John 3*..*ett .,-.,'.-. LEAYITT ^COMPANY, PUBLISHERS, Desire to call 'the attention of Physicians, Medical Students, Teachers, Parents, Scholars, and the reading public generally, to the following series of Physiologies ; as they believe them, &om the result of the examinations of the most competent authorities, to be the very best books, on those subjects, to be found at the present day in the English language. LAMBERT'S PHYSIOLOGICAL SEEIES. MULLER'S PHYSIOLOGY translated from the German with Notes and Addenda ; including every discovery in Physiology, to the latest moment, with much original matter ; by T. S. LAM- BERT, M. D. Printed on excellent paper, in the best syle, with cuts. 2 vols. 8vo., pp. 1900. Price $3. This is Muller's great work entire, and for Physicians and Medi- cal Students it is, in its present form, the best work extant. It is pub- lished in numbers, and sold at cost, at the request of the Editor, that a book of such rare value may thus come into the hands of every teacher and physician. (See Editor's Preface.) * " Nine physicians in ten of a large number consulted, have preferred that the work should be issued in numbers. *"* There will be 20 or 21 of 96 pp. each. * The first will be furnished at 25 cts., the succeeding numbers at not more than 12V cts. each. If more than 2000 are demanded, the price of the numbers succeeding the first will be less, in proportion to the demand. The second number will not there- fore appear for at least three months from the first, which can be had by safely inclos- ing 25*cts., or Post Office Stamps to that amount, and direc'.ing it to the publishers. State the ordinary residence of the person to whom it is to be sent, that he may be notified of the issue of the second number, and also please state if lie wish the first to examine, or if he wish the whole work. ' * POPULAR ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. By T. S. LAM- BERT, M. D. Elegantly illustrated by twenty-eight very instruc- tive lithographic figures, and one hundred and fifty wood en- gravings ; beautifully bound. 1 vol., large duodecimo ; with questions separate. Over 450 closely printed pages. Price $1 25. It is, without doubt, the best book now to be obtained, for higher classes of scholars, and for readers generally, and as a first book for medi- cal students, (or, it is so pronounced by physfciaus who have examined IMPORTANT WORKS. it), as it comprehends all the practical and interesting truths of Ana- tomy, Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene, and Therapeutics, which would be valued by the general reader, divested of technical terms, and pre- sented before the mind in a very attractive manner. It may also be relied on for correctness, (a most important paint in case of these sub- jects,) not only on account of its author, but because it has received the commendations of the most distinguished authority in the world, after most thorough examinations. Its utility as a class book, both as to the interesting and valuable nature of the work, and the ease with which it is taught, is abundantly testified by teachers of the first standing in the estimation of the community. PRACTICAL ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHO- LOGY; HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. By T. S, LAMBERT, M. D. Beautifully executed, with five colored plates, and one hundred illustrative engravings. 1 vol., pp. 251. Questions at bottoms of pages. Price 75 cts. The author has here attempted to meet the wishes of a large class of readers and scholars, and to present, in a simple form, the great practical truths of Physiology, and such as every one ought to know, in as condensed a form as possible, and he has succeeded most admir- ably. The subjects are treated upon an entirely new and original plan, and it is believed, will be found by many teachers, to exactly meet their wants. It also contains considerable original matter, arid of such character as to warrant its presentation to the most advanced physiological scholar, as worthy hi* perusal. fmi SBnnlt PICTORIAL PHYSIOLOGY. Pp. 96. Price 37 cts. By T. S. LAMBERT, M. D. This is for the youngest class of scholars, and intended to excite in their minds a desire to know themselves, and to study the wis- dom and greatness of the Creator, as it is exhibited in their own bodies. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY. By T. S. LAMBERT, M. D. This is now in the course of preparation. It will comprise a de- scription of home animals, and how to take care of them most profit- ably to them and to their owners. It promises to ba a work of much value and interest. NEW AND IMPORTANT WORKS* > 3 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. By T. S. LAMBERT, M. D. This will be published either as an appendix to the preceding, or in a volume by itself, as the size of the preceding shall make advisable. It will be a practical consideration of the necessities of plants, and how, and where, and when, to raise them most profitably, and will doubtless be found a work of noticeable merit. (Teachers by requesting it, post paid, can be furnished by mail with either of the above books, with the covers removed.) LAMBERT'S ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ILLUSTRATIVE PLATES. First Series, 6 ; Second Series, 12 ; Third Series, 24 (three feet by two}. BEAUTIFULLY COLORED. Price 50 cts. for the first, 25 cts. for the succeeding, or $2 for the first, S3 75 for the second, and only $6 for the third. These are not mere outline plates. Nineteen are exact copies of the French Plates of Bougery and Jacobs, the best and most beau- tiful in the world. Five are original, and believed to possess as much or more merit, than the rest ; and the whole exhibit in detail every part of the system in a superlative manner. In every respect, they are unequalled by any in this country. They can be furnished on cloth, with rollers, at ten dollars the set. The first is, however, the best way. (For Physicians there are 25 Plates in a set.) (Experiments are now being made, by which it is expected a portion of them can DC prepared in a new way. If they can, they will be offered at a still lower price.) We are aware that we have used strong language ; but from justice to the merits of the works, we have felt bound to do so ; and feel warranted that the works will bear us out, since they have received such recommendations as the following, of which a few are selected, from many of similar import. From Rev. M. Hopkins, M. D.,D. D.,'the distinguished Pres. of Williams College. WILLIAMS COLLEGE. DEAR SIR, It would give me pleasure to see your works on Phyisology widely cir- culated. It belongs to physicians to understand disease and its laws, but every man IMPORTANT WORKS. ought to have, such a knowledge of his own frame, as to be able to understand, and apply intelligently, the laws of health.. This would greatly tend to preserve health where it exists, and to prevent quackery in sickness ; and such knowledge, I think, your book well calculated to promote. Yours truly, M. HOPKINS. Extract from the Centre (Pa.) Democrat. Written by a Physician. " Every one that reads can understand, and no one can read and understand with- out being benefited, and paid many times over for his trouble and expense. It is truly a profitable book to buy, and should be in every family. A book of questions adapts it to the use of schools. There is certainly no better subject for a child to study ; and as correctness is so essential in these branches, this book is to be recommended above any other published. We are pleased to hear it is used in almost all the superior schools in our state, displacing every other work on the same subject with which it has come in contact. It is beautifully executed, being handsomely bound and elegantly illis- trated by some thirty colored lithographic figures and one hundred and fifty additional woodcuts. The following testimonials are from the highest medical authorities in our country, or indeed in the world.V From Dr. Mott, of world wide celebrity, Prof, of Surgery in New- fork University. " NEW-YORK, Dec. 12, 1849. " I have carefully looked over some parts of Dr. Lambert's volume on Anatomy and Physiology. The style is easy and perspicuous, and ft is well calculated to in- struct the medical student, and even the practitioner, by being posted up to the present time. It appears to me the author has executed his task admirably in adapting it to the general reader. VALENTINE MOTT." From Dr. Draper, Prof, of Chemistry and Physiology in New- York University, and the well-known author of several interesting and valuable works on Chemistry. " NEW- YORK, Dec. 1849. " DEAR SIR, I have examined your book on Popular Anatomy and Physiology, and have no hesitation in saying that it is very well adapted to the end you have in view, as a school book I think, too, the general reader will find in it a great deal of valuable information. The great imperfection of our modern systems of education is, that they teach us much that is of no kind of interest to us, while that which concerns us more nearly a knowledge of the structure and functions of our own bodies is neglected. I hope the introduction of your book may remove this evil. Yours truly. JOHN W. DRAPER." From Prof. J. C. Warren, one of the most eminent men in the ranks of the medical profession in this or any country. " BOSTON, Feb. 7, 1850. "DEAR SIR, Your book, entitled " Popular Anatomy and Physiology," I have ex- amined with some care, and have read sufficient to enable me to form a judgment of its design and execution. The book seems to me well adapted to the accomplishment of the object for which it is designed ; to be well written, and free from any of those objections which delicacy might present to the study of a work on anatomy. " I am with respect, your friend and servant, "J. C WARREN." NEW AND IMPORTANT WORKS. 5 The following is an extract from a long notice of the work in the Boston Medical Surgical Journal : "These thoughts have been suggested to my mind while reading a popular work on Anatomy and Physiology, by Dr. T. S- Lambert, of New- York. This work is cer- tainly the best of any thing of the kind that I have ever examined, for our higher schools and colleges, and for the general reader. Dr. L. writes with great ease and perspicuity, and as one who is intensely interested in his subject. He forgets all tech nicalities, except so far as they are absolutely necessary in elucidating the subject, but still discusses the general principles with such copiousness and clearness as to give the reader a good understanding of his own system. This work shox Id be in the pos- session and read by every one who would keep up with the intelligence >f the times. No library should be considered complete without it ; and no one should be considered as having a common school education who is not familiar with the general principles of anatomy and physiology." From Rev. W. H. Tyler, A. M., and Lady, the well known Principals of one of the best institutions in the United States. For several years, during some weeks each summer, Dr. L. has been in the habit of lecturing to the young ladies under their care, and they are therefore able to judge of the effect of his ideas, when car- ried out. In the last year's report of that Institution, it is mentioned as remark- able, that, ''for the entire year, in a family numbering more than two hundred young ladies, the physician's bill was not fifteen dollars." It surely shows a rare state of good health, and that young ladies will be benefited by physiology when properly taught. " YOUKG LADIES INSTITUTE, Pittsfield, Oct. 12, 1850." DEAR SIR, The subject of your works intimately concerns all ; and your treat- ment of it, so far as we can judge, is scientifically correct, and certainly it is new and entertaining. With our view of the value of an early acquaintance of the great laws of health, and of the pre-eminent merits of your several works, as judged from their long tried influence over a large collection of young persons, we greatly desire to see some one of them introduced, as a general text book, into every school in the country. As for yourself, by as much as prevention of disease is better than cure, so far must your reward exceed even the ample measure that is justly bestowed upon the meri- torious in your beneficent profession. Yours sincerely, W. H. TYLER, E. C.TYLER, Dr. T. S. Lambert. Principals. From Rev. Thos. M. Cann, A. M., one of the best teachers, and of one of the finest schools in Pennsylvania. " Young Ladies' Institute, Easton, Pa. " Having used Dr. Lambert's, among other works on Physiology, in my sohool, I feel prepared to give it the decided preference, because of its simplicity of arrange- ment, its beauty, ease, and clearness of diction ; and, I might say, its perfect adapta- tion to that class of minds, for which it was designed. Its freedom from technicalities, and the practical tendency of its remarks, must commend it to every teacher and general reader. THOS. M. CANN." NEW AND IMPORTANT WORKS. From James H. Coffin, Professor of Math, and Physics. " LA FAYETTE COLLEGB. " I have looked over Dr. Lambert's treatise on Anatomy and" Physiology, and ex- amined some parts of it with considerable care ; and though I do not consider mysell competent to decide upon the merits of a work of that character, I can cheerfully say, that my impression of it is favorable, and that it appears to me to be well adapted to the purpose for which it is designed. JAMES H. COFFIN." From the Carlisle Volunteer. " The most unprecedented sale which the work has found, sufficiently indicates its value. It is now (though only two months from the time of its first publication) used in most of the best schools throughout this State, having quickly displaced every other with which it has come in competition, which its evident superiority well enti- tles it to do." From the Boston Argus. "If we do not mistake, in looking over the book, we have seen some of the noblest and most improving sentiments that ever came from the pen of any man." From Robert E. Young, Esq., Editor of the "Post," and also unexperienced Teacher of Public Schools. His opinion will, therefore, be highly valued, espe- cially as it was voluntarily given, and without cause of bias. "LAMBERT'S SECOND BOOK. Practical Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology; Hygiene and Therapeutics. By T. S. LAMBERT, M. D. New- York. October, 1850. We have just been furnished with the above work, published by Leavitt & Co., New-York. It has been prepared from the Author's larger work, and expressly adapted to schools ; and we notice that notwithstanding its long, and, to the general reader, somewhat formidable title, that its divisions of the subject and the definition of its professional terms are of the simplest and most intelligent sort. Its classification of the parts of the human body is based upon a natural division of their uses palpable to the common mind, and possesses a clearness, force, and unity of arrangement that cannot but fix in the mind of the student a distinct and indelible picture of the subject treated. Its phraseology has evidently been studied with care, and rather invites than otherwise the practical examination of the student. In both of the above particulars, this book presents a striking contrast to those upon the same subjects now in use in the schools. In the earlier part of the work, questions have been adapted to the text, and all simplified to the capacity of the child ; and throughout the subject matter is ex- plained by reference to simple facts in the knowledge of all. It is illustrated with colored plates, and a numerous set of wood engravings. " And not least in a school book, the work presents a handsome binding, and a neat typographical appearance, which do credit to the publishers. We can hardly con- ceive how a work of such artistic merit can be furnished at the published price, and rather believe this a mistake. Physiology, as a study, has been already extensively introduced into the common schools ; from our experience as a teacher, we are free to say under great disadvantages from the want of a proper text-book. This difficulty is now removed, and we feel confident that no parent or teacher who becomes acquainted with this work will use any other." NEW AND IMPORTANT WORKS. 7 From Prof. Burnkam, a Teacher of experience, Principal of the English Depart- ment in the well-known Burr Seminary, and also Superintendent of Public Schools. "MANCHESTER, BURR SEMINARY, October 30, 1850. " DR. LAMBERT : " DEAR SIR, I have attentively and for practical purposes examined your books on Physiology, more particularly the Second Book, which I consider better than any with which I am acquainted, to be used as a school book, on the subjects of which it treats. The intelligent and faithful teacher cannot fail to make it an interesting and valuable branch of study. Many excellences might be named ; I will specify but one, as rare : the discriminating language in which the questions are put to the pupil. I should be pleased to have this book introduced into the schools of this town, and to hear that its use was general. I think, also, that your book will be found exceedingly interesting to the general reader, and be used with great advantage as a reference book. " Yours truly, W, A. BURNHAM." LEAVITT & CO. Also publish largely and trade extensively in every kind of School and Text Books, and all Standard Works upon the Sciences ; also, Theological, Medical, Legal, Historical, Poetical, and Miscellaneous Works, and the best class of light literature, of a moral and improving character ; also, Children's Books, Blank Books, Paper, Quills, &c. Their arrangements are such, that they can, and will, furnish teach- ers, professors, and all interested in education, at lower prices than can be found any where else. They will also supply PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES on tje same terms. In case of SCHOOL, SOCIETY, and all such Libraries as have a benevolent character, they will make the price of useful works as near as possible to the absolute cost. THEOLOGICAL LIBRARIES. They have not only unsurpassed but unequalled facilities for supplying these at low prices, and will do so. Theological, Medical, Legal, and general Students, just commenc- ing active life, and forming libraries, will have an especial allowance made to them on that account, and can obtain a greater number of the best class of assorted books, than elsewhere, for the same money. In short, a fine library at a bargain. To Merchants, they would say with the greatest confidence, that their assortment of Pictorial, Gift, School, and Children's Books, is of the most desirable character, and offers great inducements to the purchaser, both with respect to quality and price. From the opportunities LEAVITT & Co. have of obtaining all their stock, which they do not themselves publish, at the lowest rates, from their long experience, and from their determination not to be. undersold, they feel assured they can promise to give satisfaction, and all things considered, greater than can be obtained elsewhere. All good orders, from far or near, will be promptly answered, as well, and at the same prices, as if the buyer were present. They would therefore solicit those in want of any kind cf Books, either to call and examine, or to send them one trial order. Tiff. 1. Pll Fig. 3. TV? pi. PI 3. \. Fiy.Z- PI 4- PRACTICAL AIATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY; HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. BY T. S. LAMBERT, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Pittsfield (Young Ladies') Institute ; Author Of "Notes to Miiller's Physiology," "Popular Anatomy and Physiology," " Pictorial Physiology," etc. ILLUSTRATED BY FIVE COLORED PLATES AND OVER ONE HUNDRED WOOD ENGRAVINGS. NEW-YORK : LEAVITT AND COMPANY, 191 BROADWAY. 1851. ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by T. S. LAMBERT, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New- York. JOHN P. TROW, PRINTER & STEREOTTPEB, 49, 51 & 53 Ann Street TO TEACHERS, AS A TESTIMONIAL OF ESTEEM FOR THE MEMBERS OF ONE OF THE MOST USEFUL PROFESSIONS A MAN CAN ADOPT, AND TO WHICH THE HIGHEST MEED OF HONOR SHOULD BE GIVEN, AND FROM A SENSE OF DUTY TO THOSE WHOSE CARE OF MY EARLY EDUCATION BESTOWS UPON ME A DAILY BLESSING, AND WITH A HOPE THAT IT WILL SOMEWHAT LIGHTEN THE ARDUOUS LABORS OF THEIR AVOCATION, IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BY THE AUTHOR. ADDEESS TO THE READER THE following pages have been prepared at the urgent solicitation of many teachers and others. They said, to quote the language of one, "That in addition to the 'Popular Anatomy and Physiology,' the public demanded a work of smaller size, and which could of course be afforded at a still lower price, but which should at the same time contain a great deal of practical matter, and exhibit the same general principles in the same intelligible, interesting, and admirable manner. Thus a large class of scholars and readers would obtain a great amount of valuable knowledge, of which otherwise they would be denied. This alone should be an inducement." It is much more difficult to bring a "great deal of matter" into a small space, than would be thought, at first much more than to spread a little over a large space. But the unexpected success, approbation, and sale, the larger work met with, in so short a time after its publication, laid me under obligations, and gave me encouragement, to undertake the exe- cution of this. It was not thought best to make it an abridgment, which would have been very easy, but very much .lessened its value. After much study and reflection as to what course should be taken, a plan fortunately suggested itself, which was at once original, and seemed, if successfully carried out, to be exceedingly well adapted to the purpose ; which was, to convey to the mind of the reader an entire and systematic idea of what the body, and the action of its various parts were for, and what ought to be done by us to cause the dif- 54 3", 08 16 ADDRESS TO THE READER. ferent parts of it to best fulfil their duties. It was desirable to have this knowledge so presented, that the mind would understand the general principles of action that should govern us, and thus be able to apply them to the particular case in all the necessary circumstances of life in which a person is placed. In following out this plan, many new truths have been discovered, or observed in a more con- spicuous light than before. Testing these has somewhat delayed the work beyond what was promised. This will not probably be re- gretted, since some of these are so interesting, and so practically valuable, that the person who is most conversant with physiology, will find this little work to well repay him for an attentive perusal. In all respects the work will also be found to contain, or be based upon, the most recent discoveries in physiology, and the practical parts of the other branches of medical science. I believe it may also be relied on as correct in every statement of facts or inferences drawn from them. In other respects it has, I doubt not, many faults. It is hoped that the kindness of the reader will pardon them, and that he will con- sider that our best human friends have faults, on account of which many times we love them the better, as they do not seem to be more perfect than ourselves. * TO TEACHERS. I have endeavored to do all that was in my power to make the teaching of this book easy and pleasant. I feel an enthusiastic de- sire that every person should become interested in the science of physiology, it is so captivating to the mind, and so useful ; and I shall always be ready to lend any assistance to teachers that is in my power, either by answering letters of inquiry, giving lectures, or the like ; and I shall feel obliged to them if they will communicate to me any result of their experience, which they think will be useful. For such tokens of friendship as I have already received, I return my most sincere thanks. Some think the best plan of teaching this par- ADDRESS TO TEACHERS. 17 ticular branch of science, is to have, upon some or all the days in the week, a few pages read aloud before the whole school by a class, each member of which is expected to be able to answer all questions upon the lesson, while the whole school may be questioned upon the general topics and inferences. For this purpose, and for a similar exercise of a class, many questions have been put in italics. These will suggest others. The benefit of this course is, that the subject is taught as it were by lectures, and brought before every individual of the school constantly, some of whom would not, for one reason or another, obtain books and enter a class. It occupies but little time, and a great deal of good will be done, not only to the scholar, but to his parents through him. To teach a scholar, likewise, the most proper way to acquire knowledge, the topics of the books have been summed up at the close, and the last division has been left with- out questions. Either in this or any way he chooses to adopt, it is believed that the teacher will find his labor lightened by this book. Most that is desirable on his part is, that the lesson he gives be short, thoroughly acquired, often reviewed, and that the answers given by the scholar be full, and when possible, well illustrated from his own observations. It is hoped that the book will become, in your hands, an instrument of great usefulness. Yours is one of the noblest and most honest professions that can be pursued, and you are placed in a situation for doing an immense amount of good, not for this generation merely, but for many. Because its usefulness is not appreciated by the public as it should be, I know it is often not paid as it ought to be. But the remedy of the evil is partly in your own hands. For will not a parent when he finds your teachings save him money, be willing to give you a share of it 1 The good which must result from giving a child knowledge of a practical character, for in- stance, of physiology, must soon repay the teacher who has done it. That the present work will have the effect to please the scholar and satisfy the parent, and thus make the teacher more esteemed and better paid, is what I sincerely wish and believe. 18 ADDRESS TO PARENTS. TO PAKENTS. No man would think of ploughing his land with a wooden plough after the manner of the ancients, and every one would laugh even at the Indian who should endeavor to hollow out his canoe with a sharp stone, when he could readily get a fine axe, and save more than time enough to pay for it. There are improvements in science, in books, and in teaching, as well as in mechanics and farming utensils. One of the greatest of these is the introduction of physiology into schools. The cost of it is nothing compared with its profit. A poor man cannot afford to be without the knowledge it teaches. The rich man cannot en- joy his wealth without health. It is a subject of such importance, that the cost of the best books, and those which will most easily, plea- santly, and perfectly teach this department of science, is nothing com- pared with the value and importance of having them in your child's hands. Considered as a matter of dollars and cents merely, it is so. For if by an idea your child gains, it is saved a fit of sickness, will it not be money in your pocket 1 In presenting this work for your ac- ceptance, let me assure you that every effort has been made to give you a valuable consideration for the expenditure you have made for your child. Will you not be rewarded if this book shall be the means of preserving his life to you for a single year 1 Still more would you feel yourself repaid if it should be the means of saving him from a life of vice. I wish that you would attentively read the book yourself, to see if it will not have that tendency, and also that you may assist the teacher in teaching your child in learning its contents, as well also as that you may yourself become all the more interested in one of the most satisfying branches of science. That your heart may be gratified, and your parental kindness repaid for this and every other good act toward your child, by his prolonged life, pre- served health, and filial affection, is the sincere wish of the writer. ADDRESS TO SCHOLARS. 19 TO SCHOLAKS. The study you are about to commence, my dear young friends, is no task. It is one of the most delightful things in which you could engage, and will assist in making you useful to yourselves and others, and in increasing your own and others' happiness. I have endeavored to make it pleasant in every way, and I hope you will find it so. To acquire a knowledge of it thoroughly, you must take short lessons and look into them thoroughly, so as never to repeat parrot-like what you do not understand. Seek out by questioning the teacher, what you cannot learn yourself, but learn all by yourself that you can. It is very important for your credit in the world that you do this. The study you are commencing has become a very fashionable one, so to speak. A few years ago some senti- mental young lady would occasionally be found, who thought it was hardly proper for her to study the condition of the lungs and blood- vessels, as if she had not any herself. But the days of that ignorance have gone by, for it has been found that those who studied physiology were able to make themselves more beautiful and attractive than those who did not ; that a person who understood physiology could labor to better advantage, study more profitably, enjoy better health, and be more happy than one who did not. It has therefore now come to be understood, that every boy and girl ought to study physiology, and that the more they know of it the better. It is one of the studies which you will also find it easy to remember if you acquire it thoroughly as you go over it, and thus every scholar may be able to pass an excellent examination when he is called on. If you know the why and wherefore of things, you will be able to give explanations to your parents and friends, which will charm them by their truthfulness and practical utility, and cause them to commend you, and esteem your teacher. This is a study likewise which you will find of use to you almost every day and hour of your life. There are also a great many new discoveries to be made in physiology, some of which you 20 ADDRESS TO SCHOLARS. may be the person so fortunate as to make. If so, you will be doing more good for mankind in the way of relieving suffering, than could be done in any other way, and. at the same time, give to yourselves an imperishable and worthy name among men. It is a study also which more than any other I believe will exhibit to you the goodness and wisdom of the Creator, and teach you to raise your minds in appro- priate adoration to him who governs the universe by such perfect and unerring laws. Thus on every account you may think it fortunate that you have been led to take up a study, which, if you pursue with avidity and thoroughness, you will never have cause to regret. NEW-YORK, October, 1850. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Body compared to a piece of machinery Meaning of Anatomy, Physiology, Hy- giene, Pathology, Therapeutics, Materia Medica Course to be pursued in the Work Objects to be gained . . . . .27 PAET I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM. DIVISION I. FIRST CLASS OP ORGANS. BOOK I. THE MIND AND ORGANS WITH WHICH TO THINK. The Mind The Brain ....... 31 BOOK H. ORGANS USED IN FEELING. Brains, Nerves, and Organs of Sense .... 36 BOOK III. ORGANS USED IN PRODUCING VOLUNTARY MOTION. Brain Nerves Muscles Tendons Bones Cartilages Ligaments, &c. . 40 22 CONTENTS. DIVISION II. THE SECOND CLASS OF ORGANS. BOOK I. FIRST GRAND DUTY EXCRETION. Systemic Veins Right Heart Pulmonary Arteries Pulmonary Veins Left Heart Systemic Arteries Lungs Kidneys Skin Liver Second Stomach and Colon Organic Nervous System . . . . .51 BOOK II. SECOND GRAND DUTY NUTRITION. Nourishment Cooking The Mouth The Stomach The Second Stomach The Pancreas The Liver The Lacteals The Hearts, Arteries, and Veins The Organic Nervous System . . . . .69 BOOK m. THIRD GRAND DUTY TO KEEP THE BODY WARM. Production of Heat : Exercise Food Air The Lungs The Kidneys. Distri- bution of Heat: Hearts and Bloodvessels Water The Kidneys. The Preservation of Heat: Fat Clothing. Hearts and Bloodvessels Organic Nervous System . . . . . . .78 BOOK IV. FOURTH GRAND DUTY TO COOL THE BODY. Repose Want of Food and Air Water The Skin Hearts and Bloodvessels- Organic Nervous System . . . . . .88 PART II. PARTICULAR DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM. DIVISION I. FIRST CLASS OF ORGANS. BOOK I. ORGANS OF VOLUNTARY MOTION. The Bones Cartilages Ligaments The Muscles Tendons Fasciae Bursae Cellular Tissue Fat Nerves Brain 96 CONTENTS. 23 BOOK II. ORGANS OF SENSATION. Internal Organs. The Skin The Muscles Sense of Taste and of Smell The Eye The Ear Nerves Brain The Mind . . . .162 BOOK III. ORGANS OF THOUGHT. The Brain The Mind . . . . . . .192 DIVISION II. SECOND CLASS OF ORGANS. BOOK I. DIGESTIVE ORGANS. General Character Quantity Times of Eating Cooking, and Temperature of Food Drink The Mouth Teeth Salivary Glands Stomach Gastric Juice -Chyme Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Liver Bile Gall Pan- creasChyle Lacteals ...... 196 BOOK II. CIRCULATORY ORGANS. Hearts Arteries Capillaries Veins ..... 225 BOOK III. RESPIRATORY ORGANS. The Luri2s Windpipe Mucous Membrane Air-cells Pulmonary Bloodves- selsParenchymaPleura Systemic Bloodvessels Nerves. Framework of Chest Pleura-Costalis. Inspiratory Muscles Expiratory Muscles Pro- cess of Breathing Air, &c. The Voice Breathing Apparatus Epiglottis Larynx Muscles of throat, tongue, lips ; the teeth . . . 233 BOOK IV. EXCRETING ORGANS. The Lungs Kidneys Liver Second Stomach Skin Clothing Bathing Cold? and Internal Congestions . . . . 251 CONCLUSION. THE ORGANIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. DESCRIPTION OF LITHOGRAPHIC PLATES. PL 1, Fig. 1. Represents the muscles and tendons as thej appear when the skin is removed, except that the external muscles are also remo^ ed from the left side ; they are shown upon the right side. The direction of the stripes shows the direction in which the muscles and parts of the muscles contract, and of course the direction in which they have a tendency to produce motion. Fig. 2. The bones of the ankle and the internal muscles of the lower part of the leg. The tendon of 84 is seen in the most beautiful manner, turning around the outer joint of the ankle and under the foot, beneath which it passes to be attached to the bole back of the great toe. Fig. 3. Back portion of the jaw, the ear ; and, 36, temporal muscle attached to a prominent point of the jaw, K. Fig. 4. Lower portion of the chest, with the front portion of the ribs removed to show the diaphragm 7, below which is seen a portion of the upper part of the abdomen, with its front wall and organs removed. 2, 3, The back lower edge of the diaphragm, the "pillars" of which are seen attached to the back-bone. The "front lower edge of the diaphragm is lower than here represented, especially at the side. PI. 2, Fig. 1. View of the external muscles of the back, except upon the left side, where the "middle" layer of muscles is brought to view. Fig. 2. Internal muscles of the back. Fig. 3., 4. Muscles and tendons beneath the foot. PI. 3, Fig. 1. Front half of the chest and abdomen removed, presenting the organs of those parts as they would appear in front, during life. They would not appear thus how- ever, when the body is opened, as they would flatten and change their position, hence it must be kept in mind that the organs are not flat, but project toward the observer, in the centre, rounding back at the sides, as the body does when viewed in front. 1, Right luns. 2, Left lung. 3, Diaphragm which arches up under the lungs, its front and lower edge being attached to the front and lower edge of the ribs as seen. 4. The liver, which lies up under the diaphragm in such a manner that if a knife should be thrust through where the dotted line from 3 terminates, the liver would be wounded. 5, Stom- ach, with arteries, represented by the little lines coming up under the lower curvature of the stomach which is represented as when distended by food. 6, Colon, where it passes across below the stomach; a white line shows one of the three longitudinal bands of muscles which contract the colon into pouches, as seen. 7, The second stomach, the commencement of which is seen in some of the woodcuts dispersed through the work. 8, From surface of a small part of the spleen, the chief part of which, when the breath is thrown out, is above and back of the part seen. 9, The base of the gall bladder which lies forward 10 the edge of the liver, the upper part being found underneath the liver, between it and the colon and stomach. Fig. 2. Ideal view of the left lung 2, cut from side to side perpendicularly through the middle. The right lung is seen contracted, as when the chest is opened. The heart is between them. The object is to convey the idea that the air inhaled passes through the windpipe and its divisions 1, 1, into air-cells, and that the blood passes into the lungs through the artery 6, from the right heart 4, and after the blood has passed round the air-cells and been acted upon by the air, comes back to the left heart 5, through the vessels 7, of which there are two, leaving the lungs. Fig. 3. A greatly magnified view of the net- work of capillary bloodvessels upon the sides of the air-cells. It is not so extensive as would in fact cover the sides of a mus- tard seed. The blood passes in through one set of vessels and passes back through an- other, as the colors exhibit. DESCRIPTION OF LITHOGRAPHIC PLATES. PL 4, Fig. 1. The red vessels represent the arteries of the entire body branching to the various parts of the system, not precisely after the manner of the arteries of tho body, but sufficiently accurate to convey a general idea. The blue vessels represent the veins. Fig. 2. R, Right heart. L, Left heart, from which the red vessels lead the blood into the capillaries C, C, of the body, from which it comes back to the right heart, pass- ing thence into R, L ; L, L, the capillaries of the lungs, thence back to L, left heart. Fig. 3. Hearts and vessels separated from each other. Fig. 4. Portal system of vessels.' 1, Spleen. 2, Pancreas. 3, Portion of duodenum. 4, Gall bladder turned up, as better* seen in woodcut. 5, Tube or duct, from the gall bladder. 6, Duct from the liver. 7, 8, Veins from the second stomach ; 9, those from the stomach, which with those from the spleen and pancreas unite to form the portal vein 10, which divides and subdivides in trie iiver. PL 5, Fig. 1. B, Candle giving off blue light. Y, Candle giving yellow light. R, Candle giving red light. In all cases the light passes from a candle in all directions, but only so many rays as would enter the opening a, are represented. Such rays passing through the opening a, fall upon the very much magnified commencing points of the nerve 1. The light from no two candles is seen to act on any of the same nerves. 2, Outer coats of the eye. 3, Pigmentum nigrum. Neither this nor any of the succeeding figures are intended to convey any correct idea of the eye, except as it respects the ac- tion of light thrown upon the nerves. Fig. 2. The light is seen passing through'a lens, by the action of which, he entire yellow light passing through the pupil a, is "made to act on one point ; the same is also true of the light from R ayi] B. Fig. 3. R, Y. B- Asjfieretofore. But in this case the lens has not acted upon tho liuhi sufficiently to cause it to act on a sinsle nerve, but the red light acts over the nerves between 4 and 45, the yellow light acts on the nerves between 5 and 7, and the blue light on the nervefe between 6 and 8 The nerves between 4 and 5. and between 7 and 8, are acted on by one kind of light only, the nerves between 5 and 6 by both red and yellow (orange), and the nerves between C and 7 by blue and yellow (green). This is the case with" long-sighted people. Mo* old people have indistinct vision from this effect being produced by trie' insufficient action of the parts through which light passes to the nerve. Fig. 4. R, Y, B, As before. In this case -the light is acted upon so powerfully that it is bent to points or foci before it reaches the nerve ; it passes the point or focus there- fore, and when it reaches the nerves, the red light acts over the space between 4 and 6, the yellow light upon the nerves between 5 and 7, the blue light on the nerves be- tween 6 and 8, and the same cause of confusion exists as in case of Fisr. 3; that it is so. is evident by bringing a thins so near to, and removing it so far from the eye, that it Ixyomes indistinct ; the sensation is similar in each case. So also when the focus of a microscope or telescope is brought toward or removed from the eye. the effect is simi- larly indistinct. This is the near-sighted eye. Fig. 5. A, B, Are two rays of different colored light passing through the hole 2, in partition 1, 1, and acting on the end of one nerve D, producing the effect of compound light. Fig. 6 A, B, Two rays of different colored light acting on two nerves, a simple effect being produced on each nerve. Fig. 7. W, a ray of white light passing through the pin-hole a, and bent upward as it is passing through the prism P. The blue light is bent the most, the yellow more than the red but not as much as the blue, while the red is bent, but less than the yellow and blue. Fig. 8. The three colors which compose white light, upon a small card. If it be whirled rapidly on a pin thrust through the centre, the light from each part, will act on the same nerves, and the card will appear white. pjg. 9. A mirror reflecting all kinds of light. Fig. 10. A black object not reflecting any light. Fig. 11, reflecting only red. Fig. 12, reflecting only yellow. Fig. 13, only blue. INTRODUCTION. 1. If a piece of machinery be put in our hands, and we be told that it is a common house clock, we at once know, that to answer its purpose, it must be placed where it can be easily seen. 2. That is to say, if we receive a general description of a machine and its uses, we learn what to do with it, that it may fulfil its duties. 3. If we be still farther told the nature of the pendulum, how, by swinging from side to side, it assists in keeping time how also the weights act in gaining the same result ; if the number and nature of the wheels be explained, how by their action they rub upon each other and soon wear out unless carefully oiled how also, the oil soon be- comes gummy and must be removed and its place resupplied with new we shall learn that the clock must be so situated that nothing shall interfere with the motions of the pendaliim or weights that the door must be kept closed to exclude the dust, &c. 4. That is to say, by learning the particular, use of each part of the clock, and how it ought to act, and how and of what it is made, we learn how to treat the clock, that by the perfect and harmonious action of all its parts it may keep the best time and for the longest period. Those questions, the answers to which are not found in the text, are put in Italics. IT 1. What is said of a piece of machinery? 1 V 2. What is the substance of what is eaid in the second paragraph? H3. From a farther description of the clock, what ia learned? ff 4. What is" said in paragraph fourth? ITS. What is the human bodyl 28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How the laws of health are discovered. 5. So is it in respect to the Human Body. It is a piece of Me- chanism of exceeding beauty, and with most wonderful perfection intended to fulfil certain duties. 6. To learn how to take care of this delicate machine and cause it to fulfil its duties in the most satisfactory manner, we must in the first place learn of what substances and how the various parts of the body are made their form, size, color, situations, and their connections with each other. This is called learning the Anatomy of the System. 7. In the next place we must learn how any part is best prepared to fulfil its duty, what must be supplied to it in order that it may fulfil its duty, what takes place in it and other parts of the body as it is fulfilling its duty, and what the result will be both upon itself and every other part of the body. This is called learning the Physiology of the Human System. 8. By learning the Anatomy and Physiology of the System, we shall certainly understand that there is a variety of things we ought to do if we desire health, as well as many we cannot do without suf- fering the necessary consequence of ill health. Thus we discover a series of what are called laws. They were established by our Creator, are " perfect as He is perfect," and of course if we regulate our conduct by them, we shall obtain and preserve Health, Strength, and Beauty in the highest possible degree, and for the longest time of which any given person is capable. Hence these laws are called Laws of Health or Hygiene. 9. But if a clock stop or keep bad time it is essential to know whether a cord be broken, a pin bent, the wheels uncleaned, &c., that we may know how to correct the evil. IT 6. To take care of it, what in the first place must we learn? I 7. What in the second place 1 What is this called ? Give the physiology of a clock. H 8. By learning the Anatomy and Physiology of the system, what shall we understand? What is a law ? What will be gained by observing the laws of health ? Is the Creator perfect ? Are His laws perfect ? If a person suffer any harm, who then must be in the wrong 1 H 9. What is said in paragraph nine ? If a pan or kettle leak, what is first necessary in order that it may be mended '! IT 10. What is desirable if the system be diseased 1 HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 29 What are poisons. What are medicines. 10. So if the Human System be diseased it is desira- ble to know in what condition the diseased part is, as we shall then better know how to cure it. The branch of Medical Science, which treats of the state of the system in disease, is called Pathology. 11. Whoever understands Anatomy and Physiology, much more he who also understands the Pathology of diseases, must be able, in many cases, in a rational way to set himself about the restoration of health ; in all cases he must be able to assist in effecting a cure. 12. Accident and experiment, however, have shown, that many things which in certain doses injure health, in similar doses will cure disease. In respect to health these are called poisons; in respect to disease are called medicines. That branch of Medical Science which treats of the cure of disease, whether by merely regulating a person's habits of life, or by the use of medicines, is called TJierapeutics. The means used are called Materia Medico,.* * To learn how to apply the Materia Medica most effectually, it is not enough, therefore, to be as thoroughly acquainted with Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, as the present state of those departments of science will permit but also the effect, upon health and disease, of all things in nature must be understood, as far as possible. Much of this is taught by Chemistry, and by Botany much but this knowledge is mostly obtained from the experience of the past and present times, which may be obtained partly by books, partly by conversation, and to be most valuable must be obtained in part from personal observation. All this knowledge must, after a patient investigation of any particular case, be applied to it with the exercise of a sound judgment, improved by careful cultivation, and by a mind thoroughly awake to the importance of its duties, and the responsibility assumed. True, it seldom happens that a disease requires such an application of the Materia Medica, for a large majority of cases would be cured without any thing being done. Alas ! also, it is too true, there are but few who can and will do it, when it is required. But when it is done, it some- times raises the sick man from the verge of the grave to the vigor of health. Then it is that real skill triumphs over quackery and pretence. Then it is that the honest, in- telligent physician goes home thankful that he has always refused the solicitations of indolence to practice duplicity, and feels rewarded for all the toil which has made him What is Pathology? H 11. Who is best able to effect a cure of disease? if 12. What are poisons? What are medicines? Define Therapeutics. What are the Materia Medica? Give the foot note. Which is the happier, the good though poor man, 30 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The course to be pursued in this work, and the objects to be gained. 13. The course to be pursued and the objects to be gain- ed in the following pages are now evident. The course is, (Firstly, To give a general description of the System, the uses of its various parts, and upon what they depend for fulfilling their duties. Secondly, To give a parti- cular description of each part, how it accomplishes its duty, and what will facilitate and what will preverit its action. Thirdly, To exhibit at any point in the progress of the work when it will be most easily understood, make the strongest impression or be most interesting, the state produced in any part or the whole System by disease or by accident, the causes of it. and the general principles by which a person should be governed in the restoration of health.* The objects are, (Firstly, To exhibit in "a convincing manner the Laivs of Health and the advantages to be gained by observing them. Secondly, To set before the reader the general course he ought to pursue in order to regain health when by disease or accident it is lost, and how to improve his constitution if it be not naturally good. such a benefactor to his brother man. He feels a moral pride as he passes the palace of the brazen-faced, black-hearted, ignorant quack, and scorns with utter detestation all the false and glaring pleasures that baseness pretends to enjoy for however he seems, a man cannot be happy without he is good. The extent of the subject not only, but its very nature, would therefore exclude the consideration of the nature and effects of remedies from the limits of this small work. * Of course the descriptions of each part, in a work like this, must be very brief and only such as are necessary for explaining the laws of health, and convincing the reader of their importance. The state produced by disease must be treated still more briefly, and by some it might be thought wise to omit it altogether ; but many things in connection with disease are so interesting, that every reader will be pleased with their introduction. They will also enable him, in some instances, easily to detect the shameless impositions of the horde of quacks that infest community, and beguile the sick with their bland but baseless promises of health. Good nursing is so effectual an assistance in the cure of disease, that it seems all important to set forth conspicuously the general principles by which a sick person is almost always to be treated. or the rich but bud man i IT 13. The course and objects to be pursued are what 7 PART I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM. DIVISION I. FIKST CLASS OF OKGANS. BOOK I. THE MIND AND ORGANS WITH WHICH TO THINK. CHAPTER I. General Remarks. [Man may be distinguished from other animals (by the form and other peculiarities of his physical system?) This, however, is merely a machine ; without something to use it. it can do nothing. The perfect idiot is more helpless than the lamb fears no danger, cannot ward it off, and becomes a prey even to the natural elements. But when the action of the body is properly directed, the feeblest man is able to entangle the strength of the king of the forest, to capture the leviathan, outstrip the fleetness of the swiftest beasts, and bend the elements themselves to his wishes. As then, any machine has necessarily a certain form, &c.,;that it may fulfil certain duties, so the body has necessarily its form and peculiarities,uhat certain objects may be accomplished by its use') A man is not, therefore, a man on account of his form, but properly speaking.] 14. Man is distinguished from animals, exalted above How may man be distinguished from animals? Why has the body its form? 1 14. How is man properly dfstinguished from animals? The mind uses the body for 32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Influence of the mind in preserving health. them, and made master of creation(by the possession of what is called MIND) f f [Enthroned in the body, the mind uses it for three different ob- jects : 1st. fro produce voluntary motion)) 2d^To receive the action of tlje objects around us, and thereby obtain a knowledge of them) Sd.