and much BRIDGES. of the lumber remains uncut. The bending moment in the floor slab is independent of the length of the span, and consequently the amount of concrete and steel in the floor slab, for a given width of roadway, remains constant per foot of bridge. The rails or girders for bridges 18 to 30 ft. in span contain but little more con- crete than would ordinarily be necessary for appearance and eco- nomical placing in the rail forms. For spans over 30 ft., and par- ticularly for wide roadways, the girders become heavier, and it has been found necessary to design the girders with a heavy coping, giving the .girders a T-beam section. A number of girder bridges of this character have already been bulit and the plans drawn for several which will be built the coming season. The dimensions, quantities and costs for a number of the bridges built on these plans are given in Table XXI. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Highway Bridge. The bridge had a clear span of 30 ft. and an 80-ft. roadway. The arch ring was 8 ins. thick at the crown and 12 ins. thick at skewbacks, with a rise of approximately 6 ft. It rested on 12 -in. abutment walls, with center posts and 21-in. footing slabs. The spandrel walls were 12 ins. thick and reached well beyond the abut- ment walls on each side, the free ends having inside counter- forts. The height of the abutment walls from skewback to water level was 12 ft. These walls were continued beyond the faces of the spandrel walls by wing walls, which held the slopes of the deep fill from the channel. This fill reached to a height of 4 ft. above the crown of the arches. All walls were founded on piles. There were 872 cu. yds. of concrete in the structure. The general design was made by City Engineer M. P. Blair, St. Boniface, Manitoba, where the bridge was built and the reinforcement was designed and supplied by Clarence W. Noble, Winnipeg, Manitoba. The re- inforcement was high carbon square twisted steel bars. The work was done by day . labor by the city engineer and cost as follows: Foundations Total Cost. 5,336 cu. yds. excavation, at 38.2 cts $2,034.63 6,060 lin. ft. piling, at 14.7 cts 893.85 Driving piles at 15% cts. per lin. ft. (by contract) 939.30 Total $3,867.78 Concrete Materials Total. Per-cu. yd. 1,446 bbls. cement, at $2.45 $3,543 $4.063 872 cu. yds. aggregate f. o. b. cars at$l 872 1.000 Lumber for forms, etc. (1/3 of $1,491).. 497 0.570 Reinforcing bars 1,418 1.626 Totals . ..$6,330 $7.259 1668 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. ti *< X +J sc ^7 * in Jj g t- o a ** ti *< -ftLo ^7 * in o o o so* 00 -iJ -ft"* 03 r-< t0 04 00 & r-t O O U 10 A O A *3 W Mi-H(MO"5COinirtCXI-*SOOCO'<** I ^.~~ 2 ^ rt i. H "S ^ t- 05 t^^j T-juius t- so co co sot- co O 3 ' H T ~ l o i i W SO T-l -t~ 'O5OOCOSO ,/ o^< -t- -(Minoir: . . OL -O5 -OlOOOlfl >.&- 02 ' O5 W3 jH CO S 1 ;< >>eo " * [t- 1 * 'Tj'ocooe^i "TJ'TI'OCSCO r7? 2 . . . (M . .COrH TH!M:THCO r-iiH I 6 o , j* 'CJ .oooosososcoosososooso'tisosososcsoso C *J BRIDGES. 1660 Labor Labor on forms $ 652 $0.74 Placing reinforcement 129 0.148 Hauling aggregates 323 0.371 Mixing and placing concrete "... 1,408 1.614 Finishing concrete work 56 0.064 Erection of mixer 61 0.070 Totals $2,629 $3.007 Supplies Coal . . $ 24 $0.027 Oil for forms 31 0.035 Totals . . $55 $0.062 Grand totals for concrete work $9,014 $10.335 The work was carried on under considerable difficulty. The ex- cavation was interrupted by frequent rains, and the banks slipped, causing the handling of considerable additional material. The work of driving piles was also frequently interrupted by rain, and as a consequence the extra work of placing concrete did not start until late in the fall, and had to be prosecuted by two shifts, work- ing day and night, Sunday included, until it was" finished. The conditions are reflected in the high unit cost of excavation. The cost of placing reinforcing bars is about typical, while the cost of placing concrete at $1.61 per yard is abnormal, owing to the fact that in this item is charged considerable general labor, which could not be otherwise apportioned. The specifications originally contemplated the use of crushed limestone, but there was submitted to the engineer samples of very good gravel at a price of $1 per cu. yd. This gravel was clean, and contained enough sand to fill the voids without additional mate- rial ; in fact, some of it contained slightly too much sand. The cost of sifting out the coarse material and again sifting out the fine material, and then mixing the two together in the proper propor- tions was found to be 32 cts. per cu. yd. This was used for all arch concrete, but for abutments the mix of the gravel as delivered was deemed satisfactory, as it did not vary greatly from the proper proportions. The footings were made of crusher rock dust and limestone, which had been owned by the city for several years. This material is considered as costing the same as gravel. Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete for an Arch Bridge. A natural mixture of sand and gravel was brought in on trucks AA by electric railway and discharged through gratings into a storage bin, Fig. 19. Five parallel charging car tracks BB ran under this storage bin. The charging cars C were 16 cu. ft. capacity, just one batch for the mixer. A car was first loaded with gravel under one of the hoppers, then moved back under the cement chute to receive the cement, and then moved forward onto the truck F which trav- eled on the transverse track passing the mixer. The mixer dis- charged into a hoist bucket / which automatically discharged its load into the hoppers JJ whence the concrete was chuted into wheelbarrows, two wheeled carts or dump cars and taken out on 1670 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Fig. 19. Concrete Mixing Plant. BRIDGES. 1671 trestles to the work. The gang charging and mixing and placing the concrete was as follows : Duty. No. men. Charging cars 3 Cement 1 Operating mixer 2 At hopper in tower 1 Wheeling concrete 3 to 5 Placing and spading concrete 3 Hoist engineer 1 Fireman (mixer and pump) 1 Total 15 to 17 This gang placed on an average 150 cu. yds. of concrete per day, or about 10 cu. yds. per man. With wages averaging $2 per man per day this would give a labor cost of 20 cts. per cu. yd. for mix- ing and placing, not including superintendence. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridge. In Engineering- Contracting, July 22, 1908, Mr. John Harms gives the following data: The bridge has a roadway 30 ft. wide in the clear, and two sidewalks 8 ft. wide each. The length of the bridge is 306 ft. Cfo-frntr Fig. 20. Concrete Arch Bridge. divided as follows: 20 ft. for each abutment, 81 ft. for each outer arch, 88 ft. for center arch and 8 ft. for each pier. The reinforce- ment used in the arches is 1 in. twisted steel, 2 ft. c. to c. in two rows, iy 2 ins. from extrados and intrados and tied to % in. square transverse rods every 5 ft. The reinforcement of the overhanging sidewalks is of expanded metal No. 4 gage 6 in. mesh, which is turned down at the outer edge for about 4 ins. and fastened to a % in. square rod, and on the inner edge is hooked to a 1 in. twisted rod which is anchored with % in. twisted rods to the bottom rein- forcing rods of the arch, as shown by Figs. 20 and 21. The thickness of concrete of the arches is 40 ins. for the outer arches at haunches, 30 ins. at a distance of 16.5 ft. from haunches and 21 ins. at the crown. For center of the arch the thickness is 42 ins. at haunches, 30 ins. at distances of 16.5 ft. from haunches and 22 ins. at the crown. The piers are of monolithic construction. The upstream and downstream ends form a sharp point, reinforced with blocks of brown stone, cut to the proper angle to break the ice. Piers and 1672 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. abutments were built up to an elevation of 9.5 ft. above low water mark. Since the bed of the river is soft mud, each of the piers was built on a foundation of 60 piles driven 3 ft. c. to c. and cut off at an elevation of 2 ft. below M. L. W. On account of the kind of soil it was necessary to drive piles for the falsework, and this was begun at the same time as the jet- ting for the sheetpiling of the abutment. The piles for falsework consisted of nine rows of five piles each for outer arches, and ten rows for center arch. After piles for first arch were driven, pile driving for pier No. 1 was started. This being finished, jetting of sheetpiling for the pier was started. Up to this time the Jff' '0" ifpfp f'e w/w ^M\^//'\my//^^ i L U U U U u }j i Fig. 21. Cross-Section of Bridge. % water in the river was as low as 2 ft., making it impossible to float any craft, and so cribwork had been used for handling the pile driver. Heavy rainfalls raised the water to 10 ft. and caused at times such strong currents that the work had to be stopped. This brought the cost of labor much higher than it would have been under ordinary circumstances. The cost of jetting the sheetpiling on the pier is given further on. After the sheetpiling was all driven and properly shored for heavy water pressure a centrifugal pump was installed, driven by the pile driver engine, and the enclosure was kept dry until concrete was in place. Excavation was ex- tended to 3 ft. below low water mark and the piles cut off 2 ft. below the same level, so as to enclose them in about 12 ins. of concrete. The whole space was then filled in with concrete up to M. L. W., and on this foundation the forms for the pier were built. At this time excavation for abutment No. 1 was finished and a Koppel industrial railway had been laid. This railway was laid BRIDGES. 1673 on a temporary trestle across the river and was provided with switches to reach abutments and piers. Sheetpiling of the abutments served as forms up to about 4 ft. below the spring line. Above this point, forms of 2 in. spruce were built. The designing of an 18-in. crown molding on all piers and abutments at the height of the spring line of arches made the forms rather expensive. The concrete in the abutment was fin- ished in broken layers on the arch side to give a good bond between arch and abutment. While the concreting on abutments and piers was being done, the building of falsework for the first arch had proceeded. The construction of this falsework was as follows: Piles were cut off at a height of 3 ft. below the bottom line of the concrete Fig. 22. Falsework and Forms. arch. On these piles were placed, transverse to the arch, two 6 x 12-in. caps, spiked to piles well spliced together at joint in center, and overhanging about 6 ft. at outside. An upper cap was made of two 6 x 12-in. timbers. Between the two caps oak wedges were placed about every 5 ft. On top of the upper caps were placed 3 x 12-in. floor beams 2 ft. 8 in. c. to c., cut on top to proper line of arch. A 2-in. spruce floor was nailed to these floor beams (see Fig. 22). It may be well to remark here that the centers were laid out full size on a large platform, and patterns were made of 1-in. pine boards for all floor beams and side forms of arches. The cutting of all the floor beams was done by a 12-in. circular saw, which was run by a belt connected to the hoisting engine which pulled the cars up the incline to the mixing platform. The different radii of the arches made the curves of the floor beams vary to such an extent that the amount of framing of center done per day varied a great deal. The side forms of arches were made of 2-in. spruce and built in sections of 7 ft. In this way the 1674 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. placing of forms was done quickly and cheaply. The specifications stated that the concreting of the arches should be done in ribs of such a width that one complete rib of the arch could be finished in a day. Three more forms similar to the outside forms weie made and so placed as to divide the arch into five equal ribs. Since it is important to have reinforcement at the proper dis- tance from intrados and extrados, little eement blocks of 1^-in. thickness were made to hold the bars at the proper distance from the bottom. The advantage of using concrete blocks instead of wooden blocks, as is usually done, is easily understood. The blocks, being of concrete, stay in place, require no pointing up afterwards, and the cost of making them is about % ct. each. After placing upper longitudinal bars, sticks were used to hold these in place, but the writer proposes on future jobs to make concrete blocks as shown in Fig. 23. The cost of such a block the writer believes would be small, while its efficiency would be such as to make it economical. As shown in plan, Fig. 21, the reinforcement of spandrel walls and overhung sidewalk was anchored to the lower rods or arch, and the 1-in. rod was suspended at the proper height on wooden brackets nailed to the outside of the arch forms. From this bar, %-in. twisted rods were run to the lower rods, every 18 ins., being hooked on both rods by turning the ends. Pile driving and sheetpiling had been going on, and when high water caused this work to be stopped, concreting of abutment No. 2 was done. The industrial railway proved of great value during all this time for handling materials in an economical way. It may be well to mention the method used for handling the ma- terials. The stone and sand had to be stored on building Jots about 250 ft. away from the proposed bridge. A platform 14 x 16 ft. was built about 60 ft. from this place at an elevation of 16 ft. Under this platform was placed a Smith mixer, blocked up on timbers, high enough to allow of dumping into the Koppel side BRIDGES. lG7o dumping cars. A timber trestle was built extending from stone and sand pile to the top of the platform and an industrial railway laid on this. Cars were pulled up the incline by a hoisting engine stationed back of the mixer. See Fig. 24. A switch was placed at the bottom of the incline, making it possible to work two cars. Those cars were marked to give the proper quantities of sand and stone for a % batch proportioned 1 : 3 : 6. Atlas cement was used and as it was taken from the storage house it was put on the cars in bags enough for every batch, and opened and emptied at the platform. Each car furnished also all the materials required, and in this way an output was obtained of 35 to 40 batches per hour. Starting from the mixer was the other industrial railway previously mentioned. The elevation of track at the mixer was 14 ft. 3 ins. above M. L. W. The tracks had a down grade of about 4 ft. to a length of 150 ft. Fig. 24. This brought the rails at the proper height for dumping con- crete into piers and abutments, and at the same time, gave the cars enough momentum to require but little pushing. After finishing the piers and abutments to the spring line, the track was removed and laid to the arches. Heavy timber was placed across the arch forms on which were laid longitudinal timber to carry tracks. At the crown of the first arch the track was ele- vated and cars were pulled up this grade by the hoisting engine, from which point they proceeded by their own momentum. On the crowns of the first and center arches, switches were put in, and by this arrangement three cars were handled so rapidly that at no time did the mixer have to stop on account of there not being cars available. The plant proved sufficient to do the work in remarkably short time. The time from beginning concreting of first arch until the third was finished, including the . erection of all falsework and 1670 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. forms for the last two arches, was only 29 days. All the concrete was placed in 15 days, working not longer than 7 hours a day. If four ribs instead of five had been made in each arch, the results would have been even better, but this would have meant taking a great risk, on account of doubtful weather at this season of the year and also in case of any breakdown of machinery. The building of falsework for the spandrel wall and overhanging sidewalk proved difficult and was by far the most expensive of all form work. This falsework was constructed by resting one side on posts placed on the caps of the falsework of the arches, while the other side was held up by posts placed at a slight angle and rammed in the mud of the river bottom. These posts and the caps on them were 8 x 10-in. timbers. On these caps 3 x 12-in. floor beams were placed 3 ft. c. to c., being covered with 2-in. spruce flooring, cut into 4-in. strips, the edges being tapered to make tight joints. The whole falsework was well braced. At all corners of forms, molding was nailed to the forms to round off the corners of the concrete. Panel effects in the concrete were also made by nailing battens to the forms. These pieces were generally planed. Each arch had expansion joints of % in. at both ends and also at a distance of 24 ft. 3 ins. from both ends. Each expansion joint was made up of *4-in. corrugated paper covered on both sides with 3-ply tar paper. Balusters. The balusters for the railway were all made on the job, there being 350 required, and for this purpose eight forms were made. These were made in four parts each and were held together with bolts so that removing the form was easily done. The base of these balusters was 8x8 ins., the height being 2 ft. As previously stated, eighl forms were made for this work. The forms were made on the job. The entire labor cost of making the balusters was: Carving white wood blocks, 1 man, 12 days, at $3. .$ 36.00 Making 8 forms, 1 man, 12 days, at $2.75 33.00 Making and finishing balusters, 1 man, 35 days, at $2.75 96.25 Total $165.25 A man made 10 balusters per day. The cost for forms was 10.7 cts. per baluster, and for making and finishing, each 27.5 els.. giving a total cost for labor of 47.2 cts. Sheet Piles. In jetting down the sheet piles, which were 2x8 ins. x 20 ft. long on an average, 100 pieces were put in place per day, or 1 piece every 6 minutes. This does not include moving machine from one pier to another, but does include moves while working on a single pier. The labor cost was: 1 Foreman $ 5.00 1 Engineman :*.:" 2 Hosemen, at $3.50 7.00 2 Men preparing piles, at $2.50 5.00 7 Helpers, at $1.75 12.25 Total . ..$32.75 BRIDGES. 1677 There being 2,000 lin. ft. of piling or 2,666 ft. B. M. gives a unit cost of 1 6/10 cts. per lin. ft. and $12.25 per M. ff. B. M. for the labor. Forms. The labor costs for forms for the spandrel wall and overhanging sidewalk on the two sides of an arch were : Foreman carpenter, at $5 % 20.00 Building falsework : 2 Carpenters, at $3.50 28 00 3 Men, at $2 24.00 Building forms : 2 Carpenters, at $3.50 28.00 6 Carpenters, at $3 75 00 2 Carpenters, at $2.75 22.00 3 Helpers, at $2 26.00 Total $223.00 There was about 12,000 ft. B. M. of lumber used in these forms, thus giving a cost of framing and erecting per M ft. B. M. of $18.60. With 180 cu. yds. of concrete put in these forms the cost per cu. yd." was $1.24 for the labor on the forms. The cost of erecting the forms ior the arch, exclusive of the piling, was : Foreman carpenter, 6 days, at $5.. $ 30.00 Falsework, 8,300 ft. B. M., erecting crew : 2 Men, at $3.50 $ 7.00 2 Men, at $2.50 5.00 2 Men, at $2.00 4.00 2 Men, at $1.75 3.50 Total, 4 days, at $19.50 78,00 Floor beams, 5,960 ft. B. M., carpenter crew : 2 Men, at $3.50 $ 7.00 4 Men, at $3.00 12.00 3 Men, at $2.75 8.25 1 Man, at $2.00 2.00 2 Men, at $1.75 3.50 Total, 2 days, at $32.75 65.50 Erecting crews, 2 days, at $19.50 39.00 Forms, bottom and sides, 11,000 ft. B. M., carpenter crew : Framing forms, 2 days, at $32.75 98.25 Setting forms, 2 days, at $32.75 65.50 1 man making patterns, 3 days, at $3.50. 10.50 Total $386.75 There was 25,000 ft. B. M. of lumber in the falsework and forms exclusive of the piles, which makes a cost per M ft. B. M. of $15.47 for this labor. As there was 365 cu. yds. in an arch this gave a cost of $1.06 per cu. yd. for this labor. Concrete. In mixing and placing the concrete for the arches, one rib was done in a day so that it would be monolithic. There 1678 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. were 73 cu. yds. in a rib. The following was the cost of labor per day when mixing and placing was being done: 1 Foreman $ 5.00 1 Sub-foreman 3.50 1 Engineman 3.50 1 Man running mixer 2.59 1 Concrete placer 2.75 4 Concrete placers, at $2.50 10.00 6 Men on cars, at $2 7.80 2 Men on mixer platform, at $2 4.00 1 Man at stock pile 2.00 22 Men shoveling, at $1.75 , 38.50 Total $79.55 The actual time of placing a ring was from 6 to 7- hrs., thus giving a cost of mixing and placing of 85 cts. per cu. yd. When the concrete work was done, some of the crew was knocked off, and the rest were kept busy in changing tracks and other details. As stated, a larger ring could have been placed in a day, but the Fig. 25. Casting Concrete Arch Rings. risk of some unforeseen accident that might have held up the work was considered too great to take. Fig. 25 shows how these rings were cast. Cost of a Concrete Ribbed Arch Bridge at Grand Rapids, Mich.* The bridge consisted of seven parabolic arch ribs of 75 ft. clear span and 14 ft. rise. The five ribs under the 21 -ft roadway were 24 ins. thick, 50 ins. deep at skewbacks and 25 ins. deep at crown; ^Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 8, 1908. BRIDGES. 1679 the two ribs under the sidewalks were 12 ins. thick and of the same depth as the main ribs. Each rib carried columns which sup- ported the deck slab. Columns and ribs were bound together across bridge by struts and webs. All structural parts of the bridge were of concrete reinforced by corrugated bars. The abut- ments were hollow boxes with reinforced concrete shells tied in by buttresses and filled with earth. There were in the bridge includ- ing abutments 884 cu. yds. of concrete and 62,000 Ibs. of reinforcing metal or about 70 Ibs. of reinforcing metal per cu. yd. of concrete. Of the 884 cu. yds. of concrete 594 cu. yds. were contained in the abutments and wing walls and 290 cu. yds. in the remainder of the structure. Centers. The center for the arch consisted of 4 -pile bents spaced about 12 ft. apart in the line of the bridge. The piles were 12 x 12 in. x 24 ft. yellow pine and they were braced together in both directions by 2 x 10-in. planks. Each bent carried a 3 x 12-in. plank cup. Maple folding wedges were set on these cups over each pile and on them rested 12 x 12-in. transverse timbers one directly over each bent. These 12 x 12-in. transverse timbers carried the back pieces cut to the curve of the arch. The back pieces were 2 x 12-in. plank, two under each sidewalk rib and four under each main rib of the arch. The back pieces under each rib were X-braced together. The lagging was made continuous under the ribs but only occasional strips were carried across the spaces be- tween ribs. This reduced the amount of lagging required but made working on the center more difficult and resulted in loss of tools from dropping through the openings. Work on the centers and forms was tiresome owing both to the difficulty of moving around on the lagging and to the cramped positions in which the men labored. Carpenters were hard to keep for these reasons. Concrete. A 1 : 7 bank gravel concrete was used for the abut' ments and a 1 : 5 bank gravel concrete for the other parts of the bridge. The concrete was mixed in a cubical mixer operated by electric motor and located at one end of the bridge. The mixed concrete was taken to the forms in wheelbarrows. The mixture was of mushy consistency. No mortar facing was used but the exposed surfaces were given a great work. In freezing weather the gravel and water were heated to a temperature of about '100 F. ; when work was stopped at night it was covered with tarred felt and was usually found steaming the next morning. The cost data given here are based on figures furnished to us by Geo. J. Davis, Jr., who designed the bridge and kept the cost records. Mr. -Davis states that the unit costs are high, because of the adverse conditions under which the work was performed. The work was done by day labor by the city, the men were all new to this class of work, the weather was cold and there was high water to interfere, and work was begun before plans for the bridge had been completed so that the superintendent could no* intelli- gently plan the work ahead. Cost keeping was begun only after the work was well under way. Many of the items of cost were Incomplete in detail. J680 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following were the wages paid and the prices of the ma lerlals used : Materials and Supplies No. 1 hemlock matched per 1,000 ft $20.00 No. 1 hemlock plank per 1,090 ft 17.00 No. 2 Norway pine flooring per 1,000 ft 19.00 No. 2 yellow pine flooring per 1,000 ft 20.00 12 x 12 in. x 16 ft. yellow pine per 1,000 ft 2!). 00 12 x 12 in. x 24 ft. yellow pine piling per 1,000 ft.. . 27.00 Maple wedges per pair 50 V&-in. corrugated bars per 100 Ibs 2.61 r, %-in. corrugated bars per 100 Ibs 2..~> 1 ."> %-in. corrugated bars per 100 Ibs 2.515 Coal per ton 4.09 Electric power per kilowatt 06 Medusa cement per bbl 1.75 ^Etna cement per bbl 1.05 Bank gravel per cu. yd 85 Sand per cu. yd 6"6 Carpenters, per day $3 to 3.50 Common labor, per day 1.75 The summarized cost of the whole work, with such additional costs as the figures given permit of computation, was as follows : General Services Total. Cu. Yd. Engineering $451 $0.512 Miscellaneous 75 0.084 Pumping Coal at $4 per ton $210 ' Machinery, tools and cartage 283 Labor 497 Total, 110 days, at $9 $990 Excavation Total Cost. Timber, cartage, etc $ 375 Tools 69 Labor at $1.75 1,687 Total ,.. .$2,131 Filling (5,111 cu. yds.) Total Per cu. yd. Earth $1,142 $0.20 Labor, including ripraping 396 0.07 Total $1,538 $0.27 Removing Old Wing Walls Total. Labor and dynamite $346 Tools and sharpening 61 Total $410 Hand Rail (150 ft.) Total. Per 11 n ft. Material $278 $1.85 Labor 29 0.1!) Total $307 $2.04 BRIDGES. 1081 Wood! Block Pavement (296 sq. yds.) Total. Per sq. yd. Wood block, etc $695 $2.35 Labor . , 57 0.19 Total $752 $2.54 Steel (62,000 Ibs.) Total. Per.lb. Corrugated bars, freight, etc $1,498 2.41c Plajn steel, wire, etc 75 0.12c Blacksmithing, tools and placing 438 0.71c Total $2,011 3.24c Per cu. yd. Centering Total. Concrete. Lumber and poles $332 $1.14 Labor 272 0.95 Total ?604 $2.09 Total. Per cu. yd. Forms .' $ 3,312 $ 3.75 Concrete $ 5,532 $ 6.25 Grand total $18,113 $20.50 In more detail the cost of the various items of concrete work I was as follows for the whole structure, including abutments, wing walls and arch, containing 884 cu. yds. : Form Construction Total. Per cu. yd. Lumber and cartage $1,547 $1.75 Nails and bolts 12!) 0.15 Tools 110 0.12 Labor, erecting and removing 1,526 1.72 Total $3,312 $3.74 Concrete Construction Materials Medusa cement, at $1.05 $1,218 $1.37 yEtna cement, at $1.75 499 0.56 Sand, at 66 cts. per cu. yd 37 0.04 Gravel, at 85 cts. per cu. yd 915 1.04 Total materials $2,669 $3.01 Mixing Machinery and supplies $ 569 $0.62 Power, at 6 cts. per kw 52 0.06 Tools 22 . 0.02 Labor 737 0.83 Total mixing $1,360 $1.53 Placing concrete $ 609 $0.69 Tamping concrete $ 481 $0.54 1682 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Heating Concrete Apparatus and cartage $ 47 $005 Fuel 96 0.11 Labor 270 0.31 Total heating $ 413 |0.47 Grand total $8,844 $9.98 Considering the abutment and wing wall work, comprising 594 cu. yds., separately, the cost was as follows : Forms Per cu. yd. Materials $1.20 Labor 1.09 Total $2.29 Concrete Materials $2.92 Labor 2.38 Total $5.30 Heating water and gravel $0.70 Grand total $8.29 Considering the arch span, comprising 290 cu. yds., separately, the cost was as follows: Forms Per cu. yd. Materials $ 3.70 Labor , 3.03 Total $ 6.73 Concrete Materials $ 3.32 Labor 3.57 Total $ 6~79 Grand total $13.52 Cost of Centering of a 233-ft. Arch. In Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 6, 1909, are given design and data relating to the Walnut Lane Bridge, Philadelphia, as furnished by Mr. George H. Heller. Only a brief summary of the article is given here. Dimensions of Arch. The main arch of the Walnut Lane bridge consists of two arch ribs, each 18 ft. wide at the crown and 21 ft. 6 ins. wide at the skewback ; these ribs are spaced 34 ft. c. to c., and are 5 ft. 6 ins. deep at the crown and 9 ft. 6 ins. deep at the skewback; the span is 233 ft. in the clear, and the height of the soffit at the crown above the springing line is 70 ft. 3 ins. The two main ribs carry spandrel piers and a series of spandrel arches upon which the spandrel walls are built up to the height to receive the floor, which consists of steel beams with concrete arches between, and it is upon this floor that the roadway and sidewalk paving is laid, the roadway being 40 ft. wide and the two sidewalks each 8 ft. wide. The height of the soffit of the arch above the surface of the creek is about 136 ft., while the roadway of the bridge is about 14 ft. higher, making about 150 ft. It is necessary, while considering the nature of the design (Fig. 26), to remark the fact of the arch itself being composed BRIDGES. 1683 of two independent and separate ribs. This feature allowed the construction of each rib by itself and so presented an opportunity of reducing the cost of the centering by permitting one arch rib to be constructed first on centering necessary for one rib, and then, when the arch is completed, to move the same centering trans- versely so as to serve for the construction of the adjacent areh rib. This feature of construction was embodied in the design, and it was found not only to be feasible but also simple and easy of action, even though the mass of timbering was so great and cov- ered so large an area It was also thought proper to use steel in the construction of the bottom of the centering, for, as a material, it afforded better facilities for making joints capable of with- standing possible vibration in moving, and it formed a firm founda-* tion, all parts of which acted together as a unit and allowed the whole mass to be moved true to line and without distortion or accident to its new position. Fig. 26. Centering for Walnut Lane Bridge. Beginning with the base of the centering, the steel trestle sup- ports were spaced 24 ft. and 30 ft. apart and were carried on con- crete piers founded upon and doweled into the solid rock. These piers were carried up to a uniform height above all danger of freshet, and they formed the basic foundation upon which the whole mass of steel and timber was designed to move. Each steel trestle was securely anchored into its pier by 1%-in. steel rods, and these rods served to guard against freshets and wind and were re- leased when the centering was moved. The movement of the centering was accomplished by placing on each pier a series of ten steel rollers, each 6 ins. in diameter, rolling on steel plates built into the tops of the piers ; each roller was capable of bearing in safety 10 tons, making 100 tons, which was the total maximum weight at the center pier to be moved. The steel bents rested upon these rollers, and upon completion of the erection of one rib of the arch they were all moved in unison by placing jacks between the bottom end of each steel bent and a studded anchor chain which formed a cradle or saddle against which 1684 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the jack worked, the ends of the chain being attached to timbers previously built into the piers for that purpose ; this method of translation proved to be quite effective, and the whole distance of 34 ft. was covered in the space of three days. The total weight moved can be fairly stated to be about 1,000 tons. This amount is found by taking the total weight of bolts, steel trestle and timber trestle, and allowing in the case of timber 5 Ibs. per ft. B. M., the timber being probably very heavy from the absorption of water from the structure. This great weight, covering a length of say, 230 ft., and a width of 50 ft., was moved by jacks having a sum total capacity of 345 tons acting at 15 points. '3*f Lagging Fig. 27. Arch Centers. The quantities of material used in the construction of the center- ing were : Bolts, washers, nails 33,000 Ibs. Steel trestle and it's floor 232,000 Ibs. Lagging and joists 88,000 ft. B. M. Upper trestle and bracing 116,000 ft. B. M. Lower staging and bracing 136,000 ft. B. M. Concrete piers ". 1,000 cu. yds. The cost was: Timber . ..340,000 ft. B. M. at $65.00 $22,100 Metal 265,000 Ibs. ' .04 10,600 Masonry 1,000 cu. yds. 10.00 10,000 Total $42,700 This centering served for two ribs, each containing 1,550 cu. yds., or a total of 3,100 cu. yds. Hence the centering cost $13.80 per cu. yd. of concrete inbs. The contract, price for the Walnut Lane bridge was ?262,000. BRIDGES. Design of Center for a 50-ft. Span Masonry Arch.* With the present high prices of lumber, the designing of timber centers for arches becomes a problem that requires careful study to save material and labor. In the accompanying drawing we show a center designed for a 50-ft. masonry arch railway bridge to be built in central Ohio. Owing to the excessive cost of pine in this section, oak will be used. This timber costs here about $16 per M ft. B. M. The center, 36 ft. long, comprising two arch ribs, posts, cups, wedges and lagging, calls for 16,464 ft. B. M. of timber divided as follows : B jy[ 3x4 ins. x 4 ft. lagging 1,554 ft. 140 2 x 12 ins. x 8 ft. 3% ins. straight ribs 2,332 ft. 20 2 x 12 ins. x 5 ft. 6% ins. straight ribs 222 ft 20 2 x 12 ins. x 2 ft. 9% ins. straight ribs 112 ft. 20 3 x 12 ins. x 7 f t curved ribs 420 ft 60 3 x 12 ins. x 8 ft. curved ribs 1,440 ft. 40 3 x 12 ins. x 7 ft. braces 840 ft. 40 3 x 12 ins. x 7 ft. 6 ins. braces 900 ft 10 2 x 12 ins x 26 ft. bottom chord 1,920 ft. 40 2 x 12 ins. x 24 ft. bottom chord 520 ft. 40 3 x 12 ins. x lli/o ft. fillers bottom chord 1,380 ft. 20 3 x 12 ins. x 7 ft. fillers bottom chord 420 ft.. 20 3 x 12 ins. x 21 ft. piece A 1,260 ft. 40 2 x 12 ins. x 3% ft. bottom chord end con... 280 ft. 20 10 x 12 ins. x 9 ft. posts 1,800 ft. 2 6 x 12 ins. x 38 ft. wall plates 456ft. 2 8 x 12 ins. x 38 ft. caps 608 ft. Total . 16,464 ft. 660 % x 9 in. bolts for ribs. 320 % x 9 in. bolts for bottom chord. 120 % x 13 in. bolts for end con. bottom chord. 160 % x 15 in. bolts for piece A. Figure 27 shows the framing very clearly. With carpenters re- ceiving $4 per day it is estimated that the framing and erecting will cost about $12 per M ft. B. M., including iron. The cost of bolts and nuts will run about $1.50 per M ft. B. M. Roughly, then, this center will cost about $30 per M ft. B. M. in place. The center was designed by Mr. J. H. Milburn, Chief Draftsman, Office of the Chief Engineer, Baltimore & Ohio, R. R., Baltimore, Md. Data on a Concrete Viaduct. A reinforced concrete viaduct 2,800 ft. long has been recently built by John T. Wilson, of New York, for the Richmond & Chesapeake Bay Ry. Co., at Richmond, Va. It ranges in height from 18 ft. at each end to 70 ft. at the center. The reinforced concrete girders range in length from 23% ft. t 67% ft. c. to c. of bents. The bents are two-post bents, with legs ? ft. square. The largest girder, having a length of 67% ft., weighs 54 tons, its cross-section being 20x70 ins. In this viaduct there were 2,650 cu. yds. of concrete, and* it required 172 ft. B. M. of timber for the forms and falsework per cubic yard of concrete. Kahn bars were used for reinforcing. The forms on the sides of the girders were removed at the end of 7 days, but the column forms and those supporting the girders were not removed for at least 30 days. While it is a single track viaduct, it is so designed that, by adding another series of posts and girders, it can be made *Engineerihg-Contracting, Nov. 14, 1906. 