^To think withj viz., to remember, compare,, reflect, judge) &c. In accomplishing these different objects, the mind makes use of dif- ferent parts of the body.] The Mind. 15. The mind may be defined as that something which thinks, feels, and causes voluntary motion, and belongs only to Man. [True the honey-comb of the bee (is constructed with all the pre- cision of consummate art. The fox crosses and re-crosses his track that he may mislead the hound. The horse neighs when he ap- proaches his old home, showing how joyfully he remembers the place. Still more like exalted humanity the faithful dog grieves over the decease of his master, loses his appetite, pines away and dies. Yet all this is not mental action. It is but the effect of instinct.] 16. T/w mind also exerts a very powerful involuntary influence over every part of the body, whereby its healthy action is promoted, preserved, or diminished, and disease pro- duced, aggravated, or cured. Illustration a. The mouth waters when the mind thinks of any kind of delicious food. ILlus. b.By anger the cheek is sometimes flushed and sometimes Inference . A person who would live long, preserve health, or possess beauty, should be careful to cultivate a good disposition and subject all the passions to a proper control. what, firstly 1 Secondly 7 Thirdly ? IT 15. Define the mind. What is said of the fox ? What of the bee 1 What of the dog? Can you men! ion any of her animals that exhibit, strikingly similar traits to man ? What is the -most singular thing ymi, ever sate any animal do? What is the most singular thing you errr heard of an animal doing ? H 16. What is said in if 16 ? What is Illus. a ? What is Illus. b. ? Did you ever see such a case 1 What is the Inf. to be drawn 1 Is it a fortunate thing HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 33 Influence of the mind in curing disease. [One reason doubtless why animals enjoy better health than men is, that (mental anxieties and unruly and vexatious passions do not disturb thern^) (^Idiots enjoy as good health as cattle.^ Inf. a. \f\\e existence of the mind is not necessary to healths. Inf. b. tVhen mind does exist, its influence in producing or curing disease is never to be forgotten. [A case was recently seen where medicine (Dover's Powder) had produced directly the opposite effects from what it naturally would, because the sick man thought it was something else (Calomel). By some, it is thought that the mind always exerts a greater influence than all other things combined, either to cause disease or cure it.] Inf. a. If a person be sick every thing must be done to pre- possess his mind in favor of the remedies used to quiet it, and re- lieve it of anxiety. In many cases visitors should be strictly ex- cluded, and if watchers be necessary, those only should be obtained in whom the sick person places perfect confidence, with whom he feels " perfectly at home," and by whom he will be well nursed. Inf. b.As the disturbing action of the mind is not exerted during sleep, it should by all proper means be obtained for the sick person. Inf. c.-t-That the use by the physician of such medicines as shall prevent the irritation caused by the mind, or produce sleep, must in many cases prove very beneficial.y Inf. d The apparent success of the quack and of quack med- icines, when not attributable to the fact that a large majority of those who are taken sick will get well under any treatment, unless positively killed, may easily be accounted for by the effect of bold promises and fabled exploits upon the mind of the patient.f * Said a gentleman once when riding with the writer, speaking of some very lean swine by the road side, quarrelling with each other " That kind of hogs are very un- profitable to keep; they have such bad dispositions they will never get fat." t It may be said that, if a person recovered, the quack did no harm, even if he did promise what he did not believe. But, alas ! for him who, in afldition to the aid of hia own mind, needs the help of real skill, yet leans upon this false reed. One of the very greatest evils of quackery is, that some who use it get well, and are held up as ex- amples, and produce a false hope in the minds of some, who need help in addition to the strongest faith they can exercise. for others that the street tempered live long, while the cross and peevish' are out of the way earlier in life ? What is one reason for the health of animals being as good as it is ? Do you not suppose animals are sick sometimes 1 Do you suppose they arc, in their native, state ? What is the substance of the foot note 1 What is said of the health of Idiots? What is an Idiot 1 Did you ever see one ? Ought we to laugh at or pester those who are not perfect in their mental capacity ? What is Inf. a. 1 What is Inf. b. ? What is the case mentioned ? What do some think ? What is Inf. a t 34 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Every man can afford to take care of his health. 17. The mind is also acted upon involuntarily by the state of every part of the system. Illus. When a tooth is in a bad state, it not only causes an ache but also is apt to make a person fretful past his control. Disease of the stomach is apt to make a man low-spirited. Eating before re- tiring is apt to produce bad dreams. Breathing bad air dulls the action of the mind. The effect of wine is stimulating, etc. On the other hand(wholesome food properly and timely eaten, breathing pure air, plenty of the right kind of exercise, temperate habits, frequently and thoroughly bathing the skin, rubbing it, etc. tend to produce a lively disposition and a clear and vigorous intellect) Inf. a.^-lt is ruinous policy to attempt to improve the mind at the expense of, or without attention to, the wants of the body. The man is most sadly mistaken who thinks he has not the time, or cannot afford, to take care of his health by exercise, &c., as success in busi- ness, or the prosecution of studies, must to a great degree, depend on health of the body. Inf. .-fTo learn the laws of health, the why and wherefore of them, ank to observe them with the greatest care, are among the first things that should be done by the man who wishes to use his mind vigorously in the prosecution of business or sttum CHAPTER H. The Brain, as the organ with which to Think. 18. The mind does not, in fulfilling each of its duties, use equally all parts of the body. [A man whose arm has been removed, can think as well as ever. It is therefore certain that he does not need the arm to think with. In various ways it can be proved that] 19. TJie mind uses the brain to thmk with. [The brain is found in the head and constitutes a great part of the bulk of it. The outside of one side of it is represented by What is Inf. b. 7 What is Inf. c. ? What is Inf d. ? What is the substance of the foot, note ? IT 17. How is the mind acted on 1 What is the meaning / involuntarily ? What is the Illns. 1 What tends to produce a lively disposition ? What else do the same things tend to do 3 What is Inf. a.l What is Inf. b.'l Do you believe that inference is correct ? Why do you believe it ? Would it make a thing true to say it in this or any other book ?f|U 18. What is said in U 18 1 How do you prove that the HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 35 The appearance of the brain. FIG. 1. Fig. 1. S represents the scalp, next to which is seen the skull or cranium (s s). M m, A part of the membrane lining the skull ami covering the brain. L II, Left hemisphere of the brain. II II, A small portion of the right hemisphere seen beyond. F, The deep fissure in which the faex is situated. The brain is soft, like jelly, and when taken out of the skull flattens somewhat, uy its own weight. The substance of which it is composed is very pec^iar, and called nervous substance. (The scholar should obtain some of the brains of some animal,* and examine the substance.) It is con posed of various parts, the size, form, color, con- sistence and relative position of which, differ somewhat in different persons. But what effeci any or all these things have upon a man's power of thinking, is -\iot known, since how the mind uses the brain, or any part of it, is entirely unknown in the present state of science]. , ... . mind uses the brain to think with? Where is the brain situated? DescribeFig.lt Wh;it is the consistence of the brain? Did i/nu ever notice tin- bruin* <<./] fin animal '? Will you obtain and I'.rinnin' t! which commences by an opening in the front bottom part of the throat, from which it passes down in a straight line into the chest, when it divides into two branches, which again in a short distance divide and sub-divide, and terminate in clusters of sacks or bags. Upon the sides of these, are found net-works of capillary bloodvessels, represented * The blood is frequently called life-giving, &c., but this depends upon what it is composed of. It may be death-causing. The blood of him who drinks alcoholics is of a baneful character. the Inf. ? What is the substance of the foot note 1 H 53. Describe the lungs 1 What is the object of the lungs? What is the inference? What are found at the termina- 60 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Striking and instructive experiment upon air. very much magnified by Fig. 3, PI. 3. The air comes into these sacks on one hand and the blood into the capillaries on the other, and here situated, the blood and air act on each other, and the qualities of each become changed the blood is improved and the air vitiated.] Illus. If air be drawn into the lungs, and thrown out again as quickly as possible, it will put out a match almost as quickly as if it were dipped in water. [The experiment may be tried by breaking a hole in the bottom of a large vial (a large bottle will be better if transparent) ; put the bot- tom of the vial a little below the surface of water in a pail, apply the mouth to the nose of the vial and draw the air out of it into the lungs, the water will be observed to follow up and fill the via? then blow the air back again into the vial, hold it still, and quickly test its quality by putting a lighted match into it.] SEC. B. Kidneys, as excreting organs. [The importance of these organs is exhibited by the comparatively very large branches of bloodvessels through which they are supplied, and also by the position which they occupy it being one of the most favorable for receiving the blood readily.] 54. The Kidneys are two in number, of not large size, firm, compact made organs, situated in the region of the loins, one upon each side, and a little distance from the body of the backbone. Their duty, as excreting organs, is to separate from the large quantity of blood they receive, whatever it may contain of a peculiar useless substance, and any portion of its water that is unnecessary. [Within the kidneys is what is called the pelvis or basin, a cavity which' receives the excretion from the delicate tubes in the sides of the organs. From this pelvis, a large tube commences and leads down into a reservoir, the bladder, which is distensible, and also con- tions of the windpipe 1 What exist on or in the sides of these sack?'? What tnkes place in the sacks 1 What is the Illus. 7 HOW may the experiment be tried? ilow is the importance of the kidneys exhibited 1 t. Describe the kidneys. What is ;licir duly as- excretive organs 1 What is found within the kidneys'? Why should the kid- neys remove water from the blood? How is the importance of the skin shown? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 61 The kidneys facilitate excretion by removing water. tractile, and can for a convenient time retain what is removed from the blood by the kidneys.] Fig. 12. Fig. 11. k k, Kidneys, s, Spleen. 1, Artery (called abdominal aorta), from which branches in front lead to various organs. Fig. 12. Kidney. P, Pelvis. U, Ureter. [Precisely why it is necessary for the kidneys to remove all the substance they do, is not known, but why they or some organ should remove water is already evident, and will become still more so as we progress. To wit: if there be a great deal of waste substance return- ing through the veins, there should not be very much water for it is evident, the more water there is, the longer will the waste substance be in reaching those organs by which it is to be cast out. Thus, the kidneys facilitate excretion, not only by removing the solid substance dissolved or suspended in the water, but also at -times by removing the water by which in the same length of time they and all the other excreting organs receive much more substance than they otherwise would.] SEC. C. The Skin, as an excreting organ. [The importance of this organ, is at once evident from its great 55. Describe the skin. . What is its use ? What exception is mentioned in regard to 62 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. A great amount of waste substance removed by the skin. extent. It is also proved by the fact, that upon an average, more than a pound per day leaves the body through this organ.] 55. The Skin is the outward covering of the body. It is composed of several different parts. Its use as an excreting organ is to receive the blood and cause certain portions to exude in the form of perspiration upon it-, surface FIG. 13. Fig. 13. Section of the skin magnified. 1, The cuticle, the proportionate thickness of which varies. 2, Rete mucosum (mucous net-work) so called because it is of pasty consistence, and viewed over the layers beneath, appears in the form of a net-work. It varies in color according to the constitution of a person, its frequent deposition from the blood, and the action of the air upon it. 3, Papillae, in which the nerves commence. 4, Cutis-dermis or true skin, in which all the active duties of the skin are performed, and which in health depends on the reception of blood and nervous influence by the skin, and on its being kept clean. 5, Cells containing fat. 6, Perspiratory gland/with a spiral duct, such as seen in the hand or foot. 7, Another gland with straight duct. 8, Two hairs. 9, A pair of oil glands with tubes opening into" the hair sheath. the liver 1 What is the portal vein 1 if 56. Describe the liver. Describe Fig. 14 HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 63 Interesting and important exception in respect to the liver. SEC. D. Tfo Liver, as an excreting organ. [There is an exception in regard to the reception of blood by this organ that is worthy of mention. It receives blood through a branch of the systemic artery, which however is small, compared with the duty of the liver. A much larger quantity of blood is received through what is called the portal vein. This vein is a trunk formed by the veins leading from five different organs of the abdomen. One reason for this arrangement seems to be, that the liver requires in its opera- tions some of those same substances which the lungs remove. There are also other reasons that will be mentioned hereafter.] 56. The Liver is a large firm organ, occupying the upper and right side of the abdomen, and extending across the centre of the body a short distance into the left side. See Fig. 7, and (4. Fig. 1. PI. 3.) also Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 15. Liver seen from below. G. Gall-bladder. Fig. 14. Liver seen from above. 64 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Use of liver. Bile not bitter. Character of gall. The use of the liver as an excreting organ is, to remove from the blood certain useless substances, the amount of which very much varies at different seasons of the year, and under different circumstances, as will be hereafter shown. [The substance removed by the liver is called bile ; is a rich orange green colored limpid fluid, rather sweetish than bitten. It flows from the liver through a small tube into the Second Stomach, and thus finds its way from the system.] [The Gall-bladder and its contents may be here mentioned. It is a conical bag situated underneath the liver (Fig. 15) (9. Fig. 1. PI. 3.) Its upper and back extremity terminates in a tube which opens into the one leading from the liver. The contents of the gall-bladder are called Gall. It is a very dark green, viscid, exceedingly bitter fluid, and flows from the gall-bladder into the second stomach. It should be carefully distinguished from bile, which in taste at least it is much unlike. More will be said about it hereafter.] SEC. E. Second Stomach and Colon, as organs of excretion. 57. The Second Stomach is the name by which I shall speak of a long tube commencing at the small extremity of the stomacl} (Fig. 7), occupying the central portion of the abdomen, and terminating in the lower right side of it in the colon (7. 7. 7. Fig. 1. PI. 3.). 58. Tfa Colon is a large tube or canal commencing in the lower right side of the abdomen, thence extending up underneath the front thin edge of the liver (Fig. 1. PI. 3.), and across to the left side, then downward as seen in Fig. 16. The uses of the colon and second stomach as excreting or- gans, is to remove useless sustance from the blood. also Fig. 15. What is the >>ic ^f 'lie liver? What is the substance removed by it called? Describe!:: .' Describe the gall-bladder. Describe the gall. What is 'ho second 3io:nacii VVliat is the colon? What are the uses of the second stomach am; colon ? In which part does the colon commence 1 Where does HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 65 Fig. 16. AC DC Fig. 16. Colon. S S, Termination of the second stomach. V a, A tube with only <^ one opening the use is not known called ver- miform (worm-shaped) appendage. C, Coecum, into which the second stomach opens a little above its lower end. At the opening a valvular arrange- ment exists (as seen at a in the small cut), to pre- vent any thing passing back from the colon. A C, Ascending colon. T C, Transverse colon. DC, .Descending colon. S, Sigmoid flexure (S-like bend) of the colon. R, Rectum. The colon seems to be pouched. This is caused by a larger num- ber of ring-muscular fibres being found at certain places than at others, and by the contraction of the longitudinal (lengthwise) fibres represented by the band. the second stomach? Wh.it is the subject of Chap. IV. 1 What is evident 1 Whai is probable 1 How ihight these objects be gained, firstly 1 Secondly 1 Thirdly 1 66 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How flow of blood may be increased. Important question. CHAPTER IV. Organic Nervous System. ) [It is evident, that, as the action of the different parts of the sys- tem varies at different times, so also the amount of useless substance to be removed will correspondingly vary^ It is also probable(that the kinds of substance to be removed by the different excreting organs vary at different times. Hence it follows, that the flow of substance toward all the excreting organs should be at times increased, and to- ward one only of them at other times. These objects might be in part or wholly gained by six ways?} Ist/The action of the parts which produce the useless, substance might be supposed to force it on through the veins. 2d. The more rapid contractions of the heart would pour the blo'od on with increased rapidity. 3d. If the bloodves- sels in any excreting organ should be increased in size, more blood would be caused to flow that way. 4th. The change which takes place in the blood may be the means of drawing more blood to that organ. 5th. -A diminution of the watery part of the blood.) 6th. H3y contraction and relaxation of the capillary bloodvessels of the organs of excretiony Some attribute very little consequence to one of these causes, and some regard another as of little value. (One thing is cer- tain, either by one or all the above-mentioned ways, or in some other ways, the flow of blood is increased or diminished in the most beauti- ful and perfect manner, and as the case requires?) [A most important question now arises. viz.^VVhat causes the in- creased and diminished action) {Here is an effect which must have a cause or an influence to produce i|j( It is called nervous influence. We know but little about it) fit is distinguished as the involuntary ^nervous influence, because it is exerted without any direct control of the mind) It is also called the Organic nervous influence. What its source is, is not certainly known. It is spoken of as the nervous cen- tre of organic life. Nor is it certainly known through what nerves or Fourthly? Fifthly? Sixthly? What is an excreting organ? What is meant by a contraction of the heart? What parts produce the useless substance? What is certain? What question now arises? Must every action have a cause? Mention one. What is the nervous influence ? How distinguished ? What does harmonious HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 67 Organic nervous system necessary. Disease should be checked in the outset. how it is exerted. Some suppose that there are several centres, and several means of communication between the different centres and dif- ferent parts of the body. Though our knowledge is so indefinite on these points, the harmonious actions of the different parts of the sys- tem seem to indicate |hat there is a common centre, a political capi- tal, so to speak, in which all parts of the body communicate in such a way that every state of any part will produce a certain and necessary effect, on account of which a certain and necessary effect shall be pro- duced on every part, the action of which ought to be modified by ex- isting circumstances^ Thus the most distant parts of the body can produce an effect on each other. Though not a perfect illustration, yet it will be often noticed that tickling a person will cause him to laugh despite his wishes! That is, the state of one part produced by tickling, produces an effect on a nervous centre, and that causes cer- tain effects on other parts. I have known a lady who could not eat a single strawberry without In a few moments having an appearance upon the skin as if she had the measles. The state produced by the strawberry in the stomach caused an effect 4>n a nervous centre, and from that an effect was produced on the skinjj [In this work it will be taken for granted that] 59. fin the Human System, in addition to that upon which the mind directly acts, there is a nervous system, by means of which, in the most wonderful manner, the action of all parts of the body is regulated, and which is constantly acted upon by all parts of the bodyJ Inf. a. Any part being diseased, cannot exert a healthful influ- ence, and otjier pa,rts must feel the effects of it.) Inf. A.-f-The longer any unhealthy influences are allowed to act, the more extended and complicated will be the effects. We should therefore nip disease in the bud, when of course it must be compara- tively easy to master ij Concluding Remarks on Excretion. [If we review the process of excretion, as discussed in this Chap- ter, it will appear,] mean ? What does the harmonious action of the system indicate 1 What illustration is given 7 Can you give another ? How is this explained? What case is mentioned 1 IT 59. What is taken for granted in this work 1 What is Inf. a. ? What is In.fb. 1 Is 68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. What is necessary to accomplish excretion. 60. 1st. (Excretion is rendered necessary by the action of the system, which renders a corresponding amount of sub- stance useless, j 6 1 . 2d.(,Excretion is for the purpose of removing from the system all useless substance^ 62. 3d. To accomplish the process of excretion, five classes of organs are necessary, viz., the Lungs, the Kidneys, the Skin, the Liver, the Second Stomach and Colon. N , 63. 4th. (To transport the useless substance from where it is produced to the excreting organs, three kinds of blood- vessels and two hearts are required, viz., the Systemic and Pulmonary Arteries, the Capillaries, the Systemic, Pulmo- nary, and Portal Veins, the Right Heart and the Left Heart (the whole being called the circulatory organs^ 64/J7b regulate the action of the organs concerned in ex- jretion. a nervous system acting involuntarily is required. 65. Air and water are also required to facilitate the action of the organs concerned in the process of excretion. a cold a disease ? Ought it to be attended to when it first commences ? Which will be easiest and best, to prevent it altogether, or to cure it even in its beginning ? Can you take cold if you try to ? How could you do it ? Do you think a person ever takes cold without doing something he ought not? Repeat H 60. Repeat IF 61. Repeat II 62. Repeat fi 63. Repeat IF 64. Repeat IF 65. How much air and water will be necessary ? BOOK II. SECOND GRAND DUTY NUTRITION. 66. The process of Nutrition is rendered necessary by .the constant change produced in the system by its action, and is for the purpose of perfecting those parts which have, by action, lost a portion of their substance.) 67. Three things are necessary. lst(^That proper sub- stances for renewing the system be received by ift 2d. (That these substances be properly prepared^ 3d. /That they be carried to the parts requiring them j CHAPTER I. Nourishment. 68. Nourishment is the name given to the substances re- quired to form, or reform, the various parts of the body. 69. The nourishment must Mof the same nature as the parts to be nourished. } [It is not meant by this that to nourish the bones it is^ necessary that bones be taken into the body^ but this is the idea : ."The bones are composed of certain substances called elements, which united together in peculiar ways will produce bones. No one would know by looking at bread that it was made of wheat, salt, yeast, water, &c. The elements that form the bones might be eaten without a person knowing it from their appearance. The cow eats grass, and from the What is the subject of Book II, ? if 66. What renders nutrition necessary 1 IT 67. W3 t is necessary, first 1 Second'? Third? H 68. What is nourishment 1 IT 69. What 70 Certain kinds of food necessary Effect of heating food. elements composing the grass each part of her body, and even the milk she gives, is formed. Chips, however, do not contain the same elements as grass, and the cow could not live upon them. Upon the same principle, in one form or another, it is necessary that the human system should receive those elements of which the body is composed.}; [That they are received^n the form of what is called foodj is cer- tain/from the fact that the more active a person j.s the greater appe- tite does he have, and the more food does he eat.]} 70. The amount of nourishment a person should take will evidently depend on the action to which the various parts of the body are subject, CHAPTER II. Preparation of Nourishment. [In the present state of knowledge it would not be possible to conjecture what process it would be necessary the nutriment should pass through. We must, there fore, (learn what state of things exists, and, as far as possible, what process the food passes through.) SEC. A. Cooking. 71. Experience proves that some articles are partly pre- pared for the use of the system by subjecting them to heat. Illus. Starch (which is found in many articles of food) though not properly nutriment, will be good for illustration. It is composed of small kernels. These are composed of concentric layers, as an onion is. The outer layer is not easily acted upon in the body, but is cracked open by heat of a boiling temperature. Whence it is found that all kinds of animals fatten on much less food if it have been boiled. must the nourishment be ? What is not meant? What is 1 What is the meaning of element ? Does the grass took as if it contained the elements of bone ? Does it ? How do you know ? Is there any thing else that does ? How are these elemems re- ceived by man? How is it certain? if 70. On what should the amount of nourish- ment depend? Why? How do we determine how food is prepared? Why is thia necessary ? f 71. What does experience prove in regard to cooking ? What is said ol HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 71 Light food better than heavy. The stomach. Inf. The degree of heat and the length of time an article was exposed to it, would have something to do with the fitness of an article for the use of the system. 72. Experience also teaches that the manner in which articles are combined adapts them more or less to the use of the system. Illus. Bread made so as to be light is much better than " heavy " food. l n f That the art of preparing food is of great consequence. SEC. 'B.Tke Mouth. 73. The mouth is that part in which the food, contain- ing nutriment, is first received. Its use in respect to nutri- tion is, to grind the food between the teeth, and cause it to be mingled with the saliva. [The saliva is a fluid formed from the blood in small organs, called glands, three in each side of the face. Its use evidently is, to soften the food, and facilitate its passage into the stomach. Some think, it is of much importance in the process that takes place there ; some do not.] [After being acted upon by the teeth and mingled with the saliva, food is gathered by the tongue into a ball, and rolled back into the throat, from the lower part of which it is received by a muscular tube, called the meat pipe, and by its contractions carried down into the stomach.] SEC. C. The Stomach, as an organ of nutrition, 74. TJie Stomach is a sac or pouch, very much like a common bladder, except in shape. It has two openings. Through the one it receives food from the meat pipe. Through the other, the food, having awhile remained in the starch 7 Wfiat effect would cooking starch have in respect to other animals ? it 72. What else does experience teach? What is the Blue. ? What the Inf.? U 73. What 72 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOG1. Positions of stomach vary. How digestion is accomplished. stomach, passes out little by little, in the form of a grey paste, called chyme. The stomach is situated in the upper and central part of the abdomen (Fig. 7.) (5 Fig. 1, PL 4). The position, however, changes as the breath is drawn in and thrown out, and the space which it occupies varies with the quantity of its contents. Its use is to receive food from the meat pipe or oesophagus, retain it for awhile, cause it to be changed into chyme, and to pass it on into the second stomach. [The process taking place in the stomach is called the first process of digestion.] 75. The digestion of the food in the stomach, is accom- plished, 1 st, By the distension of the stomach. [Mouthful after mouthful is received by the distending stomach, till it is stretched to its utmost limit, like as the bladder used by boys for a foot-ball grows larger at each reception of air, and contracts the instant it is let out. The stomach is, therefore, always full.] 76. The digestion of food is accomplished in the stomach, 2dly, By the formation from the blood of a fluid, called gastric (stomach) juice, in the sides of the stomach and the exudation of it into the stomach. [This is one of the most peculiar and important fluids in the whole body. Though the chemist knows the elements of which it is com- posed, he has not yet been able to control them in such a manner as to compel them to combine as they exist in this wonderful fluid. It flows into the stomach in very much the same manner as the per- spiration starts on the side of the face, and varies in quantity as the wants of the system require a greater or less quantity of food.] is the mouth? What is its use? What is the saliva? What is its more common name? After the food is chewed, what takes' place? What appearance has the food as it passes from the mouth? What is the stomach? What is chyme ? Where is it found ? Where is the stomach situated ? How does its size vary ?" What is its use ? What is the first process of digestion ? H 75. How is digestion in the stomach accom- plished, firstly ? To what is its distension compared ? H 76. How is digestion accom- plished, secondly? What is said of the gastric juice? What does gastric mean? it 77. How is digestion accomplished, thirdly ? How do the contractions take place 1 HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 73 Cold substances injurious to the stomach when in health. 77. The digestion of food in the stomach is accomplished, 3dly, By the contractions of the sides of the stomach. [The large part of the stomach contracts first, and presses the food along into the small extremity, which in its turn contracting, presses the food back again. Thus is it mingled with the gastric juice, which saturates every part of it.] 78. The digestion of food in the stomach is accomplished, 4thly, By the temperature to which it is subjected in the stomach. [The temperature of the stomach is found to rise after eating and, if it be lowered, digestion is retarded.] Inf. The use of iced water, cream, dessert, &c., to such a degree as to lower the temperature of the stomach, must be injurious. [This is almost always done by the use of the articles mentioned.] SEC. D. Second Stomach, in respect to nutrition. 79. The, Second Stomach is.the same heretofore spoken of. Its use in respect to nutrition, is to receive the chyme little by little as it comes from the stomach, pass it slowly through itself, and cause a portion of it to be changed into a milk-colored fluid called chyle. 80. Tlw duties of the Second Stomach in respect to digestion are performed, 1st, By the alternate contractions and relaxations of its sides. [By this means, the contents of the second stomacli are slowly passed through it, and also mingled with the fluids it meets in that organ.] 81. The duties of the Second Stomach in respect to diges- tion are accomplished, 2dly, By means of the pancreatic juice. What, is meant by contractions of the stomach ? if 78. How is digestion accomplish- ed, fourthly? What is meant by temperature? Did you ever feel a chill in the sto- mach after drinking freely of cold water ? Was it pleasant or unpleasant ? What would that signify ? What is the Inf. ? If 79. What is the second stomach ? What is its use in digestion 1 How many -uses does it serve 1 What is chyle 1 Do you sup- pose chyle will always appear alike 1 How is digestion in the second stomach per- 74 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Pancreas Gall and bile in second stomach. [This is a fluid formed in what is called the pancreas. It is similar Fig. 17. Fig. 16.1, Liver turned up and laid back. 2, Fissures in the under surface of the liver. 3, Gall-bladder. 4, Stomach. 5, Lower portion of ceso^Iiagus. 6. Pylorus. 9, Head of pancreas. 22, Small extremity of pancreas. 10 Spleen. 13 to 24, Blood- vessels. A, Opening of the ducts from the pancreas, liver, and gall-bladder. B, Du- odenum open, that the folds of its internal surface may be seen. in general appearance to the saliva, and flows through a short tube into the second stomach about three inches from its commencement. The particular use of the juice is not known.] 82. The duties of the Second Stomach in respect to digestion are accomplished, 3dly. By means of the bile and gall. [These fluids find their way into the second stomach nearly at the same point with the pancreatic juice. Their particular use in the second stomach is not known.] formed, firstly'? What is tbe effect? What says It 81 1 What is the pancreatic juice! Describe Fig. 17. H 82. What is said of the gall and bile ? Hoir do they conspicuously differ 7 H 83 What are the lacteals ? What is the meaning of lacteal? What and HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 75 Lacteale Thoracic duct Course of the chyle. Fig. 18. SEC. E. The Lacteals. 83. The Lacteals (milk) called also chyliferous (chyle-bearing) vessels, are ."a set of tubes, commencing very small in the sides of the second stomach, but gradually uniting together till they form a single one, called the Thoracic duct (chest tube). This leads up in the front of the back bone as far as to the neck, when it turns forward, bends over and opens into the large neck veins. Its use is to gather up the chyle, from the second stomach, cause it to un- dergo some modifications and pass it into the blood- vessels. [How they gather up the chyle is not certainly known, nor are the operations they perform on their contents, nor is the manner in which they pass their contents through themselves. How much or what preparation the nutri- Fig. 18. 1. 2, 3, Aorta. 4, 5, 6, Arteries, branching from the aorta. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, Certain veins, called venae azygos. 12, Enlargement of the thoracic duct, called the receptaculum chyli. 13. 14, Thoracic duct. At 14, a lymphatic vessel is ?eea opening into the thoracic duct. 15, Lymphatic of the right side. A, Lacteals com- mencing from the second stomach. B, A portion of lymphatics from the lower parts of the body. 76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Concluding remarks on nutrition. ment requires, after it is passed into the bloodvessels, cannot be said, but the process of preparation is then considered to be finished and the nutriment ready for distribution.] CHAPTER in. Distribution of Nutriment. 84. Nothing could be more desirable for the distribution of nourishment than the arrangement of the bloodvessels and hearts as before described. CHAPTER IV. Nervous System of Organic Life. 85. The increased and diminished action whieh would at various times be required of the organs engaged in pre- paring and distributing nutriment, would render it necessary that these organs be placed under the influence of the ner- vous system of organic life. Concluding Remarks on Nutrition. 86. Nutrition is rendered necessary on account of the changes produced in the system by its action. 87. Nutrition of the body renders it necessary that such where is the thoracic duct ? What is the use of the lacteals ? Describe Fig 18. Is the nutriment prepared in the bloodvessels 1 What is the subject of Chap. III. ? ^84. What is said in U 84 1 Describe the bloodvessels. Describe the hearts. Can you and will you draw, on the black-board, an outline of some or all of the bloodvessels and hearts ? H 85. Why is the organic nervous system necessary 1 What do you under- stand by the organic nervous system ? If a person be very active, ought the stomach to be so influenced thereby as to digest more food, if furnished, in the same length of timel What is said in IT 86? What is said in IF 87 7 What is said in * 88 1 What are HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 77 Concluding remarks on nutrition. substances be received by the body, as contain the same ele- ments as the parts that are to be nourished by them. 88. The preparation of this substance renders necessary, 1st. The mouth. 2d. The stomach. 3d. The second sto- mach, pancreas, and liver. 4th. The lacteals. 89. The distribution of the nutriment renders the circu- latory organs necessary. 90. The increased and diminished action required at different times, renders the nervous system of organic life necessary. 91. The formation of the fluids required in the digestive organs, and the distribution of the nutriment, renders the reception of water necessary to the system. 92. As the distribution of the nutriment should be more rapid at one time than another, such organs as the kidneys will be required, that the quantity of water may be at times diminished, and a certain quantity of blood made more rich in nutriment. the circulatory organs 1 IT 89. Why are they necessary ? What is said in If 90 ? IT 91. Why is water necessary? How much of it ia necessary? fi 92. Why are the kidneys necessary 1 BOOK III. THIRD GRAND DUTY TO KEEP THE BODY WARM. 93. To keep the body warm, three things are necessary. Heat must be 1st, produced; 2d, distributed; 3d, preserved. CHAPTER I. The Production of Heat. 94. Heat is produced in the system by means of, 1st. Exercise. 2d. Food. 3d. Air. 4th. The action of the kidneys. SEC. A. Exercise, in the Production of Heat. [That the changes taking place when any part of the body is active might produce heat, would be evident to every chemist, as he knows that scarcely ever does a change take place in any thing without affecting its temperature.] Illus. a. Slaking lime produces great heat. Illus. b. Mingling snow and salt produces a great degree of cold. [That the action of some parts of the body is attended with the pro- duction of heat, is evident to any one who notices the effect of exer- cising the muscles ; which is also proved by experiment to increase What is the subject of Book III. ? TT 93. To keep the body warm, how and what 'iat means, first? Second? Third 1 does every chemist know? What things are necessary ? fl 94. Heat is produced by what means, first? Second? Third? Fourth? What is the subject of Sec. A.? What does ever HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 79 Action of the body supplies it with fuel. their heat to a greater degree than could be accounted for in any other way.] [As the wearing of the factory supplies some articles which may be used as fuel, so the action of the various parts of the body may supply materials which may be called fuel, since they are of such nature that they may be burned. That this is so, is also Droved from this, that much of a certain substance which in winter is carried from the body by means of the lungs, and heat thus produced, is in sum- mer carried out by the liver, and the production of heat prevented, therefore] 95. Exercise may be prodttctive of heat in two ways : 1st, by the immediate effect of the changes it produces ; 2d, by furnishing an amount of fuel. SEC. B. Food, in the Production of Heat. [All animals are inclined to eat more food in winter than in sum- mer. Fish require scarcely any food to support life ; because, in the first place, they take comparatively little exercise, and that not diffi- cult, as the waters in which they swim are nearly their own gravity; and in the second place, their temperature is nearly that of the water surrounding them.* Warm-bloooded fish are greater eaters. Man and animals find different kinds of food furnished by nature for them in different climates, and also different seasons of the year. In winter we are inclined to eat more of some kinds of food than we are in summer.] * These are the reasons why the waters can be so plentifully stored with fish why also fish grow so fast if fed and why fish are the most profitable of all animals to keep. Just a trough or barrel, with a grating over it, and a small stream (as large as a pipe stem is sufficient) running through it, is all the first cost ; and the crumbs from a family will supply it with delicious fish. They should be caught young and put in. If a stream be not attainable, changing the water frequently will answer. A small fish-pond, 20 feet square by 3 deep, is better. is lllus. a.l What is Illus. b. ? What is evident to any one? What does experiment prove 1 Did you ever see a stage-driver " thrash " his hands ? Does exercise warm a person better than atmost any wayl What is supplied by the action of the body ? How is this proved ? H 95. How may exercise be productive of heat ? What is the subject of Sec. B. ? What is true of all animals'? What of fish? What is the sub- stance of the foot note 7 Are all kinds of food equally easily found at different seasons 80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Food of two kinds. We breathe most air when it is coldest. Illus. Buckwheat cakes, with butter and molasses, &c. are de- sired by almost every one in the fall and winter, but are discarded in summer. [An examination shows that those kinds of food of which we are very fond in cold weather (starchy, sweet, fatty, gummy food), are not from their nature capable of nourishing the body, hence] 96. Food must contain not only nutriment, but* also what may be called Fuel, since it it is used in the production of heat. 97. The Fuel of the food passes through the same pre- paration as the nutriment, and the same organs are required. [As the fuel of the food differs in its character from the nutri- ment portion, it is probable that it does in reality pass through a different process from the nutriment in its way through the digestive organs. Indeed, the state of the fluids furnished to those organs varies at different seasons of the year, and at different times.] Illus. a. The gastric (stomach) juice of a dog will not act upon grass, neither will that of a sheep upon meat. They both will, how- ever, upon bread. [There is, as yet, no appreciable difference to be found in the composition of the juices of the two animals. Yet there must be, as there is a difference in their effect.] Illus. b More bile is formed in case of those animals living upon grasses than in those living upon meat food, and there is more formed in case of man generally in summer than in winter. [But the difference in the action to which the different kinds of food have been subjected has not been determined. Both kinds are usually eaten at the same time, and pass through their course of pre- paration together.] ' SEC. C. Air. [In cold weather more air passes into the lungs than in warm. An equal quantity of air has a greater change produced in it when cold, of the year 1 When can the squirrels find nuts ? When do they lire on berries ? What is the Illus. 7 What kind of food contains starch? What kind contains sweets ? What kind is honey ofl Can you mention some kinds containing gummy substance J Of what kind is butter? U 96. What must food contain! 97. How HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 81 Air useful in producing heat also the kidneys. than when warm as it is received. Those organs in which the air is directly received,are warmer than other parts of the body. As the cold air removes much more heat from the body than warm, according to the uniform constitution of the universe, air ought to be so constituted as to correct the evil which it would otherwise produce. We also know that air is necessary, in all the ordinary modes of producing heat.] 98. Air may be useful in producing heat in two ways. 1st. By uniting directly with the fuel of the blood. 2d. By uniting with other parts of the blood and going with them into various parts of the body, and uniting with the fuel here and there. [Without doubt both things take place, though some persons argue entirely for one way, some for the other.] 99. The Lungs and other parts of the respiratory appa- ratus, as already described, will be admirably adapted for allowing the air to act upon or through the blood, in any way that is necessary. SEC. D. The Kidney s, in the Production of Heat. [The kidneys are not directly concerned in the production of heat. As, however, the fuel produced by exercise, and that obtained from the food, is passed into the bloodvessels and transported in and by the water of the blood ; and as the same would be true of any air that is taken into the blood, the amount of water in the vessels will determine to a great degree, the amount of fuel or air that will pass through any given point during any given length of time. Therefore,] is the fuel of the food treated ? Is it probably treated in precisely the same way as nutriment? What is said of the state of the fluids'? What fluids are used in the digestive process ? What is Illus. a. ? What is fllus. b. ? What is the subject of Sec. C.I When does most air pass into the lungs'? Wliy is this? When does the air experience the greatest change? Why is thisl Which are the warmest organs of the body 1 In which organs is the air received? What ought to be the constitution of the air ? When is air necessary ? IT 98. How may air be useful, first ? Secondly ? H 99. What are admirably adapted to allow the action of the air? Describe the lungs. What are the subjects of the kidneys ? What will the amount of water in the vessels determine ? n 100. How do the kidneys indirectly assist in the produc- tion of heat ? What two questions may now arise in the mind 1 Can burning be pro- 82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Why heat produced in the body does not burn it. 100. The Kidneys indirectly assist in the production of heat, by removing water from the system. [Two questions may now arise in the reader's mind. 1st. How can burning take place in the midst of so much water 1 2d. How can burning take place in the body without burning the body itself? It is not usual to see things burn freely under water, yet it can be seen. In the body this burning takes place so slowly, and the heat is dispersed so rapidly, that in health no part becomes heated to an improper degree. As the heat is not allowed to become excessive, we are not in the habit of thinking the process is the same in prin- ciple as when the stove is heated. Perhaps the use of the term burning is not judicious, as the idea associated with that word is, that a harmful degree of heat is produced. The technical term which embraces all the milder, as well as the more intense degrees at which heat is produced, is combustion. Illus. a. Phosphorus left in the air undergoes combustion so slowly that it seems to merely waste away, and heat is developed so gently that no appreciable degree of it is at any one time produced. But the same amount of heat is produced in the course of several days as would be in a few minutes, if the combustion were rapid. It is the accumulation of heat, if such an expression may be used, which pro- duces the degree which would be called burning. Illus. b. If a person blow upon the upper surface of a piece of paper, the under surface may be put down upon the flame of a candle, and the paper will not be scorched as long as the breath con- tinues to sweep across it, as the air carries the heat away as fast as it comes into the paper, and the heat does not accumulate to the burning degree. CHAPTER IL Distribution of Heat. 101. Heat is distributed by means of, 1st. The Heart and Bloodvessels. 2d. Water. 3d. The actions of the Kidneys. duced under water ? How does the burning take place in the body ? What is a better term than burning 1 What does combustion mean 1 What is Illus. a. ? What is Mlus. b. 1 Have you tried the experiment 1 How is heat distributed 1 Why are the HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 83 Beautiful arrangement of the heart and blood vessels for distributing heat. SEC. A. Bloodvessels and Heart, in the distribution of Heat. [Nothing could be better adapted to the distribution of heat through the system, than a flow of fluid round and round through svery part of the body. For, wherever heat was produced, the fluid would be warmed, and if any part were cool, it would be warmed by the fluid, which would become cooled, to be again warn ed when it passed through any warm part.] 102. The Hearts and Bloodvessels, as already described, are perfectly adapted to the distribution of heat. SEC. B. Water, in the distribution of Heat. [The adaptation of water to distribute heat, is too evident to need comment. It is harmless in every respect, and all that is necessary is, that the quantity of it and the rapidity of its motions, should be regu- lated according to the exigencies of the case.] SEC. C. Kidneys, in the distribution of Heat. 103. The Kidneys are of use in tfo distribution of heat by lessening the quantity of water in the vessels. [On account of this, the blood w r hich remains can* be hurried through its circuit more rapidly than a larger quantity could be the size of the vessels being regulated to the quantity of their contents, and the Hearts acting with continued energy.] heart and bloodvessels admirably adapted to the distribution of heat? How many kinds of bloodvessels are there ? What is the name of those leading out from the hearts ? What of those leading back to the hearts ? What kind of vessels lead to the liver? What kind lead away from the liver? What is the name of those which lead away from any part of the body ? What is the particular name 'of those which lead from al.l parts of the body to the hearts ? What is said in IT 102? What is the subject of Sec. B. ? What is said of it? II 103. How are the kidneys of use in dis- tributing heat ? H 104. How is heat preserved, first ? Secondly ? What are the sub- jects of Sec. A.? What is said of a brick? What of animals? What of man? 84 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The clothing of man and animals. CIIAPTEE III. Preservation of Heat. 104. Heat is preserved in two ways : 1st, by External, 2d, by Internal protections. SEC. A. External Protections, in tJie preservation of Heat, [If a hot brick be wrapped in flannel, it does not become cool as it would otherwise. Most animals are covered with hair, fur, wool, &c., which becomes thicker as the cold weather approaches. Man has been designed for every variety of climate, and has been gifted accord- ingly with reason and ingenuity, and hands, by means of which he can make use of the clothing of other animals and such parts of plants as are adapted to his use. When any warm thing is put in the wind, it becomes cool very quickly ; hence] 105. External protections consist of clothing and shelter. SEC. B. Internal Protection, in pi-eserving Heat. [Those animals which are not furnished with external protections, which live in cold climates, and are warm-blooded, are furnished with a thick layer of fat.] Illus. The Hog the Whale, &c. [Those animals which live in very cold climates, have a thick layer of fat in addition to any external protection.] Illus The White Bear. [In case of man and animals, the layer of fat beneath the skin is increased as cold weather approaches, especially in cases where the animals " hybernate," that is, remain quiet and in a condition as of sleep, during the winter.] Illus. Certain kinds of squirrels bears. &c. U 105. What are external protections! What are the subjects of Sec. B. 1 What is said of animals 1 What is the ILlus. ? Can you mention any other animals ? What is said of animals living in very cold climates'? What is the Illus. 