1686 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. into a double track viaduct. One little trick in filling the column forms is worth bearing in mind. They were built U-shaped, the fourth side being left open, and built up as fast as the concrete was poured in from that side. This method facilitated working the concrete in around the reinforcing bars. Mr. J. H. McLure is Chief Engineer of the R. & C. B. Ry. Cost of a Concrete Trestle and Three Concrete Girder Bridges i^ith Abutments.* The reinforced concrete trestle and the three bridges with concrete abutments that are referred to in this article were constructed near Easton, Pa., by Mr. M. P. McGrath, general contractor, of that place. The contractor or his engineer, Mr. J. F. Mooney, supervised the work so that while one man was employed nominally as a foreman and received $2.75 per day, he worked like -I'SfttiffTrn* | /Of 4 if -i 0* ^3 . &*4i - I If *v . I K , X-sTl' Y=28'0 Z-ZI'tO" 'III I L Fig> 28. Details of Girder Rail Fastenings. the other laborers ; generally he was charged to placing or finish- ing. The costs given are actual costs except for the form lumber, which had been used before and the cost of which was approxi- mated. The costs are given separately for each structure. Coal Trestle. The trestle was designed as a coal trestle and was constructed as shown by Figs. 28 and 29, except that the bents instead of being made solid, were built with a 4 x 8-ft. open- ing in each to permit the coal to flow more readily. There were 8 bents and two abutments and the trestle was 114 ft. long. It was designed to carry the rails directly on the girders without cross-ties, so that the girder reinforcement was made quite heavy, as is clearly shown by the drawings. It will also be seen that the rails had their bases partly embedded in the girders and were fastened by chairs. The chairs were of cast iron and were held by 'Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 5, 1908. BRIDGES. 1687 1688 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. bolts extending down into the girder and secured under the lower reinforcement bar. The chairs were spaced 2 ft. apart, those of one rail being staggered with those of the other rail. This con- struction gave excellent results in operation and saved some 6 ins. in height over the ordinary cross-tie construction. The remaining structural details and dimensions of the trestle are clearly shown by Figs. 28 and 29. The wages paid on this trestle and also on the bridge construc- tion described later, were as follows : Laborers, per 10-hour day $1.50 Blacksmiths, per 10-hour day 2.00 Engineman, per 10-hour day 1.70 Carpenter, per 10-hour day 3.00 Foreman, per 10-hour day 2.75 The location of the trestle being almost flush against a railway embankment and it being necessary to locate the stock piles some 150 ft. from the mixer, made the cost of wheeling the materials high. The mixer was set up at the center point of the trestle and discharged into barrows which were hoisted by a pole and yard arm. The pole was provided with a yard and had a three-quarters swing. A rope passing over a pulley at the end of the yard arm was provided at one end with a three-line sling provided with a hook to attach to the wheel and two rings to slip over the handles. This rope hoisted the barrows to the top of the trestle by means of a horse hitched to the free end. The concrete used for the reinforced girders was a 1-2-4 mixture, the other parts of the trestle were made of 1-3-6 concrete in which were embedded stones ranging from the size of a man's head to the size of a half- barrel ; these rubble stones were thrown into the forms in 1%-ft. layers. The total amount of concrete in this trestle was 116 cu. yds. and its cost was as follows : Materials Per cu. yd. 1,069 bbls. cement, at $1.24 $1.325 0.631 tons sand, at 70 cts 0.442 1.11 tons stone, at $1.25 1.387 131V 2 Ibs. steel, at 2 cts 2.630 Lumber ($112.63 charged up) 0.971 Total materials $6.755 Labor and Supplies Making and erecting forms $1.21 Handling sand 0.180 Handling stone 0.175 Mixing concrete 0.184 Placing concrete 0.300 Finishing concrete 0.103 Miscellaneous 0.246 Total labor $2.398 Total labor and materials $9.153 In the item miscellaneous were included blacksmith's work on reinforcement, handling cement, coal, oil, etc. As will be noted BRIDGES. lf>89 the cost of reinforcement is distributed over the whole structure 116 cu. yds. of concrete; to be strictly accurate, the total 15,250 Ibs. of reinforcing metal should be divided into the volume of con- crete in the girders which, figured from the drawings, was approxi- mately 24 cu. yds. This gives the great weight of 635 Ibs. of rein- forcement per cubic yard of concrete in the girders. Bridge No. 1. This structure had a clear span of 10% ft. and consisted of two concrete girders, one under each rail, with ends embedded into concrete abutments with wing walls. The girders were 3 ft. deep, 2 ft. wide on top and 1% ft. wide on the bottom and each was made of 1:2:4 concrete reinforced by five 1%-in. round bars, three straight and two bent, with stirrups every 1 % ft. The abutments were made of 1:3:6 concrete. Conditions were favorable construction. As in the trestle rubble stones were incorporated in the abutment concrete ; some cinders were also used anO. their cost is included in the cost of handling the stone. The bridge contained altogether 102 cu. yds. of concrete. The costs were as follows : Materials Per cu. yd. Cement $1.264 Stone 1.688 Sand 0.444 Reinforcement 0.098 Lumber 0.383 Total materials $3.877 Labor and Supplies - Forms $0.479 Handling stone 0.175 Handling sand 0.077 Mixing concrete 0.100 Placing concrete 0.176 Finishing concrete 0.094 Miscellaneous 0.224 Total labor $1.325 Total materials and labor $5.202 The item miscellaneous includes hauling cement and water, work on reinforcement and coal. As in the trestle, the unit cost of rein- forcement is got by dividing the total cost into the total yardage of concrete value as only the girders were reinforced. Bridge No. II. This bridge had a clear span of 16 ft. and was 13 ft. high, and like the bridge just described consisted of two con- crete birders with ends embedded into concrete abutments. The girders were 22 ins. deep, 2 ft. wide on top and 1 ft. wide on the bottom. Each girder was reinforced with five 1%-in. round rods, three straight and two bent, without stirrups. The ties were fastened to the girders by embedded anchor bolts. The costs of ma- terials changed somewhat from those given for the trestle and bridge No. 1. The cement cost $1.54 per barrel, and the stone (crushed on the ground) cost 73 cts. per ton. Rubble stones were incorporated in the abutment concrete as in the work previously de- scribed ; this stone had all to be collected by men and teams and 1690 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. this fact is reflected in the high unit cost ot handling stone. The mixer was located so that its discharge chute overhung and dis- charged directly into the forms for one abutment. To reach the further abutment an ordinary coal chute was provided and the concrete chuted directly into place. The bridge contained 98 cu. yds. of concrete, which cost as follows: Materials Par cu. yd. ' Cement, at $1.54 $1.596 Stone 0.814 Sand 0.453 Reinforcement 0.176 Lumber 0.316 Total materials $3,355 Labor and Supplies Forms $0.520 Handling stone 0.236 Handling sand 0.180 Mixing concrete 0.073 Placing concrete 0.157 Finishing concrete 0.092 Coal and water 0.041 Handling cement 0.078 Total labor $1.377 Total materials and labor $4.732 It will be noted that the cost of handling the stone for this bridge ran high because of the teaming referred to above. Rein- forcement is charged into the total yardage as in the structures previously described. Bridge No. III. This bridge was built for the passage of farm wagons of 5 tons capacity. It had a clear span of 17 ft. and was 15 ft. wide and 17 ft. clear height. The floor consisted of four 12 x 6-in. girders carrying a 6-in. floor slab. The concrete was a 1:3:6 mixture throughout and was mixed by hand. The concrete was made with a broken tile aggregate obtained from a nearby tile works at the cost of handling only. This tile was very easily broken and left a rather poor finish to the concrete. There were 107 cu. yds. of concrete in the bridge and it cost as follows: Materials Per cu. yd. Cement '. . . .$1.594 Sand 0.459 Reinforcement 0.127 Lumber ' 0.280 Total materials $2.460 Labor and Supplies Forms $0.41 Handling tile '. 0.692 Handling sand 0.112 Handling cement 0.105 Mixing concrete 0.413 Placing concrete 0.341 Total labor $2.077 Total materials and labor $4.537 BRIDGES. 1691 In noting these cost* the very heavy cost of handling the broken tile aggregate will be observed ; on the other hand this aggregate cost nothing itself. The lumber charge is only that for new lum- ber, the old lumber that was re-used was not charged in. The cost of sand was 94 cts. per ton. Cost of a Reinforced Concrete Trestle. Mr. C. C. Mitchell gives the following data : The trestle replaced an old wooden trestle 286 ft. long on a cable incline railway up Catskill Mountain, New York. The main struc-' tural features of the trestle and the slope of the ground on which it was built are indicated by Fig. 30. The work was done by contract after the cable incline had closed down on Oct. 17, 1908, for the season. Parts of the old timber structure were thus avail- able for supporting forms and for such other purposes as the con- tractor required this kind of timber. Fig. 30. Concrete Trestle. 4 While waiting for the materials to arrive and the road to close down, excavation was begun on the footings, stone for the concrete was broken, a pipe line 1,000 ft. long was laid to a waterfall, a cement house and a shanty in which to fabricate the steel were built. In excavating for the footings it developed that there were alter- nate strata of slate rock and earth, with boulders in about half of them, so that to get a good foundation on bedrock it was necessary to go from 4 to 10 ft. below the ground, the surface of which was so steep that it was very difficult to work on it. Slides and caving caused a much larger quantity of material to be handled than that represented by the holes excavated. The excavations were walled up in pyramidal form on a batter of 2 ins. to the foot outward to within 2 ft. of the ground surface, there narrowing to a section 30x30 ins., on top of which a wooden box 30 ins. square and 24 ins. high was set up. Every bent had two such forms for the batter post footings, and every alternate 1692 HANDBOOK OF COST DAT. I. bent had in addition a third for the diagonal* bracing struts to meet on. Then footings were concreted with a mixture of 1-3-6, the stone being broken by hand to 1^-in. size and the wooden top forms being shifted ahead as the work progressed, the stone- breaking, mixing board, etc., being likewise shifted ahead. Half of the lumber was stored at the lower end of the trestle and half at the middle ; half of the sand at the middle and half at the upper end ; half of the steel at the lower end and half at upper end, and all cement at the middle. Five mixing boards were established along the trestle, and stone was broken successively at each as it was needed for the concrete. The water pipe, which ran alongside, was shortened as the work progressed. The sand and gravel were separated by screening and sent to the mixing boards through temporary chutes, the super- structure concrete being 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 2 parts %-in. gravel and 2 parts %-in. stone. Work was begun with a force of 10 men working 9 hours, of whom 1 was a foreman drawing- $4 a day, 1 carpenter at $2.50, 1 steel bender at $2.25, and 7 laborers at $1.75 each. When the road closed down the force was. doubled, 8 more laborers being added at $1.75 and 2 carpenters at $2 and $3.25, respectively, these latter working for a bonus. Concreting the footings began on Oct. 18 and dismantling the old trestle at the same time, with some men fabricating steel, some building forms, some breaking stone and some excavating the upper footings. The pulleys were first removed from under the cable, and the latter supported by 2x4-in. plank spiked to the old trestle bents, on which were also preserved the line and grade. The guard rails and track rails were next removed, then the cross ties and four inner stringers were unbolted and lowered by ropes to the ground and piled so as to form mixing boards. The remaining outside stringers were then shifted out to the ends of the bent caps, leaving a clear space in the center 8 ft. .6 ins. by 26 ins. deep. In some places the tops of these stringers were 2 ins. above grade and in other places 2 ins. below, otherwise they represented approximately the level for the new work and allowed a clearance of 3 ins. for the outside girder form of the new work. Next 2x6-in. spruce -floor timbers for the girder forms were hung at 3-ft. intervals on a grade 27*4 ins. below by 2x4-in. battens spiked to the outside of the old stringers. The old bent caps were then gained out for each new girder to the grade of the floor timber, and a I 1 / 4xl2-in. by 16-ft. bottom board for each of the three new girder forms nailed in place. These girder forms were then built up to a depth of 26 ins. of 1^4x9-in. spruce matched boards, I^x4-in. pieces being used for battens every 36 ins. These sides were braced internally at 3-ft. intervals by tablets taken from the footing forms and placed like cross-partitions between the girder forms. The outer sides were braced by wedging against the 2x4-in. hangers and old supporting stringers, the tops of the latter being held from gaping outward by I 1 / 4x4-in. strips nailed across the top over the floor timbers. The BRIDGES. 1693 three floor timbers at the center of each span were then further supported from below by struts composed of old ties and braces from the dismantled structure. The forms for the batter posts and bracing struts were made up in trough form, leaving the outer and upper side open, then set in place on the foundation, and the tops sawed to fit the bottom of the girder forms. The webs were then built between their tops, uniting the whole with the girders. The post and strut forms were then properly braced and supported, the reinforcing steel put in place, a section of the fourth side put in place and the whole securely clamped together by %x26-in. bolts passing tangent to two sides and drawing 2x4-in. yokes against the remaining two sides. The reinforcement having been placed in the girders, the concrete was then poured in and carefully rammed and spaded, and the third side built up and clamped directly ahead of the concreting so as to permit the most careful placing of the latter without chance of displacing the reinforcement. These posts were concreted to- gether up to the level of the girders for two bents usually. Owing to the 30 surface, the tops of the girders had to be boarded over continuously as the concreting progressed to keep it from running out, and a section of 1-in. pipe had to be left in place every 4 ft. in the outer girders through which to bolt the track to the new structure. When concreting stopped for the day bulkheads in the form of saddles were placed in the web at a bent, these bulkheads being removed the next day, allowing the concrete of each girder an the succeeding day to begin half way in the web of the preceding bent. Each batter post was reinforced by a rack composed of %-in. rods wired to dowels in the footing or let into holes drilled in bed- rock, extending up through the girder above it nearly to the top surface and bound together every 18 ins. by a rectangular hoop of % -in. corrugated bar, previously bent to the right form and se- curely wired together. These racks were made up as needed, and when set in place inside the forms had about 1 in. of clearance around them and had to be constantly watched by the man ram- ming the concrete to keep them centered. Each strut brace had a %-in. rod within 1 in. of each of its two lower corners, wired to the footing dowels and passing up through the central girder nearly to the surface, and requiring great care in placing the concrete to maintain them in place. Each girder had two %-in. bars suspended from the cross-hatters on top of the forms by wire, so that they lay 1% ins. below the- upper surface continuously, and two intermediate 8-ft. bars over- each web for continuity. At 6-in. intervals eleven stirrups were hung on them at the bent webs and two more were hung near the center of span, so that they lay in V-shape normal to the axis of each girder and 1 in. distant from its bottom and sides. Four %-in. bottom bars were then hung or laid in these stirrups, the length being 34 f t. ; two were made to break joints at each bent. When these bars were all in place and securely wired, two %-in. bars were sprung into the cross-struts at the center of span and four more in HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. each of the webs and wired in place. Whereupon the girders were ready for concreting. The congestion of steel at the webs made it difficult to place the concrete and properly ram it at and near the webs, and particularly to place and remove bulkheads and clean out the forms before going ahead with, the concreting. It was also hard to place the concrete in the top of the bracing struts. The best results in placing the concrete were attained with a very wet mix, poured so that the water would flow up the forms ahead and be followed by a grout, which ran all around and between the reinforcement, leaving the stone and gravel to be rammed down into it at last. The mixing was done by hand the gang being divided so that one batch was being separated while the other was being deposited. The sand and gravel were sent to the board by a chute, the stone broken at the edge of the board as used, and the cement carried to the board, each man taking a bag as he came to work and after lunch. Inclined runways of plank were shifted from bent to bent for the posts and others built from the mixing board to the top of structure and planks laid along the sides of the girder forms in such manner that the employes could return to the board without interfering with the loaded pails. Owing to the steepness of the ground and of the grade on the finished work, there was unusual danger of accidents and need of constant vigilance to pre- vent bad results from careless work, and this is the reason why only so many" men were employed and in such a manner. Because of the unexpected depth of thirteen of the footings, a %-in. steel bar encased in 6 ins. of concrete was placed as a tie between the batter post feet wherever the latter did not reach directly to bedrock. This and 37 cu. yds. of extra concrete not indicated on the plans and a corresponding quantity of excavation not originally called for delayed the completion of the work, which was to have been finished on Dec. 1, so that it took until Dec. 12 to complete it. The weather was unusually favorable, being dry and warm until Nov. 3, from which time on there were light squalls of snow, succeeded by mild weather till Dec. 1, when it became so cold that the aggregates had to be heated. An old section of steel smokestack, 4 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. long, was filled with fire and sand and gravel piled over it, the water being hearted in pails over a fire. The 14 M. ft. of form lumber sufficed to complete about half the forms, and thereafter the forms first concreted, having been filled .ten days, were stripped and the lumber used as the form work progressed. When the clamps were removed the post forms came off in four pieces in good shape to be set up again at once, but the girder and web forms had to be taken apart and rebuilt. The top boards and tie strips were first pried off the top of the girders, the hangers and floor timber next removed, then the old stringers pried off and lowered with ropes, all the girder batters then knocked off, and the form boards taken off separately from both the outside and inside of girders, webs and struts. The bot- tom boards to the girders and diagonal strut braces were left in BRIDGES, 1695 place two weeks longer, with props under them, and then the old bent caps were sawed in two and the bent timber unbolted and dismembered, releasing the bottom boards, which were then re- moved, leaving the concrete completely stripped. There was very little pointing necessary, except on the posts, which was done from a ladder, after which the exterior surfaces were given a wash of cement, alum and lye, rubbed in with a cement brick to waterproof the structure and remove board marks. The cable was blocked up on the concrete webs, the ties and guard rails bolted on, the pulleys rehung and track laid back in place by the Otis Railway Company, replacing track not coming under the contract. The amount of work done under this contract was as follows : Excavation called for 87 cu. yds. earth, and extra excavation un- called for 63 cu. yds. boulders, making a total of 150 cu. yds. ; dis- mantling and piling 34 M. ft. yellow pine structure ; 37 cu. yds. concreting (1-3-6) in extra footings; 125 cu. yds. concreting called for (1-2-4), reinforced; 13 tie rods for batter post feet; cleaning up and removal of debris; total cost, $4,332.14; contract price, $4,000 ; extras, $677.75 ; total, $4,677.75 ; profit on contract, $345.61. Daily records were kept, showing kind of weather, temperature, amount of each kind of work done, with proportion of pay roll spent in doing it and the unit cost noted down for the immediate purpose of more economically planning the next day's work. A distribution statement showed the cost of both labor 'and material, charged up against each item of work performed during the week and the unit costs computed for each. A comparison was made between weekly average and daily rates, and the conditions pre- vailing on those days showing the most economic rates were then planned for the succeeding week's work. Separate records were kept for. the items applying to the general contract, the costs on extra work being kept apart. Finally all the costs were referred to the quantity of work done under them in the form of unit prices -per cubic yard and the percentage which each represented to the whole. The itemized cost of the work is given in Tables XXII, XXIII and XXIV. TABLE XXII. COST OF REINFORCED CONCRETE. Materials Per cu. yd. Cement $2.31 Sand 1.73 Stone 2.00 Gravel 0.33 Water 0.35 Total materials $6.72 Labor Mixing and placing $1.94 Pointing up concrete 0.37 Waterproofing concrete 0.60 Total labor $2.91 Grand total concrete $9.63 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Forms Lumber, butts and nails $4.75 Fabricating and erecting 3.58 Total forms $8.33 Reinforcement Materials, bars, wire, etc $3.77 Fabricating 0.37 Placing 0.74 Total reinforcement $4.88 Grand total for concrete work, 125 cu. yds $22.84 Miscellaneous Excavation, 87 cu. yds $0.56 Dismantling old trestle 1.00 Cleaning up at completion 0.40 General expenses,^ superintendence, etc 4.45 Total miscellaneous $6.41 Grand total $29.25 TABLE XXIII. COST OF EXTRA FOOTINGS. Per cu. yd. Excavation, 63 yds. rock, at $2.89 $ 4.91 Aggregates: Cement, $1.94; sand, $0.97; stone, $1.01 3.92 Forms, material 1.20 Forms, labor 1.44 Concreting, labor 2.07 37 cu. yds. concrete $13.50 TABLE XXIV. THIRTEEN EXTRA TIE RODS. Per cu. yds. Excavation $ 6.01 Bending and placing steel rods 7.80 Form labor 8.35 Form material ' 8.30 Reinforcement (steel bars), % in 5.10 Concreting labor 5.00 Aggregates: Cement, $2.70; sand, $1.35; stone, $3.. 7.00 1% yds. concrete $47.50 These tie rods were of concrete, 6x6 ins., reinforced by %-in. steel rods. The tie rods connected the feet of the batter posts, as shown in Fig. 30. Standard Designs of Reinforced Concrete Culverts, C., B. & Q. Railway.* Standard culvert designs for use on the Chicago, Bur- lington & Quincy Ry. have been worked out in reinforced concrete for box culverts ranging from 4x4 ft. to 10x12 ft. in size and for arch culverts from 4x4 ft. to 6x6 ft. in size. Up to and including in box culverts clear openings 7 ft. wide the pattern of structure shown by Fig. 31 is used ; for clear openings of 8 ft., and over, the * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 3. 1906. BRIDGES. 169' TABLI 3 XXV. Box Culverts. Pattern Fig. 31. Thick Length Cu. yds. Cu. yds. ness. Inside of wing concrete cone., side dimen- walls. wing Lin. ft. walls. sions in ft. Ft. Ins. walls. Barrel. Ins. 4 x 4. ... 510 7.4 0.75 12 4 x 5 7 6 9.2 0.83 12 4 x 6i ... 9 2 11.6 0.9 12 5 x 4. ... 6 1 9.0 0.91 12 5 x 5. ... 7 9 11.3 0.99 12 5 x 6 9 6 13.9 .06 12 6x5 8 13.5 .18 12 6x6.. 8 16.5 .25 12 6 x 8 12 9 18.3 .60 15 7 x 5 8 4 15.65 .39 12 7 x 7. ... 11 5 24.9 1.72 15 7 x 8 13 29.13 1.82 15 Box Culverts. Pattern Fig. 92. 8x6.. 10 31.0 1.89 15 8 x 8 13 4 39.7 2.08 15 8 x 10 10 5 5.71 2.51 18 10 x 10 17 62.3 3.07 18 10 x 12 20 4 76.0 3.3 18 Thick- roof slab. Ins. 12 12 12 14 14 14 16 16 16 18 18 18 20 20 20 24 24 Thick- ness. floor slab. Ins. 12 12 12 14 14 14 16 16 16 18 18 18 20 20 20 24 24 pattern is modified as shown by Fig. 32. Figure 33 shows the pattern of arch structure used. The dimensions L and I in the box culvert designs are determined by the formulas, 10 ft + # + 3 f t. ; and 3 10 I = h + x. O Inside dimensions in ft. 4x4 5x5 6x6 Length of wing walls. Ft. Ins. 5 3 611 8 6 TABLE XXVI. Cu. yds. Lbs. of concrete metal in wing wing walls. walls. 236 401.7 553.5 Cu. yds. cone, per lin. ft. barrel. 0.5 0.71 1.00 Lbs. of metal per lin. ft. barrel. 54 76.7 103.4 in which x the width of roadbed at crown and h = the height of the fill above the culvert. In the arch culvert pattern the dimension L is determined by the formula, 10 L = 3 1698 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 3 Ry.M 8c5. |K I P L Fig. 32. All other dimensions are determined by the cross-sectional size of the waterway. They are, for the various sizes adopted and with the exception of the reinforcement, shown in Table XXV. Structural details of the 4x6-ft. culvert of pattern Fig. 31 are shown in Fig. 34, and Fig. 35 shows the similar details for the 10xl2-ft. culvert of pattern Fig. 2. The same general details are employed for the culverts of intermediate and smaller dimensions. H *' Fig. 33. Turning now to the arch culvert pattern, Fig. 36 shows the struc- tural details of the 6x6-ft. size. The main features of the other sizes of this pattern are shown by Table XXVI. For culvert work the company uses a 1-3-6 concrete composed of 1.08 barrel of cement, 0.45 cu. yd. sand and 0.9 cu. yd. broken stone, or 1.25 barrels of cement and 1 cu. yd. of gravel. Par, Longi+udino. Section. Fig. 34. BRIDGES. 1699 Cost of Concrete Culverts, References. In Engineering-Contract- ing, Sept. 1, 1909, are given standard designs of box and arch culverts on the C., M. & St. P., together with quantities and costs. See Tyrrell's "Concrete Bridges and Culverts." Cost of Reinforced Concrete Culvert. The following data relative to the construction of a 4-ft. reinforced concrete box culvert in Missouri. The work was done under the supervision of P. S. Quinn, County Engineer. The culvert contained 28 cu. yds. of cement and 2,'500 Ibs. of steel bars. The concrete was a 1-4-8 mixture. Com- Part Longitudinal SecKon. Fig. 35. fy.M.fcS. Sectional End Elevation. H-~-***_ IIUJL"::. liLU| piLuiLaujjiUJili i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i I i it g"-****** I*?*** Part Side Elevation. Sectional End Elevation. Fig. 36. Arch Culvert. mon labor was paid 15 cts. per hour and carpenters 35 cts. per hour. The cost was as follows: Material: Cement, 23 bbls., at $1.50 Total. , at $1.50.... $ 34.50 Sand, 15 cu. yds., at $0.65 9.75 Crushed limestone, 28 cu. yds., at $1.75 49.00 Steel, 2,500 Ibs., at 2.3 57.50 Lumber, delivered 33.60 Total material $184.35 Per cu. yd. Concrete. $1.23 .35 1.75 2.05 1.20 ?6.58 ITou HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. Labor: Carpenter, forms, 27 hrs $ 9.45 $0.34 Helper, forms, 34 hrs 5.10 .18 Steel placing, 20 hrs 3.00 .11 Concrete, mix and place, 101 hrs 15.15 .54 Total labor $ 32.70 $1.17. Grand total . .$217.05 $7.75 The cost of placing the steel was $0.0012 per Ib. Cost of an Arch Culvert. The cost of a concrete arch culvert, 26-ft. span, 62-ft. barrel (exclusive of excavation), with wing walls and parapet, built near Pittsburg in 1901 ; was as follows, the con- crete being 1 to 8 and 1 to 10, hand mixed: Per cu. yd. 0.96 bbl. cement, at $1.60 $1.535 1.03 tons coarse gravel, at $0.19 0.195 0.40 ton fine gravel, at $0.21 0.085 0.32 ton sand, at $0.36 0.115 Tools, etc 0.078 Lumber for forms and centers 0.430 Carpenter work on forms (23 cts. hr. ) 0.280 Carpenter work on platforms and buildings 0.050 Preparing site and cleaning up. 0.210 Changing trestle . 085 Handling materials 0.037 Mixing and laying, av. 15 y 2 cts. per hr 1.440 !<-- -ttftK Total per cu. yd .' ..^ $4.540 Wages per hour were: General foreman, 40 cts.; foreman, 25 cts.; carpenters, 22% to 25 cts.; laborers, 15 cts. The finished structure contained 1,493 cu. yds., total cost being $7,243, including $463 for excavation. The work was done for a railway by company forces. Cost of Six Arch Culverts and Six Bridge Abutments, N. C. & St. L. Railway. Mr. H. M. Jones is authority for the following data: An 18-ft. full-centered arch culvert was built by contract on the N. C. & St. L. Ry., near Paris, Tenn. The culvert was built under a trestle 65 ft. high, before filling in the trestle. The railway company built a pile foundation to support a concrete foundation 2 ft. thick, and a concrete paving 20 ins. thick. The contractors then built the culvert, which has a barrel 140 ft. long. No expan- sion joints were provided, which was a mistake, for cracks have developed about 50 ft. apart. The contractors were given a large quantity of quarry spalls, which they crushed in part by hand, much of it being too large for the concrete. The stone was shipped in drop-bottom cars and dumped into bins built on the ground under the trestle. The sand was shipped in ordinary coal cars, and dumped or shoveled into bins. The mixing boards were placed on the surface of the ground, and wheelbarrow runways were built BRIDGES, 1701 up as the work progressed. The cost of the 1,900 cu. yds. of con- crete in the culverts was as follows per cu. yd. : 1.01 bbls. Portland cement $2.26 0.56 cu. yd. of sand, at 60 cts 32 Loading and breaking stone 25 Lumber, centers, cement house and hardware 64 Hauling materials 04 Mixing and placing concrete 1.17 Carpenter work 19 Foreman (100 days at $2.50) 13 Superintendent (100 days at $5.50) 29 $5.29 It will be seen that only 19 cu. yds. of concrete were placed per day with a gang that appears to have numbered about 21 laborers, who were negroes receiving about $1.10 per day. This was the first work of its kind that the contractors had done. It will be noticed that the cost of 42 cts. per cu. yd. for superintendence and foremanship was unnecessarily high. The work in Tables XXVII and XXVIII was "company work" done by negro labor under company foremen. TABLE XXVII. COST OF Six CONCRETE CULVERTS ON THE N. C. & ST. L. RY. No. of culvert 1 2 3 4 5 6 Span of culvert 5ft. 7.66ft. 10. ft. 12ft 12ft. 16ft. Cu. yds. of concrete. .. 210 199 354 292 406 986 Ratio of cement to stone 1:5.5 1:6.5 1:5.8 1:5.8 1:6.1 1:6.5 Increase of concrete over stone 16.0% 9.9% 6.3% 12.3% 8.3% 5.3% Bbls. cement per cu.yd. 1.02 0.90 1.06 1.01 1.00 1.09 Cu.yds. sand per cu.yd. 0.43 0.49 0.44 0.46 0.46 0.47 Cu.yds. stone per cu.yd. 0.86 0.90 0.95 0.89 0.94 0.94 Total days labor (incl. foremen and supt. ).. 702 607 784 726 768 1,994 Av. wages per day ( incl. foremen and supt.) $1.61 $1.33 $1.59 $1.19 $1.47 $1.46 Cost per cu. yd. : Cement 2.18 1.94 2.27 1.82 2.11 2.01 Sand 0.17 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.14 Stone . 0.52 0.52 0.47 0.54 0.47 0.58 Lumber 0.88 0.43 0.48 0.43 0.31 0.57 Unload, materials ... 0.23 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.16 Building forms 1.07 0.33 0.62 0.47 0.72 0.41 Mixing and placing. 1.59 1.74 1.6!) 1.35 1.23 1.26 Total per cu. yd .. $6.65 $5.30 $5.8!) $4.97 $5.19 $4.97 Note: All these arches were built under existing trestles, and in all cases, except No. 2, bins were built on the ground under the trestle and the materials were dumped from cars into the bins, loaded and delivered from the bins in wheelbarrows to the mixing boards, and from the mixing boards carried in wheelbarrows to place. Negro laborers were used in all cases, except No. 5, and 1702 HANDBOOK OF -COST DATA.. were paid 90 cts. a day and their board, which cost an additional 20 cts. ; they worked under white foremen who received $2.50 to $3 a day and board. In culvert No. 5, white laborers, at $1.25 without board, were used. There were two carpenters at $2 a day and one foreman at $2.50 on this gang, making the average wage $1.47 each for all engaged. The men were all green hands, in consequence of which the labor on the forms in particular was excessively high. The high rate of daily wages on culverts Nos. 1 and 3 was due to the use of some carpenters along with the laborers in mixing con- crete. The high cost of mixing concrete on culvert No. 2 was due to the rehandling of the materials, which were not dumped into bins but onto the concrete floor of the culvert and then wheeled out and stacked to one side. The cost of excavating and back- filling at the site of each culvert is not included in the table, but it ranged from 70 cts. to $2 per cu. yd. of concrete. TABLE XXVIII. COST OF CONCRETE ABUTMENT, RETAINING WALLS AND FOUNDATIONS. No. of structure 7 8 9 10 11 12 Cu. yds. of concrete. 310 99 ' 282 78 71 72 Ratio of cement to stone .1:5.7 1:6.3 1:5.9 1:6.6 1:5.7 Increase of concrete over stone 6.2% 10.0% 12.8% 4.0% 10.9% Bbls. cement per cu.yd. 1.09 0.95 0.99 0.96 1.03 1.39 Cy.yds. sand per cu.yd. 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.51 0.45 0.56 Cu.yds. stone per cu.yd. 0.94 0.91 0.90 0.96 0.90 1.09 Total days labor (incl. foremen) 573 226 599 128 131 224 Av. wages per day (incl. foremen) $1.43 $1.88 $1.46 $1.69 $2.05 $1.55 Cost per cu. yd. : Cement $2.32 $1.66 $1.98 $2.07 $2.19 $2.95 Sand 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.21 0.18 0.17 Stone 0.52 0.18 0.22 0.48 0.18 0.65 Lumber 0.56 0.09 0.26 0.26 0.51 0.34 Building forms 0.35 0.40 1.09 Mixing and placing. 1.94 3.38 1.36 2.21 1.74 2.59 Totals $5.88 $5.91 $5.09 .$5.23 $4.80 $6.70 Note: Structure No. 7 consists of two abutments to carry a 2 4 -ft. span bridge made of I-beams. Bins to hold stone and sand were built on the railway embankment. At the head of the bin a part of the bank was dug away under the track, and long stringers put in to carry the track. The rock was dumped from the car into this opening and shoveled into the bin. The forms for the concrete were, of course, simpler than for the arches in Table XXVII ; hence the labor on them cost less. BRIDGES. 