1 Can you give HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 85 How animals should be kept profitably. [In case of those animals that do not produce for themselves fat beneath the skin, cold weather is apt to destroy life.] Illus. The Tiger Hyena. [The fat of the system is produced by the same kinds of food as is necessary for the production of heat.] [Less food is required to keep fat animals warm, than is necessary for lean ones.] Inf. a. It must be more profitable to keej animals fat through the winter, than to allow them to become lean. Inf. b. It does not follow, because a person is very fat, that he is a great eater but rather the reverse. [Fat is most plentiful at those periods of life when the system is least able to produce heat, and therefore requires to have what heat is produced most carefully preserved.] Illus. In infancy and old age, fat is most abundant. [From all these facts, it is well proved that] 106. Fat is an internal protection against the loss of heat. CHAPTER IV. Nervous System of Organic Life. 107. The increased and diminished action, which would at various times be required in the production, distribution, and preservation of heat, would render it necessary, that the organs concerned therein, should be placed under the influ- ence of the Nervous System of Organic Life. Concluding Remarks on keeping the body Warm. [There would seem to be u necessity, that a stock of fuel should be any other'} What protection has the horse ? When is fat increased? What is the Illus. ? Can you mention any other ? What is true of animals not having fat beneath the skin 1 What is the Illus. ? Can you give another 1 What animals require most food 1 What is Inf. a. ? What is Inf. b. ? When is fat most plentiful 1 What is 86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Fat, marrow, etc., a portable stock of fuel. Review. kept on hand during the cold weather at least ; for as we live in the air, it is constantly acting on the fuel of the blood, which is not so large in quantity as to last a great while if its sources be cut off, as they would be if a person kept himself quiet and could not obtain food. If on the other hand, we examine the body, we find in it quite a quan- tity of fat besides that which is directly beneath the skin. This is increased especially in certain animals, when the cold weather comes on. As the cold weather progresses, the fat is gradually exhausted.] Illus. The squirrels come out lean in the spring of the year therefore, 108. The fat within the system serves as a portable stock or store of fuel it also serves as a cushion to some parts. Review. 109. To kecj) the body warm, Heat must be Produced, Distributed, and Preserved, and the System must receive Food, Air, and Water. 110. Digestive. Organs will be necessary to prepare the fuel portion of the food for use. [The digestive organs include the mouth, stomach, second stomach, pancreas, and liver.] 111. Respiratory Organs are necessary to cause the air to act on the blood. [The respiratory organs include the lungs and those parts which inspire and expire the air.] 112. The Circulatory Organs are required to distribute the heat and fuel of the body. [The circulatory organs include the right and left Hearts, the the Ittus. ? What is fat? What is the subject of Chap. IV. 7 IT 107. Why is it neces- sary? Why is a stock of fuel necessary? What is found on examining the body? What is the Illus. 1 Can you give any other ? Is man thinner in spring or winter 1 What is said of fat in H 108? Is the time when fat is needed as a protection the same as when needed as a stock? What is said in H 109 ? What in if 110? What in mil? What in IT 112? WhatinHllS? WhatinU114? What in IT 1151 WhatinflllG? What in 1F 117? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 87 Exercise one of the best ways of warming the system. Systemic and Pulmonary Arteries, the Systemic and Pulmonary Veins, and the Capillaries.] 113. The Kidneys will be required to remove any super- abundant quantity of water. 114. Exercise will be advantageous by directly produc- ing heat, and also by furnishing fuel to the blood. [It is one of the very best ways of warming the system.} 115. The action of the Nervous System of Organic Life is imperatively required to regulate the increased and dimi- nished action of the organs concerned in maintaining the heat of the system. 116. Fat and Clothing will be required to preserve heat 117. Fat will be required as a store of fuel. BOOK IV. FOURTH GRAND DUTY TO COOL THE BODY. 118. To keep the body cool, two things are necessary. 1 st. To prevent heat from being produced. 2d. To cool the body directly. CHAPTER I. Production of Heat prevented. 119. Production of heat is prevented, 1st. By not taking exercise. 2d. By diminishing the quantity of food, 3d. By diminished action of the air. 4th. By reception of Water. 5th. By the action of the Liver. SEC. A. Effect of not exercising. 120. By keeping the system quiet, heat is not directly produced nor is fuel furnished. Inf. Labor should not be as active in warm weather or in warm climates as in cooler ones. [Nor is it necessary, as in cold climates, that a great deal of labor must be performed to obtain the required fuel to keep the body warm.] What is the subject of Book IV ? TT 118. What are necessary to keep the body cool ? U 119. How is the production of heat prevented? H 120. How does quiet prevent the production of heat? What is the Inf. ? Where must most labor be performed? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 89 A large quantity of drink prevents the production of heat. SEC. B. The effect of not taking food. [That diminishing food will prevent the production of heat, will be evident from what has already been said.] Inf. There should not be as hearty an appetite in warm weather or climates as in cold. SEC. C. Tfo diminished action of the Air. [As we live in the air, and as it is constantly necessary that air should be received into the lungs, on account of excretion, thg action of the air in the production of heat can only be diminished but never entirely set aside. The air is fortunately so constituted, that its action, in respect to the production of heat, is most perfectly regulat- ed by the amount of heat which circumstances make it necessary should be produced.] SEC. D. Water j in preventing the production of Heat. 121. The reception of water rj^events the production of }ieat, by diluting the blood, and causing the fuel or air it contains, to be a longer time than otherwise in passing any part or place where heat is produced. Inf. It cannot be wise to drink a large quantity of tea, coffee, or any drink to warm the system, when it is to be exposed to the cold.] [True, any warm fluid adds its own heat to the system, but the question is, does it add as much as it prevents from being produced ?] CHAPTER II. Cooling tlie System. [It might be thought that the temperature of the body might be prevented from rising above a healthful degree, by preventing the 90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Diminishing clothing and producing evaporation cools the body. production of heat. But an examination of the subject shows, that the action of the system, necessary in its most quiet state, will pro- duce more heat than is congenial to the health of the system in warm weather, and more than can be carried away by radiation merely. Some additional means are therefore required by the system to pro- duce the removal of heat.] 122. The. body is directly cooled, 1st. .By removing the protections that preserve heat. 2d. By Evaporation. SEC. A. Removing Protections. 123. The thickness of tlie clothing and the quantity of fat being diminished, the body is more or less rapidly cooled. SEC. B. Evaporation. [Evaporation is one of the most powerful means that can be used for cooling any thing.] Elus. a. Water is sprinkled upon the floor in a warm day, that by evaporating it may cool a room. Illus. b. In warm climates people sometimes wrap bottles of drink in wet cloths, and expose them, that the rapid evaporation of water from the cloths, may cool the contents. [As the heat to be removed from the system varies at different times, it would be important that it possess some organ by which the process of evaporation could be increased or diminished, as the case required. This organ must also be situated at the surface of the When does a person feel most, like exercising? When should the most hearty appe- tite exist 1 Is it so? Why? How is the air constituted? if 121. What is the use of water? What is the Inf. ? What is the subject of Chap. II. ? Can the system ever be in a perfectly quiet state ? Is the system active during sleep 1 What is the effect of action in the most quiet state that can be produced ? li 122. How is the body directly cooled? What is said in H 123 ? What is the subject of Sec. B. ? What does evapo- ration mean? What is one of the results of evaporation? What is Illus. a. ? What is Illus. b. ? Can you give any others ? Which morning will be the cooler, all other things being equal, when there is much or little dew to evaporate? When should evaporation from the body be greatest ? From what parts should it be greatest? What organ would therefore be necessary? Where should it be placed? Why would a HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 91 How the skin causes evaporation. How water is received. "body. As rapidly as water was evaporated from this organ, it would also be important to have it receive a fresh supply.] 124. The skin covering the body and lining the lungs causes evaporation to take place, by removing from the blood a portion of its water, and causing it to ooze out in small drops upon the surface of the skin, from whence it evaporates directly, in case of the external skin, while k is expelled from the lungs with the expired air. 125. To enable the skin to perform its duty,t\iQ system must be supplied with water. [As the water unchanged is to ooze out through the skin, it needs no preparation. It is only necessary that it be introduced into the bloodvessels in any possible way. It is usually introduced by being swallowed into the stomach ; but if the air be moist, and the system require water, it will pass into the bloodvessels through the lungs, or even through the skin.] CHAPTER m. Nervous System of Organic Life. 126. The increased and diminished action, which would be required of the organs engaged in cooling the system, ren- ders it necessary that they should be placed under the influ- ence of the Nervous System of Organic Life. Concluding Remarks on keeping the System Cool. 127. The active cooling of the system, renders necessary the hearts and bloodvessels. supply of water to the system be necessary 1 H 124. How does the skin cause evapo- ration 1 ^ 125. What must be supplied to' the system"? Does the water require any preparation 1 Why not ? Into what must it be introduced 7 How is it usually intro- duced 1 How may it be introduced 1 What is the subject of Chap. III. ? U 126. Why 92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Use of food, air, and water. [That heat may, by the circulation of the blood, be removed from the internal organs to the surface ; and. in the next place, that water may be supplied to the skin as the exigencies of the case require.] 128. The skin is necessary , to remove water from the blood to its surface. 1 29. The Nervous System of Organic Life is required to increase the action of those organs by which heat is removed; to diminish the action, as far as circumstances will permit, of those by which heat is produced ; and to increase the action of the liver, by which the fuel of the blood is removed. REVIEW OF DIVISION II. [We rtay now review and present at once before our minds the uses of food, air, and water, and reconsider what organs are necessary to apply them to their uses.] 1 30. The welfare of the system requires that four duties be fulfilled: 1st. Excretion. 2d. Nutrition. 3d. Heating. 4th. Cooling. 131. Food is useful as nutriment and fuel. 132. Air is useful in excretion, heating, (and perhaps in causing those changes which are connected with the action of the system,) and in cooling. 133. Water is useful as a vehicle to receive and transport from one place to another, any substance to be excreted, to nourish, or to heat the system. It distributes heat, and thus warms some and cools other organs. By its presence it dilutes the nourishment, and renders the nourishment of the is it necessary ? IT 127. What does the active cooling of the system render necessary 1 Why? II 128. Why is the skin necessary 1 if 1'29. Why is the organic nervous system necessary? if 130. What does the welfare of the system require? it 131. How is food useful ? IF 132. How is air useful ? if 133. How is water useful ? If 134. What classes of organs are necessary to make use of the food, air, and water 1 if 135. How many HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 93 The uses of water in the system. system more slow ; while by its removal the nourishment is furnished to the system more rapidly. By its presence it prevents the production of heat, by diluting the fuel of the blood. By its removal it increases the rapidity with which heat is produced, and also with which it is distributed. If perspired, it by evaporation cools the body, as it does also by application either as a bath, or in the form of " damp cold air." By its removal it also increases the rapidity with which excretion is produced. 134. Pive classes of organs are necessary to make use of the food, air, and water. 1st. The Excreting. 2d. The Diges- tive. 3d. The Respiratory. 4th. The Circulatory. 5th. The Nervous System of Organic Life. 135. The Excreting Organs are of five classes: 1st. The Lungs. 2d. The Kidneys. 3d. The Skin. 4th. The Liver. 5th. The Second Stomach and Colon. 136. The Digestive Organs are, 1st. The Mouth. 2d. The Stomach. 3d. The Second Stomach, Liver, and Pancreas. 4th. The Lacteals. 137. Tlie Respiratory. Organs consist of the Lungs, and apparatus which inspires and expels the air from them. 138. The Circulatory Organs are the right and left Heart, the Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries. 139. Tfie Nervous System of Organic Life is indefinitely known. [The uses of each organ, and the necessity for its existence, will be more strongly impressed if they be now classed according to their use in fulfilling the grand duties of the system.] 140 In the process of Excretion there are required, the Lungs, the Kidneys, the Skin, the Liver, the Second Sto- and what classes of organs compose the excreting organs? H 136. How many and what organs compose the digestive organs? II 137. "Of what organs do the respiratory apparatus consist ? IT 138. What are the circulatory organs? if 140. What organs are 94 The number of duties each organ fulfils. mach and Colon, the Hearts and Bloodvessels, and the Nervous System. 141. In the process of Nutrition there are required, the Mouth, Stomach, Second Stomach, Liver and Pancreas, the Lacteals, the Kidneys, the Hearts and Bloodvessels, the Nervous System. 142. In the process of keeping the system warm there are required, the Mouth, the Stomach, the Second Sto- mach, Liver and Pancreas, the Lacteals, the Lungs, the Kidneys, the Hearts and Bloodvessels, the Nervous System. 143. In the process of cooling, there are required the Skin, the Lungs, the Liver, the Bloodvessels, the Nervous System. [The duty of the Lungs is therefore three-fold. t The duty of the Kidneys is also three-fold. The duty of the Skin is two-fold. The duty of the Liver is four-fold. The duty of the Second Stomach is three-fold. The duty of the Mouth is two-fold. >& The duty of the Stomach is two-fold. The duty of the Lacteals is two-fold. The duty of the Hearts and Bloodvessels is four-fold. The duty of the Nervous System is four-fold.] [The duties just mentioned have reference merely to the action of each organ in respect to the four grand duties of these organs. Some of them have other duties to fulfil hereafter to be mentioned. There are also some parts which have not yet been mentioned, the use of which is not known, which will be spoken of in the Second Part of the work]. required in the process of excretion! If 141. What organs are required in the process of digestion ? if 142. What organs are required in the process of keeping the system warm ? if 143. What organs are required in the process of cooling the system 1 How many duties have the lungs? What are they? How many duties have the kidneys'? What are they ? How many duties has the skin? What arc they? How many duties has the' liver ? What are they ? How many duties has the second stomach ? What are they? How many duties has the mouth? What are they? How many duties has the stomach ? What are they ? How many duties have the lacteals ? What are they ? How many duties have the hearts and bloodvessels 1 What are they ? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 95 The first and second class of organs powerfully influence each other. 144. All the organs engaged in excretion, nutrition, and in heating and cooling the system, may very properly be 'combined into one class, and called the Second Class of Or- gans. [They are frequently termed the organs of organic or vegetative life.] [It is now worthy of notice, that as the First Class is dependent on the Second for nourishment, &c., so also the Second C*ass is depend- ent on the First for supplies of food, clothing, water, &c. Hence they are most intimately connected fby means of their nervous systems, and every state of either has an effect upon the other ;\ the mind also is so connected with the body, that every state of the mind aifects more or less immediately all parts of the system, and the fulfilment of every duty of the Second Class of organs, while every state of those produces an effect on the mind. A person cannot then expect good digestion when his temper is morose, and on the other hand, in- digestion will tend to produce a bad state of mind.] [One fact more is here worthy of notice, viz., all parts of the body increase in size from the earliest periods of their life to mature years. For the accomplishment of this it is evident that such substance as the body is composed of will be required, viz. <, the same substance as is necessary in the repairing process. It must be prepared, and in all respects treated in the same manner.] 145. The nourishment of the body previous to maturity is for two purposes; 1st. Its growth. 2d. Its repair. [After this general view of the various parts of the body, their uses and requirements, we may pass over each part more in detail, having now a sufficiently clear idea of what the system and its vari- ous parts are for, to be able with a watchful eye to detect what ought and what ought not to be done to obtain and preserve for the longest period of time, the greatest possible degree of health and power of mind and body.) How many duties has the nervous system of organic life? What are (hey? if 144. What organs may ^e brought into one class 1 \Vhat may it be called ? What are the organs composing Tt frequently called? What is now worthy of notice? How are the two classes of organs in the body connected? What cannot a person expect? What fact is worthy of notice ? What is necessary for the growth of the system ? V 145. For what is the nourishment of the body previous to mature years? What do you suppose causes the body to grow for a series of .years, and then cease to do so ? What now are we prepared to do 1 PART II. PARTICULAR DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM. DIVISION I. FIRST CLASS OF ORGANS. BOOK I. ORGANS OP VOLUNTARY MOTION. CHAPTER I. The Framework of the System. 146. Tlie Skeleton is the technical name of the Frame- work of the System. It is composec^of Bones, Cartilages, and Ligaments. Its duty is, to give form to the body, to support the soft parts in their proper positions, to protect certain parts from injury, and by means of joints, to allow the required motions of the various parts of the body. Inf. Perfection of form, and the greatest strength of the system, cannot exist without the bones, cartilages, and ligaments are perfect.^ SEC. A. The Bones. 147. The Bones are composed of two classes of sub- H 146. What is the skeleton? Of what is it composed? What its duty? What is the Inf. 1 if 147. Of what are the bones composed 1 H 148. How may the hard sub- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 97 The bones an exquisite piece of masonry. stances. 1st. A hard, earthy, chalky, or mineral class. 2d. The soft, animal, or cartilaginous portion. [In fact, many different simple elements are found in the bones, but, for practical purposes, they may all be included in two classes.] 148. The Hard portion may be obtained by placing a bone in the fire. It will burn out the soft part) That which is left, will have the same form and will be nearly as large as the entire bone ; but will not be as heavy, and will be very brittle, indeed, will crumble between the fingers like chalk* I U/HV^x 149. Tfie Soft or Animal portion of bone is obtained by placing a bone in diluted muriatic acid (as the best thing). This will "eat out" the earthy portion, leaving the soft part untouched. This will present the same form and nearly the same size as the entire bone, but will not be as heavy, and is so flexible or easily bent, that, if a long bone, it may be tied in a knot. J Fig. 19. * Let the student try the experiment of subjecting a bone to the action of heat. stance be obtained .' Have you tried the experiment mentioned 1 IT 149. How can you obtain the soft substance 1 Describe Fig. 17. What is the Inf. 1 H 150. When does 98 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Injurious to try to teach a child to walk. Milk the only proper food. Inf. The hard and soft parts having the same form and size as the entire bone, they must be very intimately blended throughout the entire bone. 150. The proportions of the hard and soft parts differ very much at different periods of life. In early years the soft, in old age the hard, predominates. Indeed when the person is very young, the place of the bone is entirely occu- pied by soft substance. Some of the hard substance is first deposited, then more, and so on, till at a certain period there will be so much firmness of the bones that they will not bend by their own weight, and in a little longer time, they will bear the weight of the body. Inf. a. Itf a child be placed Upon its feet too early, deformity will be the result. So also, carrying a child, or frequently placing it in any position for a long time together, will tend to bend the bones. Stand- ing stools, and the like, must be injurious^* Inf. b.As the bones receive their strength by the addition of hard substance to the soft, it follows, that only such food as contains the constituents of the bones should be eaten, especially in infancy. [The Creator has prepared for this and if(milk\ be used,, a person must be sure of being right. On the other hand, many of those things fed to children instead of milk, cannot assist in forming the bones, and doubly injure the child in some cases for they fatten the child and make it heavy, while the bones are not strengthened to bear the weight.] 151. In texture, the bones are quite solid for a little dis- tance from the surface, they then begin to be more loose, what is called cancellated, as seen in * It is not probable that a child can be taught to walk one day earlier than nature intends ; but as soon as the child is strong enough it will walk instinctively, and with- out any teaching, the same as an animal does. The chicken just hatched from its shell walks because it is large and strong enough to do so. No matter how much trouble it may make, it is better to have a child roll about and creep as long as it chooses, and walk when unerring nature teaches it to do so. the soft part predominate ? How is the bone formed'? What is Inf. a. 7 Ought a little child to sleep all night in one position 1 If the child be too young to turn itself, what should be done? What is the substance of the foot note? What is Inf. b.1 What food has the Creator prepared 'I Ought milk alone to be used by children 1 How HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 99 Cells in bones. Fever sore. Felon. FIG. 20. [That is, the bone begins to appear in the form of thin plates, in- tersecting each other so as to form cells, something like honey-comb, only a hundred times smaller. The cells increase in size as the bone is pierced more deeply, till the centre of many of the bones is found to be hollow. This arrangement does not materially take from the strength of the bones, while it makes them essentialty lighter, and prevents the effects of jars.] 152. The bones differ very much from each other in form, size, and relative strength, according to the situation they occupy and what will be required of them. 153. All the bones are covered with a very thin, strong skin or membrane, called the Periosteum (about bone). A similar part also lines the inside of the bones. [This membrane is sometimes subject to a disease which if it exist on the long bones is called fever-sore, while if it be on one of the small bones of the finger, it is called a felon. It is usually difficult to ascertain the cause of these complaints, but the mode of treatment is very certain as soon as they are known to exist. The part should be cut open down to the bone ; it abbreviates pain, hastens a cure, is perfectly safe and judicious. If a person will not have this done, cold applications should be continuously made for a long time. It might be asked how shall this disease be known 1 By the deep, throbbing, continuous ache, great tenderness to the touch while the disease does other food injure sometimes? 1T 151. What is the texture of a bone near its sur- face? How is it inside? How can you knoic how this is? Describe Fig. 18. How is the centre of some of the bones? Will you lay open a bone or two of different kinds, and present and describe them at. the next recitation ? II 152. How do the bones differ ? TT 153. With what are the bones covered ? Where is the disease " fever sore" situated? Where a " felon ?" How should either be treated? What is the effect? If a person will not submit to this, what may be done ? How may the disease ba 100 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Care necessary in case of broken bones. does not affect the joints, and is local. It is apt to be mistaken for rheumatism. It must be taken in hand early, and treated very promptly.] 154. The, bones are supplied with bloodvessels, but not as numerously as some of the softer portions. Inf. If the bones be injured or diseased, the changes necessary for their repair will not take place as rapidly as in some parts of the sys- tem, and the bones will be a long time, in some cases, in recovering. [Many times, persons feeling well in other respects, and being wearied by the restraint, throw aside a part or the whole of the sup- ' ports which have been put about the limb, or endeavor to use it be- fore they ought, and thus produce a deformity which might be avoided by greater care. The older the person, the longer the time required, as a general thing, for the restoration of the bones. In many cases, if the bones of an old person be broken, they will not unite.] 155. The bones increase in size and strength to a certain extent, when a person gradually demands more and more of them. Proper exercise therefore benefits the bones. SEC. B. The Cartilages. 156. Cartilage is frequently called gristle ; it is not as solid or unyielding as bone indeed its most important qua- lity is its elasticity. [That is to say, when pressed upon, it yields, and immediately re- turns to its former condition when the pressure is removed. The de- gree, however, of this elasticity, differs in different cartilages; it is sufficiently exact for this work to say, that] 157. The different cartilages may be arranged in three classes. 1st. Those covering the ends of the bones at the joints, generally. 2d. Those found between the bones of known? What is it frequently thought to be? H 154. Repeat IT 154. What is the Inf. ? How are persons apt to do ? What is said of an old person's bones 1 H 155. Do the bones increase ? How can more and more be demanded of them 1 What is the subject of Sec. II. 1 if 156. What is cartilage? What is meant by its elasticity? Can you give an illustration ? IF 157. In how many classes may the cartilages be ar- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTIC/ ''> ' Beautiful arrangement of one class of cartilages. the back. 3d. Those which are not found between joints, properly speaking. [The first class may be dismissed with a brief notice. They are quite dense, yet yield a little to forcible pressure ; they make a very perfect joint on account of their smoothness also, and, by their peculiar arrangement, they strengthen the joints greatly, they being thick in the centre and thin at the sides where they cover the ball, while at the opposite part of the joint they are thin in the centre and thick at the sides as seen in] Fig. 21. Fis. 19. D, Body of a bone, at the end of which a socket is found. C, Cartilage, thick at the sides, and thin in the centre. B, Body of a bone, at the end of which a round head is found. A, Cartilage, thin at the sides, and thick in the centre. 158. The Second Class are the most important parts of the framework in regard to its form. [They must, therefore, be very carefully examined. To understand their use we must also examine the bones of the back, their relations, motions, &c.] 159. The Backbone (spinal column), as it is called, is composed of 24 different bones called Ve'rtebrse (a single one Vertebra). The lower is based upon and supported by a bone called the Sacrum (Sacred, from the tradition that it was the part offered in sacrifice by some of the Ancients). See Fig's 22, 23, 24, and 25. ranged'? What is the first? Second? Third? What is said of the first class? Is any part of {lie body really worthy of a short notice ? Describe Fig. 19. fl 158. What is paid of the second class? To understand, them, what must be considered? IS 159, Describe the backbone. Of what are each vertebra composed? Describe Fig. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. What is a process ? Describe Fig. 25. Describe Fig. 26. PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Fig. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 22. Backbone, spinal column, vertebral column, bed, Bodies of verte- bra? ; the projections on the opposite side are called spinous processes; above b they incline down but little ; between b and c they incline very much ; between c ami (f, but little, if any. Spaces between vertebra? are filled, in life, wiih the cushion-like cartilages. Above 6, are the cervical (neck) vertebrae ; b to c, dorsal (back) or chest vertebrae ; c to d, lumbar (loins) vertebra? ; d e. sacrum ; ef, coccyges. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTJC.5. * 103 Formation of vertebrae. Fig. 26. 160. Each Vertebra is composed of a Body a Ramus (branch), or Lamina upon each side ; Lateral processes ; Spinous process ; Superior and Inferior processes. See Fig's 22, 23, 24, and 25. [Process is the name of any sharp prominence or projection of bone. Its object usually is to give the muscles connected with it, a greater power over the part upon which the process is, as exhibited 'by Fig. 25. The hand can move the skull much more easily than if the cord were attached, directly to the head. [It will be noticed in Fig. 22, that some of the spinous processes, viz. between opposite b and c, incline downward very | much, while above l> and below c, they I" "' -"* The effect of this skull, represents prominences up- w ni be evident, if we endeavor to bend on the bones ; the longer these are, the greater the effect of any force the different parts of the back. We can acting upon them. . . bend it very much in the region of the loins and neck, and but little in the central part, as the process of the bone above will strike upon the one below very quickly, and thus its motion will be restricted.] 161. Tlie Superior and Inferior processes are those parts of the Vertebrae by which they are jointed together, viz., are the pivots upon which the vertebrae turn, as seen by Fig. 27, 28, and 29. What will be noticed in Fig. 22. ? What is the effect of this 1 Where can we bend it the most? What are the superior and inferior processes of the vertebrae? Describe Fig. 26? Describe Fig. 27 ? Describe Fig. 28 ? Describe Fig. 29 ? Describe Fig. 30 ? What is represented in Fig. 26 in respect to the process ? Dees precisely the same arrangement exist between all the bones ? Do the motions required of the different parts of the, buck permit the same kind nf joint ? Is the pivot in the centre of the bone ? Which side of the centre is it ? Which side of the pivot is tin: greater weight ? On which side of the pivot is the weight of the" body greater 7 What is the desired end that may be gained in two ways ? What would be the effect of 1 04 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY, Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig. 27. Position of two vertebrae. Fig. 28. Position of two vertebrae when when the back is erect. the back is bent backwards. Fig. 30. Backbone bent forward. Fig. 28. Vertebra bent forward muscles? What ilifliculty would be experienced? What is the nature of the mus- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 105 The vertebrae by their own weight and by that of the body tend to fall forward. [As is represented by Fig. 27, the processes do not rest directly upon each other, but the inferior processes of the bone above are received within the superior processes of the bone below, so that the bones are bound together, as well as allowed to move in every direction. There is not, however, precisely the same arrangement in case of all the bones, but in the different regions of the back, there is a curious adaptation of the joints to afford the desirable motions of the bones.] [It will be noticed that the joint or pivot is not in the centre, from the front toward the back part of the bone, but is considerably back of the centre. It will also be observed, that a larger part of the weight of the body will rest upon that portion of the spine in front of the pivots, or joints. Therefore, the bones alone would not balance on their pivots, as represented in Fig. 22 ; bui would fall forward, and the whole backbone would have the form seen by Fig. 30.] [Two ways may be adapted for gaining the desired end. 1st. Muscles might be stretched across from point to point of the back part of the bone. By the contraction of these, the back could be ' Fig. 31. Backbone bent backward. cles ? What is said of india-rubber placed between the vertebrae 1 What 10 the effect 106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How the bones are supported and also allowed motion. supported in an erect position, could be bent backward, and by their relaxation the bones would be allowed to fall forward. A great difficulty would, however, be experienced, viz. : it would be necessary to have the muscles in almost a constant state of contraction. This they could not sustain, for they are of such nature that it is necessary they should be frequently relaxed. They would be too large also for the room that could be allowed them. 2d. Let now a piece of India- rubber be placed between the bodies of the bones, and tightly fasten- ed to the surface above and below it.* Would it not be precisely what is wanted 1 Will it not serve to support the bones above and the weight resting upon them 1 When greater pressure is used will it not yield, while it is at the same time striving to " spring " back 1 And will it not do so as soon as the pressure is removed 1 If on the other hand sufficient force is used to separate the bones, will not the rubber reluctantly yield or stretch and will it not draw the bones back as soon as the force, that separates them, is removed 7 But the rubber will, by use, lose its good qualities. "What is desired, therefore, is something that possesses all its good qualities and will retain them.] 162. The Cartilages of the back, called Inter- (between) Vertebral substances, are firm, elastic springs. It is their duty by yielding to pressure, and by stretching when force is applied in the opposite direction, to allow motion of the back in every direction. [Some positions of the back may therefore be maintained by the action of the cartilages only, while other positions are produced, but cannot be long continued, by the action of the muscles, which of course are obliged to resist the action of the cartilages also, while of course some positions are produced by the combined action of the cartilages and muscles.] [Some of the muscles which support the hack and produce its motions are attached to, act upon and through the spinous processes and other parts near by. Others connect between the ribs and breast * India-rubber springs, upon this same plan, are now made and used beneath cars, &c.; and a man has taken out a patent for his plan, which, after all, is nothing so good as the pattern in his own back. of use on rubber ? What, therefore, is desired 1 if 162. What are the cartilages of HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 107 The cartilages support and give form to the back. bone and the front part of the hip bones. The " purchase" which through the ribs and other parts of the chest is allowed to the muscles, and the perfect elasticity of the cartilages render the motions of the back perfectly easy and rapid.] Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 32. Two vertebrae erect. Fig. 33. Two vertebrae, cartilage com- pressed. Fi2. 34. Two vertebrae,cartilage stretch- ed. There is, in fact, but little if any real stretching of the cartilages, for when the back is erect, and the cartilage in what is called a natural state, it is compressed to a degree by the weight of the body. When, therefore, it is taken offby the action of the muscles upon the spinous process, the car- tilages readily spring up and become thick- er, without any force acting upon them. Indeed, by their action they help the mus- cles raise the back, and bend it backwards. On account of this, the task of the muscles of the back is easy, and they may be small compared with those that bend the back forward, though the last act at great advan- tage by their position, and the lever power given by the ribs. 163. TJw chief duty of supporting tke back, and giving it form, belongs to the cartilages. the back called ? What are they 1 What is their duty 1 Describe Fig. 31 . Des- cribe Fig. 32. Describe Fig. 33. How may some positions be sustained 1 How are others 1 Where are some of the muscles that act upon the back attached ? Where do others connect 1 IT 136. What chief duty belongs to the cartilages 7 What becomes 108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. ^' Important facts in respect to cartilages. [It becomes exceedingly important, therefore, to know the condi- tions by which the best state of the cartilages is produced and con- tinued. Unfortunately it is very difficult to ascertain this precisely. It is not known whether a change of material necessarily takes place in the cartilage each time it is used. Nor can it be conjectured how rapidly the process of nourishment and changing must go on. All that can be done, therefore, is to notice reliable facts, and deducee from them necessary inferences.] 164. Tlie Cartilages must, be produced and nourished from the blood, since all parts of the body are. ////. If the blood be bad, the cartilages must suffer. And as the blood is formed from the food, without the little child receives the food which contains the elements of cartilage, how can the cartilage be perfect, or the child well formed 1 How unfortunate it must he for the child to receive more food adapted to form fat than it neede, for then it will of course be very heavy, while its cartilages do not become perfect. [How the nourishment is received from the blood by the cartilage is not certainly known. Some deny that any bloodvessels can be found in any cartilages. The learned Muller asserts, however, that he has seen them in some of the cartilages. They cannot however be numerous, and must be very small or they would be readily detected. The changes in the cartilages, and their growth, must of course be very slow. This will account for the facts that the backs of young children are not straight, and that young persons who "grow" rapidly are usually much curved or stooped for a time.] 165. The growth and nutrition of the cartilages are under the influence of the organic nervous system, since all parts of the body are. Inf. Whatever enfeebles the nervous system must exert an inju- rious "influence upon the cartilages. 166. The cartilages differ in their natural constitution in different persons, and in the same person at different periods of life. exceedingly important! What is all that may be done in respect to the cartilages 1 What has the blond to do with the cartilages? What is the inf ? Why must the change in, and growth of, the cartilages he very plow? What will this account for? U 165. What has the organic nervous system to do with the cartilages 1 What is the HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 109 Important facts in respect to cartilages. [This is the case to a greater or less degree with all parts, but more true of some parts than of others. Of the cartilages it is especially true that they differ in their firmness or " springiness," at different times and in different persons, even if they adopt the same habits.] Inf. It might be expected, as is the case, that some should be straight, while others, doing the same things, would be more or less curved. In childhood, while growth is rapid, and in old age, we see the back curved, or even very crooked. In one person the cartilages might be able to maintain for a short time their elasticity, while in another individual they would not yield so readily. It will not be right to argue from what is true of one person, that the same will be true of another.] 167. Pressure upon the cartilages causes them to yield at the point pressed. Illus. a. When a person carries a burden it causes him to stoop. [This is not because he wishes to do so, but because the cartilages yield to pressure. One person yields to the same burden more than another.] Illus. b. When an ox draws a heavy load his back rounds up, owing to the yielding of the cartilages. Illus. c. Every person is shorter at night than in the morning, owing to the yielding of the cartilages during the day. 168. If the pressure be removed, the cartilages regain their thickness, if the pressure have not been continued too long, and if sufficient time for rest be allowed. [In respect to both these points there will be a great difference in different persons.] Illus. a. As soon as the burden is taken from a man or animal, the cartilages straighten the back. Illus. b. In the morning the height is usually the same as it was the previous morning. [This is not on account of any thing except that rest from pres- sure has been given by the horizontal position during the night.] Inf. ? When do the cartilages differ ? What is the Inf. ? When do we see the back curved? Is what is true of one person also true oJ another! if 167. What is the effect of pressure on the cartilages! What is Illus. a. 1 Why is this ? What is Illus. b. ? What is Illus. c.? if 168. What is the effect of removing the pressure ? Are all 110 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Advantage to the cartilage of frequent repose. Illus. c.A French physiologist says that a son of his grew shorter by an inch during one night's dance. [Those who shall spend the night without repose, will always find a remarkable effect produced upon the stature, more than will be during the same number of morning hours after repose. That is to say,] 169. The longer the time after repose the pressure is made the more effect will it have. Inf. Frequent repose or rest from pressure must be prof table to the cartilages, ESPECIALLY IF THEY BE WEAK. [How relief from pressure affects a renovation of the cartilages is not certain. It seems, however, to be reasonable to believe that re- pose is profitable by allowing new substance to find its way to the internal parts of the cartilages. For this purpose there seems to be an admirable provision in the arrangement of the arteries, which lead the nourishment to the backbone. An artery is situated by each side of the spinal column, so that nourishment may be received by the car- tilages from two sources. On this account it is almost impossible altogether to cut off the reception of nourishment, for if the back be bent in one direction, the new material can pass in on the other, where, indeed, the condition of the cartilages is such as to facilitate the reception of nourishment.] 170. The longer the. pressure is continued, and the more severe and unwonted it is, the longer the time which will be required to recover from the effects produced. Illus. Doctor Baird, Professor of Natural Science in Dickinson College, told the writer that he measured himself one morning about eight o'clock. After hunting during the day he measured himself again, between four and five, and found he had lost three-fourths of an inch in stature. It was the second morning after before he had regained his usual stature. [Some may think it impossible that so much loss of stature can be produced in so short a time. Let them consider that a slight effect produced upon each cartilage by allowing the back to incline forward, produces a remarkable difference in the perpendicular stat- persons alike in these respects? What is Illus. a.? What is Illus. b.l What is Illus. c.? fl 169. When does pressure have most effect ? What is the Inf. 7 Why is it put in italic 7 What is reasonable to believe 1 What provision exists in respect to the arteries? What does this render impossible? H 170. If the pressure be long HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. Ill Bad effects on the cartilages of continued pressure. lire, as seen by Fig. 36, where the length of the backbone, measured through the pivots, is the same, but where the height measured by parallel lines is quite different. 171. IF PRESSURE BE CONTINUED ON ANY PART OF THE CARTILAGES FOR TOO LONG A TIME, the cartilage is rendered permanently thinner at that part^ and a corresponding de- formity is produced. Illus. Those persons who, on account of business, inclination or any thing else, preserve one position much of the time, become crooked in a corresponding manner. Inf. a. No one position should be continued for a great length of time together, but on the other hand, a variety of positions should be sought. Exercise of various kinds should be taken, that pressure may be first made upon one part and then upon another of the car- tilages. [The common injunction to girls to " sit up," or they will grow crooked, cannot be right. And we see that most girls are more or less crooked, while young men are mostly straight. The Indians are also well formed. When they sit they always take easy positions. Especially should this be observed in case of young girls who are " growing fast.'' The cartilages will need frequent and long repose. Easy chairs, easy school seats, lounges, &c., should be allowed them.] Inf. b. Shcplder-straps, and shoulder-braces, and tight clothing, as well as supports of whalebone, &c., in the clothing, cannot be useful in producing or preserving a good form, but must necessarily tend to injure the form. [In the first place, any thing of the kind which confines the back to one position, must cause continued pressure upon the same parts of the cartilages, and of course cause them to become permanently thin- ner. Tight clothing also tends to cause deformity, by pressing down the ribs at the lower part of the abdomen. This must necessarily draw down the bones of the back to which they are attached, and compress the cartilages between those bones. Thus there will be two causes of continued pressure upon the same parts of the same carti- lages, and the result will be that they will become permanently thin- ner, and the form of the back produced as seen in Fig. 35. continued what will be required 7 What is the Illus. 1 Does it look reasonable that a person could grow so much shorter in so little time ? What should we consider ? Which spiiial column of Fig. 35 is the longer if measured through the pivots ? Have you tried an experiment to 'see? IT 171. What is the effect if pressure be continued 112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Fig. 35. Here, the cartilage has been taken out between the vertebrae of the chest, and they have been allow- ed to drop down and pro- duce that form of the back, which to a greater or less degree is so frequently seen. It seldom, however, happens that tight cloth- ing produces this deform- ity alone. The pressure will not usually be directly up- on the front part of the car- tilage, but rather to one side, and hence there is produced what is called a lateral or side curvature ; and because the liver is on the right side (PI. 3, Fig. 1) the backbone is usually bent out toward the right shoulder, which is itself more or less thrown out, as seen by Fig. 36. Not only this, but the de- formity of the backbone, with the drawing down of the ribs by the clothing, causes the back of the chest to be, or appear to be, pushed out. adding still more to the deformity. Fig. 36. Fig. 35. Back droops in the region of the chest. Firce of the muscle depend 1 Why is a certain kind of blood required by the mus- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 129 Beautiful and important action of the kidneys. 203. The degree of motion and force a muscle can exhibit depends, in the fifth place, on the quality of the blood it receives. [As the substance which composes the muscle is of a certain kind, the blood must contain a similar kind : in the first place, to form the muscle when it is growing; in the second place, to renew the muscle.] Inf. As the blood is formed from the food, care should be taken that it contain, in infancy, as well as at other times, those elements required by the muscles. [As the food is received only at intervals, the action of the muscles must in those intervals be continually lessening the amount of sub- stance useful to the muscles.] Inf. a. The quantity of food received and the intervals at which it should be taken, should depend on the action of the muscles. Inf. b. It must be exceedingly bad policy to poorly or scantily feed a laboring man or animal. Inf. c The relaxations of the muscles between each contraction should be longer, and the perfect repose of the muscles longer, the longer the time they have been used. [The quality of the blood will be affected by other circumstances than the action of the muscles. One of great consequence is, the quantity of drink taken. This being received into the bloodvessels will dilute the solid portions of the blood, and the muscles will be a longer time in receiving the amount of nourishment they require.] Inf. To drink unnecessarily is injurious to the muscles. [The action of the Kidneys is to be also noticed, as when they remove water they hasten the renewal of the muscles.] 