1703 Structure No. 8 consists of concrete side walls to support a cedar cover, forming a culvert. Slag was used instead of crushed stone in this structure as well as in Nos. 9 and 11. Structure No. 9 is a retaining wall. There was much handling of materials due to lack of room for storage near the work. Old material was used for the forms. Structures Nos. 10 and 12 are foundations for track scales. It is not clear why the labor cost of this work was so very high. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Railroad Culvert in Montana. In Engineering-Contracting, July 1, 1908, Mr. Henry A. Young gave the following : The following cost data were obtained from the Huntley Project of the U. S. Reclamation Service, located at Huntley, Mont, and show in detail the construction costs for a culvert carrying the canal under the Burlington & Missouri River R. R. The culvert was known as the "1st Culvert under the B. & M. R. Ry.," and was of a type similar to the designs of W. W. Colpitts, Assistant Chief Engi- neer, Kansas City, Mexico & Orient Ry., having two barrels, each barrel being 6 ft. 6% ins. x 7 f t. 6 ins. and 24 ft. long. The roof was flat, the walls provided with .fillets at top and bottom, and the entrance and outlet consisted of warped walls 20 ft. long opening into a canal section 20 ft. wide at bottom and having side slopes of 1% on 1. The entire structure was of concrete, heavily reinforced with Johnson high carbon corrugated bars, 1 in. and % in. in diameter. The work was not done cheaply, and the figures are given to show the outside cost for this class of structure, built under the most unfavorable conditions. This was the first structure built on the project, the entire gang, mechanics and laborers, was green, and the work was done in November and December, 1905, the weather being very cold. An 8-hour day was worked. After the experience on this culvert the same gang did work for about two-thirds of the costs recorded here. The forms for the warped walls in this case gave considerable trouble. A Municipal Engineering and Contracting Company's 1-3 cu. yd. cubical mixer was set about 50 ft. in front of the culvert. A gaso- line pump took water from a creek 60 ft. away and delivered it to a tank near the mixer. The delivery pipe froze often and delayed the work. The mixer was fed by and the concrete was carried by wheelbarrows. The concrete was put in wet and spaded. A 1-in. course of 1-2 mortar was placed on floor, copings, etc., and troweled. Chamfer strips were used on all sharp angles and fillets in culvert. The earth was a sandy clay and was removed with slips, though considerable hand work was done in shaping up. Sand and gravel were obtained from a pit about 1% miles from the culvert. The wheel at pit was about 40 ft., the material being 1704 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. screened into a bin. The haul was down hill. Cost delivered is recorded in table. Cement, steel and other materials were hauled from a station about 1 mile from culvert. The costs recorded do not include backfill, which was paid for under puddling, the trimming and finishing of exposed concrete walls, nor the construction and removal of a temporary railroad bridge. The work was done by contract, but actual costs are given whether borne by the contractor or the government, and no allow- ance is made for depreciation or for engineering expenses. The quantities consisted of 338 cu. yds. of excavation and 162 cu yds. of reinforced concrete, the latter mixed in the proportion of 1-2 % -5, the maximum size gravel being 2 ins. Lumber was taken at its fuU cost, which is not absolutely correct, as it was later used over again on other structures. Probably one-third of the lumber charge would have been more nearly cor- rect. Excavation: Days. Superintendent ...................... 3% Foreman ............................ 5 Laborers (loading slips and excavat'g) 31% 2-horse teams, slip and drivers ........ 8% Excavating 338 cu. yds. (sandy clay, dry), at $0.361 ................... Forms (162 cu. yds.) : Lumber, 10,550 ft. B. M ........... Nails, 2 kegs ....................... '. Total material for forms. . Carpenters .......................... 90% Laborers ............................ 45% Hauling (teams) .................... 3% Total labor, building and remov- ing forms ................... Materials: Cement, 225 bbls Cement, 12% bbls ....... : Sand, 71 cu. yds Gravel, 134 cu. yds Coal, 3V 2 tons Gasoline, 25 gals Total materials Labor- Laborers ....... .................... 141 i/t Foreman ............................ 18% Cement worker .................... 7 13-16 Cement helper ...... .. ............... 2 % Teams (hauling cement and water) .... 2% Total labor, mixing and placing. . Reinforcement: Hauling (labor and teams) ............ Rate. $166.67 50.00 2.00 3.60 $20.25 3.20 $3.00 2.00 3.60 $1.76 1.86 1.58 1.58 3.25 .35 $2.00 2.40 4.00 1.60 3.60 Total. $19.44 8.33 62.75 31.50 $122.02 $213.64 6.40 $220.04 $272.00 90.25 11.25 $373.50 $396.00 23.71 112.18 211.72 11.37 8.75 $763.73 $282.50 43.50 31.25 4.40 10.35 $372.00 $16.2,', BRIDGES. 1705 Bending bars: Laborers 11% $ 2.00 $22.25 Blacksmith 11 % 2.40 26.70 Superintendent (working plans) 1 166.67 5.56 Foreman 1 50.00 1.67 Blacksmith coal, 3 sacks 1.00 3.00 Total labor, bending $59.18 Placing bars: Laborers 34 $2.00 $68.00 Blacksmith 1 % 2.40 3.90 Total labor, placing bars $71.90 Steel bars, 25,585 Ibs $0.027 $690.79 Installing and removing plant: Laborers 4i/ 2 $2.00 $9.00 Teams 5 3.20 16.00 Total $25.00 Superintendence : Superintendent 32 $166.67 $177.78 Foreman 31 50.00 51.67 Total $229.45 Summary of Concrete. Per Cu. Yd. Material for forms $1.358 Labor on forms .2.306 Materials for concrete 4.714 Labor, mixing and placing 2,296 Steel for reinforcement 4.264 Hauling steel 0.100 Labor, bending steel 0.365 Labor, placing steel 0.444 Installing and removing plant 0.154 Superintendence and foreman 1 1 1.416 Total cost of concrete $17.417 The cost of the steel reinforcement, in terms of the pound of steel as the unit, cost as follows: Per lb. Cts. Steel bars 2.70 Hauling 0.06 Bending 0.23 Placing 0.28 Total 3.27 Cost of a Stone Arch Culvert.* This culvert was erected by con- tract for the Chicago & West Michigan Ry., in 1891-1892. The culvert was built some distance from the original channel, and a new channel was cut through to the arch after it was completed. The excavation was carried 4% ft. below water level. A cofferdam was built of 2x8 in. x 8 in.x 7 ft. sheet piling, which was driven by hand. Pumping was done with a centrifugal pump, the power being furnished by a traction engine. The pump was run only one-quarter of the time, for the water did not come in rapidly. All excavation was done by men with shovels and wheelbarrows. * Engineering-Contracting, Jan., 1906. 1706 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The stone for the culvert was a sandstone scabbled at the quarry ; and but little work had to be done on the top and bottom beds. Joints and beds were laid for 10 ins. back of the face with Portland cement, and the rest was laid with Louisville natural cement. Two derricks were used alternately and were run with steam power. Work on the excavation commenced Oct. 5, 1891 ; a hand pump being used from Oct. 21 to 29 ; and a steam pump being used from Oct. 29 to Nov. 26, and from Jan. 29 to Feb. 3, 1892. The first stone was laid Nov. 7 ; the centers were raised Dec. 4 ; the keystone was finished Jan. 20 ; the last stone was laid Jan. 25 ; and the centers were struck Jan. 29. The plant was moved away Feb. 6. After Dec. 7, salt was used in hot water for mixing the mortar. The following was the cost to the railway and to the contractor : Price Paid to Contractor. 1,041 cu. yds. dry excavation, at 25 cts $ 260.25 617 cu. yds. wet excavation, at 75 cts. 462.75 594 cu. yds. excavation for channel, at 25 cts 148.50 16,740 ft. B. M. beech timber in foundation, at $30 502.20 20,286 ft. B. M. 3-in. pine plank, at $22 446.29 495.9 cu. yds. first-class masonry cut and placed (inclu- ding cement and sand), at $7.50 3,719.25 504 ft. B. M. sheet piling protection for ends of arch, at $14 7.05 140 hours' work driving sheet piling and riprapping at end of arch, at $0.15 21.00 20 hours, engine and engineman, ditto, at $0.40. ... I ... 8.00 10% on $29 labor 2.90 Total $5^57819 Cost to C. d W. M. Ry. 481.9 cu. yds. sandstone, at $6.82 $3,284.95 Contractor's payment as above 5,578.19 Total $8,863.14 The above is the cost of sandstone f. o. b. La Porte. There we^e 57 carloads of stone, of 272.4 cu. ft. of stone per car, weighing 157 Ibs. per cu. ft. Actual Cost of Material and Labor. Materials: 4,000 ft. B. M. 2 x 8 in x 7 ft. T. & G. sheet piling, at $14 $ 56.00 16,740 ft. B. M. beech timber, 12 in. thick, hewed, at $10.. 167.40 20,286 ft. B. M. 3-in. pine plank in foundation, at $14. . . . 283.92 1,800 ft. B. M. rough hemlock, 3 x 12 ins., in centers, at $10 18.00 1,500 ft. B. M. pine (dressed 1 side), 3x12 ins., in cen- ters, at $14 21 00 1,600 ft. B. M. pine (dressed 1 side,) 2 x 4 ins., lagging, at $14 Old timber in bents under center Posts and walling for sheet piling (round timber) . . 160 bolts in centers, % x 12 ins., 200 Ibs., at 4 cts 3,000 boat spikes, % x 7 ins., 1,000 Ibs., at 2% cts 65 cu. yds. sand, at 75 cts 95 bbls. Louisville cement, at $1 2 bbls. salt, at $1 70 cords 16-in. wood, fuel for engines, at $1.25 Total for materials.. . $931.97 BRIDGES. 1707 Labor: 34 days foreman of laborers excavating, at $2 $ 68.00 76 days foreman of masons, at $2.50 190.00 73% days engineman, at $2 147.00 287 % days stone cutters, at $3 1,162.50 10 days carpenters, at $2 20.00 622 days laborers, at $1.50 933.00 23 days team, at $3 : 69.00 Total for labor $2,589.50 General expense: 85 days timekeeper, at $1 $ 85.00 Repairs to stonecuters' tools 65.00 30 days traction engine and engineman, at $3....- 90.00 60 days rent on engine when idle, at $1.50 90.00 10% value of $2,000 plant -. 200.00 Total general expense . . $530.00 Summary: Total materials $ 931.97 Total labor 2,589.50 Total general expense. . . 530.00 Grand total $4,051.47 Profit to contractor : 1,526.72 Contract cost to railway $5,578.19 Itemised Cost. Dry excavation $ 185.00 or 17.8 cts. per cu. yd. Wet excavation and driving sheet piles 202.50 or 32.8 cts. per cu. yd. Putting 16,740 ft. B. M. beech tim- ber in place 40.00 or $2.38 per M. Putting 20,286 ft. B. M. plank in place 45.00 or $2.22 per M. Building and erecting centers. . . 31.00 or $6.20 per M. Unloading stone from cars 37.50 or $0.07% Per cu. yd. Cutting stone, 496 cu. yds 1,282.25 or $2.59 per cu. yd. Setting stone, 496 cu. yds 4-83.50 or $0.97 per cu .yd. Handling and erecting plant 150.00 Excavating channel 110.25 or 18.6 cts. per cu. yd. Sheet piling and riprap 22.50 The foregoing record, while very complete, would be more satis- factory if it contained a detailed statement of the organization of the forces. For example, how many masons, how many mortar mixers, how many masons' helpers on the wall, how many tag-men slewing the derrick boom, etc., were, there to each derrick? Then, again, a sketch of the plant layout, and a rough drawing showing the general design of the culvert would be a valuable addition. While the day of cut-stone arch culverts is rapidly passing away, such culverts are still specified. Concrete is cheaper than cut-stone masonry, but it is not always cheaper than rubble. We may ex- pect to see a greater use of rubble masonry when engineers come to have a more detailed knowledge of costs. If the contractor is left to himself, he can often build rubble masonry at less cost than concrete. Engineers, however, often draw 1708 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. indefinite or very exacting specifications for rubble, and get, as a result, prices that are higher than for concrete. Rubble is particu- larly cheap where the job is small and where broken stone can not be hauled in except at great expense. In considering the cost of excavation above given, it should be remembered that conditions were such that the material could be moved in wheelbarrows. If a derrick had to be used, the cost would have been much more. Cost of Reinforced Concrete Subways.* In 1903 the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. constructed, with its own workmen, three reinforced concrete subways at Elkhart, Ind., to carry a highway under its tracks and thus do away with grade crossings. The three subways had a length of barrel 40 ft, 60 ft., and 160 ft. long, respectively, exclusive of wing walls. They were built as arches of 30-ft. clear span and 13-ft. headway, with a thickness of 28 ins. at the crown. Steel bars of the Johnson corrugated pattern, made by the St. Louis Expanded Metal Fire Proofing Co., were used for the rein- forcement, circumferential bars, spaced 6 ins. center to center, being laid 2 % ins. from the extrados and intrados ; across these were transverse rods, 2 ft. center to center, running the full length of the barrel. -The steel rods were put in according to the Monier plan. The concrete used in the construction was mixed generally in the proportions of 1 part cement to 3 parts gravel and 6 parts sand. The gravel was dug from the foundations and was about one-half sand _ and one-half gravel. The latter component varied somewhat and the proportion of cement was varied accordingly, more cement being used when the proportion of sand in the gravel increased. The concrete was machine mixed and a wet mixture used. The three subways contained 4,833 cu. yds. of concrete, the cost per cubic yard of concrete being as follows: Total. Per cu. yd. Temporary buildings, trestles, etc $ 752 $0.15 Machinery, pipe, etc 416 .08 Sheet piling and boxing 1,006 .21 Excavating and pumping 1,620 .33 Arch Centers and Boxing 46 M. ft. at $25 1,150 .24 10 M. ft. at $13 130 .03 Labor in centers (carpenters at 22% cts. ; laborers, 15 cts.) 2,250 .46 Concrete Masonry Cement at $1.83 8,861 Stone 1,788 Sand and gravel (obtained from founda- tion) 240 Drain tile 103 Labor 8,091 Steel reinforcing rods, at 2y 2 cts. per Ib. . . 3,028 Engineering, watchmen, etc 508 Total .$29,944 $6.19 *Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 17, 1906. BRIDGES. 1709 We are indebted to Mr. Samuel Rockwell, Chief Engineer Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry., lor the above data. Cost of a Dry Masonry Box Culvert. Dry masonry box culverts have been used extensively in railroad construction, and their use will no doubt continue, especially where the haul of cement is long, as in new construction in mountainous sections of the country, also where the amount of work to be done does not justify the installa- tion of a rock crusher. Records of cost of such work are, conse- quently, of value. Among the many classes of culverts constructed, none is more lasting than a well-built dry masonry culvert. See Fig. 37. Where large stones with well defined faces can be secured, such as from rock cuttings on railroad work, these culverts can be built strong and with a very neat finish. Care should always be taken to secure good, firm bottom, and the foundation course should be placed well below the bed of the stream, and thus prevent undermining of the walls. The paving should not extend under the walls of the cul- Fig. 37. Masonry Culvert. vert, for should a part of the paving become misplaced, the small paving stones will be washed from under the walls, causing the latter to cave in and ruin the culvert. The lower course of stones should be as large as can be conveniently handled, so that heavy floods, that may injure the pavement will not misplace the wall stones. We give here the cost of a 3x3-ft. dry masonry culvert, 36 ft. long: Excavation for foundation 20 cu. yds. Laborers, 22 hrs. at 20 cts % 4.40 This gives a cost of 22 cts. per cu. yd. for excavation. Masonry Mason, 60 hrs. at 40 cts $24.00 Laborers, 130 hrs. at 20 cts 26.00 Team and teamster, 40 hrs. at 45 cts.... 18.00 Derrick, 40 hrs. at 15 cts 6.00 Total $74.00 The culvert contained 50 cu. yds. at a cost of $74, or $1.48 per cu. yd. The stone for this culvert was taken out of a rock dump 20 ft. away. Some of the large covers had to be handled 400 ft. The derrick used was the ordinary three-leg derrick, legs 20 ft. long, 1710 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. and the derrick boom was 24 ft. long, one set reaching the full length of culvert, the derrick cable being operated by horse power, pulling through block and tackle. Cost of Concrete Culvert Pipe.* The methods and cost of molding 4-ft. concrete culvert pipe given in the following paragraphs have been obtained from Mr. O. P. Chamberlain, Chief Engineer, Chi- cago & Illinois Western R. R. During the summer of 1906 Mr. Chamberlain built a number of culverts, using a 4-ft. long concrete pipe molded in the form of J *>\ Jt * v. ' T V *! * jjj -^ if ! P jr. 1 > Elevation of Oirber Form, Sharp STfrrt Ij Sect-ion erf Inner Form., Horizontal Section., Fig. 38. Forms for Culvert Pipe. hollow cylinders with square ends. They were molded with an interior diameter of 4 ft. and with 6-in. shells, giving an outside diameter of 5 ft. These pipes were laid end to end in trenches whose bottoms were cut as closely to a circle of 5 ft. diameter as could be done with pick and shovel and were covered with earth thoroughly tamped around the tops and sides. The pipes were used in low embankments, where their tops are but 18 ins. below the bottom of the ties, and thus far they have given satisfactory service under heavy freight traffic. * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 13, 1907. BRIDGES. 1711 Figure 38 in a reproduction of the working drawings from which the forms used in the construction of these pipes were built. Both forms are of wood, of ordinanry wooden tank construction. The inner form has one wedge shaped loose stave which is withdrawn after the concrete has set for about 20 hours, thus collapsing the inner form and allowing it to be removed. The outer form is built in two pieces with 2 x %-in. semicircular iron hoops on the outside, the hoops having loops at the ends. The staves are fas- tened to the hoops by wood screws 1% ins. long driven from the outside of the hoop. When the two sides of the outer form are in position, the loops on one side come into position just above the loops on the other side, and four %-in. steel pins are inserted in the loops to hold the two sides together while the form is being filled with concrete and while the concrete is setting. After the inner form has been removed, the two pins in the same vertical line are removed and the form opened horizontally on the hinges formed by the loops and pins on the opposite side. The inner and outer forms are then ready to be set up for building another pipe. The concrete used in manufacturing these pipes was composed of American Portland cement, limestone screenings and crushed lime- stone that has passed through a %-in. diameter screen after everything that would pass through a ^-in. diameter screen had been removed. The concrete was mixed in the proportions of one part cement to three and one-half parts each of screenings and crushed stone. All work except the building of the forms was per- formed by common laborers. In his experimental work Mr. Cham- berlain used two laborers, one of whom set the forms, and filled them and the other of whom mixed the concrete. The pipes were left in the forms till the morning of the day after molding. The two laborers removed the forms filled the day before, the first thing in the morning, and proceeded to refill them. The average time the concrete was allowed to set before the forms were removed was 16 hours. Mr. Chamberlain believes that with three men and six forms the whole six forms could be removed and refilled daily. Based on the use of only two forms with two laborers removing and refilling them each day, and on the assumption that a single set of forms costing $40 can be used only 50 times before being replaced, Mr. Chamberlain estimates the cost of molding 4-ft. pipes as follows: 2 per cent of $40 for forms $0.80 1.1 cu. yds. stone and screenings at $1.85.. 2.04 0.8 bbls. cement at $2.10 1.68 10 hours' labor at 28 cts 2.80 Total per pipe $7.32 This gives a cost of $1.83 per lineal foot of pipe or practically $7 per cu. yd. of concrete. The pipe actually molded cost $2.50 per lin. ft., or $9.62 per cu. yd. of concrete, owing to the small scale on which the work was carried on the laborers were not kept steadily at work. 1712 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The pipes were built under a derrick and loaded by means of the derrick upon flat cars for transportation. At the culvert site they were unloaded and put in by an ordinary section gang with no appliances other than skids to remove the pipes from the cars. As each four-foot section of this pipe weighs about two tons, it was not deemed expedient to build sections of a greater length than four feet, to be unloaded and placed by hand. On a trunk line, however, where a derrick car is available for unloading and plac- ing the pipes, there is no reason why they should not be built in six or eight-foot sections. Basing his estimates on the above price of $7 per cu. yd. for concrete, Mr. Chamberlain has computed the accompanying table of comparative weights and costs of cast-iron and concrete pipes of various diameters. The cost of cast-iron pipe per pound is assumed to be 1% cts. TABLE XXIX. SHOWING RELATIVE THICKNESS, WEIGHTS, AND COST OF "STANDARD" CAST-IRON PIPE AND CONCRETE. Thickness Weight Ibs. Cost Size and kind of pipe. in ins. per lin. ft. per lin. ft. 12-in. cast-iron 33/64 75 $1.22 12-in. concrete 2 88 0.16 18-in. cast-iron 47/64 167 2.72 18-in. concrete f3 220 0.36 24-in. cast-iron &1 250 4.07 24-in. concrete 4% 420 0.68 30-in. cast-iron 1 1/16 334 5.43 3 0-in. concrete 4V 2 602 0.88 36-in. cast-iron 1 % 450 7.32 36-in. concrete 4% 676 1.10 4 2-in. cast-iron 1% 600 9.75 42-in. concrete 5% 960 1.55 48-in. cast-iron 1 7/16 725 11.78 48-in. concrete 6 1131 1.83 In Table XXIX. the thickness for concrete pipes of various diam- eters has been taken as approximately proportional to the thick- ness of "Standard" cast-iron pipes of the same diameter, the 4-ft. diameter pipes being used as a basis for calculation. The first cost of concrete pipes at the place of manufacture would, according to the above table, be less than one-sixth of the cost of cast-iron pipes. The cost of transportation and of in- stalling the pipes would, on account of the greater weight and greater number of pieces, probably be very nearly double that for cast-iron pipes. On account of the lack of reliable data regarding this cost, Mr. Chamberlain is unable to give a fair comparative estimate of the cost of the two styles of culverts in place. However, since trans- portation and installation of iron pipes is but a small proportion of the cost of the completed culverts, it is evident that cost of a concrete pipe culvert in place would be but a small fraction of the cost of a cast-iron pipe culvert of the same diameter, provided thf pipes were hauled only moderate distances. BRIDGES. 1713 Cost of Placing Cast Iron Pipe Culverts. Mr. John C. Sesser. Engineer of Construction, C., B. & Q. Ry., gives the following data on the cost of unloading, hauling and placing cast iron pipe. In 1905 that railroad on its extension from Centralia, 111., to Herrin, used for its culverts ordinary cast iron pipes up to a size of 48 ins. in diameter. The contract for handling the pipe was let to a contractor at 75 cts. per ton per mile for the unloading and haul- ing and $2.00 per ton for placing. A careful record was kept of all labor employed in handling this pipe, and from these data the following i esults were obtained : Number of tons of pipe handled . 591 Cost per ton for unloading from flat and gondola cars $0.33 Average miles hauled 3.82 Cost of hauling per ton mile 0.44 Cost per ton mile for unloading and hauling (av. haul 3.82 miles 0.53 Cost per ton for laying 0.55 Cost per ton in place 2.39 The greatest distance the pipe was hauled was about 10 miles. From the data obtained it was deduced that : The cost per ton for unloading the pipe is the same regardless of size ; that the cost of laying pipe per ton, for pipe under 30 ins. in diameter, is about 30 per cent more than for pipe over 30 ins. in diameter. As a matter of fact it costs about twice as much per ton to lay 18-in. pipe as it does to lay 48-in. pipe. Cost of Cast Iron Pipe Culverts. The labor cost of pipe culverts depends almost entirely upon the amount of excavation involved. If an existing railway embankment must be cut through, obviously the labor cost will be far higher than if the^ pipe is laid under a trestle that is to be filled in. For the weight of cast iron pipe, see the section on Waterworks. Also consult that section for the labor cost of handling pipe. Mr. A. W. Merrick gives the following data of work done in 1898 on the Chicago & Northwestern. Where the embankment is more than 12 ft. high, an open trench is excavated from the toe of each slope to a point 6 ft. from the center of the track. This leaves a core 12 ft. wide under the track, through which a tunnel is dug. It is often well to insert two old stringers under the rails to keep the weight off the earth over the tunnel during construction. The trench is sheeted with vertical planks and braced. The roof of the tunnel is supported by 4-in. plank which rest on 3 x 12-in. posts whose feet stand on 3 x 12-in. mudsills running lengthwise of the tunnel. Wedges are placed between the posts and the mudsills. For a 2 4-in. pipe the tunnel is made 4 x 4 ft. Two planks are laid side by side in the bottom of the trench for dollies to run on, and each length of pipe is drawn in on a dolly at each end. The cost of a 2 4-in. pipe culvert, 48 ft. long, in a bank 13 ft. high, was: Per lin. ft. Cast-iron pipe, 250 Ibs., at. $16 per ton $2.00 Labor 1.08 Total . ..$3.08 1714 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of a 2 4 -in. pipe culvert, 84 ft. long, in a bank 24 ft high, was: Per lin. ft. 280 Ibs. cast-iron pipe, at $16 per ton $2.00 Labor 1.73 Plank and nails 0.07 Total $3.80 End walls, $69 0.80 Total $4.60 The detailed cost of these two end walls was: 2 cords stone, at $3.25 $ 6.50 18 footing stone, at $0.80 14.40 20 coping stone, at $0.50 10.00 6 sacks cement 1.37 Mason labor 36.85 Total $69.12 Mr. A. S. Markley gives the following costs in 1898 of work on the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, laborers receiving $1.50 per day, and foremen $2.50. Size of Labor. pipe. Condition. Per ton. Per ft. 48-in. Opening provided $1.25 $0.3 36-in. Tunneling 15 ft. bank 4.96 0.88 36-in. Trench, 8 ft. bank 3.18 0.63 IS-in. Trench, 4% ft. bank (7 tracks) 1.06 0.16 16-in. Trench, 4% ft. bank 1.06 0.16 Mr. W. A. Rogers gives the following costs in 1898 on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. It is not stated just what the conditions were, but many of the pipes were drawn through existing timber culverts and earth tamped around then. Most of the pipes were cast in 6 ft. lengths, and the price was $14.50 per ton. Cost of each Diameter. Material. Labor. Total. masonry end. 20 ins. 1.00 1.08 $2.08 $ 43 24 ins. 1.20 1.38 2.58 53 30 ins. 1.72 1.42 3.14 66 36 ins. 2.45 1.64 4.09 78 42 ins, 3.35 1.98 5.33 90 48 ins. 4.30 2.36 6.66 100 No pipe smaller than 20 ins. is used, for this is the limiting size that a man can crawl through when it is necessary to clean a pipe out. Larger sizes than 48 ins. have caused trouble by breaking. Pipes were put in by the track department. Mr. Geo. J. Bishop gives the following cost in 1898 of work on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific. The pipes were all laid under trestles that were to be filled in. Hence the labor cost was lower BRIDGES. 1715 than in the preceding cases. The price of pipe was $15.80 per ton. The following is the cost per lineal foot. Weight Diameter. per ft. Ibs. Pipe. Labor. Total. 20 ins. 211 $1.67 $0.09 $173 24 ins. 223 1.92 0.17 2.09 30 ins. 367 2.90 0.22 312 36 ins. 467 3.69 0.42 4.11 42 ins. 634 5.00 0.70 570 48 ins. 797 6.29 0.72 7.01 60 ins. 1,263 10.61 1.26 11.87 In the R. R. Gazette, Vol. 19, p. 122, cast iron culverts made in quadrants bolted together are described. The quadrants are pro- vided with outside flanges, and with a recess in which tarred rope smeared with neat cement is placed before bolting together. No skilled labor is required. A 7-ft. culvert, 50 ft. long, contained 45 short tons of cast iron. The labor of unloading it from the cars was $17.50, or 40 cts. per ton, and the labor of putting it in place was $150, or $3.30 per ton. Corrugated Metal Culvert. The metal culvert was 18 ft. long and 4 ft. in diameter, the bottom being 6 ins. lower than the grade line of the ditch. Concrete solid walls were built rising from bottom of culvert to the ground surface, and extending into both banks. These walls were 20 ins. thick to top of pipe, 18 ins. thick to within 8 ins. of the surface, and the top 8 ins. was 12 ins. thick. The top 8 ins. was of 1 :6 mortar and the remainder was of 1 :4 :4 broken tile concrete. Condemned tile was broken into 1 to 2-in. pieces. The walls were 12 ft. long at the level of the top of the pipe and 20 ft. long at the surface. The forms were constructed by first placing the plank parallel to the slopes until the concrete was car- ried to the top of the pipe, and up the slopes to the surface. After this had hardened for 24 hours, the planking was taken down and laid horizontal to construct the center part of the wall. This method of constructing the forms required a minimum of lumber and no cuting of the lumber. The cost of the culvert was as fol- lows: 1 corrugated metal pipe, 4 ft. diam., 18 ft. long, $6 per ft. . . . * Hauling culvert from depot, 2 men and team, 2 hrs. at 65c per hr 1.30 Labor, preparing ditch for culvert, 2 men 3.5 hrs. ea. at 30c 1.40 Bolting pipe together and lowering into ditch, 3 men, 3.5 hrs. at 20c 2.10 37.5 sacks of cement at 75c per sack 28.12 5.6 cu. yds. of sand at $t.50 per cu. yd 8.40 5 cu. yds. broken tile at 54c per cu. yd. for breaking 2.70 Labor of building abutment, 82 hrs. at 20c per hr 16.40 2 men and team grading, 5 hrs. at 65c per hr 3.25 Incidentals , 3.00 Total $175.64 Cost of Tearing Down a Small Bridge. A small highway bridge of 35-ft. span, and roadway 25 ft. wide, contained 10 tons of iron in the trusses and 4,650 ft. B. M. in the flooring. The flooring was 3-in. oak plank pn 3 x 12-in. stringers spaced 2 ft. apart, and two 1716 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 8 x 14-in. stringers under an electric car track. It took 6 men and 1 foreman 3 days to tear down and store the bridge, at a cost of IS*. A wooden footbridge, 6 ft. wide and 100 ft. long over a creek, contained 4,000 ft. B. M. It took 8 men and a team 3 hrs. to tear down and remove this structure, which was essentially a light temporary trestle floored with 3-in. plank. The cost was $1 per M for this tearing down. The same gang had originally erected this structure at a cost of $3.75 per M. Cost of Moving a 65-ft. Bridge and New Abutments. A steel highway pony truss bridge of 65-ft. span and 16-ft. roadway had been erected upon timber pile abutments that had rotted badly. New abutments were built adjoining the old abutments, by driving 12 iron piles for each abutment and its wing walls. These piles were of old steel rails 30 ft. long, and were driven 20 ft. deep. A small pile driver operated by 5 men and 1 horse averaged 8 piles per 10-hr, day, for 3 days. Then 1 day was spent in building a falsework, and 2 more days raising and shifting the bridge from its old abutments to the new. The cost of pile driving was $30, or $1.25 per pile. The cost of building the falsework was $10, and the cost of moving the bridge was $20, SECTION XIII. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION. Need of More Printed Data. Notwithstanding that this has been called the Age of Steel, there have been fewer articles printed on the cost of steel work than on any other class of engineering con- struction. We have had books without number on the design of steel bridges, but next to nothing in those books on the itemized cost of steel bridges. Indeed, aside from the articles on the cost of steel bridge erection published in Engineering-Contracting within the last four years, practically nothing on this important subject has ever appeared in the engineering journals. In the section on Bridges will be found the data just referred to. For some time to come, too much cannot be published on the methods and cost of steel con- struction of all kinds. Cross- References. To avoid duplication, it seems advisable not to give in this section any of the data on steel and iron work giver, in other sections of the book, but rather to provide a very complete index of Steel Construction and another of Iron Work. Such an index will be found in the back of this book. As an indication of what will be found on steel and iron in the various sections, it may be well to bear in mind the following facts : (1) The cost of shaping and placing steel for reinforced concrete is given in the sections on Concrete, on Sewers, on Bridges, on Buildings, etc. ; (2) the cost of laying cast iron and steel waterpipe, the erecting of steel standpipes, etc., will be found in the section on Waterworks ; ( 3 ) the cost of building steel bridges and viaducts, iron and steel culverts, etc., will be found in the section on Bridges ; (4) the cost of laying steel rails will be found in the section on Railways ; V 5 ) the cost of putting on expanded metal lath, gal- vanized iron siding, tin roofing, etc.. will be found in section on Buildings. As above stated, use the index under Steel Construction and under Iron Work. Cost of Pneumatic Riveting. Mr. A. B. Manning gives the fol- lowing data: One 12 hp. gasoline driven air compressor (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) ; two galvanized iron water tanks; one galvanized iron gasoline tank ; one large main reservoir ; one small auxiliary reservoir ; hose and fittings; cost mounted on car $1,073. Operating at 90 Ibs. pressure this compressor furnished air for 3 pneumatic hammers, 2 drills, 2 rivet forges, and 1 blacksmith forge, all working at one 1718 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. time. The 3 hammers and the 2 drills cost (in 1899) $627. The cost of repairs for 16 months averaged $3 per month on this $1,700 plant. The cost of operating was as follows per day: 15 gals, gasoline, at 11.2 cts $1.68 Oil, waste, etc 0.12 Depreciation (estimated on 20% basis, for 313 days) 1.09 Repairs 0.11 Total per day $3.00 On the basis of running 3 rivet hammers, this is $1 per hammer for power. Power for one hammer per day $1.00 Oil for one hammer per day 0.12 2 men driving rivets, at $2.40 4.80 1 man heating rivets 2.20 Total for one hammer per day $8.12 A pneumatic riveter on bridge work averages 500 rivets per 10-hr, day for $8.12, or $1.62 per hundred rivets. On one day 700 rivets were driven, by using an additional man to take out fitting-up bolts, etc. The above costs are based upon the erection of 22 bridge spans, aggregating 2,455 lin. ft. and 80,065 rivets. The cost of riveting by hand is as follows : 2 men, at $2.40 $4.80 2 men, at $2.20 4.40 Total per gang per day $9.20 Such a gang averages 250 rivets per day, which is equivalent to $3.68 per hundred rivets. Mr. F. S. Edinger states that with a 12 hp. gasoline driven compressor and an 80 cu. ft. air receiver, five longstroke hammers were operated at one time without reducing the air pressure below 75 Ibs. The five hammers when driving 50 rivets (%-in. diam.) per minute are using air only about 5% of the time. The same compressor will run 2 hammers and 2 drills at one time. The drills use more air than the hammers as they run uninterruptedly. The drills can be used for boring timber by inserting an auger in place of a drill ; but the speed is not high enough for wood boring. Two men and a heater form a riveting gang and they drive twice as many rivets as three men and a heater drive by hand. The cost of fitting up and riveting on new steel bridges (all rivets %-in.) was 35 to 40% less than if the work had been done by hand, and the work was done better. Pneumatic and Hand Riveting. Mr. Charles Evan Fowler gives the following. On the Northwestern Elevated Ry. construction, Chicago, percussion riveters were used, driving as high as 500 rivets per day, with three men at the riveter and a heater. Hand gangs on that work averaged 300 rivets. In reinforcing the Manhattan Elevated, N. Y., the record is 465 to 525 rivets per day with percussion machines, and careful testa showed that it required 5 cu. ft. of free air per %-in. rivet. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1719 On the Boston Elevated Ry., in 1900, the long gun type of Boyer riveters were used. Owing to the cramped condition of much of the work, only 300 rivets per day were driven, two men at a riveter and a heater at the forge. Hand gangs drove as many as 400 rivets per gang per day. Cost of Erecting Steel In N. Y. Subway. The cost of erecting the steel posts and girders in the N. Y. subway was as follows on one section where 4,300 tons were erected: Per ton. Labor trucking $ 1.47 Labor placing and riveting 11.68 Labor painting 0.90 Materials for painting 0.70 Materials for placing and riveting 0.90 Power 0.30 Total $15.95 Iron workers were paid $4 for 8 hrs. ; iron foremen, $5 ; painters, $2. There was 1 foreman to every 10 men. The contract price for erecting and painting was $13 a ton, so that money was lost by the contractor on this work. The men worked under difficulties, and with little energy. Weight of The Eiffel Tower. The Eiffel Tower weighs 7,500 tons. It is 906 ft. high, 33 ft. square on top, and 330 ft. square at the base. The power plant is 500 hp. Cost of a Gas Pipe Hand Railing. A gas pipe hand railing for a small stone-arch bridge was made of three lines of 1^-in. pipe rails and posts. The weight of the pipe was 800 Ibs. for 100 lin. ft. of railing (5C ft. on each side of the bridge). The cost was aa follows : 100 lin. ft. of railing ready to erect $65.00 Hauling 1V 2 miles 0.60 1 qt. asphaltum paint 0.20 Paint brush 0.20 9 Ibs. sulphur, at 8 cts 0.72 Iron kettle to melt sulphur in 0.40 Labor erecting railing, 17 hrs., at 35 cts 5.95 Labor erecting railing, 2 hrs., at 15 cts 0.30 Total for 100 ft. of railing $73.37 The principal cost of erecting was the drilling of 48 bolt holes ( % x 2 ins.) in the stone coping. The bolts that passed through the cast-iron post bases were held with sulphur. The posts were made of 1%-m. gas pipe, crosses and tees. The 1^-in. pipe measured about 2 ins. outside diameter, which is a good size for hand railing. On another job 100 lin. ft. of hand, railing were built along an embankment. The railing was made of 3 lines of %-in. gas pipe (1-in. diam. outside) made as above described, except that each post was fastened to an oak plank buried in the ground, and an 1720 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. inclined brace ran from each post to the plank, lin. ft. of railing was : The cost of 100 100 lin. ft. railing and posts $37.50 Labor erecting. . 31.50 Total $69.00 Cost of Erecting a 160-ft. Steel Stack.* An exceedingly inter- esting job of hoisting engineering is illustrated in Fig. 1. The job consisted in erecting a steel stack 66 ins. by 160 ft. in size in one piece, after it had been assembled on the ground, with an erecting plant consisting of a 72-ft. mast and a 7 x 10-in. Lidgerwood hoist- ing engine with the necessary tackle. Fig. 1. Erecting Steel Stack, The stack was built of %-in. steel for 85 ft. from the base and of Vs-in. steel for the top 75 f t. ; %-in. rivets were used The stack came to the ground in four 40-ft. sections. These were la:d in line, with the base t>f the bottom section as close as practicable to the foundation, and riveted together on the ground. After be>nf riveted and lined out the stack was braced or reinforced insiae xc prevent buckling and crushing of the plates at the slings. The bracing consisted of + frames of 4 x 6-in. timbers placed insidi *Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 10, 1909. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1721 the shell and spaced every 5 ft., beginning at a point 20 ft. from the top. These frames were wedged into the shell tight enough to hold firmly and yet not bulge the plates or seams. The next step was to place the hoisting plant. A 72-ft. mast was erected on top of the boiler house 20 ft. above ground, so that its total height was 92 ft. The mast guys consisted of five 1%-in. galvanized wire ropes radiating from the spider casting at the top of the mast. In addition a sixth guy was attached to the mast 20 ft. below the top and carried back directly in line with the stack. This guy was designed to prevent the mast from buckling under the pull, which failure, if it occurred at all, was figured would occur at the point mentioned; that is, about 20 ft. below the top. The mast was a 12 x 12 -in. timber. At the top of the mast there was fastened a triple block shackled to the top casting and also lashed by a wire cable passing four times around the mast and securely clamped. The hoisting engine, a 7 x 10-in. Lidgerwood, was set 25 ft. to one side of the stack and 125 ft. from the base. The line used was 1,400 ft. of %-in. crucible steel rope spliced at one point with an 18-ft. splice. .This line was rigidly inspected before it was run through the blocks. It was carried from the engine to and through the foot block casting sheave ; thence up the mast to the top sheave ; thence down to a single block lashed to the stack 30 ft. from its top ; thence up to the middle sheave in the triple block lashed to the mast head ; thence down to a second single block lashed to the stack 55 ft. from the top ; thence up to the right-hand outside sheave of the triple block ; thence down to a third single block lashed to the stack 80 ft. from the top ; thence up to the left-hand outside sheave of the triple block, and, the free end, thence to an anchor in the ground about 60 or 65 ft. from the base of the stack. The single blocks were lashed to the stack by several turns of wire rope passing around the shell and 6 x 6-in. timbers laid along it on the under side. These timbers acted both as longitudinal stiffeners and as spacers to keep the lashings from sliding up or down the shell. To prevent possible cutting of the line the thimbles were all removed from the shell of the triple block and the lines were kept clear by running them through the middle sheave, then to the right and to the left as described above. With everything ready as described hoisting was begun at 1 :30 p. m. and at 5 p. m. the stack was in .place with all guys fastened. The first lift made was 75 ft. Then hoisting was stopped until the permanent guys, 24 in all, each a %-in. wire cable, were fastened to the stack attachments. Lifting was then resumed and continued until the stack stood only about 15 out of plumb. Hoisting was then stopped and the guys secured to their ground anchors. The stack was then raised plumb, jacked over the stud bolts on the foundation and the guys permanently clamped. The cost of the work described was not kept in such a way that it can be itemized, but the total cost including riveting, erecting mast on the boiler house, raising, buying 4 pairs of cone clamps for the 1722 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. guys and 4 sets of %-in. blocks for hauling in guys, and bracing the stack inside was $250. A gang of 8 men at $1.30 per day and one top man at $2.25 per day were employed, with some extra men for about 2 hours. The erection as described was planned and carried out by Mr. George B. Nicholson, a hoisting engineer. Incidentally it may be stated that Mr. Nicholson undertook the job after it had been rejected as impossible by expert riggers. We consider this a rather remarkable job of hoisting engineering. Only one man, Mr. Nicholson, was a skilled man, all the others being ordinary laborers with no experience in hoisting and rigging. In addition the method of rigging the tackle, using only one fine to run through three sets of blocks on the stack and one block on the mast, is notable. We are indebted for the information from which this description has been prepared to F. W. Raymond. Cost of Cast- Iron Work.* The total weight of the cast-iron stairway trim, manhole covers, etc., in the U. S. Government Printing Office at Washington, D. C., was 80 tons. The total value in place was $221.25 per ton. The cost of erection was $62.50 per ton, which is an enormously high labor cost, attributable to the fact that the work was done by Government forces. The wages paid per eight-hour day were as follows : Superintendent $5.25 Foremen 4.25 Ironworkers 3.45 Helpers 1.60 Smith 2.25 The total weight of the cast-iron frames and baseboard in the building was 743.4 tons of the total contract amounting to $107,800 or $145 per ton. The cost of erection was practically $23 per ton. Cost of Shop Drawings for Steel Work.f Mr. R. H. Gage gives the following: The data were gathered by the writer while in charge of the Drafting Department of A. Bolter's Sons' Structural Steel and Iron Works, of Chicago, 111., during the years 1904, 1905 and 1906. The works are divided into three different departments, the Structural Shop, the Architectural Shop .and the Foundry. The Structural Shop has a capacity of 800 tons per month. The Draft- ing Department employs on an average seven or eight engineers. All the work is standardized with regard to details to as great an extent as possible, in order to decrease the work in the Drafting Room, yet not to such an extent that it would be difficult for the shop men to read the drawings. For example, all beam, steel and cast iron column connections, with the exception of special cases, are not drawn and dimensioned completely, but merely indicated. The shop and drafting room have been provided with a set of the * Engineering-Contracting, Mar. 18, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 28. 1907. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1723 firm's standards, which have all these connections drawn out com- pletely with dimensions and which give lists of the material. The data here presented were taken from a great variety of work, such as public and private school buildings, churches, breweries, malt houses and elevators, grain bins, warehouses, libraries, hospitals, apartment buildings, factories and manufac- turing plants, train sheds, mill buildings, office buildings, electric lighting plants and pumping stations. Table I shows the character of the buildings and also the average cost of preparing the drawings. The cost of drafting material and blue prints is not included. Where the material for the work is to be ordered from the mill and not taken from stock, the cutting bills or mill orders are taken as being part of the details. Table II (not reproduced here) shows the particulars of the build- ings from which the data in Table I were derived. TABLE I. COST OF SHOP DRAWINGS. Av. cost per Type. Character of Building: ton. 1. Entire skeleton construction, i. e., loads all carried to the foundation by means of steel columns $1.45 2. Interior portion supported on steel columns ; exterior walls carry floor loads and their own weight 1.22 3. Interior portion carried on cast iron columns ; exterior walls support floor loads as well as their own weight 0.70 4. No columns and floor beams resting on masonry walls throughout 0.85 5. Structure consisting mostly of roof trusses resting on columns 2.47 6. Structure consisting mostly of roof trusses resting on masonry walls 1.25 7. Mill buildings 2.56 8. Flat one-story shop or manufacturing buildings 0.74 9. Tipples, mining structures or other complicated structures. . 4.S8 10. Malt or grain bins and hoppers 2.47 11. Remodeling and additions where measurements are neces- sary before details can be made 1.87 There is always a noticeable decrease in the cost of details when the plans for the iron work are made and designed by an engineer and separated from the general plans. On comparing the cost of picking out the structural steel and making the shop drawings from the architect's plans and the engineer's plans, it was found that the cost of the former is on an average of 35% higher than the latter. Where the engineer's plans are made with no dimensions, with only the outline and sections given, it being necessary to refer to the general plans for the location and dimensions, there is no saving of time, and the detailing runs as high as on the architect's plans. Inaccurate plans, where the draftsman is continually finding errors, cause an increase in the cost, as it is necessary to wait and refer the matter to the architect ; and in most cases he, in turn, has to check over his plans before he can settle the question, all of which causes considerable delay and takes time that might otherwise be spent in making the drawings. 1724 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of structural steel details depends on so many things that it is hard to set any fixed rule for determining what this cost is. The type of the building is the first consideration ; then the architect and engineer, their methods of drawing up their plans ; and finally the detailing drafting force one is obliged to depend upon. Cost of Sheeting a Foundation Pit with Steel Sheet Piling.* The old U. S. Custom House on Wall St. in New York City was reconstructed in 1908 for the use of the National City Bank. The old building was four stories high with heavy stone walls founded on spread footings. In addition there were on the front 16 heavy stone columns, 12 in a row across the front and 4 inside the entrance. The plans for reconstruction involved the removal and re- newal of everything inside the main walls which were to be pre- served. The new interior was planned to be of steel frame construc- tion, the foundations for which would be some 7 ft. to 12 ft. below the level of the footings of the old walls and columns. The problem to be solved was the construction of the new and deeper foundations without undermining the old footings or causing any settlement which would crack or otherwise injure the structure supported by these footings. The soil was a mixture of clay and sand containing many 10 and 12-in. stones. It also carried consid- erable water. Obviously careful precautions were under the con- ditions necessary. The plans adopted were to drive a row of Wem- linger steel sheeting all around the interior of the building about 12 ins. from the edges of the footings and with its top left about 18 ins. higher. The sheeting used was the Wemlinger corrugated double, consist- ing when driven of two thicknesses of 3/16-in. steel sheets; each sheet was 24 ins. wide and 14 ft. long. The two sheets were driven together, thus sheeting a width of 34 ins. each driving. The driving was done in two steps or moves. The first step was to a depth of 3 ft. and was made with an Ingersoll-Rand Type D sheet pile driver. The remaining depth of about 11 ft. was secured with a Vulcan No. 3 steam hammer having a 2,000-lb. ram. A steel plate was placed over the pile and on it was set a 2-in. steel block which took the blow of the ram. The mounting of the drivers was novel. A 1%-in. steel cable was stretched horizontally along the inside of the old wall and from it were suspended the two hammers and a light tackle for handling the sheeting. The lighter hamper was suspended on a differential hoist. The Vulcan hammer was suspended from a block operated by a crab so mounted that the mounting formed a guide and prevented the swing of the hammer. The maximum span of suspending cable used was 190 ft. Inside the driven sheeting there was built a wall of concrete. Pockets or sections about 10 ft. wide were excavated so as to lay bare the sheeting at regular intervals and have a supporting core between each pair of sections. As soon as the excavation ot each * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 13, 1909. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1725 pocket had been carried down about 3 ft. a 12 x 12-in. waling tim- ber was set against the sheeting and braced back to the rear and bottom of the pocket. The excavation was then carried down to a depth of 8 or 9 ft. and a wall or block of concrete was deposited in the pocket against the piling. After this concrete had set the cores between pockets were excavated and in turn filled with concrete. This completed a concrete wall 5 ft. thick entirely around the sheet- ing inside. The remaining excavation went on inside this wall and was accomplished with absolutely no disturbance of the old masonry walls and footings. The contractors for the sheeting were the Wemlinger Steel Piling Co. of New York, N. Y. The cost of the work to the contractors was as follows : Rental of Plant: Boiler at $3 per 8-hr, day $ 134.37 1 Inger soil-Rand hammer at $1.50 per dayl )-.. 256.36 1 Vulcan hammer at $6 per day Total rental . .$ 390.73 Repairs to plant - 184.18 Permanent plant 319.09 Coal at $5.76 per net ton 80.52 Supplies 22.64 Labor : Driving "I House shorers at $3.50 \ $1,089.32 Foreman at $4.50 Unloading piling laborers at $2.25 32.00 Steam 1 engineman at $4.50 \ 112.91 1 fireman at $2.25 J Constructing and erecting plant 65.56 Total labor $1,299.79 Freight and Haulage : Freight $ 334.01 Hauling 105 tons of sheeting 179.76 Hauling supplies and equipment 38.16 Total $ 551.93 Liability insurance $ 50.77 Grand total $2,899.65 The amount of sheeting driven was 638 lin. ft, 14 ft. long, or 8,932 sq. ft. Including the cost of the sheeting not given above, the cost was $0.88b per sq. ft. Exclusive of freight and hauling charges on sheeting, $513.77, which may be charged to the cost of sheeting ready for driving, the cost of driving was $2,385.88, or $0.267 per sq. ft. The labor cost of driving was $0.146 per sq. ft. In further comment on these costs the Wemlinger Steel Piling Co., which furnishes them to us, writes as follows: "You will note that the cost of doing this work was somewhat high which, in the first place, is explained by the fact that we had 1726 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. to employ union labor at high wages. Furthermore the expense for rental and repairs of equipment were higher than they would have been if we had been regularly equipped for doing this class of work. This was, however, a contract which we took mainly for the purpose of introducing and demonstrating our material. You will note that we have charged the entire cost of the permanent plant against this contract, the reason for this being that most of the plant was purchased especially for this work. Another reason for the high cost is our own comparative inexperience and that all the labor employed, which in spite of the fact that members of the House Shorers' Union were employed, proved rather ineffective. \Ve believe that considering the experience we have now we could easily do the same work for at least 25% less cost." Cost of Driving Steel Sheet Piling for Cut-off Wall of a Dam.* Mr. Carl P. Abbott is author of the following: The construction of a concrete dam, with tide gates, to replace an old wooden dam on a salt marsh was completed in the summer of 1906 by the Queens County Water Co., of Far Rockaway, N. Y. In planning the new work considerable thought was given to the kind of sheet piling that would best answer the purpose of keeping the water from getting underneath the dam and the choice was made of steel sheet piling of the form manufactured by the United States Steel Piling Co., of Chicago, 111. Besides supplying the requisite water-tight wall, this piling seemed likely to be more durable and more surely driven and certain to add considerably to the strength of the structure. The piling was driven lengthwise of the dam and in the center, and, as a turf dike was carried from each end of the concrete dam to shore, the piling was carried five lengths beyond the concrete to form a sort of bond at the junction of concrete and turf. There were two lengths of piling used, 25-ft. and 18-ft. ; the 25-ft. lengths at each end of the dam and one length between each gate, and the 18-ft. lengths under the gates. The 25-ft. lengths were driven flush with the surface of the marsh, so the 18-ft. lengths were driven flush and then the pile-driver was moved back over the line and the 18-ft. lengths run down 7 ft. further with a 10-ft. piece used as a runner by bolting a couple of wrought-iron plates on the lower end to hold it on the pile. A half-round pine filling strip was used. The material encountered was about 8 ft. of turf, then 3 or 4 ft. of sand, then a streak of hard pan and then sand again, and where the driving cap was used the piles were not battered at all. Some bids were put in for the driving, but as they looked pretty high we decided to do the work ourselves. We took an old well drilling machine, and with very little car- penter work it made a good pile-driver. A 1,500-lb. hammer was used and a driving cap made by the United States Steel Piling Co. was also used for most of the work. The driving gang usually consisted of three men, who were taken from the company's force and were very quickly broken in, with * Engineering-Contracting, Jan. 16. 1907. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1727 some extra men for a part of the time to haul the piles across the channel from the railway track and to move the machine to the job. The cost of driving given below includes hauling the piles over and moving the machine to the job. The cost of moving the machine away was not included, as the machine and boiler were used for other purposes for some time after. The cost of labor, supplies, etc., was as follows : 2.25 $ 45.00 2.10 19.95 2.00 17.00 1.75 3.50 1.50 51.00 20 days' labor at 9% days' labor at 8% days' labor at 2 days' labor at 34 days' labor at Total labor cost .$136.45 17 days' use of machine at $2.00 34.00 2 tons coal at $5.00 10.00 Superintendence at 5 per cent 9.00 Total machinery and supplies $ 53.00 Grand total $189.45 There were 55 piles each driven 25 ft., making a total of 1,375 lin. ft. driven at a cost of 13.8 cts. per ft. for the driving. As the men were inexperienced it cost more to drive the first few piles than afterward, and if the same number were to be driven again the cost of driving would be very much decreased. As a whole, the steel piling was very satisfactory and easy to handle and drive, even by men not accustomed to that sort of work. Cost of Steel Sheet Piling for Cofferdam.* The cost of 140 steel sheet piles in place was as follows. The piles were 26 ft. long, driven to an average penetration of 22 ft. The work was done by the U. S. Reclamation Service. . The type of piling is that manufactured by the Carnegie Steel Company for the United States Steel Piling Co., of Chicago. The piling cost at the factory is 70 cts. per lin. ft., and as its weight is 35 Ibs. per running foot, the cost therefore was 2 cts. per Ib. The freight rate from the factory at Pittsburg to Whalen, Wyo., was $1 per 100 Ibs., thus making the total cost f. o. b. cars at Whalen, about $1.05 per lin. ft. The line of piles under consideration was driven in August, 1907, and forms a part of the south side of the cofferdam used in the construction of the concrete diversion dam on the North Platte River, at the head of the Interstate canal. None of the piles were driven under water, and the material into which they penetrated consists of sand and coarse gravel. The piles were dragged from the railroad siding to the river bank, and carried across the river on cables. The pile-driver outfit used was a Lidgerwood single drum 20-hp. hoisting engine and a 2,800-lb. hammer, having an average drop of 8 ft. When no hindrance occurred by accidents to the machinery, the average number of piles driven per twelve hours was 27, with an exceptionally high run on August 9 of 29. Engineering-Contracting, June 10. 1908. 1728 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The regular pile-driving crew consisted of one foreman, one engineer and four laborers. Each of these men received 35 cts. an hour for his work except in transporting the piles from the railroad station to the driver, in which case the laborers were paid for at the rate of 25 cts. an hour and teams at the rate of 20 cts. per hour. The total labor cost of unloading and moving the piles from the railroad to the driver was $53.25, making a unit cost per linear foot of pile of $0.015. The total labor cost for driving was $190.05, mak- ing a unit cost of $0.052 per linear foot of pile. Below are tabulated the total and unit costs of the piles in place distributed under the headings of plant, depreciation, labor, ma- terials and supplies. The depreciation on the engine was about 2% of its original cost, while that on the driver was about 30% of its original cost, including repairs made on it. The charge for materials contains in addition to the piling and freight thereon, $28 worth of wood fillers used in connection with the piling. The charges under supplies consist of coal and oil for the engine and labor for carrying drinking water. Six tons of coal were. used, at $5.50 per ton. Unit cost Unit cost Distribution of Total Unit cost per foot per foot of costs. cost. per pile. of pile penetration. Plant depreciation .$ 60.00 $0.416 $0.016 $0.019 Labor 243.30 1.742 0.067 0.079' Materials 3,850.00 27.508 1.058 1.250 Supplies 44.18 0.312 0.012 0.014 Total $4,197.48 $29.978 $1.153 $1.362 Cost of Driving .Some Steel Sheet Piling.* The work for which the costs are given consisted of the construction of cofferdams, pre- liminary to building the substructure of a double track bridge for the Norfolk- & Western Ry. at Chillicothe, O., the work being necessi- tated by a change of line at that point. The cofferdams were built of the steel piling manufactured by the U. S. Steel Piling Co., of Chicago, the same piling being reused for the three piers. The cofferdam was 16 ft. x 62 ft, and 156 pieces of piling, 16 ft. in length, were used. The piling was driven to a depth of 14 ft. below water level, the water being from 3 ft. to 6 ft. deep. The material into which the piles were driven consisted of coarse gravel ranging in size from *4 in. to 8 ins. in diameter. In driving the piling for the first cofferdam, the piling was picked up from the shore by means of a steam derrick and put into place for the pile-driver. An ordinary drop-hammer pile-driver, rigged on a scow, and having a 2,000-lb. hammer, was used. The piling in the first cofferdam was driven in three days, the crew and their wages per 10-hr, day being as follows: Foreman $ 5.00 Engineer on derrick 3.00 Tagman 2.00 Engineer on pile driver 3.00 Six men handling pile driver and boat 10.50 Total . $23.50 * Engineering -Contracting, June 6, 1906. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1729 The total cost of driving the 156 pieces of piling was $70.50, or 45.2 cts. per piece. The same crew constructed the next cofferdam, five days, however, being consumed in the work. The main reason for the difference of time was in the facilities for handling the piling. In this coffer- dam the piling was picked off the shore by the derrick, placed on the scow on which the pile-driver was rigged, and then taken to the site of the cofferdam, where it was placed in position by the driver in- stead of by the derrick as in the first case. The cost of driving the piling for this cofferdam was $117.50. The above figures do not take into account fuel and plant rental, nor the cost of braces and waling which were used as described below. In order to make the cofferdam ready for pumping out a 6-in. x 8-in. waling piece was bolted to the inside of the sheet piling and braces placed across from side to side at intervals. From three to five braces were used along the top, but were used at no other point We .are indebted to Mr. L. E. Sturm. Railroad Contractor, of Columbus, O., for the information in the above article and for the illustrations. Cost of Steel Sheet Piling in a Cofferdam and in Caissons.* As it is only within the last few years that steel sheet piling has come into general use, the experience of the William P. Carmichael Co., Engineers and Contractors, of Williamsport, Ind., with this form of piling will be of interest to our readers. About a year ago this firm purchased enough sheet steel piling to. construct a coffer- dam of a total perimeter of 132 ft. and a depth of 12 y a ft. This was first used in the construction of a pier foundation for the Wabash R. R., in the Huron River, near Detroit, Mich. The water at the point where the pier was to be constructed was from 5 to 8 ft. deep. The bottom consisted of from 2 to 3 ft. of alluvium, on top of a blue sandy clay, partaking in a measure of the nature of quicksand. This being the company's first experience with steel sheet piling, they attempted to assemble the units and complete the box before driving. This was finally done, but at the expense of a good deal of unnecessary labor and time. At first it was proposed to drive six pieces at once by striking a cap covering that many piles, but it was soon found that a pretty stiff blow from a 2,600-lb. hammer was required to drive two at a time. The piles were driven to . a depth of 3 ft. below the proposed bottom of concrete. After the piles were driven to the required depth, an attempt was made to pump out the water from the caisson. A 6-in. centrifugal pump was used, but failed to lower the water level more than a few inches. An outer row of 2-in. wooden sheet piling was then driven about 5 ft. from the stto'i box, and the space filled with clay and puddled. This served its purpose, f^r with the exception of a few *Engineering-Contracting, May 9, 1906. 1730 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. leaks, very little water came into the caisson. An attempt was made to stop these leaks with clay, but owing to the presence of sand in the clay, the attempt was only partially successful. The piles were withdrawn in practically as good condition as when driven, so that the cost of material was only charged at 2% on ac- count of the foundation. After the first piece was loosened, the piles in the foundation were withdrawn at a very small cost. Owing to an accident to the foremen, no accurate cost account was kept of this work. The next use of the steel piling by this firm was in caissons for four piers for a highway bridge across the Wabash River ; for this Fig. 2. Driving Steel Piling. work some excellent cost data are given further on. Three of these piers were upon an island. At the time the work was done these sites were not covered by water. The piles were driven into coarse sand and gravel. The plant used for the work consisted of a small land pile-driver, having derrick and steam hoist for handling the hammer, which weighed 2,000 Ibs. A steel bound wood driving head was fitted between leads and was used to protect the head of the piles in driving. An illustration of the plant is given in Fig. 2. In pulling the piling, it was often necessary to use a pulling lever with a 4 to 1 purchase, the derrick and hoist being hitched to lever. On this job strips of wooden batten were used in the batten or the groove between each two steel piles, and in this way the coffer- dam was made practically watertight. So much so, indeed, that STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1731 an ordinary diaphragm pump would have handled all the water except for what came up from the bottom of the pit. The piling was found to be in good condition after being pulled, only two pieces being in bad shape. And those could be fixed up by an ordinary blacksmith at a cost not exceeding one-half of the value of the pieces. Now as to the cost of driving and pulling the piling. Below is given the cost record on the third pier. Work on this was begun Oct. 6, 1905, and completed Oct. 11. The gang and rig worked a total of 55 hours and finished driving the piling in 4% days. Some days, however, the gang worked for 15 hours, as is shown in the labor cost below. The wages of laborers were from 17% cts. to 20 cts. per hour, depending upon proficiency and length of service. The enginemen and derrickmen received 22% cts. per hour, and the foreman on the job for which the data below are given was paid 25 cts. per hour. The low rate of wages paid to the foreman was due to the fact that he was a new man in that position and did not have to assume much responsibility, Mr. M. C. Andrews, of the con- tracting firm, being in charge of the work in person. The cost of driving and pulling was as follows : Driving: Labor $ 93.00 Use of machinery, fuel, etc., 5 days 15.00 Total for driving . $108.00 Pulling : Labor $ 50.00 Use of machinery, fuel, etc., 8 days. . 10.00 Total for pulling $ 60.00 As 130 piles were each driven 11% ft., or a total of 1,495 ft., the cost per foot of pile for driving was 7.2 cts. ; the cost per foot of pile for pulling was 4 cts., making the total cost for driving and pulling 11.2 cts. As is shown in the table below this 11.2 cts. also includes the cost of straightening bent and warped piles. The labor cost of driving the piles can be further summarized and in the tabulation below is given the rate of wages and the hours worked each day by the various classes of labor. Labor Driv- Straighten- Rate. Cost. ing. ing piles. Oct. 6 $13.54 $13.54 Oct 7 28.92 21.00 7.92 Oct. 9 17.70 14.00 3.70 Oct. 10 22.17 22.17 Oct. 11 10.68 10.68 .... Totals $93.01 $81.39 $11.62 The work accomplished each day was as follows : Oct. 6, drove 21 piles and worked straightening bent piles; Oct. 7, drove 25 piles and finished straightening bent piles; Oct. 9, drove 30 piles; Oct. 10, drove 35 piles; Oct. 11, drove 19 piles. In conclusion we would call especial attention to the Illustration showing the pile-driving plant. It will be noted that the hammer 1732 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. was suspended from the boom of a derrick, and that the engine used to operate the derrick was also used to drive the piles. The hammer is shown outside the leads of the pile-driver, but, in driving, it is placed between the leads. In fact, the same engine operated the derrick, shifted the driver from place to place, placed the pile in position and handled the hammer. The fall was not usually greater that 20 ft., and consequently very little damage was done to the derrick. The steel piling used on the above work was made by the United States Steel Piling Co., of Chicago, 111. We are indebted to the William P. Carmichael Co. for the information given in this article. Cutting Off Steel Sheet Piles with the Electric Arc.