204. Tlve degree of motion and force a muscle can exhibit will depend, sixthly, on the quantity of blood it receives. [This is to a great degree regulated by its own action. Causes, however, sometimes exist which so increase the circulation elsewhere that the muscles do not receive a full supply, as will be hereafter set forth.] [There are two other causes which do usually, or may, act upon the circulation of blood through the muscles. One very much to their benefit, and one very much to their injury.] cle ? What is the Inf. 1 What takes place in the interval between the reception of food ? What is Inf. a. 7 What is Inf. b. 1 What is Inf. c. '( What other circum- 130 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Tight clothing very injurious to the muscles [Rubbing the muscles is nf surprising benefit to them, by increasing the flow of blood to, through, and away from them. The pony that the lady rides is made graceful and nimble by rubbing. The horse that works is saved and restored from stiffness and soreness of his muscles by rubbing.] Inf. Man will be benefited by rubbing his muscles as much as the animal. [Every laboring man, that he may labor with ease, should every night and morning give his system a thorough rubbing.* When during the day also the muscles exhibit fatigue.* a man should rub them thoroughly. Whoever also desires to be easy and graceful in movement, must take particular pains to perfect the muscles by fre- quently rubbing them.} [Tight clothing, on the other hand, by compressing the blood- vessels, prevents the muscles from receiving a due supply of blood, and is one of the most serious evils with which people afflict them- selves. It directly prevents a person from gaining the end desired, viz.. gracefulness. The mother who wishes to see her child beautiful in form, easy in her manner, and every way attractive, instead of binding the clothing tightly, should be ever on the alert to see that the clothing nowhere obstructs the flow of blood, and that by exercise, rubbing, and the preservation of a proper degree of warmth, it is in every possible and reasonable way accelerated.] 205. The degree of motion and force a muscle can exhibit depends, seventhly, on the influence of the organic nervous system. [By its action the bloodvessels of the muscle are enlarged or diminished, as it is believed ; the nourishment also of the muscle go- verned, its increase or diminution produced, &c. When, therefore, all * The best thing with which to rub the system, is a pair of stockings, half or more worn out, according to their harshness and the delicacy of the skin. stance will affect the quality of the Wood ? What is Inf. a. ? What effect on re- newal of tin? muscles will the action of the kidneys have? 204. Upon what, in the sixth place, does the force of the muscle depend ? How is this regulated 1 What is the effect of rubbing the muscles 1 What is the Inf ? Who will be hci-.t-liiud by nibbing? What is the effect of tight clothing"? What does it directly prevent? What should the mother do? fi 205. What does" the force of the muscle depend on, seventhly ? What effect does the organic nervous system have ? What is said in HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 131 Review of the muscles. or any of the parts of the system are diseased or in health, the mus- cles must through the nervous system feel the effect.] Review oftJie Muscles. 206. The action of a muscle is attended with changes in itself to a corresponding degree. 207. The substance which has undergone a change is hurried away by the very action of the muscle itself. 208. The action of the excreting organs will be increased to remove it. 209. The heat of the system will be increased in two ways. 1st. By the immediate effect of the changes in the muscle. 2d. By the fuel which is furnished to the system. 210. The action of the muscles, by quickening the move- ment of the blood from them, distributes heat. 211. An amount of substance is taken from the blood to renew the muscle. 212. The action of the muscle draws the blood to the muscle. 213. An increased demand is made for food by the action of the muscles, and of course the action of all classes of the digestive organs will be increased. 214. The action of the muscles quickens the circulation, not only through the excreting organs, but* through every part of the body. [It is thus seen that proper exercise has a health-giving effect in a direct way upon almost every part and duty of the body. It is what IT 206 1 What is said in H 207? - IT 208. What will be the effect of exercise on the ex- creting organs 1 IT 209. What will be the effect of exercise in producing heat ? U 210. What will be the effect of muscular action on the motion of the blood T H 211. What is the effect of action of 'he muscle on the quality of the blood? IT 212. What effect doc.-! the action of the muscle have upon the movement of blood toward the muscle 1 H 213. What is the effect of muscular action in respect to food? U 214. What is the effect cl muscular action on the entire blood of the body 7 What is thus seen ? What 132 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Tendons Bursae Fasciae. cannot be omitted and the blessing of health remain. To take exercise regularly and thoroughly is, therefore, one of the imperative laws of health. a. Tendons. 215. The Tendons are pearl-colored, very strong parts, found at the extremities of muscles, and connecting them with the parts they act upon. [They are composed of the sheaths of the fibres, the fasciculi, and of the muscles ; sometimes lying parallel with each other, and some- times so interwoven or laced as to form a cord of prodigious strength. (a, Fig. 1, PI. 1.) They contain few, if any, bloodvessels; are injured in but few ways, and with great difficulty ; but when injured, recover very slowly. Time and patience are the chief remedies. b. Fascice. 216. Fascice is the name of a great number of parts, dif" fering considerably in their nature, but serving the same general purpose of binding parts in their proper position. [Annular ligaments is the name of certain fasciae, or bands, which pass over from one side of the ankle to another. (Fig. 1. PI. 1.) A similar one surrounds the wrist. Some of the fasciae have muscles attached to them, to render them more binding when necessary. (68, Fig. 1, PI. 1.) The fasciae exist Avithin the body, as well as at the surface, protecting many parts from pressure, and being more or less strong as the case requires.] c. Bursce. 217. BursoR are little bags, containing more or less fluid, is one of the most imperative laws of health! IT 215. What are the tendons? IIow are they composed? VVha; is said of the bloodvessels of the tendons ? \Vliat aiv ihn chief remedies for their injuries? if 210. What are Fasciae? What are annular liga- ments ? Can you perceive one on the back of the wrist ? In what parts of the body HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 133 " Weeping sinews." Cellular tissue. placed upon, or under, or between any tendons or other parts, where great pressure or motion tends to produce much friction. [They sometimes become unnaturally full, and very much weaken the part where they are situated, and are called weeping sinews, and frequently believed to be enlargements of the cartilage or bone, they feel so hard. They should be attended to as soon as perceived. For- cible and steady pressure upon them for some days or weeks will sometimes remove the evil. If it do not, more active means should at once be taken.] d. Cellular Substance. 218. Cellular Substance is composed of thin sheets of flesh intersecting each other so as to form small cells (vhence its name), which communicate with each other. Fig. 47. Fig. 47. A small portion of cellular substance or flesh, stretched so as to show ita cells. [It is more easily understood by an examination than by a descrip- tion. It can be seen by endeavoring to separate almost any piece of are the fasciae found? IT 217. What are burs* .' What improper state of these ia sometimes found 1 What is to he done? ^ ;2LS. What is cellular substance? How is it most easily understood? How can it he seen ? Have you tried any experiment 134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Corpulent persons may not be great eaters. meat in the direction of its fasciculi. Very delicate sheets will be seen stretched between the two parts at the point of separation.] [This substance is found throughout most parts of the system, loosely binding together, and at the same time separating the differ- ent parts in connection with which it is found.] [Its cells are moistened by a fluid, an accumulation of which con- stitutes one kind of dropsy.] 219. The use of the Cellular Substance is to facilitate the action of those parts with which it is connected. e. Adipose Tissue (Fat). 220. Adipose Tissue is in the form of small cells or bags, which do not communicate with each other, and which are more or less filled with what in man during life would be called a semMiquid oil. Its use is to form a cushion to some parts, to protect some parts from loss of heat, and to store, so to speak, a quantity of fuel for the system against a time of need. 221. TJie quantity of Fat differs in different persons, and in the same persons at different seasons of the year, and at different periods of life. [Some constitutions, in case of man and animals, produce fat very readily. Why this is so, cannot at present in all cases be accounted for. It is not by any means true, that those who are corpulent are great eaters ; indeed, the protection from the loss'of heat afforded by their fat renders it unnecessary for them to eat as much as a lean per- son ; and it has often been noticed, that a fat animal does not eat as much as a lean one.] [In the fall of the year fat increases easily, and in spring it diminishes.] by which to find it? Where is the cellular substance found ? U 219. What is the use of cellular substance? V 220. What does adipose mean? In what form is adipose found? What consistence has its contents during life 7 What is its upe ? n 221. fo the quantity of fat the same in different persons? What is said of some constitu- tions ? What is not true ? When is the quantity of fat increased ? When does it dimmish? What is the Inf. ? What Is the proportional quantity in childhood? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 135 To lose weight in the Spring is healthy. Inf. A person should not by any means think himself sick, be- cause he loses weight and his appetite in the spring ; nor should he use any medicinal means to increase an appetite, which is not needed, and would be unhealthy. In early life fat is in plenty, for then the system has comparatively little power of producing heat, while the extent of surface by which heat may be lost is very great. In old age the incapability of taking exercise, and the state of the system generally, prevents the rapid production of heat, and the protecting fat is required.] [Too large a quantity of fat, however, encumbers the system and keeps it too warm, and in several ways is injurious.] [Though it is not possible in all cases to form any given amount of fat in case of man; yet as the fat is formed from certain parts of the blood, and those obtained from certain parts of the food, if those kinds of food be not eaten the fat cannot be formed : and again, as the fat of the system is used as fuel, when the system is exposed to cold and no fuel taken as food, the fat of the system can be reduced by proper abstemiousness and exposure to the cold.] * SEC. II. Nerves. 222. Tlie Nerves of voluntary motion are white pulpy cords, .extending from the brain to the muscles their office is to communicate an influence, called nervous, from the brain to the muscles. [There are, therefore, several things to consider. 1st. How they commence. 2d. How they are situated in their whole extent. 3d. How they terminate in the muscles. 4th. How they communicate the influence to the muscles. 5th. What will prevent and what will facilitate the accomplishment of their duties.] 223. 1st. How the nerves commence, or where, in particu- lar, is not known. * The kinds from which fat is chiefly formed, are fat, sweets, starch, and gums. What in old age 1 What is the effect of too lame a quantity of fat 1 How can fat be oftentimes increased ? How diminished 1 What says the foot, note. .' ''< 2-J-2. What are the nerves of voluntary motion? What is their office? What things are to be 136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Whence the nerves arise. [Some suppose their inner ends are to be found at one place, while others think they detect them in another. It is quite certain that where they first can be distinctly seen is not the commencement of them. Some are seen issuing from the lower parts of the brain, or what by some would be called the upper parts of the spinal cord. Here, however, are not the ends, for the nerves can, in case of some of them, be followed back a greater or less distance into the parts from which they issue. Some of the nerves come off from the spinal cord in its whole length in pairs, one upon each side. These likewise can be traced back for a greater or less distance into the cord of which they seem to form a part, and in which they are supposed to exist, as far as from the lower part of the brain to the point where they leave the cord. Facts and the necessity of the case so far support this supposition that it will be considered as correct.] [It may be thought strange that there should be so little certainty existing in regard to a subject of so much importance, but the ner- vous substance is so soft, and the nervous filaments which compose the nerves are so small and so delicate, that it has as yet been impos- sible to solve many momentous questions in regard to the nerves.] 224. The situation of the nerves in their entire extent may be considered in two respects. 1st. Some of the nerves pass through holes in the skull directly to those parts of the body which are to be acted on through their agency. These are called cerebral nerves. 2d. A large portion of the nerves leave the brain through a large hole in the base of the skull, become part of the spinal cord, and follow down with the other part of it, a greater or less distance in the central canal or tube of the backbone, when they leave it through holes between each of the vertebrae, and may be fol- lowed to those muscles in which they terminate. [First we may consider the spinal cord and its protections, as after considered, first? Second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? H 223. Where in particular do the nerves commence ? What do some think? What is quite certain? Where are some seen ? Where are the commencing ends of the nerves? Where do some other of the nerves come off) Can these be traced back any distance? How far in the cord are they euppo?ed to exist? What maybe thought strange? Why is it difficult to ascertain with more certainty the situations of the inner ends of the nerves? How may the nerves in their entire extent be considered, first ? Second? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 137 Membranes of the spinal canal. the nerves leave the spinal canal they are similar in all general re- spects to those which pass out through the skull.] [The mechanism of the spinal column in which the spinal cord is found, is one of the most wonderful things that we can behold. Stout and strong, it is a most perfect support to the upper parts of the body, and an adequate protection to the delicate and important cord within it, at the same time it is so flexible in every direction, and also so elastic, that in no respect can any thing more excellent be found. In respect to its strength and flexibility and elasticity, proof has already been made. But at the same time provision has been made for the safety of what it contains. Above and below, the hole through each verte- brae is larger than it is in the middle. Hence, when the back is bent Fig. 48. Is an ideal representation of HI hones with their intervening cartil- age (2) of the back. 1 1, The bodies of the bone, through which a section has been made. 3 3^ Are the posterior (back) ~ processes of the same. 4 4, Is the canal -* in the backbone, the surfaces of the bones upon either side being full, in the middle (against 4 4), and receding above and > below. If the surfaces had been in the * direction of the dotted lines, the canal would have been of the same size at ihe top, middle, and bottom of the bone ; but m now there is opportunity for the bones to * bend without causing any angles in the canal, or lessening it, prejudicially to the cord. the cord is not injured. The whole length of the canal is lined with a strong membrane called the dura mater. This membrane is lined with a delicate membrane called the arachnoid (spider's web), the in- ner surface of which is continually moistened with a delicate fluid. The membrane turns back or is reflected at certaki points in such a way that it is double the entire length of the canal, and in such a way that its two moistened surfaces touch each other, but do not grow together. In the same way as sometimes the finger draws the end of the finger of a glove into it and makes the finger double. Such What may we first consider? What is said of the ^lechanism of the spinal column? Describe it. What is the shape of the perpendicular hole in the verte- bra* I Tare you ever noticed the vertebra-, of an animal? Will you try and find one or several entire vertebra and brims them at the next recitation 7 Describe Fis. 43. What is the effect of such a form? How is the canal lined? How is the dura mater lined ? What, is the condition of its inner surface ? How does the mem- 138 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Membranes of the spinal canal. Fig. 49. 22-34 Fig. 49. Represents the bodies (a a a) of three bones of the back, broken from the back parts (c c c), which are drawn away a little dis- tance, that a view may be given of a perpendicular section of the spinal cord (5), and the parts (1,2, 2, 3, 4) between the cord and the inner surface of the bones. 1, Dura mater. 2 2, The two layers of the arachnoid represented as re- flected at 6. 3, The coarse cellu- lar substance occupying what is called the sub (under)-arachnoid space. 4, The pia mater. a condition of a membrane is described by saying it is reflected. Nearer still to the spinal cord and next in succession, there is a thick layer of coarse cells filled with fluid. By one side the layer is attached to the arachnoid. By the other it is attached to the pia mater, a membrane that tightly surrounds the cord, and at certain in- tervals extends out in the form of points to the dura mater which lines the canal. These " ligamenta dentata" serve to stay the cord in Fig. 50. Fig. 50. A Represents (3 2) a horizontal section of the cord and pia mater covering it and at 1 1 passing to the lining (4) of the bony canal. 1 1, Are called the ligamenta dentata, one of which is represented in B; which, by 1, represents a perpen- dicular section of the cord ; 2 2, the pia mater ; 3, the ligamentum of one side, which at certain places extends to the wall in the form of points or tooth-like; hence the name dentata. the central part of the canal. This is also in part accomplished by brane turn back 1 Can you give your idea of it oti the black-board ? Describe Fig. 49. Have you tried to draw a finger of a glove into the condition mentioned 1 Describe the layer of coarse cells. What is the pia mater? What does pin nn'inil What does mater -mean? Why do you suppose the membrane iras so called? Describe Fig. 50. What i* the nsn of the litramonta dentata 1 What docs ligamenta mean'l HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 139 Structure of the cord and nerves. the layer of cells before mentioned for being filled with fluid and communiGating with each other, they form as it were a column of fluid which presses in every direction on the cord. The cord itself is to a certain degree elastic, and thus adds the crowning point to its perfec- tion so far as it regards danger of being injured. The cord is com- posed of several differently appearing parts. They are distinguished into the white and gray parts. The white part is mostly composed of very delicate threads, and is found chiefly at the outer part of the cord. The gray part is mostly a pulpy mass formed inside the white portion, and only appearing at the surface of the cord at certain points. Fig. 51. A Fig. 51. Represents a cross, transverse, or horizontal section of the spinal cord, the dark half-moon shaped spots representing the gray substance. The cord is likewise considered as composed of two halves or two cords, the right and left, united in the middle. From the front part of the two halves the nerves of motion are seen to come off. but be- fore they leave the canal each one unites with what is called its pos- terior root, which issues from the posterior or back part of the cord. Outside the backbone the two roots have formed one nerve and can- not be distinguished from each other. If the spinal or cerebral nerves be examined outside their bony casement, they will be found com- posed of a sheath containing a multitude of fibres or delicate threads. Each one of these is composed of a sheath filled with a delicate pulp or jelly-like substance, the proper substance of the nerve. If the nerve be followed it will be found dividing into branches, as they are called. That is, a certain number of filaments will diverge from the rest toward the direction of the parts in which they are to terminate ; the sheath follows upon them as the bark of a trunk is continued upon its branches. Thus the nerves divide and subdivide until at last the What does dentata mean ? How is the support, of (lie cord in part also accom- plished 7 What quality of the cord adds to its perfection 7 Of what is (lie cord posed 7 How are they distinguished 7 Of what is the white part composed 7 Oi what the gray part 7 Describe Fig. 517 How also is the cord considered 7 What come off from the front part of the halves 7 Hefore they leave the canal what takes place 7 Whence does the back root issue 7 How do the nerves appear outside the backbone? Of what are the nerves composed / Of what is each thread composed? 140 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How a nervous plexus is formed. extremities of the delicate threads have no companions, and appear to terminate in the fasciculi of a muscle or in the delicate muscular fila- ments themselves. Sometimes in the course of the nerves some of the filaments leave those with which they have thus far kept company and branch off to some new companions, the destination of which is the same as their own, and thus form what is called a plexus. Fig. 52. Fig. 52. This represents a plexus, and the fact that the nerves do not strictly unite with each other, but that the filaments of one pass to be inclosed in the sheath of another, their course and neighbors merely, being changed. j 225. How the nerves terminate is not with certainty known. [Some think, they form loops either with themselves or with other nerves. Some think the filaments divide into many branches when they reach the fasciculi of a muscle, and that these branches increase or diminish with the size of the muscle. There must be a decided difference, between the termination of the nerve and any other part of its extent ; for some of the nerves are found in some part of their extent buried in the midst of muscles, which, however, are not influenced to contract by any nerves except such as terminate in them/f 226. How tJie influence is communicated to the muscle is not known. [Whether it be that the nerve necessarily undergoes changes in the fulfilment of its duty, or whether it be merely passive, is not known. It is not, therefore, known whether the nerve requires periods of repose or not, neither is it known whether the influence is commu- nicated directly from the extremity of the nerve, or whether there is Describe the divisions of the nerves? Where do the nerves appear to terminate? Describe a plexus? Describe Fig. 53. How do the nerves terminate? Some think what? How do some think the filaments divide? Is there a difference between the termination and the rest of the extent of the nerve ? How is this known ? ^ 226. How is the influence communicated from the end of the nerve to the muscle ? What HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 141 Nerves must receive blood. some hitherto unfound arrangement for transmitting the influence from the nerve to the muscle. Neither is it known to what distance from the extremity of the nerve the influence can be exerted. It must, of course, be something, but cannot be great, as we are able by exercise to control the action of very small parts of a muscle, for instance, when speaking.] 227. What will particularly affect the duty of a nerve is but little known. [Of course, any injury, disease, or compression of a nerve, must obstruct or altogether prevent the fulfilment of the duty of a nerve.] Inf. When a muscle cannot be contracted, it is by no means certain that it is itself in a bad state, and all the rubbing or other applications may be made to it without benefit. To find the seat of the trouble, the nerves of the muscles apparently affected must be followed back to where they meet, at or above which point the seat of the difficulty will be detected. [Whether the & :e of the nerve at all determines the amount or degree of influence that can be exerted through it, is uncertain. So far as we can at present judge, the smallest nerve is sufficient for influencing the most prodigious feats of strength, as seen in certain diseases. Whether likewise habit of action perfects the condition of the nerve or not, is uncertain. One thing is certain, frequent and regular use does not injure the nerve. It must receive blood and the influence of the Nervous System of Organic Life, from which facts some inferences may be drawn by the student.] SEC. III. -Brain. 228. Brain is the name given to all, except the nerves, of that large mass of nervous substance found in the skull. Its office in the production of voluntary motion, is to pro- duce an influence which, acting through the nerves, shall cause contraction of the muscles. is said to be not certainly known of the nerves 1 Why cannot the terminations of the nerves be great? It '227. What will affect the duty of a nerve? What will be the effect of any injury, disease, or compression of a nerve ? What is the Inf. 1 What is said of the size of a nerve? What is said of the effects of habitual use on the nerves.' What must the nerves receive? What inferences can you make? 1 228. 142 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Form and structure of the skull. [We have, therefore, to consider, 1st. The protections of the Brain. 2d. Its structure. 3d. The nature of the influence produced by the Brain. 4th. What will facilitate, and what will prevent the fulfilment of its duties. a. Protections of the Brain. 229. The chief protection of tJie brain is to be found in the form and structure of the skull. Fig. 53. [An arch is the best possible form for resist- ing the effects of pres- sure, and it will be no- ticed that the skull is arching in every direc- tion in which it is ex- posed to danger.] [The skull is composed of eight bones. Each bone is composed of three Layers differing in their composition. The first or outer is tough and called fibrous. Its edges are notched irregularly, that it may be locked tc its neighbors in the most perfect manner. The second layer is composed of thin plates, intersecting each other, so as to form cells ; hence it is called cancellated. Its particular name is diploe. It will not be seen at the edges of the bones, as the outer is there thickened and joined to the third layer. That is the innermost, is very brittle, and hence called the Vitreous (glassy) table or layer of the skull. It is jointed to the correspond- What is the brain 1 What is its office in this connection ? What have we to con- sider? What is the first mentioned protection of the brain? Describe Fig. 53. What is the best form for resisting pressure? Did you ever see an arched bridge 1 Can you mention any thing else where an arched form evidently gives HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 143 Form and structure of the skull. Fig. 54. Fig. 54. The bones of the skull separated. 1, Frontal, only half seen. 2, Parietal (wall). 3, Occipital (hack), only half is seen. 4, Temporal. 5, Nasal (nose). 6, Ma- lar (cheek). 7, Superior (upper) maxillary (jaw). 8, Unguis (nail form, being about the size and thickness of the finger nail). 9, Inferior (lower) maxillary (jaw). Be- tween 4 and 6, a part of the spenoicl or wedge-shaped bone is seen. Another bone assisting to form the skull, but not here seen, is called the ethmoid (sieve-like, from being full of holes), and situated between the sockets of the e^es, and forms the roof of the nose. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, are double. The small bone, and others like it, seen in a line between 3 and 4, are called ossa triquetra. ing layer of the other bones with an even edge. The joints, called sutures, of the different bones, have peculiar arrangements according to the demands of the case, and if space would permit, many pages might be occupied in demonstrating the most interesting manner by which the skull is made, in every respect, quite perfect. The struc- great strength! Describe Fig. 58. Of how many bones is the skull composed? Does this number include the small bones called ossa triquetra I Why do you suppoe 144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. One use of the marrow. ture of the different layers prevents the effect of jars from being as severe as if the bones were similar in structure throughout the thick- ness of the skull. Being composed of several bones, fractures are not, sometimes, as extensive as they otherwise would be, and in several respects, the skull is at different times adapted to the condi- tions in which it is placed, while it is quite as strong as if composed of one bone only.] 230. TJie second protection of the brain is found in the structure of the bones throughout the body. [The inside of most of the bones, especially towards the joints, is cancellated like the diploe of the skull, as represented by Fig. 55. Especially is this structure to be found in the bodies of the vertebrae.] Illus. The appearance may be observed in almost any roasting piece of beef or other piece of meat, in which the vertebrae are divided. It may also be observed, that the cells are filled with a semifluid, fatty substance called marrow 7 . [The marrow assists in " deadening" force and lessening of course the jar, which would be felt if the bones were solid.] 231. The third protection of the brain is found in the elasticity of the cartilages at the joints, and especially those between the vertebrae. 232. The fourth protection of the brain is found in the form of several of the bones and in the bent position of the different parts, when we walk, &c., and in the curvatures of the spinal column. 233. TJie fifth protection of the brain is found in the membranes, situated between the skull and the brain. they are not enumerated ? How is each bone composed 1 Describe the outer layer. Describe the second layer. Did you ever know people to put tan bark, ground, be- tween their floors to deaden jars and lessen noise 1 Describe the inner layer. If space woulcl permit, what mieht be done'? What does the structure of the different layers prevent? What is the advantage of having the skull composed of several bones? H 230. In what is the second protection of the brain found? How are most of the bones formed? Describe Fig. 55. What is the Illus. ? How does the marrow produce an effect? Does any thing which contains a fluid, sound more dull than /he same thing empty 1 Will a semifluid deaden the sound of a thing more than a limpid fluid? TT231. What is the third protection of the brain? if 232. What is the fourth protection of the brain? Describe Fig. 60. If 233. What is the fifth protection of the HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 145 Dura mater and arachnoid membranes. Fig. 55. Fig. 55. C L, Capsular ligament. R L, Round ligament. F, Thigh or femor bone. B H, The same sawn open, exhibiting the_marrpw-rilled cells composing the internal parts of many bones, as at P P also. P FP, Hip bone. S S, Space filled with syno- vial fluid, but here represented as much greater than in reality, the surfaces of the synovial membrane in fact being closely in contact. [If we pass through the skull, we find lining it, a thick membrane called the Dura Mater, which is a continuation of that which lines the spinal canal. This membrane is also lined with a delicate membrane, called the Arachnoid, the inner surface of which is brain ? Describe the dura mater of the skull. Describe the arachnoids of the skull ? 146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Brain rests upon a most beautiful hydrostatic bed. Fig. 56. [By all these means, force is dis- persed as represented by dotted lines of Fig. 56] . Fig. 56. Represents the outline of Fig. 3. The dotted lines represent how the foot, when walking, is put upon the ground. The force acting on the heel, at o, is scattered, viz. : a part of the force acts through the ankle and is lost in the direction a b, only a part of the force acting in the direction of the line a c; of this, only a small part will act in the line cf; and of this, only a part will act in the direction e h ; of this, only a part in the direction of g k ; and of this, only a part in the line i I. In fact, these lines represent but a small part of the directions in which the force is scattered ; for by the curve of the thigh bone, its neck and the connection of the hip bones with the back bone, as well as the continued curvature of this, the head is saved from the sudden jar produced when the body is as erect as it can be ; for instance, when a misstep is made, or a person falling strikes upon his feet. moistened with fluid, and is in contact with, but does not adhere to another membrane of the same character, the inner surface of which adheres to a fourth membrane, called the Pia Mater, that grows upon the substance of the brain itself. At the base of the brain a thick layer of cells, filled with fluid, is found between the inner layer of the Arachnoid and the Pia Mater. These cells are coarse, and have communication with each other. Thus the brain rests upon a most perfect hydrostatic bed, the contents of which, being less consistent than the brain, will always move quicker than it. and thus save it from the effect of jars. As the two layers of the Arachnoid touch each other, do not adhere, but are moistened with What is the meaning of arachnoid ? Describe the pia mater of the skull. What is found at the base of the brain] Upon what does the brain rest? What do you think of this arrangement ? How can the brain move in the skull? How is the skull HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 147 Brain can move in the skull falx tentorium. fluid; the brain can move to a certain extent in the skull. Still farther, the skull will be found divided in the middle line from the top nearly to the bottom, as seen by Fig. 57. Fig. 57. Represents the falx (3), situated between the two halves of the large brain. Upon the under and upper edge are seen veins, called in this part of the body sinuses. 2 2, Branches opening into the upper sinus. 6 8, Branches which drain the lower portion of the large brain. 8, Space between the two veins into which the great sinus divides. 10 11, Two large veins which have wound round to the side of the bottom of the skull. by what is called Falx. This is tightly stretched to support the brain when the head is placed upon either side. Passing through this falx from one side of the brain to the other, eight layers of membrane would be found. In the centre of the falx a double layer of Dura Mater ; on each side of these a layer of Arachnoid; again, two layers of Arachnoid, andlastly, two layers of Pia Mater, as seen by Fig. 58. In the back and lower part of the skull a kind of shelf called Tentorium, is also found. It is formed in the same manner as the falx. It comes forward for a short distance into the skull, and is stretched so as to support the back part of the upper portion of the brain, as seen in Fig. 59.] divided 1 Describe Fig. 57. Describe the falx. Describe Fig. 58. Describe the ^ 148 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The brain is beautifully balanced on a column of fluid. Fig. 58. abed Fig. 58. F, Falx. a, Skull. 6, Dura mater. c d, Arachnoids, e, Pia mater. Fig. 59. T. Tento rium. Fi - 59 - 234. The sixth protection of the brain is found in the cellular layer and its contained fluid, surrounding the spinal cord. [The cells of this layer communicate with those underneath the brain. Thus in all the flexures of the back, more or less fluid will be pressed into the skull and allowed to pass back, by which the brain is almost perfectly sustained and saved from any injury.] 235. The seventh protection of the brain is found in in its own construction. [Being elastic to a certain degree, it will yield without injury.] 236. The eighth protection of the brain is found in the breaking of the bones, when great force is applied to them. [At first it might be thought a misfortune, that the bones should be broken. But experience testifies that extensive cutting or like injury, by which even much substance shall be lost, is not as in- jurious or dangerous as a severe jar (called concussion) of the brain.] tentorium? Describe Fig. 59. IT 234. What is the sixth protection of the brain? Describe the effect produced by it 1 IT 235. What is the seventh protection of the brain? IT 236. What, is the eighth protection of the brain? What might, at first, be HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. ' 149 The size of the skull no correct indication of the size and form of brain. 237. The ninth protection of the brain is found in the clothing worn upon the head, in the hair and other coverings on the skull. Inf. Such complicate arrangements having been made to save the brain from concussion, it is certainly evident, that all causes of extraordinary jars should be carefully avoided, when not absolutely necessary. Jumping from great heights, turning " summersets," wres- tling, striking a person on the head, cuffing the ears, &c., should not be done. b. Structure of the Brain. In form and size the brain is somewhat determined by the skull. [The thickness of the skull and membranes within it vary so much that no dependence can be placed upon the skull for any thing more than a general outline. The under surface of the brain is very irre- gular in form. The outline of the upper part is more regular. Its particular form, however, is very irregular, the surface of that which is above the tentorium being uneven like that of a peach-stone. The prominences are called convolutions. The spaces between are called anfractuosities. The convolutions in different brains do not corres- pond in number or in size, neither, indeed, do those of the different sides of the brain.] 238. The consistence of the brain is that of a pulp or jelly, though different parts differ in this respect. 239. TJie brain is composed of many different parts, which differ from each other in color, form, size, and posi- tion. The particular use of any of the parts is not yet cer- tainly known. [Without doubt, different duties are performed by these, but as we thought 1 What does experience testify 7 U 237. What is the ninth protection of the brain 1 Can you now give, in a condensed manner, the several protections of the brain? What is the Inf. ? Tl 237. What is somewhat determined by the skull 1 What is said of the thickness of the skull and membranes? What of the under sur- face of the brain'! What of the outline of the upper part? What of its particular form ? What is the name of the prominences 1 What is the name of the interstices? V 238. What is the consistence of the brain 1 Of what is the brain comoosed 1 What 150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Appearance of the brain. do not yet know the mode in which the duties of the brain are per- formed, or all the requisites for their fulfilment, we cannot of course determine the duties of the individual parts. Though unsatisfactory, therefore, we must be content with a brief description of the parts as they appear. 1st. The nervous substances is divided by the Ten- torium into the upper and larger brain, called the Cerebrum, and the smaller and lower brain, called the Cerebellum. 2d. The Cerebrum is partially divided by the Falx, into the right and left halves or hemi- spheres. Beneath the lower edge of the falx, they are, however, united by white nervous fibres, which from their firmness, are called the Corpus Callosum, which is readily seen by slicing off the upper part of the two halves to a horizontal level with the corpus, as seen in Fig. 60. Fig. 60. Represents a section of the brain on a level with the bridge, or corpus callosum (rf, e, a) ; a, the front ; 6, the back ; and c, the middle part ofthe whit* or medullary portion of the brain ; /,/,/../", the gray, cineritious, cortical or outer part of the brain ; x, a deep fissure extending from the front surface of the brain to the bridge ; y, a similar fissure at the back part. is, without doubt, true 1 With what must we be content 1 How is the nervous sub- stance divided by the tentorium ? How is the cerebrum divided by the falx ? What is the corpus callosum 7 How is it seen ? Describe Fig. 60. What is said of the entire halves of the cerebrum 7 How cannot the surface of the cerebrum be determined 1 HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 151 Form of white substance produces form of outside of the brain. The entire surface of these halves is convoluted, to wit, underneath the cerebrum at the front part, and at the back part, where it rests on the Tentorium, and also where the Falx is situated. The surface of the hemispheres of the cerebrum cannot, therefore, be at all deter- mined by examining that portion of the skull we can reach during life. The outer portion of the cerebrum for a slight depth, is a deli- cate pulp of a gray color. When that substance called the gray ci- neritious,(ash, from its color) or cortical (bark) portion is removed, a large mass of white substance is presented, the surface of it having the same uneven appearance as the surface of the brain, which, in- deed, is produced by the white substance over which the gray sub- stance is spread in a tolerably even layer, as seen in Fig. 61. When the cerebrum is sliced away below the level of the corpus callosum, a number of curiously looking parts appear, as seen in Fig. 61, and Fig. 61. Fig. 61. Section of the skull, A A ; the membranes, B B ; the gray substance, C C; the medullary portion, D D; the postesior horn, E, and anterior part, F, of the ventricles. The choroid plexus is seen at G. In the bottom and between the ventricles several parts are seen, but tlieir use is not known. 152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Ventricles of the brain are not cavities. what are called the ventricles of the brain are laid open. They are usually spoken of as cavities, but are not so in ordinary cases, as their sides touch each other, except separated by an accumulation of the fluid which usually in small quantity moistens the sides of the ventricles, and prevents them from adhering. What all this com- plicate arrangement is for, is not in particular known. The cerebel- lum is one-ninth or twelfth as large as the cerebrun* It is slightly divided at the middle line into what are called its hemispheres. It is quite smooth on its outer surface, which is marked with alternate stripes of white and gray, owing to the alternate strata of the substance composing it near the surface. It is attached to the lower portion of the cerebrum, and to the upper part of the spinal marrow. Many conjectures have been made in regard to its use, but none of them have proved correct as yet, see Fig. 62.] Fig. 62. Fig. 62. Upper surface of the small brain. c. The nature of the Nervous Influence. 240. The nature of the nervous influence, is to cause muscles to contract, to act in an isolated manner through nervous filaments, and to be produced by nervous substance. Describe the outer portion of the brain"? Describe the appearance of the white sub- stance of the cerebrum. What is found below the level of the corpus callosmn? Describe Fis. 61. How are the ventricles usually spoken of 1 Is this correct ? What is the size of the cerebellum compared with the cerebrum ? How is it slightly divided 1 What kind of surface has it? Describe Fig. 62? U 240. What is the nature of the HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 153 Nervous influence not similar to the electric principle. [Farther than this is not known with certainty. It seems to be inconceivable that it should be produced without the decomposition of something. The change, also, which is constantly taking place in the blood as it circulates through the brain, indicates that the in- fluence is produced by changes in the nervous substance ; but what portions of the brain by decomposition produce the influence, or how much must be decomposed to produce a given effect cannot at present be conjectured, or how its nature is such, that it acts through one filament only of a nerve, or what its nature is in other respects, than those already mentioned, cannot even be conjectured. It has been compared to the electric, galvanic, and magnetic principles, indeed has been thought to be the same. In this a great mistake has been made. The cause of the contraction of the muscle and the electric, &c. principle, are not at all similar. If the electric influence act upon any part of a nerve, a similar effect will be produced through all its filaments. Indeed, it will be found, that the action of the electric principle is only one among several causes that will cause the nervous influence to be produced or to act. Hence, the electric principle does not itself cause contraction of muscles only as it causes the nervous influence to do it. Nor is this singular. Other causes can produce the nervous influence, and cause it to act either directly or indirectly. The mind can produce it, or cause it to act. How, we cannot say. Light also can cause it to act.] lllus. If a candle be brought near the eye, the colored part round the pupil will be observed to contract the opening. [Heat also will cause the nervous influence to act.] lllus. If the head of a turtle be removed and a coal of fire placed on his back, as soon as the heat affects the spinal cord he will begin to scramble off as fast as possible. [It is certain, therefore, that the nervous influence is produced by a peculiar state of some part, or the whole, of the nervous system ; and whatever produces this state of the nervous system will cause the nervous influence to be produced, and to act, if there be any means. Hence we see in disease, sometimes, the most prodigious feats of nervous influence ? What is inconceivable 1 What does the change in the blood as it is passing through the brain, indicate 1 ? What cannot at present be conjectured? To what has it been compared 1 If the electric influence act on a nerve, what is the eflect 1 What, in this case, causes contraction of the muscle ? What is true of other causes? Mention a very common cause, productive of nervous influence? What is thollltts.l Mention another cause? What is the Mus. 2 What is certain therefore ? 154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The brain greatly benefited by rubbing the system. strength performed, and a variety of twitchings and jerkings of the muscles, or a continued contracted state of some or many of them. The disease has caused that state of the nervous system, in which nervous influence is produced. Why it should be caused to act through certain nerves and upon certain muscles and not upon others, is an interesting question. The supposed solution of it will be given hereafter.] 241. When voluntary motion is caused, the nervous in- fluence is produced, and caused to act in a particular direc- tion by the mind. What will affect the Brain, as it regards voluntary motion. 242. A proper supply of blood is required by the brain. [What particular parts of the blood are required by the brain, or what quantity of them, to produce a given effect, is not known with certainty. As, however, the brain must be active in producing the influence, and the muscles in contracting, nearly at the same time, what would benefit one ought, it would seem, to benefit the other at the same time ; for we find it so in every part of the body where things are perfectly understood. The action of the brain would pro- bably supply itself with the desired quantity of blood in two ways : the changes taking place in the substance of the brain would attract more of the blood to circulate that way, and the contractions of the muscles would increase the flow of blood through all parts, and of course through the brain.] Inf. a. Rubbing the system by increasing the circulation of blood, and repose by giving time for the renewal of the substance of the brain, would be equally beneficial to that organ, as the same things are to the muscles. Inf. b.lf the brain undergo changes in the process of acting, it would probably, at times, be unfitted for its duties. Of such a state warning should be given. [This warning is probably given by a feeling of exhaustion, appre- What do we sometimes see in disease? What has disease caused? What ia an interesting question ? T 241. In case of voluntary motion, what causes the production of nervous influence 1 What is required by the brain ? What ought to be the case in respect to the brain and muscles ? How would the action of the brain supply itself with blood 1 What is Inf. a. 1 What is Inf. b. ? How is a warning of a state of the HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 155 Sensation of fatigue should not be removed by alcoholics, tea, coffee, tobacco, &c. ciably differing from a feeling of fatigue. It is felt when the mind is not actively and favorably disposed to any exercise taken, and when from disease there is impropriety in taking exercise, and seems to result from the state of the nervous system rather than from that of the muscles.] Inf. This feeling should not be removed by the use of alcoholics, tea, coffee, tobacco, or any stimulant or sedative, which either arouses the brain to undue action, or stifles the sensation produced by a brain requiring repose, but may with propriety be removed only by repose, rubbing, and those means which produce a renewal and perfection of the brain. [This sensation, like that of fatigue, may and should sometimes, be overcome, and the brain be caused to act beyond what is really healthful. For instance, when a person's life is in danger : or when a child is exposed to harm, or requires a mother's care, the feelings of the parent drown all sensations of fatigue or exhaustion, and also stimulate the brain to the action the case requires, even sometimes to the point of death.] 243. A proper quality of blood is required by the brain. [What particular material, and what precise quantity of it, is re- quired by the brain, is not known. Inasmuch as the brain requires some elements not requisite to form the muscles, it is a supposable case, that inability of the muscles to perform their duty may some- times occur before it does in the brain, and vice versa. One thing, however, will evidently regulate the quantity of nutriment the brain will receive in a given time, viz. the quantity of water in the blood.] Inf. To drink when a person is not thirsty will be imprudent, and prevent a powerful exhibition of strength. 244. The influence of the Nervous System of Organic Life is required by the brain. [This is necessary to enlarge and diminish its bloodvessels, and produce its nourishment as the case requires.] Inf. a. The ill health of any part of the system would injuriously brain unfit for action probably given ? When is exhaustion felt ? What is the Inf. 1 When should this feeling be overcome? n 243. What kind of blood is required by the brain? What is a supposable case 1 What will resrulate the quantity of nutriment in the blood received bynhe brain ? What is the Inf. 1 IT 244. Why is the nervous influence of organic life required by the brain? What is Inf. a. ? What is Inf. b. ? 