* In the in- teresting paper on steel sheet piling by Mr. Wm. A. Fargo, which was published in our issue of May 1, 1907, some data were given of the use of the electric arc in cutting off steel piles at the New Hoffman House foundation work in New York City. Since the pub- lication of this article we have received from Mr. Frank C. Perkins, Electrical Engineer, of Buffalo, N. Y., a photograph of the work in progress, together with a brief account of the apparatus employed. The steel piles being cut are % in. thick in the web and 3 ins. at the interlocking points. It is stated that the time required in burning the %-in. steel is four minutes per foot and the time taken at the interlocking points is said to be 8 minutes. The arc light carbon is held in a metal clamp fastened to a metallic rod and socket, which is in turn bolted to a long wooden pole, the cable conducting the current being flexible and connected to the metal clamp of the carbon terminal. The steel to be cut is connected to the other conductor from the alternating current cir- cuit. As shown in the illustration the men are protected from the extreme heat and terrific glare by goggles and asbestos masks as well as gloves, as it has been found that the carbon fumes pro- duced by the high power electric arc, affected the lips and other parts of the face and hands. About 1,200 amperes are being utilized at 50 volts pressure, alter- nating current being employed stepped down to the above voltage from the high pressure service of 2,500 volts. Single phase alter- nating current is employed, taken from the street service mains, the frequency being 60 cycles per second. Referring to this work Mr. Fargo, in his paper says: "The cost of cutting steel piling with current at 10 cts. per kw. and the attend- ant at 50 cts. per hour, is stated to be as follows per foot of piling cut: Cost of current $2.56 Labor 0.40 Total . $2.96 * Engineering-Contracting, June 26, 1907. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1733 This is rather high, and the hack-saw would probably be cheaper. However, with current at say 3 cts. per kw.-hour the cost per foot would be but $1.17. Even at this rate, with labor competent to use a hack-saw at 25 cts. per hour, the saw would be the cheaper." Cost of Driving Steel Sheet Piling.* A valuable record of ex- perience in driving steel sheet piling in hard soils was given re- cently by Mr. Wm. A. Fargo, Civil and Hydraulic Engineer, of Jack- son, Mich., in a paper read before the Michigan Engineering Society. Through the kindness of Mr. Fargo we have received some addi- tional cost data on steel sheet piling work, and these, with the original paper, are printed in the following paragraphs : Steel sheet piling is used for purposes entirely similar to wood sheet piling, but is much more certain in results obtained. The principal applications of steel sheet piling are as follows: (1) Cofferdams: For building and structure foundations, including bridge piers and abutments. Also for mine shafts where the piling may be forced down in the manner of a caisson or shield. ( 2 ) Dams : For the dam itself, as for low dams ; thus requiring no other coffer- dam or pumping out of the foundation -pit. As a cut-off across a valley under a dam or beneath a core wall. As a permanent en- closing wall down to an impervious stratum for the masonry struc- ture of the dam, or for power house or other building not neces- sarily part of a dam ; or as a downstream toe protection only. ( 3 ) Retaining Wall : Temporary or permanent as required in building footings close to an existing structure. This use is essen- tially similar to the cofferdam. The types or varieties of steel sheet piling are as follows: (1) Special rolled sections, composed of forms requiring special rolls for producing the piling. If there are return bends, or flanges transverse to the plane of rolling, the piling must pass through a series of spe- cial rolls. C2) Built-up sections. Usually built up from standard structural steel shapes. These may consist of single webs with riveted interlocking members, or of double parallel webs held in relative position by bolts and pipe separators. The double-web sec- tions are usually driven alternately with single web members. A number of forms of steel sheet piling are shown in Fig. 1. The fol- lowing points need to be considered in selecting a design of piling for any work : Water-Tightness. In deep cofferdams a prime requisite is water- tightness. The clearance of interlock of adjoining piles must therefore be reduced as much as possible and still allow of driving. The clearances used on the built-up typey are from %-in. to *4-in. all around the interlock. In hard soils ^4 -in. is none too much. In many sections of piling over 15 ft. or 20 ft. long there will be found such kinks and crimps, partly the result of handling on and off cars, that driving with a tight interlock is a serious problem. With such a close interlock, piles not true or perfect in alignment often refuse to drive when there is encountered a stratum of hard- pan or layer of small boulders. Under such conditions piling often * Engineering-Contracting, May 1, 1907. 1734 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. refuses under the heaviest drop or steam hammer. If driving is persisted in it will result in the crippling of the pile either at the top or bottom. Crippling at the bottom means usually an escape from the interlock and a curving to one side exactly like a clinched nail except that the curve of the clinch may have several feet radius. r # No. 5 Vanderkloot. t No. 6 Quimby. f fl No. 7 Williams. Wemlinger (Corrugated.) Fig. 3. Representative Steel Sheet Pile Sections. Stiffness. In locations where there are encountered strata of hard material such as often occur in river valleys, where the drift has been eroded and redeposited, the steel piling to be a success must possess considerable stiffness laterally to prevent crippling. There- STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1735 fore examine the radius of gyration of the proposed section of piling. It is the writer's experience that for hard driving the free or unengaged edge (see X in No. 3, Fig. 3) of the pile being driven should be of a width (at right angles to the web) of one-third to one-half of the width of the engaged web (see Y in section No. 3, Fig. 3). Methods of Driving. The friction of long lengths of steel piling, with their inevitable crimps, will make necessary a heavy hammer, say a 4,500-lb. ram on a steam rig or a 3,000-lb. or heavier drop Half Top Plan Half Bottom Plan Fig. 4. Cast-Iron Follower for Driving Steel Sheet Piles. hammer. Most of the writer's experience in driving steel sheeting has been with the heaviest No. 1 Vulcan steam hammer (4,500-lb. ram) ; total weight of hammer resting on the pile, 10,000 Ibs. These hammers are adjusted to strike about 65 times per minute with 3% -ft. stroke. These large (No. 1) Vulcan hammers are prefer* ably fitted with a "McDermid base" consisting of a 1%-in. circular steel plate about 13 ins. in diameter. These plates are slipped into 1736 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. a slot in the base of the hammer housing and receive the blow of the ram. The wood striking block or cushion is set into the heavy cast-iron follower on the pile and projects up into the socket of the hammer housing so that the McDermid base plate rests directly on the wood block. These wood blocks are made about 20 ins. long, 15 ins. in diameter at the center, and are hewed to about 12 ins. at top and bottom to enter respectively the hammer housing and the follower. In driving through hard clay layers, or when the piling is bound slightly by crimps in the interlock, the blows of such a hammer may run as many as 30 to 60 to the inch of penetration on such driving. In hard driving, one or two fresh blocks per 30-ft. pile are often re- quired. The time consumed in stopping and changing blocks is from two to five minutes, provided the block is not badly split and wedged in. It is necessary to watch the failure of these blocks closely, as with a crushed or broomed block the efficiency of the hammer is very low. Therefore the blocks are removed as soon as they show signs of failure. The crushing usually takes place toward the middle of the length of the block, making a hot, steaming pulp of the tough oak or maple fiber for a length of 3 to 5 ins. Partially seasoned swamp oak, rock maple and blue gum have given the writer the best service. The form of cast-iron follower used with steel piling, and shown in Fig. 4, was designed by the writer, and patterns are owned by the Vulcan Iron Works, Chicago, 111., and the Jarvis Engine & Machine Works, Lansing, Mich. Fig. 5 shows a steel pile being driven, fitted with the cast-iron follower and the spindle-shaped follower block above described. Flat-base followers are some- times used, but do not hqld the steel pile in position. Process of Driving. In driving steel sheet piling, if the alternate sections are light and heavy (that is, the heavy piles having double webs or double "Z" bars), drive first a heavy section. Go slowly and take great care to have the initial pile plumb and exactly in position. Then interlock a light section with the first one driven. On account of time consumed in cutting off steel sheeting weighing 30 Ibs. to 54 Ibs. per sq. ft., it is always desirable to back the driver away from the work. In close quarters approaching a wall, or in the end of a deep cut for a core wall, for instance, this is not always practicable. In starting small cofferdams, as for piers or foundations on build- ings where close adherence to the line is required, one of the manufacturers of piling recommends that temporary piles about 4 ft. long be driven and taken out one at a time, and the long pieces of piling substituted, thus insuring starting correctly with the long piling. Borings in casings are made along the proposed line of steel sheet- ing at say 25-ft. intervals, and the steel ordered to length accord- ingly. Except when encountering rock, boulders or extremely tenacious hardpan, the piles can usually be driven to a fairly uni- form top level. When the objective foundation soil or rock bottom is in an eroded river valley which has again been refilled with drift the hard bottom will frequently be covered with a generous number STEEL AXD IROX CONSTRUCTION 1737 of boulders which have dropped out of the eroded material because too heavy to be washed down stream. This boulder stratum is, of course, quite irregular and not so desirable a material in which to terminate sheet piling as a good clay or slightly disintegrated rock Fig. 5. View Showing Arrangement for Driving Steel Sheet Pilea (A) Bottom of Steam Hammer; (B) Wooden Block; (C) Cast Iron Follower ; (D) Steel Pile. covering sound bedrock. Often too sound bedrock is deeply chan- neled and filled with pot holes, so that piling may need some cutting if it cannot be allowed to extend above grade, as into concrete 1738 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The process of cutting steel piling by means of the electric arc was employed on the construction of the foundations for the New Hoffman House, Broadway and 25th St., New York City. The cost of cutting steel piling with current at 10 cts. per kw. and the at- tendant at 50 cts. per hour, is stated to be as follows per foot of piling cut : Cost of current $2.56 Labor 0.40 Total $2.96 This is rather high, and the hack-saw would probably be cheaper. However, with current at say 3 cts. per kw.-hour the cost per foot would be but $1.17. Even at this rate, with labor competent to use a hack-saw at 25 cts. per hour, the saw would be the cheaper. The current used was at 50 volts, which was stated to be more satisfactory than either 25 or 105 volts. Tests showed 650 amperes consumed at the arc, which at 50 volts equals about 32 kw. Boulders. In passing a line of steel sheeting around a boulder of large size, special angle or bent piling sections are desirable to make the departure from and return to the line as planned. Some of the types of sheeting, like the Quimby or the United States, adapt themselves readily to such changes of alignment without using special pieces. Bending a %-in. or i^-in. web longitudinally to short radius in the field is not an easy matter. When using rigid non-reversible interlocked piling in quicksand, and on work of such character that close water-tightness is required, special corner pieces should be kept on hand for emergencies. In some soils it may be permissible at times to turn corners by driving outside the inter- lock and tight against a projecting flange, placing the new piling at any angle required. Sometimes it may be feasible to fill gaps and make closures with specially prepared squared wood piles, with points beveled to make the wood piling hug the steel. In hard driving among stones, only a type of piling of great stiffness laterally and with perfect interlocking features will insure success. On such work there must be no alternate unstiffened sec- tions of piling. The interlock must be perfect and confining, diffi- cult to open up and permit the escape of the inside member. Even with the heaviest and most confining type of interlocked piling now on the market in this country, this opening of interlock will some- times occur when boulders are encountered. Small boulders in gravelly soils are usually displaced without trouble. Sometimes the aid of a water jet is a help. Usually steel piling will drive easily enough in ordinary soils without a jet. In hard clays a jet is not of much assistance and is very slow. Obviously it is not often required to drive steel sheeting far into hard clays. In driving four lines of steel piling across the valley of the Muskegon River in Mecosta and Newaygo counties, Michigan, the borings showed "floating" masses of clay hardpan sometimes several hundred feet across, and from 1 ft. to 12 ft. thick. Below was quicksand before reaching a bed of hardpan continuous across the valley at a depth of about 30 ft. Hence the necessity for driving STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1739 through the floating hardpan. (See Fig. 6.) The hardpan in question consisted of about 70% of bluish clay and 30% of sharp sand, well mixed and compacted by water deposition and pressure, to the texture of frozen soil. In this hardpan were stones from gravel up to boulders of 5 tons weight. This material cost $3 per cu. yd. to trench, and angular fragments would lie for months in water moving with a velocity of 5 ft. per second without material erosion or change in form. This was at the Big Rapids dam of the Grand Rapids & Muskegon Power Co., in 1905. Lubricating the piling with grease before driving, and with a stream of water under pressure when driving, seemed to be of no special aid in the hardpan mentioned. On the work at the Big Rapids Dam, above mentioned, the single- channel Friestedt piling frequently buckled and recourse was then had to double Z-bar Friestedt sections entirely. This piling with two Z-bars on all pieces weighs about 54 Ibs. per sq. ft., and to reduce the weight the writer has had a single Z-bar riveted to every channel instead of using double Z-bar channels exclusively or # soo'o' 1 - r-tT ! %|3 o ^ Fig. 6. Cross Section of Muskegon River at Big Rapids Dam. alternating with plain channels. The single Z-bar to every channel permits always having the free or uninterlocked edge of the pile being driven stiffened by a Z-bar. On this type, shown at No. 3 in Fig. 3, the writer has obtained a patent and has used over 1,000 tons with satisfactory results. Nearly all of this was driven into hard soils. On the Muskegon River work one carload was used of a special rolled type of piling having less radius of gyration than the built-up types above mentioned. Of this piling fully one-half buckled ; it was thrown away and replaced with the other type. Pulling Piling. The manufacturers of steel piling place much stress on the ability to pull up the piles, but in his experience in hard soils the writer has never been able to get jacks enough on a piece of steel piling driven 12 ft. in the ground to pull it out. In soft river mud and silt, pulling with heavy tackle can be done. Probably a hammer striking upward blows in the manner similar to that used in pulling pipe casings from test bore holes would be oper- ative except in cases of badly crimped and bent piles. [Note. Steel piles can be pulled with stump pullers, as described in the section on Timberwork.] Cost of Piling. In lots of 500 tons, Friestedt steel piling sold in 1904 and 1905 at $1.93 per 100 Ibs. on cars at the mill ; this on alternate double Z-bar and channel and plain channel type. In 1740 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. May, 1906, this type sold at $2.03, and $2.23 with a Z bar on every channel, the additional price being on account of extra handling when every piece has to be riveted. The plain channels require only a 1-in. hole punched in the end for lifting. The cost of driving per lin. ft. of piling 13*4 ins. net width, with a steam hammer, on the Muskegon River work above mentioned ran from 7*4 cts. to 20 cts. per sq. ft. in place ; labor at 20 cts. per hour ; foreman, 25 cts. The 7% cts. cost was on land in sand and gravel with some clay strata ; piling 20 to 40 ft. long. The average amount of piling driven per hour in fairly good ground is 40 to 50 lin. ft, or 400 to 500 lin. ft. per day of 10 hours, including the time of moving the pile driver. In general the cost per sq. ft. for driving steel sheeting is 25% less than for driving wood. Splicing Piling. The longest single lengths driven on the writer's work was 44 ft., but spliced lengths up to 58 ft. have been success- fully used. In doing spliced work it is not necessary actually to bolt or rivet the splices, the procedure being to use two lengths so as to break joints in the interlock. For 58-ft. piling, suppose we use 36-ft. and 22-ft. lengths: First drive the 36-ft. piece down, then move back and drive a 24-ft. pile down within a foot of the top of the 36-ft. piece; now move forward and set a second 22-ft. piece on top of the first 36-ft. piece and drive both down to full depth. Now move back past the 24-ft. pile and drive a 36-ft. piece in No. 3 position ; then a 32-ft. piece on top of the 24-ft. piece. By moving back and forth so as not to lose the interlock below ground only two different lengths are required. SUPPLEMENTARY DATA. In addition to the cost given above in the original paper the author furnishes us some figures of the comparative cost of oper- ating pile drivers by electric hoist and by steam hoist, and also further figures of the cost of sheet pile driving. These figures we give below. Cost of Operating Pile-Drivers. The following figures show the relative cost of operating two 2,000-lb. drop-hammer pile-drivers, one equipped with electric hoist and the other with steam hoist. These drivers had 38-ft. leads and worked side by side under the same conditions on round piling in sand and clay: DRIVER WITH ELECTRIC HOIST. One foreman, at $3 $ 3.00 Six helpers, at $2 12.00 One team delivering at y 2 day at $4 2.00 Interest on investment at 5% (100 days' service) 1.00 Depreciation 1.00 Superintendence and engineering 2.00 Power 2.00 Total $23.00 In this driver the hammer was returned in the leads at a speed of 250 ft. per minve STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1741 DRIVER WITH STEAM HOIST. One foreman, at $3 $ 3.00 Five helpers, at $2 10.00 One engineer, at $2.25 2.25 One fireman, at $1.75 1.75 One team delivering at % day at $4 2.00 Interest on investment at 5% (100 days' service) 1.00 Depreciation 1.00 Superintendence and engineering 2.00 Fuel, y 2 ton coal, at $4 2.00 Total $25.00 In this driver the hammer was returned in the leads at a speed of 360 ft. per minute. It will be noted that the electric hoist used was of considerably .slower rope speed than was the steam hoist. Mr. Fargo notes that had the speed of the electric hoist been as great as that of the steam hoist it would have shown a lower cost record per lineal foot of piling driven on account of one less man at lower pay operating it. He states that any ordinarily bright man can be taught to oper- ate an electric hoist in a day's time, but that a steam rig takes two men of more experience. Cost of Driving Steel Sheeting with Steam Hammer. The follow- ing figures show the cost per lineal foot of driving steel sheet piling in clay and sand, using a Vulcan steam hammer, with a 4,500-lb. ram and a total weight on the pile of 10,000 Ibs. The driver had 5 5 -ft. leads. The figures are for a 10-hour working day. COST OF OPERATING DRIVER. One foreman, at $3 $ 3.00 Four helpers, at $2 8.00 One engineer, at $2.50 2.50 One fireman, at $1.75 1.75 One team delivering at % day at $4 2.00 Interest on investment at 5% (100 days' service) 2.50 Depreciation 2.00 Superintendence and engineering 2.00 Fuel, 1 ton coal, at $4 4.00 Total $27.25 The steel piling, consisting of one 15 -in. channel and one special Z-bar as shown in sketch 3, Fig. 1, weighed 38 Ibs. per lin. ft. and cost delivered 2.385 cts. per Ib. The record for 16 days' driving, 8 days of fairly difficult work in strong soil and 8 days of fairly easy driving in sandy soil, was 6,400 lin. ft., or 400 lin. ft, or 15,200 Ibs. per day. We can now summarize as follows: Item. Per day. Per lin. ft. 15,209 Ibs., at 2.385c $362.52 $0.9063 Unloading from cars, at V 2 c per Ib. . . 76.00 0.1900 Operating steam hammer 27.25 0.0682 Total $465.77 $1.1645 1742 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Cleaning Steel by Sand Blast and Painting by Com- pressed Air. Dr. De Witt C. Webb gives the following: At the U. S. Naval Station, Key West, Fla., are two large steel coal sheds whose vertical side walls are composed of ^4 -in. steel plates, and are from 16 to 20 ft. high. The action of heat and im- purities in the coal, combined with that of the large quantities of salt water used for extinguishing spontaneous combustion fires rapidly corrodes the interior steel work and necessitates its thor- ough cleaning and painting every time the sheds are emptied. Shortly after the writer was detailed to this station his attention was attracted to this subject, and he concluded that the use of a portable sand blast cleaning and spray painting outfit would be very advantageous in point of efficiency and time as well as cost. This idea meeting with the approval of the Bureau of Yards and Docks, the following outfit was purchased, at a cost of $2,090, delivered at the naval station : 1 horizontal gasoline engine, about 20 hp. 1 air compressor, capacity about 90 ft. of free air per minute compressed to a pressure of 30 Ibs. per sq. in. in one stage, belt connected to engine. 1 rotary circulating pump, belt connected to engine. 1 galvanized steel water tank. 1 air receiver, 18x54 ins. (The above apparatus was all mounted on a steel framed wagon with wooden housing.) 2 sand blast machines, capacity 2 cu..ft. of sand each. 2 paint spraying machines, one a hand machine of % gal. capacity for one operator, the other of 10 gals, capacity for two operators. 100 lin. ft. of sand blast hose. 200 lin. ft. of pneumatic hose for sand blast machines. 400 lin. ft. of pneumatic hose for painting machines. 100 lin. ft. of air and paint hose for painting machines. 4 khaki helmets, with mica-covered openings for the eyes. 200 lin. ft. of 2-in. galvanized iron pipe. Previously to the delivery of this material shed "A" had been emptied of coal and the work of cleaning the inside surface of the wall plates was begun by hand in the usual manner. About 7,000 sq. ft. out of a total of 9,000 were thus cleaned at a cost of slightly over 4 cts. per sq. ft. On the arrival of the sand blast outfit the hand work was stopped and after a short preliminary trial the machine cleaning was started. The work proceeded rather slowly until the men became accustomed to it, yet the 2,000 sq. ft. of previously untouched surface was thoroughly cleaned and the 7,000 sq. ft. of hand cleaning was all gone over and much improved at a STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION 1743 total cost for labor of $97.68 and for gasoline of $16.15. The force consisted of the following: Per day. 1 engine tender $ 3.04 1 helper (in charge of the work and tending machines) 2.24 2 laborers on machines, at $1.76 each 3.52 1 laborer drying sand, filling machines, etc 1.76 Total $10.56 From 10 to 15 gals, of gasoline were required per day of 8 hours (costing 19 cts. per gal. here). For the painting the coal tar paint originated by Civil Engineer A. C. Cunningham, U. S. N., was used. This paint was prepared with the following proportions (by volume) : Coal tar, 4 parts; kerosene oil, 1 ; Portland cement, 1. The Portland cement was first well stirred into the kerosene oil, forming a creamy mixture ; this mixture was then carefully stirred into the coal tar. It was freshly mixed as needed and kept well stirred. The cost of this paint at Key West is about 15 cts. per gal. It was found not to be so well suited to the pneumatic spraying machine as oil paint, but worked very well ; though, of course, the machine used considerably more than hand work. In all, on this shed, 64^ gals, of paint were required for 9,000 sq. ft., or about 1 gal. to 140 sq. ft. The force used in painting was the same as in cleaning, with the addition of a laborer, who followed up the paint- ers with a long handled brush arid spread the paint uniformly. The cost of painting this shed was: For labor, $28.16; for gasoline, $3.80. On shed "B" a total area of 12,500 sq. ft. was cleaned and painted. This steel work was covered with a scale nearly % in. thick and was deeply pitted. The scale and rust were very tough and extremely hard to remove. On this work it was found econom- ical to keep men ahead of the sand blast with sledges, loosening and shaking off as much of the scale as possible. The labor cost of the whole work on this shed (cleaning and painting) was $460, including the cost of moving, setting up and removing. Gasoline cost $81. A total of 86 gallons of ooal tar paint was used, covering about 145 sq. ft. per gal. Total cost of labor, fuel and paint, $553.90, or 4.4 cts. per sq. ft. It is impossible to separate the cost of clean- ing and painting on this work, as only small areas are painted at one time, the painting being done by one operator, the other working the sand blast. This was done in order to expose the cleaned steel to the atmosphere for as short a time as possible. A fine silica sand was used, that being the only kind available except coral sand, which was tried, but found to be too soft. A coarse sand would probably have been more effective. The sand was all saved, dried and re-used several times. About % cu. yd. of fresh sand was required daily. The sand must be kept perfectly dry for this purpose, and there are patent sand driers manufactured. Very good results were obtained on this work, however, by the use 1744 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of a sheet of boiler plate set up on bricks with a wood fire under- neath. No claims are made of extreme economy in the above work. The extremely thick and tough scale to be removed, the high iuel and labor cost of compressing air simply for this work, and (prob- ably) the lack of the best kind of sand for the purpose, combined to make the work expensive. With these drawbacks it was, however, considerably cheaper than hand work and, what is more important, the cleaning was much more effective and thorough than could nos- Bibly have been done by hand. SECTION XIV. ENGINEERING AND SURVEYS. Cost of Engineering. When work is done by contract, engineer- ing costs from 3 to 10% of the total cost of construction. This in- cludes surveys, plans, estimates and inspection during construction. The major part of this cost is usually the supervision and inspec- tion of the contractor's work. Hence, if the job is small, and if the work drags, the cost of engineering will approach, or even exceed, 10%. Throughout this book are given actual records of the cost of engi- neering, for which consult the index under "Engineering." Engineering Charges For Services.* The following information as to the minimum charges for engineers' services in Iowa, was col- lected by the Secretary of the Iowa Engineering Society and printed in the Proceedings of the 21st annual meeting of the society: Expert Services: One day $50.00 Each additional day , 25.00 Expert testimony, per day 50.00 Services of hydraulic or sanitary engineer in examinations, reports, estimates, per day 25.00 Construction engineer's and detail work, per day 10.00 Special rates for corps of engineers and inspectors to take charge of work according to importance and degree of skill required. City Surveys and General City Work: Field and office work, per day of 8 hours 8.00 First assistant, per day of 8 hours 4.00 Second assistant, per day of 8 hours 2.40 Time taken going to and returning from survey to be included in above 8 hours. Not less than half a day to be charged. Surveys of single city lots, not less than ' 6.00 Unless previous surveys have been made of adjoining lots in same plan, then 5.00 No description to be drawn for less than 1.00 No charge to be less than 1.00 Laying out of additions of not less than 20 acres, $1.00 per lot, to include working plats and plat for record ; but owner must fur- nish the design of plat or else pay engineer for time consumed in determining method of division. All expenses, such as railway fare, hotel expenses, conveyances of any kind, posts, monuments, are to be charged for as extra. County Land Surveys by County Surveyor: Fees prescribed by law. Surveyor, 50 cts. per hour; assistants, 20 cts. per hour. All expenses are allowed and charged for as extra. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 20, 1909. 1745 1746 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. There seems to be doubt as to what constitutes a day for a County Surveyor, but, as the law prescribes 8 hours in councy road work and various other service, it is safe to say that 8 hours is a legal day, and it has been held so in the courts. Cost of Engineering on City Work. During the years 1901 to 1906, some $2,133,000 were spent for sewers, waterworks and pave- ments in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the engineering cost 4.8% of this amount. Cost of Engineering in Reservoir Construction.* On the East Branch, the Carmel, the Titicus and the Jerome Park reservoirs, for New York City, the cost of engineering averaged 10% of the con- struction cost of $9,532,000. This engineering includes all surveys, test borings, designs and inspection. However, 10% is a very high percentage of cost for work of such magnitude. Rations for Men Camping. In the rules for a railway location prepared by McHenry for surveying parties on the Northern Pacific Ry., the following list of rations and supplies is given : The food is sufficient to support 14 men at least 30 days. 400 Ibs. flour. 50 Ibs. buckwheat. 40 Ibs. oatmeal. 30 Ibs. cornmeal. 25 Ibs. rice. 10 Ibs. tapioca. 10 Ibs. sago. 10 Ibs. barley. 10 Ibs. cornstarch. 10 Ibs. baking powder. 3 Ibs. soda. 12 packages yeast cakes. 150 Ibs. sugar. 20 Ibs. salt. 50 Ibs. coffee. 10 Ibs. tea. 5 gals, syrup. 1 gal. vinegar. 400 Ibs. potatoes. 50 Ibs. beans. 20 Ibs. onions. 2 cases (24 qts.) tomato. 2 cases corn. 1 case peas. 1 case pears. 1 case cherries. 2 cases peaches. 1 case milk. 1 case coal oil. 2 Ibs. mustard. 1 Ib. ground pepper. % Ib. ginger. % Ib. cinnamon. *4 Ib. allspice. % Ib. nutmegs. 1 bottle lemon extract. 1 bottle vanilla extract. 6 bottles pickles. 5 bottles catsup. 8 bottles Worcester sauce. 100 Ibs. ham. 100 Ibs. bacon. 25 Ibs. dried beef. 25 Ibs. codfish. 40 Ibs. lard. 25 Ibs. cheese. 60 Ibs. butter. 1 case cornbeef. 50 Ibs. dried apples. 50 Ibs. dried peaches, 50 Ibs. dried prunes. 10 Ibs. dried currants. 1 box raisins. 1 box crackers. 1 box macaroni. 1 box soap. 12 boxes matches. 1 box candles. 2 Ibs. lye. 10 Ibs. sal-soda. The total net weight of food in this list is about 2,100 Ibs., 01 about 5 Ibs. of food per man per day, on the basis of 420 man-days. This is certainly ample. In fact men can live on much less if con- centrated food that swells on cookin.gr is used. The following is a ^Engineering-Contracting, July 8, Flour . One man. 30 days. 25 Ibs Oatmeal 8 Ibs Bice 4 ibs Beans (dried) 8 Ibs Sugar 12 Ibs Salt . 1 lb Butter 2 Ibs Bacon 10 Ibs Baking powder 1 lb 2 Ibs. Tea Dried prunes . 2 Ibs % lb. Condensed milk , 3 cans Total , 79 Ibs. ENGINEERING AND SURVEYS 1747 list used by the author on a 30-day camping expedition where every superfluous pound of weight was cut out : One man. 1 day. 0.83 lb. 0.27 lb. 0.14 lb. 0.27 lb. 0.40 lb. 0.03 lb. 0.07 lb. 0.33 lb. 0.03 lb. 0.07 lb. 0.01 lb. 0.07 lb. 0.01 lb. 0.10 lb. 2.63 Ibs. This list furnishes 0.23 lb. nitrogenous food, 0.30 lb. fat., and 1.30 Ibs. starch and sugar per man per day. Dr. Pavy (Encyclopedia Britannica) states that a laborer requires daily 0.25 lb. nitrogenous food, 0.10 lb. fat, and 1.18 Ibs. starch and sugar (carbohydrates). If the trip is to be a long one, 1% ozs. of juice of limo per man per day should be taken to prevent scurvy, unless potatoes can be car- ried along. F. W. D. Holbrook, in Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc., 1883, p. 180, gives the following rations for 20 men for 12 days, where all food has to be packed on the backs of men (1,400 Ibs. of food for 240 man- days) : 12 bottles prepared mustard. 100 Ibs. granulated sugar. 25 Ibs. butter. 50 Ibs. brown sugar for syrup. 170 Ibs. ham. 10 Ibs. tea. 75 Ibs. canned cornbeef. 15 Ibs. coffee. 50 Ibs. mess pork. 70 Ibs. beans. 300 Ibs. flour. 25 Ibs. rice. 25 Ibs. dried apples. % lb. ground pepper. 25 Ibs. dried peaches. % lb. ground ginger. 50 Ibs. prunes. 1 lb. ground cinnamon. 25 Ibs. raisins. 12 Ibs. soap. 10 Ibs. currants. 15 Ibs. candles. 12 Ibs. baking powder. 6 boxes matches (300 in box). 10 Ibs. salt. The U. S. Geological Survey ration list is as follows for 1 man for 100 days: 1748 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 100 Ibs. fresh meat, including fish and poultry. 50 Ibs. cured meat, canned meat, or cheese. 15 Ibs. lard. 80 Ibs. flour, bread or crackers. 15 Ibs. cornmeal, cereals, macaroni, sago or cornstarch. 5 Ibs. baking powder or yeast cakes. 40 Ibs. sugar. 1 gal. molasses. 12 Ibs. coffee. 2 Ibs. tea or cocoa. 10 cans condensed milk, or 50 qts. fresh milk. 10 Ibs. butter. 20 Ibs. dried fruit, or 100 Ibs. fresh fruit. 20 Ibs. rice or beans. 100 Ibs. potatoes or other fresh vegetables. 30 cans of vegetables or fruit. 4 ozs. spices. 4 ozs. flavoring extracts. 8 ozs. pepper or mustard. 3 qts. pickles. 1 qt. vinegar. 4 Ibs. salt. 'Eggs may be substituted for fresh meat in the ratio of 8 eggs lor 1 Ib. of meat. Fresh meat and cured meat may be interchanged on the basis of 5 Ibs. of fresh for 2 Ibs. of cured. Dried vegetables may be substituted for fresh vegetables in the ratio of 3 Ibs. of fresh for 1 Ib. of dried. This ration weighs 5.3 Ibs. per day per man, and it costs about 50 cts. per day per man. The list was based originally on the U. S. army ration, but has received some modifications dictated by experience. Cost of Rations, U. S. Reclamation Service.* From the annual report of the U. S. Reclamation Service for 1904-5, the cost of rations for the employes of that body, engaged on several of the reclamation projects, were from 40 to 80 cts. per man per day, aver- aging about 55 cts. Equipment For and Cost of Railroad Surveys. Mr. F. Lavis in his admirable book on "Railroad Location, Surveys and Estimates," has given valuable information on railway surveying and estimating, from which the following data have been abstracted: The following is a list of the camp outfit : 1 office tent with fly, 14 x 16 ft. 3 drafting and oflice tables. 3 tents, 14x16 ft. 6 camp chairs. 1 cook tent, 16x20 ft. Map chest with necessary sta- tionery, paper, etc. * Engineering-Contracting, Oct. 24, 1906. ENGINEERING AND SURVEYS 1749 DINING TABLE. 3 dozen agate ware dinner plates. 3 dozen agate ware cups. 2 dozen agate ware saucers. 2% dozen steel knives. 2^j dozen steel forks. 2^j dozen German silver teaspoons. iy 2 dozen German silver dessert spoons. 1 dozen German silver tablespoons. % dozen tin salt boxes. % dozen tin pepper boxes. y dozen round agate ware pans, 2 qt. % dozen round agate ware pans, 1 qt. 1 dozen round agate ware pans, 1 pt. 1 carving knife and fork. 7 yds. oilcloth, 48 ins. wide. 3 standard trestles. 5 boards, 12 by 1% ins. by 18 ft. (dressed). COOKING UTENSILS. 1 No. 8, 6-hole, wrought-iron range. 1 tea-kettle. 1 large cast-iron pot. 1 small cast-iron pot. 2 large frying pans. 1 gal. teapot. 4 dripping pans. 6 baking tins for bread. 12 tin pie plates. 2 butcher knives. 1 steel. 2 large meat forks. 1 chopping knife. 1 meat saw. 2 large iron spoons. 1 soup ladle. 1 cake turner. 1 flour sieve. 1 colander-. 1 5-gal. tin dishpan. 1 5-gal. tin bread pan with cover. 1 small frying pan. 2 griddles. 4 tin pans with covers, 1 gal. each. 2 stewpans. 1 3-gal. coffeepot. 1 chopping bowl. 1 bread board. 1 rolling-pin. 1 biscuit cutter. 1 nutmeg grater. 1 coffee mill. 1 spring balance. 6 galvanized iron buckets. 6 tin dippers (one for each tent and two in cook tent). 2 can openers. 1 corkscrew. 1 broom. 1 scrubbing brush. 1 alarm clock. 1 table (same as drafting tables). MISCELLANEOUS. Va dozen Dietz lanterns. 3 large tin lamps (central-draft, round wicks). 2 large galvanized-iron washtubs. 1 washboard. 4 Sibley stoves (4 lengths of pipe with dampers, 12 lengths of plain pipe). 2 water kegs, 2 gals. each. 6 washbasins. TOOLS. 1 grindstone and fittings. 1 monkey wrench. 1 pick. 2 shovels. 1 short crowbar. 1 hand-saw. 1 cross-cut saw. 2 hand-axes. 4 chopping-axee. % dozen axe handlea 1 bundle sail twine. ty dozen sail needles. 1 sail palm. 10 assorted sizes wire nails. 100 ft. manila rope, %-in, 1750 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. LUNCH Box. 2 dozen agate ware dinner plates. 2 dozen agate ware saucers. 1% dozen steel knives. 1% dozen steel forks. iy> >> .f -j--t-> O h a-*- 1 pSo ( &S8 87 days. 90 days. 111 days. 30 days. Miles run and topography taken. 145.8 166.3 164.1 23.2 Miles run, no topography taken. . 39.3 Total miles preliminary run. . 185 1 'ieeV 16.0 180.1 3.6 31.8 Total number payroll days 1380 1323 2033 635 Average daily number of men. . . . 15.9 14.7 18.3 21.2 Average miles per day per party. 2.12 1.85 1.62 1.06 Average daily cost, subsistence per man $0 37 $0.49 $0.38 $0.58 Average daily pay per man.... 1.81 2.03 Daily cost for teams 6 00 6.22 6*92 12.87 Contingencies 88 48 112.95 91.84 Daily cost of party 41 72 44.48 45^57 64 61 Cost per mile 19 61 94 n 7 9 ns cn'or; LOCATED LINES. TH N eo o5 ^ d d 6 |w| d t * Pi I & & Ps r 5 & 65 days. 37 days. 8 days. 48 days. 66 days. Miles located 560 378 7.6 42.6 39.2 Total number payroll days 1400 709 151 1498 1283 Average daily number of men 21 5 19 19.0 31.2 19.4 Average miles per day per party .... 86 1 02 0.95 0.89 0.59 Average daily cost sub- sistence . $0 37 $0 39 $0.39 $0.40 $0.45 Average daily pay per man . . 1 72 1 61 1 61 1 71 1 60 Daily cost for teams. . . 6.69 5.75 5.'39 10.'33 6.' 7 6 Contingencies 143 36 46 76 15 70 196 00 133 84 Daily cost of party 53.90 45.22 45.12 80^29 48^54 Cost per mile. . 62.57 44.33 47.50 90.47 81.72 The preliminary lines run by Party No. 1 were over a severe coun- *ry, involving the heaviest construction work on the whole line. Party No. 3 also had much difficulty in getting a grade between certain points. Party No. 2 had the lightest country. Party No. 4 worked only a short time and the cost of moving a long distance from other work is included. It is probable that the cost of work done by this party was really about 60% more than the others per mile, Instead of 100% more. On the locating work, Party No. 1 had an expensive sounding party consisting of a man in charge, 4 or 5 laborers and a team. 1752 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Parties Nos. 2 and 3 were combined, after each had run ", short distance of located line separately, which increased the unit cost of the located line, as shown. The total cost of 188 miles of located line was $192 per mile of located line, and this includes the cost of running the prelim- inary lines. Cost of 2,000 Miles of Railway Surveys. In a paper by Mr. W. S. McFetridge, published in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1909, and reprinted in Engineering-Contracting, May 19, 1909, is given a very complete description of the methods of making 1,400 miles of preliminary and 600 miles of location surveys. The following is a very brief sum- mary of the cost. Field parties were made up as follows : Monthly Salary. Assistant engineer in charge $125 to $150 Transitman .- . 85 to 100 Levelman 75 Rodman 65 Head chainman 50 Rear chainman 45 Rear flagman 40 Stakeman 35 Axeman (from two to five) ; 30 Topographer 65 Tapemen (two) 45 Draftsman (part time) 60 Camp outfits were not. used. The parties boarded at houses along the line. This was often a disadvantage, on account of difficulty in getting quarters, especially for a, full corps ; but, on the other hand, the party could frequently make its headquarters at some town and drive to and 'from the work, so that probably this method served just as well as furnishing camp outfits. It may appear to some that there was much unnecessary location and running of preliminary lines, but in rough country like this, and on work of this magnitude (in 220 miles of this line were 21 tunnels, the longest being 4,000 ft, 5 viaducts from 400 to 1,000 ft. long, and more than 100 ft. in height, besides numerous other bridges), it is time and money well spent. In no other way can the exact data be gotten, and it leaves no question as to the available routes and the grades obtainable. The topography was taken (on practically all lines) accurately by using a metallic cloth tape for distances and a hand-level for elevations. Only in this way can one get a projected location to correspond closely with the actual one. The topography was ordinarily taken for 300 ft. on each side of the center line; at particularly difficult summits or similar places a strip from 1,000 to 2,000 ft. wide was often shown. The lines were plotted to a scale of 200 ft. to 1 in. The topography was plotted in the field. A hollow drawing-board, 18x24 ins. was used. The sheet in use was tacked to the board, and the additional sheets were carried inside. A strap around the shoulders of the topographer served to carry the board, and formed a support while plotting (Wellington's method). ENGINEERING AND SURVEYS 1783 m p-i .2 eo c rH U3 00 O o ^/ ^< eo in eo o o N M* t- oo eq * us N eo M rH If5 IM i-l to to eo -i eo o *5 eo o t- os J .rt^OONt-rHCq \ * "d * eo us eo od rH \ C* O) O ,H CO Irt O <*< y v-' C3 O r-l ^ o ^^^ ; M i , 5 I s e Li en eo to to r-i noc-c~ooooooa5CiOOi-iiHt-t-OOOOOOO5a>OOT-lT-ICnoino os o r-i tinoinoinotMinoinOeocooocooinomo .omoinoint-oinoinTHoocoooinoinom ^ s 1*3 1800 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. was used around the tiles, very little stone being- purchased for this purpose. The wages paid on the job for a 9-hr, day were $3.50 for foremen, $1.35 and $1.40 for laborers, and 75 cts. for water boys. One fore- man and one gang of 16 men worked for 9 days, and the job was completed by 2 foremen and 26 men, working 10 additional days. The total labor cost for excavating the trench, breaking up the stone, laying the tile, and placing broken stone around it, and back- filling the trench was $674.15, or 52 cts, per cu. yd. of trench. The tile laying was done by one man and an assistant, who wheeled the tiles and laid them alongside of the trench, the tile layer then placing them. These two men, in a half day, could lay tiles in the trench that the entire gang had dug during a day. After they had laid the tiles, with the assistance of a few additional men, they did the backfilling of the trench. The labor cost of placing the tiles was $26.14, making a cost of 0.35 ct. per lin. ft. The cost per lin. ft. for excavating, breaking rock and backfilling was 8.6 cts., making a total cost per lin. ft of the completed drain of about 9 cts. Cost of Farm Drainage. Several excellent articles on the methods and cost of farm drainage appeared in Engineering-Contracting, Dec. 4, 1907, Oct. 21, Nov. 4 and Nov. 18, 1908, Oct. 13 and Oct. 20, 1909. These articles occupied about 25 pages, of which the follow- ing is a very brief summary. Mr. L. G. Hicks states that, in draining a farm near Omaha, the cost of tile drainage was $23 per acre. Wages were $1.50 per 10-hr, day and board, the board amounting to $0.50, making a total of $2 per day. Material was black loam, which cost 21 cts. per cu. yd. to excavate from ditches 3% ft. deep and 12 to 15 ins. wide. The ditch was shaped up with a tile spoon, at a cost of 2% cts. per lin. ft., which is equivalent to adding another 20 cts. per cu. yd. The backfilling was done by two men and two horses with a plow at a cost of 1 ct. per cu. yd. Hence the total cost was 42 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of laying the tile was as follows : Per 100 ft., cts. 3 or 4-in. tile 6-in. tile 6.7 8-in. tile 10 With a tile hook a man lays 100 ft. of 3-in. tile in 15 mins., or at the rate of 4,000 ft. per day. The cost of this work on a 75-acre farm where 25,150 lin. ft. of tile were laid was : Per acre. Per lin. ft, cts. Surveys $ 1.46 0.43 Labor 12.82 3.82 Material 8.55 2.55 Total ~$2~2~. 182 ~OO A 476-acre "experimental farm" in Minnesota was drained, using 4, 6 and 8-in. tile. Farm laborers received $2 a day, and team with MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1801 driver was rated at $4.50 per day. The cost of loading, unloading and hauling was 80 cts. per ton for the first mile, plus 30 cts. per ton for each additional mile, load averaging 2*4 tons over ordinary fields. The contract price for trenching (by hand), tile laying and backfilling was $2.42 per 100 lin. ft. of trench 3 ft. deep, plus 6 cts. for each additional foot of depth. The average trench work done by one man, at $2 per day, was: Lin. ft. 3-ft. trench 100 3.5-ft. trench 95 5-ft. trench 80 After a man had acquired some experience, 4 to 6-in. tile were laid with a tile hook at the rate of 2,000 ft. in 10 hrs., where the trench was in good condition and the tile convenient. After the tile were laid they were covered with earth 4 to 6 ins. deep, called "blinding." A man astride of the trench cuts off earth from each side with a tile spade. This blinding is done at the rate of 4,000 ft. in 10 hrs. The blinding holds the tile in place. The backfilling was done in three ways: (1) By hand; (2) by drag scraper ; ( 3 ) by plow and road machine. The costs were as follows : A trench 3 ft. deep was backfilled by hand at a cost of $0.56 per 100 lin. ft, wages being $2.00 per 10-hr, day. A trench 3% ft. deep was backfilled by a drag scraper, two horses and two men, for $0.60 per 100 lin. ft. of trench. A similar trench was backfilled for $0.32 per 100 lin. ft., using a plow first and a road machine afterward. Two teams and drivers were used on the plow, one team on each side of the trench. A long evener was used, and the plow shifted as desired. After two round trips, the same gang completed the! filling by means of a road machine. In Illinois the average depth to lay tile is about 3 ft., and the dis- tance apart of lateral drains is about as follows : Ft. apart. Light, sandy soil 150 to 300 Heavy loam 75 to 150 Gumbo 30 to 100 The cost in dollars per acre for tile drains may be roughly esti- mated by dividing 1,500 by the distance apart (in feet) of the lateral drains. Thus, if the drains are 150 ft. apart, the cost per acre is 1,500 -f- 150 = $10. In Utah, 40 acfes of irrigated farm land were drained, using 4, 5 and 6-in. tile, laid 4 to 5 ft. deep. The cost was $13.50 per acre. There were 5,300 lin. ft. of tile used, at the following average cost : Per 100 lin. ft. Tile $ 6.40 Laobr 3.80 Total $10.20 Mr. Jas. T. Taylor gives the following relative to pipes laid in 1891 for irrigating 4,200 acres in the Alessandro District, California. 1802 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The pipes were vitrified sewer pipes and cement pipes, 6 to 12 ins. diam., and these pipe lines, including trenching, etc., cost $76,300 for 40 miles of pipe, or $18.15 per acre for the lateral system. This is equivalent to 50 ft. of lateral pipe per acre, at an average cost of 36 cts. per ft. laid. Cost of Tile Trenching With a Machine.* A machine made by the Buckeye Traction Ditcher Co., of Findlay, Ohio, was used on the Northwest Experiment Farm, University of Minnesota, in 1903. The machine dug a trench 14% ins. wide and 4% ft. deep. It had an 8-hp. boiler and consumed 450 Ibs. of coal and 4 bbls. of water per day. It dug 34,000 lin. ft. of trench in 45 days actual working time, or 744 lin. ft. per day. The men who handled the machine were inexperienced. The following was the cost : Per 100 ft. Labor running machine $0.45 Coal at $7.50 per ton 0.19 Water 0.13 Oil 0.01 Repairs 0.13 Total ditching $0.91 Laying tile 0.18 Blinding 0.05 Incidentals 0.09 Total $1.23 The price of the machine was $1,400. Although the machine was not well handled and had not at that time (1903) been perfected, it made a very creditable record of cost, as contrasted with hand work, for the latter cost $3.88 per 100 lin. ft. on the same farm. Two men operated the machine. I recently saw a machine of the same make and size on a farm in New Jersey where it was averaging 2,000 lin. ft. of trench (15 ins. x 3 ft.) in 10 hrs. Cost of Laying Small Gas Mains on Six Jobs. f Mr. W. H. Mat- lack is author of the following: In this article the cost is given of laying 4-in., 6-in. and 10-in. gas mains on 6 different jobs, there being a total of 10,924 lin. ft. of pipe laid. The 10-in. main was first laid, the 6-in. and 4-in. follow- ing. The work was done in the months of May and June, 1908. The weather during that spring was unusually wet and all costs are a little higher than they should be, yet the tables will give a fair idea of what work will cost under such conditions. The ditch averaged 3 ft. 6 ins. in depth and was 28 ins. wide. The soil was half and half sandy clay and gumbo, with the excep- tion of about 150 ft. of quicksand encountered in laying the 10-in. line. The 10-in. line was almost all laid on rainy days in a wet ' * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 4, 1908. ^Engineering-Contracting, March 31, 1909. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1803 ditch. From 1,500 to 2,000 ft. of the ditch were one-third full of water at one time, which caused it to cave, and about 900 ft. had to be redug, aside from bailing the water with buckets from some 2,000 ft. of it. A creek was crossed with the 10-in. line. Here lead joints were used, but all other joints on the six jobs were made with cement. The following fittings were put in on the 10-in. line : Three 10-in. drips, thirteen 5-in. tees, one 10-in. cross, and one 10 x 16-in. reducer. The 6-in. line No. 1 was laid next and under similar conditions, and the following fittings used: Three 6-in. crosses and three 6 x 4-in. tees. The 4-in. lines were put in when the weather was good and the soil dry. Records kept in laying the 4-in. pipe showed that 3 ft. of yarn would make four joints and that one sack of cement would caulk and cap 32 joints. Lehigh Portland cement was used, and tests previously made showed tensile strengths of from 500 to 600 Ibs., per sq. in. The gang averaged 25 men. The best day's work consisted of 52 lengths of 6-in. pipe and 29 lengths of 4-in. pipe, the ditch being opened, pipe laid and caulked in 10 hours. In backfilling the trench the earth was hand tamped in from 6 to 8-in. layers. The team was used in handling pipe and other supplies from the plant to the job, an average distance of two miles. The following wages were paid: Foreman, 27% cts. per hour; caulkers, 22 to 25 cts. per hour; laborers, 17 cts.; team and driver, 45 cts.; watchman, 17% cts., and water boy, 15 cts. per hour. A night watchman was employed throughout the job and a man for Sundays. The cost of the work, divided into various items of labor for each lineal foot, is as follows: Job No "A" "1" "2" Size 4-in. 6-in. 10-in. Total ft. laid 1,412 1,302 5,781 Team and driver $0.007 $0.014 $0.023 Foreman 0.007 0.005 0.007 Superintendence 0.005 0.007 Excavation 0.040 0.033 0.058 Caulking 0.004 0.007 0.012 Backfilling 0.040 0.032 0.058 Sundry expenses 0.002 0.006 Total cost per ft $0.098 $0.096 $0.171 Job No "B" "C" "D" Size . 4-in. 6-in. 6-in. Total ft. laid .- 595 841 993 Team and driver ...$0.009 $0.011 $0.120 Foreman 0.009 0.003 0.150 Superintendence 0.005 Excavation 0.052 0.409 0.500 Caulking 0.007 0.009 0.110 Backfilling 0.050 0.125 0.137 Total cost per ft $0.127 $0.125 $0.137 The sundry expense item is for the watchman and water boy. 1804 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. All the pipe was tested before going into the ditch and all leaky joints were cut out and redriven. There were 18 such joints on the 10-in. line due to rain over night on green joints. After the pipes were all laid they were all tested. The 10-in. line was tested from four parts. The others were tested once. This testing, which was all in the air, was done with an old style hand pump that required 10 men to operate. In testing, 12 men were used, 10 to pump up the line, 1 to snap joints and 1 to look after the gage. The time con- sumed by a test varied from 45 mins. to 1% hrs. This time is dis- tributed as well as possible between the laborers and caulkers, as all took a hand. After completing the work a final test was made, as shown by Fig. 5. The piping was placed and a meter set ; the pressure was then equalized by running gas from an old 10-in. line through the 1-in. line and into the new line, this line being opened at B for 15 mins. At the end of this time B was closed and A opened, allowing the gas to pass through the meter and to register. After B c. - 00 fa Fig. 5. the register was made, which took almost 10 mins., the meter was read and noted, then left standing for 2% hrs. At the end of that time it was reread and finding the reading to be the same as at the time of the first registering, it was known that no gas had passed through the meter, hence there were no leaks in the new line. The following day men were sent along the line and all drip leads were opened, allowing all air to pass out. Cost of Laying Wrought Iron, Screw-Joint Pipe for Compressed Air Main. Mr. E. E. Harper gives the following: The work consisted of laying 7,000 ft. of 8-in. and 4,000 ft. of 6-in. wrought-iron, screw-joint pipe for a compressed air line carrying 80 to 90 Ibs. pressure. The work was all performed by common labor, none of the men being experienced in pipe laying. The greatest cause of delay in laying screwed pipe is the diffi- culty in getting each successive length of pipe into line and keeping it there until the first threads take hold and the pipe begins to screw together. To overcome this difficulty a cradle for supporting the pipe at the joint, a jack for adjusting and supporting the outer end of the pipe and a straight-edge for lining the pipe were devised. The cradle holds the threaded end of the pipe in position to enter the MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1805 sleeve coupling on the last joint laid ; the jack allows both vertical and horizontal adjustment of the joint of pipe ; and the straight- edge shows when the pipe is in line ready to screw together. The cradle was simply a wood block, 8x8 ins. x 24 ins. in length, with a groove having a 4-in. radius cut in its top. The jack is shown by Fig. 6 and the straight-edge by Fig. 7. The movable block on the straight-edge is necessary because it is almost impossible to make a 12-ft. straight-edge that will remain true for more than a day. Fig. 6. Jack. These devices saved fully 50% over the crude and unsatisfactory method of using blocks to hold the pipe in line. There was no straining and lifting to hold the pipe in place, and as the pipes were started together straight there were no stripped threads and bad joints, and the pipe made up so easily that one man with a pair of 3-ft. tongs often screwed an 8-in. pipe half way up ; it was then completed by four men using two pairs of tongs with 8-ft. handles. ~nq.-Contr C/oss Section A-B , (Enlarged) Fig. 7. Straight Edge. The threads, both male and female, were cleaned with wire brushes. Dixon's pipe joint compound was used on all screwed joints. Ring gaskets of 1/16-in. Rainbow packing were used on flange joints, the gasket being pasted to one flange with coal-tar roofing paint, which held it in position while the joint was being made. Six- Inch Pipe Line. The total length of 6 -in. pipe was 4,118 ft. The pipe was 6-in. lap welded casing weighing 15 Ibs. per lin. ft. 1806 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. It was laid with sleeve couplings, 11% threads per inch, with a flange union every 150 ft. and U-bends for expansion every 500 ft. The average length of joints was 20.1 ft. ; an average of 588.2 ft. of pipe or of 29.3 joints, was laid per 10-hr, day. The best day's work was 1,065 ft., or 53 joints, with 6 men working 9 hrs., making 177.5 ft. per man ; the poorest day's work was 120 ft., or 6 joints, by 6 men working 9% hrs. The work was done from Aug. 15 to 24, 1907, in fair weather except, for one day, when the men worked 4 hrs. in rain and laid 22 joints. The men walked 2y 2 to 3 miles to and from work. The average gang was: 4.85 men at 20 cts. per hour, 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hour, and 1 waterboy at 10 cts. per hour. The- cost of pipelaying was as follows per 100 ft. : Per 100 ft. Clearing right of way $0.327 Hauling and distributing 1.578 Blocking to grade 0.116 Constructing bents 0.450 Anchors for U-bends 2.290 Painting 0.900 Tools 0.100 Testing 0.300 Laying 3.137 Surveying and superintendence 0.700 Total $9.898 The total cost per foot exclusive of cost of pipe was 9.898 cts., or, say, 10 cts. The following notes explain the work included in the various items : Clearing. Removing small brush for a width of 10 ft. Hauling. The average hauls were 3,000 ft. over bad roads, steep and rough. This item includes loading pipe on cars and unloading, hauling and distributing, including seven U-bends. Teams and driv- ers got $3 per day. Blocking. Includes temporary blocking and bending pipe in five places by building fires on it. Anchors for U-Bends. Includes 8 piers at $12 each, including bolts and clamps. Bent Construction. Includes carpenter work only on about 20 bents, averaging 3 ft. in height and made 4 x 6 -in. stuff. Painting. Includes cost of painting and cleaning pipe with wire brushes with paint costing $1 per gallon and labor at 20 cts. per hour. The pipe was painted one coat. Tools. includes shopwork and depreciation. Eight-Inch Pipe Line. The total length of 8-in. pipe was 7,101 ft. The pipe was 8-in. O. D., lap-welded casing weighing 20 Ibs. per foot, laid with sleeve couplings, 11% threads per inch. The average length of joints was 19.15 ft. There was a flange union every 150 ft., and U-bends for expansion every 600 ft. An average of 503.6 ft. was laid per day, of 10 hrs., or 26.3 joints. The best day's work was 613 ft., or 32 joints, by 6 men, including foreman; the poorest day's work was 380 ft., or 20 joints, by 7 men, including foreman. The work was done from July 2 to Aug. 5, 1907, the weather being MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1807 hot and sultry, the thermometer ranging from 85 to 100, and averaging 90 in shade. The average gang was: 5.92 men at 20 cts. per hour, 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hour, and 1 waterboy at 10 cts. per hour. The cost was as follows per 100 f t. : Per 100 ft. Surveying and superintendence $ 1.000 Laying 3.580 Clearing 0.187 Hauling and distributing 1.032 Blocking to grade 1.110 Constructing bents 1.069 Anchors for U-bends 2.535 Painting 1.200 Tools 0.102 Testing 0.388 Total cost of laying $12.203 Cost of pipe 76.400 Grand total cost $88.603 The total cost per foot, exclusive cost of pipe, was thus 12.2 cts., and including cost of pipe 88.6 cts. The following notes explain the work included in the various items : Clearing. Removing small brush for a width of 10 ft. Hauling. Includes 12 U-bends, which cost $1 each to haul ; teams and drivers, 30 cts. per hour ; laborers, 20 cts. per hour, and fore- man, 30 cts. per hour. Bent Construction. Includes carpenter work only on about 80 bents of 4 x 6-in. stuff, spaced 30 ft. apart and ranging in height from I ft. to 16 ft, averaging 6 ft. high. Anchors for U-Bends. Includes 12 piers at $15 each, including bolts and clamps. Painting. Same as for 6-in. pipe. Testing. Includes laying and connecting 200 ft. of 4-in. pipe to pump line. Tested to 110 Ibs. hydraulic pressure. Leaks developed in two tees in line and these were repaired, line tested again and found tight. The pipe cost $76 per ton (100 ft.) f. o. b. McKees- port, and the freight to Flat River was 40 cts. per ton. Cost of Maintaining Teams I have maintained teams at the fol- lowing cost per month per team of two horses : % ton of hay, at $10 $ 5.00 30 bu. oats, at 35 cts 10.50 Straw for bedding 1.00 Shoeing and medicine 2.00 Total $18.50 A generation ago there were 2,000 horses used on the Brooklyn street railways. The cost of feeding each horse was $10 a month, and the depreciation in value of each horse was 25% per annum. Contract work is not so severe as street car work ; still the annual depreciation is probably not less than 15%. A team, wagon and harness costing $300 should be charged with about $60 per annum for -interest and depreciation. When the team is work- ing it must be fed oats, when not working it can be fed on hay at half the usual cost. 1808 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The following gives the average feed of horses and mules used by the H. C. Frick Coke Co., extending over a period of 6 years: 500 Ibs. of hay, 7 bus. of oats, 4 2/5 bus. of corn on the ear per head per month. The daily feed of each animal was two feeds of corn, 13 ears to the feed (70 Ibs. per bu.), one 6-qt. feed of oats, and about 16% Ibs. of hay. Each animal averaged about 13 miles trav- eled per day underground, 15 miles being the maximum 10-hr, day's work. It is not ordinarily possible to get more than 180 days of work per annum out of a contractor's team in the North, and very frequently much less. We may, therefore, say that $1.50 for each day actually worked by the team will cover its feed, interest and depreciation, for the year. If the driver is paid only while at work, then his $1.50 added to that of the team makes $3 a day for each day worked. The cost of feeding 25 horses at work building roads near San Francisco, for a period of 12 mos., was as follows, per horse p'er day : 28 Ibs. wheat hay, at $15.50 per ton $0.215 12 Ibs. rolled barley, at $24.10 per ton 0.150 1% Ibs. oats, at $27.40 per ton 0.020 % lb. bran, at $21.20 per ton. . 0.003 1% Ibs. straw bedding, at $13.80 per ton 0.009 Wages, 1 stableman ($775 for year), and hauling forage ($281 for year) 0.113 Total per horse per day $0.510 The above shows a consumption of nearly 42 Ibs. of feed per horse per day, which seems large, but is not excessive for heavy draft horses working daily. A conservative estimate of the food waste is 5%. A four-horse team averaged 16% miles traveled per day over fair macadam roads with" some 5% grades. The load was 3 short tons, plus the 0.65-ton wagon ; and the haul, one way, was % to 1 mile. Cost of Horse Maintenance.* In a report to the Street Cleaning Department of Boston, Mass., Mr. Richard T. Fox, Sanitary Ex- pert, Chicago, 111., gives some figures as to the stable and yard ex- penses of that department for 1906. The following matter has been taken from that report. The street cleaning department owns 128 horses, which are used for driving purposes for machine sweeping and the removal of street dirt. Of these horses 95 are maintained directly by the department and 33 are boarded by the Sanitary De- partment. The net cost in 1906 for rent, repairs, shoeing, veterin- ary services, medicines and feed for the 128 horses amounted to $66,283. The cost per horse per year is therefore $517.83 or $43.15 per month. As a comparison Mr. Fox found that the S. S. Pierce & Co., wholesale grocers of Boston, paid $27.65 per horse per month for maintenance, the cost including shoeing, veterinary service and boarding in a public stable. Mr. Fox considers that $19 per month is a fair average yearly price per horse, if maintained at private * Engineering-Contracting, Nov. 13, 1907. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1809 fcxpense. The horse shoeing bill for the Street Cleaning Department amounted to $33.43 per year per horse or $2.78 per month. The veterinary services and medicine amounted to $17.97 per horse per year. In comparison with this Mr. Fox found that S. S. Pierce & Co. pay a little less than $12 per year for veterinary service and medicine; the Boston Fire Department pays $12 per year per horse, and the Knickerbocker Ice Co., Chicago, 111., pays $5 per year per horse. Cost of Maintaining Horses, New York City.* A report made by the Parsons-Herring- Whinery Commission on the cost of municipal street cleaning contains data on horse maintenance, of which the following is a brief summary. The cost of maintaining each of 1,174 horses for one year (1906) in Manhattan and The Bronx was: Stable rental $ 41.44 Labor at stables (hostlers at $720 yr.) 237.00 Feed and bedding 171.00 Shoeing 18.36 Veterinary 5.63 Total, at $1.30 per day (365 days) $473.43 The commission states that private corporations in New York City pay about $330 per year per horse for the same maintenance that costs the city $473. Feed for Street Car Horses. The daily mileage of street car horses, working in teams, is 15 miles traveled in 3 hrs. In cool Weather this mileage may be covered in one trip, but in summer the time should be divided. For this sort of work a horse weighing about 1,100 Ibs. is best. A weekly report of feed should show. Used during - week. On hand. Hay Straw Corn ........ Oats Bran Salt Proportion of feeding Average number of horses Pounds of hay and meal per horse Remarks Required during week In Brooklyn the old horse car companies prescribed the following feed per horse : In summer, 15 Ibs. of mixed grain ground (5 Ibs. corn, 10 Ibs. oats). In winter, 10 Ibs. corn and 5 Ibs. oats. About 15 Ibs. of cut hay moistened and mixed with the meal. About 4 Ibs. of cattle salt to each 100 horses. Hours for feeding, 5 :30 and 10 a. m. and 4 p. m. Quantities at each feed, 10.8 and 12 Ibs. respectively. Road mileage, 16 miles per day; rest Sunday. Average working life (based on 20 years experience) 7 years. * Engineering-Contracting, May 20, 1908. 1810 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. In Providence, R. I., about 35 Ibs. of straw for bedding required per horse per month. Horses in groups of 16 under the care of bne stable man, who also harnesses them. Cost of Maintaining Farm Horses and of Raising Hay and Oats in Minnesota.* The following data should be of value both to the highway engineer, for estimating the cost of hauling, and to the contractor who may wish to raise feed for his horses. The data have been abstracted from bulletins Nos. 48 and 73 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled "The Cost of Producing Minne- sota Farm Products." The bulletins contain very complete sum- maries of the results of careful investigations during the years 1902 and 1907 inclusive, covering about 70 farms in five counties "of Minnesota. These bulletins mark the beginning of the scientific application of cost analysis to farming, and, so far as we know, are the only records of their kind in print. The first step in ascertaining the cost of producing crops is to determine the cost of a horse hour and of a man hour. To do this the "route statisticians" (assisted by the farmers) kept accurate records of the number of hours that each horse was actually worked each day, as well as the number of hours worked by each man. For the purpose of condensing the results, while at the same time giving the data in considerable detail, we have selected the records of Rice county, where 24 farms of about 170 acres each were recorded. There were 5.4 work horses (not including colts or driving .horses) per farm. The time of the farm owner was counted as being of no more value than of his hired men. The following is the average number of hours worked per day during the years 1902 to 1907, including the time of the farm owner: Week Days. Sunday. Man. Horse. Man. January 6.80 1.16 4.85 February 6.62 1.14 4.80 March 7.57 1.34 4.63 April 9.88 4.54 4.02 May 9.03 4.00 3.46 June . 9.64 3.11 3.11 July 9.32 3.44 2.82 August 10.25 4.78 2.66 September 11.03 4.07 2.93 October 9.56 3.86 2.84 November 9.08 3.05 3.55 December 7.29 1.55 4.57 Average 8.94 3.03 3.64 On 20 farms in Lyon county (averaging 250 acres each) there were 6.8 work horses per farm; and on 18 farms in Norman county (averaging 210 acres each) there were 7 work horses per farm ; and the average number of hours worked was as follows : Lyon. Norman. Per week day per man 8.66 8.10 Per week day per horse 3.29 Per Sunday per man 3.05 2.76 ^Engineering-Contracting, June 2, 1909. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1811 It would appear that the Sunday work consisted mainly in caring for the stock and milking the cows. There were about 12 milch cows per farm. If the 3.64 hours of Sunday work represents the average daily time spent caring for the stock, etc., it would seem that this accounts in large measure for the small number of hours worked daily by each horse. Nevertheless, there is a surprising loss of horse time. According to the bulletins, this is in part due to the practice on many farms of having from "one to three unnecessary horses," kept "mainly that they may be available during a few days when the crops were being harvested." In round numbers, we may say that each horse averaged only 1,000 hrs. worked per year, which is equivalent to 100 days of 10 hrs. each. The cost of feeding horses averaged $65 per year (1905-1907) in Rice county, $55 in Lyon county, and $43 in Norman county. The detailed cost of the feed in Rice county was as follows per horse during 1905 to 1907 : Grain for 4 winter mos., 1,477 Ibs. at 0.7 ct $10.38 Hay for 4 winter mos., 1,924 Ibs. at 0.27 ct 5.34 Grain for 8 active mos., 3,736 Ibs. at 0.88 ct 33.05 Hay for 8 active mos., 5,149 Ibs. at 0.31 ct 16.21 Total, 12,290 Ibs $64.98 The prices for grain and hay were the local market prices less the cost of hauling from the farm to the market. The grain was oats, barley and corn, weighing 32, 48 and 56 Ibs. per bushel, respectively. Oats at 0.88 ct. per Ib. is therefore equivalent to 27% cts. per bushel. During the years 1905 to 1907, the average farm prices of farm products throughout Minnesota were as follows : Oats, 31 cts. ; barley, 45 cts. ; corn, 39 cts. ; hay, $6.27. " The feed per horse per day was as follows in Rice county : Winter Active season. season. Lbs. Lbs. Grain 12.1 * 15.4 Hay 15.8 21.2 Total 27.9 36.6 No account was kept of pasturage nor of any straw fed to horses. It is not clear whether the lower price (0.7 ct. per Ib.) for grain in the winter season was due to feeding corn instead of oats, or not. It should be noted that the feed during the winter season cost $3.93 per horse per month as compared with $6.18 per month during the active season. In Norman county the cost of feed was much lower, due to the practice of feeding, very largely with straw in the winter months. The extent to which this was done is well shown by the following records per horse per day in Norman county : Winter Active season. season. Lbs. Lbs. Grain 6.0 11.4 Hay 6.4 23.4 Total . . 12.4 34.8 1812 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The average annual cost of maintaining a horse in Rice county was estimated as follows : Average for For 1904 to 1907. 1907. Interest on horse at 5% on de- preciated value $5.54 $ 6.74 Depreciation (too low) 5.56 4.35 Harness depreciation 2.10 1.39 Shoeing 1.42 1.46 Feed 63.49 75.03 Labor 11.88 15.01 Miscellaneous 0.40 9.29 Total .$90.40 $104.27 Thei item of interest is estimated on the average depreciated value of the horse; thus a horse worth $220 in its prime (4 yrs. old), has a working life of 10 to 15 years, and at the end of that time is worth nothing, hence the interest is estimated on its average depreciated value of $110. The bulletin states that the annual depreciation of $5.56 is too low for an average, and is due to the fact that the increase in the market prices of horses has offset largely the actual depreciation. This method of accounting is fallacious, for fluctuating market values should not be allowed to affect the depreciation charged off annually, for this depreciation charge is really a sinking fund charge intended to return the original investment at the end of the life of the animal. If a $150 horse has an average working life of 10 years, $15 should be charged off each year for depreciation, which is $9.44 more than the average depreciation charge above given. An item that has been entirely omitted is the cost of shelter- ing. The bulletin estimates this item at about $6 a year for each cow, which covers its pro rata share of interest, insurance, de- preciation and repairs on a barn costing $80 per head housed. If we add the $9.44 and the $6 to the $90.40 above given, we have a total of $105 as the average cost of maintaining a horse during 1904 to 1907. The corresponding cost for 1907 would be nearly $120. Hence, on the basis of 1,000 hours worked annually, the cost of maintenance was 12 cts. per horse per hour in Rice county in 1907. Including cost of housing and a fair allowance for de- preciation, there was no county where the average annual cost of maintenance fell below $100 per horse in 1907. Regarding the assumed depreciation of 10 per cent per year, the bulletin says: "The experience of many farmers would incidate that the average working life of a farm horse is ten years." It will be remembered that the feed was charged at its market value less the cost of hauling to market. Strictly speaking this is not correct, but the feed should be charged at its actual cost of production. This cost will next be considered, but, before doing so, it is desirable to record the cost of hired farm labor in Minnesota. The average monthly cost wage during the "crop season" (8 mos. April 1 to Nov. 31) was $26.16 in Rice county during 1905 to MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1813 1907, to which must be added the cost of board, which was $14.36, making a total of $40.50. During the four winter months (Dec. 1 to Mar. 31), the cash wage was $15.80. This makes an average wage, including board, of $37 per month throughout the year, or $444 for the year. As above given, the total number of hours worked per man, including Sundays, was nearly 3,000 hrs. per year. Hence the cost of regular hired farm labor was nearly 15 cts. per hr. in Rice county. The average for the three counties was 12 cts. per hr. In 1907, the cost of board was $2 more per month than the average of the years 1905 to 1907 in Rice county. In addition to the regular hired men on each farm ; a number of men are employed by the day during the active season, and in 1907, these men received 20 to 25 cts. per hr. including board. Unfortunately no record is given of the percentage of men thus employed by the day, so that it is impossible to state accurately what was the average wage paid to all men, including both classes. With wages of regular hired men at 15 cts. 'per hr. worked, and cost of horses at 12 cts. per hr. worked, the cost of team and driver was 39 cts. per hr. in Rice county in 1907, and in no county was it less than 30 cts. It may fairly be assumed to have averaged (in all counties) at least 35 cts. per hr. worked in 1907. If men hired by the day were employed as drivers, the cost was 40 to 45 cts. per hr. for team and driver. These data dispose of Prof. Ira O. Baker's contention that team time on a farm is worth only a fraction of the ordinary rates at which teams are usually hired. As above stated, the cost of board in Rice county averaged $14.36 per month per man in 1907, or $172 per year, or 47 cts. per day. It is not given in detail for any particular county, but the following are typical examples of the daily cost of board on, two farms in 1905: No. 1. No. 2. Pood $0.181 $0.190 Fuel and light 0.041 0.027 Labor (woman at $20 per mo.) 0.171 0.120 Labor (man at about $35 per mo.) 0.019 0.012 Total $0.412 $0.349 The higher cost on farm No. 1 is due to the fact that the average number of men boarded was only 3 l / 2 as compared with 5 on farm No. 2, thus increasing the daily cost of the labor of household work charged to each man's board. The cost of producing various crops is given in the bulletin, but unfortunately only the average cost for the period of 1902 to 1907 is given, and not the cost for 1907 also, for wages and prices were considerably higher in 1907, and seem likely to remain so. The costs are given in terms of the acre as the unit, but, as the average amount of product per acre is also given, we can arrive at the cost per bushel or ton. Interest on the land, at 5 1814 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. per cent, is properly included as a part of the cost. The following is the average cost per acre of hay in Rice county : Per acre. Seed SO 293 Mowing (first crop) 0.368 Raking (first crop) 0.178 , Cocking and spreading (first crop) 0.199 Hauling to barn (first crop) 1.099 Mowing (second crop) 0.264 Raking (second crop) o!l!5 Cocking and spreading (second crop) 0.150 Hauling to barn (second crop) 0.460 Machinery, interest, deprec. and repairs 0.548 Land rental ($70 at 5%) 3.500 Total $7.178 The cost of the seed per acre was determined thus : 8 Ibs. timothy at 3 cts $0.24 4 Ibs. clover at 16 cts 0.64 Seed for 3 yrs. at $0.293 per year $0.88 To the above total of $7.18 per acre should be added about $1 for general expense, according to the bulletin, which would give a grand total of $8.18 per acre of hay. The average yearly produc- tion of hay (two crops) was 2.25 tons per acre in Rice county, hence the cost was $3.64 per ton. The average for three counties was 1.85 tons per acre, hence it is safe to say that the cost averaged not far from $4 per ton. It will be noted that there is no item for plowing, the reason being that the hay seed is sown with the grain crop against which the full cost of plowing, etc., is charged. It may well be questioned whether this is correct accounting. The cost of plowing is $1.25 per acre. The average farm price for hay in Minnesota was $6.05 per ton during the period of 1902 to 1907. The cost of producing oats in Rice county during 1902 to 1907 averaged as follows: Per acre. Seed $0.997 Cleaning seed 0.023 Plowing (in the fall) 1.256 Dragging 0.285 Seeding 0.261 Cutting 0.401 Twine 0.335 Shocking 0.165 Stacking 0.772 Stack thrashing (labor) 0.568 Thrashing (cash cost) 0.774 Machinery, interest, deprec. and repairs 0.517 Land rental ($70 at 5 % ) 3.500 Total $9.854 To this should be added about $1 for general expense, making a grand total of $10.85 per acre. The average production in Rice county was 41 bu. per acre; hence the cost was nearly 26% cts. per bushel. The average price of oats in Minnesota was 29.2 cts. per bushel during 1902 to 1907. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1815 The bulletin does not give the average wage paid during 1902 to 1907, but it gives enough data to enable us to say that it was about 1214 cts. per hr. worked, including board. The cost of a horse averaged about 8 cts. per hr. worked, during the same period, on the basis of depreciation assumed (which was confessedly too low) and without any allowance for cost of shelter. But, making proper allowance for depreciation and shelter, the cost of a horse was about 9 cts. per hr. worked. It is clear, therefore, that a team and driver cost more than 30 cts. per hr. worked, during the period of 1902 to 1907. It should be noted that the farm owner's time was counted the same as an ordinary farm workman, which, as above stated, was 12% cts. per hr. Obviously this is a questionable procedure. The farm owner is really a superintendent, even though he works with his men, and he is of a grade of intelligence that would command much higher payv than an ordinary workman. The farm owner really gets his pay in the form of "profits." If proper allowance is made for "supervision," it is evident that the costs above given will be considerably increased probably by at least 10 per cent. The permanent value of the data in these bulletins would be much greater were the averages made into a sort of composite picture, giving a typical average farm organization thus: 1 farm-owner. 3 regular hired men. 2 extra men (4 extra for 6 mos.). 5 work horses. 1 woman, household work. Then the average farm "plant" should be listed, giving prices of ach item, including buildings and land, cows, sheep, hogs, etc. Then the total annual product should be itemized, giving actual unit costs per bushel, pound, ton, etc. Then should follow the unit costs per acre, and these should be tabulated so as to show the amount of work on each item, thus : Per acre. Plowing: 1 team and driver, 4 hrs. at 30 cts $1.20 Dragging: 1 team and driver, iy 2 hrs. at 30 cts... 0.45 This should be followed by the number of units produced per acre. The information in these bulletins is excellent, but is not arranged as above indicated, and, therefore, any item of cost on any given farm cannot be compared with another except in terms of dollars and cents, which is often very misleading due to differences in rates of wages. In brief, farm costs should be recorded exactly like engineering construction costs, giving the organization of the working forces, rates of wages, prices of plant, number of hours (or days) of work at stated prices are required to perform each item of work. When recorded in this manner, accurate comparisons are readily made, and correct conclusions drawn. By way of comparison we add some data taken from the "Encyclopedia Brittanica," under the head of Agriculture. There it is stated that during the 30 weeks of active season on the farm. 1816 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. each horse is fed 16 Ibs. of oats and 24 Ibs. of hay per day. The annual cost of maintaining a farm horse is estimated thus: 30 weeks' feed (active season) "at $2.75 $ 82.50 22 weeks' feed (inactive season), clover, at $1.25 27.50 Total feed $110.00 Interest, $200 at 5% 10.00 Depreciation, etc., $200 at 12 y 2 % 25.00 Total annual cost $145.00 The $200 includes not only the cost of the horse, but its pro rata of farm implements. There was about 1 horse for every 30 acres of farm. It is stated that unmanured land yields (in 1873) 16 bushels of wheat per acre, but that the application of 400 Ibs. of guano per acre doubles the yield. In 1873 the average yield in England was 27 bushels of wheat (63 Ibs. per bu.) per acre, an increase of 14 per cent over what it had been 80 years before. The present yield (1909) is about 32 bu. of wheat per acre in England. In 1873 the following were regarded as being "good crops" per acre: 1 ton (2,240 Ibs.) of grain plus 2 tons straw. 1 ton of beans plus 1^ tons straw. 8 tons potatoes. 17 tons beets or turnips. 35 tons cabbage. Cost of Maintaining Mules. Mr. Chas. E. Bowen gives the fol- lowing data as to costs in 1906 in Alabama. A first class mule costs $200. Its useful life is 6 years, at the end of which it will bring $50. The average cost of maintenance in 7 mines was as follows per mule per calendar day: Food $0.30 Stableman 0.05 Interest and depreciation 0.10 Total $0^5 The daily ration was as follows : Lbs. Hay 10 Grain 16 Total 26 The U. S. army ration is 14 Ibs. of hay and 9 Ibs. of grain for a mule, and 14 Ibs. of hay and 12 Ibs. of grain *or a horse. Due to holidays, Sundays, etc., about 276 days in the year are worked in the mines, hence if all the mules worked the cost would be 60 cts. per mule per day worked. However, about 10% are idle, due to sickness, etc., so that the actual cost per working animal per day is 66 cts., to which must be added 4 cts. for shoeing and harness, making a total of 70 cts., not including any allowance far stable rental. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1817 Mr. E. Hogg says that a mule weighing 1,000 to 1,100 Ibs. eats 12 Ibs. of grain and 15 Ibs. of the best hay per day. He feeds % cracked corn and % oats, and gives bran twice a week. Shipping Contractors' Horses in Cars.* We understand that in the northwest the railroads receive from 14 to 16 horses to be shipped in a stock car, charging the minimum shipping weight, 28,000 Ibs., or an average per horse of 2,000 Ibs. A 30,000-lbs. capacity car, 30 ft. long, would accommodate this number of horses giving them each about 2 ft. of space. In the south the writer has been accustomed to ship 20 mules in a car paying for the actual weight of the mules. The length of the car would vary from 30 to 33 ft., thus giving a little over IMs ft. of space to a mule. In a 36-ft. car 21 or 22 mules could be shipped. In a palace stock car ranging in length from 54 to 57 ft., the writer has shipped 30 mules, thus giving a space of about 1.8 ft. per mule. A few horses were generally shipped with the mules, but horses cannot be crowded as much as mules can, and at times a separate stall must be built for a valuable horse to keep the mules from crowding or injuring it. In loading mules into a car a well broken horse is frequently a great help, as mules will follow horses as a rule, and by leading in the horse, several mules can be taken into the car right behind him. Unless shipped in palace stock cars, animals must be unloaded on a long journey once every 24 hours, so as to be fed and watered. The help of a horse in taking the mules in and out of a car is of great assistance, and saves much time. Railroad companies allow at least one care-taker to accompany a shipment of horses or mules, and he is a busy man when the time arrives for feeding the stock. Hauling Heavy Machinery on Wagons. In hauling cement and coal to the Spiers Falls Dam from Glens Falls, N. Y., I found the average load was 2 net tons per team of horses. The loads ranged from 3,500 to 4,500 Ibs. The haul was 9 miles, one way, and a round trip constituted a day's work. Teamsters were paid by the ton. The road was sandy, but level, except for about half a mile at the end. Two teams were hitched onto a wagon to pull up this hill at the end. Some very heavy pieces of machinery were hauled on wagons. One piece of machinery weighing 14 tons was slung between two heavy timber beams whose ends rested on bolsters on the wagons. Thus the piece of machinery was really slung between two wagons, one wagon in front and one behind. In order to steer the rear wagon a simple steering gear was made, very much like the steering device for controlling the rudder of a ship. It consisted of a pilot wheel mounted at the forward end of the rear wagon, and a drum from which two ropes passed around pulleys to fie stub tongue of the wagon. One man could thus steer the front wheels Engineering-Contracting, Sept. 25, 1907. 1818 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. of the rear wagon. With 12 horses this 14-ton load was hauled aver the sandy road. A heavier load, 28 tons, was not loaded on wagons, but was hauled on rollers, a temporary timber way being laid in front of the rollers, as in house moving. It took 12 teams 9 days to haul this load the 9 miles. Handling Teams With a Jerk Line.* Mr. W. A. Gillette is author of the following: I have been especially impressed with the difference between the extreme West and East in handling teams. When I did con- struction work in the East, I did as Easteners do, namely, sub- mitted to the dictation of teamsters in the determination of each driver to drive his own team. Consequently, when we wanted to use three or four teams on a road grader or plow, three or four teamsters walked along, not driving but "herding" the teams. Once in a while we could find a man who could drive four horses, but not often ; and, when he knew how, he wouldn't do it. Consider what it means to a contractor to have three extra drivers on a plow, drawn by four teams and two extra drivers on a road grader drawn by three teams. It is just as ridiculous as having two men loading wheel scrapers. Five extra men on an outfit as mentioned above means $7.50 a day, drivers' wages being $1.50 a day. In the West we use one driver for one, two, three, four, five or more teams, and these drivers will handle three, four or more teams with one rein or jerk line with as much ease as the ordinary driver handles one team. It is a comparatively simple matter to train these teams to respond to a jerk line, and to the shout of "gee" or "haw." For the benefit of those who do not know how to hitch a jerk line, I will explain. It is customary to use a strong braided clothes line. This line reaches from the "nigh" wheel animal to the "nigh" lead animal, and is fastened to the left hand side of the bit ; from this main line a short piece of the line passes under the jaw to the right side of the bit, making a "Y." Fastened to the names on the right side of the "nigh" lead is a "jockey stick" (a short piece of wood or iron) which reaches to a curb strap fastened to the bit of the "off" lead animal. A straight pull on the jerk line pulls the "jerk" line or "nigh" animal to the left, or "haw," and the "jockey stick" guides the "off" animal. A succession of jerks on the line causes the "nigh" or left lead animal instinctively to throw its head to the right, to escape from the jerking, and the "jockey stick" guides the "off" animal to the right also, or "gee." A little patience will teach the lead team to "gee" or "haw" if the guiding words "gee" or "haw" are shouted every time the line is used. By fastening the following teams to the double- trees of the team ahead, they will soon learn to follow the team ahead without being tied, and, as a matter of fact, it is not as handy in turning around if each team is fastened, as it does not * Engineering-Contracting, Apr. 14, 1909. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1819 permit them to cross over and out of the way of the chain while turning. When a team has been properly trained in turning to the right or "gee," for example, the teams following the lead teams will step over on the left of the draft chain and follow it around until the chain is straight for the return trip ; then each animal will cross over to his place on the right side of the chain. In all of our team work we use but one driver, no matter how many teams are hitched to the load. In the hauling of gravel, sand or broken stone we use two or three wagons in a train. The trail wagons have a short trail tongue just long enough to permit the wheels to clear about three or four feet. The economy of this method of teaming is apparent when one driver is used to handle three wagons with three teams, for the wages of two teamsters are saved. Cost of Plowing Farm Land With a Steam Traction Engine.* It is only within the last ten years or so that the feasibility of plowing with traction engines has become generally recognized. The results obtained have been very satisfactory, and when it is remembered that one man with a plowing outfit can do much more work than six or eight with horses, the advantages of this method on the large farms of the West are obvious. Some data on the cost of steam plowing taken from letters written to the manufacturers by users of the traction engine are given below. The first piece of work for which data are given was done in Missouri last year, a 20 hp. Rumley Standard traction engine and an 8-gang 14-in. Moline steam plow being used. An average of 18 acres per day was plowed, the cost of operating per day being as follows: Total. Per acre. Engineering $ 3.00 $0.166 Water and fuel, hauled with team 2.50 0.139 Plowman 1.00 0.055 Coal 3.00 0.166 Plow sharpening, oil, etc 0.50 0.027 Total $10.00 $0.553 The next piece of work was done in North Dakota, a 30 hp. Rumley engine and Emerson 16 -in. plow being used. The cost was as follows : Per acre. Coal, at $6 per ton, 90 Ibs. per acre $0.27 Cylinder oil, at 40 cts. per gallon 0.01^4 Machine oil, at 20 cts. per gallon 0.01 Fireman, $2.50 per day 0.06^4 Water, team and man for hauling, $4 per day.. 0.10 Sharpening lays 0.01 Gear grease, 4 cts. per Ib 0.00 % Total $0.47 It will be noted that there is no allowance made for engineer in the above, the owner of the outfit probably acting as such. * Engineering-Contracting, June 16, 1909. 1820 HANDBOOK OF COST J).ITA. Charging this item up at $4.00 per day would bring the cost per acre to 57 cts. The fireman also probably acted as plowman. The outfit traveled 2*4 miles per hour, cutting IG 1 /^ ft. wide, thus averaging four acres per hour, allowing for stops. The last piece of work was also done in North Dakota, a 30 hp. Rumley plowing engine being used. The ground was stony and hilly and a disc plow with 14 discs and cutting 11 ft. wide was used for breaking the ground. An average of 16 acres of ground was broken per 12-hour day, the cost being as follows: Total. Per acre. Coal, 2,300 IDS., at $7.50 per ton $ 8.05 $0.50 . Water, team and man for hauling 4.50 0.28 Engineer 3.00 0.11 Plowman (who also fired) 2.00 0.12 Oil and incidentals 1.00 0.06 Total $18.55 $1.07 Later on this ground was put in shape for the drill at a cost of about 50 to 60 cts. per acre. To do this the traction engine was used to three sections of 21 discs cutting 18 ft. wide with a large drag and float behind. None of the above costs include interest, repairs and depreciation. Cost of Traction Engine Haulage of Ore.*wThe hauling of crude ore from its mines in Lemhi County, Idaho, to Dubois, on the Oregon Short Line Ry., a distance of 85 miles, is being done with traction engine trains by the Gilmore Lead Mining Co., Ltd., and the follow- ing statement of the method and cost of operating these trains has been furnished by Mr. Robert N. Bell, State Inspector of Mines, Boise, Idaho. Formerly, it may be noted, the hauling was done by teams at a cost of from $10 to $12 per ton. The train consists of four wagons or cars of steel and of 15 tons capacity each and a 110 hp. traction engine. The route is over a flat plain of fine gravelly soil and small sage brush, crossed by a number of creeks and irrigating ditches which are bridged. The road never gets very muddy and dries out rapidly as soon as the snow goes. There is one hill of about 10 per cent grade and three- quarters of a mile long approaching the mine ; the engine handles one loaded or four empty cars on this hill. It also sets the cars one at a time at the loading bin on a 15 per cent grade. The coal used in making the trip amounts to about 4 tons per 24 hours, and is distributed in bins at intervals along the route. Water is available about every 15 miles, for which distance the tank capacity of the front car is sufficient. The following costs of haulage are based on the records of the first trips made with the road practically in its virgin condition. A round trip took four days, working two 12-hour shifts per day and traveling 24 hours per day, with a total load of 40 tons. * Engineering-Contracting, May 29, 1907. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1821 Per shift. Per trip. Per ton. 1 engineer at $6 $ 6.00 $ 48.00 $1.20 1 fireman at $4 4.00 32.00 .80 1 swamper at $3.50 3.50 28.00 .70 Total labor $13.50 $108.00 $2.70 Coal 3.00 12.00 0.30 Grand total.. $16.50 $120.00 $~JU)0 Cost of Handling and Screening Cinders. Cinders are often used in concrete and for other purposes. The following data are given by Mr. Ernest McCullough: The cost of unloading and screening soft-coal locomotive cinders for a filter bed was as follows : The filter bed consisted of a lower layer of cinders 27 ins. thick and an upper layer 9 ins. thick. The lower layer comprised all cinders that would pass a screen of 1-in. mesh, but that would not pass a %-in. mesh. The upper 9-in. layer would pass a %-in. mesh, but not a %-in. mesh. Unscreened cinders were shipped in gondola cars holding about 32 cu. yds. each, and were unloaded near the filter bed, screened and conveyed in wheelbarrows to place. The freight on car load was about $36. In one shipment of 16 cars there were 2 cars of ashes so fine as to be rejected without screening. The others gave the following proportions : Per cent. Clinkers not passing 1-in. mesh 10 Cinders passing 1-in., but not passing %-in. mesh.. 75 Cinders passing %-in., but not passing %-in. mesh. . 5 Fine dust, under %-in 10 Tota-1 TIoO It was found that cinders in a pile exposed for two weeks to the rain and weather were so disintegrated that 33% would pass a %-in. mesh. One man, using a coal scoop, would unload 32 cu. yds. from a car in 10 hrs., and as this yielded about 24 cu. yds. of coarse screened cinders, the cost of unloading was 6 cts. per cu. yd., wages being $1.50 a day. Another man, using a scoop, would shovel the cinders upon the first (1-in.) screen at the same rate. But it took two men, using ordinary square pointed shovels, to screen through the %-in. screens, and these men screened the material twice, because it would not pass through these screens rapidly, nor at the first screening. A fair estimate of the cost of unloading and screening the coarse ('1-in. to %-in.) cinders' is as follows, the cinders being measured in place in the filter bed: Per cu. yd. Unloading cars $0.06 Coarse (1-in.) screening. 0.06 Fine (%-in.) screening twice '0.24 Wheeling and spreading in bed 0.08 Total $0.44 The freight was about $1.50 per cu. yd. of screened cinders, and the cost of loading the cars about 16 cts. more, making a grand 1822 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. total of $2.10 per cu. yd. of coarse screened cinders in place in filter beds. Since all the cost of loading, unloading and freight has been charged to the coarse cinders, the cost of the fine cinders (% to %-in.) was merely the cost of screening them twice through a %-in. screen, or 24 cts. per cu. yd. plus 8 cts. for wheeling and spreading. When these fine cinders were perfectly dry, once over the %-in. screen was enough; but, if very wet and largely dust, screening three times over the %-in. screen was necessary. Since the proportion of fine screenings (% to %-in.) was so small, it was necessary to buy a number of car loads of screenings and waste all the material over %-in. size. The freight, when charged against the fine screenings, was about $12 per cu. yd. due to the fact that not more than 3 cu. yds. of fine screenings could be obtained from a car load. An attempt was made to grind up some of the coarse screenings using a farmer's feed mill operated by horsepower. The mill would grind at the rate of 7% cu. yds. of cinders in 10 hrs., but so many iron bolts and nuts were in the cinders that the mill was continually forced to stop, and finally had to be abandoned. The specific gravity of soft coal cinders is 1.5, and the voids are frequently as high as 60%, in which case 1 cu. ft. of cinders weighs 37% Ibs. Size, Weight and Price of Expanded Metal. The following are standard sizes of expanded metal : Gage of Width of Sectional area Lbs. per Mesh. Metal. Metal. per ft. of width, sq. ft. 3-in. No. 10 5/32 in. 0.185 sq. in. 0.65 3-in. No. 10 15/64 in. 0.278 sq. in. 0.94 3-in. No. 10 5/16 in. 0.370 sq. in. 1.25 6-in. No. 4 1/4 in. 0.259 sq. in. 0.86 6-in. No. 4 3/8 in. 0.389 sq. in. 1.29 The 3-in. mesh is sold in 6 x 8-ft. sheets ; the 6-in. mesh in 5 x 8-ft. sheets ; and in both cases, 5 sheets per bundle. These are the common sizes, but expanded metal of the following meshes is also made; %-in., %-in., 1%-in., and 2-in. The mesh is measured the short way across the diamond. Expanded metal is sold by the square foot, but at prices equivalent to about 5 to 6 cts. per lb., depending upon the locality and the size of mesh. For expanded metal lath see index under "Lath, Metal." Price of Mineral Wool. Mineral wool is ordinarily made by pour- ing molten slag into water. It is largely used as a filling in hollow walls, because of its heat insulating property. I have also used it as a packing around water pipes that were exposed to the air. In carrying a pipe line across a bridge, for example, the pipe may be laid in a box and surrounded with mineral wool. A steam pipe may be jacketed in the same way. Ordinary mineral wool weighs about 12 Ibs. per cu. ft. and may be bought for about 1 ct. per lb. Cost of Sodding. Mr. Arthur Hay gives the cost of sodding a park in Illinois. The best sod shovel is a "moulder's shovel," with MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1823 a flat blade 10 ins. wide and 12 ins. long. The edge should be drawn down thin on an anvil and sharpened on a grindstone. The sod is cut through in parallel lines 14 ins. apart, with the shovel held at an angle so as to give bevel edges to the roll of sod. The sod strip is cut off square at the ends so as to make a strip about 8 ft. long (a square yard), and rolled up. One hundred of these rolls make a good wagon load, 80 being about the usual load. Sod should be cut as thin as possible, say 1% to 2 ins. thick. Sod cut thicker, with the idea of saving all the roots, never unites with the bank when laid on an earth slope. When the rolls are laid, fine earth should be sifted into any cracks between the rolls. The sod should be thoroughly soaked with water after it is laid, and tamped to expel air underneath. A good tamper, or spatter, consists of a piece of 2-in. oak plank 10 ins. wide by 18 ins. long, strengthened by cleats across the ends and with a tough wood handle 2 ins. in diameter and 4 ft. long. One end of this handle is beveled off and bolted to the plank so that when the plank lies flat on the ground the end of the handle is waist high. The following was the average cost of laying 20,000 sq. yds. of sod by day labor for the city of Springfield, 111. : Cts. per sq. yd. Cutting sod 1.6 Hauling sod 0.9 Laying sod 2.6 Watering sod ,.. . 0.6 Spatting sod 0.1 Total 5.8 Men were paid $1.50 per 8-hr, day, and the sod cutters had a theory, very difficult to contend with, that 71 sq. yds. should constitute a day's work. Average contract prices in the vicinity were 10 cts. per sq. yd. of sod in place. Seeding can be done for about $20 an acre, the cost of 80 Ibs. of seed being $10, and the cost of labor being about $10 more. On slopes gentle enough to hold the seed without washing, seed is preferable to sod on account of Ms cheapness. An acre of sod, at 6 cts. per sq. yd., would cost about $300. A Device for Cutting Soil for Sodding.* Mr. A. N. Tolman gives the following: Fig. 8 shows a sod cutter used at Sioux Falls, S. Dak. The construction is clearly shown by the illustration, but it may be well to add that the knife is curved (in plan) and pitches downward about % in. in its width of 2y 2 ins. It can be adjusted so that the sod can be cut in different thickness as required. I have not seen the cutter in use but two men and a boy with a team cut enough sod to load a slat wagon (1^4 cu. yds.) and rolled the sod and loaded the wagon in a trifle over an hour. This was so much faster than I had anticipated that I arrived on the scene only in time to find that the loaded wagon was more than the team could haul on * Engineering-Contracting, Aug. 11, 1909. 1824 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. the muddy road. As the cutter is easily and cheaply made, and evidently a great improvement on the spade, it may be of interest to your readers. Painting Data A gallon of iron oxide paint will cover 400 sq. ft. of wood surface, or 500 sq. ft. of iron surface, first coat. It requires about two-thirds as much paint for the second coat as for the first ; and half as much paint for the third coat as for the first. Further data will be found on page 558. A man, working 9 hrs. can paint (one coat) 2,000 sq. ft. of tin roof, or 1,000 sq. ft. of frame house, or 300 sq. ft. of bridge trusses. The shifting of scaffolds on house work accounts for the Fig. 8. Sod Cutter. decreased time ; and the smaller area of the surfaces of bridge trusses makes the work slower in bridge painting. Consult the index under "Painting." Cost of Painting a Tin Roof. Mr. J. M. Braxton gives the fol- lowing : An old tin roof was showing rust spots, most of the paint being worn off. The tin was first rubbed with palmetto brushes and then swept clean. The area painted was 151,000 sq. ft., requiring 563 gals, of paint for two coats, or 267 sq. ft. per gallon for the two coats. The paint was: 396 gallons raw linseed oil. 35 Ibs. dryer. 2,120 Ibs. dry oxide of iron. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1825 This mixture yielded 563 gals, of paint. Each man averaged 1,920 sq. ft., or 220 sq. yds. per day of 9 hrs. painted with one coat. It took 158 man-days to paint the roof, not including fore- man's time. Unloading Coal From Cars With a Clamshell." 