156 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Importance of exercise with a willing mind. affect the brain, and lessen its power in the production of voluntary motion. Inf. b. When the body is not healthy, there ought to be a feeling of exhaustion, and a disinclination to take exercise. 245. Tlte state of the Mind has a great effect upon the brain in the production of voluntary motion. Illus. a. A person has been sick upon his bed. not only, but un- able, under ordinary circumstances, to raise himself; but the house having taken fire, he has roused himself, and worked with great energy till he dropped down in his labors. Illus. b. A mother feels so tired that she thinks she cannot take another step, and throws herself down for necessary repose. But at the first cry of her child she runs to its aid with alacrity, and knows lio fatigue till its wants are satisfied. Illus. c. The action of the laborer's muscle^ is quickened when he comes to the " last row." Inf. a. A cheerful, willing, energetic state of the mind has the most salutary influence on the brain ; while a dull, uninterested, mo- rose state must exert a baleful influence. Inf. b. Some means ought to be taken to excite mental interest in the exercise or labors a person takes. [True, a dull walk is better than no exercise at all ; but it does not gain all that is desirable. It is not enough to say to a person he ought to be interested, &c. ; something must be done to produce the interest and cause the desire. If it cannot be done one way, it must another. Love for his children will make one man's exercise delight- ful : love of reputation affects another. Thus the woman who wishes to have her family well supported, must strive to make her home so happy, and to use her means with such pleasure-giving profit, that her husband and children shall love to be industrious. The sister should strive to make every labor of her brother for her, prove a rich and paying harvest of happiness to him. The physician must study the disposition of the patient he wishes to have take exercise, and recommend that kind, if possible, which will gratify him, and induce a repetition. The teacher or professor who has the charge of an in- dolent young lady or lad must contrive some way to entrap, so to speak, the person into a habit of exercising, which once produced, can by other motives be continued. It is of no use to find fault with such a person ; that does not produce a willing mind. But produce a TJ 246. What effect on the brain has the state of the mind 1 What is Illus. a. ? What is Illus. b. ? What is Illus. c. ? What is Inf. a. 1 What is Inf. b. 2 What is said of HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 157 Habitual exercise of great service. motive a willing mind. True, it is a task sometimes, but it is well repaid. The indolent person is more to be pitied than blamed. 246. Habitual exercise is of great service to the Nervous System. [It is this which in part, or to a great degree, gives control over every portion of a muscle, enabling a person to be graceful in his manner, distinct in his speech, and forcible in his expression. If, also, the nervous system have not been exercised, exhaustion is pro- duced at the slightest effort, and exercise becomes a dread. But by habitual exercise," light at first, gradually increased, there is such a state produced in the nervous system, that exercise, instead of being dreaded, becomes delightful, and instead of producing exhaustion, invigorates the brain.] Addenda in regard to certatn involuntary actions, of the Muscles, Nerves, and Brain. /[Involuntary action of those organs concerned in producing volun- tary motion is exhibited (m various ways>. To balance the various parts of the body in their proper positions), the constant action of muscles is necessary.] Rlus. rThe mouth is preserved in the centre of the face by the balanced action of the ^muscles of each side, and this during the night as well as the day.) [This is proved ^nof only by the nature of the case, but by the effects of accidents or disease, which, in some cases, have so affected the nerves of one side that no influence could be exerted upon the muscles of that side, when the action of the muscles of the other side at once drew the mouth from the centre toward themselves, 1 So also in many other cases(where different muscles are connected with a part, and a portion of them have been deprived of influence, the re- maining muscles drew the part from its natural position?) a dull walk? What is not enough ? What must be done? How must it be done? Whatwill affect one man ? What will affect another? What should a woman do? What should a sister do ? What should a physician do ? What should the teacher do '\ What is of no use 1 What should be produced 1 What is said of the indolent person 1 IT 246. What gives control over every part ofa muscle ? Enabling him to be what? What are (he effects of habitual exercise ? tjjow is involuntary motion ex- hibited ? Why i.s the constant action of the muscles necessary ? What is the llhis. 'f 158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The evil of tight dress. Change of position necessary. Inf. When portions of the body are drawn from their natural place \ it does not follow that those muscles that do it, or those parts which act on those muscles, are diseased) [This at first seems to refute the idea'that the muscles need repose! But the action now spoken of is not so decided as the contractions of the muscles on account of which they chiefly require repose. But this action also calls for a frequent change of position of the various parts, that by the corresponding contractions and relaxations of the muscles there may be produced an increased flow of blood through them.] /.//. a The muscles of the chest must soon suffer very much, when by tight dress, a change of position is prevented, and by pressure the flow of blood checked. Inf. b. Rubbing must be beneficial to the muscles when they are not actively contracting. Inf. c. Our position during the night ought to be changed fre- quently. [This will occur unless a person "sleep too soundly," and then he finds he has not reposed perfectly.] Inf. d Sick persons ought to be frequently changed in position. [This is for more than one reason, for the pressure upon any part when in bed prevents, to a degree, the circulation through it.] Inf. e. Sick persons should be frequently rubbed. Inf. f. Infants should be frequently changed in position. [This is a very important inference.] Inf. g. Infants should be rubbed often, tenderly, but thoroughly. [During the night, persons while asleep are frequently known to walk about with perfect regularity. Individuals turn themselves while asleep. We also see a great number of animals walk imme- diately after birth. From all these and other similar facts, it may be concluded that many motions performed every day, such as walking, standing, sitting, &c., are performed involuntarily. That is to say, if a person wish to step or place himself in any position, he contracts the proper muscles to produce the desired position, and at the same instant the contraction of many other muscles takes place involun- How is this proved ? What is true in many other cases ? What is the Inf. ? What does this, at first, seem to refute 1 Wherein does the action now spoken of differ from that previously mentioned 7 But what does this action also call for? What is Inf. a. t What is Inf. b.J What is Inf. c. ? Does a person rest perfectly if he sleep very soundly? What is Inf. d. 1 What is Inf. e. 1 What is Inf.f. 1 What is Inf. g. 1 What may be frequently seen during the night? What may be noticed in case of animals ? What may be concluded ? What takes place when a person steps ? '- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 159 "To be a good orator, a man must be a good man." tarily, in order that the body may be balanced in its new position. This may be accounted for by supposing the body to be so constituted, that any given state of any part of it, produces a certain effect on the nervous centres, causing nervous influence to be produced and act in the necessary direction. Thus any state of any part will be sure to cause the results required. Truly a most wonderful arrangement, and distinctly showing the wisdom of the Creator.] [A frown is frequently seen on a person's brow, or a smile on his lip, which not only is involuntary, but which he cannnot by any ordi- nary effort restrain. When angry, a person's voice frequently becomes loud and stormy, and his motions violent, even without his knowledge. These and similar things show that the emotions of the mind being excited, act involuntarily on the brain, and cause action of that part, and consequently of the muscles. Hence why the face is an in- dex of the emotional state of the mind. ) For as nature did not in- tend man for a hypocrite, or suppose that he would wish to be one thing and appear to be another, she has arranged it so in regard to the muscles of the face, the most readily seen of any part of the body, that they should without care express those states of mind which cannot be described by words, and which should be felt only at those times when a man should not be ashamed to be known to possess them. The saying of the old philosopher is therefore a true one, " To be a good orator a man must be a good man." The proper action of the muscles of the face and those which produce the gesticulation of the orator, cannot be produced without the emotions exist in reality. A good actor is not an actor in the ordinary understanding of the word. He does not make the motions merely, of anger, grief, &c., but he has the power and uses it, of producing in his mind the emotions of patri- otism, pity, and the whole list which belongs to man. It is very im- portant for the scholar to understand that no language, the force of which he does not himself feel, can arouse his audience. His ideas will have no life without the hearer perceives, by the mode of ex- pressing them, that they have produced an effect on the emotions of ihe mind that utters them. Learn then to feel aright, to be a good How may this be accounted for? Are not ihe ways of the Creator astonishing 7 Can a person always restrain a laugh 1 What is seen sometimes when a person is angry '? What do these things show ? How is the face an index of the mind ? How has nature arranged in respect to the muscles of the face ? What is necessary to be a good orator? What is said of a good actor? What is it very important for the 160 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Irregular action of the muscle produced by state of nervous system. man, then learn to speak as you feel, and men shall listen to you and be persuaded.] [Disease will also produce such a state of the nervous system that irregular actions of the muscles will be exhibited. Twitchings or jerkings of the muscles are frequently seen. Sometimes all the mus- cles cease to act, and a person is very " flimsy," as when intoxicated. Sometimes they all contract with great power, and the body is quite stiff. Sometimes a large number of them are thrown into violent contractions, and sudden relaxations, which are called convulsions. Sometimes a few only " twitch."- Sometimes intermitting contractions and relaxations are produced, which is what is called shaking palsy ^ Sometimes a few contract with violence and continue contracted, as in lockjaw.] Inf. In all cases of irregular action of the muscles, we must look for the cause in the state of the nervous system first, and secondly, for the cause that produces this state of the nervous system. Illus. a. If we see a person staggering about, endeavoring to put his foot forward and it moved backward, we should conclude that his nervous system was in a bad state, and if upon further examination we found that it occurred only after drinking alcoholic liquors, we ought to infer that the use of them was the cause of the harm. Illus. b. If a child have convulsions, we should infer that the ner- vons system was badly affected, and if upon further examination we found that convulsions occurred after eating unwholesome food, or too much food, we should conclude that what the child had eaten was the cause of disturbance of the nervous system. [That is to say, if irregular actions of the muscles occur, or if there be want of action, we must find out if possible the circum- stances in the midst of which they occur, and attribute the cause of the evil to them ; for, as all parts of the body have, as shown in Part L, communication with the nervous system, the state of any part can and does modify the state of the nervous system, and of course, may produce such a condition of it that it will cause any variety of irregu- lar actions in the muscular system.] Inf. When the causes of the evil are known, they ought carefully to be prevented from acting. scholar to understand? When will his ideas have life? What should he learn? What may be the effect of disease? What are frequently seen? What states of the muscles are mentioned ? Did you ever see any person, the action of whose muscles was irregular 7 What is the Inf. 1 What is Illus. a. 1 What is Illus. b. 1 If there be irregular action of the muscles, what must we do? Why? What is the Inf. ? What are the closing remarks ? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 161 People should always learn and avoid the cause of disease. [This people are not always ready enough to do. It is in these cases the chief thing to be relied on. Sometimes the condition of the nervous system can be changed by the action of medicines, so that what now excites a bad state of it will not do so, or not do so as readily. But even then, causes which are known to induce evil ought to be just as carefully guarded against, for fear of the effect.] BOOK II. Organs of Sensation. 247. The organs of Sensation are, the Organs of Sense the Nerves the Brain. CHAPTEE I. Organs of Sense. [Those parts in which the nerves commence may be called organs of sense, and may be divided into two classes.] CLASS FIRST. Internal Organs. 248. All parts of the body may be called internal or- gans of sense. [Nerves commence in them and are acted upon by them directly.] Inf. No particular arrangement is necessary in order that the internal organs may act upon the nerves. 249. TJie use of the internal organs as organs of sense is, by their different states, to act differently on the nerves, and be the causes of different sensations. fl 247. What are the names of the organs of sensation ? H 248. What parts are in- ternal organs of sense! IF 249. What is their use 1 ? What isIUus.a.? When do HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 163 Skin as an organ of sense. [Thus the mind is informed of the different states that exist.] Illus. a. When a state of health exists in an organ it causes pleasurable sensations. If it be injured or diseased, it causes painful sensations, that the attention of the mind may be drawn to its care. [Sometimes, however, some organs may be extensively diseased without producing pain. This is when the pain would be injurious, and productive of no immediate good.] CLASS SECOND. External Organs of Sense. 250. The external organs of sense are of six kinds ; the Skin the Muscles the Mouth the Nose the Eyes the Ears. SEC. 1. The Skin, as an Organ of the Sense of Touch and Temperature. 251. The skin covering the entire body, and that also lining the mouth, nose, and eyes, is considered as the organ of the sense of touch or temperature. [Indeed, by some, the lining of the entire digestive canal and windpipe, is considered under the same head.] 252. The nerves of touch commence just below the sur- face of the skin in little eminences, called papillae, fig. 13. [Rows of them may be seen at the ends of the fingers.] [The portion of skin external to the nerves, serves merely as a protection to the delicate parts within, and should be as thin, delicate, and pliable as circumstances will permit.] Illus. At the edges of the lips it grows thin, is very delicate in the mouth, nose, and eyes, and correspondingly sensitive, while at the sole of the foot, palm of the hand, &c., it is thick and " calloused." not diseased organs produce pain ? IT 250. What parts are organs of sense ? What other duties do these organs perform? V251. What is the organ of the sense of touch? Of what else beside touch is it the organ? IT 252. How and where do the nerves commence 7 Why would it not have been proper to have them ;ommence at 164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The slightest chilliness should never be allowed. 253. Objects act upon the nerves through the external layer, by their presence and by their temperature. [So exquisitely sensitive are the nerves, that nothing can touch the skin in the gentlest manner, without producing an effect upon them.] 254. The uses of the sense of touch are to inform the mind what part of the body is acted upon, and to enaole it by experience, &c., to judge of size, shape, moisture, dryness, &c. ; also, by producing pleasant sensations when the body is exposed to healthful temperatures, and unpleasant sensa- tions when the body is exposed to unhealthy temperatures, to warn the mind of danger and reward it for care. [Thus the skin is one of the most serviceable organs of the body. For it is found by experience, that nothing is more detrimental to health than frequent and sudden changes of weather. The reason is, that the warnings given through the nerves of touch are not heeded as they should be. Never should a person allow himself to become chilly. But by exercise, or clothing, or shelter, or fire, he should preserve a feel- ing of comfortable warmth. One person is no criterion for another. The same temperature will make a lean man shiver that will not effect a fat one. A person in ill-health will suffer sooner than if he were well; an infant cannot bear cold as a mature person. After fatigue, bearing extremes of heat or cold, or any extreme, after a night's watching, a person will easily feel chilly. The only rule, therefore, is, dress comfortably and avoid chilliness.] [How much, also, man is indebted to the skin for the happiness he enjoys, can be seen by noticing how fretful and unsocial a person the surface ? What does the external portion of the skin serve ? What is the lllus. t U 253. How do objects act upon the nerves ? IT 254. What are the uses of the sense of touch 1 What is the comparative importance of the skin ? What is found by experience ? What is the reason 1 What should not a person allow ? Why not 7 Will it not answer in the summer time ? What is said of different persons and circumstances 1 Mention some instances where a person would be likely to err. What is the only rule in regard to clothing 1 What particular kind of clothing ought a person to wear 7 What effect does chilliness have upon the disposition] What is said in foot note ? What effect does healthful temperatures have? Give some illus- trations. Witt the same temperatures always have the same effect upon the same per- sons ? On different persons 1 Why not ? Illustrate. What is said of the complain- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 165 Touch improved by exercise and rubbing. becomes as he grows cold,* and, also, by reflecting how delicious the sensations are when we walk out in a balmy day of spring time or summer ; and how doubly refreshing is a cool shade after exposure to the heat, or how grateful is a lire after exposure to the cold. The complaining mind does not always think of these blessings which we almost constantly enjoy, and does not throw them into the balance against those afflictions that are like a mountain piled upon the other side. We do not often sufficiently adore the Creator for his wisdom arid goodness.] 255. The perfect action of the nerves of touch requires, that the skin be furnished with an abundant supply of blood. _ Inf. The sense of touch will be benefited by general exercise, and thorough rubbing of the system. [As the skin is sometimes exposed to the cold, and loses heat very rapidly, the circulation of the blood through it will need to be quickened, so also will it when the skin is too hot, that water to evaporate may be brought.] Inf. a. The action of the nervous system of organic life will be required. Inf. b. The state of the sense of touch will depend upon the health of the entire system. Illus. When a person has ague, the bloodvessels of the skin are contracted and chilliness is caused. Also, when a person is unwell he cannot bear ordinary exposure. 256. The perfection of the organs of sense and the nerves acting therefrom, is affected very much by habit. * We should always rather pity, than any thing else, a fretful man, for he makes himself more unhappy than he does any body else. I sometimes believe if he would for a moment stop to think how unhappy he is, he would, as far as possible, maintain the opposite state of mind. ins mind 7 IT 255. With what must the skin be furnished 7 What is the Inf. ? What will exposure of the skin to cold and heat require 1 What is Inf. a. ? What is Inf. b. ? What is the Illus. 1 IT 256. What effect has habit on the sense of touch or tem- peratures 7 Illustrate 7 How can you act on the organ of the sense of touch so as to please the mind, and make yourself agreeable ? n 257. How do the muscles pro- 166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Admirable action of muscular sense. SEC. 2. The Muscles, as Organs of Sense. 257. The Muscles by their contractions act on certain nerves, commencing in them, and produce sensations. [When the muscle is contracted to one degree, one effect is pro- duced, when it is contracted to another degree, another effect ' caused.] 258. The muscular sense is of use to inform the mind of the degree of the contraction of the muscle, and thereby, of the motion produced, or the resistance of the object acted upon. [Thus, all the positions of the various parts of the body, become known, the weights, and hardness of things, &c.] Illus. If a two-pound weight be raised, the muscle must contract more forcibly than if it raise but one pound, and the sensations being different, the mind learns to judge of weights, &c. 259. The muscular sense is also useful by producing pleasurable sensations, and preventing those feelings of languor, ennui, fretfulness, &c., which result when a person has nothing to do. Thus, labor is made one of the greatest blessings of life.* 260. The muscular sense is perfected by what benefits the muscle in other respecliymt especially by excercise. * No man who has health, a wife, and an abundance of children to love, an abun- dance of wholesome food to eat, and a hearty appetite to eat it with, is to be pitied because he is obliged to labor, and to labor hard every day, and has not his food pre- pared by a French cook. So far as the pleasures of life are concerned, if he have a cultivated and contented mind, he has more extravagances than any body else. duce sensations 7 Explain how. IT 258. How is the muscular sense of use 1 What is the Illus. 1 IT 259. How is it also useful 1 What is the foot note ? How is the muscular sense perfected 1 How can the mind be pleased through this sense ? Illus- trate. IT 261. How commence the nerves of taste ? IF 262. How do objects act unon them ? How many kinds of nerves are there in the mouth 1 Why must there be 1 HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 167 A person should produce a relish for wholesome food. SEC. 3. The Sense of Taste. 261. The nerves of this sense commence as the nerves of touch, in the covering of the tongue, and the lining of different parts of the mouth. 262. Certain objects taken into the mouth act, by means of peculiar properties they possess, upon the nerves of taste, and cause different effects in case of different objects. [Some objects do not produce any effect, except to inform of their presence. This other objects do and also an additional effect. There must, therefore, be two kinds of nerves of different properties com- mencing in the mouth.] [How the nerves are acted on, is not known.] 263. TJie use of this sense is to cause the action of the digestive organs to be increased, and to change one of the duties of life to a pleasure. 264. The perfection of this sense is affected very much by habit. Inf. A person should produce and continue a relish for whole- some food. [It is evident, that the Creator intended man should enjoy the taste of food. And, as the better it is relished, the longer shall we chew it, and the more thoroughly will it be mixed with saliva not only, but also the more will the saliva flow into the mouth, and, according to the testimony of Dr. Beaumont, the more plentifully will the juices of the stomach flow into that organ, we should prepare food so that it shall be wholesome, and in the highest degree relishable. To gain this end, we should also prepare ourselves, by not eating, till an appetite has been, in a healthful way, produced, and by taking exercise to produce the appetite.] H 263. What is the use of this sense 1 How is it perfected. Illustrate. What is the Inf. ? What did the Creator intend 1 ? Are his acts always right 1 Do you think the Monks, who, in olden times, secluded themselves from the pleasures of life, obeyed God's intentions 1 What is the eflect of relishing food? What is the testimony of 168 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. One art of pleasing the mind. 265. The art of pleasing the mind, through this sense, is to combine articles in a certain way and proportion, and to place them to be eaten in a certain order. S EC . 4.__ The Sense of Smell 266. The Nose is considered as the organ of the sense of smell. 267. The nerves of smell commence as the nerves of touch, just below the surface of the skin. 268. Those objects that act on the nerves are called odorous. Almost infinitely small particles of them fly off in all directions, a part of which being conveyed through the nose with the air, act on the nerves that commence in the lining of the nose. Fig. 63. Fig. 63. Represents a section of the nose, parallel with its natural division. From 4, a line reaches down to the olfactory nerve, or what is sometimes called the olfac- tory lobe of the brain. From it the nerves are seen passing through the cribriform (sieve-like) portion of the ethmoid bone. The other portions do not need mention. Dr. Beaumont? How should we produce an appetite? if 265. In what does the art of pleasing through this sense consist? it 266. What is the organ of the sense of smell? H 267. How do the nerves commence in it? IT 268. What is said of objects that act on this sense ? Describe Fig. 63. H 269. What is the use of this sense ? HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 169 Use of sense of smell. [The particles of one substance produce one effect, those of an- other, another effect. How they are qualified to do so, cannot at present be told.] 269. The use of this sense is to add to our pleasures, and cause the digestion of food to take place more readily. Illus. The smell of relished food will make the mouth water even before the food is tasted. 270. The perfection of this sense depends on the lining of the nose being healthy, and freely moistened, and upon habit. Illus. When a person has a cold in the head, he cannot smell. 271. The art of the Perfumer in pleasing the mind, through this sense, lies in mingling odorous substances in the best manner. [Flowers, that are fragrant, always please. Ladies may take a hint, in respect to cultivating flowers, both in the house and garden.] g EC . 5. The Sense of Sight. 272. The Eye is the organ of the sense of sight. [The external appendages of the eye. These are, 1st. The bony socket by which it is protected from blows, and supported. 2d. The brows, which shield it from dust and perspiration. 3d. The eyelids, which spread the moisture over it, wipe off dust, and at times ex- clude the light. Their movements are produced by a circular muscle Fig. 1, Plate 1, and the levator, Fig. 65. 4th. The eyelashes, which shield the eye from dazzling light. When they are lost, either their absence or disease which caused it, soon makes the eyes very sore. Their loss should, therefore, call attention. In the lids, there are also some small glands found. 5th. The tear apparatus, which consists of a gland, about the size of a sparrow's egg, several What is the Illus. ? H 270. Upon what does perfection of this sense depend ? IT 271. What ia the art of the perfumer 1 fi 272. What is the number of the external appen- 170 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. What should be done when the tear tube is closed. Fig. 64. Fig. 64. A. Represents, but not correctly as it respects form, the lachrymal or tear gland ; B, the ducts or tubes leading from A, into the eye ; C C, the puncta lachrymalia, or the openings through which the tears flow from the eye into D. the lachrymal or tear- ^^ sac, which opens at E, into the nose. small tubes leading to the eye, and tubes leading from the eye into the nose. The tear fluid is constantly formed by the gland and poured down to the eye. At times much more is formed than at others. The blood, of course, must flow in correspondingly in- creased quantity to the gland, and also from the arrangement of the bloodvessels, to the whole head. This accounts for the headache attendant on a " crying spell." The action of the gland is excited by the ordinary state of the system, by the emotions, and by various extraordinary states of the system.] Illus. When a person has been eating mustard, the tears flow. [The action of this gland exhibits the effects of different kinds of nervous influences in a striking manner the tubes which lead from the eye to the nose are very small, and liable to be closed when a person takes cold as they are lined by a continuation of the lining of the nose, as, indeed, is the entire eye. Sometimes they are per- manently closed, and the fluid flows over upon the cheek ; wiping this away soon makes the eye sore. The evil should be remedied by making a small opening with an instrument, and inserting a small dages of the eye ? Describe the first of them. The second ? The third 1 The fourth? The fifth? Describe Fig. 64. Why does the gland require blood ? Didyou ever feel the headache from crying? Describe it. What is the Illus. ? Why is this? Describe the tubes leading to the nose 1 ? What evil is mentioned? How HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 171 Bathing the eyes with cold water a good thing. tube. It is a very simple and hardly a painful operation. 6th. The lining of the lids and covering of the front part of the ball. This is exceedingly delicate throughout, but especially where it covers the front part of the eye. It is very liable to be inflamed when a person takes cold, eats too much, does not take enough exercise, does not bathe freely, applies himself too closely to his "business within doors and does not bathe often enough. Of these, taking cold and eating improperly are the chief. To cure this state of the eyes, a person must avoid the producing cause, and bathe them often with cold water.* From the inner corner of the eye hairs sometimes grow up and are troublesome ; these and any others which annoy the eye must be plucked away. From the inner corner of the eye a red fleshy substance sometimes grows up toward the pupil. If it reach up too far. or be sore, it should be removed by amputation. If it be not troublesome it had better be left alone. 7th. The Muscles. These are six in number. Fig. 65. Fig. 65. 1, A small portion of the bottom or back part of the socket of the eye. 2, The optic nerve. 3, The'eyeball. 4, The levator of the eyelid, with eyelashes attached. It is raised up from its natural position to show (5) the superior oblique passing through the tendinous loop (6). 7, Being a continua- tion of the tendon 5. and is at- tached to the eyeball near 3. 8, Is the tendon of the inferior oblique, attached to a piece of bone which forms part of the eye-socket near the roots of the nose. 9, The superior rectus. 10, The internal rectus. 11 12, The external rectus, with a portion cut out that other 13, The inferior rectus. 14, The edge of the sclerotic, where it parts may be shown. is joined to the cornea. Sometimes one of them is too short, and the eye is " turned " in that direction. Cutting this just where its tendon joins the eye- ball. will remedy the evil. Generally, however, when the eye turns in, it is weak, or in some way unfit. It is turned that it may not inter- * The eyewashes sold at the shops are mostly an imposition of the most unjusti- fiable character, and none of them equal to cold water. should it be remedied 1 What is the sixth of the appendages ? To what is it liable t How should it be treated 7 What is the foot note ? What grows up in the eye 1 Did you ever see what is referred to 1 How to be treated ? Describe Fig. 65. What is 172 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Sclerotic Cornea Choroid, &c. fere with the vision of the other. 8th. The fat surrounding the eye at the back part, serves as an excellent cushion to support the eye.] [The frame of the eye. This consists, 1st. Of the Sclerotic (hard) coat, called also " white of the eye." Fig. 66. Fig. 66. Represents the eyeball with the entering nerve at the back part. The curved lids are seen in front, and the skin covering the lids is observed to continue round the edges of the lids to line them, and then is re- flected back, as it is called, upon the eyeball, over the cornea, and is continuous with the lining of the lower lids. It is about as thick as pasteboard, and has two openings, one large in front to admit light, and one small one behind for the passage of the nerve. 2d. The Cornea. This is transparent, situated in the front part of the eyeball, and fitted to the front opening of the sclerotic as a crystal of a watch fits its case. It is more prominent than a con- tinuation of the white coat would be, as can be perceived through the lid. It is sometimes called the window of the eye. The Choroid. This is a part which lines the white coat, is not quite as thick, much more delicate, of a rich chocolate brown on one side and a perfect black on the other. The uses of the framework are to give form and protection to the parts within, and to admit the light. They are seldom diseased.] [ The contents of the Framework. The cornea closes the front part of the eye, and in one sense may be, as hereafter shown, consi- dered as part of the contents. Aqueous Humor. -^-This is a liquid fill- ing a space back of the cornea. This space is partially divided by the iris, The Iris is the colored part of the eye. The hole in its cen- tre is called the pupil ; around the pupil are circular muscular fibres, to contract its size and exclude light ; while from the pupil to the said of the turning in of the eye? Which is worst, to have cross eyes or a cross dis- position? What Purpose is served by the fat? Describe the sclerotic coat of the eye. Describe tb*. ^oraea. Describe the choroid coat. What are the uses of tha HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 173 Iris muscular Crystalline lens. circumference of the iris fibres radiate, and by contracting, enlarge the pupil and admit light. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 67. A front view of the iris, showing the circular fibres about the pupil. Fig. 68. A back view of the iris, showing the radiated fibres. A short distance back of the iris, a part called Crystalline Lens is found. Fig. 69. Fig. 69. Cornea fitted into the sclerotic coat. A, Choroid. B, Pigmentum nigrum. C, Retina, lined by the hyaloid membrane, containing (K) the vitreous humor. D, The optic nerve. I, The lens. G, Iris, coated on the back side with pigment (paint). H, Ciliary processes. F, Aqueous humor. framework 1 Describe the aqueous humor. Describe the iris. Describe Figs. 67 and 68. Describe the crystalline lens. Describe Fig. 69- Will you draw it on the black-board! Describe the vitreous humor. What, m one respect, is the character of 174 Optic nerve. Light of three kinds. This, like an onion, is composed of concentric layers, and is much move dense at its centre than at its circumference. The Vitreous Hnmor.-?Fh\s is a fluid contained in the cells of a very delicate mem- brane, called the hyaloid. It fills all the back part of the eye, and at its front part receives the back part of the lens, which however is not attached to it. From the cornea to the back part of the eye all parts are exceedingly pellucid when in health^. Disease sometimes causes them to become opaque. When this is 'the case with the lens, a per- son is said to have a cataract, and the lens must be removed by an operation. After this, for weeks the eye must be protected from the action of strong light, to which it must be gradually accustomed. One single exposure sometimes destroys the eye~J 273. The Optic (to see ivith) Nerve commences from a thousand millions of points, al- most infinitely near each other, at the outer surface of two- thirds of the back portion of the Vitreous Humor, where they constitute what is called the Retina. From these points they may be followed along the circumference of the hu mor to their place of exit, where they are all inclosed in a single sheath, and find their way to the brain. 274. 'By means of Light, objects act on the nerve through the parts that are in front of it\ [Light is of three distinctly different kinds. If one kind alone act on a nerve, it will produce a sensation of red. If another kind, a sen- sation of yellow will be caused. If another, a sensation of blue. Hence the three kinds of light are called red, yellow, and blue. If the two last act together on the same nerve;, a different sensation from what would be produced by either alone, will be the result, viz. a all the internal parts of the eye! What is said of cataract? IT 273. Describe the optic nerve, fl 274. By what are the nerves acted on 1 What effect do the different kinds of light produce 1 What effect do two kinds acting together produce ? What HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 175 What the color of an object, depends upon. sensation of green. The light which is thus produced is spoken of as green, as if it were of but one kind. This is because the two kinds acting- together produce but one sensation. Such sensations, though simple, are spoken of as compound, because produced by compound light. If two kinds be compounded in different proportions, and in different proportions act on the eye, different sensations will be pro- duced. ...If the three kinds, in proper proportions, act on the nerve, they will cause a single sensation of white, and hence they are called white light, 'When no light at all acts on the nerve, the state it is in will cause a sensation of black.)/ Thus all the sensations of color that can be produced result from the three kinds of light acting in vary- ing proportions on the nerves.] [Some objects produce liglit. \T_he light coming from these and acting upon nerves, produce effects, and the objects are termed ac- cordingly.] Illus.-(-Tl\e sun, the great fountain of light, produces light of three kinds, and in such proportions as to cause the sensation of white ; and we say the sun is white, because the light coming from it pro- duces the sensations of whiteness.] [How objects whuh do not produce light, act upon it. They may pro- duce one or two of three different effects. 1st. They may reflect it. By reflect is meant, to send it^off. or bend it back, as a ball is senfrliack by the wall it strikes upon. ;They may reflect one. two, or three kinds, as represented by Figs. 13, 12, 11, 9, PI. 5. They may also reflect varying proportions of three kinds, and thus cap cause light to produce all possible kinds of sensations of color. 2d. Objects may absorb it, as represented by Fig. 10, which absorbs all; by Fig. 11. which absorbs but two kinds. &c. 3d. Qertain objects transmit (like a piece of glass) liglit. ) Some transmit one kind, some another, and thus are able to cause light to produce all possible sensa- tions of color. -Thus the color of an object depends upon, and is, the power of an object to reflect, absorb, or_ transmit light of three different kinds.] [Tlie direction of Light. It always passes in straight lines, till it is bent. 'This occurs when it passes from one substance to another of different density, in an oblique (slanting) direction to its surface. the three 1 When no light acts 1 How are all sensations of color produced ? What is paid of the sun ? What is meant, by reflecting light ? How, by reflection, do objects cause all kinds of sensation of color? What is" meant by absorb? What is meant by transmit? Illustrate. Upon what, does the color of objects depend? How does 176 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Long-sighted eye. Short-sighted eye. After it is bent it passes in a straight line till bent again in a similar manner. Fig. 71. Fig. 71. a b c, Represents rays of light which pass through the piece of glass (c) without being bent as they fall perpendicular upon the glass (c). But as they fall upon the lens (L), in a direction not perpendicular to its surface, they are bent in such a man- ner that they all cross each other at the point M, which is called the focus, beyond the focus the rays spread farther from each other. [ The light is bent by me parts of the eye in front of the nerve. .Thus the light from different objects is caused to act on the points of differ- ent nerves; )for as the light is bent or refracted by certain rules, the light coming from two objects can never by the same thing be bent to the same point. Thus -'as many different sensations can be pro- duced as there are nerves aild objects to cause light to act upon them, as shown by Fig. 2, PI. 5.] ') [The long-sighted eye. (Sometimes the light is not bent sufficiently by the eye, and when it reaches the nerve it acts upon several of them, as shown by Fig. 3, PI. 5.] [The short-sighted eye. Sometimes the light is bent too much, and when it reaches the nerve it acts upon several of them, as seen by Fig. 4. PI. 5. ( In both cases the trouble is the same, though pro- duced by different causes. In the first place, sufficient light to pro- duce an intense effect does not act on a single nerve. In the second place, the light from several objects acts on the same nerves, and through them would cause compound sensations of course, as seen by Fig. 4 arid 3, PI. 5.] * How exceedingly incorrect then it must be to talk of seeing by means of any other part of the body than the eye. Since that, when but a little imperfect, produces light pass? De-mho Fig. 71. When is light bent? Whnt parts of the eye bend light ? How is light thus caused to act ? How many different sensations can "be pro- duced ? What causes long sight 7 What causes short sight 1 What is said of both HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS 177 Changes in the eye adapt it to seeing objects. Fig. 72. Fig. 72, A A, A lens by which the light passing from a', is bent to a, while if the object producing lieht be moved to b, the light coming from a more distant point is bent to a nearer pofnt on the opposite side, as shown by the dotted lines. [Experiment shows that light coming from objects at different distances will be differently bent by the same lens) The eye, how- ever, is so constituted as to be changed in its condition, when perfect, so as to cause light coming from distant objects, or from near ones, to be so bent, as to act on a single nerve). In some persons, this is not the case ; hence, long-sighted persons, viz., gipse in whose eyes only the light coming from any point of a distant object, is so bent as to act on a single nerve, and short-sighted persons, viz.. those in whose eyes, only the light coming from near objects is bent so as to act on single nerves. ^Strange as it may seem, the power by which this change of the eye is wrought is not known, neither is the particular use of any one of the internal parts of the eye. ; Many suppositions have been made, but none have proved correct.* a blur, or confusion of objects, what would be the effect if the eye were altogether taken away, and the light from ten thousand objects allowed to pour upon all the nerves at once 1 Objects could not be distinguished, for they would not produce distinct sensations.} * One thing is certain, the eye is not long-sighted or short-sigRted on account of the flatness or fulness of the cornea. The reader may ask, what is meant by an object 1 To the eye, that is an object which produces a distinct sensation of color. A map of 24 different connected colors would be to the eye 24 objects. If two sensations of the same color be produced through two contiguous nerves, they are considered by the eye as produced by one object. If they are produced through two nerves, not contiguous, they are considered as produced by two objects. Thus to the eye objects may be exceedingly small, or cases? What is the first evil ? Second, what? Describe Fig. 3 and 4, PI. 5. What is foot note ? Describe Fig. 72. What does experiment show ? How is the eye con- stituted ? Who are long-sighted ? Who are short-sighted ? What is strange ? What is said in the foot note ? What is an object ? Describe Fig. 73. How does light act? 178 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The direction of objects learned by means of light. Fig. 73. Fig. 73. A B, Represents two points, of which there may be millions. From A B y the light falls upon the cornea, c c, and is bent as it is passing into the eye. D, is (he iris ; E E, the lens, the small spot at which the central rays or axes from A and B pass, being called the centre of the lens. After the light leaves the lens it is observed to cross at the retina (a d), while if the retina had been as far distant as G, or only as far distant as H, the light would have acted over considerable space. [The direction of objects learned by means of light. As light acts by immutable laws) the eye may be so constituted as to place con- fidence in its action ; and sensations may be generally relied on with safety. We are therefore so constituted as to believe that the object is in that direction whence light must come to act on a given nerve, when the eye is perfect. Thus, if we believe that the object from which the light has come to act on figure B, is in a straight line, drawn from a through o. we shall be correct. And if we believe that the object whence light has come to act at b. is in a straight line drawn from b through o. we shall be correct. One trouble with the near-sighted and long-sighted eye is. that the direction of objects is not distinctly perceived, and the old lady puts her thread first one side, then the other, of the eye of her needle; so also does the near-sighted person, as exhibited by Fig. 74.*] quite large. In another sense, an object of large, or small size, may be considered as composed of as many objects as there can be distinguished directions, in which the light came to the eye. * It is sometimes said and taught that we know the direction of an object from experience ; this cannot be so. We also see and hear much about images in the eye, and inverted images, &c. The cause of this confusion of the process of seeing is, HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 179 Why objects are indistinct. Uses of the sense of sight. Fig. 74. Fig. 74. Represents the long- sighted eye. From the nerve afc the object will appear to be at B. From the nerve at b it will appear to be at 0. And as the light from A will act on all the nerves from b to c, the candle will appear to occupy all the space between B and C appearing bright in the centre and hazy all around. Fig. 75. Short-sighted eye. Here the candle will appear to occupy all the space between 1J and C, since all the nerves be- tween b and c are acted on. 275. The uses of the sense of sight are to distinguish the colors of objects, one object from another, and the direction of objects from the eye, to produce pleasurable sensations when it is acted upon in accordance with its health, and to warn by unpleasant ones when it is suffering. that those who have examined the eye have stood outside it, so to speak, instead of going behind it, and using it ; and have then thought a man as much at a loss to know whenf 3 light came, as they were themselves. Fig. 76. In this figure, the observing eye will believe for it is so that the light reflected from the upper part of the eye comes from above the light reflected from the lower .part of the eye. For the same reason precisely, the eye observed upon will believe that the light coming from (T, comes from above L. People likewise talk about seeing 180 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The three natural colors please the eye. 276. To preserve a perfect state in the eye } it must be supplied with a proper quantity of blood, and be acted upon by various kinds of light at the same time, or in immediate succession, and it must be practised by looking at objects both near and distant. [Too diligent application of the mind to study, and too little exer- cise, frequently cause a bad state of the eye, its bloodvessels become too much charged with blood, the throbbing and motions of which, cause appearances of specks of various shapes before the eyes. Flashes of light, and objects of various colors before the eye are caused by the same improper course of life. Looking constantly at ob- jects of any one color, exhausts the power of the eye. which, there- fore, is pleased with a variety of colors. Those, however, the com- bination of which produce white are the most perfect in their action on the eye, and, therefore, most pleasing through it. The short- sighted eye is frequently produced by using the eye too exclusively upon near objects. The eye loses for want of practice the power of adapting itself to the action of light from distant objects ; this, how- ever, can be regained to a great degree or wholly,by perseverance for a sufficient time in endeavoring to see distant objects. Sailors from looking much at distant objects frequently become long-sighted.] 277. T/ie art of pleasing the mind through this sense, consists in placing before the eye various colored objects, the image in the glass, &c., but when a person looks toward the glass he sees the ob- jects themsel^e? just as truly as if he were looking toward them. If, for instance, he hold a candle before a mirror, the light passes from the candle to the mirror, thence to his eye, and the same effect is produced as when he looks toward the candle ; indeed, the same identical light acts upon him in one case as the other, only it has been bent in its direction. We must be careful, therefore, not to allow our minds to be led astray by the common use of language. As the eye is so necessary to distinguish the direction of objects from each other, it is the height of inconsistency to believe a per- son can see with any other part of the body than the eye ; for if the nerve, with an imperfect eye, is productive of such incorrect sensations, and cannot inform the mind where precisely the eye of a needle is, what could it do if the eye were away 1 What frequently causes bad states of the eye ? What exhausts the power of the eye ? \\'hnt combinations of color produce whitel How is short sight frequently pro- duced? How can it usually be more or less corrected? In what does the art of pleasing through this sense consist 1 Where may much more useful and inreiesting HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 181 The art of pleasing the mind through the eye. the combined light from which, will produce sensations of white. Hence, the beauty of flowers, the rainbow, and many other natural objects, especially the splendor of the clouds. [A lady in respect to her dress, and what is adapted to her com- plexion, and in respect to the furniture of her house, carpets, paper, &c., may take a hint herefrom.*] SEC. 6. Tlie Sense of Hearing. 278. TJie Ear is the organ of the sense of hearing. [ Various parts of the ear. Of the external ear nothing need be said. 1st. The external tube. This leads into the head about half an inch to one inch. Its sides are kept in good condition by a supply of ear-wax. It sometimes hardens and produces hardness of hearing. " It should be softened by a few drops of sweet oil, and the tube then syringed out with Castile soap and warm water.f TJie external mem- brane. This is stretched across the bottom of the tube. The drum. This is a place about the size and somewhat the shape of a kidney bean, found inside the membrane and filled with air. From the bottom of it a tube extends downward and forward, and opens trumpet- mouthed into the upper and back part of the nostril. It is called Eustachian tube. The bones. These are four in number, exceedingly small connected by movable joints with each other, and stretched across the drum from the external membrane to the internal mem- brane at the inside of the drum. The mastoid cells. These are cells in the bone felt just back of the ear. Tlie lining of the Arum. The * For much more matter upon the eye, of an interesting and useful character, see Popular Anatomy and Physiology, and Muller's Physiology. t The ear-oils sold at the shops are usually the most barefaced impositions. None are any better than sweet oil, and some much worse. There is not much hope, how- ever, that any oil or other application made to the tube, will cure deafness. matter be found 1 Does the eye seem to be an important organl Will it be well for us to understand it thoroughly ? 11278. What is said of the hardening of ear-wax? Describe the external membrane. The drum. The Eustachian tube. The bones. The mastoid cells. The internal membranes. The labyrinth. The aqueous hu- 182 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Vibrations of air cause hearing. Fig. 76. Fig. 76. The bone of the ear. 1, Malleus (hammer). 2, The upper one is called incus (anvil), the lower one orbicularis (round). 3 Stapes (stirrup). lining of the nose is continued up through the Eustachian tube, the drum and the mastoid cells. The internal membranes. These cover two openings leading from the diura to the labyrinth. This is a curi- ously shaped part, curiously lined, and in health filled with a limpid fluid called the aqueous humor of the ear. With so many parts, of such different structures and modes of action, it is a wonder that hardness of hearing is not more common than it is.] 279. TJie nerves of hearing (auditory) commence at the internal surface of the lining of the labyrinth. [Whatever, therefore, acts on the fluid of the labyrinth can act on the nerves. The internal membrane can do that. The bones can act on one of them. The external membrane can act on the bones. The air can act on the membrane ; and objects by vibrating can act on the air.] 280. Objects act . ? IT 2S5. Are the nerves alike throughout? How is this shown? What is the foot note ? u 280. How is a perfect state of the nerves preserved 1 How is this shown? li '287. How are the nerves also benefited? What has been wisely ordered? Explain why this is so admirable. Tl 288. In respect to sensation, what is the brain "J 186 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Health necessary that correct sensations may be produced. the mind, and also an organ of sense,)so to speak, viz., it is itself acted upon by the mind, and caused to produce sensa- tions. [Some believe, and I think correctly, that those parts of the brain through which the nerves affect the mind, are in fact the inner ex- tremities of the nerves themselves.; How else could the mind know through what particular nerve a sensation was produced 1 In what particular part of the brain, or by what operation the sensations are produced, Ave have not the remotest idea. All that can be said is, that certain states being produced in the brain, it will tend to produce certain results or sensations. The causes which produce these states are, 1st. The nerves, and causes acting through them. ////. That correct sensations may be produced, the nerves, organs of sense, and all parts of the body must be in a healthful state. [2d. The action of the intellect and of the emotions upon the brain produce such states in it, that sensations are caused. 3d. Disease will cause such states of the brain that sensations will be produced J Illus. In delirium tremens, the *|MMP< deranged brain produces sensations of the most fantastic character. Inf. As the brain is more or less affected by any state of every part of the body, it is necessary, in order that sensations may be cor- rect, that the health of every part be perfect. When therefore a per- son is unwell, he must not place too much confidence in his sensations. [4th. Inaction produces such a state as to cause sensations. 5th. Over-action will produce such states as to cause sensations.] [The manner in which all these causes will act, and the states they will produce, and o f course, the sensations they will cause, will de- pend jfipon the natural constitution of the brain and the body gen- erallyj In.f As the same things will, through differently constituted brains, and through the same brains at different times, produce different sensations, we must not expect all persons to be affected alike by the same things, or come to the same conclusions, or that the same person will always have the same opinions about the same things. 289. By producing sensations^ the brain is of use =in im- pelling the mind of a person to the accomplishment of its What do some believe about the inner extremities of the nerves'? 1st Cause pro- ducing state* of the brain? Inf.? 2d Cause? 3d Cause? Illus. 1 Inf. 7 4th Cause? 5t' -\iuse? The action of those causes depend upon what? Inf.? 289. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 187 Benefits of painful sensations. duties, both in regard to himself, his family, and society at large. "] [For this purpose sensations are, therefore, painful, pleasurable, or negative. Negative sensations: These are produced jvvhen the action of any cause is neither^ injurious nor beneficial, as "when an article merely touches the skin.' Painful sensations : These are pro- duced when any thing is acting injuriously upon the body, or when any part of it is in an unhealthy state, exercised too much or too little. ; In short, when any thing is for our injury, we shall be warned of it, sometimes only gently. The insidious attack of disease is noti- fied by perhaps a slight chilliness ; when too much food is taken, by a slight headache or dull sensation ; but this is the beginning of greater evil. A decayed tooth causes an intense ache, a diseased bone ex- treme anguish. The too much exercised muscle causes fatigue; the too long active brain causes exhaustion, while, on the other hand, uneasiness is caused by the unexercised muscle ; the most unendurable ennui if the brain be not exercised by the intellect, and a decided want if it be not active through the action of the emotions, while also the most undesirable sensations and effects are produced if the brain be made active by a fretful disposition, or any state of mind of an infelicitous character.* Even the almost heart-breaking anguish the parent feels when called to grieve the loss of a dear child has its use, it causes greater care and love of those which live.] [Pleasurable sensatwns.--These are produced by whatever acts \ "'Many persons are endeavoring to enjoy life while living in a manner that cannot possibly gain the desired end, viz., full of envy, jealousy, selfishness, and various in- hum;m passions and feelings. Of course such a man may by exercise produce an appetite, and relish his food, but yet he must be continually annoyed by unpleasant sensations, for he is living directly contrary to his own best interests, the interests of society, and the intentions of the Creator. I have said he will relish his food, but he will not perfectly; none of his sensations will be perfectly good. Look not at his external garb, but know that from the necessary constitution of man there rankles in his mind a thousand unpleasant sensations. God never intended a bad man should be happy, never, therefore, envy him ; to have pleasurable sensations, a man must be good. Use of brain? Sensations are, what? When are negative sensations caused ? What is said of painful sensations 1 Give substance of foot note 1 When are pleasurable sensations caused 1 Give substance of foot note 1 fl 290. How preserve the perfect 188 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Actions of the emotions and intellect produce pleasurable sensations. upon the body favorably to health and for the good of a man. when the various parts of the body are in health, when they are properly exercised./ Thus the proper exercise of the muscles, digestive organs> excreting organs, respiratory apparatus, the receipt of proper food and air, the circulation of proper blood, the preservation of a proper temperature, but above all. the proper exercise of the various parts of the brain, by the action of the emotions and intellect, excite in the mind the most delightful sensations.*] * The exceeding joy the parent feels as he takes his sweet child in his arms is never known to the bachelor. The sensations produced by the brain when benevo- lence, patriotism, and all noble feelings of humanity, render the brain active, are never known to the miser, neither are the rewards of intellectual action known to the mentally indolent, or the uneducated. Those who have never experienced the sensa- tions which belong to the sphere of man, but have always confined themselves to the sensations which are common to the animals, look on and wonder what satisfaction can be found in a book, or an enterprise of benevolence. They have never felt the sensations such things will produce, and cannot conceive of them. They are like a person who never having tasted an orange, should have one and a nurly apple placed before him, and should choose the apple, because he knew not what the orange was, never having tasted one, and then complain that the world did not furnish good fruit. They choose to do those things that are productive of the least satisfying sensations, and then complain that the world is not worth living in. If they would think, how- ever, that every pleasure a person enjoys is dependent on sensations, they would per- haps inquire if some other sensations than those they feel would not be more satisfac- tory ; and they would upon inquiry find, that when health reighs throughout the system, and man does all he can and ought to do in respect to himself, his family, society, and his God, a multitude of most satisfactory sensations will be caused, and his own hap- piness produced thereby will compel him to acknowledge that the wisdom and good- ness of the Creator is supreme. The man therefore who gains the idea that acquiring knowlege is not for him, does not understand his nature, the constitution of his mind and brain ; he talks of the weather, he goes in and comes out, rises up and sits down, yokes himself reluctantly to labor, arid wonders why he was made a slave, to work, to drudge, like the horse that toils by his side. He is mistaken. He was not made so to be. His horse is thoughtless, and while he is thoughtless, how can he claim more than his fellow animal ? But let him awake to the importance of his estate, enter the walks of useful knowledge, exercise his mind and brain gradually, mutually assisting to develop each other, reach maturity, and he will find there are no "common men" but those who satisfy themselves with the mere physical enjoyments of animals, which perhaps even the oyster may share with them but that whoever makes study his diversion, and the pursuit of wisdom his satisfaction, according to the intentions of the Creator, will have the noblest spirits of the past and present ages for his intimate friends, and raise himself to a point of eminence from which he can "look up" to no being but God. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 189 How to appear pleasant, sensible, and mirthful. 290. To preserve the brain in a perfect state for pro- discing sensations, [the whole system must be preserved in health, and a good supply of blood furnished to the brain^ 291. \Tlie means of pleasing the mind through the brain , is to cause a healthy state of all parts of the body, and to excite the proper action of the emotions and the intellect. [Which last may be done, by pleasant and sensible conversation, by liveliness and mirthfulness of manner, &c. But as this can be done only when the mind of the actor is sensible, pleasant, mirthful, &c.. it may be said that the true art of pleasing the mind through the brain, is to be pleasant, sensible, mirthful. &c., and then these modes of mind will involuntarily exhibit themselves in what is said or done, and produce their natural sensations on the mind to be operated on.*] { CHAPTER IV. ff The Mind, in respect to Sensations. 292. The duty of the mind seems, therefore, in respect to sensations, to be : to perceive them, to judge where they have been produced, and to be pleased with them if their causes are productive of no harm to the body, and to be repugnant towards all which are produced by causes acting harmfully, to remember them, to compare those remembered with each * Thus we find that a person causes those around him to approach more or less nearly to himself in disposition, mental character, &c. A truly pleasant person makes all pleasant around him. A peevish person makes all peevish. An intellectual per- son improves those who are in his society. A vicious person taints the whole mental nhere within his influence. We should, therefore, endeavor to be good our- selves, and to mingle in good society ; for as the old proverb has it" Bad company corrupts good manners." action of the brain 7 IT 291. How can the mind be pleased through the brain 1 How can we render ourselves agreeable to others 1 IT 292. What is the duty of the mind in 190 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The mind increases or diminishes the intensity of sensations. other and with new ones, and thus acquire knowledge of the objects which surround us and of the states of the internal parts of the body. [Perceiving sensations. The mind has control over its powers of perceiving sensations. As the expression is, '^it can give attention" to sensations, or divert its attention.; How this is done is not known. Whether it removes itself from the part of the brain through which sensations are produced, or whether it stills the action of the brain, is all unknown. The exercise of this power of attention affects the in- tensity of sensations in a remarkable degree. If attention be given to tlif sensations produced by food, they will be very much heightened thereby, as hereafter seen, facilitating the process of digestion, if the food be wholesome. But if the attention of the mind be absorbed with business, etc., food will be swallowed without relish : and very soon such a course will be followed by dyspepsy. A person may ride through the pleasantest section of country and appreciate none of its charms, because his mind gives no attention to causes of sight and sound. To one person "there are li sermons in stones, books in brooks;" another person looks upon the beautiful flower and no ad- miration is awakened, for his mind heeds not the sensations it was made to produce.] [The attention of the mind being engrossed with the importance of staying the ravages of fire, or with the strife of battle, a person feels not a wound or the most exhausting fatigue. On the other hand the attention of the mind will cause the slightest sensations to appear insupportable. He who gives attention to every ache and ail, will soon appear to himself the most afflicted of the human family, and indeed, he will suffer more than those who are acted upon by the most powerful causes of painful sensations. To nurse every pain of a child, cf^ocd by cut or bruise, etc. is to make it suffer on the slight- est occasion ; white to call off its attention and make it " forget" the hurt, is to teach it to be manly, and use the true means of relieving unavoidable misfortunes of their intensity.] 29 b. The mind also imperatively demands the produc- tion of sensations of an active character. [It seems to be content if one be caused to take the place of an- other, but the sensation of ennui, produced by a want of sensations of an active character, it will not endure, and the more lively the mind is, the less will it be satisfied to be long without sensations.] regard to sensation. What control has the mind over its perceptions ? Illus. What is said of judgment in respect to sensations'] What in regard to pleasing sensations? Memory of sensations? Comparing sensations? H 293. The mind demands whatl HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 191 How to preserve young men from intemperance. Illus Every one has experienced the tedium of waiting for some one or some thing.* * Two very important practical ideas are to be drawn from this. 1st. In respect to how children should be treated. 2d. In respect to how young men may be saved from the dissipation which overwhelms so many with ruin. The mind of the little child is a blank it has no thoughts, and but few emotions to produce sensations it therefore should have an abundance of sensations produced by objects of sight and sound, and by exercise of its muscles ; for it will desire sensations, and if it do not have these it will wish to eat. Few children are as well attended to in this respect as they ought to be. Again, if a child is to be denied one sensation, it should have another. For in- stance, if it want to take a book that it cannot have, let it have something else that will satisfy as well. By great care in this way, a child's disposition may many times be saved. Proper care of a child will admit of no indolence on the part of the parents. If it exist, the parent can never enjoy the true parent's reward. In the second place, to rescue young men from dissipation, it will be necessary to place them in good society, where all their emotions shall be made properly active, and the mind receive sensa- tions. It will also be necessary to cultivate the intellect, that the mind may know the pleasures of thought, and love best those sensations which are produced by it, and delight in the society of the good and the learned of past and present times and still better, find highest delight in the society of the Orator hinw.lf, for then he r;m never want society which shall occupy his mind widi sensations ol ilic niusi LinioLuiag cha- racter, for God is every where, and His works are volumes of never-failing interest, and which have no Finis If, on the other hand, young men are shut out from society, and the sociabilities and refining affabilities and affections of home and friends, with no taste for reading, and no proper places of amusement to visit, they will not, they cannot, long bear up against the urgent desire of the mind to perceive sensations ; and they will rush into ruin. ;in 1 drink-, or gamble, or any thing to cause sensations for the time being, rather than be burdened with the ennui that is so insupportable. Every child, therefore, should be educated, and taught to love learning as its greatest safe- guard ; and the bonds of friendship and humanity should be thrown around those who as strangers and young, are placed in our midst. BOOK III. ORGANS OF THOUGHT. CHAPTER I. Tfo Brain, as an Organ of Thought. 294. TJie brain has the pre-eminent office of being the organ used by the mind, when it thinks. [How the brain is used is not known. All that can be said, is to state some facts of practical import.] 295. Different parts of the brain are probably used by the mind in accomplishing its duties. 296. The action of the brain is attended with a great change in its substance on account of which a large supply of blood will be required. [It will be seen by Fig. 1, PI. 4, that the bloodvessels, leading to the brain, are very large and very direct. Thus more blood is carried to the brain, by from five to ten times, than passes to any other part of the body of the same size, except the kidneys and lungs.] [It will also be found that the head becomes hot when the mind is engaged long and intensely in thinking ; at such times also the feet are apt to be cold.] Inf. a. This shows, as would be natural, that if a large quantity lllus. 1st. Practical idea in foot note? Second? IT 294. What office has the brain in respect to thought? Why called pre-eminent ? What is said of different parts of the brain? Are there different parts in the brain? Tell what you know about them. Can you determine their size by examining the skull externally! With what is action of the brain attended? What is seen by Fig. 1, PI. 5? What also found? Inf. a. 7 What shown? Inf. b.? Inf.c.? Inf. d.? Mitts.? Inf. a. b. c. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 193 Many practical inferences. of blood flow to the brain, some other parts would suffer for want of a proper supply. Inf. b. A person ought not to study immediately after eating, as blood is then in large quantity required by the stomach. Inf. c. A person ought not to study while walking or laboring diligently, as both the muscles and the brain, when active, require large quantities of blood. Inf. d. When the head becomes hot and the thoughts confused, a person should take muscular exercise, warm the feet, and make cold applications to the head.* Inf. e. In childhood, when the blood is required by all parts, in their growth, it should not be appropriated by the .jrain.f Inf.f. The action of the brain producing changes of its sub- stance, times of repose will be required, and as it is not probable the same parts of the brain are engaged in producing thought and causing contractions of the muscles, it might be supposed, as is the case, that muscular exercise would give repose to. and highly benefit, those parts concerned in producing thought. For the action of the muscles would increase the circulation of blood through the brain, and produce its renewal, while at the same time that part concerned in producing thought was in repose.:}: Inf. g. Rubbing the system must give relief to the brain over- tasked with study. Inf. h. As the changes taking place in the brain will be con- stantly reducing the quality of the blood, the watery part of it ought to be removed by the kidneys.*) Inf. i. If water be taken, when a person is not thirsty, it prevents the brain from being nourished as rapidly as otherwise. || * The old proverb is an excellent one" Keep the head cool, and the extremities warm." A cool cloth will be found an excellent thing to apply to the head when hot, and the mind confused especially just before retiring. But though by such an appli- cation the thoughts become clear, a person should think no more till the brain has had time to be repaired by rest. t Too many times a child is put to study too young, and kept at it too diligently. It is better to exercise the emotions, and spend time in cultivating the disposition, and in producing an inclination to make out-door observations on nature, and to exercise abundantly the muscular organs Nature indicates this, and science teaches it ; let us not be blind, but notice and observe a point of so much value. I Students hardly ever take as much muscular exercise as would be for their profit intellectually. Nature has constituted us to exercise all parts of the body, and it is useless to attempt to live and enjoy health and mental vigor without it. The kidneys should also remove water at the same time, in order to have the waste substance produced in the brain, carried off fast enough by the excreting organs, as shown in fl 54. II In summer, people are apt to drink too much, especially students ; and, indeed, this is the case at all times of the year. d. t Footnote! Inf. e.? Inf.f.? Foot riote! Inf.g.? Footnote! Inf. h.? Inf.i.l Illus.? Infs. e.f.g. h. i.? Footnote! Inf. j. 1 } Footnote! Inf. k.? 194 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Natural mode of approaching the intellect. Inf. j. When it is desirable to have the brain active, it will be necessary to have an increased circulation of blood to the head pro- duced.* I/if. A:. The changes taking- place in the brain, will render the action of all the excreting organs necessary. [The importance of pure air is at once evident, also the action of the liver, and second stomach, and of the kidneys, while the action of the skin is of great consequence. Hence those who sleep or live in close apartments, abide not by what is useful to mental application, neither do they who neglect daily ablution of the skin, rubbing it. and keep- ing it warm, or who neglect to produce and continue regula* and daily evacuations of the digestive canal.] Inf. /.The changes taking place and the circulation of blood in the brain, would produce much heat in the body, especially in the * This may be, and probably is accomplished in several ways. 1st. By the effect of the changes themselves, which would cause an increased attraction for certain par- ticles of the blood, and draw them on. 2d. By the contraction and dilatation of the capillaries of the brain. 3d. By the increased action of the heart and bloodvessels. To arouse this action in the brain, three ways may be taken. 1st. Through the organs of sense and the nerves, the brain can most quickly be aroused. 2d. By the action of the emotions- the action can be carried to the highest pilch. 3d. By the action of the intellect. When the intellect is in the habit of acting, the action of the brain is so constant that no previous steps are required to produce the necessary actions. But when this is not the case, as it usually is not, the action of the intellectual powers must be addressed in the natural order through the organs of sense and the emotions. This was perfectly understood by Shakspeare, and is practised by many speakers to as great a degree as possible under the circumstances. Some politicians attempt to reach their hearers by a loud tone of voice, and addressed to their patriotism ; other speakers, to rouse and keep the attention of their hearers, address the eye and other emotions. One way or another must be taken; the brain is not easily aroused to action if argu- ments merely are addressed to the intellect alone. And the reason for this is seen, if it be noticed that sensations produced through the organs of sense should impel the mind in many instances to instant action ; the emotions also should arouse the brain, that it may act as quickly and as powerfully as the emergency requires when, for instance, the mother must snatch her child from beneath the feet of a horse while the proper action of the intellect always requires lime, and will admit of course of delay in arousing the brain. We must, therefore, never approach the intellect at once, but we must frame our speech according to the constitution of man. and make our advances to the intellect, step by step, as the circulation to the brain is quickened, and thus its action aroused. The advance being more or less rapid, according to the con- stitution of the person addressed. Foot note ? Inf. 1. ? What is evident ? Inf. m. 1 Upon perfection of organ of HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 195 Upon what the perfection of the brain depends. brain itself, on account of which an increased action of the skin of the head in particular, in causing perspiration, would be called for, and takes place. Inf. m. The influence of the nervous system of organic life, will be required. 297. The perfection of the brain as the organ of thought, will depend upon its original constitution, upon the educa- tion of a person, upon its state of health or disease, and upon its regular exercise, [Thus must end what can be in this work said upon the brain, nerves, organs of sense, muscles, and bones, and for a large amount of valuable and interesting matter on these subjects, the reader is referred to " Popular Anatomy and Physiology."] 298. By reviewing the organs of the first class it will be found, that so far as they are concerned, they are benefited, and benefit other parts, solely by being exercised, and all their wants, in other respects, are supplied by other organs, forming the second class. To know the conditions in which these are well performed must be exceedingly important and interesting. thought depend, what 1 What organs compose the first class ? What are they for ? How, when, and why is the mind pained by means of them ? Give twenty illustra- tions on the black-board. How, when, and why is the mind pleased by means of them 1 Can you mention an instance by which you can show that the mind is pleased without the use of them 7 Give twenty-five illustrations on the black-board of the mind being pleased by them. Each one, state the particular way in which his own mind is best pleased by them. Can we, then, please our own minds and those of others by means of them ? What will be the effect upon ourselves and them ? fi 295. By reviewing the organs of the first class what will be found? DIVISION II. PAETICULAB DESCRIPTION OF SECOND CLASS OF OKGANS. BOOK I. DIGESTIVE ORGANS. Prefatory Remarks. {Chemistry of the world. There are 56 different ihings called elements, composing the world ; united or combined in an almost endless variety of ways, they form the multitude of objects that surround us. Some things are composed of but two some of many elements. What is singular is, that a substance composed of two of these, will exhibit scarcely a property that distinguishes either element separately. It is still more strange, that substances com- posed of the same identical elements, and only varying slightly in the proportions of each, should be so different in their properties, that from their appearance, we should not even guess that each contained even one of the same kind of elements. Indeed, sometimes two substances appearing entirely unlike, are not only composed of the same elements, but in the same proportions, only they are combined in some different way in the two substances.] Ittus. a. Water is composed of two kinds of gases or air, viz., Oxygen and Hydrogen. Illus. b. Starch, fat, sugar, and gum are composed of the same three kinds of elements, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Carbon. [These elements not only exhibit peculiar properties, when they are combined, but they also produce singular results as they are combining, or as they are separating from each other.] Ittus. a. Muscular action takes place at the instant of the decom- HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 197 How heat is produced. position of the muscle, or separation of its composed or combined elements from each other.* IlLns. b. When oxygen and hydrogen are uniting to form water, heat is produced. When carbon and oxygen are uniting to form car- bonic gas, heat is produced.f [C/iemistry of the system. Thirteen necessarily, 16 usually, and 19 sometimes, of the simple elements are found in the human body. Of the 13 some exist in very small quantity, but no one of them can be entirely wanting and life continue. The body is chiefly formed of Five, viz., Oxygen, Hydrogen. Carbon, Nitrogen, and Lime. The four first, with the addition of a little sulphur and phosphorus, con- stitute the great bulk of the soft parts. The last is a mineral, and, combined with carbon and phosphorus and oxygen, constitutes the basis of the bones, and gives them their rigidity 4J [But the system is composed of these elements in a compound * It is seldom that the elements of a compound separate without uniting immediately in some new way among themselves ; thus producing composition of new substances. This takes place in case of the muscle ; several simpler compounds than the muscle was. are formed. t A change of temperature is almost always exhibited when any of the elements unite, or separate, to any cpnsiderable degree : much heat, however, is exhibited only when a few of them unite. The most common of these are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, uniting as before stated; the oxygen and hydrogen to form' water, the oxygen and carbon to form what is called carbonic acid gas. It is a kind of air which is very poisonous to the blood, if acting upon it in any quantity. Wood is composed to a great degree of these three elements. When it burns, its oxygen unites with its hydro- gen thus water is formed and heat produced. The carbon is left, behind in the form of charcoal, except there is a draught of air. If there be, the oxygen, which, in part, composes the air, in passing over the burning wood unites with its carbon, and carbonic acid gas is produced, and also heat in common words, the charcoal is burned up. Of course the more air there is passing over the burning wood, and the closer it is brought in contact with it, the more rapidly will the oxygen unite with the carbon, and the more heat will there be produced in a given length of time. Hence, why we blow the fire to make it burn. It may be asked what causes the elements to separate and form new unions why do they not stay as they were? that is to say, what causes the wood to burn? To kindle the wood we hold a coal of fire to it. The heat of the coal acts on the elements of the nearest particles of wood, and compels them to separate. This is the effect of heat upon almost every thing. When, by the action of heat, they have been separated to a given distance, they have no longer a strong tendency to unite as before, but the oxygen and hydrogen prefer to form a union by themselves, while the carbon has recourse to the oxygen of the atmosphere, and unites with it. The heat thus produced acts on the elements of the next particles of wood and they burn, and so on from the circumference to the centre, and the entire stick is burned. } The bony framework is, therefore, a most superlative piece of masonry, the rocky portions of which, constituted of the most beautiful marble and porcelain, are cemented together in a surprisingly ingenious manner, and then wrought into the delicate laminae of the cells or of "the more solid sides of the bones built into pro- cesses, arched over cavities, raised up into a dome, here contracted, there spread out, ridged up, bulged, &c., with all the devices of consummate architecture, to give the greatest strength with the least amount of substance ; while, passing all human art, it is composed of pieces not only, but also so arranged, that if they become damaged or any way unfit, there may be a constant renewal of the most minute portions, with- out marring the beautiful work in the slightest degree, or even leaving a trace of the repair; and then the whole so faced, smoothed, or finished like " rock work," as to be in the most exquisite degree a combination of utilities, symmetries, and beauty, such as is seen only in the works of the Creator. How can any one think a skeleton is shock- ing. Thou art unworthily like it, thou thoughtless go to it and learn wisdom. 198 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND PATHOLOGY. Animals and plants form a circuit for the elements. state, and the action of muscles of every part of the system depends upon the decomposition of compounded elements ; that is, a separation of them into new and simpler compounds.* So in the production of heat, decompositions must take place. Before the elements can be decomposed, they must be compounded. This no part of an animal can do. They must be compounded in their highest degree before they are received by the body. For the action of the body upon them is to decompose them. Plants are the agents of the digestive organs, for gathering from the 56 elements composing the world, those which are needed by the body, and for combining them in the right way.] [Chemistry of Plants. Plants have the power of combining ele- ments, but not of decomposing them. They are, therefore, just the reverse of animals, and the elements are passing through a ceaseless circuit. First they are combined by the plant, then received and somewhat farther prepared by the animal, decomposed to produce action, or heat, or both, and in a more simple state carried out of the body to be again seized by the plant and recombined. To assist in forming itself, and in combining the elements for the necessities of animals, the plant requires and forms for itself other substances than those required by the animal, and they are more or less mixed with those which are needed.] lllus. In the sugar-cane, sugar is found in the midst of a much larger amount of substance, not needed by an animal. Inf. a. Animals will require digestive organs, not only large enough to receive all the compound elements really needed by the body, but large enough to contain all the substance with which they are found more or less closely combined ; and the digestive organs must be able to prepare, not only the needed substances, but to sepa- rate them from those which are of no value, and to pass the last out of the body. lllus. That the ox may obtain the sugar from the cane, his diges- tive organs must be large enough to receive not only the sugar he flieeds, but the large amount of other substance with which it is found; so also in case of grass.f Inf. b. As during the winter, in temperate zones, plants could * Which, in fact, is a decomposition and recomposition, but it is a downward step toward a separation of the elements into their simple state ; for the new compounds, though more numerous, are each composed of fewer elements than the original com- pound. t The ingenuity of man enables him to express the juice, and evaporate the watery part of it ; and so also he prepares other kinds of food, sometimes wisely, some- times not. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 199 The character of food differs at different seasons. not continue their actions, but as animals would still require food, not only, but a very large supply of it. plants ought during the summer to produce a supply in advance, which should also have as little bulk as possible, viz.. contain as little useless substance, and on the other hand, the digestive organs of animals ought not in cold weather to suffer from receiving very little useless substance. Jllus. In the summer the squirrel finds plenty of bemes. which are quickly grown, and of course, contain but little of compound sub- stances needed by his body, which also needs but little, especially of heat-producing food, which the acid berry is not ; but in the fall he finds plenty of nuts and grain, which have been a long time ripening, and which areas it were the essence of the plant, and contain a great deal of needed compounds, especially of a heat and fat-producing sort, of which his body is in need, and the quantity of this which he needs, will fill his stomach as much as the berries of summer.* ////. From this we may argue, that it is well for man to prepare his food in a concentrated form for cold weather, but not in summer. [ The digestive organs of different animals differ. Some have been intended by nature to prey upon other animals. In this case, the useless parts of plants have been removed by the animal that ate them, and the useful elements only are eaten by the animal of prey. His organs of digestion may, therefore, be small and simple.] lllus. The ox and sheep have four stomachs, and very long Second Stomachs. The tiger but one stomach and very short Second Stomach. [As animals living upon plants have been intended for different duties, their digestive organs must be constructed with reference thereto.] lUus.The horse is intended for fleetness. and therefore cannot, like the ox, carry an extensive digestive apparatus and a large quan- tity of food ; he has but one stomach, and not a very long Second Stomach. [If he live upon the same kind of food as the ox, he must eat a great deal more of it, for he can only obtain from it that portion of substance which is most easily obtained, and then allow it to pass on, and he must be eating much more of his time than the ox, especial- ly in cold weather.] Inf. To feed a horse profitably, his food should be of such a nature, that it contains much of the useful substance, and it should be prepared so as to be easily and thoroughly digested.f * Indeed, it will be realized that the stomach of the squirrel could not contain suf- ficient food for the wants of his body, if in fall the useful compounds were found as much mixed with useless ones as they are in berries ; and the food supplied for him in fall also requires less room and labor for storage. t By properly preparing food for horses, they "can be kept at from one third to one half less than usual. Their dependence should be mostly on grain, finely ground, boiled, and mixed thoroughly with cut straw or hay. 200 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How valuable food is frequently wasted. \Tke digestive organs of animals intended by nature to live on differ- ent plants or different parts of plants, ought to differ. For the useful compounds of different plants and different parts of plants, are in quantity and manner differently combined with useless substances.] Inf. At different seasons of the year the digestive organs of the same animal should differ. [Thus it is seen : that there is a perfect relation between plants and animals, each being adapted to the other and each a part of one whole plan.] CHAPTER I. Food and Drink* SEC. A. General Character, of Food. 299. Food may first be considered as composed of three classes of substances. 1st. Nourishment. 2d. Fuel. 3d. Useless substance. [Either of the first two become useless if eaten in larger quanti- ties than the needs of the system, in respect to nourishment or fuel.] Inf. A person may, therefore, eat a large quantity of food and re- ceive "no benefit from it. because it is not of the right kind. He may feed his animals with a large quantity of valuable food, which will be wasted, because it is not of the right kind. In order to feed stock properly, a thorough knowledge of the chemistry and physiology of plants and animals is required. [A great deal of fault is committed in respect to children by feeding them with the same kinds of food as older persons eat, when their wants are different, and they suffer in two ways. viz. they do not obtain what they need to cause them to grow, to keep them warm, &c. ; and they do eat much more than they ought of, to them, useless * The importance of food and drink may be judged from the amount of food and drmk taken in a lifetime. If only a pound of meat per day for 300 days per year, during 50 years, be eaten, it will "amount to 15,000 pounds. That is, every man who lives to be GO years of age, eats in that time, five yoke of fat oxen, 10 hogs, 20 sheep, 100 turkeys, 250 chickens, and 500 pounds of trout, salmon, codfish, oysters, Ac., and besides this, about 30 tons of bread, vesetables, and fruits, and will also drink from 20,000 to 50,000 quarts of water. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 201 Composition of animal and vegetable food. food, which annoys the second stomach, and causes disease in it of an aggravated character. When a child does not digest its food, and its stomach seems to receive a large amount of, to it, useless food, two things are to be considered : 1st, if it receive too much of one kind, and not enough of another, or 2d, if it receive too much of all kinds.] [ The nourishment of the system must be composed more or less of nitrogen, for that is an element in each of the compounds found in the body.] [ The fuel must be composed of substances composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, but not of nitrogen. These compounds are chiefly fat (oils, &c.), starch, sugar (honey, molasses, &c.), gums.] 300. Food may, secondly, be considered as composed of animal and vegetable food; which include meat, milk, and eggs; nuts, seeds and grains, succulent roots, the twigs and bark of some trees, sap, fruit, leaves and stalks (greens) of plants, and the wood and roots of trees and shrubs. [Meat is composed of lean, fat, tendinous and nervous substance, and blood. It always contains more or less waste, though but little comparatively. Lean meat must be mostly nourishment, and adapted to be eaten in summer, if a sufficient quantity of waste be also taken. The fat must be fuel, and well adapted to cold weather, but not to warm. This is evident from the fact, that animals are fat in the fall and in cold climates, in accordance with our need ; and our appetite inclines us to be fond of fat meats in fall sausages, for instance. Many persons having hearty appetites in summer from laboring hard, injure themselves by eating too fatty food. Milk is nourishment, fuel and water ; whether it contain any waste substance or not is un- certain. A great part of its bulk is water ; in this are dissolved the fuel and nourishment. The fuel is fat (butter) and sugar ; the rest of the solid portions of the milk may be considered as nourishment. In skim-milk, therefore, there is as much nourishment, but not as much fuel or food to fatten, as in new milk. The same is true of but- ter-milk. The sugar is the only heating or fattening ingredient. These are kinds of food which will do well in warm weather, and to cause animals " to grow," but will not be suitable tp very young ani- mals, or to cold weather. Cheese must contain much concentrated nourishment. Eggs are entirely, except the shell, transformed into the chicken, and must be entirely nourishment, and well adapted to spring and summer, but not so perfectly to fall and winter.] [ Vegetable food* Nuts contain a large amount of oil, and some nourishment, and are well adapted to cold weather. Seeds and grains form our breads, puddings, and pastry generally. They contain a large quantity of starch ; many of them more or less oil, nutritious substance, and a portion of waste. Some of them are adapted to use all the year; for instance oats, wheat, &c. (oats are probably the * Animal food is, in fact, vegetable food, since it was composed by planta. 202 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. People are apt to eat those kinds of food improper for the season. best and cheapest of them all) ; while some are much better adapted to cold weather ; for instance buckwheat, &c. Roots. Some of the roots contain, for instance the potato, a large amount of starch ; also nutriment, and waste. Others, for instance beets, contain sugar, and waste. The twigs, buds, and bark of trees contain gum. starch, nourishment in small quantities, and waste substance in large. Sap sometimes contains sugar. Fruit is very different in different cases : that which is quickly formed in the early part of the season, such as berries, cherries, &c., is composed mostly of water, waste substance, a little nourishment, with scarcely any heating properties. That which is formed more slowly, and comes to maturity later, contains more "substance." The hotter the summer, the sooner do fruits mature, and the more juicy and delicious are they ; which is espe- cially true of those brought from tropical climates. Certain fruits, such as peas, beans. &c.. approach nearer to being seeds, and contain a great deal of nourishment. The fruits ripening toward fall, contain sometimes sugar, as sweet apples; sometimes starch, sometimes gum, and more or less nutriment. The most conspicuous food in fruits, however, is the waste food, which renders them excellent for summer use. as serving to make up a necessary bulk of food, and should be eaten, no matter what epidemic may prevail.* The leaves and stalks of plants are almost entirely nutriment, and waste substance, in the early part of the year, as they should be ; for as summer is approach- ing, the stock of fuel in the system does not need to be increased, but may be drawn upon till exhausted. Toward fall they contain more starch, gum, &c. Yet most of them do all summer long contain more or less of fuel ; for the cow obtains the butter she yields, from the grass.f The wood and roots of many trees contain more or less of a starchy substance, and a gum, mixed with mucilage, that contains a small portion of nourishment; but these parts of plants, being a framework to the plant, are mostly composed of incompatible waste substance.] [ Of the various kinds of food, people are apt to eat too much nour- ishment, summer and winter, and especially when unwell; and in summer, and when unwell, too much fuel ; and in summer, too little waste food, which by sedentary persons is used in too small quantity during the winter. Females do not eat enough waste food, as a gene- ral thing.] * One of the most incorrect ideas that has ever been conceived is, that fruit is in- jurious in summer. It is not the fruit, hut the way it is eaten. It should be eaten as nature ripens it, a little at a time when we first use a new kind, not according to the state of the market ; and as soon as accustomed to it we may eat abundantly, always noticing that as soon as the weather for a day, or even the half of it, becomes cool, the system requires more of some other food and less of fruit. t Cabbage is said to contain more nourishment in proportion to its weight when dried than any other plant, and in this respect is probably the most profitable of any thing that can be raised. The effects of Scotch Kale, and Dutch Sourcrout, show that cabbage is not an unhealthy article of food, but probably one of the most healthy on the catalogue. About 30 tons of fresh cabbage can be raised to the acre. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 203 In ill healiji food should not be taken. SEC, B. Quantity of Food. 301. The quantity of food which should be eaten depends upon the constitution ; the health ; period of life ; the exer- cise ; exposure to the cold ; whether or not it be desirable to fatten an animal, or one's self; kind of food taken \ and on the appetite. [The constitutions of people differ in respect to the thoroughness with which the useful portions of the food are extracted from it.] Illus. One person or animal is very easily fattened ; another not. [In ill health, the system cannot digest food, and therefore it should not be taken ; and the necessity for it should be prevented by keeping quiet, and warmly clothed and sheltered.* In early child- hood, food is required only to preserve warmth, and cause growth ; and as the child is feeble, it must chiefly depend on clothing and arti- ficial heat if it be cold weather, and of course can do well with very little food. In older childhood, food is required on account of growth, exercise, and the exposure to cold, which is very great; much food must then be eaten. In mature years movements are more sedate, the body has reached its full development, and less food in propor- tion is required, and of a different kind. Then comes declining years, when the enfeebled powers of the system require fat. and clothing, to preserve what heat they can produce ; and food produc- tive of heat, and most easily digested creams, gums, puddings, &e. Exercise demands corresponding quantities of nourishment. Expo- sure to the cold requires large supplies of fuel. Exercise and expo- sure to cold together demand the largest supplies of food. When fat is to be produced, fuel should be used freely. If food of the kind de- manded, chiefly constitute what is eaten, so much food will not be required as if the necessary kind constitute but a small portion of what we eat. Appetite should always be regarded to a degree ; at least, we should never eat when we do not feel an appetite. If the appetite be an unhealthy one, " a sick head-ache appetite," it should be disregarded. If we have a light appetite it may Be regarded, and a little eaten ; but it is better to wait till a hearty appetite occurs. If appetite exist, we should not gratify it. if we shall be immediately called upon to exercise, physically or mentally, as for digestion of food, blood will be required by the stomach, and also by the other organs exercised. Care must be taken not to satiate the appetite, but merely to satisfy it. Eat till the feeling of all parts of the system seems to say, " enough." * There is no one thing about which people err more than eating when unwell, in order to gain strength. If a person cannot walk or work, how can he do what calls for greater effort on the part of the system ? Many a disease would be entirely con- quered by decided abstinence in its commencement. Let not a person eat when he feels unwell. 204 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Food should not be taken before repasts -nor just before retiring. SEC. C. Times of the day when Food should be eaten. 301. Times when food should be eaten depends upon the age, occupations, and the habits of a person. [In early infancy the system has no other duty to perform, and, as in case of animals of some kinds, the stomach of the child may con- tain food most of the time without material injury. The child has advanced hut a few days in life, however, before other parts of the system begin to develope themselves to such a degree as to require the stomach to repose itself for their benefit, if not for its own. The intervals of repose must grow longer as the child grows older. At as early a day as possible, regular periods of taking food should be adopted. Habit has a great influence over the action of every part of the system, and most surely upon the action of the digestive organs. The particular time in the course of the day does notmattei, pro- vided, it be the same day by day.* It will usually be most desirable and better to take some food into the stomach soon after rising, if not, a dram of water should be taken if a person be going out in a fever and ague district, or when any epidemic prevails. Indeed, then it will be best to take breakfast before going out. About mid-day and toward the close of the afternoon will usually be chosen by, and be best for the laboring man, as the hours to take his repasts, while the professional man will probably prefer two repasts per day. Three times per day are as many times as any one ought to eat. No food should be taken between meals, as the stomach itself needs time for repose, and the action of the other organs require the blood and nervous energies which must be given to the stomach when food is digested. Food between meals also takes off the edge of appetite for the following repast, which should be keen, that food may be highly relished and well and easily digested. But, above all things, food should not be eaten for several hours before retiring. The digestive operation requires the action of the nervous system, and also acts upon it, and sleep cannot be sweet and sound, when food is in the stomach, nor will it answer to eat "just a little." A little requires a long time to digest, and will make the sleep disquiet. Such dis- turbance of the nervous system produces not only darangement of health, but despoils the complexion of its beauty. It is contrary to the laws of God to eat and drink at parties or elsewhere in the evening, or when a person has not an appetite. Let the time be occupied in gratifying some appetite of a more rational character. Experience has taught old age, how to eat and when, or he has lived without avail.] * Nor ought this rule to be broken in upon weekly, as it is by many, for the diges- tive organs are much deranged by the meals falling three times a day at certain hours, and then on one day only twice per day at certain other hours. They will not be so much injured by going without food for a day, as I believe. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 205 The interesting case of Alexis St. Martin, SEC. D. Cooking of Food. 302. Cooking of food serves tivo purposes. 1st. To pre- pare and combine it so that it shall be better relished. 2d. To prepare it in such way that the digestive organs can more easily extract the useful portions. [The relish of food depends very much upon habit, somewhat upon the natural constitution, much upon the health, and much on the appetite produced by exercise and exposure, upon the proper cooking of the food, and lastly upon the manner in which it is eaten. Since one article eaten before another increases the relish with which it is eaten, while reverse the order, and neither article would be relished. It is quite important to have the food cooked so that it shall be highly relished, as it will more readily digest.] Inf. It is the duty of a man to cultivate a high relish for whole- some food, as he will thus enjoy another of the blessings God has created him to enjoy. [That cooking does itself have an influence on the time required to digest the food, will be seen by the accompanying table.*] * As the stomach is hidden from our view under ordinary circumstances, it might be thought by some, that statements in respect to the. operations of this organ must be entirely conjectural ; and so they were until within a few years. In the year 1822, however, a young man, Alexis St. Martin by name, a Canadian by birth, but at the time in Mich'igan in the United States service, was accidentally wounded by the dis- charge of a gun, the muzzle of which was about a yard behind and a little to the left of him, and pointed across his side, which was torn open by the buckshot, and some- what burnt by the powder with which the gun was loaded. Dr. Beaumont, U. S. sur- geon, was immediately called. He found, as he says, a portion as large as a turkey's egg, of the left lung, pushed out through the opening made ; and noticed, also, that the food eaten for breakfast by St. Martin about an hour before, was passing out in a half-digested state. Of course, the stomach was injured. Strange to say, in about ten months after this, St. Martin was well, to the great credit of Dr. B^ Still more strange, and fortunate for the world, and apparently without injury to St. Martin, though the opening in the side closed up so as to cover in the lung, the edges of the wound in the stomach refused to " grow together," but grew to the edges of .the external wound in the side thus leaving an opening, about two and a half inches in circumference, through the side into the stomach. Through this opening any thing could be passed into, or taken from the stomach : or the stomach could be examined under any different circumstances. In about ten months fom the recovery of St. Martin, a kind of valve or apron began to grow down from the upper edge of the opening of the stomach. It hung, so to speak, within the opening like a curtain, retaining the food ; but it could be pressed in, and the stomach examined as before. Dr. B. hastened to improve the opportunity ; and with much apparent accuracy and particularity, made notes of his observatk-ns and experiments. With his notes in hand, and the results of so many experiments as have been tried on man and animals, we may advance to the subjects under consideration with considerable assurance of being compensated with positive knowledge. The following table from Dr. Beaumont, though not very instructive, as perhaps there would be few persons with constitutions precisely like that of Alexis St. Martin, and consequently few whose stomachs would require the p;ime length of time for digesting food perhaps for some articles longer, and for others shorter, than in his case ; yet is TABLE, EXHIBITING THE AVERAGE TIME OF DIGESTION OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF DIET. Articles. Prepara- tion. Time Articles, Prepara- tion. Pigs' feet, soused, Rice, .... Tripe, soused, . . Apples, sweet, Trout, salmon, fresh, Boiled, Boiled, Boiled, Raw, Boiled, Fried, Broiled, Boiled, Raw, Raw, Boiled, Raw, Broiled, Boiled, Boiled, Raw, Roasted, Boiled, Roasted, Baked, Roasted, Boiled, Warm'd, Broiled, Roasted, Baked, Raw, Boiled, Fricas'd, Baked, Raw, Raw, Broiled, Roasted, Broiled, Baked, Boiled, Boiled soft, Broiled, Boiled, Boiled, h. m. 1 1 1 1 30 I 30 1 30 1 35 1 45 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 15 2 18 2 25 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 30 2 45 2 45 2 50 2 55 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Soup, chicken, . . Pork steak, . . Pork, recently salted, Oysters, fresh, . . Mutton, fresh, Bread, corn, . . Carrot, orange, Beef, with mustard, Sausage, . . . Beef, fresh, lean, dry, Bread, wheat, fresh, Butter, .... Boiled, Broiled, Broiled, Roasted, Roasted, Baked, Boiled, Boiled, Broiled, Roasted, Baked, Melted Venison steak, Sago, Apples, sour, mellow, Cabbage & vinegar, Codfish, cured, dry, Eggs, fresh, . . Liver, beef's, fresh, Milk, Catfish, .... Cheese, old, strong, Eggs, fresh, . j Fried, Raw, Boiled hard, Fried, Fried, Stewed, Boiled, Boiled, Boiled, Boiled, Boiled, Boiled, Boiled, Fried, Coasted, Soiled, Coasted, Boiled, Boiled, broiled, ?ried, 3oiled, Boiled, Coasted, Boiled, 7 ried, Coasted, Boiled, Tapioca, Milk, Turkey, wild, . . Flounder, fresh, . Oysters, fresh, . . Potatoes, Irish, Soup, mutton, . . Soup, oyster, . Turnips, flat, . . Beef, fresh, lean, ) with salt only, $ Corn, green, & beans, Beets, .... Beef, fresh, lean, Ducks, domesticated, Fowl, domestic, cated, \ Potatoes, Irish, . . Pig, ....*. Parsnips, .... Meat hashed with ) vegetables, $ Lamb, fresh, . . Goose, .... Cake, sponge, . . Cabbage head, Beans, pod, . . . Chicken, full-grown, Custard, .... Apples, sour, hard, Oysters, fresh, . . Bass, striped, fresh, Beef, fresh, lean, rare, steak, . . Corn cake, . . . Dumpling, apple, Eggs, fresh, . . j Mutton, fresh . . Salmon, salted, . Soup, beef, vege- } tables & bread, $ Veal, fresh, . . Pork, recently salted, Beef, old hard, salted, Cabbage, . . . Ducks, wild, Suet, mutton, . . Veal, fresh, . . . Pork, fat and lean, Suet, beef, fresh, Pork, recently salted, HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 207 Food and drink should be neither hot nor cold. [That some food should not require cooking is not strange, for instance eggs. These are already prepared to form the various parts of an animal, and why should they need much further preparation before the reception of their ingredients in the bloodvessels 1 Indeed, cooking them much, changes them to such a degree that they are quite difficult of digestion. Raw eggs are therefore frequently re- commended to a person whose digestive organs are feeble. Cabbage raw, digests much easier than when boiled ; probably because its pores become closed with the fatty substance in which it is cooked, and by the effects of heat. But why there should be so much difference in the time required for digesting various articles of food strongly resembling each other, and why in some cases food indigesti- ble in health should be quickly digested in sickness, and why an article should be digested with difficulty by some persons, when generally it is considered wholesome, cannot be determined.] SEC. E. Temperature of Food. 303. Food should be neither hot nor cold when eaten. [The teeth are not only very much injured by hot food or drink, but the tone of the digestive organs is entirely destroyed. The skin of the hand looks very badly, after it has been immersed in warm water for a little while, and is very unhealthy in its state, bloodless comparatively and without tone. A worse effect still is produced on the more delicate coats of the skin. Very cold food and drinks are. if any thing, still worse than hot. They lower the temperature of the stomach when it requires to be raised. Taken between meals, ice cold water may not be productive of exceeding harm, but if any one will put his hand for five minutes in a pitcher of ice water, and then reflect that the effect on the stomach must be still greater. I think, he will conclude that cool, and not cold water, is best for him to drink. I think, people would frequently find it unpleasant to hold either those hot or cold things in the mouth, which they hurry into the stomach, sometimes indeed with much despatch, because they are so uncomfortable in the mouth. If a person will watch *an animal on a warm day. I think he will learn something from the exhibitions of instinct, which will refuse a bucket of ice water, though the animal be very thirsty, and will direct the animal away from the cold spring rather than to it. Iced creams, desserts, especially at meals and in the evening, are very bad. The temperature of the stomach must be curious, as showjng the average time required for the digestion of certain articles by him. The time in his case varied much in different experiments ; it depended upon his health, the requirement for food, the quantity eaten, the temperature of the article, the exhaustion of his body by exercise, upon whether he took vigorous or gentle ex- ercise, or slept immediately after eating ; and'upon whether he was in good humor or angry when or immediately after eating ; and sometimes there would be a variation when it could not be accounted for. 208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Water the only proper drink. raised when food is digesting, and the circulation of blood must be increased, not checked. Dr. Beaumont testifies, that half a pint of cold liquid being passed into the stomach of Alexis St. Martin, the digestive process was checked for some time. Sometimes a mouth- ful or two of cold water will, by the effects of re-action, rouse up, and increase the circulation of the stomach. In the evening eating iced substances must be bad, as the powers of the system have been ex- hausted during the day, especially a hot day. SEC. E. Condiments. 304- Condiments are usually considered to include, salt, vinegar, spices, mustard, horse-radish, and all those things eaten merely to increase the relish for food, or stimulate the stomach to action. Salt is not properly a condiment, but an article of food, of consider- able importance, though it is required in very small quantities. Vinegar may also, at times, be considered as an article of valuable food. Spices are of no real use, and the less of them in food, the better. They are, however, after a person is habituated to them, of some apparent value in causing the food to relish. The appetite, however, which they occasion, is an unhealthy one, not called for by the wants of the system, and had better not exist ; and though if a very small quantity of spice be used, it will be of no importance worth mentioning, a person may reflect that he will in a little time have a better relish for food, if he use it without spices. But such use of spices as is very frequent, cannot for a moment be tolerated by the physiologist. What would a man think of often applying a mustard poultice to the same part of the skin, or washing it over with mustard water every day 1 True, it would at first rouse up an extraordinary action of the skin and produce a glow ; but how Ipng would it be before the skin would become very unhealthy ? When mustard and the like are swallowed into the stomach, it is nothing more or less than applying a warm mustard poultice to the stomach, or washing it with mustard water. If people would not do the to stomach what they would not to the external and comparatively tough skin, they would avoid many a derangement of that organ. --/. SEC. ^.- Drink. 305. Water is the only proper drink for man. [Of this he may, sick or well, always take as much as will satisfy thirst. Water needs no preparation in the digestive organs, HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 209 Bad and deceptive effects of alcohol. and undergoes no decomposition or recomposition in the system, therefore, it does not exhaust the strength of the system. Any thing mingled with water to make it relish better, will be likely to cause a person to take too much of it, which is a great evil, since it prevents the rapid nutrition of the body, and lessens, of course, a man's phy- sical and mental abilities. It prevents the production and distribution of heat. It must be removed by the kidneys, which are thus over- worked and deranged.] [ 7'ert and Coffee are universally injurious. They cannot contain any amount of nourishment, there is so little of the coffee dissolved in the beverage. Their effect is produced by a poison disseminated through the decoction, which acting on the nervous system, throws it into an unnatural state, and things dp not then produce precisely the same effect they otherwise would. Frequently altering the state of the nerves in this way, at last permanently deranges them, and then comes dyspepsia, trembling at the stomach, bad taste in the mouth, disturbed sleep, headaches, palpitations of the heart, trembling of the hands, aud an inability to sustain intellectual vigor, &c.] [Alcoholic beverages. I do not think any person would long wish to continue to make frequent applications of any kind of alcoholics to the external skin. They are far more deleterious to the system when taken into it. They are most deadly poisons, and all the more to be dreaded because they are so deceptive. They act with great power upon the brain, and change its natural to an unnatural state. Having thus seized upon this only avenue, through which communications are made to the mind, the most vicious reports are made to it, and it is most woftilly deceived in respect to the welfare of the body. It is made to believe that parts are warm, which are in fact cold, and that the muscles are in a good condition when they are already overdone, and therefore, a man cannot trust his own senses as to the effects of the " mocker." Singu- lar as it seems at first, he has no means of knowing what effect really is produced upon him, as his means of knowing are changed from a natural and truth-telling state, and therefore, are not to be depended upon in the least. Thus a man thinks, by the effect of a glass of wine, he is made more witty, and agreeable, &c., than he is. Alcohol passes into the stomach with water, and from that organ passes into the veins, that lead from the stomach to the liver, every part of which is visited by the health-destroying poison. It then comes up to the right heart, which, after feeling its unhealthy action, throws it out into the lungs. They work out of the system a part of it which is expelled with the breaih, causing it to be odorous. Since it appears as alcohol in the breath, it lias not served any direct purpose. It does not contain, any nitrogen, and therefore cannot nourish. It has not been decomposed, therefore it cannot have produced any heat. What the lungs do not remove, returns with the blood to the left heart, and is by that organ distributed to all parts of the body, the brain receiving a large share. It commits its ravages, however, in all parts of the body, now it has once been admitted into the bloodvessels, until it is altogether removed by one excreting organ or another. It does not heat, but cools, in winter, lor evaporating from the lungs, it carries with it heat. In summer, it heats the system because it deranges the action of the skin. It appears to heat, when it does not, because through the nerves it produces similar sensations to thosoof heat. It exhausts rather than strengthens the system, because it prevents the nerves from signifying to the mind the true state of the muscles. It does not profit digestion, because if it do ?at plenty, and quickly. It will act the easiest of any emetic. I have my- self used it many times when, from carelessness, I had eaten too much, ami felt the effects, and I have never found it in the least degree disagreeable. Different persona will require different quantities. I usually find from one quart to five pints sufficient. The only rule is, drink till it operates, which it surely will, if some poison have not been taken. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 221 Bile and gall do nor directly pass into the stomach. [ Tke gall is found in the gall bladder, but is thought by some to be bile, somewhat changed. That is, some think that in the intervals of digestion the bile passes down the tube leading from the liver to the duodenum (see Fig. 17), as far as to where the tube from the gall bladder opens, when it turns up and passes into that sac to remain till required, and while there undergoes certain changes. Others think gall is entirely formed in the gall bladder, viz., that it is a large sac or crypta. Which idea is correct, is not certain, but probably the last.] [Neither the gall or bile pass directly into the stomach, and it may be asked how they can be evacuated wher. a person vomits. The retching produced by vomiting, that is, the pressure of the muscles on the sides on the liver, cause bile &c. to flow out into the duodenum, and then along back into the stomach. Except for some such cause, it rarely if ever happens that bile or gall is to be found in the sto- mach.] Inf. The common idea of "bilious stomach," and "too much bile on the stomach," must be incorrect. [Tke o td side of the mucous membrane of the second stomach is covered with two kinds of muscles. One, in the form of rings, a band of which are quite thick and strong at the opening from the stomach, and called the pylorus. The second extends longitudinally, and by contracting shortens the second stomach. By the combined action of these the contents of the second stomach are moved along, while in the mean time they are growing less by the removal of chyle, and at the same time receiving additions, excreted from the blood. What is left from the chyme, and what of excretion is received, are passed on into the colon.] [ Tke second stomach is covered with a portion of the peritoneum, which, coming from the backbone, passes around the muscular coat of th'e second stomach, and then turns back to the backbone again, thus being double, or having two thicknesses, called mesentery, be- tween the second stomach and the spinal column. Between these the bloodvessels, lacteals, &c., are situated. The length of this part of the peritoneum determines the motion allowed to the second stomach.] [The length of the second stomach, and also its diameter, varies very much in different animals and in different persons, signifying that the bulk of the food, different persons may eat, should vary. Those persons who have this part very long and capacious, %re not inclined to be fond of concentrated food, and vice versa, where it is short and small, approaching the carnivorous classes, they are inclined to eat concentrated food.]* * A singular fact in regard to the frog may be interesting. The young of the frog is adapted to live upon seeds and roots, viz , is a granivorous animal, and the second stomach is long. When the animal undergoes its changes, it becomes a 222 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Importance of daily action of the colon. [The position and space which the second stomach occupies, de- pends upon its contents, the inspiration and expiration of the air, the fulness of the first stomach, &c.] [The Second Stomach is exceedingly injured by receiving food which has not been digested in the first stomach ; by not receiving a sufficient quantity of waste food, and excreted substance to act upon, and by exposure of the skin to the cold.] [ The Colon is a convenient receptacle of substance from the second stomach. Its position is peculiar, as seen by Fig. 1 PI. 3. From that, and its pouched arrangement, its contents are very liable to be detained. That part of it, which crosses the body just below the stomach, is very often the seat of pains, which are sometimes called bilious colic, sometimes attributed to the stomach, and sometimes to this organ. Enlargements of it, by retained contents, are apt to be attributed to the stomach. Its contents, being retained, will be apt also to cause headache, heaviness, and a bad complexion. It is rendered torpid by want of exercise, by want of waste substance in the food, by habits of neglect in regard to it. Its contents should never be retained more than 24 hours. Regularity in compelling the action of this organ at the same time each day as near as may be is of imperative necessity. Health cannot continue -without it. SEC. T>.TJie Lacteals. [How the Lacteals commence in the sides of the second stomach, or how they gather the chyle from it, is not known. Neither is it known what effect they have upon the chyle as it passes through them, or their glands, as certain parts are called.] SEC. E. The Spleen (Milt). [The spleen, doubtless, has some office in connection with diges- tion. It is situated to the left of the stomach, and in immediate proxi- mity to it. Fig. 4, PL 4, and Fig. 17. Its veins assist to form the portal vein, and it has been conjectured that its use is to receive a quantity of blood when the liver is in such a state that blood cannot flow through it readily ; thus acting as a reservoir. It is enlarged when a person has ague cakes, and constitutes those. It is not the cause of the aches in the side when a person runs, &c.] mature frog ; he is a meat-eater, and his second stomach becomes short. A singular question might be asked : Would the second stomach of a man grow shorter or longei by confining himself to one class of food ? Both the first and second stomach do grow larger and smaller as the seasons vary, and as a person's habits are. Whether the last grows shorter or longer, there are no facts to verify. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 223 How poisoned persons should be treated. ADDENDA. POISONS, CHOKING, ftUACK MEDICINES, ETC. The effect of poisons is to be prevented or counteracted. [The effect may be prevented by diluting some kinds, neutralizing others, and evacuating others.] [1st. If any acid, or ley, or like substance has been taken, large draughts of cold water should be immediately taken, and to the point of vomiting. Drink fast and largely.] [2d. If ley have been taken, swallow also some oil, or vinegar. If corrosive subli- mate (of which most kinds of bedbug poison are composed) have been taken, swallow as many eggs as can be, directly from the shell, and if vomiting do not at once occur, drink immediately a large quantity of water, and use an emetic of a table spoonful of common ground mustard, taken any way which is most convenient.*] [If any solid substance, of a poisonous nature, have been taken, mix some flower or meal with the first water that is swallowed. Let it be as thick as may be swallowed. The object is, to have it "stick" to the poison and remove it from the coats of the stomach. At once follow the paste with some clean water and a table spoonful of mustard, or proper quantity of other emetic. If none be at hand, drink water till the stomach is full, and vomiting occurs. If a person be stupid so that he cannot swallow, then the effect of the poison must be counteracted.] [The effect of poisons that cause stupor, may be counteracted, when stupor is pro- duced, by putting cold applications on the head and warming all other parts of the body by warm water, cloths, by rubbing, and by exercise, if the person can be made to take it. by being placed between two persons and made to walk. By means of a stomach pump emetics should be passed into the stomach, and if they will not act, pumped out again with all the contents of tiie stomach, into which plenty of warm water should be thrown to rinse it out. As soon as the cold applications to the head and warm ones to the feet, &c., have relieved the brain from blood, so that a person recovers a little from his stupor, and can drink, he should swallow an emetic. If the action of the poison has stuped the breath, artificial respiration, see pp. 2tS, should be caused, and the body briskly rubbed. If by a spasm the top of the windpipe is closed, a hole should be made in the windpipe. The physician and surgeon should be at once sent for, that all after effects may be as far as possible prevented. The effect of corro- sive poison is to be counteracted according to the nature.of the case, which usually al- lows time for the arrival of the doctor.] Choking should be managed according to the cause of it, by the skilful man of sci- ence, except it cause suffocation by causing the windpipe to be closed. An opening should then be made in the pipe at once(see pp. 248), and after the man is thus allowed to breathe, there will be time to remove the cause of the annoyance at leisure. Quack Medicines and Quackery should be rated among the poisons, for they are so in a double respect. They poison the body, and, still worse, they poison the moral- ity of the community, by causing young men to see the apparent success of unpunished imposture. They are a pest to the land, worse than Egypt's plagues. If they be good in themselves in some cases, it is by chance ; as a man might, in the dark, reach his hand into a basket of open razors, and chance to get one by the handle. It is the sci- entific application of a medicine which makes it valuable. Most persons think it is nothing to take a dose of pills or castor oil; but these things are as powerful for harm as they are for good, and they produce their effect by a powerful action on the digestive canal ; and many a man has produced the most inveterate and unpleasant diseases by taking what he thought harmless pills. The evacuation of the digestive canal should be most scrupulously produced every twenty-four hours, by habit and pay- * This is one of the best things for an emetic, at any time, but especially in case of poisoning, being as powerful and sure as any tiling, except sulphate of zinc, which cannot be easily obtained when wanted. 224 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How to restore the system from the effects of medicines ing attention to the calls of nature ; and when it is " out of order," there is a cause which should be learned and removed. It is no use to take pills and live as before. No me- dicine should be taken except it be advisedly. To restore a system which has been broken up by a long course of taking nostrums and medicines will require a great deal of patience a most" thorough observance of all the laws of health, and an abrupt turning out of doors, and out of the mind, of all quacks and quackery, and all belief in the wonderful efficacy of medicines. On the other hand, a person must build up in his mind a pious reliance on the laws of our great and good Creator, with a firm determination to observe and do what he has intended for our good.* * The whole community ought to rouse up in indignation against the countless impostors who laugh at the credulity and misguided confidence of men, and prey upon the love of life which is natural to every man, and to the still stronger tie of affection, which binds the parent to his child, and makes him hope in the groundless pretensions palmed upon him. There is nothing a man will not do to save his life and that of his family. He is ready, when sick, to believe what, when well, he would laugh to scorn. His anxiety should not be allowed to be a laughing-stock and a means by which base, ingrate inhumans may fleece him. Community ought to be pro- tected from these worse than midnight assassins. No matter whether a man have a diploma or not, if, to make money, he sacrifices or risks the life of a child, a mother, a father, or any human being, he is the basest that man can be, no matter how legally he does it. He not only murders, but he does it to one who places tbe highest con- fidence in him that one man can put in another, viz. his life and that of his family. I- BOOK II. THE CIRCULATORY OllGANS, Hearts Arteries Capillaries Veins. CHAPTER I. Hearts. 312. There are two hearts, called right and left. Each heart is composed of two parts, an auricle above and a ven- tricle below. [ Tlie auricles are comparatively thin, they receive the blood which flows to the heart, and from them it passes into the Ventricles. These are thick through their sides, and very powerful, though the force they ordinarily exert is not very great. The tricuspid valves (three pointed) are the names $f tendinous valves, between the auricle and ventricle of the right heart. The mitral valves is the name of similar valves, two in number between the same parts of the left heart.] 313. The use of the hearts is, by contracting and dilat- ing, to receive and throw out the blood, and- assist in keeping it in motion. [Their utility may be judged by comparing the amount they throw out, and the number of their beats per minute. This last varies according to the constitution, the age, the sex, the health, the exer- cise taken, and the wants of the system in any respect, the position of the body, &c.*J [The average beat in case of men at maturity, is 75 per minute, in women 80, in this country ; as I have concluded from many experi- * There is so much variation in case of healthy people in the same circum- stances, that there should be no cause of alarm if the heart beat uniformly slower or faster, by much, than the average. 226 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. How the pulse signifies the health of the system. ments. The average in Europe is said to be about 70 in case of men. From one to three ounces of blood are thrown out each beat or pulsa- tion. Say one ounce only, and that the heart beats but sixty-four times per minute, and the result will be 64 ounces or 4 pounds per minute; 240 Ibs.per hour; about the same as 240 pints, or about a barrel. This labor is also accomplished by each heart. The blood is therefore coursing along with unthought of rapidity, and it will run the whole circuit of the system in an almost incredibly short space of time. All this blood is exposed to the action of the air every mo- ment, that it may be purified, and what is still more essential, may cause the production of heat. When it is sent out coursing through every part of the system, to bestow upon it liie-giving nourishment and heat. The importance of the heart's action is very great, and little does the thoughtless man dream, as he lies down to rest in se- curity, of the tremendous amount of blood which all night long is rushing through the system, driven along by the impetuous contrac- tions of the heart, which all the life long beats on day and night, summer and winter, without ceasing for an instant, but always in pre- cise accordance with the wants of his system, and without putting him to a moment's thought or trouble, or even producing the least fatigue. Truly the ways of the Creator are past the understanding of man, and his wisdom and goodness deserves our adoration and praise. The heart must be influenced to beat by means of the nervous sys- tem, and the connection between it and the heart must be very inti- mate, and whatever affects it must exhibit itself by altering the beats of the heart.] Illus. a. Hence, any disease of the system will show itself in the action of the heart, which may be determined by feeling the pulse. Inf. b. The heart may beat very violently, or otherwise irregu- larly, without any disease of the heart existing. [Hence, the doctor feels the pulse, not so much to know the num- ber of beats of the heart, as the state of the nervous system that causes the beats of the heart, and many of the states of health that other parts will exhibit. Hence, dyspepsia will produce palpitations of the heart ; diseases of the lungs, the liver and the brain will do the same. States of the mind will act through the nervous system on the heart, &c.] 313. The perfect action of the heart must be maintained by preserving a healthy state in other parts, and a healthy state of the disposition. [Of course, we cannot act upon the heart directly. How can we 1 But disease is brought upon it by over exercise, and tasking the heart beyond endurance, by depressed or exhilarated states of the mind ; but above all by drinking alcoholic beverages and causing the alcohol to exert its accursed influences upon the delicate lining of the heart, by stealthily making its way mixed with the blood in the guise HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 227 Structure and situation of the arteries. of a friend, into the very fountains of life, which should only be visit- ed by healthy fluids.] CHAPTER II. 'Arteries. 315. The arteries are the channels through which the heart pours out its treasures, to invigorate and warm every part of the body. [To allow the blood to flow freely, it was necessary that their sides should be somewhat stiff, and though flexible, not compressed with ease. Hence if cut off, they remain open like as a quill does. On this account, it was necessary that they should not be exposed so as to be readily injured, as they would be near the surface. Again, as the central parts of the body are the warmer,* the blood flowing along the arteries, warms the parts through which it passes.- and becomes itself correspondingly cooler ; but as it is desirable to have considerable heat conveyed to the extremities, too much must not be lost on the way. Hence the arteries ought to be buried deeply; and so they are. In the midst of the limbs not only, are they found, but on those sides of the bones where they would be kept most warm.] Illus. The main arteryi of the arm passes down along the inside of the bone. viz.. the side of the bone towards the body, where the heat of the body would assist in keeping the arm warm. See Fig. 83. In the fall of the year, not only to keep the blood warm in the main artery, but in all other parts of the body, nature clothes the system with more fat than in summer, and man, governed by his instinct and judgment, will also assist in the same laudable object by clothing the skin externally.] Inf. The warmth of any part, all other things being similar, depends on the quantity of blood which circulates to a part, the * The temperature of the body is frequently spoken of as 98. This should be understood as meaning the temperature of the mouth. Dr. Beaumont testifies that the temperature of the stomach averaged 100. And from about this range in the centre of the body, the temperature falls, as we go out to the circumference, it being 93 in the throat, 96 at the top of the brain. 94 in the hands, 92 in the feet. Of course, these are only general statements, which would vary with the individual and with the circumstances. It is always, in health, warmer a little below, than at tha surface. .1 228 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Large arteries of the arm and leg. distance it is from the heart, and the amount of fat and external clothing with which it. and the parts between it and the heart, are covered. [The head, therefore, which receives a very large amount of blood and is so near the heart, is in no danger of becoming cool. It is also seen why the face can be exposed to the cold without injury, and why Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 83. Arm, with parts removed to show the situation of the main artery. Fig. 84. 2, 2. Divided ends of "tailor's muscle." 1, 1, Femoral artery. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 229 How to stop the flow of blood in case of injury. the face will in many persons exhibit such a glow as it does.* The feet and hands, which are so far from the heart, will receive less heat than the head. The old proverb, " Keep the head cool and the ex- tremities warm," is therefore a good one, and should always be kept in mind.J Inf. And if the head become too warm, we should cool it. If the extremities become too cool, we should warm them. [The first can be done by cold applications. It is one of the essentials to the health of any part of the body, that it be maintained at its natural temperature, and it is no more improper to cool the head when hot, than to warm the feet when cold. It is the same with all parts of the body : if they be hot they should be cooled, for health cannot be restored till the temperature is reduced. If, therefore, the body and skin be hot and feverish, sponge it with cool applications till the temperature is reduced. But the nervous system, in parti- cular, will be benefited by reducing its temperature. The extremities, on the other hand, can be kept warm by clothing them sufficiently, taking exercise, and rubbing them, which supplies them with the requisite blood.] [On account of the depth at which the artery is found, it is very difficult to stop the flow of blood, if an artery be injured. The first thing to be done is, to raise up the part as high as possible. Next place a knot over the large artery leading to the part, bring the ends of the handkerchief, or other band, to the opposite side of the limb and tie them together, but not close to the limb. With a stick, iron, a penknife, or with the hands, twist the bandage tight as possible, that the knot may press with force upon the course of the vessel. To do this the better, place a chip, stick, or smooth stone as large as a dollar, an inch thick, or a few pieces of money, under the knot. To do all this with necessary expedition, a person must be able to judge when an artery is injured and where the main arteries are found. Injury of an artery is known by the bright red color of the blood, which also flows in jets and very rapidly. The position of the main artery of the arm is between the bone and the inner edge of the muscle up* '> the front part of the arm. see Fig. 83. The main artery of ;'. i g is situated between the bone and the inner edge* of the sartorius or tailor's muscle, which crosses, so to speak, the leg as seen at 62, Fig. 1. PI. 1. The knot must be placed so that the artery shall be between it and the bone. If forcible twisting do not check the flow, the knot must be quickly changed, first one side, and then the other of where it was. If no bandage can be had or applied, force must be applied with the fingers. Applying pressure and cold water immediately to the part, is also good and frequently successful if continued long enough. A person who has received wounds of the small arteries, should never be left without the arteries being tied securely. Sometimes children have bled to death, during the night, by the flow of blood from leech bites.] * It was surely an Indian who said, he was "all face." 230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Many very important inferences. CHAPTER HI. Capillaries. 316 The capillaries constitute a network of vessels which receive the blood from the artery, and cause it to nourish the system. [Some suppose that these exert a contractile power upon the blood, and thus assist in its circulation. It is uncertain. One ir, iportant fact is certain, viz., they are enlarged and diminished by the action of nervous influences.] lllus.lf a person go out in the cold, it acts through the nerves upon the nervous centre, and it immediately causes an influence to be exerted upon and to enlarge the capillaries of the cheek. Inf. a. If the health be good, and the nervous system consequent- ly efficient, the power exerted upon the capillaries will correspond, and the increased quantity of blood thus supplied will keep the cheek warm despite the cold; but if the health be feeble, the nervous system will exert but a feeble influence, and the circulation will not keep the cheek warm. Inf. b. The state of the constitution and the health of a person will entirely govern the effect produced on any part of the system. Inf. c. One person can bear exposure better than another. Inf. d.lf a person be not well, he should be careful not to expose himself. Inf. e There is no rule by which to govern all persons, or even one person, at different times, in respect to bathing. At one time, or for one person, a cold bath will be best. At another time, or for another person, warm baths will be best. Inf. /.A person will take cold much more quickly at one time than at another. [It will be found by experiment, that after sufficient time, the cold will get the mastery over the heartiest person, for his nervous system is becoming exhausted by action, and of course less and less power- ful, while the action of the cold is not suffering any diminution. In case of some persons the nervous power will last not more than five minutes, or perhaps never exhibit any appreciable effect ; in another person it will last for five hours.] Inf. One person is no criterion for another ; nor is one state of the health or vigor, any criterion for another state. [In infancy the powers of the system are feeble, and it cannot Dear cold as the youth can.] HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 231 Situation of the veins, and reasons for it. Inf. Infants should be dressed warmer than grown persons, especially their arms, and legs, and feet. [Instead of this, they are usually clad more thinly, especially on the arms. A child should never be dressed with short sleeves.] [The vigor of women is not as great as that of men, and cold is not so well borne by women.] Inf. Women ought to dress, especiai/y the extremities, more warmly than men. [Instead of that, they clothe most thinly those parts which should be clad most warmly, and all parts of the system less warmly than men, while, at the same time, they complain of cold hands and feet.]* CHAPTER IV. The Veins. 317. The veins are the rivers of the system, which gather from the capillaries of all parts of it. the redundant blood and all portions of the body passed into it, and with the exception of the portal vein, cause them to flow directly into the opening or dilating heart. [They are very numerous about three to one of the arteries, and many of the large ones lie directly beneath the skin. The object of this doubtless was, because it would be improper to have the blood which had warmed the extremities and become cool, flow back by the side of the blood going out. As by the existing arrangement the veins would be exposed to injury and to pressure, it was necessary they should be numerous and very flexible. This also rendered it necessary that the veins should be supplied with valves. In the head, which is naturally in an upright position, there are no valves. Hence when a person stoops he feels the blood pressing to his head.] Inf. a Boys should not stand upon the head, turn summersets, &c. Inf. b. A person should not sleep with the head low. Infants should be placed in a proper position, with the head and feet higher than the chest. They should never, when dressed or washed, be placed in such a position that the head hangs below the chest. * The coldness of those parts is partly owing to want of exercise, which would distribute the blood, and partly to the dress compressing the chest, and preventing the reception of air, and, of course, the production of heat. 232 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Effects of applying cold and heat to the skin. CHAPTEE V. Lymphatics. [ The lymphatics are a set of tubes appearing somewhat like a string of beads. They commence in most parts of the body, and after extending for a greater or less distance, open into the veins. They contain a watery looking' fluid, called lymph. Their use is not known. It is conjectured by some that it is their duty to gather from every part of the body the useful substances which exist in a part, and are not wanted there.] ADDENDA. It will always be useful to remember the influence of cold in checking the circu- lation of blood in a part, if continuously applied ; and that if transiently applied, it in- creases the circulation. Thus, by continued iced applications to the head, when the brain is inflamed, a good effect is wrought. So by cold applications to the throat, when croup occurs, the evil can be checked. By often gargling a sore throat with cold water, relief will be given. When the eyes are inflamed, cold water applied a dozen times per day, is useful. If an ankle or any part be sprained and be hot. cold applica- tions will be serviceable till the temperature is reduced. If a person have taken a cold and be feverish, let him sponge the ski till he feel a slight chill, which, in all cases, is a sure sign by which to know if the temperature is sufficiently reduced. In rheumatic inflammation, cold applications are often highly serviceable. On the other hand, when it is desirable to send blood from a part, it is well not only to try to do so, by applying cold to it, but also by acting on other parts, so as to solicit blood to them. Thus, putting the fee,t in warm water while cold is applied to the head, every body knows is good for the headache. In case of rheumatic attacks, not only should cold be applied to the affected part, but heat to all other parts. Heat applied to the feet, in case of croup and inflammations of the chest, every body knows is admirable not less advantageous is it to apply heat to the hands as well. Physicians also excite a flow of blood to a part by a blister, a mustard poultice, by cupping, leeching, &c., and thus tend to relieve other organs of too much blood. And, as when the lungs are over- charged with blood, the kidneys try to relieve them, by removing a portion of the water of the blood, so does the physician sometimes give relief by letting blood, and thus lessening the quantity of it in the entire body. BOOK III. , Respiratory Organs. 318. The respiratory organs comprehend, the Lungs and their appendages the Framework of the Chest the Mus- cles of Inspiration the Muscles of Expiration, and Nerves. 319. The use of the respiratory organs, is to cause the blood and air to act upon each other. CHAPTEE I. The Lungs. 320. The lungs are for the reception of air on the one hand, and blood on the other, and assist in the expulsion of the air. 321. TJie lungs are composed of seven different kinds of parts. 1st. The windpipe. 2d. The mucous membrane, a lining of the windpipe, and which also forms the sides of the air cells. 3d. The pulmonary arteries, capillaries, and veins. 4th. Parenchymatous substance. 5th. The pleura. 6th. Systemic bloodvessels, by which the lungs are nourished. 7th. Nerves. SEC. A. Windpipe. 322. The windpipe is a tube^of which there are many divi- 234 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY, The windwipe and its use. sions in each side of the chest. The use of it is to allow the air to be easily passed backward and forward, to and from the depths of the lungs. Fig. 85. [The windpipe commences just below the base of the tongue, as seen in Fig. 78. There is at this point a comparatively large frame- work called Larynx, to be hereafter spoken of. Below this is the windpipe proper. It is composed of four-fifths of rings, or hoops of cartilage, the ends of the hoops being connected by yellow ligament, with which also the cartilages are connected with each other, and HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 235 The delicate air cells and capillaries. formed into a tube. This pipe, called trachea, extends down as far as within the upper part of the breast-bone. It there divides into two branches, which lead at very obtuse angles into the sides of the chest, where they divide and subdivide, and are called bronchii. They have the same general structure as the trachea, the whole being one thing, and may be compared to the bark of a tree, if the wood be supposed drawn out from all the limbs and twigs, and the leaves plucked off.] SEC. B. Mucous Membrane. 323. The mucous membrane commences at the nose, con- tinues through the throat, through the larynx, trachea, and . bronchii, at the extremities of which it forms the air cells. [The lining of the nose is considered similar to that of the lungs, because by the action of the same causes, it is liable to similar dis- eases, either because the structure of the two are similar, or because the nervous influences acting upon them are similar, or both. The lining of the throat is considered to be common, both to the lining of the stomach and of the lungs, being liable to diseases which affect either.] Inf. Hence, the commonness of sore throats. [The lining becomes more and more delicate as it is found in the finer divisions of the bronchii, and when at last it forms the clusters of cells about the extremities of the bronchii, it is hardly less delicate than the sides of a soap bubble. The cells are also exceedingly small, not as large as mustard seeds, but so numerous, that one author has computed there are 180 millions in one pair of lungs. These are for the reception of air, and present a surface for its action, greater than the entire surface of the body.] SEC. C. Bloodvessels. 324. The pulmonary bloodvessels are of three kinds, the arteries leading blood to the air cells ; the capillaries, and the veins leading it away from the air cells. Their use is to carry the blood to the air, and to bring it back again [The artery which enters the lung arises from the right heart, enters by the side of the windpipe, and as often as one divides the other does ; and thus a branch reaches every air cell, and opens into a beautiful network of capillaries, of which Fig. 3, PI. 3, is a very "236 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Admirable elasticity of the parenchyma of the lungs. highly magnified representation. From these again, veins, at least two, and sometimes three, lead back by the sides of the windpipe to the left heart. Thus if a division of the windpipe be any where ex- amined, three bloodvessels will be found by the side of" it, viz., an artery and two veins. In this admirable manner is the blood very rapidly and thoroughly spread out to the action of the air.*] SEC. D. The Parenchyma. 325. The parenchymatous substance is the name given to the substance which fills the spaces which would other- wise exist, between the divisions of the bloodvessels, wind- pipe, air cells, &c. It is of great use by its elasticity in ex- pelling the air from the lungs. Illus. If a person take a pair of lights from an animal, and .orce air down the windpipe, and fill all the cells, he will enlarge the lung, but the instant the force is taken away, the air is thrown out with considerable force. [It is necessary to overcome the elasticity of the substance of the lung when the air is forced in ; the substance is. so to speak, stretched in all directions, and springs back as soon as permitted.] Illus. If the same lights are pressed in the hand, they feel spongy, and are easily compressed ; but as soon as the force is removed, they spring back. [This shows that the parenchyma is elastic in two respects. The first Illus. shows that its elasticity is sufficient to drive the air out if there be not/tins to hinder.]-^ [An important question is, Is the elasticity of the parenchyma in- creased and diminished by nervous influences 1] SEC. E. The Pleura. 326. Pleura is the name given to the skin, or membrane * Nor must it be supposed there will be any difficulty because the blood is con- stantly enclosed in bloodvessels; for if a bladder filled with blood should be placed in milk, the blood would pass through and change the color of the milk, and the milk would pass into the bladder. Much more easily can the blood and air act upon each other. t The elasticity of a calf's lights is such, that a man can rarely overcome it with the force of his own breathing apparatus ; that is, he cannot fill them by blowing into the windpipe. It is not probable that all the effect is owing solely to the paren- chyma ; it is in part owing, doubtless, to the elasticity of the divisions of the windpipe and sides of the cells, yet mostly to the parenchyma. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 237 Bloodvessels of the lungs. Framework of the chest. which covers in all those parts hitherto described, except a small portion called the roots. Its use is to cover the parts constituting the lungs, and to form and pour out upon its surface a glairy fluid, which shall prevent all danger of fric- tion, and also to take it back again, as need *nay be. SEC. F. Systemic Bloodvessels of the Lungs. [Besides the bloodvessels through which blood passes to the air- cells, the lungs, like all other parts, require bloodvessels through which blood shall be supplied for their nourishment. Therefore] 327. The systemic arteries of the lungs are those which arise from the left heart, and receive blood in common with those of all parts of the body. [They follow no particular course in the lung after they have en- tered it near its root. They visit all parts of the lung, and furnish to every part its nourishment.] 328. The systemic veins commence every where in the lung, and bring its waste substance to the grand reser- voir, the right heart, from which it will go directly back to the lungs through another set of vessels. CHAPTER II. ^ * Framework of Chest. 329. This is composed of the backbone behind, the ribs upon the sides, the breast-bone in front, and pleura throughout. [ The backbone of the cJiest is composed of 12 vertebrae, between each twq of which are cartilages, which allow a certain extent of motion of the back at this part.] [ The ribs are connected to the backbone by such joints as allow them a certain extent of motion up and down. They curve around 238 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Injurious effect of tight clothing. Fig. 86. toward the front part of the body, and also incline downward more or less, see Fig. 4. The bony part of the ribs (with the exception of the lower two), is lengthened out by a firm piece of cartilage, which connects with the breast-bone. The use of this is twofold, depending in both cases upon the elasticity, viz., after the ribs have been raised its elasticity of the cartilage assists in bringing them down. When they have been drawn down, the elasticity of the carti- lage assists in raising them up again. Thus there is a certain position in which the action of the cartilages tends to keep the chest. As the ribs pass down as well as around from the back towards the front of the body, when they are laised up, they must make the chest larger round.] Illus. If a person place his hand upon his sides and draw a full breath, he will perceive that his ribs are raised and his chest enlarged at the same time. Inf. If any band or clothing be put tightly about the chest, the ribs cannot be raised. [ The pleura is of the same nature as that covering the lungs, indeed is a continuation of the same thing, as shown by Fig. 86. It passes across from one portion of the rib to another at the top of the chest, closing across the opening which would other- wise exist. At the bottom of the chest, it likewise closes across the whole base of it. in a somewhat pe- culiar manner, arching up into the chest, as seen by Fig. 86. From the form of the bottom of the chest, the attachment of the pleura is much lower down behind than it is in front, its attachment, of course, following the lower edge of the chest. From the breast-bone the pleura of each side leaves the cfutside of the chest and passes back on one side of the heart, and the other on the other, to the backbone, or to the roots of the lungs, where it becomes continuous with the covering of the lungs. There are thus two pleura, one in each side, and they form the chest into two tight boxes, except at the roots of the lungs, where an opening is left for the windpipe and bloodvessels, which just fill it. As the body is usually placed, the hole is at the side of these boxes, about one-third the way ; but it makes no difference, as there is no other hole, air cannot get in any where else, and as the hole is filled with the roots of the lungs, the air can only get in through the windpipe. Same as if a bottle had a cork tight in its nose, and a quill passed HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 239 How air might gently pass in and out of the lungs. Fig. 88. Fig. 87. through the cork, nothing could pass into the bottle except through the quill, and if a bag or bladder were fastened round the quill inside the bottle, whatever went through the quill must go into the bag. or if the quill had ten thousand divisions, and little bags or cells at the ends of these divisions, all the air that pass- ed through the quill must go into these bags. Tims all the air that goes into the sides of the chest must go through the windpipe and its divisions, into the cells, and when the mouth, or nose, and top of the wind- pipe is open, there is just as free an opportunity for it to do so as there is for it to pass in and out of the mouth or nose. What is to hinder if?*] [If, therefore, a person should keep the windpipe and -mouth or nose open, the difference in the temperature between the air in the lungs and the external air, would cause a constant change of the air in the lungs. But this would not be sufficiently rapid for our needs, and as the furnace man connects an apparatus with his fire, to supply, it with more air than would be supplied by the mere draught of the air itself, so must there be something connected with the furnaces of the body to gain the same end. If now, the mouth be opened or enlarged, air instantly passes in, or is crowded in, by its own weight and that of the air around. When the mouth is closed, the air is thrown out. Thus by opening and closing, or enlarging and dimin- ishing the mouth in quick succession, there would be a very rapid change of the air in the mouth, and a great deal of air would pass through, into, and out of it in a short time. The same will be true of the box containing the lungs. If it be enlarged and diminished, a great deal of air will be caused to pass into and out of the windpipe and air cells, as this is the only entrance to. and exit from, the box. How is the box enlarged and diminished, is the question 1 * The pleura lining the chest is called pleura costalis (rib). That covering the lungs, pleura pulmonalis (lung). 240 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Diaphragm. CHAPTER m. Muscles of Inspiration. 330. The muscles of inspiration include, the inter-costal (between ribs), those of the back, neck, and shoulders, and the diaphragm. [The Inter-costal muscles pass across from the lower edge of one rib to the upper edge of the rib below. There are two layers, the inner and outer, which pass in differently oblique directions, as in Fig. 89. By contracting they raise or depress the ribs, according to Fig. 89. Fig. 89. -R R, Ribs. M, Transverse muscles. L, The direction they might have, but with decided loss of motion to the ribs. whether the top or bottom of the chest is the permanent point. Mostly, however, they raise the ribs.] [Some of the miisdes of the back assist in raising the ribs, some in depressing* them ; mostly they are engaged in raising them. The muscles of the neck and shoulders also are engaged in raising them.] [The diaphragm is the great muscle of inspiration. It is attached closely by one side to the" pleura, at the bottom of the chest, and carries the pleura with itself, whatever its movements are. It is arched up into the chest, of course, as the pleura is. Its central part, directly under the heart, is tendinous. From this its fleshy fibres radiate, and follow along the under side of the arched pleura to the lower edge of the chest, where they terminate in tendons, which are attached to the ribs and cartilages in front and upon the sides. Be- hind it is gathered into two flat bundles, which somewhat cross each other, are distinguished as the pillars of the diaphragm, and are attached to the sides of the body of the backbone.* It will be seen by Fig. 4. PI. 1. that the fleshy fibres of the diaphragm pass almost straight down by the insides of the ribes. and that they do not spring directly across from the edge of the lower part of the chest, as shown by Figs. 90 and 91. But when the diaphragm contracts, it * Tho object of this arrangement is to form openings for the large bloodvessels. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 241 Fig. 90. Fig. 90. The backbone is easily recognized. The pillars of the diaphragm are connected with it at 1, which is not a movable Eoint, as is I at the opposite and ront side of the chest, which, when it is raised up, carries the rint 1, outward and upward to The continuous line I 1, is the diaphragm when the breath ia thrown out ; and close underneath it, the liver and stomach are situ- ated, as in Fig. 82. The dotted line 1 2 is the position of the dia- phragm when contracted at the same time the chest is raised, and of course the organs of the abdo- men are pressed down and out- ward by all the space between the line 1 1, and the dotted line 1 2. The dotted line beneath 2 is the wall of the abdomen, when the dia- phragm is contracted. The line beneath 1 is the wall of the abdo- men, when contracted. Fig. 91 . Back view of a perpendicular section of the lower part of the chest and upper part of the abdomen, through the centre of the body. The continuous lines show the outline of the body and diaphragm when the sides of the abdomen are con- tracted, and the diaphragm and the levator muscles of the chest relaxed. The stomach, liver, &c.,are closely drawn up underneath the diaphragm, as in Fig. 82. The dotted lines exhibit' the outline of the body and diaphragm when the chest is raised up, and of course the points 1 1 carried outward to 2 2, and the organs of the abdomen are pressed downward and outward, distending the sides of the abdomen, as seen below 2 2, or felt by the hands placed on the sides of the abdomen when the breath is drawn in. At 3, it is observed that the dotted lines are but a little below the position of the con- tinuous lines. That point of the diaphragm is nearly stationary, above it the hearf is found; and the partitions upon either side of the heart, dividing the chest into three apartments, are attached to the diaphragm, and with other causes prevent extensive movement of that point, which is not only unnecessary, but would be injurious. Upon either side of 3. the arches of the dia- phragm are seen; upon the right, the arch is naturally the greater, owing to the posi- tion of the liver beneath it ; which causes also the arch 3 2 to be more distinct than represented by the dotted lines. Fig. 91. 242 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Compression of the abdomen injurious. begins to spring more directly across, as shown by the dotted lines, and as the ribs are raised up at the same time, the result is as shown by the figure. Thus raising up the chest, and contracting the dia- phragm, must enlarge the box in which the lungs are, and must cause air to pass into them.] [But as the organs of the abdomen are in close contact with the under surface of the diaphragm, when it is contracted as in Fig. 91, it must crowd them down and forward, and, as shown by Fig. 91. crowd them toward the centre of the abdomen, which must yield to receive them, as shown by the figure, and as can be seen to be the case by placing the hand on the abdomen.] Inf. a. If any thing be put tightly about the chest, the muscles cannot raise it, AND IF ANY THING BE PUT TIGHTLY ABOUT THE ABDOMEN IT CANNOT DISTEND, AND THE DIAPHRAGM CANNOT CONTRACT. Inf. b. All tight dresses must prevent the reception of air. Wear- ing pants without suspenders will have the same effect. Having the waistbands tight the same. Wearing skirts tied about and suspended upon the abdomen must be injurious. Any girths, bands, and those vicious things called supporters, are very injurious.* CHAPTER in. Muscles of Expiration. 331. These include the straight (recti) muscles, the ob- lique and transverse, and some upon the back. [The straight muscles pass across from the breast-bone and car- tilages of the chest above, to the front part of the hip bones below, as shown by Fig. 1, PI. 1.] [The oblique and transverse are three in number, in three layers or strata, upon each side, and close in the sides of the abdomen, as seen by PI. 1, and PI. 2. Their tendons pass over and under the straight muscle, and by compressing that muscle assist its action. When now the muscles of inspiration have raised the sides of the chest, and brought down, to a degree, the bottom, and thus enlarged it and caused the lungs to be filled by the air, the organs of the ab- domen having been pressed down, have thrown out the relaxed mus- * People sometimes say, they can lift greater weights with something tied round the abdomen ; but tHey can lift as much as nature intended without ; and a man is apt to injure himself very badly by endeavoring to lift more, especially if a band be about the abdomen. It is very likely to cause hernia, rupture, breach, and ought not to be done once. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 243 The nerves of respiration, &c. cles of the sides, and front of the abdomen in all directions ; raising the chest, has also made them still longer, and they are in the best possible state to contract. At the instant they do this, however, the muscles of inspiration must relax, else they will oppose. When, therefore, the muscles contract, they draw down the chest, and at the same time, push inward and upward all the organs of the abdomen, and the bottom of the chest is carried up, and the pleural box is diminished, and air expelled. CHAPTER IV. The Nerves of Respiration. [Here, then, we have the entire machinery; but where is the power to operate it ? This is derived through nerves. These must be of a voluntary, and also of an involuntary character as sometimes we wish to use them as we choose, and they must also continue their action during the night.] Process of Breathing. [Suppose the lungs to be in their ordinary state when we are about to receive air, as in Fig. 1. PI. 3, they completely fill the chest. A tube leads into them, through which the air can freely pass in and out. The muscles of inspiration by contracting enlarge the chest. To do this, they must overcome the elasticity of the cartilages of the ribs, move down the organs of the abdomen, and take the outward pressure of the air from the lungs. The inward pressure of the air then distends the lungs in every direction, and they now fill the chest. The inward pressure of the air, however, must overcome the elasticity of the paren- chyma of the lung, which is constantly resisting the distension of the lung, and constantly on the alert to expel the air, as we can see by an experiment of inflating a pair of lights. As soon as the force which fills them is removed, they spring back, or shrink up in an instant, and the air is thrown out with a gush. This resistance of the paren- chyma prevents the outside of the lung being brought forcibly in contact with the inside of the chest. Indeed, it may be said, there is an infinitely small space all round the lung, and that it and the chest do nut quite touch. The external pressure of the air is prevented only so long as the inspiratory muscles continue to contract. As soon as they relax, the elasticity of the rib cartilages begins to move the ribs down, and lessens the size of the chest. The expiratory muscles begin to contract and draw down the ribs, and press in and upward the organs of the abdomen. This allows the external pressure to act ; 244 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY, Process of breathing. at the same time, the elasticity of the parenchyma shrinks the lung 1 , and its contents are expelled. The muscles must act very quickly, and powerfully, to have the sides or the bottom of the chest overtake the surface of the lung, which is drawn away from the contact by the elastic parenchyma. The opening of the windpipe must be closed in order to have pressure exerted upon the surface of the lungs. Hence there is no danger of the lungs being irritated by the position of the body ; for the instant any part of the chest begins to approach any part of the lung, it recedes from the approach. Thus first, the outer surface of the lung follows and spreads in all directions, toward the inner surface of the enlarging chest, and again it hurriedly draws it- self back from the touch of the surface of the returning chest. There are, therefore, three forces engaged in the operation of breath- ing. 1st. The inward pressure. 2d. The outward pressure ; to which may be sometimes added, the force of the contracting expiratory muscles. 3d. The elasticity of the lungs, which resists the reception but assists the expulsion of air. The inward pressure tends to fill the lungs ; the outward pressure tends to expel. The outward pres- sure of the air will exactly balance the inward pressure. The out- ward pressure, the elasticity and the contracting force of the expira- tory muscles, overbalance the inward pressure, by the force of the elasticity and the muscles. The air is therefore, in fact, expelled by the last two usually by the elasticity, but when that is not sufficient, the force of the muscles is added. The inward pressure cannot, of course, fill the lungs against the action of the outward pressure, the force of the muscles, and the elasticity for the outward pressure would just balance the inward ; nor could it, against the force of the muscles alone ; the force of the muscles and the outward pressure must therefore be removed, when it will be able to overcome the elasticity and fill the lung out. The force of the muscle is removed by their relaxation. The outward pressure, by raising the ribs and depressing the diaphragm ; when of course, the pleura of the sides being raised, with the ribs, away from the sides of the lungs, there is nothing to press on them there, and the diaphragm, by contracting, drawing down the pleura that is connected with it, there cannot be any thing to press on the lungs there the pressure upon their out- sides is, therefore, taken away, and the inward pressure left to com- bat with the elasticity alone. [The degree of elasticity it has to contend with, will depend upon the natural constitution, it being much greater in some than in others. Upon the health, which would of course affect it; and upon whether it is directly increased by nervous influences. That is, whether it is increased when the air is thrown out, and diminished when air is re- ceived. The state of the breathing in asthma and several complaints, inclines me to think there is a control of this kind exerted by nervous agency. Whether it be so or not when the system is in health, its action is most admirable, and saves a great amount of labor on the part of the muscles, as also does the simple expedient of the elasticity of the rib cartilages, for if the expiratory muscles draw them down, HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 245 Process of breathing. their elasticity assists the inspiratory to raise the chest ; if the inspi- ratory muscles raise them above the medium point, their elasticity acts to lighten the duty of the expiratory muscles.] " How wonderful, how complicate is man, How passing wonder He who made him such !" [The lungs do not hang in the chest, nor are they supported below, but are kept in their place by simply being inclosed in the chest, and by atmospheric pressure.*] 332. The action of the breathing apparatus may be made and continued perfect, by leaving the chest free and uncon- strained, that it may rise and fall. [It is as essential that the chest be made small when the breath is thrown out, as that it should be made large when it is drawn in. The absolute size, therefore, of the chest is of no comparative importance ; the thing is, to have a chest that is very movable. Hence there must be nothing to confine the shoulders back, or any part of the chest in one position.] 333. The action of the breathing apparatus is made and continued perfect, by leaving the abdomen free from any pressure or restraint, that its sides may easily distend, and the diaphragm easily contract. [When a person bends forward, the diaphragm contracts much more easily than when he is straight, because the sides of the abdo- men are relaxed. If a person have inflammation of the second sto- mach, he draws up the lower extremities, and raises his chest, and neck, and head, to relax the sides of the abdomen, and enable the diaphragm to contract without pressing so hard as otherwise on the organs of the abdomen. When a person wishes to throw the air out, he straightens himself, to stretch the expiratory muscles, and give the greater power of acting, he having taken in air when he was in- clined forward. Hence nature makes a man who is consumptive, asthmatic, or sedentary, crooked; that more air may be received with ease, and it would be unfortunate for these persons to be made straight, while their disease or their habits continue. They are each crooked in their peculiar way, but the crookedness has not produced the disease, but the disease the crookedness. Cure the disease, and if not too late in life, the natural form will be restored. Let the se- dentary man take plenty of exercise, and he will become straight with- * What an absurdity, then, is it for us to be told about the lungs falling down from their place, and that supporters, shoulder-braces, and all those things which keep the body in one position, and prevent the rising and falling of the chest, the distension, &c., of the abdomen, are for our good. 246 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Importance of exercise. The air. out an effort, and he cannot in any other way. If he put on supports and the like, he will produce a worse deformity. If ladies, therefore, wish to be easy and graceful, models of beauty in form and com- plexion, and possess that greatest of earthly blessings, health, let them take exercise, dress the chest free, wear all the clothing sup- ported upon the shoulders, and the abdomen uncompressed. 334. The breathing apparatus is made and continued perfect by exercise. [Reading aloud, singing, outdoor exercise, going uphill and down, are all admirable, and should be daily practised. Those who live in hilly countries, are the most healthy in body and mind of any people in the world.] CHAPTEE IV. The Air. [As all these arrangements have been made for the reception of the air, it must be of vital consequence.] 335. The atmosphere is composed of four-fifths nitrogen and one-fifth oxygen, and about one part in two thousand of carbonic acid gas. 336. The oxygen is the useful part of the atmosphere. [So far as we can judge, the nitrogen is of use merely to dilute the oxygen.] 337. The oxygen is continually lost from the air that is taken into the lungs. [Only about one-sixth of the air that comes out from the lungs is oxygen.] 338. The carbonic acid gas is continually increased. [An amount of carbonic acid about equal to the loss of the oxygen is breathed out from the lungs.] 339. The carbonic acid is a deadly poison. [Air composed of one-tenth of it. will destroy life. If, as before stated, the experiment be made of breathing out the air from the lungs into a bottle, it will extinguish a match.] HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 247 Oxygen of use in purifying the blood and producing heat. Inf. Air which has been once breathed is bad in two respects : it does not contain enough oxygen, and it contains too much carbonic acid. [Where the carbonic acid is formed is a matter of doubt. Some think that carbon is brought in the blood to the lungs, where it unites with the oxygen of the air. Some think that the oxygen unites with some parts of the blood, and goes with it to all parts of the body, where it unites with carbon and forms carbonic acid, which comes with the blood to the lungs, and is expelled, while more oxygen is taken in. Both classes of persons are, doubtless, in part correct. It makes no difference about the practical bearing of things.] 340. The oxygen is of use in two respects ; it causes im- purities of the blood to be removed, and heat produced. [The impurities removed by the agency of the oxygen are very bad in their effects upon all parts of the system, but more especially the nervous system, causing a person to feel dull and heavy, and dis- inclined to mental or physical labor. They affect not only the beauty of the eye, rendering it languid, and the expression of the counte- nance, rendering it listless, but also they destroy the complexion. Indeed, if they be wholly retained in the blood for five minutes, a person dies. Why does a person die when under water 1 Merely be- cause he receives no air into his lungs, and the impurities of the blood accumulate so much in a few minutes that he dies. No person, in any class of life, can bear to be without air.] [As heat is produced by the action of oxygen, a fresh supply of air is constantly needed to keep the body warm. A great deal more of it would be needed in cold than in warm weather, of course, and so by nature it is ordered to be. When air is cold, it is contracted, and much more oxygen passes into the lungs, when they are filled, than would in summer. Again, when it has been received in the lungs, it is at once heated and rarified, or expanded, and comes more closely in contact with the sides of the air cells, and, of course, acts more effectually on the blood. Warm air, on the contrary, is rarified when it enters the lungs ; and, if warmer than they, contracts by being cooled, and produces but little effect. On the other hand, the blood is adapted to the state of the air ; for, when it is cold, the kidneys at once work the water off the blood and make it thicker, and more fuel passes through the lungs in a given length of time ; while, in a warm day, thirst induces us to drink, and the blood is diluted. The liver also must in summer form more bile for vegetable food, than in winter for more concentrated, and therefore it works off some of the carbon, which in winter must be removed almost entirely by the lungs.] [Thus, by this most beautiful arrangement, it is seen that every per- son requires fresh pure air every day of the year, and also night. There is no night air so cold, nor air so damp or so pestilential, that it is as bad and health-destroying as air which has been once breathed. Houses shops, school-rooms, halls, churches, but above all. bed-rooms, should be ventilated, and perfectly so. No person should live in, or sleep in poisonous air, such as he himself will make if he sleep in a 248 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Importance of breathing pure air. close room, though it may be a large one. The wind should never be allowed to blow upon a person, day or night ; but this can easily be prevented, and yet the window left open. There is no danger of per- sons taking cold from breathing pure air : it is one of the best ways to prevent colds. Nor is there any danger of commencing the good habit of breathing pure air at any time of the year. But especially should pure air be breathed by the sick. They may not bear cold air, for it may remove more heat, or require more heat to warm it, than the system can produce ; but they must have pure air. So, also, must an old person. An infant may suffer from cold air, and should receive warm pure air.] [But there is another reason for breathing pure air. There is, at each expiration, a certain amount of water breathed out from the lungs ; with this the air of a close room is soon saturated, and less will be removed ; hence we need to have all our rooms ventilated. On the other hand, sometimes a person, by too great heat in a room, causes too dry a state of the atmosphere, and the moisture is removed too rapidly from the lungs ; on account of which pure air which shall be more moist than the parched air of the room is required.] ADDENDA. Coal, when it burns, produces carbonic gas, which is as poisonous to breathe as if it had come from the lungs. This gas is frequently found in rooms where the draught of the grate is not good, or where, by a damper, it is checked. Better, by far, have the smoke of a wood fire, than the deadly gas of coal. Pans of coals are some- times very wrongfully burned in a room, to warm it, and have been the means of pro- ducing hundreds of deaths. When death is produced by this cause, or by drowning or hanging, or by stoppage of breath in any way, two things are to be considered : 1st. The body will suffer for want of the heat the lungs cannot produce; therefore the person must be warmed, and kept warm with warm clothes, rubbing, &c., though care must be taken not to expose the person, for as his lungs are useless, rubbing will not at first increase the heat. 2d. He suffers because the blood contains impurities. This evil must be corrected by causing breathing, which is to be done in this way : All rough handling or holding up the person with the head down, must be avoided! He should be gently placed with the legs drawn up, and the head and chest a little raised. With several hands upon the'side and front of the chest and abdomen, let gentle but quite forcible pressure be slowly made, then suddenly let go at once, that the elasticity of the cartilages of the ribs may take off the outward pressure, and allow air to be forced in. Again, at once, make pressure and remove it, and so do for a long time.* If air cannot pass in, the windpipe should be cut open. CHAPTER V. Voice. 34 Tilt Voice is produced by the action of five classes of * Some persons, very unphilosophically, think that, with a pair of bellows an ad- vantage could be gained, and would lose time in hunting them up and applyin"- them They would not be of the slightest benefit, but would rather do harm. It can at once be seen what they have to overcome in the elasticity of the lungs, the cartilages and the organs ot the abdomen and the external pressure ; and it would be found, with a common pair of bellows, a sufficiently hard task to fill a pair of lungs, if they were out of the body, and nothing but their elasticity to overcome. HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 249 The respiratory apparatus, &c. organs: the respiratory organs the epiglottis the larynx and vocal cords the muscles of the throat the lips, teeth, and tongue. [ The respiratory apparatus is of use by receiving and expelling air with more or less force.] [ The epiglottis is a part underneath the back part of the tongue, and directly over the back part of the tongue ; against it, by the ac- tion of certain muscles, the larynx is drawn up, and its opening closed ; meanwhile the action of the expiratory muscles attempt to force out the air, and the larynx is suddenly dropped or drawn down, and the air gushes out.] The larynx is composed of a framework of several pieces of curious shape, curiously put together, and moved on each other by the ac- tion of appropriate muscles. The vocal cords are two in number, stretched from the front to the back of the inside of the larynx ; near its centre is an opening like a button-hole existing between them ; from thence to the sides of the larynx a membrane is stretched, so that, looking down the windpipe, it appears closed across, except the slit in the centre ; through this the air gushes, and by the cords is thrown into vibration, the nature of which depends upon the size of the opening, the tensity of the cords, the character and capacity of the chest, and the character and condition of the parts through which the air afterwards passes.] [ The muscles of the back mouth have a very great effect on the voice, according as they enlarge or diminish the size and alter the form of the passage which they control.] [ The lips, tongue, and teeth are useful in closing the air passage when it is desirable to produce certain sounds, and suddenly opening it ; thus peculiar vibrations are caused.] [Thus are produced three classes of sounds : 1st, Those essentially produced in the larynx, called tones.] Illus. The sounds of the letter a, also all the vowel sounds. [2d. Those sounds essentially modified by the muscles in the back part of the mouth, and called subtones.] Illus. The sound of b, m, 1, &c. [3d. Those sounds produced in the front part of the mouth, and called aspirates (whispers)]. Illus. The sound of t, f, s, &c. [All these sounds are combined in the word tone : 1st, aspirate ; 2d, tone ; 3d, subtone. Each sound is produced by the combined action of muscles, many or few. In speaking a syllable, we pronounce several sounds in rapid succession. In speaking a word, we pronounce several syllables in rapid succession. To speak with ease, we must accustom ourselves to pronounce what are called the elementary sounds of our language with perfect distinctness, and at any and every pitch of the voice; and, as every sound is produced by the combined action of many muscles they must be carefully exercised by the most assiduous practice ; and when perfect single sounds can be produced, 250 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. The respiratory apparatus, &c. the muscles which produce different sounds must be combined to- gether in successive action, in every possible manner, when a person will be able easily to pronounce every language or tongue used among men ; and, among the rest, his own. Children should be taught to read '" by note," not by rote. The most skilful musician would have been a bungler always, had he not for a long time practised the muscles of his hand on the simpler movements, until they were skilled in combining their action in any possible way which any combination of notes would require.] [Daily and thorough exercise of the organs of speech is necessary, that they may be patient under any labor that is imposed upon them.] [As the muscles of speech are dependent on the mind for the force that contracts them, great attention must be bestowed on the state of the mind ; for as that is, so will the expressions of sounds uttered be. A child should never read what it does not understand, nor should any thing ever be read or said until the mind is in harmony with the idea that is to be expressed ; for, until the emotions of the mind be right, the actions of the muscles can never be expressive.] [Good health of the system generally is necessary, in order that the muscles may be in a good condition to be acted on, and that the nervous system may be in a good state to act upon them.] BOOK IV. ORGANS OF EXCRETION. [Sufficient has already been said ot the lungs as excreting organs, and also of the kidneys and liver, therefore it remains for us to con- sider the Second Stomach, Colon and Skin.] CHAPTER I. Second Stomach, Colon, etc. 343. The duty of these organs is twofold ; to remove the waste substance from the food, and cast it out of the sys- tem ; and to separate from the blood certain of its sub- stance, and remove it from the body. 344. To preserve a perfect state of action in these or- gans sufficient waste food must be taken to furnish them . with a certain bulk of material to act upon. Exercise is also necessary to charge the blood with substance to be excreted. Daily, at some regular hour, the colon should be solicited, whether it demands it or not, to remove from the body what has been removed from the blood. The skin must be kept warm, otherwise the blood will be driven inward, and sum- mer complaints will be produced, especially in children in summer-time. And the clothing must be free upon the abdomen. [The clothing of infants and of females is very injudiciously made in most cases. The colon passing above where the clothing is made to exert the greatest pressure, its contents are prevented from passing 252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND PATHOLOGY. Paints and powder are injurious to the skin. freely along, and obstructions occur in the first part of the colon, in the right side and in the region of the stomach, sometimes giving rise to the most alarming diseases. No bands should ever be put round this part of the body in case of young or old.] CHAPTEK n. The Skin. 345. The skin is composed of three layers : the external or cuticle, epidermis or scarf skin the middle or rete- mucosurn the internal, cutis. dermis, or true skin. [The cuticle does not contain any bloodvessels or nerves, as is per- ceivable when it is raised in case of a blister, or pricked. &c. It serves as a protection to the parts below, and should be free from cracks or chaps, pliable, elastic, and more or less thick (calloused) as every part is subjected to more or less pressure. In it there are a great multitude of minute holes, through which the hairs and fluids of the surface come up from the layers beneath.] [ The retemucosum is not by many now considered as a separate layer from the others. In it the chief part of the coloring matter that causes the complexion is found deposited. In what particular way. or from what particular part of the blood, or why in one case it is of one sort, and in another case it is of another, is not known. It is. without doubt, a part of the whole constitution, and necessarily of one kind or another, in accordance with the wants of the whole con- stitution for we find certain general characteristics of constitution, health, disease, &c., as well as of disposition and intellect, connected with certain colors of the skin. And by changing the complexion alone, the whole character of the constitution would doubtless be changed.] I/if. It may be of much importance, that a person produce the best possible color or complexion of the kind Nature intended should belong to an individual ; and to change the action of light, heat, &c., upon the skin by means of paints different from those natural to the skin many have very injurious effects on the whole constitution. [Paints or powders, applied to the skin have several very injurious effects. They asorb the oil which is nc-oJed upon the surface, and thus produce a dry, harsh state of the skin, and soon make the skin dingy and lose its brightness. Nothing can ruin the complexion of a woman faster. [The paint of the skin is deposited from the blood and favorably acted upon by the air.] HYGIENE AND THERAPEUTICS. 257 bathing, rubbing, &c. serve a healthy circulation of blood in the skin, is of the greatest im- portance, since the whole health of the skin not only, but the health of every part of the body, the state of the mind, and the beauty of a person, depends upon it. Therefore we may recapitulate in brief] [Clothing. This should be such as is most agreeable for a person to wear. For one person flannel, for another linen, is best. Always wear enough, so that there shall not be felt the slightest chill. It must be often changed, as the effete substance from the body is load- ing it with unhealthy matter. As often as twice per week whatever is worn next the skin should be changed altogether. That which is worn during the day should be changed during the night, and hung up to air. The sick especially should have frequent changes or clothing. The clothing of a bed should be thrown open, and aired for several hours every morning, and a sick person should be gently changed from one bed to another every six hours, except he be asleep, and the bed he has left aired. He must not be put upon a cold bed.] [Bathing. We are Constantly in a bath of air ; whether this should be warm or cold, depends upon whether the system can bear the loss of heat or not. If a person feel restless at night, he will find it a good thing to throw open the bed clothing to air, and to walk about in his chamber for a few moments ; as soon as he feels the least chill, he should cover himself again. The kind of water bathing a person should use, depends upon whether the system can bear the loss of heat or not. If it can. and reaction is at once produced, cold baths of air and water are beneficial, since they accustom the nervous sys- tem to action, from which good must result.] [Rubbing and exercise of the system should be frequently done, and always when there is any chilliness, in addition to an investment in more clothing.] [The exercise of all the organs benefits the skin, if it be not carried to that degree which will tend to withdraw the blood from the skin, when it is injurious, when it should cease, and attention be paid to the skin to draw it back again. The exercise of any organ should not. therefore, be continued till any part of the skin feel cold, or even a chill.] CONCLUSION. The Organic Nervous System. 346. This is also called the sympathetic nervous system. The source of the influence exerted by this system is not known ; there are probably several sources. 347. Upon each side of the back-bone and a little distance from it on the inside, there is found a chain of nervous substance. It consists of small lumps of grayish colored nervous substance called ganglia, connected by mi- nute white cords, containing also gray substance. From the ganglia, connections extend to the neighboring nerves of the spinal system. 348. Nerves from this chain pass off on the large blood- vessels, as some believe, to the extremities of the arteries, but this is uncertain. 349. It has been suggested that this is a nervous system for the purpose of harmonizing the action of all parts of the body, but of this there is no proof. 350. All that can at present be said is, that there is an arrangement in the system by which the action of every part produces an influence on every other part. By this arrange- ment, the action of every part in health is increased or dimin- ished as the wants of every part and the whole system may require ; of which there have been given so many illustrations in the preceding pages, it is hoped that the reader has arrived at the conclusion, that the physical suffering which he endures is not the fault of the organization of the system, but of him- self ; in not learning and observing those wise laws established by the Creator for the happiness of those who observe them. LKAVITT, TROW & CO.'s CATALOSUE, 191 BROADWAY, NEW-YORK. SCHOOL BOOKS. School Books by the hundred, dozen, or single copy. COUNTRY MERCHANTS, TEACHERS, and all others, will find it to their advantage to give us a call, -as we have always on hand large supplies of all the School Books, English and Classical, in demand, from those used in the first primary classes, to those used in the highest depart- ments of Academies and Colleges. PAPER AND QUILLS. PRIMERS. New York Primer. Parley's do. Worcester's do. Infant School do. United States do. Christmas do. Infant's first do. Cobb's do. Evangelical do. Tower's Gradual Primer, Young American's do. Toy Books of all the different sizes. Emerson's Progressive Primer, Sanders' do. The Picture do. Bentley's Pictorial do. National do. do. The Southern do. " New England do. " Mother's do. Illuminated Amer. do. Picture Alphabet. Colored Toy Books. School Rewards. BABCOCK'S ELEGANT TOY BOOKS, JVos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. SPELLING BOOKS. Town's Spelling Book. Sanders' do. do. Webster's Elementary Spelling Do. Do. Pictorial American Book. do. do. Comley's Spelling Book. Parley's do. . do. ri^u'o. r\~ Cobb's do. Do. New do. New- York do. Russell's do. Do. sequel to do. do. do. do. do. Dil worth's Spelling do. Mavor's do. do. Worcester' s do. de. Emerson's Old National Spelling Book. Do. New do. do. Bentley's Pictorial do. Gallaudet's do. Picket's Juvenile, do. Chapin's do. Marshall's do. Eclectic do. Fowle's do. Hazen's Speller and Definer. Do. Symbolical Spelling Book, parts 1, and 2. Belles' Spelling Book. Gummere's do. Tower's Gradual Speller. LEAVITT, TROW & CO.'fl CATALOGUE, 19* BROADWAY, NEW-YORK. READING BOOKS. Town's Readers, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Cobb's Juvenile Readers, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Do. New do. do. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Sanders' Readers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Emerson's 1st, 2"d, 3d, and 4th Class Readers. Swan's Readers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Pierpont's Series, viz: American First Class Book. National Reader, Introduction to do. Young Reader, Little Learner. Kay's Infant and Primary School Se- ries, 1, 2, and 3. Goodrich' s Readers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. New York Reader, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Eclectic Readers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Murray's English Reader. Do. Sequel to do. Alger's Murray's English Reader. Do. do. Introduction to do. Lovell's Young Pupil's 1st and 2d Book. Village Reader. Intelligent do. Child's Guide. Porter's Rhetorical Reader. Stone's do. do. Parker's do. do. Knowles' do. do. Olney's National Preceptor. Do. Easy Reader. Do. School do. AngelPs Union Series, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Worcester's 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Book, Sigourney's Boys' Reading Book. Do. Girls' do. do. Do. Pictorial Reader. Do. Child's Book. Mount Vernon Readers. Edwards' Eclectic Reader. Bentley's Pictorial do. Young Ladies' do. Hart's Class Book of Prose. I>o. do. Poetry. Amer. Common-place Book of Prose. Do. do. do. Poetry. Do. Popular Lessons. Introduction to do. Sequel to do. Fowle's Dialogues and Discussions. Leavitt's Easy Lessons. Southern Reader, 1, and 2. Young Ladies' Class Book. Southern 1st do. Grigg & Elliott's new series of Com- mon School Readers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Russell's Amer. Com. School Reader. Do. Primary do. do. Do. Young Ladies' Elocutionary Reader. Do. Introduction to do. The School Friend. Hall's Reader's Guide. Do. do. Manual. Do. Primary Reader. Tower's Gradual Reader. Do. Introduction to do. Post's United States Reader. Putnam's .Analytical Reader. Do. Sequel to do. ELOCUTION. Comstock's Elocution. Caldwell's do. Russell's Young Ladies' Elocution. Do. Introduction to do. Murdoch & Russell's do. Maury's Principles of Eloquence. Lovell's United States Speaker. Do. Young do. Do. School Dialogues. Frost's American Speaker. Stone's Rhetorical do. Bronson's Elocution. Vandenhoff's Elocution. Knowles' do. Sweet's do. Clagget's do. Kirkham's do. Barber's Klocutionist. Russell on Enunciation and Gestura Sewell's Classical Speaker. Blake's Young Orator. Fowle's Common School Speaker. Do. do. Dialogues. lEAVITT, TROW ry. . 2 vols. . 12mo. iuiumr a u i Keightley's Do. Do. Do. Russell's Do. Do. Do. iivfcisui rais y, * vuis., IAIUU. History of Greece, do. Rome, do. Roman Empire, do. England, do. United States. do. England. do. France. do. Greece & Rome. Questions to above. Ancient and Modern Emerson's Outlines of Hi-story. Brackenbridge's Late War. Barber's General History. Lardner's Outlines of History. 31 Guizot's History of Civilization. Do. do. English Revolution. Taylor's Manual of Ancient and Mod- ern History, 8vo. Arnold's Lectures on Modern History. Michelet's History of the Roman Em- pire, for Schools. Schmidt's History of Rome. Whelpley's Compend. Robbins' Outlines of History. Robbins' (Miss) Grecian History. Do. English do. Do. Scripture do. Outlines of Sacred* History. Goodrich's Eccl. do. Heeren's Ancient Greece. Goodrich's Pictorial History of the United States. Do. do. do. France. Do. do. do. England Do. do. do. Greece. Do. do. do. Rome. Outline Series, viz : Outlines of American History. Do. English do. Do. Roman do. Do. Grecian do. LJCAVITT, TROW & CO.'S CATALOGUE, 194 BROADWAY, NEW-YORK. MATHEMATICS. tDavies' First Lessons in Algebra. Do. do. do. Geometry. Do. Practical do. Do. Legendre's do. Do. Analytical do. Do. Descriptive do. Do. Bourdon's Algebra. Do. Diff. and Integral Calculus. Do. Surveying. Do. Shades and Shadows. tBonnycastle's Algebra. tDo. Mensuration. tGrund's Algebra. Do. Geometry. Hoi brook's do. Smith & Biot's Analytical do. Do. & Duke's Algebra. Perkins' Elementary do. Do. Higher do. tColburn's do. tTower's Intellectual do. Playfair's Euclid. Simson's do. tDay's Algebra. tDo. do. abridged. Do. Trigonometry. Do. Mensuration. Do. Surveying. Do. Mathematics. Do. Legendre's Geometry, abridged. Bridge's Conic Sections. tBridge's Algebra. Harvey's do. Clark's do. Flint's Surveying. Gibson's do. tGummere's Surveying. tBailey's Algebra. Ryan's do. Williams' do. Tot ten's do. tSherwin's do. Smyth's do. Pierce's do. Do. Geometry. Do. Curves, Functions, and Mo- tions, 3 vols., viz : vol. 1, Analytical Geom. and DifE Calculus. " 2. Integral Calculus and Analyt- ical Mechanics. !< 3. Application to Physics and Astronomy. Do. Trigonometry. Do. Treatise on Sound. Introduction to Geometry and Science of Forms. Church's Calculus. McCartey's do. Nulty's Geometry. Elements of do. Hackley's Trigonometry. Bartlett's Optics. Brewster's do. Kendall's Walker's Geometry. Walker's do Young's Algebra. Do. Analytical Geometry. Do. Integral Calculus. Do. Trigonometry. Do. Mechanics. t Marked thus can be obtained with key. Mahan's Civil Engineering. Engineer's Pocket Book. Do. Text do. Boncharlat's Mechanics. Ren wick's do. Lardner on Steam Engine. Renwick do. do. Hodge do. do. Millwright's Guide. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Olmsted's Philosophy, 8vo. Do. School edition, 12mo. Do. Rudiments, 18mo. Comstock's Philosophy. Do. do. abridged. Coates' Philosophy. Do. First Lessons in do. Euler's Philosophy. Grund's do. Parker's do. Phelps* do. Philosophy for Beginners. Johnson's Moffatt's Philosophy. Gale's do. Jones' do. Coffin's do. Blake's do. Swift's 1st Lessons in do. Do. *2d do. do. Do. Outlines of do. Renwick's do. LEAVITT, TROW & CO.'s CATALOGUE, 191 BROADWAY, NEW-YORK. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Uphara's Mental Philosophy, 2 vols. Do. do. do. abridged. Do. on the Will. Cousin's Psychology. Rauch's do. Combe's Moral Philosophy. Smellies' Philosophy of Natural His- tory. Pa ley's Natural Theology, illustrated edition. Locke's Essays on the Understanding. Fergus' Class Book of Nat'l Theology. Abercrombie's intellectual Philosophy. Do. Moral do. Stewart's Philosophy of the Mind. Schmucker's Mental Philosophy. Sawyer's do. do. Paley's Moral and Political Philosophy. Parkhurst's Moral do. CHEMISTRY. Johnston's Turner's Chemistry. Turner's Chemistry, new edition, 8vo. Kane's Chemistry. Johnson's Motfatt's Chemistry. Conversations on do. Elements of do. Comstock's do. Do. Young Chemist. Greene's First Lessons in Chemistry. Do. Second do. do. Liebig's Animal do. Do. Agricultural do. Beck's Chemistry. Renwick's do. Smith's Jones' Grund's Silliman's P helps' do. do. do. do. in press. do. Chemistry for Beginners. Gray's Chemistry. Towne's do. Webster's do. RHETORIC AND LOGIC. Jamieson's Rhetoric. Do. Logic. Whateley's Rhetoric. Do. Logic. Tappan's do. Boy d's Rhetoric. Mills' Logic. Do. Blair's Rhetoric. Hedge's Logic. Blair's Rhetoric, University edition. Do. do. 18mo. School do. Newman's Rhetoric. True's Logic. Parker's do. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric; ASTRONOMY. Olmsted's Astronomy, 8vo. Do. do. Mason's Supt. 8vo. Do. School Astronomy. Do. Rudiments. Norton's Astronomy, new edition. Grund's Astronomy. Cambridge do. Elements of do. Outlines of do. Burritt's Geography and Atlas of the Heavens. Gummere's Astronomy. Walker's do. Olmsted's Letters on do. Kendall's Uranography. Do. First Book of Astronomy. Guy & Keith's Astronomy. Ryan's do. Blake's do. Herschell's do. Vose's School do. Clarke's Elements of do. Astronomy for Beginners. Wilkins' Astronomy. Parley's Sun, Moon, and Stars. Dick's Practical Astronomer. Do. Celestial Scenery. Do. Sidereal Heavens. ONE MONTH USE PLEASE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-4209 Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. ALL BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO RECALL 7 DAYS AFTER DATE CHECKED OUT. 1 i 1 JAN 4 1977. JAN 5 REC'O -5 Pljj General Library LD 21A 30m 5, '75 University of California (S5877L) Berkeley