1 Broken stone, sand and gravel can be unloaded from cars very cheaply with a clamshell bucket, wherever the amount to be handled warrants the use of such a plant. The following data on unloading coal may also be applied to handling other materials. At the Navy Yard at Washington, D. C., a locomotive crane, fitted with a 50--ft. boom and a 1^-cu. yd. Hayward clamshell bucket has been in use for unloading coal from cars. A description of the crane is as follows : Track gage, 4 ft. 8 % in. ; wheel base, 8 ft. ; greatest width, 9 ft. 10 in. ; maximum working radius, 30 f t. ; hoisting speed per minute, 250 f t. ; rotating speed, three revolutions per minute; traveling speed, 350 ft. per minute; capacity, one trip per minute. The machine will lift 20,000 Ibs. at a 12-ft. radius, and 7,500 Ibs. at a 30-ft. radius. The engine is a 9 x 12-in., double cylinder, double drum engine, fitted with the necessary clutches and brakes for controlling the swinging and propelling movements of the machine. The crane was manufactured by the McMyler Mfg. Co., of Cleveland, O. According to data furnished by Mr. F. E. Beatty, commandant of the Washington Navy Yard, the machine will unload approximately 400 tons of coal in eight hours. The crane used in loading coal cars from the coal bin will dip and load 48 tons in 20 minutes. In unloading a car, the bucket easily takes out three-fourths of the contents of the car. The remainder of the coal is taken into the boiler house by opening bottom run to bunkers with a chute, and thus requires no rehandling. In unloading the coal, one car is ahead of the crane, and the other behind, on the same track. The bucket takes a load, and, without stopping the swing of the boom, the coal is dropped ; then the second car is reached, and the bucket filled. Commander Beatty considers that this makes not only less work for the man handling the levers, but also increases the output by 10 to 15 per cent. A clamshell bucket is also used at the Polk street plant, Chicago, of the Western Electric Co., in handling coal from cars to storage bin. In this case, however, the bucket is operated by an electric overhead traveling crane. This machine was built by the Whiting Foundry & Equipment Co., of Harvey, 111., for the Western Electric Co. It is of the three-motor type, and has a working load capacity of 10,000 Ibs. The span, center and center of runway rails is 73 ft. 10 in. The lift (maximum vertical travel of hook) of the main hoist is 37 ft. The average travel is 50 ft. A 2-cu. yd. Hayward clamshell bucket is used. Mr. G. A. Pennod, factory enginer for the General Electric Co., states that a, 40-ton car can be unloaded in 1^ to 2 hrs., depending on the travel of the crane. From 5 to 6 cars a day, allowing for 'Engineering-Contracting, May 23, 1906. 1826 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. switching, etc., can be unloaded in a day. It takes two men to unload a car ; one man to operate the crane, and one man to shovel what coal remains in the corners of the car which the bucket, on account of its bulky nature, cannot pick up. This last operation takes about as much time as unloading with the bucket alone, that is, the bulk of the coal in a 40-ton car can be unloaded in about 45 minutes, and it takes the same length of time for one man to shovel out what remains. The time of this last operation can, of course, be reduced by putting on more men. It we assume that a man shovels coal at the rate of 4 tons per hour, it is evident that the clamshell bucket removes all the coal in a car except about 3 tons which must be shoveled out by hand. It is apparent from the two foregoing examples that a contractor need not be afraid that a clamshell bucket will not clean up a carload of broken stone sufficiently well for practical purposes. For data on handling stone with clamshells, consult the index under "Clamshell." Cost of a 28-Mile Telegraph Line.* The data to be given relate to a telegraph line 28 miles long, built in British Columbia. There were 32 poles to the mile, strung with a single No. 8 B. B. galvanized iron wire. The cost of the poles was very much less than it would be in most localities, but, since quotations on poles are readily secured, proper substitutions can be made in the following tabu- lated values for any particular case. Regarding telegraph wire, a word of explanation may be helpful. Until recently the size of wire commonly used for lines of medium length, up to 400 miles, was No. 9, weighing 305 Ibs. per mile, but No. 8 is now used more frequently. There are two grades com- monly used : The E. B. B., or "extra best best," and the B. B., or "best best." A third grade, S, or "steel," is also used for short circuits. The following are the weights of galvanized wire : Lbs. Per mile. 570 Lbs. Per ft. 0.108 Ft. Per lb. 9.2 No 7 450 0.085 11.7 No 8 . . . . 380 0.072 14.0 No 9 305 0.058 17.4 No. 10. . 250 0.047 21.2 The itemized cost of this 28-mile line was as follows: Labor: Per mile. 1.0 day, foreman at $3.50 $ 3.50 1.0 day, sub-foreman at $3.00 3.00 2.7 days, climber at $2.50 6.75 2.5 days, framer at $2.25 5.62 0.7 day, blacksmith at $2.25 1.58 4.6 days, groundman at $2.00 9.20 12.5 days total at $2.40 $29.65 * Engineering-Contracting, July 10, 1907. LUST DAI A Materials: 32 poles (25-ft.) at $1.25 $40.00 32 wooden brackets at 1 % cts 0.40 32 glass insulators at 0.4 cts 1.28 5 Ibs. nails at 2% ets 0.12 % Ib. staples at 0.3 cts 0.02 380 Ibs. No. 8 BB galv. wire at 5 cts 19.00 2 Ibs. tie wire at 3 cts 0.06 Total materials $60.88 Total labor and materials 90.53 The labor includes the cost of digging holes, erecting poles, string- ing the wire, etc. The poles were distributed by train, and the price of $1.25 per pole does not include the train service. A pole 12 ins. diameter at the butt and 7 ins. at the top, contains % cu. ft. of wood per lin. ft. Hence there are about 12% cu. ft. of timber in a 25-ft. pole. Knowing the kind of timber, it is easy to estimate the weight of poles, and consequently the freight for any given haul. If the timber weighs 40 Ibs. per cu. ft. the weight of a pole is about 500 Ibs. With 32 poles per mile, the weight is 8 tons for the poles. See page 952 for weights of poles. Cost of a Telephone Line. In Engineering-Contracting, May 27, 1908, an article by Mr. L. E. Hurtz gives in detail the methods of building an all-cable telephone plant in a suburb of a city, the popu- lation of the suburb being 3,000. The following is the summary of unit costs : Cost each. Poles, unloaded, 363 $0.07 Poles shaved (average, 30 ft. long) 0.22 Poles roofed (and a very few gains cut) 0.07% Poles hauled (average, 30 ft. long) 0.25 Poles set (average, 30 ft. long) 0.33 Poles set (average, 40 ft. long) 0.69 Poles bored for steps 0.18 Poles stepped. 0.20 Pole holes dug, average, 30 ft, pole holes 5% ft. deep 0.47 % Anchors, holes dug, 99 0.45 Anchors set, 99 0.58 X-arms fitted 0.07 X-arms distributed 0.09 X-arms put on Guys put on 1.00 Stringing and pulling messenger, per ft 0.00% Cable pulled, average 25 pr., per ft 0.00% Cable clipped (hangers put on), per hanger 0.00% Staking out line, per pole 0.10 Poles pulled and holes filled, per pole 0.65 Cable unloaded, average, 25 pr. per ft 0.00 1/5 Drops strung, per drop 1.04 Bare wire strung, per single wire per mile 2.75 Average total cost of labor and material for splicing lead cov- ered, paper insulated telephone cable : 25 pr. cable $2.86 50 pr. cable 2.95 75 pr. cable. . . : 4.40 100 pr. cable 5.75 150 pr. cable 6.22 200 pr. cable 8.37 250 pr. cable 10.00 300 Dr. cable 10.00 1828 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. Cost of Two Telephone Lines.* Two short lines were built, one 10 miles long and the other 14 miles long. The cost of the 10-mil line was as follows per mile : Labor: Per mile. 1.7 days foreman at $4.00 $ 6 80 1.7 days sub-foreman at $3.00. . . 4.0 days climbers at $2.50 ift'An 10.5 days groundmen at $2.25 . . . . 17.9 days total at $3.10 $ 55.53 28 poles at $1.50 $ 4900 28 cross arms at $0.15 28 steel pins at $0.04 28 glass insulators at $0.04 56 lag screws and washers at $0.015 o'84 305 Ibs. No. 9 galv. wire at $0.042 12 - 81 Total materials $ 62 09 Total labor and materials 117. 62 More than 90% of the poles were 25 ft. long. The rest were 30 to 40 ft. In length. The cost of the 14-mile line was as follows per mile: Labor: p er mile. 2.2 days foreman at $3.50 $ 7.70 2.2 days sub-foreman at $3.00 6 60 5.3 days climber at $2.75 14.58 11.4 days groundman at $2.25 25 64 21.5 days total at $2.54 $ 54.52 Materials: 32 poles at $1.50 . .$ 48.00 32 brackets at $0.015 048 380 Ibs. No.' 8 galv. wire, $0.042 15.96 10 Ibs. No. 9 galv. wire, $0.042 042 1% Ibs. fence staples, $0.025 0.04 32 insulators, $0.04 1.28 Total materials $ 66.18 Total labor and materials 120 70 2 telephones at $12.50 25.00 200 ft. office wire 1.40 Considering the low cost of telephone lines of this character, it is surprising that they are not more frequently built for use on con- struction work. For temporary purposes, a much cheaper kind of poles could be used. For example, a very substantial pole could be made by nailing together two 1 x 4-in. boards, so as to form a post having a T-shape cross-section. Such a pole would contain only two * Engineering-Contracting, July 24, 1907. MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1829 thirds of a foot, board measure ( % ft. B. M. ) per lineal foot of pole. At $24 per M for the boards, a pole 20 ft. long would cost 32 cts. Hence the poles would cost less than $10 per mile of line. The No. 9 wire would ordinarily cost less than $13 per mile, and $3 more would cover the cost of the remaining line materials, making a total cost of $26 per mile for materials. We have no data as to the labor of erecting such a line, but it would certainly be less than $15 per mile ; and in soil where post hole diggers could be used the cost would be considerably less. In fact, a telephone line built for $35 a mile might easily be obtained under fairly favorable condi- tions. Moreover it could be taken down and used many times on subsequent construction. Such a light pole line, however, would not stand up in severe winter weather. Life of Telephone Line Equipment.* Some time ago the city of Chicago appointed a special commission, consisting of Prof. Dugald C. Jackson, Dr. George W. Wilder and William H. Crumb, to in- vestigate matters pertaining to the telephone situation in that city. In connection with its report the commission gave the following data as to the life and depreciation of telephone equipment : 1-3 . *jj o d rt Property: g p 3 fcca-H H! PH Pn k Underground conduit, main, clay in concrete.. 50 .89 l 1 /^ Underground conduit, main, fibre, etc 20 3.72 1% Underground conduit, subsidiary 20 3.72 2 Underground cable, main 20 3.72 . . 2 Underground cable, subsidiary 15 5.38 40 2 Aerial cable 15 5.38 . . 3 Poles, including crossarms, etc 10 8.73 4% Aerial strand 12 7.05 3 M Aerial cable, terminals 12 7.05 3 Aerial wire, copper 15 5.38 70 3 Drop wires, copper 8 11.25 15 4 Subscribers' station instruments 10 8.73 5 2 Private branch exchange switchboards 8 11.25 20 2 Central office switchboards 8 11.25 20 2 Buildings, fireproof 40 1.33 1 Teams, tools, furniture, etc 4 23.92 10 Vitrified Conduit Data Vitrified conduits for carrying electric wires underground are made in single or multiple ducts. A single duct is a pipe 18 ins. long with a round or square bore ranging from 3*4 to 4 ins. diameter. Multiple ducts are made with two or more ducts in one piece. The common multiples are 2, 3, 4, 6 or 9 ducts in one piece. The lengths of the pieces are 24 or 36 ins. Ducts are sold by the duct-foot, and the present price in New York City * Engineering-Contracting, Feb. 12, 1908. 1830 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. is about 3^ cts. per duct-foot. A 6-duct multiple has 6 duct-feet per lin. ft, and its price is therefore 6 X 3^, or 21 cts. per lin. ft. of the 6-duct piece. The weight varies somewhat with different manu- facturers, but 8 Ibs. per duct foot may be used for estimating freight and haulage. I am informed by one of the large manufacturers that the 9-duct multiple is not so popular as it once was, due to loss by breakage. The outside dimensions of vitrified conduits are about as follows : Number of ducts in the piece. ..123 4 6 9 Dimensions of the piece, ins 5x5 5x9 5x13 9x9 9x13 13x13 These ducts are all square bore, 3^4 ins., square with rounded corners. Cost of Laying Electric Conduits. My own cost records for this class of work cover only two sizes of vitrified pipe conduits encased in concrete. One of these conduits was made of 4-duct pipe, each duct being 3* ins. inside diameter, the 4 ducts being baked together In one piece 18 ins. long. First a trench was dug 2 ft. 8 ins. deep and 18 ins. wide, then a bed of concrete 4 ins. thick was laid in the trench. Upon this concrete the conduit was laid, every joint being wrapped with a strip of cheap cotton cloth. Then concrete was packed on both sides of the conduit and 4 ins. thick over its top. The labor cost of laying this conduit, not including the cost of trenching and the cost of making and placing the concrete, was as follows: Two men laying the duct pipe and one helper delivering pipe from piles along the sidewalk, averaged 60 lin. ft. of 4-duct conduit laid per hour, which is equivalent to 120 ft. of single duct per hour. With wages of duct layers at 20 cts. each per hour, and helper at 15 cts. per hour the cost of laying was a trifle less than 1 ct. per lin. ft. of 4-duct conduit, or % ct. per ft. of single duct. In laying a 9-duct conduit (each piece of pipe having 9 ducts instead of 4 as above), two men laying were supplied with pipe by two helpers. This gang averaged 30 lin. ft. of 9-duct conduit per hour, at a cost of 2.3 cts. per lin. ft. of conduit, or % ct. per ft. of single duct. From this it appears that the labor cost of laying the pipe is practically the same per duct-foot, whether 4-duct or 9-duct conduit is laid. At another time, one man laying a single duct line (exclusive of trenching and concreting) averaged 66 lin. ft. per hour, at a cost of a trifle less than *4 ct. per ft. The work in all these cases was done by day labor for the company. Cost of Vitrified Conduits, Memphis, Tenn. Mr. F. G. Proutt gives the following data on electric vitrified conduit construction at Memphis, Tenn., in 1903 : The work was done by day labor, the wages of common laborers (negroes) being $1.50 per day. There were about 3,700 ft. of trenches containing 27 ducts, and 7,200 ft. of trench containing 18 ducts, besides which there were 575 ft. of MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1831 trench containing from 6 to 60 ducts, making in all 11,475 ft. of trench and 252,000 duct feet. An 18-duct conduit was made up of three 6-duct sections (no single duct sections were used), each section measuring 9x13 ins., sections being laid one on top of the other. The ducts were surrounded on all sides with concrete 3 ins. thick, making 6 ins. of concrete, 27 ins. of ducts and 30 ins. of backfill, or a trench 5*4 ft. deep for an 18-duct conduit. The width of the duct, 13 ins., plus 6 ins. for concrete, gives a trench 19 ins. wide, or about 8% cu. ft. (less than % cu. yd.) of excavation per foot of trench. The 27-duct conduit was made up of 4 multiple ducts of 6 ducts each, and one multiple of 3 ducts, laid in tiers, making the trench 6*4 ft. deep and 19 ins. wide, or about 9.4 cu. ft. per foot of trench. Roughly speaking, all the trench work averaged % cu. yd. excavation per foot of trench. All 6-duct sections were 3 ft. long, and all 3-duct sections were 2 ft. long. The executive force consisted of 1 general foreman at $3 ; 1 fore- man of pipe layers ; 1 foreman of concrete mixing gang ; 1 foreman in charge of digging for manholes ; 1 foreman in charge of back- filling and hauling away, and 1 timekeeper. There were 8 men on manholes and service boxes, 80 men trenching, concreting and pipe laying. The best day's work was 703 ft. of trench and 15,156 duct-feet. In laying the ducts, the 3 -in. concrete bottom was first placed, then 2 men in the trench laid the lower tier or run, 2 men on the bank handling the sections down by means of a rope run through one of the holes. This run was followed by a similar gang of 4 men working a few lengths back. Three dowel pins were used in each section. The joint was made with a strip of cheap canvas 5 ins. wide by 5 ft. long laid on the bottom before placing the ducts. A boy followed along, wrapping the canvas over the top joint and painting the lap with asphaltum. To cut the canvas into strips a table was made with a saw kerf in it 5 ins. from one edge and at this edge was a strip against which to push the bolt of cloth. A large butcher knife was then run through the saw kerf and cloth, cutting off a strip 5 ins. wide and the length of the bolt. This strip was wound on a reel whose circumference was 5 ft., and a cut through the cloth at the circumference made strips 5 ft. long. The concrete was mixed with "Dromedary" mixers costing about $200 each. A "Dromedary" mixer holds about % cu. yd. of con- crete, and is hauled by two horses in tandem. Half the charge of sand is shoveled in, then the cement, then the rest of the sand, and finally the stone. The door is closed and the mixer hauled about 150 ft. to the water tank and from 6 to 8 pails of water are thrown in. If the concrete must be rehandled the mixer is hauled to a dumping board 6 ft. wide by 24 ft. long, made in two 6 x 12-ft. sections. 1832 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. The cost of 252,000 duct-feet, laid in 11,475 ft. of trench, was as follows : 254,500 duct feet (1% broken), at 5% cts $13,997 45 cars of ducts unloaded, at $7.50 338 Labor trenching, backfilling, concreting and duct laying 7,745 Materials for 882 cu. yds. of 1 :4 :8 concrete,* at $5.22 4,604 32 brick manholes, j- at $115 3,680 31 manhole drains.j at $86 2,666 48 service boxes, at $30 1,520 4,300 lin. yds. canvas (5 ft. wide), at 5 cts 215 5 bbls. asphalt paint, at $30 150 40,000 dowel pins for ducts, at % ct 200 Tools 800 City water 50 Plumbers repairing water pipes 100 New sidewalks 600 Repaving city streets 1,000 City inspection 195 Engineering . 1,000 Incidentals 1,140 252,000 duct feet, at nearly 16 cts $40,000 *Each cubic yard of 1:4:8 concrete required 0.96 bbl. (a bbl. being counted as 4 cu. ft.) cement at $2.10 per bbl. ; 0.56 cu. yd. of sand at $1.25 per cu. yd. ; and 1.36 short tons of broken limestone at $2 a ton. tEach manhole was 8-sided, 5 ft. wide by 7 ft. long and 6y 2 ft. deep, inside measure, with 13-in. brick walls, a 6-in. concrete floor, and a 12-in. concrete top reinforced by old rails. There were 3,200 bricks in each manhole at $7.50 per M; there were nearly 4 cu. yds. of concrete in the bottom and top at $5.75 per cu. yd. for materials. Masons were paid $6 a day and helpers $2. The cost of excavating for and building a manhole averaged about $40. The iron rails cost $5. The cast-iron cover for each manhole weighed 1,150 Ibs. costing 1.9 cts. per Ib. JManhole drains averaged 170 ft. long of 6-in. sewer pipe, cost- ing $10 for materials and $76 for labor. Service boxes contained 325 bricks each, and were 3 ft. square inside, with 9-in. walls, and provided with cast-iron covers like the manhole cover. The designs of manholes, methods of construction and other de- tails as to this work are given in Mayer's "Telephone Construction Methods and Cost," p. 243 et seq. Cost of Brick Manholes for Electric Conduits. Square manholes were built with brick walls 12 ins. thick. The bottom of the man- hole was concrete, and the top was reinforced concrete. The fol- lowing data relate only to the brick work : Each manhole contained 4.6 cu. yds. of brick masonry, and the following gang averaged 1% days to each manhole, the day being 8 hrs. long: 2 masons, at $3.00 .. $ 6.00 3 helpers, at $1.50 4.50 Total per day $10.50 Therefore, it cost $18.35 per manhole for the labor on the brick work, which is equivalent to $4 per cu. yd. of brick masonry. Since each manhole contained 2,140 bricks, each mason averaged about 600 bricks laid per 8-hr. day. This was very slow work. It was done by day labor for a company. See Mayer's "Telephone Construction MISCELLANEOUS COST DATA 1833 Methods and Cost" for the design, methods of construction and itemized costs of several hundred brick and concrete vaults. Methods and Cost of Laying Vitrified Conduits for Electric Wires.* Considering the large amount of vitrified conduit work that is being done, there is surprisingly little in print on the cost of laying conduits for electric wires. In our issue of July 11 we gave the costs of excavation and of concrete work on the Atlantic Ave. subway work of the Long Island R. R. The concrete retaining walls of that subway contained many 'thousand feet of vitrified ducts, and we give herewith some data bearing upon the cost of hauling and laying the ducts for the electric wires. The ducts were of 'standard 3-ft. length, having an inside diameter of 3% ins. Multiple duct conduits were laid, being for the most part, 4-hole pieces. The conduits were unloaded from boats, hauled about 1% miles, and piled up ready for use. The cost of unloading, hauling and piling was 0.8 ct. per duct-foot; and, as a duct-foot weighs about 8 Ibs., this is equivalent to $1.30 per ton. Laborers received 15 cts. an hour, team and driver 45 cts. The cost of laying conduits during the year of 1903 was as follows : Duct-f t. Labor, Pay Cost per laid. days. roll. duct ft. January 1,942 10 $ 15 0.8 ct. February 1,636 9 13 0.8 ct. April 4,512 32 55 1.2 ct. May 30,653 154 254 0.8 ct. Tune 37,715 205 357 0.9 ct. July 27,893 179 288 1.0 ct. August 15,293 92 142 0.9 ct. September 14,170 '63 108 0.8 ct. October 10,037 43 74 0.7 ct Total 143,851 787 $1,316 0.9 ct. From this it appears that the cost of laying was a trifle less than 1 ct. per duct-foot, and that the average wages were $1.66 per day of 10 hrs. This is the average of the common laborers delivering ducts and the skilled men laying ducts. It required 150 bbls. of Portland cement to lay the 143,851 duct- feet, or 1 bbl. per 960 duct-feet. During the year of 1904, there were 227,600 duct-feet laid, re- quiring 240 bbls. of cement and 975 days labor. The average wages paid were $1.71 per day, and the average cost was 0.8 ct. per duct- foot for laying. During the best month, 30,700 duct-feet were laid at a cost of 0.6 ct. per duct-foot for laying, which indicates that the workmen were not very efficient during the previous months. . In our February issue we gave the itemized cost of building a sec- tion of the New York Subway, and from that article we have ab- * Engineering-Contracting, July 25, 1906. 1834 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. stracted such data as pertain to conduit construction, for the purposes of comparison, as follows : p er , t><, 1804 laying under water. . . 703 life 796, 797, 800, 801 maintenance 702 scraping 698 screw joint 1804 service 672, 687 sewer, see Sewer Pipe. taking up 679 terra cotta, see Sewer pipe. thawing water 703 wood 716, 797 wrought iron 678, 1802, 1804. Pitch (see also Tar), price. 358, 363, 366, 374, 375, 698, 1092, 1105, 1548. Plank road 993 Plant expense 43 Plant, repairs 222 Plaster 1101 cement... 767, 773, 777, 782 of Paris 1102 Plow, gang 316 Plowing 122, 320, 1815 traction engine 1819 Plug hole drilling 492 Pneumatic hammer. . .492, 1394, 1568, 1717. 1850 INDEX. Page Pole (see also Telegraph, see Telephone). concrete 596, 1437 cubic contents 951 holes 1786 price 1420 trolley 1437 weight 951 Post, concrete 596 hole 1785 life of fence 955 Potash, price 632 Portland cement, see Ce- ment. Powder (see also Dyna- mite) 256, 1211 Prices, indexing 48 Profits, per cent 47 Progress chart 107 Power, electric cars 1451 house 1405 plant 1417, 1439, 1440 1444, 1447. Puddle 788, 794, 1588, 1589 Pump, life 797 price 741, 1393, 1399 Pumping 804, 848, 854, 857 Punch card 99 Quarrying (see also Rock Excavation) 210, 492 499, 503, 506, 521, 529, 581, 594. Quicksand. 6 5 4, 828, 848, 852, 890 Rack Railway 1413 Ramming, see Concrete ramming. Rail bender 1274 brace 1274 chair 1274 Rails, life 1459, 1462 loading 1242 price 279, 1239 relaying 1249 unloading 1249 weight 1239 welding 1429, 1432 Railing, hand 1719 Railway, Section XI 1178 appraisal 1291 bridges, see Bridges. cable 1405 C. M. & St. P 1352 cost in America 1288 curvature 1462 electric. . .1414, 1416, 1438, 1440, 1786, 1835. elevated 1376, 1451 employes 1456 engineering, see Engi- neering. equipment, see Equip- ment. Fairhaven Southern. .1306 Great Northern.,1302, 1363 income 1458 logging 1290 Railway, Cont'd. Page Massachusetts 1448 Michigan 1335, 1348 mile 1287 mining 1289 Minnesota 1339 Northern Pacific. 1319, 1355 operating cable 1407 operating electric. ... 1438, 1447. operating elevated 1379 operating steam 1453 O. R. & N 1331 rack 1413 service 1456 S. F. & N 1307 street, see "Railway, electric," see Sub- way. surveys 1748 Texas 1354 trestle, see Trestle, underground, see Sub- way. valuation 1291 Washington 1291, 1374 Wash. & G. N 1308 Wisconsin 1332, 1335 Rations 1746, 1758 Red lead, price 1615 Reinforced concrete, see Concrete. Reinforcement, see Steel work reinforcement. Repairs, growth of annual. . 21 Reservoir, asphalt lining. . . 766 brick lining 766 capacity and price... 776, 796. concrete lining 766 covered, see Reservoir roof. earth 786 roof (see also Filter roof) 775, 790, 977 Retaining wall 506, 577, 1702 Riprap. . .279, 524, 788, 972, 981, 984, 985, 1374, 1536, 1588, 162*. River bank protection 1028 Riveting, see "Steelwork, riveting." Road, Section IV 258 dragging 330 dust laying 294 grading (see also Earth excava.) 331 gravel 331 macadam (see Macad- am). maintenance 293 oiling 305, 320 Petrolithic 315, 321 plank 993 plant for building. ... 215 prices 277 sand-clay 323 INDEX. 1851 Page Telford (see Telford). tractive resistance .... 121 Road machine 271, 332 Rock, hauling 202 loading 197 specific gravity 173 weight 197 Rock crushing (see also Crusher) 680 Rock excavation, Section III 171 caisson 1557 foundation 1696 measurement 182 price 278, SOA railway.... 1305, 1354, 1374 steam shovel 201, 204 subaqueous 257 subway 1384, 1390 trench.. 207, 843, 859, 865,- 858, 916. Roller (see Steam roller)... 271 asphalt 397 Rolling concrete. .- 558 earth 123, 791 stone 271 Rolling stock (see Equip- ment. ) Rolling tamper 316 Roof 1094 cement felt 1153 concrete 1165, 1166 dome 1172 Ferroinclave 1094 filter (see Filter). gravel 1092 painting 1824 shingle 1089 slate 1093 steel 1172 tin .1091 Rope 716, 1399, 1563 steel 1399 Rosin; price 226 Roundhouse 1147, 1362 Rubber boots, price.. 1399, 1614 Rubber packing, price 1613 Rubble (see also Stone ma- sonry) 1099 Rubble concrete. . .587, 590, 592, 1688. Rueping process 959, 1262 Rutger process 1262 Sal soda, price 226 Sand, amount in mortar. . . 538 cost 549 voids 542, 586 washing 550, 752, 758 Sand filter (see Filter). Sand-clay road 323, 327 Saw, cross-cut 1399 Sawing 953, 964 Scales 222, 1274, 1361 Scarifying 286, 287 Scow 987, 1608 Scraper 126 Page Scraping pipe 698 Screen 222 Screenings 266 Section house 1121 Septic tank 940 Service connections 672 Sewage disposal. .. 936, 938, 997 Sewer, Section VIII 802 blocks 920 brick 839 cement pipe.. 927, 928, 931 concrete 899 cleaning 934, 942 flushing 943 manhole (see Manhole). pipe 278, 817, 818, 820, 861, 864, 866, 926. tunnel.. 865, 881, 887, 893, 896. Shacks 1139 Shaft 876, 878, 1218 Sheet pile (see Pile). Sheeting (see Trench sheet- ing). Shield 882, 887 Shingles 1089 Shop, blacksmith 1127 car 1147 machinery 1468 railway 1352 Shoring (see French brac- ing). Shovel, price 1399 Shoveling 122 Shrubs 1064 Side track 1252 Sidewalk, brick .' .' 352 Siding 1088 Signal plant 1287 Signs 1313, 1353 Sinking fund, diagrams 797 tables 12 Slate roof 1093 Slip scraper 126 Slope wall. . .517, 739, 788, 1030, 1037, 1044. Smoke jack 1148, 1274 Smoke stack (see also Chim- ney) 222, 1720 Snow fence 1286, 1361 Snow plow 1439 Snow shed 1285 Soap, price 631 Sod 1822 Sounding 1778 Spreader, stone 270 Sprinkling, earth 123 macadam 273 roads and streets 457 wagon, price 215 Spur 1255 Square 264 Stack (see Smoke stack). Stairs 1084, 1091 Standpipe, brick casing 727 concrete 730 1852 INDEX. Page life 7y/ steel 725 Station (see Depot). Steam roller. .- 215, 271, 284 Steam shovel 134 work 201, 204, 1267 Steelwork, Section XIII 1717 bands for wood pipe. .1368 bridge (see also Bridge) 1368, 1471, 1488, 1559, 1575. bridge shop 1493 buildings. .1074, 1152, 1173 elevated ry 1376 lock 575 piling 1724 reinforcing concrete ... .546 723, 905, 909, 914, 917, 918, 1105, 1108, 1158, 1160, 1161, 1168, 1526, 1679, 1696, 1704, 1822. riveting.. .1394, 1399, 1519, 1565, 1633, 1717. standpipe 725, 726 subway 1391, 1394, 1719 tank and tower 728 Steel, cleaning 1742 corrugated 1174 expanded metal... 9 09, 1101 forms 1170 inspection 1368 lath 1101 rails (see Rails), reinforcing. .548, 620, 911, 1163. ties 1427 twisted bars 548 unloading . 1497, 1499, 1502, 1566, 1567. weight in buildings. . .1171 wire fabric 911 Stock yard : 1361 Stoker, price 741, 1444, 1445 Stone (see Rock). crushing (see Crush- er). cutting and dressing. . 485, 487, 514, 1100, 1541, 1581, 1592, 1594, 1597, 1611, 1707. hand breaking 228 hauling 268, 276 loading ,197, 267 sawing 486 settlement 179 sizes of broken 183 spreading 269 unloading.. 1592, 1597, 1907 voids 171 weight 171, 177 Stone curb 456 Stone dust, price.. 409, 414, 415, 417, 420. Stone masonry, Section V. . 475 ashlar 1100, 1574 bridge anchorage 1569, 1573. Stone Masonry, Cont'd. Page bridge, arch 493, 1654, 1658. bridge foundation 509 1557, 1578, 1592, 1593, 1595, 1611, 1612, 1618. cleaning with acid. 527, 637 culvert 1705, 1708 dam. 488, 497, 499, 510, 796 dry wall 789" excavating. .528, 1594, 1597 laying 483 lock 513 miscellaneous... 1495, 1536, 1541, 1584. mortar 480 pointing 528 retaining wall 506 riprap (see Riprap), rubble (see also Rub- ble concrete) . .502, 1099 sewer foundation '844 slope wall (see Slope wall). tunnel 1239 Stone block pavement. .279, 341, 352, 368, 378, 420. dressing old 378 excavating 376 Stop cock box 703 Store keeper, report 104 Streets, Section V 258 cleaning 459 sprinkling 457 work, prices 352 Street railway (see Railway). Structural steel (see Steel). Stump, auger 1048 blasting 1045 grubbing (see Grub- bing). puller 1045 Subway (see also Conduit). Berlin 1383 concrete 1708 Long Island 1399 New York 1384, 1387 Sub-contracts 60 Suits, oiled 1399 Superintendence 45 Superintendents, instruc- tions 61 Surfacing (see also Track surfacing) 124 Switch.. .1242, 1252, 1354, 1360, 1375. stand 1253, 1274 Switchboard 1445 Survey, charges 1745 hydrographic 1778 leveling 1776 railway 1748 topographic 1767 triangulation 1773 Sweeping machine, life 474 Sweeping street 459 Sylvester, waterproofing. 6 31, 735 INDEX. 1853 Page System, Gilbreth's 61 Tamping (see also Concrete ramming) 320 Tamping 1 roller 316 Tank, concrete 627 steel 728 track 1277 water 222, 1274 wooden 729 Tar (see also Pitch). price. . .309, 378, 698, 1092, 1548, 1608. Tar concrete 352, 1109 Tar felt, waterproofing. ... 632 Tar paper. ..594, 632, 1092, 1114, 1608. Tarring joints 358, 376 macadam 296, 309 Team (see also Hauling, see Horses). defined 121 work of 121 Telegraph line 1354, 1826 office 1127 Telephone line 1827 pole 596 Telford 279, 322, 352 Telpher 1062 Terra cotta .1103 Test holes 141 Testing, cement 793 Thawing water pipe 703 Thermit 1429 Tie 1253, 1257 asphaltic oil treatment 962 creosoting 961 life 956, 1263 making 1375 price 1266 replacing 1266 spacing 1265 steel 1427 treating 960, 1259 Tie plate 1242, 1375 Tile Drains 1796 Tile fireproof ing 1102 Timber, creosoting 961 growing tie. 1257 life 954, 1263 manufacturing 951 treating 956, 1259 unloading 1160 weight 951 Timberwork, Section IX 945 bridge deck. ... 1496, 1497, 1500, 1502, 1503, 1505, 1508, 1510, 1529, 1624, 1626. buildings. . .594, 1085, 1113 caisson 986, 1545, 1606, 1612, 1616, 1618. centers. 749, 776, 1682, 1707 cofferdam (see also Cofferdam).. .1579, 1587 crib ...575, 974, 1533, 1616 Timberwork, Cont'd. Page cord wood 1840 crib dam 504, 978 culvert 977 erecting 962 falsework. 14 93, 1495, 1501, 1506, 1519, 1531, 1532, 1533, 1536, 1560. forms. ..563, 572, 580, 583, 1156, 1160, 1162, 1177, 1680, 1704. framing 962 . grillage 1572 hauling 963 Howe truss (see "Bridge, Howe truss") loading 963 measurement 950 reservoir roof 790, 977 scow 1608 sheet piling 1513, 1598 sheeting 795, 802, 805, 831, 850, 857, 1402. snow fence 1286 snow shed 1285 trestle.. 586, 966, 1006, 1562 tunnel lining. .. 1196, 1199, 12.01, 1210, 1221, 1230. viaduct 969 Time card 114 Time keeping 91 Timing work 116 Tin roof 1091 Ton 264 Tool box 993 Tool house 1131, 1132 Torch 1399 Tower, Eiffel 1719 Track laying. . .1240, 1249, 1303, 1305, 1354, 1375, 1377, 1378, 1380, 1405, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1438. Track materials 1274 Track scales 1274 Track surfacing 1240 Track tank 1277 Traction engine 134, 1819 Tractive resistance 121, 136 Train mile 1456 service 12.43 stopping 1468 Tramway 1062 Transformer 1445 Transmission line 1446 Transportation (see also Hauling) 80 Traveler, bridge 1496, 1499, 1502, 1563, 1623, 1625. Trestle (see also Timber- work) . . .966, 1291, 1323, 1354, 1562, 1966. concrete 1655, 1686 life 954 pile 970, 971, 1002 wagon road. 970, 1001 Trolley pole (see Pole). 1854 INDEX. Page Trolley road (see Railway). Truck, timber. 1399 Truss (see Bridge). . Treating (see Timber treat- ing). Trees, planting 1063 Trench 650, 802, 1798 backfill.. 140, 825, 827, 831, 833, 837, 843, 847, 855, 858, 900. bracing (see also Trench sheeting) 900, 930 excavator... 6 51, 804, 1802 machine 805, 871 pumping.. 654, 848, 854, 857 rock 207, 859, 868, 916 sewer 782 sheeting 802, 805, 831, 850, 857, 1402. water pipe 1802 Trestle (see Timberwork). Tunnel. .1180 to 1239, 1312, 1323, 1360, 1367, 1375. Alaska Central 1203 Busk 1207 Cascade 1192 Mount Wood 1197 Mullan 1232 Peekskill 1201 Raton 1215 Stampede 1181 sewer... 865, 869, 8817887, 893, 896. Tunnel lining. . .528, 1181, 1186, 1199, 1201, 1210, 1225, 1230, 1232, 1237, 1239! Turnout (see Switch). Turntable 1278, 1325 Value, going concern. . . .39, 796 Valuation, commercial 40 physical 38 railway 1291 waterworks 796 Valve 659 Vault 689, 693, 1408 Viaduct, concrete 1686 Kinzua 1632, 1638 Marent 1631 painting 1641 Pecos 1630 steel 1620 timber . 969 Vise Vitrified sewer (see Sewer Pipe). Voids, gravel 172 sand 542 stone 171 Wages 333, 1779 Wagon . 125, 215 Wainscoting 1088 Walk (see also Cement walk). asphalt 429 Wash boring (see Boring). Washing gravel 1271 sand 550 Waste, price 226, 1614 Water, softening 766 Water crane 1151 jet 828 meter... 687, 689, 690, 797 pipe (see Pipe). station 729, 1274, 1314, 1326. tank 728 Waterproofing 631, 635 735 782, 786, 1391, 1393. Waterworks, Section VII... 641 appraisal 795 depreciation 643 operating 643 systems 643 Well 165. 253, 736 Well drill. .165, 246, 251, 253, 255 Wellhouse process 957 Wharf 1314, 1361 Wheelbarrow 124, 1399 Wheelscraper 127, 215 Willows (see Brush). Window 1090 Wire, price 1634 telegraph 1826 Wood, cutting 1840 price... 407, 414, 417, 1062, 1210, 1230. Wood block pavement. .342, 344, 352, 383, 1681. life 387 removing 383 Wood pipe 716 Yarn, price 671, 672 Zinc, chloride process 962 ' C - 27950, 487(. JZJzigt DEI UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY